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Cornell University 
 Library 
 
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 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
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A BRIEF 
 
 Spanish Grammar 
 
 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 A. HJALMAR EDGREN, PH.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ROMANCE LANGUAGES AND SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA 
 
 BOSTON, U. S. A. 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 
 
 1899 
 
PC 
 
 Copyright, 1891 and 1899, 
 By D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 PRKSSWORK BY C. H. HEINTZEMANN, BOSTON. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This brief grammar is intended primarily for college-classes and 
 such students generally as ,would begin reading Spanish, without 
 waste of time, on the basis of an accurate knowledge of the essentials 
 of its grammar. 
 
 It contains, therefore, a methodical survey of Spanish Pronunciation 
 and Accidence (with exercises), Syntax, and Versification. For self- 
 evident reasons, the pronunciation of Spanish is Explained, in the 
 usual way, by the aid of English key-words, instead of phonetic rules. 
 Kindred pronoun-groups are classified with reference to their real 
 scientific distinction into tonic and atonic. Auxiliary verbs are classi- 
 fied and described with the irregular verbs, where they belong, and 
 the so-called " compound "(i.e. periphrastic) conjugations are explained 
 in a few brief paragraphs. To begin with what is very irregular in order 
 to be able to devote pages to what is a simple syntactical combination 
 involves needless confusion and loss of time, especially in Spanish, with 
 its periphrastic active, passive, and progressive conjugations, each hav- 
 ing two or more auxiliaries. Especial care has been taken to make 
 the chapter on verb-inflection both full and simple. It is hoped that 
 the method of classification here adopted, reducing the number of ir- 
 regular verbs to about thirty by conjugating all other verbs according 
 to eight models (three leading, as usual, and five subordinate), will 
 materially simplify a difficult and important topic. The General 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 Index contains a full reference-list to all verbs that deviate in any way 
 (save orthographically) from the three leading model-verbs. 
 
 The exercises are prepared with exclusive reference to the topic 
 in hand. Hence they are purposely simple, those on the verbs being 
 even confined almost entirely to a direct drill on the various forms of 
 a great variety of representative verbs. Moreover, they are all placed 
 at the end of the book, where they will not impede reference to the 
 gramma.- or disturb its methodical presentation. 
 
 For the benefit of those interested, each chapter is introduced 
 parenthetically, and in a way not to obstruct the regular study of the 
 grammar, by a brief sketch of the relation between Latin and Spanish 
 as regards the subject therein treated. The encouragement attending 
 the introduction of such a method into the author's French grammar 
 has led him to adopt it, on a reduced scale, also here. 
 
 The author is indebted for guidance and for various illustrative 
 examples to other grammars. Among these should be mentioned 
 especially the well-known works of Foerster {Spa?iische Sprachlehre) 
 and Wiggers (^Grammatik der spanischen Sprache), and Knapp's 
 elaborate and useful Spanish Grammar. Special thanks are due and 
 gladly extended to Professor Edw. S. Joynes for generous aid in more 
 than one respect, and to Professor Q. F. Kroeh of Hoboken, for helpful 
 assistance in the reading of the proofs. 
 
 A. H. E. 
 University of Nebraska, i8gi. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 The Spanish Language : History 1-2 
 
 I. Elementary Sounds and Accent. 
 
 History .... 3 
 
 Alphabet and Subsidiary Signs 3-4 
 
 Tone-accent and Accent-mark . . . . . . • 4S 
 
 Quantity ........... 5 
 
 Syllabication 5 
 
 Pronunciation .......... 6-9 
 
 Simple Vowels 6. — Vowel-compounds 6-7. — Consonants 7-9. 
 Orthographical and Phonetic Changes ..... 9 
 
 Elision ........... 10 
 
 Capitals and Punctuation ........ 10 
 
 II. Articles. 11 
 
 III. Nouns. 
 
 History ........... 12 
 
 Plural Formation 12-13 
 
 Gender 14-16 
 
 Qualifying Sufiixes 16-17 
 
 IV. Adjectives. 
 
 History iS 
 
 Inflection pjur. and fern, formation) ..... 18-19 
 
 Comparison ......... 19-20 
 
 Qualifying Suffixes 20 
 
 V. Numerals 
 
 History 21 
 
 Cardinals and Ordinals . 21-22 
 
 Inflection, etc •. . . . 22 
 
VI SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Page. 
 
 VI. Pronouns. 
 
 History 22-23 
 
 Personals and Reflexives . . .... 23-25 
 
 Possessives ......... 25-26 
 
 Demonstratives ....... 26 
 
 Interrogatives 27 
 
 Relatives ........... 27 
 
 ^ Indefinites 27-28 
 
 VII. Verbs. 
 
 Histoiy 28-29 
 
 Conjugations ... ...... 29 
 
 Principal Parts . .... 30-31 
 
 Regular Verbs . . . . . . 31-39 
 
 Amar^ temer^ partir, 31-34. — Orthographical changes 34-35. — 
 Phonetical variations 35-39 [/^«jflr-class 36 ; — jtf«//>-class 37 ; — 
 /«i/«>-class 37 ; — huir-c\is,% 38]. 
 
 Irregular Verbs ...... . . 39-45 
 
 General description 39-40. — Reference-list 40-44. — Defective verbs 
 44-45- 
 
 Periphrastic Verb-Phrases 45-46 
 
 Periphrastic actives 45. — passives 45-46. — progressives 46. 
 
 Reflexive or Reciprocal Verbs 4^-47 
 
 VIII. Indeclinables. 
 
 ^.-'^ Adverbs 47-49 
 
 Prepositions . -49 
 
 Conjunctions . ...... 49-50 
 
 Interjections ... . . . -So 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 IX. Articles. 
 
 Definite Article .... 
 
 Idiomatic use 51-53. — Omission 53. 
 Indefinite Article 
 
 X. Nouns. 
 
 51-53 
 
 53-54 
 
 Direct object vifith a ....... . 54-56 
 
 Prepositional construction . ... . . . . i;6-i;7 
 
CONTENTS. vii 
 
 • Page. 
 
 XI. Adjectives. 
 
 Agreement 57-S8 
 
 Position .......... 58-59 
 
 XII. Numerals 60 
 
 XIII. Pronouns. 
 
 Personals .......... 61-63 
 
 Possessives 63-64 
 
 Demonstratives . 64 
 
 Interrogatives and Relatives ...... 65-66" 
 
 Indefinites 66-67 
 
 XIV. Verbs. 
 
 Agreement .... 68 
 
 Indicative Tenses ........ 68-70 
 
 Present 68. — Imperfect 69. — Preterit 69. — Future and Conditional 
 70. 
 
 Subjunctive 70-74 
 
 Independent 70. — Dependent 71-73. — Tenses 74. 
 Infinitive .......... 74-78 
 
 As noun 74-75. — Without preposition 75. — With preposition 75-77. 
 — As verb 77-78. 
 
 Gerund . ......... 78 
 
 Past Participle ...... 79 
 
 XV. Indeclinables. 
 
 Sundry Adverbs. 80-81 
 
 Negation 81-83 
 
 Conjunctions . ..... 83 
 
 XVI. Arrangement of Sentence 83-84 
 
 Versification . . . .... 85-88 
 
 Rhythm 85. — Syllabic Number 85-S7. — Rhyme, Assonance and 
 Blank Verse 87-88. — Strophes and Poems 88. 
 
 Spanish Words in English 89-90 
 
 Exercises 937130 
 
 Spanish-English Vocabulary . . . . .131 
 
 English- Spanish Vocabulary 140 
 
 Index 151 
 
THE SPANISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Rhoeto-Romanic 
 (southern Switzerland), and Rumanian (northern Turkey), 
 constitute a group of languages which, having sprung 
 from popular Latin, are called Romance or Romanic (i. e. 
 ' Roman '), or Neo-Latin (' New- Latin '). 
 
 From the time that Iberia was conquered by the Ro- 
 mans (206—25 B. c.) and made a Roman province, popular 
 Latin gradually supplanted the native Iberian and Celt- 
 iberian dialects (the Basque however, in part surviving to 
 the present day). Only about one hundred words, chiefly 
 Basque, have found their way into Spanish, e. g. : guija 
 ' pebble,' modorra ' drowsiness,' gazuza ' sharp hunger.' 
 
 The conquest by the Visigoths, in the beginning of the 
 fifth century of our era, brought the Teutonic speech into 
 Spain. For a short time it rivaled, and in official use even 
 supplanted the Roman idiom. In the beginning of the 
 seventh century, however, its influence vanished. It has 
 bequeathed to the Spanish language nearly four hundred 
 words, e. g. : guerra ' war,' esquije ' skiff, boat,' banco 
 ' bench,' norie ' north,' gua/do (obsol.) ' yellow,' rico ' rich,' 
 rodar ' rob,' ropa ' cloth, robe,' etc. 
 
 The conquest of the larger portion of Spain by the 
 Moors (711), and their dominion there during centuries 
 
2 THE SPANISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 until 1292, had a yet greater influence on the Spanish lan- 
 guage, which now contains nearly twice as many words of 
 Arabic origin as of Teutonic. These words, for the most 
 part names of external objects and technical terms, can 
 often be recognized by their initial al— (the Arabic arti- 
 cle). Examples are : alcalde ' judge,' algebra ' algebra,' 
 algodon ' cotton,' almena ' turret,' alcazar ' castle,' almone- 
 da ' auction,' algazara ' noise,' acezle ' oil,' fulano ' a cer- 
 tain,' Aasla 'to,' etc. 
 
 Among many Spanish dialects developed from the 
 early Romanic speech in Spain, the Castilian, favored by 
 political circumstances, earliest assumed literary form (in 
 the sixteenth century) and preponderating position. It 
 thus gradually approached the rank of a national language. 
 In the sixteenth century its development into modern 
 Spanish was in the main completed. Few changes, except 
 in idioms and syntax, have since -then been made. Its 
 influence during that century reached far beyond the 
 borders of Spain, the Castilian being then, like the French 
 of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, largely the 
 language of polite Europe. It is now the official language 
 of the nation, and also the language of culture, except in 
 Catalonia, Navarre, and the Basque provinces. By the 
 conquests of Spain in the New World it has also, with slight 
 dialectic variations, become the cultured idiom of a large 
 part of America. 
 
 Aside from its Iberian, vulgar Latin, Teutonic and 
 Arabic elements, the Castilian has been enriched, like 
 other European languages, by a constant influx of foreign 
 words, especially Greek and Latin. 
 
SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Elementary Sounds and Accent, 
 
 LI. History. These historical notes, intended simply for the more 
 ambitious classical student who may wish to have some idea of the main laws 
 governing the evolution of Latin into Spanish, necessarily give but the briefest 
 hints of these lavre, which in part are of a very intricate or recondite nature. 
 The phonetic relations indicated below apply to most words brought into Spain 
 directly by the Romans, and not changed by false analogy. Words imported 
 later shared in them only more or less imperfectly. 
 
 A. Accent. The Latin accent position usually remained unchanged in 
 Spanish. It is then to be observed that nouns, etc., survived in their accusative 
 (not their nominative) form : L. amorem (not amor) ; Sp. amor. 
 
 B. Vo'wels. Already popular Latin merged i, H with e, o ; a, oe with e, 
 e; and dropped penults (save a). Later we observe: I. Accent-vowels : only 
 'e, o, au changed spontaneously, viz. to ie, ue, o ; but any vowel (save i, «)■ was 
 apt to be influenced by a neighboring palatal (.4, g, q, diphthongal e- z'-) , or 
 labial or /. Thus: a, e, o near a palatal = e, i, u; e, o = e(i) ; a, o near u^ 
 ; al^o. 2. Accentless vowels : these were usually unchanged (except partly 
 by palatal influence as above; and diphthongal e- i- = y) ; but final -^ was 
 lost, except after consonant group or b, v. 
 
 C. Consouants. These were often lost or changed. Thus: i. Single 
 consonants : b, d, g were lost before diphthongal e-, i-, and often between 
 vowels; final -m was lost, or (in monosyll.) = «/ surds between vowels be- 
 came sonant; f often =: h ; x ^j; initial s- = es- before a surd. 2. Two 
 consonants were frequently reduced to one, some of them then merging into a 
 new sound (such as initial //, /, or medial ch, j, z, n, x) ; but rl, mr, nr = rdl, 
 mbr, ndr^ 
 
 2. ALPHABET. Spanish uses the same written letters as 
 English with the addition of n, i. e. ' n with tilde ' (Lat. 
 titulus 'sign '). 
 
4 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Note. — Ch and // are inserted as special signs into the alphabet, while k 
 and w, used only in foreign words, are omitted in its enumeration. The let- 
 ters of the alphabet are named in Spanish : a, be, ce, che, de, e, efe, ge, 
 hache, i, jota, eh, elk, erne, ene, ene, o, pe, cu, ere, ese, ie, U, ve, equis (x), 
 / S''ieffa, zeda ; (-{- ke, ve doble") . 
 
 3. The diaeresis ( " ) is placed over u to denote that it 
 is not mute before e and i : arguir. 
 
 4. Accent. The accent (tone-emphasis) of Spanish 
 words, which may rest on any syllable, is either left un- 
 marked, or denoted by an accent-mark ('). When un- 
 marked it rests : 
 
 a. On the penult, if the word ends in a vowel (diphthong and 
 triphthong inclusive : lo) ; or in —s, -n (which for the most part 
 are inflectional endings added to words in a vowel) : casa, casus ; 
 amo, anias, aman, joven ; pa-tria (7.c), ama-bais, pacien-cia, 
 al-guien (u but a graphic sign : 9) ; dese-o {eo not a diphthong, 
 10. h), dese-as, dese-an. 
 
 b. On the final syllable, if it ends in another consonant than 
 -s, -n (jv being then counted as a consonant) : ciudad, error, 
 relojjfeliz: estoy. 
 
 6. The accent-mark is used : — 
 
 a. On a few monosyllables, viz.: I. d 'to,' e 'and,' 6 {iX) 'or'; — 2. the 
 Interrogatives que, quien, cudl ; — 3. preterits: fui (ui diphthong: 10), fue, 
 did, etc. ; — 4. the more emphatic of some homonyms : de 'I (he) give ' : de 
 'of; e/ 'he': el 'the; ' mi 'me': mi 'my'; mas 'more': mas 'but'; si 
 refl. pron. ; ' yes ' : J2 ' if ' ; se ' I Icnow ' : se refl. pron. ; tii. "Cao\x' : /a ' thy ' , etc. 
 
 b. On a tonic (i.e. accented) end-syllable terminating in a vowel (diphthong 
 and triphthong inclusive), or in -s, -n : ame, amare, contendrd ; Ben-jui, 
 acari-cie, averi-gud ; jainds, ademds, burUn, amardn; a-mdis, des-pues, 
 mi-Uiin, para-bien ; amorti-gudis; a-tin ' yet ' (dissyllabic when it follows the 
 verb; but aun, diphthongal, when preceding it). 
 
 c. On a tonic penult when the word ends in ancther consonant than -s, -n : 
 ntdrmol, dngel, alferez; Huercal, Lietor. 
 
ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENT. 
 
 5 
 
 d. On tonic i or u of dissyllables and trisyllables, to show that they are not 
 diphthongs and triphthongs (lo) : ra-iz, ba-ut, di-a, re-ir, temi-a, temi-ais, 
 Isai-as, o-ido ;h\A segui-do (where « is but a graphie sign: 9). 
 
 e. On any tonic syllable preceding the penult : regulo, regimen ; vieramos, 
 hero-e {oe dissyllabic) ; clausula. 
 
 f. On the Demonstratives este, escBXiAaquel (masc. or fem., sing, or pi.), 
 when used without their noun or emphatically ; and on Interrogative pronouns 
 and adverbs; quietus? ciiyo ; cdmo?, etc. 
 
 g. On sdlo ' only ' (adv^, to distinguish it from solo ' alone ' (adj.). 
 
 h. On members of a compound, and adjectives before -mente, that should 
 have the accent-mark if used alone : decimo-septimo ; cortes-mente. 
 
 Accented verb-forms retain their own accent-mark before appended pronouns; 
 and they are accented according to e., if the accent precedes the penult : fuise 
 (for fue se)j vidse, regdles, ddsele, ddndomelos (for dando me los). 
 
 Note. — The principles of accentuation have varied from time to time, and 
 the above system, prescribed by the Spanish Academy, 1888, is adopted only 
 in recent publications. Older texts (yet largely in use) will ordinarily have no 
 accent on oxytones in uninflectional —n, -s, nor, some, on tonic i, u of dissyl- 
 lables and trisyllabics ; while they do accent paroxytones of words in unin- 
 flectional -», -s. 
 
 6. Quantity, a. The tonic (= accented) vowel is 
 long before another vowel, and before one consonant, or a 
 
 mute with a liquid (r, /) : — d'la, leo ; mano, pido ; padre, libra. 
 short in other cases (though less so as final or before final 
 
 consonant) : — este, hombj-e ; dard, virtud. 
 
 6. The atonic vowel is always short. 
 
 7. Syllabication. 
 
 a. A single consonant or consonant- digraph {ch, II, rr"), and 
 also a mute with a liquid (/, r), belong to the following vowel: 
 — fd-cil, a-la-me-da, he-cho, ca-lle, pe-rro; pa-dre, ha-blar. 
 
 b. Otherwise one consonant goes with the preceding vowel : 
 es-tar, nues-tro. S, however, never combines with a following 
 consonant : obs-curo. 
 
 c. Diphthongs are not separated : pa-tria, a-gua, bue-no. 
 
6 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Note i. — X usually divides into c-s. 
 
 Note 2. — Compounds usually divide according to their elements : de^ 
 eni~bar-car. 
 
 Pronunciation. 
 
 8. Simple Vowels. All simple vowels, whether tonic 
 or not, are uttered with a clear, full sound, thuugh rela- 
 tively long or short according to §6. 
 
 9. The Pronunciation of each is as follows:' — 
 
 a ^ a in English ' ah ' : — ama, amar. 
 
 e = (i) close like a in 'fame ' (but without its 'Vanish') when 
 it ends a syllable, save before //, rr; (2) like e in 
 ' met ' in other cases : — (i) te-me-re, le-che, nte-iro ; (2^ 
 el, tes-la, ter-mas, e-rror. 
 
 i = z in ' police ' : — ibis, infirmar. 
 
 0^ (i) (? in ' no ' (without 'vanish') when it ends a syllable, 
 except before //, ri- ; (2) slightly more open (as in Ger- 
 man Jo//i?^) in other cases: — (i) no, bo-da, po-bre ; (2) 
 con, con-tra, os-tra, to-rrente. 
 
 Vl= um.^ rule ' : — uno, uva, busca. 
 
 Unless marked with diseresis (") it is only a silert graphical sign, 
 however, between g ot q and e or i (i. c, gue, gui, que, qui =ge,' 
 gi," ke, ki) : — gVierra,guisa, qwedar,.q-ainto ; but arg'uir (argooir). 
 
 y = /, when not followed by a vowel ; otherwise =-= Engl, y for- 
 cibly enounced : — (^= i) y, muy, hay ; (= jc) yo,yerno. 
 
 10. Vowel-Compounds. These are: 
 
 a. Diphthongs and triphthongs, which, consisting the former of 
 
 > Accent words in a vowel on the penult, others on the final syllable (cf. §4^. 
 '^asin 'go.' 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 7 
 
 a weak and lightly uttered vowel (/, u, j') combined with a strong 
 {a, e, o) , or of two weak of which one has a fuller pronunciation, 
 and the latter of a strong vowel between two weak, form one 
 syllable : diphth. bien,^ bueno, reina, ley,patria, agua, paciencia ; 
 viuda, ruido ; triphth. guay, apreciais, amortiguais. 
 
 b. Dissyllables, which, consisting of two strong vowels, or a 
 sti'ong vowel (or diphthong) and an accented weak, form two 
 syllables : de-o, dese-o, pa-on, ma-estro, hero-e ; ra-is, ba-ul, 
 temi-a, falu-a ; temi-ais, Isai-as. 
 
 Note. — Prosodic deviations from tiiis general distinction between vowel- 
 compounds forming one or two syllables are not infrequent (cf §190, note i). 
 
 Exercise I., end of the book. 
 
 1 1 . Consonants. The consonants that differ from the 
 English in their utterance are those described below: — 
 
 b,j^-= bj ^ttPTPf] without full contact of the lips (in Spain ; in Mex- 
 ico = b, V, resp.) : — sublime, beber, saber ; aver, volver. 
 
 C = /^, except before e, i, where it sounds like th in ' thin ' (or, 
 less good, like pure(A : — (k) casa, col, claro ; (th) cera, 
 cima,paciencia. LcbO r /4>>\ 
 
 cc^k'tk: accUn (= akthidit). 
 
 g]j ^ ch'va.' chest ' (always) : — cha, noche, chico, muchacho. 
 
 1 The fuller vowel is marked with heavy type. 
 
8 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 d = </. As final it may often verge on the sonant ih in ' bathe,' 
 but this pronunciation is nowise general : — dorar ; amado, 
 
 Note.- — The indistinct sound is also often given to d between vowels, 
 especially in endings like -ado, —ido, —eda, etc. Familiarly the participial end- 
 ing -ado is even -ao. The Academy, however, admits only pure d. 
 
 g = ^ in ' go,' except before e, i, where it is a rough aspirate 
 nearly resembling ch in German ach : — ga/a, grana, 
 digno ; (Ji) general, gitano, aflige. 
 
 gue, gui=ge,gi (^hard), cf. u. 
 
 h is practically silent everywhere : — yablar, ^e ; Jkuevo. 
 
 j = rough aspirate h (always) : — Jarro, j'oven, /(ijo, mujer. 
 
 11 ^ I'y, i. e. /// in mi//«6n ' ; in familiar speech often = j/ in 
 ' boy ' : — calle {caPye, or, less elegantly, ca-ye") ; Have, 
 ella. 
 
 11 ^ n'y, i. e. ni in 'o«/on' : — dno {an'yd), lena, senora. 
 
 qu = English k : — ^ue, quinto, quepa. 
 
 r ^ (i) strongly trilled tongue-tip r, when initial in single words 
 or members of compounds, and after /, n, s; (2) less 
 trilled r, in other cases: — (i) rama, son-reido, honra, 
 alrota ; (2) arar, amor, piedra. 
 
 rr form one sharp somewhat protracted ^■-sound : pe-rro, tie-rra. 
 
 S =^in ' set ' (never sonant as in ' rose ') : — los, rosa. 
 
 X = ■!■. It formerly represented the Spanish /-sound. This is yet the case 
 in a few names (e. g. Mexico = Mejico, as sometimes written). Be- 
 fore/, /, c, it is often uttered, and even written, as j.- — extremo or 
 estremo ; extranjero or estranjero. 
 
 Z = .^aniah l" before «', / (always) : — zapatero, brazo,yaz-co. 
 
fRONUNCIATION. 9 
 
 [12.] In Spanish America the following peculiarities prevail : b^b 
 (dialectically confused with z;) : c (+ e, i) and z^pure j (as often in Spain); 
 and II ^y (as often in Spain). 
 
 Exercise II. 
 
 13. Orthographical Changes. The following or- 
 thographical variations are of importance : 
 
 a. In inflection and derivation, the orthographical device of 
 denoting, in certain cases, the same sounds by different letters in 
 different combinations (cf. ii) must be observed. Thus, we 
 express 
 
 The ^-sound by c, or by qu (+ e, i) : toco, toque. 
 " hard ^-sound by g, or by gu (+ e, i) : pago, pague. 
 " gu-sowaA (^ goo) by gu, or by gu (-f- e, i): menguo, meng'ue. 
 " rasping A-sound by /, or by g (+ e, i) : cojo, coge. 
 " tt-sound by z or by c ( -hA J)-= <^uezo, cuece ; voz, voces. 
 
 b. h is added before initial ue— : okr, huelo. 
 
 c. Diphthongal / is lost after //, n (less often also after ck,j) ; 
 and it changes to y between vowels oi as initial before vowels : — 
 bullo (3 pret. for bull-id); ceno ; hench{i)d ; leyo (for leio) ; 
 yerro (for ierro). 
 
 Note. — When there are two ways of expressing one sound in the same 
 combination, usage varies : mujer or muger ; rey or rei, etc. 
 
 14. Phonetic Changes. Among many phonetic 
 changes may be observed here : 
 
 a. Tonic e and o are often strengthened to ie (?) and ue (u) : — 
 a'erlo (root cerl-) ; tiene (root ten-) ; pldo (root ped-) ; fuerte 
 (root fort-) ; puedo {root pod-) ; pudro {root podr-). 
 
 b. Atonic e, o are at times weakened to i, u when not followed 
 by tonic i: — sintiendo (root sent-) ; durmiendo (root dor-). 
 
lO SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 15. Elision. In a sentence, final vowels or syllables 
 are often omitted (elided) in writing, or only in utter- 
 ance. Thus, 
 
 a. Eight determinative words in -o, (hueno, malo ; uno, pri- 
 tnero, postrero, tercero ; alguno, ninguno) lose their final o before 
 the word they determine : — un buen medico ' a good doctor.' 
 
 Una, alguna, ninguna may also lose their final a before tonic 
 a— or ha-: — un aguila ' an eagle.' 
 
 b. Grande, santo, ciento lose their final syllable before their 
 noun {grande especially when the noun begins with a consonant, 
 and santo before the name of a saint) : — un gran poeta ' a great 
 poet ' (but rather sugrande amigo ' his great friend ') ; cien hombres 
 ' a hundred men ' ; San Juan. 
 
 6. Hiatus between words is often avoided by dropping, in utterance only, 
 final vowels : este otro {== est' oiro) ; d(sd(e) el cielo. 
 
 16. Capitals AND Punctuation. Here is to be 
 
 observed : — 
 
 a. That proper adjectives (i. e., adjectives derived from proper 
 nouns), names of days or months, and yo 'I,' do not usually 
 begin with capitals : — ingles ' English ' (but Ingles 'Englishman') ; 
 jueves 'Tuesday.' 
 
 b. That interrogation and exclamation points usually both 
 introduce and end their sentence, -being reversed, however, at 
 the beginning : — sQuien es este hombre f 'Vfho is this man?' 
 /Ay de mi 1 ' Alas for me ! ' 
 
ARTICLES. 1 1 
 
 II. 
 Articles. 
 
 [17. HISTORY. Latin had no articles. In Spanish the Latin demon- 
 strative «7/,» in its accusative forms — illuiit, illam, illud ; pi. illos, illas (all 
 save ilk with proclitic tone-change) — , and the numeral unum ( unatii) came 
 to be used as definite and indefinite articles respectively. The earlier form of 
 ilium was ello or (by proclisis) /o.J 
 
 18. Definite Article. 
 
 masc. fem. 
 
 Sing. el the la (or el, note a) 
 
 Plur. los las 
 
 a. El for la. By euphony el once always replaced the fem- 
 inine la before a vowel or h. Now el is thus required only be- 
 fore dissyllabic nouns with initial tonic a, ha (though it may be 
 used also before such polysyllabic nouns). — Thus: el agua (f) 
 'the water'; el hambre (f.) 'the hunger'; la or el dnima 'the 
 soul ' ; la abeja (f.) ' the bee ' ; la alia (adj.) sierra (f ) ' the 
 high sierra.' 
 
 b. Z,o determines an adjective, adverb, or participle used as noun,: — /o 
 bueno 'the good,' /o demds 'the rest '; but el otro ' the other.' 
 
 19. Contraction. De 'of and o 'to' combine with el 
 into del and a/ respectively : — del padre ' of the father ' ; al padre 
 ' to the father.' 
 
 20. Indefinite Article. 
 
 masc. fem. 
 
 Sing, una (or un : cf. §15. a) one, a una (or un: cf. §15. a) 
 Plural unos some unas 
 
 Exercise III. 
 
12 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 III. 
 Nouns. 
 
 [21. HISTORY. The six Latin case-forms were early in the singular 
 reduced to two, one for the nominative and one for the oblique cases. Finally 
 the latter (or one made in analogy with it) prevailed alone. In the plural 
 the accusative form supplanted all the others. The Latin accusative form, 
 as typifying the other oblique case-forms in the singular, and as surviving 
 alone in the plural, may then be called the origin of the singular and plural 
 noun-forms in Spanish : c. g., L. amor em, pi. amoves : Sp. amor, amores. 
 There are only some scattered remnants of other distinct case-forms (e. g., 
 dios from the nom. deus ; jueves from the genit. jovis, etc.). As Latin mas- 
 culines and feminines (the only genders surviving in Spanish) ended in —as, 
 -OS, -es in the accusative plural, -(e)s became the regular plural sign in 
 Spanish. 
 
 Latin neuters for the most part became masculines : L. corpus (n.) : Sp. 
 cuerpo (m.). Several plurals, however, by false analogy, were treated as sin- 
 gular feminines in -a : V,. folia : Sp. hoja, {., ' leaf (or collectively, ' leaves ') ; 
 L. voia . Sp. l>oda, f., ' marriage, nuptials.' Even in other respects the 
 regular relation between Latin and Spanish genders has been somewhat 
 disturbed.] 
 
 22. Inflection. Spanish nouns, like English, distin- 
 guish between a singular and plural form. But they have 
 no special case-form (not even, like English, a posses- 
 sive) . ^:-. 
 
 Plural Formation. 
 
 23. Simple Nouns. Nouns ending in an atonic vowel 
 (save^), or in e, add s to the singular; other nouns, es; 
 
 el amigo the friend pi. los amigos 
 
 la casa the house " las casas 
 
 el pie the foot " los pies 
 
 \ 
 
NOUNS. 13 
 
 el rubi the ruby pi. los rubies 
 
 el rey the king " los reyes 
 
 laflor the flower " las flores 
 
 la nacion the nation " las naciones 
 
 Note. — Final z is written c before -es (§13 a) : — el juez ' the judge ' ; /os 
 jueces. 
 
 [24.] Exceptions, a. Nouns in atonic —is, —es, -ez (like 
 la crisis, el jueves, Sanchez, etc.) and some pure I,atin words 
 (like el deficit, etc.) are unchanged in the plural. 
 
 b. Some nouns in —d and —6 (Jiapd, mamd, sofd, landd, etc.) add s, not 
 es, in the plural. 
 
 t. Lord and milord are in the plural lores, milores. 
 
 d. Cardcter and regi?nen are in the plural, with the accent shifted forward, 
 caracteres, regimenes. 
 
 25. Compound Nouns. If the first member of a 
 compound is an adjective, both members take the plural 
 sign : gentilhombre - gentleman ' : gentileskombres. Oth- 
 erwise only the last : ferro-caril ' rail-road ' : ferro-carriles. 
 If the last member is already a plural, it remains un- 
 changed : cortaplumas 'pen-knife' (lit. 'cut-pens'): pi. 
 the same. 
 
 Notice also hi(jo)dalgo ' nobleman ' : pi. hijosdalgo (only as noun) or 
 hidalgos. ■" 
 
 26. Varied meaning in Singular and Plural. Some nouns have 
 in the. plural, in addition to their usual sense, also a new meaning of kindred 
 nature. Thus : 
 
 a. Masculine names of persons may in plura l include both sexes : — hijo 
 'son,' pi. 'sons, children'; padre ' father,' pi. ' fathers, parents'; hermano 
 ' brother,' pi. ' brothers, brother(s) and sister(s)'; rey ' king,' pi. ' kings, king 
 and queen.' 
 
14 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 b. A special meaning is added to the ordinary : — liia ' day,' pi. ' days, 
 name-day'; corie ' court,' pi. 'courts, legislative assembly'; anteojo 'field- 
 glass,' pi. 'field-glasses, spectacles'; etc. 
 
 Exercise IV. 
 
 27. Gender. Spanish nouns are either masculine or 
 feminine. 
 
 [28. J Masculine are : 
 
 a. Nouns denoting male beings : — el hombre ' the man ' ; el 
 caballo ' the horse.' 
 
 b. Nouns not implying distinction of sex when they end in : 
 
 1 . -ol -ma of Greek origir(, or a tone- vowel : — el libra ' the 
 book ' ; el oro ' the gold ' ; el poema ' the poem ' ; el idioma ' the 
 language'; el sofa 'the sofa'; el pie 'the foot.' 
 
 Excepted : la mano, ' the hand,' la nao ' the ship,' /a/e ' the faith,' la tribu 
 'the tribe.' 
 
 2 . -p, -I, —j, —s : — el dolor ' the pain,' el sol ' the sun, ' el drbol 
 'the tree,' el reloj 'the watch,' el mes 'the month,' el martes 
 ' the Tuesday.' 
 
 Excepted: /a y?Dr 'the flower,' la labor 'the labor,' la sal 'the salt,' la 
 niiel ' the honey,' la col ' the cabbage,' la lis ' the lily,' la tos ' the cough.' 
 
 [2 9. J Feminines are : 
 
 a. Nouns denoting female beings : — la mujer 'the woman,' la 
 vaca 'the cow.' 
 
 h. Nouns not implying distinctions of sex when they end in : 
 
 I. -a (save those in -ma from Greek), -/e, -umbre : — la casa 
 'the house, el (i8. a) agua 'the water,' la serie 'the series,' la 
 servidumbre 'the servants' (coll.). 
 
 Excepted : el dig ' th e day,' el cometa ' the comet,' el planeta ' the planet,' 
 el mapa ' the map.' 
 
NOUNS. 1 5 
 
 2. —d, —ion: — /a Jif//'the thirst,' /« z'tfrfl'(3:(/'thetruth,'/(a;«a«V« 
 'the nation.' 
 
 Excepted : el ardid ' the artifice,' e/ ataud ' the coffin.' 
 
 [30.] Nouns not determined by previous rules — i.e. chiefly 
 nouns in -e {—ie, -umbre excepted), -n, -z — are either mascu- 
 line or feminine. 
 
 Note i. — Names of months and days;, of trees, mountains and rivers; 
 and of towns and countries not ending in -a are usually masculine. Those 
 of fruits, and of rivers, towns and countries in -a are usually feminine. 
 
 Note 2. — No sufficiently short or practical rule for determining the gender 
 of other nouns coming under this paragraph can be laid down. The classi- 
 cal student is helped in this respect by the general analogy between the 
 Latin and Spanish gender (§21). 
 
 [31.] ITouns of Two Genders. Some nouns are masculine in ordi- 
 nary use, while in poetic or archaic style they are feminine : — ^/ or la mar 
 ' the sea '; el or la puente ' the bridge,' etc, 
 
 [32.] Gender of Compounds. Compound nouns have the gender of 
 the last member if the first is an adjective : el mediodia ' the mid-day.' If it 
 is not, they are masculine : el paraguas (s pi. sign) ' the umbrella.' 
 
 33. Homonyms of different Gender and Meaning. Some cog- 
 nate nouns of identical form are of different gender and meaning : — 
 
 El cura ' the priest,' la curd ' the care ' ; el ayuda ' the helper,' la ayuda 
 ' the help ' ; el guardia ' the sentinel,' la guardia ' the guard' ; el irom- 
 peta ' the trumpeter,' la trompeta ' the trumpet ' ; el capital ' the capital 
 (^money),' la capital, the capital (city),' etc. 
 
 34. Formal Relation between Nouns of Opposite Sez. Nouns 
 denoting individuals of opposite sex are — 
 
 I. Related when the feminine form is derived from the masculine, 
 either — 
 
 a. Like an adjective (40), by changing -0, -e into -a or adding a to a 
 consonant ending ; — hermano 'brother': hermana 'sister'; z'm»o ' neigh- 
 bor (m.)': vecina 'neighbor (f.)'; lein 'lion': leona 'lioness'; Alemdn 
 'German (man) '; Alemana 'German (woman).' 
 
1 6 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 *. By suffixing in like manner -/na, -esa, -i sa : —gallo ' coSa' : gallina 
 'hen'; /5«-<7« ' hero ' • /5<?ro««a 'heroine'; a^aaT ' abbot ' : abadesa ' -Mx.^' ; 
 poeta ' poet ' : poetisa ' poetess.' 
 
 ,. By changing -tor, -dor into -iriz (Lat.- i'^-ij:) : — a<r/»?- ' actor ' : actriz 
 ' actress ' ; emperador ' emperor ' : emperatriz ' empress. 
 
 2. Unrelated when not derived from the same noun : — hombre ' man ' ■ 
 mujer ' woman ' ; caballo ' horse ' : yegua ' mare.' 
 
 3. Identical' — camarada (m. orf.) ' comrade '; compatrioia (m. or f.) 
 ' countryman '; joven (m. or f.) ' young man or woman.' 
 
 Exercise V. 
 
 36. Qualifying Suffixes. Spanish (like Italian) is 
 peculiarly rich in somewhat freely used suffixes serving 
 to modify the general sense of the noun, as especially to 
 make it augmentative (in an ordinary sense, or in a deprc- 
 ciative sense, as implying coarseness etc.), or diminutive 
 (implying smallness, nicety, weakness, worthlessness, etc.). 
 These movable suffixes cannot, however, be used at ran- 
 dom, and much familiarity with the language is required 
 to handle them properly. As a rule, they occur less fre- 
 quently in grave and serious language than in ordinary 
 discourse and lighter composition. 
 
 The most important of these qualifying suffixes are 
 given below. It is to be observed that in adding them to a 
 noun, final atonic vowels are lost {hombre, hombr-on), and 
 that consonants may change orthographically accord- 
 ing to §13. 
 
 I. Augmentatives (etc.)^all containing the tone-vo^&\ o, a or 
 u, are: -on (augm.), -oie (augm. or deprec), -azo, -acho 
 (deprec.),-«cAo (deprec). Allwitha feminine in -a, according 
 to §40 : — 
 
NOUNS. If 
 
 hombre man hombron big man 
 
 mujer woman mujerona large woman 
 
 hereje heretic herejoie great heretic 
 
 animal animal anitnalucho ugly beast 
 
 Note. azo, -ada often denote a blow or injury caused by the object 
 
 named by its noun : — Idiigo ' whip,' latigazo, ' large whip ' or ' stroke with a 
 whip'; lanzada (Janza) 'lance-thrust,' etc. 
 
 2. Diminutives (etc.), all containing the ione-voyne\ i or e, are : 
 -ico, -{e)cico; -Ho, -(e)cHo; -illo, -{e)cillo; -in{o) ; -uelo, 
 -{e)zue/o; -eie, -cete; -ej'o. All with a feminine in a (which 
 supplies o, e) : — 
 
 hombre man hombrecico little man 
 
 mujer woman mujercita little woman 
 
 hermano brother hermanito little brother 
 
 senora lady senorita young lady 
 
 tnano (f.) hand maneciia pretty little hand 
 
 autor author autorcilh poor author 
 
 calle street calleja lane 
 
 mozo boy mocete small boy 
 
 Note. — Diminutives containing an / or ^ are often depreciative in sense : 
 mujer zuela ' low woman ' ; librejo ' worthless book.' 
 
 [36.] By repeated addition of augmentative and diminutive 
 suffixes, yet other modifying suffixes are made. Such are : 
 —achon (^acho-\-07i), -achuelo {acho-\-uelo) ; —ej'ue/o {ejo-\- 
 uelo) ; -etazo (ete-\-azo), -eton {ete-\-on) ; -illon {il.h-\-on) ; 
 -onazo, etc. : — e. g., mozo 'boy,' moceton 'pretty tall lad' ; calk 
 'street,' callejuela 'narrow lane': picaro 'rogue,' picaronazo 
 ' piece of knavery.' 
 
 EXERCISgrVI. 
 
1 8 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 IV. 
 Adjectives. 
 
 [37. HISTORY. The Latin adjectives have been treated in Spanish 
 in the main like the nouns (§21). They have there only one distinct form 
 for each number, and two genders. The masculine may be used as a 
 neuter absolute with lo. Most adjectives (chiefly those in -0, —on, —an) form 
 their feminine in -a ; while the others, like many Latin adjectives, are alike in 
 masculine and feminine. 
 
 The degrees of comparison are expressed by the aid of independent 
 adverbs (mds ' more,' menos ' less ' = Lat. magis, minus.) A few Latin 
 comparatives have survived in Spanish (e. g. L. melior, pejor = Sp. mejor, 
 peor). The Latin superlative ending -issimus is in the form oi-isimo quite 
 freely used in making absolute superlatives.] 
 
 38. Inflection. Spanish adjectives, unlike English, 
 have a different form for the the singular and the plural, 
 and often for the masculine and feminine. Like nouns, 
 they have no special case-ending. 
 
 39. Plural Formation. Adjectives form their plu- 
 ral in a manner analogous with that of nouns (§23) : — 
 bueno(J. buena)' good ' : pi. buenos, (biienas^ ; fdcil ' easy'; 
 fdciles ; baladi ' worthless ' : baladies. 
 
 40. Feminine Formation. Adjectives form their 
 
 feminine in -a, or remain unchanged; according to the fol- 
 lowing rules : 
 
 a. All adjectives in -o and diminutives in —eie, -ote change 
 their end-vowel into -a. : — //ueno, f. iuena ; grandote ' biggish ' 
 grandota. 
 
 b. Adjectives in -an, -on, -or (comparatives excepted), and 
 
ADJECTIVES. 
 
 19 
 
 also proper adjectives (formed from proper names) not ending 
 in —a, —e, —i, add -a in the feminine : — burlon, roguish,' f. bur- 
 lona ; traidor 'treacherous,' traidora ; espanol 'Spanish,' es- 
 panola ; frances ' French,' francesa. 
 
 c. Other adjectives are alike in the masculine and feminine : — 
 grande, m. or f., ' great ' ; joven, m. or f , ' young ' ; mejor, m. or f., 
 'better ' ; facil, m. or f., ' easy ' ; feliz, m. or f., ' happy ' ; etc. 
 
 41. Apocopation. About certain abbreviations of adjectives in sen- 
 tences, cf. §15. a. 
 
 42. Comparison. Adjectives form their degrees of 
 relative comparison in the following manner : 
 
 the comparative by placing the indeclinable mas ' more ' (or 
 menos 'less') before the positive: — bianco 'white,' mas (me- 
 nos) bianco ' whiter (less white) ' ; 
 
 the superlative by placing the definite article (which may 
 be replaced by the atonic possessive) before the comparative : — 
 el (or mi, etc.) mas bianco 'the {or my, etc.) whitest' 
 
 [43.] Irregular, Certain adjectives more commonly use 
 a synthetic comparative form (directly from Latin), taking el 
 
 /afore it in the superlative, as usual. They are : 
 ""■>5f coinp. 
 
 f mejor 
 
 \^^mds bueno 
 
 ( peor 
 
 I [^mds mala 
 
 f mayor 
 
 I mas grande 
 f menor 
 
 I mas pequeno 
 
 f superior 
 
 l^mds alto 
 f inferior 
 I mas bajo 
 
 posit. 
 
 bueno ' good ' 
 malo ' bad ' 
 grande ' great ' 
 pequeHo 'small' 
 alto 'high' 
 bajo ' low ' 
 
 superl. 
 
 el mejor 
 
 el mas bueno'\ rare 
 
 el peor 
 
 el mas malo'\ rare 
 
 el mayor 
 
 el mas grande 
 
 el menor 
 
 el mas pequeno 
 
 el superior 
 
 el mas alto 
 
 el inferior 
 
 el mas bajo 
 
20 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Note. — Mayor and menor, applied to persons, also- mean ' older ' and 
 'younger.' 
 
 44. Absolute Superlative. Absolute superlatives 
 (like ' most true = very true ') are rather freely formed by 
 adding the ending -/'s/rno to the positive. The positive then, 
 besides losing its end-vowel and changing orthographically 
 according to §13. a, reduces tonic ie, tie, to e, : — bueno, 
 bonisimo (rarely Optimo) ; malo, malisimo (^rarely pesuno) ; 
 bianco, blanqu-isimo ; util, utilisimo. 
 
 Note i. — Adjectives in -ro, -re, usually add -^imo instead of -isimo to 
 the Latin stem in -er : — w/j-^ro ' wretched,' miserritno ; celebre 'famous' 
 celeberrimo. 
 
 Note 2. — The absolute superlative may also be expressed, as in English, 
 by the aid of various adverbs {niuy, bastante, sumamenle, hasta no mds, etc.^. 
 
 Note 3. — Rarely a noun may also receive the absolute superlative suffix : — 
 iehor, senorisimo ' very fine gentleman.' 
 
 45. "^ThaN' is expressed by que. Z7e, however, is used 
 for que before numerals in an affirmative clause ; and de 
 lo que before a personal verb. — Thus, mas alto que una 
 casa ' higher than a house ' ; mas de diez casas ' more than 
 ten houses ' ; mas alto de lo que parece ' higher than it seems.' 
 
 46. Qualifying Suffixes. The same augmentative 
 and diminutive suffixes that may be attached to nouns 
 (§35) are also used to modify the ordinary sense of 
 adjectives : — rico ' rich ' : ricacho ' very wealthy,' ricote 
 ' rich and pretentious,' ric-ach-6n ' exceedingly rich ' ; 
 grande ' great' ; grandon 'bulky, heavy,' grand-ill-on 'rath- 
 er biggish ' ; nuevo ' new,' nuevecito ' brand new ' ; malo 
 ' ill,' malico, malillo ' ailing,' etc. 
 
 Exercise VII. 
 
NUMERALS. 
 
 21 
 
 V. 
 
 Numerals, 
 
 [47. HISTORY. The derivation of the Spanish numerals from the 
 Latin is quite obvious throughout, /"riwo, being replaced hy prifnero,\s now 
 used in sense of ' first, most excellent,' or (as noun) ' cousin.'] 
 
 48. A list of the numerals, though propeirly belonging 
 to the dictionary, is in accordance with general usage 
 given below. 
 
 I. Cardinals. 
 
 I uno {un: 
 
 §15) 
 
 II once 
 
 21 veinte y uno ' 
 
 2 cios 
 
 
 12 ofe^ 
 
 22 veinle y dos,'- etc. 
 
 3 ires 
 
 
 13 //'i'f^ 
 
 30 ireinta 
 
 4 cuairo 
 
 
 14 enforce 
 
 40 cuarenla 
 
 5 cinco 
 
 
 15 quince 
 
 50 cincuenia 
 
 6 sets 
 
 
 16 diez y seis ' 
 
 - 60 sesenta 
 
 7 siete 
 
 
 17 diez y siete ^ 
 
 70 seienta 
 
 8 ocho 
 
 
 18 diez y ocho'- 
 
 80 ochenta 
 
 9 nueve 
 lo diez 
 
 
 1 9 diez y nueve ^ 
 
 20 veinle 
 
 90 noventa 
 100 ciento {cien : 1$. ^) 
 
 lOO cienlo (y) 
 
 uno 
 
 500 quinientos 
 
 1000 ;««'/ 
 
 I02 ciento (y) 
 
 dos, etc. 
 
 600 seiscientos 
 
 looi mi/ { y) uno, etc. 
 
 200 doscienlos^ 
 
 
 7CX) selecientos 
 
 2000 afej /«(/, etc. 
 
 300 trescientos 
 
 ■' 
 
 800 ochocientos 
 
 1,000,000 millon 
 
 400 cuatrocientos 
 
 1 
 
 900 novecientos 
 
 etc. 
 
 / 
 
 
 II. Ordinals. 
 
 
 I primero 
 
 
 4 cuarto 
 
 7 septimo 
 
 2 segtindo 
 
 
 5 quinto 
 
 8 octavo 
 
 3 tercero 
 
 
 6 j^jr/o («rfo) 
 
 9 noveno {nono) 
 
 'J9/f2j' jtf /J may be written also dieziseis ; and so likewise other combinations with jj/ 
 ' and ' {diezisiete, etc.) up to loo. 
 
 2 i?tf*- and ^rffj- before ciento may be also </(7-, /re-. The ordinary units /r^j, citatro, 
 etc. are also used separately before ciettios* 
 
22 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 10 decimo 17 decimo septimo 40 cuadragesimo 
 
 11 undecimo 18 decimo octavo JO quincuagesimo 
 
 12 duodecimo 19 decimo none 60 sexagesimo 
 ly-decimo iercio 20 vigesimo "jo seluagesimo(o-c sept-) 
 H decimo cuarto 21 vigesimo prima 80 octogesimo 
 
 \^ decimo quinto 22 vigesimo segundo,e\.c. 90 nonagesimo 
 
 16 decimo sexto 30 trigesimo (-cesimo') 100 centesimo 
 
 49, Inflection. 0/ cardinals uno and multiples of 
 -c/ento {doscientos, m., doscientas, f., etc.) are treated as 
 adjectives. 77«^ ordinals are a// treated as adjectives. 
 
 Note. — Mil, millSn, etc. are as pure nouns in pi. ;«j7^j, millones, etc. 
 
 60. Tens of hundreds must be expressed by zbj/.- — »«j7_)/ im ' ten hun- 
 dred and six.' 
 
 Note. — ^^/iV is masculine: doscientos (m.) mil pesetas {i.) ' 200,000 pesetas 
 (coin).' 
 
 51. ' Half is la mitad as a noun (or in calculation, un medio), but medio 
 
 as an adjective : — la mitad de mis bienes ' one half of my goods ' ; una hora 
 y media ' an hour and a half.' 
 
 52. 'Both' is ambos (r^as), los das; less often entrambos, ambos a 
 
 dos : ■ — J^e visto d ambos, or d ambos d dos ' I have seen both (m.),' 
 
 Exercise VIII. 
 
 VI. 
 Fronouns, 
 
 [53. HISTORY. Most of the pronouns have been reduced, like nouns 
 and adjectives, to one case-form. Excepted are the personals, which have 
 fwo or (the third personal only) three distinct case-forms. 
 
 On the other hand, the personal and possessive pronouns have developed 
 two distinct forms, according as, in ordinary use, they are tonic (having the 
 tone-accent) or atonic (proclitic). Thus mi ' me,' nosotros ' we,' mio 'mine,' 
 are toni-, but me ' me,' nos ' we,' mi ' my,' atonic. 
 
PRONOUNS. 
 
 23 
 
 Among less obvious deriva-ons may be mentioned here : Sp. yo : L. ego (eo, 
 io) ; ese ; ipse ; aquel : hac ille ; quien : quern , alguien : aliquem ; 
 algo : aliquod ; nadie : natus (viz. homo) ; nada : nata (viz. res) ; fulano 
 (arab.); zutano (?)/ cada : quot ; sendos : singulos ; alguno : alic-unus; 
 ninguno; nec-unus ; -quiera (in quien- cual-), a Span, subjunctive 3d sing, 
 'may wish' Qquien-quiera 'whom you please'); mismo : low Lat. metipsi- 
 mus'\. 
 
 Personals (reflexives inclusive). 
 54. The personals are either : 
 
 a. tonic when, as separated from the verb (by a preposition or 
 other words) or emphatic, they have a tone-accent ; or 
 
 b. atonic when, as used only in close connection with a verb, 
 they ordinarily lose their tone-accent in its favor. 
 
 a. Tonic. 
 
 b. Atonic. 
 
 Nominative. 
 
 With preposition. 
 
 Accusative. 
 
 Dative. 1 
 
 yol 
 
 mi me 
 
 me me, to me 
 
 tu thou 
 
 ii thee 
 
 te thee, to thee 
 
 eVhe 
 
 (f/him 
 
 le or lo him 
 
 le to him 
 
 e//o she 
 
 ella her 
 
 la her 
 
 le to her 
 
 e//0 it (indef.) 
 
 ello it 
 
 lo it 
 
 le to it 
 
 
 si reflexive 
 
 se reflexive 
 
 nosiofros) we 
 
 noslfitros) us 
 
 nos us, to us 
 
 vosiptros) you 
 
 vos(ptros) you 
 
 OS you, to you 
 
 ellos they pi. 
 
 ellos them 
 
 los them 
 
 les to them 
 
 el las they/. 
 
 ellas them 
 
 las them 
 
 les to them 
 
 
 si reflexive 
 
 se reflexive 
 
 pi. I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Note i. — The nominatives ^o, tu, etc. may be used directly before a verb 
 (as ' I ' etc. in English), but as a rule only when emphatic. Cf. Syntax. 
 
 Note 2. — Nos, vos are now used for nosotros, vosotros only in solemn 
 (authoritative or reverential) style. And cf. 56. 
 
 Note 3. — The accus. m. le, lo axe used quite optionally (le preferably for 
 persons). For the dat. f. le, les are also found (less good) la, las. 
 
24 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Note 4. — Note the accent-mark of mi, iii, to distinguish them from the 
 possessives mi, tu ; of si as compared with si ' if ' ; and of H as compared with 
 the definite article el. 
 
 55. Con (Lat. cum) 'with' contracts with »«/, A', «' followed 
 by the suffix —go (a remnant of Lat. -cum in mecum) into conmigo, 
 contigo, consigo : ' with me,' etc. 
 
 56. Usted (pi. ustedes) — a contraction of vuestra merced 
 ' your grace ' — is the customary form of address, like English 
 'you.' Tu and vos as sing. (pi. vosotros) denote intimacy or 
 class superiority (vos also contempt; or 'you' in literary style). 
 
 Usted, "by origin of the 3d person, is always so construed : usted 
 tiene (3 sing.) 'you have' (lit. 'your grace has'). In writing it 
 is usually abbreviated to V. (or Vd., or Vm.), pi. W. (or Vds., 
 Vms.). Qualifying words agree with its implied gender. 
 
 57. Position of the Atonics. The atonies ordi- 
 narily (of. 120) precede a tense-form, unless this is a 
 positive imperative : — Me oye ' he hears me.' Ue lo da 
 ' he gives it to me.' Te los he dado ' I have given them 
 to thee.' 
 
 But they are appended without hyphen to a positive im- 
 perative (or subjunctive used as such), and to infinitives 
 and gerunds. These verb-forms then alvi^ays retain their 
 tone. Thus: — oyeme 'hear me.' Vino a verme {yerla, 
 etc.) 'he came to see me (her, etc.).' Ddndomelo 'giving 
 it to me.' 
 
 [58. J Of two atonic personals the dative precedes the accu- 
 sative, whether before or after the verb. The reflexive se, how- 
 ever, always comes first. — Me lo da ' he gives it to me.' Da- 
 melo ' give it to me ! ' Os los ofrezco ' I offer them to you.' Se 
 me olvida (lit. ' it forgets itself to me ') 'I forget.' 
 
PRONOUNS. 
 
 25 
 
 69. Sefor le, les. — When two atonies both beginning with 
 /come together, the first always changes to se (probably a cor- 
 ruption of the older ^^= le, through I/e) -.—Se/o da (for Le lo 
 da) ' He gives it to him ' ; Se los presta a ellos (for Les los etc.) 
 'He lends them to them.' 
 
 Exercise IX. 
 
 Fossessives, 
 60. The possessives are either: 
 
 a. tonic when used without their noun (like EngHsh 'mine'), 
 or when placed after instead of before it {padre mio 'ray 
 father'). 
 
 b. atonic when placed before their noun (mi padre ' my 
 father'). 
 
 a. Tonic. b. Atonic. 
 
 (rf) m'lo 
 mine, my 
 
 {el") nuestro 
 our(s) 
 
 (?/) tuyo 
 thine, thy 
 
 {el) suyo 
 his, her, its 
 
 {el ) vuestro 
 your(s) 
 
 {el) suyo 
 their(s) 
 
 
 mi 
 my 
 
 tu 
 
 thy 
 
 nuestro 
 
 our 
 
 vuestro 
 
 your 
 
 su 
 
 his, her, its 
 
 su 
 
 their 
 
 61. Inflection. The possessives are inflected like 
 adjectives (all adding s in the plural, and those in —o 
 changing —o to —a in the feminine) , e.g.: — mio : f. mia, 
 pi. mios, mias ; mi (m. or f.) : pi. mis ; tu : tus ; etc. 
 
 62. El mio etc. — When used without their noun (except usu- 
 ally after 'be'), el is, placed before mio, etc. {el mio, la mia; los 
 mios, las mias) : — Su casa y la mia ' His house and mine.' 
 
 See further, Syntax. 
 
26 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 y 63. «Your, yours' is in ordinary polite address expressed 
 by su, {et) suyo, or by de usted, el de usted : — Su pluma or 
 La pluvia de V. ' Your pen.' Tengo la suya (f.) or Tengo la de 
 V. ' I have yours.' Esta pluma es de V. ' This pen is yours.' 
 
 About the use aiboth forms, cf. Syntax §123. 
 
 Exercise X. 
 
 Demonstratives. 
 
 64. The demonstratives, which are used with or with- 
 out their noun (and may be accented according to § 5 /) are : 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Meaning. 
 
 smg. 
 pi. 
 
 este 
 
 estos 
 
 esta 
 estas 
 
 esto 
 
 \ near the speaker, 
 these ) 
 
 sing, 
 pi. 
 
 ese 
 
 esos 
 
 esa 
 esas 
 
 eso 
 
 \ near the addressed, 
 those ) 
 
 sing, 
 ri- 
 
 aquel 
 
 aquellos 
 
 aquella 
 aquellas 
 
 aquello 
 
 that ■) 
 
 \ remote, 
 those ) 
 
 sing, 
 pi. 
 
 el 
 
 los 
 
 la 
 las 
 
 lo 
 
 that "I with possessive de, 
 those J or with que. 
 
 65. El combines with a and de into al, del. 
 
 66. Esie, ese combine with otro into esiotro (-a; -os, -as), 
 esotro {-a ; -os, -as) . ' 
 
 Exercise XI. 
 
PRONOUNS. 2^ 
 
 Interrogatives. 
 
 67. The interrogatives (all having the accent-mark) 
 
 are: 
 
 quien, pi. quienes : who ? 
 
 que: what? what (a) ! [subst. or adj.] 
 
 cud/, pi. cudles : which ? what ? 
 
 cuyo (f. ctiya), pi. cuyos (f. t:uyas) ; whngpg 
 
 Relatives. 
 
 58. The relatives (all without accent-mark) are : 
 ^quien, pi. quienes: who} of persons 
 
 que, pi. que: who, which, that (c£. note) \ of 
 
 el (f. la) cual, pi. &J- {las) males: who, which I Persons 
 
 cuyo (f. cuya), pi. <rzyw (f. cuyas) : whose, of which \ things 
 Note. — Que after preposition very rarely refers to persons. 
 
 69. Lo cual, lo que. — Lo cual 'which ' is a neuter referring 
 to something said before : dieho lo cual salio ' saying which he 
 went out.' Lo que means 'that which, what' : es lo que se ' It 
 's what I know.' 
 
 Exercise XII. 
 
 TtideflnAtes. 
 
 70. The indefinites are : 
 
 a. Nouns: — alguien ( invar.) ' somebody,' algo (i nvar.) 'some- 
 thing ' j — nnHI^JjnvAr^ ' anvbodv ' : us ually ' nobody ' (with no 
 before the verb, if nadie follows it) ; na da (invar.) 'anythin g ; 
 usually ' nothmg ' (like nadie) ; — quienquier{a) (pi. quienes- 
 
28 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 quierd) ' whoever, whichever, whatever ' ; — fulano (i. -a) , zutano 
 (f. —a) ' so and so.' 
 
 l>. Adjectives : — cada (invar.) ' every, each ' ; cierto (f. -a, 
 pi. -OS, -as) • certain ' ; sendos (f. -as) ' each a,' agreeing with 
 the following noun. 
 
 c. Nouns or adjectives : — uno (f. -a, pi. -os, -as) ' a,' pi. 
 ' some ' ; otro (f. -a, pi. —os, —as) '(an)other ' ; — tal (pi. tales) 
 ' such ' ; cua/ (pi. cuales) ' as ' ; — alguno (f. —a, pi. -os, -as) 
 ' some one, some, an^ ' ; ninguno (f. —a, pi. —os, -as) ' no one, 
 none, "no ' (with 710 before the verb when ninguno follows it) ; — 
 iodo, (f. -a, pi. -OS, -as) ' whole, all, every ' ; — cualquier{a) 
 (pi. cualesquiera) ' any (you please) ' ; — mismo \i. -a, 'pi. -os, 
 -as) ' same, self, very.' 
 
 Exercise XIII. 
 
 VII. 
 Verbs. 
 
 [71. HISTORY. The following are the main relations between the 
 Latin and the Spanish verb : 
 
 «. Conjugations. The four Latin conjugations are in Spanish reduced 
 to three, viz. : i. in -ar [Lat. -are, -ere] ; 2. -er [Lat. -ere, -ere (Sp. -ecer 
 = Lat. -escere), -ire']; 3. in -//■ [Lat. -ire, -ere, -ere]. 
 
 b. Voices. The Latin passive is replaced by a periphrastic passive, 
 formed by the auxiliary ser or estar and the past participle of the verb used. 
 Deponent verbs have assumed active endings. 
 
 c. Tenses. The Latin future is exchanged for a compound future-form, 
 made by the infinitive + he (etc.) ' I have ' : e.g. amare (= amar-^he) ' I shall 
 love.' So likewise a Spanish conditional is formed by the aid of ~ia, an 
 
VERBS. 29 
 
 abbreviation of habia ' had ' ; c. g. amaria {= amar -\- ia) 'I should love.' 
 The other Latin tenses remain, though in part with altered function. With 
 regard to their formation may be observed: Lat. -abam, -iebam (impf.) 
 = Sp. -aba, -ia; Lat. -assem etc. (plup. subj.)=Sp. -use etc. (impf. 
 subj.); Lat. a(ve)rim, etc. (perf. subj.) = Sp. -are etc. (fut. subj.); Lat. 
 -a{ve)ram etc. ^Sp. ara etc. (cond. subj.). A complete set of periphrasr- 
 tic (' compound ') tenses with the auxiliary haber (rarely tetter) have been 
 developed in Spanish. 
 
 d. Verbal Nouns. The Latin supine is lost. So also the participles 
 not ending in -ius (save a few non-verbal forms as siguiente, durante ; future, 
 educando, expurgando, etc.). 
 
 e. Personal Endings. Here is to be noticed especially the loss of 
 final —m (e.g. L. anteiu ; Sp. ame) and -(/)^ (L. amat : Sp. ama ; L. ama- 
 vit : Sp. amd) ; and of -f in -tis (L. amatis : Sp. amdis) . 
 
 f. Irregular Forms. The irregularities of Spanish verbs are caused 
 especially : — <j. by a change of e, when tonic into /e (» ) , ue (« ) , and when 
 atonic into i, u : Lat. dormio ; Sp. duermo ; dormiamos : durmamos ; — b. by 
 a change mostly of L. pres. -io {-eo),-ia- (-^a-) into -go, -ga- (in analogy with 
 reg. digo, L. dico) : L. ven'io : Sp. vengo ; — c. by a change of the pret. root- 
 vowel to u (through influence of final -ui : L. habui : Sp. hube) , or / (in analogy 
 vfith old vide, L. vidi) : L. vehi, Sp. vine ; and of xtoj: L. dixi : Sp. dije ; 
 — d. by a contraction of the infinitive form in the fut. and cond., often with an 
 attendant insertion of d : L, sapere : Sp. sab'r-e ; L. tenere: Sp. ten'dr-d.} 
 
 72. With regard to their general use, Spanish verbs, like 
 English, are either Transitive or Intransitive. These may 
 again in special uses be Reflexive or Impersonal. 
 
 73. The conjugation of a verb involves, as also in English, a 
 distinction of Voice, Mood, Tense, Number and Person. For 
 their formation and meaning the student is referred directly to 
 the paradigms below. 
 
 74. Conjugations. Spanish verbs are divided into 
 three conjugations, according to the ending of their infin- 
 itive, which is as follows : 
 
30 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1 . —an : e. g. amar ' love.' 
 
 2. —er: e. g. tenter 'fear.' 
 
 3. -//•.■ e. g. /«rA> ' part' 
 
 75. Regular and Irregular Verbs. These are 
 
 distinguished as follows : 
 
 1 . Regular Verbs are conjugated like one of the type-verbs 
 of the three conjugations. Or they deviate from it (a) by 
 orthographical peculiarities (simply resulting from the general 
 mode of spelling) ; or (b) by certain phonetical variations 
 affecting Regularly the root in large groups of verbs. 
 
 2. Irregular Verbs deviate from the regular as described 
 above. 
 
 Note. — Some grammars classify as irregular all verbs with regularly 
 recurring phonetical changes. The question is purely one of practical con- 
 venience. 
 
 76. Principal Parts. The present (ind.), infinitive, 
 preterit (ind.), gerund, and participle may serve as the 
 principal parts of verbs, from which all other parts can 
 be conveniently derived. 
 
 The method of derivation — serviceable especially in 
 learning root-changing verbs (82 etc.) — is illustrated 
 below by amar for the first, iemer for the second, and partir 
 for the third conjugation. Heavy type endings are those 
 regularly added to the root {am—, tern—, part—), or, in 
 future-conditional ind., to the whole infinitive.' 
 
 Principal Parts : 
 
 Derived Parts : 
 
 
 r amo 
 
 pres. subj., ame 
 
 imperat. ama 
 
 Pres. ] temo 
 
 " " tenia 
 
 " tevie 
 
 \pario 
 
 " " parta 
 
 " parte 
 
 ^ About the real formation of the fut. aiid cond. from the inf. + i, ia (for he^ 
 hab'ta Miave, had '), cf. §71, u. 
 
/■ VERBS. 3 1 
 
 Principal Parts : Derived Parts : 
 
 r amar imp. ind., amaba fut. ind., amare cond. ind., amaria 
 
 Infin. J timer " teni'ia " temere " iemer'm 
 
 Ijtartir " part'm " partire " partir'ia 
 
 ( aine imp. subj., ninase fut. subj., amare cond. subj., amara 
 Preterit J tem'i " iemiese " temiere " iemierd 
 
 Ipar/'i " partiese " partiere " partiera 
 
 C ainando \ 
 
 Gerund J iemiendo y periphrastic progressive forms (90 C). 
 Ipartiendo ) 
 
 r atiiado '\ 
 
 Partic. J temido y periphrastic active and passive forms (90 A. B.). 
 
 I partido j 
 
 As seen above, the zd and 3d conjugation form their derived 
 tenses precisely alike. 
 
 Note. — In root-changing verbs the preterit derivatives are made from the 
 3d sing, of the preterit. 
 
 1. Hegular Verbs. 
 
 77. As type-verbs for the conjugation of the regular 
 verbs in their single tenses may serve, as above : 
 
 I. amar, love: 2. femer, fear: 3. partir, part: 
 
 Present Group. 
 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE. 
 
 s. I am-0 ' tem-o part-o 
 
 I love (do love) I fear (do fear) I part (do part) 
 
 2 am-as tem-es part-es 
 
 3 a77i-a tem-e part-e 
 
 I As a help to the beginner, the tone-vowel (cf. 4, 5) is here marked with heavy 
 type, and the ending separated from the root by a hyphen. 
 
32 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 pi. I am-amos 
 
 tem-emos 
 
 part-imos 
 
 2 am-ais (^- diph.) tem-eis 
 
 part-is 
 
 3 am-an 
 
 fetn-en 
 
 PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 part-en 
 
 s. 1 am-£ 
 
 tem-a 
 
 porta 
 
 I (may) love, etc 
 
 } I (may) fear 
 
 I (may) part 
 
 2 am-es 
 
 tem-as 
 
 part-as 
 
 3 aw-^ 
 
 tem-a 
 
 part-a 
 
 pi. I am-emos 
 
 tem-amos 
 
 part-amos 
 
 2 am-eis 
 
 tem-ais 
 
 part-ais 
 
 3 am-en 
 
 tem-an 
 
 PRESENT IMPERATIVE. 
 
 part-an 
 
 s. 2 a;«-fl love ! 
 
 tem-e fear ! 
 
 part-e part ! 
 
 pi. 2 a;«- a(/ (78) 
 
 tem-ed 
 
 part-id 
 
 Infinitive Group. 
 
 IMPERFECT INDICATIVE. 
 
 s. I am-aba tem-'ia (5. a) part-ia (5: a) 
 
 I loved (did love) I feared (did fear) I parted (did part) 
 
 2 ani-abas 
 
 3 am-aba 
 
 pi. I am-abamos 
 
 2 am-abais 
 
 3 am-aban 
 
 s. I amar-e 
 I shall (will) love 
 
 2 amar-ds 
 
 3 amar-a 
 
 pi. I amar-emos 
 
 2 amar-eis 
 
 3 amar-an 
 
 tem-ias 
 
 tem-ia 
 
 tem-'iamos 
 
 tem-'iais 
 
 tem-ian 
 
 part- 1 as 
 
 part-ia 
 
 part-iamos 
 
 part-iais 
 
 part-ian 
 
 FUTURE INDICATIVE. 
 
 temer-e partir-e 
 
 I shall (will) fear I shall (will) part 
 
 temer-as partir-as 
 
 temer-a partir-a 
 
 temer-emos partir-emos 
 
 temer-eis partir-eis 
 
 temer-an partir-dn 
 
 Subjunctive variously rendered in English, according to the context. 
 
VERBS. 
 
 33 
 
 CONDITIONAL INDICATIVE 
 
 s. I amar-ia (5, a) temer-ia partir-'ia 
 
 1 should (would) love I should (would) fear I should (would) part. 
 
 2 amar-'ias temer-'ias partir-ias 
 
 3 amar-'ia temer-ia partir-'ia 
 
 pi. I amar-'iamos temer-iamos partir-iamos 
 
 2 amar-iais temer-iais partir-'iais 
 
 3 amar-'ian temer-ian partir-ian 
 
 s. I am-e 
 
 I loved 
 
 2 am-aste 
 
 3 am-6 
 
 pi. I am-amos 
 
 2 am-asieis 
 
 3 am-aron 
 
 Preterit Group 
 
 PRETERIT INDICATIVE 
 
 tem-i 
 
 I feared 
 tem-i ste 
 iem-io 
 tem-imos 
 tem-i steis 
 tem-ieron 
 
 part-i 
 
 I parted 
 part-iste 
 part-id 
 part-imos 
 part-isteis 
 part-ieron 
 
 s. I am-ase 
 1 loved (could, should 1.)' I feared (etc.) 
 2 am-ases 
 
 IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 tem-iese part-iese 
 
 3 am-ase 
 pi. I am-asemos 
 
 2 am-aseis 
 
 3 am-asen 
 
 s. I am-are 
 
 tem-ieses 
 
 tem-iese 
 
 tem-iesemos 
 
 tem-ieseis 
 
 tem-iesen 
 
 I parted (etc.) 
 part-ieses 
 part-iese 
 part-iesemos 
 part-ieseis 
 part-iesen 
 
 FUTURE SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 tem-iere part-iere 
 
 I should (would) love' I should (etc.) fear I should (etc.) part. 
 
 2 am-ares tem-ieres part-ieres 
 
 ■2 am-are tem-iere part-iere 
 
 1 Subjunctive variously rendered in English, according to the context. 
 
34 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 pi. I amaremos 
 
 2 am-areis 
 
 3 am-aren 
 
 tem-ieremos 
 
 tem-iereis 
 
 tem-ieren 
 
 part-ieremos 
 
 part-iereis 
 
 part-ieren 
 
 s. I am-ara 
 
 I should (would, could) 
 love ' 
 
 2 am-aras 
 
 3 am-ara 
 pUi am-aramos 
 
 2 am-arais 
 
 3 am-aran 
 
 CONDITIONAL SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 tem-iera part-iera 
 
 I should (etc.) fear 
 
 I should (etc.) part 
 
 iem-ieras 
 
 tem-iera 
 
 tem-ieramos 
 
 tem-ierais 
 
 tem-ieran 
 
 part-ieras 
 
 part-iera 
 
 part-ieramos 
 
 part-ierais 
 
 part-ieran 
 
 am-ando, loving tem-iendo, fearing part-iendo, parting 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 tem-ido, feared 
 
 part-ido, parted 
 
 am- ado, loved 
 
 Note. — Interrogative forms are made in the same way, the auxiliary 'do' 
 being unexpressed : ^le ama ? does he love her ? 
 
 78. Final -s and -d (of i pi. pr. subj. and 2 pi. imperat.) 
 are lost before the appended object-pronouns nos, os : e. g. 
 amemonos (for amemos-nos) ' let us love each other ' ; vamonos 
 (for vamos-nos) 'let us go'; amaos (for amad-os) 'love (ye) 
 one another ! ' 
 
 Yet we say idos (^= id-os) ' go Qye) ! ' 
 
 79. ^ fsw verbs have, besides their regular participle, also an earlier 
 irregular (rare in compounds, common as adj.). Thus prender 'take' : pren- 
 dido or preso ; romper ' break '^ roinpido or roto ; injerir (or ingerir) 
 'insert, graft' : injerido or injerto ; opriniir ' o^^xs^s' ■ oprimido or opreso; 
 suprimir 'suppress' • stiprimido or supreso. 
 
 80. Orthographical Changes In writing out the 
 
 verb-forms the orthographical methods which serve to 
 
 I After conditional words etc., optionally with the impf. subj. (§ 154. d.). 
 
VERBS. 35 
 
 denote their proper pronunciation must be carefully ob- 
 served (cf. §13). Thus: 
 
 focar ' touch ' : pres. ind. toco etc. ; pres. subj. toque etc. 
 
 pagar ' pay ' : " " pago etc. ; " " pague etc. 
 
 coger ' collect ' : " " cojo, coges etc. 
 
 veneer ' conquer ' : " " venzo, vences etc. 
 
 o/e/-' smell': « " huelo {ue,Z2) e.ic. 
 
 bullir 'boil': pret. ind. 3 sing, bulla (for bull-id), pret. subj. 
 
 bullese (for bull-iese) etc. 
 cefl/> ' gird ' : pret. ind. 3 sing, ceno (for cen-iS) etc. 
 
 ^eer ' read ' : pret. 3 s. le-yo , errar ' err ' : pres. yerro (13 c.) 
 
 [81. J Verbs in -cer or -cir after vowel change c into 
 zc, instead of z (§ 13 a.), before a, 0, i. e. in pres. ind. i sing., 
 and in pres. subj. throughout. — Ex. nacer ' be born ' : 
 
 pres. ind. nazco, naces, nace ; nacemos^ nacHs, nacen 
 " subj. nazca nazcas, nazca ; nazcamos, nazcdis, nazcan 
 The rest regular, without change. 
 
 Note i. — Excepted are : cocer {^%i^,empecer, inecer, which regularly 
 change c into z-\-a,o ; while hacer with compounds change it into g (cf. §88) . 
 
 [Note 2. — Most of the verbs that change c into zc come from Latin verbs 
 with the inchoative sc ; e. g. nazco : Lat. nascor ; conozco : Lat. cognoseo, 
 etc.] 
 
 Exercises XIV., XV. 
 
 82. Stem-varying Verb-classes. Three verb- 
 classes change thematical (usually radical) e, to ie (or /), 
 ue (or u) when tonic ; and two of them also partly to i, u 
 when atonic. A fourth class changes radical u to uy before a 
 vowel except i. Thus (naming each class by its key-verb) : 
 
 A. The First or yBS/isa/^Class. — Thematic (usually radi- 
 cal) e, become resp. ie {ye-, § 13), ue when tonic, i.e., in 
 the singular and 3d plural of the three presents. -^Ex. : 
 
36 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 yoe/Jsa/" ' think ' (tonic root piens-, dXonic pens-) : 
 
 Pres. ind. pienso, piensas, piensa ; pensamos, pensdis, piensan 
 " iVih].piense, pienses, piense ; pensemos, penseis, piensen 
 " imper. piensa pensad 
 
 All the rest regular, without root-change. 
 
 sonar ' sound ' (tonic root suen-, atonic son-) : 
 
 Pres. ind. sueno, suenas, suena ; sonamos, sonais, suenan 
 
 etc., in perfect analogy with peniar. 
 
 Here belong about 350 -ar, -^r verbs. The simple verb-forms, 
 arranged in homotypal groups (and with a hyphen if not used 
 alone), are : 
 
 I. a/*- Verbs, i. ^&S\q,?X e, : probar ; noblar, poblar ; quebrar ; clocar, 
 -fiocar, trocar; rodar ; -pedrar ; cegar,fregar, negar, plegar, regar, sosegar, 
 rogar (comp's reg.) ; helar, melar ; color, dolar, -molar, solar, -solar, 
 volar; volcar ; goldar, solda" aW in -olgar ; -collar, foliar ('blow'), -gollar, 
 hollar, -ollar, -sollar ; so,Mr ; sonar, tronar ; -mendar, -rendar, -rengar, 
 -longar ; -censar, pensar (com-, re- reg.); -centar, mentar (co-, de- reg.), 
 tentar (a- 'plot,' con-, de-, in- reg.) ventar, contar; -enzar, -tenzar; -tendrar ; 
 -conirar ; sonar; -corar, -forar (a- 'gauge,' reg.), -gorar;- erbar ; -porcar; 
 -cordar ; -fermar, -pernar, -vernar; cerrar, errar, ferrar (a- also reg.), 
 herrar, serrar, -terrar {a- ' terrify,' reg.) ; -certar, -pertar, -tortar ; forzar, 
 -almorzar ; -fesar, -vesar, -grosar, rosar {osar ' dare ' reg.) ; manifesiar, 
 -hestar, -testar {a- 'testify,' reg.), costar, -coslar, -nostar, -postar (a- 'post,' 
 reg.), tostar ; -destrar, mostrar,pezar (des-, em-, tro-). — 2. Terminational e, 
 : azolar, -majolar ; hacendar, merendar; alentar, calentar, -carmentar, 
 cimentar, -crescentar, -pacenlar, -parentar, regimentar, salpimeniar, -san- 
 grentar, sarmentar, sementar ; avergonzar ; gobernar. 
 
 II. er-VERBS. cocer ; heder,poder ; all in -oler and -olver ; -cender, fen- 
 der, /lender, -scender, tender (pre- reg.). torcer ; perder, monder; cerner ; 
 verier ; all in -over. 
 
 Note i. — Verbs in -olver form the participle in -uelto {suelto, vuelto'). 
 
 Note 2. — Also -c^>-«z> belongs here, yugar (La.t.jocari, but not en-jugar) 
 and ad-quirir ( from Sp. t/uerer) follow this class, changing radical tonic u, / 
 into ue, ie : — Pres. juego, etc.; jugamos, etc. ^ — Pres. adqttiero, etc.; adqui- 
 rimos, etc. 
 
VERBS. 37 
 
 B. The Second or se/if//-Class. — Radical e becomes ie <vhen 
 tonic (of. A.) ; and / when atonic, if the vowel of the next syl- 
 lable is not /. Radical o becomes, analogously, we, 5. — Ex. : 
 
 sentir ' feel ' (tonic root sienf-, atonic sent-, sinf-) : 
 
 Pres. ind. siettto, sienfes, sienie ; sentimos, sentis, sienten 
 " subj. sienta, sientas, sienta ; sintamos, sintdis, sientan 
 " imper. sienie sentid 
 
 Pret. ind. senA, sentiste, sintio ; sentimos, sentisteis, sintieron 
 
 Impf. subj. sintiese | 
 
 Fut. " sintiere \ etc., sint- throughout 
 
 Cond. " sintiera ) 
 
 Ger. sintiendo 
 
 The Infinitive group and Participle regular, without root-change. 
 
 dormir ' sleep ' (tonic root duerm-, atonic dorm-, durm-) : 
 Pres. ind. duermo, duermes, duerme ; dormimos, dormis, duermen 
 " subj. duerma, . duermas, duerma ; durmamos, durmdis, 
 
 duerman 
 
 Etc., in perfect analogy with sentir. 
 
 Here belong about 50 -//•verbs, viz. : all with radical e followed 
 ■ by nt, r, rr, ri (i.e. all not belonging to C, below) ; but only 
 morir and dormir yi'x^ radical 0. 
 
 Note i. — Erguir ' erect ' is in the pres. yergo (§ 13, <:), or according to C, 
 irgo. 
 
 Note 2. — Morir ' die ' has the participle muerto. 
 
 C. The Third or podir-Clnss. — Radical e becomes 7 when 
 tonic, /when atonic, as above (B). Radical (only \n podrir) 
 becomes, analogously, w, w. — Ex. ; 
 
38 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 pedir 'ask' (tonic root pTd-^, zXomc ped-, ptd-^) : 
 
 Pres. ind. pido, pides, pide ; pedimos, pedis, piden 
 " subj. pida, pi das, pi da ; pidamos, pi dais, pidan 
 " imper. pide pedid 
 
 Pret. ind. pedi, pediste, pidio ; pedimos, pedisteis pidieron 
 
 Vcsx^i. Widy pidiese j 
 
 Fut. " pidiere \ etc., pid- throughout 
 
 Cond. " pidiera J 
 
 Ger. pidiendo 
 
 All the rest regular, without root-change. 
 
 Podrir ' rot ' conjugates in perfect analogy. Pudro, -es, -e ; podrimos, -is, 
 pudren : etc. There is also a \tth pudrir with invariable root. 
 
 Here belong about 50 /r-verbs, viz. : all with radical e not be- 
 longing to B {jcernir excepted, A. 2) ; and a\%o podrir. 
 
 D. The Fourth or huir -Class. — All verbs in -««> with audible 
 u and in -ilir change u into uy before other vowels than single i. 
 It is to be remembered also that atonic i becomes j/ before vowel 
 (§ 13, ^). — Ex.: 
 
 huir ' flee ' (root buy- or liu-') : 
 
 Pres. ind. huy-o, huy-es, huy-e ; ku-imos, hu-is, huy-en 
 " subj. iiuy-a, huy-as, huy-a ; huy-amos, huy-ais, huy-an 
 " imper. Auy-e hu-id 
 
 Impf. ind. hu-ia, hu-ias, hul-a , liu-iamos, hu-lais, hu-ian 
 
 „ ' , , . , f etc. without root-change 
 
 Cond. " huir-ia ) 
 
 Pret. ind. iiu-i, hu-iste, liuy-o ; hu-imos, hu-isteis, hu-yeron 
 
 Iinpf. subj. hu-yese ^ 
 
 Fut. " Im-yere \ etc., terminational / =y throughout 
 
 Cond. " hii-yera ) 
 
 Ger. Jiu-yendo. Partic. Iiu-ido 
 
VERBS. 39 
 
 So also argiiir ' argue,' whose diseresis is dropped, except be- 
 fore tonic i : — Pres. ind. arguy-o, etc. Impf. ind. argii-ia, etc. 
 
 Exercise XVI. 
 
 2, Irregular Verbs. 
 
 86. Twenty-nine verbs. which cannot be arranged into 
 groups with identical variations throughout, are described 
 below as irregular. 
 
 86. Waiving some less common variations, which are 
 best learned with the paradigms, the more general irregu- 
 larities — occurring singly or together — may be briefly 
 summed up as follows : 
 
 1. Present (ind. and subj.) : 
 
 a. The root is extended by g or ig before terminational o, a, 
 (cf. § 7 1 ./) : e. g., tener : teng-o ; ca-er : caig-o. 
 
 Here belong: (+51) poner, tener, valer, yacer, hacer (Jiag-o); asir, salir, 
 venir, decir (dig-o) ; {-\- ig) : caer, traer ; oir. 
 
 b. The ending i sing, is extended by -y: e. g. s-er ; s-oy. 
 
 Here belong: dar, estar, ser, ir (voy). 
 
 2. Imperative: Final vowel is lost : tener: ten. 
 
 Here belong: hacer, poner, tener, yacer ; salir, venir, decir {di'), 
 
 3. Future and Conditional Ind. (always formed analogously) : 
 the vowel of the penult is lost, and in some cases also (/inserted ; 
 e. g. saber : sab'r-e, -ia ; tener: ten'dr-e, -ia. 
 
 Here belong {loss): caber, poder, querer, saber; hacer (hare), decir 
 (dire); (-|- (/).' poner tener, valer ; salir, venir. 
 
 4. Preterit : radical a, o, e, become u or /, — often with some 
 attendant consonant-change (cf. § 71./), and i and 3 sing, end 
 in atonic -e, -0 : e. g. hab-er : hub-e (3 hub-o, both with 
 tonic u) ; dec-ir: dij-e (3 dij-d). 
 
40 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Here belong (with u) : andar (anduve), caber {cupe), placer (Jlugo), 
 poder {pude), poner {fuse), saber {jupe), tener (Juve); (with/).- hacer, 
 {hice), querer {quise); decir (dije), venir (i/2«^). — add: traer (Jraje, § 71 
 /), -ducir i^duje). 
 
 5. Participle : irreg. of abrir, cubrir, decir, escribir, imprimir, hacer, 
 
 poner, ver. 
 
 87. Study the irregular verbs as grouped, according to 
 common irregularities, beloW (referring for each verb to the 
 merely alphabetical list, § 88). Compound verbs follow 
 the sihiple, unless otherwise stated. 
 
 I. Pres. with {J')g : — caer, yacer; asir, oir ; — (-[-contract. 
 Fut^ valer, salir ; — (-[-irreg. Fret.) traer; — (-[-contract. 
 Fut. and irreg. Fret.) poner ; tener, venir ; hacer, decir. 
 
 Exercise XVII. 
 
 2. Pres. in -/.• — (-{-irreg. Fret^ dar, estar ; — (tenses of 
 different origin) ser, ir. 
 
 3. Pres. otherwise irreg. : — (-|-/ter/.) ver ; — (-[-contract. 
 Fut. and irreg. Fret.) : poder ; querer ; haber, saber ; caber. 
 
 4. Pret. (alone) irreg. : andar, -ducir. 
 
 5. Partic. (alone) irreg. : abrir, cubrir, escribir, imprimir. 
 
 Exercise XVIII. 
 
 88. Reference-list of the Irregular Verbs 
 
 (forms not given, perfectly regular) : — 
 
 Abrir ' open ' : Part, abierio. 
 
 Andar ' go ' : Pret. anduve, anduviste, anduvo, etc. (anduv- 
 through the pret. group). 
 
 Andar ' go ' (without implied purpose) ' walk '; ir 'go' (with implied 
 aim or purpose): e.g. andar despacio 'walk slowly'; ir al teatro 'go 
 to the theatre.' 
 
VERBS. 41 
 
 Asir ' grasp ' : Pres. ind. asgo, ases (etc. reg.) ; subj. asga {asg- 
 throughout) . 
 
 Caber ' hold ' : Pres. ind. quepo, cabes (etc. reg.) ; subj. quepa 
 {quep- throughout) . — Fut. ind. cabre. — Pret. cupe, cupiste, 
 cupo, etc. {cup- through the pret. group). 
 
 Caer 'fall' : Pres. ind. caigo, caes (etc. reg.) ; subj. caiga {caig- 
 
 throughout). — Ger. cayendo (= ca-iendo, reg. § 13 ir). 
 Cubrir : Part, cubierto. 
 
 Dar 'give' : Pres. ind. doy, das (etc. reg.) ; subj. de (etc. reg., 
 except the accent-mark, used in i and 3 sing, in distinction 
 from de 'of'). — di, diste, did; dimos, etc, 3d conj. 
 [Bret, di abbreviation of Lat. dedi.'] 
 
 Decir ' say ' : Pres. ind. digo, dices, dice ; decimos, decis, dicen ; 
 subj. diga (dig- throughout) ; imperat. di (or dice), decid. — 
 Fut. ind. dire. — Pret. dije, dijiste, dijo ; dijimos, etc. {dij- 
 through the pret. group, observing dije- for dijie 13 c). — 
 Ger. diciendo. — Part, dicho. 
 
 Compounds usually have the full imperat. -dice, Bendecir, mdldecir 
 have regular fut.-cond. ind., and partic. (the participial forms bendito, 
 maldito being hardly used except as adjectives). 
 
 -duclr (only in compounds) 'lead': Pres. ind. -duzco, (81), 
 -duces, etc. reg. ; subj. -duzca or (rarely) -duzga etc. — Pret. 
 -duje, -dujiste, -dujo, etc. (duj- through the pret. group, observ- 
 ing duje- for dujie : 1 3 <r) . 
 
 Escribir 'write,' Part, escrito. So circum—, in—, pre— (optionally), pro- 
 scribir. Other compounds reg. 
 
 Estar ' be (transitorily) ' : Pres. ind. esfyy, estds, esta ; estamos, 
 estdis, estdn ; subj. este, estes, este ; estemos, esteis, esten ; im- 
 perat. estd, estad. — Pret. estuve, estuviste, estuvo ; estuvimos 
 etc. (estuv- throughout the pret. group). 
 
 \_Estar from Lat. stare ' stand ' with prothetic, always toneless, «.] 
 
42 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Haber ' have ' : Pres. ind. he, has, ha {hay : cf. note) ; hemos, 
 habeis, han ; subj. hay a (hay- throughout) ; imperat. he (or 
 habe'), habed. — Fut. ind. habre. — Pret. hube, hubiste, hubo ; 
 hubimos, etc. {hub- through the pret. group) . 
 
 Note. — The 3d sing, oi haber is used impersonally in sense of ' there is 
 (are) ' etc. But in the pres. ind. it is then hay {y from Lat. ibi ' there': 
 cf. French il y a): e. g. Hay muchos que dicen ' There are many who say.' 
 No hay que dudarlo 'There is no doubting it.' Mahana habrd combate 
 ' To-morrow there will be a fight.' 
 
 Hacer (Lat. facere) ' make, do ' : Pres. ind. hago, haces (etc. 
 reg.) ; subj. haga {hag- throughout) ; imperat. haz, haced. — 
 Fut. ind. hare. — Pret. hice hiciste, hizo, etc. {hie- through 
 the pret. group) . — Part, hecho. 
 
 So also compounds and saiis-facer (with /for h throughout). Yet they 
 often show a regular imperat. (-hace, -face), -facer even (rarely) regular 
 pret. forms. 
 
 Imprimir : Part, impreso. 
 
 Ir ' go' (with an aim : cf. andar') : Pres. ind. z:oy, vas, va ; vamos, 
 vats, van ; subj. vaya, vayas, vaya ; vayamos (in imperat. use, 
 vamos), vaydis, vayan ; imperat. ve, id. — Impf. mA..iba, ibas, 
 iba ; ibamos, ibais, iban. — Pret. fui etc. borrowed from ser 
 'be' (which see); {fu- through the pret. group). — Ger. 
 yendo (reg. : 13 f). — Part. ido. 
 
 The forms of ir are from three Latin verbs : ire, vadere, fui. — Com- 
 pounds are regular (observing for circuir 83. </). Oriy preter-ir forms the 
 infinit. group like ir, lacking other tenses. 
 
 Oir 'hear': pres. ind. oigo, oy-es, oy-e ; o-imos, o-is, oy-en; 
 
 subj. oiga {oig- throughout). Rest reg. (observing atonic 
 
 i =.y between vowels : § 13 0- I^pf- o^"- ^^c. 
 Placer ' please ' (impers., except in fut.-cond. ind.) : Pres. ind. 
 
 (3d sing.) //aiTif / suh]. piega ox plegue {xaxAy plazga'). — Pret 
 
 plugo {plug- through the group) . 
 
VERBS. 43 
 
 Com-, de-placer conjugate like nacer. 
 
 Poder ' be able ' : Pres. group according to 84 A (but imperat. 
 not in use) . — Fut. ind. podre. — Pret. pude, pudiste, pudo, etc. 
 {^pud- through the pret. group) . — Ger. pudiendo. - 
 
 /'one/' ' put ' : Pres. mA. potigo, pones (etc. rag.); %vib]. ponga 
 {pong- throughout) ; imperat. pon, poned. — Fu . pondre. — 
 ^TtX.. puse, pusiste, puso, etc. (^pus- through the pret. group). 
 — Vaxt. pitesto. 
 
 Querer ' wish, like ' : Pres. group according to 84 A. — Fut. 
 querre. — Pret. quise, quisiste, quiso, etc. {jquis- through the 
 pret. group). 
 
 Saber 'know ' : Pres. ind. se, sabes (etc. reg.) ; subj. sepa {sep- 
 throughout) . — Fut. sabre. — Pret. stipe, stipiste, stipo, etc. 
 {sup- through the pret. group). 
 
 Ser ' be (permanently) ' : Pres. ind. soy, eres, es ; somos, sots, 
 son; subj. sea (j-^- throughout : cf. note) ; imperat. se (acc- 
 mark to distinguish from the pron. se), sed. — Impf. ind. era, 
 eras, era ; eramos, erais, eraii (tone on f) . — Pret. fui, ftiiste, 
 
 fue, fuimos. fuisteis, fiieron ; impf. subj. fuese ; fut. subj. 
 
 fuere ; cond. sv!o]. fiiera. 
 
 Ser is from Lat. sedere (old Sp. seer : hence the subj. se-a, se-as, etc.). 
 But its present ind. and pret. group are from sum, fid. 
 
 Salir 'go out': Pres. ind. salgo, sales (etc. reg.); Wih]. saiga 
 (salg- throughout) ; imperat. sal, salid. — Fut. saldre. 
 
 Tener ' hold, have ' : Pres. ind. lengo, tienes, tiene ; tenemos, 
 tenets, tienen ; subj. tenga {teng- throughout); imperat. ten, 
 tened. — Fut. ind. tendre. — Pret. tuve, tuviste, tuvo, etc. {tuv- 
 through the pret. group). 
 
 Traer 'bring' : Pres. ind. traigo, traes (etc. reg.); subj. traiga 
 (traig- throughout). — Pret. traje, trajiste, trajo, etc. {Iraj- 
 
44 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 through the pret. group, observing traje- for trajie : i3- 0- 
 Ger. trayendo (reg., 13. c). 
 Valer ' be worth ' : Pres. ind. valgo, vales (etc. reg.) ; valga 
 {yalg- throughout); imperat. val{e), valed. — Fut. ind. valdre. 
 
 Older pres. subj. vala, yet in vilame Dios ' God help me.' The imperat. 
 va/e ' farewell,' obsolete. 
 
 yen/'r ' come ' : Pres. ind. vengo, vienes, viene ; venimos, vents, 
 vienen; subj. venga {veng- throughout) ; imperat. ven, venid. 
 — Fut. ind. vendre. — Pret. vine, viniste, vino, etc. (yin- 
 through the pret. group ; but the pret. has also the optional 
 form veniste ; venimos, venisteis') . — Ger. viniendo. 
 
 Ver 'see' : Pres. ind. ve-o, v-es, etc., v-; subj. vea (ve- through- 
 out) ; imperat. ve, ved. — Impf. ind. veia, etc. (rarely via). — 
 Part, visto. — V-er, then, extends v- to ve-, except before e. 
 
 Lat. videre, old Sp. veer (hence ve- for v-, except before e). Veer yet 
 in proveer, desproveer, which are regular. 
 
 Yacer ' lie ' : Pres. ind. yazgo or yago, yaces (etc. reg.) ; subj. 
 yazga or yaga {yazg- or yag- throughout) ; imperat. yaz (or 
 yace) , yaced. 
 
 89. Defective VERBS. Such are: 
 
 a. Impersonals (or used only in the 3d persons) : acaece, aconiece, basia, 
 concierne, importa, place (88), alborea, ainanece^ diluvia, escarcha, graniza, 
 hiela (deshiela), llueve, llovizna, mollizna, nieva, obscurece, relampaguea, 
 truena, ventea, ventisca. 
 
 Note. — With impersonals denoting an operation of nature ' it ' is nevei 
 expressed. Otherwise ello may be used by emphasis : — truena ' it thunders '; 
 (eUo) importe ' it is important.' 
 
 b. Verbs in -ir having only such forms whose personal ending begins with 
 if and the fut. ; abo/ir, cigtierrir, arrecir, aterir, desmarrir, desparvorir, 
 einbair, empedernir, garantir, manir. 
 
 u. roer 'gnaw' has Pres. ind. roo (roigo, royo), roes, roe, etc; subj. roa 
 (roiga, roya) etc. 
 
VERBS. 
 
 45 
 
 d. soler ' be accustomed ' has : Pres. ind. suelo, sueles, suele ; solemos, soleis, 
 suelen ; Impf. ind. solia etc. 
 
 Exercise XIX. 
 
 90. Periphrastic Verb -Phrases. Spanish, like 
 English, makes a set of periphrastic active, passive, and 
 progressive verb-phrases by the aid of auxiliaries. Span- 
 ish, however, uses more verbs as auxiliaries than EngHsh. 
 Thus : 
 
 A. Periphrastic Active-Phrases are made by placing the re- 
 quired forms of haben (88) 'have' or iener (88) 'hold, have' 
 before the participle of the main verb, invariable after haber, 
 but agreeing with the object after tener. While haber is the 
 ordinary auxiliary, tener may be used to express the verb-act 
 as denoting possession or present condition: le ha amado 'he 
 has loved her ' ; tiene escrita la carta ' he has (now) written the 
 letter.' — Ex. : 
 
 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE.! 
 
 
 I 
 
 he amado 
 I have loved 
 
 
 S. I 
 
 tengo escrito {-a, -os, 
 I have (now) written 
 
 -as) 
 
 2 
 
 has amado 
 
 
 2 
 
 tienes escrito (-a, -os, 
 
 -as) 
 
 3 
 
 ha " 
 
 
 3 
 
 tiene " 
 
 
 I 
 
 hemos " 
 
 
 I 
 
 tenemos " 
 
 
 2 
 
 habeis " 
 
 
 2 
 
 teneis " 
 
 
 3 
 
 han 
 
 
 3 
 
 tienen " 
 
 
 
 and so on 
 
 (conjug 
 
 ate through) 
 
 
 pi. 
 
 B. Passive-Phrases are made in like way by the aid of ser 
 (88) 'be,' or estar (88) 'be' (less often quedar, reg.,' stay, be ') 
 and the participle of the main verb, which agrees with the sub- 
 ject. Ser denotes permanence of condition ; estar (as quedar) 
 
46 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 accidental or transitory condition : es amado ' he is loved ' ; estd 
 agitada ' she is agitated ' ; quedan satisfechos ' they are satisfied.' 
 — Ex.: 
 
 1 soy amado (-a) 
 
 I am loved 
 
 2 eres amado {-a) 
 
 3 es " " 
 
 pi- 
 
 I somos amados (-aj) 
 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE. 
 s. 
 
 estoy llegado (-«) 
 
 I am arrived 
 estds llegado (-a) 
 estd " " 
 
 pi. 
 
 estamos llegados {-as") 
 
 qiudo satisfecho (-«) 
 
 I am satisfied 
 quedas satisfecho (^-a^ 
 queda " " 
 
 pi. 
 
 quedamos satisfechos 
 {-as) 
 
 2 sots " " estdis " " queddis " " 
 
 3 son " " estdn " " quedan " " 
 
 and so on (conjugate through) 
 
 Note. — The- passive is in Spanish very often exchanged for the reflexive ; 
 cf. 130, Syntax. 
 
 C. Progressive Phrases (= ' I am loving' etc.) are made in 
 like way by the aid of estar ' be ' (or quedar ' stay, be,' ir ' go,' 
 andar 'go,' and some other less common verbs) and the invari- 
 able gerund of the main verb. — Ex. estoy (or voy etc.) hablando 
 ' I am speaking ' ; and so on. 
 
 91. REFLEXIVE (or Reciprocal) Verbs. The conju- 
 gation of reflexive verbs is as in English, observing that 
 the reflexive pronouns {me, te, se; nos, os, se) precede or 
 follow the verb according to § 57. — Inf. alabarse 'praise 
 one's self : Pres. ind. me alabo, te alabas, se alaba, etc. ; 
 periphrast. me he alabado etc. 
 
 Note i. — Some verbs are exclusively reflexive (jjuejarse 'complain,' arre- 
 pentirse 'repent,' etc.). Intransitives often- change meaning as reflexive 
 (dormir ' sleep ' : dormirse ' go to sleep '; morir ' die ' : morirse, ' be dying,' 
 
ADVERBS. 47 
 
 etc.). Many verbs that are reflexive in Spanish are not reflexive in English 
 {alegrarse ' rejoice,' arrepentirse ' repent,' disgusiarse ' be displeased,' etc.) ; 
 and the reflexive construction often replaces the passive (cf. 137, Syntax), 
 
 Note 2. — The reflexive pronouns are in plural also used as reciprocals : 
 Nos alabamos ' We praise (us or) each other.' In this use they may be 
 strengthened by el uno al otro. 
 
 [92. J Neuter reflexives with se and personal dative (me etc.) are often 
 used : e. g. se me (Je, le, nos ei\.c.')Jigura lit. ' it figures itself to me (thee, him, us 
 etc.)' i. c. 'I (thou, he, we etc.) imagine'; se le aborrece 'he is abhorred'; 
 se me dice 'I am told'; se le ?;■«/<!' he was treated'; (^d el") se le ma/d 'he 
 was killed '; colocdsele ' it was placed.' 
 
 Exercises XVIII., XIX. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IndecUnables, 
 
 [93. HISTORY. — Many Latin indeclinables have survived in Spanish 
 (e.g. L,.iene' Sp. bien ; male: mat; cum: con; trans: tras). Many 
 others were lost. New formations were made by the use of neuter adjectives 
 {alto, temprano), nominal case-forms (h./acie : Sp. hacia), phrases (d menudo, 
 de prisa, al traces de), and compounds (L. /lac hora : Sp. ahora ; Sp, d caso 
 = acaso). The formation of compound adverbs by the suflix -mente (by 
 origin the ablative of mens in sense of ' manner ') has come to be about as 
 common in Spanish as the formation of adverbs in -ly in English (jeveramente 
 = L. severa mente). Some adverbs end in a late, paragogic -s, originally 
 identical with the plural sign of nouns (dntes : L. ante ; entdnces: L. extunc ; 
 quizds or quizd : L. quis sapit ?") .] 
 
 Adverbs. 
 
 94. Adverbs are either : a. Single like Men ' well,' mal 
 ' badly,' lue^o ' presently,' acaso ' perchance,' a/(o ' aloud,' 
 temprano ' early ' ; or ^. Adverbial phrases like a metiudo 
 • often,' (ie prisa ' in haste,' de golpe ^^yddenly, a la ligera 
 ' superficially.' 
 
48 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 [95.] Among common (but more or less idiomatic) adverbial phrases 
 may be noted: a ciegas^ 'blindly,' rf_£££2£f ' in haste,' a galas 'on all fours,' 
 dmenudo 'often,' d secas'\)\\-ai\y; d una ' together ';— con /odfa ' notwith- 
 standing,' con ligereza 'superficially';— (/e dta 'by day,' rf« ^tf//« ' suddenly,' 
 de hecho ' in fact, truly,' de molde ' perfectly,' de prisa ' in haste,' de pronto 
 'quickly,' de rodillas ' on one's knees ';— en _/f« ' finally,' en seguida ' at once,' 
 f« rasrcj' naked ';—/70r«//o 'over,' por cierlo 'certainly,' por supuesto 'of 
 course'; — d /a f&ra 'manifestly,' a la ligera 'superficially,' al contado 'in 
 cash,' alpunto 'immediately ';— en e/ arf» ' instantly,' en lo sucesivo 'hence- 
 forward '; — por lo mds ' at most,' por lo menos ' at least.' 
 
 96. Comparison. — Adverbs are compared like adjectives; 
 but comparatives usually serve also as superlatives. Irregular are ; 
 
 POSIT. COMPAR. StJPERL. (absol.) 
 
 mucfio much : mds (^) mds or muchisimo 
 
 poco little: menos " menos or poquisimo 
 
 bien well: {^Ss bien ' rather'-] ""'^J'"' 
 
 . V, ji . J peor " peer or malisimo 
 
 ■' \ [tnds mal " mds mal'\ 
 
 97. Adverbs in -menfe, denoting manner, may be formed 
 from most adjectives by adding that suffix to their feminine form : 
 severe ' severe ' : severamente ' severely ' ; /da7 ' easy ' : fdcilmente 
 ' easily ' ; reciente ' recent ' : recientemente ' recently.' 
 
 Note. — If two or more modal adverbs follow each other, -mente is 
 omitted in the first: interior y exteriormente 'internally and externally'; 
 severa pero justatnente ' severely but justly.' 
 
 98. Adjectives as Adverbs. — Many adjectives are in Span- 
 ish (as some in English) used directly as adverbs. Such are : 
 alto'sSovA; bajo 'low,' barato ' c^Ltz.-^; caro 'dear(ly),' falso 
 'false, out of tune,' mticho 'much, very,' poco 'litde,' pronto 
 ' soon,' solo ' only ' : etc. 
 
 Note. ■ — Some of these adjectives also form adverbs in -mente, at times 
 with changed meaning : bajo ' low, quietly ' : bajamenle ' in a low or simple 
 manner.' 
 
PREPOSITIONS. CONJUNCTIONS. 49 
 
 99, Negation. — No means either ' no ' or ' not ' : No, Se- 
 
 nor, no lo creo ' No, Sir, I do not believe it.' The construction 
 of the ordinary negatives with verbs is as follows : 
 
 no (before the pets, verb) ' not ' : e. g. no tengo ' I have not ' ; 
 
 no he tenido ' I have not had.' 
 "0 (bef. V.) ... jamas or nunca (aft. v.) ' never ' : — no la he 
 
 vUto jamas ' I have never seen her.' 
 no (bef. V.) mas que or sino (aft. v.), 'only' : no tengo mas que 
 
 uno ' I have only one.' 
 no (bef. V.) . . . ni (bef. noun) ' neither . . . nor ' : — no tengo n'l 
 
 padre ni madre ' I have neither father nor mother.' 
 
 ni . . . ni (without verb) ' neither . . . nor ' : — ni padre ni madre 
 ' neither father nor mother.' 
 
 Note i . — yamds, nunca, ni may also be placed before the verb without 
 no : — Jamas la he visto. Ni padre ni madre tengo. 
 
 Note 2. — The auxiliary ' do ' is not expressed in Spanish. 
 
 PreposUions. 
 100. The prepositions are either: a. Single hke a 'to,' 
 ante ' before,' Aasta ' till,' tras ' after,' Aacia ' towards' ; or 
 d. Prepositional phrases like acerca de • about,' antes de 
 before,' al traves de 'acros s.' 
 
 ^101.] Among common (but more or less idiomatic) prepositional 
 phrases may be noted: frente a 'opposite to,' junto a ' close by, near'; — 
 adelante de 'beside,' alrededor de 'around,' debajo de 'under'; — a fuerza de 
 'by dint of,' al traves de 'across'; — en lugar de 'instead of,' envezde 'in- 
 stead of; — sin embargo de ' notwithstanding.' 
 
 Conjunctions, 
 
 102. Conjunctions are either: a. Single like y (e : 
 104) ' and,' pero ' but,' si ' if,' Qi: 104) ' or ' ; or ^. Con- 
 junctional phrases like bie n que ' alt hough ,' a menos que ■ 
 ' unless,' a fin de que ' in order that.' 
 
so SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 [103. J Among common (but more or less idiomatic) conjunctional 
 phrases may be noted : d menos que ' unless,' dien que ' although,' como 
 quiera que * however,' con que * therefore,' con tal que * provided that,' de 
 manera (niodo) que 'so that,' dado que 'in case that,' desde que 'since,' 
 mientras que 'while,' por mas [vienos) que 'however much (little),' pues 
 {supuesto) que ' since.' 
 
 1 04. Y ' and ' assumes its older form e before a word with 
 initial z- or M- ; and d ' or ' is u before o-, ho-: — malo e im- 
 puro ' bad and impure ' ; madre e hija ' mother and daughter ' ; 
 diez u once ' ten or eleven.' 
 
 Interjections . 
 
 106. The interjections are either : a. Single like oh ! 'oh !', 
 ea ! ' come ! ', cdspita ! ' zounds ! ', caramba ! ' egad ! ', anda / 
 'come ! ' ; or Inter jectional phrases like por Bios/ 'heavens ! ', 
 al asesino / ' murder ! ', necio de mi ! ' silly me ! ', pobre (or ay) 
 de mi ! ' alas for me ! ', etc. 
 
 Exercise XXI. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 In general only such modes of construction as differ 
 from the English are here noticed under the head of 
 Syntax. 
 
 IX. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 106. The Definite Article. Spanish differs from 
 
 English in the use of the definite article chiefly in the 
 following regards. 
 
 [107.] Spanish requires the article: 
 
 1. Before all nouns used in a generic sense (so that 'in gen- 
 eral,' 'all,' 'every' maybe understood). This rule may affect 
 abstract or collective nouns and nouns of material in the singular, 
 and any noun in the plural : 
 
 La vida es breve. Life is short. 
 
 El oro es mas precioso que la Gold is more precious than 
 
 plata. silver. 
 
 Los caballos son utiles. Horses are useful. 
 
 2. To denote time and season : 
 
 A la una (viz. hora') . At one o'clock. 
 
 Son las dos. It is two o'clock. 
 
 Vendra el sabado. He will come on Saturday. 
 
 Efi la primavera. In the spring. 
 
 SI 
 
SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ri „,„,,»= /./ likewise denotes entirety: Habla 
 No«.-Beforena.nesofUngug^s .^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^.^^ 
 
 e/ «/fl?7o/ ' He speaks Spanish ^— ki 
 • He is speaking Spanish' (= using it now). 
 
 3. After con and tensr before names of some constituent part 
 of an object (especially organic) : 
 
 Ella respondio con los ojos aba- She answered with downcast 
 
 jados. _ eyes- 
 
 Tiene la mano pequena. She has a small hand. 
 
 Algunos drboles tienen las ra- Some trees have hanging 
 mas pendientes. branches. 
 
 4. Before titles, save in address : 
 
 El senor y la seiiora A. Mr. and Mrs. A. 
 
 El emperador Carlos. Emperor Charles. 
 
 5 . Before various proper names, viz. : 
 
 a. Optionally or neqessarily with names of countries, except 
 when used (after de) to denote origin or title. Only a few dis- 
 tant countries (<?/ China, el Brasil, etc.) and those qualified by 
 some word, require the article : — (La^ Francia ' France.' Los 
 vinos de Francia ' French wines.' El 'Peru. La America seten- 
 trional. 
 
 b. With names of mountains and rivers : el Etna; el Ebro. 
 
 I. With names of persons used figuratively, classical Ital. authors, and 
 famous titles of works : e/ Alejandro del Norte ' the Alexander of the North'; 
 e/ Dante ; estoy leyendo el Quijote 'I am reading Don Q.' 
 (/. Familiarly with Christian names of women : la Maria. 
 
 6. Before nouns of weight and measure : 
 
 r>os duros la libra {la vara, Two dollars a pound (a yard, 
 etc.). etc.). 
 
 7- In various conventional phrases : e. g. d la escuela 'at school'; en la 
 ctudad ' in town '; dar /as buenas nocAes ' bid good night '; dar el p'araHen 
 'congratulate'; etc. / 
 
SYNTAX. S3 
 
 8. About the optional use of the def. article for the def. pos- 
 sessive, cf. 124. 
 
 [108.] Spanish omits the article : 
 
 1 . With appositional and modified predicative nouns : 
 
 Don Quijote, obra del inmortal Don Quixote, the work of the 
 Cervantes. immortal C. 
 
 Londres, capital de Inglaterra. London, the capital of England. 
 
 Es hija de un conde. She is the daughter of an earl. 
 
 La necesidad es madre de la Necessity is the mother of in- 
 invencion. vention. 
 
 2. Before numerals when used as titles: Carlos quinto 
 'Charles the Fifth.' 
 
 3. In various conventional phrases : e. g. a esquina ' on the corner '; 
 d razon de 'at the rate of; tener inteticion 'have the intention, intend'; 
 tener costumbre ' have the habit '; etc. 
 
 109. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. The indefinite article 
 is omitted in Spanish : 
 
 1. Before predicative nouns denoting what a person is, or is 
 made : 
 
 Su amigo es general. His friend is a general. 
 
 Se ha hecho soldado. He has become a soldier. 
 
 2. After tener with nouns denoting such conditions as 'hun- 
 ger,' ' thirst,' etc., or some quality (chiefly when qualified) : 
 
 Tengo hambre {sed). I am hungry (thirsty). 
 
 Tengo (buen^ apetito. I have a (good) appetite. 
 
 Tiene buen corazon. He has a good heart. 
 
 3. After various indefinites (otro, tal, cierto, tanto, semejante, 
 niimero de, etc.) : 
 
 Otro dia. Otra vez. .^«other day Another time. 
 
54 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Tal dia. Tal noche. Such a day. Such a night. 
 
 Perdio gran parte de su caudal. He lost a large part of his 
 
 capital. 
 Sefue sin decir palabra. He went away without saying 
 
 a word. 
 
 4. After an exclamatory que : 
 
 / Que hermoso paisaje ! What a fine landscape J 
 
 5. Like the definite article, before appositional nouns: 
 Calderon, poeta dramdtico. Calderon, a dramatic poet. 
 
 Exercise XXII. 
 
 X. 
 Nouns. 
 
 1 10. Direct Object with 6. (:= 'Personal accusative'). 
 Spanish differs from English — as from other languages 
 generally — in often using the preposition a before a 
 direct object (noun or tonic pronoun) denoting a person 
 or personified thing, or for certain distinctions. 
 
 This use of a is, indeed, largely optional ; but the fol- 
 lowing is the general rule. Unless the verb governs also 
 a dative, use a with a direct object denoting 
 
 a. a rf'i?/f«//tf living being. [x\fter /(f«^y-' have,' verbs of 'mak- 
 ing, appointing,' or a numeral, a however is not used.] 
 
 b. a definite thing treated as a living being. [Exceptions as 
 above, a. J 
 
 c. a person or thing generally, when a serves to distinguish 
 between object and subject or predicate object. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 ss 
 
 In other cases ('Impersonal 
 
 Direct object with d : 
 
 accusatives') omit <?. Thus: 
 
 Direct object without d : 
 
 Amo {(juiero) a su madre. I 
 love her mother. 
 
 Busco al criado. I seek the 
 
 servant. 
 iA quien buscas ? Whom do 
 
 you seek? 
 
 Honra al padre y a la madre. 
 Honor thy father and mo- 
 ther (def.). 
 
 Amas a tu buena madre. Thou 
 lovest thy good mother. 
 
 No veo a nadie. I see nobody. 
 
 Conozco a este hombre. I know 
 this man. 
 
 Leo a Cervantes. I read C. 
 
 Ensilla a Rosinante. Saddle 
 Rosinante. 
 
 i. 
 Aina {defiende') a la patria. 
 
 He loves (defends) his 
 
 country. 
 Rccovipensan al merito. They 
 
 reward merit. 
 
 Prefiero su madre a su padre 
 (dat.). I prefer her mother 
 to her father. 
 
 Busco un criado. I seek a ser- 
 vant (indef.). 
 
 Busco (^quiero) un medico que 
 sea experto. I seek an ex- 
 pert doctor. 
 
 Honrards padre y madre. Thou 
 shalt honor (thy) father and 
 (thy) mother. 
 
 Tienes una buena madre. Thou 
 hast a good mother. 
 
 Veo seis hombres. I see six 
 men. 
 
 He convidado algunos amigos. 
 I have invited a few friends 
 (indef). 
 
 Nos llama perros. He calls us 
 dogs. 
 
 Nos (dat.) da icn caballo. He 
 gives us a horse. 
 
 El hombre digno ama (a) la 
 virtud. A worthy man loves 
 virtue. 
 
 Leen el libro {unlibro^. They 
 read the (a) book. 
 
56 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Llamo a la muerie. He in- Edified la casa. He built the 
 
 voiced death. house. ; 
 
 Ganaron a Granada (^Madrid) . Pizarro conquisto el Peru. Pi- 
 
 They won G. (M.). zarro conquered Peru. 
 
 Note : names of countries and cities without article have a. 
 
 Rige al nombre la preposicion. The preposition governs the 
 
 noun. 
 
 Matd el perYo al lobo} The dog killed the wolf. 
 
 El vieio aborreee a. la virtud? Vice abhors virtue. 
 
 El invierno sigue al otono. Winter follows autumn. 
 
 Llama cardeter (pred. obj.) a He calls his caprice character. 
 
 su caprieho. 
 
 Unas anteojos que hacen parecer Spectacles which make copper 
 
 oro al cobre, a la pobreza seem gold, poverty rich- 
 
 riqueza. ness. 
 
 [The peculiar construction of the ' personal accusative ' with d, due to a 
 tendency of expressing direction towards th'e object of the verb, and the occa- 
 sional necessity of distinguishing betweei ,j. or predicate and object where 
 their position is so free as in Spanish, may be compared with the French use 
 of k with an object-infinitive (cf. Edgren's French grammar, § 340) : e. g. il 
 aime i, parler ' he loves speaking.'] 
 
 I Note i Usually, but not necessarily, a is omitted for euphony where it 
 
 ' would -come in contact with a- ; Mira Aquella sehora.' ' He sees that lady.' 
 
 Note 2^— Some verbs modify their meaning when construed with a : c. g. 
 I perder ' lose ' : perder d ' destroy' ; querer ' wish (to have) ' ; qiierer a ' love ' ; 
 I robar ' steal '^ robar a. 'rob'; buscar 'seek't buscar d 'try to procure'; 
 ' dejar ' leave (behind) ' ^ dejar d ' abandon.' 
 
 111. The use of nouns with prepositions in indirect construction is in 
 the main accordant with such use in English. Among deviations and dis- 
 tinctions may be noticed here : 
 
 1 Might also come under a, ' Or under i. 
 
SYNTAX. 57 
 
 de 'to ' {el camino de ]\/. ' the road to M.') ; ' for ' (lloro de gozo ' I weep 
 for joy ' ; ' as ' (va de niaesiro ' he goes as a teacher ') ; to form the possessive 
 and compounds (f / hijo del honibre ' the man's son ' ; un buzon de correos ' a 
 post-box ') ; 
 
 anie, delante de 'before' (of place, person, etc.): antes de 'before' 
 (of time, order, or rank) ; 
 
 tras, detrds de ' after, behind ' (of place, order) : despues de ' after ' (of 
 time, order); 
 
 para ' for ' (of destination, intention, certain time) : por ' for ' (= ' in be- 
 half of,' ' for the sake of,' ' by ' after passives, ' as,' ' by way of,' ' through,' 
 and \^^th reference to continued time). 
 
 XI. 
 Adjectives. 
 
 112. Agreement. The rules of agreement are as 
 follows : 
 
 a. Adjectives determining one noun agree with it in gender 
 and number : 
 
 El buen (iox bueno) padre ; la The good father; the good 
 
 buena madre; los buenos mother; the good sons. 
 
 hijos. 
 
 El padre es bueno; la madre The father is good ; the mother 
 
 es buena; las hijas son is good; the daughters are 
 
 buenas. good. 
 
 Note. — Adjectives determining one only of the objects denoted by a 
 plural noun are in the singular : los idiomas espahol e ingles ' the Spanish and 
 English languages.' 
 
 b. Adjectives determining two or more distinct nouns of the 
 same gender agree with them all collectively, being in the plural : 
 
 Los andantes caballero y escu- The errant knight and squire. 
 dero (cf. note). 
 
58 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 El embajador y el almirante The English embassador and 
 ingleses. admiral. 
 
 Note. — Adjectives determining synonymous nouns agree with the nearest : 
 con demasiada indulgencia y suavidad ' with extreme forbearance and gentle- 
 ness.' This agreement frequently occurs also in other cases when the adjec- 
 tive precedes its nouns. 
 
 c. Adjectives determining two or more distinct nouns of dif- 
 ferent gender agree with the nearest noun when they precede 
 them, while otherwise they are masculine plural (or fem. pi. if 
 the nearest preceding noun is such) : 
 
 Con iantafuriay enojo. With so great fury and bitter- 
 
 ness. 
 Era la tirania, la ferocidad y He was tyranny, ferocity, and 
 
 el orgullo personificados. pride personified. 
 
 El hijo y la hija son buenos. The son and the daughter are 
 
 good. 
 El rey y la reina, contentisimos, The king and the queen, most 
 hicieron venir el autor. pleased, sent for the au- 
 
 thor. 
 Sus ojos y su larga barba eran His eyes and his heavy beard 
 
 negros. were black. 
 
 Ojos y orejas abiertas. Open eyes and ears. 
 
 Note \. — Of two single nouns of different number, the plural noun is 
 usually placed last: boca y ojos pequehos 'small mouth and eyes.' 
 
 Note 2. — Alucho, poco, tanto, cuanio, bastanle are often treated as adjec- 
 tives before mas, menos, or when used substantively : Yo tengo muclios mas 
 libros que mi amigo. Unas pocas de ciruelas ('cherries'). 
 
 113. Position. The attributive adjectives may pre- 
 cede or follow their noun. Often the position is a matter 
 of taste. In general, however, the following rule is ob- 
 served : 
 
SYNTAX. 59 
 
 a. They precede their noun when they denote a quality which 
 as a matter of course or by compHment belongs to it and is not 
 therefore emphasized ; and also by euphony when they are short 
 and denote common qualities. 
 
 b. They follow their noun when they denote an emphasized 
 quality distinguishing it from other objects of the kind (as espe- 
 cially when they denote color, form, nationality, etc., or when 
 they are participles) . 
 
 a. El vasto (or la vasta . 31) The wide sea. 
 
 mar. 
 
 Las bellas artes. The fine arts. 
 
 El brillanteyvencedoracero The conqueror's brilliant and 
 
 del conquistador. victorious steel {= blade). 
 
 Un dulce reposo. A sweet rest. 
 
 Mi buen amigo. My good friend. 
 
 b. Tengo una rosa blanca. I have a white rose. 
 Tengo una mesa redonda. I have a round table. 
 El idioma espahol. The Spanish language. 
 Un ejercito vencido. A vanquished army. 
 
 Es una cosa imposible. It is an impossible thing. 
 
 Note. — Some adjectives have a different meaning according as they pre- 
 cede or follow their noun : e. g. buena noche ' good night ' : noche buena 
 ' Christmas eve ' ; gran caballo ' splendid horse ' : caballo grande 'big horse'; 
 nuevo libra ' new (^ different) book ' : Hiro nuevo ' new book '; cierta cosa 
 'a certain thing'^ cosa cierta 'certain (^ sure) thing'; pobre autor 'poor 
 (= worthless or pitiable) author ' : autor pobre 'poor (= indigent) author.' 
 
 ExERcfsE XXIII. 
 
6o . 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 XII. 
 
 Numerals. 
 
 114. Cardinals for Ordinals. 
 
 used instead of the ordinals : 
 
 The cardinals are 
 
 a. To denote the day of the month (except primero) : — 
 El cinco de Julio 'the 5th of July.' 
 
 b. With names of sovereigns from ' eleventh ' inclusive : — 
 Leon onre (trece) 'Leo XI (XIII). Luis catorce 'Louis XIV '; 
 but Carlos cuarto (ord.) ' Charles IV.' 
 
 Note. — In quotation (of volume etc.) cardinals are also more common 
 than ordinals : — canto veinte ' the twentieth canto.' 
 
 116. Idioms. The following common idioms maybe 
 observed : 
 
 i Que hora es ? 
 
 Es la una (viz. hora) . 
 
 Son las dos {ires, etc.) . 
 
 Es la una {Son las dos) y 
 
 media. 
 Es la una {Son las dos) y 
 
 cuarto. 
 Es la tma {Son las dos) y 
 
 ires cuartos, or Son las dos 
 
 (Ires) menos cuarto. 
 ^ Que dia del mes tenemos ? or 
 l^A cuantos estamos del mes ? 
 Tenemos el primero {dos, etc.). 
 i Cuantos anas tiene V. ? or 
 ^ Qice edad tiene V. ? 
 Tengo veinte anos. 
 Ocho dias ; quince dias. 
 
 What time is it? 
 
 It is one o'clock. 
 
 It is two (three, etc.) o'clock. 
 
 It is half past one (half past 
 
 two). 
 It is a quarter jDast one (past 
 
 two). 
 It is a quarter to two (to 
 
 three). 
 
 What day of the month is it? 
 
 It is the first (second, etc.). 
 
 How old are you? 
 
 I am twenty years old. 
 A week ; a fortnight. 
 
SYNTAX. 6 1 
 
 XIII. 
 Pronouns. 
 
 PERSONALS. 
 
 116. The Personal Subject is usually, though not 
 necessarily, left unexpressed, unless required for emphasis 
 or distinctness : 
 
 Tengo un libra, lo sabe. I have a book, he knows it. 
 
 El se va, ella se queda. He goes away, she stays. 
 
 iQue he de hacer yo ? What have / to do? 
 
 117. The third persons are often used w^here English 
 has ' one, some, any, such,' especially after hay ' there is 
 (are)': 
 
 Dame un libro si le hay. Give me a book if there is one. 
 
 Comprare bilktes si los hay. I shall buy tickets if there are 
 
 any. 
 Cree que no tengo una carta y He believes I have no letters, 
 la tengo. and I have one. 
 
 Note i. — Lo 'it' is also used predicatively with reference to an adjective 
 or noun where in English no corresponding word is used : 
 
 gSon ellas huerfanas ? Lo son. Are they orphans ? They are. 
 
 Note 2. — In certain idioms la and las are used as neuters {cosa, f., 
 'thing' being understood) : — iomaria despacio 'to take it quietly'; haberse- 
 las con alguno ' have to do with somebody.' 
 
 118. Demonstrative el for Personals. The de- 
 monstrative el {la, lo; los, las) is often used instead of a 
 personal pronoun before relatives and numerals : 
 
 El (or usually Yo) que tengo I who have as much patience 
 tanta paciencia como V. as you. 
 
62 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Todos los que formamos la 
 
 nacidn espanola. 
 Aytidanos a los dos. 
 
 All of us (= we) who 
 
 the Spanish nation. 
 Help us both of us. 
 
 form 
 
 1 1 9. Expletive Construction. Object-personals 
 are often, by emphasis or not, expressed both by a tonic 
 and atonic form, the tonic coming first, or (less emphati- 
 cally) following the verb. In the same way an atonic 
 personal may anticipate expletively any object. 
 
 A mi (ton.) me (aton. dat.) 
 
 parece. 
 A ti te {A el le, A nosotros nos, 
 
 etc.) parece. 
 I A mi que me importa ? 
 A el I a le quieren mucho. 
 Eso no lo (ace.) hago. 
 Le (dat. m. or f. according to 
 
 the gender of V.) pido a If. 
 
 mil perdones. 
 I Que se le ofrece a V. ? 
 
 A Carlos le sucedia asi. 
 
 A los caballeros les (dat.) pa- 
 
 recio Men. 
 Todo lo vence el amor. 
 A los Espanoles nos gusta 
 
 charlar. 
 
 It seems to me. 
 
 It seems to thee (to him, to us, 
 
 etc.). 
 What does it matter to me ? 
 They love her much. 
 I shall not do that. 
 I ask you a thousand pardons. 
 
 What is your desire? (lit. 'What 
 offers itself to you?'). 
 
 Thus it happened to Charles. 
 
 It seemed good to the gentle- 
 men. 
 
 Love conquers everything. 
 
 We Spaniards like to gossip 
 (Ht. It pleases us Sp. etc.). 
 
 120. Position. The rules for the position of the 
 personals are already given 57-58. It maybe added here 
 simply that the atonic object-pronoun may be appended 
 to any positive verb-form beginning a sentence or used 
 
SYNTAX,. 63 
 
 alone: — restame decir ' it remains for me to say'; lison- 
 jeome ' I flatter myself.' 
 
 POSSESSIVES. 
 
 121. Agreement. The possessives agree in gender 
 and number with the object possessed : 
 
 mi amigo ; mis amigos ; su madre y la mia. 
 
 122. Mio etc. — The tonic possessives mto etc. (with- 
 out article) are used chiefly: a. after nouns of indeter- 
 minate construction (preceded by 'a,' ' some,' etc.) ; b. 
 after impersonal nouns in definite construction (preceded 
 by ^/ ) ; c. as predicatives with the verb ' be ' : 
 
 a. Uti amigo mio. A friend of mine. 
 Unos amigos su/os. Some friends of his. 
 
 b. £/ deseo mio. My desire. 
 Las virtudes suyas. His virtues. 
 
 c. £sfe caballo es iuyo. This horse is thine. 
 Mio es el merito. Mine is the merit. 
 
 Note i. — El ip'io etc. are used after the verb 'be' to emphasize distinc- 
 tion : — Esta pluma es mm 'This pen is mine '; but Esta pluma es la m'la 
 ' T/iis pen (not the other) is mine.' 
 
 Note 2. — In direct address mto is used with a single noun, but mi or mio 
 with a noun determined by an adjective or participle : — amigo mio ; mi 
 querido amigo or querido amigo mto ' my dear friend.' 
 
 123. EXPLETIVE Construction. For emphasis or 
 distinction su 'his (her etc.)' may be repeated after its 
 noun by de el {ella etc.), and su 'your' by de usted : 
 
 Su librn de el (ella, ellqs, -as) . His (her, their) book. 
 Su pluma {libro) de V. Your pen (book) . 
 
64 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 124. DEFINITE ARTICUE FOR POSSESSIVES. Where 
 no ambiguity would arise, the atonic possessive may be 
 replaced by the definite article. Especially common is 
 this where all ambiguity is avoided by using a reflexive 
 dative before the verb : 
 
 Ama a la patria. 
 
 Me (dat.) corte la mano. 
 
 Se corto la mano. 
 Se quito los guantes. 
 
 He loves his country. 
 
 I cut my hand (///. the hand 
 
 for myself). 
 He cut his hand. 
 He took off his gloves. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVES. 
 
 125. Este, ese, aquel usually precede their noun. By 
 emphasis they may be placed after their noun, which then 
 has the definite article. — Este hombre or El hombre este. 
 
 126. Eata, esa are sometimes used after en ' in ' in sense of ' here, 
 there' {ciudad, {., 'city' or flaza, f., 'market' being understood) : — En esta 
 no hay novedad ' There is nothing new here.' 
 
 127. THE h*EUTERS (es/o etc.) refer to a complete 
 thought. Lo also serves to denote (with que) 'how 
 (much).' 
 
 Esto es cierto. 
 
 Eso es otra cosa. 
 
 He visto lo que V. le quiere. 
 
 En eso se conoce lo tontos que 
 sots. 
 
 That is certain. 
 
 That is another thing. 
 
 I have seen how much you love 
 
 her. 
 By this may be seen how stupid 
 
 you are. 
 
SYNTAX. 65 
 
 INTERROGATIVES AND RELATIVES. 
 
 128. AGREEMENT. The interrogatives and relatives 
 agree (as far as inflected) with the persons or things they 
 represent. Cu/o, cuyo, however, agree, like possessives, 
 with the object possessed : 
 
 Tengo una carta de mis hijas I have a letter from my daugh- 
 guienes (or las cuales) ters, who are in New York. 
 
 esfdn en Nueva York. 
 
 Eljoven cuyo padre {cuya ma- The youth whose father (mo- 
 dre, cuyas hermanas) conozco. ther, sisters) I know. 
 
 1 29. Qw/en, e/ cual, que. — Quien can refer only to per- 
 sons; que (observing 61, note), el cual to persons or 
 things. Besides, the following is usually observed : 
 
 quien is especially continuative, used to continue a thought 
 complete by itself It also serves to distinguish persons from 
 things ; and is also used for ' he who ' (pi. ' those who '). 
 
 Tope con un hombre, quien (or I fell in with a man, who told 
 
 el cual) me conto todo. me all. 
 
 Conozco al general del ejercito, I know the general of the army, 
 
 quien me lo dijo. who told me about it. 
 
 el cual is only continuative. It also serves to distinguish 
 between objects of different gender where the reference might 
 be doubtful (and may be replaced by el que) : 
 
 Ayer encontre a un amigo, el Yesterday I met a friend, who 
 
 cual (or quien) me dijo que told me that there has been 
 
 ha habido una batalla. a battle. 
 
 He visto la hija de mi amigo, I have seen my friend's daugh- 
 
 la cual esta enferma. ter, who is ill. 
 
66 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 que is defining, introducing something necessary to define or 
 complete a thought which would be meaningless without it : 
 
 El hombre que trabaja es feliz. The man who works is happy. 
 No hay diligencia humana que There is no human diligence 
 no puede. parvenir. but may succeed. 
 
 These rules might be summarized thus : use quien, el cual when ' who 
 (which) ' can be changed to ' and he (it etc.),' otherwise que, the former with 
 comma, the latter without. 
 
 130. Expletive Constkuction. — After a relative object a per- 
 sonal pronoun may be used expletively in the same case : — Llanid d un 
 amigo, al que le habU ' ' He summoned a friend to whom he spoke.' 
 
 INDEFINITES. 
 
 131. Algo is often used adverbially in sense of 'some- 
 what ' : — Estoy algo malucko ' I am somewhat ailing.' 
 
 132. Nadie, nada mean 'anybody, anything' when used 
 in sentences involving a negation without no (i. e. in ex- 
 clamatories and questions of appeal, after verbs of warn- 
 ing etc., and after sin 'without,' antes 'before'). With 
 no they mean ' not anybody (nobody),' ' not anything 
 (nothing).' This meaning they also have elliptically with- 
 out no when they precede the verb, or are used without 
 verb. 
 
 / Como negarle a el nada ! How can you refuse him any- 
 
 thing ! 
 
 Gudrdese V. de decirlo a nadie. Beware how you tell it to any- 
 body. 
 
 Sin ayuda de nadie. ' ■ Without assistance of anybody. 
 
 No ha venido nadie. \ xt i. j , 
 
 „ ,. , ., f JNobody has come. 
 
 Nadie ha ventdo. ) 
 
 No comio nada. He ate nothing. 
 
SYNTAX. e^ 
 
 Yo nada temo la muerte. I nowise fear death. 
 
 No he visto a nadie. I have seen nobody. 
 
 gHa venido algtnen ? Nadie. Has anybody come ? Nobody. 
 
 g Que dice ? Nada. What does he say ? Nothing. 
 
 1 33. Fulano de tal means 'so and so,' used alone. 
 
 1 34. Otro cannot be preceded, like ' other ' in English, 
 by • an-': otro caballo ' another horse.' A I otro dm means 
 ' the next day.' 
 
 1 35. Tal with a preceding un means ' a certain.' It 
 may serve also to emphasize si 'yes,' no 'no,' que 'how?': 
 Si tal ' Yes (indeed).' ^ Que tal ? ' How are you ? ' 
 
 Tal cual means ' such as, so so, pretty well.' 
 
 136. NInguno, which contains itself a negative (Lat. 
 nec-unus), requires nevertheless, like nadie, no when it 
 follows a verb. With a noun its position is after it. 
 
 NInquno ha venido. ] xt l 
 
 " |- No one has come. 
 
 No ha ventdo ninguno. ) 
 
 No tengo hijo ninguno. I have no child (whatever) . 
 
 In a sentence involving a negation without no it means ' any- 
 (body),' just like nadie (cf. 132) ; but alguno is then prefer- 
 able with a noun : Sin que ninguno venga ' Without anybody 
 coming.' Sin duda alguna ' Without any doubt.' 
 
 1 37. Todo without determinative means ' every ' ; with 
 the article or possessive, ' the whole, all the ' : — toda 
 ciudad 'every city'; toda la ciudad 'the whole city.' 
 
 Exercise XXIV. 
 
gg SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 XIV. 
 Verhs, 
 
 138. AGREEMENT. Verbs agree, as in English, in 
 number and person with their subject, or with their sub- 
 jects collectively (when thus considered) : El ama ; ellos 
 aman ; el padre y la madre aman. 
 
 Note. — Singular collectives require the singular, except when followed 
 by a plural adjunct expressed or understood : 
 
 La gente lo dice. People say so. 
 
 Multitud de ninos vinieron. Many children came. 
 
 139. Voice. Spanish differs from English chiefly by 
 a very frequent use of the reflexive construction instead 
 of the passive or some other construction : — se dice ' it is 
 said ' ; se me engana ' I am deceived ' ; aqm se habla Es- 
 panol ' Spanish is spoken here ' ; el libra se publica ' the 
 book is published ' ; etc. And cf § 92, and Exercise XIX 
 
 140. Modes. Spanish differs from English by a fre- 
 quent use of the Subjunctive mode, as described in 148 etc. 
 
 141. Indicative Tenses. With reference to time 
 the indicative tenses are used in Spanish in the main as 
 in English. The following is to be observed : 
 
 [142.] The Simple Present expresses a present condition 
 continued from the past ; and the Periphrastic often replaces a 
 preterit (especially for unspecified past, or when the result of the 
 act is yet felt) : 
 
 Hace un ano que vivo aqui. I have been living here a year 
 
 (lit. It is a year that I live 
 here) . 
 
 Hace ocho dias que no le veo. It is a week since I have seen' 
 
 him. 
 
SYNTAX. 69 
 
 gCudnto tiempo hace que estd How long have you been here? 
 
 aqui ? 
 
 Hace mucho que estoy aqui. I have been here a long time. 
 
 Han llegado (or llegaron) ayer. They arrived yesterday. 
 
 [143.] The Imperfect (simple) is especially the descriptive 
 tense, denoting incompleted or cursory state or action in the 
 past : 
 
 Escribia cuando entro. I was writing when he entered. 
 
 Cuando est aba en Londres iba When I was in London, I used 
 
 cada dia al teatro. to go to the theatre every 
 
 day. 
 
 Note. — Exceptionally it is used for a conditional to denote certainty : 
 
 Si viniera ayer moria. If he had come yesterday he would have 
 
 died. 
 
 [144.] The periphrastic imperfect ('pluperfect') denotes an 
 action completed with reference to a subsequent or simultaneous 
 action : 
 
 Lo habia le'ido cuando entro. I had read it when he entered. 
 
 [145.] The Preterit (simple) relates a past occurrence 
 complete in itself, without reference to the condition arising from 
 it. It is the tense of historical narration. 
 
 Ayer vi a mi amigo. "Yesterday I saw my friend. 
 
 Cristobal Colon descubrio a Christopher Columbus discov- 
 America. ered' America. 
 
 [146.] The periphrastic preterit ('past anterior') is distin- 
 guished from the periphrastic imperfect by being, usually intro- 
 duced by some conjunction of time (cuando, despues que, luego 
 que, etc.). 
 
 Cuando lo hube leido entro. When I had read it he entered. 
 
70 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 [147.] The Future and Conditional (simple or periphras- 
 tic) , aside from their ordinary use as in English, sometimes serve 
 to express probability, conjecture, or possibility, the conditional 
 more remotely than the future : 
 
 Le habrd todo dicho} 
 
 Estard enfermo piles no me 
 
 escribe. 
 Ser'ian las sets de la madru- 
 
 gada. 
 I Habrd venido acaso mi criado 2 
 
 He has probably told him all. 
 He must be sick, since he does 
 
 not write me. 
 It might have been (was about) 
 
 6 A. M. 
 
 Has ray servant come ? 
 
 suBjuNcrrvE. 
 
 148. The subjunctive mode is used in independent or 
 in subordinate clauses. 
 
 149. The Independent Subjunctive serves to denote in an 
 imperative or exclamatory way that the act expressed by the verb 
 is in some manner willed (desired, commanded, etc.) or 
 allowed, a governing expression to that effect being elliptically 
 implied. It regularly supplies the first and third persons of the 
 imperative. 
 
 jDlos te guarde ! 
 /Viva la patria / 
 Dispenseme V. 
 
 Figurese V. 
 
 Seale la iierra leve. 
 
 Que pase. 
 
 l/enga lo que viniere. 
 
 God keep thee ! 
 Long live our country ! 
 Excuse me, sir (I beg 
 
 pardon) . 
 Just imagine. 
 
 Be the ground light on him. 
 Let him pass. 
 Come what may. 
 
 your 
 
 1 Comp. French II lui aura tout (tit (Germ. St ttitcti i^m aUeS gefagt tatcil). 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 71 
 
 150. The Dependent Subjunctive is used in subordinate 
 conjunctional or relative clauses to qualify the notion of their 
 verb-phrase with reference to a preceding expression as I. not 
 realized (but simply willed, feared, doubted, supposed, etc.) ; 
 or II. as causing emotion (surprise, joy, sorrow, approval, blame, 
 etc.) ; or III. as admitted with mental reserve (being subject 
 to error etc. ) . 
 
 These three divisions are further described below : 
 
 [151.] Tlie subjunctive of unrealised or uncertain com- 
 pletion is used : 
 
 a. With the conjunction que after verbs and phrases express- 
 ing in an affirmative or negative way a will (wish, hope, com- 
 mand, request, etc., or their opposites as fear, forbidding, etc.), 
 intention (expectation, permission, etc.), or necessity (obliga- 
 tion, propriety, etc.) : 
 
 Quiero^ (jrspero) qtyi su ami- 
 go venga. 
 
 No espere a que me lo dijese 
 dos veces. 
 
 Temo que no hay a recibido la 
 carta. 
 
 Ma n do que se hiciera. 
 
 Co nj II rote que tne digas la 
 vcrdad. 
 
 Cu ida {^proliibe) que nadie in- 
 • terrumpa. 
 
 Consiento a que venga. 
 Es necesario que escriba. 
 Es hora que prosigamos nues- 
 
 tro caviino. 
 Coni'iene que'lo haga. 
 
 I wish (hope) his friend may 
 
 come. 
 I did not expect him to tell me 
 
 so twice. 
 I fear he has not received the 
 
 letter. 
 He ordered it to be done. 
 I entreat thee to tell me the 
 
 truth. 
 Take care that nobody inter- 
 rupts (Forbid any one to 
 
 interrupt) . 
 I consent to his coming. 
 I must write. 
 It is time we should continue 
 
 our journey. 
 It is proper that he should do it. 
 
 1 Governing words spaced, the sabjunctive in heavy type. 
 
72 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Note i. — Here belongs also the subjunctive with a relative after verbs of 
 seeking (something with a desired quality), and the like: — Busco 
 (quier o)un guia que me conduzca ' I seek (would like) a guide to lead me.' 
 
 Note 2. — Que may be omitted, especially before no : Temia no le cogiese 
 a palabras 'He was afraid he might take him ai his words.' 
 
 b. After conjunctions referring to an indefinite future, a pur- 
 pose or condition (such as cuando ' when ' and many conjunc- 
 tional phrases like antes que ' before,' d fin de que ' to the end 
 that,' hasta que ' until,' con tal que ' provided that,' si, ' if,' etc) : 
 
 Cuando hable con los ninos, lo 
 
 dire. 
 Le rino para que (a fin de que') 
 
 se enmiende. 
 Luego que os vean os pedirdn. 
 
 Esperardn hasta que venga. 
 Le tendre por reliquia mientras 
 
 la vida me durare. 
 Si amases los libros serlas mas 
 
 instruido. 
 
 When I speak with the chil- 
 dren, I shall say so. 
 I scold him that he may amend. 
 
 As soon as they see you they 
 
 will ask you. 
 They will wait till he comes. 
 I shall keep it as a relic as 
 
 long as my life lasts. 
 If you loved books you would 
 
 be more instructed. 
 
 c. With que (or a relative) after verbs or phrases denoting 
 uncertainty (doubt, improbability, interrogative or conditional 
 statements), impossibility, or denial: 
 
 Dudo {no creo') que lo 
 
 haga. 
 Es posible {imposible) que 
 
 vuelva mahana. 
 Pu e de ser que el lo sepa. 
 iHay alguna que lo dude ? - 
 
 No h ay quien lo crea. 
 Niego que sea verdad. 
 
 I doubt (do not believe)- he 
 
 will do it. 
 It is possible (impossible) that 
 
 he return to-morrow. 
 It may be that he knows it. 
 Is there any one (f.) who 
 
 doubts it? 
 There is no one who believes it, 
 I deny that it be true. 
 
SYNTAX. 73 
 
 [162. J II. The subjunctive of emotion is used: 
 
 a. With the conjunction que after verbs and phrases denoting 
 an emotion (surprise, disappointment, joy, sorrow, vexation, etc.) : 
 
 Me ad?niro que no lo con- I am surprised he does not 
 
 fiese. confess it. 
 
 Me alegro de que el venga. I am glad he is coming. 
 
 Estaba contento con que me He was pleased to iind me 
 
 hallase en casa. in the house. 
 
 Sienio que no haya podido I am sorry you were not able 
 
 venir V. to come. 
 
 [153.] III. The stibj'unctive of mental reserve is used: 
 
 a. With relatives when the speaker wishes to soften a sweep- 
 ing (superlative, negative, etc.) assertion : 
 
 Eslossonlos mej o re s libros These are the best books I 
 
 que yo conozca (or -co ; cf. know. 
 
 note). 
 No habia quien se fiase d ellos. There was no one who would 
 
 trust them. 
 
 Note. — ; This subjunctive is not at all so common as in French or Italian, 
 and usage varies. 
 
 b. After concessive or hypothetical conjunctions (such as 
 aunque ' although ' and phrases like dado que ' granted that,' 
 por...que 'however,' supuesto que 'allowing that'), whether 
 expressed or understood ; and after indefinite relatives : 
 
 Quiero ir aunque (tone on I wish to go, although it rains 
 ^, § 5 <f) llueva. (though it rain). 
 
 For buen que sea. However good he be. 
 
 Supuesto que sea verdad. Allowing it to be true. 
 
 Quienquiera sea. Whoever he be. 
 
 Cualq'uiera tiempo que haga, Whatever weather it be, I must 
 he de salir, go (out). 
 
74 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 154. SUBJUNCTIVE TENSES. The tense of the de- 
 pendent subjunctive is usually determined by the tense of 
 the principal clause. It is : 
 
 a. Vt&seat site.! a. present or future : — No digo que venga. 
 Le escribire que venga. 
 
 b. Imperfect (or, optionally, Conditional) after a preterit or 
 conditional : — No crela que viniese (or vihierd). 
 
 c. Future after si, cuando, mientras or a relative to express 
 future contingency : — mientras durare la vida. 
 
 d. Conditional after words of condition, concession or desire, 
 or gentle assertion ; and optionally for the imperfect {b) : — Si 
 tuvieran {^tuviesen) paciencia, vivirian felices ' If you were pa- 
 tient, you would live happy.' Promeiierame (153 b) el monies 
 de oro, no lo haria ' Even if he were to promise me mountains 
 of gold, I should not do it.' Cond. si takes imperf. or condit. 
 
 [155.] The periphrastic tenses are used in the same way, 
 only that they serve to express past time relatively to the time 
 of the principal verb. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 156. The infinitive is in Spanish, as in English, con- 
 strued both as a noun and verb. In sense it corresponds 
 to the English infinitive proper, or to the gerund in -ing. 
 
 Infinitive as a noun. 
 
 ^57. The infinitive may be construed, like other nouns, with 
 any determinative: el bailar '(the) dancing' (definite or ge- 
 neric) ; un obrar ' an action ' ; esfe bailar tan gracioso ' this 
 graceful dancing ' ; el mucho beber ' (the) much drinking ; etc. 
 (cf examples below) . 
 
SYNTAX. 75 
 
 158. The infinitive may be used, like other nouns, directly 
 or with a preposition. As in EngUsh it often takes a preposition 
 (the ' infinitive sign ') even as object or predicative ; but it does 
 not as subject. Details below. 
 
 [159.] THE Direct Infinitive is used as subject; 
 usually as predicative or direct object (exceptions in i6o) ; 
 and after servirse, dignarse and impersonal expressions : 
 
 Decir y hacer son dos cosas. Saying and doing are two things. 
 
 El comenzar es a menudo mas To begin is often harder than 
 
 dificil que el acabar, to complete. 
 
 Querer es poder. To will is to be able (Where 
 
 there is a will there is a way) . 
 
 No conviene hacerlo. It is not wise to do it. 
 
 Me seria facil conquisfar su It would be easy for me to 
 
 corazon. conquer her heart. 
 
 Decidi viajar. I determined to set out. 
 
 Celebraria verle A V. alii. I should be glad to see you 
 
 there. 
 
 Piensa pariir pronto. He intends to go soon. 
 
 Deseo hablar con ella. I wish to speak with her. 
 
 Sirvase V. entrar. Please enter. 
 
 Es menester vengarse. It is necessary to take revenge. 
 
 Note." — Ver, oir require the direct infinitive, not, as in English, a gerund : 
 Me vid venir. Le oigo hablar. 
 
 [160.] The prepositional Infinitive is either A. 
 dependent on other wrords, or B. used independently. 
 
 A. With the dependent infinitive prepositions are used as 
 follows : 
 
 I. de (denoting 'source, cause, means') is used after nouns 
 or adjectives usually taking de ; and after many verbs denoting 
 action, or separation : 
 
1^ 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Tuvo desgracia de perder 
 
 su reloj. 
 Es dificil de alcanzar. 
 Me alegro de ver a V. bueno. 
 Me acuerdo de haber dicho. 
 No por eso he dejado de ser 
 
 lo que antes. 
 Desiitio de perseguir d sus 
 
 contrarios. 
 
 He had the misfortune to lose 
 (' of losing ') his watch. 
 
 It is hard to attain. 
 
 I am glad to see you well. 
 
 I remember having said. 
 
 I have not on that account 
 ceased to be what I was. 
 
 He desisted from persecuting 
 his opponents. 
 
 Notice also : acabar de ' complete ' (lit. ' come to a head with '), 'just have 
 (done a thing) '; es (era etc.) de ' it is (was) to ' : e. g. Acalta de salir ' He 
 has just gone out.' Es de desear que sea pronto ' It is to be hoped that it 
 will be soon.' 
 
 2. d is used after adjectives or verbs to denote direction 
 (external or mental) towards, application, purpose : 
 
 Se esfuerza a hacerlo. He makes an effort to do it. 
 
 No estas tu obligado a saber Thou art not obliged to know 
 
 latin. 
 Vamos a dar un paseo. 
 Aprenden a esc ri bin. 
 E chose a correr. 
 
 Vuelve a salir. 
 
 3. con expresses ' with ' : 
 Se contentd con privarle de la libertad. 
 
 Latin. 
 Let us go and take a walk. 
 They learn to write. 
 He began (lit. threw himself) 
 
 to run. 
 He goes out again (lit. returns 
 
 to going out) . 
 
 He was contented with depriving 
 him of his freedom. 
 
 4. en, usually followed by a gerund in sense of ' after, by,' may take the 
 infinitive in other uses : 
 
 JPienso en parti'r. 
 
 Hace V. Hen en vender su casa. 
 
 I am thinking of departing. 
 
 You do well in selling your house. 
 
 5. para denotes purpose and with estar, ' about to (happen) ' : 
 
SYNTAX. TJ 
 
 Comemos para satisfacer al hambre. We eat to satisfy our hunger. 
 Estoy para partir. I am about to depart. 
 
 6. por denotes motive, result, or with estar ' soon to (be done) ' • 
 
 Trabaja por confundir d su con- He labors to confuse his adversary. 
 
 trario. 
 Las uvas estdn por madurar. The grapes will soon ripen. 
 
 B. Without any governing word the infinitive with a prepo- 
 sition usually corresponds in English to a gerund or a noun with 
 a preposition. Especially is to be noted the use of a/ (a e/) to 
 introduce a statement of time or circumstance ; and of con in 
 sense of ' by, in ' with a gerund, or for aunque, to introduce a 
 concession : 
 
 Al ver esto. On seeing this. 
 
 Al hablar asi. In speaking thus. 
 
 Al sonar la trompeta. When the trumpet was sounded. 
 
 Al romper del dia. At the break of day. 
 
 Con declarar, se eximid del By confessing he escaped tor- 
 
 tormento. ture. 
 
 Con ser tan antiguo le han Though he is so old they have 
 
 postergado. passed him by. 
 
 [161.] 0"^ is used idiomatically with an infinitive after tener, haber : 
 Tengo que hablarte ' I have something to speak to you about.' Hay que 
 tener paciencia ' Patience is necessary.' JVo hay que decir ' It is needless 
 to say.' 
 
 Infinitive as verb. 
 
 1 62. The infinitive may be followed by a subject. It is then 
 usually in English rendered by a personal verb, or a noun. 
 
 Al entrar'yo en el wagon. As I entered the car. 
 
 Al dispuntar el dioCT When the day dawned (at the 
 
 dawn of day. 
 Murid al concluirse la guerra. He died at the close of the war 
 
78 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1 63. The infinitive may, as in English, be construed with a 
 predicate or object. 
 
 1 64. The active infinitive is sometimes to be rendered as a passive : — 
 Le llevaron d colgar 'They took him to be hanged' (lit. 'to hanging'). La 
 muerte deja tu educacidn sin concluir ' Death leaves thy education uncom- 
 pleted.' 
 
 165. The infinitive is sometimes used in exclamation : ^ — Callari 
 ' Hush ! ' / iVo correr ! ' Don't run ! ' Dirigirse d ' Inquire at.' 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 166. The gerund is always invariable. It is used with 
 or without en ' in.' It is often to be rendered in English 
 by ' in, by, while ' and the gerund in -ing; or else by 
 ' when, as ' and a personal verb. 
 
 {£n) diciendo esto se despidio. Saying this he went away. 
 
 Hacienda esto muestra su ca7i- In doing this he shows his 
 
 dad. charity. 
 
 Estando comiendo oimos gritar While (we were) eating we 
 
 ' al arma. heard a call to arms. 
 
 En habiendo dinero en el bol- When one has money in his 
 
 sillo, se gasta sin miseria. pocket it is freely spent. 
 
 1 67. The gerund is freely used with estar, ir, andar, con- 
 tinual-, {pro)seguir, quedar to denote progression : 
 
 Esta lloviendo. It is raining. 
 
 Se iban reuniendo. They were gathering. 
 
 Continua nevando. It keeps on snowing. 
 
 Siguid hablando. He continued speaking. 
 
 EXERCTSE XXV. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 79 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 1 68. The past participle 
 other cases it agrees with the 
 
 Ella ha comido. 
 
 Las hemos alabado. 
 
 Ella es amada. 
 
 Ella ha sido amada. 
 
 Los soldado s estcin vencidos. 
 
 Tengo comprados dos libros. 
 
 La gitana lleva robados (or ha 
 rob ado) dos ninos. 
 
 Con mayor cordialidad de la 
 que traia premeditada. 
 
 Ella se presents apoyada en el 
 brazo de su padre. 
 
 is invariable after haber. In 
 noun qualified : 
 
 She has eaten. 
 
 We have praised them. 
 
 She is loved. 
 
 She has been loved. 
 
 The soldiers are vanquished. 
 
 I have bought two books (lit. 
 I hold two books bought) . 
 
 The gipsy has stolen two chil- 
 dren (^lleva = ' has with 
 her'). 
 
 With greater cordiality than he 
 had expected. 
 
 She came forward leaning on 
 her father's arm. 
 
 1 69. The past participle may be used absolutely with a noun 
 or pronoun to denote time and circumstance : 
 
 With these words (lit. ' this 
 said ') the king presented 
 the paper. 
 
 When this negotiation had been 
 concluded he went away. 
 
 Dicho esto, presents el rey el 
 papel. 
 
 Concluido este negocio, se des- 
 pidiS. 
 
 Note. — Such a construction may be emphasized by the use of a prepo- 
 sition of time : — Despues de firmada la faz ' After peace was signed.' Antes 
 de dada la orden 'Before the order had been given.' 
 
 1 70. Para ' for ' is with the participle often to be rendered 
 by 'to be' (= 'fit or intended for') : Estas providencias no 
 son para propuestas ' These measures are not to be proposed.' 
 
8o SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 XV. 
 Indeclinables, 
 
 171. Acaso ' forsooth ' is often a mere interrogative sign : 
 lAcaso no me entiende ? Do you not understand me ? 
 
 172. Aqu'i 'here,' ah) 'there' (near the addressed), alii 
 ' there ' (remote) are used with verbs of rest. With verbs of 
 motion aoa, ahi, alia, are used in the same sense : 
 
 Aqui estd; viene acd. Here he is; here he comes. 
 
 Ahi estd (va) . He is (goes) there. 
 
 Note. — Por aqu'i {ahi, etc.) means 'this way,' here, hereabouts' ('that 
 way' etc.); de aqu'i (ahi, etc.) 'from here, hence' ('thence'). 
 
 173. Mucho, tanto, cuanto modify personal verbs and com- 
 paratives ; may, tan, cuan other words : 
 
 Mucho mejor ; mucho mds. Much better ; much more. 
 
 Tanto peor. So much the worse. 
 
 Muy btieno {bieri) . Very good (well) . 
 
 Es muy amado. He is much loved. 
 
 Un dia tan bello. So beautiful a day. 
 
 1 74. Recientemente 'recently' becomes red en before a participle: 
 Un niho recien nacido. A new-born child. 
 
 1 75. S/' 'if may be used adverbially to denote surprise ('why! ') : 
 Si no he dicho naJa. Why, I did not say anything. 
 
 1 76. Si ' yes ' is in indirect discourse preceded by que : 
 
 Digo {creo, pienso) que si. I say (believe, think) so. 
 
 Verdad que si. It is truly so. 
 
 Note. — Si may be strengthened by a following /<// or tfuf. — /Zo ve V.? 
 — S'l fa/ (or Si que lo ved) ' Do you see it ? ' — 'I do.' 
 
SYNTAX. 8 1 
 
 177. 'Ago, since' are expressed by the impersonal use of 
 hacer ' make.' or haier ' have ' : 
 
 Hace dos anos. 
 Dos anos ha. 
 Hacia tres dias. 
 Tres dias habia. 
 
 [■ Two years ago. 
 
 [ (It was) three days ago. 
 
 178. ' Just, finally, again ' (or kindred adverbs) are in Spanish 
 apt to be rendered, as illustrated below, by the aid of acabar 
 'complete, finish,' llegar 'arrive,' volver 'return': 
 
 Acaba de llegar. He has just come. 
 
 Acabo par reirse. He finally laughed. 
 
 Llego a ser general. He finally became general. 
 
 Volvio a saludar. He saluted again. 
 
 i Volveremos a vemos ? Shall we meet again ? 
 
 179. Negation. About the ordinary use of no, alone 
 or with jamas etc., and of /»/', cf 99. A few special rules 
 are here added. 
 
 [1 80. J No. — The construction or use of no ' not ' is peculiar 
 to Spanish, as compared with English, in the following respects : 
 
 a. Without verb it follows the subject : Yo no ' Not I.' 
 
 b. In indirect discourse it is construed, like si 'yes' (176), 
 with que : Digo que no ' I say no.' 
 
 c. It is used expletively (i) in comparisons of difference, 
 and (2) after various expressions involving a negation (as after 
 negatively construed verbs, or verbs oi fear, doubt, prevention) , 
 especially when the action of the dependent verb (then in the 
 subjunctive) implies some uncertainty : 
 
 Tuvo mas dinero que no creia. He had more money than he 
 
 thought. 
 
82 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Mejor el trabajo que no la 
 
 ociosidad. 
 Temio no le perdiese el res- 
 
 peto. 
 No niego que no sealo cosa 
 
 de risa. 
 iQuien dud a que V. no me 
 
 tenga por un hombre loco ? 
 
 [181.] Jamas, nunca : 
 
 Work is better than idleness. 
 
 He feared he might lose re- 
 spect for him. 
 
 I do not deny that being a 
 ridiculous thing. 
 
 Who doubts that you consider 
 me a fool? 
 
 a. Jamas (Lat. jam magis) properly means ' ever,' or with 
 no ' never.' The lactter meaning, however, it has also (by ellip- 
 sis) without no, when placed before the personal verb (except in 
 indirect questions or after exclusive expressions), and when used 
 alone : 
 
 g Ha jamas visto V. tal cosa ? 
 
 No se si jamas volvere. 
 
 Sin abusar jamas la licencia. 
 
 No la he visto jamas. ) 
 Jamas la he visto. ) 
 i Cudndo vendra ? Jamas. 
 
 Have you ever seen the like of 
 this? 
 
 I do not know if I ever shall 
 return. 
 
 Without ever abusing the per- 
 mission. 
 
 I have never seen her. 
 
 When will he come ? Never. 
 
 b. Nunca (Lat. nunquajn) regularly means 'never.' Yet, 
 like jamas, it requires no when (more exceptionally) it follows 
 the verb. Like Jamas it may also mean ' ever ' in constructions 
 where an expletive negative is required (i8o, c) : 
 
 Nunca la he visto. \ 
 
 J, , , ■ , ( I have never seen her. 
 
 No la he visto nunca. ) 
 
 Hoy estd peor que nunca. To-d&y he is worse than ever. 
 
SYNTAX. 83 
 
 Dudo que el rey le haya nunca I doubt whether the king has 
 visto. ever seen him. 
 
 Sin que diga nunca lo que Without his ever saying what 
 piensa. he thinks. 
 
 Note. — Jamas may be used pleonastically to emphasize nunca or par 
 (^pard) siempre : — Nunca jamas lo hare yo ^ Never shall I do it.' Por 
 siempre jamas me accordare de esto ' I ^zA forever remember this.' Me ha 
 quitado para siempre jamas ' He has left ms forever.' 
 
 [ 1 82.] Tampoco ' as little ' is equivalent to ' neither ' before a verb, and 
 to ' either ' after a negative : — Tampoco quiero ese libro or No quiero ese 
 libro tampoco 'Neither do I wish that book' or ' I do not wish that book 
 either.' i Quiere V. esie libro ? — No. — Ese ? — Tampoco (Neither = No) . 
 
 Conjunctions . 
 
 183. Pero, mas: sine. — Pert? and mas introduce a sen- 
 tence. All three are used adversatively, but stno only in an 
 affirmative clause emphasizing by contrast a preceding negation : 
 
 No es rico, pero es bueno. He is not rich, but he is good. 
 
 No lo digo en broma, sino muy I do not say it jestingly, but in 
 por lo serio. all earnestness. 
 
 XVI. 
 Arrangement of the Sentence. 
 
 184. The arrangement of the sentence is in Spanish 
 very free, and largely dependent on emphasis and eu- 
 phony. 
 
 186. To- the more definite rules already given (under 
 the head of Pronouns, Adjectives, etc.) may be added 
 here : 
 
84 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 [186.] The Subject-Noun follows its verb in ques- 
 tions (unless introduced by an interrogative pronoun), in opta- 
 tive or imperative phrases not introduced by que. It may 
 optionally be placed after the verb also in other sentences. — 
 Thus : 
 
 iCudndo piensa partir tu When does thy father expect 
 
 padre ? 
 [But iQue vapor ha llegado ? 
 i Quiera Dios ! 
 { Seale la tierra leve ! 
 
 El discipulo aprende 
 Aprende el </.). 
 
 (or 
 
 to depart? 
 Which steamer has arrived?] 
 God grant ! 
 May the ground be light over 
 
 him ! 
 The pupil learns. 
 
 [187.] The verb and its object (unless extended), and the 
 members of a periphrastic verb-phrase are rarely separated : 
 
 iSaben su leccion los disct- 
 
 pulos ? 
 iHa partido tu hermano i 
 
 Do the pupils know their 
 
 lesson? 
 Has thy brother departed ? 
 
 Exercise XXVI. 
 
VERSIFICATION. 
 
 188. The main' features of Spanish versification are 
 those explained below. 
 
 189. Rhythm. The rhythm of the Spanish verse is 
 determined not by a regulated sequence of accentual 
 beats or prosodial quantities, but, mainly as in French, 
 by the fixed syllabic number of corresponding verse- 
 lines, as described in 190, and the free harmony of their 
 structure. 
 
 Note. — The Spanish verse, though not subject to that regular and sus- 
 tained rhythmical pulsation which is characteristic — in a very different way 
 — of classical and Germanic poetry, ordinarily suggests, however, a prevail- 
 ingly iambic or trochaic movement, which at times may even be quite pro- 
 nounced. The prosodial significance of each verse-line usually requires their 
 final words to have a natural rhetorical tone. The turn of the poetical phrase 
 is of course in Spanish, as in other tongues, in various respects distinguished 
 from that of prose. 
 
 190. Number of Syllables. Each verse-line must 
 contain a definite number of syllables according to the 
 structure of the verse. Meeting vowel-sounds between 
 words are usually uttered as diphthongs and counted as 
 forming one syllable (^de otro = deo\tro, 2.syll. ; que ha = 
 quea, i syll., h being silent). — Ex. : 
 
 Por I en\tre^u\nas \ ma\las, \ ) 
 
 > 6 syll. 
 Se\gui\do I de \ pe\rros, ) 
 
 85 
 
86 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Gi\ta\ni\ca, | que \ de Aer\mo\sa | 
 ie I pue\den \ dar \ pa\ra\bie\nes \ 
 por 1 lo I que \ de \ pie\dra \ tie\nes \ 
 te I lla\ma'~'el \ mun\do \ Pre\cio\sa 
 
 Sehor mio 
 de'^ese brio 
 ligereza 
 y destreza 
 no me^espanio 
 que'~^otro ianto 
 Suelo hacer y~'d caso mds \ 7 syll. 
 
 4 syll. 
 
 8 syll. 
 
 Note i. — In counting the syllables of a verse-line, diphthongs and dissyl- 
 lables are to be distinguished according to 10, a. b. Yet, diphthongs (espe- 
 cially with final tone, as zm, ia, etc., and also others) are not seldom made 
 dissyllabic, and, vice versa, dissyllables (especially with initial tone, as e-a, ia, 
 etc.) sometimes diphthongal (ea, ia, etc.). It is customary to mark the 
 initial of a dissolved diphthong with diaresis ( " ) . — Ex., .diphth. as, dissyll. : 
 (tonic) quieto, puniiial, desear, variado ; (aXomc) p'iedad, ciiidad; — dissyll. 
 as diphth. : sea, desea, seria, dia. 
 
 Note 2. — In external hiatus, even three or four concurrent vowels of two 
 or more words may blend into one syllable: su hui\da; au\sen\cia y ; did au\- 
 sen\cia ; cuan\do d al\gu\no ; que d Eu\ro\pa ; se\me\jan\ie he he\ri\do ; 
 bru\to y d un \ a\ve. Punctuation or sense or arbitrary taste exceptionally 
 prevent the contraction of meeting vowels into a diphthong. 
 
 In declamation, taste decides how much prominence should be given to 
 vowels in hiatus. / and u are often, and y always, consonantized (= Engl, 
 y, V, y') before another vowel. 
 
 Note 3. — As in English, the length of the lines may vary considerably 
 even within the same verse or poem. The most common lines aie those con- 
 taining 8 or 1 1 syllables. Where lines vary in the same poem, the verse is 
 
VERSIFICATION. 87 
 
 named according to the nimvber of syllables contained in the leading lines 
 with unaccented final: e.g. 
 
 No digo que ha de querer 7 
 
 por fuerza la que agredece, 8 
 
 pero, Cintia, me parece 8 
 
 que estd cerca de caer. 7 
 
 octosyllabic. 
 
 191. RHYME, ASSONANCE, AND BLANK VERSE. The 
 
 verse-lines may be harmonized with each other in various 
 combinations by the use of rhyme or, especially in older 
 poetry, assonance (accordance of their last tone-vowels 
 only). Blank lines are also common, especially in com- 
 bination with rhymed or assonated. — Ex. : 
 
 a. Rhyme : 
 
 No digo que ha de querer 
 por fuerza la que agredece, 
 pero, Cintia, me parece 
 que estd cerca de caer. 
 
 b. Assonance : 
 
 Tu pelo y tus oj'itos 
 Me gustan en verdad 
 Me gustan tus mejillas 
 De nieve y de coral. 
 
 c. Blank verse and rhyme : 
 
 jEspaha, Espana ! amada patria mia ! 
 
 patria de los valientes 
 
 que el largo oprobio de tu faz borraron ! 
 
 cuando tu afecto de mi pecho saiga, 
 
 mi cantar abatido 
 
 sepMtese en el polvo del olvido. 
 
 d. Blank verse, assonance, and rhyme : 
 
 Duke madre mia » 
 quien no llora-ha, 
 
88 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 aunque lenga el pecho 
 como un pedernal, 
 y no dard voces 
 viendo marchitar 
 los mds verdes anos 
 de mi mocedad : 
 
 dejadme llorar 
 
 orillas de mar. 
 
 Note i . — Rhymes are either monosyllabic (masculine) : mar: par; — mds : 
 jamas; — don: mansion ; — querer : caer ; or dissyllabic (feminine) : amada: 
 adorada, etc. 
 
 Note 2. — The assonance usually occurs on corresponding syllables in the 
 harmonized words (i//</a .' risa ; cuesla: pesa; oraculo : maxima). Excep- 
 tionally an antepenult may be in assonance with a pe nult {lantas : lagrimas. 
 
 192. STROPHES AND POEMS. A certain number of 
 verse-lines combined so as to form a unit by themselves 
 make a strophe, several strophes a poem. 
 
 Among a great variety of strophic combinations may be noted the following 
 three, each with 1 1 syllables and variously distributed rhymes, viz. : the 
 terzins (with <x free number of strophes of three lines each and a final 
 strophe of one line) ; the sonnet (with one strophe of 8 and one of 6 lines), 
 and the stanza (with a free number of strophes, each of 8 lines embodying 
 one thought or statement, culminating in the last two). 
 
SPANISH WORDS IN ENGLISH. 
 
 193. In the sixteenth century Spain occupied a promi- 
 nent commercial, political, and literary position. Her 
 language and literature were then cultivated in polite 
 society in Europe. The poetical forms of her writers 
 were imitated by Sidney and others in England. Yet, 
 this prominence of Spain was of too transient a nature to 
 secure to the Spanish language anything like the influence 
 gained a century later by the French, especially in Eng- 
 land, whose idiom was already half French. 
 
 Altogether the English vocabulary contains only a trifle 
 over one hundred words borrowed directly from the Span- 
 ish. These are chiefly : — («) names of foreign products 
 and animals (for the most part borrowed by the Spanish 
 itself from various native idioms) : e. g. anchovy, banana, 
 sarsaparilla, tobacco ; alligator, buffalo, condor, mosquito, 
 etc. ; — (^) nautical terms such as commodore, flotilla, 
 cargo, embargo, etc. ; — (c) special Spanish appellatives 
 like alguazil, don, hidalgo, pmta, armada, etc. 
 
 1 94. Although nearly all these Anglo-Spanish words have deviated 
 more or less in pronunciation from their models, yet about one-fourth or 
 (waiving the occasional use of a double consonant where Spanish has a single) 
 one-third of them are orthographically unchanged. The more common 
 among these are : alpaca, armada, armadillo, banana, buf(J)alo, cacao, 
 can(n)ibal, cargo, chocolate, condor, dragoman, embargo, filibuster, gal{l)coji, 
 gat rote, guano, guerilla, hidalgo, junta, lilac, matador, merino, mosqtdto, 
 negro, pec(c)adillo, platina, talisman. 
 
90 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The remainder have changed but slightly, as : — {a) by dropping the final : 
 e. g. €igar (Sp. cigarro)^ cask {casco), cork {corc/io), courtesan {cortesana')^ 
 galliard (^gallarda), minaret {ininaretc') ; — (J>) by altering it: anchovy 
 {anchova'), bravado {bravada^^ canoe (^canoa), grandee (grande), renegade 
 i^rencgado'), tomato (lomate), tornado (Jornada'), ultramarine (iillramarino'), 
 etc.; — if) by other variations: alligator (el lagarlo), bastinado (bastonada), 
 coinvioilore (^coJiiendador), disembogue {dese/nbocar), duenna {iluehd), filigree 
 (Jiligrana')f Jlaviingo i^JlajHcncd), hurricane [huracaii), potato [^patata'), 
 quadroon (cuarteron), savanna {sabana), tabacco [tobaco), sherry (^Xeres, 
 X = j), vanilla (vainilla). 
 
 1 95. Indirectly English owes some forty words to Spanish, having bor- 
 rowed them from other tongues (esp. French), which had them directly 
 (though not ultimately) from Spanish : e. g. barricade, bizarre, Creole, 
 hazard, paragon, spaniel, etc. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 Vowels. 
 
 Pronounce consonants in this exercise as in English, only rr more trilled. 
 Accent words without accent-mark on the penult when they end in a vowel, 
 otherwise on the final syllable. 
 
 a : afna, amaba, rata, amar, cantar. -^ — e : breve, mesa, padre, 
 ekfante ; es, testa, ventar ; este, escuela, elementar.-^i: flora, 
 miteta, tihibre. — o: no, pcfbre, motin, amo, visto ; con, f&nda, 
 contdr, corredbr ; torno, olor, consonante, contefito. — u: una 
 b'ltsca, phima, gusto ; gjterra, gi^itarra, gi/ia, qte, q-jiema, q£into, 
 giiintar , argilir, antiguedad. — / ; y, muy, voy ; yo, yerba, arguyo. 
 — vowel-oompounds : {diphth.^ bten, diablo, causa, aula, cuanio, 
 ciento, suntuoio, treinta, rey ; (^dissyll.) dia, alegr'ia, fluctua, 
 maestro, paon, aldea, pais, o'lr. 
 
 II. Consonants. 
 
 b: bien, bebe, tubo, bardn. — c; ca^, coro, crema, trocar; 
 rita, cima, bacia, cecinar ; accidn, faccioso. — cA ; cha, muchacho, 
 leche, chico. — d : dorar, amado, dudo. — g: gala,' gato, gordo, 
 gloria, guerra ; general, gitano, genio, registro, gegen. — A / Jiab- 
 lar; Jiuevo. — j : jamas, joven, mujer, ajeno, alhaja. — //; calle,^ 7 
 b alalia, llama, alii. — n: ana, senor, cener, nina. — qu : quedar, 
 quinto. — r: rama, ruego, en-redo, alrota, honra ; arar, piedra, 
 tierra. — s : es, rasa. — z : raza, mozo, azul, feliz, yazgo. 
 
 III. Articles. 
 
 el padre ' the father ' ; la madre ' the mother ' 
 
 " /lijo 'the son'; " Aija ' the daughter ' 
 
 93 
 
94 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 el hermano 'the brother'; la hermana 'the sister' 
 
 " amigo 'the friend'; '"Jamiga 'the friend' (f.) 
 
 " hombre ' the man ' ; " 7nujer ' the woihan ' 
 
 " cuerpo 'the body'; el (f.) alma 'the soul' 
 
 " bueno {liueii) 'the good';. la buena 'the good' 
 
 dmo ' I love ' (pers. pronoun usually omitted, unless emphatic). 
 es 'is' (inherently); ^sid'js '{accidentaWy). 
 
 y (or / b efore i-jjii^ 'and'; aqui 'here' 
 
 1. Usually Spanish requires a before a definite direct object denoting 
 a person or personified thing: § no. 
 
 2. Where the sense is clear el (etc.) may be used for a possessive (' my, 
 his,' etc.). 
 
 I. El ^ hermano y la hermana. 2. Los hijos (j plural sign) 
 y las hijas. 3. El alma del hombre. 4. Amo al padre y a la 
 madre (why a, a/, and def. art.?). 5. Un buen amigo. 6. Una 
 buena miijer. 7. El padre es bueno. 8. El buen hombre estd 
 aqui. 9. HijosKoJiijas. 
 
 I. The son and the daughter. 2. The brothers and the sis- 
 ters. 3. I love the son and the daughter. 4. The man's soul 
 and body ('The soul, etc., of the maji). 5. The woman's good 
 soul. 6. I love the good man. 7. The brother is good and the . 
 daughter is good. 
 
 IV. Plural of Nouns. 
 
 el niho ' the child (little boy) ' ; la niha ' the (little) girl ' 
 
 " rey 'the king'; " reina 'the queen' 
 
 " libra 'the book'; " earia 'the letter; map (chart)' 
 
 " papel ' the paper ' ; " plujna ' the feather, pen ' 
 
 " pie 'the foot'; " mano 'the hand' 
 
 1 Items in heavy type to be especially noted and explained. 
 
EXERCISES. 95 
 
 el drbol ' the tree ' /a flor • the flower ' 
 
 " rubi • the ruby ' " fier/a ' the pearl ' 
 
 " *«««' the bench ' " si//a 'the chair' 
 
 " ferro-carril • the railroad ' " estacion ' the station ' 
 
 " gentilhombre ' the gentleman, " senora ' the lady ' (esp. married) 
 
 squire ' 
 
 " senor ' the gentleman ' (in addr. " sehorita 'the young lady ' 
 
 'sir ') aman ' (they) love ' 
 
 son ' are ' (inherently) ; . . . . es^tiii ' are ' (accidentally) 
 
 ^^ ' I have ' (auxiliary) ; .... /f«^o ' I have (= possess)' 
 
 iambien ' also ' ; iienen ' (they) have ' ; visio ' seen ' 
 
 I. Nouns with the def. art. may have a definite or a generic sense: 
 los ninos 'the children' or 'children (generally),' according as it is used.. 
 
 I . Zos ninos son buenos {s pi. sign) , y las ninas son tambien 
 buenas {-as fem. pi.). 2. Tengo libros y cartas, rubies y perlas. 
 
 3. Los pies y las manos. 4. Amo a las ninas ; estan aqui. 
 5. Los reyes\ {two meanings) esldn aqui. 6. Los drboles y las 
 flores son los ninos de la naturaleza ('nature'). 7^ SeTior, he 
 visto los ferro-carriles. 8. Los gentiles hombres del rey. 
 
 I. I love little boys and also little girls. 2. I have pens and 
 paper. 3'. I have seen trees and flowers, and I have flowers. 
 
 4. The king and the queen {express in two ways) have rubies 
 and pearls. 5. I have hands and feet. 6. Good little girls 
 {generally, hence def. art.) are pearls. 7. Women love flowers. 
 8. The man's papers are here. 
 
 V. Gender of Nouns. 
 
 Put the definite article before : — hombre ' man,' mujer 
 'woman,' caballo 'horse,' yegua 'mare,' libro 'book,' cerro 'hill,' 
 silla 'chair,' cafe 'coffee,' agua 'water,' sofa 'sofa,' idioma 
 ' idiom,' drama ' drama,' dolor ' pain,' virtud ' virtue,' nacion 
 
96 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 'nation,' libertad 'liberty,' accidn 'deed,' especie 'species,' 
 muchedumbre 'throng,' mam 'hand,' nao 'ship,' dia 'day,' 
 viapa 'map' ; (30. i) lunes 'Monday,' manzano 'apple-tree,'/«-« 
 'pear,' nvez 'nut,' Etna 'Etna,' Portugal 'Yox^m%z\; Espana 
 ' Spain.' 
 
 TI. Qualifying Suffixes. 
 
 el hombr{ac)C)in ' the big man ' la mujeracha ' the large woman ' 
 
 kombrezuelo ) , ,, , " mtiierona ' the bad woman ' 
 
 ^ ' the small man 
 
 " Aomirecillo S " »tujercilla 'the hussy' 
 
 " muc/iac/io 'the hoy' " muc/mc/ia ' the gir\' 
 
 " muchachillo ' the little boy ' " muchaehilla ' the little girl ' 
 
 '• hermanito ' the little brother ' " hermanita ' the little sister ' 
 
 " narigdn {nariz, {., ' nose ') ' the " ioca ' the mouth ' 
 
 big nose ' " bocaza ' the big mouth ' 
 
 " ^'f"'" ] ' the little foot ' " """"""' I . the little hand ' 
 
 " piecillo J " 7nanecilla i 
 
 " arbolito ' the little tree ' " Jlorecita ' the little flower ' 
 
 " fusil ' the gun, musket ' " punalada {puhal, m., ' dagger ') 
 
 " ftisilazo ' the musket-shot, — bloyv ' 'the dagger-thrust ' 
 
 " bastdn ' the cane ' 
 
 " bastonazo ' the cane-rap ' " hastonada ' the cane-rap ' 
 
 he ' I have ' (only auxil.) has ' thou hast ' ha ' he (she, it) has ' 
 
 ten^^o ' I have (hold) ' tienes ' thou hast ' tiene ' he (etc.) has ' 
 
 hablo ' I speak ' hablas ' thou speakest ' habla ' he (etc.) speaks ' 
 
 aquel (f. -Ha, pi. -llos, -lias) 'that'; su (pi. sus) 'his, her.' 
 No, ' not ' is placed before the verb. 
 
 I. El hombron {hotfibrachon) tiene un fusilazo y una punalada. 
 2. Hablo del hermanito y de las hermanitas. 3. Tiene la inane ciia 
 ae la inuc^achilla. .4. Habla del narigon de aquel hombrecillo. 
 5. Tiene aquella muchacha {inuchachilla) la floreciia 6. Su 
 muchaciio tiene un pistoletazo (Ir. pis tola 'pistol' : 36). 
 
 I. The big man is the little boy's father. 2. His little brother 
 has a pistol-shot (cf. sentence 6, above) in {en) his foot. 3. It 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 97 
 
 is a blow of a cane. 4. She has (holds) little flowers in her 
 dainty hand. 5. He speaks of her little sister's big mouth. ' 
 6. That worthless woman is not good. 7. I speak of those little 
 trees. 
 
 Til. 
 
 el maestro ' the master ' 
 
 " discipulo ' the pupil ' (f. -&.) 
 
 " caballo ' the horse ' 
 
 " jardm ' the garden ' 
 
 " manzatw ' the apple-tree ' 
 
 " pan ' the bread ' 
 
 " ejerc'icio ' the exercise ' 
 
 " idioma ' the language ' 
 
 bueno 'good' 
 
 malo ' bad ' 
 
 hello, hermoso ' beautiful ' 
 
 feo • ugly ' 
 
 Undo, bonito ' pretty ' 
 
 c/iico 'small' ; noun, 'lit- 
 tle boy ' (f. ' girl ') 
 
 pequeho ' small ' 
 
 viejo ' old ' 
 
 joven ' young ' ; noun, m. 
 or f. ' young man or 
 woman ' 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 la viaestra ' the mistress ' 
 " pupila ' the ward ' 
 " ves'u a 'the m are ' 
 " casa ' the house ' 
 " manzana ' the apple ' (30. I) 
 " lecke'^e. milk' 
 " leccion ' the lesson ' 
 " /e»^a 'the tongue, language' 
 diligente ' diligent ' espahol ' Spanish ' 
 
 perezoso ' lazy ' 
 filiz ' happy ' 
 infeliz ' unhappy 
 fdcil ' easy ' 
 diyteil ' difficult ' 
 bianco ' white ' 
 negro ' black ' 
 verde ' green ' 
 Colo rado ' ruddy ' 
 
 ingles ' English ' 
 
 alemdn 'German' 
 belga ' Belgian ' 
 nacional ' national ' 
 burUn ' roguish ' 
 rico, ricacho, 'rich, very 
 
 rich' 
 fuerte,foriezuelo 'strong, 
 
 not very strong?' 
 
 quiero ' I like.' 
 
 pero ' but ' 
 For the place of adjectives cf. 113. 
 
 I. Los padres son huenos y las madres son tambien buenas. 
 2. El bu en padre y la buena madre. 3. Los caballos son blancos. 
 4. Las buenas 7nanzanas de aqueldrbol son pequenas. 5. La gran 
 (15. /^) manzana hermosa. 6. Quiero a los discipulos diligentes. 
 7. La leche es blanca. 8. La linda nina es diligente, pero aque- 
 llos Q-llas') jovenes son perezosos {-sas). 9. La leccidn es facil, 
 pero el ejercicio es dificil. 10. La lengua espanola es mas facil 
 que la lengua alemana. 11. Aquel mal caballo es mejor^ {peer) 
 
 1 Words not found in the vocabularies are already explained in this Grammar. 
 
98 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 que la yegua. 12. Los Jngkses son mas blancos que las Espa- 
 noles. 13. Aquel hombre es menos feliz que su feliz hermana. 
 14. Tengo un discipulo bonisimo y diligentisimo . 15. Aquei 
 viejo hombre tiene vids de sets ('six') casas. 16. Su joven 
 pupila es ricacha (or riquisima). 17. La bonita chica es 
 fuerte, pero el chico es fortezuelo. 
 
 I. His horses are white, and the mare is also white. 2. The 
 pupil (m. and f.) is diligent. 3. His pretty sister is happy. 
 4. Those ruddy apples are very good. 5. The beautiful gardens 
 are green, and the pretty houses are white. 6. I speak the Span- 
 ish language {express ' language' in two ■Ways : it precedes ' Span- 
 ish'). 7. The lesson is more difficult than the exercise. 8. That 
 lazy little boy is the worst. 9. That pretty girl (little girl) is very 
 good. 10. That bad boy is less happy than his diligent sister. 
 II. Those houses are very white. 12. The young girl (two 
 ways') has more than six apples. 13. He has more bread than 
 milk. 14. Those old men are very rich (/,^rf^ zcayj). 15. His 
 little sister {two ways) is ailing (46). 
 
 VIII. Numerals. 
 
 el tio ' the uncle ' la tia ' the aunt ' 
 
 " auo ' the year ' " eslacion 'the season' 
 
 " mes 'the month' " semana 'the week" 
 
 " dia 'the day' " noche 'the night' 
 
 " minuto ' the minute ' " hora ' the hour ' 
 
 " cuarto ' the room ' " sala ' the hall ' 
 
 /^Ke>«oj ' we have (o?- hold) ' /f«m 'you have' /«eK«2 ' they have ' 
 
 hay 'there is (or are)' en 'in' 
 
 I. Su tio tiene dos casas ; en la una hay diez cuartos y tres 
 salas. 2. Su hermana tiene cinco ninos. 3. Una semana tiene 
 siete dtas; un mes treinta; y el ano tre(s)cientos sesenta y cinco 
 dlas. 4. En su jardin hay veintiocho drboles. 5. Mil cuatro- 
 
EXERCISES. 99 
 
 cientos noventa y dos. 6. La muchacha es la primera, y el mu- 
 chacho el quinto. * 
 
 I. His aunt has four sons and two daughters. 2. The day has 
 24 hours and the hour 60 minutes. 3. There are four seasons in 
 the year. 4. 1891 ; 1525. 5. The first and the third hour; the 
 twelfth month. 6. A day and a half ; (one) half (of) the day (51). 
 
 IX. Personal Prhnouns. 
 
 amor '(to) love' ofar '(to) give' ^uerer '(to) wish, like, love, 
 
 Pres. Ind. -. 'want, 
 
 amo ' I love ' doy 'I give ' juiero ' I wish ' (etc.) 
 
 amas ' thou lovest ' cfas ' thou givest ' quieres ' thou wishest ' 
 ama • he, she, it loves ' c^a 'he (etc.) gives ' juiere ' he (etc.) wishes ' / 
 
 Imperat. : 
 
 ama ' love ! ' da ' give ! ' quiere ' wish ! ' 
 
 queaar ' to burn ' ) ^^^. ,;^^ ^^^^, ver ' see ' ; gracias, ' thanks ' ; 
 trabajar ' to work ' ) mismo, ' self.' 
 
 Observe, according to § 59 : — 
 
 se (for &) lo : it to him (to her, to it). 
 se (" ") /«.-her " " ( " " ). 
 se (" les") lo : it to them (m. or f.) ; etc. 
 
 1. A Spaniard calls every object, whether living or not, 'he' or 'she,' 
 never ' it ' (which he uses only for adjectives, phrases, or in pointing to things 
 without naming them) . He will say : ' I have him (viz., the book) , her (viz., 
 the flower), thetn (los or las, viz., the books, the flowers).' 
 
 2. The meaning of the atonic dat. pronoun may be made more distinct or 
 emphatic by using also (as is frequently done) the tonic form with a after the 
 verb, or before the atonic (unless appended). Thus, for le (dat.) doy, which 
 might mean 'I give him {or her, it, you)' may be used, according to the in- 
 tended sense le doy d el ('him,' d ella ' her,' d ello 'it,' d Usted 'you ') ; or 
 d el ie doy (etc.). So likewise, me doy d mi, etc. 
 
 3. Usted ' you ' is ordinarily used at least once in every sentence. 
 
 I. Yo trabajo, pero el habla. (Are jc<?, f/ necessary?) 2. Le 
 amo; (Give case and possible meanings of le. Also other con- 
 
100 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 structions to make them clear or emphatic) ; le amas ; los ama 
 (other constructions for los). 3. Habla de mi, de el, de ellas. 
 
 4. Trabaja conmigo, con ella. 5. Usied (or V.) tiene un 
 buen libra. 6. Le doy a V. la flor (or a V. le doy la flor). 
 7. Le doy mil gracias. 8. Dame una buena pluma. 9. Tienes 
 una florecita {iin buen fusil), dkmela (ddmelo : accent?). 10. 
 Quiero darle (meanings? constructions?) libros ; quiere darks 
 libros. II. Quiere trabajar contigo. 12. Amdndole, habla 
 con ella. 13. Tiene un baston, me le (or ?) da; os le da. 
 14. Tienes una carta, ddmela ; ddnosla. 15. Ddndonoslos ; 
 ddndolesnos ; ddndomela ; ddndoleme (possible meanings?). 
 16. Tengo el papel, se (59; possible meanings and renderings?) 
 lo (or ?) doy. 17. Se los da d ellos. 18. Se le doy a el (d ella, 
 a ellos, a ellas, a V.). 19. Ddsele (or ?). 20. Tengo unas 
 flores, quiero ddrselos d ella. 21. Le quiero d V. 22. V. es 
 muy bueno (or buena acc'g to the gender of V.) ; VV. son muy 
 buenos (or buenas). 23. Se olvida. 24. Se ha quemado. Se 
 ha quemado V. ? 24. Habla de si , di si mismo. 
 
 I. He loves her; I love them {m.) ; you love us. 2. He 
 speaks of me, of you, and of her. 3. He works with me and 
 with her. 4. We work, but he does not work (== ' not works '). ■ 
 
 5. I give you (use double form) a good book and good pens. 
 
 6. You give me a pen, and I render you thanks. 7. Give us 
 (some) milk and bread. 8. I wish to see them, and to work 
 with them. 9. Loving her, I wish to see her and render her a 
 thousand thanks. 10. Here (is) the book; I give it to you; I 
 give it to her ; I give it to them. 11. I have five apples, and I 
 gave them to you : I give them to him (to her) ; I give them to 
 them. 12. He loves himself; they love each other (91.2). 
 
 ' Though a mastery of the ordinary grammar forms, with sufficient 
 exercises to aid in their assimilation, is preparation enough for beginning 
 intelligent reading, yet as many desire also some practice in composition, and 
 
EXERCISES. lOI 
 
 some familiarity with the most ordinary phrases of every-day use, additional 
 exercises in small print are for their benefit given from this point on. For 
 words, consult the vocabulary at the end of the book. 
 
 hace ' he Cshe, it) makes or does ' ; ' it is,' referring to weather. 
 
 3. Conjugate verbs in ar like amar, above. 
 
 4. Verbs in ar form the partic. in -ailo : am-ar, am-ado, loved. 
 
 " " -er 7 . , ( quer-er, -ido, wished, etc. 
 
 f- *' -ido : ■< 
 
 " " -ir y ( viv-ir, -ido, lived. 
 
 I. She has spoken to me of you. 2. I do not have (^expressed only by 
 ' have not ') the paper, I have given it to you. 3. She shows him (her, them) 
 the drawings. 4. She has received him cordially, but he does not want ('wants 
 not') to speak to him. 5. It is evident that he speaks of me and not of her. 
 6. Here is the book; I have given it to him (her, them, you, use both tonic 
 and atonic forni)^ 7. I am looking for ('seek,' with dat.) the servant, but I 
 do not find him; I am looking for ('seek,' ace.) the cane, but I do not find it. 
 8. He wants it, but I do not want it. 9. She calls herself Fanny, and he calls 
 himself Charles. lo. Do you wish to come with me, or with her? 11. My 
 brother is angry with him, because he makes himself ridiculous to her. 
 12. He teaches her (him, them, you) Spanish {,def. art.). 13. He does not 
 wish to tell me the truth; he does not wish to tell it to us. 14. She has not 
 promised it to him {aton. and ton.). 15. Here is the book; I have given it 
 to her {aton. and ton.), to them, to you. 16. I like you (^f. dat.), and I give 
 you what I have not given him. 17. That man loves himself, and always 
 speaks of himself. 
 
 SALUTATIONS. 
 
 {Tenga K) buenos dias, buenas tardes , Good-moming, good afternoon, good 
 
 buenas noches, Senor! evening, sir! {^Tenga, 'Have'; 
 
 Tentr, cf. vocab.) 
 
 ^ Como estd (or lo pasa, or se halla) V.? How are you (do you do, etc.) ? 
 
 Muy {Medianamente) bien, gracias or Very (Middling) well, thank you. 
 
 para servir d V. Tal cual. So so. 
 
 Me alegro saberlo. I am glad to know it. 
 
 Estoy algo indispuesto, me duele la I am somewhat indisposed, I have 
 
 cabeza, the headache. 
 
 Lo siento muclio. I am very sorry. 
 
 Quede (or Vaya to one leaving) V. con Good-bye ! 
 
 Dios ! 
 
I02 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 X. JPossessives. 
 
 el cardcter "the character' la disposicidn 'the disposition ' 
 
 " coraje ' the courage ' " intrepidez ' the intrepidity ' 
 
 " merito ' the merit ' " virtud ' the virtue ' 
 
 " recuerdo ' the remembrance ' " memoria ' the memory ' 
 
 z/rt/iCM^f ' brave, strong * z/zVVmojo ' virtuous ' cfi^tf ' dear, costly ' 
 
 intrepido * intrepid ' nieritorio ' meritorious ' queyido * dear, loved * 
 
 The possessive agrees with the object possessed (l2l). 
 
 I. Hi querido hermano y el tuyo. 2. Jw (five possible mean- 
 ings) hermana ; (or for distinction, su h. de el, de ella, de ellos, 
 de ellas, de V. : ci. J2^). 3. Za disposicibn de mis hijos y de 
 hs suyos ; de mis hijas y de las suyas es buena. 4. Habla de 
 vuestro merito y de vuestras virtudes. 5. (Yo) amo d mi cara 
 tnadre ; amo a sus hijas (or a las hijas de el, etc., cf. sent. 2). 
 6. Doy pan a sus intrepidos ninos y al m'lO. 7. Mi querido 
 amigo or Querido amigo mio (in address). 8. £s un amigo m'lo 
 (obs. 'of mine'). 9. Unos amigos suyos. 10. El caballo 
 bianco es suyo. 
 
 I. His good sister and mine ; his brave brotiier and mine; his 
 dear brothers and mine. 2. The memory of his intrepidity and 
 of yours ; of her courage and of theirs. 3. I speak of thy virtues 
 and of hers, of thy character and of hers. 4. He speaks of our 
 dear sisters and of yours. 5 . Give that great book to your uncle 
 and mine. 6. The remembrance of his good disposition and of 
 hers is dear to me (atonic). 7. My dear friend. 8. A friend 
 of mine is here. 9. He is in our house. 10. The milk is his. 
 The lazy boy is his, not mine. 
 
 hail ' they have ' ; son ' they are ' ; dicho ' said, told.' 
 
 liace 'he (she, it) makes, does'; 'it (there) is,' refer, to weather. 
 
 -a, Imperat., ' repeat (thou) ' 
 repas-ar ' to repeat ' -j -ad, " " (ye) ' 
 
 -e, Subjunct., " (you=your honor)'. 
 
EXERCISES. 103 
 
 1. Use ei . . . de Usted (or, rather more elegantly, su . . . de Usted) for 
 ' your ' whenever su might be unclear : ' I have his paper and your pen,' tengo 
 su papel, y la (or su) pluina de V. 
 
 I. My uncle cares for her support and education. 2. His sister has lost 
 her son and her daughter. 3, She has not taken her hat, but yours. 4. Re- 
 peat your lesson, children ! 5. Repeat your lesson, sir ! 6. Charles is an ac- 
 quaintance of mine. 7. Do you have your cane? No, sir, I have your cane. 
 8. My friend and my brothers have spoken of you. 9. The chestnut horse is 
 his. 10. It is my fault that I did not come ('have not come') yesterday. 
 II. No, it is my fault, and not yours. 12. He is a neighbor of ours (' our ') 
 and of the Mexican minister's ('minister'). 13. My brother has come to ask 
 you for ('to ask you,' dat^ a book of his. 14. They have spoken of our 
 friend and of yours. 15. She has told you that the houses are hers and not 
 theirs. 
 
 THANKS. 
 
 Muchas (or mil, or muchisimas) Many (very many) thanks. 
 
 gracias. 
 
 Le doy (pres. of dar,- ' give ') gracias. I thank you. 
 
 Quedo d V. muy agradecido. I am much obliged to you. 
 
 Agradezco mucho el favor que V, vte I am very thankful for the favor you 
 
 hace. do me. 
 
 Es V. muy cories {galdn, cumplidd). You are very kind (polite, courteous). 
 
 No hay de que. Don't mention it. You are vifelcome. 
 
 XI. Demonstratives. 
 
 mucho 'much ' muy ' very ' pobre ' poor ' 
 
 leido ' read ' (part.) parece appears, seems. 
 
 I. Ests hombre es mas fuerte que ese. 2. Esta casa cs mAs 
 grande que esa, aquella mucho mas grande. 3. Estos libros son 
 mejores que aquellos. 4. Habla de aquellas casas blancas. 5. 
 Tengo este libro y el de mi pobre amigo ; estos libros y los de mis 
 pobres amigos. 6. Aquel muchachillo es muy bueno. 7. i Ha 
 leido V. esto ? 8. Eso parece imposible. 9. Aquel lo no es su 
 opinion. 10. Aquella no es su opinion. 
 
I04 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 I . This boy is poorer than that one ; this girl is prettier than 
 that one. 2. These pens are better than those. 3. I spoke of 
 my book and of my brother's (=' that of my brother') j of my 
 house and of my uncle's ; of my flowers and my sister's. 4. Has 
 your uncle read this? 5. That does not seem ('not seems ') to 
 me probable. 
 
 soy ' I am ' (by nature), estoy ' I am ' (incidentally). 
 
 hay (for ha-\-y 'there') 'there is, there are, it is', mirad (cf. repasar, x) 
 ' behold ! lo ! ' ; visto ' seen.' 
 
 I. This city in which {donde) I am. 2. That city in which you (2) are (i). 
 3. That city in which your uncle is. 4. Those women are his cousins, but 
 these are (aaV it) not. 5. I have received these letters this morning. 6. This 
 gentleman's name is (' gentleman calls himself ') Charles, and that lady's 
 name is Mary. 7. Have you seen this? It is very pretty. 8. Has your 
 brother read that? 9. That is not of much consequence. 10. Behold these 
 beautiful trees! 11. Lo, yon ('those') lofty mountains. 12. To me that 
 seems impossible ('to me', ton. and aton.'). 13. There is a big man in that 
 house. 14. There are thirty days in this month. 
 
 WEATHER. 
 
 g Que tiempo hace? What kind of weather is it. 
 
 Hace muy buen tiempo. It is very fine weather. 
 
 Hace mal tiempo. It is bad weather. 
 
 Hace mucho sol. It is very sunny. 
 
 Hace mucho calor {^frio'). It is very warm (cold). 
 
 Hace mucho viento (or aire) . It is very windy. 
 Llueve {estd lloviendo') ; truena ; nueve ; It rains (is raining); it thunders, it 
 graniza. snows; it is hailing. 
 
 XH. Interrogativea and Relatives, 
 
 el correo ' the post (-office). la carta ' the letter ' 
 
 el dia ' the day ' la fecha ' the date ' 
 
 digo '1 S3.y,' fllV^j ' thou sayest,' dice 'he says'; dicha ' said, told.' 
 
 1. Que is especially used for a required continuation; quien and el cual 
 chiefly where the previous thought is complete in itself (also after a long 
 clause, or to distinguish gender and number). 
 
EXERCISES. 105 
 
 2. After a preposition qtu referring to persons is supplanted by quien. But 
 it may be used as personal object without the ordinary d. 
 
 3. For ctiyo is used also, and often preferably, de quien. 
 
 4. Cuyo agrees with the object possessed (Synt. 128). It may be repeated 
 before different genders. 
 
 I. g Quien es ? i Quienes son? 2. ^^ De quien habla V.? 
 £ A quien da V. el libro ? i Con quien es trabaja V. ? 3. ^ Cuyo 
 es este libro ? (or / Ciiyo libro es este ? or i De quien es este libro? ) 
 4. I Ciiyas (or i De quihi) son las manzanas coloradas que iiene 
 en las (or sus) manos ? 5- g A cud/ de vuestros amigos he visto ? 
 6. i Cudles son estos hombres valientes ? 7. Cual es la feeha de 
 la carta ? 8. g Que hora es ? / Que dice ? <). g De ctiyos 
 caballos habla V.? Tengo un amigo quien (or el cual) es muy 
 rico. 10. La viujer que (not la cual) estd aqui es hermosisima. 
 II. Los hombres de quienes habla V. son muy males. 12. Las 
 casas de que (not quienes) hablas son mias. 13. Trabaja con 
 su hijo, el cual (or quien) es muy diligente. 14. La fecha de 
 la carta que he visto es el diezy siete de abril. 15. Eljoven cuyo 
 padre y (^cuya) madre estdn en la casa es fortezuelo. 16. El 
 hombre que (or a quien) ama es un amigo m'w. 
 
 I. Who speaks? 2. Who are these little boys? 3. With 
 whom {sing, or pi.) do you work? 4. Whose is this house {three 
 ■ways) ? 5. Whose houses are these? 6. Of which of the two 
 letters do you speak? 7. What do you say of these pretty 
 flowers? 8. What is the date of these letters? What does he 
 say (' says he ') ? 9. How good he is ! 10. He has a sister who 
 is very pretty. 11. He has a book which is very bad. 12. The 
 man (men) whom I have seen is (are) very happy. 13. The 
 houses which are white are very pretty. 14. I like the man 
 whose son and daughter (whose sons and daughters) are here. 
 15. I like that boy's old aunt, who is very good to the poor (pi.). 
 
 cual ' like ' to que ' which' (' a thing which', refer, to statement). 
 
 que (+ noun) ian, 'what a (-|-noun)' 
 
 acaiar ' complete' : acabar de 'have just' (done a thing). 
 
I06 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 I. What men have you seen? 2. Which man have you seen? 3. \\Tio 
 has said that to you? 4. What is the date of your letter? 5. Which ones 
 (■'which') of your books have you sold? 6. Who (Which) are the ladies 
 that have come? 7. To whom has the stranger spoken? 8. Whose book is 
 this? {express two ways). 9. The boy who has just gone out ('completes to 
 go out'). 10. The ladies whom {two ways') you have seen. n. I seek the 
 man whom you seek. 12. This is the man to whom you owe yoiu: {def. art.) 
 life. 13. You are the man whom {two ways) I seek. 14. I have seen the 
 same flowers that you have seen. 15. The father whose children {pers. obj.) 
 you have seen {express 'whose' two ways). i5. It is difficult to determine 
 which {indir. inierrog.) of the two has spoken better. 17. What a furious 
 lion ! 18. The criminals are condemned, which causes a general sensation. 
 
 WEATHER {contiuued). 
 
 Hace un tievipo viuy variable. It is very changeable weather. 
 
 Hace tuna (or claridad de tuna). It is moonUght. 
 
 Hay niebla ; hay neblina. It is foggy (misty) . 
 
 Hay humedad. It is damp. 
 
 Hay vtucko polvo. It is very dusty. 
 
 Hay iempeitad. It is stormy. 
 
 Me parece que Uoverd (f ut.) . It looks to me as if it were going to 
 
 rain (' that it will rain') . 
 
 XIII. Indefinites. 
 
 decir (inf.) ' say, saying ' dire ' I shall say ' sin ' without ' 
 
 I. Alguien te da este libra. 2. iTiene V. a/go bueno {or 
 alguna cosa buena) ? 3. Nadie habla (or No habla nadie) de 
 aquel hombreztielo. 4. No quiere a nadie. 5. No tengo nada, 
 6. Sin decir nada. 7. No lo dire a quienquiera. 8. / Quien 
 es fulano? Cada flor que he visto es blanca. 9. Quiero ciertos 
 libros. 10. Tienen (viii) los muchachos sendos libros. 11. Se 
 lo dire d V. afro dia. 12. Algunas de las casas de que hablas 
 tienen cinco 6 ('or') seis ctiartos. 13. Ninguno de sus amigos estd 
 aqut. 14. Tengo dos manzanas ; no quiero d ninguna de las 
 dos ; no quiero a ningunas. 15. Lo dire d todo discipulo diligente ; 
 
EXERCISES. 107 
 
 d todos disc'ipulos diligentes. 16. Dame tin libra cualquiera ; 
 algunos libros cualesquienx. 17. El mismo hombre. 18. Mis 
 misinos amigos. 
 
 I. I have something good. 2. I have nothmg. 3. I shall not 
 say anything. 4. I shall not say it to anybody ; to anybody vi^ho- 
 soever. 5. He speaks without saying anything. 6. Nobody has 
 seen {hvo rcuvs) the little boy. 7. Every tree in the garden is 
 green. 8. Some flowers are white and some are red. 9. Here 
 (are) the pens, I do not want (=wish) them, I have others. 
 
 10. The four girls have each a flower in their hand. 11. The 
 same dayj the same night. 12. My very brothers. 
 
 veo ' I see ' zioy ' I go (am going, am about) ' 
 
 I. Algo, as adverb, 'somewhat, rather' 
 
 ^. (Wi)) , . . nada, as adverb, ' not at all, by no means.' 
 
 3. QuiemjuUia is often followed by que. 
 
 I. Somebody has seen it; nobody has seen it (two ways). 2. I have seen 
 some one (</«/. eij.') ; I have seen nobody (Aco mays). 3. Do you seek some- 
 thing? No, sir, I seek somebody. 4. Is the girl doing anything useful? 
 5. You are rather inqubitive. 6. Some one of my friends has the book. 
 7. No one is certain of the hour of his death. 8. I am going to see some of 
 my horses. 9. I see nobody. 10. I am seeking, but I do not find anything. 
 
 11. Who has my pens? Nobody. Nobody has them {Jwoways). 12. This 
 unhappy girl says nothing to anybody. 13, He speaks without any (Synt. 
 § 136) preparation. 14. That man has come here without seeing anybody. 
 15. She does not advance at all in her studies; still she has some (§ 25 a) 
 musical talent. 16. Have you another horse, other horses, some other horses? 
 17. I have to go out at any time. 18. Buy any books! 19. Any food is 
 good for him who (para quien) is hungry. 20. Whoever it be (sea) he has 
 done wrong in saying (infinit.) it. 
 
 WEATHER (continued). 
 
 Ltueve d cdniaros. It is pouring down (cf. vocab.). 
 
 Henios tenido un aguacero. We have had a shower.. 
 
 Las nubes se disipan. The clouds are dispersing. 
 
 El tiempo se aclara. The weather is clearing up. 
 
I08 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Cde aguanieve. There is sleet falling. 
 
 Estoy cansado del invierno, quiero que I am tired of the winter, I wish the 
 
 venga la primavera. spring may come. 
 
 Mejico (or Mexico, § 1 1 ) tiene muy Mexico has a very fine climate. 
 
 buen clima. 
 
 XIV. Regular Verbs without Change. 
 
 hablar * speak ' comer ' eat ' dividir * divide ' 
 
 cantar ' sing ' romper ' break ' sufrir ' suffer ' 
 
 hallar ' find ' vender ' sell ' unir ' unite ' 
 
 ohiidar ' forget ' expander ' expend, vivir ' live ' 
 
 estudiar ' study ofender ' offend ' recibir ' receive ' 
 
 quedar 'remain ' ; also ' be ' era ' was ' 
 
 »««««»« 'morning; tomorrow ' ay^r ' yesterday ' siempre ' ai.vi3.ys' 
 
 I. Hablo,^ como, uno, vivo; hable, coma, viva. 2. Halla,^ 
 vende, vive. 3. Cantaba, ofendia, media. 4. Olvidare, comere, 
 sufrlre. 5. Estudiaria, ofenderia, viviria. 6. Olvidamos (2 
 tenses) olvidemos ; comemos, comimos ; unimos (2 tenses). 7. 
 Hablare, hablare ; hablaremos, hablaremos ; rompere, rompiere ; 
 sufrire,sufriere. 8. Cantais, canteis ; vendeis,vendais ; divid'is, 
 dividdis. 9. Esiudiaron, estudiardn, estudiaren. 10. ' Expenda- 
 mos, expendemos, expendimos. 1 1 . HabUmonos ; unios ; olvidaos. 
 12. Quedo feliz. 
 
 Translate, and give the principal parts of all the verbs not marked irregular : 
 
 Un dla Uegando el emperador Josd a una ciudad antes que su 
 acompanamiento, le pregunt6 el ama de la posada, si perte- 
 necla (381) al s6quito del emperador. "No," respondi6 el prin- 
 cipe. Sin embargo, con tan laconica respuesta no qued6 
 satisfecha la curiosidad de la buena mujer. Bused un pretexto 
 para entrar en su cuarto, y viendole {irr., ver ' see ') ocupado 
 
 - Items in heavy type to be specially explained, as usual. 
 2 Give in each case all possible meanings. 
 
EXERCISES. 109 
 
 en afeitarse, le pregunto, si tenia (irr.) algun cargo cerca del 
 emperador. "SI," respondib el monarca, " algunas veces le 
 afeito.'' 
 
 I. We love the brave. 2. We should always love those who 
 love us. 3. He always (2) spoke (i) of your pretty flowers 
 4. I shall speak to-morrow to my sister. 5. The young man 
 should study more the masters. 6. He was studying much the 
 whole day. 7. Will you sell those houses to the German who 
 dined ('has dined') with you? 8. When did you receive this 
 letter? I received it yesterday. 9. You would offend him in 
 saying {infinity it. 10. We should live without forgetting (in- 
 finit.) our friends, and without offending them. 11. He was 
 wishing that the old woman might not suffer. 
 
 After the conditional si ' if ' use the subjunctive (present or future with a 
 future; and imperfect or conditional with a conditional in the main clause : 
 § 151 b, iS4a-d). 
 
 I. We think it will rain. 2. He thought it would rain. 3. They assure 
 me that they will keep silence. 4. She will find her friend if she looks for 
 ('seeks') him. 5. I would depart this evening, if I received the letter, and 
 found my\friend. 6. God loves those who are virtuous. 7. Will you speak to- 
 morrow to the doctor? 8. I would speak with the doctor if he remained 
 (were) here. 9. I shall ask him if he will be long getting there ('will delay 
 to arrive'). 10. I asked him if he would be long getting there. 11. Will 
 you look for ('Do you wish to seek,' qr fui.') my books and pens? 12. I 
 would look for them (cf. § 113c), if time (def. arl.") allowed. 13. I fyou loved 
 good books (^def.') you would be more instructed. 14. I was wishing he 
 might speak, but he did not speak a word. 15. 1 shall speak to my friend if 
 I find him, but nobody has seen him this morning. 
 
 RAILROAD. 
 
 / A que hora sale el tren ? Partire At what time does the first train 
 for el primer tren. leave? I shall go with the first 
 
 train. 
 
no 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 El tren sale d las once en punto, pero 
 se para por los pueblos ile la linea. 
 
 Sirvase pedirme un coche. 
 Dime dos billetes para C. 
 Quiero registrar mi equipaje. 
 i Hay cambio de wagones para C. ? 
 Vaya d buscar el baiil, yo esperare aqui. 
 
 The train leaves at eleven, sharp, 
 but it stops at the villages on the 
 line. 
 
 Please order a carriage for me. 
 
 Give me two tickets for C. 
 
 I want to resister my baggage. 
 
 Is there any change of cars for C. ? 
 
 Go and find the trunk, I shall wait 
 here. 
 
 XV- Hegular Verbs with Orthographical Changes. 
 
 tocar ' touch ' 
 pagar ' pay ' 
 llegar ' arrive, succeed ' 
 menguar ' decay ' 
 alcanzar ' reach ' 
 
 eager ' gather ' 
 veneer ' vanquish ' 
 naeer * be bom ' 
 carecer ' want ' 
 leer ' read ' 
 
 dirigir ' direct ' 
 distinguir ' distinguish ' 
 lucir ' shine ' 
 bullir ' boil ' 
 plahir ' lament ' 
 
 I . Toca, tocas, toque, toques ; toco, toque ; tocamos, toquemos. 
 
 2. Pago, pagas ; pague, pagues ; pague ; llegamos, Ikguemos. 
 
 3. Menguo, menguas ; meng'ue, mengues. 4. Alcanzo, alcanza ; 
 alcance, alcance ; alcanzdis, akanceis. 5. Cojo, coges ; coja, 
 cogio. 6. Venzo, vences ; venza ; vend. 7. Nacer, nazco, 
 naces, nace ; nazca, nazcas. 8. Carecer, carezco, carece ; 
 carezca, carecio. 9. Dirijo ; dirigire. 10. Distingo, distingue s ; 
 distinga ; distinguiere. 1 1 . Lucir, luzco, luce ; luzca, lucid. 
 12. Bzdlo, bulks ; bulla ; bidleron ; bullera. 13. Piano ; piano ; 
 planeron ; planese. 14. Leer, leo, lees; kyo ; kyera, kyesen, 
 leyendo. 
 
 Translate and give principal parts of regular verbs (marking orthographic 
 changes) : 
 
 Un estornino sediento hall6 una garrafa Uena de agua, 6 {for 
 y, § 104) immediatamente procur6 beber, pero el agua llegaba 
 al cuello de la garrafa, y el pico del pajaro no la alcanzaba. 
 
 Se puso {irr. ' he put ') luego a picar la garrafa a fin de hacer 
 (irr.) un agujerito; pero en vano, porque el vidrio era muy 
 
EXERCISES. I I I 
 
 grueso. Entonces intent6 voltear la garrafa para derramar el 
 agua. Pero no logr6 de hacerlo, porque era muy pesado. Al 
 fin hall6 un expediente que se le logr6 ; ech6 poco A poco en la 
 garrafa una cantidad tan grande de pedrecitas, que causaron 
 subir el agua a la distancia que su pico alcanzaba, y luego apago 
 su sed. 
 
 I. I arrived yesterday at Madrid. 2. I shall arrive at Madrid 
 to-morrow. 3. I do not believe he will arrive (suij. § 151 c) 
 so soon. 4. Have you paid your tailor? Do pay him ('may 
 you pay' subj.) him! 5. I did pay (' paid,' /r^/.) him yester- 
 day. 6. Avoid bad company {def. § 107, i), and seek the good. 
 7. He does not distinguish the genuine from imitation. 8. It is 
 not very probable they will conquer {subj., § 151 c). 9. I 
 doubt that he appears [subj.') alarmed; but at the same time 
 I am not certain that that man will pay him what he owes him. 
 
 (Hje ' I said', dijis/e ' thou saidst ' liijo ' he said ' 
 
 The adverb usually follows the verb. 
 
 I. It is necessary to pay one's ('that one pay,' suij., his') debts. 2. I 
 have two horses, select one or the other, it matters not which. 3. He has not 
 failed in his duties and I do not believe he ever fails in them. 4. The man 
 who conquers his passions (dat.) is more estimable than the man who is con- 
 quered by them. 5. I doubt that he will ever conquer his passions. 6. Do 
 not beat me, sir, said the poor boy, I suffer much from my infirmity. 7. Did 
 you come (use llegar) from Madrid ? No, sir, I have come from Salamanca. 
 Last time I came from Madrid. 8. Thinking that he was (use estar') reading 
 the newspaper, I read the whole (§ 137) letter. 9. We easily forget our de- 
 fects, believing that the world does not know ('ignores') them. 10. As soon 
 as I arrived, I sought the hotel, and breakfasted there {en elld). 
 
 NEWS. 
 
 I Que hay de nuevo ? What news? 
 
 ^- Que noiicia hay (or tenemos) ? What news is there? 
 
 i Que se dice de bueno ? What is the best news? 
 
 iNada, nada ! Nada he oido. Nothing at all ! I have not heard 
 
 anything. 
 
112 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Hay { Tenemos) noticias importantes. There is important news. . 
 
 Se habla de guerra. There is talk of war, 
 
 Rs una viala noticia. That is bad news. 
 
 Son noticias singulares, pero las gacetas That is singular news, but the papers 
 dan campo d la fantasia. give free range to the fancy. 
 
 Translate; note verbs with thematic e or o, and give principal parts of those 
 which change these vowels: — 
 
 Envi6 una vez la ciudad de Perusa tres comisionados a solicitar 
 del enfermo Papa Urbano Quinto el arreglo de cierto negocio. Uno 
 de ellos que era doctor y elegido de hablar aprendi6 de memoria 
 un larglsimo discurso. 
 
 Llegado el momento de la audiencia, el importuno doctor pro- 
 nunci6 toda su molestisima obra. Urbano lo toler6 sin interrum- 
 pirlo, aunque se dejaba ver la violencia en que ello hacla. Acabada 
 la oraci6n, el Papa, sin negar ni conceder, pregunt6 a los comisio- 
 nados si quartan {irr., § 88) otra cosa. Entonces uno de los dos 
 que habla notado el disgusto con que el Papa habla escuchado al 
 doctor, le dijo (irr.) : 
 
 '■' Santlsimo padre, otra clausula ha insertado nuestra ciudad en 
 la comisi6n, y es que si Vuestra Beatitud no nos concede lo que 
 pedimos, el doctor vuelva a relatar todo su serm6n." 
 
 I. I think you will lose your day. 2. Think what you like ! 
 3. He denies that he is trembling {subj.), but we think he 
 trembles much. 4. We lose our time, and you, gentlemen, are 
 losing yours. 5. He talks a good deal ('much'), but I do not 
 understand anything. 6. I am not mistaken when I say that he 
 does not understand me, and that he ascribes everything to her. 
 7. He has not attributed it to her, but to her sister, to his sister 
 (^distinguish). 8. He sleeps ten hours and loses much time. 
 9. He lost much time sleeping. 10. If his poor little sister has 
 not died, I think she will die this night, r i . He does not serve in 
 the army, but he has served there three years. 12. They asked him 
 not to groan (que with cond. sufy'.), but he thought he would die. 
 
EXERCISES. 113 
 
 I. This noise disturbs me. 2. I confess my fault. Why do you not also 
 confess yours? 3. I prefer this pretty house to that. Which do you prefer, 
 sir? (gentlemen?). 4. They wake up every morning at five (§ 115). When 
 do you wake up? 5. This child is not yet teething, but I think ('that') it 
 will teethe soon. 6. My stomach is very weak ; it hardly digests anything. 
 Eat less and it will digest better. 7. Never lie ; a man who lies is always de- 
 spised. 8. When do you begin ? I shall begin immediately, if you wish {add 
 'it'). 9. Good children always cling to their parents. 10. Always shun bad 
 companions. 11. I repent of my fickleness, and ask you to pardon me. 
 1 2. Are the children asleep ('sleep the c.') ? They do not sleep yet, but I 
 think they will soon be sleeping ('soon sleep '). 13. Napoleon died on (f«) 
 the island of St. Helena the 5th (§ 114 a) of May, 1821. 14. All died as 
 brave soldiers will die. 15. The officer girded his sword, and we all girded 
 our swords. 16. I felt quite well that he had need of us; we all felt that we 
 needed each other ('had need the ones of the others'). 17. What do you 
 ask of (oOT/V'of ') me? I ask you to follow (que with subj.') me. 18. Ask 
 what (§ 69) you wish, it will be given you ('it will give itself to you'). 
 19. He took leave of his children, who followed him sighing, and asked him 
 to return ('that' with subj.') soon. 20. At what, time (ora) do you go to 
 bed? Ordinarily I go to bed at ten o'clock (§ 115). 
 
 AT A HOTEL. 
 
 Deme un cuarto con una cama. Give me a room with one bed. 
 
 i M020, es ya hora de comer? Waiter, is it meal time? 
 
 Trdigame la carta (or listd) . Bring me the bill of fare. 
 
 Quiero huevos frescos, una taza de cafe, I want fresh eggs, a cup of coffee, 
 
 maniecay las tostadas. butter and toast. 
 
 Tomare sopa de came con legumbres. I will take soup with vegetables. 
 
 Trdigame asado y ensalada. Bring me some roast beef and salad. 
 
 Alcdnceme la pimienta y4a mostaza. Reach me the pepper and the mus- 
 tard. 
 
 Trdiganos dos tabacos habanos. Bring us two Havana cigars. 
 
 XVI. Regular Verbs with Phonetic Changes. 
 
 A. Pensar Verbs. 
 
 tentar 'iry' rogar 'ask' mover 'move' 
 
 temblar 'tremble' forzar 'force' cocer 'cook* 
 
1,4 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 n^gar 'deny' perder ' lose ' torcer ' twist ' 
 
 errar ' err,be mistakeu'en/ender 'understand' o/er 'smell' 
 
 vo/ar ' fly' 
 
 B. Sentir Verbs. 
 
 vientir 'lie' erguir 'raise up'(84.B.')OTo>-«> 'die' 
 
 discernir ' discern ' dormir sleep ' 
 
 C. Pedir Verbs. 
 
 gemir 'groan' servir 'serve' cenir 'gird' 
 
 D. HuiR Verbs. 
 
 atribuir ' ascribe ' argiiir ' argue ' 
 
 I. Tiento,tienta,tentamos; te7it6 ; tiemble, tietnbien ; temblara. 
 
 2. Niego, negais ; nie-gue (80), neguemos ; nieguen; negue, nego, 
 
 3. Yei'fo(&6),erramos ; yerre,erremos ; yerren; erraria. 4. Vuelo, 
 volamos, vuelan ; vuela, volemos ; volad, volase. 5. Ruegan; 
 rue-gue ; rogue, rogare. 6. Fuerzo, fuerce ; fuerza; force. 
 7. Pierdas, pierdan; entiendes ; entendia. 8. Mueve, mueven; 
 mueva; movi; moviese. 9. Cuez-o (81), cuec-es ; cuez-a; 
 cocian ; cocio ; tuerzo, torzamos ; torcieren. 10. hueh (80), 
 hueles, huele, olemos, oleis, huelen. 11. Mentis, mienten ; 
 mienia, mintamos ; mentl, mintto, fnintieron ; vientire ; mintiere ; 
 discierne ; discirniese. 12. Yergo (80) or irgo, yergue or irgue, 
 erguimos, erguls, yergiien or irguen ; ergul, irguio. 13. Muere, 
 muereti; muramos ; morian ; mori, murio, inurieron ; tnuriendo ; 
 muerto (84 B., Note 2) ; durmieramos. 14. Sirvo, servimos, 
 sirva, sirvan ; servid; servi ; sirvio, sirvieron ; sirvieren; sir- 
 vieran ; gime, gimen. 15. Cino, cine ; cent, cino (for cinio, 84), 
 cineron. 16. Atribuyes, atribuimos, airibuyen ; atribui, atribuyo ; 
 arguya ; argut, arguyo ; argiiiriamos. 
 
 XVII. Irregular Verbs, § 87, i. 
 
 Point out the irregularity of each irregular form : — 
 
 I. Caigan, cae,cayendo,caigamos. 2. Yace, yazga, yaz, yacHs. 
 ^. Asio, asire, asgo, asimos. 4. Oigo, oyo, oia,oiremos. 5. Valer, 
 
EXERCISES. 1 1 5 
 
 (' be worth, be valid ; protect ') , valdrlan, valgais, valed. 6. Sal- 
 gdis, saldreis, saldriamos, salgan. 7. Traigamos, trajeron, traje, 
 trajese. 8. Pone, ponga, puse, pondrdn. 9. Tengais, tuviste, 
 (uvierdis, tendrds. 10. Viene,vine,ven,vendrds,vengan. \\. Ha- 
 gdis, hard, hizo, hiciera, haz. hacer saber, ' make known ' (lit. 
 ' know ') . decir que si (^que no) , ' say yes (no ') . 
 
 Give the principal parts of stem-changing and irregular verbs : — 
 
 Vino un escribano para extender el testamento de un hombre 
 soltero. Pero como el enfermo habia fallecido antes de su Uegada, 
 los sobrinos del difunto discurrieron atar una cuerdecita a su cuello 
 para que moviese la cabeza como diciendo que si. Oyendo el 
 escribano que no podia hablar el enfermo y que haria saber por 
 senas su voluntad, se puso a ejecutar las formulas de costumbre. 
 Uno de los sobrinos dijo al tio muerto : " i Deja V. k su sobrino 
 Juan el molino que tiene V. en la ribera? " El que tenia la cuerda 
 tir6, y la cabeza se mene6 como diciendo " Si." Otro de los so- 
 brinos dijo : " I Deja V. a su sobrino Felipe sus haciendas de 
 caf6?" La cabeza se raovi6 lo mismo que para el anterior. 
 Entonces el escribano dirigiendose al muerto dijo : " i Deja V. al 
 escribano que otorga este testamento doscientas acres de tierra? " 
 La cabeza yacia imm6vil. " j Valgame Dios ! " exclamd el escri- 
 bano, " i 6 la cuerda se tira para todos 6 para ninguno ! " 
 
 Look up new words in the vocabulary : — 
 
 I. Bring me paper and pens. 2. The letter-carrier has brought 
 this letter. 3. I shall have to leave within a few days. 4. I come 
 to congratulate you. 5. What is the matter with you ('What 
 have you ') ? I have a headache. 6. Show me ('make me see ') 
 that book with the pictures. 7. I wish they may make him come. 
 8. Do me the favor to lend me your Spanish book. I shall do so 
 (^' it') vfith much -pleasure (muy iuena gana). 9. Please give my 
 regards to your mother (' Put me at the feet of your lady mother '). 
 
Il6 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 I. Do you wish me to ('that I' with subj.") go out to (Jiara) look for her? 
 2. You will do me a great favor, and I shall be much obliged to you (' I shall 
 thank it to you much'). 3. Bring me soup arid roast beef. 4. Tell the boy 
 to (' that he ' with subj.) wake me at six o'clock in the morning. 5. John, 
 what have you done with my hat? 6. I have put it upon the table. 7. Why 
 did not your friend come yesterday? 8. Because he has heard that your child 
 is sick ; but he will come to morrow, g. I doubt that he will come to-morrow, 
 because I do not think ('that') he goes out on {omii) Sundays (§ 107,2). 
 10. Miss N., do you know that gentleman? 11. No, sir, I do not know him; 
 but my sister knows him. 12. Permit me to introduce him to you. 13. Miss 
 N., I have the honor to introduce to you Mr. {ace, . el Sehor Doit) Philip S. 
 14. Sir, I am pleased Qcelebro mucho'') to {de) know you. 15. Do you hear 
 the noise ? 1 6. I hear nothing^ and my friends also hear nothing. 1 7. Many 
 men have ears and yet hear nothing. 18. The constable caught the thief as 
 he came out of the house. 19. Tell me, sir, do you want to pay me? 20. I 
 have told you ('that') I will pay you to-morrow. 21. Don't fall over that 
 stone ! 22. The child will surely fall if you do not hold him by the hand. 
 
 WALKING. 
 
 Hoy tenemosunbuendia,vamos li pascar. This is a fine day, let us take a walk. 
 
 Voy d dar un paseo, g quiere V. venir I am going to take a walk, will you 
 
 'conmigo? go with me? 
 
 i A donde iremos ? Where shall we go? 
 
 Vamos d dar una vuelta por los prados. Let us take a turn in the fields. 
 
 Me gusta caminar, soy buen andador. I like to walk, I am a good walker. 
 
 Atravesemos la calle por aqui. Let us cross the street here. 
 
 No vaya V. tan de prisa. Do not go so fast. 
 
 Volvamos a casa, que ya es tarde. Let us go home, it is late. 
 
 XVIII. Irregular Verbs, § 87, 2-5. 
 
 I. Doy, estoy, soy, voy. 2. De, este, he (two mean.), se, ve 
 (tv/o mean.). 3. Dara, diese, dan. 4. Estuve, estwviera, estard. 
 5. Sea, fui (two mean.), sido, fueran (two mean.). 6. VI, ve, 
 vea,vid. 7. Quiso, querian, guisiese. 8. Vaya, irdn, fueseis (ysno 
 mean.), c). Puede,pude,podra,pusiera. lo. Haya, huie, hubiese, 
 habre, hemos. 1 1 . Sabe, supe, supiera, sabra. 1 2 . Anduve, andu- 
 vieron. 13. Quepo,quepa,cupe,cupo. \^. Abierto,cubierio, escrito. 
 
EXERCISES. 117. 
 
 Give the principal parts of stem-changing and irregular verbs: — 
 
 El rey de Inglaterra, Enrique Octavo, disgustado con el rey de 
 Francia, Francisco Primero, resolvi6 enviarle un embajador, en- 
 cargado de decir k este prlncipe palabras fieras y amenazadoras : 
 y para desempenar esta comisi6n eligi6 4 un obispo ingles, en 
 quien tenia mucha confianza, y creia muy & prop6sito para la eje- 
 cuci6n de su proyecto. 
 
 Luego que el prelado supo el objeto de su embajada, temeroso 
 de perder la vida si trataba a Franciso Primero de modo que que- 
 ria su amo, le represent6 el peligro &. que le esponia, rogandole 
 con instancia que le exonerase de semejante comision. " Nada 
 temas,'' le replico Enrique Octavo. " Si el rey de Francia te 
 quita la vida, yo haii cortar la cabeza a cuantos franceses haya 
 (cf. haber, note) en mi reino.'' — " Asl lo creo," replic6 el obispo ; 
 pero permitidme os diga, que de cuantas cabezas hagAis cortar, 
 seguramente no habri una que siente tan bien a mi cuerpo como 
 la mia." 
 
 I. Were you at (Did you go to) his house yesterday? 2. No, 
 sir, but I shall go to-night ('this n.'). 3. Where would you like 
 to go? 4. I did wish to go to the park; but now I shall not be 
 able to do so (' it '), I shall not have the time. 5. Do you know 
 that his child has died ? 6. I learned (' knew ') it yesterday, his 
 aunt told me {supply 'it'). 7. I have heard that the child's 
 mother has {fui., § 147) been sick two. weeks. 8. What do you 
 give me to {para) eat? 9. I give you ham, bread and wine. 
 10. Do you want this box covered ('that this box be covered ') 
 with Russian leather? 11. Yes, sir, I want it covered like the one 
 we saw ('have seen') this morning. 
 
 caber ' hold; be contained in, get into ' 
 saier ' know'; conocer 'know (be acquainted with).' 
 dar un paseo {una vuelta'), 'take a walk (a turn).' 
 querer decir (' wish to say ') mean. 
 
I li 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 I. Do you know that those strangers have arrived to-day? 2. I did not 
 know it, but the servant has told me so (' it). 3. Give me some cigars and 
 some matches. 4. I have already given them to you. 5. If I knew (' that ') 
 you would not go out this evening, I would come. 6. Come, I shall not go 
 out so far as I know. 7. Peru was formerly a colony of Spain. 8. The king 
 and the queen {two ways) made the stranger enter the palace. 9. Hatred 
 and love (§ 107, i) are two strong motives of human acts, and will ever be so. 
 10. Do you know Doctor A.? 11. Yes, sir, I know him, and I know that he 
 is a very skillful physician. 12. Has Mr. A. written to you (/«/ subject last) ? 
 
 13. No, sir, he has not written me yet, but I hope he vpill write me soon. 
 
 14. If I should go to Madrid, would you go with me? 15. I doubt whether 
 I shall be able ('can,' subj.) to go virith you. 16. You must go ('It is neces- 
 sary that,' subj.) to consult a good doctor, there is none here. 17. Tell me, 
 why did not that soldier come yesterday? 18. He could not come, because 
 he was on (de) guard. 19. Some one told me he has done nothing for 
 Charles. 20. That (omit) is not true. He did all he could do for a friend. 
 21. Don't put anything more (mas) here; all these things do not get into the 
 trunk. 22. Put as much into it ('Put all') as it will hold {subj.). 23. Let 
 us go and take a walk ! 24. What does this mean? 
 
 DOUBTING, PROTESTING. 
 
 ^ No estd V. err ado ? or g No se engaha Are you not mistaken? 
 
 v.? 
 
 g Habla V. de veras ? 
 Tengo difficuUad en creerlo. 
 Apuesto que no sea verdad, 
 Dudo que sea posible. 
 Digo que si^ es un hecho. 
 Eso no es sino muy cierto. 
 Como soy que es verdad. 
 
 Do you speak seriously? 
 I find it hard to believe it. 
 I wager it is not true. 
 I doubt if it can be so. 
 I say it is, it is a fact. 
 It is but too certain. 
 It is true as I live. 
 
 XEX. Periphrastic Verbs. 
 
 The auxiliary must not be separated from the participle : g ha hailado V. ? 
 not / ha V. hablado ? 
 
 I. He visio a iu padre (madre). 2. Se que tit has dado este 
 libro a mi hermano. 3. Memos dado una manzana al mucha- 
 
EXERCISES. 119 
 
 chillo. 4. Tenemos en nuestro jardin unas flores que las hemos 
 comprado este verano. 5. Ellos me han dicho que haMa?i estado 
 aqui. 6. Apenas habia yo andado un cuarto de hora cuando en- 
 conire a un hombre que iba cazando. 7. Tendrla muchas mas 
 riquezas, si no las hubiese gastado. 8. Si hubiesemos comprado 
 la casa tendriamos algo para dejar a nuesiros hijos. 9. JEl niho 
 (Ja nina) es amado {amadd) de todos. 10. Las chicas eran 
 amadas del padre. 11. Si la mujer no fuese querida no seria en 
 la casa. 12. Esios hombres han sido muyfelices. it,. Sii riqueza 
 estd gastada. 14. Divididos estaban caballeros ('knights') y es- 
 cuderos ('squires'). 15. Quedo a V. muy agradecido (or -da). 
 16. Estaba hablando con mi amigo cuando vino. 17. Queda 
 durmiendo. 
 
 Un hombre respetable, que habia hecho gran papel en Paris, 
 qued6 reducido a la indigencia, y s61o se alimentaba de las limos- 
 nas de pan que de echo en ocho dias le mandaban de la parroquia. 
 Un dia encarg6 le enviasen mayor cantidad. Llamole el cura, y 
 le pregunto si vivia solo. "^Con qui^n quer^is que yo viva," le 
 respondi6, "cuando estoy abandonado de todo el mundo?" 
 " Pues si estAis solo," continu6 el cura, " por qud hab^is pedido 
 mas pan del necesario? " Desconcertado el pobre hombre con- 
 fes6 que tenia un perro. El cura le manifest6 que 61 solo era 
 distribuidor de pan para los pobres, y que la honradez exigia que 
 se deshiciera del perro. " Y bien, senor," esclamd, " si lo aban- 
 dono, ^qui^n me amari? " Enterneci6se el pArroco, sac6 la 
 bolsa, y se la di6 diciendo, " Tomad, que esto me pertenece." 
 
 I . How many times have you been in Paris ? 2 . I have not 
 been there more than once. 3. Mary is much loved by her 
 schoolmates. 4. America was discovered by Columbus in the 
 year 1492. 5. We were invited but we did not have time to go. 
 6. All were assassinated by the robbers. 7. They say that many 
 soldiers have been killed in the battle. 8. It is raining, and they 
 
I20 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 have not yet arrived. 9. I would have given them the horse, if 
 they had (imp. subj.') asked me for it. 
 
 iener as auxiliary denotes possession (' have = possess, hold, have in hand) . 
 I. Have you been in Spain? 2. No, sir, I have never been in Spain, but 
 I have always wished to see that interesting country. 3. As soon as the 
 guests had taken their seats, the banquet began. 4. What would you have 
 done, it you had been in my place? 5. I would have said that I should never 
 permit it. 6, That is what I did tell (' have said to') them. 7. The wool of 
 Spain is much sought after. 8. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, was 
 killed in the battle of Liilzen, the 6th of November, 1632. 9. This chapter 
 has not been explained to us by our master. 10. If Mr. Leo were not obliged 
 to start for Madrid this evening, I would invite him to the party. 1 1. When 
 our translations are (' will be ') finished, they will be corrected by the teacher. 
 12. My companion who was ('has been') wounded has died. 13. I have 
 counted the money, but I do not have the money counted. 14. I shall have 
 the work finished to-morrow, but I shall not have finished the work to-mor- 
 row. 15. I did not want ('have not wished') to sell him the suit which I 
 have bought. 16. This room is poorly illumined. 17. They were (use estar) 
 amazed to hear the news. 18. This dialogue is getting ('goes being') tire- 
 some. 
 
 FEELINGS. 
 
 Me alegro mucho de la dicha de V. I am very glad of your good fortune. 
 
 Celebro muckisimo el suceso de V. I rejoice greatly at your success. 
 
 No vendrd, yo lo siento mucho. He will not come, and I am very 
 
 sorry. 
 Va de pear en peor, y estoy desconso- It is getting worse and worse, and I 
 
 lado. am disconsolate. 
 
 Nada se me va en ello. I care nothing about it. 
 
 No se me da un bledo._ I care not a straw. 
 
 A'o puedo volver de mi asombro. I cannot overcome my astonishment. 
 
 J-Iace V. de una pulga un elefante. You are making a mountain of a 
 
 mole-hill. 
 
 XX. Refleoiive (or Meciprocal) Verbs. 
 
 1 . Reflexives are to be rendered as passives. 
 
 2. The reflexive pronoun may be appended to a personal verb-form be- 
 ginning any sentence, or used alone (cf. Synt. 120). 
 
EXERCISES. 121 
 
 I . Yo me lisonjeo (d ml mismo) ; or lisonjeome. 2 . £l se 
 engana. 3. Me tomo la libertad ; me he tornado (invar.) la liber- 
 tad. 4. La puerta se abrio. 5. No sabe lo que se hace. 6. Los 
 buenos libros se venden caros. 7. Este libro se publica en Leipsic. 
 8. / Como se llama V.? 9. Ellos se enganan mucho. 10. Se 
 equivoca ot eqiiivocase ; equivoqueme ; heme equivocado. 11. El 
 hombre se arrepentia. 12. No valdra quejarse. 13. Las chicas 
 se alegran. 14. Se duerme (91, i) ; ella se muere. 15. Se me 
 {62A.) figura (impers.) que venga. 16. Se le habia olvidado que 
 estaba yo aqui. 17. Se le trato como a un rey ('He was treated 
 as a king' r give literal meaning). 18. Se le aborrece (He is 
 abhorred': lit.?). 19. La guerra se aborrece. 20. Pdgueseme 
 lo que se me debe (^= ' Let them pay what they owe me ' : lit. ?) . 
 21. No se ve a las cinco (' One can no longer see at five o'clock ' : 
 lit.?). 22. Eso no se puede decir, or Eso no puede decirse. 
 23. Aqui se habla espaiiol. 24. Nos alabamos (91, 2) ; alabemo- 
 nos. 25. Se aman {el uno al otro, la una a la otra, etc.) ; amaos 
 los imos a los otros. 
 
 Present6se una deputaci6n de los panaderos ante el magistrado 
 pidi^ndole permiso para encarecer el pan ; y al retirarse dejaron 
 los enviados diestramente encima de la mesa un bolsillo con cien 
 onzas de oro. Volvieron algunos dlas despu^s, no dudando que 
 el bolsillo habria abogado poderosamente por su causa ; pero el 
 magistrado les dijo : " Sefiores, he pesado sus razones en la ba- 
 lanza de la justicia, y no las he encontrado de bastante peso : no 
 me ha parecido justo el hacer sufrir a un pueblo entero por un 
 alza de precio mal entendida. Ademas he hecho distribuir el 
 dinero que me dejaron entre los dos hospitales que . hay en esta 
 ciudad, no dudando fuese tal el uso que VV. deseaban se hiciera 
 de 61." 
 
 I. You express yourself very well in Spanish. 2. I am very 
 glad ('I rejoice much') to {omit) find you at home. 3. At what 
 
122 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 hour do you rise in (/<?;-) the morning? 4. I am accustomed to 
 rise between six and seven ; but yesterday I rose at five, and to- 
 morrow I shall also get up at five. 5 . Your friend makes fun of 
 me. 6. You are mistaken; I do not believe ('that') he ever 
 makes fun of anybody. 7. The kings looked upon themselves as 
 above ('superior to') the law. 8. The kings {dat.^ were re- 
 garded {refl.') as above the law. 9. That will easily be done. 
 
 I. Please be seated ('Have the kindness to seat yourself). 2. Your ser- 
 vant has made a mistake in {omit) giving me this book, 3. John, why don't 
 - you wash your hands? 4. I have already washed my hands. 5. When will 
 you go on board (' embark ') ? 6. We shall go on board to-morrow. 7. What 
 is your name (' How do you call yourself ') ? 8. My name is Charles F. 
 9. The captain ordered the soldiers to keep away from the road. 10. Arise ! 
 II. It is not yet time to get up. 12. Fortunately his fears were not realized. 
 13. It is said that the forces of Aguinaldo have revolted. 14. It is well 
 known that he is a traitor. 15. In this way time will be gained and work 
 saved. 16. In Germany people seem to live ('it appears that it lives itself) 
 only for war. 17. The pyramids were built by slaves. 18. The trunk was 
 searched. 
 
 ORDERING CLOTHES. 
 
 No (uiero ropa hecha; g hace V. ta?H- I don't want ready-made clothing; 
 
 ■ biin de encargo ? do you also make to order? 
 
 ' Quiero que vie tome V, las medidas, I want you to take my measure. 
 
 Quiero que me haga una casaca y un I want you to make me a dress-coat 
 
 par de pantalones de este paho escoces. and a pair of pants of this Scotch 
 
 cloth. 
 
 Quiero la ropa el sdbado sinfalta. I want the suit Saturday, without fail. 
 
 Mdndeme la ropa a la posada, y mande Send my suit to the hotel, and send 
 
 su cuenta al mismo tientpo. your bill at the same time. 
 
 Este traje me queda muy Hen. g Cuanto This suit suits me very well. What 
 
 es su valor ? is it worth ? 
 
 X^XI. Zndeclinables. 
 
 1. Vendre temprano, luego. 2. Le he visto a menudo. 3. Vino 
 de golpe. 4. Lo siento (' feel ' = ' regret ') mucho, muchisimo. 
 
EXERCISES. 123 
 
 5. Hablo mejor que su amigo. 6. Tiene mucho mas que V. 
 7. Lo hare facilmenie. 8. Llego recienteviente. 9. Hablo alio 
 (bajo). 10. No, sehora, no lo se. 11. Ho me lo dird jamas, or 
 Jamas me lo dird. 12. Este libro no le he nunca tenido (or nunca 
 le he tenido^. 13. No me ha dicho que unas palabras (words). 
 14. No vivo sino para ella. 15. No tengo ni pluma ni papel (or 
 Ni pluma ni papel tengo). 16. Anduvo con su padre y madre {sus 
 hijos e hijas) al iraves de este campo ('field'). 17. Lo hare 
 con tal que pueda. 18. Lo via venir hdcia si. ig. / JPobre 
 de mi ! 
 
 Para comprender el Carnaval en Madrid, es necesario ser 
 madrileno, 6 per lo m^nos haber vivido algun tiempo en aquella 
 ciudad y .conocer bien el caracter espanol. Un gentio inmenso 
 llena las calles ; vistosos y mil variados trajes se ostentan ; un 
 marques se pasea con una lavandera ; Mefist6feles con Margarita ; 
 un turco departe amigablemente con un cruzado ; una aldeana de ' 
 los Alpes ofrece floras a un oso ; un mosquetero da el brazo a una 
 mariposa ; un gran baja se tutea con un fakir ; un Mandarin 
 Chine conversa con un marroqui ; un arlequln acompana a un 
 mono ; todas estas anomalias se ven en esos dias de locura. Un 
 core de pastores aqul, una estudiantina alia, un grupo abiga- 
 rrado de gitanos mas lejos ; la gente circulando, los ojos brillantes 
 de placer, a trav^s de los antifaces, la alegria pintada en todos los 
 rostros ; los dichos, las galanterias, el ruido, las miisicas ; todo 
 esto se ve y se oye al mismo tiempo en el hermoso paseo de " El 
 Prado." 
 
 Si vamos al soberbio paseo de " La Castellana," se nos presenta 
 la misma escena, si bien con mas pompa : los blasonados coches 
 de la nobleza con sus grandes tiros, y las ruedas dora'das 6 platea- 
 das, ocupados por sus duenos y rodeados por at'revidas mascaras a 
 quienes la libertad que da el disfraz, les permite mezclarse en 
 todas partes. 
 
124 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 En esos dias la familia real, abandonando su orguUo y pompa, 
 se mezcla entre las turbas de mascaras, ya a pie, ya en carruaje ; 
 el pueblo tutea ese dla a el rey, el Carnaval hace a todos iguales ; 
 la careta permite esta igualdad. Colocado un observador en algiin 
 balcon de alguno de los edificios que dan a " El Prado," podra 
 ver, a lo largo de este paseo " La Castellana," y " Recoletos," 
 las grandes oleadas de mascaras que llenan los tres citados paseos, 
 y que son reforzadas por otras que bajan por las calles de Alcala, 
 Carrera de San Ger6nimo y calle de Atocha. El publico, los ca- 
 rruajes, la policia k caballo, todo esto forma un conjunto indes- 
 criptible. 
 
 Llega la noche, a las diez todo el mundo se va i los teatros, 
 donde se baila hasta las seis de la manana siguiente ; la anima- 
 ci6n, la bulla, la confusi6n, son como las de la tarda. Desde el 
 Teatro Real de la Opera con sus danzas aristocraticas hasta el 
 Teatro de Capellanes con sus desenfrenados bailes, en todos se 
 reproduce cada aiio las mismas fiestas que duran tres dias ; tres 
 dias de locuras. 
 
 I. I like John much, but I like Frederick more. 2. Of all, I 
 like Charles the most. 3. This boy reads worse than his sister. 
 4. Of all the pupils he behaves the worst. 5. He spoke in a very 
 learned manner ('most learnedly,' aiso/. superl. directly in -isimo, 
 or in -mente from an adj. in -isimo). 6. He always told me that 
 he was very rich, but I never believed it. 7. I have only ten dollars 
 and I can give nothing. 8. He travels only rarely. 9. Neither 
 ('the one or the other') dared to come to the house. 10. He 
 tells me (' that ') he has neither father nor mother. 
 
 Por and para are used as follows : 
 
 por: 'for' (referring to price, exchange,. estimate, seeking, duration of time); 
 
 ' by ' (referring to a physical rather than mental act, otherwise de) ; 
 
 ' through ' (' by way of ') ; ' on account of.' 
 para : ' for ' (referring to purpose, direction, considecation, time-limil) ; ' be 
 
 about ' (after esiar) ; (' in order) to.' 
 
EXERCISES. 125 
 
 I. He asks only a (omii) thousand dollars for the house. 2. He says he 
 will go to the country for a few weeks. 3. She passes for rich, but she has 
 only that house. 4. The soldiers will pass through this street before evening. 
 5- That boy will certainly be punished by his teacher. 6. He will go to 
 France, and he will return by way of England. 7. In order to understand 
 Spanish you must study the language much. 8. This letter is for the evening 
 mail. 9. It will be necessary to have patience to attain this object. 10. He 
 has told me that next Monday he will depart for Europe. II. I have an en- 
 gagement for this evening. 12. One does not live ('It lives itself not') in 
 order to eat. 13. I believe the wind is about to change. 14. They took only 
 the time necessary for short rests. 15. The silence was interrupted only by the 
 whisperings of the wind. 16. Have you ever seen anything to equal that (dai.') ? 
 
 PHRASES OF ETIQUETTE. 
 
 Servidor a V., sehor. Your servant, sir. 
 
 A los pies de V., sehora. At your feet, madam ('I greet you, 
 
 I thank you, M.) 
 Sientese V., le suplico. Pray, be seated. 
 
 Tengo el gusto (Jionor) de presentar a I have the pleasure (honor) to in- 
 
 V. al senor don A. troduce to you Mr. A. 
 
 Celebro la occasidn de conocer d V., I am glad to make your acquaintance 
 
 (caballero'). (sir). 
 
 Permiteseme de rogar ^ donde reside V. ? Allow me to ask where you live? 
 Su casa de V. estd ntimero diez Calle ' Your ' (by politeness = ' ray home 
 
 del Rey. is yours ') home is No. 10, King 
 
 Street. 
 Tiene V. una sortija brillante. You have a brilliant ring. 
 
 Kstd d la disposiciSn de V. It is yours. 
 
 Milgracias, no podriamejorardedueno. A thousand thanks, it would not have 
 
 a better owner. 
 
 XXII. Articles. 
 
 I. Man is mortal. 2. Gold is heavier than silver. 3. Flowers are the 
 adornment of the earth. 4. Prudence is an important part of valor. 5. Wealth 
 and poverty are relative things. 6. Her eyes are (' She has the eyes ') too 
 small. 7. Her hair was ('she had') disarranged. 8. England is a great 
 maritime power. 9. Canada is a dependency of England. 10. Queen Vic- 
 toria of England is now in Spain. 11, Mr. F. has come with Mrs. F, 
 
126 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 12. Mr. F. is a Spaniard and a soldier. 13. My brother speaks and writes 
 Spanish. 14. How (' At how much ') do you sell the butter? At forty cents 
 a pound. 15. Is your master a Spaniard? No, sir, he is an American. 
 i5. This man has a good heart. 
 
 One of the last kings of Spain whom the fortune of war (' arms ') had de- 
 prived of various considerable forts, nevertheless received from the greater 
 part of his courtiers the title of Great. " His greatness," said a Spaniard, " is 
 like that of ditches, which grow ('make themselves') bigger in proportion to 
 the {de) earth which is removed from them ('which they remove from them,' 
 dal.). 
 
 IDIOMS. 
 
 Con viil amoves. Most willingly. 
 
 Dar por supuesto {for sentado) . Take for granted. 
 
 Z>ar en el bianco. Hit the mark. 
 
 Decir algo d uno en sus barbas. Tell one something to his face. 
 
 Dejar en bianco. Pass over unnoticed. 
 
 Dejadas las burlas ; or chanzas aparte. Jest aside. 
 
 En un cerrar y abrir de ojos. In the twinkling of an eye. 
 
 Encenderse en cdlera. Fly into a passion. 
 
 Errar el tiro. Miss one's aim. 
 
 Eslar o sus anchas. Be at one's ease. 
 
 Hablar d bulla {al aire). Speak at random (idly). 
 
 Llamar a grito herido. Call with all one's might. 
 
 ~-^JCXIII. Adjectives and Nouns. 
 
 I . She related that the Nazarenes loved their God, their king, their parents, 
 and their brothers^and^sisters (one word) . 2. I love liberty, and would die 
 for it. 3. I sent a servant, and I sent a letter. 4. Whom are you looking for 
 ('whom do you seek')? What are you looking for? 5. I am looking for 
 my cousin. I am looking for my horse. I am looking for my book. 6. I 
 have a horse and I do not want yours. 7. He tells us that he has routed two 
 hundred enemies. 8. I prefer the brave man to the wary. 9. All the teachers 
 praise this diligent and attentive boy. 10. The king has already appointed 
 the ministers. 11. I will give everything to him^who ('whom') saves {subj.) 
 my daughter. 12. Let us not abandon this man to his misery ! 13. The writ- 
 ing-desk and the chair are new. 14. The writing-desks and the chairs are new. 
 15. Who has given me these fragrant flowers? 16. He is a poor and unfortu- 
 nate man. 17. Suddenly they were attacked by those savage Indians. 18. I 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 127 
 
 despise gossiping women and lazy men. 19. The young girl was pale, and the 
 king was dying with {de) pain seeing his daughter die. 
 
 Louis XIV one day asked one of bis courtiers: "Do you know Castilian?" 
 — "No, sir," answered the courtier, "but I will learn it." He took great 
 pains (' applied himself much ') to learn this idiom, thinking the king had the 
 intention to appoint him ambassador to the Court of Spain; and after a time 
 he said to the king : " Sire, now I know Castilian." " Very well," answered the 
 king, "then you can read Don Quixote in the ('its ') original." 
 
 IDIOMS (continued). 
 
 Llevar d mal. Take amiss. 
 
 Mai de su grade. Unwillingly. 
 
 Mal su grade. In spite of him. 
 
 Mostrar la suela de los zapatos. Take to one's heels. 
 
 No estar para fiestas. Be out of temper. ' 
 
 No dejar piedra par mover. Leave no stone unturned. 
 
 Per fas 6 per ne fas. Right or wrong. 
 
 Saiga lo que saliere. Happen what may. 
 
 Sin que ni porque. Without rhyme or reason. 
 
 Subir d uno sobre los cuernos de la. luna. Exalt one to the skies. 
 
 Tener en la punta de la lengua. Have on the tip of one's tongue. 
 
 Tener el pie en dos zapatos. Have two strings to one's bow. 
 
 XXIV. Pronouns. 
 
 I. Give me an apple if you have one. 2. I shall buy some roses if there are 
 any. 3. It seems to me (' that ') you do not want to come {use both the si7)iple 
 and the expletive construction in sentences, 3-10) . 4. Follow thy own inclina- 
 tion, and let me follow mine. 5. He never knew his father. 6. I have told 
 her that you will come to-morrow. 7. I have already told her so (' it ') . 8. It 
 seems to me, sir, that we should ('ought') not continue this conversation here. 
 
 9. The general attributes this victory wholly to the bravery of his soldiers. 
 
 10. Do you have my umbrella and Ellen's? I have hers and Arthur's, but I do 
 not have yours. 11. He has lost his right (left) arm. 12. I have gained this 
 honestly. 13. The lady whose son (sons, daughter, daughters) is here is his 
 aunt. 14. I entrusted this mission to a friend whom I knew well. 15. He 
 who does not know this is ignorant indeed. 16. To him who is contented 
 nothing is lacking. 17. There is no human diligence that can {subj.) prevent 
 it. 18. He gave me some points concerning the customs of the country, which 
 
j2g SPANISH GRAMMAR 
 
 werer^^O very useful to me.-i9. He gave {n.e.argar) me some commissions, 
 :M h'T Sforld. .o. He humbles himself to nobody ... Nobody ,s con- 
 Tented wUh his fate. 2Z. A certain friend of his saad, " Love could never com- 
 mit such a cowardly act." 23. Every important work reqmres effort and per- 
 
 severance. 
 
 In (the) mitlst of the great crisis of the Seven Years' War, one of Frederick 
 the Great's soldiers deserted on the eve of a battle. The deserter was seized 
 ('They seized,' etc.) and brought before the King, who eyed him sharply. 
 "Why did you ('thou') leave me?" asked Frederick. "Sire," answered 
 ('him') the deserter, "your affairs are taking such a bad turn ('go so badly') 
 that 1 thought it was time to quit them.'' "Well," said the king ('to him'), 
 " remain, however, until to-morrow, and if they do not then take a better turn, 
 we will desert together.'' 
 
 SAYINGS. 
 
 Afcis vaU tarde que nunca. Better late than never. 
 
 El que calla, otorga. Silence gives consent. 
 
 Al hierro caliente, batir de repente. Strike while the iron is hot. 
 
 Amor con amor se paga. One good turn deserves another. 
 
 Cada oveja con su pareja. Birds of a feather flock together. 
 
 Donde fuego se hnce, humo sale. No smoke without fire. 
 
 Donde hay gana hay maha . Ji'-'t' Where there is a will there is a way. 
 
 De la mano d la boca desparece la sopa. There is many a slip betwixt cup and 
 
 lip. 
 
 XXV. Verhs. 
 
 I. When shall you depart? I shall depart to-day. 2. How long have you 
 been in America? I have been here a year; and I have been here once before, 
 five years ago. 3. Where did you learn your Spanish? I learned it in Spain. 
 
 4. I have not written to-day to my companion, but I did write last week. 
 
 5. The Greeks considered all the other nations as barbarians. 6. What time 
 is it? It is probably (It may be : /«/.) three. 7. I wrote some eight days 
 ago (some". . . ago, fut.) that I would come. 8. May the heavens and the 
 angels praise Thee, O Lord ! 9. I urged him to abstain from such an under- 
 taking. 10. Do you wish me to sing ('that' I sing ') a Httle? 11. It is neces- 
 sary that henceforth we rise early. 12. I work now that I may have finished 
 before to-morrow. 13. I doubt that what they have said is true, and that he 
 is guilty at all. 14. If your friend were not obliged to start for Madrid, I would 
 
EXERCISES. 129 
 
 invite him to the entertainment to-night. 15. If I had (§ 154 «) money I would 
 buy this horse. 16. I am sorry ('thaf) you have been obliged to wait for 
 me. 17. I would be glad if he came; I. would have been glad if he had come. 
 18. It is a pity that you are in such a hurry ('be in a hyttty, ' teiier prisd). 19. I 
 deny that he ever has the intention of returning (infinit.). 20. He was the 
 most loyal squire that ever served a knight-errant. 21. I shall not obey him 
 whoever he be, and whatever he say. 22. To sleep too much is as hurtful as to 
 eat and drink too much. 23. Men make themselves unhappy by desiring what 
 they do not need. 
 
 SAYINGS {continued). 
 
 El que tarde llega caldo bebe. First come first served. 
 
 La necesidad carece de ley. ' Necessity knows no law. 
 
 Lo que no se puede remediar se ha de What cannot be cured must be en- 
 
 aguantar. dured. 
 
 Mds vale un pdjaro en la viano que A bird in the hand is worth two in 
 
 ciento volando. the bush. 
 
 Piedra movediza no coje musgo. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 
 
 Salir de llamas y caer en brasas. To jump out of the frying-pan into 
 
 the fire. 
 
 No es todo oro lo que reluce. Not all is gold that glitters. 
 
 XXVI. Indeclinables. 
 
 I. The colonel is here; the colonel comes here; he comes this way. 
 
 2. My friend lives in Fulton street (de/. art.') ; it is far from here there. 
 
 3. The invalid was much better yesterday. 4. This cafe is much frequented 
 by officers. 5. It was so dark that it was impossible to see anything. 6. I 
 say yes, but he says no. 7. It is two months since I arrived here. 8. I saw 
 the doctor two hours ago. 9. He had been mourning (' He was mourning ') 
 her loss a year. 10. They had just arrived when she died. 1 1 . I have just 
 resolved to write her a letter. 12. Finally he has understood what I have 
 said. 13. I again tell your brother that I shall not be able to come. 14. We 
 shall never see one another (§ 91, 2) again. 15. He is more resolute now 
 than then. 16. I fear he will lose the respect of his pupils. 17. I don't 
 deny that it is a laughable matter. 18. We are the servants of the king, but 
 not his slaves. 19. Good behavior is not the work of nature, but rather of a 
 good education. 
 
 Spanish (§107, l), the modem name for Castilian, is the result of the vicissi- 
 tudes and the final triumph of the different dialects and languages that have 
 
I30 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 been spoken {refl.) in the peninsula by the different races which have estab- 
 lished themselves there. 
 
 The language spoken in Spain in the most remote times vizs. the Iberian or 
 Basque. Latin later came to be the general language of the country, which 
 produced many of the classic Latin writeis. The Goths changed the Latin 
 forms. After many centuries came the Arabian influence. Then the harmony 
 and sonorousness of the Mussulman tongue began to prevail. At {en) the 
 time of the expulsion of the Moors, it can be said that two languages were 
 spoken by the Christians — that of the North, which was Latin mixed with 
 Gothic and Basque; and that of the South, which was Latin mixed with 
 Arabic. The combination and mixture of these two tongues produced at last 
 the Castilian or Spanish (the modern name). 
 
 SAYINGS {continued). 
 
 Sobre gusto no hay disputa. There is no disputing about taste. 
 
 A quien madruga Dies lo ayuda. God helps those who help themselves. 
 
 Donde fueres haz como vieres. At Rome, do as the Romans do. 
 
 La caridad Hen ordenada empieza por Charity begins at home. 
 
 uno mismo. 
 
 Mds vale hueti callar que mal hablar. Better to be silent than to speak ill. 
 
 Obra de comtin, obra de ningAn. Everybody's business is nobody's 
 
 business. 
 
 A lo hecho pecho. What is done cannot be undone. 
 
 Quien abrojos siembra espinas coje. He who sows brambles reaps thorns. 
 
I. SPANISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 Articles, numemls, and pronouns, and also nouns and adjectives of entirely evident form 
 and meaning, are omitted. The gender of masculines in -0, feminines in -a, and sex-words, 
 are not given. For Spanish words with less evident or no English affinity, cognates in small 
 CAPITALS, or (where feasible) brief etymological hints are given. Observe that ch, //, n come 
 as simple letters after c, /, n. 
 
 abandonar, abandon. 
 
 acabar [L. caput, ' head '], complete, 
 
 end, finish ; — de, have just. 
 acompanamiento, accompaniment, 
 
 attendance. 
 acre, m., acre, 
 abigarrar, [L. bisvariare, vary], 
 
 variegate. 
 abogar, advocate. [open. 
 
 abrir [L. aperire, of. E. aperient], 
 ademis \mds], moreover, 
 afeitar [L. affectare?\, trim, adorn; 
 
 shave. 
 agradecido, GRATEful. 
 agua [L.fl^aa], water. — cero, shower, 
 aguantar [?], sustain, bear, 
 agu-ja [L. acus\, needle, -jerito, 
 
 small hole. 
 alcanzar [Ar.], reach. 
 al-dea [Ar.], village, -deana, vil- 
 lage-girl, country lass. 
 ale-grar [L. alacer, 'glad,' cf. E. 
 
 allegrd\, rejoice; refl. be glad. 
 
 -gria, joy. 
 alemin [' Aleman '], German. 
 
 alimentar, nourish. 
 
 alma [L. animd\, soul. 
 
 alza [L. altus, ' high '], rise. 
 
 allA [L. illac\, there. 
 
 ama [?], mistress. 
 
 amar, love. 
 
 amenazadora, menacing. 
 
 ami-ga, -go [L. amicus], friend. 
 
 amo [?], master. 
 
 ancho, ample, broad ; a sus -chas, at 
 
 ease. 
 anterior, previous, 
 antes (de), before, 
 antifaz [' before-FACE '], m. veil. 
 ano [L. annum], year. 
 apagar [ak. to PACify.'], quench, 
 
 extinguish ; satisfy, 
 apenas \\^.pena, pain], hardly. 
 aprender [cf. E. apprentice], learn, 
 dr-bol [L. -bor], m., tree, -bolito, 
 
 small tree, 
 argiiir, argue, 
 arlequin, harlequin, 
 arreglo, rule, arrangement, 
 asa-do \asar (L. assare, fr. ar-dere, 
 
 burn)], roasted, -da, roast-beef, 
 asi [L. sic], thus. 
 
132 
 
 SPANISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 asir [?], grasp, hold, 
 atar [L. aptare ?], fasten. 
 atravesar \travis\ cross. 
 a-trevido \atribuirse\, bold, -tri- 
 
 buir, attribute. 
 aunque, although. 
 ayudar [L. ad, juvare\, help. 
 
 B. 
 
 bai-lar, dance, -le, ot., ball. 
 
 baji, bashaw, pasha. 
 
 ba-jar, go down, -jo [L. bassus'], 
 low. 
 
 banco, bench. 
 
 bas-tante, enough, -tar [?], suffice. 
 
 bast6n [cf. E. ■nade'\, m., cane, 
 -ada, -azo, cane-rap. 
 
 baiil [?], m., trunk. 
 
 beber [L. bibere'], drink. 
 
 belga, Belgian. 
 
 bello, BEAUtiful. 
 
 bianco, white. 
 
 blasonado, emblazoned. 
 
 bledo \1j. blitum'\, wild amaranth; 
 fig. straw. 
 
 bo-ca [L. bucca'\, mouth, -caza, 
 big mouth. 
 
 bol-sa, PURSE, -sillo, (small) purse. 
 
 bonito [L. bonus], pretty. 
 
 brasa [cf. E. brazier], live coal. 
 
 brazo [L. bracchium, cf. E. em- 
 BRACE], arm. 
 
 bueno [L. bonus], good. 
 
 bulto, bulk ; 4 — , at random. 
 
 bu-lla, noise, -llir, boil. 
 
 burl6n [cf. burlesque], wag; ro- 
 guish. 
 
 buscar [ak. to E. bush .?], seek. 
 
 caballo, horse. 
 
 cabeza [L. caput], head. 
 
 cada [L. cata], every. 
 
 zaik, m., coffee. 
 
 callar [?]. be silent. 
 
 calle [L. callis],/. street. 
 
 cansado [?], tired. 
 
 can-tar, chant, sing. 
 
 cdntaro [L. -tkarus], pitcher. 
 
 cantidad,/., quantity. 
 
 capelUn, chaplain, priest. 
 
 cardcter, character. 
 
 carecer [carere], lack, want. 
 
 ca-ra [Gr. /Srfra, head], face, -reta, 
 
 mask^ 
 cargo, charge, 
 caro [L. -rus], dear. 
 carruaje, m., vehicle, carriage, 
 carta [ak. to E. card ], letter. 
 casa [L.], house, 
 castellano, Castilian. 
 cazar, hunt, chase. 
 cenir [L. cingere], gird, 
 cerca [L. circa] de, near, with, 
 citado, cited, named, 
 ciudad, city. 
 cldusula, clause, 
 cocer, cook. 
 coger, collect, gather, 
 comer [L. com-edere], eat. 
 como [L. quo-modo], how. 
 comprar [L. com-parare, pair, 
 
 match ; so ' pay for '], buy. 
 coche, m., coach. 
 co-locar, locate, place, arrange. 
 Colorado [ak. to E. colored], ruddy, 
 conceder, concede, grant. 
 
SPANISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 133 
 
 confianza, confidence. 
 
 conocer [L. co-gnoscere'X, know. 
 
 continuar, continue. 
 
 comisionado, commissioner. 
 
 comprender, comprehend, under- 
 stand. 
 
 coraje, ?«., courage. 
 
 coro, chorus. 
 
 cor-reo, mail, -rer [ L. currere}, run. 
 
 cottar [L. curtusy curt], cut. 
 
 creer [L. credere'\, believe. 
 
 cruzado, crusader. 
 
 cosa, thing. 
 
 costunlbre, m., custom. 
 
 cuadro, square ; picture. 
 
 cuando [L. quando\, when. 
 
 cuantos, as many. 
 
 cuarto, QUARTER ; room. 
 
 cuello [L. collum'\, neck. 
 
 cuer-decita, little string, -da, cord, 
 string. 
 
 cuerno, horn. 
 
 cuerpo, body. 
 
 cura [L. -rare, care], m., parish 
 priest. 
 
 curiosidad,/., curiosity. 
 
 CH. 
 
 ChicO [Basque chiqui'[, small. 
 chino, Chinese. 
 
 dar [L. darel, give; — 4, look 
 
 upon, 
 debar [ak. to E. debt'\,o^e. ; «., duty. 
 decir [L. dicere'\, say. 
 dejar [pop. L. desitare (L. sinere, 
 
 let)], leave, let. 
 
 departir [L. dis-par.tire,'] discourse, 
 
 talk. 
 derramar [rama, branch ?] pour. 
 desde [L. de, ^x?],-£rom. 
 desear, desire, 
 des-em-penar [L. pignus, pledge, 
 
 pawn], redeem, fulfil. 
 des-en-frenado [1^. fremim, bridle], 
 
 unbridled, 
 des-hacer, undo ; get rid. 
 dia, m., day. 
 
 diestramente, DEXTERously. 
 diffcil, difficult. 
 difunto, defunct. 
 dinero [L. denarius], money. 
 dirigir, direct. 
 discernir, discern. 
 discipulo, pupil. 
 
 discurrir, discourse ; contrive, plan. 
 disfraz [?], disguise, mask, 
 disgustarse, be displeased, 
 distinguir, distinguish. 
 dorado [L. aurum, gold], gilded, 
 dormir, sleep. 
 dueno [L. dominus'\, lord. 
 
 E. 
 
 echar ['L. jaciare'], throw, 
 ejecutar, perform, execute, 
 ejercicio, exercise. 
 eligir, elect. 
 embajada, embassy. 
 embajador, embassador, 
 embargo [ak. to E. bar'\, embargo ; 
 impediment : sin — , nevertheless. 
 emperador, emperor, 
 en [L. ««], in. 
 
134 
 
 SPANISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 encarecer [i:aro, dear], raise the 
 
 price of. 
 encargar, charge, ask. 
 encender [L. -re], liindle. 
 encima [cima, top] de, upon ; 
 
 over, 
 encontrar, encounter, meet ; find. 
 enfermo, feeble, sick, 
 en-ganar, deceive. -gaSo [ak. to 
 
 ^. game ?], deceit. 
 Enrique, Henry. 
 
 entender [L. in-tendere\.; under- 
 stand, 
 entero, entire. 
 en-ternecer [rtcrwo.TENDER] ,sof ten ; 
 
 refl., be moved, 
 entrar, enter, 
 entre [L. inter\ between, 
 en-viar [L.tos, way], send, -viado, 
 
 sent ; deputy, 
 erguir, erect, raise up. 
 errar, err. 
 escena, scene. 
 escribano, scribe, notary, 
 escuchar [L. auscultare: cf. Fr. 
 
 icouter'], hear, 
 espanol, Spanish. 
 estaci6n, station ; season 
 estornino, STARling. 
 estu-diantina, student {adj. /.), 
 
 -diar, study. 
 exclamar, exclaim, 
 exigir, exact, require, 
 exonerar, exonerate, free, 
 expender, expend, 
 exponer, expose. 
 extender, extend 
 
 F. 
 
 fdcil, easy. 
 
 fallecer (ohol.), fail; die. 
 
 fe, FAITH. 
 
 fecha [l^./acia], date. 
 
 feliz, happy. 
 
 feo \1^. foetus; ak. to Y..fetid\ ugiy. 
 
 ferro-carril \^ferro, iron, carril, 
 
 (CART-) way], m., railroad, 
 fiero [ak. to 'E. fierce'], proud, 
 fiesta, feast, 
 figurarse, imagine. 
 fin, end : al — , at length. 
 flo-r, FLOWER. -recita, little 
 
 flower. 
 fortezuelo, not very strong, 
 forzar, force, 
 francos. Frenchman. 
 Francia, France. 
 Francisco, Francis, 
 fuerte, strong. 
 
 fusi-1 [ak. to E. fusil, fuse], m., 
 gun. -lazo, musket-shot. 
 
 G. 
 
 galanteria, gallantry. 
 
 gana [?], appetite, desire. 
 
 garrafa [ak. to E. carafe], bottle. 
 
 gastar, waste. 
 
 gemil [L. g-emere], sigh. 
 
 gen-te, people, -tilhombre, gentle- 
 man, -tio, crowd, 
 gitano, -na, gipsy. 
 grado [L.g^aitts], pleasure, 
 gracias [L. /ias], thanks, 
 grueso, thick ■ gross. 
 
SPANISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 135 
 
 H. 
 
 haber [L. -re'], have. 
 
 hablar [L. fabulari, talk ; ak. to 
 
 Y.. fable'}, speak, 
 ha-cer [L. facere], make, do. 
 
 -cienda, work done, business 
 
 estate, 
 hallar [?], find, 
 hasta [Ar.], until, 
 hay [/jrt^], there is (are). 
 herma-naj sister, -nita, little sister. 
 
 -no [L. germanus, german ; full 
 
 brother], brother. 
 hermoso[L./i»7«ffj'aj,well formed], 
 
 beautiful. 
 hi-ja, daughter, -jo [L. films'], 
 
 son. 
 hom-bre [L. homo], man, -br6n, 
 
 big man. -brezuelo, small man. 
 honradez, honesty, honor. 
 hora, HOUR. 
 humedad, dampness. 
 
 I. 
 idioma, m., idiom , language. 
 
 igual, EQUAL. 
 
 Infeliz, unhappy. 
 
 in-gl^Sj EngUsh. -glaterra, Eng- 
 land. 
 
 inm6vil, immovable, 
 
 inscribir, inscribe. 
 
 instancia, urgency. 
 
 intentar, intend , try, attempt. 
 
 interrumpir, interrupt. 
 
 in-trepidez, intrepidity, -tr^pido, 
 intrepid. 
 
 J- 
 
 jardin, m., garden. 
 J0s6, Joseph. 
 
 j6ven \}-..pive)us\, YOUNG. 
 Juan, John. 
 
 L. 
 
 largo, long, large : d la — , along. 
 
 lavandera, laundress, washer- 
 woman. 
 
 Iecci6n,_/!, lesson. 
 
 leche [L. lact-em, ace.]/, milk. 
 
 leer [L. legere'], read. 
 
 lejos [L. laxus], far off. 
 
 lengua, tongue ; language. 
 
 libro, book. 
 
 limosna, alms. 
 
 Undo [L. limpidus], pretty. 
 
 lisonjear [L. laudare, praise ?J, 
 flatter. 
 
 lo-co [?], mad. -cura, madness. 
 
 lo-gro [L. lucrum], gain, -grar, 
 gain ; succeed. 
 
 lucir, shine. 
 
 luego [L. locus, place], on the spot, 
 immediately. 
 
 LL. 
 llama, flame. 
 Uamar [L. clamare], call. 
 Ue-gada, arrival, -gar [L. plicare, 
 
 fold ?], arrive; join ; succeed. 
 Ue-nar, FILL. -no[L.//cnaj-],FULL. 
 
 M. 
 
 madre, mother. ['Madridian,' 
 
 madrileno, inhabitant of Madrid, 
 
136 
 
 SPANISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 madrugar [L. maiurus,e3.Tly,ripe^, 
 rise early ; anticipate, contrive. 
 
 ma-estra, mistress, -estro, master. 
 -gistrado, magistrate. 
 
 malo [L. -/«j], bad. 
 
 mandar, comiWAND, order. 
 
 ma-necita,-necilla, little hand, -no, 
 [L. -nasi,/, hand. 
 
 manifestar, manifest, declare, say, 
 
 manza-na [fr. a, Pers. name], apple. 
 
 mana [L. manus, hand ?], skill. 
 
 manana [L. mane'], morning. 
 
 mariposa [?], butterfly. 
 
 marques, marquis. 
 
 marroqui, Maroquee. 
 
 mdscara,/, masker; mask. 
 
 mayor, greater. 
 
 me-dida, measure, -dir ['L.-iiri], 
 MEAsure. 
 
 menear [L. manus, hand], move. 
 
 menester [L. ministerium~\, m., ne- 
 cessity ; office. 
 
 men-guar, decay, fail, -os [L. 
 minus], least. 
 
 mentir [L. -rt], lie. 
 
 mes [L mens], m., month. 
 
 mesa [L. mensa], table. 
 
 mezclar, mix. 
 
 modo, mode, manner. 
 
 molesto, tiresome. 
 
 molino, mill. 
 
 monarca, m., monarch. 
 
 mono, MONKEY. 
 
 morir, die. 
 
 mosquetero, musketeer, 
 mover, move. 
 
 mozo [L. mustus, fresh], boy. 
 mucha-cha, girl, -chilla, little girl. 
 -chillo, little boy. -cho [?] boy. 
 
 mucho [L. multus], much. 
 mujer [L. mulier], woman, 
 mundo [L. -dus], world, 
 may [ak. to mucho], very. 
 
 N. 
 
 nacer [Y,.nascereioT nasct], be born. 
 
 nariz [L. -ris],/., nose. 
 
 negar, deNV. 
 
 negocio, affair. 
 
 negro [L. niger], black. 
 
 ni-na, -So, [?], child (/, m.). 
 
 nobleza, nobility. 
 
 noche [L. nox],f., night. 
 
 0. 
 
 Obispo, bishop. / 
 
 Obra [L. //. of opus], work. 
 
 ocupar, occupy. 
 
 ofender, offend. 
 
 ofrecer, offer. 
 
 oir [L. audire], hear. 
 
 ojo [L. oculus], EYE. 
 
 o-la [cf. Fr. houle], wave. -leada, 
 
 surge. 
 Oler [L. olere, ak. to odor], smell./ 
 onza, ounce (= $i6). 
 orguUo [cf. Fr. orgueil], pride. 
 OSO [L. ursus], bear. 
 ostentar, show. 
 
 otorgar, AUTHORize ; execute./ 
 oro [L. aurum'], gold. 
 oveja [L. ovis], EWE, sheep. / 
 
 padre [L. pater], father. 
 
 pagar, pay. 
 
 pdjaro \\.. passer, sparrow], bird. 
 
SPANISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 137 
 
 palabra [ak. to ¥.. parole], word. 
 pa-n [L. ■nis'], m., bread, -nadero, 
 
 baker. 
 Papa, pope. 
 
 papel, m., paper ;^^., show. 
 para [L. per ad], for ; to. 
 parar [L. -re, prepare], stop. 
 parecer, apPEAR. 
 p4r-roco, parsoii, priest, -roquia, 
 
 PARISH. 
 
 pa-sear, walk, -seo, m., public- 
 - walk. 
 
 pastor, shepherd ; pastor. 
 
 pecho [^h. pectus], breast; courage; 
 patience. 
 
 pedir [I^. peiere], ask. 
 
 pedrecita, dim. of piedra ['L.peira], 
 stone. 
 
 peligro [L,. perieu/um], m. danger. 
 
 pequeno [Celt.], small. 
 
 pertenecer, pertain, belong. 
 
 perder [L. -re],"iQs^. 
 
 pere-za[L./«^w«'a], idleness, -zozo, 
 idle. / 
 
 perla, pearl. 
 
 permiso, permission. 
 
 pero [L. per hoc] , but. 
 
 perro [?], dog. 
 
 pe-sado, heavy, -sar \1^. pensare], 
 weigh, -so, weight. 
 
 pi-car, PECK, -co, bill. 
 
 pi6 [X,.pes], ni; FOOT. 
 
 pintar, paint. 
 
 planir [ak. to 'E. plaint], lament. 
 
 pla-ta, silver ; plate, -teado, sil- 
 vered. 
 
 pluma, pen. 
 
 pobre, POOR. 
 
 poco [L. paucus] , little. 
 
 pode-r [pop. 'L.potere], be able, can. 
 
 -rosamente, PowERfuUy. 
 policfa, police, 
 poner [L. -re], put. 
 po-sada, inn, hotel, -sar [lu.pausa- 
 
 re], repose, lodge, 
 precio, price. 
 
 preguntar [1,. per-contari], ask. 
 prelado, prelate, 
 presentar, present. 
 principe, prince. 
 prima vera [L. ver, spring], spring, 
 procurar, try. 
 pronunciar, utter, repeat. 
 prop6sito : i — , suitably. 
 pueblo, people. 
 puerta [L. porta], gate ; door, 
 pues ILi.post], then. 
 pulga I'L.pu/ex], FLEA. 
 pupila, ward. 
 
 quedar [L. quietus, quiet], remain, 
 
 be. 
 quejar [.'], complain, 
 que-rer [L. quaerere], wish; like; 
 
 want, -rido, wished ; loved ; dear, 
 quitar [ak. to E. quit], take away. 
 
 R- 
 
 raz6n,/., reason. 
 
 real, royal. 
 
 recibir, receive. 
 
 recuerdo \Y.. record], remembrance. 
 
 reducir, reduce. 
 
 reforzar, increase. 
 
 rei-na, queen, -no, kingdom; reign. 
 
 repllcar, reply. 
 
138 
 
 SPANISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 resolver, resolve. 
 
 re-sponder, answer, -spuesta, an- 
 swer, 
 retirar, retire, 
 rey [L. rex'], king. 
 libera, river side, 
 ri-co, rich, -queza, richness, 
 rodear [L. rotare], surround, 
 rogar [L. -re], ask. 
 romper [L. rumpere], break, 
 rostro [L. -irum], face. 
 rubi, m., ruby, 
 rueda [L. rota], wheel. 
 ruido [L. rugitus], noise. 
 
 S. 
 
 sala, hall. 
 
 saber [L. -pere], know. 
 satisfecho, satisfied. 
 salir [L. -re, leap], go out; happen. 
 ^ sed [L. sitis], f., thirst, -iento, 
 
 thirsty. 
 seguir \\j.sequere, for j-f^aj] , follow. 
 seguramente, assuRedly. 
 semana [L. seftem, seven], week, 
 semejante, similar. 
 sentar, seat ; fit. 
 sena, sign. 
 seEo-r, SIR; gentleman; lord, -ra, 
 
 lady ; madam. -rita,(young)lady, 
 
 miss, 
 s^quito, SUITE, attendance, 
 servir, serve, 
 si [L. sic, so], yes. 
 siguiente {^seguir], following, 
 silla [L. sed-ula], chair; seat. 
 / sin [L.jz«(?], without: — embargo, 
 
 nevertheless. 
 
 sobrino [L. -nus], nephew- 
 solo, alone, 
 soltero [L. solitarius], unmarried, 
 
 single, 
 sortija [L. sors, fate ?], ring, 
 subir [L. -re], rise, mount, 
 suela, sole. 
 sufrir, suffer. 
 
 tambi^n [L. tam bene], also. 
 
 tarda, late ; evening. 
 
 temblar, tremble. 
 
 temer [L. timere] , fear, -oso, fear- 
 ful ; TIMID. 
 
 tenir [L. -nere], hold, have. 
 
 tempestad,/., tempest, storm. 
 
 tentar [L. -re], try. 
 
 testamento, testament, will. 
 
 ti-a, aunt, -o [Gr. theios], uncle. 
 
 tierra [L. terra], land. 
 
 ti-rar [ak. to E. tear], draw, -ro, 
 span of horses. 
 
 tocar, TOUCH. 
 
 tolerar, tolerate, endure. 
 
 tomar [?], take. 
 
 torcer [L. torquere], twist. 
 
 trabajar [cf. Fr. travailUr], 
 work. 
 
 traje [L. trahere, draw : cf. Germ. 
 Tracht], suit, apparel. 
 
 tratar, treat. 
 
 trav^s [L. irans-versus], inclina- / 
 tion ; d — , across. 
 
 turba [L.], throng. 
 
 turco, Turk. 
 
 tutear [L. tu, thou], thou (say 
 'thou' to). 
 
SPANISH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 139 
 
 U. 
 
 unir, unite, 
 uso, use. 
 
 va-ler, be worth ; be valid : vdlgame 
 Dios ! bless me ! -liente, valiant, 
 brave ; strong. 
 
 vano, vain. 
 
 veneer, vanquish. 
 
 vender [L. -re}, sell. 
 
 venir, come. 
 
 ver [L. videre'], see. 
 
 verano [L. ver, spring], summer. 
 
 verde, green ; verdant. 
 
 vez [L. vix'],/., time. 
 
 vida [L. vita], life. 
 
 vidrio [L. vitrum'], glass. 
 
 viejo [L. vetulus {-tus, old)], old. 
 
 vir-tud, /., virtue, -tuoso, vir- 
 tuous. 
 
 vistoso \yisto (ver), seen], beauti- 
 ful, sightly. 
 
 vivir, live. 
 
 volar [L. -re], fly. 
 
 vol-tear, revoLVE ; overturn, -ver, 
 return : — k, again. 
 
 Y. 
 
 ya [L. /«»«.], now. 
 yacer \}-,. jacere], lie. 
 yegua [L. equa\, mare. 
 
 zapato [?], shoe. 
 
II. ENGLISH-SPANISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 Articles, numerals and pronouns are omitted. The gender of Spanish masculines in -0, 
 feminines in -ix, and sex-words is not given. Spanish cognates of less evident affinity are in 
 SMALL CAPS, and brief etymological hints are added for unrelated words. If that is done al- 
 ready in the Spanish-English Vocabulary, reference is made thus [I]. 
 
 A. 
 
 abandon, abandonar. 
 
 above, sobre ; ati/., superior. 
 
 accustom, be -ed, acostumbrar. 
 
 acquaintance, conocido [-cer, 
 know]. 
 
 act, accion,/. 
 
 adornment, adorno. 
 
 advance, adelantar [L. anie, before]. 
 
 affair, asunto [L. asumere, as- 
 sume]. 
 
 after," despues [L. post] de. 
 
 alarmed, alarmado. 
 
 allow, admitir, permitir. 
 
 already, ya [I]. 
 
 also, tambien [I]. 
 
 always, siempre [L. semper]. 
 
 amaze, asombrar [sombra, shade]. 
 
 American, americano. 
 
 angel, angel, m. 
 
 angry, enfadado [ak. to E. infatu- 
 ated ?]. 
 
 answer, responder. 
 
 ap-pear, parecer. 
 
 apple, manzana [I], -tree, man- 
 zano. 
 
 apply, aplicar. 
 
 appoint, nombrar, nominar. 
 
 Ara-bian, -bic, de Arabia, arabe. 
 
 are, son [L. sunt] ; estan [L. stant] . 
 
 argue, argUir. 
 
 arise, levantarse [L. levare, raise]. 
 
 arm, brazo [I]. 
 
 army, ejercito [L. exercitus]. 
 
 arrive, Uegar [I]. 
 
 Arthur, Arturo. 
 
 as, cuanto; {after tanto] todo. 
 
 — soon — , luego [I] que. 
 ascribe, atribuir. 
 ask, rogar [I] ; preguntar [I] ; {beg), 
 
 pedir [I]. 
 assassinate, asesinar. 
 assure, asegurar. 
 attack, atacar. 
 attain, alcanzar [Ar.]. 
 attentive, atentivo. 
 attribute, atribuir. 
 aunt, ti'a [I]. 
 
 bad, malo [I]. 
 banquet, banquete, m. 
 
ENGLISH-SPANISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 141 
 
 barbarian, barbaro. 
 
 Basque, Vascuence, m. 
 
 battle, batalla. 
 
 be, ser [L. sedere, sit]. 
 
 beat, azotar [Ar.]. 
 
 beautiful, hermoso [I]. 
 
 because, porque \_por que\ . 
 
 before, antes [I] de. 
 
 begin, comenzar ; empezar [L. pes, 
 
 foot ?]. 
 beha-ve, portarse. -vior, conducta, 
 
 crianza \criar, create, breed]. 
 behold, mirar [L. mirari, re- 
 gard], 
 believe, creer [I]. 
 Belgian, belgo. 
 bench, banco, 
 big, grande. 
 black, negro [I]. 
 body, cuerpo. 
 boil, bullir. 
 book, libro [L. -ber\. 
 born ; be — , nacer [I]. 
 boy, muchacho ; [lad, servant) mo- 
 
 zo [I], little — -, muchachi- 
 
 Uo. 
 brave, valiente. 
 breakfast, almuerzo [L. morsus, 
 
 bite ?] ; v. almorzar. 
 break, romper [I]. 
 briag, traer l_L,. iraAere^. — before, 
 
 presentar. 
 brother, hermano [I], little — , her- 
 
 manito. 
 build, edificar. 
 but, pero [I]. 
 butter (Sp.) manteca [Basque ?], 
 
 (Mex.) mantequilla. 
 buy, comprar [I]. 
 
 oaf 6, cafe, m. 
 
 call, Uamar [I]. 
 
 can, poder [I]. 
 
 cane,bast6n [I], »«. -rap, bastonada, 
 
 bastonazo. 
 captain, capitan, jefe (' chief '). 
 care, cuidar [L. cogitare, think]. 
 Castilian, castellano. 
 catch, asir [L. apisci]. 
 cause, causar. 
 celebrate, celebrar 
 cent, centavo. 
 
 century, siglo [L. soeculuni]. 
 certain, cierto. -ly, clertamente. 
 chair, silla [I]. 
 
 change, cambiar ; n. cambio. 
 chapter, capi'tulo. 
 character, caracter, m. 
 Charles, Carlos, 
 chestnut, castano. 
 child, nifio, -na [?]. 
 Christian, cristlano. 
 cigar, cigarro, tabaco. 
 
 city, CIUDAD,/. 
 
 cling, adherir. 
 colonel, coronel. 
 colony, colonia. 
 Columbus, Colon, 
 combination, combinacion,/! 
 commission, comisi&n,y; 
 companion, compafiero. 
 company, compana. 
 complain, quejar [I]. 
 complete, acabar [I]. 
 concerning, sobre [L. super"]. 
 condemn, condenar. 
 confess, confesar. 
 
142 
 
 ENGLISH-SPANISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 congratulate, dar la enhorabuena 
 
 [^K, hora, buena I] a. 
 conquer, veneer [I]. 
 consequence, consecuencia. 
 consider, considerar. 
 constable, alguacil [Ar.]. 
 consult, consultar. 
 contented, contento. 
 
 cook, COCER. 
 
 cordially, cordialmente. 
 
 correct, corregir. 
 
 count, contar. 
 
 country, pais, m. ; campo. go into 
 
 the — , ir al campo. 
 courage, coraje, m. 
 court, corte,/. 
 courtier, cortesano. 
 cousin, primo, prima [L. -mus\. 
 cowardly, cobarde ; — act, cobardia. 
 criminal, reo [L. reus\. 
 crisis, crisis, y; 
 custom, costumbre, m. 
 
 dagger, punal [I], m. -thrust, pu- 
 
 nalada. 
 dare, atrevirse [cf. atrevido I]. 
 dark, oscuro. 
 date, fecha [I]. 
 day, dia, m. 
 
 dear, caro [I] ; querido [I]. 
 death, muerte,/. 
 debt, deuda [L. debita]. 
 decay, menguar [I]. 
 de-ceit, engano [I], -ceive, enga- 
 
 nar. 
 defect, defecto. 
 delay, tardar. 
 deny, negar. 
 
 depart, partir. 
 
 dependency, dependencia,/. 
 deprive, privar. 
 desert, desertar. 
 desire, desear. 
 determine, determinar. 
 despise, despreciar. 
 dialect, dialecto. 
 dialogue, dialogo. 
 die, morir. 
 different, diferente. 
 difficult, dificil. 
 
 digest, DIGKRIR. 
 
 diligence, diligencia. 
 
 diligent, diligente; aplicado. 
 
 dine, comer [cf. eat]. 
 
 direct, dirigir. 
 
 disarrange, desordenar. 
 
 discern, discemir. 
 
 discover, descubrir. 
 
 displeased : be — , disgustarse. 
 
 disposition, disposicion,/. 
 
 distinguish, distinguir. 
 
 disturb, desasosegar \josegar (sub 
 
 siccare, dry up ?) calm], 
 ditch, foso \\,. fossum\. 
 doctor, doctor ; medico, 
 dollar, (Sp.) duro [L. -rus, hard] ; 
 
 (Mex.)peso \jsar (I), weigh]. 
 door, puerta. 
 doubt, dudar. 
 drawing, dlbujo [?]. 
 drink, beber [I]. 
 duty, deber [I], m. 
 
 ear, oreja [L. auricula (dim. of 
 earth, tierra. 
 
ENGLISH-SPANISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 143 
 
 ea-sy, facil. -sily, facilmente. 
 
 eat, comer [L. cum edere, eat]. 
 
 education, educacion,/: 
 
 effort, esfuerzo. 
 
 embark, embarcar. 
 
 embassador, embajador. 
 
 enemy, enemigo. 
 
 engagement, cita [ak. to E. cite} 
 
 England, Inglaterra. 
 
 English, ingles. 
 
 entertainment, tertulia [orig., clubs 
 
 reading Tertullian]. 
 enter, entrar, venir en. 
 entrust, confiar. 
 equal, igual. 
 err, errar. -ant, andante [-dar, cf. 
 
 go]- 
 establish, establecer. 
 estimable, estimable. 
 Europe, Europa. 
 eve, vispera [L. vesperd]. 
 evening, tarde,/. ; adj., de la tarda, 
 every, cada [I]. 
 evident, evidente. 
 exercise, ejercicio. 
 expend, expender. 
 explain, explicar. 
 express, expresar. 
 expulsion, expulsion,/, 
 eye, ojo [I]. 
 
 F. 
 fail, declinar. 
 faith, fe,/ 
 fall, caer [L. cadere\. 
 Fanny, Paca. 
 father, padre, 
 fault, FALTA ; culpa, 
 favor, favor, m. 
 
 fear, temer [I]. 
 
 feather, pluma. 
 
 feel, sentir. 
 
 few, algunos ; pocos [cf. -cd\. 
 
 fickleness, ligereza. 
 
 final, final. 
 
 find, hallar [?]. 
 
 finish, acabar [I] ; terminar. 
 
 flatter, lisonjear [I]. 
 
 flower, Fi.OR,/ little — , florecita. 
 
 fly, volar. 
 
 follow, seguir [I]. 
 
 food, comida \_-mer, I]. 
 
 foot, pie [I], m. little — , piecito, 
 
 -cillo. 
 fort, plaza (' place '). 
 for, per [L. pro\ ; para [I] : cf. 
 
 Exerc. XXI, fine print, 
 force, fuerza; v. forzar. 
 forget, olvidar [L. oblivisci\. 
 form, forma, 
 for-tune, fortuna; (fate) suerte [L. 
 
 sors\. -tunately, por fortuna. 
 fragrant, oloroso \oler, I]. 
 France, Francia. 
 Frederick, Federico. 
 frequent, tr., frecuentar. 
 friend, amigo, -ga. 
 fun, burla : make — of, burlarse de. 
 
 G. 
 gain, GANAR. 
 garden, jardin, m. 
 gate, puerta. 
 
 gather, coger [L. cogere^. 
 general, general, 
 gentleman, caballero, sefior [I] ; 
 
 (us'Iy nobleman) gentllhombre. 
 genuine, verdadero [L. verus, true]. 
 
144 
 
 ENGLISH-SPANISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 German, aleman. -ny, Aleraania. 
 get into, caber [L. capere, hold, 
 
 contain ; be contained]. 
 gird, cenir [L. cingere\. 
 girl, muchacha [?] ; {child) nina 
 
 [?]. little — , muchachilla. 
 give, dar [I]. 
 glad ; be — , alegrarse [I]. 
 grateful, aORADEcido. 
 greatness, grandeza. 
 Greek, griego. 
 green, verde. 
 gun, fusil [I], 711. 
 groan,"gemir [I]. 
 go, andar [pop.L.am^-2Va«(L.-;V^)] ; 
 
 ir [-re^ — to bed, acostarse [L. 
 
 costa, rib, side]. 
 God, Dies [L. deus\ m. 
 good, bueno [I]. 
 Goth, godo. -ic, gdtico. 
 gold, oro [I]. 
 guard, guardia. 
 guilty, culpable. 
 Gustavus Adolphus, Gustavo 
 
 Adolfo. 
 
 H. 
 
 hair, cabellos, //. [L. capillos {-put, 
 
 head]. 
 hall, sala. 
 hand, mano [I],/, little — , ma- 
 
 necito, -cilia. 
 happy, feliz. 
 
 hardly, apenas [I] ; casi [L. qitasi\. 
 harmony, armonia, el armonioso. 
 hat, sombrero (sombra, shade), 
 hatred, odio. 
 have, tener [I] ; aux. haber [I] : 
 
 — just, acabar [I], de. 
 
 headache, dolor de cabeza [I]. 
 
 hear, oir [I]. 
 
 heart, cORazon [L. cor'], m. 
 
 heaven, cielo [L. cielum]. 
 
 home, casa ; at — , en casa. 
 
 honestly, honradamente. 
 
 honor, honor, m. 
 
 horse, caballo [pop. L. -lus']. 
 
 hotel, fonda [.'], posada [I]. 
 
 hour, HORA. 
 
 house, casa [L]. 
 
 how, como [L. quo-modo], — long? 
 
 cuanto tiempo hace ? 
 human, humano. 
 humble, humillar. 
 hun-ger, hambre [L. fames],/, be 
 
 -gry, tener hambre. 
 hunt, cazar (' chase '). 
 hurtful, nocido [L. -cere, hurt]. 
 
 Iberian, ibero. 
 idiom, idioma, m. 
 ignorant, ignorante. 
 ignore, ignorar. 
 illumine, aLUMbrar. 
 imagine, iigurarse. 
 immediately, luego [I.] 
 imitation, imitacion,/. 
 imperfectly, imperfectamente. 
 important, importante. 
 impossible, imposible. 
 in, en. — order to, para. 
 inclination, inclinacion, /. 
 indeed, de veras. 
 Indian, indio. 
 infirmity, enfermedad.y. 
 influence, influencia. 
 intention, intencion,/. 
 
ENGLISH-SPANISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 145 
 
 interesting, interesante. 
 
 interrupt, interrumpir. 
 
 intrepid, intrepido. -ity, intrepi- 
 
 dez,y. 
 introduce, presentar. 
 instructed, instmido. 
 in-quire, preguntar [I], -qnisi- 
 
 tive, pregunton. 
 invalid, enfermo. 
 invite, cohvidar. 
 island, isia [L. insula'}. 
 
 John, Juan. 
 
 K. 
 
 keep, guardar : — away, apartarse. 
 kill, matar [L. fnactare"]. 
 kindness, bondad. 
 king, ray [I]. 
 knight, caballero. 
 know, saber [I] ; (be acquainted 
 with) conocer [I.] 
 
 lack, faltar (' fail '). 
 
 lady, seiiora, -rita [I]. 
 
 lament, plaiiir [I]. 
 
 language, lengua ; lenguaje, m. 
 
 idioma, m. 
 last, ultimo ; at — , al fin. 
 Latin, latin ; adj. latino, 
 laughable, digno de risa [L. -sus']. 
 lazy, perezoso [I]. 
 learn, aprender [I], -ed, docto. 
 leave, dejar [I] ; partir. 
 lesson, leccion,/ 
 left (side), izqnierdo [?]. 
 lend, prestar \1-,. p-a-stare']. 
 
 Leo, Le6n. 
 
 let, dejar [I] a. 
 
 letter, carta [I], -carrier, cartero. 
 
 liberty, libertad,/ 
 
 lie, mentir [I]. 
 
 like, tr., querer [I]. 
 
 like, adj., parecido. be — , parecerse 
 
 [I] a. 
 lion, leon, m. 
 live, vivir ; (reside) residir. 
 lo ! mirad ! mire V. \_-rar, see]. 
 lofty, alto, 
 look for, buscar [I] . 
 long (time), largo tiempo. 
 Lord (God), Seiior [I]. 
 lose, perder [I]. 
 Louis, Luis. 
 
 love, w., amar ; «., amor, m. 
 loyal, LEAL. 
 
 M. 
 
 mail, correo [I]. 
 
 man, hombre [I], m. 
 
 mare, yegua [I]. 
 
 maritime, man'timo. 
 
 Mary, Marfa. 
 
 master, maestro. 
 
 match, fosforo ; (Mex.) cerilla [L. 
 
 cera, wax]. 
 matter, cosa, v., importar. 
 May, mayo. 
 
 mean, querer decir (' wish to say '). 
 measure, MEDir [I]. 
 meet, encontrar [I]. 
 memory, memoria. 
 merit, merito. -orious, meritorio. 
 Mexican, mejicano. 
 midst, medio, 
 milk, leche [I]. 
 
146 
 
 ENGLISH-SPANISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 minister, ministro. 
 
 minute, minuto. 
 
 misery, miseria. 
 
 miss, senorita [I] ; (with given name) 
 dona [I]. 
 
 mission, mision,/ 
 
 mistress, maestra. 
 
 mistaken; be — , engaiiarse [I]; 
 equivocarse ; errar. make a — , 
 engaiiarse. 
 
 mister, seiior [I] ; in Sp. don (be- 
 fore given name; \j.dominus) ; don 
 seiior (when both the given and 
 family name are expressed). 
 
 mix, MEzcLAR. -ture, mezcla. 
 
 modern, moderno. 
 
 Monday, lunes [L. luna, moon], m. 
 
 money, dinero [I]. 
 
 month, mes [I], m. 
 
 Moor, Moro. 
 
 mortal, mortal. 
 
 mother, madre. 
 
 motive, motivo. 
 
 mountain, monte, m., sierra. 
 
 mourn, llorar [L. plorare, weep]. 
 
 mouth, boca [I], big — , bocaza. 
 
 move, mover. 
 
 Mrs., see mistress. 
 
 much, mucho [I]. 
 
 musical, musical. 
 
 Mussulman, musulmano. 
 
 must, deber [I], ser necesario. 
 
 N. 
 
 national, nacional. 
 
 name, nombre [L. nomen\, m. 
 
 nation, nacion. 
 
 nature, naturaleza. 
 
 Nazarean, nazareno. 
 
 necessary, necesario, precise; me- 
 
 nester [I], 
 need, necesitar, «. menester [I], »«. 
 neighbor, vecino [L. vicinus]. 
 nevertheless, sin embargo [I], 
 news, noticia. -paper, gaceta. 
 next, proximo, 
 night, noche [I],y". 
 noise, ruido [I], 
 north, norte, m. 
 nose, nariz [I], 
 now, ahora [L. hora, hour]. 
 
 0. 
 
 obey, obedecer. 
 
 object, objeto. 
 
 oblige, obligar; precisar. 
 
 offend, ofender. 
 
 officer, oficial. 
 
 old, viejo [I]. 
 
 once, una vez [I]. 
 
 open, abrir [I]. 
 
 order, ordenar. 
 
 ordinarily, ordinariamente. 
 
 original, original. 
 
 ought, deber [I]. 
 
 over, sobre [I]. 
 
 owe, deber [I]. 
 
 P. 
 
 pain, PENA. 
 
 palace, palacio, Castillo. 
 
 pale, palido. 
 
 paper, papel, m. 
 
 pardon, perdonar. 
 
 parents, padres (' fathers,' § 26 a). 
 
 park, parque, m. 
 
 part, parte, y. 
 
 pass, pasar. 
 
ENGLISH-SPEAKING VOCABULARY. 
 
 147 
 
 passion, pasion,/. 
 patience, paciencia. 
 pay, PAGAR. 
 peninsula, peninsula, 
 perform, desempefiar [I]. 
 pearl, perla. 
 permit, permitir. 
 Peru, Peru, m. 
 perseverance, perseverancia. 
 physician, medico, 
 picture, pintura. 
 pity, lastima [L. blasphemia]. 
 place, lugar [L. locus]. 
 
 poor, POBRE. 
 
 point, apunte. 
 
 porch, portal, m. 
 
 post (office), correo [I]. 
 
 pound, libra. . 
 
 poverty, pobreza. 
 
 power, potencia. 
 
 praise, alabar [L. laudare~\. 
 
 prefer, preferir. 
 
 preparation, preparacidn,/. [I]. 
 
 pretty, bonito [L. -mis, good], Undo 
 
 prevail, prevalecer. 
 
 prevent, prevenir. 
 
 probable, probable. 
 
 produce, producir. 
 
 promise, prometer. 
 
 proportion, proporcion,/ 
 
 prudence, prudencia. 
 
 punish, castigar. 
 
 pupil, discipulo. 
 
 put, poner [I]. 
 
 pyramid, piramido. 
 
 Q- 
 
 queen, relna [I], 
 quit, abandonar. 
 
 R. 
 
 race, raza. 
 
 railroad, ferro-carril [I], m. 
 
 rain. Hover \\j. pluere\. 
 
 raise up, erguir [L. erigere, erect]. 
 
 rarely, rara vez [I]." 
 
 reach, alcanzar [I]. 
 
 read, leer [I]. 
 
 realize, realizar. 
 
 receive, recibir ; acoger [L. adcolli- 
 
 gere]. 
 regard, mirar [L. -ri]. 
 rejoice, alegrarse [I]. 
 relate, contar (' ac-couNT '). 
 relative, relativo. 
 remain, quedar [I]. 
 remembrance, recuerdo [I], 
 remote, remote, 
 remove, quitar [I]. 
 repeat, repasar. 
 repent, arrepentirse. 
 require, requerir. 
 re-solute, resaelto. -solve, resolver; 
 
 intr. resolverse. 
 respect, respeto. 
 rest, descanso \cansar, tire, I]. 
 return, volver. 
 
 revolt, sublevar [L. levare, raise], 
 rich, rico. very — , ricacho. -ness, 
 
 riqueza. 
 ridiculous, ridiculoso. 
 right, derecho [L. directus']. 
 rise, levantarse [L. -vare, lift]. 
 road, camino [Celt]. 
 •roast-beef, asada [I]. 
 robber, ladron [L. latro]. 
 roguish, burlon. [I.] 
 
 room, cuarto [I] ; aposento \_posar 
 
148 
 
 ENGLISH-SPANISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 S. 
 
 save, SALVAR ; ahorrar [?] . 
 
 savage, salvaje, m. 
 
 say, decir [I]. 
 
 schoolmate, condiscipulo. 
 
 search, registrar. 
 
 season, estacion [I],/. 
 
 seat, puesto ; v. sentar [I]. 
 
 see, ver [I]. 
 
 seek, buscar [I]. — after, pedir. 
 
 seize, coger [I]. 
 
 select, escoger \coger, I]. 
 
 sell, vender [I]. 
 
 seem, parecer [I]. 
 
 sensation, sentimiento. 
 
 ser-vant, criado \crear, create] ; ser- 
 
 vidor. -ve, servir. 
 shine, lucir. 
 short, pequeno [I]. 
 shun, huir \\^. fugere\. 
 • sigh, gemir [I]. 
 silence, silencio. 
 sing, cantar [I]. 
 sir, SENOR {expr. more respect) ; ca- 
 
 ballero [more equality). 
 sire, SENOR. 
 sister, hermana [I], little — , her- 
 
 manita. 
 skilful, habil [L. -lis\. 
 slave, esclavo, -va. 
 sleep, dormir. 
 
 small, chico [?] ; pequeno [I]. 
 smell, oler [I]. 
 so (much), tan. 
 soldier, soldado. 
 son, hijo [I]. 
 sonorousness, lo sonoro. 
 soon, pronto, [ak. to E./n)?«/^.] 
 
 sorry ; be — , sentir. 
 
 soul, alma [I]. 
 
 soup, sopa. 
 
 south, SUR. 
 
 Spain, Espafia. 
 
 Spaniard, Espanol. 
 
 Spanish, espanol. 
 
 speak, hablar [I]. 
 
 spring, primavera [I]. 
 
 squire, escudero. 
 
 start, salir [I]. 
 
 station, estacion,/. 
 
 St. Helena, Santa Helena. 
 
 still, tambien [I]. 
 
 stomach, estomago. 
 
 stone, piedra [I]. 
 
 stranger, estranjero. 
 
 street, calle [I],/. 
 
 strong, fuerte ; potente ; valiente. 
 
 study, estudiar ; «., estudio. 
 
 succeed, Uegar [I]. 
 
 suddenly, suBiXAmente ; de re- 
 
 pente [L. repens, sudden]. 
 suffer, sufrir. 
 suit, traje [I]. 
 summer, verano [I]. 
 Sunday, domingo [L. dominus. 
 
 Lord]. 
 support, mantenimiento. 
 surely, ciertamente. 
 Sweden, Suecia. 
 sword, espada [L. spaiha, spattle, 
 
 sword.] 
 
 table, mesa [I]. 
 
 take, tomar [?]. — leave, despe-v 
 
 dirse. — a walk, dar un paseo. 
 talent, talento, m. 
 
ENGLISH-SPANISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 149 
 
 teach, ensenar [L. signare, indi- 
 cate], -er, maestro. 
 
 teethe, dentar. 
 
 thank, agradecer. -s, gracias [I]. 
 
 then, entonces [L. tunc\ ; en ese 
 caso. 
 
 there is (are), hay [I]. 
 
 thief, ladron [L. latro.\ m. 
 
 thing, cosa ; objeto. 
 
 think, pensar. 
 
 time, tiempo ; vez [I],y. 
 
 tiresome, tedioso. 
 
 title, titulo. 
 
 together, juntos ('joined '). 
 
 to-morrow, mafiana [I]. 
 
 tongue, lengua. 
 
 too, — much, demasiado [mas] . 
 
 touch, TOCAR. 
 
 traitor, traidor. 
 
 translation, traduccion,/. 
 
 travel, viajar [L. via, way]. 
 
 treat, tratar. 
 
 tree, arbol \\^. -bor\. little — , ar- 
 
 bolito. 
 tremble, temblar. 
 triumph, triunfo. 
 trunk, baiil [.'], m. 
 truth, verdad,/. 
 try, tentar [I]. 
 twist, torcer [I]. 
 
 U. 
 
 ugly, feo [I]. 
 
 umbrella, paraguas \_para agua\, m. 
 
 uncle, tio [I]. 
 
 understand, entender [I]. 
 
 undertaking, em-presa [L. prehen- 
 
 dere, take]. 
 unfortunate, desgraciado. 
 
 unite, unir. 
 unhappy, infeliz. 
 until, hasta [I]. 
 urge, suplicar. 
 useful, dtil. 
 
 valor, valor, m. 
 
 vanquish, vencer. 
 
 various, vario. 
 
 very, muy [I]. 
 
 vicissitude, vicisitud,/ 
 
 virtue, virtud,/.; -tuous, virtuoso. 
 
 W. 
 
 wait for, aguardar. 
 
 wake, despertar, [L. expergere, 
 
 waken] ; — up, despertarse. 
 walk, paseo, [short] vuelta [yol- 
 
 ver, I]. 
 want, querer [I]; [lack], carecer 
 
 [I]- 
 war, GUERRA. 
 
 ward, pupila. 
 
 wary, cauto [' cautious '] ; discrete. 
 
 wash, lavar [L. -re]. 
 
 waste, GASTAR. 
 
 way, via; mode, this — , por aqui. 
 
 weak, debil [L. -lis], 
 
 wealth, riqueza. 
 
 week, semana [I]. 
 
 well, bien [L. bene]. 
 
 whatever, qualquiera [§ 53] cosa 
 
 que. 
 when, cuando [I]. 
 whether, si [I]. 
 whispering, susurro. 
 white, bianco. 
 
ISO 
 
 ENGLISH-SPANISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 whoever, quienquiera [§ 53]. 
 
 why ? porque ? \_por que] . 
 
 wind, viento. 
 
 wish, querer [I]. 
 
 within, dentro [L. de.inlro]. 
 
 without, sin [L. -ni\. 
 
 woman, mujer [I], bad — , muje- 
 
 rona; large — , mujeracha. 
 wool, lana [L.J. 
 word, palabra [I]. 
 work, trabajar [I] ; »., trabajo, obra. 
 
 world, mundo. 
 
 wound, herir [l^.ferire, strike]. 
 
 writ-e, escribir [L. scribere\. -ex, 
 
 escritor. -ing desk, escritorio. 
 wrong : do — , hacer mal. 
 
 y. 
 
 year, ano [I]. 
 
 yesterday, ayer [L. ab heri]. 
 
 young, jovEN [I.]. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 References are to paragraphs. All verbs, simple or compound, that deviate in any way, 
 lave graphically (§ So-Si), from the three regular model verbs (§ 77), are enumerated. Com- 
 ponent parts of compound verbs are here separated by a hyphen when the simple verb occurs 
 al&o alone. 
 
 u : pronunc, 9. — final 
 
 lost, 15. -A. 
 d : with el, 19; 65. — 
 
 with direct obj., no. — 
 
 with infinit., 160. A. 2. 
 ab-negar : cf. negar. 
 abolir : defect., 89. b. 
 abrir : irr. part., 88. 
 ab-solver : cf. solver. 
 ab-sonar : cf. sonar. 
 abs-tener = tener, 88. 
 abs-traer = traer, 88. 
 abunolar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 acabar : with de, 1 60. A. 
 
 — idiom, use, 178. 
 acaecer : impers., 89. a. 
 acaso : 171. 
 
 accent : history, i . A. — 
 tone-acc't, 4. — acc't- 
 mark, 4 (end), 5. — on 
 mi, tu, H, el, si, 54. 4. 
 
 — on interr., 5. f, 67. 
 aceriar: pensar-oX., 84. A. 
 -acho : suffix, 35. I. 
 a-clocar, cf. clocar. 
 acollar : pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 acontecer : impers., 89. a. 
 acordar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. (reg. as ' tune ') . 
 
 acornar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 a-costar : cf. costar. 
 acrecentar : pensar-c\., 
 
 84. a. 
 -adtt .: suffix, 35. i. note. 
 a-decentar : cf. decentar. 
 adestrar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 ad-herir : cf. herir. 
 adjectives : history, 37. 
 
 — plur., 39. — fern., 
 40. — comparis., 42—4. 
 as adv., 98. — agree- 
 m't, 112. — position, 
 113 (different sense, 
 113. note). 
 
 a-dormir : cf. dormir. 
 adquirir : 84. A. note 2. 
 aducir : cf. ducir, 88. 
 adverbs : history, 93. — 
 single and phrases, 94. 
 
 — comparis., 97. — in 
 ■tnenie, 97. — adject's, 
 as, 98. — negative, 99. 
 
 adverlir : senlir-ch, 84. 
 
 B. 
 aferrar : pensar-cl., 84. 
 
 A. 
 a-follar : cf. foliar. 
 
 aforar : pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 
 A. (reg. as ' gauge ') . 
 ' ago ' : rendered, 177. 
 agorar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 aguerrir, defect., 89. b. 
 alborear, impers., 89. a. 
 alebrar: pensar-c\. 84. A. 
 alentar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 algo : deriv. 53. — indef., 
 
 70. a. — use, 131. 
 alguien : deriv., 53. — 
 
 indef., 70. a. 
 ali-quebrar: cf. quebrar, 
 almorzar: pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 alongar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 alphabet : 2. 
 alto : comparis., 43. 
 amanecer : impers., 89. a. 
 a-moblar : cf. j/ioblar. 
 amolar pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 a-mover : cf. mover, 
 andar : irr. 88. — as 
 
 auxil., 90. c. 
 ante : use in. 
 ante-decir ^ decir, 88. 
 "5' 
 
152 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 antes de . use, III. 
 anie-ver = ver, 88. 
 afacentar : pensar-c\., 
 
 84. A. 
 apercollar : pensar-c\,j 
 
 84. A. 
 apernar : pensar-^., 84. 
 
 A. 
 aportar * arrive ' {ii. Puer- 
 to ' port ') : pensar-c\. 
 84. A. [Obs. portar 
 ' carry ', reg.] 
 apostar ' bet ' : pensar-ci. 
 [reg. as ' post men ']. 
 apretar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 a-probar : cl.probar. 
 aquel: dem. pr., 64. — 
 
 position, 125. 
 aquello : dem. pr., 64. — 
 
 use, 127. 
 aijui: 172. 
 
 arabic elements : p. i, 2. 
 argiiir : kuir-c\., 84. D. 
 arrecir : defect., 89. b. 
 arrendar: pensar-c\,, 84. 
 
 A. 
 arrepentir : sentir-cX,, 
 
 84. B. 
 articles : history, 17. — 
 
 .cf. each. 
 -as : accent, 5. c. 
 ascender : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 a-sentir : cf. seniir. 
 a-serrar : cf. serrar. 
 asir : irr., 88. 
 a-solar : cf. solar, 
 a-soldar : cf. soldar. 
 a-sonar : cf. sonar ; (also 
 reg-)- 
 
 a-sosegar : cf. sosegar. 
 assonance: 187. 
 a-iender : cf. tender, 
 a-tener : irr. = tener. 
 a-tentar ' tap ' : cf. ten- 
 tar ; [reg. as ' attempt 
 
 a crime ']. 
 aterir : defect., 89. b. 
 aterrar ' level ' : pensar- 
 
 c!., 84. A. [reg. as 'ter- 
 
 rify']. 
 atestar ' cram ' - pensar- 
 
 cl., 84. A. [reg. as ' tes- 
 
 tify']. 
 atonic pronoun: history, 
 
 53. — cf. each. 
 a-traer = traer, 88. 
 a-travesar : cf. travesar. 
 atribuir : huir-c\., 84. D. 
 a-tronar : cf. tronar, 
 augmentat. suffixes: 35, 
 
 36, 46. 
 aun :5. b. 
 avalentar : pensar-c\,, 
 
 84. A. 
 a-venir = venir, 88. 
 a-ventar : cf. ventar. 
 avergonzar : pensar-c\., 
 
 84. A. 
 -«0 .• accent of words in, 
 
 S-d. 
 
 -<izo, suff., 31. I., 35. I. 
 
 note, 46. 
 azolar : pensar-c\.f 84. A. 
 
 i5 .■ pronunc, 1 1 ; for Lat. 
 
 /, 1. C. 
 bajo : comparis., 43. 
 bastar : impers., 89. a. 
 ben-decir = decir^ 88. 
 bien : comparis., 96, 
 
 bien-querer : irr. = que- 
 
 rer, 88. 
 ' both ' : expressed, 52. 
 bregar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 bueno : or buen, 1 5. c. — 
 
 comparis., 43. 
 buscar : with d, no. 2. 
 
 c .■ pronunc, II. — or qu, 
 
 13. a., 80. — or z, 13. 
 
 a., 80. — change to zc 
 
 in verbs, 81. 
 caber : irr., 88. 
 cada : 53. 
 fa^r .• irr., 88. 
 calentar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 capital letters : 16. 
 car deter : pi. 24. d. 
 Castilian : page 2. 
 f^^ar .• pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 ««j> .• pedir-A., 84. C. 
 
 — loss of «, 13. c, 80. 
 cerner : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 cerrar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 -cete: suffix, 35. 2. 
 <:/i.' pronunc, II. — for 
 
 Lat. ct. It, 1. C. 
 -cico : suffix, 35. 2. 
 ciento or fjVn ,■ 15. b. 
 cierto : 70. b. 
 -cillo : sufiix, 35. 2. 
 -Clio: suffix, 35. 2. 
 cimentar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 circuir: liuir-A., 84. D. 
 cloear, pensar-A. 84. A. 
 cocer : 8l. i. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 153 
 
 color : />ensar-c\., 84. A. 
 colegir : pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 colgar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 comedir : pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 comendnr : pensar-cl.,8^. 
 
 A. 
 comenzar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 comparison : bf adj., 42 
 
 (irr. 43). — of adv., 96. 
 competir : pedir-c\., 84. 
 
 C. 
 com-placer : cf. placer, 
 
 88. 
 com-poner =poner, 88. 
 compound (i. c. peri- 
 phrastic) tenses: 90. 
 com-probar : cf. probar. 
 con : with mi cor., 55. — 
 
 with infinit., 160. A. 3. 
 concernir : impers., 89. a. 
 concertar : fiensar-cl., 84. 
 
 A. 
 concluir: /<?<!y-cl., 84. D. 
 conditional: origin, 71. 
 
 c, 76. — irr., 86. 3.^ — 
 
 use, 147. 
 conducir: irr., cf. -ducir. 
 conferir: senlir-A., 84. B. 
 confesar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 con-Jiuir : cf. fluir. 
 con-mover : cf. mover, 
 conmigo : form'n, 55. 
 con-seguir : cf. seguir. 
 con-senlir : cf. sentir. 
 consigo : form'n, 55. 
 consolar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 consonants : history, I . c. 
 
 — pronunc, 1 1 . 
 
 con-sonar : cf. sonar, 
 constiluir : /luir-ch, 84. 
 
 D. 
 constrenir ; pedir-c\. 84. 
 
 C. (loss of i, 13. c.) 
 conslruir : Auir-c\. 84. 
 
 D. 
 contar : pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 con-tender : cf. tender, 
 con-tener ^ tener, 88. 
 contigo : form'n, 55. 
 con-torcer : cf. torcer. 
 contr-acordar : cf. acor- 
 
 dar, 
 contraction: 19. 
 contra-decir = decir, 88. 
 con-traer = traer, 88. 
 contra-kacer : cf. hacer, 
 
 88. 
 contra-poner = poner, 
 
 88. 
 contra-venir^venir, 88. 
 contribuir ■ Auir-d., 84. 
 
 D. 
 controvertir : senlir-c\., 
 
 84. B. 
 con-venir : irr. = venir, 
 
 88. 
 convertir : sentir-c\., 84. 
 
 cor-regir : cf. regir. 
 costar : pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 creer : cf. 80. 
 cubrir : irr. part., 88. 
 cual : indef. pr., 70. i,. 
 cualijuier(a) : 53, 70. c. 
 (■wflB or cuanlo, 1 73. 
 
 </; pronunc, 11. — for 
 Lat. ^, I. C. — lost in 
 imperat., 78. 
 
 dar : irr., 88. 
 
 date: expressed, 114, 
 115. 
 
 de : with el, 19, 65. — for 
 'than,' 19; with nouns, 
 III. — with infinit., 
 160, A. I. 
 
 de-caer : cf. caer, 88. 
 
 decentar : pensar-c\.,&^ A 
 
 decir : irr., 88. 
 
 de-ducir : cf. ducir, 88. 
 
 defective verbs, 89. 
 
 defender ; pensar-c\., 84. 
 A. 
 
 deferir : sentir-c\., 84. B. 
 
 degollar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 A. 
 
 definite article : history, 
 17. — form, 18. — idi- 
 om, use, 107. — omis- 
 sion, 108. 
 
 dejar : with d, no. 2. 
 
 delante de: III. 
 
 de-moler : cf. moler. 
 
 de-tnostrar : cf. mostrar. 
 
 demonstratives: 64. 6; 
 125. 7. 
 
 de-negar : cf. negar. 
 
 denostrar: pensar-c\., 84. 
 A. 
 
 dentar : pensar-c\,, 84. A. 
 
 de-poner = poner, 88. 
 
 de-re-negar : cf, negar. 
 
 derrengar : pensar-c\., 
 84. A. 
 
 derretir : pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 
 derrocar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 A. 
 
 derruir : huir-c\., 84. D. 
 
 des-acertar[: cf. acertar. 
 
 des-acollar : cf. acollar. 
 
154 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 des-acordar : cf. acordar. 
 des-adveriir : cf. adver- 
 
 tir. 
 des-aferrar : cf. aferrar. 
 des-aforar : cf. aforar ; 
 
 (reg. as ' redeem a 
 
 heritage'). 
 des-alentar : cf. alentar, 
 des-amoblar: cf. ainohlar. 
 des-andar = andar, 88. 
 des-apretar : cf, apretar. 
 des-aprobar : ci. probar. 
 des-arrendar : cf. ar- 
 
 rendar. 
 des-a-sentar : cf. sentar. 
 des-asir = asir, 88. 
 des-a-sosegar : cl.sosegar. 
 des-a-lender : cf. tender, 
 des-a-tentar : cf. tentar. 
 dcs-aterrar : cf. aterrar. 
 des-a-traer = traer, 88. 
 des-a-travesar : cf. ^?'«- 
 
 des-a-venir = venir, 88. 
 des-a-ventar : cf. ventar. 
 descender: pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 des-cehir : cf., cenir. 
 des-colgar : cf. cotgar. 
 descoUar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 des-comedir : cf. comedir. 
 des - com -poner=poner, 
 
 88, 
 des-conceriar : cf. ««- 
 
 certar. 
 des-con-seniir : cf. sentir. 
 des-consolar: cf. consolar. 
 des-contar : cf. contar. 
 des - con - venir = venir, 
 
 descordar, pensar-i^. 84. 
 
 A. 
 descornar: pensar-c\., 84. 
 des-dar = f/«rzr, 88. 
 des-decir : cf. decir, 88. 
 des-dentar : cf. dentar. 
 des-empedrar : cf. ^/»- 
 
 pedrar. 
 des-encordar ': cf. encor- 
 
 dar. 
 des-engrosar : cf. ^k- 
 
 grosar. 
 des-en-tender : cf. tender, 
 des-enterrar : cf. .?«- 
 
 ierrar. 
 des-en-volver : cf. volver. 
 de-servir : cf. servir. 
 desferrar: pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 desjlocar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 des-hacer = hacer, 88. 
 des-helar : cf. helar. 
 des-herrar : cf. herrar. 
 des - im - poner = poner, 
 
 88. 
 des-leir : pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 desmarrir, defect., 89. b. 
 desmedir : pedir-c\., 84, 
 
 C. 
 des-melar : cf. melar. 
 des-pienibrar: pensar-c\., 
 
 84. A. 
 des-mentir : cf. mentir. 
 des-obstruir: cf. obslruir. 
 des-oir = oir, 88. 
 desolar : pensar-c\., 88. 
 de-soldar : cf. soldar. 
 desolar: pensar-Q\.j 84. A. 
 desoUar : pensar-ci., 84. 
 
 A. 
 
 desosar : pensar-A., 84, 
 
 A. (Pres. -hueso, 13. 
 
 b). — reg. as ' not dare.' 
 desovar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. (Pres. huevo, 13. 
 
 b). 
 des-pedir : cf. pedir. 
 despedrar : pensar-c\. 84. 
 
 A. 
 des-pensar : cf. pensar. 
 despernar : pensar-c\., 
 
 84. A. 
 desperlar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 des-placer : cf. placer. 
 des~plegar : cf. plegar ; 
 
 (also reg.). 
 des-poblar : cf. poblar. 
 des~poner : cf. poner, 88. 
 des-pro-veer : reg., cf. 
 
 i-^r, 88. 
 des-ieniar : cf. tentar. 
 des-lenir : cf. tehir. 
 desterrar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 destituir : huir-A., 84. 
 
 D. 
 des-torcer : cf. torcer. 
 des-trocar : cf. trocar, 
 destruir : huir-A., 84. D. 
 des-ventar : cf. ventar. 
 desvergonzar : pensar-c\. 
 
 84. A. 
 des-volver : cf. volver. 
 de-tener : cf. tener, 88. 
 de-traer ^ traer, 88. 
 detrds de : iii. 
 de-volver : cf. volver. 
 dezmar : pensar-c\., 84. , 
 
 A. 
 diaeresis: 3. b., 13. ». 
 
INDEX. 
 
 155 
 
 diferir : sen(ir-c\., 84. B. 
 di-fluir : cl.fluir. 
 digerir : sentir-A., 84. 
 
 B. 
 di-luir : cf. luir. 
 diluviar : impers., 89. a. 
 diminutive suffixes : 35, 
 
 35. 2, 36, 46. 
 diphthongs: 10; inverse, 
 
 1S6. 1, A, 
 discerner : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 discernir: sentir-c\., 84. 
 
 B. 
 dis-con-venir : cf. venir, 
 
 88. 
 discordar : pensar-A., 
 
 84. A. 
 di-sentir : cf. sentir. 
 disminuir : Auir-c\., 84. 
 
 D. 
 di-solver : cf. solver, 
 di-sonar : cf. sonar, 
 disparvorir, defect., 89. 
 
 b. 
 dis-poner spotter, 88. 
 dissyllabic vowel comps. : 
 
 10 ; in verse, 186. I, a. 
 dis-tender : cf. tender, 
 dis-traer ^'traer, 88. 
 distribuir : huir-c\., 84. 
 
 D. 
 divertir : seniir-cl., 84. 
 
 B. 
 do/er .■ pensar-c\, 84. A. 
 dormir: seniir-c\., 84. B. 
 
 e : pronunc, 9; for Lat. 
 a, i, «, I. B. — change 
 to ie (f ), 14. a, 82; or 
 to i, 14. b, 84. 
 
 e : for y ' and,' 104. 
 
 -ejo : suffix, 35. a. 
 
 el: 18; for la, 18. a. — 
 
 ?/ mto, etc. : use, 122. 
 
 — el cual, 68, 129. 
 f/i-^V .• cf. pedir, 84. C. 
 elision: 15. 
 embair : defect., 89. b. 
 embestir : pedir-A., 84. 
 
 C. 
 emendar : pensar-cl., 84. 
 
 A. 
 empecer : 81. I. 
 empedernir : defect., 89. 
 
 b. 
 empedrar : pensar-c\., 
 
 84. A. 
 empezar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 emporcar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 en: with inBnit., 160. A. 
 
 4- 
 encender : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 encentar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 en-cerrar : cf. cerrar. 
 en-clocar : cf. clocar. 
 en-comendar : cf. comen- 
 
 dar. 
 encontrar: pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 encorar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 encordar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 encovar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 encubertar : pensar-cL, 
 
 84. A. 
 
 en-dentar : cf. dentar. 
 engorar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 engreir : pedir-A., 84. D. 
 engrosar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 enhestar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 en-melar : cf. melar. 
 enmendar pensar-A., 
 
 84. A. 
 en-rodar : cf. rodar, 
 ensangrentar : pensar- 
 
 cl., 84. A. 
 en-sohar : cf. sonar, 
 en-tender : cf. tender, 
 enterrar pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 entortar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 entre-decir = decir, 88. 
 entre-morir : cf. morir. 
 entre-oir = oz>, 88. 
 entre-poner ^ poner, 88. 
 entre-tener = tener, 88. 
 enire-ver : cf. z/f?-, 88. 
 en-vestir : cf. vesiir. 
 en-volver : cf. volver. 
 equi-valer = valer, 88. 
 erguir : 84. B. i. 
 errar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 
 (Vr.yerro : 13. c.) 
 « .• init'l for Lat. J, i . C. 
 
 « final : accent. 
 
 « <ife .• 160. A. I. 
 escarchar : impers., 89. 
 
 u. 
 escarmentar : pensar-A., 
 
 84. A. 
 es-cocer • cf. ^»«r. 
 escribir : irr., 88. 
 
iS6 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ese : 64; position, 125. 
 es-forzar : ci.forzar. 
 eso: 64; use, 127. 
 espedir = expedir. 
 estar : irr., 88. 
 estercolar : pensar-cL, 
 
 84. A. 
 estregar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 estrehir : pedir-c\., 84. 
 
 C. (and cf. 13. c.) 
 excluir : kuir-c\., 84. D. 
 expedir: pedir-c\., 84., 
 
 C. 
 ex-poner ^poner, 88. 
 ex-tender : cf. tender, 
 ex-traer : cf. truer . 
 
 f: pronunc, II. — fem- 
 inine: nouns, 29-34; 
 adjectives, 40, 
 
 ferrar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 A. 
 
 fuir . Auir-ch, 84., D. 
 
 foliar : pensar-cl., 84. A. 
 
 forzar : pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 
 fregar: pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 
 freir : pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 QpaxWcfreido ot frito^ 
 
 fulano : deriv. 53. — in- 
 def., 70. a. — f. de tal, 
 133; future : form'n, 
 71. c,f; 76; 86.3.— 
 use, 147. 
 
 g: pronunc, 11. — in- 
 sert, in Pres., 86, i. a. 
 
 garantir ; defect., 89. b. 
 
 gender: nouns, 27-34. — 
 adjectives, 40. 
 
 gcmir : pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 
 gerund : 266-7. 
 
 gobernar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A 
 gruir : /iuir-c\., 84. D. 
 grande : or gran, 15. b. 
 
 • — compar., 43. 
 granizar : impers., 89. a. 
 
 h : pronunc, 1 1 . ^ for 
 L,a.t./,g, I. C. — added 
 before ue, 13. b. 80. 
 
 /laier : irr., 88. — auxil., 
 90. A. — to express 
 •ago,' 177. 
 
 hacendar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 A. 
 
 hacer : irr., 88. — to ex- 
 press 'ago,' 177 : ' half,' 
 
 51- 
 
 heder : pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 /lelar : pensar-cl., 84. A. 
 henchir : pedir-cl., 84. C. 
 /lender : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. (and cf. 13. c.) 
 kenir : pedir-d., 84. C. 
 
 (and cf. 13. C.) 
 herbar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 herir : sentir-c\., 84. B. 
 herrar: pensar-A., 84. A. 
 hervir : sentir-d., 84. B. 
 hi(J)odalgo : pt., 25. 
 hielar : impers., 39. a. 
 holgar : pensar-c\., 84.A. 
 hollar : pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 homonyms: acc't, 5.f, g; 
 
 — of difTt gender and 
 
 meaning, 33. 
 liuir : 84. D. 
 huir-cXass : 83, 84. D. 
 
 i : pronunc, 9. — for 
 Lat. e, ce, I . B. — ac- 
 
 cented, 5. a. — lost, 13. 
 
 c — change K.oy, 13. c. 
 -illo : suffix, 35. 2. 
 imbuir : huir-c\., 84. D. 
 impedir : pedir-A, 84. C. 
 imperative : form'n, 76. 
 
 — final lost, 78; 86. 2. 
 imperfect: form'n, 71. c, 
 
 76. — use, 143-4. — 
 
 for condit'l, 143. i. 
 im-poner = poner, 88. 
 importar : impers., 89. a. 
 imprimir : 88. 
 im-probar : cf. probar. 
 in-censar : cf. ceasar. 
 incluir : huir-c\., 84. D. 
 indeclinables : history, 
 
 93. — classes, 94-105 
 
 (cf. each). — syntax, 
 
 171. 
 indefinites: article, 20; 
 
 omitted, 109. — pro- 
 
 nominals, 70; syntax, 
 
 '3'-7- 
 
 indicative : cf. each tense 
 resp. 
 
 in-dis-poner= poner, 88. 
 
 in-ducir = ducir, 88. 
 
 inferir : seniir-c\., 84. B. 
 
 infernar : pensar-A., 84. 
 A. 
 
 infinitive : Lat. in Span , 
 71. — conjug'n sign, 
 74. — use, 156; as 
 noun, 157; without 
 preposition, 159; with 
 preposition, 160; with 
 que, 161; as verb, 162; 
 as gerund, 160. B.; in 
 exclam'n, 165; act. as 
 pass., 164. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 157 
 
 in-fluir : ni.Jluir. 
 ingerir (or -jerir) : sen- 
 
 iir-c\., 84. B ; part., 79. 
 -in{o) : suffix, 35. 2. 
 inquirir : 84. A., note 2. 
 in-seguir : cf. seguir. 
 instituir : huir-c\., 84. 
 
 D. 
 insiruir : huir-c\., 84. 
 
 D. 
 inter-decir ^ decir, 88. 
 inter-poner =poner, 88. 
 interrogative : pronomi- 
 
 nals, 67 (acc't, 5. f.) — 
 
 verbs, 77. 1. — agreem., 
 
 128. 
 inter-venir = venir, 88. 
 invernar : pensar-c\., 
 
 84. A. 
 invertir : sentir-c\. 84. 
 
 B. 
 in-vesiir: cf. vestir. 
 ir : irr., 88. — as auxil., 
 
 90. C. 
 irregular verbs: 85-8. 
 -ito, suffix, 35. a. 
 
 j : pronunc, 11. — for 
 Lat X, etc.; I. C. 
 
 jamds : acc't, 5. c. — in 
 negat'n, 99; 181. a; 
 181. note. 
 
 jugar : 84. A. note 2.' 
 
 la: 18; change to «■/, 18. 
 
 a. — for le, 54. 3. — as 
 
 neut., 117. a. 
 /aj.- 18. — for les, 54. 
 
 3. — as neut., 112. 2. 
 leer : reg. (but. cf. i=y ; 
 
 13. c, 80). 
 
 lique -facer ^ satisfacer, 
 
 cf. hacer, 88. 
 //.■ .2. I. — pronunc, II. 
 
 — i lost after, 13. c. — 
 
 for Lat. /, cl, etc., i . C. 
 llegar : idiom., 178. 
 llovizar : impers., 89. a. 
 llueve : impers., 89. a,. 
 lo : def. art., 18, i8.b.— 
 
 pron., 64; use, 117. I; 
 
 127: for/^, 54. 3. 
 lord : pi., 24. 
 
 m : in the alphab., 2.1. 
 nial : for malo, 15. a. — 
 
 comparis., 96. 
 mal-decir : cf. decir, 88. 
 malo : or ota/, 15. a. — 
 
 comparis., 96. 
 mal-querer : cf. querer. 
 mal-sonar : cf. sonar, 
 mal-iraer ^ traer, 88. 
 manifestar : pensar-A., 
 
 84. A. 
 manir : defect., 89. b. 
 man-tener ^ tener, 88. 
 m«f.' 'but,' 183; ff/ifj, 
 
 ' more,' 42, 96. 
 masculines : nouns, 28- 
 
 34- 
 mecer : 81. I. 
 medir : pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 melar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 inentar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 -meiite : adv. end'g, 97. 
 mentir : senlir-cl., 84. B. 
 merendar : pensar-A., 
 
 84. A. 
 »«« or »;z'i!).' 122. 2; 120. 
 ?«27 ,' 50. 
 
 milord ; pi. 24. c. 
 m!0.- 122; or »;!, 122. 2. 
 mismo : 53; 70. t. 
 moblar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 violer : pensar-A., 84. A . 
 violliinar: impers., 89. a. 
 inorder ; pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 morir : sentir-A., 84. B. 
 
 (part, muerto, note 2.) 
 mostrar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 mover : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 mucho : comparis., 96. — 
 
 use, 173. 
 muerto : 84. B. 2. 
 OTay .■ use, 173. 
 
 n : vfith tilde (n), 2. 
 Kai/a .• 70. a.- — ■ use, 132. 
 nadie : 70. a. — use, 1 32. 
 negar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 negation: 99, 179. 
 nevar : pensar-A., 84. A. ; 
 
 impers., 89. a. 
 ni : 99. 
 ninguno : 53; 70. c; 
 
 136. 
 no : use, 99, 132, 136, 
 
 180. 
 nouns: history, 21; pi. 
 
 23-5; diff't senses in 
 
 sing, and pi., 26; gen- 
 der, 27-33. 
 numerals : history, 47 ; 
 
 list, 48; infl., 49; card. 
 
 for ord., 1 14 : idioms, 
 
 115. 
 «««ca .• 99; 181. b; 181. 
 
 note. 
 
158 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 n: orig., I. C. — sign, 2. 
 
 — pronunc, ii. 
 
 : pronunc, 9. — for Lat. 
 «/, au,l. B. — final lost, 
 15. a. — change to ue, 
 («), 14. a., 82, 84. — 
 change to », 14. b., 82, 
 84. — £), 'or,' changed 
 to «, 104. 
 
 object: direct with a, 
 no. 
 
 obscurecer: impers., 89. a. 
 
 obstruir : huir-c\., 84. D. 
 
 ob-tener — tener, 88. 
 
 oir : irr., 88. — constr., 
 159. I. 
 
 oler : fensar-c\., 84. A. 
 (Pres. htielo, 13. b.) 
 
 -on . suffix, 35. I. 
 
 o-poner ^=poner, 88. 
 
 oprimir : 79. 
 
 orthographic changes : 
 gen'ly, 13; in verbs, 
 80-1. 
 
 -oie : suffix, 40. a. — 
 gend. 40. a. 
 
 o/ro : 70. c. — use, 134. 
 
 p : in the alphab., 2. i. 
 para : use, in; 1 60. A. 
 
 5; 170. 
 participles : fr.Lat., 71. 2. 
 
 — form, 1 68. — absol. 
 use, 169. — -Kith para, 
 170. 
 
 passive verb : 90. b. — 
 
 replaced by refl., 139. 
 pedir : 84. C. 
 pedir-class : 83, 84. C. 
 pensar : 84. A. 
 
 pensar-^'Si : 83, 84. A. 
 
 pequeho : comparis. , 43. 
 
 perder : pensar-c\., 84. 
 A. — with d, 1 10. 2. 
 
 pero : constr'n, 183. 
 
 periphrastic verbs : 90. 
 
 per-seguir : cf. seguir. 
 
 personal accusative : 1 10. 
 
 personals : 54-9. — posi- 
 tion, 57-8, 120. — syn- 
 tax, 1 16-120. 
 
 pervertir : seniir-cl., 84. 
 B. 
 
 phonetic change: gen'l, 
 14. — in verbs, 82. 
 
 placer : irr., 88. 
 
 plegar : pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 
 plural : nouns, 23-5 ; 
 adjectives, 39. 
 
 poblar : pensar-ci., 84. 
 A. 
 
 poco : comparis., 90. 
 
 poder : irr., 88. 
 
 podrir : pedir-A., 84. C. 
 
 poner : irr., 88. 
 
 porque: fin. tone, 5. c. 
 
 pos-poner = poner, 88. 
 
 possessives : 60-3. — 
 agreem., 121. — viio 
 or el mio, etc., 122. — 
 explet. constr., 123. — 
 replaced by def. art., 
 124. 
 
 pre-decir = decir, 88. 
 
 pre - dis -poner = poner, 
 88. 
 
 preferir : sentir-A,, 84. 
 B. 
 
 pre-morir : cf. morir. 
 
 prender : 79. 
 
 pre-poner ^= poner, 88. 
 
 prepositions: 100. — with 
 nouns, no- III. — 
 vi'ith infinit. 160. 
 
 present : princ. part, 76. 
 
 — irreg. form'n, 71. f; 
 82; 86. I. — use, 142; 
 154. 
 
 preso : 79. 
 
 preterit : princ. part, 76. 
 
 — irreg. form'n, 71. f, 
 84.B., C;86.4. — use, 
 145. 
 
 pre-valer = valgo, 88. 
 pre-venir = venir, 88. 
 pre-ver ^ ver, 88. 
 probar: pensar-A., 84. A. 
 proferir : sentir-A., 84. 
 
 B. 
 progressive phrases : 90. 
 
 C. 
 pro-tnover : cf. mover. 
 pronouns: history, 53, 
 
 and cf. each. — syntax, 
 
 116-137. 
 pronunciation : 8-11 . 
 pr o-poner = poner, 88. 
 pro-seguir : cf. seguir. 
 prostituir : huir-A., 84. 
 
 D. 
 proveer : cf. ver, 88. 
 pro-venir = venir, 88. 
 pudrir : cf. 84. C (note), 
 punctuation: 16. 
 
 q : in the alphab., 2.1. 
 
 quantity, 6. 
 
 que : ' than,' 45. — rel. 
 pron., 68; use, 129. — 
 after no, 99. — omit- 
 ted, 151. a. 2. — with 
 infinit., l6l. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 159 
 
 qicebrar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 quedar : as auxil., 90 
 
 B. 
 querer : irr., 88. — with 
 
 a, 1 10. 2. 
 quien, quiln : 67, 68; 
 
 use, 129. 
 quienquier{a) : 53, 70. a. 
 
 r : pronunc, 11. 
 
 raer, obsolete (conj. = 
 
 caer, 88). 
 re-apretar : cf. apretar. 
 re-caer = caer, 88. 
 re-calentar : cf. calentar. 
 re-centar: pensar-ti., 84. 
 
 A. 
 recien : use, 1 74. 
 reciprocal verb: 91, 91. 
 
 2,. 
 recluir : huir-c\., 84. D. 
 re-cocer : cf. cocer. 
 re-colar : cf. colar. 
 recomendar : pensar-ch, 
 
 84. A. 
 »•? - com -poner ^=poner, 
 
 88. 
 ae-construir : cf. ««- 
 
 slruir. 
 re-contar : cf. contar. 
 re-con-venir= venir, 88. 
 recordar : petisar-cl., 84. 
 
 A. 
 recosidr : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 redoler: pensar-c\., 84. A. 
 re-ducir = ducir, 88. 
 referir : sentir-c\., 84. B. 
 reflexive: pron., 91-2. — 
 
 verb, 91 ; for pass., 139. 
 
 re-fluir : cUfluir. 
 re-forzar : cf. forzar. ' 
 re-fregar : cf. fregar. 
 re-freir : ci.fi-eir. 
 regar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 regimen : pi., 24. a. 
 regimentar : pensar-c\., 
 
 84. A. 
 regir : pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 regoldar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 re-hacer = hacer, 88. 
 re-herir : cf. herir. 
 re-hervir : cf. hervir. 
 re-hollar : cf. hollar, 
 re-huir : cf. /(«jV. 
 j-iriV.- pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 
 (and cf. 13. c). 
 relampagar : impers., 
 
 89. a. 
 relatives: 68-9; synt., 
 
 128. 
 remendar : pensar-cl,, 
 
 84. A. 
 re-molar : cf. molar, 
 re-moler : cf. ntoler. 
 re-m^order : cf. morder. 
 re-mover : cf. mover. 
 rendir : pedir-A., 84. C. 
 re-negar : cf. negar. 
 renovar : pensar-c\. 84. 
 
 A. 
 reiiir : pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 
 (and cf. 13. c). 
 re-pedir : cl.pedir. 
 re-pensar : c{.fensar, 84. 
 
 A. 
 repetir : pedir-c\., 84. C. 
 re-plegar : ci.plegar. 
 re-poner z=^poner, 88. 
 re-probar : ci. probar. 
 
 re-quebrar : cf. quebrar. 
 re-querer = querer, 88. 
 requerir : sentir-c\., 84. 
 
 B. 
 re-saber = saber, 88. 
 re-salir = salir, 88. 
 re-sembrar : d.sembrar 
 re-seniir = settdr, 84. B. 
 re-solver : cf. solver, 
 re-sollar: ci.sollar. 
 re-sonar : cf. sonar, 
 res-quebrar: ci. quebrar. 
 restituir : huir-cl,, 84. 
 
 D. 
 restregar: pensar-cl., 84. 
 
 A. 
 re-iemblar : cf. iemblar. 
 re-tener = lener, 88. 
 re-tentar : cf. tentar. 
 re-tehir : cf. tehir. 
 re-torcer : cf. torcer. 
 re-tostar : cf. toslar, 
 ee-traer = traer , 88. 
 retribuir: huir-cl., 84. 
 
 D. 
 re-tronar : cf. tronar. 
 retro-traer = traer, 88. 
 re-venir = venir, 88. 
 re-ventar : cf. ventar. 
 re-ver = ver, 88. 
 re-verter : cf. verier, 
 re-vestir : cf. vestir. 
 re-volar : cf. volar, 
 re-volcar : cf. volcar. 
 re-volver : cf. volver. 
 rhyme: 187. 
 robar : with a, 1 10. 2. 
 rodar : pensar-cl., 84. A. 
 rOi?r .• 89. c. 
 
 rogar : pensar-cl., 84. A. 
 romper: 79. 
 
i6o 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 s .■ pronunc, 1 1 . — plur. 
 
 sign. — final lost, 78. 
 sader : irr., 88. 
 salir : irr., 88. 
 sanio or san : 15. b. 
 sarmentar : pensar-c\., 
 
 84. A. 
 satisfacer : cf. hacer, 88. 
 se : refi., 54, 91 (recipr., 
 
 91. 2.). — for le. Us, 59. 
 sega7- : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 seguir : pedir-A,, 84. C 
 
 (and cf. 13. a). 
 sembrar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 sementar: pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 sendos : 53, 70. b. 
 senior : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 seniir : 84. B. 
 J«»^z>-class : 83, 84. B. 
 ser : irr., 88. — as auxil., 
 
 90. b. 
 serrar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 servir : pedir-A., 84. C. 
 si: ' if,' 1 75 ; si, ' yes,' 1 76. 
 sino : fin. tone, 5. e. — 
 
 use, 99, 183. 
 sobre-poner = poner, '88. 
 sob)'e-salir=^ salir, 88. 
 sobre-venir = venir, 88. 
 so-freir : cf. freir. 
 solar ; pensar-A., 84. A. 
 soldar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 soler : 89. d. 
 j(p//rtr .• pensar-A., 84. A. 
 solver .■ 84. A (part, suelto, 
 
 note i). 
 sallar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 so-mover : cf. mover. 
 Sonar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 
 son-reir : cf. j-fjV. 
 
 soh-rodar ; cf, rodar. 
 
 sonar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 (rt-joBar, con-sonar, 
 also reg.) 
 
 sor-regar : cf. regar. 
 
 sosegar: pensar-A., 84. A. 
 
 sos-tener = iener, 88. 
 
 soterrar : pensar-A., 84. 
 A. 
 
 Spanish words in English, 
 1 89-9 1 . — subject after 
 verb, 186. — subjunc- 
 tive : form'n, 76. — 
 indep't, 149. — DE- 
 PEND'T: gen'l 150; I. 
 subj. of unrealised com- 
 pletion, 151; II. subj. 
 of emotion, 152; III. 
 subj. of mental reserve, 
 153. — use of tenses, 
 
 154. 
 sub-arrendar . cf. n'r- 
 
 rendar. 
 substituir : huir-A., 84. 
 
 D. 
 sub-venir = venir, 88. 
 sub-verlir : senlir-A,, 84. 
 
 B. 
 sufifixes : 35-6, 46. 
 sugerir : senlir-A., 84. B. 
 superlative: ofadj's, 42-4 
 
 (absol., 44). — of adv., 
 
 96. 
 super-poner= porter, 88. 
 super-venir = venir, 88. 
 su-poner = poner, 88. 
 suprimir : 79. 
 suslituir : huir-A., 84.D. 
 sus-traer = traer, 88. 
 syllabication : 7. 
 
 t : in the alphabet, 2. I. 
 tal: 70. I.; use, 135. 
 tampoco : 182. 
 /aK/o ox tan: 173. 
 temblar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 tender : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 /^B^r .■ irr., 88. — as aux- 
 iliary, 90. A. 
 tentar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 tenir: pedir-A., 84. C. 
 
 (and cf. 13. c). 
 tilde : 2. 
 time: expr., 115. 
 todo: 70. I, 137. 
 tone-accent : 4. 
 tonic pronominals ; 53, 
 
 54, 60. 
 torcer : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 tostar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 tra-dueir = ducir, 88. 
 traer : irr., 88. 
 trans-: cf. also tras-. 
 tra(n)scender : pensar- 
 
 cl., 84. A. 
 trans-fregar : cf. fregar. 
 trans-poner z= poner. 
 trds .-III. — tras-, cf. also 
 
 trans-, 
 trascender : cf. transc. 
 tras-colar : cf. color, 
 troscordar : pensor-A., 
 
 84. A. 
 trasegar : pensar-A., 84. 
 
 A. 
 trasferir : sentir-A., 84. 
 
 B. 
 tra-sohar : cf. sonar, 
 tras-poner ^ poner, 88. 
 tras-verter : cf. verier, 
 tras-volar : cf. volar. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 I6l 
 
 travesar : J>ensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 trocar : pensar-c\ , 84. A. 
 tronar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 tropezar : pensar-c\., 84. 
 
 A. 
 truenar : impers., 89. a. 
 tume-facer : cf. hacer, 
 
 88. 
 
 u : pronunc, 9. — for 
 Lat. 0, I . B. — acc'd, 5. 
 
 tl : 'or ', for 0, 104. 
 
 -ucho : suffix, 35. I. 
 
 -uelo : suff., 35. 2. 
 
 uno : or «», 15. a.; 20, 
 70. c. 
 
 usU<i: use, 56, 63; 123. 
 
 V : in alphabet, 2.1. 
 valtr : irr., 88. 
 
 venir : irr., 88. 
 
 ventar : pensar-A., 84. 
 A. 
 
 ventear : impers., 89. a, 
 
 ventiscar : impers., 89. a. 
 
 z/if r .• irr., 88. — with in- 
 finit., 159. 1. 
 
 verbs : history, 71. — con- 
 jugation, 74. — reg. 
 and irreg., 75. — prin. 
 parts, 70. — reg. 77. — 
 orthogr. changes, 80-1. 
 — phon. changes, 82— 
 4. — irr., 85-8. — de- 
 fect., 89. — agreem't, 
 138. — voice, 139. — 
 indie, 141 (cf. each 
 tense). — subjunct. 
 (which cf.). 
 
 versification : 1 84-8. 
 
 verier : pensar-c\., 84. 
 A. 
 
 vesiir : pedir-A., 84. C. 
 volar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 volcar : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 volver : pensar-A., 84. A. 
 
 (part, vuello, note i). 
 vowels: history, I. B. — 
 
 pronunc. 8-10. 
 
 y : pronunc, 9. — for t, 
 1 3. c. — added in pres't, 
 86. I. b. — y, 'and,' 
 changed to e, 104. 
 
 yacer : irr., 88. 
 
 ' you(r)' : cf. usted. 
 
 yuxla -poner = poner, 
 88. 
 
 z: pronunc, II. — use, 
 13. B., 23. I; 80, 81. 
 
 zaherir : sentir-A., 84. B. 
 -zuelo : suffix, 35. 2. 
 zulano : 53, 70. a. 
 
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