n-2. Ci^arneU UntDetaitg SIthrarg 3tl}aca, £7em ^nrb BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HENRY W. SAGE 1891 tNG(NEERING LIBRARY The date shows wh^ti this volume was taken. To renew this book copy the call No. and give to the librarian. HOME USE RULES All Books subject to recall ^ All borrowers must regis- ilv ter in the library to borrow books for home use. ' All books must be re- turned at end of college year for inspection and , ^ repairs. Limited books must be returned within the four week limit and not renewed. Students must return all books before leaving town, OflTicers should arrange for ; the return of books wanted during their absence from town. Volumes of periodicals -and of pamphlets are held . 'S' * in the library as much as possible. For special pur- _^ poses they are given out for a limited time. ■ Borrowers should not use their library privileges for the benefit of other persons. Books of special value and gift books, when the , giver wishes it, are not allowed to circulate. Re^iders are asked to re- port all cases of books marked or mutilated. Do not deface books by marks and writing. \ TN 112.A7K18 """'"^"'"-'■"^^n' A Cornell University 7 Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004109439 Mineral Resources OF ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA By HAGOP A. KARAJIAN METALLURGIST FIRST EDITION ARMEN TECHNICAL BOOK CO. New York 1920 Copyright, 1920. By HAGOP A. KARA J I AN. ARMENIA PRESS Printers and Publishers 217 East 26th Street New York City < u Zj u I o z S D J u z z s < -I < o 2 o H u, O a. < X u To the memory of my mother. Deported and died in Irbid (Arabian Desert.) PREFACE A glance at the early history of this tramping-ground of our Aryan forefathers gives the impression that the region was both better known and better appreciated by them than by its modern inhabitants. Fully 3,000 years ago, Asia Minor, as a hunKin habitation, was already very old, and there flourished in certain portions of it a civilization as advanced, in many of its phases, as the later Roman culture ever was. Along with the recognition of the economic value of various ores, mining has assumed such importance as to have become the means of sustenance of numerous settlements sc|attered from the Aegean coastland to the Persian Gulf. Within that territory, empire after empire had risen to power, and passed into oblivion. Colonies of the vanished kingdoms of Sumner and Akad, preceding the Babylonian Empire itself, has flour- ished in the fifth millenium B. C. With the westward march of progress, the Hittite power come into being; and finally, the ten centuries immediately preceding the birth of Christ wit- nessed an unparallalled growth of civilization on the eastern shore of the Aegean Sea. During this period Greek paganism evolved a highly-advanced organized life. In each of these successive stages of culture, the art of working ores was profit- alby carried on; the metals being respectively valued according to their relative abundance and usefulness, or commercial im- portance. This active mining operations started 2000 years B. C, were carried on pregressively up to the end of the eleventh century A. D., when barbarians of Turkestan invaded the country. Sub- sequent to this period centuries of corruption and misrule barred the development of the industry. To prospect on Turkish soil was usually a hazardous under- taking because of the lack of orderly government. The geolo- gist Was hindered in his field work; general knowledge of the geology of Turkey was, therefore, fragamentary. No attempts have been made to establish an active geological survey. Through the pressure exerted by the embassies, foreigners have travelled through the provinces under the safeguard of a military escort. It is due to them that we know something regarding the geological and mining features of the region. The country itself has been impoverished to such an extent as to be utterly unable to finance any commercial undertaking what- ever. Corrupt officialdom, unfavorable mining laws and the absence of roads, all have been contributed to prevent mining from becoming a prosperous industry. Except at mines situ- ated near the Coast, the necessary machinery for working could not be installed, owing to the transport difficulties. The introduction of electrical machinery has been prbhibited, ex- cept under very special circumstances, while the admission of explosives has always been a matter of the greatest difficulty and expense. Under these conditions it is not to be wondered at that capitalists have been shy of investing in mining under- takings. The momentous political change that has recently taken place in Turkey, through the victory of Allied Nations, invites our attention to the mineral resources of the country. Through the annihilation of Turkish terror, a barrier against the civilization and progress, and through the freedom of Armenian element in Turkey, granting them an independent government under the mandate of an advanced nation like America, there cannot be any doubt that a liberal and well dministrted mining law will be established; a strong department of mines with a com- petent staff of mining engineers, will be formed; capital for developing mineral property will flow into the country to the great advantage of the national finances; the railways, an im- portant factor in the expnsion of mining enterprise will soon develop. Flourishing industries therefore, are perforce subordinate to the existence of order and peace. Fortunately, there is reason to believe that the nation who will kindly lead us will intend to carry out a broad-minded policy to favor the expansion of min- ing and its allied industries in our own country. With the adop- tion of such a course many inttJoresting features of technical practice in these territories will doubtless be revealed within the next decade or so. Most mining engineers are familiar with the admirable results obtained in Mexico, within a com- paratively short period of time, nor is the result of push and energy in our own country less strikng. Comparisons are instructive, at times, and it was futile to belittle the importance of granting due recognition to modern industrial tendencies as exhibited in the practice of the more advanced nations. A study of these features and the causes conductive thereto, may advantageously shape the policy to be adopted by those upon whom the responsibility of developing the country's* natural resources has been thrust. Hagop a. Karajian. New York, Jan. 1920. CONTENTS. Contents 9-13 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bibliography 15-25 INTRODUCTION. Origin of mining and metallurgy. — Period of active mining. — Structure and geology in mining. — Mining by foreign capital. — Summary of most important mines 27-29 STRUCTURE. General orography of Asia. — Mountain chains. — Low- lying plains. — Causes of gigantic wrinkles. — Three great arcs. — Three great approximiations 31-36 NATURAL BARRIERS. Northern peripheral regions. — Southern chains. Kara — bagh region. — Ararat system 36-38 TOPGRAPHY. Armenia : — Northern border ranges. — Southern border ranges. — Central highlands. Anatolia: — Northern border ranges. — Central depression. — Ionian sea board. — Eastern border ranges 38-42 PHYSIOGRAPHY. Armenia: — As integral member of Asiatic tableland. — Idiosyncrasies. — Higher plain levels. — Eruptive actions. — Depressions. — Rocks. — Prominent surface features Anatolia: — General phases of the surface. — Plateau formations. — Central plain. — Deposits of the central plain. 42-49 TECTONIC FEATURES. Armenia : — Folds and faults. — Northern folds. — Central folds. — Southern folds. Anatolia: — Northern folds. — Southern folds. — Folds of western Anatolia. — Eastern folds 49-59 10 MINERAL RESOURCES GEOLOGICAL SERIES. Armenia : — General summary. — Pre-Devonic rocks. — Devonic series and fauna. — Carboniferous rocks and fauna: — Permo-Triassic. — Jurassic. — • Dogger (Bajocian tuff). — ^Malm (CaUovian, Kimmeridjian, Tithonian) and fauna. — Lower Cretaceous (Neocominian or Hauterivian, Aptian) and fauna. — Upper Cretaceous (Albian, Cenoman- ian; Turonian, Senonian) and fauna. — Oligocene and fauna. — Lower Miocene (Tortonian, Helvetian) and fauna. — Upper Miocene (Sarmatian) and fauna. — Plio- cene and fauna. — Pleistocene and fauna. — Glacial action. Anatolia : — General summary. — Silurian and fauna. — Devonian and fauna. — Carboniferous and fauna. — Perm- ian and fauna. — Triassic and fauna. — Jurassic and fauna. — Cretaceous and fauna. — Eocene and fauna. — Oligocene and fauna. — Miocene and fauna. — Pliocene and fauna. — Pleistocene and fauna. — Glacial action 59-82 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY. Armenia: — Features of Pre-Devonic period. — Features of Devonian. — Features of Carbonic age. — Permo-Trias- sic conditions. — Jurassic features. — Cretaceous condi- tions. — Features of Eocene. — Features of Oligocene. — Features of Miocene. — Features of Pliocene. — Features of Pleistocene. Anatolia: — Pre-Devonic condiflons. — Transition conditions. — Devonic Features. — Conditions of Carbonic age. — Features of Jurassic. — Features of Cre- taceous. — Features of Lower Tertiary. — Features of Middle Tertiary. — Features of Upper Tertiary 82-91 ERUPTIVE ROCKS. Armenia : — Ultra basic. — Basic. — Medium acidic.^ Acidi. Anatolia : — Trachytes. — Dolerites. — Pyroxenes. — Porphyries.— Serpentines.— Diorites. — Eurites and quartz porphyries.— Basalts.— Volcanic tuffs. 91-98 NON-METALLIC MINERALS. COAL. Anatolian coal fields and their occurrence. — Coal fields ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA ii of Armenia. — Cilician and Tauric Mountain coals. — Coal fields of Caucasian Armenia. — Future prospects 99-109 PETROLEUM. General remarks on oil possibilities of Anatolia and Armenia. — Oil in Dardanelles district. — Oil in Smyrna. — Oil in Armenia. — Oil resources of Caucasian Armenia. — Chatma fields. — Balakhany, Romany, Zabrat, etc., fields. — ', Binagadi fields. — Puta oil fields. — Khordalan oil fields. — Digga-Sarai, etc., fields. — Origin of oils 109-119 SALT. Mining of salt in Turkey. — Origin of salt deposits. — 1 Rock salt deposits in Anatolia and Armenia. — Salts of marine or lacustrine origin. — Salt lakes of Anatolia. — Salt lakes of Armenia. — Analysis of waters of Lake Van and Urmi 1 19-126 BORAX. Borate deposits of Sultan Tchair. — Origin and occur- rences of borate. — Borate of Lake Urmi. — ^Annual pro- duction 126-128 EMERY. Discovery of emery. — Emery deposits of western Ana- tolia. — Origin and occurrences of Emery. — Emery deposits of Caucasian Armenia. — ^Annual production 129-130 MEERCHAUM. Sepiolite of Eski-Shehr. — Origin and occurrences. — Methods of mining 130-132 SULPHUR. Brimstone deposits of Dardanelles. — Sulphur at Bech- anach and Daralagoz. — Deposits produced from sulphur springs. — Deposits from fumerols of volcanoes 132 ALUM. Alum deposits of Shabin-Karahissar. — Methods of ex- traction. — ^Origin and occurrences. — Chemical analysis of Alum. — Alunite of Caucasian Armenia I33-I35 12 MINERAL RESOURCES LIMESTONES. Onyx. — Lithographic stones. — Argillaceous Calcite-Mar- ble.— Chalk 135-136 GYPSUM. Occurrences and origin of gypsum in Armenia and Ana- tolia. — Gypsum associated with carbonates and sulphates. 136 NITRATES. The beds of sodium nitrates. — Occurrences and origin. — Association 136 CLAYS. Occurrences and origin of clays. — Fuller's earth. — Kaoline 136 AGATES. Agates of Anatolia.— Agates of Pontus 137 SILICEOUS MARLS. Siliceous marl at Kessatib. — Siliceous marl of Erzerum. 137 METALLIC MINERALS. GOLD. Geology and history of Anatolian gold fields. — Pontic gold fields. — Tauric gold fields. — Gold in Armenia. — ^An- nual production 138-149 SILVER. Silver associated with lead. — Silver resources of Pontus. — Silver in Caucasian Armenia. — Silver deposits in Armenia. — Argentiferous-lead mine of Keban- Maden. — Argentiferous - lead deposits of Boulgar- Maden. — Silver occurrences in western Anatolia. — Argen- tiferous-lead of Balia-Maden. — Annual production 149-161 COPPER. Occurrence of copper. — Copper deposits of Pontus. — Copper deposits of Caucasian Armenia. — Kedabeg mine. — Allahverdi mine. — Elvach mine. — Copper mines of Ar- menia. — Argana-Maden copper deposits. — ^Annual pro- duction 161-168 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 13 IRON. Iron deposits of Trebizond. — Iron in Caucasian Ar- menia. — Iron ores in Bulghar-dagh. — Iron in Zeitun. — Iron in Smyrna 168-171 CHROME. Discovery of Chrome. — Occurrences and origin of chrome. — Chrome deposits of Anatolia. — Annual pro- duction 171-174 MANGANESE. Deposits of Transcaucia. — Occurrence and its origin. — Manganese ore deposits of Anatolia and Armenia 174-178 MERCURY. Deposits of Konia Mercury mine. — Occurrences and origin. — History of discovery. — Karabournou cinnabar deposits. — Extraction of mercury. — Annual production. . 178-182 ANTIMONY. Anatolian antimony deposits. — Occurrences and ori- gin. — Deposits of Broussa. — Deposits of Smyrna. — De- posits of Sivas. — Annual production 182-183 LEAD. Lead mines of Anatolia. — Lead mines of Armenia. — Lead from Balia Silver Mine. — Lead from Boulgar- Maden. — Lead from Kebban-Maden. — Annual pro- duction 183-185 ZINC. Calamine deposits of Karasu and Adana. — Zinc at Bazar. — Zinc at Kirasliyaila. — Zinc in Smyrna. — Zinc ex- tracted from Balia silver mine. — Annual production 185 TIN. Cassiterite of Kurbaba. — Tin ores found in Caucasian Armenia. — Tin found near Aleppo 186 14 MINERAL RESOURCES ARSENIC. Realgar in Armenia. — Realgar in Taurus. — ^Arsenopy- rite in Anatolia. — Arsenic associated with antimony oc- curs in Elkhur. — Annual production i86 COBALT. Deposits of Caucasian Armenia. — Occurrences and origin. 187 INDEX. I. Geographical. — II. Mineral and Geological 189 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Abich H. Geol. Forschungen in d. Kaukas, Laudern. 3 Bande, Atlas, Wien 1878-87. 2. " Schwefelreiches Tuffegestein in d. Talebene von Dorpart, 1843. 3. " Schwefreiches Tuffegestein in d. Talebene von Diadin. Bull. Phys.-math. Acad. Sci. XIV, 142-44. St. Petersburg, 1856. 4. " Manganerze in Transkaukasien, Ibid. XIV. 303- 325. St. Petersburg 1858. 5. " Das Steinsalz und Seine Geol. Stelliuig im russ. Armenien. Mem. Acad. Imp. ser. 6, Sci. Math. & Phys., Vll (IX), 59-150. St. Petersburg. 6. " Vergl. Geol. Grundzuge d. Kauk. Armen., und nord Persischen Gebirge etc. Ibid., 301-354. St. Petersburg. 7. " Voyage en Georgie etc. Bui. Soc. Geol. France, Ser. 2. XXL, 215-220. Paris 1864. 8. " Apercue de mes voyage en Transcaucasie en 1864. Bull. Acad. Sci. V. 17, St. Petersburg, 1865. 9. " Volcan de Tandurek, Ibid. VIII, 1 19-124. St. Petersburg. 10. " Geol. ' Beobachtung en aus den Gebirhlandem zwischen Kur und Araxes. Tiflis, 1867. 11. " Die Armen Geog|. Trachyte, Verb. K.K. geol. Reichsaut., Wien, 1869. 232-233. 12. " Die Reihen-Vulkangruppe d. Abul etc. Jahrb. K.K. Geol. Reichsaut, XX. 275-278. Wien 1870. 13. " Der Ararat in genet. Bezeihung betrachtet. Zeit- schr deutsch geol. Ges. XXII. , 69-91. Berlin 1870. 14. " Ein vermeintlich tatiger Vulkan an d. Quellen d. Euphrats. Petermanus Mitt. XVII, 71-73, Gotha 1871. 15. " Geo. Beob. aul Reisen in Kaukasus im Jahre 1873 Bull. Soc. Imp. Naturjil, Moscow, XLVII (i), 278 und (11) 63, 243. Moscow 1874. i6 MINERAL RESOURCES i6. " Das thrialetische Thermal quellensystem. Zeitschr. Deutch, Geol. Ges. XXIX, 820-829, Berlin 1877. 17 " Mitt, aus d. Kauk. Vehr. K.K. geol. Reichsaut. Wien 1877, 20-35. 18. Ainsworth, W. F. Travels in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea and Armenia. London 1842. 19 " Resarches and Travels in Assyria, Bablyonia and Chaldea. 1838. 20. Alishanian, G. Political Geography and Topography of Greater Armenia ( In Armenian), Venice, 1894. 21. Anthula, D. J. Kreidefossilier d. Kauk. Beitr. Pal. Ostr. Ung. XII, 55-159. Wien 1899. 22. Archaic, A. d., Histoire de progress de la geologie. Ill, 193 and y. 391, 401, Paris, 1850. 23. Arzruni, G. Economic position of Armenians in Turkey, Tiflis, 1894. 24. " The Minerals of Armenia, Tiflis : 1895 (In Ar- menian). 25. Batrewitch Researches Geologiques dans les districts de Batoum et Artvin (mater pour la geol. du Caucase). En Russe, 1884. 26. Barbot De Marney, N., steinsaltz von Kulpi (Russ.) Mat. Geol. Caus., ser. 11, "(2), 1-76, Tiflis, 1888. 27 Batseiwitsch L. & Simonowitch, S. Geol. Beschreibung d. Gebiete von Signach (Russ.). Ibid. Ser. I. VIII. (i), 1-48. Tiflis 1878. 28. Batsewitsch, L. Geol. Forsch, im Gebeite von Batum und Artvin (Russ.) Ibid. Sen I. XII, (2) und Ser. 11, I (2), 73-162. Tiflis, 1885 und 1887. 29. Bell, M. S., Around and About Armenia, Scott, Geog. VI. 113-35 Edinburg, 1890. Berg, Contact metamorphen Lager statte von Balia Ma- den (2 f. p. G. p. 365). 30. Blau, O. Vom Uriniasee nach d. Wansee Petermanns Mitt., IX, 201-210. Gotha, 1863. 32. Bonnet, P. U. N. L'existance du trias et du Mesojuras- sique aux environs de Joulfa. G. R. Ac. Sci. 14 Mars. 1910. 33- " L'existance du trias et due Mesojurassique dans la massif de Kasan-Yaila. Ibid. 6 mars 191 1. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 17 34. " Sur une gissement cretace de la vallee du Nakhitche vantchai (charour-Daralagos) Ibid. 6 juin 191 1. 35. Bonney, T. G. Some rocks from Ararat, Geol. Mag Dec. 5, II, 52-58, London 1905. 36 " Volcanoes, their structure and significance; 1898. 37 Braly, A Les Mines d' Allah Verdi, Chamluk, Aktala. Paris, 1897. 38 Brand, J. Journey through a part of Armenia and Asia Minor, (J. R. G. S. VI. p. 187 223, London 1836). 39. Bukowski Die geol. verhaltr der Ungebung von Balia Maden im nordwestt Kleinasien (Sitz ungsber K. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Mathern. natur. CI. & CI. p. 214- 35 2 pl. dont. I carter3, 1892. 40. Chancourtois, E. de, Exploration geol. dune partie tres peu connue de la Turquie. C. R. Acad. Sci. XVIII, 827. Paris, 1844. 41. Chafer, M. Un gite cuivreux d'origin vole, du cauc. merid. Bull. Soc. Geol. France, Ser. 3 XXI, 11, loi- 109 Paris, 1893. 42. Cholet, A. P. de Voyage en Turqie, en Asie, Armenie, Kurdistan et Mesopotami. Paris 1892. 43. Coquand, Notes giolagique sur les environs de Pan- derma (B. S. G. P.) 1878. 44. Cuinet, V. La Turquie d'Ssie, Paris Leroux (1891-1895). 45. Diller, J. S. Notes on the Geology of Troad (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. X, XXXIX p. 627-36). 46. Dominian, L. Mining in Turkey, Eng. & Mng. Journ. Aug. 4, 1904. 47. " Coal Resources of Turkish Empire, 1913. 48. " History and Geology of Gold Fields in Turkey 1911. 49. " Mineral Resources of the Turkish Empire, Mng. & Sc. Press, June 12, 1909. 50. Douville, H. Etudes sur les Rudistes, Mem. Soc. Geol., France, 194. Paris 1890. " Constitution geol. des environs des d'Heraclee (C. R. CXXII, ler Sem. p. 678-89. 51. " Eschantillons d'Hippurits du Petit Caucase. Bull. Soc. geol. France. Sen 4, 441, Paris 1901. i8 MINERAL RESOURCES 52. Drake, P. The manganese ore deposits of Caucasus (Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Eng. t. 28, p. 191-208) 1898. 53. Dubois de Montpereux F. Voyage Auteur de Caucase, Paris 1839-43. 54. Ehrenberg, C. E. Ein von Hrn. Prof. Koch bei Erzerum eutdectes Lager fossiler infusorien etc. Monatsher Berhn. Akad. Wiss. 320-321. Berlin 1845. 55. T. Eng^lish Tertiary formation of Dardanelles Quart. Journal of Gold Soc. 1904. p. 243. 56. Falconer, E. Palaeont, Memoirs etc. 11. 14, 246-249, London 1868. 57. Federon, E. Die Gestiene Keda beks, Mem. Acad. Sci. CI. phys.-math. Ser. 8, XIV. No. 3 St. Petersburg, 1903. 58. Fournier, E., Description geol. du Caucase central. Mar- seilles 1896. 59. Fuchs et Launay de Gites Mineraux i. 256, 1890. 60. Freeh, F. u. G. Von Arthaber, Das Palaozoicum in Hoch- armenian und Persien Beitr. Pal. Ostr. Ung. XII, 161, Wien 1900. 61. Friederichsen, M. Rassisch — Armenien und de Ararat. Magaz. Geog. Ges. in Hamburg, XVI, 1-15. Ham- burg 1900. 62. Garella et Sinyot Rapport sur les mines de houille d'Heraclee (A. D. M. 5e ser. VI. p. 173-234 pi. i.) 1854. 63. Goppert, H. R. Das vorkommen von Liaspflanzen in Kau- kasus. Abt. schles, Ges. f. vaterl. Kultur. Breslau, 1861. 64. Gregory, J. W. Fossil corals and Echinoidea of Lake Urmi. Joum. Linn. Soc. XXVII, 419-430, London 1900. 65. Gukasow, A. Grundziige d. Baues d. Arm. Berglandes (Russ.) Mem. Soc. Imp. Geog. Russe section d. Cauc. XXII, I. Tiflis 1902. 66. Gunther, P. T. Contribution to the natural history of Lake Urmi. J. Linn. Soc. XXVII. 345-53, London 1900. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 19 67. Gurich, G. Ein neues fossiles Holz aus der Kreide Ar- meniens etc. Zeitschr. deutsch, geol. Ges. XXXVII, 433-440, Berlin, 1885. 68. Gylling, H. Micr. Structure of some eruptive roclfs from Cauc. and Armenia. Mineralog. Mag. VII. 155-160, London 1887. 69. Halmhacker, R. The useful minerals in Turkey, Eng. & Mng. Journ. Nov. 26, 1898. 70. Hamilton, N. J. Researches in Asia Minor, London 1842, Hamilton & Strickland — on the geology of west part of Asia Minor (Trans. Geol. Soc. London, t. VI.) 71. Hommair de Hell. X. Voyage en Turquie et en Perse. IV. (Geologic), Paris, 1854. 72. Harveng Le bassin hoille d'Heraclee (Rev. un des mines de Liege. & X. et Ann. de Assoc, des ing. de TEc. d. M. du Hainaut) 1892. 73. Holtzer, P. Le bassin hoille d'Heraclee (Bui. Soc. Ind. Min. 3e ser. t. x. p. 773-829.) 1896. 74. Hitchock,C. H. Analysis of water of Lake Urmi. 75. Huntington, E. Through the great canon of the Eu- phrates. Georgr. Journ. XX 175-200, London, 1902. 76. Inoztranzeff, A. Uber d. Haupt. — riicken d. Kaukasus (Russ.) St. Petersburg 1896. '}']. Karakasch, N. Neue Funde von Hammutuberresten auf d. Kl. Kaukasus Russ.. Tage buch d. 10 Zus. russ. Naturf. und Arzte, Ne. 7, 241-242. Kiew, 1897. 78. Kharajian, H. A. Regional Geology and Mining of Ar- menia, 191 5. 79. Kharajian, H. A. Mines of Armenia, Cilicia and Ana- tolia (in Armenian), 1919. 80. Koch, C. H. E. Reise im pontischen Gebirge etc. Weimar, 1846. 81. Kunjuschewsky, A. Die Erzlagerstatte von Beiljikliutsch (Russ.) Mat. Geol. Cauc. ser. iii, VII. (4) 152- 160. Tiflis, 1890. 82. Konschin, L. Geol. Forsehungen uber die Kupererzlagers Tatte von Sangesur (Russ.) Ibid. Ser. 11, IV. (4), 109-244. 83. " Geol. Forsch d. Mineral quellen von Borjom und 20 MINERAL RESOURCES Abastuman (Russ.) Ibid, ser. ii, VII, 1-104. Tiflis 1893. 84 " Palaogen von Borjom, Achalaik und Abastuman. Guide des excursions du VII. Congress geol. Intern. XXVI. St. Petersburg, 1897. 85. Kossmat, F. Geol. Untersuchen gen in d. erzdistrikten d. vilayets Trabizond, Kleinasien, Mitt. geol. Intfemt. XXVI. St. Petersburg, 1897. 86. Kotschy, T. Reise von Trabizond nach d. Wansee. Peter- mann Mitt. VI 68-77. Gotha. i860. 87. Lacroix, A. Les roches a leucite de Terbizond. Bull. Soc. geol, France, Ser. Ill XIX, 732-748. Paris 1889. 88. " Les roches vole, a leucite de Trabizond C. R. Ac. Sci. CXXVIII, I, 128-130, Paris 1899. 89. Lannay, de L. Traite de metallogenie, Gites mineraux et Metallifere. Paris 191 3, 3 vols. 90. " La Geologic et les Richesses minerales de I'Asie Mineure, Paris 191 1. 91. Lebedev, N. I. Gold in Kaukasus und im Flusz talc von Tchoro(^h (Russ.) Mat. Geol. Cauc. Ser. "Ill, i, (2) 83-159, Tiflis 1898. 92. " Kieselguhr von Kissatib (Russ.) Ibid, Ser. Ill, 11, (2) 43-54. Tiflis, 1899. 93. " Die Lamlungen d. Kauk. Museums, IIII Geol. Tiflis. 94 " Geol. Forsch im Gebeite von Bortschalinsk (Som- khetien) (Russ.) Mat. Geol. Cauc, ser. Ill, ill. (2) 111-160, Tiflis 1902. 95. Leriche, M. Notes inedites, ingenieure au Service des mines d'Egypte, 1901. 96. Loftus, W. K. Geology of portions of the Turco-Persian frontier. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. XL 247-344, Lon- don 1855. 97. Lowinson-Lessing, F. La Porphyrite andesitique a am- phibole de Deveboyum, Bull. Soc. beige, geol. I., no. Brussel, 1888. 98. Maunsell, F. R. Eastern Turkey in Asia and Armenia, Geol. Mag. XII. 225, Edinburg, 1896. 99. Margolius, A. Salswerke in Transkaukasien (Russ.) ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 21 Ansgabe d. Kauk. Berg verwaltung. Tiflis, 1906. 100. May, W. Die bergbaul, verhattn in der Tiirkei. Osterr. Zeitich, f. Berg, und Hutten-wesen. Wein, Mai. 1896. loi. Mitter mayer, K. Beitr. z. Kenntnis d. Mikrofauna d. ob. Kreideschichten von Trans Kaukasien. Erlangen 1896.. 102. Moller W. und M. Denisson, Die nutzbaren Mineralien und die Mineralquellen d. Kauk. Gebiets (Russ.) St. Petersburg, 1900. 103. Monachi,F. P. Passengna Minerara April 11, 1908. 103. Morgan, J. de Mission Scientifique au Caucase. Paris 1889. 105. Murrey. On the deposits of the Black Sea. The Scott. Geog. Mag. T. 16, 1900, p. 673-702. 106. Muschketow, J. Mat. rec. sur le tremblement de terre d'Akhalkalaki du 19 dec. 1899 (Russ.) Mem. com. Geol. n. s. I. St. Petersburg, 1903. 107. Naumann, Vom Goldnen Horn su den Quellen des Eu- prat (Leipzig) 1893. 108. " Die Grundlinen Anatoliens (Georg. zeitschrift d. Hettner, 11 725. 109. Neumayer M. und V. Uhlig, Uber die von H. Abich im Kaukasus gesam melten Jurafossilien-Denkschr. Wiener Akad. LIX, 1-122, Wien, 1892. no. Newton, R. B. Marine Tertiary molusca of Lake Urmi etc. Journ. Linn. Soc. XXVII, 430-453, London 1900. 111. Nicou, P Le Cuivre en Transcaucasie, Ann. des Mines, ser 10, 10, VI, 1-54 .Paris 1904. 112. Ohrn, A. Die erzlagerstatte von Katar und Kavast Russ. Mat. Geol. Cauc. Ser. in, IX. 1-214. Tiflis 1910. 113. " Die eisenerze von Tschatach (Russ.), Ibid. Ser. Ill, VII, 182-193, Tiflis, 1909. 114. Opperheim, P. Die Priabonaschechten und ihre Fauna Palaontographica, XLVII, 305-307 Miinchen, 1900. don 1905. 115. Oswald, F. A treatise on the Geology of Armenia, Lon- 116. " A geological map of Armenia etc., with explana- tory pamphlet. London 1907. [17. " Zur tektomischen entwick lungsgeschichat d'Armen. 22 MINERAL RESOURCES Hochlandes. Peterm. Mitt. Heft 1-3. Gotha, 1910. 118. Pelekan, A. Petrogr. Unter suchungen von eruptinges tienen aus d. Kaukasuslan dern. Beitr. Pal. Osterr. Ung. IX. 83, Wien, 1894. 119. Percy E. Highland of Asiatic Turkey, London, 1901. 120. Phillips, J. A. Henry Louis A treatise on Ore deposits. London, 1896. 121. Philipson A. Geologische geographische Reis Kizzen aus dem Orient (sitzungslier. Niederrheim Ges. f. Nature und Heilk. Bonn.) 122. Pollington, V. journey from Erzerum to Aleppo, 1838 J. R. G. S. X. 445-54. London 1841. 123. Pompeckj, J. F. Palaont. und stratigr. Notizen aus Ana- tolien, Zeitschr deutsch, Geol. Ges. XLIX. 73-829, Berlin 1897. 124. Redlick, K. G. Der jura der Umgebung von Alt-Achtala. Beitre. Pal. Osterr-Ung. IX. 55, wien 1894. 125. Rath, G. V. Ueuber Pandermit (Ges. f. Naturk. za Bonn.) 1877. 126. Ralli, G. La bassin houiller d'Heraclee (Ann. Sov. geoL de Belgique, Liege XXIII. p. 151-267. pi. iii-XIX> 1895-96. 127. " The lead mines of Balia. Eng. & Ming. Jour., Feb. 18, 1904. 128. Segalj, J. Der weifse Marmor von Chatschbulag (Russ.) Kawkas, 1895, Ne. 14. 129. Seward, A. C. Jurassic plants from Caucasia and Turkes- tan. Mem. Com. Geol. n. s. XXXVIII St. Petersburg, 1907. 130. Sevens, C. Manganese ore industry of Transcaucasua (Colliary Guardian t. 75 p. 809 Dondres. 131. Schlehan Verhuch einer geognost. Beschr, der Gegend zwischen Amasry und Tyrla-Asy on der Nord-Kiiste 132. Sharpless, F. F. Konia Mercury Mines, Eng. & Mng. Joum. Sept. 26, 1908. 133. Sieger, R. Die Schwankungen d. hocharmen. Seen Seit 1800 etc. Mitt d. geogr. Ges. in Wien, XXXI, 95, 159. 390. Wien 1888. 134. Simon, A. L. Notes on the Sangesur copper-mines Trans. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 23 Inst, mining and Metallurgy, XVIII, 413-419 London 135. Simonowitsch, S. Geol. Beob. au No. Abhang d. Thrialet- 1909. ischen — Geberges (Russ.) Mat. Geol. Cauc. ser. I. VIII (2), 1-69. Tiflis, 1878. 136. " Geol. Beob. der Flufsta ler der Chram. Alget, Mas- chawera. Bortschal und Debeda (Russ.) Ibid. ser. III. IV., (3) 105-118. Tiflis 1902. 137. " u. A. Sorokin, Geologic d. Tertiabeckens von Achalzik (Russ.) Ibid. ser. I., XIII (i), 1-29. Tiflie 1886. 138. Smyth, W. W. Geol. Features of the country round the mines of the Taurus, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. I. 330-340. London 1845. 139. Spratt, Observations on the geology of the southern part of the Gulf of Smyrna and promontory of Kara- bouroun (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. & I. p. 156-160.) 140. " On the Fresh water deposits of Levant (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. t. XIV p. 212) 1864. [41. Spurr, J. E. Mineral resources of the Turkey, Eng. Mng. Journal, Sept. 6, 1912 & Oct. 4, 1902. 142. Stassinopoulos Le bassin houiller d'Heraclee, (Bull, no 189 et 259 com, fr. Constantinople 48 p. et i pi.) — Rev. S. Afr. 19 Avril, 1908 p. 332. 143. Steinmann, G. & Wilckens, O. Handbuch der Regionalen Geologie Armenichen, 1914. 144. Suess, S. Dass Antiltz der Erde 11, 632, 776, 11 1628, Leipzig, 1885 etc. — Soc. cit. iii, 428, Soc. cit. I. 655-62. 145. Taylor, J. G. Travels in Kurdistan, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. XXXV, 21-58 London 1865. 146. " Journal of a tour in Armenia, etc. Ibid XXXVIII, 281-361. London 1868. 147. Thompson, B. The Oil Fields of Russia, 1904. 148. " The Oil Field development, 1916. 149. Tschihatscheff, P. Asie Mineure: Geol. et Paleontologie, 6 vols, in 4 parts. 4th part in 3 vols. Paris 1853-69. 150. " La geologie & orographic dune partie de I'Armcnie 24 MINERAL RESOURCES Comptes rendus, Acad. Sc. XLVII, 446-48, 551-47. Paris 1858. 151. " Le phosphore et Constantinople, Paris 1864. 152. Thost, C. Mikrosk, Studien an Geiteinen d. Kara bagh- gaus etc. Abh. Senk. Naturf. Ges. XIVII, (11) 1-272, Frankfurt a. M. 1894. 153. Texier, C. Description de L'Armenie, Vol. I, Paris 1842. 154. Tozer, H. F. Turkish-Armenia and Asia Minor, London 1881. 155. Tsulukidse, G. Archipow u. Chalatow, Geol. Forsch, in d. Gebeitin von Nachitschewan, eriwan und Sangesur (Russ.) Mat. Geol. Cauc. Sir. I. i, Tiflis. 1870. 156. " Geol. Forsch un Bezirk von Nachitschewan (Russ.) Ibid. Sen 11, i, 1-162. Tiflis 1887. 157. Valentin, J. Bericht uber meine Reise nach Tiflis etc., Ber. Lenck. Naturf. Ges. 159-239. Frankfurt, a. M. 1891. 158. Viquensel, A. Sur la collection des roches recuellies en Asie par feu Hommaide de Hell. Bull. Soc. Geol. France Ser. 2 VII 491, Paris 1850. 159. Lettre sur les environs de Constantinople (B. S. G. F. 2e ser t. VII p. 508-516. 160. Vogt & Rrusch Ore deposits-Beiychilac. Trans, by S. J. Truscott, London 1914, 2 vols. 161. Voskoboinkov, M. Notices diverses sur I'Armenie In. Boue a mem. Geol. & paleont. I. 276-294, Paris 1832. 162. Wacster, W. Die Kauk. Armen. Erdbebenzone, Zeitschr f. Naturn. LXXV 53-64. Stuttgart, 1903. 163. Wagner, M. Reise Nach. 4 Ararat etc. Stuttgart, 1848. 164. " Reisnach Persien etc., Leipzig, 1852. 165. Weitsofor, K. A. Jura und Kreide aus NVV — Persien Sitzungsber K. K. Akad. Wiss. Math. Naturw. CLXCVIII (i) 756. Wien 1889. 166. Weiss, H. E. Kurze mittheilungen uber lagerstatten im westlichen Anatolien (Z. F. p. G. 253) 1901. 167. Woodward, S. P. On the structure and affinities of the Hippuritidae. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. XL 58, Lon- don 1855. 168. Weed, H. W. Copper deposits of the world, 1907, p. 107. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 25 169. Wilkinson, W. F. Notes on the geology and mineral re- sources of Anatolia (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. t. LI. p. 95-98. 170. Wunsch, J. Die Flufslaufe d. Komur etc. Mitt. K. K. Geogr. Ges. Ser. 2. XXVII, 201-219. Wien 1884. 171. " Die Quede d. westl. Tigrisarnes etc. Ibid. Ser. 2, XXVIII, 1-21, Wien 1885. 172. Yorke, V. A journey in the Valley of the Upper Eu- phrates, G. L. VIII. 317, London 1896. 173. Zahn, G. v. Die Stellung Armeniens in Gebergsban von Vonderasien etc. Veroflf d. Inst. f. Meeres-Kinde, Berlin, 1906. 174. Zeiller, R. Etude sur la flore fossile du bassin d'Heraclee Soc. Geol. de Fr. Mem. de Paleont. VIII et IX. 21, 91 p. et 6 pi.) 1889-1901. 175. Mineral Industry, years from 1895 to 1915. 176. Engineering & Mining Journal — years from 1885 to 1915. 177. Engineering & Scientific Press — years from 1890 to 191 5. INTRODUCTION. The lack of Aryan roots for the names of metals com- monly known among the Aryan settlers of Asia-Minor, as well as the later colonizers of Europe,' indicates that these races were generally ignorant of the use of metals until they came in con- tact with Semetic peoples. Practically all mining terms in current use among the earliest Greeks resemhle very strongly their distinctly Sem!itic equivalents, which can be traced all the way in a broad belt beginning in the Lower Mesopotamia and ex- tending westwardly to the Syrian Shores of the Mediterranean. The Greek work "Metallon" for instance, used indiscriminately to designate mine or ore, probably came from the earlier Semitic equivalent, "metal." Or again the Greek words "Chrysos" (gold) and Chalkos" (copper) seem to be descended from the Semitic forms "Chrouts" and Chalak." It is a natural in- ference that primitive mining methods were evolved by the dwellers in the mineralized areas of Asia Minor, from whom later Greeks, Roman and even North European miners obtained their first notions of the reduction of metallic ores, by virtue of a general westward migration of mining and metallurgy. Anatolia and Armenia have been the seat of active mining operations from about 2000 years B. C. to the end of the eleventh century. Subsequent to this period, centuries corrup- tion and misrule barred the development of industry. With few exceptions, all the remains today, consists of innumerable old workings scattered throughout the coimtry. An interesting relation between orographic and geological features and the occurences of mineral deposits is observable. The westernmost projection of the Asiatic continent may be likened to a bowl, the rim of which is partly formed by the coastal mountain chains, the rest being completed by the ele- vated ranges of eastern Armenia. The interior of the bowl is made up of the plateaus which, so far, are not known to be extensively mineralized. At all events, the bulk of the known metallic ore depoists lie in the folds of the marginal uplifts, and the non-metallic minerals lie in the beds of pjateau forma- 28 MINERAL RESOURCES tions. The mining operations carried on so far are all by foreign companies, the capital being supplied from England, France and Germany. Concessions are granted by the government for 99 years, the companies being required to pay 5% royalty, 1% export duty, and a yearly tax of from 40 to 50c per hectare. This was a general rule, although some concessions formerly granted for mining chrome ore and emery for a period of 60 years with a royalty of 10 per cent. Salt was a government monopoly. The most important ore deposits which are capable of de^ velopment under expert management and sufficient outlay are summarized as follows : t. Magnetic iron beds at Ayas-mand, north of Smyrna; limonite iron beds of Bulgar-dagh, Cilician Tanrus; and a rich hematite in Zeitun district, at the foot of the eastern slope of Anti-Taurus (Beiroot-dagh). 2. Chrome ores are widely distributed in Daghardi-Kutahia, in N. W. Anatolia; Makri, on the S. W. coast of Asia Minor; in the neighborhood of Alexandretta, on S. E. Asia Minor, and at Argana-Maden, north of Diarbekir. In peace times the chrome ores of Asia Minor have met the competition of richer ores. 3. Copper ores are widely distributed on Black Sea Coast, espe- cially in the state of Trebizond; Taurus mountains, especially in Palu and Argana at Arghana-Maden, 65 Km. N. W. the principal bed's extension is equivalent to 1.7 to 2 million tons containing lo-i I percent copper. In the west part of the Caucasus (the re- gion Batum-Kars) Khvarzkhana, near Artvin, south of Batum, had a copper mining and smelting works, ready before the war but never operated, belonging to the Siemens family and capable of yielding 2000 tons of copper a year. In the same region an American Company possesses a mining and smelting works at Dzanzul, which produced 3030 tons of copper in 191 2 and 4000 tons in 1914, i. e., one third of the whole Caucasus ouput, and one tenth of that of Rttssia. 4. Occurences of lead and zinc ores are comparatively im- portant and promising, especially Balia Karaidin 40 Km. N. W. of Bali Kesri, N. W. Asia Minor, the property of a Franco- Belgian Company. Output in 1913, 13076 tons of crude lead ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 29 and 5000 tons of zinc. Amount of ore shown by explorations 300,000 to 350,000 tons; farther explorations may show more. Bulghar-Maden, in the Taurus in S. E. Asia Minor, Turkish state property, has some mining so far little developed in the very argentiferous cementation zone. The bed stretches for some 20 Km. in length, and lies only 16 Km. as crow flies from the Baghdad railway. 5. Rock salt is widely distributed but the Calcium borate of Soultan-Chair, 65 Km. south of Panderma, on the Sea of Mar- mora, is very important as a raw material for metal working, and valuable for glass, enamel, and tanning purposes. The pan- dermite beds, frequently interrupted, embedded in gypsum and attaining a thickness of 4.5 m. consists of small and large lenti- cular masses of the milk white mineral. The value of the de- posits, which in the most part is the possession of an English Company, is effected by the irregularity of the gypsum and pan- dermite deposits. Out of the hitherto developed area of 0.859 Km., 281,095 tons pandermite with 45% Borate contant, have been won in the last 27 years. Some 100,000 tons are still available. 6. Coal occurs at Heraclea (Eregli) or Zonguldak, on the south coast of Bleak Sea, in some 22 beds Worth working with 40 m. of coal, which has however a great deal of ash and cokes badly. It is worked by a French Company. Amasra, 50 Km. E. Sogut-Oezu and Ooesgeu where the coal is better and cokes better (South of the harbor of Idde) are also on the line of the coal formations, which extend altogether to lyoKm. in length. The best lignite is formed at Soma, N. E. of Smyrna, is 15 m. thick, and develops 5200 thermal units; poorer stuff, of local importance only, is .to be found at Sivas, in E. Anatolia. PART I. STRUCTURE AND GEOLOGY General Structure of Asia. From the Mediterranean to the Pacific the Asiatic Continent is traversed by a zone of elevated country, which flanked on the north and south by great chains of mountains, breaks off on the west to the Aegean Sea and to the lowlands of China on the east. Extensive areas of land with considerably lesser altitude are outspread on either side of this gigantic system; in the north the plains of Russia and Siberia, in the south the peninsulas of Arabia and India. The mountain chains which confine the zone of elevated country have been reared during different geological periods; yet they are subject to common laws. They are dis- posed in extensive acrs, of greater or lesser curvature, which are festooned across the continent on either side of the plateau region with a general direction from east to west. The plateau region is in general syclinal or in other words, of slightly hollow sur- face, and in comparison with the flanking ranges are flat. Our Globe sails through the wan expanse of ether, diffusing the heat with which it is charged. Cooling crust shrinks and gathers inwards toward the centre; but the material of which it consists is inelastic and is thrown into gigantic wrinkles or folds. Radial contraction induces tengential stresses at the sur- face, collossal forces which bind over and invert the folds and even thrust the strata one beneath another, causing them to be disposed like the tiles upon a roof. This lateral tension finds most relief where the crust is weakest and it is at such points, or along such zones, that the process of mountain making has been developed on the largest scale. It is the tendency of such folded ranges to form arcs of large curvature, which are drawn inwards where the lateral pressure meets with most resistance, and expand outwards, where it is withstood in a lesser degree. In Asia the operation of this process of mountain making has been accompanied by, or has proceeded, the elevation in masses 32 MINERAL RESOUCES of large portions of the earth's crust. The intensely folded re- gions, or in other words, the great chain of mountains, are found along the inner and the outer margins of the elevated mass. Between these zones the stratified rocks have no doubt been sub- jected to the folding process; yet they have escaped the im- mense contortions that have taken place on either side. Throughout the Continent the lateral force which has been most operative in mountain making has proceeded from the north. The fact may perhaps be explained by supposing that this force is the result of the active pressure extended by the hard, unyielding material of which the steppes of Siberia and the basin of the Arctic Ocean are composed. The great arcs which are described, by the mountain ranges are in general con- vex to the south. Thus in Western Asia the chains on the inner and outer margins of the elevated are disposed on two roughly parallel series of arcs bulging towards the south. Of these series the inner arcs have less curvature than the outer, to which they are roughly parallel. The inner series may be traced with greatest singleness of feature on the west of Hinda-Kush that natural centre of the rrtountain systems of Asia, which at once supplies the most con- ventient standpoint for a general survey of the structure of the eontient, and is placed at the junction of the two great divisions, western and eastern, into which geographers have partitioned this vast area. The Hindu-Kush inclines over into the Poro- pamisus; and the southern portion of the latter range is con- tinued, on the north of Persia, by the mountains of Khorasan. A sharp bend in the belt, just east of the Caspian, turns south- wards into the Elburz range, and the beautiful curve of the chain along the margin of the shore may be admired from the waters of that inland sea. The line of Elburz range, and the beautiful curve of the chain along the margin of the shore may be admired from the waters of that inland sea. The line of Elburz range is protracted across the depression of the Araxes Valley into the peaks of Karabagh; while the Karabagh sys- tem unites with the bold and lofty ridges which in full face of their gigantic neighbor, the Caucasus overtower the right bank of the Kur. These ridges again connect with the chain between Kutais and Akhaltsykh, a chain which joins the mountains on ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 33 34 MINERAL RESOURCES the southern shore of the Black Sea. The Pontic range forms a bow of wide span and gentle curvature, ending in the hump of Anatolia, where it meets the arc of the Bithynian border hills. The parrallel series on the outer margin of the elevated area commences with the outer arc of the Hindu Kush system, the severly bend and S shaped Salt Range. Thence it proceeds into the mountains which flank Persia upon the east and belong to the outer Iranian arc. The bold sweep of this arc into the chain of Zagros may be recognized by a glance at the map. The greater protraction of the north western arm of the bow, is a feature which may be traced in the configuration of the most of the great Asiatic chains. The clean and uniform outline of the curve, broken only by a slight indent at the straits of Ormuz, which may be answered by the bend in the inner system which is already noticed on the east of Caspian Sea. The outer Iranian arc effects a junction with the Tauris Ranges along two parallel but fairly distinct orographical lines. Of these the inner line crosses over from the Zagros to the Ararat system, known as the Aghri or Shatin-dagh. It is in the Shantin-dagh that the bend to the west-southwest is effected, which may be followed through a series of volcanoes into the Anti-Taurus and the Mediterran- ean range. The outer line is formed by the Kurdish mountains. This principle chain of Taurus extends to the coast of Syria and emerges from the sea in the island of Cyprus and in manv a headland and island of this Anatolian coast. These double series of arcs, from Hindu-Kush to Mediterran- ean, meet or almost meet at three distinctly traceable and widely separated points. Such approximations occur in Hindu-Kush, in Armenia, and in the mountainous districts which border the Ionian sea board. We can scarcely doubt that they are due to the incidence of a strong opposing force, moving from the south and causing the arcs to be constricted, the range to be piled up one behind another and mountain development to assume its' grandest forms. It is probable that the resisting pressure has been furnished in the first two cases by the Indian and Arabian peninsulas. Another feature, less obvious but not less note- worthy, is furnished by the fact that in Armenia and Asia Minor the arcs have been fractured in the process of bending over at or near the points where the approximations between the two ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 35 series have taken place. The closer the constriction the sharper, of course becomes the curve and the greater the tendency to split. In Anatolia the union of the series has resulted in com- plete fracture; the folded area sinks beneath the waters of the Aegean to be represented by the islands which stud the Archipe- lago, and, further west, by the mountains of the Dalmation coast. On the east of Hindu-Kush we are as yet in want of sufficient material for so convincing an analysis as the researchers of geolo- gists have rendered possible on the west. In eastern Asia a vast area of elevated land is bounded both along the inner and the outer margins by mountain system of wide extension and great heights. Such are the systems of Altai and Tean-Shan upon the north, and the mighty bow of the Himalayas on the south. Probably the Kuenlan range carrif* over the inner series of Western Asia, extending eastwards from Pamirs and senang as buttress to the immensely elevated plateau of Tibet. If this view be correct, then the Tian Shan and Altai systems may perhapte be regarded as minor earth-waves, follow- ing close upon the heels of, the Kuenlan and supporting the highlands of the Tarim basin and the desert of Gobi, the Han- Hai or Dry Sea of the Chineese. The echelon of mountain ranges, which extends from Hindu-Kush towards Behring Sea, forms constant curvature of the arcs towards the south, until, in the Altai group. The eastern arms of the- bows are protracted even further towards the north, to contrast the low-lying plains along the western ends of the echelon with the lofty high-lands of Mongolia on the east. The necks of the valleys issue upon the depression of Siberia and the low country through which the Oxus and Jaxartis flow. In Western Asia the elevated area with it's flanking ranges is horded on the north by the northern Paropamisus and further west by the Caucasus chain. The Paropamisus may perhaps be regarded as the most southerly of the many branches which be- long to the system of Tian-Shan. Geologists connect Paropami- sus with the Caucasus and trace the links of the broken chain to the mountains of Krasnododsk on the Caspian, whence a sub- marine ridge carries the line into the mountains of Caucasus, to be protracted far to the west, through the Crimea and emerge from the waters of the Black Sea in the Balkans, Carpathians 36 MINERAL RESOURCES and Alps. In this manner we see described on the north of the Asiatic highlands, with their series of inner arcs, a further arc of immense span and wide curvature, which is represented on the east by the northern Paropamisus and by the Caucasus on the west. Both these ranges may best be viewed as independent of the inner series but Paropamisus is closely adpressed to the inner arc of Persia, and Caucasus is joined at a ingle point to the series namely by the Meschic linking chain. Lines of eleva- tion similar to that which is traced from Paropamisus may be discovered, although with less orographical distinction, proceed- ing westwards and Struggling over towards Europe from the more northerly branches of Tian-Shan; they are almost lost in the great depression of the Turanian lowlands, but they follow arcs of increasing width of span. NATURAL BARRIERS Although Armenia is closely linked with her neighbors and is not separated by any natural frontier from Persia on the east or from Anatolia on the southwest, yet it is divided by some of the most effective of natural barriers and natural distinctions within itself. The northern peripheral region is an effective barrier between Armenia and the coast of the Black Sea throughout their pro- longation upon the confines of the tableland and has drawn the natural frontier inward in the neighborhood of Ispir. Across the valley of the Chorokh is the northern border heights of the plain at Erzerum. The southern region is an analogous zone composed by the main chain of Taurus separating the highlands from the low- lying plains of Mesopotamia and butteressing them upon that side. This chain appears to have succeeded in accomplishing the curve into the Iranian direction without undergoing fracture to any material extent. The spine of range may be followed along the southern shore of Lake Goljik to Palu Mountain east of the town of Palu. Thence it is taken along the plain of Chabakchar and left bank of Murad River to the confines of Mush. Conspicuous with sharp peaks it stretches past the de- pressions of Mush into the landscape of Lake Van. Through ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 37 the Karkar Mountain and further east through the Bashet Moun- tain west of Bashkala, it makes steps southwards to the threshold of Basin of the Great Zab; and the elevation may be traced on the further side of river in the peaks of Jelu Mountain, said to attain a height of between 13,000 and 14,000 feet. The Karabagh region is another important barrier combining in minature many of the characteristics of the Armenian high- lands. An inner plateau region flanked by peripheral ranges. This chain extends the area of highlands for some distince towards the east when after commencing to incline in an east- south-easterly direction it effects a junction with the Shah Moun- tain. The last named ridge takes frontier along the eastern shore of Gokcha to the confines of the Karabagh; and the ele- vations may be traced through this spine of northern Karabagh Mountain across the Kur to the range which faces the Caspian Sea. Ararat or the Aghri Dagh system constitutes the principal in- termediate line of elevation between the northern and the south- ern zones of peripheral mountains. This range carries the natural frontier between the two divisions from the Kush Mountain (11,262 ft.) in fhe west to Little Ararat (12,840 ft.) in the east. The space between these two ranges is a distance of 100 miles and throughout that space the chain is made up of such lofty peaks as the Ashakh Mountain (10,723 ft.) Perh Mountain (10,647 ft-)> Salaka Mountain (10,644 ft.) and Khama Moun- tain (11,018 ft.). The passes reach from 7,000-8,500 feet; 38 MINERAL RESOURCES while the level of the plain of the Araxes does not exceed 3,000 ft. nor that of the plain of Alashkert 5,500 ft. In appearnce the barrier as a whole resembles the mountains of peripheral re- gion; there are the same deep valleys, jagged outlines, precipi- tuous slopes. From the western shore of Lake Baluk, an up- land sheet of water lying at a level of 7389 ft. we may trace extension of one branch of the system along the water-parting between Murad and Araxes. Thence the elevation may be fol- lowed into the southern peripheral region, forming a splinter from the chain of Zagros which has struggled upwards through the plateau country to its very heart. The more northerly and prin- cipal branch consists almost exclusively of recent volcanic moun- tains, stretching from Perli Mountain, west of Great Arart. In this neighborhood the line is taken up by the fabric of Ararat, raising the barrier by slow stages to nearly 17,000 ft., and having an axis from northwest to southeast. The sequence comes to an end in the little Ararat, whose slopes descend on three sides to fairly level plains. TOPOGRAPHY. A. Armenia. A. The northern border range forms a wall which hangs together completely in the north of a high plateau consisting of morphologically separated elements which is regarded as uplift or sunken portion of a hard resistant formation, which in con- sequence of tangential pressure in the earth's crust was broken instead of being thrown into folds. From the west towards the east the following order is observed. (i) The Pontic region, which forms a border on the Black Sea, bounded on the south by rivers of Kelkid and Chorokh and coming to sharp ridges in the Mta-Skaro, south-westward from Datum. (2) The Imeritian and Thrialitic rgeion, which between the Armenian highland and the resistant Maschic horsts are inter- polated. These regions are cut through by the picturesque Bor- jom Valley of Kur. (3) The Somkatian regian southwestward from Tiflis. (4) Closely linked Gokcha-Karabagh regions. This region ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 39 repeats on a smaller scale the structure of the Armenian high- land; namely, that of a central, relatively low volcanic plateau, which is bordered on either side by uplifted formations of older folded rocks ; namely the Gokcha and the eastern Karabagh and Talish regions, being on their sides separated by the Ahar depres- sion, which runs in equatorial direction, just as the Gokcha and east Karabagh regions are separated by the Terter depression. B. Southern border range show similar structural relations to the Armenian highlands. Here the high Tauric region of old slate borders on the relatively low-lying region of the lake Van and of the plain of Mush. The Tauric region consists probably of several smaller blocks. It acts, however, as a whole and its rivers all have consequent courses; towards the west it con- tinues in the Ousounyaila, toward the east in the high Jelu Moun- tain. The southern spurs of these mountain chains can indeed be taken as the western extension of the Persian Zagros Moun- tains. C. The Central highland possesses a significant average height. It is, however, as its geological structure shows, in comparison to its still higher neighboring mountains in the north and south, a region of relative lowness. It may be devided into the following three zones : ( 1 ) A central volcanic zone with outspread lava fields which 3:re broken into small dislocated blocks filled often with lakes. Of these today Gokcha, Van and Urmi are the largest. (2) The Kilkid Chorokh zone lies on the inside of the Pontic region and consists of Antituric (S. W. — N. E. stretching) folds. Here vulcanism plays only a subordinate part. (3) Daralagoz zone, including the west Karabagh which in similar manner lies on the inner side of the northeastern border chain of mountains. This zone is a region of Iranian (N. W. — S. E.) folding and shows a very complete succession of shales but only sporadic vulcanism. From the eastern border chain it is separated by the volcanic Akhmongan-Gotcha-Central Kara- bagh zone. A central spine of folded rocks extends through Armenia from east to west. Its continuity is broken by diagonal depressions. In this way the line of the Antituric Mazur-Merjan Mountain is broken by the Erzingan depression. It is continued again in the 40 MINERAL RESOURCES Keshish, Melpert, Miriam and Terjan Mountains to form the southern border (Palandoken and Khan Mountains) of the •plains' frpm the Erzerum to Paisn, and to bend easily in the Shatin Mountain, and after a new interruption in the deep de- pression of the Middle Araxes, to rise through the Zynlerly and Daralagoz to the high chain of west Karabagh which turns to the direction of Iran. B. Anatolia. A. Northern border range. — Anatolia is skirted on the north by broken series of mountains radiating from the northern Ar- menian tiplands. The Pontic range here forms a bow of wide span and gentle curvature ending in the hump of Anatolia where it meets the arc of the Bithynian border hills. These up- lands merge imperceptibly in the Central Plateau which are themselves furrowed in every direction by river valleys. All these show similar structural relations to the Pontic chain, and are crossed at various ponits by passes generally at low elevations and of moderately easy access from the Black Sea to Central Plateau leading from east to west. 1. Trebizond over the Kolat-dagh to Erzeum. 2. Samson to Amassia. 3. Sinope to Amassia. 4. Ineboli to Kastamouni and Angora. B. Central depression or Lycaonian Plateau.— A plateau for- mation prevails throughout the interior of the peninsula forming an extensive tableland at a mean elevation of from 2500 — ^4000 feet above sea level and stretching northeast and southwest for a distance of over 200 miles with an average breadth of about 140 miles.- Plateau rises from west to east and attains its great- ,est altitude above 7000 feet near Erzerum. Above this table- land rises several ranges, while over its surface are scattered a number of salt lakes, morasses and water-courses without any visible out-flow seawards. Its western face is broken by broad valleys, and only in case of Olympus (7600 ft.) rises much higher than 2500 feet. Plateau is buttressed on the north by Pontic chains which varies in height and rises abruptly from the sea. On the south it is similarly buttressed by the Taurus range which in places has an altitude from 7000 — 12000 ft. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 41 C. The southern border ranges. — All the more elevated lands and main ranges are massed along the Mediterranean seaboard, showing similar structural- 'relations to the southern Armenian highlands. These highlands consists both of Anti-Taurus and Cilician Taurus chains extending along the Mediterranean coast by the local names of Isaurian, Pisidian, andLycian Taurus, all belonging to the same orographic system. The range is inter- rupted only by a slight intervening faults, This system is also crossed by passes at various point as follows : 1. Syria, on the east, is Separated from Cilicia by the gorge of Jibum and broken down to the lowlands of Mesopotamia in a series of rock terraces seamed by deep ravines. 2. Anti-Taurus is separated frm Cilician Taurus by Zamantia- Su, a tributary of Sihun. 3. Anatolia is separated from North Syria and Euphrates Valley by a deep gorge named Gulek-Bogaz or Cilician gates. This is 3300 feet above the sea-level, and runs about 30 miles north of Tauru's over the Taurus. 4. A pass 100 miles west of the above leads from Karaman southwards to Gok-Su valley. 5. A pass further west about 150 miles. 6. A pass connecting Isbarta southwards with Adalia. This range approaches the sea except where the Pamphylian and Cilician plains intervene. It is a volcanic region on its in- terior, the line of volcanoes stretch from Karadagh to Argeaus and all lie extinct now. D. Ionian Seaboard. In this region the double series of arcs extending from Hindu-Kush have met. Through the process of bending over the arcs are strongly fractured. The folded area has sunken beneath the water of the Aegeous to be represented by the islands which stud Archipelago and further west by the mountains of Dalmation Coast. This region is also strongly volcanic. E. Eastern ranges and connecting links. — No hard and fast line could be drawn to separate Armenia from Anatolia on the east, but the western extension of the Tauric system forms a semi-circular arc, hanging as a wall against the Lycaonian Plateau on whose centre rests the Mighty Argeaus. This wall sweeps over the banks of Kizil-Irmak, and merges into the Pontic chain 42 MINERAL RESOURCES by transverse and parallel ridges. The Karabel-Dagh, which runs from the great bend of Euphrates at Egin to the head streams of Kizil Irmak, connects the mountain chains of inner arc (Pontic), to the outer arc (Anti-Taurus and Taurus). This connecting link separates Armenia from Anatolia, as well it separates Cilicia from Upper Armenia. PHYSIOGRAPHY. A. Armenia. The country of Armenia takes its place as an integral member of the system of tablelands, buttressed by mountain ranges which extend from the Hindu-Kush to the Mediterranean Sea. Most of the characteristics which are found in either of Persia on the east or of Anatolia on the west, are prevalent in Armenia to a greater or lesser degree. The stratified rocks extend across the whole system. The salt deposits which are spread so widely over Persia, are not among the least remarkable of the surface features of Armenia. Considerable depressions of the surface of the highlands are phenomena common to all three countries and the same may be said of the volcanoes which are dominant in Armenian landscapes but are not wholly absent from the con- tiguous territories on either side. The idiosyncrasies which distinguish Armenia as a whole from the other members of the series is, in the first place, the greater elevation investing her territory with the attributes of a roof to the adjacent countries, from which the waters gather to be pre- cipitated in different directions and to find their way not only to the Black Sea and Caspian but also by almost endless stages to the Persian Gulf. The prominent part which has been played by recent volcanic action is another imjjressive phenomenon. Both these manifestations are explemified in a striking manner by the surface features of the rectangular area of the more northerly sphere. The higher plain levels of this region are situated at an alti- tude of some 7,000 ft. above the sea. The uplands which give rise to the Kur in the district of Goleh must come very near to this level. The parting of the waters of the Kur and Araxes near the village of Shishtapa, in an open landscape which may be ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 43 compared to rolling downs, lies at about 7,000 ft. while of smaller sheets of water Lake Topo-ravan, with 6,876 ft., and the Apa- Gol with 6,706 ft., slightly better this already considerable figure. Where the plateau falls away to the abysmal canon of the Araxes its edge is nearly 6,500 ft. high. The Town of Ardaban stands at a level of 5,840 ft. and Kars of 5,700 ft. Alexandropol, the principal City, occupies the hol- low of a vast basin-like plain; yet it is over 5,000 ft, above the sea. These elevations are much greater than the average even in Persia though in the frontier province of Azerbaijan and along the edge of the southern peripheral mountains. The process of gradual uplift of the region by earth move- ments has been attended by eruptive action, flooding the country with volcanic matter, levelling inequalities of the ground and add- ing to the height. It has been estimated that the volcanic de- posits laid bare in the ravines of the streams which descend from the radial Dochus-Punar attain a depth of hundreds of yards. A similar phenomenon is made manifest in the canon of the Araxes, a cleft which in the neighborhood of the village of Armutli, west of Kagisman, has a depth of about 2,000 ft. and a width on top of at least a mile. There the sedimentary deposits are overlaid with tuffs and lavas in a belt over 300 yards deep. The Armenian highlands have been the scene in olden times of great volcanic activity. The position of the remarkably numer- ous volcanoes of Armenia is by no means fortituous, that on the contrary they have invariably arisen along the lines of fracture, and that the volcanoes which occur at points of intersection are proportionately larger. The most interesting principal operative in this country is the series of volcanoes along meridinal lines. Such groups pursue a course at right angles to the strike of the rock with the area of the peripheral mountains. In this con- nection the plateau region occupies the apex of the bend over the inner arc. Lines of fractures have been thrown out at right angles to the folding and eruptive agency was fastened upon these weakened zones of earth's crust. The points of emission of volcanic matter are in some cases true volcanic, in others mere pistules or fissures of varying extent. The tendency to a strong pronounced plateau country is in Armenia, especially in the southwestern territories, indepedent 44 MINERAL RESOURCES of volcanic action. It is a plateau, as a whole that may be re- garded as an area of reltive depression between its northern and southern border ranges. The depression, caused by subsidence of blocks of land along the lines of fracture, became filled by lakes during different Geological Series. The lavas and tuffs of the nu- merous contemporary volcanoes became interbedded with the lake deposits, and assisted in levelling the pre-existing inequalities of the ground. In this way plains were formed varying in size from the great Mid-Araxes in depression at the foot of the Ararat to the plains of Alashkert, Pasin, Erzerum, Khinis, Mush, etc., down to little fertile plains such as Bashkent, Gandemir, etc. Sharp peaks precipitous slopes, narrow valleys, and swift streams and rivers compose the landscape. The basinlike ap- pearance, the long parapets on the northern and southern edges, in one case culminating in volcanic peaks of Palandoken and Eyerli, in the other distinguished by eminence of Bingol. The waters of the plateau converge together in the shape of two fans, as they are precipitated from the highest levels towards the east, burying themselves ever deeper into th volcanic soil. The surface of the country is composed of limestones with intrusive serpentines and lacustrine deposits capped by sheets of the ubiquitous lava. The stratified rocks are prominent, emerg- ing from the volcanic layers or only capped by a thin sheet of lava. Dominant among them are the limestones of various geo- logical periods, when the greater part of the country must have been covered by a lake of fresh or brackish water. Intrusive in earlier limestones are found a variety of old igneous rocks, such as diabase, gabbro, and serpentine. The serpentines com- bine with the limestones to form rounded hills or downs with soft outlines. Sometimes a cap of lava has preserved a particular piece of limetone and the result has been a summit with a point like that of a needle overtopping adjacent and undulating forms. Where the old ingenous rocks occur in a zone a sombre land- scape is forthcoming as, for instance, above the northern shore of Lake Van, between Akhlat and Adeljivas; or when the highly marmorized older limestones have the upper hand, there ensues sterility and glaring light. These later rocks have a fairly wide extension and compose prominent lines of mountains ; for ex- ample, they have bestowed upon the plain of Khinis its north- ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 45 em boundary. A rather later series of limestones are placed on the very- threshold of the Armenian tableland; and they are distributed in a wide zone over the northern districts of Armenia, extending all the way from the Merjan-Musur Mountain in the west to those represented by many a summit of the deeply eroded Chor- okh region. The block of heights on the north of the Western Euphrates is composed to a greate extent of such limestones ; and both in the neighborhood of Kop Pass, and northwards from the pass of Koshab Punar. Later still in date, and of almost constant prominence in the landscape both of the plateau region and of peripheral moun- tains are the limestones more usually associated with softer fea- tures, especially when they are interbedded with shales. The incidence of their im,pressive features at Palandoken line of height, on the south of Erzerum and Pasin, and where they whiten the waters of Lake Van in the neighborhood of Adel- jivas. This pretty town, which lies at the foot of a lofty cliff is composed exclusively of white chalk. Along the road from Akhlat deposits are prominent over the area of Central Table- land, and numerous corals are observed imbedded in rocks. Limestone emerges on the farther side of the plain of Khinis to compose the Zernek Mountain, continuing the outline of Khamur. The almost limitless expanse throi^glh which the Murad winds between Tatakh and Melazkert reveals most clearly its essential character as a country of rolling chalk downs be- neath the covering of a cloak of lava. The southern limit of that expanse would seem to the eye to be volcanic, niisled by the precedent of the immense extension of the train of Ararat. But where the barrier is at length reached it is found to consist of limestones forming a pedestal for the fabric of Sipan. A less prominent surface features are the lake deposits crumb- ling in the hand with masses of fresh water shells. There can be no doubt that an epoch contemporaneous with the outpour- ing of lavas a lake or lakes extended from Erzinjan, Erzerum, and Pasin across the region now occupied by the central table- land, and through Khinis to the plains of the Murad and Sipan. The interior of Asia Minor and the tableland of Persia were covered with lakes at the same date ; but that these were salt in 46 MINERAL RESOURCES the case of Persia is proved. Saline deserts which disfigure immense tracts of the soil of Iran prove this. In Armenia they have been productive of the greatest fertility, their whole- some sediments having mingled with volcanic matter and be- come constituent of rich brown loams. It seems likely that the purple sandstone and conglomerates along the northern shore of Lake Van are the representatives of similar conditions within the basin. It may be justifiable to suppose that the waters be- came gradually more shallow, until they remained only on the surface of the numerous greater and smaller depressions, which still bear their imprint to a degree which must be convincing even to an unpracticed eye. A chain of separate lakes was formed spread broadcast over the land, and washing the pro- monotories of the heights. Such lakes appear to have existed at Alexandropal and in the plain of Erivan over Pasin, the plains of Erzerum, and that of Erzinjan, in the districts of Khinis, Alashkert, Bulanik and probably Mush. They were drained away as a result of the increasing elevation of the land as a whole ; and, probably, in some cases the process was accelerated by uplift, causing erosion of the adjacent barriers to be accel- erated. The lakes which exist at the present day are almost ex- clusively due to lava filling in the mouths of valleys and forming dams on an immense scale. A feature which has occupied a considerable amount of at- tention is the fluctuation in level of the lakes. The flluctua- tions may be of temporary and more or less permanent origin. All evidences point to the fact that such changes are of a tempo- rary nature and that a period of increase is followed by one of decline. Such a change may be due to 1. Ordinary climatic conditions such as the rainfall, fall of snow and subsequent variation in volume of rivers, and in activity of springs. 2. The economic state of the country and the extent of irrigated land within the water shed. 3. Opening or closing of subterranean issues. 4. Movements of earth crust. The most probable explanation is that they are due to cli- matic conditions which, it is well known, are variously opera- tive over cycles of years. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 47 The most obvious explanation of the gradual but perman- ent rise in the norm of lake level, furnished by the cause ; which may be constantly operative, namely, the increase of sediment deposited over the bottoms. B. Anatolia. The Anatolian rectangle may generally be described as a plane inclined towards the Black Sea. All the more elevated land and main ranges are massed in the southern section of the peninsula, along the Mediterranean seaboard. The north- ern slopes of these uplands merge imperceptibly in the Central Plateau, which are thmselves furrowed in every direction by river valleys gradually broadening out and draining to the Black Sea. But in the extreme north, where the coast line advances in a vast convex curve into the sea, independent and almost isolated masses rise between the Kizil-Irmak and Sakaria basins, skirt- ing on its northern edge an extensive central plain, whose deeper parts are still flooded by the remains of an inland sea. The ranges which follow at some distance the line of the southern shore, and which are broken into irregular chains and mountain masses, are mainly disposed in the form of a crescent with its convex side facing the Mediterranean, and thus correspond- ing to the northern curve turned towards the Black Sea. Anatolia must be regarded as a western extension of Ar- menian highlands, from which it can nowhere be separated by any hard-and-fast line. Th,e plateau formajtion prevails throughout the interior of the peninsula forming an extensive tableland at a mean elevation of from 2,500 to 4,000 feet above sea level, and stretching north-east and southwest for a distance of over 200 miles with an average breadth of about 140 miles. Above this tableland rise several loosely connected mountain ranges, while over its surface are scattered a number of salt-lakes, morasses and water courses without any visible out-flow seawards, beside several streams which find their way mainly northwards to the Aegean. The plateau is skirted south and north by two broken mountain ranges, which radiate from the Armenian uplands, Taurus and Anti-Taurus. Both these mountain ranges are crossed at various points by passes gener- ally at low elevations and of moderately easy access. Of this 48 MINERAL RESOURCES the most ■ important is the Geulek-Boghaz, or Cilician Gates, a deep goi'ge 3,300 feet above sea level, running about 30 miles north of Taurus over the Taurus, and conceding Anatolia with North Syria and the Euphrates Valley. About 100 miles west of these points the Taurus is crossed by a second pass leading from Karaman southwards to the Gok-Su Valley, and by a third 150 miles. Still farther west connecting Isbarta south- wards with Adalia. The chief openings giving access from the Black Sea through the Anti-Taurus to the Central Plateau are those leading from Ineboli to Kastamuni and Angora, from Sinope to Amasia, from Samson to the same place, and from Trebizond over the Kolat-dagh to Erzerum. The Anatolian peninsula forms in reality as well as in name a minature of the whole continent. Both consist mainly of ex- tensive Central Plateau, with an inland and seaward drainage, and both are skirted by lofty ranges behind which most of the streams have their source, which find their way to the coast. But in Asia Minor the Alluvial plains developed by those rivers cannot be compared in relative extent with those of the greater Asia. The escapements of the plateau approach everywhere so near to the sea that no space is left for great lowland plains such as those of Siberia and China. There are a few low- lying and somewhat marshy tracts about the lower course of the Yeshil-Irmak, Kizil-Irmak, and Sakaria on the Black Sea, along the banks of the Meander below Smyrna, and about Adalia and Mersina on the south coast. But with these and a few other unimportant exceptions the whole peninsula may be broadly divided into two main natural divisions — the central plateau and the encircling ranges. This disposition of the sur- face has largely determned the limits of the 8 states into which Anatolia is divided for administrative purposes. Angora and Sivas comprise the greater part of the tableland, Adana, Aidin, Kastamuni and Trebizond coincide with so many distinct sec- tions of the coast ranges, while Brussa and Konia alone include portions both of the plateau and of the seaboard. The Anatolian plateau rises from west to east, and attains its greatest altitude, above 7,000 feet near Erzerum. On the south the plateau is similarly buttressed by the Taurus range, which in places has an altitude from 7,000 to 10,000 feet. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 49 Except where the Pamphylian ^nd Cilician plains intervene, the range approaches the sea. Farther east it is separated from Syria by the gorge of Jihun, and breaks down to the lowlands of Mesopotamia, in a series of rock terraces seamed by deep ravines; The western face of the plateau is broken by broad Valleys, and only in the case of Olympus (7,600 feet) rises much higher than 2,500. The most striking features are the great central plain with its salt lakes; the abence of navigable rivers; Mount Argeous (13,100 feet) and its volcanic district to the south; the Subter- ranean flow of streams beneath the Taurus and a number of hot medicinal springs. The great plain of Western Anatolia is composed of lacus- trine deposits. Mount Taurus consists chiefly of limestone, the Pontic range of scheists and metamorphic rocks. Igeneous rocks occur in many districts, and some of the minor ranges are of granite. The Central plateau consists of nearly horizontal strata while around the coast flat lying deposits are found extending up into the mountain regions. The deposits of the Central plateau con- sists of freshwater marls and limestones. Along the south- eastern margin, in front of the Taurus, stands a line of volcan- oes stretching from Karadagh to Aegeaus all lying extinct now. TECTONIC FEATURES. A. Armenia. The central and least interrupted fold of the Armenian plateau may be regarded as the link between the Alburs of Northern Persia and the Anti-Taurus of Asia Minor. The Alburs folds after bending around to the northwest are broken off near Haran and only rise up again northwest of the great volcano Kara- bagh. The folds are cut through by the transverse valley of the Araxes below Ordubad and are continuous with the same northwest direction through the Karabagh region. The west- ern Karabagh range is the highest of the folds reaching 12,- 832 feet in granitic Karabagh Mountain. It gradually bends around to W. N<. W. through Dammry Mountains (11,093 ft.) and Salvasty Mountain (10,422 ft.) into the Daralagoz district. 50 MINERAL RESOURCES finally breaking off in the Zynlerly Mountain towards broad Araxes plain north of Ararat. Here the fold has undergone fracture and depression and has been concealed, not only by the lavas of Ararat and Alagoz, but also by the loess and alluvial deposits of the Araxes. A fragment, however comes to light in the Oligocene rather than in the Kegeljin Mountain near Kulp'i. Then it forms Shatin Mountain the "spine of Armenia," with a dioritic axis and it bends round to a W. by S. direction dividing Pasin from Alashkert and Tekman. After passing through Palandoken (10,694 ft.) where it forms the southern boundary of the Erzerum plain, the line of height appears to die out in the Karakaya Mountain, and its place is taken on the south by the Zerdeji and Mirian mountains; thence the line crosses the Frat, to attain greater heights in the Melpurt and Keshish Mountains. Here it is interupted by the Erzinjan depression but it soon rises higher in Muzur Moun- tain. It is again traversed by the Frat above Egin for the third time and is con tinued to the southwest into the Anti-Taurus. The Central Karabagh line forms part of the same Alburs-r Anti-Taurus series. It is indicated first of all by the Ardebel depression, traversed by the S. E. N. W. course of the Kara-Su, and flanked on the west by the great volcano Salavan. Th? line is continued to the N. W. through the Cretaceous Kara- bagh. Surmounted by the tracytic Gaishtasar and Saigrama Mountains. Crossing the Araxes, its S. E. N. W. axis can be traced through the relative depression of central Karabagh plateau — a depression which has been more than filled up by the lavas and tuffs of numerous volcanoes arranged in series- along its axis. The most important of these peaks are the Kehal Mountain, Ishakly, Kizil Bogas, Mukhortolian, Galingaya and Syrer-syrchally, all of which rise to heights 10,000 — 12,000 feet. The central Karabagh depression is then continued through Lake Gokcha into the Dachichak heights, and this line finally disappears beneath the northern lava-flows of Alagoz. Starting once more from the Caspian, we find a series of S. E. — N. W. folds adjacent to the Alburs folds and rising up to form the Talish ranges. They are on the same line of strike as the folds which have been broken off, on the east coast of the Caspian, between Ashref and Asterbad. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA SI DATA TAKEN FROM F. E. OsWALD :— Colored Geological Map of Armenia. 52 MINERAL RESOURCES It is evident that this interruption in their continuity is due to the depression of the area now occupied by the South Caspian. The Talish ranges disappear beneath the transverse valley of the Araxes and rise up again to form the east Karabagh ranges, among which Shasha lies centrally situated. They are con- tinuous with the same N. W. direction as the Gokcha ranges, or so called Little Caucasus, occupying the space between Lake Gokcha and the Valley of Lower Kur. The richest ores of Russian Transcaucasian are found in these rugged Eastern Border ranges of Armenia. At the 4Sth meridian the folds begin to bend round to the west and consists of three main lines. Pambak, Bezobdal and Lialvar, which disappear com- pletely beneath the volcanic plateau of Russian Armenia, with the exception of small outlier of Cretceous rocks near Medo- tappa Lake. The Aglagan-Bezobdal fold already shows indication of bend- ing around to W. by S. Although now completely hidden by vast accumulations of lava and tuff the continuation of these folds may perhaps be indicated by the W. S. W. direction of a part of the Kars-Chai Valley below Kars, and by the same di- rection of the volcano. Watershed, between the Lakes of Chaldir and Khozapian. On the west side of the volcanic plateau this series of fold re- appears to view, forming a N. E. — S. W. zone through Olti depression. They are still more closely indicated further to the southwest by the Cretaceous heights lying between the longi- tudinal valleys of the Chorokh — and further west by the syn- clinal area of the Varzahan plain and the Kelkid Valley. The chief line of these folds is marked by the heights of Akhbaba, Khoshabpunar, Jejen, Kop, Otluk, Sipikar and Chardaklu — a line which clearly defines the northern edge of the Frat basin, and which together with the opposite Muzar Mountain line of heights passes over into the Anti-Tauric system. A still more northerly series of folds, the Thrialetic Imare- tian Mountains, or Northern Border-ranges of Armenia is separ- ated from the Lialvar line of folds by a hard, resisting block, a mass of gneiss, ancient schists and Palaeozic rocks. Among these folds four main lines may be divided: I. Bielyiklinch to Yaglaga Mountain. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 53 2. Manglis to Tiflis. 3. Arjevan through Digorn to Lilo. This fold bends around to the W. S. W. of the Arjevan Mountain, through Karajakaya Sansislo (9351 ft.) and Oshara Mountain (8551 ft.) to cross the Kur Valley just above Akhaltsykh, it then disappears be- neath the volcanic plateau of Karga Punar, Dokhus Punar and the Arzian Mountain. At the base of deep canyons of the Pos- khov River the Cretaceous rocks of this fold are disclosed. West of the Azian Mountain it is seen to reappear, bounding the longitudinal valley of the Imerkhevi River and it is con- tinued to the S. W. between Artvin and Ardanush, into the Dedime Mountain (10,558 ft.) Thence it forms the inner line of the Chorokh and passes through the Vavuk Mountain to bound the Kelkid River on the right. 4. The line marked by Thrialetic-Imeritian Range through the Tortizi Mountain, across the Kur below Borjom, thence it is surmounted by the peaks of Salgalotto (8,288 ft.), Kageba, Nepiskaro, Gatewaria and Taginami. At this point it came over to the S. W. and after crossing the Chorokh just below the Ajaris confluence this lines proceeds along the coast behind Khora and Arkhava. It appear likely that the Karchkal Moun- tain (11,248 ft.) and parts of the Pontic Range have acted as a "horst" around which the folds have been curved and bent. On the other hand the extension of this fold from Mitskhet eastward appears to lie through Mamkodi. A remnant of this fold may be seen in the Cretaceous outlier with S. E. strike which liesS. of Segnak, but this is an exception. It is concealed be- neath Sarmartian deposits up to the 48th meridian, where it is indicated by the Eocene foothills of the Caucasus and it finally vanished beneath the Caspian. Between the Anti-Tauruc and Tauric series of folds the Ar- menian plateau is only traversed by minor folds, chiefly affect- ing Lower Miocene limestone, e. g., Shurian Mountain, the Satah Mountain between Lakes Van and Urmi. All these folds show a general agreement wiith the Anti-Tauric series but their con- tinuity is frequently broken by further scarps and concealed either by the ejectamenta of volcanoes or by recent richer lakes deposits. The Tauric folds form a S. W. — N. E. series in zone between 54 MINERAL RESOURCES Malatia and Samasat and extend to the N. E. embracing the Palu. Here, however, they appear to meet a "horst." A southerly Hne of folding bends round this horst towards Sert. A still more southerly member of the Tauric series lies between Samsat and Urfa with a W S. W. EN. E. strike it disappears beneath the basalt of the Karaja Mountain and rises again in Mardin hills, running nearly due to east. This line of folding crosses the Tigris above Jesireh and gradually bends round to the E. S. E. through Jadi Mountain and bends to Shernak Mountain, to pass into the Zagros Mountain, with a constant S. E. direction. In Armenia the chief eras of mountain folding seem to have occurred in the Lower Permian, Antitithonian and Post-Oligo- cene priods, and in all of these the resultant pressure came from the south, i. e., from the Arabian tableland. Th northern limit to all this mountain folding in Armenia was formed by the great granitic "horst" of the Meschic Mountains. The Caucasus in this time was represented by an eliptical island, lying to the north of this resisting mass, and was only sligtly affected by the force from the south. But in the Post-Miocene era of moun- tain making to which the Caucasus owes its present great de- velopment, the force produced from the N. E. and by this time the sediments of Armenia has lost their plasticity and could not undergo any further folding. This hard, unyielding area now be- came fractured mountain blocks, most of which show parallelism to the Caucasus and are as much an expression of longitudinal stresses in the earth crust as the folds of the Caucasus itself. The lines of fracture in Armenia which are due to the Post- Miocene mountain making can be divided into three classes. 1. Fracture parallel to the Caucasus, N. W. S. E. They have given rise to the depression of the Lower Kur from Gori to the Caspian and Kokcha-Karabagh-Savalan zone. The Kars- Ararat- Nakhichevan zone, the Alashkert zone, the Erzerum- Aladagh-Sahend zone, the Khinis-Melaskert zone, the Gum-gum- Liz zone, the Erzingan-Lake \^an zone and the Diarbekr zone. 2. Two fractures, almost meridianal (N. by W. to S. by E.) lying on either side of the Meschic "horst" and in all probabil- ity directly due to its resistance. The western line runs from Elburz, through the Arzian and Sohanli series of volcanoes to Kuseh Mountain, and thence to Sipan; the eastern line extends ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 55 from Kashet through Alagoz to Ararat and along the Turko- Persian frontier to RoWianduz. 3. A fracture crossing the Armenian Mountain folds at their concave bend, running from Karadagh through the high vol- canoes of Armenia have arisen along this line, especially where it intersects other lines of fracture. This line may be traced southwrds into the great rift of the Jordan Valley, the Red Sea and through East Africa as far as the rift Lakes Tanganyka and Nyassa. Perhaps another line may also be traced radiating from the Karaja Mountain through the volcanic Bingol Mountain and Palandoken to Erzerum and Devehboyum. B. Anatolia. Naumann distinguishes three great folded arcs and a part of a fourth in determining the trend lines of the structure of Anatolia. — 1. The East Pontic Arc: it borders, in the northeast, the shore of the Black Sea, extending from the east towards Sinope. Abich justifies the separation of East Pontic Arc by the south- west trend of the ranges, on the left side of the Chorokh. 2. The West Pontic Arc: this is joined by the first, the southwestern parts of which (Phrygian zone) approach the in- ner side of the third arc. Naumann mentions a fold at Angora overthrown to the east-southeast, and towards Polatly, further westwards, there is horizontal tableland. For the stretch of the country, more than 100 Km. long, which extends from Heraclea to beyond Amasra, and is distinguished by tiie presence of coal measures, the whole district exhibits the character of a faulted-down than of a folded country. The convincing testi- mony to the existence of a West Pontic Arc is afforded by the steeply turned stratified series in the valley of the Sakaria, ex- tending from Balabon upwards, past the Lefke and Vizirkhan. 3. Tauric Arc: this surrounds the Lyaonian plain, Cyprus forms part of it; towards the west it joins in syntaxis parts of a fourth arc. According to Naumann, an inner zone of the Tauric folds, coming from the northeast, runs within the bend of the Halys with a southwest direction towards the northeast of the Lyaonian depression, and breaks off against the border. Near Kaisarieh, east' of this region, rises the mighty Argeaus, 56 MINERAL RESOURCES . and here begins the zone of volcanoes which border the inner side of the Tauric Arc in a regular semi-circle. The problem of the tructure of this range is not yet solved. Generally speak- ing, the rocks, in accordaiice with the outer form of the chains, strike to the northeast, parallel with the Vulcan range on the one side and the Amanus on the other ; the Mediterranean beds of Tertiary age are deposited against a range" folded in this direction. 4. Eagian Arc: the part of the fourth, which with the third arc forms re-entrant angles. The structure of the west coast of Anatolia is as follows : a. From Crete an arc runs to the northeast through Kasos to Rhodes, where it meets a shorter segments coming from a north- west direction. b. The volcanic arc extends from Santorin into Nisyros. c. In the whole of the southwestern part of the continent a northwest strike prevails as far as the coast of Caria and on- wards to Samos : this is the western wing of the Tauric arc, which encloses the Lyaonian plain. d. Between Smyrna and Chios a north to north-northeast strike appears and is maintained through the Spalmatori islands and Mitilini to the plain of Troy. e. The western limit of the Tauric Arc can only be followed with tolerable certainty as far as Samos. It is not sure that the ranges directed to the north and northeast should be in- cluded with it. A syntaxis exists in the proximity of the west coast of Anatolia. A northeast to east-north strike prevails on the European mainland (Tekir-Dagh, Kuru-Dagh) and as far as Samothrace, and perhaps also in the Carboniferous land of Balia-Maden. In the south this direction is reprsented by the volcanic line to Nisyros, and further by the line passing through Crete and Kasos to Rhodes, and the lofty mountains of souther Lycia. These regions are included among the eastern ends of the ranges of the Dinaric Arc. A north and south to a north-northeast strike is met on with the southern border of the plain of Troy, in Mitilini, Chios, the Spalmatori islands, the peninsula of Karaburun, and as far ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 57 as Smyrna. These areas probably answer in part to the Dinaric Arc and in part to the region of Syntaxis. A northwest strike makes its appearance in the valley of the Sakaria in the neighborhood of the Olympus of Brdussa, then in the southwest of Anatolia as far as Samos, thence to the coast of Caria and to a restricted part of RJiodes. These' tracts are the western ends of the Tauric Arcs. The tectonic feature of Anatolia is, unfortunately, not very w'ell known, and also we do not know very much about the extension and the location occupied by the Tertiary folded zone. It is a fact that the masses are, during Tertiary, removed by vertical comipartment, and have been -dislocated after the Eagean depression forming a real folding. Folding predomin- ates in the northeastern part of the peninsula, along the Pontic series, in the chains of Kos, Cilician Taurus, etc. Anatolia, as a whole, represents one part of the recently folded crust forming a natural link between the European Din- aridfs — Balkans and the Asiatic folds of Iran. It is buttressed by the primitive ma.ss of Arabia on the south, as Himalayas by the India. But, in some intervals of Tertiary folded mass, some vast regions are escaped this movements. Some of them are only subjected to vertical displacement in the fashion of Euro- pean Hercynian Horsts. Upon this large space is established a tabular regime which could, very likely, be compared with the Pre-Balkanic plateau or with the Caucasus. The Eocene is often laid horizontal or is only depressed having been inclined along the fault lines. Occasionally the Cretaceous also look tabular. The necessary informations are lacking to con- firm whether they are primary or secondary movements. They are broken only before the Cretaceous or Eocene. In compari- son with European chains they generally look like the primary foldings become insensible in the Tertiary. Between the two folded chains, one bordering the Black Sea coast, and the other Mediterranean and Cilicia, we notice a tabular compartment, vertically moved, and interpolated same way as Tibet according to Naumann. On the north, along the Black Sea coast, in Pontus and east Paphalgonia, there is a primary zone folded in Tertiary. This extending east-west constitutes' the Pontic chain. This chain is 58 MINERAL RESOURCES notably represented by the Cretaceous limestones and flysch, with a great serpentine manifestation. The line which connects this to European chain is very imaginary. According to Suess it is the incurred succession of the Eagean fold. Further up to the west of the course of Halys the grounds look very much transformed, while the recently folded regions look composed of horizontal plateau where primary important masses are pre- dominating. Naumann shows that the region situated on the south of Bithynia and Paphlagonia, between Adabazar and Kastamuni, represent the Eocene and probably Cretaceous in a horizontal strata laid upon the Jarassic. This is strongly folded after- wards. Along the line leading from Scutari to Angora near leni-Chair, in the gorge of Sakaria, between the Biljik and Lefke. Naumann also shows, in wide extension, the horizontal Eocene recovering the redressed beds, so that all this compart- ment is at least laid horizontal since the Cretaceous during a period when the orogenic efforts attained to their maximum. The retrogression (Schaarung) of Anatolia, which is sup- posed toward Sinope, to bind the northeast branches of the west to northwest is certain. The same degree of uncertainty exists in the region of western Anatolia where strongly miner- alized. But in all cases the Tertiary dislocations are abounding in this group. The eruptive manifestations are very frequent there, especially along the depressed zone as the basin of evaporation without any outlet from Lycaonia and Cappadocea. The pace of the metallic minerals contributes to accentuation in the most part of Anatolia, the one which is called Character of Mediter- ranean. Coniling to the south, the second zone along the Cilicia, Mediterranean and the Gulf of Alexandretta, is also notably folded like the Pontic chain on the north. The most northern branches of this chain resembles the one which manifests itself in the island of Kos and Rhodes, being persued from the south- east to the last axis of folding, passing through the Cyprus and Alma-Dagh. But it there interpolates the tabular zone in a condition which so far has not been defined. There are still other points where analogous phenomena is observable in dif- ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 59 ferent geological periods. Bukowski has shown in Caria, near Davas, Lower Miocene laid horizontal upon the folded Oligo- cene, while little further the Pliocene same way, has taken part in the posthiimes movements which is continued up to today. Same way, the tabular system predominates in the regions com^ prised between Anti-Taurus and Armenian Taurus, effecting here the Cretaceous. Continuing these points, the folds soon stop, juxtaposing the tabular systejm dn folded zones, with probable drifts notably along the Anti-Taurus. GEOLOGY. In general, Armenia geologically consists of Archaic rocks upon w'hich are superimposed Palaeozoic and towards the south later sedimentary rocks, the last having been pierced by vol- canic outbursts that extend southwest to Lake Van. Dominant among stratified rocks are limestones of various geological pe- riods from Cretaceous and probably earlier to Plieocene. The central plateau is especially covered or surrounded by such a thick or high m;ass of recent sediments and lavas that Mesozoic and earlier rocks seldom come to the surface. The Jurassic is recorded only from the eastern border range and from the region surrounding the Lake Van. Lacustrine de- posits are also prominent geological features in Pliocene time contemporaneous with the outpouring of lavas in Central Ar- mania. Strongly folded metamorphic rocks as marbles, mica and crystalline schists, schistose gneiss, slates and marl, etc., occur abundantly in Armania, especially in the Tauric range among the oldest rocks. PRE-DEVONIC. Strongly folded schistose gneiss and other crystalUnt schists are the oldest rocks of Armenia. They have, as far as present observations indicate, a SW-NE strike. They form obstructive masses which offered strong opposition to later folding. The Armenian Taurus is the most important of these masses. It consists of layers of mica, quartzite and gneiss with which often serpentine (South coast of Lake Van), horn- bende schist and finally granite (Vanik and Keser Valley) or diorite (Mikus and Shirvan) are associated. This slaty mass 6o MINERAL RESOURCES extends from Rovandus westward to the Ousounyalia (north of Albistan) where they are overlain by the Devonian. The same conditions appear in the most eastern part of Taurus. The great amount of interbedding of the slate and folded marble is typically seen at Tadvan on Lake Van in a stretch of only lOO ft. Because of the rapid weathering of the mica schist to brown sand the summits of the Taurus Mountains consist of marble; while the mica schist, which lies above this, comes to light on the slopes, closed with a thick covering of sand. The greatest height in this zone of metamorphism is reached by the Jelu Mountain. It is made up of slate, dolomitic lime- stone and porphyrites. A region of the same tectonic importance, though not so well exposed, is the Meschic Mountains (Zirula dome) in the ex- treme norh consising of granite, gneiss and crystalline schist. The granite or granulite here is often penetarted by melaphyrs, diabases and porphyries. Granite gneisses, mica schists, and chlorite-schist occur in the upper Chram Valley, and in the Somkatian Mountains, as well as at other points in the northern border ranges. Small occurrences of schists and gneisses occur here and there in the eastern border ranges, for example, clay and slate and sugar-grained marble (covered by Tourainian chlorite schists, mica schists and quartzites with white marbles, serpen- tines and schistose gneiss in the Pambak ranges and in the Darachichek Mountains ) . The chlorite and hornblende schists in Arpatal (Daralagoz), and in the upper Ochchital (West Kara-, bagh) Valley appear again on the south side of the axis in Karabagh. On the bottom of some of the deep valleys of the north and east Karabagh old gneiss and feldspar porphyries under Jurassic rocks come to the surface. Schistose rocks are reported from the Pontic region of the northern border ranges but their exact age has not yet been determined. Clay slates with SW-NE strike have been described from the lower Chorokh Valley at Artvin and from the neigh- boring Ardanush valley. They are overlain by the Lower Cre- tacic. A zone of rocks appear on the inner border of the Pontic Range (for example, of the Kharchkar Mountain,) and in the basin of Olti (Kanli and Akdagh Mountains at Id.) ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 6i Occasionally the metamorphic series is seen in the| inner region of the Armenian highland as at Arabkir (mica schists, sometimes graphitic). It extended through Dersim and appears above the graphitic mica schists) as far as the region north of Khinis, in the Shatin Mountain and in the Kisilja Mountain east of Lake Van. DEVONIAN. Middle and Upper Devonic beds are reported from the Araxes Basin (south of Ararat) and from the Valley of its tributary, Arpa (Daralagoz), where they overlie red mica schist, sandstones and conglomerates. They extend southward into the Urmi Basin and eastward into the Karabagh, but are tipt known in the region between Ararat on the one side and their appearance in the Antitaurus on the other side. In the Araxes Basin they strike mostly NW-SE; sometimes (Davalu, Degma, Danga, Gyneshik) SW-NE; this can probably be at- tributed to posthumus influences because of the strike of the un- derlying slates. The Armenian-Devonian accords with that of Antitaurus and Persia and may be, owing to this similarity, divided according to the following general scheme : Upper Devonian — • Zona of Spirifer verneu'li. Red, ithick bed of limestone with marly interlayers and clay slates. Fossils : Spirifer archiaci, Spirifer tenticulimi, Rhynchonella cuhoides, Acer- vularia pentagona. Lower Devonian — (3). Coral limestone, with very many Cyathophyllmn quadri- geminum. (2). Brachiopod limestone, with Spirifer inflatus, Spirifer mediotextus, Rhynchonella letiensis, Chonetes. ( I ) . Calceola tuff, marly limestone with calceola sandstone, Cyathopyllum vermiculare , C. praecursor, caesopitoswm, Cysti- phyllum vesiculosum, Favosites goldfussi, Heliolites porosus, Stromatopora concentrica, Atrypa reticularis, Merista plebeja. CARBONIFEROUS. The limestones of the Carbonic age He conformably above the Devonic from which they are distin- guished simply by a general widespread, slight bituminous content, and the occasional appearance of Alum. The Carbonic is found in the same region as the Devonic, but stretches beyond in its higher layers ; for example, on the south of the Araxes and on 62 MINERAL RESOURCES DATA TAKEN FROM F. E, OsWALD : Colored Geological Map of Artnenia. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 63 the islands and the coasts of the Lake Urmi. A break in the disposition has occurred in Armenia in the second half of the Upper Carboniferous. The general sequence of beds of the Carbonic is as follows: Upper Carbonic — Moskaus tuff. Fusulina zone, dark gray, often dolomitic lime with Fusulinella sphaeroida, F. lenticularis, £ndothyra Bryozoan, lime algae, etc. Lower Carbonic — Zone of Products gigantes: coarse banded, bituminous coral- line limestone with Cystiphyllum inurchisoni, Lithostrotion mar- tini, Lonsdaleia florifornds, Productiis gigantus, Spirifer striatus, Spririgera planosulcata. Zone of Spirifer, Marly limestone and shale. (i). Crinoid limestone, with Platycrynus, Dalmanella Michel- ini, Chonetes hardrensis. (2). Brachiopod layers with Productus perlongus, Athyris amhigua, Spirifer tenticulum. PERMO-TRIASSIC. The Permo-Triassic limestones of Julfa on the Araxes and the neighboring Kasanyaila district were dis- posed in a bay of that sea which extended toward the Indian salt range. In contrast to the zone of Palaeozoic folds, in the Central Araxes district in, which eruptives of the same age are lacking, they show simply flextures with steep N. E. faults, and numerous bed veins of diabase and quartz porphyry. Car- bonic, Permic and Triassic are comformable and folded together. In other places the Triassic of Armenia are not yet known. Possibly dolomite of the Jelu Mountain (in the Zab Basin) belongs to this formation analogous with the Triassic dolomites, of the western Caucasus. Rhetic with plant remains exist only on the eastern border of Armenia, namely, in the Alburz chain Lower Triassic — Quartzite of Negram, apparently with interbedding of Wellen- limestone with Werfen fossils. Upper Permian. Upper Zechstein — Limestones with the appearance of Wellen-limestone, and containing Chideru fossils. Upper Permian. Lower Zechstein — Julfa limestones with a rich fauna, especially of Ceratitidae 64 MINERAL RESOURCES and Brachiopods. Stage of Oteceras Julfense. JURASSIC. LIAS. Rocks of the Lias have not yet been found in Armenia. But in the Urmi basin, beyond the boundary of Armeniais found the Toarcian. Here the association of cen- tral European fossil form is explained by advocating a connec- tion, thorugh Roumania and Transylvania, with the Hungarian Sea. The Liassic limestone of Azerbaijan indicates a more open sea than the fine-grained shaly, littoral facies of the Central Caucasus. Probably they were formerly continuous with the Palaeozoic sediments of Kessiktash at Angora in Asia Minor. This connecting sediment has either been denuded or still await- ing discovery. Perhaps in the Dersim distdict. The coal of Gernavig and Kamsakendi (north of Lake Urmi) is probably Liassic, but accessible knowledge seems to be against this idea. DOGGER. BAjAOiAN TUFF. During the Bajocian time and several of the following epochs powerful volcanism existed in the neighborhood of the present eastern border range. The massive, in part submarine, outbreaks were inimical to animal life, so that only small remains occur in the seams of impure limestone which were interbedded in the great deposits of tuffs, sandstones and lava flows. MALM. CALLOViAX. The Macrocephallus and Anceps- zones are reported on the east coast of Lake Urmi, as well as in the eastern border range at Kabagtepe in the Shamshortal Valley, northwest from Elizabetpol. At the last named locality the facies indicate a sediment of great land. In Armenia it is certain that neither Oxfordian nor Sequan- ian are known. The expressed volcanic disturbances which are noticed in the Sequanian of Central Caucasus were noticeably forerunners of the great Kimmeridgian faulting by which the Caucasus and the large part of Armenia was raised above the sea. These dislocations were accompanied by the outbreaks of most of the disbases and Melaphyrs of Armenia. KIMMERIDGIAN is known from the Karabagh district. It shows the sponge and coral facies with those of the Natthein limestone. At its base lies conglomerate, which suggests a trangression in Middle Kimmeridgian time. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 65 TITHONIAN is known in the West Karabagh, namely, in the Kiaki Mountain and Trapassar Mountain (south of Tatev). In the coral limestones, the Stylina decemradiata, Calamorphyl- lia pseudo stylina, etc., fossils are found. LOWER CRETACEOUS, lower neocomian (Valanginian has not yet been definitely recorded from the Armenian area, although it will probably be found to occur in the Karabagh region. According to Abich Neocomian strata are probably pres- ent on the Trapassar Mountain overlying Tithonian limestone. The lower beds of the Valanginian are, however, well devel- oped on the northern borders of Armenia in the Zirula dome (Meschic Mountains. Here in the S. W. part of the synclinal trough (SE of Kvirila) it consists of marls and marly limestones with Terebratula pseudojurensis, Waldheimia moutoniana, Py- gone diphyoides, Chama, Strombus, etc. MIDDLE NEOCOMIAN OR HAUTERIVIAN has a wide distribution on the northeastern, and northwestern borders of Armenia. In the north, it is well developed in the Zirula dome in the marly sandstones and limestones, containing Rhynchonella de- pressa, Exogyra coidoni, Nautilus pseudoelegans, etc., fossils. In the east Karabagh is found the Neocomian marls and Exogyra and Lima. Farther south near Araxes is establish- ed the presence of Hauterivian beds. Farther south, in Azer- baijan, is found Hauterivian Amnionites at Gushaish, in the hills on the east of Lake Urmi. A fragment of a large Ammonite was also found in the massive limestone of a few miles below Muradkhan, on Kharshut River. THE UPPER NEOCOMIAN (barremian) is present in Armenia only in its Urgonian facies, similar to that of Jura. On the northern borders of Armenia — in the Zirula donte — the Urgonian beds show evidence of a marked transgression, and of closer proximity to land than the very similar deposits in the west Karabagh. Near Marelision the southern slope of the Zirula dome Rei- quienia limestones and marls rest to the basal conglomerates and breccias derived from the underlying granite, and to the north of Molita they rest discordantly on Upper Jurassic clays' sandstones and tuflfs. Urgonian is also well developed in the west 66 MINERAL RESOURCES Karabagh, but has not been recorded from any intermedate district. The limestone was noticed on the Trapassar Mountain containing characteristic Urgonian fossil (Corals, Requienia am- monia, Nerinea). APTIAN. Very little is known as yet regarding the presence of this formation in Armenia except on its northern borders — on the Zirula dome and the south slope of the Central Caucasus. On the Zirula dome marls, slightly glauconitic, contain Tere- bratula sella, Thetis major, etc., fossils. The presence of Aptian in the eastern Border Ranges of Armenia is established by Exogyra aquila. UPPER CREACEOUS. albian is well developed on the northern borders of Armenia in the same localities as the Aptian, with which, indeed, it is in continuity. The Albian both on Zirula dome and on the southern slope of the Caucasus, repre- sented by the sandy marls with Discoides subuculus, glauconitic sandstones with Desmoceras bendanti, marly sandstone with Crustacea and Phylloceras vcUcdoe. CENOMANIAN undoubtedly occurs on the south side of the Frat, almost due to south of this locality. The Cenomanian limestone rises up to form the Hach Mountain — the E. W. chain which divides the districts of Terjan and Kighi. On Zirula dome Cenomanian is well developed, consisting of slightly glau- conitic sandstones and Disoidea subuculus, Haploceras djumense, etc. TURONIAN is particularly well developed in the southern, eastern and western Karabagh district, especially in Alikulikent, in the gorge of the Bergushet River, where nearly the entire Cretaceous is laid bare. Here is recorded a considerable thick- dess pf Turonian strata, inuch dislocated, dipping northwards and traversed by dikes of amygdaloidal dolerite. Plagioptychus agitilloni and large Radiolites and Acteonella fossils are much dominant. The only indication of Turonian in the Pantic re- gion occurs near the confluence of Ardanush River with the lower Chorokh; a very thick series of limestones crystalline in places, overlying Cenomanian and underlying Senonian strata. SENONIAN of Armenia is well developed in Karabagh re- gion. In the west Karabagh at Alikulikent in the Bergushet Val- ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA tj ley, the Senonian conformably overlies the Turonian; it shows a northerly dip, and is strongly dislocated and traversed by dikes of amygdaloidal dolerite. The lower part cnosists of thick beds of white fossils, chalky limestone containing Echinocorys ovata, Inoceraimis cnvieri. Ammonites, etc. In the East Karabagh the Senonian is extensively developed in the form of fissile litho- graphic limestones. Generally the Senonian formation in Kara- bagh continued beneath the great depression of Kur, 'rising up again on the opposite side in the Caucasus. It is continued also to N. \\'. through the Gokcha Range. Near Elizabetpol the only recorded Senonian fossils are Foraminifera. Senonian limestones reach their greatest height in the region between the Debeda, Pambak and Akstafa Rivers. To west and north the littoral fades predominate, especially in the lower part of the formation. EOCENE. LOWER EOCENE. In the north of Armenia and in the Caucasus the Lower Eocene consists of a thick series of dark, argillaceous fissile sandstones and marls, harder beds of variegated shales and laminated limestones and flint, and inter- calated in the series but the only fossils are obscure impressions of thick stalked Fucoids (Chondrites. Tuffs and volcanic brec- cias frequently occur, together with contemporary diabases, andesites, dacites, and trachytes. They are well developed in the Akhalzik basin, near Borjom and Mikhailov. The Lower Eocene is ,, evidently represented along the south- ern base of the Taurus. At Arghana the Nummulitic Lime- stone is found to overlie carbonaceous marls ; beneath these there occur brecciated and quartzose sandstones alternating with marls. Again between Ali Mountain and Arghana-Su intrusive masses of dialage rock have altered the carbonaceous beds into dark, sheared non-bituminous stone coal, with vitreous fracture. In all localities of Akhalzik Basin the fossiliferous Eocene beds are overlain by the Flysch facies of Upper Eocene, and this in turn by Oligocene. This facies is represented by marly calcar- eous beds, much laminated, with fucoidal remains, fish scales and impressions and teeth of Lanuna clegans, Otodus, Melatta sardinntcs, etc. MIDDLE. AND UPPER EOCENE. The middle and Upper Eo- cene of Lower Rion and Kvirila Basin show the same facies 68 MINERAL RESOURCES as that of the Akhalzik Basin. The NummuHte facies rathei more marked here consists of clays, fissile marls and fossillifer- ous calcareous beds with OrbitoUtes discus, Serpula, Terebratula, etc. These fossils indicate the presence of both the Kressenberg and Priabona horizons. Numulitic beds appear in the upper valley of Pambak River, in the upper region of the Akstafa and Zanga rivers. The same horizon occurs in the Duchu and Terter Valleys, and the two areas were evidently in complete continuity through N. W. — E. E. Eocene zone, which borders Lake Gokcha on the N. and E. The finest section of Nummulitic beds in the Mid-Araxes region is near the monastery of Kar- mirvank, at the entry of the gorge leading to Julfa. Nummulitic limestone and fine grained sandstone are extensively developed in the Taurus Mountains, the southern border range of Armenia, especially in the plain of Apaud between Kharput and Keban Maden, containing Nuinmulites panwndi, N. laeigatus, N. in- termedius. The higher parts of Taurus, between Kharput and Arghana consists of Calcareous strata abounding in Nummulites, overlying Cretaceous beds. OLIGOCENE. LOWER oligocene beds occur in the Pontic region between the Karchkal Mountains and the Ardahan plateau. Here, above Satlel, in the gorge of the Samjel-robat River, a soft yellow, very compact, crystalline limestone with Harpacto-carcinuf, Certihium, Turbo, Conus, etc., and corals and spines of Cidaris. The only remaining instance of Oligocene in Armenia is recorded in the Araxes gorge, a few versts above Julfa, half way between Julfa and Darosham. Here the hori- zontal Nummulitic limestone (overlapping permo Triassic) are conformably overlain by Oligocene, consisting of a very thick bed of an ash gray, calcareous sandstone, passing upwards into brown sandstones overlain by Sar,matian sandstones and con- glomerates. Intercalated sandstone then occur between rather compact, calcareous beds, enclosing a number of shells (Gastro- pod) which are all changed into coarse-graine'd calcite, and diffi- cult to determine owing to their fragmentary and altered con- dition. Ostrea, Venus, and Natica glaucina are characteristic fossils. MIOCENE. LOWER MIOCENE is particularly well developed in the basin of Lake Urmi. The fossil collected on Ishakdaghi, ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 69 Koyundaghi and the Shahi peninsula indicate: ( 1 ) LOWER TDRTONiAN compact, rather porous limestone oc- casionally like travertine with Alectryonia virlet, Thamnaroea polymorpha, Latirus crispus. (2) UPPER HELVETIAN, light yellow or white limestone and greenish-gray, coarse-grained, molassic-sandstone more or less compact, with sphathic portions, capable or high polish, some- times partially translucent with Polystomella quartrepunctata, Orbicella defrancei, Ccriopora anomalis, Spondylus bifrons, Cly- peaster gnnteri, etc. (3). LOWER HELVETIAN Concretionary brownish-yellow lime- stone, breaks in great slabs, with Pector convexocostatus. (4) Fragmental deposits, varying in thickness derived from (5) Carbonaceous limestone. A great part of the mountainous country between Khoi and Ararat seems to consist of Micocene limestone, particularly the region E. S. of Bayazid in the Gedargan Mountain, and the Valleys of Maku, Tanali and Zangimar. The Miocene area has been considerably extended in Turkish Armenia. It is particu- larly well exposed in the cliffs of Lake Van. In the upper part of the Frat Valley is described the highly fossiliferous Micocene limestone of Kardarich, a few miles above Ashkala. Here the Erzerum plain is closed in on the west by a wall of limestone through which the river has cut a sharp ravine. UPPER MIOCENE, sarmatian. In the region of the Central Caucasus the Sarmartian deposits are the earliest repre- sentatives of the Miocene and occur in notable transgression of Palaeogenic deposits. Isolated fish scales are usually the only fossils that occur in the Upper Miocene of the Armenian plateau. At Nakhichevan are found the fishes Clupea lanceolata, and C. humilis, in the thick red, yellow and light colored Sarmatian marls, which are nearly always unfossiliferous, and enclose gyp- sum and rock salt. Near Julfa, lower down the Araxes Sarma- tian saliferous marls discordantly overlie the uplifted Eocene beds of Dary Mountain, and include Pecten sarmaticus, P. Hop- kinsi. At Yaija lower down the Araxes, simalar saliferous marls form a plain between the Devil and Itushem Mountains. The Saliferous marls are extensively developed in Azerbaijan, 70 MINERAL RESOURCES especially in the Valley of the Aji River, on which Tabriz is situated. The saliferous series is widely distrbuted in the basin of the Tortum and Olti Rivers, and also in the Valley of the Lower Chorokh below Ispir. Rock salt is quarried around here. Broad Frat Valley between the Lower Miocene limestone heights of Pirnakapan and Ashkala is occupied by clays with thick seams of white gypsum. The saliferous series is extremely developed to the W. and S. W. of Erzinjan and S. of Erzerum where salt pans occur. Some saliferous marls occur on the S. side of the Taurus with the same salt pans. PLIOCENE. The Pliocene fauna of Maragha, on the E. coast of Lake Urmi, consists of the remains of Hipparion, and of Cervus in a trachyte-tuff mixed with earthy gypsum. The vegetation at the time of Pliocene was luxuriant enough to support mastodons, giraffes and antelopes which could wander unchecked from Greece to Persia'. Most of the Pliocene lakes j>ersisted into the Pleistocene and even at the present day several remnants still occur^either of fresh water such as Lakes Gokcha, Chaldir, Toporavan and Nazik, or with varying degrees of salinity such as Lakes Khozapin, Van, Udmi and the small soda lakes southeast of Ararat. The Pliocene fauna of Maragha, east of Lake Urmi, is very similar to that of Pikermi, and also shows some points of resemb- lance to the Sivalik fauna. Characteristic are Palacoh\u,s mara- ghaniis, Giraffa attica, Palaeoreas Liiidcrmavcri, Tragoccros, Hipparion gracilc, Rhinoceros Persiae, Mastodon pcntilici, Hy- eximia. Remains of a similar fauna occur in the bed of the Arpa river at Alexandropol, and indicated at Zokh at the southern base of the Taurus, but this locality still awaits exploration. PLEISTOCENE. The Pleistocene deposits consist of hori- ontal or slightly inclined calcareous tuffs, marls and clays, which are often completely filled with Drcissensia poh'inorpha. The deposits vary in their inter-relationship and arrange- ment, in almost all exposures, in which they are shown (Melask- ert, Khinis, Erzerum, Pasin, Erivan). \\'here the base of the series is visible it is represented by conglomerate with rocks such as Vivipara vivipara, Valvata piscinalis, Rissoa, Planorbis, derived from the neighborhood and contains numerous shells, ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 71 Weritina, Bythinia, Melanopsis, Unio tmnidii^s, Anadonta, and Sphaerium, as obtained from various known localities. The brackish water deposit with Cardium catillus is found in the Lori plain (Somkatian) and that with C. ovatum at Melik- sherif in the Kelkid Valley. Recent diatomaceous earth is known from Ilija in the plain of Erzerum and at Kissatip in the Uraval Valley near Akalzik. Occasionally in the Dreissenia beds, mammals (Elephas primigeniiis) appear, for example, at Alexandropol and near the junction of the Lori and Debeda. Elephas armeniacus is found at Khinis. The Dreissensia beds are invariably either covered over or interbedded with recent lavas and tuffs ; even today there are present the remnants of the ancient lakes either fresh-water, like the Gokcha, Chaldir, Toporaran Tortum, Bulama and Nazik or more or less of saUne content as Van, Chosapin, Gojik (with borax), and further the small soda lakes southeastward from Ararat and the Lake Urmi in Persia. The lakes of Gori and Goleh have dried out in historic times. Shrinking of the lakes is often recognizable through old shore lines ; as, for example, those observed by Oswald, on the south cast of Lake at 15, 40, and 100 metrs in length and farther in long parallel terraces of Pasin northward from Hassankala and those of the Olti be- ween Nariman and Id. In the border ranges, the recent beds are covered by the travertine from lime and iron springs ; for example, at Hamsi and Lijera, southward from Trabizond and at Mushoma in the Pambak range. Even now deposits of calcareous tuffs are be- ing made at many springs, for example, at Gugoghlan near Bingol Mountain, Formerly it was developed on a gigantic scale, as in the Khinis plain, along the foot of the Ak Mountain and near Diadin. Undoubtedly the present wells compared with the former ones are but feeble representatives. The extraor- dinary vast masses of weathered debris in the entire Pontic range still deserve mention. GLACIAL ACTION. The former existence of glaciers on the Bingol Mountain is recognized and the evidence for them becomes amplified by ob- serving three distinct moraines which commence at about 2 to 72 MINERAL RESOURCES 3 miles from the cliffs of the cirques. The Bingol glacier must have been partially divided near its head by the long, terraced ridges which extend northwards from Karakala. On the north side of Ararat one small glacier still exists at the head of the great Akhury chasm, descending to as low as altitude of 8,000 feet — a notable fact when we consider that the line of perpetual snow on this side of Ararat is as high as 14,000 feet. On the west side of Ararat a broad ravine cuts deeply into the flanks of the Kippgol cone and is occupied by a quite imposing glacier with very blue banded ice, issuing between high moraines. In descending to the plain erratic blocks and traversed moraine-hillocks can be noticed between which are innumerable lakes. In several places lavas alternated with moraine debris. Between Igdir and Erivan may be crossed numerous moraines full of obsidian fragments. Alagoz on the north side of the great mid-Araxes depres- sion has also been the birthplace of glaciers even at the present time. Moraines were noticed also by Freeh in the valley of the northern slope of the Gokcha ranges, i. e., at Delyan. The height of Eshak Meidan also show morainic slopes. Numerous traces of glacial action in the region of Chorokh is asserted by Palgrav. According to Major Mannsell the moraines and glacial lake- lets occur on the broad Kashish Mountain (E. of Erzingan) and on the Shaitan Mountain (also about 12,000 feet) W. of Bingol. In the Taurus short glaciers are known on the Jelu. B. Anatolia. Tchihatcheff distinguishes in Anatolia two special forma- tions : — "Terrain Indetermines" and "Terrain de Transition." In all cases he uses these collective terms to designate the non- fossiliferous deposits, on account of high metamorphased and dislocated conditions of the rocks. The formation of this nature occur in Devonic, Carboniferous, Jurassic, Cretaceous and in the different stages of Tertiary. They occup very limited spaces and are found separated from one another. The rocks that are not furnished by organic remains are attached to the fossiUf- ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 73 erous deposits only by their mineralogical compositions and stratigraphical conditions. The nonfossihf erous rocks are clay slates, mica-schists and talc-schists, which abount in many points of Anatolia, especially in Anti-Taurus and in the surrounding districts of Bosphorus. At the base of this series comes the formations of granites, syenites and gneiss. The Olympus of Broussa is an intrusive granite formation in the old schists with white marbles. Follow- ing the same meridian we find a gneiss at Geordiz, Alachair on the south of Aidin, etc. A very important granite series occur between Yozgat and Nigde, on the northwest and southwest of Kaiserieh. Devonic fossils have been found in several places of Anti- Taurus and near the Bosphorus. In the south of the Sea of Marmora a zone of crystalline and schistose rocks of Paleozoic period occurs. There are several other areas of ancient rocks in the western part of Anatolia about which very little is known. Carboniferous fossils have been found in some localities in Anti-Taurus, in Eregli (Heraclea-Pontica) where they have been worked for coal. Carboniferous fossils also occur in the limestones of Balia-Maden at Mysia. Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous beds form a band south of the Sea of Marmora, probably the continuation of the Mesozoic band of the Black Sea coast. The direction of the folds of this region is from west to east, but on the border of Phrygia and Mysia they meet the northwesterly extension of the Taurus folds and bend around the ancient mass of Lydia. The lime- stones of Cretaceous age form a large part of the Taurus, the interior zone probably includes the rocks of earlier period. Cretaceous limestones and serpentine rocks take a large part in the formation of well defined mountain system running nearly parallel to the Black Sea coast from Batum to Sinope. West of the Sinope Cretaceous beds form a long strip parallel to the shore line. The deposits of the Central or Lycaonian plateau consists of fresh water marls and limestones of late Tertiary or Neogene age. Along the southeastern margin, in front of the Taurus stands a line of great volcanoes stretching from Kara-dagh to Argaeus. They are now extinct, but were probably active till 74 MINERAL RESOURCES the close of the Tertiary period. Limestones of Eocene age form a large part of the Taurus. The folding of Anti-Taurus effects the Eocene but not the Miocene, while in the Taurus the Miocene beds have been elevatd, but without much folding, to great height. Marine Eocene beds occur near the Dardanelles, but the Tertiary deposits of this part of Anatolia are mostly freshwater and belong to the upper part of the system. In western Mysia they are much disturbed but in eastern Mysia they are nearly horizontal. They are often accompanied by volcanic rocks, which are mainly andesitic and they commonly lie unconformably upon the older beds. SILURIAN. — The Silurian is reported only from the dis- trict of Bosphorus with the following fossils: Trochoceras Bar- randii, Tentaculites ornatus, Spirifer Pellico and Davonsti, Spiri- fer cristata, Orthis Gervillei and basalts, Strophomena rhom- boides and Bocci Boblayei etc. All collected by Archaic and Verneuil. DEVONIAN. — Lower Devonic beds are found in the dis- tricts of Bosphorus, formiing two isolated strips. In the littoral of Bosphorus they strike S. W. and S. E. The principal rocks of Lower Devonic formations are limestones and clay slates passing gradually into mica-schists. The mica-schists and lime- stones are equally associated with grits and sometimes with non- crystalline quartz. The Devonic beds of Anatolia look poor in fauna when it is compared with America and Europe. But, yet it is very well developed when it is compared with the fauna of Carbonic age of the Anatolia. The Devonic fauna is specially concentrated in the blue limestones of Kanlidja-Kov (Bos- phorus) where Homalonotiis Gervillei and longicaudatus, Vern; Spirifer subspeciosus; S. VerneiiUi, Murch ; ^. Triger, Vern. Orthis orbicularis, Arch.; O. Trigeri; O. Beauinonti, Vern; 0. devonica. Orb. ; Leploena, ind. ; Chonetes Boblayei, Vern. ; C. sarcinvlafa; Autopora tuboe-forwis, Goldf. ; Pleuro dyctium prob- lamaticiiim, Goldf. ; C onstinopolitanum , F. Roem, fossils are identified. Upper Devonic beds are reported from the southern littoral, between Selefke and KiHndria, and from the Anti-Taurus. The beds in Karapounar-Dagh strike N. W. ; in Tchatal-Oghlou, Karakov, Baghchejik and Yerebakan strike S. E. ; in the dis- ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 75 tricts from Feke to Hadjin, strike W. or S. W.. The prin- cipal rocks are white and blue limestones, alternating with dark schists or yellow marns. The Upper Devonic system of Anti- Taurus is similar in minrealogy and stratigraphy to the Lower Devonic of Bosphorus. Only the vertical redressment of the beds and the discordance between their elongation is more fre- quent in the Upper Devonian. The characteristic fossils found in Tchatal-Oghlou : Rynchonella Boloniensis, Orb.; Atrypa reti- cidaris, L. ; Spirifer Vemmdli, Murch. ; 5". Pellico, Arch, and Vern. ; Orthis striatida, Schlot. -jProductus subacideatus, Murch. ; CyatophyUum qnadrigemintim, Goldf.; C. cespitosum, Goldf . ; Campophylium, asiaticwn, M. Edw. and Haime. ; Favosites cer- mcornis, Blainv. ; Alveolites suhorhicidaris, Lam. ; Stromatopora polym-orpha, Goldf. The same fauna is also identified in the blue limsetones of Feke with the following extra fossils : — Spirifer Trigeri, Vern. ; 5". Seminoi, Vern. ; Chonotes nana, Vern. ; Productus Mivrchison, Kon. ; Fenestella antigua, Goldf. ; Cyoto- phyllum Marmini, M. Edw. and J. H. Favosites Tchihatcheff, J. Haime. ; F. reticulata, Blainv. ; Alveolites suboequalis, M. Edw. and J. H. ; Coenites fruticosus, Stein. In the Devonic fossiliferous rocks of the Bosphorus is found iron and copper pyrite ; in the transition system of the same age is found corondum associated with titaniferous iron, argentifer- our galena, lead, iron etc. CARBONIFEROUS. — Carboniferous beds are reported from the northern littoral of Anatolia, between Heraclea (Culm or Yordale beds) and Amasry, and from the Anti-Taurus. The Carbonic is found in the same region as the Devonic, they strike mostly S. W. and conform the. Devonic deposits of Bos- phorus and Anti-Taurus, with a direction of S. E. and N. W. The Carboniferous system of Anatola is represented by lime- stones formations and coal measures. The coal belongs to Mid- dle Carboniferous Coal measures and the limestone belongs to Lower Carboniferous Marine forwifition. These are some iso- lated members of the long chain of Carboniferous system of Europe and America. The coal and the limestones are con- centrated in the same .direction. The coal deposits are more in northern sections of Anatolia than in the southern districts. The Lower Carboniferous Marine formations are much more 76 MINERAL RESOURCES developed than the Coal Measures. This shows that the coal is rarely continued in the limestones. To the limestones of Carbonic age joins clay slates and grits in different talcous rocks, specially in great strata of mica-schists, sometimes alter- nating with one another and sametimes forming a considerable separate mass. The beds of Carbonic age are often strongly re- dressed, folded, dislocated, and disposed in the anti-clinal or synclinal series, as in Ilkas-Dagh, in the district of Yeni-Khan, along the Lake Beishehr, between Yailaji and Hadjin, etc. The Carbonic age of Anatolia is very poor in fauna and flora. From this consideration it may be said the conditions prevailed in Carbonic age has not been favorable for the de- velopment of organic life. Schlehan has identified, in the dis- trict of Amasry, the Strophomena antiquata, Strophomena acu- leata. Fischer has identified the Harmodites radians {Syringo- pora reticulata, Goldf., Syringopora catenata, J. Morris). The Strophomena antiquata, Br. (Productus semireticiilatus, Mart.) is exclusively carbonic, but the Strophomena aculeata, Br. {Pro- ductus horridus, Sow.) is probably Permian. The exploitable mineral substances are concentrated in the transition system of Carbonic age. PERMIAN. — The Permian is not known anywhere else, but in the transition system of Amasry district by the Stropho- mena aculeata, Br. and Productus horridus, Sow. fossils. TRIASSIC. — The Triassic croppings are not very well known in Anatolia. Only in the northwestern part of peninsula, this formation appears with increasing frequency towards the Eastern Alps., This fact reveals to us a sea extending from the interior of Asia over the south of Europe. It is this sea which the study of the distribution disclosed to Neumayer, and it has been named by him the "Central Mediterranean." JURASSIC. — The Jurassic is reported to form three strips situated in the southwest of Angora, in the south of Boli, and in the littoral of Paphlagonia, in the district of Amasry. All these strips are composed of limestones and marnous rocks, and the whole formation is characterized by a considerable re- dressment of beds. The predominating directions are S. W.- N. E. and N. W. -S. E. with a local oscillation from north to south. The Jurassic fossils in Anatolia are not very abundant. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA tj In the calcareous rocks of Angora district are found the frag- ments and imprints of Ammonites among which are Ammon- ites tortisulcatis, Orb., Ammonites arduennensis , Orh., Ammon- ites plicatilis, Sow., and Am,monites tarticus, Pusch. These facies are sufficient to arrange the formation of Cepha- lopodes, in the Oxfordian Stage. The absence of these facies in the Amasry formations indicates more recent stage, prob- ably Kimmeridgian or Portlandian which is comparatively poor in Ammonites. In all cases it is probable that the Jurassic for- mations of Anatolia are of same age as the formations of Crimea and European Russia where Jurassic deposits are not newer than Coral-rag, and not older than the Kelloway-rocks. CREACEOUS. — The Lowter Cretaceous beds do not exist in Anatolia. The Upper Cretaceous is rested upon the Transition. The Creaceous system of Anatolia is identified by the white and tufa chalf formations. The white chalk is very well developed in the Abdi-Pasha, Ekhty-Oghlou, Bithynia, Amasia, Pontus, Ci- licia, etc., all containing Cycloites in the vicinity of Cyclolites Cancellata. The tufa chalk is only represented by a short de- posit situated between Kizilja Punar and Heraclea formng an isolated mass in between the two white chalk formations. The Cretaceous formations extend in two directions — N. E. S. W. and N. W. The formation existing between Kizilja-Punar and Heraclea represent the oldest tufa chalk in the peninsula. Both white and tufa chalk beds have very normal physiognomy, are generally composed of white marnous limestones, horizontally stratified, and, in some regions, considerably modified by the action of eruptive rocks. The eruptive action has sometimes been anterior and sometimes posterior to chalk deposits. The metals derived from eruptive rocks are replaced by limestones. The aspects of Grauw;ake, due to the eruptive action is found in the district of Amassia and Tokat, as an equivalent to the porphyritic detritus formation of the Caucasus. The Cretaceous rocks of Anatolia are very poor in fossils. In calcareous series, associ- ated with sandstone, between Akche-Ova and Abdi-Pasha are found the following fossils: — Ammonites varians, Sow., Acmoea ind., Terebratula semiglobosa, Sow., Inoceranus Lamarkii, Sow.> Ananchytus ovata, Lamk., Pentacrinites, ind., Scyphia indeter- mined. 78 MINERAL RESOURCES Among the compact sandstones existing near Kizilja Punar the following fossils are noticed: — Tercbratula desparilis, Orb., qiiadricostatus, Sow., Pectcn ind., Inoceranus Lamarkii, Brong., Alvcolina near A. cretacea, Arch., etc. The chains of Amasia , and Tokat are characterized by Hippurites.— //!>/> irr/f^i cormt- vaccinuin. EOCENE. — The Eocene formations of Anatolia surrounding the older rocks begin with sandstones, conglomerates, and clays, which become calcareous and nummulitic upwards, and then change again to unfossiliferous sandstones and shales with sub- ordinate lacustrine beds. These strata are much disturbed and faulted and are often vertical. The deposits of this nature are wide spread, forming entirely separate and large patches in the opposite directions of the peninsula; in Mysia, Lydia on the west; in Pisidia, Lycia, Isauria and Cilicia on the south; in Paphlagdnia, Galatia and Bithynia on the north. The Eocene of this country does not seem to contain a con- siderable lacustrine deposits, all mostly being of pelagic origin. From the fades and other stratigraphic considerations the Eocene system belongs to the grand type of Aswtico Mediterranean ac- cording to Archaic. This system is characterized by the rich fauna of Rhizopodes and of the generas of Xummulites. Fos- sils : — Terebelhim conviilatum, Lmk., Corbis lamellosa, Lmk., Cardium hybridum, Desh., Lucina gigantea, Desh Ostera rari- lanella, Millev., Nummulites biaritseusis, A'liinuiulitcs perforata, Niiinmulites exponcns, Alvcolina ovoidea, Operculina grannlosa, Orbitoides dispansa. In two places in the vicinity of Angora, the gypsums and sandstones alternating with white marns contain Certhitiin Tchihatchcff and an Ostraca parisensis, in Yozgat, the sandstones, are characterized by Alveolines. The Eocene deposits look rarely intercolated directly in the Miocene, but mostly underlaid the lacustrine deposits which are probably Pliocene. OLIGOCENE. — The Oligocene is only identified in the dis- trict surrounding the Dardanelles where immediately overlying tt e Nummulitic rocks is a succession of lacustrine sandstones, cluys, and shales, interstratified with volcanic rocks and contain- ing coal seams. This formation is identified by the fossil^ «^/ira cotherium, nearly related to A. Minus as evidence of its stage. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 79 Prof. Toula, in 1895 found remains of Chrysodiiim (Fortisia) Lan::acanum. He moreover identified Sterculia Labrtisca. These plant remains occur between Kara-Dere and Boz Borum, in two marl beds, in a series of sandstones with layers of conglomerates and slaty marl, dipping- 45° north-northwestward. At Keshan a thin fossiliferous seam, contains abundant casts of Corbicula (Cyrcna) semistriata and Melanopsis afif. Mclanopsis fiisiformis, accompanied by plant impressions. From the abundance of Corbicula semistriata it is certain that the coal seams in the Dar- danelles districts is Oligocene. The Lower Tertiary volcanic rocks show a marked tendency to appear along the coast of the Eocene Sea, and in long belts fol- lowing the strike of the foldings of the Lower Tertiary strata. The wide spread late Eocene and Oligocene volcanic rocks would certainly seem to imply considerable differences in the relief of the land, at the time at which they were ejected and is difficult to reconcile this with the equally wide spread coal seams, pre- sumably requiring shallow lake or marshy country with only slight differences of level. MIOCENE. — The Miocene of Anatolia is known to exist in the districts of Cilicia, Lydia, Caria and Troad. They are de- posited in the sea bordering these regions. The rocks of Mio- cene age are white or yellow limestones (silicious, amorphous, and crystalline), conglomerates, marns, and gypsums. Rocks are horizontally disposed, and rested upon the Lower Tertiary and sometimes upon the transition. They are sometimes com- petely exposed and sometimes covered by recent lacustrine sedi- ments. The existence of the Helvetian. — Tortonian deposits between the Ponto-Caspian and Mediterranean is proposed by J. English. These are overlain by fresh water Sarmatic strata with Lignite and Naptha, successively marine Mactra Limestones, which oc- cupy nearly the whole of the northern shore of, the Sea of Mar- mora, to the exclusion of Levantine Beds suggested by ¥. Von Hochstetter, as filling up this area. These Moctra Limestones are in direct continuation with those already known in the southern Troad and in Dardanelles. At Heraclea occurs an expossure of sands and sandy limestones, with a slight southerly dip. These beds, close to the present sea level at Eregli, contain typical 8o MINERAL RESOURCES Helvetian-Tortonian fossils— P^c^en aduncus, Alectryonia Vir- leti, and Anadora diluvii, also Ostrea lamillosa. Near Myrio- phyto, on the southern shore of the Sea of Marmora, a band, full of Oistrea crassissima occurs under soft yellow sand, dipping about 45" S.-S. E. 700 feet below sea level. Heraclea and Myriophyto Lower Miocene mam shell beds, thus formed links in a chain of deposits of the same age, extending from the Crimea to the Mediterranean; they are detached fragments of a continuous sea-beds. The rocks of Sarmatic stage of the Miocene is well exposed at Evenkovi (Troad) which now known to border the western coast of Trojan Plain, beyond the mouth of the Touzla, near the promontory of Baba-Burnou. At the site of the ancient Hamaxitos, the Mactra-Kalk occurs with its characteristic fos- sils from the Acropolis. This limestone is undoubtedly marine origin. Beneath the limestone is a great thickness of sand and clay beds, which are underlain by a conglomerate and probably, at the bottom of the series, by a stratum of red clay. The con- glomerate chiefly composed of Andesites and Liperites. All or- ganic remains indicates that the strata belong to the Sarmatic stage. The marine beds which overlie the Mactra-Kalk are largely developed south of the mouth of the Touzla, and contain great number of fossils, among which are many Ostreae and Gastro- pods. The fresh water series occupies a large part of the in- terior of the Troad, about the great plain of Mendere, between Eanedeh and Bairarmitch, as well as along the southern coast, west of Papazly. According to Prof. Neumayer it must be Upper Miocene, Mio-Pliocene or Lower Pliocene, from the de- terminations of fossils. Numerous oscillation of the land, as indicated by the varying character of strata, must have occurred during the Miocene and Pliocene periods. In all probability these movements were connected with the extrusion of the erup- tive rocks so abjandant in the region. Middle Tertiary has been an epoch of the formation of salt beds which are very abundant in Anatolia. Most of Miocene formation are pelagic origin containing in general — Cerithium ■modosoplicatiivi, Horn., Fragilia fragilis, L., Cardimn plicatum, Eichw. (C gracile, Pusch.) and Cardimn obselatum, Eichw C. protractum, id., C. lithopodolicum, Dub.). Among these the ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 8i last two are the characteristic evidence of Sarmatic stage. PLIOCENE. — Past Sarmatic eastward extension of the cen- tral fold of Tertiary rock resulted in the upheaval of the Dahan- Aslan and Serian-Tepe ridge in the district surrounding the Dardanelles. This upheaval closed the connection between the Marmora basin and the Gulf of Xeros, by the formation of a dam, which though much weathered down, is still i8o ft. above the present water level. The dam thus formed was the proxi- mite cause of the cutting of the Bosphorus and of drainage of Marmora into the Black Sea, during Pliocene times. The con- glomerate rocks, upon which Gahpoli is built, consists in great part of shells of Didacua crossa, Dreissensia Tschandae, and Dreissensia polimorpha. Prof. Andrussov considers the Galli- poli conglomerate to be the equivalent of the Tchandas beds at Kertch, containing Dreissensia polytnorpha, Dreissensia Tchau- dae, Cardiuni cros^suni, Cardium Casecal and Cardium Tchau- dae, which he shows to be an Upper Pliocene fauna of Caspian type, deposited in an enclosed brackish lake before the Dardan- elles were in existence. In general the Pliocne marine and lacus- trine deposits of Anatolia are found in the Constantinople district, in the regions surrounding the Dardanelles in the littoral of Sinope, in the Meandre Valley and in the Melik-Sherif district with Cardium edule, Cardium protractum, Cardium. Ovatum, Desh. Cardium gracile, and Mactra deltoides near the Mactra trianffula, from which Cardium edule and Mactra triangula are the best characteristic fossils of the Pliocene age. PLEISTOCENE. — In several places along the shore line of the Sea of Marmora is found a loamy clay surface deposits, containing scattered shells of Mediterranean fades, at the heights from lo-ioo feet above the water. On the top of a law-coast- diff west of Gallipoli, there has been found a deposit of sand with Ostrea edulis, Osilium ttwhinatis, Gibbula adriatic and Gih- bula Biasolleti at about 40 feet above the sea level. About a mile further west, on top of a cHff 90 100 feet high, formed of Sarmatic clay and marley limestone, is found a scattered sur- face deposits of Cerastodenna edule, Pullastra pullaistra, Tapes of. Dianae, Murex truncuhis, Murex Brandaris, Cerithium vulga- turi, Loripes lactens; and Petricola lithophya, Didacna crossa and Dreissensia polymorpha were also found probably derived 82 MINERAL RESOURCES from Gallipoli conglomerates. GLACIAL PERIOD. — The Glacial aation has been proved in this classic country by the existence of a considerable num- ber of lacustrine lakes and by the striated angular boulders in the red loamy clays, dug in Roumeli-Hissar (Constantinople). Calvert has also found boulders and clays in the Dardanelles Valley, apparently distributed along an old beach from the foot of Kemel to the Five Pines, also large blocks of quartz, some of them situated in the ancient river-gravels of Rhodius 50-60 feet above the present level. This quartz block must have come from the auriferous reef at Astyra, about 12 miles distant to the east-southeast. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY. Too little is known at the present time concerning the strati- graphic position of the pre-Devonian metamorphic schists. So that we cannot assign the period of the foldings. Until it is more definitely known we can assume that the S. W.-N. E. ex- tending folds, in the crystalline schist of Taurus, in the marbles and schists of the Kisilja Mountain, Shatin Mountai|i, Akh Mountain and of Dersim in the centre of the plateau, as well as those in the smaller outcrops of metamorphic rocks, in the northern and eastern border ranges, in Artvin and Ardanush Valley in the Pontic Region, in the Meschic horst, in Somkatian Mountains, in the region of Daralagoz and the Karabagh were caused by the Caladonic Mountain building. In all these regions northeastern-southwestern strikes are universal. It appears that the land surface has been broken into separate blocks after folding, which for the most part sank down at the base of the geosyncline of the Devonic Sea. The Devonian is at present known only from eastern Ar- menia ; but the sea of this period evidently stretched on in- terruptedly toward the westward into Asia Minor, for in Araxes Channel and in Antitaurus the succession of formations and the facies of the Middle and Upper Devonic are identical. The calceola limestone following upon sandstones and the conglom- erates are evidences of the transgression of the Devonic Sea which soon developed such a rich coral and Brachiopod fauna. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA , 83 With the end of the Devonic no aUeration occurred in the physical relationship. Without interruption the coralline lime- stones continued until the Middle of the Upper Carbonic (Mos- cow formation). At this time the sea became more shallow as may be inferred from, the appearance of Fusilinas, Bryozoas, and Calcareous aglae. At the end of this period, according to Freeh, a strong folding took place running through N. W.-S. E. di- rection. According to Bonnet no folding took place in Armenia at this time. And the Permo-Triassic lies wholly concordantly upon the preceding beds even implying a deepening of the sea. Shales of the Upper Permic and the Lower Triassic are known only from the region of Julfa, on the Araxes and the Kasanyaila Mountain. We have to do here, probably, with sedimentation in an eastern gulf of that sea which stretches from the Indian salt chain through Persia, entering then into Armenia under the dominion of a period with contniental con- ditions. Probably it stood in close connection or relation with the old Pontic tableland which at some time formed a half island of the western arctic peninsula. Also at this time the Central Caucasus was raised ; for there Liassic shales lie dis- cordantly over Palaeozoic shales with the Calamites and Syringo- dendron. Recently the existence of the Triassic sea in the Crimea western Caucasus and in Western Anatolia have been proved. Crustal movements continued through Post-Triassic time, but the Julfa bed of Araxes region and of the northern Persia only show flaxures. Armenia seems to have remained a part of a stableland whose eastern coast was washed by the Liassic and Dogger Sea, which towards Persia became deeper. Only the eastern border of Armenia seems to have been touched by the transgression known from Dobrusha and Mangishlak, which spread from Bajocian to *he Callovian epoch. Remains of the plants and the elastic character of the Bajocian sediments points to the close proximity of the coast. After a small regression in the Oxf ordian and Sequanish the Kimmeridgian transgression started strongly in the region of Karabagh as well as Debrusha and Libanan. In the eastern part of Armenia clear proofs of Tithonian regressions are found and in one region which ex- tends from the Meschic horst southward to eastern Karabagh, 84 MINERAL RESOURCES began a pre-Tithonian folding from the south, which preceded the volcanic activity. And as a result of this folding a large part of Armenia and of Caucasus rose up over the sea level. The fresh water deposit of the Purbeck, and the brown coal beds of Migri (western Karabagh) prove the dominance of con- tiental conditions. In the eastern border range there exists a pronounced gap between the Kimmeridgian and the lower Cretacic. This regres- sion is continued still longer in the region of Lake Urmi, where Callovian overlain by the Hauterivian tuff. The broad transgression of the Middle Cretacic makes itself felt also in Armenia. At Gerjer, just south from Jufa, on the Araxes lies a carbonic. The Cenomanian (Caprotinen) limestones of the eastern border range which agrees with the Mediterranean are separated from the north Armenia. In Caucasian and Pontic Cenomanian limestones the central European facies dominates. The facial difference of the two regions holds also in the Upper Cretacic. At the east of the Urgonian they seem to have been separated by a neck of land. This extended over the Somkatian Mountain range, which still to-day consists partly of crystalline schist, which except in the Valley of Bolnis, where they are overlain only by Hippurites, limestones, are covered by no younger sediments. Further to the south in the Pambak and Gotcha ranges another part of the shale continent had remained stable until it was flooded by the Turonian sea. In the Turonian still existed the Somkatian land barrier as facies limit. Turanian Hippurites limestones stretched with interruption from Karabagh along the cliff of Shatin Mountain to the Frat. These Hippurites are found as recently shown also in the northern slope of the Pontic Range and of the Taurus. During the Cenonian there seems in oppos- ition to this, i. e., to have existed extending west and south of land somewhere from Batum to Ararat, for littoral sediments with the detritus of syncroneous volcanoes are found along the eastern border of this zone. Southward from Batum there cannot have been land; for on the northern slope of the Pontic range there is Cenonian, which is lacking, however, southward of this range to the northern border of the Taurus, where the Med- iterranean Hippurites facies of the Cenonian is well known. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 85 The upper Cenonian of Eastern Karabagh shows that the sea toward the northeast to Daghistan became deeper. Be- cause of the general clastic character of the lower Eocene in the north, northeast and south and its content of brown coal, it is more than probable that at the beginning of the Tertiary most of Central Armenia was land. The red sandstones and con- glomerates are plainly products of weathering of a land, long exposed above sea-level, along the borders of which coals de- veloped in delta marshes. The negative movement agrees with that of the regression, which is so characteristic for the geosyn- clinal zone, the Alpine region. Beginning at this time during the course of Tertiary, Armenia became from a continental region or region on the border of a geosynclinal zone extending from Europe to Asia. The beds beginning with Numimulites perforatus, typical for the Middle Eocene of the Alpine, geosyn- clines are noticeable in the Tigris basin and in the Zagros Chain. The above named beds lie mostly upon Turonian, in places even on palaeozoics, and began with great red colored conglom- erates. Their fauna is very rich. The sea in which they were deposited was warm and favorable for the development of num- erous and manifold Nummuliths. In the Pontic region the vol- canic activity which had begun in the Cretaceous with the form- ation of rhyolites and dacites reached its maximum in the Eocene. Lava streams of hornblende and augite-andesites ba- salt and the tuffs of these spread over the sea bottom. The thin limestone banks interbedded with the volcanic rocks are poor in fuana because of the unfavorable conditions of animal growth. During the Upper Eocene the Antitauric folding was evident in South Armenia and in the Karabagh, so that an ex- tensive part of the Armenia again became main land. The Flysch facies of the Upper Eocene, with fish scales and activity is exhibited strongly in the north (Akalzik and Kur basin) and less distinctly in the west Karabagh. Between Hip- sala and Kisbeli these Flysch facies appear again in the outer- most part of West Armenia. In the beginning of the Oligocene the old Somketian land bar region was widespread. It completely separates the Caucasian sea, with its central European and Arabian character (Akalzik basin) from the coral limes of the Daralagoz, with its Castel- 86 MINERAL RESOURCES Gomiberto facies extending into Persia. Littoral aqueous de- posits and land plants' have been discovered on the border of the Armenian land of that time at Argachi (Northw^est of Ararat) and at Platana on the Black Sea. They show relation to the Cilician Oligocene with Sotska facies. The post-Oligocene folding which appears in the Cilicia also raised the Oligocene region of the North Armenia, but does not seem to have influ- enced the coral line of Daralagoz which is overlain conformably by Lower Eocene. The Miocene of Armenia begins in general with a coarse conglomerate which shows a most widespread transgression in this region. The Palaoezoic plateau of Urmi and Maku (south- west of Ararat) which were dry during the Mesozoic sank into the Miocene Mediterranean, the north coast of which extends in littoral detritus at the foot of the Neocomian heights along the north of the Frat of Sipikor (norh or Ersinjan) to the east through Kop Mountain. The purity shown by the Miocene (Plelvetian and Tortorian) coral and Lithothamnian lime, is over. And the lack of fiaviatile deposit indicates that the Anti- tauric folding had almost been worn to a peneplain. The de- trital deposits of the Upper Eocene and Oligocene were derived from the energetic denudation in the region of this land. Immediately after the Lower Tortonian a period of folding began, syncronous with that of the Alpine which laid the Mio- cene chalks into folds. The character of the folding was various in different parts of the land while the Miocene at Bayazid in the west at Arabkir and Kisheli, it is still horizontal. In the latter case the lack of folding can be attributed to the great resistance of the old mass. Further west, the Miocene limestones massed between the -Tauric horst and the Syrian plateau, again show folding, as at Killis, Argona and Mardin. At the same time in this Middle Miocene there were mighty intrusions of ultra-basalt rocks which for the greater part have been serpen- tinized. In the Sarmatian epoch a continuous aridity followed and desert conditions prevailed. Then the formation of red sand- stone and conglomerate (often from serpentine components) and of clays (often with great gypsum and rock salt veins) ended. Then fresh-water conditions began; for example at ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 87 Khoi and Tabris in Persia. The folding continued during this heterogenous Sarmatian epoch. Abich has observed two breaks in this series at Khoi. Beds of this age extended in a broad zone through northern and southern Armenia. In the south the "gypsum" bearing series forms a border at the Zagros and Taurus, in the north of the Sarmatian formation stretches from the northern border chain to the Caucasus and from the Black to Caspian sea. While the beds thrown southward on the south- ern slopes of Caucasus are overturned toward the north in the Thrialetic chain. Between these two regions in the Mechic horst they lie horizontal and undisturbed. After this epoch there is no more folding in Armenia. The Middle PHocene, lacustnrie tufifs of Maragha and Alexandropol lie horizontal with their interesting vertebrate faunas. The continuous elevation of the land gave the Armenian highland their plateau character in the end and were accompanied by shattering, raising and sinking of great blocks. These processes began in the lower Pliocene. It is shown by the forceful earth- quakes in the graben that it has not come to an end. The Pleistocene sea deposits are widespread in the Central plateau. The shells of Dreissensia polymarpha are often found forming beds. These late formations also show no faulting but lie rather horizontal or with a dip of 2-3 degrees. They are in great measure covered by lava sheets which have either been ex- tended from fissures or have been poured from colossal vol- canoes (Ararat, Alagoz, Sipan, Nimrud, Samsar, etc.) and smaller pistules arranged in rows (Soganly, Alaja, etc.) The still existing great lakes are partly salt (Lake Chpsapin) partly fresh (Gokcha and Chaldir). Absence of Dreissensia polymor- pha suggests that there has been a change in physical conditions, as already ascertained. The last voncanic eruption of the Nim- rud was in 1441. Tendurek is still in solphatara condition. 2. Anatolia No obsevations have yet been made to accertain the Primary (Pre-Devonic) formations of Anatolia. Although the old gneiss and granite series admitted to be formed before the Transition, but, yet, in same places, specially in Lycaonia and Galatia, the granites reveal a comparatively recent origin ; and some gneissic 88 MINERAL RESOURCES rocks, specilly developed in western Anatolia, pass gradually into clay slates and calcareous rocks characterized by Devonic fossils. During the long period of Transition only five fossiliferous islets had been formed in Anatolia. Of these three belonging to Devonian are known to exist to-day in the districts of Bos- phorus. Southern Cilicia, and Anti Tourus. These three insular groups, being emerged during the Devonian, have all gone through the subsequent periods, while the non-fossiliferous beds belonging to "Terrain de Transition Inditermines," have never been lifted until Middle Tertiary. The Devonic beds are often disturbed and they exhibit peculiar stratigraphic divergencies. They are characterized by the sa:me paleontological richness and variety as the European and Amer- ican formations. But, meanwhile the Devonic system of Anatolia should not be considered poor either in fauna or flora. Various species of Crustaceans, Moluscs, Bryazoas, Annelids, Radiarians and Polyps Abound in these districts. From the five islets formed du.ring the Transition, the last two belongs to Carboniferous which are known to exist to-day in Anti Taurus and in the littoral of Black Sea. These islets being also emerged during the Devonian, have gone through the sub- sequent periods. Carboniferous beds are also often disturbed and they show the same peculiar stratigraphic divergeneus. But Carboniferous system of Anatolia is very poor in fauna and flora ; the pelagic conditions and volcanic activities during this period have been inimical for the development of organc life. From the Carboniferous to the Middle Jurassic, Anatolia is represented only by the islets of "Terrain de Transition," because, these islets show very slight vestiges of the Permian, Triassic and Lower Jurassic deposits. During the Middle Jurassic Anatolia has recevied some representative locations and has developed the stage of Oxfordian directly upon the Transition system. The Jurassic and Cretaceous formations are, same way, im- perfectly developed in Anatolia. The Cretacjeou^ period is identified by white and tufa chalk formations. The beds show a great variety, from the normal disposition to the most violent redressment. This phenomena is due to the eruptive actions of serpentine, trachyte, pyroxene and porphyry. Igneous activity is ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 89 much more pronounced in this period and dislocated the beds all the way through the Devonic, Carboniferous and Jurassic. The most characteristic Cretaceous formations are found to day in the littoral of Black Sea. Since the upheaval of this littoral band, it is not subjected to immersion of any long duration, and in no point it is covered by the sediments of any subsequent periods. From this point of view, during the Cretaceous, the Black Sea, without any communication with Mediterranean Sea, was occupying an immense area, extending up to Baltic Sea in cross of Podolia, Volhynia, and eastern Prussia on the north. Lake Aral on the east, and Asia Minor on the south. According to Prof. Oscar Fraa's observations in Syria, the Cretaceous mountains surrounding the littoral, have never been subjected to immersion after their upheaval. So that, certain points in northern Asia Minor, had already drawn limit, since the Cre- taceous, on the southern littoral of the Black Sea. Same way the eastern borders of the Mediterranean was already marked by certain mountain chains on the Syrian coast, at this time. The eminently insular character which Anatolia conserved up to the formation of chalk, never disappeared until Lower Ter- tiary. At this time the Cretaceous band of northern littoral with many islands of Transition, had been disseminated upon the sur- . face of the peninsula and connected with vast deposits of Lower Tertiary of eastern Europe. These European deposits are dis- tinguished from the type of "Asiatico-Mediterranean" by its well developed facies of Rhizopodes, through which Asia Minor is to-day, considered as a classic country of Nummulites. Another system, entirely independent from the Tertiary fos- siliferous rocks and entirely barren of organic trace, has been distinctly overlaid by the Nummulitic group. This is the Upper Stage. The most part of the Lower Tertiary of Anatolia have never been subjected tO' immersion, after its upheaval. Because the majority of the recent formations are exposed, represent in- dej>ent deposits, and are placed in considerable distances from the formers. B}'- the upheaval of Eocene deposits one great part of the Black Sea was lost in the directions of north-west-north and north. In this way it was separated from the Baltic Sea by the emersion of eastern Prussia, and a numerous insular groups ex- 90 MINERAL RESOURCES tended in the southern regions of this sea. These were connected with vast continental surface, hke the government of Poltava, Voroneje, Tombof, Penza, etc. So that, after the emersion of the LowerTertiary deposits, the Black Sea resumed the granitic steppe comprised between the Bong, Dnieper and the coal basin of Donetz. But, the southern, western and eastern limits of this sea have not submitted to a notable modification. After the up- heaval of Eeocene deposits, the Black Sea was same way cut off from all communication with the Mediterranean. The Crimea was only existing in a narrow band, rising up as an island, and was connected with the waters of Caspian Sea and the Lake Aral, at the middle of which now, stands up the insular mass of Cau- casus. The Middle Tertiary of AnatoHa is represented by the Num- mulitic side of the Miocene Sea. The upheaval of this sediments is sometimes operated very slowly, as it may be seen by the vast Miocene deposits of Cilician littoral, and sometimes very violent- ly, specially in the vicinity of eruptive rocks. The period of Miocene has been the time of rock-salt forma- tion which occur extensively in Anatolia, specially in the Lyca- onian plateau. The majority of these deposits are of pelagic ori- gin. Miocene beds, either marine or lacustrine, are poor in fauna and flora. The large continental mass that Asia Minor possessed during this period was imfavbrable for the development of or- ganic life. At this period, Anatolia was separated from the Greece but the Cyprus island was yet forming a junction with the Cilicia. This was sunken during Pliocene and reappeared in the Quartei-nary. A numerous debris of Quarternary fauna is found in Cyprus island without any trace of its separation from the Cilician littoral. During Miocene the Black Sea acquired a considerable exten- sion on the north. This extension submitted to a diminition of the eastern regions. After the emersion of an insular mass, the plateau of Ust-Urt, this region separated in two basins, which are to-day called, the Caspian and Aral. The emersion of this island accompanied with a depression of the surrounding coun- tries, resulting in the grand Touranian Depression and constitut- ing the tract of Asiatic Continnent. Sarmatian Sea lost one part of its salinity during Pliacene. In ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 91 different modification of its size it was connected into a estuary basin, where Aralo Caspian type of deposits overlaid upon the Sarmatian. The northern side of Asia Minor continued marking the southern littoral by a vast sheet of brackish water, which penetrated into Eagean Sea and left many traces of its sojourn on the western littoral of the penunsula. During the epoch of Aralo-Caspian, the formation of the !^osphorus and the Dar- danelles took place through which the waters of Aralo- Caspian penetrated intoEagean Sea. The limit of soutern littoral of Propontus was already drawn since Lower Teriary and Transition. But the Black Sea had not yet received its northern limit, which appeared after the emer- sion of Southern Russia with characteristic Aralo-Caspian de- posits. Probably the emersian of this side accompanied with many movements of oscillation and resulted in the remarkable redressment of the beds of dififerent regions of which the Crimea was composed. During the last phases of pliocene period, Asia Minor had re- ceived most of its littoral outlines which possess to-day. But the interior of the peninsula was covered by locustrine basins. So the fresh water sediments were predominating in Pliocene. On ac- count of trachytic eruption in the Pliocene a great number of species of marine molluscs are perished in Anatolia. The pul- verulent ejections of this eruptive rocks resulted in an enormous beds of tufifs, known as Diatomaceous forhiation. ERUPTIVE ROCKS. Ultra-B.\sic. Harzburgite. Tauric region (Lake Van), Chorokh zone (Kop Mountain), Central Plateau (Elmalidere, Palandoken, Gugoghlan). Lherzolite. Gokcha region (Karaman, Katch Bulack), Cho- rokh zone (Kop Mountain), Central plateau (Khinis Bastok Val- ley; Alimur). Limburgite. West Karabagh. Basic. Hypersthene — Gabbro; Gokcha region (Karaman, Sarialpas). Hyperstene — Olivine — Gabbro: Central plateau (Elmali-de^ reh). Diabase: Gokcha region (Beikaraman) ; Ea.st Karabagh 92 MINERAL RESOURCES (Chirchan, Shalapli), West Karabagh (Katar), Central Plateau (Elmalidere). Quartz-diabase: Gokcha region (Sarialpas, Kabagtepa). Bronzite-diabase : East Karabagh (Shalapli). Hornblende-diabase: Thrialitic region (Arjevan Mts.) West Karabagh (Migri), Chorokh zone (Sipikor), Central plateau (Palandoken, Shatin Mt.). Olivine-diabase : Thrialitic region (Keilissi, Koshkaro), (Kiavturatal, Gujarettal), Gokcha region, Murov Mt. Khatch Bulak) ;East Karabagh (Dumy, Karadagly) ; Central Karabagh (Basarkent, Algok, West Karabagh (Dorseli, Askelun, Purunti) ; Central plateau (Dorseli, Askelun purunti) ; Central plateau (palandoken, Jermik, Sivan). (a) With ophitic augite. East Karabagh (Shusha, Jamiat) Chasi, Akhbulakh), Central plateau (Akhalkalaki, ElmaUdereh, Muradtal). (b) With subophitic augite; Somkatian region (Akhtala, Algettal), Gokcha region (Maral Mt.), Central Karabagh (Ka- ragol). Central plateau (Akhalkalak, Shubaret, Ani, Palandoken Pasin, Muradtal). Olivine-Basalt with Granular-Augite. (a) Olivine basalt. Pontic region (Kurele) ; Thrialitic re- gion (Borjom) ; Central Karabagh (Shipkergol) ; Central plateau (Muradtal- Bularik), Bingol plateau (Bastok Valley, Gugoghlan near Gumgum). (b) OlivineBronzite-Basalt. Central Karabagh (Gerjusi), Central plateau (Khartmir). (c) Olivine-Hornblende-Basalt. Central Karabagh (Gerjusi), Central plateau (Khamur). (d) Andesitic-Olivine-Basalt: Imeritic region (Sikari), Thrialitic regon (KentzikJaro near Tiflis), Central plateau (Palan- doken, Deveh Boyun). Bingol plateau (Tandurek, Tutakh). Olivine-Basalt-Tuff. Imeritic region. (Abastuman) Thriali- tic region (Kentzikaro) ; Central plateau (Bingol plateau, Sheikh- Orakratar). Alkaline basalt : (a) Leucite Tephrite. Pontic Region (Trebisond). (b) Nepheline Tephrite. Central Karabagh (Gerjusy). (c) Sodalite Basalt. Thrialitic region (Sanislo). ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 93 Medium Acidic. Quartz-Mica Diorite : Pontic region (Meir- imandereh (Asforos Valley), Gokcha region (Maratal), West Karabagh (near Migri, Aldara), Chorokh zone (Golviren, Kho- shabpunar), Central plateau (near Gopal). Quartz-Mica-Augite-Diorite ; Pontic Region (Meserch, Ka- sikli), Gokcha region (Agalagan Mt. Syzismadini, Ulutram Shamkhortal), West Karabagh (near Migri), Daralogoz zone (near Karmir Vank), Central plateau (Tunus). Augite-Diorite : West Karabagh (Aldara). Mica' Porphyrite: Pontic region (near; Hamiskoi-Esselji), Gokcha region (Gokcha Mt.) West Karabagh (Chundurtal). Hornblende Porphyrite: Pontic region (Asfaros Valley), Somkatian region (Lialvar Mt.), East Karabagh Agjeken, West Karabagh (Njuvadi). Horrft)lende'-Pyroxene-Porphyrite : Pontic Region (Ardasa Bashkilissa, Ostuk, Kesishkoi) ; Pambak region (Akta in San- gatal). Pyroxene-porphyhite :Pontic» region (near Khertvis), Som- katian (Usunlar, Debedatal), East Karabagh (Dumi), Central Karabagh (Tatev, West Karabagh (Airy Mt. Katar), Central plateau (Tunus, Sor, Adeljivas). Feldspar Porphyrite: Somkatian region (Akhtala), Gokcha region (Gokcha Mt.), West Karabagh (Katar). Mica Andesite : Central plateau (Bingol Plateau). Hornblende Andesite: Pontic region (Trebizond Meirimande- reh), Gokcha region (Zinjirli Mt.), Central Karabagh (near Hassan Kala near Kharassan). Tuff: Pontic region (Ali Meser), Thrialitic region and Gok- cha region. Pyroxene Andesite: Pontic region, Imeritic region, (Okus Mt.), Thrialitic region (Kumis Borjom), East Karabagh (Ger- gir), Central Karabagh (near Basarkent), Central Plateau (Lori, Ararat, Takjaltu, Soganli, Palandoken, Eyerli, Madrak, Bingol Mt., Alimur Sipan, Lake Nazik). Tuflf : Pontic region (Mesereh Khan, Central plateau (Ararat, Arguri). Basic Augite Andesite : Pontic region (Esseli Riseh, Batum, etc.), Imeritian (Abestuman), Thrialitic (Khertvis, Aspinsi, Bor- jom, etc.) ; Somkatian (Lok) ; Gokcha (Lake Gokcha) ; Central 94 MINERAL RESOURCES Karabagh (Tatev, etc.) West Karabagh (Katar) ; Central plateau (Soganli, Kars, Armutli, Tandurek, Dumli Palandoken etc.). Tuff: Imeritian, Thrialitic, Somkatic (Lok), Gokcha (Tog- laja) ; East Karabagh, Central Karabagh (Central Karabagh (Sabukh), Central plateau (Palandoken). Acidic-Augite Andesite : Central Plateau (Kisvag). Augite-Trachyte : Thrialitic region (Beden), Central plateau, (Palandoken, Nimrud, etc.) PyroxeneTrachyte : Central plateau (Samsar, Karmush). Hornblende Trachyte: West Karabagh (Chundur), Central plateau (Samsar). Phonolite: Daralagoz zone (Garni). Acidic. Muscovite Granite: Central plateau (Chermigan in, Pasin). Granitite: Pontic region (Meirimandereh), Somkatian region (Lok), West Karabagh (near Sadarak) ; Central plateau (near Gopal). Hornblende Granite: Pontic region (near Ardasa), West Karabagh (near Ordabad). Pyroxene-granite: Gokcha region (Dashkessan). Homblende-Granite-Porphyry : West Karabagh (Kapujik). Quartz Porphyry : Thrialitic region, Somkatian region, West Karabagh (Airy Mt., Katar). Felsitic Porphyry: Somkatic region (Karagaya) ; Gokcha re- gion (Khatch bulak). Rhyolite : Thrialitic region (Beden), Gokcha region, East Ka- rabagh; \Yest Karabagh; Central plateau (Kars, Kharput, Po- landoken ) . Tuff : Pontic region, Thrialitic region Somkatian region, Gok- cha region. Dasite : Pontic region, Gokcha region. East Karabagh, Central Karabagh, ^^'est Karabagh, Central plateau (Polandoken). Anatolia. Eruptive rocks of Anatolia occupy a considerable area which in no other countries could probably be seen at the same pro- portion. Among those trachytes, diorites and pyroxene- por- phyries come first; syenites, granites, serpentines and diorites ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 95 come second, basalts and eurites occupy the third place in im- portance. The trachytes represent a particular agglomeration in the west- ern part of the peninsula covering the whole western littoral. This series goes under the Eagean and reappears again forming trachytic islands as Santorin. The trachyte of Anatolia is por- ous and rich in oligoclase and vitreous feldspar, as the trachytes of Cape Karabouroun, Smyrna, Afion-Karabissar, Mount Arge- aus, Nevshehr, Nigde, Karadagh, etc. The trachytes of Anatoia exhibit a remarkable phenomena in its topographical distribution having been frequently associated with saline lakes. The vast group of trachyte of Mount Arge- aus is not only situated in the vicinity of Touz-Geullu, but it occupies a lake of this nature in its ancient home since the Jivah Geul came into existence at the southern foot of Argeaus. The trachyte cone of Karabounar, is very remarkable by its crater, rising in the middle of a depression covered by the masses of salt. The trachytes of Anatolia belong to different ages and the dura- tion looks to be from Cretaceous to Upper Tertiary, or per- haps to Upper Quartemary. The trachytes in the regions be- tween Heraclea and Bartan, and between Angora and Mourtad- Sou valley are posterior to Cretaceous ; but the trachytes found between Kysbeli and Hipsala, between Bolat and Gune and in the valley of Kastamouni are anterior to Eocene. They are sometimes before and sometimjes after the Upper Tertiary la- custrine deposits. Trachytes of Elma-Dagh are before, but the trachytes existing in the vicinity of Smyrna, between the Kebsid and Bagaditch, and in the districts of Kalburdji, etc., are after the Upper Tertiary lacustrine deposits. The dolerites are very intimately related to the trachytes and pass in one another; as in the regions between Niksar and Sele- yailasi, in Koili Hissar, in Samson, in Ala-Dagh, between Moon- doorlu, and in the valley of Alan Sou. The dolerites comprise also same periods beginning from Cretaceous up to Upper Ter- tiary. The dolerites during Creaceous have disturbed the de- posits of Amasia district. They are decidedly anterior to the nummulitic deposits of Samson, to the Miocene deposits of the regions comprised between the Hipsala and Tokat, and to the 96 MINERAL RESOURCES Upper Tertiary lacustrine deposits of Beibazar Valley. The dolerites together with the trachytes and basalts have ef- fected the rupture of Bosphorus by only one stroke. The nature of eruptive rocks spread over this region, reveals an alternative phase of repose and activity from Lower to Upper Tertiary. Pyroxene-Porphyries occur particularly in the eastern part of Anatolia in intimate relation with the syenites and granites which have disturbed the Lower Tertiary deposits. Syenites and granites pass frequently in one another. They are only distinguished mineralogically from each other. Syenite is very extensive in Anatolia. In many points of the country both eruptives are posterior to the Lower Tertiary as the re- gions comprised between Alizy and Yozgat, where it forms veins traversing the calcareous rocks, in the Bereketli Maden, Utch- Kapou-Dagh, Ak-Dagh-Maden, and between Ala-shehr and Yoz- gat, etc. The case is same for the majority of the massive syen- ites surrounding the northeastern border of grand saline dis- trict of Lyaconia. The serpentine rocks occupy only a subordinate position be- tween the other eruptives of Anatolia. Serpentine contains more or less dialage sometimes pikrolith, bronzite, saussurite, etc. Serpentines with dialage are noticed by Tchihatchefif, in the Kor- kom-Sou, and a link of Hypersthenite in the Geuk-Sou district. In the district of Beldjeis the serpentine rocks are porous and undulated on the surface. The calcareous rocks between Ged- jik and Dalaman are subjected to an appreciable modification in contact with the serpentine. The serpentines in the district of Angora form the current itself, while near the Amasia it is intimately associated with the dolerites of Souslou-Ova. The thermal sources of Troad, and igneous phenomena of Lycia have their home in the serpentine. The stratigraphic action of serpentine upon the sedimentary rocks has very ostensible in Lycia, Pisidia, Aratch (Paphlagon- ia), in dislocating violently the Lower Tertiary stratified forma- tions. The eruption of serpentine have taken place in different inter- vals of time, because alternating activity and repose are noticed in some places. The deposits of Araratch valley is posterior, and the deposits of Kastamounai valley little further, is an- ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 97 terior to Eocene. Same way in the southern Pontus, between Kysbeli and Hipsala, between Hipsala and Khamourli, the ser- pentine eruption precedes not only the Lower Tertiary, but also the Cretaceous, as in the valley of Euphrates. The rest is probably anterior to the Miocene deposits with a few excep- tions, as in Lycia and Khorzoun. The serpentine of Hadjiman-Yaila is rich in the minerals of iron and copper. In the serpentines found in the vicinity of Boulgar-Dagh exists a deposit of oligiste iron, while in Lycia it contains all the mineral substances. Same way in Anti-Taurus the beds of oligiste iron and red hemitite are found in contrast with the serpentine. The serpentine eruptive rocks, among others, are recognized the most metalliferous except the syenite which is considered rich in Alunite. The trachytes, dolerites, pyroxene porphyries, eurites, basalts etc., rarely contain the usefully exploitable min- eral substances. The diorite is uniform in its minrealogic composition. It often lies with the basalt, as in Bashkoi (Argeaus), sometimes with pyroxene porphyry, as in Agatch-Bashi, and sometimes pass in the diabase as in Akserai. The diorites belong mostly to Upper Tertiary, marking often the separation of Tertiary from Quar- ternary. The Basalts in Anatolia often offer an imperceptible transition to the trachytes and dolerites, as in Argeaus, Valley of Kirmizi- Chai, in between Almous and Yousouf-Oghlou, and do not play an important role. They are anterior to the Middle Ter- tiary, as in the districts of Eschen-Kevi Gediz, and sometimes posterior, as in the Gurun, Manjoulik, etc. The eurite and the quartzose porphyry, is found often inti- mately relating to trachytes and basalts. The eurites of Ana- tolia are unfortunately situated in the middle of a system the age of which is not determined. The trachytes, dolerites, porphyries, basalts and eurites of Anatolia are sometimes poured out in elastic or pasty condition, or sometimes more or less fluid, both from craters or fissures. The most recent plutonic manifestations are , resulted in the dislocation of volcanic tuffs, the redressment of the trachytic masses posterior to their discharge, and the upheaval of many 98 MINERAL RESOURCES points of the western Thrace and AnatoHan peninsula. Actually, the volcanic tuffs of Anatolia, occupies a wide area, and evidently, related to the most remote geological epoch, con- taining the living species of lacustrine diatomaceous animals. In spite of their remote age, tuffs exhibit in the disposition of their beds, the most curious example of redressment or folding; as in the tuffs occuring between the Bergama and Dere Koi, in the districts of Guile, Bolat, Tchandarlik, Bashbouran Koi, Ezder- oun, in between the Biyad and Eski Karahissar, in the Evdjiler valley, where the tuffs alternate with compact trachytes. If the stratigraphic conditions of volcanic tuffs indicate a re- cent phenomena, the end of Tertiary or the beginning of Quar- ternary, then the same conclusion could be drawn for many trachyte eruptions existing to-day. So, the upheaval posterior to the out pouring would be attributed to the anomalous position of certain trachyte masses in the district of Symma, where the most recent masses, which repose upon the lacustrine deposits, contain Helix and Unio. PART II. NON-METALLIC MINERALS. COAL. The occurence of coal has been reported from a large number of localities. In only one instance has mining been carried on in any manner compatible with the demands of modern con- sumption. Aside from this, work has been confined to desultory attempts that were scarcely adequate to meet even the limited local requirements. In no case can technical data regarding the extent, depth or persistence of the seams be had. The present contribution will therefore be necessarily limited to an enumera- tion of the localities at which the fuel is known to exist. The well defined divisions will be adopted in the classification of the various deposits listed beow. ANATOLIA. — The north-westernmost projection of Asia Minor immediatey south-east of the Dardanelles, forms part of a district wherein lignite deposits have been worked in a num- ber of localities. The formations of this district can also be traced to the north on the adjoining European coast of the Mar- mora. The lignite beds occur mostly in Tertiary lacustrine de- posits and appear to belong to a zone of transition between the Miocene and the Pliocene. In the Aegean Sea the same grade of coal is found in the island of Mytelene as well as in the island of Lemnos, where it was mined in 1875. The best known of these deposits is worked at Manjilik. The seam outcrop here for a distance of a Km. They are operated by the owners of the nearby Balia lead mines. The product is used as fuel for an electric power-station feeding the smelters and workings. Some lignite is also found near Lampsacus, but as yet has not been mined. In the Troad, lignite is extracted near Edrimid. The fuel is transported to the seaport of Akchai where it is slacked along the water front and sold in small quantities. 100 MINERAL RESOURCES ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA loi Farther south, at a short distance from Soma, the terminal of a branch Hne from Manissa, a good quantity of this coal has been mined on a small scale. Near Panderma, at about 4 Km. from Tchamak-dagh, some exploration work was undertaken about 25 years ago in the Mesepsif Valley. The following sequence was determined in this locality. 1. A basal igneous complex, the upper zone of which consisted of a highly siliceous flint-like band of rock averaging 2.5 meters in width. 2. Thick beds of marls with which lignite seams, varying in thickness between 2 to 0.86 meters intercalated. The coal be- longs to a high grade lignitic variety. Samples of it gave the following analysis : Volatile matter 32.6% Fixed carbon 45.4% Ash 12.6% The Tertiary succession in this district is best revealed by the section afforded in the gorge of the Dovantzi river. The basal igneous is overlain by thick beds of tufa, above and lying con- formably with which, clayey marl beds occur, with lignite seams about 0.30 m. in thickness. This series underlies relatively thick strata of bituminous marls. The clay above or below the lignite-bearing strata can be easily detected by large blocks of jasper and chalcedony that stand out from its mass. West of this region, lignite outcrops are known at Demir-tash, 2 Km. north of Broussa, as well as at Ghemlik. Mining was also carried on formerly at Tchaidere near Bile- jik and at Geuy near Seuyud. The most easterly extension of this Tertiary lignite is found in the mountains environing Tchai near Afioun Karahissar. Seams have been discovered here at an altitude of 1840 meters, lying over calcareous conglomerates and capper by clay beds. The thickness of the coal attains 2 Meters. Practically every one of the above named deposits is susceptible of development in order to supply local requirements. The southwestern coast of Asia Minor with its hinterland does not appear to be devoid of coal. Seams are known near Makry 102 MINERAL RESOURCES in the foothills of the Eljikdagh Mountain. In the province of Smyrna, lignite beds exist at Gulhissar Milas, Sokia, Aidin, Kiosk, Nazilli, Scala Nuova and Keramos. The Sokia and Na- zilli beds have been developed for local use. The Heraclea coal-field is at present the best developed in Anatolia (See figure). It occupies a belt of about 60 Km. in length along the Asiatic coast of the Black Sea between the sea- ports of Heraclea and Filios. The Town of Heraclea itself lies at a distance of 135 nautical miles from Constantinople. The coal-beds outcrop near the coast and are known to extend farther than the 8 km. inland. It is believed, however, that they strike The Heraclea Ccnl Field A ^^^ ^ j^^^ ^!!!af^^^s 5 '^ H O o K g O g o > 2; <: O « o tn *-( H •CO O > g > o ■> > O 152 MINERAL RESOURCES in Khordalan, the argentiferous lead is found associated with copper, zinc and with little manganese and traces of gold. Going back to the west, on the western bank of Kizil-Irmak, following a meridional zone, we find the argentiferous lead mines at Denek-Maden, which is since long time, abandoned. Toward the north, Karahissar presents a silver mine, men- tioned sometimes by Barth. Further to east on the west of Sivas and Akdagh, between Amasia and Kaisarie, and interest- ing galena deposit associated with pyrite, found in crystalline calcareous rocks, alternating with mica, schists and amphibolic- schists, traversed by granites. The minerals in the vicinity pre- sent a mass which on the surface, is filled with oxide of iron and pyrite, with ochreous matters, and associated with calamine which does not outcrop nicely. Kebban Maden.- — ^ About i8 miles west-northwest from Khar- put, a group of limestone mountains fills up all the space inter- vening between this point and the Euphrates to the north and West, and through these a deeply cut valley runs to the north- GEOLOGICAL VIEW OF SILVER MINE AT KEBAN. west extending for six or eight miles to the Euphrates, where for some distance around the point of confluence are worked the silver mines of Kebban Maden. The mountains around the silver mines exhibit in general bare surfaces of gray, compact lime- stones, or of argillaceous and chloritic slates, both of which ap- pear to be without fossils. On both sides of the valley in which the town is situated, rise sharp peaks of a hard feldspathic por- phyry, containing large crystals of pink common feldspar and sometimes exhibiting a slaty texture with the crystallized parts so ill defined that where it occurs in contact with the clay slates ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 153 it is difficult to assign to each its proper boundary. This erup- tive rock also makes its appearance more frequently in the bot- tom of the neighboring valleys. A sharp ridge of the same rock along the back of the east side of the town and there forms bold precipices facing the river virhich flows almost beneath. A little farther to the north the porphyry is interrupted by a band of ochreous matter which probably before the formation of the val- ley of Kebban communicated vy^ith a similar patch on the oppo- site side, forming a lode or dike. The surface of hills as well as here and there on the opposite side of the Euphrates are cov- ered with innumerable rubbish heaps formed in attempts to open mines which have already been pushed more than two or three feet in the ground. The mines worked lie beyond the ridge on the west of the town and are even more miserably directed than those of Arghaneh. The edit mouths are driven through shale and limestone whfch here and there shows on the surface small strings and lumps of galena ; but so irregular and dirty are the works that little can be seen underground to inform us how the ore occurs. The lower mines exhibited some rich portions of nearly pure argentiferous sulphuret of lead but it nowhere had the appearance of occuring in veins. In the upper mine, a large quantity of soft iron ochre, or sort of gossan mingled with threads of gypsum, is excavated as ore, being found to contain Hke the galena from an ounce to an ounce and a half of silver in 100 lbs. Near the junction of two species of rock, whether limestone or shale, or one of these with porphyry, the ore is more plentifully disseminated than elswhere. This is a complex deposit of Argentiferous galena, blende and pyrite with antimony. In higher parts the sulphide and the chlor- ide of silver, anglesite, gypsum, etc., exist abundantly. This mine had been exploited by German engineers in 1847 and abandoned soon after. Bulgar-Maden. — The Bulgar-Maden lies in the Cilician Taurus sixty-five Km. north of Mersina. The beds toward the south are sligtly inclined containing no eruptive rocks; but toward the north occurs many plicated eruptive rocks which are followed by microgranulites, porphyrites of relatively ancient origin, Cre- taceous-Eocene serpentines, and Tertiary discharges, extending toward north, in the Argeaus mountains. 154 MINERAL RESOURCES The stratified series starts with the schists in glaucophane, suc- ceeding he calc-schists and dolomitic calcareous rocks the age /•"^orftjo u c o ■M +-» cn en 1 1 < 9 tJ a S -4-) E i-i o CO 1-. J ■4-t ■5 'S « u :?; > > o< t-H (U i-< s Q P CO Q >> < Tj- 10 \d >> J3 a, Pi Vh M > Ah U M (i< l<. O ^ w V aj > a S3 C I-) ^ V, -M < u 3 o 1 1 1) o g •0 T3 -*-» e S 3 3 u C iz; s .2 C u ?? o ^O^ 1-1 C^ fO ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 155 of which is not exactly determined. Briss includes them in the devonian of Anti-Taurus. The central calcareous rocks of the chain presents all the char- acters of coral reef formations. On the north it becomes more marly and much more stretched in the action of ebbing, and sharply folded with ruptures. To the Devonian axis is applied the Tertiary formations on both sides, showing a distinct undulation in the dolomitic calcareous rocks. The Hercyenan Movement is here obvious, same way as in the Alpian chains. These Tertiary deposits include in the Miocene gypsum the Lower Eocene Nummulitic beds, the sandstones on the north, the Oligocene marly calcareous rocks on the south. Thus the dissim- ilarity of Eocene rocks on both sides gives clue for the existence of two separate seas of distinct sedimentation Toward the northwest the dolomite and porphyrites of Ylang- dagh rise up against the folded Tertiary rocks with a fault fol- lowing the abundant sources of the thermal of Elidja. Near Nigde the Tertiary beds are folded, like those on the south, in a slight degree. These roll down towards the plains of Great Salt Desert, and disappear under the lavas and dolomites of northeast, or under the Pliocene sediments. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF BULGAR-MADEN. The Bulgar-dagh mine is geographically located in a valley, the road of which is opened from Chifte-khan, at the junction of main road leading from Nigde to Taurus. 156 MINERAL RESOURCES The hills upon the north flank of the mine, presents the Devon- ian dolomitic calcareous rocks overlying the schists and nummu- litic grits. The calcareous rocks are traversed by microgranulites playing a great role in the dislocation of these metallizing waters. These microgranulites form irregular veins, either round or len- ticular, in the calcareous rocks. The serpentine rocks of Eocene age appear in different points in the ordinary condition of the formation. The primitive form of metallization is difficultily visible; be- cause the beds are subjected to an extensive alteration. The metalliferous formation extends about lOO km. up to the contact of calcareous rocks with Eocene schists. The schists are traversed by serpentine from which the minerals are derived according to Briss. Beyond this contact of calcearous rocks with schists, there is same way, a contact of calcareous rocks with microgranulites which is characteristic phenomena observed in the ore bodies of Leadville, Colorado. The zone of this microgranulite is pursued in all extension in the metallic formation of Bulgar-Maden. Some masses of minerals are filled in the pockets of this microgranu- lite which miners call Beyaz-tash (white stone). This is a bed of contact which is subjected to alteration below the level of the valley. This change, according to Briss, is due to subterranean circulating waters, in contact with metal- lic sulphures. The traces of many subterranean rivers, ,now dried, are still there visible. The deposit, situated on an altitude of about 2000 to 2400 meters, is divided into two zones. The first, (galleries of Seru- sat, Tnoalle, Yourkanji, Teki-deresi), approached by the axis of the mountain and is deep-seated, and less altered. The more compact limestones are more replaced by galena. The second is exterior and more superficial and offers big grots. The soil in grots represents a sandy and muddy deposit of lead carbonate mixed with red, yellow, and black oxide of iron. The pockets in calcareous rocks are filled with metals, accumulated without any order. There, it exists in a series of natural halls, and in arches furnished with stalactite of calcareous rocks, and cov- ered with a recent and contemporaneous transparent crust of carbonate of lime. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 157 The deposits, in this special natural phenomena, are extraor- dinarily rich in lead, silver and gold. Aicording to Briss, the medium tenor of ore contains 20 per cent, lead; 65 Kg. silver and 30 to 40 gr. gold per ton of lead. This tenor of gold gives clue for the existence of pyrite from which the iron oxide is produced. The argentiferous-galena is exploited in Bereketly-Maden, in the vicinity of Bulgar-Dagh, on the north east of Arpa-Ouch- ourou, in Ak-dagh, extreme west of Ala-dagh; in Farach or ourou, in Ak-dagh, extreme west of Ala-dagh; in Bulgar-dagh and Mount Argeas; in Gulek, south of Bulgar-dagh. Here, de- posits of lead and silver are found in a system of calcareous rocks alternating with talc-schists and serpentine which according to Tchihatcheff they belong to Eocene. The exploitation of argentiferous-auriferous lead of Bulgar- dagh is conducted by many specialists but the developments have been made in a very rudimentary ,way, without any plan, with imagination, and absolute inexperience. Turk government has never followed the advices and directions given by French en- gineers, and the extraction was soon suspended. The extraction attained to about 2000 tons in 1892. This mine was Turkish state property, has some mining so far little developed in the argentiferous cementation zone. The bed stretches for some 20 Km. in length and lies only 16 Km. as the crow flies from the Baghdad railway. Silver-lead of Hudavendighar. — ^The deposits of the district of Mysia have been investigated by many mining engineers for a long time. The direction of the beds is to north-east and ex- tend from Smyrna to the Sea of Marmora. The essential zone of metallization of silver seems to be augite-andesite rocks in contact with limestones. According to the observations of Messrs. Weiss and Berg this contact had -not only played here a physical role like the ■ schists and calcareous rocks of Thasos, in Laurion, in Sardaiga, but andesite growth has occasionally developed in the embedded calcareous rocks, a gangue of gran- ite, angite, epidote and anorthite, among whose the metallic sul- phur is crystallized contemporaneously. All theories on the origin seem incontestibly to be a Ter- tiary metallization, because it is posterior to andesite. 158 MINERAL RESOURCES According to the descriptions of Messrs. Weiss and Berg, the metallic sulphur and silica are developed in contact with augite, andesite, and carboniferous calcareous rock, in a zone from 2 to 5 meters large. A similar case is observed by Bukowski in the great part of Greek Archipelago and in Thrace. Along this contact zone the calcareous rocks have undergone metamorphism and have been silicified. The microscopic examination of this rock made by Berg, shows well the original association of sul- phur with the metamorphic minerals. The Umestones are after- wards replaced by silicates a very small proportion of which hardly shows the following order of consolidation: first epido- lite, second, garnet with pyrite, third, anorthosite with galena. The metallic sulphurs are developed in nests or masses, in the vicinity of the contact, either in calcareous rocks or specially in the same andesite, where it has. met with some good nests in the fissures, in which they follow a columnar structure. Some- times a pocket of very hard and compact galena is found em- bedded in the andesite, 26 meters long, from 3 to 5 meters wide, and 6 meters deep. After Weiss is found a galena of columnar structure and many meters thick. It is observed that the case is most favorable in those places where the calcareous rocks lie below the andesite. This con- tact is frequtntly marked by a kind of argillaceous and brecci- ated residue (salbande) which acknowledge the posterior sliding. In the entire system of the deposits manganese also occurs near the contact of augite andesite, with calcareous rocks. This in relation with the calcareous formations, sometimes attain to 100 meters in size. It proves mostly the superficial alteration. The pyrolusite is mixed there with the argillaceous residue of the dissolution of calcareous rocks. Balia-Maden. — The best developed silver-lead mines of Hudavendighar province occurs near the town of Balia, at a dis- tance of about 100 km. from the Sea of Marmora. The ore occurs in a contact-zone between Tertiary augite-andesite and Carboniferous limestone. The contact zone varies between 6 and 16 ft. in width. The limestone at the contact is silicified but barren. In the andesite, on the other hand, are found accumu- lations of pure galena which seem to be connected with fissures parallel to contact zone. The ores carry galena, blende, and py- ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 159 rite, and contain on an average from 16 to 20 per cent, lead and 8 per cent. zinc. The plant at Balia comprises a mill of 400 tons daily capacity for the production of lead concentrate, and a Wetherhill magnetic separator for making a blende product. The smelting works are provided with a water-jacket lead-furnace of rectangular sec- tion, I by 1.8 meters, of 100 tons daily capacity. The slags pro- duced contain 20 per cent, lead, 20 grains silver, and 10 per cent, zinc per ton. In 1903, the mine output amounted to 63000 tons, yielding 7600 tons of pig lead, with an average content of 97.5 per cent, lead and 1950 grams silver per ton. Output in 1913, 13076 tons of crude lead and 5000 tons of zinc ore, with 42 per cent. zinc. Amount of ore shown by the latest exploration, made by Germans (information from Gen. Beyschlag, 1919) 300,000 to 350,000 tons; further explorations may show more. The pig lead is transported to the coast, whence it is shipped to Frankfort in Germany for refining. Besides the lead pro- duct, about 200 tons of zinc concentrate, assaying 41% zinc is produced annually. The company owns and operates the lig- nite coal mines at Manjilik. Here an electric power station has been installed. Generators having a total capacity of 700 horse- power produce the current, which is transmitted to Balia and the mines. The smelting coasts, including preliminary roasting, are about 60 francs (11.40 dollars) per ton of ore treated. Mill- ing costs amount to 3.8 francs (72 cents). South of Kurmasti, two deposits of silver-lead ores are known, at Dumbeltek and Kesikdere. An inspection of the aban- doned working at this point reveals geological conditions simi- lar to those observable at Balia. About 25 km. northwest of Soma there exists a district from which, according to reports, galena float has been found in as- socation with blende and calcopyrite. The ores occur in decom- posed andesite, a kind of stockwork containing veinlets of calcite and barite, from i to 5 meters large, where exist the galena, cupri- ferous pyrite and pyrite. The rocks composed of some lenticu- lar quartz and braunspath with galena and blende 5 meters wide 30 meters long. On this point has never been made a tentative exploitation. i6o MINERAL RESOURCES A very similar bed exists at 6 km. south of Beigerlerkoi, equal- ly galena and blende with barite in trachyte. At 10 km. distance from Perghama an antique work carries argentiferous galena, with masses of calamine. Some galena and cupriferous pyrite are forming pockets or tracing the columns in calcareous rocks in the. vicinity of a trachyte in the same condi- tions as in Balia-Maden. At 45 km. distance from east-southeast of Broussa, 3 km. from Hairie, a region represents antimony, a pyriteous mass of 10 meters large, embedded in the: calcareous rocks, containing a little disseminated cupriferous pyrite. Not very far from there, in calacareous rocks exists two beds of pyrite with galena, in- terstratified in a series of calcareous rocks and schists, inter- calated one between the porphyry, the other between the por- phyry and calcareous rocks. Towards east, between Nicie (Isnik) and Isnik-cheir, near Kerasliyaila, the veins of quartz carrying pyrite, galena and a little cupriferous pyrite are cut in open air ; these are intercal- ated between the decomposed porphyry. These veins are very poor. ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF SILVER. Year Value Kilos 1891 $55,000 1,323 1892 55,000 1,323 1893 159.236 6,334 1894 30,000 1,516 189s 33.821 1,516 1896 32,821 1,525 1897 29,314 1,515 1898 28,927 1,525 1899 38.900 2,033 1900 40,139 2,033 1901 38,531 2,033 1902 250,577 14,942 1903 250,305 14,566 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA i6[ 1904 345.420 17,022 1905 367>35i 17.107 1906 367.351 17.107 1909 7.791 1910 7.791 COPPER. The provinces of Trebizond (Pontus), Caucasian Armenia, and Diarbekr are for a long time known as the best localities of rich copper deposits. The copper ores of Trebizond form naturally the continuation of the Caucasian deposits. On the south of Ineboli,an ancient mine of argentiferous cop- per, in Bakir-Kuressi, has been famous since ancient times. Six different properties have been operated in the vicinity of the sea-port of Sinope. Traversing the course of the Kizil Irmak, we find, on the south of Kerasun, a group of ores composed of veins of various filHngs, generally embedded in the crystalline schists. Among these are the copper mines of Maden-Koi, Gelivera, Sarababa, and Ispie. At Ispie important exploration is being conducted on a copper concession thickly studded with old workings. They are con- trolled by an Anglo-native Company. The ore bodies were worked superficially 800-900 years ago. Within the cast of 25 years, French and English syndicates have done considerable de- velopment work on these properties. Little further toward east and on the south of Trebizond, a high grade copper ore is reported from Maden Khan, from vicin- ity of the towns of Gumushkhane and Karahissar. In this dis- trict the ore exists in the form of veins with copper gravels and pyrite, silver bearing galena and sulphate of zinc which cross a propylitized augite-andesite. Here and there are volcanic tuffs impregnated with copper gravels and which contain concretions rich in sulphate of zinc (39 per cent). In other cases there are contact conditions involving sulphides (copper gravels, pyrite and tremolite) in masses of Cretaceous limestones which have been engulfed in eruptive rocks. Archavatal is one of the most important centers for getting copper and manganese. Old rocks are plentiful here. In the Artvin district south of Datum the niines of Zangul i62 MINERAL RESOURCES and Ergha have been worked with success. Here are veins and masses of Granophyr passing to a diabase porphyry in a certain sandstone and both rocks are penetrated by numerous quartz veins which contain irregular ore bodies of different sulphides, especially those of copper and iron associated with lead carbonate and still less zinc blende. Khvartz-khana, near Artvin, had a mining and smelting works, ready before the war, but never operated, belonging to the Sie- mens family and capable of yielding 2000 tons of copper a year. In the same region an American company possesses a mining and smelting works at Dzanzul, which produced 3,030 tons of copper in 1912 and 4000 tons in 1914, i. e., one third of the whole Cau- casus output, and one tenth of that of Russia. Karabagh Zone. — At Migri, the copper is found associated with molybdenite and iron pyrite in granulites. The same group of Copper-Molybdenite exists at Hedgenan. The rest of the mineralization is formed especially of copper, in the southeast part of western Karabagh, in Pyrdandi, Okchai, Katar, Barabatoun, Shikhaus, Gavart, Astamal, Jivanik, etc. In dififerent points these chalcopyrite are auriferous and associted with galena and blendes. On the flank of Sahend copper, lead, antimony and arsenic are found associated with each other. The oldest rocks of Jurassic age of Caucasian chain are believed to contain the most important metalliferous deposits. The three copper producing centres of the region are Kedabag, 26.5 miles from Daliar Station, on the Tiflis-Baku railroad, Allah-Verdi, on the railway from Tifiis to Alexandropol ; and thirdly, the Elvach or Zangezur district, 130 miles from Elvach, on the first named railway. Kedabag. — This is the largest producing centre of the Trans- caucasia, and has the largest smelting plant. It hes 26.5 miles from, and 450 ft. above Dalliar, the nearest railroad station on the Baku line. The deposits are found in the side of Copper Mountain Mio-Dagh, 5922 ft. high, occurring as lenticular mass- es found in a belt of quartz-porphyry 3500 ft. long and 1700 ft. wide, with diorite to the south and diabase porphyry on the west. The later rock occurs in dikes cutting the quartz-porphyry, and also as a mass partly covering the ore-bearing rock and form- ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 163 > H 13 W M M 5! O en H O > H n o 13 13 w a w >t3 o (n H Cfi O in > g H i64 MINERAL RESOURCES ing the mountain summit. A peculiar plagioclase-pyroxene-gar- net rock, called "Kedabegite" is the youngest rock of the district, and is always near the ores. The ore bodies are lenticular in shape; i6 of them are known, varying in size from 33 ft to 820 ft. in length, 16.5 ft. to 165 ft. in width, and 6.5 ft. to 165 ft. in thickness. These lenses do not outcrop, but occur 120 ft. to 420 ft. below the surface. The ore consists of pyrite and pyrrhotite carrying chalcnpyrite and some covellite, and rarely copper glance. The ore shows gradual transitions to the country rock, and the lenses sometimes consist of rock seamed by veinlets of pyrites ore. There are, however, no true fahlbands. The richer ore is found against the hanging wall and fades out toward the foot into barren material. The richer copper ores in- variably occur with zinc-blende, and carry considerable barite and quartz. Galena and magnetite are rare constituents of the ore. The ores vary from 3 to 5 per cent, copper, with .005 to .008 per cent, precious metals, of which .4 is gold. These metals occur in the Chalcopyrite. The 7 per cent, or better ore is smelted in the reverberatory furnaces, using petroleum as fuel, to a 23 to 30 per cent, matter, which is re-treated in blast furnaces to an 88 88 to 90 per cent, blister copper that carries 2 lb. silver and 0.5 oz. gold per ton. The low grade ore is leached and in part sold for acid manufacturers. The Galizuski mine is at Elizabethpol. It produced 1,390,095 lbs., in 1899. The Dzansulkli mine in Tiflis (Kutais) has recently been ac- quired by the Caucasus Copper Company, an English concern. The deposit is a lens 260 to 500 ft. wide, 100 ft. long, and opened for 164 ft. in depth. It consists of pyrite carrying Chalcopyrite, with a quartz gangue, and averages 3 per cent, copper with no precious metals. The output for 1889 was 505,568 lbs. This is too siHcious to smelt, as fluxes are expensive. It will be con- centrated by magnetic separators, experience showing excessive slimes and losses with wet concentration. A 100-ton plant is planned. Elvach District. — The Sunik mines are the largest of the dis- trict and one of the three largest producers of the transcaucasian region. They are located near the Persian frontier, 130 miles ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 165 from Elvach, the nearest station on the Transcaucasian railway line. The ores occur in quartz veins carrying chalcopyrite as- sociated with bomite, tetrahedrite.pyrite, and rarely native cop- per. Small values in gold and silver occur. There are 20 veins varying from 7 inches to 4 feet in width and clustered, in a range running northwest and southeast, through dark green andesite and black diabase. Fault fissures cut the veins and country rock. The old workings are primitive, narrow adits running 100 to 300 feet into the hillside, and both ore and water were carried in leather bags. The copper ores occur in quartz veins. The ore consists of chalcopyrite, and bomite, tetrahedrite and pyrite, with accessory blende and galena, the usual oxide ores and native copper being present. Old shafts 130 feet deep attest the energy of the ancient miners, when ores below 15 per cent, were not workable. The ore occurs in northwest and southeast quartz veins cut- ting andesite, and in crush zones or breccias between syenites and diorites, the ores carrying copper glance, galena, and sphalerite. The veins have a proved length of 700 feet in depth. The output for 1900 was 800 tons of copper. Only 7 per cent, ore or better is treated, and this is smelted at Sounthsy for 5.8 dollars a ton. Mining costs 8.08 dollars per ton. The Allah-Verdi district lies in a very mountaineous tract about 50 miles south of Tiflis. The ores occur in pockets in fractured dacite and quartz andesite. It is pyritic and treated by modified pyrite smelting. There are three deposits, Akhtala, Allah- Verdi, and Chambuk. An enrichment near gypsum masses is noted. Ga- lena rich in gold and silver occur near the uppermost part of the first-named deposits. The mines, though ancient, have but recent- ly reopened. In 1902 the Transcaucasia produced 106,718 tons or ore, yield- ing 3438 tons of copper. Arganeh-Maden. — An important copper mine is found in the Taurus mountains at Arganeh, (district of Diarbekr). Arganeh, lies about halfway between Kharput and Diarbekr. The space comprised between Kharput which measures about 50 miles from the mines presents a series of limestone and marly slates belong- ing to Cretaceous period. The higher portion generally consists 1 66 MINERAL RESOURCES of calcareous strata abounding in Nummulites, while the marls, ■vVhich for the most part occupy a lower position are highly meta- morphic, being changed in color and frequently hardened to the consistency of siliceous slate. Below both although sometimes occurring in dikes high as the mountain sides, appear rocks of dial- lage and actinolite in great variety. To the west of Kharput the mountains exhibit a dififerent character. Their chief mass is composed of limestones and slates of an older period. The eruptive rocks occurring in juxtaposition with these are syenites, diallage rocks, basalt, similar to that of the plateau of Diarbekr. The city of Diarbekr is but on an extensive plain covered with MINING DISTRICT OF ARGANEH-MADEN. 1. Dialage rocks. 2. Sulphuret of iron and copper. 3. Limestone. 4. Metamorphic slates. rough fragments of basalt, resting upon more compact masses of the same rock. On the southwest this igneous formation extends beyond the town of Severek, a distance of 60 miles from the Tigris and in approaching the mountains to the northwest we find the same series continued for 20 miles. At Arganeh the southern outposts of the Taurus present their most remarkable feature. The serpentine is laid at base of Arganeh Maden, in the valley of the Tigris, and in the ravine formed by a rivulet which pours in its tribute close below the town. The rocks are generally full of leakage, and contain the magnesian minerals also. The breccia appears to constitute the outer wall of the cupriferous mass at Arganeh Maden. This mass though it continues in depth to the level of waters of Tigris, has not hitherto been opened anywhere except on the surface of the mountain above the town. It appears to be but one large lump of ore consisting of double sulphurets ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 167 of copper and iron, planted amid these serpentines or perhaps be- tween them and the marls. In the mines not the slightest charac- ter of a vein or bed was to be seen, but floor and walls consisted entirely of solid pyrite, diversified only by stalactite cuttings of blue and green vitriol. This extended to a depth of 60-70 feet but in addition 20-30 feet which had been excavated were filled with water. The shafts are scatteded irregularly over a part of the mountain which is almost level and is about 300 feet in dia-m- eter and since in all of these shafts the same appearance are pre- sented, we may be justified in considering the ore as forming rather an isolated mass than as belonging either to a bed or lode. The pyrite varies so much in quantity that a large proportion is left untouched by the miners, not repaying them for working. In general, the ore contains from 10-20 per cent, of copper, while the better sort rises 20-20 per cent., and occasionally a little vitre- ous copper on pure sulphuret occurs, when the percentage is much higher. From all accounts very high-grade ore is mined at this point within M 170 MINERAL RESOURCES Miskhan on the south side of the Pambak chain appear hematite veins and nests in the chloritized contact zone in pyroxene por- phyry. A thin spreading scale magnetite mass exists in an augite epi- dote garnet rock at Dashkessen, in the Gokcha chain. A very pure hematite has been obtained from the nearby Bo- zantel. At Chinarii, not far from EHzabethpol the iron is 2.2 meters thick and affords up to 65 per cent. iron. Considerable beds of limonite and magnetite exist on Kishala plateau (east Karabagh.) Iron glance is obtained in the Talori mines in Taurus. In the vicinity of Diabekir, in the valley of Tigris River, sands of magnetite are existing. These mechanical preparations executed on volcanic rocks where the tenor of iron oxide is very notable as existing in different localities of Armenia playing a great role in primitive metallurgy. Cilicia is an important district containing the richest ore bodies of iron and well known for its old iron industry long time in the past. The chief mines are situated in the Bulgar-Dagh, Bierout- Dagh (Zeitun), in the vicinity of Aleppo and Belen. All these mines occur in the limestone in contact with serpentine rocks. In Bulgar-dagh, in Cilician Taurus veins of limonite occur in limestone (see description of Bulgar-Maden). In the same range, at diflferent points, there are extensive beds of limonite and hematite. Some of them have been mined at different times. There were formerly furnaces in this region. On the slopes of Beirout-Dagh, 15 miles from Zeitun to north- east, at the foot of eastern slope of Anti-Tuarus, exists an ex- tensive deposit of high-grade hematite. This is known to the blacksmiths throughout the Syria and Mesopotamia as obtaining their iron from the natives working these deposits. The natives have been smelting the iron ore in an imaginarily built blast furnace, using the woods cut from neighboring forests as fuel, and the blast was supplied by a large pair of bellows operated by two especially trained bears. This working was abandoned 25 years ago, on account of political troubles. This is one of the least visited locations by foreign engineers and research men, on account of its inaccess- ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 171 ible location and unfavorable political conditions. Continuing the chains of Anti-Taurus we find an abundant de- posit of hematite in the veins of the mica schists and argillace- ous rocks with calcareous intercalations on the side of Kozan- dagh. This region has also been very difficult to approach on ac- count of unfavorable political conditions. Tchihatcheff has shown long ago the existence of carbonifer- ous coal beds either in the vicinity of Zeitun iron mine or Kozan- dagh. Iron mines are also worked in the vicinity of Aleppo. In eastern Asia Minor iron ores have been discovered at Vierla and Bazar-Koi. Magnetic iron beds are surveyed by Germans during war, at Ayasmund north of Smyrna; many other occurrences, specially the red iron stone passing into emery are found in this neigh- hood. CHROME. Asia Minor has been for many years the most important pro^ ducer of chromite in the world. At least 120 places have been named where chrome occurs; these are mostly in the province of Broussa, Aiden, Konia, Angora, Adana, Aleppo, Diarkebir, etc. The most important mines being in Broussa in Makri, pro- vince of Hudavendighar, and in Antioch near Aleppo and Isken- deroun. The chrome was discovered first by Pro. J. L. Smith in 1848 at Broussa, city situated on the south east of Constatinople at 57 miles distance. It occurs here, as elswhere, exclusively in the serpentine in the shape of pockets and veins of irregular extent and size. The mine of this district was practically a monoply in the hands of Messrs. Patterson. Another large deposit, also discovered by the same man, exists at Harmanjik, about 15 miles south of Broussa, under same conditions of occurrences as above. The Chrome ore of Asia Minor having a very low silica content and being very soft have been in great demand, and for many years have constituted the principal source of supply of both American and European consumers. Mr. Show contributes the following analysis of these ores : 172 MINERAL RESOURCES Per Cent. Sesquioxide of chrome 55-04 51-70 56-8o Protoxide of iron 12.63 14-20 12.06 Alumina "-84 i4-io 14.00 Magnesia 16.19 i4-30 i5-00 Silica 2.00 3.50 1.45 Lime i-40 i-7o 0.70 Water 40 -30 0.15 Total 98.86 99.80 100.16 The Vilayet of Aidin is a province in Asia Minor which has a coast line extending from opposite the island of Mytiline to beyond Makri, opposite the island of Rhodes, and embraces al- most the entire basins of the two principal rivers, the Sarabat (Hermas) and the Meander (Mendereh), besides some smaller ones. The principal town is Smyrna, the center of trade of the district, from which two railways run into the interior along the valleys of the two rivers just mentioned. The greater part of this country is composed of limestone, sand, schists, and presents a fine example of orthodox regional metamorphism. The shell, mud and other beds, originally de- posited over a sea bottom, extending probably far beyond the region here described, have been completely metamorphosed, the limestone of pure white saccharoid marble, now covering large areas, and the other bed interstratified with it, to schists of vari- ous kinds — .mica, chlorite and hydromica, often changing gradu- ally the one into other and sometimes passing insensibly into gneiss. In several localities the schist contain regular octahedra of magnetite up to half an inch in diameter. The general strike of these formations throughout the country is about east and west, though locally the schists are much folded, and strike and dip in all directions. The average dip is steep but not uniform, and is not always apparent. South of Aidin it appears to be to the north. Further north again, at Odemish, the dip is south, indicating several parallel foldings of strata, the number and extent of which observations were not sufficient to determine. In several places serpentine belts occur. These appear to be ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 173 interstratified with the marbles and schists, and would thus point to a result of general metamorphism on original possibly glaucon- itic deposits; but further investigation is necessary before it can be definitely asserted that they are not alteration products of intrusive sheets of basic olivine rocks. Around the bay of Smyrna extensive areas consist of volcanic lavas and tuffs, chiefly trachyte. Overlying the metamorphosed formations there are found in places such as between Suladan and Ala-Shehr, and south of Cheshme on the coast, undisturbed beds of sandstone, lying flat or dipping at a very sHght angle, and full of fossil shells, chiefly gasteropods. The most important chromite occurrence at present are at Makri, opposite the island of Rhodes, at Daghardi south and southwest of Olymph, and at Kemikli. The chrome ore in the province of Aidin was also found by Dr. J. L. Smith. It occurs in the serpentine in pockets and in veins of irregular extent. Messrs. Patterson owns the mines all in the neighborhood of Makri. The value of ore depends on its contents of sesquioxide of chromium. Shipments have been made from Makri containing as much as 58 per cent. The lowest content marketable is 47 per cent., and this only if the ore is soft and easily crushed. Such ores have been preferred to the very hard ore, which latter must contain at least 50 per cent, to be marketable. It is a curious fact that Patterson states, that the best ore is gotten near the surface, and that in depth it invariably becomes poorer. Chrome ore mines in the east of Amanur, near sea-port of Mersina, running 51 to 53 per cent, chromic oxide. The pro^- duction for the year 191 1 was 2000 tons, all being exported to Germany and France. ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF CHROME. Years Metric Tons. 1892 13.780 ^ 20,250 1894 J ^ 174 MINERAL RESOURCES .21,030 18951 1896 J 1897 20,137 1899 4.538 1900 9.749 1901 40,972 MANGANESE. Manganese ores occur abundantly in Asia Minor and Armenia. The most extensive beds are found in transcaucasian provinces. These last deposits have more or less been exploited and good deal of development work has been done so far. Transcaucasian Manganese. — Manganese ores are known to ex- ist in Caucasian Armenia in a number of localities, viz. : in the ^government of Kutais, near the village of Chiaturi, in the same government near the Chorokh river, southward from Batum ; and in the governments of Erivan and Tiflis. In smaller quantities they are found in various other places also. The first mentioned deposits are by far the most important. All the manganese ore now known in the market as "Caucasian" ore comes from Chia- turi ; no other deposits in the Caucasus having been worked com- mercially; movements have been made, however, towards the exploitation of some of those on the Chorokh River. No other known deposit of managanese ore can approach that of Chiaturi in capacity for producing large quantities of high- grade ore at a low cost. The deposit is said to have been dis- covered in 1848, by the geologist Abich, but the first shipments were not made until 1879, when 870 tons were produced. Since that time, the production has steadily increased, until now the world relies on this deposit for about one half its supply of manganese ore. The total production of the mines of the Chia- turi arrived to 1,682,400 tons in 1898. Chiaturi is a village of the district of Sharopan, which forms part of the Transcaucasian province of Kutais. The village lies on the KvriUi river, a tributary of Rion, which enters the Black Sea, near Poti, and is now connected by a narrow gauge railway with the station Sharopan, 25 miles to southwest, on the main line of the Transcaucasian railway. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 175 The vicinity is characterized by high, and in some instances precipitous, mountain spurs left by the erosion of the valley of Kvrilli river, and of the ravines through which flow its tributary rivulets. The ores of Chiaturi occur in a bedded deposit, lying almost horizontally, near the tops of the lofty hills in the vicinity of the village and at an altitude of 1000 feet above the Kvrilli river. The action of the elements in forming the rugged topography ob- served in this region has carried away, perhaps, more than one half the original deposit. The existing bed has been opened on seven of the mountains near Chiaturi. Of these three designated locally as Perivissi, Chocrotti and Itvissi respectively lie to the south of the Kvrilli river, and four — Organyi, Zedorganyi, Givimavi and Darkvetti, — lie on the south side of the river. The bed occurs in a brown sandstone of Miocene age, and has an average thickness of between 6 and 7 feet. Its dip, which is slight, and fairly regular, is southerly, slight faulting of the formation has occurred in some instances ; but few folds are ob- served and the bed is free from sudden or extreme variations from the average thickness. The deposit has a distinctly stratified structure and is com- posed largely of pyrolusite, but other oxides of manganese also occur. In many instances, strata of sandstone, or of loose, friable arenaceous and calcareous material, are intercalated with the manganese ore, such strata vary in thickness from a small frac- tion of an inch to as much (in some of the intercalated layers of sandstone) as 10 inches, or a foot. The area given by government engineers is about 60 sq. miles embracing the whole bed known at present time. It is quite certain, however, that an area of more than 22 square miles of the present surface is underlain by ore available for mining; and on this basis it is estimated that, even if the crude and wasteful methods now pursued should be always continued, the bed will yield more than 80,000,000 tons of marketable ore. The deposit is intercalated between two beds of limestone of Eocene age, and is associated with layers of sand, the ore oc- curring either as an oolitic stratum or as lumps disseminated in beds of clay, the minerals being chiefly pyrolusite and manfjanite. 176 MINERAL RESOURCES A complete analysis of very well sorted and cleaned ore from Chiaturi, gives the following results :— ore dred at 212'' F. Manganese peroxide 86.25% Manganese protoxide 0.47% Iron peroxide 0.61 % Oxide of copper o.oi % Oxide of nickel 0.30% Alumina ' 1-74% Lime ' 1-73% Magnesia 0.20% Baryta i-54% Potash & Soda 0.22% Silica 3-85% Carbonic Acid 0.63% Sulphur : 0.23% Phosphoric Acid (0.141 P) 0.323 99-953 The occurrence of baryta with manganese shows the destruc- tion of neighboring crystalline rocks, rich in manganese, through weathering. In course of recent geological periods and immense quantity of manganese have been carried by rivers to the sea. Manganese so brought to the sea has been precipitated, probably, by slow oxidation due to oxygen dissolved in the water, through an absorption by descending volcanic ash, bone fragments may also have been operative. This deposit of manganese formed by sedimentation may be regarded as a shallow water deposit containing shark's teeth. From the tetonics in the place it is evident that the deposition of manganese has taken place in shallow water, probably in large lagoons and in a shallow sea fairly near the coast. At Kutais gneiss or granite occurs at some distance from the manganese deposit. The solutions must be derived this crystalline rocks. It must be pointed out that the manganese beds as well as lodes are not particularly associated with basic rocks, the major- ity occurring in genetic relation with acid rocks such as gneiss, granite, quartz porphyry, etc. The solutions from acid rocks ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 177 probably therefore originally carried as a rule more manganese than similar solutions from basic rocks. Manganese elsewhere in Caucasus is found also in veins, often in pockets or masses and frequently are mixed with the gangue. Pyrolusite of this structure is specially found in Pontic region, in Archava, Riseh, and Surmeneh districts. The amount is too small to make mining feasible. The district of Phlinika in Asia Minor occupy an important position in the production of manganese in form of pyrolusite, containing 52 per cent, manganese in the ore. A small amount of manganese is also mined at the Zengan with average assays showing 83 per cent, managanese dioxide. Manganese mines are also worked in the province of Trebi- zond, on Black Sea coast. Occurrences of the manganese ores are, moreover, known in the vicinity of the seaport of Mondania, as well as near Sesh- keni, Balia, and Ushak, all in Anatolia. Internationally most important beds of manganese are found at Eregli on Black Sea coast. ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF MANGANESE. Years Metric Tons. 1888 669 1889 8000 1892 _. . .2900 1893 2225 1894 8400 X896) 23^°° 1897 49000 1898 55300 1899 49468 1900 38100 1903 39500 191 1 18000 178 MINERAL RESOURCES MERCURY. Two deposits of Cinnabar are known at present in Anatolia; one in the province of Konieh and the other in the district of Smyrna. About 400 miles by rail southeast of Constantinople, in the department of Konieh, near the old city of Iconium, now known as Konieh. The Konieh Mercury Syndicate, Ltd., was opened in 1905 to operate a cinnabar deposit of considerable promise. The cinnabar occurs in veinlets, nodules and small particles in a crystalline limestone close to the talcose-schist contact at no great distance from the old eruptives. The occurrence of the minerals is not uniform throughout the limestone ; it appears to be present only where, or near where, the limestone is much silicified, or entirely replaced by quartz suggesting that the GEOLOGICAL POSITION OF KONIA MERCURY MINE. 1 . Limestones. 2. Slates. 3. Ores. quartz and mercury had a common origin or were deposited at about the same time. While there are a few nodules and rich veinlets of several inches in width, the greater part of the workable deposits consist of the siliceous limestones seamed and veined with the little stringers of the sulphide, the whole assaying from i to 2.5 per cent, mercury. One considerable body was found associated with stibnite; this carried about 8 per cent, of mercury. Quartz croppings and float occur at numerous points that where work is now being prosecuted. All of these quartz contain visible ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 179 cinnabar, but little of a grade to be treated profitably. Scattered over a considerable area, however, it suggested that where the quartz penetrates the limestone other workable deposits would be found. Subsequent developments have proved this to be the case. This property is probably one of the earliest mercury mines to have been worked, though the date of its early operations is not exactly known. In this connection its rediscovery and open- ing are interesting. About 1901, four years before the operation of the mine, a goatherder who kept his flocks on the almost baren hills near Konieh corralled them at night in a limestone cave within a short distance of the buried cities of the Holy Land. Night after night they were taken there for protection. One night a refractory goat refused to enter the portal, and the goatherder picking up a stone to discipline the offending animal, noticed that it was heavy and dark red in color, different from other stones around there. Laying it aside, he one day broke it open be- tween two large stones and saw that it was a beautiful rose color on the inside. With curiosity aroused he went to an arroya below the cave to look for similar stones; he found one more but that was all. After this next clip was made, he went on his annual trip to Konieh to dispose of it, taking these two peculiar stones with him. The wool and stones fell into the hands of a local mer- chant acting for the Whittall Bros., exporters of Constantinople, and he too, thinking the stones were curious, sent them on to the seaport, to his principals when making a shipment of wool. One of the Messrs. Whittal was a graduate of Royal School of Mines, and as soon the stones fell into his hands he recognized them as high-grade cinnabar, knowing that mercury had been found at several points in Asia Minor, Hugh Whittall, the en- gineer, decided that when convenient, he would visit that local- ity. In the course of time he made the trip, with the assistance of local agent in Konieh, the goatherder was fotmd, also the cave where the goats were kept and the ravine below it, but nothing that in any way resembled cinnabar. The cave had the appearance of any limestone cave with sides worn smooth and the bottom covered with the dirt of centuries. i8o MINERAL RESOURCES The search for cinnabar was about given up when Mr. Whittall began to disfigure one of the walls with his sample pick. An incrustation was broken ofif and a tiny veinlet of something pink was seen ; picking through the incrustation in various places, the same conditions were found to exist in several places. In short, the whole bed of limestone appeared to be impregnated with small seams and veinlets of cinnabar, and what had appeared to be an ordinary limestone cave resolved itself into something look- ing like an old mine. The property was denounced for mining purposes and instructions given for cleaning the dirt. When the work was started, in 1905, the opening was about 15 ft. wide and it extended 50 ft. into the hill, with the roof about ID feet above the floor. When completely cleaned out it was found to extend a little more than 100 ft. dipping with the limestone beds at an angle of about 10 degress from the hori- zontal, everywhere that the silicfied limestone appeared thereto was cinnabar found. When the cleaning had been done it was decided to put dowti a winze in the floor of the deposit to see what thickness the impregnated beds might have. The winze was started at 6 ft. it broke into several chambers almost under the first, parallel with it and of about the same dimensions ex- cept that it was nearly 250 ft. long. It was a surprise to find that the first cave was a mine, a greater surprise was in store in the second cave. Entering through the opening in the bottom of the winze a wierd sight met the eyes of the miners. Scattered over the floor of the chamber, in all conceivable positions, were seen the remains of more than 50 human skeltons. Many of the bones were im- bedded in the secondary deposits of limestone on the floor. There were great quantities of stone, hammers, several pottery lamps, a fair amount of charcoal, several rubbing stones and some flint arrow heads. Mining had apparently been done by firing the barren rock, by breaking the softer portions with hammers and by gouging where there rich seams of cinnabar. Deep groovers followed all high-grade streaks, but the tool for this work were gone. Working out to the surface, following the floor of the second chamber, 40 to 50 ft. of caved ground was pentrated, suggesting ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA i8i that the miners had been entombed by a fall of rock around the portal of the opening. Sometime before this discovery Sir W. Ramsey, the well known English Archiologist, had unearthed a tablet in a neigh- boring buried city. This tablet was dedicated to the Phrygian goddess of the mines, Zizima. The Phrygians inhabited this part of Asia Minor 1500 years B. C. and it is quite possible that the deposit was worked as long as 3000 years ago. There is no positive evidence connecting the tablet with the mercury deposit, but on the other hand, nothing else has been found resembling a mine. The thick deposit of lime, on the floor and walls of the openings in such an arid country as this is positive proof that the bones were lying there a very long time, and the probability is that the deposit was a flourishing paint mine many centuries before the birth of Christ. Up to the middle of the year 1905 about 15,000 tons of one per cent, mercury had been opened up. KASABOURNOU MINE : Karabournou mines are situated about 30 km. from the town of Smyrna. The deposit lies in the vicin- ity of basaltic flows, and consists of metamorphic siliceous schist impregnated with cinnabar. Mining is done entirely in open cuts on ores containing as little as 0.25 per cent, mercury. When sorted the cinnabar appears to concentrate in the fine, and the ore is accordingly screened. The concentrate assays from 0.75 to 2 per cent, mercury. The plant at the mine comprises two double Spirek towers, furnaces for broken ore, and a Cermak-Spirek furnace for fine. This installation has a capacity of 30 tons per day. This mine produces about 3000 flasks annually. The smelting plant at this mine includes one Spirek tower of 15 tons daily capacity and one Cermak-Spirek furnace of 8 tons capacity per day. Mine is found at an altitude of 1800 meters. Operation is somewhat hindered by the severe winters at this elevation. ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF MERCURY. Years Metric Tons Value 1908 98.5 1417s 1909 142.0 22000 191 1 450 flasks i82 MINERAL RESOURCES ANTIMONY. Antimony is a well known mineral in Anatolia. It is found in irregular veins (as it is the case for all beds of primary grounds) and inter-stratified in the schists, specially in veinlets of different sizes. The age of the deposits generally not known. The formation is always irregular. The stibnite is onlp accom- panied with quartz and pyrite. But it must geographically be attached to the beds of cinnabar. The stibnite occurs in the valleys of Broussa, Smyrna and Sivas. The two important centers of production in the province of Smyrna are Eudemish andDjinli-Kaya, in both of which high- grade ore is found, often carrying 65 per cent, antimony. A double lode, the outcrop of which may be followed for 2 km. is worked in Djinli-Kaya mine 20 km. southwest of Eudem- ish and 100 km. east southeast of Smyrna, on the northwest slopes of the Baliamaboli-dagh. The width of the deposit varies from a few centimeters to some meters. In 1898, 500 tons of ore valued at about 6000 pounds were won. In the same Vilayet the mines near Rosdan and Aidin city and finally the Gerasmos and Kordelio mines also occur. All these are stibnite veins containing m'ore or less pyrite and are imbedded in the metamorphic argillaceous schists, mica schists or gneiss. Antimony in Broussa is represented by lodes o.i to 2.0 meters wide, worked in a mine known as the Gometschiftlik-Antimoii maden, belonging to the Sultan, situated 24 km. east of GediSj. on the south western slope of the Kizil-dagh. The yearly pro- duction is about 500 tons of antimony. Here veinfilling in the amphibolic gneiss pass in cipolin. The veins are very irregular changing continually in thickness and length. They are often not longer than tenth of a meter, and are not wider than 2 meters as maximum. This mine is exploited in open cut. Half a Km. south of Demir-Kapu there are other antimony- mines. At Irvindi and Suluk-Koi. Here veinlets of quartz with stibnite is intercalated in the argillaceous schists 2 meters long^ and some centimeters wide. In the Vilayet of Sivas antimony ore has been opened up at ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 183 Kara-hissar. Here the antimony ore occurred in pure igneous rocks free of quartz. In all these occurrences the antimony forms irregular veins, as it is the case in all primary deposits and tend to inter-tratify in the schists. The minerals are put usually accompanied with the quartz and pyrite. The association of mercury with anti- mony is a particularly interesting case in Tertiary formations, where antimony looks entirely different in these conditions than in the ancient chains, being associated with metallic sulphur, among which the cinnabar has different sizes of vein fillings. ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF ANTIMONY. Years Metric Tons. 1892 1893 ) '°2S 1893 \ 1894) '545 1895 1332 1896 100 1897 400 1899 1173 1900 267 1901 224 1902 481 1903 298 1905 188 1906 1035 LEAD. The chief lead mines occur in the provinces of Trebizond, Diarbekr, Hudavendighar, Adana and Erzerum. The lead is found mostly associated with silver and sometimes with zinc. Lead mines near Van, in several adjoining districts, are dis- covered. Near Gulek lead mines were formerly worked and smelted. The deposits occur as lenticular masses in Cretaceous limestones, with flint passing into mica-slate. The ores include galenite, sphalerite and arsenopyrite. The only lead mines in operation in Anatolia are those at Li- i84 MINERAL RESOURCES jessi, near Karahissar and at Gamlibel, near Enderes, both of which are operated by Asia Minor Company. In Sivas, the lead ores occur associated with antimony. Two of the mines were worked by a British company. The most important beds of lead associated with silver occur in Balia, Boulgar-Dagh, and Keban. Balia-Maden. — The lead-silver is here deposited in the Tertiary augite-andesite rock in contact with metamorphosed limestones. Metallic sulphur and silica are developed in the contact of igne- ous rocks with limestone, in a zone from 2 to 5 meters large. A very small proportion of silicate replaced bp calcareous rock shows the order of consolidation; epidolite, garnet, with pyrite and anorthosite with galena. Here sometimes a pocket of very hard and compact galena is found embedded in the andesite, 26 meters long, from 3 to 5 meters wide, and 6 meters deep. The ores carry galena, blende and pyrite, containing on an average from 16 to 20 per cent, lead and 8 per cent. zinc. Boulgar-Maden. — The mine is found in a valley on the main route opened from Chifte Han. The metalliferous formation extends about 100 km. up to calcareous rock in contact with Eocene schists. The schists are traversed by serpentine with which the minerals have relation in origin. Beyond the contact of calcareous rocks with schists there is a contact zone of cal- careous rocks with microgranulite. This is persued in all exten- sions in the metallic formations of Bulgar-Maden. Stone massea of ore are filled in the pockets of this microganulite. This bed is subjected to alterations below the level of the vaUey; which is due to subterranean circulating waters, in contact with metallic sulphurs. Ore is rich in lead, the medium tenor being 20 per cent. Keban-Maden. — This is a complex deposit of argentiferous- galena, blende and pyrite with antimony. Ore is formed in contact zone of limestones with porphyry, which is found more plentifully disseminated near the junction of two species of rocks; although some rich portions of nearly pure argentiferous sul- phuret of lead here and there have the appearance of occurring in veins. One hundred pounds of excavated ore contains i to 1.5 ounces of silver. ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 185 ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF LEAD. Years Metric Ton Years Metric Ton 1894 1,078 1907 10,398 1895 1908 11,772 1896 1.764 1909 12,128 1897 1,785 1910 12,700 1900 2,800 191 1 13,000 1905 10,000 1912 12,500 ZINC. From the amount of zinc production listed below, seems very probable that the exploitation of its resources has been lately- undertaken and some development work has been done. The data concerning their geological features are lacking except the zinc deposits of Balia. Zinc is also extracted from silver and lead mines as it is already discussed under their respective headings. A deposit of Calamine was worked at Karasu, close to the Za- karia river, in the province of Ismid. The mines were owned by a French company. Other known deposits of zinc ore occur in the province of Adana which have not yet been developed. A small amount of work has been done on a zinc mine at Bazar, in the district of Bigha. Zinc has also been discovered at Kirasliyaila, in the vicinity of the ancient town of Pergamos. Near Smyrna, zinc occurs with the lead, while at Karalar the ore is silver bearing. Zinc associated with silver lead of Balia-Maden, is already discussed. PRODUCTION OF ZINC. Years Metric Tons. 1892 100 1895 112 f' 1309 1897 1898 18000 191 1 40000 i86 MINERAL RESOURCES TIN. A Tertiary cassiterite tin ore is described in Kurbaba Mountain near Tillek (Armenia), and between Sahend and Araxes River associated with copper. But those ores have more historical and scientific interest rather than industrial importance. Some kind of ore is described near Migri, (Caucasian Ar- menia) on Araxes associated with molybdenum and in Hejenan where molybdenum associated with pyrites and copper in granu- lites is found. The ancient records show that tin, cassiterite ore, was mined near the present towns of Sinous, and also near Aleppo. ARSENIC. At Julfa, in Daridagh (Armenia), gypsum occurs in cracks. In these cracks of gypsum marl are found veins and nests of realgar and gold pigment. Realgar is also found further north in Bechenak near sulphur mine. At Bocha in the basin o,f the lower Charoth south of Batum gold pigment is found which is used by dyers of Artvin. Valuable gold pigment mines lie at Andanise, between Bash- kala and Kochanese in Taurus. The mines, in the province of Aidin, in Anatolia, is large and rich deposit of Arsenic-pyrite in the vicinity of Eudemish and elsewhere. The most important deposit worked is situated in the neighbor- hood of Yenikoi, where from 600-800 tons per annum are pro- duced. This ore assays as high as 42 per cent, arsenic and car- ries considerable gold. The mines at Elkhur, near Rozdan, produce 500 tons a year. The ore is found in the same veins that carry the stibnite, but in pockets free from the presence of this last named mineral. ANNUAL PRODUCTION. Years Metric Tons. 1893 200 1894 V 1895 f 3°3 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 187 COBALT. A deposit of cobalt ore has been found at Dash-Kessan, in the government of Elizabethpol, which takes the form of a dyke im- pregnated by cobalt associated with iron and copper pyrites. This is important among all mines of cobalt. This cobalt ore is al- most entirely free from nickel and consists of a thick bedded lode of magnetite. The one at Chatakh consists of a large irregular mass of di- orite impregnated with iron glance. INDEX GEOGRAPHICAL. A. Abdi Pasha "JJ Acropolis 80 Adalia 43 Adana . 48, 107, 109, 149, 171 Adapazar 58 Adriatic 81, no Aegean 35, 41, 47, 56, 58, 90, 95,99 Afganistan 117 Afion-Karahissar 95, 161, 133 Africa 55 Ahar 39 Aghatch-Bashi 97 Aidin 48, 73, 102, no, 129, 143, 171 Aintab 108 Ajaris 53 Aji Rvr. 70 Akbaba 52 Akcha-Ova •j'j Ak-chai 99, 107 Ak-Dagh 60, 71, 82, 96, 152, 157 Akhaltzik 53, 67, 68, 70, 85, Akhuri-Rvr. 72 Akhmongan 39 Akhtala 165 Akra 108 Ak-Serai 97 Akstafa 67, 68 Ala-chair "jj^ Ala-Dagh 54, 95, 157 Ala-goz 50, 55, 72, 87 Aladja-Aghzy 103, 104 Alaja Mt. 87 Ala-Shehr 96 Alashkert 38, 40, 44, 46, 50, 54, 17, 78, 95, 96, 152 Albania no Albian 66 Albistan 60 Aleppo 170, 171 Alexandrett 28, 58, no, 168 Alexandropol 43, 46, 70, 71, 87, 107, 162 AHMt. 67,111 Alikulikent 66 AHzy 96 Allah- Verdi 162, 165 Alma-Dagh 58 Almons 97 Alps 36, 76, 85, 86 Altai Mt. 35 Amanus 56 Amasia 40, jy , 78, 95, 86, 152 Amasra 29, 50, 75, 76, IT, 105, 109 America 74, 75, 88, 128 Angora 40, 64, 76, 78, 95, 96, 120 Antioch 171 Anti-Taurus 26, 34, 30, 41, I go MINERAL RESOURCES 42, 47, so, 52, 53, 59, 73, 74, 75, 82, 154, etc. Apaud 68 Apshiron 1 1 1 Arabia 31, 34, 54. 57. §5 Arabkir 61, 86 Rratch 96 Ararat 34, 37, 38, 44, 45, 50, 54, 55, 61, 69, 70, 71, 72, 84, 86, 87, 122, 124, 144 Arax 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 49, 50, 55, 61, 63, 65, 68, 69, 82, 106, 108, III, 117, 120 Archavatal 161 Archipelago 35, 41, 129 Ardahan 43, 68 Ardanush 53, 60, 66, 82 Ardebel 50 Argachi 86 Argeaus 49, 55, 73, 95, 97, 153. 157 Arghana 28, 67, 68, 86, 153 Arghana-Su 67 Arjivan 53 Arkhava 53 Armutli 43 Arpa Rvr. 61, 70 Arpa-gol 43 Arpa-Ouchourou 1 57 Arpatal 69 Artvin 60, 82, 152, 161, 162 Aryan 27 Ashakl Mt. 37 Ashkala 69, 70 Asheref 50 Asia 34, 35, 36, 57, 76, 85, 117 Asia Minor 27, 29, 34, 45, 48, 64, 82, 89, 90, 99, 107, 121, 131, 137, 148, etc. Astyria 139 Astamal 162 Asterabad 50 Ataineos 139 Australia 148 Avanos 152 Ayasmand 28 Azerbaijan 43, 64, 65, 69 Azizie 126, 129 B. Bab. Bournon 79 Bagaditch 95 Baghchejik 74, 128 Baibazar 96 Baiburt 106, 152 Bairamitch 80 Bakr-Kuressi 152, 161 Baku no, 113, 114, 115, 116 Balaban 55 Balakhani 114, 115 Balia-Maden 28, 56, 99, 158, 160 Balkans 35, 37, 103, 108 Baltic 89 Balybagh 120 Barabatan 162 Barghama 98 Bartan 95 Bashbouran-Koi 98 B ashkala 37 Bashet 37 Bashkent 44 Bash-Koi 97 Batum 38, 73, 84, III, 113, 147, 161 Bayazid 69, 86 Bechanak 132 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 191 Begil 108 Behring Sea 35 Beigerler-Koi 160 Beirout-Dagh 28, 107, 170 Beldjeis 96 Belen 170 Bereketli-Maden 96, 151 Bergushet Rvr. 66 Beylik 105 Bezobdal 52 Bibi ii'5 Bielyiklinch 52 Bilejik 58 Binagadi 115, 116, 117 Bingol 44, 45, 71 Bitlis 107 Bithynia 34, 40, 58, 71, JJ, 78 Biyad 96 Black Sea 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 47, 48, 55, 57, 73, 80, 86, 88, 90, 91, 102, no, "7. 147 Bogboga 114 Borjom 38, 53, 67 Bolat 95, 98 Boli 76 Bolnis 95, 98 ffolshya ?Keity 1 08 Borchka 108 Bosphorus Ji, 74, 75, 88, 90, 96 Boulouk-gol 121 Boz-bouroun 79 Boz-Dagh 138 Broussa 48, 57, 73, loi, 160, 171 Bulanik 46 Bulgar-Dagh 97, 157 Bulgar-Maden 28, 153, 156, 170 C. Caff a 132 California 127 Camdilli 105 Cape-Caledonia no Capoo-Sou 105 Cappadocea 58 Caria 56, 57, 59, 79, 107 Carpathians 35 Caspian Sea 34, 35, 37, 42, 52, 53. 54, 81, 87, 90, 114, 117, 118, 119 Caucasus 32, 35, 36, 52, 53, 54, 57, 63, 64, 66, (fj, 83, 84, 87, 90, 108, no, III, 117, 162, 173 Chabakchar 36 Chram- Valley 60 Chambuk 165 Chardaklu 52 Charel 107 Chatma 113 Chaoush-Aghzy 104 Chemaera no Cheraker 107 Cherkos-Deli 109 Chifte-Khan 154 China 48 Chinese 35 Chili 126, 127, 128 Chios 56 Chorokh 36, 38, 39, 45, 52, 53, 55, 60, 66, 69, 72, 108, 147, 152 Cilicia JT, 78, 79, 86, 88, 90, 170 192 MINERAL RESOURCES Cilician-Gates 41, 48 Cilician-Taurus 41, 42, 48, 57, 58 Colorado 156 Constantinople 81, 82, 102, 146, 149, 171 Corinth 132 Cosbounar 129 Cozlou 103, 104, 105 Crete 56 Crimea 35, Tj, 80, 83, 90, 91, 132 Cyprus D. Daata 132 Dachichek 50, 60 Daghardi 28 Daghistan 84 Dahan-Aslan 81 Dalaman 96 Dalmatian 35, 41 Dammry Mt. 49 Danga 61 Daralagoz 39, 40, 49, 60, 61, 82, 85, 86, 132, 135 Darasham 68 Dardanelles 74, 78, 79, 80, 82, 90, 99, 132, 139 Dary-Dagh 69 Dashkessan 135 Davalu 61 Davas 59 Dead Sea 124, 129 Debeda dj, 71 Degma 61 Deki I0120 Delgam 72 Demir-Dagh 168 Demir-Tash loi, 168 Denek-Maden 152 Dere Koi 98, 150 Dergal 107 Dersim 61 64, 82, 106, 108, 168 Derstek 106 Devehboyoun 55 Devil Mt. 69 Diadin Mt. 53, 71, 132 Diarbekr 28, 54, 108, 134, 149, 161, 165, 166 Digga 117 Digora 53 Dinaric Arc 56, 57 Djide 104 Dneiper 90 Dobrousha 83 Dochus-punar 43, 53 Domooz 104 Donetz 90 Dovantzi loi Duchu 68 Dujuk 168 Dumbeltek 159 Durezzo no Dybakli 168 Dzansugli 164 Dzanzul 162 E. Eanedeh 80 isdrimid 99 Egin 42, 50 Egrilos 132 Egypt 109 Eibet 115 Ekhiti-Oughlou 74 Elburz 32, 49, 50, 54, 63 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 193 Eldin III Etf ahla 1 1 1 Elizabethpol 64, 67, 130, 164 Eljik-Dagh 105 Elvach 162, 164, 165 Elma-Dagh 95 Emir-Dagh- 122 Eregli 73 Ergha 162 Erivan 46, 70, 72 Erooh 107 Erzerum 36, 40, 44, 45, 46, 48, 54, 55, 70. 71, 106, 107, no, 137, 149, 152 Erzingan 39, 45, 46, 50, 54, 70, 72, 86, 120 Eschen-Keoi 97 Eshak-Meidan 72 Eskil 121 Eski-Shehr 1 31-132 Euprates 41, 42, 45, 48, 97, 108, III, 152, 153 Europe 27, 36, 56, 57, 58, 74, 75, 76, 77, 84, 85, 88, 89, 99, 103, 117, 120 Evdjiler 98 Evenkoi 80 Eyerli 44, 79 Ezderun 98 Feke 75 Filios 102 Five Pines 82 Frankfort 159 Frat 50, 52, 69, 70, 84, 86, 108 G. Gaishtasar 50 Galatia 78, 87 Galingaya 50 Galipoli 81, 82 Galivera 161 Galizuski 164 Gandamir 44 Gangra 120 Ganos 109 Gavart 162 Gedergan- 69 Gelies 134 Geordiz 73 Gerdiz 97 Gerjik 96 Germany 128 Germavic 64 Geuk-Sou 96 Geuy loi Ghemlik loi Gibbula 81 Gobi 35 Gokcha 37, 38, 39, 67, 72, 84, Gok-Sou 41, 48 Goleh 42 Gori 54, III Gotadza 134 Goynik 134 Greece 70, 90, no, 140 Greenwitch 106 Gtosny in Gug Oghlou 71 Gulek 157 Gulek-Boghaz 41, 48 Gul-Hissar 102 Guile 98 Gum-gum-liz 54 Gumugh-Dagh 129 194 MINERAL RESOURCES Gumur 132 Gune 95 Gurun 97 Gushaish 65 Gutevaria 53 Gyneshik 61 H. Hadjin 75, 76 Hadjiman-Yaila 97 Hairie 160 Halys 55, 58, 13s, 137 Hammam 1 1 1 Han-hai 35 Hara 109^ Haran 49 Harmanjik 171 Hassan-Chaoushlar 129 Hassan-Kala 71 Hazara 108 Hazo 120 Hedgenan 162 Hekiari 107 Herbol 108, iii Heraclea 29, 55, 75, jj, 79, 80, 95, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 109 Hermos 141, 143 Himalaya 35, 57, 117 Hindu-Kush 32,34,35,41,42 Hipsala 85, 95, 97 Hit III Hortuk 108 Hudavendighiar 126, 149, 157, 158, 171 Huelva 148 Id 60, 71 leni-Chair 58 Igdir 72 Ilidja 71, 154 Ilison 104, 105 Ilkas-Dagh 76 Imeritian 38, 52, 53, 108 Imerkhim 152 Imerkhevi 53 India 31, 34, 57, 63, 83, 119, 128 Ineboli 40, 152, 161 Ionian 34, 41 Iron 34, 36, 39, 57, 40, 46 Isaurian 41, 48 Isbarta 41, 48 Ishikli 50 Iskenderun 171 Isnik 160 Isnik Chair 160 Ispie 161 Italy 128 Itushem 69 J- Jadi 54, 108 Jaxartes 35 Jejen 52 Jelu Mt. 37, 39, 60, 63, 72 Jerjer 84 Jesireh 54, 108 Jibbah 1 1 1 Jihun 41, 49, 107, 109 Jivah-Geul 95 Jivanik 162 Jordan 55 K. Kabagtepe 64 Kargapunar 53 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 195 Kagizman 43, 120 Kaiserieh 55, 73, 120, 152 Kalakent 147 Kalburji 95 Kalopotamos 168 Kaulsakendi 64 Kanlija 74 Karabagh 32, 37, 40, 49, 50, 52, 54, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66, 67, 82, 83, 84, 85, 147, 162 Karabel-Dagh 42 Karabournu 56-95 Kara-Dagh 41, 49, 55, 73, 95 Karaboghaz 118, 119 Kara-Dere 79 Karahissar 53, 60, 68 Karaja Mt. 54, 55, 107 Karaja-Kaya 53 Karakala 72 Karakana 168 Karakaya 50 Karakilissa 1 1 1 Karakoi 72 Karapunar 74, 95 Kara-Sou 50 Karchkhal Mt. 53, 60, 68 Kardarich 69 Karkar 37 Karmirvauk 68 Kars 43, 54 Kar-chai 52 Kasanyaila 63, 83 Kashet 55 Kashkal-Dagh 106 Kashkale 107 Kasos 50 Kastamuni 48, 58, 95, 96 Katirlan 152 Keban-Maden 68, 152, 153 Kebsid 95 Kedabek 162 Kegeba 53 Kegejin 50 Kehal Jo Kelkil 28, 39, 52, 71 Kemil 82 Kemikji-Ojaghi 131 Keramos 102 Kerason 135, 137, 148, 161 Kerasliyaila 160 Kertch 81 Keshan 79 Keshat 152 Keshish-Dagh 38, 39, 52, 71 Kesik-Dere Khama 37 Khamur 45 Khamurli 97 Khan Mt. 40 Khanli 60 Kharpoot 34, 68, 108, 147, 152, 165, 166 Kharshut Rvr. 65 Khatchboolach 130 Khenek 160, 107 Khinis 45, 46, 54, 61, 70, 71 Khoi 69, 87 Khordalan 116, 117, 152 Khortakal 152 Khozan-Dagh 171 Khorzoon 97 Khutel-Dagh 147 Khvartzkhane 78, 162 Kiaki Mt. 6 5 Kifri III Kilimli 104, 105 Kilvenek 147 Kilissejik 108 196 MINERAL RESOURCES Killindria 74 Killis 86 Kiosk 102 Kiosse Aghzy 104 105 Kir 113 Kiretchlik 104 Kirkut 108 Kirmizi-Chai 97 Kisbeli . 85, 97 Kishala 170 Kisheli 86, 95, 97 Kissatib 71 Kizil-Boghaz 50 Kizil-lr0iak 41, 42, 47, 48, 120, 121, 152, 161 Kizil Mt. 61, 82 Krasnododsk 35 Kukurtlu 107 Kulpi 50, 120 Kuluk 129 Kumach 108 Kur 37.38,42,52,53.54.67, 85, III, 118 Kurmasti 159 Kuru-Dagh 56 Kush Mt. 37 Kutahia 28 Kutais III, 164 Kuzeh 54 Kvirila 65, 67 Lake Aral 89, 90 Lake Baluk 38 Lake Beisliekr 75 Lake Chaldir 52, 70, 71, 87, 122 Lake Gokcha 5:? 52, 54, 68. 70, 87, 122 Lake Goleh 71 Lake Goljik 36, 71 l.ake Gori 71 Lake Isnik 109 Lake Khozapian 52 Lake Medotopa 52 Lake Nazik 70, 71, 122 Lake Toporavan 42, 70, 122 Lake Umri 39, 53, 63, 64, 65, 68, 70, 71, 84, 120, 122, 124, 125, 127, 136 Lake Van 36, 39, 44, 45, 46, 53, 54, 59, 60, 61, 69, 70, 71, 107, 120, 122, 123, 125, 136 Lampascus 99 Laurion 157 Leadville 156 Lefke 55, 58, 120 Lerrmos 99 Levant 79 Lialvar 52 Lidjessi 153 Lijeru 71 Lilo 52 Limestone 44, 45, 58, 70, 71, 72, 7Z, 74. 75, 76, 79. 85. 102, 129, 130, 135, 150, 152, 153. 156, 157. 158. 172 Lokia 129 Lori 71 Loungourlu 120 Lycaonia 40, 55, 56, 57, 73, 90, 96, 121, 136 Lycia 41, 56, 78, 96, 97 Lydia Jz, 78. 79. 140, 141, 142, 143, 144 Lyell Mt. 148 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 197 M. Macedonia 145 Maden-Khan 152, 161 Maden-Koi 120 Maghara 120 Makry 28, 101 Maku 69, 86 ' Malaria 54 Mamkodi 53 Mamuretulaziz 106 Manasuck 1 1 1 Mangislik 83 Manglis 53 Manisa loi, 143 Manjilik 97, 99, 159 M,aragha 70, 87 Mardin 54, 86 Marellesion 65 Marmora 29, 73, 79, 80, 81, 99, 109, 157, 158 Meander 48, 80, 81 Mediterranean 27, 34, 41, 42, 47, 56, 57, 58, 76, 76, 79, 80, 84, 86, 88, 90, 117 Melasket 45, 54, 70 Melatta 67 Melik-Sherif 71, 81 Melpert 40, 50 Menderli 1 1 1 Merpan Mt. 39, 45, 108 Mersina 48 Mersivan 106, 153 Mervanen 108 Mesepsif loi Migri 84, 106, 108, 171, 173 Mikhaelov 67 Mikus 59 Milas 102 Mio-Dagh 162 Miriam 40, 50, 108 Mishkhan 170 Mitilini 56 Mitskhert 53 Molita 65 Mongolia 35 Morgan Mt. 148 Mourad-Geul 121 Mourtad-Sou 95 Moushlou-Sou 120 Mta-Skara 38 Mughla - no Murad 36, 38, 45 Murad-Khan 65 Mush 36, 39, 44, 46, 107 Mushoma 71 Muzur Mt. 39, 45, 50, 52, in Mysia 73, 74, 78, 157 Mytelene 99 N, Nariman 71, 107 Nakhichevan 54, 69, in, 120 Nazilli 102 Negropond 132 Nepiskario 53 Nevada 139 Nevshehr 95 Nicie 160 Nigde 73, 95, 154 Niksar 95 Nimrud 87 Nisyros 56 Nordooz 56 North Carolina 131 Nuova 102 Nurdus 108 Nyassa 55 198 MINERAL RESOURCES O. Ochital 60 Okchai 162 Olti 52, 60, 70, 71, 120 Olympus 40, 49, 57, 73 Ordabad 49 Ormuz 34 Oshara 53 Otluk 52 Ounineh 139 Ouzouyaila 39, 59 Oxus 35 Pactolus 141, 142 Palandoken 40, 44, 45, 50, 55 Pallas 120 Palu 28, 36, 54, 107, 108, 109 Pambak 52, 60, 67, 68, 70, 84, 170 Pamir 35 Pamphylia 41, 49 Panderma 26, loi, 135 Papazly 80 Paphlagonia 57, 58, 76, 78, 96 Paris 132 Pasin 40, 44, 45, 46, SO, 70, 71 Pergamos 139 Perghama 120, 160 Peril Mt. 37, 38 Peru 108 Persia 34, 36, 39, 42, 45, 46, 61, 70, 71, 83, 85, 86, 106, 107, no, 117, 120 Phlinika 177 Phrygia 55, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143 Pirmakapan 70 Pisidia 41, 78, 96 Pison 45 Padolia 89 Poili 113 Polatli 59, 78, 87, 91, 99, 122 Poltava 90 Pontus 34, 28, 39, 40, 41, 42, 49. 42, S3> 55. 57. 58, 60, 66, 68, 71, 77, 79, 82, 83, 84, 97, 121, 137, 138, 144, 146, 161 Poskov Rvr. 53 Prussia 89 Puta 116 R Rahmin 108 Red Sea 55 Rhodes 56, 57, 58 Rion 67 Rio Tinto 148 Romany 114 Roumania 64 Roumeli-Hissar 82 Rowanduz 55, 60 Russia 31, 52, 77, 91, 106, 117, 145, 162 S Saboontchy 1 14 Saghlik 135 Sahend 54, 162 Saigroma 50 Saka 129 Sakaria 47, 55, 57, 58, 121, 122 Salaka 37 Salavan 50, 54 Salgalotto 53 Salvasti 49 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 199 Sambana 145 Samsat 54 Satnothrace 56 Samsar 87 Samjel-Robat 68 Samos 56, 57 Samsata 1 1 1 Samson 40 Samsislo 53 Santorin 56, 95 Sarababa 161 Sarai 117 Sardes 140 Sardingo 157 Sasun 147 Satah 53 Scala 102 Scutaria 58 Sebastopol 132 Sefedler 105 Segisik 108 Segnak 53 Selefke "jy Seliyaila 95 Sepetji 131 Sepki 131 Seresu 131 Serian Tepe 81 Serjiller 139 Sert 54 Severek 166 Shabin Karahissar 133 Shah Mt. 37, III Shahi 69 Shaitan 72 Shamshortal 64 Sharopan i i i Shatin 34, 40, 50, 61, 82, 84 Shengyah 106 Shermak Mt. 54 Shikaus 164 Shivan 59, 147 Shistapa 42 Sharian Mt. 53 Siberia 30, 35, 48 Sihun 41, 109 Siller 108 Sinope 40, 55, 58, 73, 81, 161 Sipan 45, 54, 87 Sipikor 52, 86 Sipilus Mt. 143 Sis 107 Sivalik 70 Sivas 28, 48, 106, 121, 133, 150. 152 Sivishlu 107 Sizi-Madeni 168 Smyrna 48, 56, 57, 98, 102, 129, 143, 157 Soganly 87 Sokia 87 Soma 102 Soma loi, 159 Somketian 38, 60, 71, 82, 84, 85 Soneisat 1 1 1 Sooksou 104 Soulou-Ova 96 Spalmatori 56 Spain 148 Staasfurt 127 Sultan-Chair 126 Sultan-Dagh 122 Sunik 164 Surmeneh ill Syrersyrchelly 50 Syria 34, 41, 48, 49, 86, 89, 170 200 MINERAL RESOURCES Tabriz 70, 87 Tadvan 60 Taginomi 53 Talish 39 Talori 1 70 Tanali 69 Tanganyka. 55 Tarim 35 Tarsus 154 Tartiz Mt. 53 Tasmania 148 Tatakh 45 Taurus 28, 29, 34, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 47, 48, 49, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57. 59. 60, 67, 68, 70, 72, 74, 82, 86, 87, 107, 108, 120, 121, 138, 147 Tavshan-Dagh 106 Tazegul 107 Tchai 1 01 Tchai-Dere loi, 107 Tchamak-Dagh loi Tchandarlik 98 Tchatal-Aghzy 104, 105 Tchatal-Oghlou 74, 78 Tchayan 120 Tchough 107 Tchemishguezek 106 Teati-Shan 35, 36 Tekir-Dagh .56 Tekman 50 Telkiari 1 1 1 Tendurek 87, 132 Tepesi-Delik 120 Terek 118 Terajan 40 Terter 39, 68 Thasos 157 Thermodon 135 Thrace 98, 158 Tiiralitic 38, 52, 53, 87, 108 Tibet 35, 57 Tiflis 38, 53, III, 113, 162, 163 Tigris 54, 85, 108, 166, 170 Tilek 168 Tmolus Mt. 141, 143 Tokat •jj, 78, 95, 106, 167 Tombof 90 Tortum 69, 108 Transylvania 64 Trapassar Mt. 65, 66 Trebizond 28, 40, 48, 71, 11 1, 135. 137. 146, 152, 149. 161 Tripoli 13s Troad 79, 80, 96, 99, 139, 140 Trojan 80, 107 Troy 58 Tsamly 105 Touzla 80 Touz-Geullu 95, 122 Touz-Kharmatli 1 1 1 Touz-Koi 120 Touz-Tchollu 121 U Ural 118 Uraval 71, 137 Urfa 54 Urmi 61, 64, 80 Ust-Urt 90 Utah 131 Utch-Kapou 96 V Van 107, 108, no. III, 120 Vanik 59 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 20 1 Vartik 107 Vavuk Mt. 53 Varzahan 52 Vizirkhan 55 Volga 118 Voroneje 90 X Xeros 81 Yaylaga 52 Yaija 69 Yailaji 76 Yailajik 107 Yeni-Khan 76 Yerebakan 74 Yeshil-Irmak 48 Ylang-Dagh 154 Yosgat 73, 78, 96 Yousouf-Oghlou 97 Z Zab 37, 63, 108 Zabrat 114 Zafranik 106 Zagros 34, 38, 39, 54, 85, 86 Zakhlu III Zamantia-Sou. 41 Zangesur 162, 164 Zangimar 69 Zangra 68 Zangul 167 Zeitun 28, 107, 170 Zerdeji 50 Zermek Mt. 45 Zinlerly 40, 50 Zirula 60, 65, 66 Zokh 70 Zoongooldak 29, 104 II MINERAL AND GEOLOGICAL. Abydos 139 Acervularia 61 Acmoea "]"] Acteonella 66 Actinolite 166 Aculeata 76 Aduncus 80 Agate 137 Algae 63, 83 Alectryonia 69, 80 Alveolina 78 Alveolite 75 Alum 61, 133, 134 Alumina 123, 124, 133 Aluminum Oxide 129 Alunite 133, 134, 135 Ambigua 63 Ammonia 123 Ammonites 65, 66, 67, TJ Ammonium Chloride 124 Amphibole 152 Amygdaloidal 66, 67 Ananchytes J"] Anadonta 71 Anadora 80 Ancep 64 Andesite 67, 80, 85, 92, 93, 94, 139, 152, 157, 161, 165 202 MINERAL RESOURCES ' Anglesite 153 Annelids 88 Anomalis 69 Anorthite 157 Anorthosite 158 Antelops 70 Antepora 74 Anthra 78 Anthracite 107, 108, 109 Antimony 153, 160, 162, 182, 183 Antiquata 75, 76 Aptian 66 Aquila 66 Aquilloni 66 Archaic 59 Archaici 61 Arduenensis 'j'j Argentiferous Copper 161 Argentiferous galena 149, 151, 153. 157. 160 Argillaceous Calcite 135 Argillaceous earth 67, 126, 129 Armeniacus 71 Arsenic 147, 151, 153, 157, 160 Asiatico 73 Asiaticum 75 Asphalt no, III Astrya 70 Attica 70 Augite 85, 92, 93, 94, 139, 157, 158, 161 Auriferous lead 157 B Baeumleri 103 Bajocian 64, 83 Barite 159, 160, 164 Barrandu 74 Barremian 65 Basalis 74 Basalt 8s, 86, 92, 95, 96, 97, 136 Bearitzensis 78 Beasolleti 81 Beaumonti 74 Bendenti 66 Bifrons 68 Bituminous 61, 63, loi, 105, 107 Blende 153, 158, 159, 160, i6S Boblayei 74 Bocii 74 Bolomensis 75 Bong 90 Borate 126, 127, 136 Borate of lime 128 Borax 71 Boric Acid 127 Bornite 16 5 Brachiopod 61, 63, 64, 82 Brandaris 81 Braunspath 1 59 Breccia 65, 67 Brimestone 132 Bronzite 92 Bryozoa 63, 83, 88 Caesopitosium 61 Caledonic 82 Calamine 152, 160 Calamite 83 Calamorphite 65 Calc-Schist 154 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 203 Calcedony loi Calceola 61, 82 Calcium Borate 29, 126, 127 Calcium Carbonate 124, 156 Calcium Chloride 125 Calcium Oxide 129 Calcium Phospate 124 Calcium Sulphate 124, 156 Callovian 64, 83, 84 Campaphyllum 75 Cancellata TJ Caprotina 84, 103 Caradon 103, 105 Carbon dioxide 129 Carboniferous 56, 61, 63, 72, 73. 74, 75. 76, 83, 84, 88, 89, 102, 158 Carcinis 68 Cardium 71, 78, 80, 81 Cassiterite 186 Castel-Gomberto 85 Catenates 76 CatJUus 71 Cazecal 81 Cedaris 68 Cenomanian 66, 84, 85 Cenonian 84, 85 Cephalopodes 75 Cerastoderma 81 Ceratididae 63 Ceriopora 69 Cerithium 68, 78, 80, 81 Cervicomus 75 Cervus 70 Cespitosam 75 Chalak 27 Chalk 45, 67, 77, 86, 88, 136, 152 Chalkos 27 Chaleopyrite 159, 162, 164, 165 Chama 65 Chideru 63 Chlorine 123, 125 Chlorite-Schist 60 Chondrite 67 Chonetes 61, 63, 74, 75 Chrome 28, 171, 172, 173 Chrouts 27 Chrysos 27 Chrysodium 79 Cinnabar 178 Clay 60, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74, 80, 81, 82, loi, 108, 115, 136 Clay Slate 60; 61, 76, 152 Clupa 69 Clypeaster 69 Coal 29, 67, 75, 78, 79, 85, 90, 99, loi, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106 Cobalt 187 Coenites 75 Colemanite 126 Concentrica 61 Conglomerate 61, 64, 65, 70, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, loi, 126 Conus 68 Constinopolitanum 74 Convulatum 78 Copper 27, 28, 97, 147, 148, 152, 153, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168 Copper glance 164 Copper molybdenite 162 Copper pyrite 75 Coral 45, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 85, 86 Coralline 83 Coral-Rag 77 204 MINERAL RESOURCES Corbicula 79 Corbis 78 Cornuvacium 78 Corundum 15, 129 Cothirium 78 Cotuloni 65 Covellite 164 Crassissima 80 Cretacea 78 Cretaceous 50, 52, 53, 57, 58, 59, 60, 64, 65, 66, 68, 72, 73, -jj, 84, 85, 88, 95, 97, 102, 108, III, 135, 152, 153. 16s ' Crinoid 63 Crispus 69 Cristata 74 Crossa 81 Crustacea 66, 88 Cuboidis 61 Culm 75, 102 Cupriferous pyrite 159, 160 Curvieri 67 Cyathophyllum 61, 75 Cyclolite T] Cyrena 79 Cystiphyllum 61, 63 D Dacite 63 Dactyles 139 Dalmanella 63 Davousti 74 Decemradiata 65 Defrancii 69 Deltoid 81 Dephyoides 65 Depressa 65 Desmaceros 60 Despansa 78 Desparilis 78 Devonica 74 Devonian 60, 61, jz, 73, 74, 75, 82, 83, 88, 89, 131, 152, 156 Diabase 44, 60, 63, 64, 67, 91, 92, 97, 162, 165 Dialage 96, 166 Dianae 81 Diatomaceous 98 Didacna 81 Didacus 81 Diluvii 80 Diorite 50, 59, 93, 94, 97, 147, 165, 168 Discoidus 66 Discus 68 Djumense 66 Dogger 64, 83 Dolerite 66, 67, 95, 96, 97 Dolomite 60, 63, 154, 153, 156 Driessensia 70, 71, 81, 87 Echinocorys 67 Edule 81 Elaphas 71 Elegans 67 Emery 129, 130 Endothyra 63 Eocene. 53, 57, 58, 67, 68, 69, 74, 78, 79. 85, 86, 89, 90, 95, 97, 106, 108, no, 153, 154, 157 Epidolite 158 Epidote 157 Eupholite 127 Eurite 95, 97 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 205 Exogyra 65, 66 Exponense 78 F. Fahlband 164 Favosites 75 JEeldspar 60, 93, 95, 152 Feldspathic porphyry 152 Felsitic 94 Fenestelk 75 Flint 67, loi Floriformis 62 Flysch 58,67,85 Foraminifera 67 Fortisia 79 Frazilis 80 Frusticosus 75 Fucoides 67 Fuller's earth 136 Fusilina 63, 83 Fusulinella 63 Gabbro 44, 91, 126 Galena 75, 150, 152, 153, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161, 164, 165 Garnet 158, 164 Gastropod 68, 80, 173 Gervillei 74 Gigentes 63, 103 Gigentia 78 Giraffes 70 Glacier 71, 72, 82 Glaucina 68 Glauconite 66 Glaucophane i 54 Gold 27, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 156, 164, 165 Goldfussi 61 Graben 87 Gracile 70, 80, 81 Granite 49, 59, 60, 65, 73, 87, 90, 94, 96, 130 Granitite 94, 126 Granophyr 162 Granulosa 78 Gneiss 52, 59, 60, 73, 87, 130, 172 Graphite 61 Grawake "]"] Gryhoides 103 Gunteri 68 Gypsum 70, 78, 79, 86, 87, 126 135, 153 H Hamoxitos 80 Hanisi 71 Haploceras 64 Hardrensis 63 Harmodites 76 Harpacto 68 Harzburgite 91 Hauterivian 65, 84 Heliolite 61 Helix 98 Helvetian 69, 79, 80, 86 Hematite 97 Hercynian 57 Hipparion 70 Hippurite 78, 84 Homalonotus 74 Hopkinsi 69 Hornblende 85, 92, 93, 131, 147 Bomblende-Schist 59 Horridus 76 Horst S3, 54, 57, 82, 86, 87 Humulis 69 206 MINERAL RESOURCES Hybridum 78 Hydromica 172 Hyeximica 70 Hypersthene 91 Hypersthenite 96 I Inflatus 61 Inoceramus 67, ^T, 78 Intermedius 68 Iron 27, 28, 95, 97, 107, 108, 168 Iron Carbonate 124 Iron Ochre 153 Iron Oxide 123, 129, 133, 152, 156 Irridiuni 147 J jasper loi Julfa 63, 68, 69, 83 Julfense 64 Jurassic 58, 59, 60, 64, 65, 72, 73, 76, -JT, 88, 89, 162 K Kaoline 136 Kedabergite 164 Kelloway Rock 'j'j Kimmeredgian 64, "j'j, 83, 84 L Labrusca 79 Lactus 81 Laeigatus 68 Lamarkii "j'j, 78 Lamellosa 78, 80 Lamma 67 Lanceolata 69 Laterius 69 Lead 28, 75, 147. I49. i57. 159, 183, 184, 185 -_ Lead Carbonate 156, 161 Lebloena 74 Lenticularis 63 Letiensis 61 Leucite 92 Lherzolite 91 Limonite 28, 170 Lias 64, 83 Lignite 79, 99, 102, 106, 108 Lindermeyari 70 Lima 63, 65 Limburgite 91 Lime 123, 125 Liperite 80, 139 --> Lithographic Stone 67, 135 Lithophya 81 Lithopodolicum 80 Lithostration 63 Lithothamnian 86 . Longicoudatis 74 Lonsdaleia 63 Loripes 81 Lucina 78 M Macrocephallus 64 Mactra-Kalk 79, 80, 81 Manganese 152, 158, 161. 173, 174, 175 Manganese Oxide 123 Magnesia 123, 125 Magnesium 120 Magnesium Carbonate 124, 130 Magnesium Chloride 125, 127 Magnesium Silicate 126, 131 Magnesium Sulphate 124, ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 207 125, 136 Magnetite 129, 164, 170, 172 Major 66 Malm 64 Maltha 1 1 1 Maraghanus 70 Marble 59, 60, 73, 82, 120, 135 Marl 59, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69. 70. 75. 79. 81, loi, 108, 152, 165 Marmini 75 Marn 76, JJ, 78, 79, 80 Martini 63 Mastadon 70 Medistextus 61 Meerschaum 130, 131, 132 Melanopsis 71 Melaphyr 60, 64 Mercury 178, 179, 180, 181 Merista 61 Mesezoic 59, 73, 86 Metallon 27 Mica 59, 61, 74, 93, 139, 152, 172 Mica Schist 60, 61, 71, 76 Mica Slate 124 Michilini 63 Microgranulite 153, 156 Minus 78 Miocene 53, 54, 59, 68, 69, 78, 80, 86, 96, 97, 99, 108, III, 120, 132 Modosoplicatum 80 Mollusc 89, 91 Molybdenum 186 Moscow 83 Moskaus 63 Moutoniana 65 Murchisoni 63, 75 Murex 81 Muscovite 94 Myriophyto 80, 109 N Nana 75 Nantilus 65 Naptha 79 Natica 68 Nathein 64 Negram 63 Neocomian 65, 86 Neogene 73 Neruea 66 Nitrate 123, 124, 135 Nummulite dj, 68, 85, 89, 90, 147, 154, 156 Nuropteris 103 O- Obselatum 80 Oligist 97 Oligocene 50, 54, 59, 67, 68, 78, 79, 85, 86, 108, 154 Oligoclose 95 Olivine 91 Onyx 135 Operculina 78 Ophite 92, 127 Orbicularis 74 Orbialla 69 Orbitolides 68 Orbitoides 78 Ornatus 74 Orthis 74, 75 Osilium 81 Osinium 147 Ostreae 68, 78, 80 208 MINERAL RESOURCES Osteras 64 Otoidus dy Ovata 67, Tj, 81 Ova turn 71 Ovoidea 78 Oxfordian 64, 77, 83, 88 Palaeophyus 70 Palaeoreas 70 Paleozoic 52, 59, 63, 64, 73, 83, 85, 86 Pallastra 81 Pamondi 68 Pandermite 126, 127 Parisensis 78 Paryhiri 1 1 1 Pecten 69, 78, 80 Pector 69 Pellico 74, 75 Pentagona 61 Pentacrinites Jj Pentilici 70 Penza 90 Perforata 78 Peridotite no Perlongus 63 Permian 54, 63, 76, 83, 88 Persiae 70 Petricola 81 Petroleum 109, no, 115, 116, 117 Phonalite 94 Phosphate 123 Phylloceras 66 Pikermi 70 Piscinalis 70 Plagioclase 164 Plagioptychus 66 Planorbis 70 Planosulcata 63 Platana 85 Platinum 147 Platycrynus 63 Plebeja 61 Pleistocene 70, 81, 87, 137 Pleuro-Dyctium 74 Plicatilis JJ Plicatum 80 Pliocene 59, 70, 78, 80, 81, 87, 91, 99 Polymorpha 69, 70, 75, 81, 87 Polyps 88, 103 Polystonella 69 ' Porosus 69 Porphyry 60, -JT, 88, 94, 96, 97, 152, 153 Porphyrite 93 Portlandian "jj Potash 123, 125 Potassium 122 Potassium Oxide 133 Potassium Sulphide 124, 125 Prieceite 127 Primegenius 71 Priobona 68 Problamaticum 74 Productus 63, 75, 76, 103 Proecursor 61 Protractum 8e, 81 Purbeck 84 Psuedo elegans 65 Psuedo jurensis 65 Psuedo stylina 65 Pygone 65 Pyrdandi 162 Pyrite 152, 153, 156, 159, 160 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 209 161, 164, 165,, 167 Pyrolusite 158, 177 Pyroxene 88,, 93, 94, 96, 97, 164, 170, 172 Pyrrhotite 164 Q Quadrfcostata 78 Quadrigeminum 61,' 75 Quadripunctata 69 Quarternmary 90, 95, 97, 98, Quartz 82, 92, 94, 159, 160, 162, 164 Quartz Porphyry 63 Quartzite 59, 66, 63 R Radeans 76, 88 Radeolite 66 Rarilanella 78 Realgar 186 Reefs 154 Reticularis 61, 75 Reticulata 75, 76 Rhetic 63 Rhinchonella 61, 65, 75 Rhizopodes 78, 89 Rhodium 147 Rhodius 82 Rhyolite 85, 94 Rift 55 Rissoa 70 Sacchariod marble J72 Salbande 158 Salt 29, 80, 86, 90, 95, III, 119, 126 Sandstone 61, 64, 75, 78, 82, 8 5, 86, 115, 154 Sarcinulata 74 Sardintes 67 Sarmatian 53, 68, 69, 79, 8a, 81, 86, 87, 90, 91 Sarniaticus 69 Schaarung 58 Schist 52, 59, 60, 73, 75, 82, 84, 126,' 152, 156, 160, t:6i, 172 Schlehani 103 Schyphia Jj Sella 66 Semigloboza J'j Seminoi 75 Semireticulates j^ Semistriata 79 Senomanian 67 Senonian 66, 67 Sepiolite 130, 131 Sequanian 64, 83 Serpentine 44, 58, 59, 60, Ji, 86, 88, 94, 96, 97, 127, 131, 147, 156, 157 Serpula 68 Shale 45, 63, 67, 78, 83, 153 Silica 123, 124, 133, 158 Siliceous marl 137 Siliceous Slate 166 Silicon dioxide 129 Silurian 44 Silver 149, 150, 151, ,152, 157' IS9' 160, 161, 164, 165 Silver Chloride 153 Silver Sulhpide 153 Slate 59, 60, 79, 129, 152 Soda 123, 125 Sodalite 92 Sodium Borate 127 210 MINERAL • RESOURCES Sodium Carbonate 124, 127, 136 Sodium Chloride 124, 127 Sodium Sulphate 124,. 127 Sphaerium 71 Sphaeroid 63 • Sphalerite 165-,; Sphertopteris . 103 Spirifer 61, 63, 74, 75 Spirigea 63 Spondylus 69 Sponge 64 Stalactite 156, 167 Stephanian 103 Sterculia 79 Stibnite 182 Striatula 75 Striatus 63 Stromatopora 61,, 75, Strombus 65 Strontium 123 Strophopiena. 74, 76 Stylina . 65 Subaculaeatus ; 75 Subaculus 66 Subaequalis 75 Subo'rbicularis 75 Subspeciosus 74 Sulphate 123, 125 Sulphuret of copper 166 Sulphuret of lead 153 Sulphuric acid 133 Syringo dendron 83 Syringophyllum 103 Syringopora 76 Talc 76 Talc-schist Tapes 81 157 Tarticus ■ 'j'j Tentaculites 74 Tenticulum 61, 63 Tepherite 92 Terebellum 78 Terebratula 65, 66, 68, "JJ, 78 Tetrahedrite 165 Trachyte sq,^ 67, 70, 91, .94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 132 Tharrmaroea 69 Thetis 66 Tin ''186 Tithonian 60, 66, 67, 85, 90 Toarcian 64 Toncasia ,103 Torticulatis '/~ Tortonian 69, 79, 80. 86 Touranian 60^ 66, 67, 85, go Tragoceras 170 Trenolite 161 Triassic 63, ^t^, 76, 83, 84. BS Trochoeras 74, 160 Triangular 81 Trigeri 74. 75 Trunculis 81 Tuboeformis 74 Tufa-chalk ■]■] Tuflf 50,52,61,63,64,65,67, 70. 71, 84. 85, 87, 88, 91. 92, 93. 94, 98, loi, 132, 136, 161 Tchandae 81 Tumidus 71 Turanian 36, 84, 135, 168 Turbinatis 81 Turbo 68 U 127 UHxite Unio 71. 98 ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 211 Urgonian 65, 66, 84 V Valangionian 65 Valvata 70 Varians yj Velledae 66 Venus 68 Vermiculare 61 Verneuili 61, 74, 75 Vesiculosum 61 Virleti 69, 80 Vivipora 70 Volgaturi 81 Volhynia 89 W Waldheimia 65 Wellen 63 Werfen 63 Wertina 71 Westphalian 102 Yordale 75 Y Zechstein 63 Zinc 28, 149, 152, 159, 185 Zmc Blende 162, 164 Zinc Sulphate 161