fyxmll Uttirmitg Jilrt:at:g BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henirs W, Sage 1891 Amjii.^. //<^/f..;. '"""" iiimiiteiffi!;'? to-day Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031244852 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY' An Outline for the Use of Newspaper Readers BY HAMBLEN SEARS MEADVILLE, PENN'A FLOOD AND VINCENT 1895 9 Copyright, 1895 By Hamblek Sears The Chauiaugua-Century Press, Meadville, Pa., U. S. A. Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by Flood & Vincent. THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO MY WIFE. CONTENTS. Pbeface . ix Abgbntine Republic 13 Tables, 12. History since 1800, 12. Constitution, 18. Legislature, Execu- tive, 19. Judiciary, Administration, Army and Navy, 20. History since 1874, 21. Financial Crisis, 22. Revolution, 24. AUSTBALIA 26 Constitutions, 26. Federation, 29. AUSTBIA-HUNGABY 33 Tables, 32. History since 1815, 33. Constitutions, 38. Whole Empire : The Delegations, Executive, Judiciary, 40. Army and Navy, 41. ^tMiria; Herrenhans, 42. Abgeordnetenhaus, Executive, 43. Austrian Diets, 4B. Hungary, 44. House of Magnates, House of Representatives, Executive, 45. Croatia, 45. History since 1867, 46. Bohemia, 49. Belgium 53 Tables, 52. History since 1815, 53. Constitution, Legislature, 56. Execu- tive, Judiciary, Local Government, 57. Kultnrkampf, Labor Questions, 58. Bolivia . 61 Tables, 60. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, Historical Sketch, 61. Beazil 65 Tables, 64. History since 1800, 65. Constitution, 66. Legislature, 67. Executive, Judiciary, Administration, 68. Army and Navy, History since 1870, 69. Bbitish Bmpibe 73 Tables, 72. History since 1800, 74. Constitution, Crown, 79. Legisla- ture, 80. Executive, 82. Army and Navy, 84. Modern History, Minis- tries, 85. Ireland, 87. Colonies, 95. Canada 99 Tables, 98. History since 1800, 99. Constitution, 102. Legislature, Executive, 103. .Judiciary, Army and Navy, 104. Provincial Govern/- ment, 104. Chile ' 107 Tables, 106. History since 1800, 107. Constitution, Legislature, 109. Executive, Judiciary, Local Government, 110. Army and Navy, His- tory since 1875, War of 1880-81, 111. Revolution, 113. China 117 Table, 116. History since 1800, 117. Government, Legislature, 120. Emperor, 121. Army and Navy, History since 1875, Tonquln Episode, 122. Corean War, 124. Colombia 127 Tables, 126. Historical Sketch, 127. Constitution, Legislature, Execu- tive, Administration, Army and Navy, 129. Contemporary Events, 130. Costa Rica 132 Historical Sketch, 132. Constitution, Legislature, 133. Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, Contemporary Events, 134. y1 contents. Denmark •■ ^- •.,•.• ^?7 Tables, 136. History since 1800, 137. Constitution, Legislature, 140. Executive, Judiciary, 141. Local Government, Army and Navy, Colonies, 142. History since 1866, 143. Ecuador ^1^5 Historical Sketch, 145. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, JuOi- ciary, 146. Army and Navy, 147. Egypt 149 Tables, 148. History since 1800, 149. Government, 151. Legislature, 152. Khedive, Judiciary, 153. Local Government, Army and Navy, Con- temporary History, 154. France 157 Tables, 156. History since 1800, 157. Constitution, Legislature, 165. Executive, 167. Administration, Judiciary, 168. Army and Navy, 169. Local Government, History since 1871, 170. Boulanger, 173. Colonies, 175. German Empire 179 Tables, 178. History since 1815, 179. Constitutions, 183. Bundesrath, Reichstag, 184. Emperor, Judiciary, Administration, 185. Army and Navy, 186. State Constitutions, 187. History since 1871, 189. Kultur- karapf, 190. Social Democracy, 193. Insurance Legislation, 195. Colonies, 196. Greece 199 Tables, 198. History since 1800, 199. Constitution, Legislature, 204. Executive, Judiciary, Local Government, Army and Navy, 205. Con- temporary Politics, 206 Guatemala 208 Historical Sketch, 208. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, 209. Ju- diciary, Army, Contemporary Events, 210. Haiti 213 Tables, 212. Historical Sketch, 213. Constitution, Legislature, 214. Executive, Army and Navy, Contemporary Events, 215. Honduras ■ ... 216 Historical Sketch, Constitution, Legislature, 217. Executive, Judici- ary, Contemporary Events, 218. Italy 221 Tables, 220. History since 1800, 221. Constitution, Legislature, 227. Executive, Judiciary, 228. Army and Navy, 229. Roman Pontincate, 230. San Marino, Colonies, 231. Recent Events, 232. Japan 235 Tables, 234. History since 1800, 235: Constitution, Legislature, 242. Executive, Judiciary, 243. Army and Navy, Recent Events, 244. Liberia . . 246 Historical Sketch, Constitution, 246. Mexico 249 Tables, 248. History since 1800, 249. Constitution, Legislature, 254. Executive, 255. Judiciary, Local Government, 256. Army and Navy, Montenegro 258 Constitution, Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, Army, 259. Morocco . . 260 Historical Sketch, 260. Government, Army, 261. Netherlands 263 Table, 262. History since 1800, 263. Constitution, Legislature, 266. Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 267. Itecent Events, 268. Col- onies, 269. CONTENTS. Vii Nicaragua 270 Area and Population, Historical Sketch, 270. Constitution, Legislature Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 271. Recent Events, 272. Orange River Free State 273 Historical Sketch, 273. Constitution, Legislature, 274. Executive, Judiciary, Army, 276. Paraguay 276 Historical Sketch, 276. Constitution, 277. Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 278. Persia 279 Historical Sketch, 279. Constitution, 281. Army and Navy, 282. Peru 285 Tables, 284. History since 1800, 285. Constitution, Legislature, 288. Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 289. Portugal 291 Tables, 290. History since 1800, 291. Constitution, Legislature, 294. Executive, Judiciary, 295. Army and Navy, 296. ROUMANIA 297 Historical Sketch, 297. Constitution, Legislature, 300. Executive, Judiciary, Army, Local Government, 301. Russia 303 Tables, 302. History since 1800, 303. Oovernment, The Tsar, 309. Council of the Empire, The Senate, 310. Holy Synod, Administration, Local Government, 311. Judiciary, Army and Navy, 312. Finland, 313. Becent Events, 314. Salvador 316 Historical Sketch, 316.- Constitution, Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, 318. Administration, 319. Santo Domingo 320 Historical Sketch, 320. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, Judici- ary, Army and Navy, 321. ServiA . •. 323 Tables, 322. History since 1800, 323. Constitution, Legislature, 324. Executive, Judiciary, Army, 325. Contemporary Events, 326. SlAM 329 Historical Sketch, Constitution, 329. Local Government, 330. South African Republic 331 Historical Sketch, 332. Constitution, Legislature, 333. Spain 335 Tables, 334. History since 1800, 335. Constitution, 339. Legislature, 340. Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 341. Local Government, Colonies, 342. Contemporary Events, 343. Sweden and Norway 347 Tables, 346. History since 1800, 347. Constitutions, 350. Sweden : Legis- lature, Executive, 351. Judiciary, Army and Navy, Local Government, 352. Norway: Legislature, 352. Executive, Judiciary, 353. Army and Navy, Local Government, Question of Dissolution of Union, 354. Switzerland 357 Tables, 356. History since 1800, 357. Constitution, Legislature, 362. Executive, Judiciary, 364. Army, 365. Local Government, Referen- dum, 366. Contemporary Events, Kulturkampf, 367. Turkey 371 Tables, 370. History since 1800, 371. Government, Sultan, 376. Admin- istration, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 377. Local Government, Bulgaria, ■ 378. Crete, Samos, 379. Viii CONTENTS. United States 382 Tables, 380-1. History since 1815, 382. Administrations and Parties, 383. Tariff, 392. Slavery, 395. Constitution, Congress, 897. House of Repre- sentatives, Senate, Bxecutive, 399. Administration, 400. Judiciary, State-Governments, 401. Army and Navy, 402. Uruguay 404 Historical Slsetcli, 404. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, 407. Army and Navy, 408. Venezuela 409 Historical Sketcli, 409. Constitution, Legislature, 410. Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 411. Local Gtovernment, 412. Appendix 413 Afghanistan, Central African States, 413. Dahomey, Bhutan, 414. Hawaii, 415. Luxemburg, Monaco, 416. Nepal, Oman, Samoa, 417. Tonga, 418. Table of British Colonial Possessions. MAPS. Argentine Republic austria-hunqaey , Belgium .... Brazil British Empire China Colombia . Denmark Egypt ... France German Empire Greece ....... j Guatemala Haiti .... Honduras Italy . ... Japan . Mexico Netherlands Persia . . . Peru . ... Russia Seevia ,|SpuTH African Republic , fflfcAIN " Sweden and Norway . . Switzerland . . ... Turkey United States . 13 . 33 63 . 65 . 73 117 127 . 137 149 . 157 179. . . 199 . 208 213 216 . 221 .285 . 249 263 279 . . 285 . '. 303 . 323 ... .331 335 347 357 371 between pp. 396-7 PREFACE. It is with some regret and with many doubts that the author sends this little work to the press. The undertaking is too great for the space allowed it, and yet it may be ex- plained, as an extenuating circumstance, that there seems to be a demand for a work in one volume of moderate size, which should give in brief a few of the important facts concerning the principal governments of the world. The present age is one of newspapers and periodicals, and in spite of the fact that newspapers and periodicals must necessarily be superficial, they have become the most important mediums for literature and for news. With this enormous increase of periodical liter- ature, there has gone hand in hand a correspondingly enormous increase in the number of readers. Many of these readers are not and never will be students, but they have begun a new era, and they are raising the standard of general education very materially in the United States. The great mass of these readers of periodical literature have but little time for such matters. They are men, women, and children who have much to do in life to support themselves, and they must give their attention largely to this work. And yet there is a desire constantly increasing among them to become better ac- quainted with the affairs that are taking place around them. Glancing day by day through the newspapers and peri- odicals, they find references to contemporary events, domestic and foreign, to men and things, which no paper can pretend to explain, which, in fact, the editors must take for granted as familiar to their readers. X GtOVERNMENTS OF THE WOKLD TO-DAY. It is for such as these that this book is intended, and it is hoped that when looking over their papers they find matters referred to which are not familiar to them, and yet a knowl- edge of which it is necessary for them to have before they can understand the criticisms -made — it is to be hoped that by referring to this work they may find something which will give them the information they require. If this use is made of it, aad if it results in giving correct information to such readers, the book will, in the author's opinion, have accomplished its purpose. It is open to the charge of superficiality, as is the reading of periodical litera- ture, and yet a little correct information, even though it be superficial, is far better than no information at all. If such small amount of knowledge does not do the readers any great good, it is still a step in the right direction, and their children will have a stimulus to something better and more lasting. A small but general advance in the education of every one in the United States is as admirable a step as we can desire. Students there will always be. We do not need to stimulate them. They will work for the love of the work itself. This book is not for them. They know far more of the subjects treated here than the author — in fact, he has compiled this book from their own great works. The author's regrets and doubts at sfeeing this book on the press and about to go before the public, are caused by the fear that with this object in view, and in spite of considerable labor and painstaking, he must have left many things unsaid which should have been said ; he may have said many things that there was no necessity of saying ; that, above all, he has probably allowed many mistakes to creep in among so many bald statements of fact necessarily put in so condensed a form. In view of this, it will be a favor to him if any one finding omissions or errors will notify him of them with the object of seeing them corrected possibly at a later date. PBEFACE. Xi ■ Several of the governments treated herein are those of states that are not sovereign powers. They have been discussed under independent heads because their contemporary impor- tance seems to warrant a short and separate discussion. On the other hand, some independent and sovereign states have been purposely omitted, because tlieir immediate importance was not sufficient to warrant space being given them when that space could be used to so much better purpose in other ways. These are omitted since they could be touched upon under the head of other states, and space thus saved again. Among these are Afghanistan, Bhutan, Congo Free State, Corea, Hawaii, Luxemburg, Monaco, Nepal, Oman, Samoa, Tonga. Where authorities disagree as to figures of areas, populations, etc., the author has been compelled to make the selection he deemed most likely to be correct. Hamblen Seaes. New York, 1896. THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. President, Dr. LOTTIS Saenz Pena. MINISTRY. Minister Of Foreign Affairs V. Virasoro Minister of Finance Dr. J. A.Terry Minister of Public Instruction.... J „ r!^_t„ Minister of Justice and PubUc Works \ ^•I'Osta Minister of War General L. Campos Minister of Interior Dr. M. Qulntana TABLE OF STATISTICS. I^ovince. Area, lation. Capital. Littoral District: Buenos Ayres Santa F€ Entre-Rios Corrlentes Andes: •Rloja Catamarca San Juan Mendoza Central : Cordova San Luis Santiago del Estero . Tuonman Northern : Salta Jujuy Territories : Mislones Formosa Chaco Pampa Rio Negro Neuquen Chubut Santa Cruz Tierra del Fuego.. 63,000 18,000 45,000 54,000 31,500 31,500 29,700 54,000 54,000 18,000 31,500 13,500 45,000 27,000 515,700 23,932 125,612 191,842 268,000 Total 1,125,086 1,411,160 240,332 300 000 290,000 100,000 130,000 125,000 160,000 380.000 100 000 160.000 210,000 200,000 90,000 3,896,492 50,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 4,066,492 Buenos Ayres. Santa V6. Entre-Rios. Corrlentes. Bioja. Catamarca. San Juan. Mendoza. Cordova. San Luis. Santiago del Estero. Tucuman. Salta. JuJuy. Mislones. Formosa. Chaco. Pampa. Rio Negro. Nenquen. Chubut. Santa Cruz. Tierra del Fuego. xll GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. The Argentine Republic is a collection of states resembling in their government and constitution the United States of America. It is in the southern central part of South America, bounded on the north by Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and Uru- guay, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, Chile, and the- Straits of Ma- gellan, and on the west by Chile. Bue- nos Ayres is the capital, a city of 561,160 inhabitants. The country now governed under the name of the Argen- tine Republic has been through a re- markable history in the last one hun- dred years. Situ- ated in the most fer- tile portion of South America — perhaps of the world — it of- fers unusual facili- ties for agricultural pursuits and the advance of the arts. This has had much to do with the many upheavals the country has sustained ; for the character of the people, being, 13 History since 1800. 14 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. as it is, vigorous and active, has caused speculation to run wUd, through gambling in the marvelously fertile land, bring- ing panic and crisis in its path and almost invariably ending in bloodshed. The Argentine Republic in climate, in inhabitants, and in government resembles the United States more nearly than any of the other South American, republics, and it is for these same reasons that immigration to the southern continent has so largely found its way into Argentina. This enormous foreign element mixed with the Argen- tine blood has created two classes, the Indians, or natives living on the Pampas, and the "Europeans," as they have been called, who inhabit the cities. The result is that one class adopts and advances with each new step in civilization that the world takes, and the other remains in its original condition. Here is the true source of the wars that are so incessant in the basin of the Rio de la Plata. The two classes cannot live under a common government, and they fall to fighting on the smallest provocation. The Europeans promise, if the country can be maintained in a peaceful condition, to make the group of states under their common government at Buenos Ayres the great republic of America. But up to the present time the growth though remarkable has been checked by fierce war or by periods of wild speculation. All the land in the basin of the Plata until the early part of the present century was under the government of Spain as a province. The diflferent colonies fought among themselves on questions of boundaries and commerce, and up to 1800 the his- tory is one of uninterrupted bloodshed. Unfortunately for the welfare of the country, wars did not cease with the new century. The troubles between England and Spain caused hostilities in and about Buenos Ayres. Troops from British men-of-war captured the city in 1806, and Sobremonte, the Spanish viceroy, was forced to retire. But in 1807 the Ayrean forces under General Liniers regained possession of the city, and held it in spite of the vigorous attempts of Whitelock to overcome the town again. In this contest the people of Buenos Ayres won their own battles without the aid of the mother-country or the assistance of their viceroy. His con- ARGENTINE EEPUBLIC. 15 duct during the struggle was one of the first vital causes of the feeling against Spain which finally led to independence. When a little later Napoleon made his brother king of Spain, Buenos Ayres refused to acknowledge him as head of the Spanish colonies, and the people rose in open revolt. On the 19th of July, 1809, Cisneros was made viceroy by the ad- herents of Ferdinand VII., and for the first time the city set up an independent government. A council was fornied May 25, 1810, and took the name of The Provisional Government of the Provinces of the Rio de la Plata. On January 11, 1813, a congress assembled at Buenos Ayres for the better government of the country and elected Posadas dictator. Montevideo and Buenos Ayres were drawn up on opposite sides over the question of separation from the mother-country, and this soon led to an invasion of the Montevidean territory on the part of the Ayrean troops, the defeat of the Mon- tevideans, and the spread of hostilities all through the prov- inces wherever the two sides of the question came into con- tact. In 1816 another congress was called at Tueuman, when Paysidas was elected president, and on the 9th of July the provinces declared their independence of Spanish rule. The great territory split into four independent republics : Para- guay, Bolivia, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. These four governments, so important to each other in every way, have been in almost continual warfare with each other ever since over questions of boundary and commercial arrange- ments. The Chilean and Argentine forces carried the war for inde- pendence into Peru and eventually captured the city of Lima, the center of Spanish infiuence in South America, on the 9th of July, 1821. Peace was finally made in December, 1824, but is was not until 1842 that Spain formally recognized the in- dependence of her former colonies. Rivadavia, president in 1825, strove to build up a strong cen- tralized government. His followers took the name of Unitari- ans, while the opposition became the Federals ; and these two parties worked against each other for several years during the early political history. Vincente Lopez succeeded Rivadavia, and in 1827 Dorrego in turn succeeded Lopez. Dorrego be- 16 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. longed to the Federal party and his election was the signal for renewed hostilities. Lavalle, the Unitarian general, came out openly against the administration and in 1828 defeated Dorrego and Rosas, the commander of the Federal troops. Dorrego was shot, but Rosas soon gained the upper hand and became virtual dictator. He retained his place at the head of affairs for a comparatively long time, largely because he maintained a legislature that was obliged to pass the acts he proposed. In 1838 troubles With France led to the blockade of Buenos Ayres. Rosas still held the power and maintained a reign of terror when Lavalle tried to rally the Unitarian party against him. Later, in 1842-44, Rosas carried his barbarities 80 far that he closed the Plata and attempted to gain control of the Banda Oriental. This led at once to foreign interven- tion and the attempt to open the river. War burst forth again between Buenos Ayres and the surrounding countries, especially Brazil, the result being the neutralization of the Plata, which insured the highway to Bolivia and Peru for all time. Finally the Brazilian forces took the city of Buenos Ayres, and the rule of Rosas was at an end. Another assembly of the governments of the provinces re- sulted in the provisional appointment of Urquiza, the general of the successful troops in the late war, as director of the Argentine Republic. A constitution was thereupon proposed and adopted. The Senate was composed of two delegates from each province, and the House of Deputies of members elected one for a certain number of inhabitants. The Senate was no sooner elected, however, than Buenos Ayres objected on the ground that it had too small a representation in proportion to the other provinces ; and hostilities commenced again. Under Urquiza the thirteen provinces joined forces, and the city of Buenos Ayres was blockaded until in July, 1853, Sir C. Hotham, commander of the English fleet in these waters, agreed with Urquiza to recognize the independence of the provinces from the government of Buenos Ayres and to guar- antee the neutrality of the river. Obligado became governor of Buenos Ayres, and peace Was again secured for the country. Parana became the capital of the thirteen provinces. This separation lasted until 1859, when, owing to disagreement in regard to commercial arrange- ARGENTINE BEPUBLIC. 17 ments, hostilities again began between the two independent governments. The fighting resulted in the defeat of Alsina, governor of Buenos Ayres. The city was retaken by the Argentine forces, Alsina was forced to resign, and the two governments became once more one with Buenos Ayres as the capital. After two years of the presidency of Derqui over the fourteen provinces, in 1862 General Mitre became ruler by force of arms. He centralized the government at Buenos Ayres, and Urquiza retired to fill the governor's chair at Entrei-Rios. Within two years the great Paraguay war had begun, and Lopez led his country into a long series of battles tliat nearly wasted its resources and almost exterminated the male popula- tion. Lopez applied to the government at Buenos Ayres for permission to pass through the Argentine territory at Corrien- tes with an armed force directed against Brazil, and when the permission was refused on the ground of the neutrality ob- served by the Confederation, he attacked and captured Cor- rlentes. News of this overt act arrived at the seat of govern- ment in May, 1865, and the greater portion of the Confederar tion was at once bound up in a common cause against a com- mon enemy. Internal jealousies were forgotten in the greater questions involved and an alliance against Lopez was soon ar- ranged between Brazil, the Banda Oriental, and Argentina. Armed forces moved from each of these states into Paraguay, and the record of the events of the next five years has hardly a parallel in history. The proportion of killed and wounded on both sides was very large and the fighting was of the fiercest kind. The Argentines were trained by the experience of earlier battles and now developed into the most wild and dar- ing fighters. Paraguay would have been quite devastated had not the rebellious spirit appeared again in the Argentine prov- inces and compelled that government to recall a part of its troops from the foreign war to quell the rising rebellion. This was finally suppressed in 1867, but hostilities still con- tinued with unabated force in Paraguay until, in 1870, Lopez was assassinated, and fighting then ceased because the mili- tary forces of Paraguay were almost annihilated. Peace was declared and the questions of boundary settled for the time, though for a while it seemed probable that Brazil and the 18 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Argentine Confederation in their turn would go to war. But the services of General Mitre, who went as especial ambas- sador to Brazil, brought about a peaceful and satisfactory set- tlement and avoided war. General Mitre had been succeeded in oflflce by Sarmiento at the expiration of his term in 1868, but the new president maintained peace only two years. A revolutionary body arose in the province of Entre-Rios under the leadership of Lopez Jordan. Urquiza, the governor, was assassinated on April 12, and Jordan took control of the government. . Such treasonable actions and subsequent proceedings led to the in- vasion of the province by the Buenos Ayrean troops who, in 1873, finally completed the destruction of the Jordan faction. Entre-Rios again became part of the Confederation and has remained so ever since. The advance of civilization in other countries, gradually in- troduced into the republic from this time, has added ma- terially to the prosperity of the country, and but for the ever continuing hostilities it would be far in advance of its present state. In 1874 Mitre again tried to gain control of the govern- ment on the retirement of Sarmiento and the election of Avellaneda. He instigated a revolution which lasted seventy- six days, but which was finally suppressed by the energy and determination of the new president. No sooner was the war over than the country was again stranded by a severe crisis in financial matters from which it did not recover for many years. The constitution of the Argentine Confederation has been Consti- through many changes since its first years, not so much in its tution. letter as in the spirit in which it was observed and carried out. It was originally, adopted, in a form similar to that in force at present, on the separation of Buenos Ayres from the Confed- eration in 1853. It was somewhat modified in 1860 when Buenos Ayres again joined the fourteen republican provinces and Alsina's rule came to an end. The office of president has seldom until late years continued to its full length of term under one man ; for revolution and rebellion have cut short the term of one president to put in a successor. The details of the different articles are confessedly taken from the United States constitution and differ only in a few minor points. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 19 The legislative portion of the governmeat is vested in two bouses, a Senate and a House of Representatives, whose Legisia- powers are quite similar to those of the United States in re- *"™" gard to financial legislation, to the origination of bills in either House, and to the necessity for the sanction of both be- fore a bill can become a law, etc. Both Houses meet on the 1st of May in each year and sit for five months. The Senate is made up of thirty members, two being returned from each province and two from the city of Buenos Ayres. The mem- bers are elected by the state legislatures for terms of nine years, but elections occur once in three years, and one third of the Senate changes at each election. To become a candidate one must have an income of $500, be at least thirty years of age, and have been enrolled as a citizen of the republic for at least ten years. The members meet in the Parliament Houses at Buenos Ayres, the vice-president being ex-officio president. The House of Representatives is composed at present of eighty-six members, which is too small a number according to an article of the constitution whicli calls for one representa- tive for every 20,000 inhabitants. They meet at the same time and place as the Senate and hold office for a term of four years. Elections ocJcur once in two years, and therefore half the House changes every two years. The election is directly from the people, and a candidate must have been a citizen of the re- public for four years and be at least twenty-flve years of age. The routine of business is substantially that of the United States House, but in practice is not strictly followed. During war times the president becomes virtual dictator. The president has powers and duties similar to those of the president of the United States. He is commander-in-chief of Executive, the army and navy, he is the executive officer of the adminis- tration, and he appoints the officers of his government in the military, civil, and judicial departments. The president and vice-president are elected for a term of six years by an elec- toral college composed of delegates from the provinces, two for each senator and representative and for each senator from the city of Buenos Ayres. The president is not eligible for reelection at once. He has a salary of $36,000, and must be a Roman Catholic, at least thirty years of age, and a native of the Argentine Republic. The vice-president must have the Jndiclal. Adminis- tration. Atiny and Navy. 20 QOVEENMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. same qualifications, and receives a salary of |18,000. He succeeds the president in case of the latter's decease or incar pacity. There is a Supreme Court at Buenos Ayres composed of a chief justice and five judges. They constitute a court of appeals for all courts, and decide on questions of constitution- ality. There are civil and criminal courts in all the states, under a system arranged by the state in which the jurisdic- tion comes. These are increased as the growth of the country requires. The five ministers of state are the ministers of foreign affairs, war, interior, justice, and finance. These constitute a cabinet responsible to the president and, in practice, to the vote of Congress as well. It has been customary in the past for the ministry to resign on receiving a distinct intimation in the form of a hostile vote from each house of the legislature. These ministers receive a salary of $16,800 a year. The army of the republic is uncertain. It has varied from year to year for some time, owing to the frequent revolutions that have thinned the ranks. It stands to-day substantially as follows : Officers 249 Subalterns 880 Engineers 238 Artillery 789 Foot soldiers 2,331 Cavalry 2,227 Total 6,714 This little army is kept in good condition, and the Argen- tine soldiers are the most advanced tactitians of South America. The navy is composed of a small number of craft, but most of them are in good repair and of modern manufacture. Sev- eral new ironclads and ships of war are under construction at the present time. The navy consists of 1,500 men and, exclu- sive of ships that are building, the fleet is as follows : Ironclads 3 Cruiser 1 Gunboats 6 Transports 2 Dispatch boats 3 Torpedo boats 9 Total „ 24 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 21 The Catholic Church is the recognized church, but all other creeds are tolerated and they flud many supporters. Civil marriage became a law in 1888. Education is farther advanced here than elsewhere in South America, for it is a policy of the federal and state govern- ments to foster education. The charge of primary education is with each state legislature within its particular jurisdiction, and the government at Buenos Ayres (federal) takes charge of the schools in the territories. There are 3,402 of these schools, controlled by a board of education. The higher instruction consists of two universities, sixteen lyceums, one school of mines, a naval and a military school, and two colleges of agriculture. The Cordova observatory is the best in South America. Congress confines itself to national afTairs, and the states have legislatures and governors of their own. They consti- tute individual governments having authority in all matters not expressly given into the charge of the federal government. The governors are elected by the people of each state as in the United States, and elections occur once in three years. After the accession of Avellaneda, on October 12, 1874, the History commercial growth became more rapid and General Eoca, ^^"'^ '''♦• who succeeded to the presidency, did a great deal to encourage the material growth of the country. Eoca retired on October 12, 1886, having named his brother-in-law as his successor. Dr. M. J. Celman was accordingly elected and held oflBee until he was compelled to resign on August 6, 1890, owing to the popular uprising against his administration and its finan- cial policy. The greatest event, politically speaking, during Eoca's bene- ficial administration, was the accomplishment of the treaty with Chile on the boundary question in 1880. By its articles the boundary between the Argentine Eepublic and Chile is settled forever. The southern division is on the 52d degree of latitude to the Cordilleras, following these north to the Eio Negro. The island of Tierra del Fuego is divided at longi- tude 68° 34' west from Greenwich, the western part and the smaller islands on that side belonging to Chile, the eastern and adjacent islands to the Argentine Eepublic. The Straits of Magellan are forever neutral. 22 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. The financial history of the Argentine Republic In the last two decades has been a lesson in the powers and evils of specu- ^cS!^' lation. The changes have been so great and they have shaken the country to such an extent, that they have occupied a large share of the world's interest in the republic. The troubles originally began with the yellow fever epi- demic in Buenos Ayres in 1870. The city's drainage was atrocious; it brought on the epidemic, and finally led the authorities to order a rearrangement of the entire drainage of the capital. To facilitate this the Provincial Bank of Buenos Ayres negotiated a loan to meet the expenses of remodeling the system. At the same time, the fever drove people into the suburbs and created a small "boom" in land about the city, the bank being at hand to loan its money out for a short time. Speculation began at once and continued to increase until suddenly the bank called in its loans, and speculators found themselves with unsalable securities on their hands. Matters were only made worse by the Mitre rebellion in 1874 on the election of Avellaneda. The fighting was in and about the city, and the land was for the time worthless. Failures began to occur on all sides and the Ayrean currency fell ofT. The crisis having passed, the years following, up to 1880. and later, were again years of gradual increase in speculation. Land on the great Pampas soon rose in value when the people discovered its suitability for cattle raising. Landowners who wished to increase their facilities but who had little capital found they could borrow money on their land, and the Hypothecary Bank was started to supply a means for assisting those who, on the one hand, had money to loan on such good security, and those who, on the other, had need of the money and had the land to give as security. The history of the Provincial Bank was repeated. Wild speculation set in almost immediately, and it was not long before changes in land securities were made from hour to hour without the possessor knowing their intrinsic value. Here ■was the groundwork for another crisis. At the same time there was the difficulty of having three different currencies in the republic. To obviate this the government instituted a national banking system under the name of the National Bank and a paper currency based on deposits of gold. With AKGENTINB KEPUBLIC. ■ 23 this currency, money became easy, especially to members of the administration, and it was in its turn a great encourage- ment to speculation. Coupled with these two came a third stimulus, which, legitimate enough in itself, has had eventually an evil influ- ence. As cattle raising grew it became evident that the business would be wonderfully increased if the cattle could be preserved from the depredations of the Indians — the wild tribes that lived by stealing whole herds of cattle and driving them into the south. Alsina, minister of war, began a war of extermination on these tribes as early as 1875, and later dug a trench across the southern portion of the country on the borders of Patagonia which, being about ten feet deep and as many wide, prevented the savages from driving large herds out of the country suddenly. Troops were then sent out and the whole country scoured, with the result that the natives were either killed or driven across the border into Patagonia. General Roca, the successor of Alsina, continued and consum- mated the work. Here again was a stimulus to speculation. Land became at once more valuable and fortunes were realized in a compara- tively short time. The government offered the land on easy terms in order to settle the country, and by paying a small sum a purchaser secured his land at once, agreeing to pay the balance in installments from time to time. The result was that hundreds of persons paid their first installments, went with the deeds to the Hypothecary Bank and borrowed on them, sufficient sums to meet the first few installments as they came due, and then waited for the price of the land to rise. At first the sales were made at enormous profit on a capital that was practically nothing. It was not long before a larger currency was needed to keep up with the increasing transactions, and the government issued more paper without taking the precaution to make the necessary deposits of gold. The next step was a depreciation of the currency, and the third the issue of a "forced" cur- rency. With the growing premium on gold and the conse- quent uncertainty in all business transactions, immigration dropped off and the lands did not fill up as fast as expected. With the depreciation in paper the speculation and gambling 24 . GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. in its variation from day to day exceeded anything that had occurred before, and with the falling off in immigration there came a check to the rise in land. President Celman had delayed the crisis by changing the Revolution, ministry and giving out on May 10, 1890, at the opening of Congress, that the currency would be no further inflated by the issuance of paper money without specie deposits. Seiior Uriburu, the new minister of finance, saw what abuses had been practiced and immediately proposed an English loan of $50,000,000, demanding at the same time the dismissal of the directors of the National Bank. Celman, however, refused this and Uriburu at once resigned. He was succeeded June 9 by Seiior Garcia, who started to maintain his policy. But Celman interfered again, broke his word to the people, and in July ordered another issue of paper money. This was too much for the people to bear in view of the events of the last few years. A panic arose and an otganiza^ tion called the Union Civica, formed to oppose the govern- ment of Celman, began to gain ground among the citizens of Buenos Ayres. A conspiracy against the president was at the same time discovered among the soldiers in the heart of the city, and a watch was set on them from that time. This only increased the growing sentiment against the administra- tion, and it became evident to Pellegrini, the vice-president, and Boca, the minister of war, that Celman's resignation was the only means of avoiding an uprising. They at once began to urge him to resign. On July 23 the president went so far as to consent that Congress should name his successor without suggestions from him. But it was too late. In three days the insurrection broke out at the barracks. The troops made a demonstration in the city and were joined by the populace. General Campos took command and firing began between the troops and the police. At the same time, a revolutionary gov- ernment was set up, and on July 27 more troops went over to that side. President Celman set out on the next day to pro- cure military aid, proclaiming the country in a state of siege and ordering out the guard of several of the cities of the re- public. Returning on the 29th with more troops, he found that an armistice had been brought about by Pellegrini. The fighting had killed and wounded nearly 6,000 people. AKGENTINE EEPUBLIC. 25 The demand was now made on all sides for the unconditional resignation of Celman. Roca and Pellegrini again urged it as the only thing necessary to bring about peace. Still the presi- dent hesitated and tried to form a new ministry.- The men appointed refused to serve. He then offered seats to the Op- position. They declined to talie them. Finally he tried to appoint his successor, but unconditional surrender of his office was insisted on, and on August 6 he sent in his resignation. Sefior Pellegrini succeeded to the presidency according to the constitution, and his severe but unquestionable execution of the laws and his methods employed for repairing the credit of the country did much to restore quiet and avert a revolution. The first acts of the new administration were the dismissal of the National Bank directors and the negotiation of two loans in the form of four and a half and five per cent bonds to the amount of f55, 000,000. Sixty million dollars were issyed on securities to enable the government to recall the National Bank issues of paper, and a loan of 120,000,000. was made at the same time to meet present interests coming due. Gold premium soon dropped to two hundred. In 1892, after Pena's inauguration, a war of political parties began which extended into the provinces of Corrientes, Santi- ago del Estero, and eventually centered in the province of Buenos Ayres. Pena began by slighting General Roca's party, and as Roca held the greater portion of the solid men of the country with him, the result was outbreak and change of ministry twice in a year. The Radicals gained power with Pena at first, and finally secured some of the portfolios in the ministry, but on August 13 the Radical ministry was forced to resign, th& present ministry came into power, and two days later a state of siege was decreed. Fighting occurred around La Plata between the Radicals and what may be called the Conservatives, and this might have broken into general revo- lution had not Dr. Pena, on September 15, appointed Roca commander of the situation with military powers. Roca's prompt methods were the same as those he employed a few years before, and he soon had the country quiet. Toward the close of 1894 a conservative wave had set in which up to the present has been powerful enough to hold the present ministry in power. AUSTRALIA. The group of colonies of the British Empire that have lately formed a union in the South Pacific and which are known as Australasia, are : New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia, on the continent of Australia ; Tasmania, an island 120 miles from Victoria ; New Zealand, the large island with the surrounding smaller groups; Fiji, 1,100 miles to the north of New Zealand and including about one hundred smaller islands ; and finally New Guinea, the* southeastern portion of the island of that name, 150 miles from Queensland. These colonies, especially those on the continent of Australia, promise to become a federated govern- ment, perhaps independent of the mother-country. Australia was made a penal settlement for English criminals in 1788 and remained so until 1839. The settlement was first made at Port Jackson in New South Wales, which then occu- pied the eastern third of the territory of the continent. Out of this the colony grew slowly, spreading down the coast, other penal colonies having been started from time to time. Tasmania was one of the earliest, and about 1800 the present province of Victoria was first settled at Fort Phillip by emi- grants from Tasmania. Western Australia began similarly with a penal settlement at King George's Sound in 1825, and Swan River in 1827. South Australia began with an Au.stralian Settlement Company which started a colony on the plan of Wakefield's New Zealand settlement. The gold discoveries of 1851 gave the impetus which began the wonderful growth of the continent that has placed it in its present important position. New South Wales lies in the southeastern part of Australia. Consti- Its area is 390,700 square miles, witfi a population of 1,122,200 in 1889. The capital is Sydney. The colony was a penal settlement in 1788, and in 1824 a council was appointed to assist 26 tutions. AUSTRALIA. 27 the governor. In 1865 two assemblies were granted the col- ony. They are elective, one being a Legislative Council of seventy members. In the year 1890 the Assembly consisted of one hundred and thirty-seven members elected from seventy- four districts. There is a governor, the Earl of Jersey, who is appointed by the crown and receives £7,000 salary. He is assisted by ten cabinet ministers. The Church of England is the state church, and education is conducted in 2,373 schools and the University of Sydney, which stands very high. The military force is 8,134 officers and men. Victoria is in the southeastern portion of Australia, lying south of New South Wales. It is 87,884 square miles in area, and the population in 1890 was 1,131,247. Melbourne is the capital and the largest city on the continent, having 360,000 inhabitants. Victoria was a part of New South Wales from 1834 to 1854 ; and in the latter year it was made by act of Parliament into an independent colony. There is a Legisla- tive Council composed of forty-eight men elected to serve six years, one third retiring every two years. The Lower House is the Legislative Assembly, composed of ninety-five members in 1889, elected by universal manhood suffrage. The governor, the Earl of Hopetown, was appointed by the queen in 1889. He receives £10,000 a year, and is assisted by ten cabinet ministers. There is no state church, and all creeds stand the same before the government. Education is com- pulsory, and is represented by the University of Melbourne, three colleges joined to it, and 2,063 state and 782 private schools. The military force consists of 5,439 men and officers, and a fleet of fourteen vessels of war. Queensland lies north of New South Wales, and occupies the northeastern portion of Australia. Its area is 668,497 square miles, which includes the islands lying oflf" its coast. The population in 1890 was 406,658, exclusive of the wild tribes of natives, and the capital is Brisbane. Queensland was made a separate colony in 18.59, before which time it was a part of New South Wales. Two houses have been granted the colony since its foundation : a Legislative Council of thirty-nine members nominated by the crown for life, and a Legislative Assembly composed at present of seventy-two members elected for five years. The executive officer is a governor. General Sir 28 GOVEBXMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. H; Wylie Norman, who is appointed by the crown with a salary of £5,000. He is assisted by an executive council of eight ministers. There is no state church and education is supposed to be compulsory. There are public and private grammar and primary schools to the number of 789. The military force consists of 140 regular troops assisted by 2,500 militia, and a fleet of four war vessels. South Australia is situated in the central part of the conti- nent of Australia. It has an area of 903,690 square miles, the colony having been added to, since its foundation in 1835, by a grant to the South Australian Colonization Company. Adelaide is the capital, and the population of the colony is estimated at 324,484. A constitution was given to South Australia in 1856, and by its articles a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly were instituted. The former has twenty- four members, one third of the men retiring every three years, eight being elected to fill their places. The House of Assembly is made up of flfty-four members elected by universal manhood suflrage, which requires only six months' residence in the voting district. The term of ofHce is three years. The ex- ecutive ofBcer is a governor, the Earl of Kintore, who is appointed by the crown, and he is assisted by six ministers composing an executive council. There is no state church. Education is in charge of the educational department and con- sists of compulsory attendance at the schools, which number 540. The military force consists of a corps of forty-six regular troops and 2,660 militia, with one war vessel. Western Australia comprises the western part of Australia, and has an area of about 975,920 square miles ; the capital is Perth. Western Australia became a separate colony in 1828, when it was separated from New South Wales, but it has been only sparsely settled until within the last twenty years. By an act of 1890 a constitution similar to that of the other col- onies was given it, and, in place of the governor and council, a somewhat restricted governorship and two houses were in- stituted. The two houses are the Legislative Council of fifteen members nominated by the governor, and an Assembly of thirty members elected by manhood suffrage. The Assem- bly term is for four years. The executive ofHcer is Sir W. C. F. Robinson, the governor, who has a salary of £9,000 per AUSTRALIA. 29 annum, and who is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers. There is no state church. Education is compulsory. There is a sufficient police force in the colony, and the militia con- sists of 600 volunteers. A union of the Australian colonies under a common govern- ment was flrst broached in 1849, before the colonies themselves were in any condition to make such a union at all effective or desirable. It was not until they had legislatures, however, that the matter came up for serious consideration. In 1857, after several attempts, the legislature of Victoria had a com- mittee appointed to consider the question of federation, and the result was a report that urged the necessity for a union, both as a defense against intercolonial hostilities and as a stim- ulus to more general growth. Three years later the same question came up again at the instigation of Sir Gavan Duffy of Victoria, and with a warm partisan in Sir Henry Parkes, premier of New South Wales, but the time was not ripe. It was 1870, therefore, before another serious attempt was made, and then a Royal Commission appointed for the pur- pose returned a report favorable to the union. It advised a federation that should be designed to make Australia an in- dependent, sovereign state. In 1883, when Germany and France began their search for colonial possessions, the question of unity was again brought up, with a view to common defense in case either of the great powers should encroach upon English territory in the Pacific. A Permissive Act was asked for and obtained from the British Parliament. It allowed the colonies to unite if they chose ; and two years later a convention was summoned by the Victorian legislature, to be composed of two delegates from each of the colonial legislatures and one from each of the crown colonies. This Federal Council was a makeshift, and as such was not approved by all the advocates of federation. Its legislative powers extended over matters concerning fish- eries, influx of criminals, general acts of defense, financial legislation, and civil law. But it met with a cold reception. Political and colonial jealousies in the legislature of New South Wales have always made a majority against the ques- tion of federation, but the government of Victoria, through the personal eflfbrts of Sir Gavan Duflfy, has unfailingly Federation. 30 GOVEBNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. brought the question up year after year. The appointment of the Federal Council to meet in 1886 was the first victory, but New South Wales sent no delegates, and nothing was accom- plished. In 1887 the delegates met in London at the invita- tion of the queen. In 1888 nothing more than a formal meeting took place. Then New South Wales began to take an active part. In 1890 a preliminary meeting was held at Sydney to discuss a broader union, and it was there decided to call the National Australian Convention, which met in March and April of the following year at the same place, and has left a record of one of the most interesting political discussions of modern times. The clauses of the constitution that are the re- sult of this convention comprise the most advanced republican ideas tempered by the conservatism of the British constitution. All the principal powers of the United States Congress are given it except the making of war. Most of the specific powers of the Canadian Parliament are included, and, as in the American constitution, all the powers not especially given the federal government are delegated to the colonies themselves. The federal government has exclusive right in matters concerning defense, customs, excise, post and telegraph, navigation and shipping, marriage and divorce, coinage, banking, foreign affairs, and taxation in all its forms. The federal legislature can deal with all the islands of the Pacific and has the decid- ing voice in all matters of intercolonial waterways, railways, and appeals on questions of importance to two or more of the colonies. There is to be a Parliament of two houses, one elected on the basis of population — the House of Representa- tives — the other composed of members appointed by the colonial legislatures — the Senate. The chief source of discus- sion was relative to the standing of the Houses toward each other, and it was finally decided that both should have the power to originate bills, except in the single case of money bills which was left exclusively with the House of Represent- atives. This was considered necessary in a government where the chief officer was not appointed by any party and where there was to be a responsible ministry. In 1892 and 1893 there were meetings of the Federation Convention, but there is still a want of unanimity throughout the country favoring the union. The general feeling in the federation is AUSTBALIA. 31 advisable, but each colony wants some changes made in the bill of 1891. In the summer of 1894 Sir George Gibbs, premier of New South Wales, wrote an open letter to Hon. J. B. Pat- terson, premier of Victoria, proposing a new scheme for federation. He suggests gradual federation, and as a begin- ning speaks of the possible union of Victoria and New South Wales. If this proved successful, he says the other colonies would follow. The chief features of his idea of federation in- clude one viceroy, one parliament of two houses, one tariff, one system of excise duties, one joint debt, one railway system, one land revenue and land law, one administration of defense and of postal telegraph, one provincial government, one supreme court, one title to be, after South Australia and Queensland come in, the Dominion of Australia or United Australia. As a matter of fact, union is not yet consum- mated, though it probably will be in time. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Emperor, Fbancis Joseph I. RULERS SINCE iSoo. Emperor B'rancis I JIoi"Jo?i Emperor Ferdinand I ll^o Emperor Francis Josepli I 1848- MINISTRY. For the whole Empire. Minister of Foreign Affairs Count G. Kalnoky de Korospatak Minister of War General E. de Krleghammer Minister of Finance , Benjamin de Kallay Austrian Jlfmistra^.— President, - - Prince A. "Windischgratz Minister of the Interior Marquis O. de Baoqueham Minister of Public Instruction Dr. deMadeyskl Minister of Finance Dr. de Plener Minister of Agriculture Count J. Falkenbaym %°ittonaf grnomT.!"^ } ^ount G. Wurmbrand-Stuppach Minister of Justice Count F. Schonborn Without portfolio A. de Saworski Hungarian Ministry. Minister of Finance Dr. A. Weckerle Minister of National Defense Baron G. Fejervary Minister of the King's Person Count L. Tisza Minister of the Interior C. Hierouymi Minister of Education and Public Worship Count A. Csaky Minister of Justice Dr. D. de Szilagyl Minister of Industry and Commerce B. de Lukacs Minister of Agriculture „.Count A. Bethlen Minister for Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia E. de Josipovioh TABLE OF STATISTICS. Btaie. Area. Fopu- lotion. Members in Reichstag. Oovernment. Austria. 7,654 4,631 2,767 8,670 4,005 3,856 3,084 11,324 20,060 8,583 1,987 30,307 4,035 4,940 2,666,846 784,163 173,962 1,288,239 364,548 504,047 708,726 929,971 5,851,812 2,250,386 602,297 6,589,383 651,603 529,850 37 17 5 23 9 10 12 92 36 10 63 9 9 Pres. and Diet Styria Gov. and Diet Pres and Diet Tyrol and Vorarlberg... Gov. and 2 Diets. Moravia Silesia Pres and T)ipt, Pres. and Diet, Gov. and Diet. 115,903 108,258 16,773 23,895,833 15,030,306 22,836 2,127,829 353 Diet. 413 ■40" Hungary. Hungary and Transyl- Diet Croatia and Slavonia... Ban and Diet. Total, Hungary 125,039 17,180,971 453 Grand total 204,942 41,076,804 82 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. The Austro-Hungarian Empire lies In the central part of , Eastern Europe. It is bounded on the north by Germany and Russia, on the east by Russia, on the south by Roumania and Servia, the Turkish Empire and Montenegro, the Adriatic Sea and Italy, and on the west by Switzerland and Germany. It is composed of a collection of states, the empire of Austria, and the kingdom of Hungary. The emperor of Austria is also king of Hun- gary, and the two governments are administered by a common ministry and a common pre- mier. The present emperor, Francis Joseph I., succeed- ed to the throne In 1848 on the resig- nation of his uncle, Ferdinand I., and the refusal of his father to take office. The capital is Vienna, with a population of 1,364,.548, and the inhabitants are German, Czech, Slav, Hungarian, and Turkish, speaking different languages and maintaining different customs. The history of the Austrian Empire from 1815 to the revolu- tionary period of 1848 is the history of a movement, more successful here than elsewhere in Europe, toward the conserv- ative monarchical system. There was, on the one hand, the monarchical party and, on the other, the movement toward liberalism and self-government, as in the other states of Europe at this time, but the conservative party practically suc- 33 History since 1815. 34 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. ceeded in keeping the control throughout the period, and to-day it holds the upper hand. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, Austria, through the diplomacy of Metternich, who was prime minister for many years, obtained the additional territory of Iiombardy and Venice in Italy, the lUyrian provinces, the Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Salzburg, and Dalmatia in the south, besides Galicia in the north, and she has retained all but the first two since then. At the same time, the emperors of Austria and Russia, to- gether with the king of Prussia, entered into a compact which, • though it at first pretended to exist only for the encouragement of peace and the spread of religion, soon proved to iave for its sole purpose the prevention of the spread of free thought and republican ideas among the people. Austria was the leader in this movement, and Metternich guided Austria. The press, after the liberal movement of the first quarter of the century, was now put under strict surveillance, trial by jury was abolished, a system of secret police was instituted, and everything was done to kill what trace of republicanism still remained in the empire. In this crushing out of free thought Metternich was con- sistent up to his fall in 1848. The Austrian people had no opportunity for expressing their opinions, and when any such attempt was made on their part it was immediately sup- pressed. The spirit of the governing power was directly opposed to the spirit of individual freedom that was just then gathering so much strength in Germany. The " ' Poison of Freedom ' was suppressed in order that the legal government might be maintained on a firmer basis and the people of the empire kept happy and contented." In 1820, when the in- surrections began to appear in Naples and Southern Italy, Metternich called the Troppau and afterward the Laibach Congresses, to secure the permission of Europe to put them down. In 1822 the same was done with the Piedmont up- rising. Another revolt began gradually to gain strength in Italy, whereupon towns were fortified and Milan and Venice held under careful guard. Austria received a severe check in this course of procedure when the French Revolution of 1830 broke out. Stringent measures were adopted to stop the spread of this movement AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 35 into Italy, but the sentiment of the right of free thought and self-government ha'd become too strong by this time, and it continued to increase in Italy, in Germany, and in France, until in 1848 the February Revolution was the match that set all Europe in flames. Revolutions spread eastward and at last carried Austria with them. The people took the reins out of Metternich's hands and in March the populace in Vienna gained control of the government. Demands were made at once for the propagation of the budget. This occurred on the 11th. On the 12th and 13th the people of Vienna were crying for Metternich, but he had resigned and was far on his way to England. The political history of Austria for the next two years is remarkable. Free press, the establishment of national guards, and the calling of a national assembly, were demanded by the people. But though these were at once granted the new movement was not satisfied. The emperor was forced to fly on the 17th, and the people had complete control of the city and government. In a short time the emperor returned from Innsbruck, and a plan for a constitution was drawn up which led to further troubles and the flight of the emperor a second time. The empire was now in a critical condition ; foreign aflTairs weakened the standing of the government abroad. In Italy the inhabitants arose in Milan and Venice and expelled the Austrians. With the aid of the king of Sardinia the Italians soon had strength enough to declare war against Austria, but it was not long before Austrian troops had retaken Milan and Venice and regained control there. Hungary was practically independent of Austria as soon as the revolution broke out, and Louis Kossuth, the young editor of the gazette at Buda-Pesth, became a leader of the people. The Hungarian Reichstag, or national Diet, came out with a declaration of rights ; demands for a responsible government were made, and there was to be nothing more than a personal union between the two kingdoms. These disputes between Hungary and Austria were of long standing. Hungary wanted merely a personal union, desiring to retain full autonomy. The natural result of such a course must have been the inevitable dismemberment of the Austrian 36 GOVBBNittENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Empire. Kossuth, elected to the Hungarian Parliament in 1846, became the leading spirit in the opposition to Austria. It was he who instigated the demand for a new constitution for Hun- gary proper in 1848, which, coming in the early days of March, hastened the Vienna uprising of the 13th. In August the imperial Parliament began to show some signs that the changes granted, b^ij the emperor would be put into effect. A Hun- garian*";'?^^ appointed with Kossuth as minister of finance and Archdulie Stephen was made the viceroy or palatine of the kingdom of Hungary. Hopes for peace in the future were entertained, but the policy adopted in Hungary from the start soon caused trouble. Croatia, Slavonia, and Transyl- vania complained at once that their wishes were disregarded. The Magyars applied at Vienna for the union of all three provinces under the governm.ent of Hungary, while, on the other hand, the three provinces themselves put in a petition to the same source for the institution of an independent king- dom such as that of Hungary. The imperial government seeing an opportunity of using one against the other — a policy common in the history of this conglomerate nation — ap- pointed, as Ban of Croatia, Jellachich, a man who was notori- ously hostile to Hungary, and secretly encouraged him to proceed against that kingdom at the same time that4t openly opposed such a movement at the request of the Hungarian government. Kossuth and Gorgei, the military general, organized a force of 200,000 men and opposed Jellachich, but finally, on the murder of Lamberg shortly after his appointment to supersede Gorgei, the government of Hungary was declared annulled by the emperor and Jellachich appointed military director of the territory which was set under martial law. Hostilities began at once, and forces under Prince Windisohgratz for the Austrians and Gorgei for the Hungarians met, and the strug- gle only ended after the imperial government had called in the assistance of Russia. The city of Buda-Pesth was taken by the Russians. Kossuth was obliged to fiy to Turkey, and Hungary was treated as a conquered country. As the emperor had promised certain concessions to the kingdom of Hungary, he was obliged to resign at the beginning of hostilities in December, 1848. AUSTBIA-HUNGABY. 37 Francis Joseph succeeded to the imperial office. By the fall of the year 1849 Hungary was completely conquered. Mean- time Austria had been losing prestige in Central Europe, where she was endeavoring to gain and hold the leadership of the Germ.an states. In 1853 troubles broke out again in the south and an uprising occurred among the Montenegrins, who complained of the rule of the Turks. Austria, siding with the former, was in the midst of negotiations with the Porte when the war of the Crimea between Russia and Turkey opened. Austria joined the allied forces and went through the siege of Sevastopol of 1854-55, which checked the advance of Russia. The next three years were years of relaxation in regard to the severe treatment of Hungary and Italy, but neither of these countries looked upon the imperial govern- ment with favor, and it was only a year later that Austria's treatment of the government of Italy turned first Cavour and Sardinia and then Napoleon III. against her. The break was hastened by the behavior of Napoleon, who was evidently desirous of finding some cause for war. Accordingly, in 1859 troops began to gather from France and from Austria, and on May 20 the battle of Montebello was fought, resulting in the defeat of the Austrians. Eleven days later Austria was driven back still farther at the battle of Palestro, and on the 4th of June the battle of Magenta resulted in their rout. Milan rose in rebellion, and Italy began to throw off the Austrian rule. The final defeat of the Austrians at Solferino on the 24th of June closed the war. Austria was completely beaten and the peace of Villafranca, signed the 11th of July, compelled her to give up all her possessions in Italy except Marstria, Peschiera, and Venetia. Italy became a confederation under the pope. The year 1860 saw the great changes in the Austrian consti- tution which have caused the present Austro-Hungarian Em- pire to rise out of the monarchy of Metternich. The settle- ment of boundary questions was by no means made, and in 1863 Prussia began her diplomatic policy toward Austria, which finally led to the separation of the latter from all matters concerning the German states, and left Prussia to claim and maintain the leadership in Germany. This ques- tion first arose over the discussion concerning the succession in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, where it was de- 38 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOKLD TO-DAY. cided that both Austria and Prussia should maintain troops for the time in a kind of joint rule. It was not long, how- ever, before disagreements arose out of which came the war of 1866, in which Austria was completely worsted in seven weeks. The Austrian Empire, ruled over by an emperor of the stiSSons. House of Hapsburg, was originally, up to 1806, a government over most of the German states, besides the northern part of Italy and the territory south of Hungary. In 1806 the gov- ernment was not changed, but the nominal title and now quite extinct rule of the "king of the Romans", was abrogated by the emperor, who then became emperor of Austria. Until 1866, Austria was a powerful influence in Central Europe, but in the latter year the war with Prussia and the defeats sus- tained by Austria compelled the government to give up many claims and much territory, both in the north and the south. Austria had already lost Venetia and Milan and was expelled from the German Bund. After her defeats in 1859 Austria was compelled to make many sacrifices to Hungary, and in 1860-61 Hungary was " allowed to reinstate her constitution. The Diploma, or Ausgleioh, which was the compromise finally agreed upon in 1860, was drawn up by a body of representatives, nominally of the whole Austrian Empire, and elected nine years before. It provides for two legislative houses composing a Reichsrath. The l/ower House was to be chosen by the members of the provincial legislatures which were restored to the status they had occupied before the Revolution of 1848, including that of Hungary before the rearrangement by Kossuth in the same year. The Upper House was to consist of archdukes, nobles, prelates, etc., and both Houses could initiate measures — this being the first time that that power had been introduced into Austrian legislatures. The Lower House was to transact all the financial, military, and foreign business of the whole empire, and when any matter concerning all the provinces except Hungary came up for discussion, the Hungarian mem- bers were to retire and the others to proceed to a decision. This failed, however, as Hungary objected and insisted on maintaining its new constitution of 1848. In 1861 an edict was issued which gave the emperor authority to throw the election of members to the imperial Reichsrath into certain AUSTEIA-HUNQAKY. 39 towns and important places in tlie provinces, if he cliose, instead of tiaving them appointed by the legislatures. These diets were also given the right to initiate bills and discuss them with open doors. The trouble with Hungary continued, however, and a new demand was made that her territory should be again increased by the addition of Transylvania, Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia. The last two became a part of the kingdom, but the constitutional dispute grew worse and worse. The Hungarian members refused to come to the meetings of the Reichsrath in Vienna, and their rights, parliamentary and municipal, were thereupon denied them. This set the country back and increased the already deep sense of injury felt in Hungary. In four years it had become apparent that with Hungary, an integral part of the empire, having no representation, and with the Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia in a similar state of non-representation, a parlia- ment could not be constitutionally representative that legis- lated for the whole empire. Consequently, in 1865 the Reichsrath was disbanded by order of the emperor. The Austrian constitution dates, therefore, from the patent of the emperor, in 1861, of the right to initiate and debate in the Reichsrath. On the one hand DeStk, head of the Hungarian ministry, and on the other, Count Beust, prime minister of Austria, were both beginning to see the necessity for some compromise to prevent the dissolution of the empire. When the war with Prussia in 1866 broke out, it brought matters to a crisis. Something must be done to weld the empire together or it would fall asunder. The constitution of 1860-61 was accord- ingly adopted, with the added provision that the different provincial governments could enact what laws they desired so long as they did not interfere with any law of the United Monarchy. This constitution stands to-day, only changed by the modifications of 1882. In the order of importance and subordination, the imperial body known as the Delegations is the highest power, trans- acting aU flnancial, foreign, and military affairs for the entire monarchy. This body is made up of representatives of (1) the Austrian Reichsrath, and (2) the Hungarian Reichstag, the former being composed of representatives from (3) the seven- 40 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. The Del- egations. Executive. . Judiciary. teen Austrian diets, and the latter including representatives of (4) the Croatian-Slavonian Diet. WHOLE EMPIRE. The legislative government of the Austrian monarchy as a whole rests with the emperor and two bodies of representa- tives called the Delegations. The latter are composed of sixty members each. One body is made up of twenty members of the Austrian Upper House and forty from the Austrian Lower House, and the other of twenty members from the Hungarian House of Magnates and forty from the House of Representa- tives. The two bodies discuss questions separately and report to each other their decisions. In case of protracted disagree- ment the two meet and vote without discussion. The mem- bers of the Delegations are appointed for one year and the two bodies meet annually, alternately in Vienna and Buda-Pesth. They have the authority to discuss and decide on all matters concerning foreign affairs, military and naval affairs, except the personnel of, the army, finance, commercial affairs, indi- rect taxation, coinage, general railway affairs, and defense. The emperor is the executive officer, both as emperor and as king of Hungary, but he also has large legislative powers under the advice and consent of the Delegations primarily, and the legislative bodies throughout the empire secondarily. He must be a member of the Roman Catholic Church, and his title is threefold, being " Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia, and King of Hungary." The crown is hereditary in the House of Hapsburg and passes by primogeniture and lineal succession to males or, in want of males, to females. The emperor has the usual prerogatives in appointing and re- ceiving members of the diplomatic corps, commanding of the army, etc., and in the administration of the whole empire he is assisted by three ministers, one of whom, as president, is the prime minister and chancellor. These are the ministers of foreign affairs, of war, and of finance. These ministers are responsible to the Delegations and are appointed by the emperor. The highest court of thfe empire is the Imperial Court (Beichsgericht) at Vienna, which decides cases of disagree- ment between the courts in different parts of the empire. In Austria there is primarily the Supreme Court of Justice Army and AUSTBIA-HUNGAEY. 41 and Cassation and the higher Land Courts (Oberlands- gerichte) which are courts of appeal for Austria. Under these are tlie provincial and district courts (Landes and Kreis- gerichte), including jury courts which try higher criminal cases ; and finally the seventy county courts (Bezirksgerichte). In Hungary the highest judicial authority is the Eoyal Court (Kurie) which is final authority in matters criminal and civil within the kingdom. Then follow Royal Courts of Justice for appeals in certain cases. Below these are sixty-five com- mon courts, three hundred and eighty-four county and ten jury courts. The imperial army is regulated by laws that apply to the whole empire alike. There is primarily the army on a peace "Navy." footing. Here the service is three years in the line and seven more in the reserves, service beginning at the age of twenty- one. There is also an Ersatz, which is a supplementary re- serve, and service may be given here for ten years instead of as stated above. Besides the regular army there is the Land- wehr, which is not imperial but organized by each portion of the empire. It requires a ten years' service after leaving the army or the Ersatz, and is only called out occasionally for drill or practice in time of peace, but required to serve in war time. The navy requires a service beginning at the age of twenty- one, first for four years in the marines, then five years in the reserves, and finally three in a partial service called the Seewehr. Finally there is the Landsturm, which is a service beginning at the nineteenth 5'ear and running until the forty-second year, to which all males between these ages not in any other military service belong and in which during war they must serve. The army in time of peace is made up as follows : Infantry 196,233 Cavalry 58,714 Artillery 18,569 Engineers, etc 12,979 Sanitary 2,689 Officers 4,116 Establishments 15,945 Landwehr 27,472 Total, peace footing 336,717 The army in time of war can be increased to a total of 1,818,413. 42 GOVEKNMENTS OF THE WOKLD TO-DAY. The navy at present consists of : Battte-shlps }\ Cruisers ^ Torpedo boats °J A-visos ° River monitors g Station ships ^J Training ships ,* Others 1" Total 128 AUSTRIA. The Austrian constitution provides for a legislature of two houses, which have certain restricted legislative powers given them under the acts of 1860 and 1861 and the final decree of 1882. The duties of the Reichsrath include matters concerning the government of Austria proper and the settlement of cer- tain disputes between the Austrian provinces. Further, it has the authority of consent in all general laws regarding the military legislation proposed by the emperor and the Delega- tions ; cooperative authority In all commercial legislation on matters concerning post and telegraph, railways, banks and customs ; and the right of examination in all matters con- cerning the budgets of the state, legislation concerning the public debt, etc. For the passage of any law the consent of the majority of both Houses is required and the signature of the emperor. The members of both Houses have the right to initiate measures within the province of the Austrian Reichs- rath. The Upper House is composed of four classes of hereditary ^haus°' °'' ^^'® members, there being no elective seats whatsoever. They are : (1) Members of the imperial family having estates in Austria, in all at present, 20 ; (2) the nobles who hold large estates throughout Austria, 66 ; (3) archbishops to the number of 10, and bishops to the number of 7 ; (4) life members appointed by the emperor for signal services in art, literature, or science, or in the military or ecclesiastical service. There are 109 in the latter. The Herrenhaus is therefore composed at present of 212 members. It meets annually at Vienna in conjunction with the Abgeordnetenhaus. The president and vice-president are appointed by the emperor. The members of the Lower House are elected by limited suffrage under the amended law of 1882. There are four sys- AUSTBIA-HUNGABY. 43 terns of suflFrage. In the rural districts one voter is elected for each 500 inhabitants by a qualification of citizenship and an annual tax payment of five florins. These voters in turn elect 131 members to represent the rural districts. The cham- bers of trade and commerce return 21 members under a similar suffrage law, and the towns 116 members. The fourth class, the landed proprietors, paying taxes of from 50 to 250 florins, according to the laws of the diflferent provinces, return 85 members, making in all 353 representatives in the Lower House. The House meets annually in conjunction with the Herrenhaus, and elections occur once in six years. The emperor has the right to dissolve the Abgeordnetenhaus, but he is obliged to call a new election within six months. The House appoints its own officers. The Austrian executive consists of the emperor in person, assisted by the eight ministers of finance, interior, public worship, agriculture, commerce, national defense, justice, and one minister at present without a portfolio. Here, as else- where in the government of the whole empire, the emperor is the chief executive. AUSTRIAN DIETS. The Austrian diets are composed of a single house, in each case consisting of a difierent number of members, according to the size and importance of the province and the population. They are composed of members partly elected and partly holding office by right of other positions in the church or state, and the elective portion holds office for six years. These divisions are the archbishops and bishops of the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches ; the rectors of all universities, all of whom hold their positions by right of office ; and representatives elected under a suflrage law similar to that employed in the Austrian general elections, representatives being sent from landed proprietors, members of the chambers of commerce and trade, towns, and rural districts. This house meets, with a little variation in each case, annually, and has authority in all matters not especially provided for, or detailed to, the federal Eeichsrath and which come within the boundaries of each province, such as matters concerning taxa- tion, cultivation of the soil, educational, ecclesiastical, and charitable works, the care of highways, etc. In each case the Abgeordne- tenhaus. Executive. 44 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOKLD TO-DAY. emperor appoints the governor of a province and the presi- dent and vice-president of the diet. In detail, the sixteen diets are made up as follows : No. of Province. Members. Bohemia 242 Galioia 151 Moravia 100 Lower Austria 72 Tyrol 68 Styria 63 Upper Austria 50 iVo. 0/ J>rovinee. Members. Carlnthla 37 Carnlola "7 Istrla M Silesia gj Bukowlna 31 Salzburg 2h Gbrz and Gradlslta 22 Vorarlberg 21 Dalmatla 43 The diets are in most cases made up of Germans, Czechs, and Slavs, and as each speaks a different language and has different national qualities, they necessarily cause parties to be formed on these lines. In som.e diets German is spoken, in others Czech, and occasionally both are allowed where both nationalities are represented. There is an executive body called the Provincial Council in each province, composed of the presideht of the diet and a number of the members elected for that purpose. HUNGARY. Hungary is a kingdom with its constitution dating back about a thousand years. It has been modified and disre- garded continually, and in 1848 was finally brought into its present shape by Kossuth". The emperor of Austria is king of Hungary by the constitution of 1861. In 1867 the govern- ment and constitution were still more firmly assured by im- perial decree. The legislative body, or Reichstag, is divided into two parts, the House of Magnates and the House of Representatives. They have authority, conjointly, to decide upon all matters not particularly given to the imperial Delegations, which concern all Hungary, including those matters of moment in Transylvania, Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia. These are, briefly, all legislation concerning taxation, education, care of roads and buildings, religion, agriculture, etc. Both Houses are summoned by the king in Buda-Pesth annually, the language being Hungarian with the single exception that the forty representatives from Croatia are permitted to speak their native tongue. The Upper House is composed almost entirely of unelective AUSTEIA-HUNGABY. 45 seats. At present the body consists of 427 members and is made up as follows : 20 archdukes ; 286 nobles, who hold oflfice under the class of hereditary peers, pay 3,000 florins annually as a land tax, and are at least 24 years of age ; to archbishops and bishops of the Roman Catholic and Kreek Churches ; 11 members who represent the Protestant Churches ; 60 life peers, elected in a body by the House itself ; and, finally, 3 Croatian delegates and 17 members who hold seats by virtue of their high position in the state. The president and vice-president are appointed by the king from among the members, and the House can initiate measures and has certain advisory, cooperative, and even final powers. The Lower House is composed of 453 members, made up of representatives elected by all male citizens twenty years of age and paying a small tax on real estate or income. Men in Bcientiflc or learned and professional work are allowed to vote without any property payment. Elections occur once in five years and the House meets annually at Buda-Pesth, appoint- ing its own president and vice-president. The king is the chief executive as well as having legislative and judicial powers, and he has to assist him a cabinet or council of nine members, who are the heads of the ministries of finance, national defense, adlatus (near the king's person), interior, education and worship, justice, industry and com- merce, agriculture, and the department for CroatiarSlavonia. CROATIA. The legislative portion of the Croatian government is a single Diet of sixty-four members, elected by a sufl&age simi- lar to that employed in Hungary. This body is presided over by a Ban, appointed by the king on the nomination of the president of the Hungarian ministry, and he is responsible to the Croatian Diet. The Diet itself has legislative and ad- ministrative powers in all matters which concern the territory that it represents exclusively, and which are not especially given to the Hungarian Reichstag, and of course not taken by the imperial Delegations. These powers are strictly in- ternal and concern worship, education, justice, care of roads, etc. Where the matter concerns the other provinces of Hun- gary as well, it goes to the Hungarian Reichstag for decision. "With the closing of the war, Austrian statesmen, with House of Magnates. House of Represent- atives. EzecutiTS. 46 GOVEKNMBNTS OP THE WOBLD TO-DAY. History ^^ount Beust at their head, felt that if Austria was to remain since 1867, an independent power even within her narrow limits, Hun- gary must be welded to the empire and a constitution must be adopted to give the people some voice in their government.' The result of this was that Francis Joseph was crowned king of Hungary on the 8th of June, 1867, and a number of amend- ments were added to the constitution of 1848, known as the Ausgleich, besides provisions for the general government of the empire at large. By the Ausgleich, as finally arranged in 1867, Hungary be- came a more favored part of the empire than the other prov- inces, and from this time Bohemia's demands for a similar grant from the imperial government began. Beust, Austrian minister in 1867, saw at once that some grant must be made to Bohemia, and he consequently brought about many liberal reforms within that province. Civil marriage was introduced and all disputes upon the marriage question from that time were to come before civil courts for settlement. The Con- cordat with Rome was broken and greater freedom of worship was introduced. Trial by jury was restored, and arrange- ments concerning finance and the army were changed for the better, the national debt being consolidated, and the strength of the army raised to a peace footing of 255,000 men. The questions arising in the eastern part of Europe from this time until the present day cannot be discussed here. It is only possible to suggest Austria's part in these difficulties that are still unsettled. In 1874 some Montenegrins and Turks at Podgoritza came into collision, as they had often done before. During the next twelve months five Turks were con- demned to death for the murders perpetrated during this riot. The Turkish government refused to allow this sentence to be carried out, and from this grew the beginnings of a trouble that finally ended in war. Bad crops and overtaxation in Montenegro, Bosnia, and Herzegovina were another cause which led to an uprising and desultory warfare throughout these provinces in 1875. To settle the question and prevent war on a large scale, the great powers of Europe signed a note addressed to the sultan and drawn up by Count Andrassy, then prime minister of Austria. This "Andrassy Note " had no results, however, and the powers drifted toward war. AUSTBIA-HUNGAEY. 47 Austria in this dispute wislied primarily for peace, fearing n the case of war that not only the above mentioned irovinees but Croatia and even Hungary might be drawn into t. The old Austrian principle of letting well enough alone pvas the foundation of the present status. Early in July war Yas declared against Turkey by Servia and Montenegro, !ecretly assisted by Russia, Austria still maintaining her leutrality. Her position was a difficult one. The Hunga- ■ians favored the Turks because they hated the Slavs in Turkey and elsewhere. They sided with Turkey, therefore, md decided to join the Turks against the Servians. In Austria proper the sympathy was strong with the Christians )n the Balkan Peninsula and a division of feeling that boded lo good was evident in the empire. After some unsuccessful ittempts at peace every one prepared for war, and towards the ind of 1876 Russia and Turkey, concealing their identity jehind the smaller provinces of the Balkan Peninsula, were •eady to begin the flght. There was a conference at Constan- ;inople in December, but the Porte refused to accept its proposals and only promised a constitution to the provinces, vhich meant nothing. Thereupon Russia declared war igainst Turkey in the middle of April, 1877. In early July ;he Russians crossed the Danube into Roumania and won nctories one after another until, on the 10th of December, Plevna fell and the Turkish army was dispersed. Russia now lad a clear road to Adrianople and Constantinople. During this time, the Austrian government had discovered I plot in Hungary to join the war, attack the Russians in the •ear, and aid the Turks. Demonstrations in Hungary in avor of the Turks were answered in Austria by counter dem- >nstrations in favor of the Russians. Finally, at the insti- fation of the sultan, peace was brought about at San Stefano in March 3, 1878. Austria and England, however, denied the '^alidity of the treaty and demanded a congress of the Euro- jean powers to settle the questions of boundary. This was efused by Russia, and every one again prepared for war, until lostilities were averted by a secret treaty between Russia and England, signed on the 30th of May and agreeing on a division if Roumania. For the settlement of ail questions involved, I conference was held at Berlin, July 13, 1878. Austria got 48 GOVEENMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. Herzegovina and Bosnia for maintaining her neutrality dur- ing the long struggle. It was naturally to her interest to gain control of these two provinces where there were strong inclinations towards a union with Servia to form an inde- pendent Slav monarchy. She could thus prevent a union which would have endangered the security of the bordering Austrian provinces. On the 31st of July, 1878, Austrian forces were sent across the frontier to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. Difficulties arose on all hands, unexpectedly, it seems, as there was no such opposition foreseen, and it was October before the provinces were finally under Austrian control. The great advantage of the possession of the two provinces is the de- fense of the southern border of the Austrian Empire, the easy road it opens into Dalmatia, as well as to Constantinople, and, above all, the road to the sea-coast. Theoretically, Turkey holds the sovereignty of the provinces, but in point of fact Austria, having the execution of that control, is the ruling power. Austrian railroads have been built and compulsory military service was enforced in 1881. Following the occupation .came the struggles in 1885 be- tween ^ervia and the combined forces of Bulgaria and Eou- melia, which were finally settled by the interposition of Austria ; and when in 1888 there seemed to be some danger of another occupation by Russia, the secret treaty of 1879 be- tween Germany and Austria was made public, by which it' appeared that they (and later Italy) had agreed to maintain the status quo of the Berlin treaty. This second Triple Alli- ance has become a source of interest to the student since its public formation. It is still a very strong power in maintain- ing the peace of Europe. It was through this forced annexa- tion that the strong ministry of Auersperg was compelled to resign and the Taaflfe ministry entered upon its office. Count Taafle's ministry had difficulty all along in holding a majority, but in 1892-93 it became still less powerful in the Parliament owing to radical measures introduced somewhat unexpectedly. At the eiid of 1892 Taaffe tried to get a majority by propitiating the three great parties, the German Liberals, the Poles, and the German Clericals, or Conserva- tives. He, however, estranged them all by introducing in AUSTEIA-HUNGABY. 49 October, 1893, a bill granting almost universal manhood suf- frage in Austria. Such a thing had never been considered in Austria before, and a tumult arose in the Chamber of Dep- uties. To avoid a crisis Count Taaffe resigned on October 29, and Prince Windischgratz was summoned to take his place. A so-called coalition ministry was formed which has had little but labor troubles to cope with. Universal suffragists are con- stantly gaining strength. The difficulty in the government of Bohemia has been and always will be that different races, speaking different Ian- Bohei guages and inheriting different traditions, are drawn together under a common government to which they can never be brought to agree. The Young German party looks towards Germany as the proper government ; the Young Czechs are ultra-nationalists, and the Old Czechs are allied with the Ultramontanes and conservative parties in Austria. When Count Taaffe came into office he soon hit upon an oppor- tunity for compromise, and the Old Czechs were persuaded to join the Moderate Germans to the exclusion of the other two extreme parties, the Ultramontanes and the Young Czechs. To this end an Ausgleich was drawn up at the congress held in Vienna in 1890. A portion of this has passed the legislature in Bohemia and been signed by the king, though a vote on all the clauses could not be maintained. The Ausgleich offered the following proposals : (1) The division of the schools in Bohemia into German and Czech educational systems, including schools for the one or the other party. Where there is a minority of forty families of five years' residence which recommends or demands it, that district is to have a school also. (2) The agricultural school committees, which have charge of all agricultural schools and societies, are to be divided into two independent bodies, German and Czech. (3) The division of the Supreme Court is to be made in two national sections. (4) The management of the electoral, the administrative, and judicial districts are to be such that the differences of language may not interfere ; that is, Germans try Germans, and Czechs, Czechs, and each elect representa- tives from their own nationality. (5) The organization of the government officials is arranged in such a manner that they shall not be required to speak both languages as heretofore. 50 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. In some cases they are obliged only to know the language that is most prevalent in their district. (6) The division of the Diet into two national bodies is provided for, so that both parties shall vote on a question and a majority of both be re- quired before the bill becomes a law. This Ausgleioh is an attempt to give to each nationality a fair and proportionate representation and authority in the government, and to give the minority such rights as properly belong to it. Within the last year or two Bohemia has been the scene of much political disorder owing to this question of the two nationalities. In 1893, while the details of the Ausgleich were still being discussed, the Young Czechs seized the opportunity to begin a crusade against the German elem.ent in Bohemia. They proposed that Moravia and Silesia should become integral parts of Bohemia, and as the majority of the popula- tion in these provinces is Czechs, this would have given the Czechs large majorities in the Bohemian Diet. This party of Young Czechs has gained over the Old Czechs to its side. The former with this added strength grew bold enough in May, 1893, to try to count out a vote in the Diet on the general passage of the Ausgleich. This being unsuccessful they made such a disturbance that the emperor promptly closed the Diet. Riots followed and Prague was in a great state of ex- citement, until finally, in September, the holding of mass meetings, the freedom of the press, and, in certain cases, trial by jury were abolished. The country is quieter at present and has been during 1894, but the warfare of the two races is as strong as ever, and it only awaits a favorable opportunity to break forth again with renewed vigor. At the same time, the heated discussions regarding the question of civil marriage are still rampant in Bohemia, though in Hungary a civil marriage bill was finally carried through the Upper House on June 21 and 22, 1894. The bill caused a great deal of excitement during its passage through the two Houses of the Diet. It passed the Lower House by a large majority in April. On May 10, however, the Upper House at once rejected it, the majority being due to the representatives of the clergy and the aristocracy. The gov- AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 51 eminent did not resign as the majority was so small — 25 out of a total vote of 450. On May 21 the bill again passed the Lower House, and knowing that it would not pass the other House, the Hungarian ministry resigned. They were per- suaded to return after much discussion and popular excite- ment, and they finally worked on the Upper Chamber so strongly that they passed the bill by a majority of four votes, part on the 21st, part on the 22d of June. In both Bohemia and Hungary there is no doubt that the body of the people wish for the requirement of civil authority in all marriages, of whatever church. The opposition comes from the clergy and the nobility, and has been suflQcient until very recent dates to keep any bill from passing. BELGIUM. King, LEOPOIiD II. RULERS SINCE 1800. House Of Austria until 1815 William I. of the Netherlands 1815-1831 Leopold 1 1831-1885 Leopold II 1865- MINISTRY. Minister of Finance A. Beemaert [Pres.] Minister of Justice J. Lejeune Minister of Interior and Instruction J. de Burlet Minister of War.. General J. J. Brassine Minister of Railroads, Post, and Telegraph, J. H. P. Van den Peereboom Minister of Foreign Affairs Count de Merode-Westerloo Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Public Works L. de Bruyn TABLE OF STATISTICS. province. Area. PoimlaHon. 1,093 699,371 1,268 1,128,728 1,249 746,923 1,158 958,752 1,437 1,068,815 1,117 762,196 931 224,604 1,706 216,380 1,414 341,072 Antwerp Brabant West Flanders East Flanders., Hainaut Ligge Limburg Luxemburg Namur Total 11,373 6,147,041 Si BELGIUM. The kingdom of Belgium is a constitutional monarchy, situated in the northern central part of Europe. It is bounded on the north by Holland and by the North Sea, on the east by Holland, Germany, and Luxemburg, and by France on the south and west. The situation of the kingdom of Bel- gium is of great importance in maintaining the " balance of power " in Europe, and it is for this reason that in 1839 it was by treaty of the great powers declared forever neutral. Brus- sels is the capital with a population of 477,398. When the Congress of Vienna partitioned off Europe to suit itself, it decided to annex the territory of Belgium to that of Holland and call it all the Netherlands. It was a most unfortu- nate union, as the his- tory of the next twenty years only too clearly shows. For Holland and Belgium had nothing in common, the former being Cal- vinistic in religious faith and the latter the center of Catholicism in the north of Europe ; and the language and customs of each were aa widely separated as their religion. Besides this, Holland, though it had only two thirds the population of Belgium, was given a majority in the assemblies, and in 1830, for example, out of seven ministers in the cabinet Belgium was represented by but one. The appointments in most of the political de- partments were given to the Dutch. 53 History since 1815. 64 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. In the first years after 1815, the Liberal element in Belgian polities saw in this union with a Protestant state an oppor- tunity for freeing their country from tlie rule of the Catholics, and they joined the king in a plan for raising the standard of education and for placing it under the control of the state. The University of Louvain was transformed into a college for the study of philosophy and the liberal arts, and all who in- tended to join the Catholic clergy were compelled to take a degree at this university before they were permitted to begin their religious studies. This turned the Catholic element against the government. It was not long before the Liberals also turned against the foreign rule, when they discovered that the right of free speech, trial by jury, and freedom of the press were being curtailed. The result was a combination be- tween the Ultramontanes and the Liberals and the creation of a strong Opposition, comprising the bulk of the Belgian population. Weighted as they were with a portion of the Dutch debt, the Belgians, toward the year 1830, began to openly propose separation from Holland. Arrests and im- prisonment for outspoken charges against the government provoked still more comment, and when in 1829 the king issued a message asserting his authority in Belgium, riots occurred in Brussels and throughout the country. Demands for the abolition of the University of Louvain, for absolute freedom of the press, and a form of legislative and adminis- trative government for Belgium, came from all sides. The country was in this state when the Revolution of 1830 broke out in Paris. On receipt of the news, the riots increased and Brussels was loud in its demand for the retirement of Van Maanten, the minister of justice. He had incurred the dislike of both parties by his policy, and through the influence of a revolutionist named De Potter the complaints of the Catholics were centered on him.. The riots spread into revolt and extended over the entire country. Belgium was aroused to assert its independence, and on his side the king was driven to the use of force to suppress the revolt. The Prince of Orange, who had been sent to Brussels to examine into the state of affairs, found that the only satisfactory settlement of the question lay in the grant of a separate legislative and administrative body to BELGIUM. 55 the Belgians ; but the king refused to bring tliis about, and by the 11th of September a Committee of Safety had been formed at Brussels to maintain the integrity of Belgium. While this body was in session, the people of the city gained control of the streets and the country was practically in the hands of the mob. A national convention was thereupon called and it is to the wise deliberations of this assembly that the Belgians owe their present constitution. After the revo- lution had spread over the country the king granted the right of an assembly with the required powers, but this came too late — the cry was for absolute separation now. A convention in London toward the end of 1830 attempted to make a settle- ment of the question, but it was not until the end of April of the following year that Belgium settled it herself by deciding on an hereditary, constitutional monarchy and by offering the crown to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg after it had been refused by the sou of Louis Philippe. The new king took the title of Leopold I. A Dutch invasion was repulsed, France having come to the king's rescue with an army, and the in- tegrity of the kingdom was established. It was not until 1833, however, that a treaty was arranged by which Luxemburg was to be divided between Belgium and Holland, and the neu- trality of Belgium was guaranteed by the great powers. In 1839 Holland finally accepted all the articles of the treaty, receiving a part of Limburg for what she gave up in Luxemburg. The union of Liberals and Catholics had accomplished the independence of Belgium. Their subsequent separation threw the new kingdom into disturbances that are by no means set- tled at the present day. The great majority of the population of Belgium is Catholic and, gradually, from 1840 on, the ad- vanced liberal acts of the government irritated the Conserva- tive Catholics, until a somewhat Conservative ministry came in in 1842, which resigned in 1847 to the Liberals again. They in their turn retired in favor of a Conservative majority in 1852. The separation of the Liberal and Ultramontane parties went on increasing, and violent discussions with not infrequent outbreaks occurred from 1855 to 1864, when a strong Liberal ministry again entered upon office. The questions under dispute were the control of education, of marriage. 56 GOVEKNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. etc., throughout the kingdom, for though the Catholics had controlled education from time immemorial, the Liberals, beginning under the Dutch rule, had striven to place the schools beyond Catholic influence. This constant dispute, which from 1861 became complicated with labor strikes and socialistic organizations, has made Belgium the theater of educational and labor discussions, conventions, associations, etc., which have furnished in recent years invaluable reports on these great questions of the day, though they have brought little else of benefit to Belgium itself. King Leopold died in 1865 and was succeeded by his son, Leopold II. In the war of 1870 between Prussia and France, England issued an ultimatum that she would join forces against either side that first broke the treaty of 1839, which made Belgian territory forever neutral. This stand had much to do with saving Belgium from one or the other of the participants in the war. At the beginning of the war a Liberal ministry of long duration fell before the Ul tramontanes and Radicals combined. The assembly called together in 1830 to form a constitution tution. did its work so well that with few exceptions the articles of the constitution remain as they were then drawn up. The monarchy is constitutional, representative, and hereditary; and theoretically the government is by the people through their representatives elected by themselves. The rights of indi- viduals and the possession of private property are insured forever, and all religious faiths are equal before the law. The legislative portion of the government is vested in a laturV S^^i^t® and a House of Representatives, and the members of both are elected by the people. Members of both Houses are free from arrest during term-time and they represent the country at large, not the districts from which they are returned. They receive no salary. Both Chambers meet annually and sit for forty days at least, reports of the pro- ceedings being published. The Chamber of Representatives is composed at present of one hundred and thirty-eight mem- bers. They are elected by a manhood suffrage which requires that an elector pay an annual tax of forty francs, one repre- sentative being returned for every 40,000 inhabitants. Mem- Consti- BELGIUM. 57 bers are required to be natural bom or naturalized Belgians, to live in the kingdom, and to be twenty-one years of age. The House has the sole right of initiating measures relating to money matters and to the personnel of the army. The regular term of office is four years, but half the members re- tire every t\Vo years, except in the case of a general election brought about by a dissolution. The Senate is composed of half as many members as the House, and they are chosen for terms of eight years. Half their number retire every four years, except, as in the case of the Chamber, when a dissolution occurs. To become a senator a candidate must be forty years of age and pay a tax of at least 2,116 francs. The king is the chief executive of the government, but as he is not subject to the changes of parties, every act of his has to be countersigned by one of the ministers, and in case of strong opposition in the country, the latter is held responsible and must retire. The king is commander-in-chief of the army, and he convokes and prorogues the Parliament. He credits and receives foreign emissaries, and has other powers that require the consent of the legislature. Tlie person of the king is sacred and the succession is provided for by direct male primogeniture. The executive is assisted by seven ministers, who constitute a cabinet and are responsible to the legislature. They have the right of entry into the Chambers, but no vote. There is also a privy council connected with the executive department. There is a Court of Cassation at Brussels, which is the highest legal authority in the kingdom. Besides this there are three courts of appeal and three of assizes, the judges in every case being appointed by the king. There are besides two hundred and sixteen courts in the cantons. Trial by jury in criminal and poUtical cases is an integral part of the constitution. Eeligion is free to all, but the Catholic Church includes a large majority of the inhabitants. Education is compulsory in the primary schools and there are four universities, those at Brussels, Ghent, Ligge, and Louvain. Each commune is obliged to maintain a portion of the expense of a school. For a monarchy the local government of Belgium is very powerful. There are provincial and communal councils. Executive. Judiciary. Local gov- ernment. 58 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. History since 1870. Kultui- kampf. Labor questions. members of the form«r being elected for four years and re- tiring half every two years, and those of the letter being elected for six years and retiring half every three. Each council has authority in its own province in local matters, including local finance. At the beginning of the war the moderate Conservative ministry of Malou entered upon office and maintained itself until 1878. The movement toward secularization of educa- tion, which had been gaining ground in France, spread into Belgium in the years immediately preceding 1878 and was the cause of the overthrow of the ministry in the latter year. Prfere-Orban, an ardent Liberal, was made the head of the new Liberal ministry, and one of the first acts of the new government was to bring forward an educational bill creating a minister of education and taking the control of the schools out of the hands of the Catholics. The bill became a law in 1879 and aroused the greatest opposition among the Catholics all over the country. Diplomatic relations with the Holy See were broken oflF in 1880 and the fight continued until in 1884, owing partly to the large deficits iu the budget, but chiefly to the energetic work of the Catholics, an Ultramontane mar jority was returned in both the Chambers. Malou reentered upon office only to resign in the same year on account of riots, mass meetings, and monster petitions raised against the reversal of the Frfere-Orban educational system. M. Beer- naert was made the premier. Up to 1886 the educational legislation was the all-important question, but then labor troubles began to claim the attention of the entire country. Before 1886 there was no organized labor party or any socialistic organization of prominence. In March of that year, in the city of Li6ge, a mass meeting of miners was held to demand more wages. Eiots and a series of fights between the troops and the miners occurred, and in April they de- veloped Into an organized strike. Twelve hundred troops were required to suppress the rising revolt. A Royal Com- mission was thereupon appointed to examine into the state of labor, and its report showed the justice of many of the workingmen's demands. But it was not until 1889, after two years more of trouble, that bills were passed exempting certain laborers' houses from taxation, improving the dwell- BELGIUM. 59 ings, and organizing savings banks and banks for issuing loanSj The socialistic troubles continued, however, though in less lawless fashion. De Puisseaux, a socialist, was tried in 1889 for the publication of a pamphlet called "The People's Catechism," but he was acquitted and the ministry nearly fell for maintaining the charges against him, since it appeared during the trial that the government had secretly given him encouragement in order to gain popular support for an anti- socialist law. Through 1890 and 1891 the growth of the socialistic party was marked. Demands were frequently made for universal suffrage, absolute freedom of the press, etc. In 1893 the combination of socialistic theory and electoral reform agitation brought on a series of riots. These began in February, when permission was given to the people in and about Brussels to make a trial of the Referendum in force in the Swiss Republic. The result was that the people voted in favor of universal suffrage. The success of the trial was some- what surprising to the government. Measures were brought in at once, some favoring suffrage for those over twenty-five years of age having certain incomes, others for those who were merely twenty-flve years of age. These were all voted down, and at this rioting began, with the result that on April 18, 1893, a bill suggested by one Nyssens was carried, giving universal suffrage to the country and the plural vote ; that is, all males over twenty-one years of age having resided a year in the voting place can vote. Those of certain ages, incomes, and education also have a second vote. BOLIVIA. President, M. Baptista. MINISTRY. Minister Of Foreign Relations E. Cano Minister of Finance E. Guerra Minister of "War Severo F. Alonzo Minister of the Interior L. Paz Minister of Justice and Worship E, Tovar TABLE OF STATISTICS. Department. Area. Population. Capital. Chuquisaca 72,796 44,552 55,400 86,810 25,640 140,180 112,545 295,631 360,680 642,650 300,000 450,300 170,000 200,500 140,560 68,650 Sucre. Potosi Potosi. Cochabamba Cochabamba. Oruro Oruro. Santa Cruz. Tarija Tarija. Beni Trinidad. Total 783,554 2,333,340 60 BOLIVIA. The republic of Bolivia ia situated ia the central part of South America, and is bounded on the north and east by Brazil, on the south by Paraguay, the Argentine Republic, and Chile, and on the west by Chile and Peru. Sucre is the capi- tal with a population of 17,098. The constitution in force to-day was adopted in 1880, though it is still practically the same as the one drawn up by Simon Bolivar in 1826 and amended in 1840. It is founded on that of the United States. There is a legislature of two houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives, of which the former is composed of sixty- six members elected by direct vote of the people, and the latter of two members elected by each of the departments, also by vote of the people. Each senator and deputy receives $200 a month during the term, which extends over three months from the 6th of August. The president is the executive oflBcer and he is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers. His term of office is four years and he is not eligible for reelection at once. There are two vice- presidents, whose duty it is to supersede the president in case of the latter's incapacity. There is a Supreme Court at Sucre, the capital, and superior courts in each of the eight districts into which the country is divided. The regular military force is composed of 2,000 men, but the National Guard, which is a well-organized militia, includes some 20,000 men. The Catholic faith is the popular rehgion, but other creeds have a reasonable toleration from the government. Education is represented by four hundred and sixty schools, nineteen colleges, and four universities. The country now occupied by the republic of Bolivia was in the last century a part of the land of the Incas, which was all the province of Spain. Buenos Ayres first threw off the yoke 61 Consti- tution. Legis- lature. Executive, Judiciary, etc. Sketch of history. 62 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Of Spain in 1809, and the years that followed until 1825 were filled with an almost uninterrupted series of wars for inde- pendence on the part of Peru. The contests during these years between the Upper Peruvian patriots, sometimes united with their weaker brethren in Peru, against the Spanish armies were of the fiercest liind, but they ended in victory for the people under the leadership of General Sucre, and Upper Peru was made into an independent republic under the name of Bolivia. The first assembly was held on October 6, 1825, and a congress was called for May of the next year to adopt the constitution drawn up by Simon Bolivar for the new republic. This, though altered since then in many de- tails, remains to-day the same in its general characteristics. General Sucre was elected the first president. From this time until 1870 the country has been retarded in its growth by two causes. Hardly two years elapsed under one administration before a revolt of the Opposition seized the control of the government, maintained it for some time, and was in its turn overthrown. On the othet hand, there have been several uprisings in both Peru and Bolivia, which, resulting in the ascendency of one man over both republics, have caused the interference of Chile to maintain the balance of power among the three. In 1836 Santa Cruz, the presi- dent of Bolivia, gained control of the government of Peru, and the result was a war with Chile that lasted three years. In 1841 Peru overcame Bolivia and Chile again interfered. Changes of administration occurred in Bolivia in 1848, 1855, 1858, and 1861 — all due to the restless spirit and fickleness of the inhabitants. These continually occurring interruptions retarded the commercial growth of Bolivia materially, but in 1862 the government signed commercial treaties with the United States and with Belgium. Finally, the boundary question with Chile on the border of Atacama was defined in 1866 as running along the 24th° of latitude ; and when in 1871 Morales was elected president the republic began to advance agriculturally and commercially to a limited extent. The war between Peru and Chile* in 1881 ended in 1883, and resulted in a treaty which gave to ChUe the territory of * For a statement of this war see Chile. BOLIVIA. 63 Atacama and the only seaport town that Bolivia possessed. Since then, therefore, the republic has been a landlocked country. This territory on the coast between Peru and Chile was found in 1866 to contain valuable deposits of guano, and from that time on it became the desire of the Chilean govern- ment to gain possession of it. Bolivia has had a material growth during the last decade in agriculture, and the increasing demand for means of trans- portation has produced many attempts to improve the road to the sea over the Rio de la Plata. This in itself has resulted in a general stimulus to trade. It is probable that the future road of Bolivia to the ocean will be down the Plata or by rail- road along the course of this river. BRAZIL. President, Dr. Pkudente de Mobaes. RULERS SINCK 1800. Ctolony of Portugal to ,. 1807 Royal family of Portugal in Brazil 1807-1821 National Congress 1821-1822 Dom Pedro I„ king 1822-1831 DOm Pedro II., king .-. 1831-1889 Deodoro da Fonseca, president ; 1889-1891 Gen. Floriano Peixotto 1891- TABLE OF STATISTICS. Slates. Area. lation. Capital. S. ofD. Sen. Aniazonas Para MarahhSo Plauhy Rio Grande do Norte Parahyba Pernambueo Alagoas Sergipe Banla Bsplrlto Santo Rio de Janeiro City of Rio Santa Catharina.... Rio Grande do Sul, Mlnas-Geraes Matto-Grosso Goyaz Parana Sao Paulo 732,460 443,653 177,566 116,218 40,253 22,195 28,854- 49,625 22,583 7,370 164,649 37,312 26,634 538 27,436 91,335 222,160 532,708 288,546 85,453 112,330 Total 3,229,878 80,654 407,350 488,443 266,933 952,625 308,852 496,618 1,110,831 459,371 232,640 1,821,089 121,562 1,164,568 406,958 236,346 564,527 3,018,807 79,750 211,721 187,548 1,386,242 Manaos. Para. San Luis. Therezlna. Fortaleza. Natal. Parahyba. Recife. Maceio. Aracajfl.. San Salvador. Victoria. Rio. Desterro. Porto Alegre. Ouro Preto. Cuyaba. Goyaz. Curitiba. Sao Paulo. 2 3 7 3 7 3 4 3 10 a 4 3 5 3 17 3 B s 4 3 22 3 2 3 17 3 10 3 4 3 IB 3 S7 3 2 3 3 4 22 14,023,435 205 63 64 BRAZIL Brazil is in the northern part of South America, bounded on the north by Colombia, Venezuela, the British, Dutch, and French Guianas, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Uruguay and Paraguay, on the west by Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. It is a republic of twenty-one states, with a central government under a president and a constitution. The capital is Rio de Janeiro with a population of 406,- 958. Brazil was a col- ony of Portugal from 1500 until in 1807 Bang John of Portugal fled from the Old World and became first the ruler, and then, in 1815, king of Brazil. During the early part of the century, the difl"erent parts of the country were not in communi- cation with each other, owing to the lack of means of transportation. In the south, Uruguay History since i8oo. and Buenos Ayres were in continual warfare with the kingdom over boundary questions. This resulted first in the absorption 65 66 GOVERNMENTS 0¥ THE WORLD TO-DAY. by Brazil of the two countries, and finally in their separation. In 1821 King John was recalled to Portugal by a resolution of the Portuguese Cortes, and his eldest son was left as regent. In a year Pedro had become the active ruler and declared the independence of Brazil from the crown of Portugal. A con- stitution was adopted in 1824 which lasted with few changes until the bloodless revolution of 1889. The independence of the country was recognized by Portugal in the year following the adoption of the constitution. In 1826 the first Brazilian Parliament assembled, but the disputes, almost unavoidable in so new a body, grew to ungovernable proportions at once. The opposition to the government steadily increased until the king abdicated in 1831 in favor of his son, hoping by this to change the sentiment and quiet the country. Pedro II. was but five years old at the time, and it was not until 1840 that he began his reign, which lasted until November 15, 1889. There were many internal and external uprisings during the period of the regency, but in 1848 a revolution that was with difficulty suppressed ended the internal strife. From that time Brazil has grown in commercial importance. The slave trade was abolished in 1850, and with the rapidly increasing improvements in interstate communication and in- creased Immigration commerce developed at an unparalleled rate. Hostilities abroad, however, continued from time to time, and culminated a few years after the abolition of the slave trade in the attempt of Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, to close the La Plata River to all navigation. A fierce war was at once opened which raged until Lopez and his men at the battle of Campo Grande, August 16, 1869, were annihilated. Paraguay was nearly ruined and Brazil added 1315,000,000 to her debt. Since then the commercial growth has been very rapid. The arts and sciences, educational institutions, and all the adjuncts of advanced civilization have greatly increased within the last fifteen years. The formation of the republic in 1890 made the preparation Consti- of a constitution necessary, and one of the earliest acts of the republican government was the appointment of a national congress to draw up and adopt a constitution. This body finished its work February 24, 1891. The result of its labor is a constitution founded largely on that of the United States. tntion. BRAZIL. 67 It is, however, slightly less centralized ; the states have some- what more authority in respect lo federal government than in the latter country. The federal government has authority to repel invasion, maintain order, and to execute the decrees of Congress. It has power in the matter of duties, post, and telegraph, except in particular cases, establishing banks, and maintaining custom-houses. The states have certain rights in establishing telegraph lines within their precincts, as well as stamp duties, etc. The states, however, cannot legislate against one another, nor can the federal government legislate to the advantage of one or more states and the disadvantage of others. It has the estimating and adoption of an annual budget, the charge of the public debt, collection and dispo- sition of revenue, charge of commerce, river navigation, the adoption of a system of weights and measures, and the de- claring of war and peace. All matters of foreign relations, treaties, questions of boundary and the frontiers, come within its jurisdiction also, and all civil, criminal, and legal codes for the government of the country. It prorogues and adjourns its own sittings and makes and annuls the laws of the country. The legislative portion of the government is carried on by a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, with the final sanction of i-egis- the president. Congress meets on the 3d of May in each year and the session lasts four months. Both Chambers sit with open doors unless otherwise voted on special occasions. Each House elects its own officers and members of both are exempt from arrest while in office, unless taken in the act of crime. Members of both Houses receive an equal stipend for services and the amount is decided upon at the beginning of each year. Members of the Chamber are elected at the rate of one for every 70,000 inhabitants by universal manhood suffrage. The Chamber has the initiative in bills for taxation and supplies, lin the determination of the size of the army and navy, and 'where charges are brought against the president or the min- isters of state. There are at present 205 members in the Cham- ber of Deputies. Three senators are appointed by the government of each state and three by the electoral college in the district. They serve nine years, one third going out every three years. The GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. ixecutiye. Fudiciary. Adminis- tration. vice-president of the republic is ex-offlcio president of the Senate. The Senate alone has power to try and sentence the president of the republic and the ministers of state, and when sitting as such a court the president of the Supreme Court is the presiding officer. Bills, with the exceptions mentioned, originate in either House, being sent immediately to the other upon receiving the required majority vote, and finally coming before the president for signature. The president is the executive officer. He is elected by an absolute majority of voters and by direct suflfrage. He holds office for four years, not being eligible for reelection immedi- ately. It is his duty to see to the execution of laws passed by both Houses and he must sign all bills before they can become laws. A two thirds vote of both Houses overrides his veto. Neither the president nor the vice-president, who holds the executive office in case of the president's death, is allowed to leave the national territory during term of office without the consent of Congress. The president has authority, curtailed somewhat by Congress, to declare war and to make peace, appoint or discharge government officials, direct the military and naval forces, credit and receive foreign emissaries, etc. He can be brought to trial for crimes against the freedom and the political rights of the country, against the constitution, or the security and purity of the nation and the national funds. There is a Supreme Court at Eio de Janeiro composed of fif- teen of the oldest and most tried citizens, who are appointed by the president with the approval of the Senate. They' hold office for life. There are to be inferior courts created by the Senate to meet the demand throughout the country. The duties of the Supreme Court are : the trying of the president and high officials in conjunction with the Senate ; the settle- ment of cases between the states of the republic, or between states and the federal government ; decision in appealed eases from lower courts ; constitutional questions of interpretation, etc. ; matters involving international or maritime law ; and all political crimes. State courts are final in their own par- ticular spheres except in cases involving habeas corpus rights and where foreigners are concerned. The president is assisted by a cabinet of ministers appointed by himself. They are divided into heads of departments for BRAZII/. 69 foreign relations, war, finance, interior, justice, navy, and agriculture. They cannot hold any other office and are not allowed in either house of Congress. They are not responsible to Congress for any advice given the president. Service in the army is obligatory and the control of army ^nnvand and navy rests with Congress and the president. The army Wavy, was reorganized in February, 1890. At that time it consisted of a peace footing of 15,869 men and a war footing of 29,617 men. The navy la composed of eleven torpedo boats and ten armor-clads with a torpedo schoolship. There are also five cruisers, two corvettes, seventeen gunboats, two transports, and several smaller vessels. The crews and officers amount to 5,790 men. Brazil during the last years of the last decade has been fast History approaching a crisis. One of the causes of the revolution that since 1870. occurred in 1890 was the general growth of the sentiment of republicanism throughout the nation. The emancipation movement was perhaps another and was equally strong. In 1871 the anti-slavery movement was strong enough to carry through a federal law involving the gradual extinction of slavery by a clause making every child born after its passage of a slave mother free. This, however, was not fast enough. In 1885 two states, Maranhao and Ceard, set free all the slaves within their borders. In 1885 all slaves over sixty years of age were freed by federal law. SSo Paulo followed the ex- ample of the two other states at the same time, and on May 13, 1888, both Chambers passed bills freeing all slaves in the country and making the holding of slaves illegal. Three quarters of a million of human beings were freed. But this was not accomplished without extreme opposition, and the division among the people on this question gave the immediate stimulus toward what resulted in a bloodless revo- lution and a change from empire to republic in 1889. The only explanation of this peaceful revolution that can be given is that the character of the Brazilians is naturally phlegmatic and averse to uprisings, and that the people had had examples of similar peaceful changes of government in the action of Portugal in 1807, of King John in 1821, and Dom Pedro I. in 1831. The question of a change had, however, been long in the public mind, and the people of 70 GOVEBNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Brazil were only waiting for some sufficient cause to pro- claim the republic. Count d'Bu, the heir to the throne and the husband of Princess Isabella, was not popular, and when the troops were sent to the frontier and only the royal guard retained in the cities, the Historical Kepublicans, fearing an attempt to set up the Count d'Eu's claims, organized on the 9th of November, 1889, a revolution which was carried out within a week by Fonseca. Dom Pedro resigned to avert bloodshed, and a national convention was called to draw up a constitution. Fonseca was made president and for a time the new government seemed to be firmly established. But the enormous deficits in the budgets, the depreciation of the currency, and, most of all, the determination of the president to make large appropriations at such a time for the improve- ment of the harbor of Porto Alegre, caused a division in the ministry which culminated in open hostilities between Con- gress and the president. The former in the last part of 1891 passed an act denying the right of the president to veto bills, and this being unconstitutional Fonseca tried to correct it by doing another illegal thing, and dissolved the assem- blies. Whereupon, revolution appearing imminent, he re- signed and the danger of bloodshed was again averted. Peixotto was made president on the 23d of November, 1891. In late September of 1893, the province of Rio Grande do 8ul, which is composed of inhabitants who are continually divided between the desire to revolt to the Argentine Republic and the desire to become independent, broke out into revolu- tion. According to the constitution the president can send federal troops into a province if an insurrection arises, and the complaint is that Peixotto took eveiy occasion to do this, showing that he looked forward to the possibility of making Brazil an empire again under his personal rule. This was taken advantage of by the minority in Congress, and a hostile movement started against the president, which resulted in the recent revolution. The rule of Peixotto was somewhat on the military order, and in this he was supported by the army. The navy, on the other hand, was opposed to him, and when this inter- ference in the affairs of Rio Grande do Sul occurred, Mello, the admiral of the fleet, went there with a portion of the navy to BRAZIL. 71 support the inhabitants in a revolt. Out of this grew the re- bellion, which gradually became the struggle of the republic as represented by Peixotto against those who looked for a return to monarchical government as represented by Mello. The struggle was desultory and extended through the winter. The Peixotto government was strong on land and weak on water, and the other vice versa. Peixotto then fitted out im- promptu warships in the United States. Late in 1893 Ad- miral Mello went to the south to be in Rio Grande do Sul, and Admiral de Gama became the commander of the rebellion. The war went on in a desultory fashion, it becoming more evident every day that Peixotto must eventually win, as the naval forces had little or no funds to help them. Finally, on January 29, 1894, Admiral Benham, of the United States navy, commanding in Brazilian waters, threat- ened to fire on the revolutionists if they interfered with neutral shipping. At this De Gama ofifered to give up the war and put himself under the orders of the United States. This was refused, and from that time the revolutionists' navy weakened, until in February and March the soldiers and sail- ors began to desert. The final blow was given to tlie whole insurrection on March 1, by the election of Dr. Prudente de Moraes as president of the republic of Brazil. He took office in November, 1894. De Gama and his officers fled first to a Portuguese frigate and then to Portugal, and the war ended with a quickly suppressed uprising in the southern provinces. Brazil seems now to be at peace again. BRITISH EMPIRE. Victoria. Queen of England and Empress of India, RULERS SINCE 1800. George III 1760-1820 I William IV il?"^^^ George IV 1820-1830 | Victoria ^B^'- MINISTRY. Premier, First Lord of the Treasury and Privy Seal .Earl Bosebery Foreign Secretary ro^^^ wTp^hiil T ord Chancellor Baron Hersohell Chancellor of the Exchequer"" .V. Sir William Vernon Efercourt Home Secretary ■■■■■■■■^ ^Herbert H. Asqulth President of the Local Gov. Board....The Bt. Hon. George Shaw-Lefevre Secretary of State for War The Right Hon. H. Campbell-Bannerman First Lord of the Admiralty Earl Spencer Chief Secretary for Ireland The Right Hon. John Morley President of the Board of Trade The Right Hon. A. J. Mundella Attorney-General Sir Charles Russell Solicitor-General JohnRlgby Lord Chancellor of Ireland The Bight Hon. Samuel Walker Attorney-General ft>r Ireland Mr. Macdermott Patronage Secretary to theTreasury...The Bt.Hon.E.P. C.MaJoribanks Solicitor-General for Scotland Alexander Asher Lord Advocate for Scotland The Right Hon. J. B. Balfour Secretary of State for India The BightHon. H. H. Fowler Secretary of State for the Colonies The Marquis of Ripen Secretary for Scotland Sir George O. Trevelyan Postmaster-General Mr. Arnold Morley Vice-President Council of Education. ..Mr. Arthur Herbert Dyke Acland Viceroy of Ireland Baron Houghton Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. James Bryce TABLE OF STATISTICS. State. Area. rop- ■ulation. Capital. H.ofF. H.ofO. England 50,823 30,417 7,363 32,583 75 220 27,482,104 4,033,103 1,518,914 4,706,162 92,272 55,598 London. Edinburgh. Cardiff. Dublin. 519* 16t "28t 463 Scotland 72 Wales ... 30 103 Total 121,481 37,888,153 563 670 * These peers represent the realm each Parliament. J Elected for life. MINISTERS Oeorge III. 1801, Addington, Tory. 1804, Pitt, Tory. . 1806, "All the Talents "-Granville. 1807, Portland, Tory. 1810, Perceval, Tory. 1812, Liverpool, Tory. Oeorge IV. 1827, Canning, Tory. 1827, Goderich, Tory. 1828, Wellington, Tory. Waiiam IV. 1830, Grey, Whig. 1834, Melbourne, Whig. 1834, Peel, Tory. 1835, Melbourne, Whig. not England alone, t Elected for SINCE 1800, Victoria. 1841, Peel, Conservative, 1846, Russell, Liberal. 1852, Derby, Conservative. 1852, Aberdeen, Whig-Peellte. 1855, Palmerston, Liberal. 1858, Derby, Conservative. 1859, Palmerston, Liberal. 1865, Russell, Liberal. 1866, Derby, Conservative. 1868, Disraeli, Conservative. 1868, Gladstone, Liberal. 1874, Disraeli, Conservative. 1880, Gladstone, Liberal. 1885, SaUsbury, Conservative. 1886, Gladstone, Liberal. 1886, Salisbury, Conservative. 1892, Gladstone, Liberal. 1894, Rosebery, Liberal. BRITISH EMPIRE. The British Isles lie north of the northern coast of France, separated from it only by the narrow English Channel, and they constitute the western boundary of the German Ocean, dividing it from the Atlantic. They are composed of Great Britain — England, Scotland, and Wales — Ire- land, the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, the Shet- lands, the Orkneys, and numerous small islands along the coast of one or the other greater ones. The peculiar- ity of the British Empire is that its colonial possessions touch upon all the nations of the earth and hence, though the central govern- ment is on an iso- lated island, it comes into close- contact with all countries. The gov- ernment is a constitutional monarchy in the most liberal sense, 73 74 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. and the constitution is one of precedent, not a written code of laws and statutes. Histo "^^^ history of England since 1800 Is one of reform in social from i8ro to and political matters on all sides. From 1793 the government '''■•■ was harassed by the wars of Europe under Napoleon and many of its troubles can be traced to that cause. With the defeat of Napoleon on the 18th of July, 1815, however, peace became general again and the regeneration period began. George III. had been reigning king of England since 1760, and the Tory and Whig parties (afterward, from 1840, Con- servative and Liberal) changed places as Government and Op- position, as the policy of the one or the other became disagree- able to the king. On the declaration of peace, England was in a fit state for reform. She had been wasted by different kinds of small tax laws ; the long years of war had made it necessary to continually renew taxation, and when peace finally came there were many troubles social, financial, and political, to be settled. Riots against the introduction of machinery were prevalent after 1812. The ministry of Lord Liverpool with Lord Castlereagh as the real ruler was so opposed to reform that that spirit only thrived the more under , it. Towards 1820 matters began to crystallize. A meeting to protest against certain labor laws in Manchester in 1819 was suppressed by military force. Some persons were killed and a great deal of ill feeling created against the government, and out of this and similar occurrences grew the Cato conspiracy in 1820, when Thistlewood, a leader of the people, organized a scheme to kill the entire ministry. The plan was discovered and the conspirators tracked to a Cato Street house and some of them executed without delay. In the same year George III. died. He had been practi- cally insane for eight or ten years and was consequently held in little respect, but his successor, George IV., was hated per- sonally much more. His accusation against his queen, Caro- line, and refusal to recognize her, and the famous trial that fol- lowed in which she was acquitted, brought the royal family into still greater disrepute. The tendency throughout the kingdom toward revolution and reform was strengthened by this scandal in the royal family. At this point Castlereagh committed suicide. He had been the secretary of foreign BBITISH EMPIBE. 7S affairs in Lord Liverpool's ministry and now George Canning took his place. Canning changed the policy abroad at once. He opposed the Holy Alliance and anything that tended to suppress progress. He recognized, in direct violation of Castlereagh's principles, the struggling South American col- onies and even aided them to fight off France and Spain. At the Congress of Verona, in 1822, England broke away from the policy of those governments which were attempting to rule by the suppression of the people's demands. This was the beginning of the reform period that lasted irregularly for thirty years in England. The first change was made in the breaking down of the Navigation Laws which forbade goods being imported into England except in English ships. An arrangement was made allowing for a reciprocity in trade and tariff. Slave trade, too, under Wilberforce's energies came still more into disfavor and steps towards its final extinction were begun. On the death of Lord Liverpool in 1827 Canning became premier, but he could form no satis- factory ministry and sank under ill health and overwork, dying after a few days. A short six months' ministry under Lord Goderich fell because it was too weak to stand, owing to the disfavor of public opinion brought upon it by the battle of Navarino, where the British fleet, with the French and Bussian, annihilated the Egyptian men-of-war, then on their way against Greece. Then came the ministry of the Duke of Wellington with Sir Robert Peel as his leader in the House of Commons. The first important question was the Catholic disturbances under Daniel O'Connell. The Catholic Church had been under a ban for years in Ireland, though three quar- ters of the population were Catholics, and'O'Connell started an association which was the direct cause of eventually bringing about the passage of an act permitting Catholics to sit in Par- liament, to hold all but the few highest offices, and to have equal right to hold office in Ireland with Protestants. Well- ington found it necessary to put this through in order to save a civil war, and the House of Lords had finally to reconsider its vote and agree with the Commons in passing the bill. This was so contrary to Tory spirit that the Wellington min- istry gave way in 1830. In the same year George IV. died and WiUiam IV., his brother, succeeded him as king. 76 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. The ministry of Earl Grey and that of Lord Melbourne, with a few months of a Peel ministry in the year 1834, ran until 1841. These two ministries accomplished more for England than any others in the nineteenth century. The times were stirring; riots and bloodshed were common all over the country ; petitions with enormous numbers of signatures were constantly submitted to the House; and bills were passed with the greatest amount of opposition. First the slavery system was abolished in all British colonies in 1833 at great expense. The large Trading Company, which for years held control of the government and the trade with India, was broken, deprived of its political power, and commerce opened to all in the same year. Previous to this, however, the greatest reform of all had gone through both Houses. It was the first act of the Grey ministry, passed amidst the great- est excitement and popular demonstration. Fifty-six so-called " rotten boroughs " were destroyed ; that is, seats in the Com- mons formerly held by large estates which had dwindled into nothing, while huge cities had grown up elsewhere without having a member to represent their interests in Parliament. This gave one hundred and forty-three seats to cities, and any one with an income of £10 a year under the manhood conditions could vote after its passage. Besides these reform bills, the new Poor Law was passed in 1834 which provided for work- ing-houses, systems for giving labor to those out of work, and the doing away to some extent with the 'poorhouse system. Again in 1835 the local municipal government rights were restored, and now under its clauses town and city govern themselves in local matters. In 1836 the right of civil mar- riage was a step in reform which, though evident enough to- day, was one of the greatest achievements of the time, as it ren- dered marriage independent of any church. Finally, in 1839, the creation of a board of education in the privy council gave an organized system of public education to the kingdom. This period of reform ended in 1839. A ministry of Tory government was attempted under Peel, but the king could not force it and it lasted only a few months. Ireland was becom- ing troublesome ; O'Connell kept up his agitation for the Irish Parliament as it had been before 1800 ; a weak govern- ment could not stand under such disturbances as the Irish BRITISH EMPIRE. 77 began to create. Then, too, troubles arose in foreign affairs. Canada, Upper and Lower, was in the midst of its struggle. Also on the borders of Afghanistan, Englishmen were set to fighting. In the Khyber Pass, one of the two narrow roads into Afghanistan from India, 16,000 English were murdered, and vengeance was taken in 1842 by a force under General Pollock, who captured the capital city, Cabul, and razed it. In 1839 this trouble was at its height, and it was at the same time and for four years more that the Sepoy Rebellion in India was occupying the public mind. By the death of the king, Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent and niece of William, became queen in 1837. The parties remained the same until 1841, when the elections brought back a Tory — now Conservative — government. Melbourne went out and Sir Eobert Peel again became the head of the government. The days of the interference of the crown in legislative mat- ters came to an end, and representative government from this time forth was a fact as well as a name. Men who were more interested in their country and less subservient to the crown entered the House of Commons. The custom of changing the government when a majority was shown to be against it in the House became fixed also, and the premier now held his office subject to the vote of the Commons, rather than subject to the will of the sovereign. The great political event of the next few years was the trouble over the Corn Law agitation. In 1815 a law had been passed to encourage the production of corn at home, and a duty had been placed upon foreign corn sufficiently high to pre- vent its importation. Great dissatisfaction and suffering re- sulted. In 1839 the Anti-Corn-Law League had been formed, to oppose the protective duties. A year after his entrance to office Sir Robert Peel, though an advocate of protective measures, brought forward a bill in the House of Commons making a sliding scale in the corn duty, which, when the price was low — and the supply of corn consequently great — excluded foreign produce ; but which, on the other hand, allowed its importation when a scarcity occurred and the price of the domestic produce rose to a certain height. But the influence of the Anti-Corn-Law League increased to such an extent that, on the failure of the crops in Ireland in 1846, 78 GOVEBNMBNTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. its members forced Peel to bring forward a bill for the entire repeal of the Corn Laws. The measure was too radical for the ministry to hold up under, and Peel was forced to resign. He was succeeded by Lord John Russell at the head of a Whig ministry which remained in office until 1852. This was the beginning of a more liberal spirit in British politics, hav- ing its source in the advance of popular education. The Navigation Laws, that had been in force for so many years . and had confined the transportation of colonial produce to British ships, were repealed and English trade was thrown open to the world. Greater reductions in the tariff laws fol- lowed in 1853 under the Aberdeen ministry, which had suc- ceeded that of Lord Bussell in 1852, and a remarkable period of reform was begun in most of the branches of the govern- ment. In the same year a complete rearrangement of the electoral laws was made, and a Reform Bill was carried through amid the most strenuous opposition. Rotten boroughs were abolished in many cases, and the votes formerly held by these districts were now given to the populous cities as before. As a result, in the next election the House of Com- mons represented the English people more thoroughly than ever before. The Crimean War occupied the foreign office with its many complications from 1853 to 1856, and at the peace of Paris England became still more deeply entangled in the Eastern Question.* The rebellion in India was another source of trouble in British foreign affairs in 1857. It was with diffi- culty suppressed, and it caused the government to take direct control of India from that time forth. Lord Palmerston's ministry was remarkable for the finan- cial reforms which were brought about by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. W. E. Gladstone. Palmerston's policy was one of inaction at home and abroad. During his term of office, interrupted for a few months by a short ministry under Lord Derby, he maintained a neutral position towards the Italian war, the Civil War in America, the insurrection in Poland, the Denmark war, and the war of France against Mexico. On his death in 1865, however, the spirit of reform • See Russia, Turkey, and Egypt. BRITISH EMPIBE. 79 arose again under the ministry of Earl Russell. The latter at once brought forward a second Reform Bill in 1866, but it was rejected by a Conservative majority, and the ministry re- signed, to be succeeded by Lord Derby and a Conservative government. The new minister found himself obliged to introduce an election bill still more sweeping in its reforms than the Russell bill. Its passage was one of the brilliant political strolves of Mr. Disraeli, who was the leader of the House. The measure passed both Houses in 1867. In 1868 the effects of the new suffrage law were seen in the return of a large Liberal majority and, after a short ministry un- der Disraeli, Mr. Gladstone became prime minister. One of his early measures was the disestablishment of the Irish Church. He also carried through a bill for the better distribution of land in Ireland in the hope of settling the troubles in that part of the kingdom. He retained his hold on the people until 1874, when, owing to the extraordinary number and extent of his liberal changes in the government of the country, he was obliged to resign. Mr. Disraeli became minister again. There is no necessity for an authority, similar to that of the Supreme Court of the United States, to decide upon the con- Consti- stitutionality of acts of Parliament, since Parliament itself cannot pass an unconstitutional act. Each bill that receives the sanction of both Houses becomes a part of the British con- stitution, and it is in this way that the constitution has grown through many centuries, changed from time to time by charters and precedents, by grants and acts of Parliament. In the course of this growth the crown has steadily lost power in political matters, until now, though its position as a centralizing force holds the empire together, it has no real executive quality. The prerogatives of the crown are now confined to the summoning, opening, and closing of both Houses, the delivering of speeches at the opening of Parlia- ment, the appointment of ministers, and the adjourning of the House of Commons. The last two prerogatives are never exercised, however, except under the advice and at the insti- gation of the premier. The legal title of the crown since 1887 has been, " Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, Em- press of India." Crown. 80 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOBLD TO-DAY. The two bodies of men who stand closest to the crown in the government have grown out of the many charters and grants of the kings of England. The first of these, the privy council, was formerly a council attached to the person of the Norman kings. The name was adopted in 1660. In the reign of Charles II. a smaller group of councilors taken from the privy council was appointed a cabinet, and since then this body has been the responsible part of the government. It was at first composed of members of that political party whose views were most agreeable to the sovereign, but as early as the reign of George II. it became a fact that the cabinet was responsible to the people for advice given the sovereign. Their retirement on a hostile vote did not become a custom until later, however. The members remain in office, there- fore, only so long as their party retains a majority in the House of Commons, and while they are in office they are known as the " Government." When it is clearly shown that the sentiment of the House, and therefore of the country, is against them the members resign ; and in this second position those who supported them are known as the "Opposition." The Parliament of Great Britain dissolves once in seven Legis- years regularly for new elections, under the articles of the Septennial Act, passed in 1716. Elections occur oftener, how- ever, as the custom has obtained in the present century of having an election whenever a question of great importance is brought up, in order that a direct expression of opinion may be had from the people. In addition to this, when the gov- ernment is put in a minority and the cabinet accordingly resigns a new election is held. The result is that instead of seven years, the average duration of a Parliament has been about three and a half years. The House of Lords has gradually fallen into the back- ground, owing to certain powers given the Commons and to the fact that the will of the people is more certainly expressed in the elective House. Its powers have decreased commensu- rately with the growth of suffrage and the rights of the indi- vidual to govern himself. The House of Lords is composed of members who hold their seats (1) by right of heredity, (2) by appointment of the sovereign, (3) by virtue of office- churchmen, (4) by election for life — Irish members, and (5) by BEITISH EMPIRE. 81 election for one parliamentary term — Scotchmen. There are at present about 651 members, but the number varies. Party distinction is not recognized in the House of Lords. The members do not originate measures, except such as refer only to the peerage, but they pass upon acts of the House of Com- mons. The latter prerogative amounts to very little now, as the Commons have secured the right to create new peers at pleasure, and by the mere threat that a sufficient number of peers will be added to the House of Lords to bring any vote in question over to the majority in the Lower House, the Commons can force a favorable vote in the Lords. This threat has been sufficient hitherto except in two or three in- stances. The members of the House of Lords have access to the presence of the sovereign at any time, and those in the minority may record their vote in the journals of the House. The House of Commons is the real legislative authority of the empire. It has the right to initiate all measures referring to the budget, and does not allow the Lords to pass upon money or taxation bills. Thus the Commons can prevent a war that has been declared by the crown by refusing to vote supplies for the army ; thus it can keep up annual Parliaments by voting the peace supplies (Army Estimates) for the army for one year only ; and thus it can regulate certain acts coming under the prerogative of the crown, by stipulating how dif- ferent items of an appropriation shall be administered. The election of members has been secured by the Reform Acts of 1832 and 1861, the Corrupt Practices Acts of 1854 and 1883, and the Ballot Act of 1872. Under these laws the right to vote is granted to all males in England who have attained their majority and have signed certain papers iii regard to education, occupation, etc., and who come under any of the suffrage laws. These are four : (1) The Household Qualifica- tion grants the right of suffrage to a man who has occupied a house, or a part of a house, or a room, in borough or county, for one year up to the 15th of July. (2) The Occupation Quali- fication obliges a voter to have occupied a tenement — either as owner or tenant — the rent of which amounts to at least £10 a year, for one year to the 15th of July. In the counties this applies only to the residents within the parliamentary district, and, where people are living together, only to two ; 82 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. but in the boroughs it applies in addition to people living six months of the year within seven miles of the parliamentary boundary and to any number of persons in the same house ; provided only that each pays a rental of £10. (3) The Service Qualification applies, in both borough and county, similar rules to servants in ofHces or dwelling houses, where the employer — a voter — does not reside himself. (4) The Lodge Qualification allows a lodger in county or borough alike who pays £10 a year rent to vote, a claim having been duly entered. The procedure of business in the House of Commons is in most points the same as in the Congress of the United States. There are private bills and government bills, and each one goes through a regular routine called the "stages." It has to have permission (1) to be introduced ; (2) to be read ; (3) to be moved by a member to a second reading ; (4) to be amended if necessary, the speaker leaving the chair and the House re- solving itself into a Committee of the Whole to discuss the amendments, which are to be again reported to the House ; (5) to be perhaps amended again by the House sitting under its speaker ; and finally (6) to be read a third time. Then if it secures a majority it becomes an act, awaiting the ratification of the House of Lords. In the Upper House it is put through the same stages. If amended there, it goes back to the Lower House, and if the amendments are accepted they become part of the act. If not, a "conflict'' is created, whereupon one of the Houses gives way — usually the Lords— or the act goes over to the next session. Sometimes a joint committee of both Houses meets to settle the diflflculty. To facilitate business select committees are being appointed more frequently of late. They report to the Commons, and then the vote can be taken usually without so long a discussion. But the House of Commons is many years behind in its busi- ness. One of the most important questions in political gov- ernment to-day is that of obviating delay and accelerating parliamentary legislation without damaging the rights of free speech and open discussion. The executive was originally with the crown, but it has long Executive, since passed out of the sovereign's hands, and is now divided up among boards and councils, each carrying out the execu- tive functions within its own sphere, and all centralizing in BRITISH EMPIBE. 83 the cabinet, which is partially composed of the heads of the different boards. These are nine in number. The Treasury is presided over by the Lord High Treasurer nominally, but in practice by the Chancellor of the Ex- chequer and the First Lord of the Treasury. The work of the treasury is to collect revenues, to control expenditure and the mints, to make up the budget — the annual plan for arranging and disbursing the revenue in advance— and to put it before the Commons for sanction ; finally, to exercise gen- eral supervision of the finances of the state in every depart- ment. In passing the budget the House resolves itself again into the Committee of the Whole to vote upon the bill, and into the Committee on Ways and Means to discuss its differ- ent items. The Board of Education was created out of the members of the privy council in 1853. This body attends to the disburse- ment of money for schools, etc. Besides the oflQcers of the government it comprises a large staff of examiners, who have general charge of the regulations and systems to be. employed in English schools. In 1870 the Elementary Education Act made it obligatory to have a school in every district in Eng- land. The board's rules are sanctioned by Parliament. In 1837 a Committee on Trade was created out of the privy council to watch over the trade of Great Britain, and in 1876 it became the Local Oovernment Board. This takes charge of commercial matters, which are divided up among secretaries for harbors, finance, commerce, statistics, etc. There are subordinate boards of trade in many cities. The board con- trols all districts and municipalities in the kingdom, and it is a court of appeal and an auditing body for all local matters of administration. The Foreign Office is one of the oldest of the boards. The foreign secretary is often the premier, since from the im- portance and the enforced secrecy of the office, it is well that the head of the government should hold this position also. The foreign secretary can act without the sanction of Parlia- ment, though he is open to censure afterwards. He has charge of the foreign relations of the country. The Home Office is headed by the home secretary, who has charge of all matters between individuals and the state. 84 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. He is the head of the municipal civil organizations, police, etc., and has authority to cause investigation to be made into crime, to force or stop criminal procedure, and to carry out other civil duties. The Colonial Office is a very important part of the execu- tive. Its secretary has to communicate on all colonial affairs with the colonial governments ; all acts passed by the colonial legislatures are referred to him and through him to Parlia- ment ; to him must come the individual annual budgets of the colonies for sanction. He is, in fact, the medium, of corre- spondence between the imperial government and its colonies. The Indian Office is composed of a council of fifteen mem- bers who serve ten years, nine of whom must have lived five years in India. It is divided into eleven committees, which hold a relative position to the council corresponding to that of the diflfereut boards above mentioned to the cabinet and privy council. The council was established in 1858, after the break- ing up of the political power of the East India Company. The War Office has jurisdiction over the personnel of the army and its movements. Its authority conflicts at times with that of the commander-in-chief. A secretary, who is a civil officer, is answerable to Parliament for the conduct of affairs in the department and, as the Commons vote the supplies, etc., the control really rests with it and the secre- tary. In 1887 the secretary was made head of the civil department and the commander-in-chief of the military department of the war office, and the two divisions are kept as distinct as possible. The Admiralty is composed of a First Lord and four junior lords, and it has the management of the navy wherever it may be. The First Lord is a cabinet minister and generally a civilian. By an act passed in 1690 the House of Commons passes the 'Army Estimate" Bill annually. Without this consent of "Havy."" Parliament no army can be maintained in time of peace or war. There is also the " Army Bill " voted by the Commons, which gives authority to the crown to regulate the arrange- ments of the! army proper. These two powers virtually put the army in the hands of Parliament. In time of peace, under the 1893 " Estimate Bill," forces were as follows : Army and BRITISH EMPIRE. 85 In Great Britain 114,083 In Egypt 6,149 In the colonies 38,510 In India 73,458 Total, officers and men 227,200 This constitutes the regular army, but to these must be added the volunteers, 262,613 ; the militia, 141,488 ; the army- reserves, 72,710; and the yeomanry, 14,086. These make a total for the army (in peace) of 718,097. Great Britain and Ireland are divided into fourteen districts, each under a military commander. Each contains a certain contingent of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, and all are divided again into sub-districts. These are all subordinate to the war office and to the commander-in-chief. The navy is governed by the admiralty, in which the First Lord has supreme authority with the assistance of his four junior lords, who divide the labors of the office. The fleets are directed and controlled, provided for and equipped by him, while the parliamentary and financial secretary is responsible to Parliament for all moneys used. The strength of the British Empire on the seas in 1892 was as follows : Armored ships 62 Protected ships 29 Unprotected ships 282 Total 373 They were of a total tonnage of 679,144 tons and represented an expenditure of £35,635,719. It is the strongest navy in the world. In 1895 it is proposed to increase the vessels to more than 500. The history of England since 1874 is again one of reform in political and social matters. Labor troubles, their results and his°to1y'. the circumstances which accompany them, form a large part of the history, as they do of any other of the civilized coun- tries of Europe for this period ; foreign relations require another large share of the student's attention, and the colonial matters are perhaps as important as anything. On his entrance into power again in 1874, Disraeli proceeded with his foreign policy at the expense of home affairs. The Ministries. question in Central Asia occupied his attention ; the Prince of Wales' trip into India in 1875 and the assumption by the queen of the title of " Empress of India " at the same time 86 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. were both his work; the insurrection in Turkey and con- sequent trouble with Eussia also had his attention ; and, finally, the Zulu wars in South Africa caused by the annexa- tion of Transvaal in 1877. These were the principal events of his term of office. War was carried on against the African natives until the battle of Ulund, when the Zulus were for the time suppressed. In 1881 it was deemed wise to desist and to form a Transvaal republic, independent in most matters, but under English protection. Parliament dissolved in 1880, owing to the aggressive and unsuccessful procedure in foreign matters, and Beaconsfleld resigned before the reassembling of Parliament. Gladstone became premier again. The ministry included Mr. Gladstone, Lord Hartington, Sir William Har- court. Earl Granville, Mr. Forster, Sir Charles Dilke, Mr. Bright, and Mr. Paucett. The difficulties in foreign matters that beset the new ministry were great, and Mr. Gladstone's failure in Egypt, in his attempt to settle the Soudan question and to rescue Gordon,* was one of the causes, perhaps the most important one, of his fall in 1885. In matters at home, Ireland occupied much of the attention of the ministry from 1880 to 1885, as it has since then. The policy of the Liberals was to leave as much as possible to the Irish themselves, and this gradually grew into the resurrection of proposals for an Irish Parliament. One of the great works of this period, add- ing as it did two million voters by its passage in 1884, was a bill for the redistribution of seats. The government came into the hands of the Conservatives under Lord Salisbury again in 1886, the principal members being Sir Michael Hicksbeach, Sir Richard Cross, Lord Randolph Churchill (resigned shortly after appointment), and Lord Iddlesbeigh (Sir Stafford North- cote). This ministry remained in office only a year, owing to the fact that in the general elections under the new Franchise Bill, the Liberals had a majority of over one hundred, ex- clusive of the Irish members. Lord Salisbury at once re- signed, on January 12, 1886, and the Gladstone ministry returned, composed principally this time of Sir William Har- court, Mr. Morley, Lord Granville, and Lord Rosebery. The two questions of importance were the readjustment of land tenure in Ireland and Mr. Gladstone's Home Rule Bill, on * See Egypt. BBITISH EMPIRE. 87 which his ministry fell before the year was out. The proposal of the bill caused a "split" in the Liberal party, and Lord Hartington, as the leader of the Liberal-Unionists, brought about the fall of the ministry by voting with the Conserva- tives. Another election was thrown upon the country and the Conservatives combining with the Liberal-Unionists at the polls gained a large majority. Mr. Gladstone resigned be- fore Parliament assembled. Lord Salisbury again became prime minister with the same ministry and Mr. W. H. Smith, Mr. Goschen, and Mr. Balfour. The great success of the party was due to the fact that its methods of coercion in Ire- land, combined with certain assistance given to the Irishmen, have brought about great improvement among the people of Ireland. In the summer of 1892, according to the Septennial Act, new elections were held throughout the kingdom and the Liberals were returned with a small working majority, and a majority of forty-two, with the Parnellites, against combined Conservatives and Liberal-Unionists. Mr. Glad- stone became premier again in August. His resignation in March, 1894, on account of age and failing eyesight, made a slight change in the personnel of the cabinet without chang- ing the party in power. Lord Rosebery became premier, an- nouncing that the policy of the government would not be changed. The question of Irish government and Irish politics has been, perhaps, the most important subject before Parliament for the last fifteen years. It has taken up a large part of the time given to legislative work, partly because of its real im- portance ; partly because of the new method of obstruction begun about 1874, through which the few Irish members, by bringing parliamentary rules into play, were enabled to delay the business of the House ; and, finally, because the condition of Ireland demanded some legislation. The Irish Parliament had been dissolved in 1800, because it was found impossible to keep the two Parliaments up under the existing system. Innumerable difficulties had arisen from this separation and the "Act of Union" went into efTect January, 1801. This did away with the Parliament at Dublin and gave the Irish race representation in the Parlia- ment at Westminster. Suggestions for a return to the two Ireland. 88 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. Parliaments were made from time to time, but nothing came of them. In 1878 an amendment to the queen's address was moved in favor of Home Eule for Ireland, but it was rejected by a large vote, the reply being that the government was willing to do anything that it could for Ireland, but that a Parliament at Dublin was out of the question. From that time, however, the little party of Home Rulers has been an important element in the House of Commons. The whole movement dates from the question of land tenure in Ireland, and it is safe to say that most of the troubles of the last fifteen years can be traced to that. From old laws it appears that land in Ireland was once owned in small lots by the peasants, and out of this, perhaps, has grown the feeling among the peasants and tenants that they have certain claims to the land. These rights, whatever they were, were curtailed by three laws passed by Parliament before 1870. The first pro- vided that when a tenant lost his case in court against his landlord, on matters concerning land, he paid twice the costs. The second made a growing crop, or one not yet gathered, a part of the landlord's property. If he had a claim against the tenant, he could send his agent to gather the crop and carry it away. Finally, the right of turning the tenant off his holding for the non-payment of rent was the third and the most important of all. Mr. Gladstone's Act of 1870 attempted to spread the privileges enjoyed in Ulster, where the tenant had more claims to the land, over the whole of Ireland ; but he failed to accomplish his object entirely. Then came an act providing for the advancement of two thirds of the purchase money to a tenant, giving him the land on a thirty-six years' lease on the payment of the other third. It is important here to notice three of the natural causes of trouble in Ireland, the barrenness of the land, the fact that the inhabitants live almost entirely on what they can raise from it, and their lack of progressive industries. In 1870 half the island was pasture-land ; one quarter of it was bog and waste, and a little more than one quarter was culti- vated. Cultivated land had been slowly going out of cultiva- tion into pasture without bringing any greater return as pasture. Emigration and starvation had reduced.the popula- tion. BEITISH EMPIRE. POPULATION OF IRELAND. 1831 7,767,401 1871 5,402,759 1841 8,199,853 1881 5,174,836 1851 6,514,473 1891 4,706,162 1861 5,798,624 This is a fact without parallel in the history of recent times. It is easy to see that with so little cultivation the inhabitants have found it necessary either to emigrate or to starve, as the birth-rate has not fallen off. When a poor year comes, the result is a famine, and a consequent — and natural — uprising against the landlord. Such a famine came in 1879, and the accompanying excitement came with it. Much relief was sent from England and America but the excitement did not abate. Home Rule for the moment was put into the back- ground. The troubles brought about the formation of the National Irish Land League in October, 1879, with Mr. Charles Stewart Parnell as president, which had for its object the reduction of rents and the aiding of tenants who were to refuse to pay rent if they did not secure a reduction. In November, 1880, a man named Boycott, agent of the Earl of Erne, served a process of eviction on some tenants, and for doing this he was shunned by all butchers, grocers, dealers, farmers, etc., so that his farm was left uncared for and he found much difficulty in keeping his household running. Some Orangemen from the north came to his assistance eventually, but the system of "boycotting" was begun then and there. The trouble increased in 1881 to such an extent that the government called for coercive acts for a limited period. After a delay caused by the obstructionists in the House of Commons two bills were finally passed. The Pro- tection Act empowered the government to arrest and confine any persons under suspicion ; and the second act empowered the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to prohibit the carrying of arms in Ireland except under license. Finally, on April 7, Mr. Gladstone introduced the Irish Land Bill which took the entire time of the parliamentary session. The Land League in the House was in constant opposition, on the ground that a little concession was worse than nothing, but the law finally passed in August. It is a complicated arrangement. Under the act a commission, or court, is appointed for the settlement of difficulties between landlord and tenant. It did 90 GOVEBNMBNTS OP THE WOBLD TO-DAY. not cause so much disturbance as was expected, but the two Coercive Acts preceding have been the source of untiring condemnation and bitter discussion in Parliament. Immedi- ately upon the passage of the Coercive Act several counties were put under its clauses, and Dublin among them. Arrests began at once under the clause forbidding the inciting to illegal acts. Mr. Dillon, M.P., who had incited people to support the Land League, was imprisoned in Dublin. The passage of these acts and the procedure afterwards, turned the Land League into a body of men determined to fight the government and force them to retract, and to put the govern- ment of Ireland into Irish hands. Resolutions aild mani- festoes regarding the " alien rule " in Ireland were constantly published, and the excitement increased. In May, 1881, because of the new policy advanced by Mr. Gladstone, to the effect that the government would further repress free speech and the right of assembly, etc., in Ireland, Earl Cowper resigned and Earl Spencer became Lord Lieuten- ant of Ireland. Mr. Foster, chief secretary, also resigned and Mr. Frederick Cavendish was appointed in his place. The day after his arrival in Dublin, May 6, he was walking in Phoenix Park with Mr. Burke, the under secretary, when they were attacked in broad daylight by four men and murdered. The news of this threw the two countries into consternation, and made matters much worse for the Irish NationaUsts, though it is practically certain now that they had nothing to do with the murder. One of the most notori- ous bills of the decade was immediately introduced — the Crimes Act — and passed almost at once. Parnell and fourteen others were suspended for attempting to obstruct the business of the House and prevent the passage of the bill. This last act destroyed the right of assembly and free speech in any district that was " proclaimed " by the Lord Lieutenant, and trial by jury could be set aside. The Land League was for the time destroyed. In 1883 the Phoenix Park murderers were discovered and some of them hung. Out of these troubles grew secret organizations in Ireland, America, and elsewhere, which sent agents to England to blow up buildings and persons with dynamite. Plots were discovered in several places and severe punishments inflicted. BRITISH EMPIBE, 91 Another famine was foreseen in the early summer of 1883. Large sums of money were sent in to aid the sufferers. Regular systems of emigration were instituted. One man assisted 1,300 people to America, and the state gave similar assistance. The enforcement of the Crimes Act brought out many complaints and it was not renewed in 1885. The con- dition of affairs was growing worse. Meanwhile the Liberal party was steadily losing strength, partly because of the Irish troubles and partly because of the failures in Egypt. Just before the election and at the close of a session, Mr. Parnell gave notice that in the next session he would bring forward a motion to give Home Rule to Ireland. Whereupon the Land Leaguers instructed their constituents to vote for the Conservatives and against Parnell. As a result, the Conservative government was returned with a good majority and Mr. Gladstone resigned. Lord Salisbury, as premier, made his policy in Ireland vigorous and coercive, hoping thus to force Ireland into order. But the means he adopted were so severe that the country turned against him, and Mr. Gladstone was returned as premier in a year. One of the first bills proposed under the new government was Mr. Gladstone's measure for the rule of Irishmen by them- selves. It was brought before the House early in 1886. There was to be a legislature in Dublin which was to have jurisdic- tion over civil and criminal courts in Ireland in all matters concerning contracts and the protection of life and property. Its jurisdiction was not to extend to changes in the crown, army, navy, foreign affairs, colonial affairs, trade, navigation, currency, and religious endowments ; the Lord Lieutenant was to have the right of veto ; Parliament was to consist of a House of Lords and a House of Commons, and no Irishmen were to sit in the English Parliament. The bill caused a " split " in the Liberal party, and those of the Liberals who opposed the bill became, under the leader- ship of the Marquis of Hartington, the Liberal-Unionists, who, with the aid of the Conservatives, were powerful enough to defeat Mr. Gladstone within a few months of his appointment. Having returned to ofllce, on the 5th of August, 1886, Lord Salisbury gave out his policy in regard to Ireland to be one of vigorous enforcement of existing laws 92 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. and the maintenance of order at any cost. Riots again occurred, and the Orangemen and Catholics took opposite sides of the question. It had become certain, after a long discussion called the "Round Table Conference," that the two parts of the Liberal party could not unite, and Mr. Parnell and the Land League began to organize the Irish tenantry into a body to resist all payment of rent in pro- claimed districts. This last became known as "the plan of campaign." It began in October, 1886. It only served to in- crease the bloodshed on all sides between landlord and tenant. Mr. Arthur Balfour, secretary for Ireland, caused the Crimes Act to be applied to districts put under "the plan of cam- paign" by the Land League in 1887, on the ground that it was dangerous to the peace of the country. At the time there were about 5,000 farms in Ireland being "boycotted" and the tenants were supported by the League. Mr. O'Brien, mayor of Dublin and a member of Parliament, was the first important victim, on account of his work in Michelstown. The case became a test case ; eviction had begun on an estate and Mr. O'Brien had encouraged the tenants to resist. He was now to be tried in the town ; but a crowd gathered, fighting ensued, and policemen shot from behind the barracks and killed several persons. In the same year similar occur- rences took place in other parts of Ireland. On April 18, 1888, a rescript appeared signed by the pope condemning the "plan of campaign" and "boycotting." It did little good, however, and in order to retain his hold on the people the pope was obliged to recant what he had said, which he did in the form of decreeing that the rescript applied to the sphere of morals only. The church finally contented itself by issuing a decree, representing in several clauses the demands of the tenant, and asking that their troubles should be settled with the landlords by more responsible courts than those given to Ireland under the act of 1881. Still the arrest of members of Parliament continued, until all England was shocked by the news of the death of Mr. John Mandeville, who was confined in prison and punished so severely that he died soon after coming out from exposure and lack of food. Mr. Parnell was at the same time charged in the London Times with having written certain letters a 'vising and BRITISH EMPIRE. 93 encouraging the execution of "the plan of campaign." Suit was brought against the Times denying the charges. By the early part of 1889 the case was ferreted out, and it was found that a man named Pigott had made up the letters by taking some of Mr. Parnell's correspondence and putting it into com- promising form. The Times apologized and was sued by Mr. Parnell for libel. A compromise was finally effected by the payment of £5,000 to Mr. Parnell. In 1888 there had been 733 evictions and 10,752 writs served. Yet the evictions continued into 1889 with renewed vigor. The commission under the Irish Land Act of 1881 had up to this time had 197,658 applications for adjustment of fair rents, and 147,112 had been disposed of. Over 7,000 cases had been settled on one side, and rents had been reduced nearly twenty per cent. Evictions continued, however, with unabated se- verity. Mr. Balfour, chief secretary for Ireland in 1890, proposed a bill to take the place of the Ashbourne Act. The principle of the law is that the state advances the entire purchase money, paying the landlord in a special government stock of two and three eights per cent interest and the tenant paying in a forty-nine years' lease of four per cent. A guarantee fund is to be raised to guarantee safe payment to the extent of £33,- 000,000. If this sum is ever loaned out, more is to be raised, so that the guarantee may always be equal to the whole amount of the advances outstanding. After long discussion the bill passed late in July, 1891. In the short time since its passage it has certainly had some salutary results, but nothing more can be said of it. In the year preceding its passage, the great number of evictions on the estate of Mr. Smith-Barry in Tipperary began to attract the attention not only of England but of the United States. The whole town of Tipperary finally "boy- cotted " Mr. Smith-Barry and left his estate. Messrs. O'Brien and Dillon, both members of Parliament, were arraigned for trial on the charge of inciting the people to lawlessness, but they escaped before the trial came off, and, forfeiting their bail, they fled to France on a yacht, and thence to America. They had hardly arrived, however, when the divorce suit of Captain O'Shea from his wife on a charge of adultery with Mr. 94 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOKLD TO-DAY. Parnell was won by the plaintiff, November 1 7, 1890, and public opinion turned against Mr. Parnell. In the early part of 1891 the two Nationalists left America and served their term of six months' imprisonment. When they were liberated, on the first of August, they denied Parnell and joined the " split " of the Irish Nationalists that had been slowly growing under Justin McCarthy's leadership since the beginning of the year. This break In the Irish party caused much trouble during the winter of 1890-91. Mr. Gladstone turned against Parnell, and the priesthood did the same. Charges were made against the Gladstonians for trying to bribe him by offers of cabinet positions in the next Liberal cabinet, if he would keep out of politics for a time until the scandal connected with his name had blown over. He was, however, elected leader of the Parnellite party (what there was remaining of it) and tried to regain his power. The McCarthyites were, however, gaining in strength, when on the 6th of October, 1891, he suddenly died. Since then the Parnellites have been fast falling away and the McCarthyites and followers of Redmond now hold the Irish power in the House. On the 14th of February, 1893, Mr. Gladstone introduced a bUl "to amend the future government of Ireland." The bill provided for a Chamber of 103 members returned by univer- sal suffrage, and a Legislative Council of 48 members elected by voters having £35 income. The veto power, though exer- cised by the viceroy, was also to be exercised by the sovereign of Great Britain. The bill passed the House of Commons in August, 1893. It then went to the House of Lords and was almost immediately voted down by an overwhelming major- ity on the 8th of September. During February, 1894, reports went abroad that Mr. Glad- stone was about to resign the premiership on account of cata- racts in his eyes. This was made a fact when, March 3, the queen summoned Lord Eosebery and he accepted the office of prime minister. The vital question of the hour being the Home Rule Bill, considerable interest was aroused by the words of the prime minister spoken on March 12, to the effect that the question of Home Rule for Ireland must wait until it could carry an English majority in the House of Lords. The immediate rejection of the Home Rule Bill by the BRITISH EMPIRE. 95 House of Lords, after so many months of discussion in the Commons, led to some comments as to the extinction of the Upper Chamber and to some discussion on the subject. This has, however, not up to the present produced any results, ex- cepting the fact that it marks another step towards the sup- pression of unelective legislative chambers. In 1854 a department for the colonies was instituted and the secretary of state for the colonies was put at its head. There Colonies, is also a secretary of state for India and an office of the crown agents for the colonies where the business of crown colonies is largely transacted. Besides these there are other offices of high commissioners for South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, etc. Through these offices the colonies are governed more or less directly as tbe colonies themselves are less or more inde- pendent of the mother-country. In all cases a governor, or resident ruler, is appointed by the crown, and the powers of each colony vary as the legislative and executive authority granted them is great or small. The great majority have two bodies of government : (1) an executive body or council — corresponding to an Upper House — which is appointed by the crown, and (2) a legislative body, or council or assembly, partly composed of members appointed by the crown and partly elective. There are, on the one hand, a few colonies — Victoria, Cape Colony, South Australia, Tasmania — which elect both Houses themselves and have responsible executives ; and on the other hand there are several which are either only military stations— St. Helena, Gibraltar— or colonies in a re- stricted sense, lying partly under the supervision of Great Britain— Cyprus, New Guinea, South African dependencies, and some of the Pacific islands. The colonial governor is the direct representative of the queen. He transmits personal matters to the crown from his colony ; he has many of the prerogatives of a ruler— granting pardons, rights of marriage, and warrants for state expendi- ture, convoking and proroguing of the colonial legislature, the power of veto, etc. On the other hand, he cannot involve the colony, and therefore Great Britain, in war; and he is obliged to refer certain matters of policy and government to the colonial office at London. 96 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. The executive covmcil is composed in most cases of coun- cilors who are members by virtue of their oflflce in the colony, or members appointed by the crown— oflacial and unofHcial members. In a few cases they are supposed to resign when they have lost the confidence of the legislative assembly. In some cases they are removable by the governor and in all cases they are removable by the crown ; filnally, in still other cases the governor has the right of provisional appoint- ment. All members can be suspended by the governor for a limited period. The duties of the executive council are to advise the governor, it being made impossible for him to act without its advice in most cases. The legislative councils, or assemblies, are also largely un- der the crown. Some are partly elective, but all contain a small portion of members holding their seats by virtue of other offices held under the colonial government. The presi- dency belongs to the crown to nonainate, though it is gener- ally regulated by seniority of membership. The duties of the legislative assembly are to initiate and discuss laws for the colony, though all financial bills originate with the governor. Where there is no legislative assembly all laws originate with the governor. He also retains the right of veto, and behind him the crown retains the same privilege, which can be exercised at any time. The colonies therefore at present have direct connection with the central government in every case. It has of late years been a much discussed question whether they ought not to be joined in groups. This has to some extent obtained in some parts of the world. The Dominion of Canada now embraces all possessions on the North American continent. There is a prospect that the South African colonies will con- stitute a similar dominion at no distant date. The Australian Federation is at present most interesting and requires more careful attention.* In 1887- a conference composed of representatives of the colonies met at London to discuss colonial commercial legisla- tion. It had only the right of discussion, and, being the first attempt of its kind, it is only interesting as showing, perhaps, a tendency to unite at stated periods in the future for the * See Australia. BBITISH EMPIRE. 97 purpose of bringing the colonies and the mother-country into a closer union. The proceedings were largely in relation to new systems of tariflf, post, telegraph, and transportation.* * In order to save space and classify the many British colonies, the plan has been adopted here of tabulating the British colonial possessions in a table in the appendix. It is Important to notice that in many cases areas are only estimated, it being quite impossible to be accurate, as much of the country has never been trodden by white man. Likewise populations must be given in general figures. The table also is imperfect in parts, the dates of British acquisition being in some cases so far back in the eigh- teenth or seventeenth century that it is not necessary in this place to follow them. CANADA. Governor-General, Thb Bakl of Abeedben. RULERS SINCE 1800. Upper and Lower Canada 1791-1841 United Canada 1841-1867 Formation of the Dominion..., 1867 Lord Monck, governor-general 1867-1868 Lord Lisgar, governor-general 1868-1872 Earl Dufferin, governor-general 1872-1878 Marquis of Lorne, governor-general 1878-1883 Marquis of Landsdowne, governor-general ; 1883-1888 Baron Stanley of Preston, governor-general 1888-1893 The Earl of Aberdeen, governor-general 1893- PRIVY COUNCIL. Premier and President Sir J. Thompson Minister of Public Works J. A. Oulmet Minister of Customs Mackenzie Bowel! Minister of Militia and Defense J. C. Patterson Minister of Agriculture A. B. Angers Minister of Finance G. E. Foster Minister of Justice Sir J. S. D. Thompson Minister of Marine and Fisheries Sir C. H. Tupper Minister of the Interior T. M. Daly Minister of Hallways and Canals J. Haggart Minister without portfolio Frank Smith Secretary of State J. Costigan Postmaster-General Sir A. P. Carou TABLE OF STATISTICS. Province. Area. Fop. Capital. Dom. Sen. Dom. H. C. Frov. Gown. Frov. H.A. Prince Ed. Isl'd Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec. 2,000 20,550 28,100 227,500 219,650 64,066 382,300 2,371,481 109,088 450,523 321,294 1,488,586 2,112,989 154.742 92,767 99,722 Charlottet'n Halifax. Fredericton. Quebec. Toronto. Winnipeg. Victoria. Regina. 4 12 12 24 24 3 3 2 6 21 16 65 88 5 6 4 13 15 18 24 ... 21 30 38 41 65 88 Manitoba 35 Brit. Columbia- Territories and Arctic Islands 27 Total 3,315,647 4,829,411 84 211 91 324 CANADA. Canada constitutes the northern border of the United States from Puget Sound along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude, the Lake of the Woods, the Great Lakes, and the St. Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean. With the exception of Alaska, Newfoundland, Labrador, and Greenland, Canada now includes the entire continent of North America north of the line already mentioned. The Dominion formerly constituted an Upper and a Lower Province, Nova Scotia, and New Bruns- wick. By the British North America Act of July 1, 1867, the provinces were united and a constitution adopted. Two years later largfe tracts of land were purchased from the Hudson Bay Company. In 1870, July 15, Manitoba became a member of the government, and the next year saw the admission of the entire province of British Columbia. On July 1, 1873, Prince Edward Island was admitted, and only Newfoundland remained outside the union. Ottawa is the capital of the Dominion with a population of 44,000. The government is conducted under a constitution founded on the system employed in Great Britain, and the queen has the power of appointing the viceroy, who with an elective Parliament administers the government. The name Canada originally applied to a strip of territory running some 1,400 miles east from Lake Superior to Labra- gince^'itoo. dor with a width of 200 to 400 miles. This was then the only inhabited part of the great territory acquired by England. In 1791 this was divided into Upper (the western portion) and Lower (the eastern portion) Canada. Upper Canada had be- come so populated with royalist fugitives from the American colonies that they at last outnumbered the French settlers and vigorously opposed the French systems in force in the eastern part of the province, and it was owing to this that the divi- sion was made. The separation lasted until 1841, when the 99 100 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. two colonies were again united. Bach province liad its Parlia- ment, lieutenant-governor, and constitution, as regular colo- nies of the British Empire. Prior to the War of 1812 in the United States, the two prov- inces came into conflict over the question of the French and English Church, which, forgotten during the war, broke out stronger than ever after the peace of Ghent. An English cathedral in Upper Canada, Protestant schools, etc., drew forth complaints from the French Catholics, and it gradually be- came evident that the French and English could not be equi- tably governed under the existing laws. Imm.igration also gradually put the English population beyond the French la 1820. From these several causes troubles arose in both prov- inces, from 1825 to 1835, between the governors appointed by the crown and the assemblies elected by the people, in matters concerning taxation and money bills. It developed into a general uprising of the people to demand their right to govern themselves and to have authority in financial legislation. In Lower Canada the trouble between royalists and " Sons of Liberty " came to a head in 1837, and open hostilities broke out in Montreal. There was some sympathy shown with this movement in Upper Canada, but there the royalist population was too large to allow an insurrection to take place. In Lower Canada the constitution was suspended for a time, the govern- ment changed, and after the trial of one hundred and eighty patriots and the hanging of some, the rebellion was sup- pressed in 1839. The result of the struggle was to bring about a union of the two Canadas under a reform constitution, which was eventually accomplished in 1841. United Canada had a life-membership Senate and an elective Assembly. In Canadian political history the period from 1841 to 1867 is one of growth toward a union of all the British possessions in North America. Those colonies known as the Maritime Provinces — Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island — soon realized the advantage to them in a union with the more important province of Canada, and on the other hand Canada saw the benefits to be derived commercially from the annexation of this extent of coast-line. The capital of Canada was transferred in 1841 from Kingston to Montreal, and in 1849 serious riots, arose resulting in the CANADA. 101 burning of the Parliament Houses on the 26th of April, over the question of compensation for those who had suffered losses during the recent rebellion. The riots were in reality caused by the hostility of the British and French inhabitants. One of the results was the establishment of two seats of govern- ment, one at Toronto and the other at Ottawa, Parliament sitting four years in each city alternately. Ottawa later on was made the capital of Canada and eventually of the Do- Ininion; In 1854 the reciprocity treaty between Canada and the United States was signed, and at its expiration in 1864 the action of the United States government in not renewing it was taken as a sign that it expected to annex Canada. This resulted in binding British North America somewhat more closely together. As early as 1859 the question of the union of the colonies was first broached. It was submitted to the provinces in the following year, with the result that Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island came to a convention in Quebec on the 10th of October, 1864. A committee was appointed at the motion of John A. Macdonald to proceed to England in 1865 and consult with the imperial government in the matter. Finally the union was accomplished by the " British North America Act of 1867." Macdonald was made the first premier of the Dominion government and was knighted as a reward for his labors in bringing about the confederation. This man is the most interesting character in Canadian history since 1867. He held the office of premier from that time with a short break until his death in 1891, and the political history of these years is a record of his life. Parties in the new government divided on old questions, and the Conservatives became in the main the Protectionists, the Nationalists and the distinctly British following ; while the Liberals, under the able leadership of George Brown, put through a wider suflfrage, favored reciproc- ity with the United States, and opposed the useless expendi- ture of money in government affairs. The disputes in regard to the claims of Americans who had suffered losses during the War of 1861, known under the name of "Alabama Claims," resulted in the treaty of Washington in 1871 which settled the boundary questions in Vancouver and Alaska. It was in this 102 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. year that a rebellion under Kiel in Manitoba was suppressed. In 1873 one of the greatest scandals in modern times came before the Dominion Parliament. A Liberal member charged Sir John Macdonald and his government with accepting bribes from Sir Hugh Allen and others, which were used for election purposes in return for a government grant for the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway across the con- tinent. After a heated discussion in Parliament and an ex- amination, the government fell and Macdonald was forced to resign at the end of the year. In 1878 he was again premier in spite of the calumny that still attached to him. Riel, who had been pardoned in 1871, headed another rebellion in Mani- toba in 1885. These two uprisings were caused by the dis- satisfaction of the people of Manitoba and the Northwestern Territory over the inefficiency of the government administra- tion in these remote districts. The second rebellion was sup- pressed and Riel was captured and shot. This uprising and the heated discussion over the claims of the Catholic Church to lands given the Jesuits long before, created strong party feeling in 1886-87, and the history for the last few years has been one of party battles. The elections in 1891, which immediately preceded the death of Sir John Macdonald, divided parties on the question of reciprocity, supposed tendencies toward annexation by the United States on the Liberal side, and on the Conservative side toward closer confederation of the Dominion with the empire by means of "favored nation" clauses between the colonies and the mother-country. The death of Macdonald in the fall of the year brought forward another inquiry into the aflfairs of the government and the discovery of corrupt practices that implicated most of the members of the ministry. Mr. John J. C. Abbott was selected by the viceroy to form a government at the end of 1891 on a more liberal basis, and his unimpeach- able integrity was sufficient to maintain the administration until 1893. In that year the Earl of Aberdeen was appointed by the queen governor-general of Canada, and he made Sir J. Thompson his premier. The constitution of Canada is embodied in the British North Constitu- America Act of 1867, supplemented by sundry amendments of "o"- the Dominion Parliament of 1868, 1872, 1874, 1878, 1886, all of 103 which have received the signature of the crown. The govern- ment is in the hands of the queen, the governor-general, the privy council, two Dominion Houses of Parliam.ent, and the legislative houses of the diflferent provinces. DOMINION. The legislative bodies for the whole of Canada are the Senate and the House of Commons, which are prorogued and dissolved by the governor-general. They must both meet once a year ; their prerogatives cannot exceed those of the British House of Commons but may be modified by what is termed a Canadian Act, which is a law passed by the Domin- ion Parliament and signed by the governor-general and the queen. The Senate is composed of about eighty members. They are nominated for life by the governor-general, and the require- ments for candidacy are that they shall be thirty years of age, born or naturalized citizens residing in the provinces from which they are appointed, and possessing property to the value of 14,000. They may resign their office by not main- taining the provisions under which they are appointed. The House of Commons is elected by a somewhat limited sufTrage. Electors must be twenty-one years of age and have property valued at |300, $200, or $150 respectively, in cities, towns, or country, or property yielding an income of 2J20 a year. In the case of fishermen $150 total valuation of property is sufficient qualification. The membership of the House at present is 211. Members have a salary of |10 per day during the session. A governor-general nominated by the queen is the execu- tive. He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy ; he has all the powers and functions under the Act of 1867 which belonged to any of the lieutenant-governors of the two Can- adas, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick before, and these can- not be denied him by any act of the Dominion Parliament. Whatever power the British Parliament delegates to him in the future is also final. He holds office for five years unless recalled. The governor-general is assisted in the executive functions of the Dominion government by a privy council composed of members appointed by himself. They include in all about fifty Legisla- ture. Executive. 104 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. men, being made up of the cabinet of fourteen, of six judges, of certain members of both Houses and both parties, of the high commissioners of Canada in London, and of tlie lieutenant- governors of Manitoba, New Brunswick, and Quebec. There is a Supreme Court at Ottawa which is a court of ap- judiciaiy. peal for the Dominion ; and a superior court in each province, besides county courts. The judgeships are under the appoint- ment of the governor-general. Vice-admiralty courts are also carried on in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Ed- ward Island. There is a force of two thousand British troops at Halifax, Army and and besides this the male citizens of the Dominion are liable Navy. for military service not to exceed sixteen days a year in time of peace. This force amounts to about 36,500. The navy of Canada is supplied by the imperial government in London, which maintains all coast defense. PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT. Each province of the Dominion has a lieutenant-governor appointed by the governor-general and a parliament of its own. In Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Bruns- wick, and Quebec there are two legislative chambers with a responsible ministry. Ontario, Manitoba, British Columbia, and the Northwestern Territories have each a single legisla- tive assembly, and the first three have responsible ministries. The provinces have power in local matters and local finance when no collision exists with the Dominion Parliament, but the distinction of prerogatives is very closely drawn. Perhaps the most important question of the year in Canada has been the congress held at Ottawa in the summer of 1894, called the International Conference. This conference grew out of an expedition made by Honorable Mackenzie Bowell to Australasia, a short time ago, to study the situation and possi- bilities of communication between the British colonies in North America and in Australasia. The conference assembled on the 28th of June. Besides Canada the following colonies were represented : Queensland, Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Cape Colony,- besides the imperial government. The principal object of the congress was to discuss a closer connection of these two great branches of British CANADA. 105 colonies, both physically as regards steam and rail power, and financially as regards special tariff arrangements between particular colonies. As regards the first, it was agreed that the congress recommend the laying of a Pacific cable from Vancouver to Australia. The financial and commercial ques- tions are much more -difficult of solution, owing to the differ- ent tariff laws of the different colonies, and the " favored nation " clauses in their treaties with other nations. There are other difflculties in the way of such an arrangement, which come from the fact that all the Australasian colonies are more or less rivals of one another and do not naturally take to a plan for mutual benefit. The whole conference was much of the same style and had much the same purpose as those held in Australia in recent years, and they all tend toward the closer federation of the British colonies for mutual benefit and defense. Such con- ferences accomplish but little in themselves, but they act as mouthpieces for the expression of this now very general view of the British colonial question. CHILE. President, JOKGK MONTT. MINISTRY. Minister of tlie Interior P. Montt Minister of Foreign Affairs V. B. Viel Minister of Justice and Instruction F. Pinto Minister of Finance A. Vial Minister of War J. Orrego Minister of Industry and Public Worts V. D. Larram TABLE OF STATISTICS.* I^ovince, Area^ Sq. M. Population. Capital. Rep. Magallanes 75,292 3,995 7 823 8,315 4,248 3,126 2,856 4,158 3,535 3,556 2,930 3,488 3,678 2,913 3,795 2,524 5,223 1,637 5,840 12,905 43,180 60,968 19,300 8,685 2,873 78,522 72,426 70,064 77,667 36,982 63,329 122,729 218,815 157,349 127,650 115,646 140,734 104,182 160,15!3 92,892 378,781 218,990 156,636 189,524 67,205 35,317 47,313 30,998 Punta Arenas. Ancud. Puerto-Montt. Valdlvia. Lebro. Temuco. Angol. Angeles. Concepclon. Chilian. Canquenes. Linares. Taloa. Curico. San Fernando. Bancagua. Santiago. Valparaiso. San Felipe. La Serena. Copiapo. Antofagasta. Iquique. Tacna. Chiloe H tilanquihue Valdivia % fn Malleco S g j^uble 5 . So Linares Curico S^ Colchaerua Sg Santiago m t Aconcagua s Atacama )* Antofagasta Tarapaca 5 Tacna O Total 293,970 2,766,747 115 * There are 40 senators. 106 CHILE. The republic of Chile lies along the western coast of South America from the southern boundary of Peru to Cape Horn, a distance of 2,600 miles, with a width of 40 to 200 miles. It is bounded on the north by Peru, on the east by the Argentine Republic, on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. The government is a republic of twenty-three provinces and one territory having partial though not very extensive autonomy. Santiago is the capital with a population of 236,870. The territory occupied by Chile was in 1800 a part of the great Spanish colony in South America. The government of History the country from the Biobio River to Ataeama was carried on ^^'^"^ ^^°°- by a Spanish governor-general whose seat was at Lima, Peru. The rule of Spain here as elsewhere created two classes of society — the Spanish officials and the great body of natives. The former used the latter to serve their own ends, holding the country in a state of feudalism. In 1810, however, this system came to an end, and De Toro, Spanish governor at the time, was overthrown by the inhabitants. It was an opportune time. Spain was busy with the invasion of Napo- leon's army and could not attend to her distant colonies. In the fall of the year the inhabitants of Santiago set up a com- mittee of seven men to form a provisional government until a more stable one could be inaugurated, and thus Chile was the first of the South American governments to vindicate its in- dependence. In the following year a triumvirate was chosen by the people, and Juan Jos6 Carrera was put in command of the first native Chilean army. There was some fighting, in which the insurgents were on the whole successful. Yet after two years of comparative peace the new government weakened, and when the Spanish forces under Paroja came south in 1813 they met with little resistance. There were two severe battles between the royal- 107 108 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. ists and Carrera's troops, in both of which the Chileans were defeated. The aristocratic Spanish families again regained control and the independence of Chile was lost. In 1817 the harsh government and abuse of power on the part of the Spanish brought about a second insurrection, this time originating in the east under the encouragement and with the assistance of Buenos Ayres. The insurgents invaded Chilean territory and after a few unimportant engagements defeated the Spanish troops at Chacabuco. An immediate plan of organization was laid out and the new government was being formed when the Spanish again descended upon the country. But through the vigor of the revolutionists a surprise was effected and the royalist army completely annihi- lated. The independent government at the beginning of the second outbreak had made San Martin general of the Chileans, and he now became practically dictator of the new republic. After the final defeat of the Spanish he was superseded by Greneral O'Higgins, who was made Supreme Director. The latter maintained order with great skill and did much to organize the new government, until, in 1823, he was killed while sup- pressing a riot in Santiago. One of the most influential characters in the history of these years was a Scotchman named Lord Cochrane, who with a small body of his countrymen administered not only the naval department, but by his courage and tenacity helped to organize the entire civil, legislative, and executive depart- ments. He also guided the popular sentiment to aid Peru in her struggle for independence, and the first stability the new government attained was largely due to him and his follow- ers. But after the fall of O'Higgins and the appointment of General Freire as director a period of anarchy followed. Freire fell in 1826 and then ensued the administration of six directors and a triumvirate. One of these, General Pinto, drew up in 1828 and caused to be adopted the first constitu- tion. The constitution of 1828 had a very salutary effect on the country, and unlike the first attempts of other South Ameri- can republics, it brought the country into a peaceful condition and stimulated material commercial growth. This continued in CHILE. 109 force until in 1831, on the election of Prieto as general director, a convention was summoned to reform it. The labors of this convention ended on the 25th of May with the adoption of a constitution that is in force at present. Prieto was the first president and held office for two years. During this time Chile took the first place among South American states. Prieto had one of the few internationally known men of South America for his premier, Portales, whose influence for good is to be found in all the branches of the new government. In 1843 General Bulnes succeeded to the presidency with Manuel Montt as premier, and with the exception of the riots in 1851 the growth of Chile was peaceful and uninterrupted until the war of 1879. Manuel Montt became president in 1851, was succeeded by Perez ten years later, who in turn gave place to Errazuriz in 1871. Pinto's election in 1876 ended a long series of years which by the peace and the opportunity for growth they gave had placed Chile among the nations of the world whose credit stands high and whose word and claims demand respect. The constitution of Chile, adopted May 25, 1833, was modeled to a certain extent on the constitution of 1828 drawn ''"tSi*"' up by General Pinto. It shows a certain influence of the United States constitution, though in many particulars it differs from it. The government is in the hands of the people through their representatives at Santiago in Congress assembled. The government, however, is not strictly federal, as the provinces do not have legislatures, their place being supplied by munici- pal governments which have authority in local affairs. The national Congress is composed of two houses, a Senate and a House of Deputies. The former has practically the legisia- rights and prerogatives of the United States Senate and is composed of members elected indirectly by the provinces, there being one senator to every three representatives, which at present makes the Senate composed of forty members. Senators receive no salary and are obliged to show a property qualification equivalent to about $2,000 a year. The term is for six years and the elections are carried on by the same voters, though for senators the vote is by provinces. Electors are required to be twenty-one years of age and able to read and write. ture. 110 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOBLD TO-DAY. Executive. Judiciary. Local gov- emmeiit. The Chamber of Deputies has a membership of about 115, each deputy representing 30,000 inhabitants or fraction over 15,000. They are elected for a three years' term, and must have a property qualification of $500 income. They must be at least twenty-flve years of age, or twenty-one if married. Deputies receive no salary. Members of both Houses represent the nation at large ; both have the right to initiate bills, and to become a law a bill must receive the sanction of both Houses and the signature of the president. The president is the executive officer with the usual prerog- atives of that department of the government. His term is for five years and he is not eligible for reelection until the ex- piration of one presidential term after his own. He is chosen by indirect suffrage, the voters balloting for electors at the rate of three electors for each deputy. The official salary is $18,000. The president is assisted in the administration of the gov- ernment by a Council of State, somewhat after the pattern of the French constitution. There are eleven members who serve without salary, six being chosen by the Congress and five appointed by the president. They have certain duties and a distinct influence on the politics of the state through their power to impeach the president. Besides the Council of State there is the usual cabinet ; in this case containing the six min- isters of interior, foreign aflfairs, j ustice and public instruction, finance, war and navy, and industry and public works. There is a Supreme Court at Santiago which extends its in- fluence over the republic. Beneath this there are five courts of appeal and subordinate district courts in the diflferent de- partments. The constitution of Chile differs from that of the United States in the government of its provinces. There are in all twenty-three provinces which are divided into departments and again into districts. Over each province the president ap- points an intendant and over each department a governor, and thus the two divisions of the federal state are centralized more closely than usual in a republican government. The governor appoints sub-officers over the districts ; but all municipal gov- ernment offices are elective. There is a law of December 30, 1887, that forbids the army CHILE. Ill to be greater than 6,835 men. These are at present distributed Army and among two regiments of artillery, six of infantry, and three Navy. of cavalry. The National Guard, or body of militia, is about 48,500 strong, The Catholic Church is the state church, though all creeds are tolerated. Civil marriage is the only one recognized by law. Education is free and conducted by the state. There is a university at Santiago and medium and primary schools in certain provinces. The Chilean constitution, like many others in South America, has not been followed with any degree of exactness. Tliepresi- since*" 875. dent usually names his successor, and his executive power has often been extended even to include legislative functions. The cause of this is due to the fact that the old families of the country have almost absolute control of affairs, and in many cases the naming of a successor has resulted in the choice of the best man from this oligarchy. The finances of the coun- try have no reason for being in such a wretched condition as they have been in of late years. The rich deposits of the provinces of Tarapaca and Atacama have been a source of great wealth to the state, and yet the treasury is in a depleted condition. During the last few years the knowledge that the treasury was being used to further the schemes of the presi- dent, Balmaeeda, that issues of unsecured paper were being constantly made, and, finally, that the Congress was being de- ceived as to the specific uses to which the money was put — all these causes led to a demand in 1890 for an examination into the finances of the government. Previous to this, however, other causes added to the general ^^r of dissatisfaction with the government. In 1876 and earlier, 1880-81. foreign capital began to pour into Chile, and as the govern- ment became more stable the number of foreign companies in- creased. This new stimulus to trade, supplemented by the activity of the Chilean race, spread business enterprises over Bolivian and Peruvian territory in the north, and in 1880 many Chileans were working the mineral products of these two states along the Pacific coast. The war of 1880-81 between the three republics grew out of this spread of Chilean indus- try. A treaty had been made in 1866 between Bolivia and Chile concerning the till then unsettled boundary between 112 aOVEBNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. the two countries. The line was to be the twenty-fourth par- allel of latitude, and citizens of Chile, who were already work- ing the newly discovered guano nitrates north of this in the territory ceded to Bolivia, were to be allowed to continue free from taxation of any kind. Bolivia, however, refused to allow tills to go on in 1879, and issued a proclamation that the Chileans would be taxed in the future. The Chilean govern- ment, taking this as an infringement of the treaty, sent a fleet and an armed force to Antofagasta in February, and while skirmishing was going on it was discovered that Peru was preparing for war and that a secret treaty had been signed between Peru and Bolivia. Thereupon Chile declared war against both, April 2, 1880. By March, however, the war had been carried into Peru and the entire Bolivian coast-line was in the possession of the Chilean general, Baquedano. On the 17th of January, 1881, Lima fell before the Chilean forces.* Fighting continued until on October 20, 1883, peace was signed by which Peru ceded the province of Tarapaca to Chile. Tacna and Arica were to remain in Chile's hands for ten years, and then the inhabitants were to vote which country, Bolivia or Chile, they wished to be joined to, 110,000,000 being paid by the country they chose. This question was finally settled in 1893 by a treaty between Chile and Bolivia, under M'hich Bolivia becomes dependent upon Chile. The latter, however, agrees to equip and train the Bolivian militia and to give that country one seaport, either MoUendo or Arica. Chile assumed the debts of the guano nitrate districts of Peru in 1883, but no other indebtedness of the conquered country ; and she re- tained control of the Peruvian government for one hundred and eighty days until the treaty was ratified. The military activity of Chile during this war was remark- able, and although Peru went into it merely to assist Bolivia, the result was the temporary ruin of the country. Bolivia lost what small coast-line she had, but otherwise suf- fered no material loss compared to that of Peru. During the war, the United States government offered its services as medi- ator, but the result was only to increase diplomatic compli- cations, and after the war an inquiry was made into the causes * See Peru. CHILE. 113 of the ill feeling at the intervention of the United States. This led to the exposure of conduct and procedure beyond the power of the United States ministers at Lima and Santiago. It now seems probable that this prolonged the hostilities. The expenses of this war, added to the causes already- mentioned, left Chile in a precarious financial condition, and the methods of the president, Balmaeeda, did not im- prove matters. The fact that he would in all probability ap- point his successor, thus covering his tracks, and that he had the appointment of his own ministers, allowed Balmaeeda to go on from year to year issuing forced currency and unsecured paper. The currency depreciated, capital grew suspicious, and the uncertainty that precedes a panic prevailed. This was the statfe of affairs toward the year 1890. The senatorial party demanded a reform in the administration of the finances. Balmaeeda refused to dismiss his ministers, who were in a minority in the Senate. Thereupon the Senate re- fused to vote the budget, and the revenue of the country was stopped. A deadlock ensued. Balmaeeda tried to win over the officers of the army and to talie control of the government at their head, but they would not follow him. Then he tem- porized and appointed a ministry of sound men with Prato at Its head. But when Balmaeeda tried to continue his peculiar methods of disposition of the public funds for his own uses, Prato opposed hina. and resigned on the president's refusal to remove one of his followers who was abusing public power. There was another deadlock, and then the Congress refused to vote the supplies for the maintenance of the army and navy. Things went on from bad to worse, and on the night of Jan- uary 6, 1891, a committee of the congressional party took charge of the navy and the fight began. Most of the army went over to Balmaeeda. The fleet went northward at once to the province of Tarapaca, where the inhabitants supported them. Iquique was to be the center of operations, and as a preliminary step Pisagua was taken, lost, and retaken within a few days. The senatorial forces met the Balmacedan troops in the vicinity of Iquique and defeated them, sustaining a defeat themselves at Huara a short time after. Within the month, however, the senatorial party had the control of the whole province. A delay now ensued owing to the lack of Revolution. 114 GOVERNMKNTS OP THE WOELD TO-DAY. arms and ammunition. The revolutionists applied to the United States, but the steamer Itata, fitted out there with supplies, was captured and brought by the United States gov- ernment, as containing contraband of war. Meantime Balmaceda had nam^ed as his successor to the presidency, Vecuma, and an election under the strict supervi- sion of the government resulted in a majority of votes for liim. In August, when the flght began in the vicinity of Valparaiso, he fled from the country. Valparaiso was taken eventually and the forces of Balmaceda annihilated ; Balma- ceda himself was obliged to fly, and later committed suicide. One of the senatorial party and a senator, Jorge Montt, with two others, were made a committee to direct the provisional junta during the ensuing elections, and Montt was soon elected president. The reorganization of the new government has been a diffi- cult matter and is hardly completed yet. The financial system had received a severe shock, and such disturbances as the at- tack on the American seamen of the warship Baltimore have made the work of the new government still more difficult. On the whole, the country is greatly benefited, and the victorious revolutionists have been universally recognized by foreign governments as the government of Chile. After the country had settled down, the government as con- ducted by President Montt was a combination of all parties, the attempt being to give up ideas of retaliation and re- venge, and thereby win the good-will of the Balmacedists, as well as retain the support of the senatorial party. The natural result was a tendency toward conservatism, which soon brought both complaints and opposition from the Liberals. Party distinctions were being drawn on these lines, but a general peace seemed to be coming in the near future, when a conspiracy was discovered in April, 1893. A mob attacked the government buildings and gained possession of arms, but the insurrection was short lived and the matter was soon over. Marshal law was declared and all those who did not escape from the country were captured and placed under arrest for trial. Two members of the conspiracy took refuge with the American minister, where they had the right of asylum. After some diplomatic correspondence with the government CHILE. 115 at Washington, Minister Egan was asked to withdraw his protection from the two men. One escaped and one was taken. Some of these conspirators were condemned to death, but the president finally commuted the sentence of Briceno, the leader, to imprisonment for life, and this act of clemency- did much to lead the Balmacedists to come out in favor of the new government. President Montt, in his message early in 1894, said that unfortunately owing to this outbreak he was unable to grant full amnesty to all those who had taken part in the Balmaceda revolution, as he had hoped. But it appears now that the country is settling down to peace and concord again. CHINA. Emperor, Kwang-Seu. RULERS SINCE 1800. Kea^King 1795-1821 Taou-Kwang 1821-1850 Heen-Fung 1850-1861 Tung-Che 1861-1875 Kwang-Seu 1875- HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS. Civil Administration President, Chang-chih-wan Finance : President, Foukoun ceremonials I^esidents { g?-f -fi^am^hu) ^^ War President, Olehopow Justice Prpsidpnts / -Kouei'lieng (Manchu) ''"^^^"e ^"^esiaentsjgQmj.y^.^gjjjgjjj^gggj Public Works Presldpnts / Sung-Kouei (Manchu) i-uDiic worKS ^residents I g(,^^_^jjj^_jjg^j (Chinese) Foreign Affairs President, Prince Chiiig TABLE OF STATISTICS. Fromnee. Area. Population. China Pboper : Chili 58,949 65,104 56,268 65,104 44,500 48,461 72,176 39,150 53,480 70,450 74,320 67,400 125,450 166,800 79,456 78,250 64,554 107,969 17 937 000 Shangtung 36 247,835 12;2U 453 22,115,827 20905,171 Honan 20>6288 24,534,118 Chehkiang 11,588,692 25,790 556 33,365005 21,002 604 Hunan 8,432,193 Kansu 9,285,377' 67,712,897 29,706,249 5,151,327 Kweichow 7,869,181 11,721,576 Total, China Proper 1,337,841 362,310 1,288,000 651,500 147.950 431,800 385,973,349 Dependencies : Manchuria 7,500,000 2,000,000 Tibet 6,000,000 Jungaria 600,000 580,000 Grand total, Chinese Empire 4,219,401 392,653,349 116 CHINA. The empire of China occupies the eastern part of Asia from Siberia to Hindostan and India. It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan, on the south by Hin- dostan, Burmah, Siam, and Indo-China, on the west by the Himalayas, and on the north by Rus- sian Siberia and Russian Turkestan. China is an abso- lute monarchy. The capital is Peking. Keen-Lung, who abdicated in favor of his son Kear-King in 1795, was one of the exceptional rul- ers of China. He was a student and a general, and was always busy with political schemes and conquests. Kea- King, on the other hand, was incom- petent and only oc- cupied with his pleasures and pas- sions. With the be- ginning of his reign the troubles between China and the English East India Com- pany commenced, which led to the opening of China and the Chinese ports to the rest of the world. Complaints from the 117 History since 1800. 118 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. representatives of the company against the Chinese mandarins for the treatment they received led in the early years of the century to the sending of a commissioner from England on an embassy to the court of Peking. He was well received by the emperor, but he found it impossible to gain any guarantee that the English merchants would be protected by the im- perial government. In 1816, the severe treatment of English- men still continuing, Lord Amherst was sent on a second em- bassy, but like the former attempt this failed,' owing to the unwillingness of the ambassador to acknowledge the sover- eignty of the emperor over the English, crown, it being the theory of China that the emperor is the sovereign of the world. On the death of Kea-King in 1820, therefore, the re- lations between England and China were very much strained, and the empire was in a weak condition, owing to the insur- rections in several provinces. The imperial guards were de- feated on all sides by the insurrectionists. There had been a hope that the new monarch, Taou-Kwang, would introduce a more vigorous policy and certain much needed reforms in the provincial governments, but this was disappointed. Three of the provinces, Formosa, Kwangsi, and Honan, arose in open rebellion. Different societies of reform hostile to the Tsing dynasty began to grow too strong for the government. This state of affairs existed when, in 1834, the British gov- ernment took control of the East India Company, its monop- oly having expired. Lord Napier was at once sent to Canton to take charge of British interests there. He found it impos- sible either to secure a guarantee of protection from the im- perial government or to change the treatment which English subjects received at the hands of the mandarins, and shortly after his arrival he died of fever. The trouble seems to have centered on the opium trade. Englishmen carried on a business of selling opium, and the authorities of China, having long ago learned its effect on the inhabitants, tried to prevent the sale of the drug. To accom- plish this, one of the most brilliant Chinamen of modern times. Commissioner Lin, was sent to Canton. He forced the English merchants to give up over twenty thousand chests of opium and had them destroyed, whereupon the English gov- ernment declared war against China in 1840. CHINA. 119 Chinese troops were no match for English soldiers. They have a bravery that keeps them at their posts until they fall, but the arms at their command were powerless against the English rifles, and the government working through its end- less agencies and departments could not compete with Sir Hugh Gough's tactics. The result was that after losing some of their principal ports, the Chinese government signed a peace ceding Hong-Kong to England and paying |6,000,000. But peace was not finally brought about until the English threatened Nanking, the chief city of Southern China. This led the Chinese government to finally cease hostilities, and the second peace opened the ports of Amoy, Foo-Choo, Ning- Po, and Shaug-Hai to foreign trade, and forced China to pay 121,000,000 to England in 1842. This defeat of the "celestial throne" seems to have set the dependencies of China on all sides into insurrection. In the north, in the province of Kwangsi, the insurgents defeated the imperial troops several times, and at the height of the disturbances, in 1850, Taou- Kwang died and was succeeded by his son Heen-Fung. To the misfortune of China the new monarch proved himself in- ferior even to his father, and it was not long before the dis- content of his subjects took shape in another insurrection in the south against the Tartar rule. The rebellion was headed by a man named Teen-Tih, setting himself up as the head of the ancient house of Chinese emperors, who were overthrown in 1644 by the present ruling house of the Manchu dynasty of Tsing. He soon gave place to the general, Hung-Seu-Tseuen. An organized rebellion followed, and Hung-Seu-Tseuen de- clared himself emperor of China. By 1852 the southern part of China was under the control of the insurgents, and so strong were they under their able leader that the imperial troops were powerless against them. Five years later an outrage committed by the imperial sub- jects against English merchants in Canton led to a second declaration of war on the part of England. The fighting was pushed forward with vigor under Sir M. Seymour. Canton fell into the hands of the English ; Lord Elgin in 1858 cap- tured the defenses of Taku, and the English advanced with a strong force toward Peking. Peace was again made by the Chinese government before the English had passed Tien-Tsin, 120 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. but in less than two years Lord Elgin, this time with the assistance of a French force, again advanced on the capital, on the ground that the guarantees of the peace of 1858 had not been maintained. Encamped before the gates of the city, the English could dictate, in 1860, the terms of a treaty that obliged China to pay another large indemnity and promise to maintain their guarantees. In the following year the emperor died and his flve-year-old son, Tung-Che, was declared his successor under a regency of two dowager empresses. It was after the signing of the peace in 1860 that General — then Major — Gordon took charge of the Chinese forces, equipped them with European arms, and defeated Hung-Seu-Tseuen in a succession of bat- tles, until in the summer of 1864 Nanking fell into his hands and the rebellion came to an end. This was the signal for more vigorous measures against the smaller uprisings in other parts of China, and in 1873 the imperial government at last saw itself reinstated in power. Now, for the first time, foreign ambassadors were admitted regularly to the emperor's pres- ence and diplomatic intercourse was opened with foreign gov- ernments. Tung-Che died in 1875, on the 12th of January. The pres- ent emperor is the nephew of his predecessor and was only four years old on his accession in 1875. He took the name of Kwang-Seu, and a regency (ended in 1889) was appointed by the government, as in the former case, under two dowager empresses. The Chinese state is not to be regarded in the same light "menf. with other governments. The monarch is absolute where he has the power through military force to carry out his decrees. This is, however, theoretical rather than practical in several departments of the government. China, for example, claims a,bsolute control over several neighboring countries where the ruling monarch is quite as absolute in his power, and where the Chinese sovereignty, therefore, amounts to nothing. That part of the government that approaches nearest to a ^ture*' legislative body is a Grand Council called the Chun-Chi-Chu, composed of nobles of the empire, whose duty it is to meet when called together and pass judgment on measures pro- posed, or legislate as nearly as they can under such a govern- Govern- CHINA. 121 ment. The Han-Liu is another body of men who have to see that nothing is done contrary to the articles of the Ta- Tsing-Hweitieu and the Sacred Book of Confucius. The former is a code of laws of the Tsing dynasty basing the gov- ernment on the authority of the family, and it talies the place of a constitution for China. The latter is the code of morals and religion. The emperor is all powerful in theory, and, with few excep- tions within China itself, in practice also. He has the power Emperor. of appointment to all important ofHces, and he fills all tlie chief seats of honor and ornament ; he is the head of the Confucian religion ; he is the executive of the empire and in this is associated with the Nei-Ko, the executive council of the empire. This is composed of two Manchus — the race of the imperial house — two Chinese, and two members of the Han- Lin. It may be said that in most of the high councils of the government Manchus and Chinese are equally represented. Under the emperor and the Nei-Ko there are seven different boards with a Chinaman and a Manchu at the head of each. These departments are : (1) The Board of Civil Appoint- ments, (2) the Board of Eevenue and Finance, (3) of Religion and Ceremonials, (4) of the Army, (5) of the Navy, (6) of Pub- lic Works, and (7) of the higher criminal courts. There is still another body called the To-Cha- Yuen, which is composed of about fifty censors who supervise the actions of the govern- ment and may present complaints to the emperor as often as they choose. One censor is obliged to be present at each of the meetings of any of the boards. There are two presidents, one Manchu and one Chinese. The religions of China are : the Confucian, of which the emperor is the head ; Taoism, which is a variation of Bud- dhism ; and Buddhism itself. There are besides a large number of Catholics, and many of the mountain tribes are worshipers of Nahne. Education is almost entirely foreign except among the aristocracy. Popular education is very backward and many of the inhabitants have no knowledge of reading and writing whatsoever. In 1887 a College of Foreign Knowledge was opened in Peking, which increases in size from year to year. The Chinese army is of uncertain size. Of late many of the Army and Navy. History since 1875. Tonquin episode. 122 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOBLD TO-DAY. European arms and methods have been introduced, and the army is much more effective now than when last pitted against Christian troops. The army of Eight Banners is said to consist of about 325,000 men. The national army is an enormous force of over 660,000 men and officers, with a cav- alry that is far inferior to European cavalry. The navy is divided into the Northern Squadron, the Foo- Choo Squadron, and the Shang-Hai and Canton Flotillas. Great improvement has been made in the war vessels, and they are equipped as follows : Ironclads i War vessels U Torpedo boats 8 Gunboats 28 Others 21 72 The opening of China to Europeans has not yet been com- pletely accomplished, but the last decade has seen a great in- crease in the foreign population resident there. This intro- duction of foreigners protected by their governments has caused several disturbances with the Chinese government among which the most important is the Tonquin episode be- tween France and the imperial government. Tonquin lies south of China along the coast extending as far as Siam. There had been for the greater part of the cen- tury a dispute going on between France and China over the right of control of this territory. China claimed a suzerainty, as she does over most of the neighboring countries, and France treated the country at first as an independent govern- ment. Military troubles in 1874 and earlier, and the increase of the French population in the country, led to hostilities and caused the French government to interfere to protect French- men. The forces of Annam were defeated, and then the Chi- nese government joined with them against the French. The question remained unsettled until 1883, when, after the con- tinued refusal of the Chinese government to allow France to interfere in the Tonquin, the French Chamber of Deputies voted 6,300,000 francs for the purpose of carrying on the war in the disputed country. The fighting went against the French for some time, and on May 19, 1883, before the city of Ha-Woi, Colonel Rivifere was CHINA. 123 killed and his troops routed by the Annamites and the soldiers of the Black Flags— brigand troops of the country. The Paris Chamber passed another bill voting supplies, and a system- atic campaign was undertaken against the Annamites and the Chinese, with the result that at the end of the summer peace was restored by the Hu6 treaty. This secured control for the French in Tonquin, but the country was not subdued. In November, 1883, another diflflculty arose, and the siege of Son- tag resulted in heavy losses on the part of the French, though they finally took the city. Nine million more francs were voted by the French Chamber, but the success of the French remained doubtful. At this time there came a change in the Chinese govern- ment. Prince Kung was deprived of his oflBce of sponsor to the young emperor, and Prince Chun was put in charge of the government in company with the empresses. This meant a more warlike policy. The Black Flags were changed from outlaws to allies of China. Li-Hung-Chang, undoubtedly the ablest man in China, was retained as viceroy of Pechili, and his assistance added to the Chinese strength. China took possession of the northern cities and prepared to check the French advance, still on the ground that Ton- quin was a dependency of China. The year 1884 resulted in no definite treaty settlements. The city of Foo-Choo was taken by the French and a war indemnity demanded, which China refused to pay. The Chinese government desired to refer the dispute to the president of the United States but France refused. A little later the defeat of the French at Tamsui infused new spirit into the Chinese troops. War was r\ow declared. Canton was fortified, and toward the end of the summer both parties made ready in earnest. It was at this time that the English interfered to assist France, and the Chinese government threatened to cut off English supplies. The French government at the same time proceeded against the island of Formosa, but finding a large Chinese force there they were unable to accomplish anything. Troops began to pour into Annam in enormous numbers from China, and though they were defeated in several battles the French were unable to gain any material advantage. Finally in June, 1885, peace was declared, the French having retracted their 124 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOKLD TO-DAY. demands for an indemnity, tlius giving the Cliiuese govern- ment an opportunity to malse peace on honorable grounds. The peace is substantially as follows : Both parties agreed to cease hostilities at once ; France retains a protectorate over the independent sovereign of Annam, especially of the province of Tonquin ; she gives up all claim to Formosa,, and China withdraws all claim to Tonquin ; both agree to bring about a treaty of commerce and friendship as soon as possible. Thus ended an extraordinary and useless war. There was an insurrection at Hu6 but it was put down by the French, and with the crowning of a new king of Annam under the French regime the struggle closed. In the following year a commercial treaty was arranged, though Li-Hung-Chang gave the French no commercial rights of moment within the Chi- nese territory. China has since been opened to the world by treaties signed with Portugal and the United States in 1887, which allow of trade in Chinese ports. In 1889 the young Emperor Kwang- Seu became actual ruler and the Empress Tse-Chi, who had so ably conducted the regency, retired into private life. During the last four years the building of railroads has been pushed slowly forward, and they promise to do much not only to open the country but to educate the people. The recent war between Japan and China over Corea is Corean Caused by the policy which not long ago was common to both War. the belligerents, but which both are giving up now, and Japan has almost entirely given up ; that is, the policy of keeping foreigners out of the country. Corea has been a dis- puted territory for some time, and Japan finally entered into an agreement with China that both governments should have part control through the king of Corea, but that neither should either annex the kingdom or try to control it. The sending of more troops into Corea by either power should be a casus belli. China early in 1894 broke this agreement and sent troops into Corea. Notice was given that this was an injury to Japanese interests there, but the latter government heard that more troops still were being sent there, and sent out accordingly a squadron of Japanese gunboats to watch events, after issuing an ultimatum. On June 27 this fleet met Chinese transports carrying troops CHINA. 125 to Corea off the island of Pou Fao, gave them battle, and sunk or dispersed them. War was now declared, and on July 29, the Japanese having secured Seoul, attacked the Chinese at Asan, defeated them, and then gained control of the southern part of Corea. Since then the war has steadily gone against the Chinese. They were defeated at Ping Yang on September 15 with great loss. These gave Japan control of all Corea, and on the 17th in a naval battle they gained control of the Yellow Sea. Preparations then began for attacking Port Arthur, the next important point on the road to Peking, and that strong- hold fell early in November. Peking is now threatened, and it is probable that a peace satisfactory to Japan will soon be concluded. COLOMBIA. President, SbSob De. Don Bafael NuSez. GOVERNMENT SINCE j8oo. Spanish New Granada 1811 War under Bolivar 1811-1819 Republic of Colombia 1819-1831 Republic of New Granada 1831-1861 United States of Colombia 1861- MINISTRY. Minister of Foreign Relations M. P. Suarez Minister of Finance C. C.Reyes Minister of Public Instruction L. Zerda Minister of War J. D. O. Comaclio Minister of Interior J. M.C.Serrano Minister of Justice E. R. Barreto Minister of Commerce B. Bravo Minister of Public Works J. M. Goeuaga TABLE OF STATISTICS. Department. Area. Pop. CapUal. Rep. Sen. Antioquia 22,316 21,345 33,361 257,462 79,810 24,440 31,571 16,409 18,069 470,000 280,000 702,000 621,000 589,000 90,000 285,000 555,600 306,000 Medellln. Cartagena. TunJa. Popayan. Bogota. Santa Marta. Panama. Socorro. Ibague. la 3 Bolivar 3 Boyac^ 3 3 Cundinamarca 3 Magdalena 3 3 Santander B Tolima 3 Total 504,773 3,878,600 66 217 126 COLOMBIA. Colombia is the most northern of the South American re- publics. It is bounded on the north by Costa Rica and the Caribbean Sea, on the east by Venezuela and Brazil, on the south by Ecuador, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The country is a republic of nine states, but since 1886 these states have become departments controlled by governors appointed by the president. The federal govern- m.ent has much more control than is usual in a repub- lic. The capital is Bogota. Until 1811 Colom- bia was a part of the Spanish colonies in South America, and it included what is now Ven- ezuela and Ecua- dor. In 1811, how- ever , dissensions that had been long fermenting came to a head, and hostil- ities broke out against the mother- country. War con- tinued for upwards of thirteen years. South America has B R 1^' Historical sketcb. Simon Bolivar, one of the greatest men ever known, united the whole country under the title of the Republic of Colombia and made himself 127 128 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. the head. He was successful in the struggle for independence. In 1829 Venezuela seceded from the union, and was followed by Ecuador about a year later. Since then its history to the present day has been one of the sudden rise of one or another of the popular leaders and his sudden fall. In 1832, the re- public having been formed, a constitution was promulgated and the country divided into eighteen departments — since then arranged into nine. The government was centralized under a president, and General Santander was the first to serve as such. He was unable to keep up with, the factions and maintain the peace, however, and was superseded by Marquez, the head of the Opposition. Civil war came again in 1841, and some of the departments seceded from the repub- lic. In 1843 the country was again united under a new con- stitution, made by amending the old one. The standing of Colombia was greatly strengthened abroad during the follow- ing years, under the administration of Mosquera (1845-48). The debt was materially diminished, liberal ideas were intro- duced, and commerce advanced rapidly. Under the new administration of General Lopez, from 1849 to 1852, the ad- vance continued, culminating in the abolition of slavery in the latter year. Another change in the constitution was brought about in 1853, permitting, among other things, any state to secede from the union. Antioquia and Panama at once took advantage of this and left the republic, and this soon led to civil war. Changes in the presidency at least once in two years, and the strife of rival factions followed, and the growth of the coun- try was retarded. During these years Mosquera was several times at the head of the government, and, finally, in 1861 he captured the capital Bogota, changed the name of the republic to the United States of Colombia, and eventually made him- self dictator. The power of the leader kept the country in peace until he was impeached and imprisoned. Civil war followed in 1868 to 1870 and commercial growth was again at a standstill. Under General Salgar a bank was opened at Bogota, and the Panama Canal treaty was signed with the United States, in- volving the conditions under which the neutrality and com- mercial status of the canal were to be fixed. COLOMBIA. 129 The wonderful resources of the repiAlic have lain for years without any use having been made of them, partly because of the total absence of any facilities for transportation, and partly because of the constant civil wars. The present constitution was adopted in 1861 and revised after the revolution. The changes were largely in giving, in 1886, much of the power formerly held by the states to the federal government at Bogota. In its details it resembles the constitution of the United States, though the power is more centralized. The departments have been allowed to retain many of their prerogatives in local matters, such as the regula- tion of their own finances, etc. The legislative portion of the government is composed of two Houses. The Senate contains twenty-seven members elected by the departmental governments, each sending three to the House at Bogota. The senators must be Colombians by birth, at least thirty years of age, and having an income of $1,200 or more a year. The House of Representatives is elected by universal suf- frage. A voter must be at least twenty-one years of age, able to read and write, or have an income of not less than |500 a year. For members no property qualiflcation is necessary, but a candidate must be twenty-five years of age. There is one representative for every 50,000 inhabitants, which makes the number sixty-six at present. The executive is in the hands of a president, who is elected by a sulTrage similar to that used in the election of representar tives. Since 1886 the presidential term has been six years. A vice-president is chosen at the same time and for the same term, to serve in the president's place in case of his incapacity. There are also three officers chosen, one for each of the two years of the president's term, to fill his place in case neither he nor the vice-president is able to attend to his duties. The president has to assist him eight ministers who consti- tute a Council of State and are responsible to Congress for advice given the president. They hold portfolios and confer with the president as a cabinet. There is a military force of 6,500 men kept up by the Con- gress. The bill for its maintenance is passed annually and may be changed as often. In time of war the president is Consti- tution. Legisla- ture. Executive. Adminis- tration . Army and Navy. 130 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. empowered to increase the force as circumstances may require. The religion of the republic is Catholic according to the constitution, but other creeds are tolerated. Education is carried on by means of 1,278 primary schools, several normal and technical schools, and universities. The higher schools are largely in Bogota. The Panama' Canal was under discussion for many years Contempo- '5®^°''®' ^^ ^^"^^t articles of agreement and grants were drawn raryevents. up for the commencement of the work. The company was formed by Count Ferdinand de Lesseps and a French syndi- cate, who secured large loans from the French government to build the canal across the Isthmus of Panama, a distance of forty-six miles. In 1886 less than one third of the work was finished, 772,545,412 francs had been expended, and then De Lesseps failed to secure a loan of 600,000,000 francs more. In 1889, when the company went into liquidation, work on the canal ceased, and the French civil courts appointed a provi- sional commission to examine and report on the condition of the affairs of the company. This commission reported that 500,000,000 francs inore would be required to complete the work. Under President Parra (1875-77) legislation was brought about to abolish religious education in schools where before Catholics had the control. This caused complaints from the Catholics in the south which led to open hostilities against the government. The revolt was soon quelled, but the sentiment against liberalism remained strong. The first term of Nunez's presidency (1879-81) was one of comparative peace. Laldera died at the beginning of his term, in 1882, and Otalora was appointed to fill his place. The fight between liberalism and conservatism again became strong; the members of the Radical party joined the Con- servatives in a coalition against the Liberals to overthrow the government and the constitution. Colombian finances were in a wretched condition and furnished material for complaint against the government. An insurrection broke out. In the north, Barranquilla, Sabanilla, and Colon-Aspinwall were soon in the insurgents' hands, as well as Panama and Buena- ventura on the Pacific coast. The timely interference of the United States warships on COLOMBIA. 131 the Caribbean and Pacific coast and the loyalty of the government generals saved all but Colon-Aspinwall, which was destroyed by the revolutionists. The battle of Calamar, July 1, 1885, decided the contest in favor of the government ; for though not absolutely defeated the revolutionists were dis- persed and discouraged. Peace was announced on the 5th of September, 1885. The result of the war was the reformed con- stitution. Nuflez was elected president in 1886 and served until 1892, when he was again reelected. COSTA RICA. , President, - R. IGLESIAS. MINISTRY. Minister of Foreign Affairs, Justice and Worship, and Public Instruction M. J. Jimenez. Minister of Finance Db. P. Volverdb. Minister of War and Navy Rafael Iglbsias. Minister of the Interior J. Vargas. Costa Rica is one of the five Central American republics lying between 8° to 11° 16' north latitude, and 81° 40' to 85° 39' west longitude from Greenwich meridian. It is bounded on the north by Nicaragua and the Caribbean Sea, on the east by the Caribbean Sea, on the south by the republic of Colombia and the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the Pacific. It is a republic of seven departments or divisions. San Jos6 is the capital with a population of about 20,000. The provinces of Costa Rica with the population of each are : San Jos6, capital San Jos6, 65,261 ; Alajuela, capital Alajuela, 53,087 ; Cartago, capital Cartago, 35,571 ; Heredia, capital Heredia, 3,084 ; Guanacaste, capital Liberia, 17,191 ; Punta Arenas, capital Punta Arenas, 8,114 ; Limon, capital Limon, 3,447. The total population is 213,785 and the area of the republic is 23,233 square miles.' Costa Rica is one of the most advanced of Central American republics, owing to the fact that it has been less disturbed by 'sketchT' internal wars. It was a part of the kingdona of Guatemala until in 1821 it separated with the other provinces from that government. Two distinct parties at once sprang up in the small state, one recommending union with Mexico, the other advocating an independent republic. The latter was finally victorious in 1824, and Costa Rica took its place among repub- lics, with its capital at San Jos6. In 1848, after more than a decade of peace, ex-President Carillo tried to instigate a revolution and force the govern- 132 Historical COSTA EICA. 133 ment from the hands of his successor, Alfaro. The attempt was unsuccessful, but the movement brought about the adop- tion of a uew constitution which was followed by peace and commercial growth for a time. In 1850 President Mora began his long service of four terms. He carried the country through the Walker Rebellion in 1856-57, and in 1859 was instrumental in introducing an amendment to the constitution whereby a representative chamber was given to Costa Eica, though the amendment did not go into efTect until his successor, Monteleque, had entered upon his term of office. Monteleque having been in 1860 overthrown and shot, peace and commercial growth were checked by a revolution. In 1872 General Tomas Guardia began a long administra- tion, which soon came to be virtual dictatorship. The con- stitution was practically void from 1878 until 1882, when Gen- eral Fernandez took control of affairs. Hia office ended in 1885 at the close of the Central American war,* and General Soto, by virtue of his services during that struggle, becanife president. Since then Costa Eica has been in comparative quiet. The Panama Canal f controversy brought up arbitration with Co- lombia, and Mr. Cleveland, president of the United States, acted as arbitrator between Nicaragua and the republic in the great boundary dispute. The San Juan Eiver was made the line and Costa Eica was given the right of navigation on its waters, except for ships of war. The constitution, originally adopted in 1859, has been sev- eral times amended in most of its clauses. It provides for a Consti- president, who has the usual prerogatives. The government is, however, largely in his hands. At the last election there were twenty-six representatives in the Cha,mber. Besides the central government there is a governor appointed by the pres- ident in eacli province, and the cantons, into which the prov- inces are divided, are governed by municipalities elected by the people. At the head of each canton is an officer appointed by the president. The legislature consists of one Chamber of Deputies elected Legis- by an electoral assembly for a four years' term, but one half of uture. * See Guatemala. tSee Colombia. tution. 134 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOBLD TO-DAY. Executive. Judiciary. Army and Navy. Contempo- rary events. the Chamber retires every two years. One deputy is elected for each 10,000 inhabitants or fraction thereof, if over 4,000. The president is elected by the same electoral assembly for a term of four years. He has the power of naming or renewing his ministers and the usual powers in foreign and domestic executive matters. He is not eligible for immediate reelection. There is a Supreme Court of Justice composed of eleven judges. They are elected by Congress every four years. These are divided into two courts of appeal each having three judges, and a court of five judges who constitute a Court of Cassation, and whose business it is to see that the laws are correctly ap- plied in all suits. Costa Eica has a standing military force of 31,824, but it is merely a militia composed of able-bodied men between the ages of eighteen and fifty who are obliged to serve. There is no navy that can be said to bear that name. The constitution guarantees tolerance to all creeds in re- ligion, but the Catholic is the state church, and $27,500 is annually voted to its support and to religious education. Ed- ucation in general is compulsory in primary studies. Besides these there were in 1886 several normal and other advanced schools started which seem to be very successful. There are three colleges in San Jos6 and the University of Santo Tomas, besides 201 primary and 80 private schools throughout the state. After the war in 1885 was over, the agitation for a union among Central American peoples still went on. Soto, on July 6, 1888, issued a decree making all citizens of any of the Central American republics citizens of Costa Rica. There was a conference on September 15 on the subject, which came to no definite action. Another conference was held in San Sal- vador with a similar result. The election of Rodriguez in 1890 was accomplished in a quiet and orderly way, and the question of the moment is the dispute in regard to Catholic instruction in the schools, there being a strong movement on foot to do away with all religious instruction. In March, 1893, a conspiracy was discovered by an informer who notified the president in advance. It was conducted by J. M. Gutierrez, who had been connected with other revolts and had returned to Costa Rica after being exiled by a procla- COSTA EICA. 135 mation of amnesty issued by President Rodriguez. The con- spiracy was allowed to come to a head, it being discovered that the purpose was to seize the arsenal and overthrow the government. Gutierrez was to become dictator. The result was that the conspirators were caught in the act of treason and the sympathy of the country was not in the least turned from the existing government. The election in the early part of 1894 passed off quietly, and Iglesias assumed office on May 8. DENMARK. King, Christian IX. RULERS SINCE 1800. Christian VII 1766-1808 Frederick VI 1808-1839 Christian VIII 1839-1848 Frederick VII 1848-1863 Christian IX 1863- MINISTRY. Minister of Finance, president .lacob B. S. Estrup Minister of Interior H. P. Ingerslev Minister of Foreign Affairs Baron de Keedtz-Thott Minister of War Col. J. J. Bahnaou Minister of Marine Com. N. F. Bavn Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs A. H. Goos Minister of Justice and for Iceland J. M. V. Nellemann TABLE OF STATISTICS. Prooimce. Area. Population. Copenhagen Islands of the Baltic. Peninsula of Jutland Faroe Islands Total 5,024 9,743 514 312,387 917,457 942,861 12,954 15,289 2,185,159 136 DENMARK. The monarchy of Denmark is situated on tiie peninsula of Jutland, north of the German Empire. It is bounded on the north, east, and west by water — the Baltic lying to the east and the German Ocean to the west. On the south the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein form the boundary line. Copen- hagen is the capital of the kingdom with a population of 312,387. At the Congress of Vienna, when Central Europe was re- organized as the Ger- man nation, the king of Denmark was made a member of the German Confed- eration with the right of three votes in the Diet, on ac- count of the fact that he held the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more or less thickly populated by Ger- mans. Holstein was, however, not so closely in touch with Denmark as the duchy of Schleswig, the intervening territory between it and Denmark proper. As the German states be- came somewhat more closely united, Holstein demanded with greater boldness the constitution that had been promised it some time before. Denmark had lost gradually most of her northern terri- tories and the government, in order to hold the southern 137 History since iSoo. 138 • GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. part, made the excuse that a new constitution was being pre- pared for the entire kingdom. But, as time went on, the incurable hostilities of the German against the Danish citi- zens grew so strong that in 1822 Holstein applied to Germany for assistance and admission to the Confederation. The revolutionary spirit that produced the popular uprisings in 1830 had its influence in Denmark as well as elsewhere, and most of the causes of political strife in the duchy since then may be traced in the contest of conservative monarchists with the men of liberal ideas demanding free press, free speech, increase of local governments, etc. In 1838 Christian VIII. became king in place of Frederick VI. It was the new king's policy to insure the possession of Holstein to Denmark, and to that end the use of the Danish language was made compulsory in the civil courts and local organizations of the duchy. But, in spite of his acknowledged liberality of ideas, this injured the king's cause, and the in- compatibility of the two races living together under Danish rule became more evident year by year. Christian VIII. died in January, 1848, and his son Fred- erick VII. succeeded him.. It was a difficult time for a new king to enter upon office. In less than a month the liberal spirit began to appear all over Europe. Eevolutions broke out on all sides, and Denmark became the scene of riots and demands of the populace for a more enlightened constitution. A new element in the politics of the country now appeared. Prince Frederick Augustenburg, the regular heir to the duch- ies of Schleswig and Holstein, put in his demand to have his rights acknowledged. Hostilities commenced and he was quickly subdued by Danish forces. The dispute promised to create trouble enough of itself, but now the German Diet, de- termining to annex both duchies, empowered Prussia to send an armed force to take possession. The undertaking was put in the hands of General Wrangel, who carried all before him and went as far as Jutland, where he forced Denmark to con- sent to an armistice, oh the 26th of August. This Agreement of Malmoe gave the government of both duchies into the hands of two commissioners appointed by Prussia, two ap- pointed by Denmark, and one chosen by the other four. In May, 1849, the armistice expired and the war began again, DENMAEK. 139 continuing until the battle of Idstedt. Here the Schleswig- Holsteiners were defeated with great loss and the war practi- cally ended. A protocol, signed at London in 1852 by the great powers, settled the succession on Prince Christian vou Gliicksburg, and as both he and the Duke of Augustenburg had claims to the duchies, the latter, on receipt of 2,500,000 marks, gave up his claims, including those of his sons, who though they gave no legal consent were nevertheless twenty-one years of age and made no objections. The history of Danish troubles, internal and external, from this time until 1866 are traceable to this dispute over the suc- cession in these provinces. On the death of Frederick Augus- tenburg, who had signed away his right of succession, his son Frederick disregarded his father's agreement and laid claim to the two duchies. In 1863 King Frederick VII. of Denmark died and Prince Christian von Gliicksburg was crowned at Copenliagen under the title of Christian IX. Augustenburg declared himself Frederick VIII. of Schleswig and trouble at once began between him and the new king. The German Diet on behalf of the German inhabitants in the two duchies assumed control of the government there and commissioned Hanover and Saxony to carry out the decree. Upon tliis the Danish government declared war on Schleswig- Holstein, counting on the assistance of France and England. But no such help was forthcoming, and Prussia and Austria joined forces to assist the other Confederation troops. War began in earnest and after severe fighting the Dannewerk was captured — the belt of fortifications across the country at the southern boundary of Jutland. Tlie siege of Diippel then be- gan. This is the strongest fortified place in Denmark and its capitulation in 1864 left Denmark at the mercy of the Prussian and Austrian troops.* Christian IX. thereupon ceded to the conquerors all his claims to Schleswig, Holstein, and the small duchy of Lauenburg. In two years Austria and Prussia came to blows over the government of the duchies, and the war of 1866, ending in Prussia's favor, gave the sole charge into Prussia's hands. *See Germany. tion. 140 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. Schleswig and Holstein were annexed to the kingdom of Prussia, Lauenburg having been bought of Austria before the war. The present constitution of Denmark was adopted in 1866 Constitu- after the war with Prussia. It is a remodeled form of the con- stitution of 1849 that grew out of the revolutions of that period. It is to be noticed, laowever, that several of the writ- ten clauses are not followed to-day, as for example the minis- try, which is legally responsible to the legislative houses, has not resigned, though for years it has had a minority in the lower and representative house. The legislative part of the government is vested in a Parlia- Legisia- ment (Eigsdag) and the king conjointly. The Rigsdag is ture. composed of two houses, the Folke thing, or Lower House, and the Landsthing, or Upper House. The Rigsdag meets at Copenhagen, unless otherwise ordered, on the first Monday in October, at the summons of the king. The English Rules of Parliament are practically observed, for the furtherance of business. Either House may initiate measures, or present petitions, decisions, or reports to the king. The members of both Houses are free from arrest during the session, and they represent the entire country, not their respective constituents. They elect their own officers in each House and in case of dis- agreement meet in a body, choosing their own president then also. The sessions of both Chambers are public except when otherwise ordered by the king. The Landsthing is composed of sixty-six members, the number being fixed by law. Of these forty-seven are elected by the districts, twelve are nominated by the king for life from among actual or retired members, seven are elected from the city of Copenhagen, one from Bornholm, and one from Faroe. The seven Copenhagen delegates are chosen by elec- tors at the rate of one elector for each one hundred and twenty voters. Besides these there is an equal number of electors added from the citizens paying an annual tax of $1,200 or more. This body elects seven deputies. The forty-seven dep- uties are chosen in the districts by electors appointed by the towns and parishes, with a body of citizens added, who pay a certain amount in taxes annually. Candidates must have resided at least one year in the district from which they are DENMAEK. 141 Executive. returned. The electoral members are chosen one half every four years. The Folkething is composed at present of one hundred and U\o members, or one for every 16,000 inhabitants. They are chosen by electors who must be thirty years of age, one year residents in tlieir electoral district, men in good repute and neitlier in domestic service nor in receipt of any charity. Elections occur once in three years and candidates must be twenty-five years of age. The king is the executive of the kingdom, having also cer- tain legislative powers. His authority is very extensive and in practice it extends further than is strictly permitted by the constitution. He has the right of pardon, command of the army and navy, power to introduce measures and resolutions in the Eigsdag ; his consent is necessary to make a bill become a law, and in case he allows a bill that has passed both Houses to run over a session without his signature, it becomes void. He declares war, makes treaties, and appoints all the chief officers of state. He has supreme authority in the affairs of the nation, is irresponsible, and sees that the laws are ex- ecuted. He appoints and removes his seven ministers, who are responsible to the Chambers,* and to insure his irresponsi- bility the signature of one minister is required, besides his, on every bill before it can become a law. The king may pro- rogue the Parliament, but for only two months, when elec- tions must take place for a new one. He may convoke extra- ordinary sessions. The Council of State is composed of seven ministers appointed by the king, and every important measure is discussed in this body. The heir-apparent may take his seat in this council. The Supreme Court, or Eigsret, is at Copenhagen and has charge of the trial of ministers on charges preferred by the king or the Chambers. There is an inner Supreme Court Judiciary, which with an equal number of members appointed by the Folkething has the highest authority, and its members can only be removed by its own authority. Inferior courts have not yet been introduced and trial by jury though provided for is only partially carried out. * In practice they are only responsible to the king as they do not resign on a vote of want of confidence. 142 GOVEBNMBNTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Almost the entire population belongs to the Lutheran Church. Education is compulsory between the ages of seven and twelve years, and the University of Copenhagen is the leading educational institution. Denmark is divided into five districts : Jutland, Funen, eJnmei't!' Laaland, Zealand, and Bornholm ; and by a subdivision into eighteen departments or amter. Local legislation is provided for in the constitution within these districts.* The right of free press is decreed and the right of meeting also to a limited extent. A meeting may be dispersed after three warnings. The Danish army is composed of the able-bodied men who Navy. are twenty-three years of age. The service consists of eight years in the regular army and eight more in the reserves. The kingdom is divided into two parts, each being obliged to sup- ply certain military contingents. The peace footing was set at 42,950 in 1891 with a possible war footing of over 60,000 men and officers. The navy consists of conscripted sea-faring men, and the fleet is as follows : Armor-clads 9 Cruisers 3 Gunboats 20 Others 36 Total 68 Iceland came into the possession of Denmark with Norway Colonies, in 1830 and was not given up when the latter was transferred to Sweden. It has no manufactures and there is little in- dustry of any kind beyond that connected with the sea. The Althing, the legislative assembly, consisted first of twenty and later of thirty elected deputies and six members nomi- nated by the king of Denmark. It has had certain vague authorities since its foundation in 1834, but in 1871 by an act of the Danish Eigsdag and in 1874 by a supplementary decree from Copenhagen it received the constitution of Denmark. The House is now elected once in six years, and out of the thirty members, who are chosen by a limited suffrage of tax- payers, six are chosen to sit in a separate House with the six appointed by the king. Iceland is an integral part of the Danish Kingdom, but it is not required to contribute to the * This, too, is carried out only to a very small extent. DENMARK. 143 Danish taxes, nor has it any representation in the Rigsdag. The Althing has full authority in its own penal and civil aflfairs, regulation of its own police, public worship, instruc- tion, matters of health, roads, agriculture, fishing, commerce, and other industries. Iceland also has charge of its own tax- ation and public finance. The royal government has decreed an allowance of about $65,000 annually for the twenty years. The king appoints the governor and other officers, and there is a minister for Iceland in Copenhagen. The other colonial possessions of Denmark are more impor- tant commercially though they have less political authority. ' They are as follows (including Iceland) : Colony. Area. Population. Iceland 39,756 69,224 Greenland 46,740 10,221 "West Indies— St. Croix 74 18,430 St. Thomas 23 14,389 St. John 21 944 Total 86,614 113,208 After the formation of the constitution and its adoption in 1866, the legislative procedure of the government was satisfac- since isee. tory until in 1876 the king appointed under the premier, Estrup, a Conservative ministry. In the following electiona the agricultural population and the middle classes gained con- trol of the majority and returned seventy -five out of the one hundred and twelve members of the Folkething. This gave the Liberals a majority in the Lower House, while in the Upper House the Conservatives had a majority. A conflict began at once. The situation was peculiar, because instead of resigning, the ministry, having the king and Landsthing with it, remained in office. This has caused an infinite amount of trouble in the government of the country since then, and most of the political difficulties of the last twenty years may be traced to this source. The Lower House claims the politi- cal right to insist on the parliamentary rule that when a ministry finds itself in a minority it should resign and a new ministry be made up from the new majority. Having a right to vote the budget the Folkething rejected it, ostensibly on account of a clause appropriating a large sum of money for the fortifications of the city of Copenhagen. Year after year this deadlock has occurred, the king bringing forward the 144 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. budget with the Copenhagen fortification clause attached to it, and the Folkething rejecting the whole budget, until in 1881 the sentiment became so strong against the government and the non-resignation of the ministry that riots were threatened. The king dissolved the Folkething three times in one session — an unconstitutional act — in the hope that a majority would be returned in his favor ; but the third House was returned with a greater majority for the Liberals than either of the others. The demand was that the ministry should resign, and year after year the budget was refused, that being the only eflfective method the Liberals had of showing their disapproval. At first the Folkething passed special measures for the maintenance of the army, but finally the king took upon himself, contrary to the constitution, the right of legislation, and bills were referred directly to the Landsthing without reference to the Folkething. As soon as they were promulgated, however, the Lower House initiated them and rejected them by large majorities. The result of this interminable fight has been fruitless as yet. It is the claim, and the only claim, of the Folkething that the ministry be responsible to the Eigsdag. More than three quarters of the time in each of the sessions has been wasted for twenty years and the government business is badly in arrears. There seems to be a prospect that in the near future the ministry may resign, as there is a strong desire on all sides to put an end to the deadlock and the Liberals continue to return larger majorities. They have joined the govern- ment in the present year in voting 10,000,000 kroner for the establishment of a free port near Copenhagen, similar to Hamburg in Germany, where goods may be landed free of duty and taxed only when they are sent inland. Poor laws have also been carried through and radical improvements made in the land laws. The old feudal system is completely done away with, and the peasant now holds his farm of about one hundred acres, according to the fertility, for life. Farms cannot be merged into each other, nor one farm divided into smaller ones. ECUADOR.* President, Dr. L. Cordbro. MINISTRY. Minister of Foreign Affairs P. J. Lizaezaburtt. Minister of Finance F. L. Salazak. Minister of War and Navy Gen. J. M. Savasti. Minister of Public Works, Instruction, and Worship K. EspiNozo. Ecuador is situated in the northwestern part of South America. It is bounded on the north by Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the south by Peru, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Quito is the capital with a population of about 80,000. Ecuador is divided into sixteen departments and one terri- tory which have a total area of 118,630 square miles and a population of 1,272,065. The departments are : Carchi, Im- babura, Pichincha, Leon, Tunguragua, Chimborazo, Bolivar, Los Eios, Oriente, Guaj'as, Manabi, Esmeraldas, Oro, Azogues o' Canar, Loja, and Azuay, and the territory is Galapagos. In 1809 the inhabitants of Quito, a part of the Spanish New Granada, made an unsuccessful attempt to throw off the rule Historical of Spain. The attempt was repeated in 1812 with a similar sketcii. result, but in 1820 Simon Bolivar gathered the entire forces of the north under him, and they together freed themselves from Spanish rule. Quito then became a part of the inde- pendent republic under Bolivar's control, until in 1831 under the name of Ecuador it became an independent republic. General Juan Jos6 de Plores was the first president, and since that time the country has been in an almost continual state of revolution. In 1845 Flores was exiled. The next year saw another revo- lution that was unsuccessful, but by 1850 the (catholics under the leadership of a man named Noboa secured control of the government. They retained it only a year, however, and « For map of Ecuador see Colombia. 145 146 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBIiD TO-DAY. Con- stitution. Legis- lature. Judiciary. insurrections and revolutions followed in 1856, 1859, and 1861. Meanwhile the surrounding republics pillaged Ecuador and annexed parts of her territory. Changes in the government occurred within the country in 1865, 1866, 1869, and 1872, and,, attacked from without and within, it is not surprising that the growth of the state has been slow. Finally, in 1888, Senor Flores was elected president and served his entire term. In 1892 Dr. Cordero succeeded him. The constitution adopted May 11, 1830, still stands, though amended in many particulars in 1835, 1843, 1861, 1869, and in 1883. It recognizes a president and two Houses, an Upper and a Lower, and is based largely, as are most of the South Ameri- can constitutions, on that of the United States. There is a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is composed of two members returned from each of the seven- teen departments, who have the usual prerogatives of an Upper House. They are chosen for a four years' term, but the terms of half the members expire every two years. The Chamber of Deputies is composed of about thirty-four members, being one for every 30,000 inhabitants, but the number changes constantly. The Congress assembles without a summons on June 10 in every second year at Quito, the capital. The president is elected every four years by indirect elec- tions, there being nine hundred electors chosen by the people for the purpose. A vice-president chosen at the same time is president of the Council of State, besides filling the usual offices of a vice-president in a republic. The president re- ceives a salary of 15,000 sucres, and may be superseded in office by the vice-president during his term on a vote of Congress to that effect. He is assisted in the administration of govern- ment by four ministers of state, who with seven others consti- tute a council. They are all collectively and individually responsible to Congress, and each receives a salary of 3,000 sucres. The president has the power of veto, but on the insistence of Congress* bill becomes a law in spite of it. There is in Ecuador a system of graded courts arranged in four series. There are 656 parochial courts, canton or depart- ment courts, and finally a court of appeals, and a Supreme ECUADOR. 147 Court at Quito. Like all else in the state, however, it is un- certain in its efficacy. The military force of Ecuador consists at present of two brigades of artillery, four battalions of cavalry, and two ^^Sry. columns of police, in all about 3,000 men. The navy is composed of eight vessels of war, five under steam, a transport, a gunboat, and a third-class cruiser. The religion is Catholic according to the constitution, to the exclusion of any other creed. Tithes are still collected and the republic is one of the most faithful in sending contribu- tions to Rome regularly. The population is largely Indian, there being only about 109,000 whites. Advanced education is meager and consists of a university at Quito devoted only to the higher grades of study. Primary education is obligatory throughout the republic and there are several small colleges in other cities besides military, scientific, naval, and com- mercial schools in Quito. EGYPT. Khedive, Abbas II. RULERS SINCE 1800. Turkish Sultan 18U Mehemet All 1811-1848 Ibrahim (June-Nov.) 1848-1848 Abbas 1 1848-1854 Said 1854-1863 Ismail 1863-1879 Tewflk 1879-1892 Abbas II 1892- MINISTRY. Minister of Foreign Affairs Tigrane Pasha Minister of Interior, president Rlaz Pasha Minister of Finance Boutros Pasha Ghali Minister of Public Works and Instruction Mohammed Zekl Pasha Minister of Justice Mazloum Pasha Minister of "War and Navy Youssef Chowhdy Pasha TABLE OF STATISTICS. Province^ Population, LowEK Egypt : Cairo, Alexandria, Damietta, Ro- setta, Behera, Charkieh, Dakah- lieh, Gharbieh, Kalloubieh, Me- noufieh Isthmus : Port Said, Suez Asia: El Arish Upper Eoypt : Kosseir, Assiout, Beni Souef, Fa- youm, Guizeh, Minieh, Guerga, Kena, Esna Total 6,204 3,965,664 lOX 32,471 1-5 3,923 4,483 1-7 2,776,982 10,698 6,779,040 148 EGYPT. Egypt is a tributary of tiie Ottoman Empire, at present under the practical control of the British government. It is situated in the northeastern part of Africa, and is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by the Red Sea, on the south by the Soudan and the unexplored regions of Central Africa, and on the west by the Des- ert of Sahara. Cairo is the capital with a popu- lation of 374,838. Egypt after the in- vasion of the French un- der Napoleon returned to anarchy again as soon as the beys had regained control. It was at the time a pashalik of the Ottoman Empire, nom- inally governed by a pasha, but in point of fact the Porte did not have the power to main- tain its authority and the beys divided the country among them and paid allegiance to the most powerful of their number. Each had territory and sus- tained an army ranging from two hundred to 1,200 men. In 1806 Mehemet Ali was appointed governor of Egypt by the sultan. He was an Albanian by birth, but had moved to 149 History since i8oo. 150 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. Egypt in his youtli, and by tlie force of his remarkable ability had become the head of a party there. His influence brought him a governorship, and between 1806 and 1811 he in- creased his power over the other beys to such good account that he became pasha of the whole country. This was only accomplished, however, after a fierce war waged against the beys, which became so severe that the English government sent a military force to check its continuance. The British troops were defeated, and in 1811 Mehemet Ali secured from the Porte his appointment as viceroy of Egypt, the union be- tween his government and that of the Ottoman Empire being merely a personal one, except that Egypt was to pay an an- nual tribute to the Porte. This remarkable man then began a career that scarcely has an equal in Egyptian history. While he was waging war against the refractory beys, he sent a force' under his son Ibrahim into Wahabees in Arabia, where the inhabitants were soon sub- dued ; and at the same time he undertook a careful study of the political and civil government of European countries and planned to introduce European forms into the Egyptian state. After the success and close of the Arabian campaign, some of the most powerful beys of Egypt were invited to Cairo to witness the ceremony celebrating the victory. On their ar- rival they were massacred in a narrow street of the city, and' all opposition to the new viceroy was at an end. Egypt now began a period of peace and progress that had not been known in many years. New works of public benefit were begun, educational and military institutions were opened and Euro- pean instructors imported to take charge of them. In 1820 Mehemet Ali sent forces against the Greek revolu- tionists ; in 1824 a religious insurrection was crushed by the first Egyptian troops trained under the new system. Among the foreigners who undertook the regeneration of the country was the remarkable Suleiman Pasha, Colonel Sfeves, a Frenchman to whom the credit of the wonderful system of military schools in Egypt is largely due. In the years immediately following 1825, the growth of Mehemet All's power, which was accompanied by the severity of his measures, led him finally to look toward the independence of Egypt. This culminated in 1831 in the expedition into Syria under his son Ibrahim. The EGYPT. 151 invasion was ostensibly to punish the pasha of Acre for liis hos- tility to the present government of Egypt, but it nearly ended in the capture of Constantinople itself. Russia interfered to protect the Porte, and Mehemet Ali was forced to be con- tented with the possession of Syria, where Ibrahim restored order by the most extreme measures. Peace was restored by a treaty in 1833, but in 1841 another uprising of the Syrians led to such inhuman measures against the inhabitants that the British government interfered and restored the province to the Porte. In 1848 Mehemet Ali resigned in favor of his son, lineal suc- cession having been granted by the sultan in 1811. The great viceroy's mind gave way and he died in 1849. Ibrahim lived only two months after his accession, and Abbas Paslia, Me- hemet's grandson, succeeded him. The following year saw comparative peace in Egypt, whicli resulted from the system introduced by Mehemet Ali and from his code of laws. Abbas was a miserable ruler and gave himself up to his own pleasures. Said Pasha, his successor, was not a man of ability in any way equal to Mehemet, and though he strove to carry on the government wisely he suc- ceeded but indifferently well. His reign, therefore, was only a period of stagnation and decay. It remained for his suc- cessor, Ismail Pasha, in 1863, to rebuild and finish what Me- hemet Ali had begun. Up to the time of the insurrection of Mehemet Ali in 1841, Egypt was a tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, known *'mlnt!" as a pashalik or province and ruled by a pasha appointed by the sultan, paying a tribute to the Porte. The pasha had large powers over the life and property of the people, but could not enter into any communication with foreign powers, ex- cept with the knowledge and consent of the Porte. At the same time the sultan was supposed to have equal powers in the pashalik. In 1841 Mehemet Ali compelled tlie sultan to issue a firman, or decree, mailing him hereditary ruler in Egypt, independent of the home government in every way, except that he was obliged to pay an annual tribute, and he agreed not to enter into negotiations with foreign powers. But the latter condi- tion was withdrawn in 1867. With the accession of each new 152 GOVERNMENTS OK THE WORLD TO-DAY. pasha, or, as he is now called, khedive, a firman Issued from the Porte has corroborated these concessions. Ismail began the nearest approach to a constitution that Egypt has had by making a plan for representative govern- ment, but it was not put into practice, and the government was retained as before in the hands of the khedive, his coun- cilors, and his army. On the deposition of Ismail in 1879, England assumed the virtual control of the Egyptian government both for financial and political reasons, and the insurrection of Arabi Pasha was against this foreign rule. His national representative assem- bly was soon overthrown, and then, as France refused to assist in quelling the revolt that followed, the British government took control of the state and appointed an English Financial Resident for the virtual administration of the country. This powerful member of the Council of Ministers had complete control of the finances of Egypt, and he, with a special com- missioner, Lord Dufferin, brought about the adoption of the Organic Law in 1883, which is the present constitution of Egypt. The discussion of the details of this constitution can be of no great importance here as it has not yet been put into force. The question of the government of the country is still under discussion and is likely to become a matter rather for settle- ment by the great powers than by the khedive. The only portion of the constitution that has been carried out is that which considers legislation, and this is at present in more or less efTective working order. The Legislative Council is made up of thirty members in Legis- all, fourteen appointed by the khedive with the advice and lature. consent of his ministers, among whom are the president and vice-president of the Council of Ministers, and sixteen elected for a term of six years, one from Cairo, one representing Alexandria, Rosetta, Suez, Damietta, Port Said, Ismailia, and El Arish, and one for each of the fourteen moudirieh, or de- partments, of Egypt. The Council has the right to insist upon having every bill referred to it, and no bill can become a law until the advice of the Council has been asked. That advice need not necessarily be followed, though the executive is obliged to give his reasons for not following it. In a like 153 manner the budget must be submitted to the Council not later than December 1st of each year, and it cannot become a law until that body has passed upon it. If the English Financial Resident does not follow its advice he is obliged to give his reasons. There was also, according to the Organic Law, to have been a National Assembly, but it has never materialized. It was to have contained a membership of eighty-two including both the Council of Ministers and the Legislative Council. The khedive is the executive officer of the state. He has very large powers under the firman of 1841, but they are con- siderably curtailed by the present control which the British government has over the country. He accredits and receives foreign emissaries, commands the army, and has general supervision of the administration and judiciary of the state. He has to a very marked degree the control of private prop- erty and the persons of individuals, though this oriental power has been somewhat curtailed by the foreign protector- ate. The khedive appoints six ministers. The present organization of the Egyptian judiciary is ex- tremely complicated. There is a system of courts made up of Europeans and Egyptians, so arranged that when a case comes up between a Frenchman and an Egyptian, or between the French and Egyptian governments, or either government with individuals of the other, the court is composed of both Egyp- tians and Frenchmen. The case is the same with other nation- alities than the French, whatever state is involved with Egypt being represented by some of its subjects. Where the trial in- volves' more than one nationality besides the Egyptian, there are mixed courts composed of certain members, and they suffice for all such cases. Yet the systems are still very unsatisfac- tory. The highest courts of these tribunals are at Alexandria. They have gradually superseded the system generally adopted in oriental countries by foreign nations of setting up consular courts. Besides these there have been formed in the last few years native courts for the trial of cases between natives on the European system. In 1872 a body of armed police was organized in Cairo and Alexandria, and this in a remodeled condition was put under the command of the two English members of the department Khedive. Judiciary. 154 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOBLD TO-DAY. Local gov- ernment. Army and Navy. Contempo- rary history. of the interior in 1884. It was the uncertainty to life and property that brought about this arrangement. In like man- ner the wretched condition into which Egypt has fallen finan- cially induced the British government to take entire control of the finances of tlie country through an "English financial member of the ministry. This minister was appointed after a conference of the European powers in 1880, called together by the khedive to act as an international commission for the pur- pose of reorganizing the finances. Otherwise the local ques- tions of justice and finance are still to a certain extent admin- istered by the moudir of the province in which they occur. According to tlie Organic Law of 1883 there is supposed to be in each moudirieh a provincial council. The law provides for an election of members to serve six years with certain qualifications. The moudir of the province is the presiding oflficer, and the council is supposed to have jurisdiction in local finance, road building, canals, education, all such bills being submitted to the Legislative Council before becoming laws. But this part of the constitution is practically a dead letter, and the moudirs, who are appointed by the khedive, are allowed to exercise extensive powers under his direction without m^uch regard to the provincial councils. The govern- ment of Egypt, therefore, especially in local affairs, is as yet far from the European standard. After the rebellion of 1882 the Egyptian army was entirely disbanded and the British government took charge of the or- ganization of a new force. Under this new management the Egyptian army with sixty English officers numbers about 13,000. Besides this there is an English force of 3,300 which has been maintained there since the English occupation. The Mohammedan religion is the popular religion. It is organized under the patriarchs of Alexandria. Education consists largely in the reading of the Koran, though there are now a number of elementary schools. Ismail Pasha began his reign with measures that looked to- ward the carrying out of Mehemet All's plans. He instituted reforms in the department of justice. He increased and systematized the army. And he secured in a firman from the sultan the acknowledgment that Mehemet All's family should govern in Egypt by lineal succession. EGYPT. 155 Ismail was a bad financier, however, and had a passion and a skill for borrowing money that has seldom been equaled. Gradually as the years went on he fell more and more into debt, until 1875. It was then made public that the khedive had sold the shares be possessed in the Suez Canal to Great Britain. He also asked England to send a financier to in- spect the condition of Egyptian finances, and General Cave was sent out for this purpose. The sale of the shares, giving, as it did, the control of the canal into English hands, caused France to interfere, with the results that Egypt was declared bankrupt and France and England were jointly appointed receivers. Mr. Wilson, representing England, and M. de Bligniferes, representing France, became members of the new cabinet. But Ismail would not petmit himself to be ruled by these two men, and on the 17th of May he discharged them. England and France refused to allow their representatives to retire, and the result was that Ismail was compelled by the sultan to abdicate in favor of his son Tewfik, on the 26th of June, 1879. It was then decided that the new khedive could not form new laws of finance without the consent of the sultan and the two great powers. The army was also limited to 18,000. Wilson and Bligniferes became members of the new ministry. Everything seemed to be going well and the finances were being put upon a firm basis, when suddenly, on the 9th of September, 1881, an outbreak occurred in Cairo which soon spread into a direct insurrection against the foreign rule. The ministry was changed, and it was not long before England and France had a large fleet before Alex- andria. t)n the 11th and 12th of June, 1882, Alexandria was bombarded by the allies. By September the country was in British hands, but the hostilities in the South were still raging and continued to rage in a fierce warfare until 1885-86, when the memorable expedition of English troops was sent into the Soudan to rescue General Gordon, who had been appointed to quell the revolt of the Arabs there in what had finally become a semi-religious war under a man called the Mahdi. Since then Egypt has been practically a financial experiment for Great Britain, and the state of affairs is much better now than at any time in the last decade. Abbas II. succeeded Tewfik on the latter's death in 1892. FRANCE. President, FBAxgois Felix Faueb. RULERS SINCE 1800. Napoleon Bonaparte 1804-1814 Louis XVIII 1814^1824 Cliarles IX 1824-1880 Louis PlilUppe 1830-1848 ProvisioualCom. (Feb. to May) 1848 Executive Com. (May to Dec.) 1848 Napoleon,_pres. ... (Dec. 20) 1848-1852 Napoleon III., emperor 1852-1870 Commune 1870-1871 Republic, Thiers, pres 1871-1873 MaoMahon 1873-1879 Gr6vy 1879-1887 Carnot 18S7-1894 Casimlr-P6rler 1894-1895 Francois Felix Faure...l895- TABLE OF STATISTICS. Department. Ain Aisne AUier Alpes (Basses) Alpes (Hautes).... Alpes-Maritimes. Ardeohe Ardennes Ariege Aube Aude Aveyron Belfort Boucbes-Rhone. . . Calvados Cantal Oharente Charente-Inf. Cher. Correze Corse Cote-d'Or Cotes-du-Nord Creuse Dordogne Doubs Drome Bure Eure-et-Loir Finistere Gard Garonne Gers Gironde Herault lUe-et-Vilaine Indre Indre-et-Loire Isere Jura Landes Loir-etrCher Loire Loire (Haute) Loire-In ferieure .. Area. 2,234 2,839 2,822 2,685 2,158 1,482 2,136 2,020 l.i 2,317 2,438 3,376 235 1,971 2,132 2,217 2,294 2,635 2,780 2,265 3,377 3,383 2,659 2,150 3,546 2,018 2,518 2,300 2,268 2,595 2,253 2,429 2,425 3,761 2,393 2,597 2,624 2,361 3,201 1,928 3,599 2,452 1,838 1,916 2,654 Fop. 356,907 546,493 124,285 115,522 258,571 371,269 324,923 227,491 255,548 317,372 400,467 83,670 630,622 ■ 428,945 239,601 360,259 456,202 359,276 328,119 288,596 376,866 618,652 284,660 478,471 303,081 306,419 349,471 284,683 727,012 419,388 472,383 261,084 793,528 461,651 626,8''5 292,868 337,298 572,145 273,028 297,842 280,358 616,227 316,735 645,263 Department. Area, Lolret Lot Lot-et-Garonne . ... Lozere Maine-et-Loire .... Manche Marne Marne (Haute).... Mayenne Meurthe-Moselle . Meuse Morbihan Nievre Nord Oise Orne Pas-de-Calais Puy-du-Dome Pyrenees (Basses' Pyrenees (Hautes Pyrenees (Orient, Rhone Saone Saone-et-Loire Sarthe Savole Savoie (Haute).... Seine Seine-Inferieure.., Beine-et^Marne Seine-etrOise Sevres (Deux) Somme Tarn Tarn-et-Garonne . Var Vaucluse Vendee Vienne '. Vienne (Haute).... Vosges Yonne Total 2,614 2,012 2,067 2,749 2,289 3,i59 2,,02 1,996 2,025 2,405 2,625 2,632 2,193 2,261 2,354 2,551 3,070 2,943 1,749 l,r"" 1,077 2,062 3,302 2,396 2,224 1,667 183 2,330 2,215 2.164 2;317 2,379 2,21- 1,431 2,349 1,370 '2.,r~ 2,1 2,130 2,: 2,868 204,092 Fop. 377,718 253,885 295,360 135,527 618,589 513,815 434,692 243,533 332,387 444,150 292,253 544,470 343,581 1,736,341 401,835 354,387 874,364 564,266 425,027 226,861 210,125 806,737 280,856 619,523 429,737 263,297 268,267 3,142,595 839,876 356,709 628,590 354,282 546,495 346,739 206,596 288,336 235,411 442,355 344,355 372,878 410,196 344,688 38,343,192 156 FRANCE. France lies in the western part of Europe, with the Eng- lish Channel on the north, the neutralized kingdom of Bel- gium and the duchy of Luxemburg, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy on the east, Spain and the Mediterranean Sea on the south, and the Atlantic Ocean on the west. The present gov- ernment is republican, formed somewhat on the lines of the government of the United States, but having a responsi- ble ministry and other features dif- fering from the lat- ter. Paris is the capital, with a pop- ulation of 2,447,957. After the years of Napoleon's reign and of his victories over neighboring countries had come to an end, it was the signal for all Europe to seek vengeance against France. The coun- try was garrisoned with foreign troops ; fortresses on the frontier were either razed or given over to foreign powers ; a huge indemnity was exacted from the country by the Holy Alliance, and France was for a time completely prostrated. A reactionary move- ment was the result. Louis XVIII., the representative of the Bourbon dynasty, had been declared king of France on the 157 History since iSoo. 158 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOBLiD TO-DAY. fall of Napoleon, and again after the Hundred Days. Con- trary to expectation, Louis carried out a milder policy than was threatened, but such men as Marshal Ney and Labedoyere were shot. The general political condition of France, how- ever, was one in favor of reaction and the reinstatement of the Legitimists and Bourbons. In following the political history of France it is important to bear in mind that Paris, as the center of France politi- cally, socially, and commercially, has always been the guiding spirit of the whole country. What takes place in Paris is accepted by the entire state, and the political history of Paris is the political history of France. Recognizing this, it is still necessary to note that in general the rural population, living away from Paris, and therefore never seeing the ex- tremes and abuses of diflferent forms of government, have given their preference to monarchical forms. It is in Paris and the larger cities that the radical, socialistic, and even republi- can forms of government have had their inception, and the great republican advance in the provinces has been made within the last two decades. Between the two parties that toward 1818 formed the Re- actionists and the so-called "Doctrinaires," the king steered a middle course. It was to the latter party that Guizot belonged — and to a certain extent Thiers also — and these men stood between the Royalists and the Radicals who brought on the July Revolution in 1830. Louis dissolved the Reactionist Chamber in 1816, set up Decazes as minister, and tried to maintain a middle course. But when his nephew, the Duo de Berri, was shot by a saddler named Louvel, the reactionary tide returned and gained the ascendant. The Moderates were charged with the assassination and the Decazes ministry fell. The Conservative Due de Richelieu succeeded to the premier- ship and the elections were so tampered with that out of four hundred and thirty seats in the Chamber only seventeen were filled by Liberals. In the same year, 1824, Louis died and the crown went to the Count d' Artois, his brother, under the title of Charles X. The new king had nothing in his character to make him a worthy successor of his brother. He had little ability him- self and gave the Royalists full sway. The history of the FBANCE. 159 next six years is therefore a preparation for the Revolu- tion of 1830. It was not long before cries arose against the medieval regulations that began to appear under the influence of the Jesuits. Even the National Guard opposed these measures and was thereupon disbanded in 1827. A year later Martignac became minister, but gave place in a year to Pol- ignac who was less liberal and more in sympathy with the king. The Liberals and Radicals made demonstrations sym- pathizing with the struggle for independence in Greece, that had just been successfully ended, and compared it with the present state of affairs in France. Gradually the storm arose and burst on the 25th of July, 1830, when the Ordinances of St. Cloud were published, proclaiming the press under strict cen- sorship, the dissolution of the Chamber, and summoning a new one. Within three days the citizens of Paris had arisen. Thiers, the editor of the National, began his attack on the govern- m.ent, and on the 27th the city was barricaded. Three days later, the palace of the Bourbons was sacked by the mob, Lafayette was in charge of the affairs of Paris, and Charles X. was no longer a king. August 2d, Louis Philippe, the Due d' Orleans, became the Citizen King of France. He had with great tact kept himself apart from the disturbances during his predecessor's reign, and when he came into the control of the government, he came as the champion of the people — king of the French "by the will of the people," and the friend of the venerable Lafayette, the people's trusted adviser ! All went well at first. The king reformed the constitution on liberal lines. He took into his cabinet the important men among the Republicans, Lafayette and Barrot, and felt that if the Republicans could be kept at his side the Legitimists and Bonapartists would be easily disposed of. The ministries changed rarely in the next eight or ten years, and then only because the king gradually went over to the Reactionists. Thiers and Guizot opposed each other on different ministries principally in regard to foreign relations. The troubles in Africa combined with the differences in the theory of govern- ment under a king, created the two parties. Thiers believed that the king should reign but not govern, while Guizot and his followers were of the reactionary Conservative party. 160 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. Gradually indications appeared in the king's party of a move- ment toward the censorship of the press and other arbitrary measures. To this must be added the attempt of Prince Na- poleon, nephew of the emperor, at Strasburg to instigate an uprising in his favor. This came to nothing ; but the dis- turbance caused by the recurrence of the great- name and the recollections it awakened unsettled people's minds and led the premier. Mole, to dissolve the Chamber in 1838 and order a new election. When the new Chamber came together it contained four parties : (1) The Extreme Right ; (2) the Right Center, under the leadership of Guizot ; (3) the Left Center, under Thiers ; and (4) the Extreme Left, under Barrot. The last was the party which had figured in the July Revolution. The votes were strong enough to defeat the government, and ministries changed often between 1839 and 1841. Then came the troubles in Egypt, the bombardment of Alexandria by England, and the treaty regarding the settlement of the government of that country, which France was not allowed to participate in. This was irritating enough of itself, but when the removal of Napoleon's body from St. Helena to Paris was followed by the second attempt of Prince Napoleon to win over the French army at Boulogne, the excitement of popular feeling rose against the government. Guizot was minister-president when, in 1844, troubles in Algiers brought up the African question again. French resi- dents there complained of the insecurity of property due to inroads of the Bedouins and the Kabyls, who had revolted against the government of Algiers. French forces were there- upon dispatched against the leader, Abd-el-Kader, but it proved a difficult task to put down these wild tribes, and it was not until 1847 that this priest-warrior was captured and brought to France and the war ended. Such troubles at home and abroad were exaggerated in the Chamber by the leaders of the Opposition parties, Thiers and Barrot, and this reached its climax in 1848. Guizot was fast leaning toward the policy of Metternich and the Holy Al- liance, and the result was the uprising of the people and the revolution of February, 1848. The immediate cause of the outbreak was a disturbance at a banquet of members of the FRANCE. 161 Extreme Left, with Barrot as presiding officer. The National Guard was to have taken part in citizen's dress, but the gov- ernment opposed this and riot ensued. Next day fighting began ; the troops fired on the mob, and barricades were thrown up. Guizot resigned and the king tried to form a ministry under Thiers and Barrot. But it was too late. The fighting continued. After trying several times to bring about quiet, Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of the Comtede Paris, his grandson. Meanwhile, in the H6tel de Ville, a provisional Committee of Government had been formed. It was composed of De I'Eure, Lamartine, Creunaux, Ledru-EoUin, Arago, Bedeau, Carnot, and Garnier-Pages. These men, with Louis Blanc and several others as secretaries, later having votes in the committee also, were chosen as the governing power of France with De I'Eure as the president. To gain popularity and at the same time relieve commercial distress, the new government organized enormous workshops giving work to 100,000 people, and it was to this rash move that the First Republic owed its fall. At one time 117,000 men were being employed to do almost noth- ing at a salary that would soon have depleted the treasury. It became necessary to make some change, and after a time large numbers of workmen were sent to diflferent parts of France and finally the shops were closed altogether. This caused more dissatisfaction throughout the turbulent population of Paris and rendered them the more ready to fol- low a new leader. Those at the head of the new government soon realized the evils of radicalism and the necessity for severe measures. In three months Paris was again raving against its government. Barricades were set up again in the streets in May, and a week of fierce fighting between the mob and the soldiery followed. General Cavaignac was appointed dictator of the city, and finally, with the streets filled with dead, he was able to report that order had been restored. For this vigorous action he was chosen president. In the new elections Louis Napoleon was returned to the Assembly. He had tried twice to bring himself before the French, and at the third trial he succeeded. He played a quiet r61e in the Assembly, awaiting his opportunity. The constitution, such as it was, provided for a presidential term 162 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. of four years, but did not permit a second terna until four years had intervened. There was a Legislative Assembly of 750 members and a Council of State chosen for a six years' term by the Assembly itself and responsible to it. In the new election, following his election to the Assembly, Napoleon was chosen president by live times as many votes as any other candidate procured. This election cannot be explained in any other way than that in the country throughout Prance the memory of the Emperor Napoleon was still strong in the people's mind and symbolic of powerful government and the glory of France. The name was a watchword and carried all before it. Napo- leon was proclaimed president December 20, 1848. The next year brought into contrast two theories of govern- m.ent in France. Paris was in favor of a republic of a radical order. France as a country, outside of Paris, looked toward a more majestic rule un der the Napoleonic name. By December, 1851, Napoleon had so prepared and fostered this latter feeling that when on the night of the second his famous Coup d'Mat was carried out, little opposition was made to it. Paris was put in charge of the military and any attempt at opposition was crushed in embryo. The city, surprised and stunned, had no time to oppose the military. By the Coup d '^tat, with the aid of the army. Napoleon had taken control of the gov- ernment and dissolved the Assembly. A new election was immediately ordered and by 7,000,000 votes out of less than 8,000,000, the country made Napoleon president for a second term of ten years. A new constitution was promulgated in 1852 which provided for a ministry responsible only to the president, and two Houses, one electoral and the other composed of members largely appointed by the power of the president, and in November of the same year by another gen- eral election Napoleon was chosen emperor of France, under the title of Napoleon III., by over 7,000,000 votes. The new emperor married a Spanish lady, Eugenie de Mon- tijo, who bore him a son in 1853, the Prince Eugene. France had on her boundaries the unorganized provinces of Germany, of Switzerland, and of Italy — all inferior to united France ; and it seems to have been the emperor's idea in the diplomatic negotiations which followed during the next ten FBANCB. 163 years, to so conduct his diplomatic relations that none of the three should become united into a government sufficiently pow- erful to malxe it a rival of France, but that he himself should fill the place of arbiter in all their troubles, retaining the bal- ance of power in his own hands. The result of his labors, however, was the formation of the German Empire, the unity of the Swiss provinces, and the independence of Italy. Under the foreign policy of the emperor, France joined the allies in preventing the encroachment of Russia on the Danu- bian provinces.* The war ended with the fall of Sevastopol on the 10th of September, 1855. In the light of future events, one of the chief results of the war was the coldness created between Prussia and France, which continued to increase until the war of 1870. In 1858 France began again to turn toward war. The em- peror's life was attempted several times, and in each case it proved to be an Italian who made the attempt. Italy was making her struggle for independence, and under the influ- ence of the empress — a zealous Catholic — some of Napoleon's measures had pointed toward the restoration of the papal rule there. This would mean death to Italian independence, and the attempts at assassination were easily traced to this source. Partly to avert this hostility, partly to indulge his love of foreign conquest, and finally to check Austrian advance in Italy, the erriperor joined with Victor Emmanuel in a war against Austria.f The victory went with the French from the first, and the war closed with the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859. Austria virtually retired from Italy and ceded all the Italian territory in her possession except Peschiera and Man- tua. Under the articles of the treaty of Villafranca, France re- ceived Savoie and Nice. Italy soon went beyond Napoleon's control and established its independence, leaving the papal state under French protection. The jealousy of Napoleon as he watched the growth of the Prussian Kingdom in Central Europe, increased after his suc- cesses in the south. The Prussian success in the Danish war was another sign of her increase of power and only served to add to the hostility of the French. When the emperor, after *See Russia. fFor an account of this war see Italy. 164 GOVEBNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. the war of 1866, saw Prussia at the head of the German nation and on the road to the accomplishment of German unity, it became his object to check her growth. At the same time the duchy of Luxemburg was anotlier bone of contention. The French government was negotiating for the purcliase of the whole duchy when the emperor discovered that the Prussian government, by bringing pressure on Belgium, was prevent- ing the sale. All these diflferent causes only served to increase the already strained relations between the two countries. Napoleon's position in 1868 was not an enviable one. He had evacuated Rome and deserted the papal cause, and the pope was not, therefore, on friendly relations with his govern- ment. A so-called volunteer guard which remained in Rome gave Garibaldi an opportunity to influence popular sentiment against the French among the Italian people and, at the same ■ time, to greatly endanger the safety of the papacy itself. This Napoleon was bound to resent, and the result was the dispatch of French troops to the protection of the pope's estate, and the consequent further estrangement of the Italian government. At the same time, the emperor's throne depended to a certain extent on the glory he won abroad by diplomacy or by war. The question of the succession of the Spanish crown, though an apparently insignificant cause for war, served as the imme- diate grounds for hostilities where the two parties were only awaiting a pretext. The Spanish government, such as it was, had offered the crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a relative of the king of Prussia. To his acceptance the French government took exception, and King WiUiam of Prussia, as the head of his house, was asked to prevent him from definitely accepting the throne. On the latter's refusal to take any action in the matter the French declared war against Prussia.* France from the start was the weaker and in the worse condition for a campaign, and Napoleon as a general was no match for the king and his military advisers. The result was a fierce war of eighteen months, along the Rhine at first, gradually moving into French territory, until on September 2d the battle of Sedan destroyed the military strength of the French. The siege of Paris which ended with its surrender on the 27th. of January, 1871, closed the war. *See Germany. FRANCE. 165 The constitution of France has a particular significance among republican institutions. It is the result of a century of changes in a government ranging from anarchy to monarchy and dictatorship. Among these the republic has been tried four times ; in 1789, in 1830, in 1848, and in 1870. The present constitution is therefore saddled with much, of the tradition of these former attempts, and with much of the monarchical form of government also, which is the natural inheritance of the French people. The sudden changes from time to time dur- ing the century have rendered any form of government unsta- ble, and though the present republic has maintained itself for eighteen years, there are still small but active parties among the Legitimists and the Bonapartists. The attempt in 1889 to reinstate the monarchy under General Boulanger and its de- feat have done much to strengthen the republic. This showed that it could at last withstand the popular enthusiasm of Paris, and that the industrial and the middle classes were strongly in favor of the constitution and the republican form of gov- ernment. One of the most important watchwords for the overthrow of the government has been the cry for "revision of the constitution," but that has not met with the success expected during recent years. The present government has itself amended its own constitution in 1879, 1884, 1885, and 1889. Nevertheless it remains a fact that the history of the republic has shown it to be iu constant danger, and to main- tain its integrity the use of dictatorial powers has several times been necessary during the last eighteen years. The present constitution was drawn up by a Frenchman named Wallon, one of the delegates to the National Convention appointed for that purpose after the fall of the Commune. It was completed in its first form in the summer and fall of 1875, and with amendments has stood without any vital changes since then. The legislative portion of the government includes a Cham- ber of Deputies and a Senate. They meet and adjourn simulta- neously, and are obliged to assemble on the second Thursday in January, remaining in session at least five months. It is in the power of the president to adjourn the Chambers, but they must be reopened within a month, and they cannot be prorogued twice in the same session. On the motion of an Con- stitution. Legis- lature, 166 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. absolute majority, the president is obliged to summon an extra session, but he may do so on his own authority if he deems the occasion sufflciently momentous to warrant it. The Senate is obliged to assemble one month before the retirement of the president in order to proceed to the election of a new president, and in the event of the latter's death both Houses meet at once to fill his place. Both Chambers sit with open doors, tliough they have the privilege of secret session under certain conditions. Each Chamber decides questions of disputed elec- tions to its own body, and each elects its own president, vice- president, and secretary. The members of both Houses are free from arrest while in office, except when taken in the act of some criminal oflfense, and no member can be prosecuted for votes cast or speeches delivered during his term of office. According to the constitution of 1875 the Senate consists primarily of seventy-flve life members, who in the first in- stance were appointed by the National Assembly. The vacan- cies caused by the death of life members of the Senate were to be filled by the Senate as they occurred. But in 1884 this clause was altered and the reelection of life members done away with. On the death of those senators still remaining from the previous elections, the clause in the constitution provid- ing for life members will be abolished. With these the Senate has a membership of three hundred. The candidates are elected for nine years, and one third of the Chamber is re- turned every three years. Candidates must be forty years of age, natural born Frenchmen, and free from anything that denies them their civil and political rights. Members of French royal families and commanders of the army or navy are not eligible in any case. The salary of senators is about $3,000. Senators are chosen indirectly by elections composed of all the deputies of each department, all the members of the district councils, the Council General, and, finally, certain electors chosen especially for this purpose by the voters of each municipality, the number being regulated by the population. These meet to appoint one third of the Senate that becomes vacant at the regular period once in three years. The four col- onies of Martinique, Guadeloupe, Reunion, and the French Indies send each one senator, and the territory of Belfort has the same privilege. FRANCE. 167 The Chamber of Deputies is at present composed of five liundred. and eighty-four members, six being returned from Algeria and ten from the colonies. The qualifications for membership require a candidate to be at least twenty-five years of age, a natural born Frenchman, and in possession of all civil and political rights. As in the Senate, members of French royal families are not eligible. Deputies were elected in 1875 and 1876 under the system known as the scrutin de liste ; that is, each elector cast his vote for as many candidates as his department returned to the Chamber. In 1876 this was changed to scrutin d ' arrondisse'ment&, a system under which each department was divided into arrondissements, or districts, these being made the unit of election. Each elector voted then for but one deputy. Again in 1885 serutin de Hate was brought back and, finally, in 1889 the election laws were again changed to the system of arrondissements, with the added pro- vision that no candidate could stand for more than two dis- tricts. Each candidate is for this reason obliged, at least two weeks before the election, to declare what particular district he will stand for. All votes cast for him in other districts are void. If any arrondissement contains more than 100,000 in- habitants, it has the right to return a second deputy. Depu- ties receive a salary of about 11,800. The Senate has authority coequal with the Chamber of ini- tiating bills, except those relating to finance, and to pass on all bills originated in the Chamber. It has also, with the Chamber, certain advisory powers in connection with some of the president's prerogatives. At times the Senate resolves itself into a Court of Justice. The Chamber has the right to initiate all measures relating to finance, and all bills coming from the Senate go through the committee stage as in the United States Congress. The president is the executive officer. He is elected by an absolute majority of both the legislative chambers to serve seven years, and he is reeligible at the end of that time for a second term. His salary is about 1120,000 and his expenses are met by a second grant of |120,000. He has the regular duties and prerogatives of the executive officer. All bills re- quire his signature and that of one of his ministers before becoming laws — the latter being enforced in order to insure the Executive. GOVEBNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Admin- istration. Judiciary. irresponsibility of tiie president. He has the right of pardon ; the army is under his command, and the appointment to the principal civil and military offices rests with him. He can dissolve the Chamber, but only with the consent of the Senate. Any communication with the Chamber must be made through one of his ministers. He must promulgate all acts within a month of their passage and earlier in case of urgency, but he has a right to cause a reconsideration before the promul- gation. He negotiates and ratifies treaties ; but in certain cases, such as the declaration of war, the consent of the Cham- bers is required. He appoints the members of his cabinet and of the Council of State. The president may be impeached only by the Chamber and tried only by the Senate. There is a ministry of ten members, who have charge of the different departments. They have seats in both Houses and the right to demand a hearing when they wish it, but they cannot vote. They are responsible to the Chamber and resign on a vote of want of confidence. They advise the president in his aflfairs, and they can be impeached only by the Cham- ber and tried only by the Senate. The ministerial portfolios are : war, foreign affairs, instruction and fine arts, justice and worship, finance, marine, public works, agriculture, commerce, Interior. The Council of State is a relic of the Napoleonic times. Under the presidency of the minister of justice it gives advice and opinions when required. The civil laws of France are based on the Code Napoleon, which was compiled by the emperor Napoleon I., and which has been enforced since then. Justice is under the adminis- tration of the minister of justice. At Paris the highest court of appeal is the Court of Cassation, which is composed of a president, three assistant presidents, and forty-five councilors. The appeal to this court is from the twenty-six courts of ap- peal which are distributed throughout the country, each con- sisting of a president and four councilors. The police tribu- nals are, in general, the courts of the first instance. Justices of the peace have extensive authority in cases not involving more than |1.5 without a jury. The case is given them in secret and they send it on to a higher court or decide it them- selves as they see fit. There is a juge de paix in each canton. Army and FRANCE. 169 France is divided into eighteen military departments, and there is a division of the army at each department with a gen- Navy, eral at its head. These departments are divided into smaller divisions of the same area as the arrondissements. The army is composed of all the able-bodied men la France between the ages of twenty and forty-five years. Substitution is not per- mitted. Laws passed in 1872 and later, in 1873, 1875, 1882, 1887, and 1889, require that a soldier shall serve three years in the regular active army. He then joins the reserve and remains there six years more. Afterwards six years are spent in the territorial army, and then ten naore in the territorial reserves. This constitutes twenty-five years of more or less active serv- ice in the army and almost all exemption is done away with. The present strength of the army is as follows : France. Infantry 316,080 Cavalry 68,010 Artillery 79,758 Engineers 11,439 Train 7,947 Staff, schools, etc 15,753 Police and Republican Guard. 25,252 Total 524,239 59,843 13,605 This gives a total of the army at 597,687 men and officers, and with the 600,000 men of the territorial army, there is a grand total of over a million men who could be made use of in time of war. The navy is composed of volunteers and conscripted ma- rines, and there is a list kept ready of from 150,000 to 180,000 names of men between the ages of eighteen and fifty years who are engaged in a sea-faring life and who are liable to a service corresponding to that of the reserves in the army. The navy at present is composed of the following vessels : Armor-clads 50 Cruisers 7 Torpedo boats 148 Other vessels unprotected 227 Total 432 The French also have perfected a method for transporting an enormous number of troops by sea in a short time, which would be a great advantage in the event of war with Ger- many, because of the now almost invulnerable fortifications on the German frontier. Igeria. Tunis. 41,411 9,079 8,630 1,943 2,779 716 759 329 3,174 1,047 2,004 336 1,086 155 170 GOVBENMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. Local gov- ernment. History since 1871. The local government in France dates back to the First Re- public, when the whole country was divided into eighty-six departments, Algeria into three, and Belfort made a territory. The departments are subdivided into 362 arrondissements, still again into 2,871 cantons, and finally into 36,125 communes. Each department has a prefet at its head and a council to assist him in the administration, all appointed by the presi- dent of the republic with the advice of the minister of the interior. The prefet may or may not take the advice of the council, and as a representative of the chief executive he sees to the administration of the laws, issues police orders, nomi- nates subordinates, etc. Each arrondissement has a sous-prefet. He has a council of the arrondissement {conseil d' arrondissement) to assist him, which has charge to a certain extent of the finances among the communes. There are an equal number of arrondissements in each department and they send delegates to a general council of the department. They have deliberative powers on finan- cial questions concerning the department, care of the roads, schools, etc., but their decision may be annulled by the presi- dent of the republic. Each canton has a justice of the peace. The canton gener- ally comprises ten communes. The unit of the republic — the commune — has its mayor, who is elected by the people and fills the office of intermediary be- tween the prefet and the municipal council. The latter is composed of from ten to thirty-six members. Much of the work of the municipal councils, however, has to be referred to the prefet. Two days after the battle of Sedan, Paris rose and pro- claimed the Third Republic. Thiers, Jules Favre, Jules Simon, and Gambetta constituted tlie provisional government. Gam- betta escaped from Paris in a balloon and spent the winter in organizing armies at Tours for rescuing Paris. Everything resulted in defeat, however, and Paris fell in January, 1871. On the 8th of February elections were held for an assembly which should constitute a power to arrange terms of peace with Germany. This body sat at Versailles, but it had scarcely met when the Radicals and socialists arose in Paris on the 16th of March and created the Commune. Again the city was be- FRANCE. 171 sieged and Frenchmen turned upon themselves. Finally, after the most ferocious battles in the streets, Marshal MacMa- hon restored order in the city May 21. By the treaty of May 10, France gave up the two provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and paid five milliards of francs to Ger- many, and German garrisons were left in several parts of France to insure the payment. There was a year of uncer- tainty in the French capital where Thiers, the first president of the new republic, was vainly striving to put the govern- ment on a firm basis ; but on the death of Napoleon, in 1873, the union between Bonapartists and Bourbons that threat- ened the new order of affairs was broken up. A conservative republican element under the leadership of MacMahon was inaugurated, which gradually attracted to it the more conserv- ative portions of other parties ; and when in 1873 Thiers re- signed, MacMahon was chosen president in his place. The new president's object was to retain the Assembly that had been appointed to draw up the constitution, and he hoped that by appointing a reactionary .ministry under the Duo de Broglie and General de Cissey, to approach a point where by a coup d^etat, similar to that of his imperial predecessor, he might gain permanent control of the government. The As- sembly, however, was dissolved in June, 1877, owing to the irresistible trend of popular opinion, and in the new elections the Republicans were in a large majority. After trying re- pression and conciliatory ministries MacMahon was forced to resign in 1879, and Jules Gr6vy succeeded to the presidency. The war with Tunis, which did little to add to the glory of France and consumed an enormous amount of money, caused the fall of several ministries in quick succession. Gambetta became minister-president after the fall of the Ferry ministry in 1881, but in spite of his great popularity his ministry fell in the next year on an attempt to bring in the serutin de liste system of electing candidates. The death of Gambetta took away the chief strength of the parties opposing the Bonapartists, Legitimists, and Bourbons, and, not long after, these parties joined forces in an attempt to gain a majority. The fear of a Bourbon revival caused the introduction of a bill for the expulsion from France of all heirs and pretenders to the throne. After many heated dis- 172 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOKLD TO-DAY. cussions the bill fell through, but the agitation caused a gen- eral uprising that resulted in an anarchist movement, bomb- throwing, trials, and imprisonments, and a formidable labor movement. The government in endeavoring to check the strikes instituted large public works for the employment of labor and soon fell into financial embarrassment. After the fall of the DeFreycinet ministry in 1885, on a vote of want of confidence, several ministries changed places within two years. The Tunis war had been a severe strain on the country, and now the war in Tonquin, maintained more to vindicate French national honor than for any other reason, was more than any ministry could sustain. The Badicals under the able leadership of M. Clemenceau made an almost irresistible opposition, and the labor strikes at Decayeville, Vierzon, and Paris only added to the difficulty. Brisson, Gob- let, and Eouvier followed each other at the head of the gov- ernment, and the last in 1887 formed the so-called " Cabinet of Republican Concentration " in the hope that he might thus gain a working majority. It was at this time that the Boulanger movement and the German war excitement were both put in the shade by the discovery that M. Wilson, the son-in-law of President Gr6vy, was, with others in high political and military positions, sell- ing badges of the Legion of Honor. Wilson was tried by the Senate and convicted, and, whether true or not, the presi- dent's honor was questioned. The excitement was intense and resulted in the refusal of any one to form a ministry under the presidency of Jules Grfivy. After a long delay he finally resigned on the 2d of December, 1887, and on the next day the Chambers met and elected M. Sadi-Carnot, who was a compromise between Ferry on the side of the Opportunists- and De Freycinet on the side of the Radicals. M. Tirard at once formed a cabinet. He was succeeded by Floquet in the next year, but returned in the year following. The fall of Boulanger, which was accomplished largely through the efforts of M. Constans, put the latter more before the people than the premier himself, and this, added to the vote of want of confidence on the Turkish question, led to Tirard's fall in March, 1890, when the fourth ministry of De Freycinet began. Up to 1886 General Boulanger was a man without national FRANCE. 173 reputation other than that of any able general of the French army. He had done good service in the wars of his country and was appointed minister of war under the Brisson min- istry. Here he gained great popularity on account of the ad- mirable system he introduced in the army, A duel with Baron Lareinty also added to his popularity, and he gradually became one of the most popular men in France. When the fall of the Brisson ministry became certain, there was some fear expressed that Boulanger might be summoned to form a war cabinet on account of his well-known hostility to the Germans ; but when it was found that he was not in the new cabinet, the populace accepted him as a still greater hero. To get rid of so powerful a man the new head of the war depart- ment sent him to the provinces to take command of the Clare- mont-Ferrand army corps, and sliortly after his departure his name was up for election in four departments. According to the French constitution no man in a military position is eli- gible for election to the Chamber, and General Logerot, the minister of war, at once instituted an examination. He was told that Boulanger's name was before the public as a candi- date without his knowledge or consent. But in March, 1888, Boulanger was discovered in Paris in disguise, and for this in- subordination in leaving his troops without orders he was cashiered and deprived of his command. A great deal of excitement was created, as Boulanger was perhaps the most popular man in France in the eyes of the people, and after his trial, when he had been deprived of his command and could therefore stand for election to the Cham- ber, he was returned from several departments and from the department of Nord by over 100,000 votes. His military im- provements while holding the office of minister of war and his bitter hatred of the Germans drew to his standard all the Bonapartists, Bourbons, Legitimists, etc., and the common people who saw in him a possible avenger of the German war. He added to these classes all the dissatisfied portion of the in- habitants of the country by entering the Chamber in June, 1888, and demanding a ministry responsible only to the presi- dent, a change of the constitution, abolition of the Senate, etc. On the 12th of July he challenged the minister Floquet, and they fought with swords, Boulanger being badly wounded. Boulanger. 174 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. By letting his name come up for election in a large number of electoral districts he secured half a million votes in the next election, and entered the Chamber again, demanding changes and denouncing the existing state of affairs. It was this danger of one man gaining so many votes to himself that caused the Radicals to bring forward a bill to prevent a candi- date from running for election in more than two districts. Boulahger had in the meantime formed the League of Patri- ots. They advocated a National Republican party and were gaining a large following for Boulanger, when, in 1889, he was charged with conspiring against the government, and had to fly from the country. Up to this time his popularity had been on the increase, owing largely to a trait in the French character which carries Frenchmen away in enthusiasm for military glory and the promise of military conquest. But his fliglit began his down- ward course. His trial proceeded and he was found guilty by the Senate sitting in a session as High Court. He was sen- tenced to exile from France and deprived of his civil rights, and wherever found his followers were imprisoned or exiled. The trial closed August 8, 1890. Boulanger was obliged to leave Belgium, where he still carried on intrigues ; and he went from there to England, re- turning to Belgium in 1891 to commit suicide on the grave of his mistress. President Camot's term of office would have expired on the 2d of November, 1894, had he lived so long, but on the iiight of the 24th of June, Sunday, in the city of Lyons, while he was driving in a carriage from a banquet given in his honor by the Chamber of Commerce to the theater he was stabbed by an Italian named Cesario. He died a little after midnight on the 25th. The assassin apparently belonged to an anar- chist organization, and was appointed by lot to kill the president in revenge for his severe measures against some con- victed anarchists. The Chamber met at once, and on the 27th of June elected M. Casimir-P6rier president of France by 451 votes out of a possible ballot of 884 and an actual vote of 845. M. Dupuy's resignation was accepted the next day, but two days later he was returned as premier. The following table gives a list of the French colonial pos- FKANCB. 175 sessions with their areas, populations, and the date when they were acquired by France : Colonial. Amkrica : Guiana Guadeloupe Martinique St. Pierre and Miquelon.. Apkica : Algeria Senegal French Soudan .. Gaboon Ctongo Reunion Mayotte Nossi-B6 Ste. Marie Obock Colony. Total,. Total Asia: French India... Cochin-China . Tonquin Total.. OOEANICA : New Caledonia Marquesas Islands Tahiti and Moorea Kaiatea Tubuai and Balvavae Tuamota and Gambler Islands.. Wallis Island Total.. Pkoteotoeates : Tunis ., Madagascar Annam Cambodia Comoro Islands Sahara, Soudan, and Niger Region Total Grand total.. A.rea. 46,850 720 380 90 84,040 257,450 140,000 50,000 267,900 970 143 113 64 2,300 718,940 203 23,000 34,700 57,903 7,700 480 455 80 390 60 9,165 46,000 228,500 106,250 32,390 800 1,568,940 1,980,940 2,814,988 Population. 25,796 165,154 175,663 5,983 372,796 3,910,399 182,764 283,660 186,500 500,000 165,009 9,598 7,803 7,667 22,370 5,275,770 208,303 1,916,429 12,000,000 14,196,732 62,752 5,145 11,181 881 6,536 3,500 89,995 1,500,000 1,500,000 5,000,000 1,500,000 47,000 1,120,000 10,667,000 Ac- quiredf 30,517,293 1626 1634 1635 1635 1830 1637 1880 1843 1884 1649 1843 1841 1643 1864 1679 1861 1884 1854 1841 1880 1888 1881 1881 1887 1881 1887 1884 1862 1886 1890 Algeria is the principal colony of France. It is divided into Algiers, Aran, and Constantine, and each section sends a sen- ator and two deputies to the French Chambers at Paris. The three departments are organized on a plan as similar as it is possible to make them to French departments, and all three 176 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. are under a governor-general. All legislation other than the most local is carried on in the French Chambers, and the French government has charge of the Algerian finances. Tunis came under French control in 1881. The government is carried on by a Resident appointed by the French govern- ment, and, with an advisory committee or stafT, he has charge of the administration under the advice of the Colonial Direc- tion at Paris. A committee is appointed from Paris to conduct Algerian finances. Tonquin and Annam came under French control after the desultory and unsatisfactory war which ended in 1884. The government of the country is practically under a French Res- ident, but in reality it amounts to a military power stationed there to protect French interests and keep up commercial rela- tions with the natives. The whole government is unsatisfac- tory and the question of the position of the French there at all is doubtful. To these two districts Cochin-China and Cam- bodia were joined in a commercial union in 1887. Cam.bodia is ruled by King Norodom, the native ruler, under the advice of the French government. Annam in a similar way has a nominal head in King Bun Can. In 1890 there were 28,556 French officers and men stationed in Indo-China. The island of Madagascar lies in the Indian Ocean east of the coast of Africa at Zanzibar. The government is an abso- lute monarchy with Queen Ranavalona III. as the present ruler. Antananarivo is the capital city with a population of about 100,000. The country was conquered by Rad^ma I., organized under one government for the first time in about 1810, and in 1820, '61, '65, '68, etc., treaties were made with foreign countries, and gradually a large trade has grown up with the world. A treaty signed between France and the Hova queen December 12, 1885, gave the French government the right to maintain a Resident and an armed force at An- tananarivo for the protection of Europeans, but at the same time the Hova dynasty retained its autonomy and complete control of its own domestic afTairs. According to the treaty, France conducts all the foreign relations of Madagascar through her agent at the capital. England also lays claim to the island and has an extensive infiuence over the Hovas, and it is probable that trouble may arise between France FRANCE. 177 and England over this question. Tiiere were signs of it in November, 1894. The French control in Western Africa extends along the western coast over Senegal, Rivifere du Sud, the Bight of Benin Settlements, the Gold Coast, and the French Soudan. These are all either occupied by the French government or by coun- tries annexed by it, or, finally, are independent countries under French protectorate. Senegal is represented at Paris by one deputy. St. Louis is the chief town. Eivifere du Sud became a separate colony in 1890. The Gold Coast was cut up into a series of regularly organ- ized colonies in 1890, and in 1892 these were put under one governor appointed by the French government, and they are known under the general name of French Guinea. French Soudan is in the interior and embraces Upper Sene- gal and the countries about the Upper Niger. It borders on the eastern line of Eivifere du Sud and Senegal. Itis controlled by a grand commandant appointed at Paris. There is a pro- posal to govern these several colonies under the Superior Counsel for the Colonies, organized in Paris in January, 1891. In America the French possessions are in the West India Islands. Guadeloupe is under a governor appointed by the home government and he has an advisory council. French law is the code, and the colony sends one senator and two deputies to Paris. Martinique is ruled also by a governor appointed from Paris, and there are municipal councils and an appointed general council for the government of the colony. One senator and two deputies are sent to the French Chambers. St. Pierre is the chief town. There are also two small islands southeast of Newfoundland belonging to France— St. Pierre and Miquelon. In Oeeanica, New Caledonia is a penal colony in the Pacific Ocean, and there are other dependencies of France in the neighboring islands. The government is entirely in the hands of a governor with a military force of 3,476 men. The Society Islands and similar groups are called the French Establishments in Oeeanica. They are under a commandant- general who has a council to assist and advise him in carrying on the government. GERMAN EMPIRE. RULERS SINCE 1800. Francis 1806 Confederation of the Rhine 1806-1815 German Bund 1815-1866 North German Confederation 1866-1871 William 1 1871-1888 Frederick 1 March-June, 1888 William 11 June, 1888- HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE EMPIRE. Chancellor of the Empire Prince Hohenlohe Minister of Foreign Affairs Marshal von Biebersteiu Minister of Interior Dr. von Bottlcher Minister of Navy Vice-Admiral HoUmann Minister of Justice A..Nieberding President of the High Court of the Empire Von Ohlschlager Minister of Treasury Count von Posadowsky-Wehner Minister of Posts Dr. von Stephan Minister of Railroads Dr. Sohulz TABLE OF STATISTICS. State. Area. Pop. Capital, Reich. Bund. Prussia Bavaria Wtirtemberg Baden Saxony Meeklenburg-Schwerln Hesse Oldenburg Brunswick Saxe-Weimar Mecklenburg-Btrelitz Saxe-Melningen Anhalt Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ... Saxe-Altenburg Lippe Waldeck Bchwartzburg- Rudolstadt Schwartzburg- Sondershausen Reuss-Schleitz Schaumburg-Lippe , Reuss-Greitz Hamburg Ltibeck Bremen Alsace-Lorraine.. 134,463 29,282 7,f 5,821 5,787 5,135 2,965 2,479 l,42i 1,388 1,131 953 900 755 511 469 433 333 .819 131 122 158 115 29,957,367 Berlin 5,594,982 Munich 2,036,522 Stuttgart l,657,867|Carlsruhe 3,502,684 1 Dresden 578,342 Schwerln 992,883!Darmstadt 354,968 Oldenburg 403,773, Brunswick 326,091 Weimar 97,978iNeu-Strelitz 223,832 Meiningen 271,968lDessau 206,513, Coburg-Gotha... 170,864 128,495 57,281 Altenburg . Detmold.. Arolsen... 85,863 Rudolstadt.. 75,510 119,811 39,163 62,754 622,530 76,485 180,443 1,603,506 Sondershausen. Gera Btickeburg Greltz (Strausburg ■I Miilhausen I Metz 48 17 14 23 6 19 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 Total 208,732 49,428,470 178 GERMAN EMPIRE. The German Federation or Empire is situated in the central part of Europe, bounded on the east by Russia and the Austro- Hungarian Empire, on the south by Austria and Switzerland, on the west by Prance, Luxemburg, Belgium, and the Nether- lands, and on the north by the German Ocean, the Baltic Sea, and Denmark. The emperor, William II., is the third emperor under the new empire founded in 1871, January 18, and he entered upon office at the death of his father, the Emperor Freder- ick, on July 8, 1888. The empire is a fed- eration of twenty- five states and free cities with Alsace and Lorraine un- der the crown of Prussia as emperor. The history of Germany since 1815 has been one of continual growth from monarchical toward constitu- tional government, and of the unity of the many Central European states under one head. In 1806 the Emperor Francis abdicated from his office as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and Central Europe was left without a head. After Napoleon had fallen, the Congress of Vienna was called together to settle all European disputes and define boundaries. Then came a federation of the German states under the guidance of a Diet of sixty-five mem.bera and a committee of seventeen which filled the 179 SflpRNE, History from i8i5 to 1870. 180 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. places of au Upper and Lower House. Austria presided at all sittings, and the powers of these two bodies were curtailed as much as possible in order to leave greater independence to the individual states. In time of war the federation put itself under the guidance of the Diet entirely, and this central authority settled the difficulties between the states. The kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands had each a raena- bership. Owing to the unsettled condition of affairs and the incomplete powers given it, the federation soon lost caste. It was not long before a reaction from the settlements agreed upon by the sovereigns at the Vienna Congress set in, and the people of Germany began to think and act for them- selves. The students all over the north and south of Germany formed a party of reform, demanding free press, universal suffrage, individual constitutions, etc., and in 1818 they won a constitution in Bavaria. In the next year Wiirtemberg fol- lowed Bavaria's example. To curtail this republican tendency Metternich, prime minister of Austria, called the Carlsbad Congress in August, where the monarchical idea was enforced. Censorship of the press followed, and the rule of princes was pushed forward on all sides. From that time until 1830 there was a conflict between the two parties, ever growing stronger and fiercer. On the whole, through the influence of Metter- nich, the monarchical idea gained the ascendency. He formed a union between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, called the " Holy Alliance," which had for its object the destruction of constitutions and the enforcement of the rule of irresponsi- ble ministries. Assemblies were closed ; the rights of the press were curtailed, and in all parts of Germany the student element of free thought was suppressed. All through the years from 1830 to 1848 there came indi- vidual cries for freedom of speech and suffrage. It was the modern demand of each man to be allowed to govern him- self, fighting against the medieval practice of making the mass of humanity subservient to a few hereditary princes, and it came naturally from the growth of popular education. At a meeting in 1847, Heppenheim, an advanced leader in the south, proposed a representative government for all Germany. This was followed at Heidelberg on March 5, 1848, by a self- assembled meeting which decided to call a national congress GERMAN EMPIRE. 181 to consider a proposition of a parliament of the many inde- pendent states of Germany. The result was the famous National Assembly at Frankfort, which came together May 1, 1848, and was composed of three hundred and twenty dele- gates. This was the first body of reformers that had gained any standing, and it was the first result of the struggles since 1816. The old German Diet had already lost caste. John, archduke of Austria, became president of the Assembly and adminis- trator of Germany, and all seemed to promise well for a solu- tion of the great question. Unfortunately for the peace of Germiany, the Assembly never came to any satisfactory con- clusions, though it sat for many months, on account of the fact that it could not settle who and what should be the head of Germany itself. Out of the discussions, however, grew two parties that ruled the politics until 1871. Germany must be united. This could be accomplished in one way by putting Austria at the head of the Confederation or in another by throwing out Austria altogether and forming a union under Prussia ; and thus the Great and Small German parties were formed. Caused partly by the elections for the National Assembly, and partly by the same ideas that suggested the Assembly itself, an era of popular feeling and the demand for popular sovereignty gained the ascendency in 1848-49. It was the same in all Europe. After the February Revolution in Paris, there came a revolution in Germany. In Vienna, on the 13th of March, the students gained control of the city. Emperor Ferdinand was forced to abdicate. Immediately following came similar scenes in Prague, and on the 18th a revolution broke out in Berlin. King Frederick William IV. was forced to grant a constitution to Prussia which went into eflFect February 26, 1849. At this point Prussia began to take a more important place in German affairs. The line between the Great and Small German parties was being ever more sharply drawn, and it was now a contest between Austria and Prussia for the leader- ship. Count Bismarck of Prussia had been at the National Assembly and had there made up his mind that the only way to unite Germany was to create an authority strong enough to compel obedience to its will, and then to unite the many 182 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. states into a confederation under its leaderstiip. He proposed to make Prussia that power. From 1850 to 1871 tiie growth of that power was the direct outcome of Bismarck's policy, and it became the final means of accomplishing the German Empire. Meetings of princes occurred at Erfurt in May, 1849, and later at Dresden and Olmutz — all striving to come to some settlement as to the central government of the Confederation. Finally a settlement came through another matter. The Schleswig-Holstein question is a difficult one to under- stand, and is to-day of little importance. It was, however, the cause of open hostilities between Austria and Prussia, and the consequent settlement of the difficulties arising from their rivalry. Prussia and Austria took possession of both Schles- wig and Holstein on behalf of the Confederation, which claimed jurisdiction over both, by force of arms in 1864, on account of a dispute in regard to the question of succession there. Christian IX. was obliged to sign a treaty ceding both duchies to Prussia and Austria jointly. Hence Prussia and Austria came to rule in the north in common. This could not last long when the two powers were rivals, and it was less than two years before Prussia, charging Austria with breaking the treaty in calling an assembly in Holstein on her own au- thority, interfered and forced her to declare war. Meantime, in 1861, William, the future emperor, had become king of Prussia and with the aid of Bismarck as chancellor had been steadily increasing and strengthening the army, so that in 1866 Prussia was able in seven weeks totally to defeat Austria by one of the most remarkable campaigns in history. Tlie fighting was in Saxony and Hanover, and after the battles of Miinohengratz and Koniggratz in July, Austria was com- pelled to sign the treaty of Prague and go out of the German Confederation. This established the success of the Small German party, and on February 24, 1867, the North German Confederation was formed with Prussia at its head and all the small states of Northern Germany as members. Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Baden, still held aloof, but they formed treaties with the Confederation. From that time until 1870, Prussia was increasing in power and the Confederation was uniting within itself more firmly until the final act toward the unification of . all Germany GERMAN EMPIRE. 183 came in the war with France. Napoleon III. was hos- tile to Prussia and its wonderful growth ; and in his uncertain position as usurper in France, he was obliged to win some vic- tory to impress his power upon the French and keep their confidence. An opportunity offered itself in the neutraliza- tion of Luxemburg, which was contrary to Napoleon's wish ; and, finally, when William I. refused to prevent one of his own family. Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, from becoming king of Spain at Napoleon's solicitation, war was declared on tlie 15th of July, 1870. Prussia at once sent her forces to Stras- burg and Metz, and after the defeat of the French at Saar- briick and the retreat to Metz, came the three fights about the city which ruined that portion of Napoleon's army. The final fight at Sedan on September 2, and the surrender of Paris on January 28, 1871, ended the war. Bavaria, Wiirtem- berg, and Baden immediately joined the North German Con- federation on January 18 at Versailles in offering the crown of emperor to King William, and Germany was united at last under one head. France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Ger- many and paid five milliards of francs as a war indemnity. The constitution of the empire, adopted at the close of the war with Austria in 1867, was accepted with few changes on Constitu- April 16, 1871, by all the twenty-five states of the empire. It is unique in history, being as it is a union of states of differ- ent forms of government under an hereditary head with im- perial powers. After the preamble and the list of states in the Confederation, the constitution provides that all federal laws take precedence over state laws. iEJqual rights are to be held by citizens of all the states. The matters over which the leg- islative part of the government has jurisdiction are then classified under fifteen heads. They include all jurisdiction in the matter of posts and telegraph, railroads, waterways, military and naval affairs, measures of public health, and a common system of weights, measures, and money ; also the establishment of measures relating to the rights of citizens and foreigners within the empire or their movements be- tween the states or into and away from the frontier ; the es- tablishment of laws for the purpose of revenue and customs or internal taxes, of banking, patent and copyright laws, and the protection of German commerce abroad by consular repre- 184 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. Bund- esrath. Reichstag, sentation ; finally, the establishment of a common code for the punishment of crime and for civil procedure, the enforce- ment of judicial documents in the different states, and the protection and care of traffic on interstate waterways and roads. The legislative part of the imperial government is in two houses, the Federal Council (Bundesrath) and the House of Representatives (Reichstag). The Bundesrath is composed of sixty-two members, who are appointed by the governments of the different states, each state having a certain number in proportion to its magnitude and having only the number of votes equal to its member- ship. Any member may propose motions and the president must bring them before the body. The chancellor of the em- pire is the president, and the Bundesrath sits with closed doors. It appoints seven permanent committees, viz., army, navy, taxation, commerce, railways, post and telegiaph, justice, and finance, and the appointments are so arranged that two states at least are represented in each committee exclusive of the president. The Bundesrath meets annually, and no man can be a member of both Houses at once, though the members of the Upper House can take seats in the Reichs- tag. The Reichstag meets annually also and is composed of three hundred and ninety-seven members elected by universal suf- frage about one to every one hundred and seventeen thousand, but if a member receives any governnaent office he must be reelected to the Reichstag. The debates are public and ver- batim reports are published. The Reichstag can propose measures and send them up to the Bundesrath, as well as any petitions submitted to it. Its term is five years (before 1890 three years). It can only be dissolved by a vote of the Bund- esrath, and must then be summoned within sixty days and . meet again within ninety days of dissolution. The Reichstag regulates the power of its members under the constitution, and the members are free from any indemnity or arrest, unless taken in the act, while in active service. All votes are by ab- solute majority of the total number of members, and as each member represents the whole country he cannot be held by any decree of his electors or of any one else. No member, as such, receives any salary. GERMAN EMPIBE. 185 Emperor. The supreme authority is hereditary in the crown of Prussia, and the emperor has the right to receive and credit foreign ambassadors and emissaries, curtailed somewhat by the advice and consent of tlie Bundesrath. He calls the Bundesrath and Reichstag together and dismisses them. He appoints the chancellor of the empire and with him the ministers of state. The emperor sees to the execution of the laws after they have passed both Houses, and he has the power to bring forward bills in the Reichstag and in the Bundesrath. In his ofHce of executor of the decrees of the legislatures he has authority to carry them out in all the states, even to the use of force. In the matter of customs the empire is a unit and all legis- lation is for all parts of the country, except in the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck, and they are at present free within their small city limits. Federal authority, also, has the legislation of tariflf and excise on all kinds of produce. The expeuses are estimated by a budget voted by the two Houses in advance and submitted annually. In case of need, the exchequers of the several states may be drawn upon or a loan negotiated by the passage of a federal law. The em- peror is obliged to render an account of receipts and expend- itures annually. There is a circuit court (Amtsgericht) in each large township, over which are Landsgerichte with a right of revision over Judiciary, the decisions of the Amtsgerichte. The Oberlandsgerichte stand above these in turn and are twenty-seven in number, extending over certain large tracts of land that sometimes include several states. The final court of appeals and for trial of cases of treason — the Supreme Court of the empire — is situated at Leipzig where there are seventy-nine judges appointed by the emperor with the consent of the Bundes- rath. They are divided into four criminal and six civil sen- ates. The emperor as the executor of the empire appoints the ministers, who are responsible and who by custom resign when a vote is passed in both Houses against them, or when their advice is not followed. These have charge under the chancellor of the different departments of state. They are : the minister of foreign affairs, minister of interior, of justice, of finance, of the post and telegraph, and of the navy. These Admin- istration. 186 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. ministers do not, however, constitute a cabinet, because much work is done by the permanent comm.ittees in the Bundes- rath.. The German army is the most thoroughly organized and Army and scientifically arranged body of men in the world. It is com- ^^'^- posed in time of peace of 492,000 men and officers, and in time of .war of 2,234,631, counting all branches. These are divided into nineteen Corps d'Armee, besides a Prussian Guard ; and they are distributed through the empire, eleven in Prussia and the rest among the other states. Every German who is seventeen years old and able-bodied is liable under the con- stitution of the empire to service, and but for the peace limit would be obliged to serve seven years — three in active service and four in the reserves. Besides these seven years, he is obliged to belong to the Landwehr for five years more and to appear for drill for several weeks during each year. Owing to the necessity of having the army distinctly under one head, the Reichstag votes the money for its support once in seven years instead of annually. This is known as the Septennate. Germany has seventeen fortified towns of the first class and nineteen more of diflferent sizes and strength, and they are connected by underground telegraph wires and by a strategic system of railroads. The distribution of the diflferent branches of the army are given in the accompanying table : Description of trObps. Officers. Men. Infantry 11,641 335,72r Cavalry 2,350 66,149 Field artillery 2,369 49,111 Foot artillery 728 ' 17,253 Pioneers 5S8 12,976 Train 299 6,905 Special formations , 460 2,869 Staff, etc 2,227 235 Total peace footing 20,662 491,225 Since 1871, the German navy has had a large growth. The increase in colonial possessions has called for a navy to protect German commerce and German interests abroad. The follow- ing table gives the strength in detail : Battleships 14 Ironclads 14 Cruisers 43 Torpedo boats 141 212 The number of seamen, officers and men of all kinds, is 18,469. GERMAN EMPIRE. 187 The state constitutions of Germany liave come down from feudal times and they have, therefore, totally different tra- ditions and sources. The final union in 1871 found a hetero- ftrtlaSns" geneous group of independent states, therefore, so jealous of their prerogatives that it was necessary to make as few changes as possible in each case. The Prussian constitution, however, is a sufHciently good example to suggest the others. In the early part of the century there existed only an irre- sponsible m.inistry, as in all German duchies, with a council appointed by the king. After the revolution in March, 1849, came the grant from Frederick William IV. of a constitution. It went into effect in January, 1850, and remains substantially the same to-day, supplying a basis for the formation of the imperial government. The king appoints a council, includ- ing a president — since 1871 he is also chancellor of the empire, a vice-president, and a minister of the interior, a secretary of state for the interior, a minister of war, of public works, of agriculture, of justice, of worship and finance, and these are all responsible to and removable by the king. The Herrenhaus, or the House of Lords, includes princes, nobles, distinguished persons raised to the peerage, representa- tives of the universities and of the church, and burgomasters of the large towns. There are also some members appointed by the crown not necessarily for life. The Abgeordnetenhaus contains four hundred and thirty-two members, elected at the rate of one for every sixty-six thousand inhabitants. Their system of elections is, however, different from that in the empire ; for the citizens vote by classes for electors, who in turn vote for the representatives instead of having direct suffrage by the people. The other states of the empire are governed as follows : Baden secured a constitution in 1818 which is renewed in a similar form to-day. There are two Houses, the Upper House being of an uncertain quantity of princes, officers of the church and of universities, etc., tlie Lower House of sixty- three members elected by universal suffrage. Elections occur once in four years and the Chambers meet twice in that time. There are four responsible ministers. Bavaria had a constitution in 1818 also, but it was soon dis- solved. It is now renewed with two Houses, of which the 188 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Eeichsrathe, or Upper House, is composed of princes, officers of the church, and hereditary nobles ; and the Lower House of one hundred and fifty-nine members chosen by electors. The king is the executive with a responsible ministry of six members. Wurtemberg obtained its constitution in 1819. There are two Houses. The Herrenhaus is hereditary and the Lower House contains ninety -six members, partly elected by suffrage and partly composed of officers of the church, state, and universi- ties. The king has a permanent committee with a council of six to assist him. Saxony has its constitution from 1831 and by revision from 1849. There are two Houses, the Upper being practically hereditary, the Lower of ninety members, half from the cities and half from the rural districts. The king has admin- istrative and legislative powers as well as executive, and there is a responsible ministry. Hesse has two Chambers, the Lower of fifty members, and a responsible ministry. Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz are governed by an unwieldy body of seven hundred and twenty-two mem- bers, composed of landowners and nobles. The whole govern- ment is a relic of feudal times. Four ministers are responsible to the grand-dukes. Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck are, within their small area, free cities, governed by an elected body of burgomasters. The limits and powers of Hamburg were curtailed in 1887, and all three cities will in all probability at some future date be absorbed by the kingdom of Prussia. They still retain their independence, however, and are small republics within them- selves. Alsace and Lorraine are imperial provinces directly under the rule of the federal Parliament and presided over in the name of the emperor by a stadtholder and an Upper House of twelve members appointed by the emperor for three years. There is a Lower House of fifty-eight members elected by a limited suffrage. The inhabitants until within a few years have voted bodily against the empire and their enforced allegiance, and in the Reichstag their fifteen representatives have, until 1887, voted unanimously against the government, but of late GERMAN EMPIRE. 189 there are signs of a division of opinion among them though the majority is still strong against the government. The history of Germany since 1871 is best followed briefly in the three or four important questions which have consumed History the attention of all interested in the political growth of the empire. After 1871 it became the work of the government to foster the unity and peace of the empire. Under the aged emperor, "William I., and Prince Bismarck as chancellor, the establishment of a universal system of money, weights, and measures was the first work. These acts had to be discussed in the Reichstag and the feeling in the south of Germany, still strong against Prussia, added to the difTerence of faith, quickly created several parties among the members. The Prussian members, strongly in favor of the government, formed the Conservative ; the Catholics formed what has been called the Center ; those desiring a more liberal interpretation of the laws of press censorship, worship, education, etc., formed the National Liberal party, and gradually the old republican-student sentiment throughout the empire created a party called the Social Democracy, which includes many of the dissatisfied and radical members. There are several sub- divisions, but these four parties substantially represent the great party divisions. The following table gives an approxi- mation of the party divisions in each election since the forma- tion of the empire : 1871 187i 1877 1881 1881, 1887 1890 Conservatives 50 21 40 53 77 78 ) aS f 74 National Liberals 116 150 126 46 117 93yt.-< 17 Center 57 94 96 98 108 103 j "^ (.107 Social Democracy 2 9 12 13 24 11 '-' 35 Party of Progress 44 49 35 35 German Imperialists 38 31 38 28 30 39 21 Liberal Imperialists 29 Alsace and Lorraine 15 15 15 15 14 10 Independents 27 15 20 15 10 10 17 Poles 13 13 14 16 16 13 16 Vacant 6 ... 1 1 Total 382 397 397 397 397 397 397 In 1887, to secure the passage of the seven-year budget for the army, the Conservatives, the National Liberals, and the German Imperialists combined at the elections in order to gain a greater number of voters and representatives. This Cartel, or Bund, was and is still called the Cartel party. On the 9th of March, 1888, the emperor died. Prince Fred- 190 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. erick, who succeeded him, had been suffering from what finally proved to be cancer of the larynx and he only survived his father a few months, leaving behind little work done, but having called forth a great veneration from his subjects on account of his peaceful, lenient spirit and his deep love for his countrymen's welfare. He died June 15, 1888, and was suc- ceeded by his son William, who took the title of William II. The young emperor is a soldier following the policy of his grandfather. He spent the first year and a half of his reign in traveling and visiting other crowned heads in Europe. In the spring of 1890 a disagreement between him and the aged chancellor caused Bismarck's resignation and the appointment of General von Caprivi, who had been chief of the admiralty for several years. The principal question since the formation of the empire has been that of the position of the Catholics and the pope with reference to the government throughout the empire. The formation of the Center, or Catholic party, was the commencement of the struggle. Its original grew out of the refusal of the emperor, in 1871, to acknowledge the doctrine that the pope was infallible and that he had the right claimed under the old empire to enforce decrees in temporal matters Kuitur- contrary to the laws of the empire. The specific cause of ^^^ ■ the trouble grew out of several acts similar to that of the bishop of Eruland who excommunicated a man who refused to give credence to the infallibility doctrine. The bishop was summarily dismissed from his office by the state because of his contempt for its authority and disregard of free thought, and then followed the dismissal of the Catholic department in the ministry of public worship and education. Herr Falk, on January 17, 1872, was appointed to succeed Muehler in the position of minister of education and worship, because he was more in sympathy with the government. Then began a series of legislative acts replacing the authority of the state where the Catholics had exercised power over people of their faith in temporal matters. A law for the inspection of schools by the; state was passed first. At this the pope refused to receive Cardinal Hohenlohe as German ambassador in May, and when in June the Jesuits and similar branches of the Catholic Church were expelled from all Germany, the contest became aERMAN EMPIRE. 191 an open one between the emperor and the pope. Was the im- perial authority to be supreme, or was it to allow a power to exist in its midst that it confessedly was obliged to obey ? The next ten years was one long contest upon that point. In 1873, in the month of May, Herr Falli, at Bismarck's dictation, brought forward and carried in the Reichstag what are known as the May Laws, the repeal of which was the one task of the Center party in the Reichstag from that time forth. These May Laws made the discharge and exile of bishops legal when they acted against the decrees of the existing government. They made it obligatory that every bishop be educated in a gymnasium, according to the regular German system, and they established an imperial court for tlie settlement of ec- clesiastical difficulties. This last virtually took the decision in religious matters away from the church into the hands of the state. In 1874 a supplementary law making it criminal for bishops who had been dismissed to persist in exercising their former prerogatives, was added to the list ; for after the laws of 1873, the Catholic clergy at the decree of the pope had gone on with their work as before. Finally, in 1875, January 25, a law was carried through the Reichstag estab- lishing civil as well as religious marriage. It became necessary to pass an act in March, 1875, prohib- iting any payment to bishops who had not put in writing under oath their promise to obey all the laws of the state, and on Febru.ary 10, 1876, the legislation against the Catholics finally reached its height in a law making it a criminal of- fense to use the pulpit for political purposes. Pius IX. issued an encyclical against the emperor and denied his right to make any such decrees, and the afiair seemed likely to take all the attention of the empire. At this point there came a sudden change. Pius IX. died in 1877. Leo XIII. and his cardinal, Franchi, began in a more conciliatory manner, and then, too, the stability of the empire was much more firmly established than four years be- fore. There began to appear in one section and another a de- sire for some settlement. In May, 1878, the government filled several unoccupied bishoprics and Leo XIII. confirmed them all. At this time, several of the larger bishoprics were va- cant, the press was under such a surveillance that the enforce- 192 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOULD TO-DAY. ment of the law caused constant imprisonments, and it be- came evident that the movement had gone too far. At the same time, in the Reichstag, Herr Windhorst, who was and had been since 1873 the indefatigable leader of the Catholics in all their opposition to Bismarck, had made so perfect a party organization of his followers that they could prevent any measure from going through the House that did not have the other parties unanimously on its side. It is partly due to this obstructive power and largely to Bismarck's desire to put through his bills for raising revenue and for bettering the condition of the laboring classes, especially the tobacco monopoly bills, that gradually an agreement was come to between Windhorst and himself, so that in 1879 mutual con- cessions became still more the order of the day. The pope granted the right of the government to demand allegiance to the civil laws from all bishops (the Anzeigerpflicht). The dismissal of Falk followed on July 13, as a concession to the Catholics, for he had been their greatest enemy. In 1880 things began to promise better, when suddenly Cardinal Franchi died and Cardinal Nina, an enemy to Germany, be- came the diplomatic minister of the church, and affairs came to a standstill again. Gradually, however, more concessions were wrung from Prussia and the enforcement of the May Laws was largely put into the emperor's hands, with the power of using his personal judgment with regard to their strict interpretation. The fight could not be kept up, since the Center could prevent the government from doing any- thing else. It is, however, false to say that the spirit that had caused the May Laws in 1874 had completely died out. The stability of the empire was less uncertain now and the neces- sity for other legislation was more important. In 1881 the ambassador to the Holy See was reappointed, and the pope made some concessions. The Center joined the Conservatives in 1884 and Bismarck had his long-sought majority for his revenue laws, so that in 1886 the Kulturkampf was just where it had been in 1873, except that the Catholics had a party upwards of a hundred strong under splendid drill. An act was then carried taking away the law requiring that the bishops be examined by the state. Since 1887 Herr Wind- horst has taken every occasion to state the principles of his GERMAN EMPIRE. 193 party, not with any immediate hope of bringing about their adoption, but to keep the matter before the Eeichstag. He demanded the absolute authority of the pope in matters spiritual within the empire, which implies the annihilation of the whole legislation since 1872. The loss of their leader iu March, 1891, was a great loss to the party. Windhorst had been firm and consistent since 1873 in his demands, and it cannot be denied that he totally defeated the government and almost brought the Catholics back to the position they occu- pied before the formation of the empire." His death seriously weakens the Center for a time. Prince Bismarck in his" contest with the Ultramontane party had Joined himself with the Liberals to secure a large enough majority to defeat the one hundred members of the mocracy." Center in 1878. He had also previous to 1873 encouraged the socialist feeling among the more radical members of the Liberal party for the same reason. Lasalle had been a great friend of his up to the time of his death. Consequently the little party, representing some three hundred thousand voters in the large cities of Germany, became toward 1876 a more noticeable feature in the Reichstag. While acknowledging the German emperor and their allegiance to him, they stipu- lated as their guiding principle the absolute freedom of the press, regulation of the hours of labor, public education, self- government, and adjustment of the relations of labor and capital. Such a party must necessarily contain most of the dissatisfied portion of any community, and there are, therefore, among the Social Democrats many who believe in community of goods, abolition of marriage, etc. They, however, do not represent the better class of electors in the party of the Reichstag. Under the patronage of the chancellor and the growth of the sentiment among the laboring classes, the little party grew until the government saw the necessity of checking it. It was just at this time that the two attempts on the em- peror's life were made. He was riding one day in May, 1878, on the Unter den Linden, when one Hoedel shot twice at him without wounding him, and on June 2 a man named Dr. Nobil- ing wounded him in the face. A cry at once arose all over the empire charging the socialists with the instigation of the crime and this became sufficient cause for legislation against them. 194 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. There were at the time about sixty thousand sociaUsts in Berlin and perhaps a half million in the empire. They had thirty-five newspapers and periodicals, and a large number of associations. In the Reichstag twelve members had been elected in 1877, and Herr Bebel, the leader, managed with his little body of followers to create considerable commotion at times. A bill was at once brought in against the social- ists, but it called forth the censure of the Liberals, because it pointed in several clauses to the absolute suppression of free speech in the empire and left to local authorities to decide what was " socialist " matter and what not, with the power to suppress it if they saw fit. Oh the 21st of October a modi- fied bill was passed, but was restricted to three years. All the socialist meetings and newspaper organs were to be sup- pressed. In Berlin alone on the first day four organizations and thirty-five periodicals were stopped. The same plan was followed throughout the empire. On May 31, 1881, the law was renewed for three years more without any material change. The little party remained about the same, but the beginning of Bismarck's policy for raising the revenue by the tobacco tax, making it a government monopoly in Germany, drew upon him the censure of all Liberals and among them the socialists, and thus the latter's vote came to be of more importance to him. In 1887 the feeling was still more in favor of the Social Democrats and it was with difficulty that the law was again passed. The party had eleven mem- bers in the Reichstag and their votes in the empire numbered something over a million. Labor unions and strikes occurred in spite of the authorities, and the Social Democrats returned to the Reichstag in 1890 with a party of thirty-six members. Publishing houses had been started in Zurich and in Geneva, and quantities of pamphlets were circulated from, one end of the country to the other under the very eyes of the law. With such a growth the socialist law could not compete when in January and February, 1890, it came up for discussion again. A very much modified bill was proposed and failed on the third reading, so that on the 1st of October, 1890, the Social Democratic legislation and laws went back to the status of 1878. Nothing like freedom of speech is permitted, but meetings can be held and periodicals issued to a cer- GERMA.N EMPIRE. 195 tain extent, and the emperor has distinctly recognized the claims of the laboring classes and the necessity for some leg- islation in their behalf. In his treatment of the question and in Capriyi's policy in regard to the legislation for the lower classes, Germany has taken the foremost ground in govern- ment socialism within recent years. To-day, in spite of suppression, the Social Democracy stands with two able men at its head, Bebel and Liebkneeht, and a party of magnificent organization over a million strong. In 1831 William I. said in his message to the Reichstag that he was going to inaugurate a system of laws that should make insurance the social condition of the poor better. This proposal has legislation, crystallized into three compulsory insurance acts. 1. The first is known as the Act of Insurance against Sickness. It was proposed in 1883 and after some discussion became a law. Under its provisions, workmen are compelled to pay two per cent of their normal wages as set by civil authorities into a fund in the form of premiums on insurance. In return they are paid certain amounts in time of sickness. The payment is made compulsory in certain classes of work. Besides this two per cent, a similar amount is required from the employers and a third two per cent is paid by the government. 2. The second act, known as the Compulsory Insurance against Accident, was proposed and carried in 1884r-85.' It was at first confined to men working for the government but has been extended to the diflferent trades. Payment is required by the employer in ratio to the danger of the work and the num- ber of workmen, and the laborer pays a certain amount of his wages in addition. This has up to the present been sufficient to pay premiums. For total disability the workman receives two thirds of his regular wages up to four marks a day, and then a smaller per cent. In case of death, twenty days' wages are paid for the funeral, and twenty per cent to the widow, and fifteen per cent for each child. 3. The third law has recently been under discussion in the Eeiehstag. It is a system of old age and infirmity insurance which is to be compulsory and is somewhat complex. Bach workman has a card with forty-seven spaces on it, issued by a district insurance board. The employers obtain stamps from the post-oflQce and affix them to the spaces, deducting certain Colonies. 196 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. amounts from the man's wages. When the card is full it is to be filed away and a new one begun. The man must be five years a member before he can have any money back. The workmen are divided into classes arranged on a basis of in- come and the premiums are larger or smaller according as the income is large or small. From his seventieth birthday a workman is entitled to a pension, whether he is incapacitated or not, and a man who is incapacitated at any time is en- titled to the pension until recovery, the government giving him fl^fty marks a year. The man also receives fifty marks and from two to three pfennige a day, according to the class he is put into. It is estimated that at least eleven million workmen will come under the scope of the law. These three acts embody in themselves a principle of social- ism in its theoretical sense that makes them the most pro- nounced practical acts toward socialism that have been passed by any great power. They involve a matter of the deepest interest, coming as they do with the emperor's words at dif- ferent times during the last year or two. The modern German colonial system began in 1884. The growth of the knowledge of Africa and the interest taken in colonial possession by France and England had much to do with inducing Prince Bismarck to open a channel for colonial possession in that continent. The enormous emigration of Germans to the United States and elsewhere was one of the causes also. The government sought some method of keeping Germans under German rule. In 1884 Togoland in West Africa was put under German control with Porto Seguro and Little Popo on the slave coast. In the same year the German flag was raised over the Cameroons from Rio del Eey to Rio Campo and for fifteen degrees inland. Then between 1884-86 Damaraland and Namaqualand in South Africa came under German control. In East Africa the German East African Society of Usagora was made a protectorate in 1875 by a charter from the emperor. In the same year Wituland was added, and by an agreement with Zanzibar and Great Britain in 1886 the Germans got con- trol of a large tract of land along the east coast and running inland indefinitely. This treaty, however, and the indefinite extension of the protectorate inland came under discussion. GERMAN EMPIRE. 197 in t&e spring of 1890 and a new treaty was made between England and Germany on June 14, 1890. The boundaries now are from the river Umbe on the northwest, running north of Kilima-Njaro to the east shore of Lake Victoria Nyanza, across the lake westward to the Kagera River mouth, and following its course to 150° south latitude ; thence westerly to 30° longitude and south to Lake Tanganyika. Following the eastern coast of the lake the line runs from the southern end to Lake Nyassa and thence by the river Rovuma to the sea. In consideration of the cession of Wituland and the claims of Germany to Zanzibar, England ceded the island of Heligo- land in the German Ocean to the empire. In 1886 the northern parts of New Guinea were made Ger- man dependencies called Kaiser Wilhelm Land. The Bis- marck Archipelago was annexed in 1885 — being the islands between 141° and 154° east longitude and 8° south latitude and the equator. In 1886 Bougainville, Choiseul, and San Isabel in the Solomon group, and the Providence and Crow groups were also brought under German control. In Southwestern Africa, Angra Pequena extends from the Orange River exclusive of Walfish Bay and running north to the river Cunene enters upon the boundary arranged with Portugal in 1887. The line runs along the river from its mouth eastward from Humbe Falls and then extends on a parallel of latitude east to the Kubango and thence on this river to a point on the 21st° of longitude just west of Andara, whence it turns south and meets the line on the Orange River. The colonial possessions of Germany and protectorates are at present as follows : In West Africa : iSq. miles. Inhabitants. Togoland, Porto Seguro, Little Popo 16,000 500,000 Cameroons 130,000 2,600,000 In South Africa : Damaraland, Namaqualand, and Angra Pequena 342,000 2.'iO,0m In East Africa : Usagara, Uhaim, Nguru, andUsequa.... 60,0001 iTRnnm Other tirrltiries 233,520 J 1,760,000 In tlie Pacific : Kaiser "Wilhelm Land 72,000 110,000 Bismarck Archipelago 19,000 190,000 Solomon Islands 9,000 80,000 Marshall Islands 160 10,000 Totals 933,150 5,500,000 GREECE. King, George I. RULERS SINCE 1800. Ottoman Empire 1821 Struggle under two parties 1821-1827 K. Gapodlstrias 1827-1831 A. Capodistrias 1831-1832 KingOtho 1832-1862 King George '. 1862- MINISTRY. Minister of Finance, president of the Council Triconpis Minister of Foreign Eelations Stephanon Minister of Interior Boupliidis Minister of Justice Stephanon Minister of War Tzamados Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs Kaliphronos Minister of Marine Boutoulis TABLE OF STATISTICS. province. Area. Population. North : Attica and Boeotia Phocis and Phthiotis ... Acarnania and ^tolia. Peloponnesus : Argolis and Corinth Achaia and Blis Arcadia Messenia Laconia Islands : Euboea and Sporades.. Cyclades Corfu Zante Cephalonia Thbssaly : Arta Trilcalla Larissa Total 2,472 2,0M 3,013 1,«2 1,001 2,020 1,221 1,879 2,216 923 431 277 302 395 2,200 2,478 257,764 136,470 162,020 144,836 210,713 148,285 183,232 126,888 103,442 131,608 114,535 44,070 80,178 143,143 168,034 25,014 2,188,008 198 GREECE. The kingdom of Greece occupies tlie southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, south of the Ottoman Empire, and the surrounding islands. It is bounded on the north by Epirus and Macedonia, provinces of Turkey, on the east by the MgesLii Sea, on the south by the Mediterranean, and on the west by the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The government is a constitutional monarchy whose independence is guaranteed by Russia, England, and France. Athens is the capital with a population of 107,251. Modern Greece un- til 1820 was of little political importance to Europe. There were Greeks living in Bussia, in the Danube provinces, in Turkey; and the pen- insula itself was di- vided into different provinces subject to and ruled by Turk- ish oflBcials. The Greeks, however, were of a higher or- der than the Turks and made strong pretentions to culture and European civili- zation. Many of their young men were sent to European universities, and toward the end of the eighteenth century these men, returning to Greece, began to write and speak against the foreign rule that was crushing their country. 199 History since iSoo. 200 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. The French Revolution roused the entire civilized world, and the sentiment of freedom and representative government there advanced found a kindred spirit among the Greeks. From the beginning of the century, therefore, there was a strong movement toward independence. Newspapers and orators occupied their time in crying out against the foreign oppressor. Gradually the country became honeycombed with secret societies advocating a war for freedom, among which the Haeteria was by far the largest and most powerful. This was the state of affairs when in 1820-21 at Janina, in Epirus, Ali Pasha brought about an uprising with a view to making himself the absolute ruler, and while the Turks were subduing him insurrections broke out in many places, and Greece north and south rose in rebellion. Two Greeks who stood high in the Russian court headed the revolt, General Hypsilantes, of the Russian army, and Count Capodistrias, a minister of the tsar Alexander. The Russian government favored the Greek cause, since it offered them a stepping-stone toward the possession of Constantinople, tending as it did to break up the Ottoman Empire ; but just at this time Metter- nich, prime minister of Austria, was at the height of his power, and, having control of the Holy Alliance, he per- suaded the tsar to look upon this revolution in the south as an attempt at republicanism and the overthrow of kings. The monarchical reaction had set in, also, after the revolu- tions of the second decade of the century and Alexander was finally persuaded to discountenance the Greek cause. Fighting occurred in Wallachia and Moldavia in 1821, but the Turks had soon dispelled the little band. From that time until 1832 there was a succession of bloody battles until the independence of Greece was assured. Horrible atrocities were committed against the Greeks in Constanti- nople ; the venerable Georgios was hung at the door of his church ; foreigners of other nations were treated in a similar manner. In Morea fighting began at the same time ; Greeks swore . to fight side by side until either freedom or death came to them. In 1822 the first National Assembly was sum- moned at Piadia and the independence of Greece declared. A constitution was proposed and adopted, and the govern- ment was organized under a committee of five men of whom GREECE. 201 Maurocordatos, the cultivated Greek, was chosen president. If the Greeks could have maintained unity among them- selves from this time on, the independence of the country might have been won earlier, but a race that had been so long under foreign rule and whose citizens had been under despotic systems of government could not be persuaded at first to follow any one leader for a long time. Dissensions broke out almost immediately among the members of the committee, and Colocotronis refused to be influenced by the votes of the others. In a few months the division widened and some of the new parties, under the leadership of Colocotronis and others, opposed the government and formed a new one after having imprisoned some of the leaders of the other side. All this weakened the cause and the fortunes of war turned. The island of Chios was attacked by the Turks, and the inhabi- tants to the number of 100,000 were either exterminated with great brutality or sold into slavery. But within a few weeks the Turkish fleet was attacked by the Greek ships and com- pletely destroyed. By this time also the Turkish troops in Epirus had succeeded in overthrowing Ali Pasha and turned their attention to Greece itself, and thereupon the flghting be- came general. Attempts were made to interest Europe in the Greek cause by sending representatives to the Congress of Verona, but Metternich still held the control, and nothing could be ob- tained from the powers. England, however, began to counte- nance the war, and men like Lord Byron and Lord Cochrane went to Greece and did much by their example to interest the sympathy of European peoples for a Christian race striving to free itself from pagan rule. In spite of all this, aflfairs took no immediate turn in favor of the Greeks. The sultan flnding that he could not accomplish anything satisfactory to himself, sent to Egypt for the assist- ance of Mehemet Ali, and in 1824 Mehemet sent his son Ibrahim Pasha with a large fleet against Crete. The island was practically annihilated ; ravages continued through 1823 and 1824. Mesolonghi fell on the 26th of April and with it the central part of Greece. Morea had been captured a year before and all over the country the Greek cause seemed to be crushed for the time. In 1827 the flnal blow came in the fall 202 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. of Athens and the vandal-like destruction of the Acropolis and the art treasures of the city. The surrender took place on the 7th of June. Then Lord Cochrane and other foreigners made an endeavor to unite the struggling Greeks. Capodistrias was elected president of Greece for a seven years' term, and at the same time a movement in favor of foreign intervention took form in Russia, England, and Prance, which resulted in the famous sea-flght at Navarino toward the end of September, 1827. The Turkish and Egyptian fleets were completely destroyed by the allied fleets of the great powers under Heyden, De Rigny, and Codrington. Ibrahim was forced to make a treaty and to agree to return with all his forces to Egypt. Morea was retaken bj' the French, and the sentiment of Europe, in spite of the policy of Metternich, was of unfeigned joy and congratulation for the Greeks. Capodistrias very nearly ruined all that had been done by trying to make himself dictator instead of president, and it was only through the intervention of the allied powers that the danger of internal revolution was avoided. They decided that Greece should become a constitutional monarchy and invited Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to become the king. Leopold having refused the crown it was accepted by Prince Otho of Bavaria. In the meantime, Capodistrias had been assassin- ated, his brother elected president, and civil war again pre- vented by the timely arrival of Otho on the 30th of January, 1833, with 3,500 Bavarian troops. A regency was appointed to serve during the minority of the king, and the result was a series of conspiracies for the overthrow of the new kingdom. Out of these struggles came the representative constitution of 1843. The boundary of Greece on the north was flxed at the Gulfs of Arta and Volo. Greece, however, should extend both by right of history and of the present population farther north, and the cause of many of the troubles that came later may be traced to this unfortunate allotment of territory. Peace seemed at last to have settled over the country, and a period of reconstruction and recovery from the vandalism of the Turks followed, broken only by the ever present demand for an extension of the boundary of Greece to the north. In 1853 this spirit rose to fever heat during the Crimean War. GREECE. 203 Russian influence was brought to bear, and there is a prob- ability that Greece would have taken an active part in the war had not France sent troops and a fleet to Athens and compelled King Otho to suppress any attempts toward such a movement. This procedure on the part of the government increased the already growing sense of dissatisfaction with the present monarch. The success of the revolution in Italy in 1860-62 served only to increase the demand for more territory in Greece, and in February, 1862, the people of Nauplia rose in revolt. In the fall of the year Athens itself rose against the king. Thereupon Otho abdicated and retired to Bavaria, and on March 30, 1863, Prince George of Glucksburg became king of Greece. He brought with him the Ionian Islands as an addition to Greek territory, and avowed himself in favor of increasing the boundaries. of the kingdom. When in 1866 the Candiotes ou the island of Crete rose in rebellion, arms and ammunition were sent out to them with the consent of the new king, and it is probable that their cause would have succeeded and Crete have become a part of Greece had the foreign powers not interfered and given Crete to the khedive and later to the sultan. The struggles of Greece to regain territory that is hers by historical right have been unending. Thessaly and Epirus are almost entirely populated by Greeks and yet they still remain under Turkish control. The vital reason for this is the same as that which, has compelled the European powers to keep the Ottoman Empire alive. If any part of the em- pire is taken away by a European power the "balance of power " among the eastern provinces and independent states along the Danube will he endangered, and consequently when anything threatens the existing order in the East, whether through an attempt on the part of Greece to Regain territory, or from any other cause, the powers interfere to prevent a change. In the midst of these struggles of the great powers to prevent each other from gaining control of the Bosphorus and the city of Constantinople, Greece is always compelled to give up her hope of regaining her territory. The present constitution was promulgated in 1864, but it was practically adopted in 1843 on the assembling of the first 204 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. Con- stitution. Legisla- ture. constitutional Congress. Tlie government founded by King Otho contained a Senate and a Boul6, or constitutional as- sembly, but in 1864, on tbe adoption of the present constitu- tion, the Senate was abolished. The opening article of the constitution declares the rights of individuals and the saored- ness of private property ; it does away with all titles of no- bility ; trial by jury is instituted; and the freedom of the press, free speech, and the right of assembly are insured. Capital punishment is very limited. The legislative portion of the government is vested in the king and a single House, the Boul6. Both the king and the members of the Chamber may initiate measures, but in the case of the former, bills are made known to the latter through the agency of the ministers. The Chamber, however, has not the right to initiate measures proposing an increase in the government expenditures. When either the king or the Chamber rejects a bill, it cannot be introduced again in the same session. The Chamber also decides on the interpretation of the constitution in conjunction with the king, and it votes the army and navy bill and the budget, after these have passed through a committee. The BoulS is composed of one hundred and fifty members according to the constitution, but this was not at first ob- served, and when Thessaly became a part of the kingdom the number of representatives was two hundred and forty-five. In 1886, however, owing to economical reasons and in order to adhere more strictly to the constitution the number was re- duced to one hundred and fifty. They are elected on a secret ballot by universal suffrage, which at present gives one voter to every 4.3 of the population. Each delegate represents the nation at large and is elected to serve four years. A candidate for election must be at least thirty years of age, and either residing or possessing property and civil rights in the eparchy from which he is returned. Though a representative cannot hold, during his term, any other office under the government, he may fill a military position on half pay at the same time. No representative can be prosecuted or arrested during the term of office unless taken in the act of committing crime. A quorum of the Chamber consists of half the members, and it requires an absolute majority to make a bill a law. Each GKEECE. 205 measure has to be read and voted on three times on different days, article by article, before it can become a law. The executive is vested in a king and seven cabinet minis- ters, who are responsible to him. The king is commander-in- chief of the army, the authority for naming and receiving diplomatic agents, and he has the usual executive functions of monarchs in constitutional monarchies. There are local courts presided over by justices of the peace, with appeal courts of the first instance at Athens, Nauplia, Patros, Corfu, Larissa, and a final Supreme Court at Athens, all of which are modeled on the Bavarian and French sys- tems. The Greek Orthodox Church is the state church, though other creeds are tolerated. Education is carefully fostered by the state, and appropri- ations are made annually for the maintenance of both primary and university education. There is a university at Athens, 33 gymnasia, and 2,665 schools of different descriptions. The territory of the kingdom is divided into nomarchies, eparchies, and demarchies. The nomarchies correspond to de- partments or provinces, and are nominally ruled by a uom- arch appointed by the existing government, but governed by councilors elected by direct suffrage. The eparchies are more confined divisions and eparchs appointed by the government are the political heads, while representatives elected by the people meet in local assemblies to decide on local affairs. The demarchies are municipalities governed by demarchs or mayors elected by the people. The service in the army is for all able-bodied men over twenty-one years. It consists of two years in the regular army, eight in the reserves, and nine in a further reserve, sim- ilar to the German Landwehr— nineteen years in all. The army is made up as follows : Infantry 12,544 Artillery 3,382 Cavalry 1,608 Engineers 1,485 Otliers,inolu(Jing military schools 9,205 Total 28,224 There is a reserve of 104,500 men and the Landwehr consists of 146,000 more. The navy consists of Executive. Judiciary. Local gov- enunent. Army and Wavy. 206 GOVEKNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. Annor-clads 3 Torpedo boats 29 Corvettes 2 Cruisers j Ounboats l" Others 21^ Total 73 The political history of Greece during the last twenty years Co^t^em- jjas been unique. After 1830 the Greeks had the sympathy of politics, civilized Europe, and so much was written and said about their cause that they began to consider their country the most important of. Europe. They considered that England and Prance had material interest in all that went on in Greece ; and then the hope of making Greece one of the great powers, of gaining Constantinople and the land between that city and Thessaly, became constantly more popular, until the outbreaks in 1866 against the Turks and the refusal of the other powers to interfere on the side of the patriots gave another turn to affairs. This democratic spirit, which is of inestimable value in itself, very often leads the Greeks to desperation. Stable, disciplined government is contrary to it. In Athens every one is a politician and there are innumerable periodicals which attack anything at hand in the most scandalous language. As a natural result of such a character, there was from 1865 or thereabouts up to 1882 scarcely a ministry that had more than a three months' existence. Several changes of government and elections occurred in a twelvemonth and the financial condition of the country — not of the best at the start — was naturally made worse and worse. When M. Tricoupis came into office again in 1882, therefore, he found the credit of the country almost gone. Loans had been made at seven and one eighth per cent, but not even this could be obtained now. Tricoupis has since that time done more for Greece than any other man. He is one of the three or four great statesmen of the East. He is a distinguished speaker, a great worker, and an upright man, who will not resort to doubtful means to obtain his ends. His first great work was to restore the public credit, which he did by adding taxation and rigorously paying the interest on the (febt. After so many changes in the government it was remarkable that he should hold office for three years. But in 1885, taking advantage of the absence GREECE. 207 from the House of some of the m^inisterial party, the Oppo- sition pressed a vote of censure. The chief causes for wishing the removal of Triooupis were, first, his apparent lukewarm- ness with regard to the popular sentiment against Turkey, and, second, the extent of taxation and monopoly he had introduced to systematize the debt and make Greek credit respected abroad. M. Delyannis, the new premier, however, found himself with a majority against him and retired in a year (1886). Triooupis became minister again and at once proceeded with his policy. Crete had again become the im- portant question in 1885 on account of a revolt of the Greeks on the island, and Triooupis before his retirement had deemed it necessary to give some of his Hellenic feelings sway.- He had encouraged the insurgents and had housed refugees. But when Delyannis came into office he gave the popular opinion full swing. The army was mobilized, nearly 100,000,000 drachmas were spent in war preparations, and in the end the powers again interfered. Delyannis fell and Triooupis found his financial rebuilding thrown back again. Yet, taking up his policy he remained in power until October 28, 1890. Then the unwillingness of the Greek race to allow one man to control affairs long and the dislike of Triooupis' discipline again had their influence. In the preceding year Crete again arose in rebellion against the Turks, owing to the increased oppressions which were in direct violation of the Berlin treaty of 1879. Flagrant violations of these stipulations caused the revolt. Fifteen hundred Greek Cretans came to Athens and were supported by the government, but these disturbances were used by the Opposition to influence the fall of the ministry. In the regular elections the Opposition promised the farmers free- dom from taxation on necessary materials, and the manufac- turers abolition of the tobacco monopolies, etc., and when the party of Young Greeks, with its demand for assistance for Crete and annexation of Macedonia became so much stronger, the sober policy of Tricoupis was thrown into disfavor. Tri- ooupis resigned and Delyannis again became minister. On November 11, 1893, however, Tricoupis was again returned to power, and he immediately took up his financial policy again. GUATEMALA. President, J. M. Reyna Barbios. Historical sketch. < „soJ»li The republic of Guatemala is the most northern of the Central American republics. It is bounded on the north by British Honduras, Mexico, and the Gulf of Honduras, on the east by Salvador and Honduras, on the south by the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by Mexico. Guatemala is the capi- tal, 69,796 inhabitants. The country is divided into twenty- two departments, which are : Guatemala, Amatitlan, Escu- intla, Sacatepequez, Chimaltenango, Solola, Totonieapan, Suchitipequez, Eetalhulen, Quezaltenango, San Marcos, Huetuetenango, Quiche, Baja Verapaz, Alta Verapaz, Peten, Livingston, Zacapa, Chiquimula, Jalapa, Jutiapa, Santa Bosa. These have a total population of 1,394,- 233. The total area is about 46,800 square miles, and the pop- ulation probably exceeds the above figure at the present time, the latest available figures be- ing from the census of 1880. Before 1820 Guat- emala was a part of the great province of Spain and in 1823 succeeded, by join- SJtittnipoton- VADOR ing Iturbide and the Central American forces, in obtaining in- dependence. The Central American states were at once united under a constitution, but when in 1827 the vice-president of the GUATEMALA. 209 union was assassinated, peace was destroyed by an attack on Guatemala by the Salvadorians, which ended in their occu- pation of the country in 1829. Until 1851 Guatemala was under Salvadorian control. Carrera, the Guatemalan patriot, in that year defeated the combined forces of Honduras and Salvador, and gave the country independence and a constitu- tion that is the basis of the present one. Filling the office of president for life, Carrera kept the country at peace until the Central American war of 1863. He died in 1865 and Cerna, his successor, was overthrown in 1871 by Granados, the leader of liberalism in the state. With the rise of Granados, the Jes- uits were driven from Guatemala, commerce thrown open to the world, and treaties of friendship and commercial alliance signed with several foreign countries. In 1876 Guatemala at- tempted to hold a congress of Central American states re- garding a union and a common government, but the only result was to reopen hostilities. Barrios, elected in 1873, was one of the most important men Guatemala has known. He advanced liberal ideas and ended his first term in 1879 by promulgating a new constitution founded on that of 1851. The constitution instituted in 1879, on that of 1851, and amended somewhat in 1889, is now in force. It is very similar to those of the other Central and South Ameri- can republics. The legislature consists of one House, the National Assem- bly, to which members are elected by universal suffrage at the rate of one for every 20,000 inhabitants or fraction thereof above 10,000. Candidates must be Guatemalan citizens and at least twenty-one years of age. The representatives serve a term of four years, but one half of the House is elected every two years. It meets on the first of March in each year for a session of two monthsj which can be extended if so desired. The president is elected for a six years' term. He has the usual prerogatives of the executive officer ; he appoints min- isters who are responsible to and removable by him. The six portfolios are at present held by four ministers and they re- lieve the executive to a certain extent by making their reports to the Assembly direct. There is a somewhat unusual system of graded courts of Con- stitution. Legisla- ture. Executive. 210 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Judiciary. Army. Contempo- rary events. which the judges are appointed by the president to serve four years. They are eligible for reappointment. The military force iu time of peace is 3,500 men, but there is a militia of 67,000 which is in constant readiness. Catholicism is the most common creed, but all others are tolerated. There are 1,327 schools for primary education, which is obligatory, and several high and normal schools. In 1880 Barrios was reelected to the presidency for a term of six years under the new constitution, and on February, 1885, he issued his famous Union Decree. In this he declared that he favored a union of the Central American republics and that he should do all that he could to advance it. He bade all come and join him. He had won Bogran, president of Hon- duras, and Zaldivar, president of Salvador, over to his side, but Zaldivar played him false, and, finding the aristocracy of the state against him, he formed an alliance with Mexico, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua to prevent the accomplishment of the Barrios plan. On March 30, 1885, hostilities began, and General Menendez succeeded in partially defeating the Salvadorians, but on the 20th of April, Barrios was assassinated and the war ceased with the disappearance of its cause. Not for long, however, for the vice-president, Barillas, became president and Menendez, the former general of the Guatemalan troops, now turned to the Salvadorians, and collecting a force proceeded against Barillas. He was at first successful, capturing the town of Chimalte- nango. Nothing came of the fighting until Menendez was overthrown in Salvador by General Ezeta, leader of the Salva- dorian party of aristocracy and independence. As provisional president, the latter opposed the plan for a union, and Barillas Issued a proclamation ordering him to lay down his arms and dictatorship ; whereupon hostilities were at once renewed, the real cause being, as it had been for years, the jealousy of Sal- vador and Guatemala, one favoring the individual independ- ence, the other the unity of the five republics. On the 18th of July, 1890, Guatemalan troops having crossed the border, were defeated and forced to retreat into thbir own territory. War was declared on the 22d, Barillas announcing that Ezeta had forced him into hostilities. Honduras at first secretly and then openly favored Guatemala. GUATEMALA. 211 In August more fighting took place, resulting in the defeat of Guatemala. At the same time Barillas became more and more troubled by uprisings within his own state. He caused a large number of Guatemalans to be put to death and brought himself into general disfavor thereby. The situation was becoming alarming for Guatemala when the American minister accredited to the Central American re- publics, L. B. Mizner, called a meeting of the diplomatic corps in the city of Guatemala and proposed that they endeavor to bring about peace by arbitration. His efTorts were successful, the greatest difficulty being that Barillas demanded the resig- nation of Ezeta, which the latter refused to adhere to. Fi- nally, on August 26, peace was declared,.both parties agreeing to withdraw their forces ; to reduce them to peace footing ; Salvador agreeing to caU an election for a president within twenty-one days and to reinstate officers of government as they were before the war ; Guatemala agreeing to recognize the independence of Salvador and, with Salvador and Hondu- ras, to grant amnesty to all factions engaged in the war. Peace was to be renewed within three months after the ac- ceptance of the present agreement. The treaty of peace was finally signed on November 15, 1890. The minister of war under Barrios, Barrundia, in 1885 had during the war attempted to cause a rebellion against Barillas. He was ordered to leave Mexico where he was collecting troops, and departed on the Pacific mail steamship Acapulco for Salvador. The steamer stopped on the way at San JosS in Guatemala. She had no sooner arrived in the port than the Guatemalan authorities at once sent to arrest him. Neither the captain of the Acapulco nor the United States frigates in the harbor could prevent the arrest, as it was on Guatemalan territory. Barrundia tried to shoot the officer who came to arrest him and was at once shot himself by the Guatemalan soldiers. The affair caused some comment and an attempt was- made on Mizner's life by Barrundia's sister, because of his non-interference, but the United States manifestly had no jurisdiction. HAITI. President, - - General L. M. F. Hippolyte. RULERS SINCE 1800. Colony of Spain 1795 Colony of France 1795-1801 Kepubmc : L'Ouverture (president) 1801-1803 Dessaliues (president) 1803-1806 H. Christophe (president) 1806-1810 Empeeob Henri I. (Christoplie) 1810-1820 Whole Island Bepxtblio : Boyer (president) 1822-1843 Haitian Reptjelic 1844-1849 Empeeob Faustin I. (Soulouque) 1849-1858 Haitian Republic 1858- MINISTRY. Minister of Foreign Affairs and Justice Ed. Espinasse Minister of Public Works Duoasse Minister of War Turenne Minister of Finance Marcelln Minister of Interior (Vacant) 212 HAITI. The republic of Haiti occupies the western portion of the island of that name, which is one of the largest of the West In- dies. The government is republican, modeled on that of the "United States. Port-au-Prince is the capital with about 50,000 inhabitants. The republic has an area of 10,204 square miles, and the population is estimated at from 600,000 to 800,000, it being im- possible under the existing government to compile any satis- factory census. The history of the present republic is closely connected with that of Santo Domingo.* In 1801 Toussaint I'Ouverture, a native general, made him- self the head of the island which had been purchased from Spain by France in 1795. Whereupon Napoleon sent 25,- 000 men to subdue the island. The blacks were defeat- ed and L'Ouverture captured, but Des- salines, a remark- able character, suc- ceeded in defeating the French, and in- dependence was de- clared with Dessa- lines as governor for life. The atrocious administration of the government which all through the Haitian history of this century has been un- equaled elsewhere in the world, led to Dessalines' overthrow, Historical sketch. *See Santo Domingo. 213 214 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Con- stitution. Legis- lature. and Henri Christophe, another remarkable black, gained the control of the country. In 1810 Christophe made himself emperor of Haiti, the Spaniards having in the meantime gained control of the eastern part of the island and named it Santo Domingo. Christophe built himself a magnificent pal- ace. Sans Souci, in the interior of the island, and an enormous fortress, where he lived until 1820, when on seeing that his power was gone and that he would soon be deposed he killed himself. The details of his administration are frightful. After Henri's death a man named Boyer gained control of the whole island again, and in 1822 the government of Santo Domingo was absorbed in that of Haiti. Boyer ruled until 1843 as pres- ident over the country then known as the Republic of Haiti, though there was little or no pretense at keeping up a repub- lican form of government. In 1843, however, a revolution overthrew him, and in the following year Santo Domingo again separated and set up an independent republic. Haiti was in a state of anarchy until in 1846 Soulouque became president. He, like the others, as soon as his power became supreme, with the assistance of his army made himself em- peror under the title of Faustin I. Ever returning revolution again asserted its power in 1858 when the people could no longer endure the horrible atrocities of the government. Since then presidents of the republic have seldom been able to keep themselves in power for a full term. The history of Haiti is one of passion and rapine. Power is set up under a republican form of government, a president rules legitimately for a time, until by his machinations the army is thoroughly under him ; then he asserts supreme power, rules by the most infamous suppression of the popu- lar will, and finally the people rise in disgust and kill him. The present constitution was adopted in 1867 by the country at large, and has remained virtually unchanged since then. Some of its provisions have fallen into disuse and others have been supplemented, but in general it is maintained in- tact. There are two legislative houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of thirty members nominated by the Lower House. They serve six years, and one third retire every two years. The senators must be 215 chosen from two lists which are submitted to the House, one by the president and the other by an electoral college. The members of the House of Representatives are elected by a (supposed) universal manhood suffrage to serve five years, the only requirement for electorship being employment in some occupation. The executive is in the hands of the president, who is elected for a term of four years, though the term is often cut short and sometimes runs over its limit. He is chosen, in fact, by the two Houses in joint session and occasionally by the army, but according to the constitution he should be chosen directly by the people through general election. His powers are those in general given the executive of a republic, but in Haiti the president constantly usurps much more power than the constitution gives him. The president in his ad- ministration of the government has four cabinet ministers to assist him, who serve also as heads of departments. The Roman Catholic faith is the state religion. Education is in a poor condition. The state carries on public primary education and there are about four hundred national schools. There are 6,828 men in the army according to a decree of 1878 and a guard of 650 more, but the actual army varies very much. The navy consists of a gunboat, a corvette, and ten sloops. In 1889 and '90 an insurrection broke out in Haiti resulting from the election of Hippolyte. It spread from Port-au- Prince over the island, but was eventually quelled by the en- ergy of the president. Hundreds of prisoners were captured and beheaded day after day without trial, until the republic was virtually cleared of all but the party of Hippolyte. Mean- time, also, the United States government through commer- cial agents made an endeavor to gain control of the Mole of St. Nicholas, the best coaling sta,tion in the West Indies. Hippolyte, after having secured control of the government and suppressed the rebellion, repudiated an agreement he had made to grant this station to the United States, and the ne- gotiations carried on by Fredericli Douglass fell through in July, 1891. Executive. Anny and Wavy. Contempo- rary events. HONDURAS. President, General D. VAsauEZ. The republic of Honduras is one of tiie Central American states, having on the north the Gulf of Honduras and the Caribbean Sea, on the east the Gulf of Honduras and Nica- ragua, on the south Nicaragua and the Bay of Fonseca, and on the west Guate- mala and Salvador. The capital is Te- gucigalpa, 12,000 inhabitants. The area of the state is47,090 square miles and the pop- ulation is 431,917. There are thirteen departments : Te- gucigalpa, El Par- aiso, Choluteca, La Paz, Comayagua, Itibuca, Gracias, Copan, Santa Bar- bara, 1 a n c h o , Yoro, Colon, and Islas de la Bahia. Honduras was a part of the Spanish Central American colonies, until in 1823 the latter suc- ceeded in throwing ofT the yoke and uniting in the Cen- tral American Union. Since then, like the other Central American republics, Honduras has been full of bloodshed and 2Ifi HONDURAS. 217 internal war. On the secession of some of the republics in 1839, the Liberal party in the state tried to bring about a union with Guatemala, but only hostilities resulted. Cabaflos, president in 1855, lost his olHce and won exile for himself through his energies in the same attempt, fighting having again been the only result. His successor, Guardiola, gave up the attempt to bring about a union and contented himself with a treaty of alliance with Guatemala. He fell in 1862 from internal uprisings, and Montes, his successor, was obliged to flee the country in 1863 in the midst of the Central American war. In 1864 the con- stitution was amended and the presidential term extended to four years. From that time until the administration of Gen- eral Bogran, beginning in 1883, no president has completed his full term, nor did any regular election take place. Bo- gran, elected to fill the place of Soto (deposed) in 1883, was reelected in 1887 to serve a four years' term under the revised .constitution of 1880. In 1886 another and more important attempt was made at rebellion under the instigation of ex-President Soto, but it was eventually unsuccessful. The rebels, numbering seventy- seven, were defeated and the four leaders shot. With this exception the country remained in a remarkably peaceful con- dition up to the time of the Central American war of 1890.* Gold mines, pine forests, and the other resources have been and are being successfully operated by foreign and domestic capital, and the country is being gradually opened up by roads. The constitution dates from November, 1838, amended again in 1864, being finally put into its present form November 1, 1880. The legislature consists of a House of Deputies whose mem- bers are elected by the people, one for every 10,000 inhabitants, for a term of four years. Elections occur once in two years, half the House being each time elected. Candidates must be thirty years of age, natives of Central America, residents of the state from which they are returned, and have real estate amounting to $1,000. They must be fathers of one or more children and are not eligible for more than two terms. The congressional session occurs once in two years and lasts forty days. * See Guatemala. Historical sketch. Con- stitution. Legis- lature. 218 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOELD TO-DAY. Executive. Judiciary. Army. Contempo- rary sketch. The president of the republic is elected for a term of four years. He must be a native of Central America, with at least $5,000 of real estate in his possession, and must have been a resident of Honduras for five years. He must be thirty years old, at least, and the father of one or more children. There is a council of ministers including the secretaries of state, who are appointed by, and are responsible to, the presi- dent. There are two courts, one at Tegucigalpa and one at Comay- agua, each of three judges. There are minor courts in the different departments, or states. The standing military force consists of 500 men with a militia of upwards of 26,700. All able-bodied men between the ages of twenty-one and twenty-flve are obliged to serve one year. Catholicism is recognized by the constitution, but other creeds are tolerated. Education is represented by two univer- sities and 573 schools, exclusive of several higher schools or colleges. General Bogran was strongly in favor of the party of Union during the Central American war in the summer of 1890. He began to give active assistance to Barillas, but civil disorders at his own capital prevented him from continuing to do so. He was attacked and besieged in the city of Tegu- cigalpa, in October and November, by a force of revolutionary soldiers under General Sanchez, a disalTected officer, who chose the time when Bogran 's troops were on the Salvadorian frontiers. Bogran finally fled from the city to save his life, recalled his troops from the frontier, and besieged the capital. On November 13 the city capitulated, Sanchez shot himself, and the other leaders were put to death. General Bogran was succeeded in 1891 by Pouciano Leiva, the representative of the Conservatives in the state, having de- feated Pollcarpo Bouilla, the candidate of the Liberals. There was a great deal of bitter feeling caused in the elections, and the methods used by the Conservatives to elect their candidate laid the foundations for another civil war. Leiva, however, began his term with the intention of concil- iating every one. Political prisoners were pardoned and Gen- eral Vasquez, a political exile, was recalled and given charge HONDURAS. 219 of the army. After a little, however, the fear of Bouilla and of the exiled Liberals in Nicaragua led to a change of policy and severe measures were again employed. In the fall and early -winter of 1892 Bouilla went to Nica- ragua and there joined the military force under the command of his brother Manuel Bouilla, and together they advanced into Honduras. Bouilla proclaimed himself president, and the Conservatives under Vasquez went out to meet him. Fighting occurred from February 2 to March 27 around Tatumbla, re- sulting finally in the defeat of Bouilla. The latter, however, advanced on Tegucigalpa and was making a successful attack on the capital when Vasquez overtook him and totally de- feated the insurgents. Insurrections of the Liberals had occurred in several parts of the state on the news of Bouilla's success, but they now fell through and Vasquez was first de- clared provisional president, afterwards being elected to the office regularly. Honduras, though endeavoring to be neutral, sides dis- tinctly with the party favoring a union in Central America. ITALY. King, Humbert I. RULERS SINCE 1800. Different independent states 1859 Confederation of states under the pope June to October, 1859 King Victor Emmanuel II 1859-1878 King Humbert 1 1878- MINISTRY. Minister of the Interior, president Crlspi Ministerof Foreign Affairs Baron A. Blanc Minister of Justice Calenda Minister of Finance P. Boselli Minister of the Treasury S. Soulno Minister of War General St. Mocennl Minister of the Navy Admiral C. Moriu Minister of Public Instruction G. Baccelll Minister of Public Works G. Saracco Minister of Posts and Telegraph J. PinelU TABLE OF STATISTICS. Provinces. Piedmont Liguria Lombardy Venice Fmilia Marches Tuscany Boma Abruzzi and Mollse. Campania .- Apulia Potenza Calabria Sicily Sardinia Total 110,691 Sq. Miles. FopulcUion. 11,332 3,234,506 2,039 946,553 9,075 3,906,958 9,059 2,985,036 7,921 2,253,104 3,746 961,476 9,287 2,274,191 4,601 977,868 6,669 1,360,378 6,948 3,045,471 8,541 1,759,396 4,122 538,707 6,663 1,309,554 11,289 3,285,472 9,399 726,522 29,565,792 220 ITALY. The kingdom of Italy occupies tiie peninsula extending from the southern central part of Europe into the Mediter- ranean Sea. It is bounded on the north by the Alps, on the east by Austria and the Adriatic Sea, on the south by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the west by the Mediterranean and France. The . .^ , ____^ . ^ . , .^ i ^. , ,„„ -u — ^^^.^ gEajfE TJSTKIJL- VNGA.T11 government is that of a constitutional monarchy under a king. Rome is the capital with a pop- ulation of 273,268. Italy, including what is known as Italy to-day, was changed more by the Napoleonic wars than any other country of Europe. Metternich, prime minister of Austria, with Russia's aid made practically what disposition of Italy he desired at the Vienna Con- gress. The reaction from the Napole- onic conception of government to the old feudal, monarchist ideas was also more marked in Italy than elsewhere. All the petty sovereigns of the different duchies and kingdoms were restored. Sicily and the kingdom of Naples were put under 221 Histoty since 1800. 222 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. the hereditary Bourbon king, Ferdinand I. The old status of affairs was recalled and the king governed without a con- stitution. Francis II., emperor of Austria, made Milan and Venice into a province of Austria. Archduke Ferdinand of Austria became grand-duke of Tuscany. Francis, his son, became duke of Modena, and Pope Pius VII. came back from his exile in France. Austria's influence everywhere was to " repress disorderly conduct on the part of the people and to put down uprisings against the newly established order of things." Thus Italy began the year 1816 in a paradoxical condition. A people who had tasted the joy of governing themselves in part, who had seen the French Revolution, now found them- selves suddenly ruled over by princes of medieval families, under laws a century old that had been made for a state of society long passed away ; and, finally, the people found them.- selves confessedly governed by the armies of a foreign power — Austria. The suppressed sentiment of freedom found its outlet in secret societies formed to bring about the independence and the union of all Italy. There were the members of the Carbonari and the Sanfedetti, and many other smaller organizations. But the people had been so long under diflferent forms of gov- ernment that it was impossible for these societies to combine on any one policy. The first outbreak came in Naples against Ferdinand. Gen- eral Pepe of the royal army became the head of a conspiracy to depose the king and found a constitutional government. In the midst of this the revolution in Spain broke out and the people succeeded in forcing the constitution of 1812 on the govern- ment. On July 2, 1820, an outbreak followed in Naples, and on the 9th the people, the troops, the Carbonari, entered Naples under the leadership of General Pepe and forced the king to swear to observe the Spanish constitution. The National Assembly met in October, and in January, 1821, the consti- tution was adopted. The revolt in Sicily followed, but the patriots went too far there and demanded a separate constitu- tion with only a personal union with Naples. Thereupon the constitutional forces at Naples proceeded against the Sicilians and conquered them, though they were unable to bring them ITALY. 223 to terms. Here was the greatest enemy to Italian freedom. The patriots no sooner gained their independence than they fought among themselves. Austria was quick to take advan- tage of the lack of unity ; military forces were increased in the Italian provinces, and Metternich called a congress of the powers to confer as to the " rebellious " people of Italy. At the Troppau Conference armed interference was decided upon, and in January, 1821, the Laibach Congress met, and King Ferdinand was persuaded, with the promised assistance of Austria and Bussia, to return to Naples and abolish the con- stitution. At first there was an outbreak here and there, but 10,000 Austrians soon quelled all signs of revolt. This is a sample of the procedure in the Italian penin- sula. In Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel was obliged in March, 1821, to resign in favor of his son, Charles Felix, because of the insurrections of the Constitutionalists, against whom the king's soldiers would not flght. Prince Charles Albert of Savoie be- came regent in the temporary absence of the new king. He was and had been confessedly in favor of the party of Young Italy, and on coming into the regency he adopted a constitu- tion reserving only his final sanction until Charles Felix should have accepted it. Great hopes were entertained of the coming representative government, when the king rejected the propositions, called in Austrian forces— and there, also, the hopes of Italy were destroyed for the time. The Paris Revolution of 1830 stirred Italy again, and mean- time the popular sentiment of a united kingdom had grown. Three men now came forward to whom Italy owes the prac- tical establishment of her independence. The first of these, Joseph Mazzini, a man twenty-five years of age, in 1830 founded the party called " Young Italy," which in one year grew to enormous proportions. Mazzini's ideas went as far as the reformation of the governments of the world, but he be- gan with the reformation of Italy under a constitutional mon- archy with the seat of government at Rome. The second of these, Joseph Garibaldi, was an exile from Italy, but returned to join the "Young Italy " party. While Mazzini was almost a religious enthusiast and a wonderful orator. Garibaldi was a 224 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. man of action and a soldier. The third man was a statesman, who by his diplomacy in European courts gradually brought about the acknowledgment of Italian sovereignty. This was Cavour. In 1830 revolutions occurred in Modena and Parma, Gregory XVI. became pope and began machinations toward the rebuild- ing of the papal empire. But in 1831 Austrian forces invaded Northern Italy, and the suppression of popular will was again accomplished. For another decade Italy was a seething mass of men conspiring against the hereditary authority maintained by Austrian armies. But the sentiment of freedom was growing and the power of oppression was weakening year by year. In 1846 Pius IX. succeeded to the papacy. He granted a constitution in the papal states, allowed greater freedom of the press, and par- doned political offenders. In 1848 the revolutions of Europe followed each other in quick succession. Metternich fell and revolution broke out in the papal state. Bossi, the prime minister, was assassinated on the 17th of September, 1848. The pope was then forced to leave Rome and seek safety at Gaeta. Mazzini declared the fall of the temporal power of the papacy and proclaimed a republic in Rome. Tuscany joined the new republic and Leopold II. fled to Gaeta. But the pope applied in the same year to Louis Napoleon, president of France, for assistance in maintaining the integ- rity of the Catholic religion. Napoleon had his reasons for accepting the invitation. He would gain prestige and would also have the settlement of the Italian question in his own hands.* Consequently Italy was invaded by another foreign power, and on July 4, 1849, General Oudinot at the head of 35,000 French troops forced Garibaldi to fly from Rome. The second foreign rule began in Italy. Pius IX. returned in April, 1850, but governed now without a constitution. At the same time another revolution broke out in Naples. Ferdinand II. tried to avert it by granting a constitution sim- ilar to that adopted in France in 1830, but the troubles of 1820- 21 were repeated. Sicily wanted only a personal union and a constitution of its own. A revolt at Palermo resulted in a * See France. ITALY. 225 siege of the Neapolitan troops. Sicily was, however, soon sub- dued, and the constitution again withdrawn. But the Sicil- ians now joined the uprising in Piedmont, a course which stood them in good stead later. The revolt had broken out in the north again, and Austria was compelled to give up all her Italian possessions with the exception of the four fortresses pf Mantua, Verona, Legnago, and Pesehiera, called the Quadri- lateral. Gradually it became evident to Mazzini, Garibaldi, and the whole of "Young Italy," that the hopes of the unity of the peninsula centered about King Charles Albert of Sardinia. Gathering what forces he could, he had proceeded to aid the people of Milan. At first he was successful against the Aus- trian general Radetzky, but in March, 1849, he sustained sev- eral defeats, at Mortare and Novara, and was finally brought to such straits that he had to abdicate on the 23d of March in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II., who concluded a peace with Austria on August 6. A third time Italy was subdued, old princes reappeared, con- stitutions disappeared, and " Young Italy " was crushed again. This time not only Austria, but France maintained the rule of princes in the country. A change, however, soon came in the Italian struggle. Ca- vour became minister-president under the new king, Victor Emmanuel II., and he made it his work to introduce Italian affairs as important questions in the congresses of European powers. He attended their meetings continually. In 1856, at the Peace Congress of Paris, Cavour maintained that Italy must be peacefully settled before Europe could be really paci- fied, and he put his case in this form : Foreign troops should be withdrawn from the papal states ; Lombardy and Venetia should be given a constitution; and the government of the Two Sicilies should be made representative and constitutional. Nothing came of this directly, but England and France were on Cavour's side against Austria, and the power of Austria was beginning to decline in Central Europe. For three years this sentiment Increased, and then, in 1859, Napoleon, now emperor of the French, saw his opportunity to gain glory for himself and diminish the power of Austria. He hoped at the same time, by making the kingdom of Sardinia secure, the 226 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. papal states independent, and by giving Naples a constitution, to gain tlie name of a liberal-minded monarch, and to prevent the formation of a great power in the peninsula. Hence the Italian war between France and Austria. Cavour now began a tour of the courts of Europe, and had an interview with Na- poleon at Plombiferes in July, 1858. Thereupon the Sardinian war broke out. Austria interfered to prevent fighting and demanded the disarmament of the Sardinian army. The king refused. Na- poleon said he would maintain the integrity of Sardinia, and the war with Austria began on the 29th of April when the Austrian army crossed the Ticino River.* The battle of Solferino, fought on June 24, 1859, ended the war, which had been a series of defeats for the Austrians that eventually drove Austria out of Italy. Lombardy came into the Sardinian kingdom at the Zurich peace, and Italy was to become a confederation of states under the presidency of the pope. On May 6, 1859, however. Garibaldi, with the knowledge but not the open consent of Victor Emmanuel's government, went secretly to Sicily, issued a call for the people to come to his standard, and in the summer completely conquered the island and overthrew the government of Naples. The people all over Italy rejoiced in this success. Garibaldi for a time was dicta- tor, but in October Victor Emmanuel became king of the king- dom of the Two Sicilies, which were now a part of the kingdom of Sardinia. The papal states were now the only part of the peninsula not united under one government. On February 18, 1861, Victor Emmanuel opened the first Italian Parliament in Turin. Cavour died the same year with his great work nearly accomplished. Then came the cry, "a free church in a free state." Later, in 1864, Italy made a treaty with France agreeing to give the pope authority in his state if French troops were recalled from all parts of Italy, and in 1865 Victor Emmanuel II. moved the capital of Italy, to Florence. In the war of 1866 between Austriaf and Prussia, Prus- sia, in order to compel Austria to divide her army, aiid thus weaken her strength, wanted a treaty with the Italian *Forthis war see France and Austria. fSee Germany and Austria. ITALY. 227 government compelling Italy to cooperate in the south with the Prussians in the north. Italy was quite as anxious to see Austria's power curtailed, and the treaty was signed. Then followed the war, and though the Italian forces were on the whole defeated, Austria was so crippled that she had to cede Venetia to Italy. The papal states still remained outside of the Italian King- dom, but in the peace following the war of 1870 they were abolished and the territory came to the Italian government, except the Vatican at Eome and the country seat of the pope at Gaeta. The pope has never signed the treaty, but it stands approved before the world, though the question is still the subject of controversy. By 1871 Italy was a united kingdom. The present constitution of Italy is taken from that of Sar- dinia, drawn up in 1848 during the period of the revolutions in '^'tion. " Europe. After the establishment of the union in 1860 it was generally enforced throughout Italy. The constitution is that of a liberal constitutional monarchy. By the constitution the rights of individuals and of private property are insured. Free speech and free press and the right of unarmed assem- blies are allowed. Taxation is illegal except when decreed by the representatives of the people assembled in Parliament. The legislative power rests with the king and two repre- sentative houses assembled in Parliament. The two houses Legisia- are the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Both houses t'l'^fi. may originate bills, as well as the king through his ministers, although money bills, budgets, etc., must always originate in the Chamber of Deputies. The powers of the legislative bod- ies are very extensive, covering all rights not given expressly into the charge of the local governments. The Senate is composed of an unlimited number of members. They are appointed by the king, and the requirements are that members must be at least forty years of age and chosen from twenty-one different classes of citizens, which include reli- gious, military, and civil officers of high standing, members of the royal family, ex-officio officers of political bodies, prom- inent men, etc. The president and vice-president of the Sen- ate are appointed by the king. Its membership at present consists of 335 senators. The duties of the Senate, beyond the legislative powers, are to execute the functions of a High 228 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. Executive. Judiciaiy. Court of Appeal and Justice in eases of treason or other state of- fenses, the charges being preferred by the Chamber of Deputies. The members of the Chamber of Deputies are chosen by electoral colleges. The kingdom is divided into 135 districts, each constituting an electoral college composed of electors at least twenty-one years of age and paying an annual tax of about 14.00. Voters must be able to read and write. The electors choose members to the Chamber, one to every 57,000 inhabitants, by the system used in Prance called scruUn de liste. Candidates must be at least thirty years of age. There are at present 508 members in the Chamber. According to the constitution, delegates of the Chamber represent the nation at large and they cannot be bound by any mandate of their constituents. The term of oflace is five years. Both Chambers meet simultaneously and close at the same time, and the parliamentary procedure is practically that of the French Chamber. The sittings of both Chambers are pub- lic and a quorum is an absolute majority in both Houses. The king is the executive of the government. He has the right of nomination to all the principal offices of the state and is com^mander-in-chief of the forces on land or sea. He ac- credits and receives foreign embassies and members of the diplomatic corps. He may propose legislation, and must sign all bills before they can become laws. He declares war and peace with the advice and consent of the legislative assem- blies. The king must call the Chambers together once a year. He may also dissolve the Lower House, but new elections must occur and a new Chamber be called within four months. The king also appoints and removes his ministers, who constitute the administrative part of the government. They have seats in both Houses, but no votes. They have the right of introducing measures on behalf of the king, and every bill having passed both Houses requires the signature of one of the ministers as well as that of the king before it be- comes a law. There is a graded system of courts. The local tribunals and courts called Pretori are the courts of first instance with gen- eral courts of assizes, and the highest and final cour't of appeal is the Court of Cassation at Rome. The Pretori have charge of crimes involving punishment of less than three months' ITALY. 229 imprisonment, the correctional tribunals of cases more im- portant, and the assizes of all cases involving infringement of the external or internal rights of the state. The appeal is first from the Pretori to the tribunals, then to local courts of appeal, and finally to the Court of Cassation. There are no district courts of appeal. Courts of assizes and trial by jury were instituted in 1874. The fortifications are more extensive than in most other European countries, except Germany. The northern frontier ^Savy"* is naturally fortified by the Alps and there is a system of fortification for the passes being projected at present. Rome is a walled city and is being further fortified with an encircling line of forts. The different islands have fortifications also, and in the northern part of Italy many of the cities are very effectually provided with defenses. The regular army consists of 262,247 under perpetual arms, distributed as follows : Infantry 110,017 Artillery 37,046 Cavalry 25,639 Engineers 8,546 Others 66,788 248,036 Officers 14,211 Total 262,247 There is also a reserve to the regular army divided into sup- plementary, auxiliary, and reserve to the amount of 683,450 ofiicers and soldiers, with a militia of 372,286 mobile troops and 1,630,845 territorials. Thus the total possible strength of Italy is 2,848,828. The army organization is one of the most perfect in the world, required to be kept up at an enormous expense on account of the importance of the position of Italy in the midst of powerful states of much greater area and population. The Italian navy is hardly surpassed in the world. The ships are all of the most modern manufacture, and they consist of the following : First-class armor-clads 15 Second-class aruior-clads 19 Other warships, all classes 10 Torpedoboats of all classes 128 Transports 17 Other vessels 63 Total 252 230 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. The Roman Catholic faith is the popular religion, but the state has itself curtailed the powers of the Catholic Church by naany decrees, and all other creeds are tolerated. The state contributes a large amount of money annually for educational purposes and there are twenty-one universities and many colleges and technical schools. Education is not, how- ever, well organized in Italy and attempts are at present being made to enforce certain compulsory primary education laws. The present condition of the Holy See is far below that of ponti™«ite. former times. From being the temporal and spiritual ruler of a large part of Europe the pope has gradually com.e to have little or no temporal power. When Pius VII., in 1814, came back to Rome from exile after the fall of Napoleon, much of the old order of things was restored. He even looked forward to reinstating the Holy Roman Empire and its wide temporal power. But as the unification of Italy approached accomplish- ment the power of the Holy See decreased. Finally, in 1870, after the fall of Sedan and the setting up of the French Republic, it became necessary to remove the French troops from Rome and to leave the pope, therefore, unprotected. King Victor Emmanuel II., after long consultation, put the final cap upon the unification of Italy by advancing on Rome and taking possession of the city as the capital of Italy. A guarantee was thereupon given the Holy See known as "The Law on the Prerogatives of the Supreme Pontifl' of the Holy See, and on the Relation of the State with the Church." This has been acknowledged by the powers, but neither Pius IX. nor Leo XIII., his successor, have accepted it and the pope still considers himself "the prisoner of the Vatican." The fact, however, still remains that the temporal power of the papacy is gone, though, if anything, the spiritual power is somewhat increasing. The Law of Guarantees creates a doubtful state of affairs. The person of the pontiflTis declared sacred and inviolable and any attack upon his person is tried under the laws that apply to sovereigns, and yet he is not a sovereign in many senses of the word. The temporal power of the pope consists of the palace and grounds of the Vatican and the Lateran, and the country seat, or palace. Villa Castel Gandolfo. This property is inalienable. ITALY. 231 The pontiff is also allowed a certain nunaber of household at- tendants and a military Swiss guard. The organization of the papal government is under the pope as sovereign. He has a prime minister and sends envoys and diplomatic representatives to foreign countries. The pope seeks advice from the Sacred College of Cardinals, which con- sists of seventy cardinals theoretically, sixty-four actually at present. There is also a Conclave which elects the pope by bal- lot, a two thirds vote being required for his election. The pope is chosen for life and is considered by Catholics to be infallible. San Marino is an independent republic under Italian patron- age, of 32 square miles and 8,000 inhabitants. It is in the north- san em part of Italy. It has a constitution and is governed by a Marino. Grand Council of sixty members, twenty from the patrician clan, twenty from the berghers, and twenty from the peasants. The Italian possessions in Africa are in an uncertain condi- tion. The government lays claim to a strip along the African Colonial, coast by the Bed Sea that comprises the territory of Massowah and the Dahlak Islands, or Archipelago, and besides this the territory of Assab. This is estimated to have about 670 miles of coast-line. The Italian control rests in an historic claim. Obbia in 1889 became a possession of Italy. Abyssinia is under a protectorate of the Italian government. Meneleh, the king of Ethiopia, as the whole country is called, made a treaty with Italy on May 2d, 1889, by which the Italian government assures the protectorate. The Abyssinian govern- ment is feudal in the extreme, the king having absolute power, only checked by the customs of the country. Twenty-four feudal lords rule the different divisions of the country and are virtually independent within their particular territories, but they owe allegiance and certain taxes to the king. The following table gives the colonial possessions of Italy : Fossessions. 8q. Miles. Population, Massowah : Keren and Assuera 3,100 250,000 Dahlak Islands 420 2,000 Assab 550 6,800 Habab, Bogos, Benl-Amer, etc 18,000 200,000 Danakil and Aussa 34,000 200,000 Obbia, and surrounding country 90,000 300,000 Abyssinia including Tigre, Lasta, Amhara, Gojani, Shoa, Geffer, Harrar, etc 190,000 5,000,000 336.070 5,958,000 Recent 232 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. After the retirement of the French and the taking of Rome, events'". King Victor Emmanuel II. opened Parliament there— now the new capital of the kingdom. It was a great question and has since remained so, what authority had the Italian state and what liability in case the pontilT of the Holy See should attack some foreign power.- The Italian government is, in fact, in con- stant danger from this source, but up to the present there has been little more than occasional discussions on the subject. The pope himself, though held as a sovereign, is not in the spirit of international law a sovereign, and yet he is not a sub- ject of any country as he owes allegiance to no government. In 1873 the Longa-Sella ministry fell and was supplied by that of Minghetti, or a Conservative ministry. The two parties divided on the question of central, on the one hand, and local government on the other ; on the maintenance of Italy as a member of the great power association in Europe as against the party for commercial and prosperous life with as little re- gard to display or show, defense or war strength, as possible. Minghetti's ministry, however, was the last of the Conserva- tive governments which had held control of Italian affairs for sixteen years when, in 1876, the Progressists gained a clear ma- jority in the Chamber and the king appointed Depretis prime minister. The real cause for the fall of conservatism was general rather than particular. The ministry of Minghetti had weak- ened during 1874 and 1875, and at the same time the progress of liberalism had been very marked. The Immediate fall of the ministry was caused by its weakness in dealing with the ques- tions of the disregard ecclesiastics were showing for civil law, and the raising of the grist tax. The new Parliament was largely Liberal, but the entire party was and has been always so divided within itself that there have been many changes of premiers while the party itself re- tained power. Depretis himself resigned in 1878 and was suc- ceeded by Cairoli, who had the control of the most radical wing of the Progressists, and then the two changed back and forth frequently. Among the leaders of the different branches of the Liberals was a man who now stands at the head of Italian statesmen — Crispi. On the 9th of January, 1878, Victor Emm.anuel died and was succeeded by his son, Humbert, the present ruler. ITALY. 233 Italy possessed a colony in the Bay of Assab in 1882, with a population of 1,300 souls. In 1885 this was extended to Mas- sowah, owing to the general fact that since England and France and Germany were extending their possessions along the Mediterranean and Red Seas, it behooved Italy to main- tain and preserve her right to hold a portion of this politically important ground. Difficulties at once arose with the Porte and Egypt, and hos- tilities opened with King John of Abyssinia and his nephew Debeh. After several years of fighting, and large expenditure of money, which caused disturbances in the Italian cabinet in 1883-4-5, Italy finally, in 1887, took formal possession of about five hundred kilometers of coast-line on the Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea, extending from Emberemi, 16° north latitude, to and including the island of Massowah. The difficulty with the Vatican is still unsettled, but in 1887-8 it reached the point where the relations of the Vatican and the pope were most strained. Pope Leo is full of concessions in regard to political matters, but the difficult point, and up to the' present the point that has been without settlement, is the demand of Leo for the restoration of his temporal power of the city and states of Rome. This the Italian government refuses. The financial questions of Italy are almost irretrievably com- plicated, and they make one of the chief causes for division of parties. The Irredentists lay the bankruptcy of the govern- ment at the door of the ministry of marine and war. They say that the Triple Alliance compels the maintenance of army and navy, and they therefore oppose the Triple Alliance. On the other hand, its alliance with Austria and Germany is con- sidered a necessity by the government as a defense against the Franco-Russian alliance and a means of maintaining the bal- ance of power in Europe. Depretis succeeded Cairoli in 1881 and maintained the power until his death in 1887, when Crispi, a member of the more ad- vanced Left, succeeded him. Crispi fell in 1893 over the bank scandals, when it was proved that many representatives had been receiving large sums from the government banks. He was recalled by the king in 1894, however, when Rudini, minister in 1891, and after him Giolotti, in 1893, had failed to pacify the insurrections in Naples and Sicily. JAPAN. Emperor (Mikado), MUTSUHITO. MINISTRY. President Count ItoHirobonml Minister of the Interior Count luouyS Kaoru Minister of Foreign Affairs M. Mutsn Monemitsu Minister of Justice Yoshiliawa Akimassa Minister of Finance Watanabfi Kunltakfi Minister of War Count Oyama Minister of Navy Count Salgo Minister of Public Instruction InougeKl Minister of Communications Count Kowroda Minister of Agriculture Count Buomotto Takeakl TABLE OF STATISTICS. Area> Population. Central Nippon ... Northern Nippon Western Nippon.. Shlkoku Kiushiu Hokkaido Total 36,600 30,204 20,681 7,031 16,840 36,299 147,655 15,776,841 6,190,028 9,279,740 2,887,397 6,270,863 314,108 40,718,977 234 JAPAN. Japan lies in the Pacific Ocean off" the eastern coast of Asia. It comprises a group of islands under the name of the Japa- nese Empire. The nearest part of the Asiatic coast is Corea. The government is a constitutional monarchy, and the capital is Tokio with a population of 1,389,684. Japanese history, until the arrival of Commodore Perry with History a fleet of American . since 1800. vessels in 1854, was not known to Euro- peans, nor is it fully known yet. The country had been at peace for over two hundred years, and the poUcy of the gov- ernment had been to prevent communi- cation with the out- side world. The in- habitants were for- bidden to leave the country. In 1603 lyeyasu was made shogun of the em- pire. He was the founder of the after- wards famous family of Tokugawa and a great organizer and ruler. The shogun was the chief of the military of the empire, and gradually, as member after member of the Tokugawa family succeeded to this position and increased its power, this officer became more 235 236 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOKLD TO-DAY. powerful than the mikado, the hereditary emperor of Japan. The country at the same time changed from a monarchy un- der the mikado to a feudal system in which the shogun was the most powerful of the feudal lords, and compelled the others to pay allegiance to him. Thus in the city of Kioto the mikado had all the honors of an emperor and retainedhis noble follow- ers, while at the same time at Yeddo the shogun had all the powerful lords (daimios) of the empire under his power, and was able to carry on the government himself. It is an important part of the Japanese character, which must be necessarily recognized for the better understanding of the events of the present century, that the people avoid any kind of war wherever possible. They are adverse to being consulted concerning the conduct of the government ; they naturally satisfy themselves with what they have and are more than willing to let themselves be governed. One of the chief difficulties in building up the New Japan has been the fact that the people as a whole could not be induced to take part in deliberations, elections, and other political rights given them under the present enlightened system. But that is hap- pily being remedied by the introduction of foreigners, and by the travel and study of Japanese citizens abroad. The rule of the shogun, however, from 1603 was so strong that the country remained practically at peace for two hun- dred and fifty years. The mikado was always treated as em- peror ; he performed the investiture of each new shogun, who was theoretically considered nothing more than his subject, but was in reality the head of the government. It is some- what remarkable, however, that there is nowhere an instance of a shogun aspiring to the mikadoship. Besides the mikado and his court, and the shogun and his court, there was a large class of nobles called daimios, who were the feudal lords, and who, assembled in council, consti- tuted the great assembly to assist the shogun in his adminis- tration of the government. They were seldom called together, however. Next in the social order came the samurai, the soldiers of the empire. They were originally the followers of the daimios and continued so in theory up to 1868. Then fol- lowed the agricultural classes, next the artisans, and finally the mercantile and trading classes. JAPAN. 237 This feudal system developed more and more during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and class distinction was sharply drawn. But after the beginning, of the present century the gradual spread of education created a sentiment strongly opposed to this system, and it prepared the way for a change that was greatly hastened by the introduction of Euro- pean manners and methods. In* 1853 Commodore Perry arrived at Uraga with four Ameri- can frigates and threw Japan into consternation at his appear- ance. He oflfered to make a treaty of peace and commerce, and in their dilemma the daimios, who had been called together for the purpose of consultation by the shogun lyeyoshi, asked time to consider. Perry departed saying he would return in a year and make a treaty or bombard the country. As has been said before, the state of society in Japan had been partially prepared for some change, and this interference of a foreign power and threatened danger from without came, there- fore, at a propitious time. The country divided at once on the two sides of the question, and two parties were formed: the Jo-i, or party of exclusion, and the Kai-Koha, or party favor- ing the opening of the country to foreigners. The imperial court at Kioto and the samurai were on the side of the former, but the shogun and the daimios favored the making of a treaty. When Perry returned in 1854, the shogun and his party favor- ing the signing of a treaty with the United States won the day. A consul-general was sent out from the United States soon after, and in 1858 a treaty of commerce and friendship was signed with the empire. One of the greatest scholars of Japan, the Prince of Unito, became the leader of the Jo-i, or Conservative party, and II Kamou-No-Kani at the same time became regent during the shogun's incapacity and took the leadership of the party of progress. From this time on the growth of Japan out of the medieval into the modern empire has taken place with great rapidity, and this change, which involved the complete over- throw of customs and laws centuries old, is one of the remark- * For an admirable review of the recent growth of Japan, from which much of this sketch Is taken, the reader Is referred to an article on " The Consti- tutional Development of Japan,' ' by Toyokichi lyenaga, in the publica- tion of the Johns Hopkins University, on " Studies in Historical and PoUtioal Science," for 1891, Vol. IX. No. 9. 238 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. able episodes of the nineteenth century. In a measure it was as great a change as that involved in the French Revolution, and yet it was accomplished almost. without bloodshed. Per- haps the most important reason for this lies in the character of the Japanese people, who, as has been intimated, are always adverse to war, and who invariably accept what is given them, rather than oppose innovations. The change began, however, with the assassination of Kamou in 1860, and the shogunate, thus falling back upon the decrepit shogun, began to lose power. The introduction of foreign ideas had its influence in opening the eyes of the people, especially of the more thoughtful classes, and gradually the evident superiority of the emperor over his shogun became more mani- fest. A demand arose that the emperor should take the active administration of the government into his own hands. In 1863 the bombardment by foreigners of Kagoshima and Shim- onoseki showed the daimios that their shoguns and assistants were quite incompetent to defend the empire from foreign in- vasion, and at the same time that very invasion showed the necessity for national defense. Thus the people turned toward the traditional power of the country. Men in Japan, even dur- ing the greatest power of the shogun, unconsciously believed in the heaven-sent right of the emperor to rule, and now in their danger they turned to him to find a defense from their enemy and reorganization for their own government. The presence of enemies made a demand for better government ; better gov- ernment meant power ; power could only be gained by unity, and thus the wise men of the land saw the necessity of uniting the people under one head. Here was the first blow against feudalism. Discussions arose on all sides, and the dannios, instead of as- sembling once in years as formerly, now met many times in a single year. Modern ideas were advanced at these meetings, and the upholders of the old system gradually saw that they were being isolated. The day of the feudal lord with his petty stronghold, his administration of a small territory, his own system of money and measure, of tarifT and justice, was depart- ing. The restoration of Shintoism was another great factor that led toward the return of the emperor to power. The Shinto JAPAN. 239 religion recognizes the emperor as a direct descendant of tlie gods and Japan as the Holy Laud. Consequently, as the re- ligion became stronger the reverence for the emperor returned, and with it came the desire to put him in his true position. Thus the Restoration began in Japan and continued peacefully until 1867. In that year there was some fighting in and about the cities of Yeddo and Kioto. Three strong clans, the Satsiuna, the Cho- shu, and the Tosa, joined forces in the defense of the emperor. The fighting against the Tokugawa dynasty was not of a very vigorous nature, nor was the resistance great, for on the 19th of November, 1867, before any serious battles had taken place, the last of the shoguns voluntarily resigned his office and transferred all his power into the emperor's hands. This took the spirit out of the revolution at its outbreak and the result was foreseen from the first. The next step in the growth toward constitutional govern- ment was the formation of the new administration. The court was transferred from Yeddo to Kioto, the latter city being by far the more important, and the name Kioto was changed to Tokio. After long discussion and careful weighing of different systems it was decided to resume, with some changes, the form of government that had been enforced in Japan before the in- troduction of feudalism and the shogunate. The Sosai was to be the premier of the nation, or supreme administrator. He was to be assisted by a vice-Sosai. This Sosai was the head of the Gijio, or Supreme Council of the empire, composed of ten members, " five chosen from the daimios and five from the Kuges, and they constituted an advisory cabinet to the Sosai. The Sanyo was an associate council of men chosen from the daimios and the samurai, and in the present constitution it has developed into the cabinet. The government in itself was divided into what, corresponds to departments under European governmental systems, such as the administrative department, the department of public worship, of the interior, of foreign aflfairs, of war, finance, justice, and legislation. In this formation of the New Japan under the Restoration after 1868 the most important man was Toshimitsu Okubo. It 240 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. waa his object to increase the power of the imperial govern- ment as far as possible, and then to introduce representative legislatures and rule of the people by the people. It was he who caused the removal of the capital to Kioto. His influence was most powerful in bringing about the emperor's decree of April 17, 1869, in which it was declared that as soon as it was deemed feasible for the welfare of the country, Japan was to be granted five inalienable rights, viz. : [1] a deliberative assembly, wherein the people should decide the questions of the empire j [2] measures to be taken for the spread and study of social and political economics ; [3] the right of individual opinion and individual motive to action, which should be encouraged ; [4] the abolition of all the old forms and ceremonies at court and the destruction of feudal customs throughout the land ; and [5] the employment of wisdom wherever found without regard to caste. In the same year a parliament was called — the Kogisho^ composed largely of daimios and samurai. It seems to have been an orderly, quiet assembly where debate was encouraged, but the Japanese character could not be educated at once up to the deliberative point. The samurai, who constituted a large part of the Chamber, neither realized their responsibility nor took great interest in the settlement of political questions, and the Kogisho died within the same year. But it had its influence for good. The discussions which en- sued during its short session, by exposing still further the evils of feudalism, aided the powerful nobles in their plans for the aggrandizement of the imperial power, and in 1871 a memorial to the emperor signed by the largest landowners among the daimios, declared their intention to unite their lands under the emperor. They forced other feudal lords to give up their hereditary positions within a short time. During this remark- able change no blood was shed, and yet the whole social system of the country was altered. At the same time, men were sent out over the world to ex- amine the institutions of other countries. The objection to foreigners gradually gave place to a desire to learn what was worth knowing from any country, and the result has been manifested by the extraordinary growth in the number of miles of railroads and telegraphs, in the number of newspapers. JAPAN. 241 and other large commercial enterprises. These acted as a means of educating the people and also they brought them nearer together. The Japanese had to be educated to take an interest in their own government. "Aocustorned for ages," writes Count Inouy6 in 1873, "to despotic rule, they have re- mained content with their prejudices and ignorance. Their knowledge and intelligence is undeveloped and their spirit is feeble. In every movement of their being they submit to the will of the government, and have not the shadow of an idea of what a right is. If the government makes an order the coun- try obeys it as one man." * This to a certain extent explains why the people of Japan could move through such changes without war. Fighting did occur, however, in time, and in 1878, ten years after the great changes began, rebellion broke out. Riots occurred in different parts of the state, but in Satsuma signs of revolt had appeared in 1877. Ten thousand insurgents were organized into an army to usurp the power of the government. The greater part of the force was besieged on the island of Kiushiu for several months and finally extermi- nated. Feudalism was crushed forever and the imperial gov- ernment showed itself capable of being prompt and powerful. After the formation of the Genro-in (Senate) in 1875, parties began to form on simple lines, and the liberal, progressive statesmen formed a large portion of the people into the Ei-shi- sha party under the leadership of Count Ilagaki. It was through the energy of this party that the present constitution was adopted. In 1873 and 1877 they sent a me- morial to the emperor, begging him to keep his promise and introduce a legislative assembly ; and after the rebellion of 1878 had been put down, the government, though it did not call together such a body, took the first step in that direction by instituting local government throughout Japan in the form of local legislative assemblies, where, in their yearlj' meetings, delegates chosen by the people discussed local affairs and local taxation. Out of these assemblies, including in all 2,172 dele- gates, the first National Assembly was chosen. Through the spread of the popular voice by these agencies the demand for a Federal House grew still stronger, until in 1881 the emperor decreed the formation of a National Assembly to meet in 1890. • T. lyenaga. 242 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. The present constitution of Japan was promulgated Feb- ''"tionf"' ruary 11, 1889. It was the result of profound study at home and abroad, both with a view to the most advanced form of government in the world, and also with a view to the adapta- bility of such a government to the Japanese race. The consti- tution provides for the government of the country, insures individual rights and the right of private property, and pro- vides for the power of the people in legislature. The legislative part of the government is in the hands of a Legisia- Parliament and, to a certain extent, in those of the mikado. The Japanese Parliament consists of two houses, the House of Peers and the House of Representatives. They have large leg- islative powers ; they may address the emperor on any ques- tion ; and either House may initiate measures which then require the sanction of the other Chamber and of the emperor. All bills must first go through their hands, and they may make any representation to the government regarding the leg- islation of the country. They have absolute control of the finances and the administration of justice in the empire. They must assemble once at least in each year. In Novem- ber, 1890, the old Senate having been dissolved on the 20th of October, the first meeting of the Parliament occurred. The House of Peers is at present composed of 252 members, though it is intended to have a full membership of 300. These members are chosen from five different classes : (1) males of the royal family at least twenty years of age who have a lift membership ; (2) princes and marquises at least twenty-five years of age, also having a life membership ; (3) a certain number of counts, viscounts, and barons of at least twenty-five years of age who have been chosen by their respective orders, and whose term is seven years ; (4) persons thirty years of age or more who have been nominated by the emperor, with a life membership ; (5) a certain number of men at least thirty years of age elected from each fu, or ken by the fifteen citizens in each district paying the highest direct national taxes. It is necessary for the candidates in this class to have the nomina- tion of the emperor also, and their term is seven years. The emperor nominates the president and vice-president of the House of Peers, and they receive a salary respectively of a little less than $4,000 and $2,000 which they are not allowed to refuse. JAPAN. 243 The House of Representatives is composed of 300 members. This number of representatives is directly stipulated by the con- stitution. These representatives are elected in the districts to serve a term of four years by electors vi^ho must be male Japa- nese subjects, twenty-five years of age, showing a year's resi- dence in the Ju or ken where they vote and paying about $3.00 in direct taxes for one year, or the same amount for three years in income tax in the/w or ken where they vote. A candidate for election to the House of Representatives must be at least thirty years of age and must have the other qualifica- tions required by the suffrage laws, except that he is not re- quired to be a resident of the/w or ken from which he is re- turned. No member of either House is responsible for his opinions, and no member is liable to arrest unless taken in the act of crime. The emperor is the executive ofiicer of the empire, and the position is filled by the male descendants of the royal family. Executive. He has the right to exercise legislative powers in certain cases with the consent of the Parliament. He sees to the adminis- tration of laws passed by the Parliament and convokes and prorogues both Houses. He has charge of the different depart- ments, of the salaries to be paid, and the appointment of officers in each department. He also has the right to issue ordinances for the public welfare which do not annul any law of the em- pire. He has control of the organization of both army and navy, and he confers honors and titles of nobility. There is a modern system of judiciary in Japan founded on European jurisprudence. Some of the higher judges are ap- pointed by the emperor, but beyond these the oflBcers of justice are appointed by the minister of j ustice. There is a theoretical system of courts which is being put into practice gradually. The highest court is the Court of Cassation at Tokio, which tries both civil and criminal appeal cases. There are next seven courts of appeal in as many districts, which try both criminal and civil cases of appeal from courts of the first in- stance. These last are ninety-nine in number, or one for each fu or ken, and they take cognizance of minor criminal and most civil cases vt^ithin their districts. Below these are one hundred and ninety-four township courts to try petty cases. Shintoism and Buddhism are the two most popular reli- Judiciary. 244 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. gions, but there is no state religion strictly speaking, all faiths being alike before the law. Shintoism is, however, the church of the court, and Shinto temples are supported by many of the local governments. Army and The Japanese army has been reorganized as well as the gen- Navy. gj,^j government. It stands upon a basis borrowed from the German army. All males of the empire over twenty years of age are liable to a three years' service in the standing army and afterwards to a further service of four years in the reserves. When this term has expired the soldier has to serve five years in the Landwehr, which does not require any active service in time of peace with the exception of a few weeks in the year. There is besides a Landsturm to which all belong who are over seventeen and under forty years of age and who are not serv- ing in the army in any other capacity. The standing ariny is about 80,000 strong, divided into an imperial guard of six di- visions ; the reserves are 96,000 strong, and the Landwehr 70,000 more, in all 246,000. The navy is composed of volunteers and conscript seamen, the latter serving three years in active service and three years in the reserves. The navy is divided into three divisions (later there are to be five divisions), and is composed of the following vessels : Ironclad 1 Coast defense 3 Cruisers 13 Dispatch boats 2 Gunboats 6 Torpedo boats 25 Otliers 8 Total 58 There are 11 ,463 officers and sailors. As the time gradually approached when the constitutional evMits. houses of legislature were to be opened, parties began to form, and before 1890 there were several distinct party organizations. On the 25th of November, 1890, Parliament was opened and it was found that the government party, or Conservatives, was represented by about 120 members. Their tendency was to open the country to foreigners and establish relations with foreign countries. The opposition was divided at first, but it is in general termed the "Constitutional Liberal Party "and consisted then of about 132 members, whose platform de- JAPAN. 245 manded a reduction of the expenditures of the government and reduction of ground rents, revision of the constitution, abolition of consular jurisdiction, and expulsion of foreigners, together with unrestricted freedom of the press. This party was called the Rikhendschijuto and a somewhat more conserva- tive branch, called the Kaischiuto or "reform party," had forty-five members in the House of Peers. The first session was almost entirely taken up with dis- cussions over the budget. The session of 1891-2 was short and difficult, the great earthquake which ruined so many people causing another repeal of the taxation payments and budget in general. Elections occurred before the 1892-3 session and the govern- ment gained a little. The Liberals were, however, in a ma- jority, and refused to vote estimates for building ships of war. An address was sent to the emperor and in his answer he urged the vote, bringing out the importance of having the means at hand to defend Japan in case of war. The reason for the refusal of the Liberals to vote this was that the Japanese as a people have not yet any idea of foreign relations and they did not consequently see the need of a navy. The recent war with China has, however, no doubt done much to educate people on this point. This war* has indeed done an inestimable amount of good in giving the Japanese a more intimate knowledge of and in- terest in the outside world. During the summer of 1894 Jap- anese newspapers were filled with accounts of the war, and the use of a navy and an army has been only too well dem- onstrated. With the taking of Port Arthur in October the war practi- cally ended in the total defeat of China and the cession of Corea to Japan. Since then the military operations have progressed slowly, the center of war moving toward Peking, while negotations for peace were being undertaken. « See China. LIBERIA. President, Joseph James Cheeseuan. Historical sketch. Constitu- tion. Liberia is on the west coast of Africa, between the river Jong and the river San Pedro. It extends inland for about 200 miles. The government is a republic with the constitution made directly from that of the United States. The capital is Monrovia, a city with 5,000 inhabitants. There are 500 miles of coast-line in the republic, and the total area is estimated at about 14,360 square miles, the total population being 1,068,000, of which 18,000 are Liberian blacks from the United States ; all are black people. The republic of Liberia was founded as an experiment by the United States in 1822, in the hope of freeing the United States from the immigration of negroes from Africa. The plan was put through by philanthropists and anti-slavery Americans. Until July 26, 1847, the government and the country was under the supervision and the direct control of the United States government. Then it was declared inde- pendent, and in the following year Great Britain recognized it as an independent power. After the abolition of slavery and after the slave trade had been abolished there in 1861, the United States also recognized Liberia as a sovereign state. Since then the republic has had an uneventful history, but the experiment has not met with the success that was hoped for by its founders. Negroes in America are better satisfied with their wretched condition in the south of the United States, than in a small isolated African republic, and the natives who occupy the adjacent country in Africa will have little or nothing to do with the attempts at civilization in their midst. Yet the republic stands and shows no signs of being abolished. The constitution is that of the United States in all the main particulars and was given the republic at its foundation in 1822. 246 LIBERIA. 247 The legislative power is vested in a Senate of eight members elected every four years, and a House of Representatives of thirteen members elected every two years. These two Houses have the usual legislative powers. The executive power is represented by a president elected every two years. He must be thirty-five years of age and must have property to the ex- tent of 1600. There is an attempt at a judicial system similar to that of the United States. The president is elected for a term of two years and is assisted by a cabinet composed of a secretary of state, of the interior, and of the treasury, besides an attorney-general and a postmaster-general. Religion is absolutely free, and there are a large number of churches in proportion to the population. Education is fos- tered as much as can be expected, largely by the foreign missions. The country is divided for local government into four coun- ties, Mezurada, Grand Bassa, Suive, and Maryland, and these again are divided into townships, each sixty-five square miles in area. The life is all in a few towns. There is no army, though the male population between the ages of sixteen and fifty are liable to military service. MEXICO. President, General Porfibio Diaz. RULERS SINCE 1800. Spanish control 1|21 Ten regents 1821-1822 Emperor Iturbide (Augustine I.) J§??"iiS Provisional government 1823-1824 Republic 1824-1841 Three dictators 1841-1844 Republic 1844-1853 Six dictators 1853-1857 Republic 1857-1864 Emperor Maximilian 1 1864-1867 Constitutional republic 1867- MINISTRY. Minister of Foreign Affairs J. Mariscal Minister of Interior M. R. Rnbio Minister of War and Navy P. Hlnojosa Minister of Justice and Public Instruction J. Baranda Minister of Public Worlis M. Gonzalez Cosio Minister of Finance and Ctommerce J. J. Limantour TABLE OF STATISTICS. Area. PopulaWn. Capital, Aguas Calientes.. Campecbe Coabuila Colima Chiapas Chihuahua Durango Guanajuato Guerrero Hidalgo Jalisco. Mlchoacan Mexico Morelos Nuevo Leon Oaxaca Puebla Queretaro San Luis Fotosi.. Slnaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas Tlaxcala Vera Cruz Yucatan Zacatecas Lower California. Tepic Federal District- Total 2,950 18,087 63,569 2,272 27,222 87,802 38,009 11,370 24,996 8,917 31,846 22,874 9,247 2,773 23,592 35,382 12,204 3,556 25,316 33,671 76,900 10,072 32,128 1,595 29,201 85,203 24,757 58,328 11,275 463 140,180 93,976 150,622 72,591 241,404 225,652 255,652 1,007,116 353,193 506 028 1,250,000 784,108 798,480 141,565 236,074 768,508 833,125 203,250 516,486 223,684 134,790 104,744 161,121 138,478 621,476 329,621 465,862 31,467 131,019 475,737 Aguas Calientes. Campeche. Saltillo. Colima. San Christobal. Chihuahua. Durango. Guanajuato. Tlxtla. Guadalajara. Morella. Mexico. Cuernavaca. Monterey. Oaxaca. Puebla. Queretaro. San Luis Potosl. Culioan. Ures. San Juan Bautista. Victoria. Tlaxcala. Vera Cruz. Merida. Zacatecas. 765,577 11,395,009 248 MEXICO. The republic of Mexico lies at the south of the United States, on the northern portion of the isthmus joining North to South America. It is bounded on the north by the United States, on the east by the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the At- lantic Ocean, on the south by Guatemala, and on the west by the PaciflcOcean and the Gulf of Califor- nia. The government is a republic of the advanced American type. Mexico is the capital with a popu- lation of 329,535. The sentiment of the country now known as Mexico was strongly against Spanish oppression in 1800. Spaniards of pure birth were the all-powerful classes. Native-born Mexicans were downtrodden, and Indians did not come into the calculation of the Spanish viceroys in any way. The coun- try was ruled by a viceroy appointed by the king of Spain, as it had been for nearly three hundred years. The establishment of the American Republic in the United States and the breaking out of the French Revolution, however, had their influence in Mexico, as they did elsewhere in the civilized world, and they stimulated a longing for self-government that was already be- ginning to fill the minds of Mexicans. 249 History since i8oo. 250 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. The overthrow of Charles IV. in Spain and the unfortunate rule of Joseph Bonaparte made the desire for independence from Spanish rule still stronger, and this culminated in 1820. Miguel Hidalgo took the initiative and declared the Orito de Dolores on the 15th of September, 1810. He found the people about him ready to follow, and with a disorganized force of farmers and soldiers he' captured the cities of Guanajuato and Valladolid in October. Venegas, the new viceroy, on his arrival from Spain sent the royal forces against the insurgents and defeated them in the battle of Calderonon, on the 17th of Jan- uary, 1811, and Hidalgo was captured and shot. Morelos, an- other religious enthusiast, continued the struggle, however, and in 1813 he called an assembly of the representatives of the people at Ghilpantzingo, where " the independence of the people from Spanish rule" was declared. Morelos thereupon assumed command of the forces and proceeded against the new viceroy, Calleja. He was soon defeated by the royalists under Iturbide, who afterwards became the champion of the people, and the congress was dispersed, Morelos being captured and shot in December, 1815. A few years later, in 1820, the insurrection in Spain that caused Ferdinand VIII. to adopt a constitution, made a di- vision among the Spaniards in Mexico. Some of them joined the independents, and with these, the party of the people, with its ever growing revolutionary contingent, became strong enough to carry the day. Augustine de Iturbide, the royalist general, was one of these. He joined Guerrero, the new Mexi- can leader, and taking command of all the forces set up what has been called the " plan of Iguala." This stipulated (1) that the Roman Catholic Church was the only church in Mexico, and (2) that the Mexicans were to form from that time forth a union for the defense of the new country. The plan was successful, and when the last viceroy, O'Donoju, arrived, on the 30th of July, 1821, Iturbide persuaded him to join with them in forming an independent government. The treaty of Cor- •dova established a provisional junta of thirty-eight members in September, with Iturbide as president. The second Mexican Congress assembled in February, 1822, and the territory of the new empire ran from Guatemala to the northern boundaries of the United States of Texas, including MEXICO. 251 what is now New Mexico, Arizona, and southern California. By May Iturbide had declared himself emperor under the title of Augustine I. His reign was short, however, for on the 6th of September a revolution in Vera Cruz under General Santa Anna began his fall, which ended in his being shot two years later. The changes of governments in two years had been something extraordinary in their rapidity, but a people thrown into representative self-government after so many years of oppression could not settle down under a stable government at once. It was a natural result of sudden power in inexperi- enced hands. In 1824 the first constitution was promulgated, and from that time until 1868 there were at least three hundred revolu- tions in Mexico. No government was firm, and the party holding the power at any one time ran wild with it. Dictator and president changed places several times a year. But through it all ran two distinct parties, which might be called the Conservative and the Progressive. The former held to the principle of a powerful church, aristocracy, and a centralized government in the city of Mexico ; the other maintained the right of the people, the ascendency and greater autonomy of the states or divisions of the new republic, and it believed in doing away with the superstitions of the church. From 1824 to 1828 the Liberal constitution held the power under President Victoria. Then followed several years of constantly succeeding rulers, ending finally in 1835 in the ascendency of the Conservative church party and the dissolution of the Lib- eral constitution of 1824. The republic was concentrated and centralized in the presidency and dictatorship of General Santa Anna. But Texas conld not be drawn into the central- ized government and seceded forthwith. Santa Anna fell in 1839, and anarchy of the most marked description with ever changing rulers followed, until in 1844 Santa Anna again se- cured the control. In the next year he threw the country into war with the United States in an endeavor to regain Texas.* This country had been settled by Americans in the mean- time, and the state now declared itself an independent repub- lic. Under General " Sam " Houston, an American citizen, the * See TJnited States. 252 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOKLD TO-DAY. forces defeated Santa Anna in 1844. This involved the two republics of the United States and Mexico in a discussion and the result was the war of 1845. After the battle of Palo Alto on the Texan side, the fighting gradually moved southward until General Scott put Vera Cruz into a state of siege and finally captured the city on March 28, 1847. A gradual move- ment was then made toward the city of Puebla, which was occupied without any fighting. On September 13, Chapultepec and the city of Mexico were taken and occupied by the United States troops. The treaty of Guadaloupe-Hidalgo, signed February 2, 1848, forced the United States to pay an in- demnity of 115,000,000, and settled the boundary line of the new republic along the Rio Grande to El Paso and thence along an irregular line running to the west until it crosses the Colorado some distance above its mouth and extends to the Pacific. Southern California, Texas, New Mexico, and Ari- zona then became the property of the United States. Herrera and Arista, respectively presidents after 1848, ruled quietly and peacefully until Santa Anna returned and again became dictator. In February, 1857, a new constitution pro- posed by the Congress was adopted, and then the question that has formed the two great parties of Mexico from that time to the present day came definitely before the people. The mem- bers of the church party were in favor of having the enormous tracts of land owned by the church left in their charge, and the Liberals wanted to secularize it. The secularization took place eventually, but the two parties have remained since then divided by this principle. Benito Juarez had meantime become president, and the in- ternal afikirs of state occupied the politicians until in 1861 England, France, and Spain, at the instigation of Napoleon III., sent out an armament and took possession of Mexico. The object professedly was to protect the foreigners in Mexico. The real reason was a desire for acquisition of territory, and on Napoleon's part the desire to gain fame as well as territory for France. The European forces were aided by the Mexican aris- tocracy, who saw material benefit for themselves in the re- sumption of a monarchical form of government, and Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph, brother of the emperor of Austria, was appointed emperor of Mexico. The archduke accepted the MEXICO. 253 office on condition that England and France should agree to maintain a sufficient army in Mexico to keep his throne secure. The church party favored the change strongly, but the Liberals, as soon as they discovered the real object, organized an army and for a time held the foreigners in check. But on May 28, 1864, the new emperor, Maximilian, arrived in Mexico and his protector. Marshal Bazaine, had command of a sufficient force to maintain order. After the close of the civil war in the United States, the government at Washington issued a note stating that the United States would oppose the maintenance of a monarchy on the American continent, and in January, 1867, Bazaine and the French troops were compelled to evacu- ate Mexico. Attempts had been made to have Maximilian resign, but at the last moment he listened to the clerical party and returned to the city of Mexico, announcing that he would maintain the empire alone. The forces he could muster were soon besieged in Gueretaro and, on the 14th of May, the em- peror himself was taken prisoner. He was court-martialed and was shot in June, 1867. Juarez, who had laid claim to the presidency during the empire, returned to office. On the 29th of June the Mexicans under General Diaz retook the city of Mexico and established order. Juarez filled out his term with reasonable success and showed wise judgment in reorganizing the government again under the articles of the constitution. But in 1871, when the time for the regular elections arrived, three parties entered the field, those favoring Juarez's reelec- tion, those wishing to reward Diaz for his military services, and those looking to Lerdo de Tejada to take the office. Juarez was the successful candidate, but he died in 1872 and was suc- ceeded by Lerdo. In 1875 outbreaks occurred again, and Diaz was forcibly put into the presidency. He developed extraordinary ability in maintaining order. He carried on the government with a vigorous and liberal hand. His chief trouble was with the Mexican finances, which are still in a bad condition. The elections in 1880 were, on the whole, put through with- out outbreak, and Gonzalez entered upon his office in accord- ance with the constitution. This fact is in itself a sign of the establishment of organized government in Mexico, as it is one of the few cases of peaceful election in Mexican modern history. 254 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. Constitu- tion. Legisla- ture. In 1884 Diaz was again elected to the presidency, in 1888 a third time, and in 1892 a fourth time. Mexican finances are the great question of the day ; the foreign debt weighs heavily on the country, but measures have now been taken for its regular diminution by the modern methods of sinking funds and simi- lar government undertakings. The Mexican constitution was drawn up on the 5th of February, 1857. It followed the dictatorship of Santa Anna and was prepared by a body of men elected for that purpose. The Constitutional Assembly used the United States constitu- tion as its model. This constitution declares the rights of man and of Mexicans. Property and the persons of individuals are sacred, and freedom of life and movement are insured by the constitution. Slavery is prohibited. Freedom of speech and of the press, right of petition, of assembly, and of bearing arms, are all declared, and the bearing of titles is forbidden, except such as are decreed by the people through their representatives. Citizenship con- stitutes birth of Mexican parents, whether in Mexico or in foreign lands. Besides this all foreigners who are naturalized and who acquire real estate and do not signify allegiance to an- other government are citizens. Their children born on Mexi- can territory are Mexican citizens. The government is for the people, by the people, and may be changed by the people alone. The inherent distinction be- tween the Mexican government and that of the United States is apparent in the following clause, article 40, section I., title II. : "The Mexican people voluntarily constitute themselves a democratic, federal, representative republic, composed of states free and sovereign in all that concerns their internal govern- ment, but united in a federation established according to the principles of this fundamental law." It is, in other words, a distinct statement in the constitution, that the federal govern- ment is more for defense and mutual benefit merely, the active conduct of affairs being delegated to the governments of the individual states, except where that directly interferes with the purpose for which the federal government is created. The legislative portion of the government is vested in two representative houses, a Senate and a House of Deputies. The Senate is elected by the legislatures of the several states, two MEXICO. 255 being returned by each state and two by the federal district. There are fifty-six members. The term of office is four years, but half the Senate retires every two years. A candidate taust be a Mexican citizen of at least thirty years of age and a resi- dent of the state from which he is returned. The House of Deputies is composed of members elected by universal sufTrage, one deputy being returned for every 40,000 inhabitants, or fraction thereof over 20,000. There are two hundred and twenty-seven in all. Elections occur once in two years. A candidate for the House must be a citizen of the re- public, at least twenty-five years of age, and a resident of the district from which he is returned. The persons of both sena- tors and deputies are sacred during office, except when taken in the act of crime. Congress meets on the 16th of September and sits three months, meeting again on the 1st of April and closing May 30. Either House may initiate measures besides the presidents of the state legislatures ; and to become a law a bill must receive a majority in both Houses and the signature of the president and a cabinet minister. The parliamentary rules of the United States are in force. The federal legislatures have power to create new states ; to pass laws regarding expense and finance and the budget for the federal government ; to make war and peace in conjunction with the executive ; to attend to all foreign relations ; and, in conjunction with the president and his cabinet, to make the army estimates, etc. ; to pass laws of naturalization, post and telegraph, and coinage ; to have charge of the public lands, to grant pardons, form rules for its own regulations, and to pass all laws necessary for the naaintenance of the Union. Fifteen deputies and fourteen senators constitute a permanent commit- tee, which sits while the Houses are not in session. The House of Deputies constitutes a jury of accusation and the Senate a jury of judgment in the case of crimes committed by an official of the government from the president down. The executive is in the hands of the president of the United States of Mexico. He is elected every four years by a college Kxecutive. of electors chosen by universal direct sufirage of the people at large. A candidate for the presidency must be a natural-born Mexican, at least thirty-five years of age, and in full possession of his citizenship rights. He cannot be a member of any 256 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Judiciary. Local gov- ernment. ecclesiastical order, and must be a resident of the country at the time of the election. The president is eligible for imme- diate reelection, but after serving a second term he is not again eligible until four years have intervened. In case of his death or incapacity he is succeeded in office by the president and vice-president of the Senate and the president and vice-presi- dent of the permanent committee in the order named. The president enters upon his duties on the 1st of December. The duties of the president are to accredit and receive foreign representatives, to appoint the leading officers of the state, cabinet, army, navy, etc. He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and he declares war and peace and grants letters of marque subject to the consent of the Congress. He may summon extra sessions of Congress and initiate bills. He has the right of pardon and of granting privileges, etc. Every bill when receiving the signature of the president must have that also of the cabinet minister under whose department the bill falls. There is a Supreme Court at Mexico composed of eleven judges and four supernumeraries with a fiscal and an attorney- general. The judges are elected by indirect suffrage and serve six years, and candidates must be lawyers and Mexican-born citizens of at least thirty-five years of age. The Supreme Court has charge of all cases between one state and another, or between the Union and one or more states, and it is a court of final appeal from the other federal courts. These last are the district and circuit courts which have jurisdiction in cases be- tween individuals and the state or the federal government, besides such cases as involve foreign representatives. It also includes all cases which violate individual rights, which conflict with or concern laws of the states, or the sovereignty of the state, or which violate the authority of the federal government. Each state is obliged to adopt the republican form of gov- ernment with representatives elected by universal sufirage. They generally have two Houses of the same general nature as the federal Houses, and legislative and executive governors elected for a term of office as the president is elected. There are also state courts. But the limitations of the state rights are clearly defined. States may not coin nioney, make MEXICO. 257 war or peace, conclude treaties with foreign governments, or grant letters of marque. They cannot, without federal con- sent, make tariff laws or maintain troops of war. They must acknowledge the laws of other states within the Union, must give up criminals, etc., demanded by other states, and must observe and carry out federal laws. Finally, they must aid each other when called on with troops to put down rebellion. The Mexican army is composed of the regular army, the ^^j^y ^^j reserve, and the general reserve. The regular army consists of Navy, the following : Infentry 17,307 Cavalry 5,484 Artillery 1,604 Engineers 655 Others 2,194 Total 27,244 The total strength of the army with both reserves is set at 160,963. There is a military school outside of the city of Mex- ico and the French system is practically adopted. The navy consists of two vessels of war and five gunboats. There is no state church, but the Roman Catholics are in a large maj ority. Other creeds are, however, tolerated. Religious bodies cannot acquire property. Education is supposed to be free and compulsory but it is not entirely so. The municipal and the federal governments contribute toward the support -of the schools, of which in 1888 there were over 10,700. MONTENEGRO* Prince, - - Nicholas I. RULERS SINCE 1800. Peter 1 1782-1830 Peter II 1830-1851 Danilo I.... 1851-1860 Nicholas 1 1860- ' The principality of Montenegro is a small independent state of Europe, witti a few miles of coast-line on the Adriatic Sea, lying between the provinces of Albania on the south and east, Herzegovina and Dalmatia on the west and north, andNovi- Bazar (Turkey) on the north and east. The government is that of a limited monarchy, and Cettinje is the capital with a popu- lation of 1,500. The area of Montenegro is 3,639 square miles and the popu- lation is estimated to be about 236,000, mostly of the Servian branch of the Slav race. The Montenegrins have been in perhaps as many battles as any other people of Europe, and they are brought up with a traditional hatred of Turkey and an inherent desire to go to war with any Turks they meet. The country was originally governed by bishop-princes who had the right of naming their successors. They held the government almost entirely within their own hands. In 1851, however, the new ruler of the principality, Danilo, brought about a change. He had the state declared independ- ent of religious rule, and from that time until the present the church has had little to do with the political government. At the same time the ruling power was made hereditary in the person of the secular prince. The history of the little principality is closely connected with the history of the Eastern Question, f which has given it what prominence it has in international affairs to-day. It has taken * For map see under Servia. • fSee under Austria, Russia, Turlcey, and Greece. 258 MONTBNEGBO. 259 part in most of the wars of the century over the disputed ques- tions along the Danube, and its soldiers may always be found ranged on the side against Turkey. At the Congress of Ber- lin, in 1878, Montenegro was given a small amount of territory that added to its coast-line on the Adriatic. At the same time that he secularized the state, Danilo in 1851-52 drew up a code of laws based on the historic rights of Montenegrins, which stands as the constitution of to-day, only changed by amendments In 1855 and in 1879. It makes the government a constitutional monarchy with much of the his- toric patriarchal form of government still remaining. The legislative portion of the government was taken from the Senate (abolished in 1879) and given to a body of eight men called the State Council. Four of the members are ap- pointed by the prince and four elected by the male inhabitants who are or who have been in the military service. This makes the government, which was in 1852 religious, now military. The executive portion of the government is vested in the prince, but he can easily control much of the legislation, and is in reality the legislative and executive officer with a power- ful control over the judiciary. "When the Senate was abolished in 1879 the judicial powers it possessed were given to a Grand Tribunal. There is besides a Supreme Court at Cettinje, which is a court of appeal as well, though the final appeal in all cases is in the person of the prince. There are district courts in several of the larger towns. The religion is orthodox for the most part, and though not distinctly a state church, it is nevertheless practically so, since the prince appoints the bishops and has control in the govern- ment of the church as well as in the government of the state. There are, however, Roman Catholics and Mohammedans in Montenegro. Education is compulsory and free in primary schools and there are a few secondary schools supported by Russian money. There is no regular army, but the entire population is brought up on a military education. All the male able-bodied inhabi- tants are liable to service between the ages of seventeen and sixty, and they are all anxious to serve. These are estimated at about 29,000 men. There is no navy, Montenegro being denied one by an article of the Berlin treaty. Constitu- tion. Legisla- ture. Executive. Judiciary. Army. MOROCCO. Sultan, Muley-Hassan. RULERS SINCE 180O. Sultan Muley-Soliman 1794-1822 Sultan Muley-Abderrahman 1822-1859 Sultan Sldi-Muley-Mohammed 1859-1873 Sultan Muley-Hassan 1873- The sultanate of Morocco is in the northwestern corner of Africa, bounded on the north by the Straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by Algeria, on the south by the Desert of Sahara, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. The government is an absolute despotism directly under the sultan. Morocco and Fez are the capitals, and the sultan spends half the year in each city. The area of Morocco is estimated without much probable correctness at 219,000 square miles. As no one lives or goes into the southern districts near the Sahara it is impossible to be even approximately accurate. The divisions of -Morocco are as follows : Fez, Morocco, Tafllet, Segelmesa, Sus, Adrar, Northern Droa, in all containing about 9,400,000 inhabitants. Morocco has been for many years coveted by Spain, England, and France. The Spaniards claim the prior right and want the Historical territory as a valuable situation on the Mediterranean. France wishes to extend her possessions from Algeria into Morocco, and England will not allow any country to gain extensive possession of land in Africa, especially near Gibraltar, without claiming her share. The other countries of Europe defend England, awaiting results. It is to this discussion of the great powers that the present independence of Morocco is due ; for the government has no place in the nineteenth century and the administration is atrocious. Soliman, who began to reign in 1794, was the most enlight- ened of Morocco's rulers. He did away with slavery and the slave trade in his state, and he suppressed piracy in the Medi- terranean so far as his kingdom was concerned. This last did much to open the Mediterranean to general commerce with the MOROCCO. 261 world. Soon after his fall the Spanish got into trouble with Morocco over abuses heaped upon Spanish residents in the lat- ter state, and later, at the time of the French war in Algeria, the sultan sent troops under Abd-el-Kader, which were de- feated by the French. Thereupon the Prince de Joinville, at the head of the French forces in Algeria, entered the sultan's country, and stormed and took Algiers. The year 1845 saw the close of the war and a formation of a treaty, by which Morocco was deprived of some of her territory and was obliged to make other concessions to the French. In 1853 Europeans gained their first knowledge of the interior of the country. Customs- duties and treaties were arranged in the years following, and in 1860, after a war with Spain which resulted in the defeat of Morocco and the payment of a large indemnity to the Span- ish government, Morocco was compelled to give up the territory of Santa Cruz de Mar and Pequena and to give to the Spanish government the right to supervise her custom-house business. Gradually, from this time, the possibility of trade with Mo- rocco became greater as the security of life and property in- creased. In 1864 Europeans were admitted to carry on busi- ness within the sultan's country, and after the accession of Hassan, in 1873, endeavors were made to have commercial re- lations put upon a firmer basis. A convention at Madrid in 1880, where the matter was discussed, settled nothing of great importance, however, and since then no material progress has been made. The government is too uncertain and the sultan's agreements too unreliable. The government being an absolute despotism, there is no constitution. The sultan's will is- law in civil, criminal, legis- - ^^' lative, judicial, and religious matters. The sultan carries on the government, legislative and executive, himself with the assistance of a vizier, minister of foreign and home affairs, a chief chamberlain, a treasurer, and an administrator of cus- toms. He appoints all these and all other officials throughout the kingdom and has complete control of the government. The army is composed of about 10,000 men, who follow the Army, sultan as a body guard, and an extra force of 40,000 reserves that can be called upon in time of war. The religion is a branch of the Mohammedan faith, but the sultan is the absolute head of the church. THE NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND). Queen, "WlLHELMINA HELKJS^A PAULINE. RULERS SINCE 1800. Republic of the Netherlands 1815 Wflliam 1 181&-1840 WUliam II 1840-1849 William III 1849-1890 Wllhelmlna 1890- IWINISTRY. Minister of Foreign Affairs and President of the CJounoU Dr. G. Van Tlenhoven Minister of the Interior Dr. J. P. Tak van Poortvliet Minister of Finance Dr. N. G. Plerson Minister of Justice Dr. H. J. Smidt Minister of the Colonies Dr. W. K. van Dedem Minister of Marine 3. C. Jansen Minister of War Colonel A. L. G. Seyffardt Minister of Industry and Commerce C. Lely TABLE OF STATISTICS. ProviTice*. Area. Popiilaiion. North Brabant 1,980 1,965 1,166 1,070 690 534 1,282 1,291 790 1,030 850 574,075 515,938 South Holland 966,999 North Holland 844,488 Zealand .... 200,792 Utrecht 224,001 Frlesland * 335,824 Overyssel 297,453 Groningen Drenthe 275,356 132,495 257,144 Total 12,648 4,624,765 262 THE NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND). The kingdom of the Netherlands occupies the northern central part of Europe, or what is called the Low Countries. It is bounded on the north by the North Sea, which runs along its coast from the Rhine to Westphalia. It is bounded on the east and south by the German Empire, and on the south and west by Belgium and the North Sea. The government is that of a limited, constitutional mon- archy. Amsterdam is the capital with a population of 417,539. The country now occupied by the Netherlands has had an eventful history. Holland in past cen- turies ruled the world with her comlnerce, but the early part of the nineteenth century saw her ri- val, England, gradu- ally usurp that power and deprive her of her wealth and fame. By 1800 Holland was, therefore, but a wreck of her former greatness. The Low Coun- tries had begun to divide, as they must have sooner or later, during the French Revolution. 'The country contained people who believed in diflferent forms of government, different re- ligions, and different methods of life. In 1801 the Batavian Republic had fallen and States-General and national conven- tions had followed each other almost as rapidly as the changes in. France during the last decade of the century. At this time History since i8oo. 264 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. the Netherlands included the territory now occupied by Bel- gium. Napoleon in 1805 made his brother, Louis Bonaparte, king of the people and forced a constitution on Holland, which lasted until 1819. And in spite of the unfitness of both mon- arch and people to live under such a government, the state found in its king a man who endeavored to advance its interests, and, on the whole,, the people prospered. The emperor in 1810 divided the Low Countries and annexed Holland to France, but his capture and exile in 1813 was the signal for revolt in Holland. A monarchy was at once estab- lished in Amsterdam, where the Prince of Orange appeared sliortly afterwards and was crowned William I., King of the Netherlands, by an assembly of Notables in 1814. After the battle of Waterloo came the reapportionment of Europe at the Congress of Vienna. Belgium had been an- nexed to Holland in 1814 at the peace of Paris, and William I. declared king of both countries. At Vienna much of the ter- ritory formerly belonging to the Netherlands was acquired by Austria and by the German states, and for this sacrifice William I. received the duchy of Luxemburg, excepting the town and fortress. The right of the House of Orange to rule over the country was guaranteed, and a monarchy was sanctioned by the European powers. The latter encouraged the setting up of this kingdom in order to establish a power in the north hostile to France. The king became the executive head of the government and was given also extensive legislative powers. There were two houses of legislature. The government succeeded for a time, and might have continued under this semi-constitutional organiza- tion, had it not become evident that Belgium and Holland could never exist under the same system. The Belgians are and were at the time of the revolution in sympathy with the French. They differ from the Dutch in habits, in life, in re- ligion, and they belong to another class of humanity, as dif- ferent from the Dutch as the French are from the English. Furthermore, the king of the Netherlands lived in Holland, seldom or never visited Belgium, and surrounded himself with Dutch rather than Belgian ministers. Toward the close of the second decade of the century the Belgians had a strong majority in the national assembly, the THE NETHERLANDS. 265 States-General, but they could carry no measure through. All but one of the ministers Avere Dutch, and measures passed by the Belgian majority in the House were constantly vetoed by the executive. The result was a revolution in 1830, stimulated no doubt by the French Revolution of July, and Belgium then succeeded in obtaining its own government.* King William would not agree to certain of the stipulations of the powers who had in- terfered to bring about peace, and he invaded Belgium in the endeavpr to reconquer the country. He was, however, de- feated by a French force sent to assist the Belgians, and was obliged to retire, holding only the fortified city of Antwerp. Thereupon the French sent another force into Belgian territory, Antwerp was taken, and the European powers called another meeting in London in 1833. Here France and England finally brought about a settlement by which an armistice was agreed upon until a treaty could be signed. In 1839 peace was at last made and treaty arrangements agreed to. The Scheldt River was made the boundary line and was thrown open to navi- gation under a system of tolls. Holland secured Limburg and a part of Luxemburg, and the two kingdoms were from this time separate sovereign powers. William I. reigned under the semi-constitutional govern- ment until 1840, when he resigned in favor of his son William II. The Dutch people as a whole are quiet and law-abiding, and though the Netherlands had now nothing of the power and prominence of former times, yet the country remained at peace and began to show some material growth. In 1848, when Europe was overrun with revolutions, the people of the Netherlands paid but little attention to the changes going on about them. The old constitution of 1814, granted at the time of William I.'s accession, was somewhat modernized, but otherwise there was no sign of revolt among the people. William II. died in 1849 and was in turn succeeded by his son William III. The struggle with the Catholics which has disturbed Bel- gium for so many years did not extend into the Netherlands. The excitement was intense for a time in 1853 when the papacy introduced Catholic bishops into Holland and sought to give * See Belgium. Constitu- 266 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOULD TO-DAY. them temporal powers, but the country has always remained Protestant, and Catholicism has not grown to dangerous pro- portions. The ministry is, as a rule, made up almost entirely of Protestants and the Liberals have maintained control of the government for many years. The present constitution of Holland dates from the Orond- wet granted by Prince William Frederick of Orange-Hassan "tion'" in 1814. It was amended in the following year when Holland and Belgium were united, and has since been altered in 1830, 1848, and 1887. The constitution provides for the security of life and property within the kingdom, secures the right of individuals, the right of assembly, the right of petition to organized bodies on subjects coming within their province, etc. The legislative portion of the government is detailed to the tur?.*' States-General, or Parliament, which is composed of a First and Second Chamber. It has control, conjointly with the king, of all legislative affairs in the kingdom. The First Chamber is now composed of fifty members, who are elected by the states of the kingdom. Candidates are chosen from the citizens of the state paying the highest taxes, or from persons who have held some state office before. From this class in each province, state delegates are elected to serve nine years, at the expiration of which time new elections are held. The Second, or Lower Chamber is composed of one hundred members chosen by a limited universal suffrage of the Dutch citizens of the provincial states. Of the 100 members, 9 are re- turned by the city of Amsterdam, 3 by The Hague, 2 by Utrecht, 5 by Rotterdam, and 2 by Groningen. The remaining 79 are elected, one by each of the other 79 constituencies. The suf- frage law requires that a candidate must be thirty years of age and in the full possession of all civil rights. Voters must be twenty-three years of age and either paying a ground rent of ten guilders, or a certain personal tax which varies in dif- ferent constitutions. The term of office is four years and the entire Chamber retires at the same tinae. Either or both of the Chambers may be dissolved by the king, but he must call a new election within forty days of the dissolution. Members of the ministry have the right to take seats in both Houses. The Lower House can alone initiate measures, and all proposals from the king are submitted there first. The States-General THE NETHERLANDS. 267 Executive. meets once a year on the third Monday in September. Sit- tings are usually public, but a vote of one tenth of the mem- bers may close the doors. One half of the total membership constitutes a quorum in either House, and on a tie vote the question is adjourned for the session. The king, always a member of the House of Orange, is the supreme executive, but he has a share in the legislative func- tions of the government as well. He attains his majority at the age of eighteen. Women may succeed to the throne, and in default of either the male or female line the sovereign may name his successor with the advice and consent of the States- General. The king has the supreme charge of the state finances. He fixes salaries of state officials, excepting those of judges, which are determined by law. He confers titles, has the right of pardon, signs all acts passed by the States-General and can initiate measures there, but all acts or orders Issued by him must be countersigned by a head of one of the departments. The Hooge Raad, or High Court of Appeals, is the court of last instance. There are besides thirty-five courts of justice in Judiciary, the kingdom, to which cases are brought from twenty-three district tribunals, and the courts of first instance are cantonal courts numbering 106. There is no trial by jury. Religious liberty is permitted in the kingdom, but the Pres- byterians and Roman Catholics comprise a large portion of the inhabitants. The Dutch army is governed by a system of its own, by which men over nineteen are liable to a five years' active service, this being in reality one year's active service and six weeks in each year for the following four years. There is also a very large militia, active and reserve, which comprises two per cent of the entire population, a Landsturm, or further re- serve, and a society of sharpshooters — all liable to be called upon in time of war. The regular army numbers a peace foot- ing of 23,000 men, and a war footing of over 70,000. The navy in 1891 consisted of Warships 12 Monitors 12 Gunboats 47 Torpedo boats 38 Training ships 16 Others 20 Total 145 Army and Navy. 268 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOULD TO-DAY. The questions that have been of most importance in Recent Holland during recent years are, the suffrage laws, the events. question arising from Dutch colonists in India, and the Cath- olic and Protestant contests over the schools. The suflfrage law was finally extended in 1887 to give 200,000 more voters the right to cast ballots. This was the result of strenuous labor among the Liberals, who in general favor a reduction of taxation, especially a reduction in the army and navy estimates, who oppose religious instruction in the schools, and who favor more rights in legislative matters for the Lower Chamber. With the reinstatement of bishops in 1853 considerable ex- citement was created, and from then until after 1871 the ministry changed often, it being considered necessary to dis- solve the Lower Chamber several times. Thorbecke, the leader of the Liberals, and Heemskerk, leader of a combina- tion of Ultramontanes and anti-revolutionists, changed places at the head of the government frequently, until in 1872 Thor- becke died, the Conservatives gained a majority, and Heems- kerk returned for the third time to the premiership. In 1876 Holland undertook to end the intermittent war with Atcheen, the kingdom which joins Sumatra in India, which cost the government enormous sums of money and many men, without bringing them much in return. This war had been going on for years, caused originally by the fear the Dutch government felt that England would gain possession and trouble her in her Bast Indian colonies, but the inhabitants of Atcheen seem to be unconquerable and nothing has ever been really gained by this expensive war. In 1884 the crown prince of Holland died, and when, there- fore, in 1890, King William III. died his little ten-year-old daughter, Wilhelmina, was the only successor, the direct male line of the House of Orange being broken for the first time. A regency was appointed with the young queen's mother at its head, to educate Wilhelmina and carry on the government until she became of age. While there have been occasional Conservative or Ultra- montane ministries within recent years, the Liberals have in the main held the power. In 1891 Tienhoven, burgomaster of Amsterdam, became head of the Liberal ministry, and THE NETHERLANDS. 269 with the help of Poortvliet he has succeeded in holding the control up to the present. The colonial possessions of the Netherlands are represented in the following table, together with their areas and popular tions : Name of possession. Area. I'opulation. Java and Madura 50,848 149,555 17,325 4,977 2,500 203,714 71,150 42,420 21,840 3,990 150,755 . 23,862,820 3,180,100 94,676 Banca Billiton 79,648 37,803 1,108,892 Island of Celebes 762,284 321,168 45,538 Ball and Lombok 1,353,064 200,000 Total 719,074 31,051,993 NICARAGUA.* President, Genebal Santos Zelaya. Area and population. Historical sketch. NiCABAGUA runs entirely across the central part of Central America from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean, with Honduras on the north and Costa Eica on the south. The capital is Managua, 18,000 inhabitants. The country is divided into nine departments : Segovia, Chinendega, Leon, Matagalpa, Granada, Eivas, Chantelos, Managua, and Masaya, covering a total area of 4&,500 square miles, and having a population, largely of blacks and mulat- toes, of about 400,000. Nicaragua was partof the Central American Spanish colonies until 1821, when it arose in revolt with the other provinces. In 1823 it joined the Federal Union, from which it finally se- ceded in 1833, after nearly eleven years of almost uninterrupted bloodshed and war. Independence did not put an end to the upheavals. The state had long had difficulties with Costa Eica as to boundary lines and the possession of the prov- ince of Guanacasta, and these were not finally settled until President Harrison of the United States was chosen arbiter in 1888. The question of the Mosquito Coast was also a bone of contention for many years. The protectorate of England over that stretch of coast on the Caribbean Sea, and for forty miles inland between 10° 30' and 13° north latitude dated back many years. Nicaragua denied such a right on the part of England, and the matter was in dispute until 1850, when under the terms of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, England resigned all her claims to the territory. By the Managua treaty of ten years later the control was given to Nicaragua. The local chief still remains ruler in the Mosquito Coast country, though the government of Nicaragua has power to depose him. There is a small execu- tive council, under the chief, situated at Bluefields. * For map see under Honduras. 270 NICARAGUA. 271 Another cause for internal war has been the contest of the Liberal faction in the city of Leon and the Conservative in Granada. In 1855, after a number of years of constantly changing presidential terms, the then president, Castillon, ap- plied to General "Walker in San Francisco for aid against the Conservatives. Walker landed in Realejo on the 13th of June with sixty-two chosen companions, and on the 14th of Oc- tober, at the head of the Liberal troops, he captured the city of Granada, made Rivaa nominal and himself actual ruler of the country, and declared for the union of the Central Ameri- can republics under the leadership of Nicaragua. The other states sprang into arms at once and proceeded into Nicaraguan territory in 1856 where Walker was attacked and besieged. He surrendered on being allowed by the com- mander of the allied forces, General Mora, to depart in safety. Martinez was elected president in June, 1859, and peace was again restored. Walker returned in 1860, but was shot on the 15th of September, soon after entering the country. Nicaragua since 1860 has been most of the time in a state of war, interrupted with changes of presidents and an innumer- able number of pronunciamentos. The constitution of the country was put into effect on August 19, 1858, but in practice it is not followed closely. The legislative portion of the government consists of a Sen- ate and a House of Representatives. The former is composed of eighteen members, who are elected for a term of six years by universal suffrage. The House is composed of 21 members elected for four years. Congress assembles once in two years. The president is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years. He is assisted in the administration of the govern- ment by a cabinet of seven members, appointed by himself, including the minister of foreign affairs, justice, interior, finance, public works, public instruction, and war. There is a Supreme Court sitting at Granada and Leon. Under these two divisions of the highest court there are in- ferior criminal and civil courts in the different departments. The military force consists of about 700 men in time of peace. There is also a militia of about 25,000 men. There is no state religion, though the inhabitants are largely Catholic. Education has been stimulated in recent years by Constitu- tion. Legisla- ture. Executive. Judiciary. Army and Havy. 272 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. the importation of trained teachers from the United States and Europe. There are 250 schools, several schools of a technical nature, and a college. Cardenas was elected to the presidency in 1883, and since events, then the two important matters have been the Central Ameri- can war* and the proposed Nicaraguan Canal to run from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The latter increased in import- ance as the impossibility of making a canal at Panama became more and more evident. There have been plans for a canal across Nicaragua for the greater part of the century, but prac- tically nothing had been done until the Maritime Canal Com- pany of Nicaragua was founded. This company a few years later secured a grant from the Nicaraguan government giving it the sole right for ninety-nine years to build a canal. The route, beginning at Britoon the Pacific Coast, runs seventeen miles through a somewhat difficult rock-bed, involving some cutting, where three locks will be necessary ; thence to Lake Nicaragua ; thence at a level of 110 feet above the sea, 56.5 miles to St. Carlos, thence across the lake to the beginning of the San Juan Eiver; thence 64.5 miles to Ochoa, where a dam is to be constructed to keep the river up to the lake level ; thence following the San Juan Eiver, to the Caribbean Sea at Greytown, a distance of 31.8 miles, where three more locks will be necessary to bring the canal to the sea level. The canal is estimated to cost 164,000,000, and, calculating the tonnage to be 5,000,000 tons in 1895, which is a legitimate estimate, according to the present activity in shipping, a tol- lage of 12.50 per ton will pay running expenses and six per cent on a capital of 1200,000,000. Ground was broken for the canal early in 1891. The canal is to be absolutely neutral in time of war. • See Guatemala. Historical ORANGE RIVER FREE STATE.* President, - - - - Judge Bbitz. The Orange River Free State is a republic situated in the soutliern part of Africa, and is bounded on the north by Trans- vaal, on the east by Transvaal, Natal, and a part of Cape Col- ony, on the south by Cape Colony, and on the west by the western part of Griqualand and a portion of Bechuanaland. The republic has no coast-line therefore. The government is republican, and the capital is Bloemfontein with a population of 3,459, including whites and blacks. The area of the country is about 41,500 square miles and the population is made up of 77,716 whites and 129,787 natives, or in all 207,503 inhabitants. At the beginning of the century that part of Africa now occupied by the Free State was overrun with native tribes who ~sketch7 lived as they still live farther north and west in the uncivilized center of Africa. Toward 1824 some of the pioneer farmers of Cape Colony moved northward in order to get beyond the con- trol of the Cape government and have more room for their cattle. Ten years later a large number of white settlers had populated this district, and they were later followed by Dutch emigrants from Cape Colony, who also moved northward to be out of English rule. These men formed a government among themselves, and in their common endeavor to protect their interests they fought the natives and drove them northward and westward. These in turn applied to the English government for assistance. British forces were sent to their assistance. The country was for a time pacified, and an English resident was left there to keep the peace. But in 1848 the condition of affairs had be- come so bad that the Cape Colony decided to take control of the country and put it under an organized government. The dis- * For map see under South African Republic. 273 274 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. trict was consequently "annexed" to British territory and given the name of "The Orange River British Sovereignty." The Dutch Boers objected to this English rule and fought with the natives against the English forces, until they were temporarily compelled to stop on account of the loss of men and want of arms. The partial quiet that then ensued induced many whites to enter the country and settle there. Hostilities were, however, renewed and the English government deeming it impossible to pacify the wild tribes or the settlers finally withdrew its control in 1853. In the following year the Orange River Free State was formed and the present government in- stituted. A constitution was drawn up which provided for an assembly elected by the inhabitants and. the new government took immediate control of the territory. It has been moderately successful, and the country prospers in its way. The occupa- tions are mostly agricultural with some mining industries. The constitution of the Free State drawn up in 1854 has re- *''ttoii*"" mained practically unchanged. It is founded on republican principles which are carried out so far as is possible and neces- sary among such inhabitants. The legislative power is vested in a Volkraad, or National l!ure.*" Council, of fifty-six members. This body makes laws and has control of the administration of them. It also controls the flnanees of the country. All laws are, according to the constitu- tion, in force two months after being voted in the Council and signed by the presidents of the Volkraad and of the republic. It is in the power of the Volkraad to impeach the president, the final vote requiring three quarters of the total membership. The Volkraad cannot curtail the right of assembly. All civil and military laws, laws concerning taxation, customs, etc., and the regular prerogatives of a constituent assembly, come within the province of the Volkraad. Candidates for election must be twenty-five years of age and own |2,500 worth of property. Members serve four years, and half the total num- ber retire every two years. They are elected by a manhood suffrage requiring a voter to be a native of the state, or a resident of three years possessing either $650 in capital, a farm worth $150, an income of $1,000, or property worth $15,000. The Volkraad meets on the first of May in each year. The president of the Free State is the executive oflBcer. His ORANGE EIVER FEEE STATE. 275 term is five years, but he may be indefinitely reelected. His duties are to superintend the administration, command the army, accredit and receive foreign deputations, and visit all parts of the country and hear complaints. He may with the consent of the Volkraad declare war, make peace, sign treaties, and call conventions. There is an executive council to assist him, composed of the Landrost, or governor of the cap- ital, the government secretary, and three members appointed by the Volkraad each to serve one year. It reports six times a year to the Volkraad and may convene that body or declare martial law under the president's advice and consent. The law is founded on the Roman Dutch jurisprudence. There are three judges of a Supreme Court which is a court of appeals under the name of a high court of justice. One of the judges sits twice a year in each town in circuit court. There are inferior courts for minor offenses, both civil and criminal, in different districts. Trial by jury is guaranteed by the constitution. There are nineteen departments or districts, each presided over by a Landrost, who is appointed by the president with the consent of the Volkraad. Field cornets and field com- mandants are also elected in each district. The Dutch Reform Church is the state church though other creeds are tolerated. The educational system is very poor, more than half the white population being unable to read or write. Yet there is some pretense at state supervision of schools, and more than $100,000 was appropriated in 1891 for educational purposes. There are no fortifications. The army consists of 17,381 available soldiers who constitute the able-bodied men between the ages of sixteen and sixty. Executive. Judiciary. Army. PARAGUAY. President, - Jttan G. Gonzalez. Paraguay lies in the southeastern part of South America. It is bounded on the north by Bolivia and Brazil, on the east by Brazil, on the south by the Argentine Republic, and on the west by the Argentine Republic. The capital is Asuncion, 24,838 inhabitants. Paraguay has no coast-line whatsoever. The area of the republic is 91,970 square miles and the popu- lati6n is about 400,000. Of these the greater part are women and children, constant war until very recent years having practically annihilated the male population. The fourteen departments are : Asuncion, San Pedro, Concepcion, Rica, Caazapa, Lugal, Carapagua, San Estanislao, Itangua, Ita, Paraguari, Humaita, Pilas, Jaguaron. In 1811 the territory now occupied by Paraguay declared its sketchf independence of Spain and was formed into an independent state by Dr. J. Q. Rodriguez Francia. He was made secretary of a national junta in 1811. In 1813 a constitution was adopted, under the clauses of which the ruling power was given into the hands of a duumvirate. Francia became one of the two rulers, and a year later was appointed dictator, first for three years and later for life. Until his death in 1840 he ruled the country with a strong hand, closing the state to foreign commerce, but, on the other hand, encouraging national industry and the development of internal aflfairs. At his death his nephew, Carlos Antonio Lopez, succeeded him and ruled the country in what was for the times a peace- ful reign until 1862. The government was on the whole re- publican, though Lopez was practical dictator with a ministry responsible only to himself. He was reelected president in 1857 for a term of seven years and died in 1862. According to the custom in South American republics, Lopez named his successor in the person of his son, Francisco Solano 276 PAEAGUAY. 277 Lopez. This man has done more to ruin Paraguay than can be easily understood at first sight. He involved the' state in a series of wars that have almost literally exterminated the male population and that completely ruined the finances. He had an ambition to conquer the states along the river La Plata. He began in 1864 by protesting against the interfer- ence of Brazil in the civil war then raging in Uruguay against the president, Flores, on the ground that he was maintaining the "balance of power" among the La Plata states. In the same year he brought on war with Brazil by seizing Brazilian ships of war on the La Plata at Asuncion. The Brazilian government, still paying no attention to his interference in the Uruguay affair, he invaded the Brazilian province of Matto- Grosso. This led Brazil to form an oflEensive and defensive al- liance with Uruguay and the Argentine Republic against him in 1865. The result was a fierce war of five years' duration. It only closed after the repeated defeats of the Paraguayan troops and the annihilation of the army. Gradually through 1866 and 1867 Lopez's army grew thinner and thinner, and finally after the fall of Asuncion he was driven with the rem- nant of his followers into the mountains and there killed while in retreat. After peace had been signed with Brazil, in which part of the territory of Paraguay on the north was absorbed by Brazil, treaties were made with the latter and the Argentine Republic which forced Paraguay to pay war indemnities to the amount of £47,200,000. The men who were left in the country elected representatives to formulate a constitution which was finally adopted on the 27th of June, 1876 . In 1874 Vantista Gill became president, but was shot in 1877, a plot being discovered having for its object the overthrow of the government. For a while there was an interim when the president of the Senate ruled the state, and the government was not settled again until Caballero was elected in 1882. He was succeeded in 1890 by Don Gonzalez. The country was too completely devastated in 1870 to recover in twenty-five years, and it only now begins to show signs of growing commercial activity. A new constitution was adopted November 25, 1870, which ^.Con- was founded on that of 1844, but Paraguay is largely under the infiuence of Brazil. stitution. 278 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. Legisla- tttie. Executive. The legislature consists of two houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives. Of these the Senate is composed of mem- hers, one for every 12,000 inhabitants, chosen for a term of six years, one third of the Chamber going out every two years. The members of the House of Representatives are also elected by universal suflfrage for a term of four years in the ratio of one for every 6,000 inhabitants. The president of the republic is elected by an electoral col- lege to serve a term of four years, and is not eligible for re- election until two terms have intervened. He is assisted in the administration by a cabinet of five rninisters. There is a Supreme Court at Asuncion composed of three Judiciary, judges, representing the heads of the civil, criminal, and com- • mercial codes. The departments are divided into twenty-three electoral districts and there is a municipal government in each district. Much of the law code is prepared especially for Paraguay, but the civil code of the Argentine Republic is in force. The military force is a small body of 623 men partly infantry and partly cavalry. There is one steamship and two smaller crafts. Roman Catholicism is the established church under the con- stitution, but other creeds are tolerated. Education is repre- sented by 160 schools, in which, since November, 1881, educa- tion has been compulsory. There is a bureau of education, and within recent years a board has been appointed to increase popular education and learning, but the whole system is in- complete and insufficient. Army and Ifavy. PERSIA. Shah, Nase-ed-Din. The monarchy of Persia is in the southwestern part of Asia. It is bounded on the north by Bussia, the Caspian Sea, and part of Siberia, on the east by Turkestan, Beluchistan, and Afghanistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf, and on the west by the gulf and Turkey in Asia. The government is that of an absolute monarchy vested solely in the shah. Teheran is the capital with a population of 210,000. Persia covers an area of 628,000 square miles. The population is estimated for 1891 at about 9,000,000, of which some 800 are European whites. The greater part of the country is bar- ren and but sparsely settled, but the cities are thickly populated, and the rest of the popu- lation lives in towns and the rural dis- tricts that immedi- ately adjoin them. The chief inter- est in Persian his- tory of this century is to be found in its connection with El^ollioof' EL Esdatfr ^ElHaiaa/ Bussian and English diplomacy in Asia. It Is the object of these two great European powers to gain control of Afghan- istan and Beluchistan. Bussia hopes to spread her control 279 Historical sketch. 280 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. southward from Siberia to the sea coast on the Indian Ocean, and England with her colonial interests at stake looks upon these two countries as part of her Indian possessions. Persia, lying between these two powers, is practically ruled by the English and Russian diplomatic representatives at Teheran. In 1797 Fath All became shah by appointment and suc- cession. Scarcely three years had passed before he became in- volved in a war with Russia in the vicinity of Erivan on the Caspian Sea, which resulted in his defeat and the loss of ter- ritory. In 1809 England, through the India oflSce, first opened diplomatic relations with the shah and established a legation at Teheran. The minister brought about peace with Russia in 1813 at Gulistan, when Persia ceded Georgia and seven other provinces along the Caspian to Russia. England in her treaty arrangements had formed an alliance with the shah which required Persia in the event of an inva- sion of India by the Afghans to side with England, while at the same tim.e England, should the Russians attack the Per- sian border, agreed to come to the shah's assistance. In 1821 a war with Turkey opened over the questions of boundary, and it was only checked by the spread of Asiatic cholera among the troops. The war broke out again in 1826 between Russia and Persia and the shah was obliged to give up more territory in the north, including the important city of Erivan. Fath Ali died in 1834 and was succeeded by his grandson Mohammed. Riots occurred at Teheran before the new shah was crowned, but the English and Russian representatives succeeded in quelling the disturbance and Mohammed was crowned in 1835. From this time the history of Persia has been a series of dip- lomatic intrigues between the Russian and English represent- atives. In 1836 the shah was persuaded by the Russian, Count Simonieh, to invade Afghanistan, and he captured the capital after a siege of over a year. The English, however, saved the City by sending a force northward under Colonel Stoddart. This resulted in strained relations with England. Persia re- fused to give up the towns captured from the Afghans and Mr. John McNeill, the English representative, left Teheran, and British forces occupied the island of Karak in the northern part of the Persian Gulf. The shah seeing his weak position PERSIA. 281 received Mr. McNeill again in 1841, and amicable relations were restored. Persia was now disturbed internally by the rise of a self- styled prophet, Said Mohammed All, who put himself at the head of a religious sect, the Babbis. This body of fanatics had been in existence for half a century, and a war of exter- mination was now begun against them which occupied the attention of the Persian government from 1852 to 1860 and finally resulted in the annihilation of the whole sect. Meantime, in 1848, Mohammed had died and been suc- ceeded by his son, Nasr-ed-Din. The latter's reign has been a remarkable one. It is significant enough in that one man has been able to retain his power over such a people for so many years. His first work was the final extinction of the Babbis, which was accomplished by the most frightful atroci- ties and persecutions. The Crimean War in 1854-56 weakened the relations between Persia and England again, owing to the fact that the British government sided with Turkey, Persia's hereditary enemy, and war was the result in 1856, Persia hav- ing captured the city of Herat, the capital of Afghanistan. The peace of Paris, however, ended the Crimean War, and on the evacuation of Herat by the Persians peace was again re- stored between them and the English government. There is, strictly speaking, no constitution in Persia except constitn- the Koran, which, as in Turkey, is the only standard by which t>oi- the ruler can be judged and held in check. The shah has supreme and absolute power over the life and property of his subjects, and the revenues of the country constitute his ■in- come. His fortune is said to exceed $30,000,000, mostly in diamonds and precious stones. There is no legislation, all laws being promulgated by decrees of the shah. He has to assist him in the details of the government a ministry intro- duced some years ago on the plan of European governments. It consists of nineteen members, eight without portfolios, besides ministers for foreign affairs, finance, war, treasury, justice, custom-house, interior, arsenals, and arts and the press. There is also a minister for mines, telegraphs, and pub- lic instruction and one for post and religious endowments. These members of a kind of cabinet are appointed by the shah, and are therefore subject to dismissal by him. They are, 282 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. therefore, nothing more than advisers of the imperial power. The country itself is divided into twenty-seven districts for the purposes of administration and the collection of revenue, the latter being the chief occupation of the government oflacials throughout the kingdom. These districts are ruled by seven governor-generals, who are appointed by the shah and have the power of appointing sub-governors over the districts that come within their rule. The hakims, or governor-generals, also appoint kalantars in each town, and each parish has a ruler called the kedkhoda, also appointed by the hakim or in some cases by one of his sub-governors. In some cases the kalantars and kedkhodas are elected by the people, though this is by no means common. These different governors col- lect the revenue with the assistance of aids appointed by themselves. They also have charge of the judicial part of the government in their particular districts and decide cases without trial. The priests also have large judicial powers. A proclamation in 1878 announcing the introduction of trial according to European methods has never been fulfilled. The religion is the Shai'h branch of the Mohammedan faith. It is carried on by hosts of priests and their followers. Ee- ligious superstition has a strong hold over the people and the church is a powerful force in the state. The great mass of the people have no education except an ability to read the Koran, but there are native colleges and a European Polytechnic School which introduces European studies to a limited degree. The Persian army is about 105,500 strong, consisting of the ^ N^v °* following divisions : Artillery 5,000 Cavalry 25,200 Infantry 54,700 Militia 7,200 Others 13,400 Total 105,500 The active standing army is, however, only about 24,000 strong. The navy consists of a screw steamship and a river boat. Within the last few years certain European methods have been introduced. There has grown up a little toleration of other religions. The Karun Eiver has been opened to navi- gation and the English have tried to take advantage of this to PERSIA. 283 introduce English and Indian merchandise in exchange for certain materials peculiar to Persia. Russia, in like manner, iias pushed the building of roads from the Caspian Sea on to Teheran, in the hopes of opening communication through the Caucasus into the center of Persia. There can be little doubt that both these undertakings, the Karun River on the south and the road on the north, are encouraged by the English government on the one hand, and the Russian government on the other to make the mobilization of troops possible at short notice in case of need. Persia, however, still remains one of the most uncivilized countries of the world. PERU. President, - Colonel Bemigio Mokales Bebmtjdez. MINISTRY. Minister of Foreign Affairs, president Dr. J. M. Jimenez Minister of Interior and Public Works Gaston Minister of Finance and Commerce A. L. Gonzales Minister of Justice and Beligion E. P. Flgueroa Minister of War and Marine N. Binz de Somocurcio TABLE OF STATISTICS. J^ovinces. Area. Poxyulation. Piura Cajamarca.. Amazonas Lioreto Libertad Ancacbs Lima 1 Callao j Huanoavelica Huanuoo 1 Junin J lea Ayacucho Cuzco Puno Arequipa Moquegua i Apurimac Lambayeque Total 13,931 14,188 14,129 32,727 15,649 17,405 14,760 10,814 33,822 6,295 24,213 95,547 39,743 27,744 22,516 62,325 17,979 135,502 213,391 34,245 61,125 147,541 284,091 226,922 34,492 104,455 78,856 209,871 60,111 142,205 238,445 256,594 160,282 28,786 119,246 85,944 463,787 2,622,104 234 PERU. The republic of Peru is situated in the central western part of South America. It is bounded on the north by Ecuador and part of Brazil, on the east by Brazil and Bolivia, on the south by Bolivia, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The government is that of a re- public and the capital, Lima, has a population of 101,488. In August, 1814, the na- tives and Peruvians of Spanish descent arose in rebellion against the rule of the Spanish viceroy, Pumaeagua. They were, however, defeated in the following year. Five years later Lord Cochrane organ- ized a fleet of vessels at Valparaiso, and sailed northward with a force of Argentine troops under General San Martin. He landed on Peruvian soil, and after some fighting entered Lima, from which the viceroy had retired. He was received with acclamation by the people. A congress assembled in 1822 at which Aguero was chosen the first president of independent Peru. Simon Bolivar was now called in to assist the new govern- ment and maintain its newly acquired independence. He de- feated the Spanish troops in several engagements, and finally, at the battle of Ayacucho in 1824, he routed them so severely that Spanish rule in Peru was forever at an end. Bolivar tried 285 History since i8oo. 286 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. to force a constitution on Peru making himself dictator, but failing in this he retired with his Colombian army. After hia departure General Lamar, who had commanded the Peruvian troops at Ayacucho, was elected president, but he proved in- capable of defending his government in the war which broke out with Colombia in 1827, and he was deposed two years later. His successor, General Gamarra, second president of Peru, entered upon his oflace in 1829, and from 1830 to 1844 Peru went through a transition period in which the people were learning to govern themselves. Dictators came to the front, ruled for a time, and then fell. There were three constitutions adopted, one in 1828, one in 1833, and one in 1839. After Gamarra came the poet-president Salaverry in 1836, and Santa Cruz, one of the few really great statesmen Peru has had, succeeded him. In 1844 Castilla became president, and under his rule Peru had ten years of peace and progress. Castilla resigned in 1850, but he was forced to return to office in 1855, owing to a finan- cial crisis that caused the people to turn to him again. And then Peru had peace once more, with the exception of two outbreaks, until 1879. A constitution had been adopted in 1856, which, with cer- tain changes made in 1860, is the basis of the present govern- ment. But with the retirement of Castilla, in 1862, Peru began to decline. Castilla had resumed the payment on the national debt and had reduced the debt itself to £4,000,000, strengthening the credit materially. His successor. Colonel Balta, increased the debt in four years to £50,000,000, so that when he retired in 1872 Pardo, his successor, found the state almost ruined. Pardo did all he could to put the state on a sound financial basis, but the shock had been too great, and when in 1876 he was succeeded by Prado the government was in a critical condition. The stringency in financial matters was in a measure obvi- ated by the discovery of enormous nitrate deposits in the southern province of Peru. The government in 1878 had mortgaged this territory to foreigners, and had thereby put its debt upon a somewhat firmer basis. This improvement was beginning to manifest itself when, in 1879, the Chilean war broke out. The Bolivian government had at the time of the discovery PERU. 287 of these deposits received certain territory from Ciiile, on con- dition that the Chilean residents should not be taxed. When these valuable discoveries caused an influx of foreigners into the Bolivian territory, the government placed a duty on ex- ports and Chile, declaring this to be a breach of the treaty, entered the territory with an armed force.* This was, how- ever, but one of the causes for the war. Chile realized what she had lost in parting with this territory and was willing to accept any cause for a quarrel with its possessor. The Chilean government had also recently learned that a secret treaty of alliance had been made between Peru and Bolivia in 1873. Fighting began in February, 1879, and the Chilean forces moved steadily northward until the province of Tarapaca, the territory in question, was entirely in the possession of the Chilean goverument, and Bolivia had lost her whole coast- line. Peru was now drawn into the contest, but the govern- ment troops were defeated in a series of engagements and the Chilean army advanced into Peruvian territory. Prado was forced to resign the presidency and fly from the country, all the failures of the Peruvian troops being laid at his door. He was succeeded by the vice-president. La Puerta, who met with no better success. At the same time revolutionary movements began to appear at the capital and an outbreak occurred, under the cover of which General Pierola assumed first the arbitrary control, and, four days later, the dictatorship of Peru. He has been called the evil genius of the country, so much has it suffered through him. In spite of all efforts to the contrary, the Chilean troops continued to advance throughout the early part of the year 1880, until Lima itself was threatened. At this moment the United States intervened in an attempt to bring about peace, but the Peruvian government refused to accept peace on the terms required by Chile, and fighting began again. Lima fell in 1881, and the Chilean general on entering the city assumed the government of Peru, and took control of the finances and the administration. For a time no one could be found to take charge of the government, but gradually Gen- eral Iglesias acquired the right to rule, and he was legally elected president in 1882. Peace was restored in the following * See Chile. 288 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. year, and by the terms of the treaty Peru lost the province of Tarapaca. Chile agreed to carry out the engagements entered into by Peru concerning the nitrate regions and to pay fifty per cent of the profits from this industry to the Peruvian gov- ernment. General Iglesias had, meantime, not only a penniless state to enrich, order to restore, and a government to set up, but he had also to contend with a rival, Caceres, who with a small following had tried to usurp the power when the state was without a head. Driven now into the interior, the latter raised a force of Indian troops and raided the country, gradually gaining more and more over to his side, until in 1885 he finally captured Lima and both he and Iglesias resigned their positions and called an election. Caceres became president in 1886, and succeeded in keeping the country at peace during his term of office. He was succeeded by Colonel Bermudez in 1890, and although the elections were by no means orderly, they were far quieter than usual. Since then the country has begun to show signs of improvement in spite of the deplorable condition in which it was left by the war. The present constitution of Peru dates from 1856. It was re- Constitu- vised in 1860, and remains to-day practically unchanged. Like those of other South American states the Peruvian constitution is modeled on that of the United States, but it is far less liberal than the latter in its details. The president has in reality ex- tensive powers, not given him by the constitution, by which he exercises more or less control over the legislation in the country. The legislative part of the government is put into the hands Legisia- of two houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives, The Senate is composed of members elected from the nineteen de- partments, one from every 30,000 inhabitants therein, or fraction over 15,000. The House of Representatives is composed of members elected by electoral colleges in each province, or sub- division of the departments. Where a department contains two provinces or more, it returns two representatives to the federal House of Representatives and one additional member for every two provinces in addition. There are in all one hun- dred and ten representatives. Thus the senators are returned by the departments at large and the representatives by the dif- ferent subdivisions of the departments. ture. PERU. 289 The methods of procedure and the powers of the Congress are practically those of the United States Congress, the influ- ence of the president over legislation, however, being much greater than in the latter country. The executive portion of the government is in the hands of Executive, the president. He commands the army and navy, accredits and receives foreign deputations and emissaries, and appoints a cabinet or council of five members to assist him in the administration of the government. These ministers are re- sponsible to and removable by the president alone. He has the power of veto and in practice usually names his successor. The country has had such a checkered history that the presi- dent has often made himself practical dictator until over- thrown. Thejudicial systemof the country is in a wretched condition, judiciary, there being little or no organized system of courts, and the representatives of foreign governments at Lima are compelled to watch the interest of their countrymen to protect them from injustice. The Roman Catholic Church is guaranteed by the state and the constitution forbids other forms of worship, though this is not strictly enforced. The University of San Marios is the oldest in America. There are besides smaller universities at Cuzco and Arequipa. Elementary education is supposed to be compulsory, though the system is by no means carried out. High schools are also maintained by the government, though students are obliged to pay a small fee. The total military force of Peru does not exceed 6,000 men in ^^ time of peace. The entire male population over twenty-one wavy, years of age is available in time of war as a militia, though it is of no great value. The navy consists of one cruiser and of one or two smaller craft. PORTUGAL. King, CAEIiOS I. RULERS SINCE 1800. Joan Jose 1796-1816 John VI 1816-1826 Pedro IV 1826-1826 Maria II 1826-1828 Miguel 1 1828-1834 Maria II. (restored) 1834-1853 Pedro V 1853-1861 Luis 1 1861-1889 Carlos 1 1889- MINISTRY. Minister of Finance and premier B. R. Hintze Blbeiro Minister of the Interior F. F. Pinto Castello Branco Minister of Justice A. A. Castello Branco Minister of Foreign AJTairs C. L. D'Avila Minister of War Col. L. A. Plmentel Pinto Minister of Navy and Colonies J. A. de Brissac dos Neves Ferreira Minister of Public Works and Commerce Campos Henriques TABLE OF STATISTICS. iyovince\ Minho-e-Douro — Vianna, Braga, Porto Tras-os-Montes— Villa Beal, Bra- gansa Belra— Aveiro, Castello Branco. Colmbra, Guarda, Vizeu '. Bstremadura — Leiria, Lisbon, Santarem Alemtejo— Beja, Evora, Portalegre Algarve Azores and Madeira Total Area. 2,807 2,293 9,248 6,876 9,431 1,873 1,510 34,038 I'opulation. 1,014,768 1,377,432 946,472 367,169 204,037 401,624 4,708,178 290 PORTUGAL* The tingdom of Portugal is situated at the extreme end of the Spanish peninsula. It is bounded on the west and south by the Atlantic Ocean, and the north and east by the kingdom of Spain. The government is that of a limited monarchy with a constitution and a representative legislature. Lisbon is the capital with a population of 246,343. The nineteenth century has been the most critical century History in Portuguese history. The progress of the nation from abso- since iSoo. lutism, from, the Inquisition, and from feudal laws and cus- toms, to a constitutional government, has only been accom- plished by nearly three quarters of a century of bloodshed and crime and financial ruin. At the beginning of the century the government and people, though influenced to some extent by the French Eevolution, were still in a medieval state of civili- zation. The state had been important in past centuries, but had remained stationary while other nations progressed. At the end of the last century, the precarious condition of the queen's health had compelled her consort to take the reins of the government into his own hands, and it was in this un- certain condition that the state entered upon the Peninsular War, which Napoleon waged against it from 1807 until his fall in 1815. Throughout this period the English supported the Portuguese against the French, and under the vigorous lead- ership of the English generals the Portuguese government became demoralized. Don Pedro fled with Maria to Brazil in 1807, leaving a Council of Regency composed largely of English- men to rule the state. The vigorous measures of the English generals, especially of Marshal Beresford, gave the Portuguese troops the upper hand in the struggle, on the whole, and in 181 6 the state, though weak- ened, still remained independent. In this year the queen died * For map see under Spain. 291 292 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. in Brazil and Pedro became king under tlie title of John VI. The Council of Regency, though of great service during the military campaign, proved to be too severe for carrying on the administration in time of peace. This severity, added to the fact that their rulers were foreigners, goaded the Portuguese to Insurrection in 1817. Beresford went to Brazil in 1820 to urge the return of the king, which was finally accomplished in 1822. The Radicals had meantime gained control of the government and appointed an assembly to draw up a constitution. This' constitution of 1822 was a wild attempt to settle the difflculties that had existed so long in the Portuguese government. It showed the influence of the French Revolution, but embodied few of the benefits that should have been gained from that event. The king, however, was compelled to agree to it, though most of the foreign ambassadors had been recalled on its pro- mulgation. Hardly a year had passed when the Count of Amarante, seeing that the queen and the king's brother, Don Miguel, opposed the new constitution, headed a revolt that might have overthrown the government had not the king foresworn the new administration and returned to the absolute form of government. The breach formed at this time divided the state into two parties, the one composed of the followers of Don Miguel standing in opposition, the other supporting the existing lib- eral government. The insurrection itself was suppressed by the influence of foreign courts, and the king deemed it wise to again leave for Brazil. He died there in 1826 proclaiming in his will his daughter, Isabel Maria, regent of Portugal. Don Pedro, the king's son, became ruler of Brazil, and his brother returned to Europe to push his claims to the Portuguese throne. The new Brazilian ruler appointed his daughter, Maria da Gloria, heir to the throne of Portugal and then abdicated all claim to the throne. One condition of his abdication and the appointment of his daughter to be heir-apparent was that she should marry Don Miguel, and at the same time he promul- gated a charter, or constitution, its adoption being also a con- dition of his abdication. This constitution of 1826 is the basis of the present government. It was a modification of that of 1822 with the socialistic tendencies removed. It was PORTUGAL. 293 heartily received by the people, and, in 1827, with Pamella at the head of the government and Don Miguel as consort, the country began its constitutional life. The period from this date until the accession of Pedro in 1853 is one of constant changes of government, of the rise and fall of the Constitutionalists and the Absolutists, the financial condition of the state, m^eantime, being left to arrange itself. As one party or the other came into power it repudiated the debts of its predecessor and Portuguese credit was worthless abroad. It was the final struggle of medieval feudalism with the modern system of government by the people. Miguel had scarcely become settled as consort when, in 1828, he began a movement against the constitution which grew to such proportions that in 1832 Pedro IV. of Brazil was compelled to sail for Portugal. He was besieged on his arrival in the city of Oporto and was finally rescued only by the inter- vention of the British fieet under Napier. The siege itself was one of the remarkable events in Portuguese history, lasting as it did for nearly a year. The insurrectionists under Miguel having been finally dis- persed, Queen Maria and Pedro entered Lisbon and pro- claimed again the constitution of 1826. Peace might now have been restored had not Pedro, the real stay of the govern- ment, died in the following year. The queen, who was there- upon declared of age, was only fifteen years old, and was quite incapable of holding the many diflferent factions of the government together. In 1836 an insurrection put the more advanced Republicans into power, and under the leadership of Caldeira they re-introduced the constitution of 1822. They managed to hold control of the state until 1842, when another revolt returned Pedro's more suitable charter of 1826. Then the management of the state was intrusted to the Count of Thomar, who gradually introduced one measure after another, bringing the power into the hands of the queen's representa- tive and taking it away from the representatives of the people. This movement brought on within the next few years an- other insurrection, known as the War of Maria da Fonte, which was the rise of the Constitutionalists against the Abso- lutists and which ended in the Granada Convention of June, 1847. 294 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. After the death of Maria II., iu 1853, and a two years' re- gency of Fernando II., her husband, Don Pedro V., became king of Portugal, and then the peaceful era in the country's history began. The constitution of 1826 was again introduced and the elections returned a majority for the Constitutionalists. There were frequent but ineffectual outbreaks during the next few years, but when, in 1861, King Luis ascended the throne on the death of Pedro, the party lines had become clearly drawn and the people had become accustomed to constitutional government. Since then Portugal has become more firmly set- tled in peace as time advanced. The revolutionists are now a part of the past. Their power over the people grew less and less, until when in 1870 Saldanha, one of the greatest men of the revohitionary period, tried to bring about another insurrection, he met with little or no support. King Luis maintained the constitutional form of government, making his ministers re- sponsible to the Cortes and carrying on the state under a con- stitution remodeled on that of 1826 and 1852. The era of literary and artistic development that followed was of great service in uniting tlie different factions of the country in a common pride for the growth of their land. This has in the last ten years, with the experience derived from peaceful administration, established the present form of government and maintained peace. The present constitution of Portugal dates from the one tion. adopted in 1826, which was in turn formed on the Brazilian constitution introduced by the emperor Pedro IV. It has been amended since then in 1852, 1878, and 1885. There are two legislative houses, the Chamber of Peers (Cam- Legisia- ^^^ ^°^ Pares) and the Chamber of Deputies (Camara dos ture. Deputados), which are called the Cortes. The Chamber of Peers is undergoing a gradual change from an hereditary to a representative house under the amendments carried through in 1885. By an amendment passed in 1878 the king was given the right to nominate members of the Upper House from some twenty different classes including the nobility, clergy, etc., and since that time over one hundred have been added. The rearrangement made in 1885 provides for a reduction for this part of the Chamber. The king may now nominate only one member for every three vacancies, and only those peers already PORTUGAL. 295 in the Chamber in 1885 and their immediate successors can retain their seats. Besides these, fifty members are now ap- pointed or elected as follows : five by the universities and learned societies and two from each of the nineteen adminis- trative districts, with the exception of Lisbon and Oporto, which return four and three respectively. A candidate for this part of the Chamber must be thirty-five years of age and have certain property qualifications. Under this arrangement it is apparent that the Chamber of Peers will in time consist only of senators who have been chosen by the people. The members of the Chamber of Deputies are chosen by an almost universal suffrage, the qualification for electorship being that a voter must be twenty-one years of age, able to read and write, and in possession of an income of 109 milreis a year, or about 12.00 a week. Candidates for the Lower Chamber must have an income of 365 milreis a year, but scholars and mem- bers of the learned professions are exempted from this property qualification. There are at present 149 deputies who are re- turned from 94 electoral districts, including those from Madeira and the Azores. The Chambers meet at the same time and the term continues for three months in each year. Elections occur once in four years if not oftener. Members of the Chamber of Deputies receive a salary of about $2.50 a day during the session. In case the Cortes is dissolved it must be summoned again im- mediately, new elections having been held ; and bills that have passed both Houses cannot be vetoed by the sovereign. The king is the executive oflicer of the government, and the Executive, crown may descend to either male or female descendants, though preference is given to the male descendant where the birthrights are equal. The sovereign has the usual preroga- tives, such as the command-in-chief of the army and the right to name and receive foreign emissaries. He may take the ad- vice of the privy council, which is composed of sixteen mem- bers nominated by himself for life. There is a High Supreme Court at Lisbon which is the final judiciary, court for the whole Portuguese dominion. Below this there are Courts of Cassation at Oporto, Lisbon, and the Azores, and primary courts in all the principal towns of the districts. There is a fourth division in the Portuguese government called the " moderating power " which is vested in the king. 296 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOBLD TO-DAY. The Roman Catholic is the state church and receives certain endowments from the state, but other creeds are tolerated. Education is in a disorganized condition, though nominally compulsory. The University of Coimbra is the chief educa- tional institution. Army and There are seven fortified places in the kingdom. The army Navy. consists of all able-bodied men twenty-one years of age with certain carefully stated exceptions. Each year the Cortes votes the army bill and decides upon the eflfective body to be main- tained through the year. Each man must serve three years with the active army, five in the Landwehr, or first reserve, and four in the Landsturm, or second reserve. The peace foot- ing of the army is 37,273, and 150,000 can be put into the field in time of war. The navy consists of an ironclad, 14 gunboats, 5 torpedo boats, 6 corvettes, and 3 transports. ROUMANIA. King Carol I. MINISTRY. Minister of the Interior and premier L. Catargl. Minister of Agriculture P. P. Carp. Minister of P^oreign Affairs A. Lahovari. Minister of Finance M. Germani. Minister of Justice General A. Marghiloman. Minister of Public Works C. Olanesca. Minister of Public Instruction and Worship.. ..T. Joneseo. Minister of War General C. Poenaro. The kingdom of Roumania is in the district lying north of the Balkan Peninsula and south of Russia and Austria. It is bounded on the north by Austria, on the east by Russia, on the south by Bulgaria, and on the west by Servia and Austria. The government is a constitutional monarchy under an inde- pendent sovereign king. Bucharest is the capital with a popu- lation of 221,805 according to the latest census — 1876. The total area of Roumania is 48,307 square miles and the population is about 5,500,000, made up of Roumanians, Jews, ■Gypsies, Bulgarians, Germans, Magyars, Armenians, French, English, etc. The territory occupied by the kingdom of Roumania was in Historical 1800 under the control of Turkey. The perpetual rivalry of sketch. Russia, Austria, and Turkey for the possession of the entrance to the Black Sea, and all that that possession means, has led to a series of wars running through the present century between. Russia and Turkey with the other powers of Europe ranged on either side. The seat of war is naturally on the border-line of Turkey in Europe and Russia. This strip of land along the Black Sea and extending some distance up the Danube is oc- cupied by Moldavia and Wallachia, which in 1800 were both under Turkish suzerainty. Partly from ti es of blood and partly from their common cause to be defended against a common enemy, these two provinces were in sympathy with each other and fought together for a union and the formation of an inde- 297 298 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. pendent government. The Turkish rule had been atrocious for many years, and in 1804 the inhabitants revolted. The Porte took vengeance by putting to death the hospodar, or ruler of Wallachia. Whereupon Russia took up the cause of the prov- inces and declared war upon Turkey. The peace of Bucharest in 1812 gave to Russia the northern portion of Moldavia called Bessarabia, and the Russian government, being satisfied with this, gave the two provinces over to Turkish rule again. After this episode, whenever Russia and Turkey entered up- on a campaign, the two provinces were likely to be the terri- tory where the fighting occurred, and when peace was again arranged each of the powers took to itself whatever of their territory it could. The provinces stood, therefore, between two fires, occasionally deprived of small portions of their territory and yet safe from absolute absorption by either because of the intervention of the other European governments to preserve the balance of power in the East. Ypsilanti, the leader of the party of union in the two prov- inces, tried in 1821 to bring about a common government for . Moldavia and Wallachia, and to further that purpose he went to Bucharest and Jassy collecting military forces. Again the result was an invasion of both Turks and Russians and a war that ended in the peace of Adrianople in 1829. The provinces again suffered, but the party of union was stronger than ever, and a plan was put through which has established a common government in the two provinces under an organic law. This was an illiberal government of bishops and nobles under a Russian protectorate. It took the Turkish government until 1834 to ratify this and for five years, therefore, Russian troops were quartered in the territory. In 1848 the Wallaohians, fired by the revolutions that were passing over Europe, rose in a body and demanded a constitu- tional government, but within a year Turkish intervention had again introduced the old system. Then, in 1853, the Crimean War began in Wallachian territory, and the destruc- tion of life and property was widespread over the entire prov- ince. By the treaty of Paris in 1856, which ended the Crimean War, part of Bessarabia was returned to Moldavia and the In- tegrity of Wallachian rule within its territory was insured, though the country was still under the suzerainty of Turkey. EOUMANIA. 299 Steps toward a union now began in earnest, but the project was opposed by the powers lest a too powerful state thus formed along the Danube should complicate the Eastern Ques- tion still further. Each province, however, proceeded to nomi- nate the same man as a candidate for its ruler, and in 1859 Prince Alexander John Cuza became ruler of both Moldavia and Wallachia. Two years later by an agreement signed at the two capitals the new state was named Boumania. By 1862 a single ministry and a single house were formed for both provinces. In 1865, political disturbances arising in both provinces, another legislative house was formed. In the following year, the political hostility to Prince Cuza arose to such a height that he was forced to fly from the coun- try, and Prince Charles of Hohenzollern was elected hospodar of the united provinces in his place. A new and more liberal constitution adapted from that of Prance was introduced. It was only eleven years later, in 1877, that Bussia again ad- vanced on the Ottoman Empire* and the fighting again took place on Wallachian territory. The inhabitants of the newly made country joined the Bussians and captured Plevna. By the treaty of San Stefano in 1878 Bessarabia was again absorbed by Bussia, and Dobrudja was taken from Tur- key and given to Boumania. At the Berlin Congress in the same year Boumania was constituted an independent princi- pality, and in 1881 Prince Charles was crowned king of the new kingdom of Boumania. The contemporary history of Boumanian politics has been one of continually changing ministries, caused by the fail- ure of the government to obtain a strong majority. There are so many parties and each is so small that it is difficult to bring about any legislation. The Irredentists are perhaps the strongest, and the Bussophiles, the National Liberals, the Young Conservatives, the Conservatives, the Boiars, and the old Feudal party, all have a proportionately respectable fol- lowing, not however sufficient to give any one of them the control of the Chambers for any length of time. The min- istry changed four times in 1891 over the excitement on the proposal of the crown prince to marry a Boumanian lady instead of a member of some royal family. Serious trouble to * See Russia and Austria. 300 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. Constitu- tion. Legisla- ture. the government was finally avoided, toward the close of the year, by the breaking off of the betrothal. It became evident to the powers after the Turkish war in the middle of the century that the land lying between Russia, Turkey, and Austria should have a guaranteed sovereignty as being the best solution of the question involved in their ex- istence. After the revolution of 1866 a constitution was drawn up by a national assembly. This has stood through the changes in politics since that date with some minor changes in 1879 and 1884. The systems introduced are on the model of those of the French Republic. It provides for trial by jury and abso- lute freedom of the press. This last is minutely and fully guaranteed by the constitution, for this has been one of the most longed for privileges of the Eastern European peoples. Free assembly is granted to the people also. There are two legislative houses, who with the king con- stitute the legislative portion of the government. Each House may originate bills, and the king also. They meet in joint as- sembly, when required by diflference of opinion regarding a bill, and in other general features the parliamentary system of the French Chamber is in force. The Chambers meet on the 15th of November of each year and sit three months. The Senate is composed of one hundred and twenty mem- bers who serve an eight years' term. The two universities at Jassy and Bucharest each return one senator, and eight are chosen among the bishops. The heir-apparent has a seat in the Senate. Otherwise the senatorial candidates must be forty years of age, natural-born or naturalized Roumanians resident in the country, and having an income of |1,800. The qualifications for electoral rights in the senatorial districts are of two kinds, both existing in each electoral district. One sen- ator is returned from each district. There are two electoral colleges, one made up of men owning estates in Roumania outside the towns, and the other including those having the same income limit and having property in the towns. There must be one hundred electors in each district. In case the number is not made up by those having this income, it is filled by those next in scale. The Chamber of Deputies is composed of one hundred and eighty-three members who are elected to serve four years. EOUMANIA. 301 They must also be native or naturalized citizens of at least twenty-five years of age. All males twenty-one years of age who are taxpayers are voters. They are divided into three electoral colleges in each district. These are : (1) owners of property worth not less than |235 ; (2) taxpayers paying over $6.00 per annum, including professional men ; (3) all other taxpayers over twenty-one years of age. The king is the executive, having the usual powers of a mon- arch. He is commander of the army and accredits and re- ceives diplomatic agents, etc. He may dissolve the Chambers, but must call an election within two months again, and open the C!hambers within three months. He may also adjourn the Cliambers for one month, but only once in the same session. There is a Supreme Court, or High Court of Cassation and Justice, at Bucharest and there is a civil court in each canton or commune. Trial by jury is in force in criminal and political trials. The army is divided into the regular army and the terri- torial army, with their reserves, the militia, the civic guard, and a general liability to service for any male Roumanian be- tween the ages of sixteen and forty-six. There are five mili- tary districts, each including an army corps. The regular army consists of 38,871 officers and men, which, with a terri- torial army of 81,843, gives a general total of 129,714 available men. For administrative purposes the state is divided into can- tons which are again divided into districts, and these in turn into communes. The first and the last have local governments under electoral councils, prefects, and mayors. The Greek Orthodox Church is the state church with a com- plicated system of bishops under a metropolitan and arch- bishops. Education is backward, though it is supposed to be free and compulsory. There are 3,000 primary schools, high and normal schools, and two universities. Executive. Judiciary. Army. Local gov- ernment. RUSSIA. Tsar, AiEXANDEE IV. RULERS SINCE 1800. Paul 1 1801 Alexander! 1801-1825 Nicolas 1 1825-1855 Alexander II 1855-1881 Alexander III 1881-1894 Alexander IV 1894- MINISTERS. Minister of the Imperial House General Count VoroutzolT-Dashkoff Minister of Foreign Affairs Nicolas C. de Giers Minister of War General Vannofsky Minister of Navy Vice-Admiral Tchikliatclioff Minister of Interior Privy Councilor Durnovo Minister of Public Instruction Privy Councilor Delyanoff Minister of Finance Privy Councilor S. J. Witte Minister of Justice Privy Councilor Mouraview Minister of State's Dominions Privy Councilor A. S. Yermolow Minister of Public Works and Railroads General Annenkoff Minister for Finland W. C. de Daehn Department of General Control Privy Councilor Filipoff TABLE OF STATISTICS. J^oviTice. Area, Population. In Europe : Russia proper : 51 provinces Poland : 10 provinces Grand Duchy of Finland : 8 provinces Total, Russia in Europe.... In Asia: Northern Caucasia: 3 provinces Trans-Caucasia : 7 provinces Kirghiz Steppe : 5 provinces Turkestan : 4 provinces Trans-Caspia Western Siberia : 2 provinces Eastern Siberia : 4 provinces Amur Region Sakhalin Total, Russia in Asia Grand total, Russian Empire 1,902,092 49,157 144,255 88,906,921 8,900,418 2,380,140 2,095,504 89,497 91,346 755,793 409,414 214,237 870,818 3,044,512 888,830 29,336 100,187,479 2,860,247 5,011,555 2,000,970 3,341,913 276,709 2,623,129 1,705,297 190,491 19,644 6,393,783 18,029,955 8,489,287 118,217,434 302 RUSSIA. The empire of Russia stretches from the eastern coast of the Baltic to the Pacific Ocean. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean and tlie undiscovered waters which that name includes, from longitude 20° east from Greenwich eastward to 170° west from Green- wich, or within ten degrees of one half the circle of the globe in that latitude. The empire is bounded on the east by the Pa- cific Ocean and China, on the south by China, India, Turkestan, Turkey, the Black Sea, and Austria, and on the west by Germany, Austria, the Black Sea, and Sweden and Norway. European Russia, or Russia proper, is divided from Siberia and Asia by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, and the Cau- casian Mountains. The government is an hereditary, absolute monarchy. St. Petersburg is the capital with a population of 1,003,315. In the wars against Napoleon, Alexander of Russia was gen- erally on the side of the allies. He made peace with France and England in 1801, but in four years he joined the third union of Europe against Napoleon, put 21,000 men into the History since i8aa. 304 GOVEENMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. battle of Austerlitz, and after the treaty of Pressburg joined the fourth coalition against the French emperor in 1806, and finally, in the peace of Tilsit, he worked in secret with Napoleon and seemed on the whole to be more favorable to him than to the allies. In 1809 Finland was conquered from Sweden and added to the Russian Empire, and in the same year came the fifth coalition of Europe against Napoleon. Alexander tried to avert the war, but failed and got into war himself with Tur- key. Russia in 1812 took Bessarabia, Moldavia, and Wallaehia, but in the treaty of Bucharest she was obliged to give up the two latter. At the same time, the enforced blockade to which Alexander had agreed with Napoleon was injuring Russia, and it was through the non-observance of this that the invasion of Russia by Napoleon's army was caused in 1812. On Napoleon's ar- rival at Moscow the city was razed by the inhabitants and in the dead of winter the French were obliged to retreat through Germany to Prance. After the fall of Napoleon, at the Congress of Vienna, Alex- ander held the place of honor among European sovereigns, and Russia's r61e from this time until Alexander's death was that of adviser and arbitrator. The Russian forces aided in suppressing revolutions wherever they occurred and in curtail- ing the Turkish rule in Europe. When Alexander came to the throne he began with more lib- eral principles than his predecessor and pronaised to institute a constitutional government, to free the serfs, etc. He, how- ever, found it impossible at the time to accomplish this. His premier until 1812, Speranski, was a man of remarkable ability and great liberality of ideas. Like Stein and Hardenburg in Prussia, and Turgot, Louis XVI. 's minister, he was too liberal for his time and made enemies on all sides until finally in 1812 he was removed through the misrepresentations of the aristo- cratic party. Alexander did, however, introduce a Council of State in 1810 under Speranski's advice, and this council is still one of the Grand Colleges of the government. Speranski's successor, Araktcheflf, was made the chief adviser of the tsar. His pol- icy was in direct opposition to that of Speranski, but Alexan- der still maintained many of his liberal views. Poland, for ex- RUSSIA. 305 ample, received a constitution, wtiich the tsar as king of Poland swore to observe. He opened libraries and in other ways strove to introduce the. more advanced ideas of England and France. But the traditions of the Russian people were too strong to admit of such sudden advance, and Alexander, discovering his inability to raise his people, gradually fell into a retired, moody existence, discouraged with his powerlessness to better their condition. In this state of mind he went to the Congresses of Troppau and Laibach. There and later he came under the in- fluence of Mfetternich, prime minister of Austria, and was led to join the Holy Alliance, which grew to be nothing more than a power for crushing free thought out of Europe. On the death of Alexander I., in 1825, Constantin, his brother and the next heir, resigned his right to the crown and Nicolas, son of Paul I. , became the tsar. The resignation of Constantin had been made secretly in 1822, and as Nicolas knew nothing of this there were a few days in December, 1825, when Eussia had no ruler. This interregnum was enough to stimulate the secret societies to a revolt. The cry was raised of " Constantin and the Constituzia " (constitution), which the people took for "Constantin and his wife Constituzia'' — so little did they understand then what a constitution meant. By vigorous measures on the part of the St. Petersburg troops the revolt was quelled and Nicolas proclaimed tsar. One of the earliest works of Nicolas was to reestablish Rus- sian traditions in the government and in the life of the people so far as he could. Paul T. had favored German principles. Alexander I. was a great admirer of the Code Napoleon. But Nicolas I. published in 1830 the complete " Collection of the Laws of the Russian Empire," which was a codification of the existing laws with some additions on his own part in several of the departments of state. The system of tribunals was improved, the state of which can be imagined by the fact that 2,850,000 cases were awaiting settlement. He instituted the Holy Synod under Protassof and pushed forward trans- portation facilities throughout the empire. It was his purpose to emancipate the serfs, but that was left for his successor to accomplish. In 1826 it became evident that Persia under the secret pro- tection of England was planning an advance into the country 306 GtOVEBNMBNTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. acquired by Russia from her under the treaty of Gulistan. Troops were at once sent into the territory of Arax under the Russian general, Ermlof, against Abbas Mirza, and by 1828 the Russians were in the city of Tauris and threatening Teheran, the Persian capital. Peace was made at Tourkmantchai on the 10th of February, 1828, by the clauses of which Persia paid 20,- 000,000 rubles and gave up Brivan and Nahitchevan to Russia. At the same time the relations of Russia and Turkey became strained. Russia always looks toward the Porte as its goal and takes advantage of any pretext to open hostilities with Turkey, on the chance that it may conquer the country and enter Constantinople. For this reason if for no other the tsar now favored Grecian independence, and called on Europe to interfere and put a stop to the atrocities the Turks and Egyptians were committing in Greece. He claimed this right to interfere on the time-honored ground that Christians were being maltreated by barbarians. Consequently, in 1826, an ultimatum was issued to the Porte, demanding the evacuation of the Danube provinces ; the carrying out of the clause of the treaty of Bucharest, by which Servia was to have an autono- mous government under the suzerainty of the sultan ; and de- manding further some guarantee against such slaughter as that of the Greeks in Constantinople. The Porte refused to accept this and war was declared. The Russians advanced through Wallachia and Moldavia and cap- tured Adrianople in 1829. Constantinople was within a short distance when the powers interfered to save Turkey again. The Porte yielded and the Russian forces retired. The battle of Navarino had been fought in 1827* by the allied powers against the Turkish fleet, but the fear of Russian advance on Constantinople caused the powers to turn against Russia on the side of Turkey. The Turkish government, however, recognized the independence of Greece, ceded the delta of the Danube and four fortresses oh the border in Asia to Russia. She paid an indemnity, guaranteed the autonomy of "Wallachia, Servia, and Moldavia, and declared the Bos- phorus and the Dardanelles open to all powers at peace with the Porte. Such was the result of the war. In 1831 the Poles revolted against Russian rule. The dissat- * See Greece. BUSSIA. 307 isfaction began before Alexander I. died, but the revolution in Paris in 1830 brought on the climax. Fighting occurred in Po- land and a large number of Russian troops was required to quell the revolt. The result was the extinction of the kingdom of Poland, though the final settlement was not completed until 1844. In the meantime the relations of Russia and France had be- come strained. The Revolution of 1830 and the accession of Louis Philippe began the rupture, which was only heightened by the French sympathy for Poland. Furthermore, in 1832, Russia came to the aid of Turkey against the Egyptian forces under Ibrahim, the son of Mehemet Ali, and concluded a treaty that practically allowed the tsar to maintain an armed force in Turkey. This again aroused France and England, and the Eastern Question became more and more involved. In 1848 came the revolutions all over Europe which Russia tried to check in Italy and Germany, but without' success. Then the interference of France in the affairs of the Holy Land in opposition to Turkey, and of Austria with the affairs of Monte- negro, stimulated Russia to interfere also and demand from Turkey a reacknowledgment of the right of the government to protect Christians in the Orient. Turkey, feeling sure of the aid of the European powers, refused. An ultimatum was sent from 8t. Petersburg again, and in its wake a declaration of war, on the ground that treaties had been broken by allow- ing France to meddle with the Christians of the East. In 1853 the tsar tried to win over England to his side, and he not only failed of this but soon found a combination of the powers forming against him. From such slight causes as these began the Crimean War. It was the fear of European governments that Russia was on the road to the possession of Constantinople, and this joined Austria, France, and England against her. The fleet of the allies, gathered in the Black Sea, and the land forces compelled the Russian troops to retreat until in 1854 the whole Russian army was shut up in the fortress of Sevastopol in the Crimea. The siege lasted nearly a year and is the most famous one in modern history. But the city fell on the 8th of September, 1855, and the treaty of Paris of 1856 marked the close of a war that hardly had a cause. 308 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. Turkey was now for the first time admitted to European diplomacy, with a seat in the Congress. By the new treaty Russia had agreed not to interfere with the Danube provinces, and the Danube had been made free to all. The Black Sea was neutralized also, and all ships of war of whatever nation are forbidden to enter it. By this treaty, therefore, Russia lost the Black Sea and all the fortresses on it. The Emperor Nicolas died in 1855 and was succeeded by Alexander II. With the end of the war and the accession of Alexander II., who had the same liberal conceptions as Alexander I., a new era of liberal ideas began. Freedom of the press was demanded ; agitation on the question of the emancipation of the serfs was begun and was taken up by the government in earnest. The civil code was reorganized. Finally, on the 19th of February, 1861, the law for the emancipation of the serfs was carried through. Peasants who were attached to the soil were given the rights of free cultivators. They were given the full en- joyment of the land they were connected with, or a certain quantity of arable land ; but they were obliged to pay a certain tax to the state. The landlords sold to the peasants the land they were settled on, or gave it to the communes, the price and amount of land being more or less, according to its fertility. The government organized a method for helping the peasant to pay the landlord, making the former the debtor of the state rather than of the landlord, and giving him a miich longer time in which to make his payment than he could expect from the latter. A magistracy was instituted throughout the coun- try to conduct negotiations involving the putting of the law in force. The free peasants were then organized into communes having certain local rights. There were naturally many col- lisions of classes after the passage of the law, but this peaceful emancipation of 12,500,000 men is one of the remarkable facts in European history. In 1861 the last attempt of Poland to gain its independence was made. It ran through two years or more. Alexander II. tried by giving the remnants of the Poles a little more auton- omy and by appointing a new governor to pacify the country, but he was compelled to disband the Agricultural Society, which was the head of the revolt, and that only led to more BUSSIA. 309 severe riots and finally to open war. In 1863 the European powers interfered and recommended a plan for a settlement of the question, which the Russian government refused to con- sider. Bussia and Prussia joined each other in settling the matter, and in 1867 the kingdom of Poland was wiped out of the map of Europe. The language disappeared, and in the place of this historic state ten provinces were added to Russia and several to Prussia. Poland lost all her institutions and Russian systems appeared everywhere. After 1870 the long meditated reforms of Alexander were put into effect. Strategic railroads were built to open the country and serve as military communications of one part of the huge empire with another. In 1872 systems of compulsory educa- tion were introduced, and in 1876 eight universities were opened. The government of Russia is based on an enormous number Govern- of laws and decrees of the emperors. These were codified as they practically stand at present by Nicolas I. in 1839. Since then there have been several changes, and decrees (ukases) have been issued as follows : 1801, Alexander guaranteed right of nobility. 1802, Holy Synod and Ruling Senate remodeled. 1810, Council of the Empire established. 1816, Emancipation of serfs in Esthonia. 1817, " " " " Courland. 1819, " " " " Livonia. 1861, General emancipation. 1864, Present system of judicial administration; 1867, The kingdom of Poland destroyed and the territory made part of Russia. 1870, Municipal institution extended to large towns. 1874") >■ Modification of rural system. 1881] The legislative as well as the executive authority is with the The tsar, tsar. The emperor, or tsar, is the absolute autocrat of all the Russias and there is no appeal from his final decision. The government is extremely centralized in this one man and is at present apparently growing more centralized still. He is suc- ceeded by the next heir according to the law of primogeniture. 310 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Council of the Empire. The Senate. and every subject in the empire who is a citizen, even if he be in prison, is obliged to take the oath of allegiance to him. He carries on the government by positive laws, and his decrees have the force of laws throughout the empire, or in particular districts, as he chooses. The tsar initiates the law and makes the first draft, or the measure may originate in the Senate, the Holy Synod, or the administrative departments. In the latter case, after the discussion it is subnaitted to the tsar, whose decision is final. In the administration of laws the tsar's will is published in an order, or ukase, and when he supplements or interprets a law, he does so by verbal instruction to certain high officials in a notified ukase, but the latter can only be given to those who have access to the presence of the tsar, and these notified ukases cannot be so construed as to alter any law that has been signed by the tsar himself previously, nor can -they be used in cases involving the life, honor, or property of citizens, in regular taxation, or in change of rank among the nobility. The departments under the emperor are ; The Council of the Empire ; which includes the grand- dukes, the ministers of state, the principal secretaries of state, the highest court officials, about twenty high military and naval officers, and several of the privy councilors — in all about six hundred and sixty men. It is their business to at- tend to matters of legislature, home aflfairs, worship, and finance. The first draft of laws are brought before this coun- cil and passed upon. They then go to the tsar for his final decision. But acts not involving anything more than ex- planation or interpretation of existing laws do not go to the tsar. When promulgating laws this Council of State has the right to issue admonitions concerning their observance. The Senate ; which is the judicial court of appeal, than which there is nothing higher except the tsar's mandate. It is also the chief legislative body in the empire. The Senate is composed of members who are attached to the departments or are appointed by consultation with the tsar. The minister of justice is the presiding officer, and the diflferent departments, or committees, have charge of legislation, administration, and examination of accounts ; in matters concerning the peas- antry ; in civil and criminal affairs ; and other matters. The RUSSIA. 311 Senate also is the High Court of Cassation and has separate departments for civic, criminal, and disciplinary matters. The Senate makes all laws known to the people through an official paper, and the laws after going through the Holy Synod are sent to the proper local authorities. No minister of state, governor of a province, or local authority can put a law into force until it has gone through the Senate and been publicly announced, but then no one, either native or foreigner, is ex- empt from, its decree, and ignorance cannot be pleaded as an excuse. Laws thus promulgated may be made ex post facto, but are not so necessarily unless so stated. Any judgment of the Senate sitting in the Court of Appeal is not taken as a precedent, nor is any particular decree of the tsar which con- cerns privileges to individuals or refers to particular parts of the empire. The chief metropolitan of Russia — the metropoUtan of Holy- Novgorod, St. Petersburg, and Finland ; he is the head of the Synod. Holy Synod, which is composed of six regular members, five heads of administrative departments, and irregularly of thirty-one bishops and archbishops. The principal work of the Synod is the government of the Greek Orthodox Church, though its decrees require the signature of the tsar. The ministers ; who are beads of large administrative and somewhat legislative departments. These are the ministers of 'tSionV the imperial house, foreign affairs, war, finance, marine, in- terior and public worship, public instruction, domains, roads and works, and control. There are nine military divisions of the empire and as .,.^ J j-i ■ i X ■ -1 Local gov- many military governors ; and there are sixty-two civil gov- emment. ernors and thirteen miUtary and civil governors in Siberia and Turkestan, three military governors of towns, six prefects of large cities, dnd twelve civil governors of the Caucasus. Under the ministry of the interior there are 625 local governments in as many districts, which cover the empire excepting Finland and Turkestan, whose government is carried on from the Senate and tsar direct. The board of control appoints a council for each district. The empire is also divided into communes, or mirs, which select elders, or selectmen, to meet in open as- sembly. The mirs are united into cantons -which also choose selectmen. The large districts also have elective assemblies. Judiciary. 312 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. When a law is promulgated by the Senate, or any other authority, and reaches the government of the province, the highest authority summons the assemblies for consultation. If this body or the administrative authority finds anything in the ukase detrimental to the province, or to some other ukase, it may refer it back to the Senate, but if the tsar con- firms the ukase, it must be enforced. And it is the same with instructions from the departments. Decrees may be referred back by them to the Senate and thence to the tsar, but in each and every case the tsar is the final and absolute authority in legislative and executive functions. The Senate, including the tsar, as has been said, is the final court of appeal and High Court of Cassation. There are courts of the first instance under elected judges in the cantons, but their jurisdiction does not run beyond cases involving one hun- dred rubles. Superior judges form the next step, with juris- diction up to three hundred rubles. Appeals can be made to the judges appointed for an entire district, and from these the appeal goes to the Senate. Certain kinds of judicial busi- ness go to superior courts in the district with appeal to high district courts and thence to the Senate again. The religion is the Grseco-Russian Church, of which the Holy Synod is the head, but other creeds are allowed and they come under the care of the ministry of worship. Education is being curtailed gradually to avoid the introduc- tion of "seditious " ideas, and the system in Russia generally is very bad. Not more than one in forty of the population at- tends school. There are eight universities and 12,000 students, and primary education is spread by means of a pro-gymnasia. The entire coast and border-line of Russia is extensively forti- Army and fled and more complete defenses are being projected at present. The German, Black Sea, Caucasus, and Asiatic' borders are strengthened with more or less completely fortified towns. According to the laws of 1874, 1876, and 1888, every man twenty-one years of age is liable to service. Of these about 260,- 000 are each year taken into the regular army, and the remain- der, counting out men with families, clergymen, doctors, and school-teachers and men who are physically incapable, join the reserves, or the second reserves, called the "zapas." In European Russia the service is five years in the active army. EUSSIA. 313 thirteen years in the reserves, and five years in the zapas. In the Asiatic provinces it is shorter, being seven years in the active service and six in the reserves, and in the Caucasus the terms are three years in the regular army and fifteen years in the reserves. The army on a peace footing consists of the fol- lowing divisions : European 781,518 East Siberian 25,766 West Siberian 11,356 Turkestan 89,748 Finland 10,284 Total 868,672 The war footing of the army for 1892 including all branches Is estimated at 2,532,496 men. The navy consists of the following vessels : Battleships 17 Port defense 25 Cruisers 59 Torpedo boats 59 Total 160 The navy numbers 25,964 sailors, maintained as in the army. The sailors must serve seven years in active service and three in the reserves. The grand-duchy of Finland was ceded to Russia by the Finland, treaty of Friedrichshamn on the 17th of September, 1809. The duchy while under Swedish rule had possessed a constitution founded in 1772, which was to a certain extent guaranteed by Alexander in 1810, and this guarantee has been continued by the tsars since then. Helsingfors is the capital with a popula- tion of 58,402. The government is carried on by a Landtag, reopened in 1867, of four divisions, or estates : the nobles, the clergy, the hurghers, and the peasants. They are called together by the tsar, in his capacity of Grand-duke of Finland. He proposes measures which they discuss, and he has the right of veto. The Parliament is convoked for four months and has been reg- ularly called together every three or four years since 1861. The members are free from arrest except on the application of the order, or class, to which each belongs. The members who represent each order are elected or appointed according to dif- ferent methods. The nobles belong by right of birth ; the clergy are returned twelve from Abo, ten from Borga, six from 314 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. Kuopio, and one each from the Helsingfors University and the teachers of the schools ; the burghers are elected by a some- what limited suflfrage from each of the towns, each town re- turning one burgher in any case ; each of the fifty-nine judi- cial districts elects one representative from the peasantry. The tsar nominates the presiding officers, and is himself the head of the duchy in the executive, judicial, and legislative departments of the government. Finally, the " Committee for the Affairs of Finland" at St. Petersburg has general charge of the government of the duchy in its relation to the empire. This committee consists of the secretary for Finland, ap- pointed by the tsar, and four other members also appointed by him. The Upper House, or Senate, is a body sitting at Hel- singfors under the presidency of the governor-general, and it is composed of members appointed by the tsar. In its details the constitution is similar to that of Sweden, fvents*. ^^^ *^® powers of the government are limited to local affairs, and in many instances even these powers are curtailed. The troubles growing out of the desire of Bussia to increase her territory in the south led to negotiations and communica- tions from 1871 up to 1876, when the rebellion in Bulgaria broke out and served as an indirect cause of the conference of the powers at Constantinople. Turkey refused the conditions of- the conference, and Russia, ostensibly to protect Christians in the south, declared war in 1877, which ended in the fall of Plevna in 1877 and the peace of San Stefano in 1878.* The conference at Berlin in the same year is the basis of the present situation of the relations between Russia and the Porte. Toward 1880 an important element in the political life of Russia began to grow in prominence. This was the party of nihilists. Nihilism is said to have been founded by Michael Bakaniu, who lived from 1814 to 1876. The nihilists believe that the proper reconstruction of human existence is to be accomplished by first destroying everything that exists. There is no God, no religion, no government, no right. This sect has confined itself largely to Russia and is popularly known only as a sect which strives to overthrow the Russian form of government. It gained its greatest strength in 1877- 80. Many attempts on the life of the head of the police were * See Turkey. EUSSIA. 315 made. In 1876 Vera Sassulitch tried to kill General Trepoff, chief of secret police. In 1878 Mezentzoff, the successor of Trepoff, was killed. In 1879 Prince Krapotchkiss was also killed and Alexander II. narrowly escaped being blown up. In 1881, March 13, the tsar was finally killed by a bomb, after having once escaped a similar explosion. Of late the nihilist propaganda have intimated certain dis- tinct demands, such as representative government ; legislative chambers with members chosen by universal suffrage ; home rule in the provinces ; possession of the land by the people ; disbanding of the army ; free press, free speech, and the right to form labor and industrial unions, etc. This is not nihilism, because it stands for something, and nihilism signifies " noth- ing." But it is probable that nihilists are misnamed thus far. Alexander was succeeded by his son, who took the title of Alexander III., but the latter for fear of the nihilists was not crowned until 1883. An attempt was made by the liberal min- isters of his father to persuade him to adopt modern views and forms of government, but after long discussion Alexander issued a proclamation announcing his inalienable and irrespon- sible autocracy. Thereupon he received hosts of pronuncia- mentos from the nihilists. But the extraordinary measures of ,the police and military prevented any attempts on the tsar's life from proving successful, and Alexander died a natural death in 1894. He was succeeded by his son, who has taken the title of Alexander IV. Trouble with England in arranging the Afghan frontier in 1880-85, resulted finally in a general settlement of boundary. In 1887 it was settled at the southern line of Bosaga, between Afghanistan and Bokhara, England conceding certain dis- tricts between the Murghab and Kushk Rivers. It is as yet uncertain what the new tsar's policy will be. The Franco-Russian Alliance has so far kept the balance of power in Europe against the Triple Alliance, and it is probable that Alexander IV. will try to maintain it in the attempt to make himself, like his father, the "arbiter of Europe." SALVADOR.* President, . . . General Cablos Bzeta. Salvadob, or San Salvador, is one of the five Central American states. It is bounded on the north by Honduras and Guatemala, on the east by Honduras and the Gulf of Ponseca, on the south by the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by Guatemala. It is an independent republic divided into fourteen departments under a president and a Congress gov- erned by a constituton, and has a total area of 7,225 square miles and a population of 651,130. Salvador was part of a larger territory composed of Sal- vador, Honduras, and Nicaragua until 1857, when it dissolved its connection by one of the many revolutions that are con- stantly occurring in Central America. Since then it has main- tained its independence. Originally Salvador was a portion of the Spanish province of Guatemala, but in 1821 it revolted with the rest of the province and formed one of the five independent states which joined one another in a kind of consolidated Union of Central American states. Troubles arose at once, however, as to the supremacy in the confederation, and it was found, as in later years, that the jealousies of the different states would not per- mit of a lasting and peaceful union. Guatemala tried to ob- tain the upper hand, and hostilities were almost continuous until in 1839 the union was dissolved and Salvador became an independent principality. From this date down to the present the history of Salvador sketch. is scarcely more than a bewildering mass of revolutions, pro- nunciamentos, and changes of government. It is important to notice that the two greatest causes of hostility were (1) the influence of the Catholics, the ambitions of the bishops to * See map under Honduras. 316 SALVADOR. 317 control temporal affairs, and (2) the constant jealousies of the five small states. Bishop Viteri, the Catholic head of Salvador, did what he could from 1842 to 1847 to destroy the peace of the country. He combined with Malespiu, a deposed president of the republic, to overthrow the administration that was hostile to Catholics, and he caused a continual state of disruption until 1847, when he was forced to retire to Nicaragua. Vasconcelos, made presi- dent in 1848, did much to quiet the country, but it was only a rest before another struggle. A dispute over his refusal to recognize a newly installed government in Guatemala resulted in a Guatemalan invasion, which was hardly settled in 1849 when a serious trouble arose with England over alleged insults to the British flag. This was followed by a blockade. By 1856 Salvador had declared itself an independent nation under the name of the Republic of Salvador. But that had been scarcely accomplished when Campos and Duenas, presi- dent and vice-president of the republic, were obliged to set out to assist in suppressing Walker's Rebellion in the north. This left a loophole for Barrios, who commanded the army, to create a popular uprising, depose Campos, and offer Duenas the presi- dency. The latter refused to accept the office, and in 1858 Bar- rios by a coup d'Stat gained control of the country and made himself the president. He was finally overpowered, captured, and shot by Duenas In July, 1865, the latter by a counter-revo- lution having gained a large following and secured the presi- dency. In 1870 political clouds again drew across the sky, and hostilities recommenced on a charge made by Honduras that the government of Salvador had harbored its refugees. Out of this simple matter, together with the immediate alUance of all parties in Salvador hostile to Duenas, grew the fighting of 1870-72. Duenas was deposed, brought to trial, and finally acquitted. In 1871 a constituent assembly met and chose Gonzalez presi- dent. During the latter's term and that of Zaldivar, his suc- cessor, which lasted until 1885, there were comparatively long intervals of peace. The country began to show signs of prog- ress, but in 1885 Barrios, president of Guatemala, reintroduced the plan for a Central American union and attempted to force it upon Salvador. The whole country was stirred up again, 318 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Constitu- tion. Legisla- ture. Executive. Judiciary. with the result that Barrios was crushed and with him his plan of union. Barillas, his successor, tried again in 1887 to accomplish the union, and a meeting of plenipotentiaries took place at Panama without material results. Menendez, successor of Zaldivar as president of Salvador, opposed the union in 1885, but in 1888 he was persuaded to join Honduras and Guatemala in another attempt at forcing a union. Hostilities resulted again, and on June 22, 1890, Menendez was murdered at a banquet by some of the Independents of the capital. Carlos Ezeta, general of the troops and leader of the party opposing the union, at once as- sumed control of the state, and a general uprising followed. The city of San Salvador fell into the hands of Bivas, but waa recaptured by Bzeta's brother in the same year, and, peace being finally restored, General Carlos Ezeta was chosen presi- dent. He was inaugurated in 1891 and still remains at the head of the government. The Salvadorian constitution has been so often changed that it is impossible to follow it here. It was adopted in March, 1864, but amended in 1880, 1883, and again in 1886. It is based, as are all the other republican constitutions of Central America, on that of the United States. The president is the executive oflScer, aided in his work by a Congress of two houses. He has the prerogatives of the executive, of declaring war or peace subject to the vote of Congress, of vetoing bills passed by both Houses, of signing and executing all acts, etc. The whole power has, however, often been in his hands and he then acts as dictator. The legislature consists of a Senate with members elected to serve six years. There are twelve members in all. The House of Representatives is composed of seventy members, one being elected nominally to every 15,000 inhabitants, and they serve four years. The president is elected for a term of four years by almost universal suffrage. In case of a tie the Congress decides among the three candidates having the largest number of votes. Three senators are appointed to fill the president's place in case of a vacancy, in the order elected. The president is ineligible for a second term of office. There is a Supreme Court composed of eleven judges, who tration. SALVADOR. 319 constitute a court of appeals, and there are besides several dis- trict courts among the departments. There are four ministers appointed by the president to assist Adminis- him. They are responsible to him, and hold portfolios as fol- lows: (1) for foreign relations, justice, and religion; (2) war and finance ; (3) interior ; (4) public instruction. The local administration is carried on in the fourteen depart- ments by governors. The departments are divided into twenty- nine districts and 228 townships, having a species of communal government. The army consists of 2,500 regular troops and a militia of 12,000. SANTO DOMINGO.* President, ... Ultsses Heureattx. Santo Domingk) occupies the eastern part of the island of Haiti. It is an independent republic divided into eleven provinces, and is governed by a president and a constitution. Its area is more than two thirds that of the entire island. The capital is Santo Domingo, population 25,000. Santo Domingo is divided into eleven districts : Santo Do- mingo, Santiago, La Vega, Espaillat, Azua, El Seybo, Puerto Plata, Barabona, Samana, Monte Cristo, and Macoris. The total area is 18,045 square miles and the population in 1888 was 416,871. Each department is regularly divided into cantons, communes, and sections, with a system of government that is partially local, but that is, in all affairs that concern the whole territory, highly centralized. Santo Domingo was a portion of the republic of Haiti until ^sket"h*' in 1844 a Creole, named Jiminez, brought a^out a revolution and declared the independence of the eastern part of the island. A constitutional assembly was convened and a con- stitution adopted when the success of the revolution was as- sured. It was formed on that of the United States indirectly, and directly from that of Venezuela. Don Pedro Santana was the first president. The subsequent history has been a succession of almost con- tinuous civil war, interspersed with battles between the gov- ernment of Haiti and that of Santo Domingo. The latter maintained its independence for the most part. Santana saved the state several times from the forces of Soulouque, the commander of the Haitian army, until in 1859 Soulouque fell, when a commercial treaty was made with his successor and peace for the time restored. Spain tried in 1861 to regain possession of the republic as a •For map see Haiti. 320 SANTO DOMINGO. 321 province, but she gave up the attempt in two years. Then fol- lowed years of war with Haiti again. From 1873 until 1879 Gonzalez ruled the country and had to contend with internal revolutions under Baez and Cabral, his predecessors, as well as periodic attacks from without. The terms of Guillerme (1879), Merino (1881), Heureaux (1884), and Bellini (1885), were somewhat less disturbed by hostilities, but it is only since the last election of Heureaux in 1885 that Santo Domingo has made any great advance in commercial growth. Treaties of com- merce and friendship have since then been made with the United States, Germany, and France ; education is now being fostered, and some encouragement given to the arts and sci- ences. The constitution was first proclaimed in 1844. It was ch anged in 1865 after the expulsion of the Spanish troops, and still again in 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1887. The Congress consists of a body of twenty-two members, two from each state or district, and they with six ministers consti- tute the government of the country. The ministers are re- sponsible to the Congress for advice given the president. Foreigners holding real estate are eligible to hold oflSce under the government. The president is elected for a four years' term. He appoints the governors of the district, who in turn appoint the heads of the different cantons. There is a Supreme Court at Santo Domingo consisting of a president and four judges, all appointed by Congress, and an attorney-general appointed by the president. Under this court there are eleven district courts and smaller canton courts with their judges. There is a small force of soldiery supplemented by a reserve force of several thousand, but the number is too uncertain to be estimated. The Roman Catholic religion is recognized by the constitu- tion. There are about 300 primary schools with compulsory attendance and a few normal and technical schools. Constitu- tion. Legisla- ture. Executive. Judiciary. Army and Havy. SERVIA. King, Alexander I. RULERS SINCE 1800. Turkish government 1829 Prince Mllos 1829-1839 Prince Milan. 1839-1840 Prince Michael 1840-1842 Prince Alexander 1842-1859 Prince Mllos 1859-1860 Prince Michael 1860-1868 Prince Milan 1868-1882 King Milan.... 1882-1889 King Alexander I , ...1889- MINISTRY. Minister of Interior, president N. Chrlstltch Minister of Public Instruction and Worship L. Klerltch Minister of Foreign Affairs M. Bogitsohevitch Minister of War , M. Pavlovltch Minister of Finances V. J. Petrovitch Minister of Public Works S. Zdrawkovitch Minister of Justice ,..M. Kr. Georgievitch Minister of Agriculture S. Losavitch TABLE OF. STATISTICS. Pi-ovlnce, Area. Population. Belgrade City. Valjevo Vranje Kragouyevatz Graina Krouchevatz .. Pirot Podriuje Pozarevatz Roudink Toplitza Oujitze Tzmareka Morava Podunavlje Tomik Nisch City , Total 4 1,121 1,620 927 1,257 1,256 1,214 1,300 1,404 2,056 1,400 1,676 555 1,200 1,246 810 4 56,375 116,785 154,142 144,612 92,512 155,418 122,909 180,584 210,345 157,116 126,707 148,071 70,839 166,527 214,165 94,991 21,396 19,050 2,228,494 322 SERVIA. The territory occupied by the kingdom of Servia lies in the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula. It is bounded on the north by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, on the east by Eou- melia, Eoumania, and Bulgaria, on the south by Turkey, and on the west by Bosnia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The government is that of a constitutional monarchy. Bel- grade is the capital with a population of 54,458. Until 1804. the country now occupied by the kingdom of Servia was a part of ^ the Ottoman Em- pire. The rule of the Turks was so atro- cious that revo- lutions were con- stantly breaking out. In 1804 the Servians again arose in re- bellion under George PetrovitehjSurnamed "the Black," and within a compara- tively short time the insurgents had pos- session of the coun- try. By 1813, however, Turkish forces had invaded the territory and Petrovitch was obliged to retire. He returned again in 1817 and drove the Turks southward. Dissolution in the Servian ranks soon overthrew Petrovitch, however, and brought another leader, Milos Obrenovitch, to the head of affairs. Servia was now practically independent, but the country was in a wretched condition. There was little or no industry, 323 324 GOVBBNjiENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY, Constitu- .tian. Legisla- ture. and under the rule of the Turks the treasury had been de- pleted. It was not until 1830, therefore, that Milos accom- plished the absolute independence of the state. In that year he was elected prince, and the Turkish government finally ac- knowledged Servian independence and the right of hereditary succession. The Porte, however, still maintained garrisous in different parts of the Servian territory. It was impossible to expect that a people which had been so long under Turkish rule could settle down at once to a stable government. In 1838 an insurrection arose against Milos' rule. In the next year he was compelled to resign in favor of his son, Prince Milan. The eon came into office professing more liberal ideas, but he was physically incapable of carrying on the government and resigned in 1840 in favor of his brother, Prince Michael. Within two years a strong opposition to the Obrenovitch family overthrew Michael, and the son of Petrovitch "the Black," Prince Alexander, was elected in his place. His rule of seventeen years was in many respects a beneficial one, but the Servian people had not yet had their independence long enough to make their government firm. Alexander was overthrown and the aged Milos again became the ruling prince, followed in 1859 by his son Michael. During the reign of the latter the last of the Turkish garrisons evacuated the country and Servia made another step toward complete sovereignty. Michael was assassinated in 1868, and the final act that made Servia an independent kingdom was the crowning of his suc- cessor, Prince Milan, king of Servia in 1882. In 1869, at thetimeof the regency and after the assassination of Prince Michael, an assembly of seventy elected members drew up a constitution which remained in force until, in 1888, King Milan, thinking to make his tottering rule more secure, introduced a more representative and radical constitution. This last stands as the constitution of Servia to-day. The legislative part of the government is vested in the king and two assemblies called the Skupshtina. The Great Skupsh- tina only meets on the king's decease or retirement to elect his successor, or for the settlement of such questions as are im- mediately connected with the throne or the revision of the constitution. Its members are elected by the citizens at large SEBVIA. 325 who come under the qualifications of electorship. These are an annual payment of fifteen dinars, or francs, when the voter is between the ages of twenty-one and thirty, and thirty dinars when he is over thirty years. The functions of the Upper Chamber are not therefore strictly legislative. The national Skupshtina, or Lower House, meets regularly each year and has legislative powers. The suffrage law is the same as that for the election to the Great Skupshtina. Each town and canton returns one deputy in any case, and one for every three thousand taxpaying citizens. The king adds one deputy to the Lower House to every three elected by the con- stituencies, and the total number at present is 208. Candi- dates for the Chamber must pay a tax not less than about 15.20 and they must have the qualifications of electors. The national Skupshtina has the sole charge of financial legislation and the general supervision in legislative matters. It can originate measures which must be signed by the king before becoming laws. Freedom of the press is inviolable. No capital punish- ment is allowed, nor any title of nobility. The king is the executive oflicer, but he has certain legis- lative powers also in conjunction with the Skupshtina. In the executive functions he is assisted by a council of seven ministers and a cabinet, or Council of State, composed of from eleven to fifteen members. The members of both bodies are appointed by the king but the ministers are responsible to the Skupshtina. The king has the usual powers of the executive in a limited monarchy. There is a Court of Appeal and Cassation and a Court of Com- merce in Servia, besides twenty-two courts of the first instance. The judges serving in the three higher courts are appointed by the king, but he cannot remove them. Trial by jury is in force in criminal cases and there is no capital punishment. These tribunals cannot interfere with legislation, but in their legitimate province they cannot be checked by the legislative ! houses. There are fifteen counties or departments, each having a local assembly empowered to legislate in local afiairs. Within these departments are 1,270 municipal communes. The army is under the direct control of the king and the minister of war. It consists of three divisions always in readi- Ezecutive. Judiciary. Army. 326 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. ness for active service. The first class includes able-bodied men between the ages of twenty and twenty-eight, and with its reserve is 100,000 strong. The second class includes men be- tween twenty-eight and thirty-seven years of age, about 55,- 000 ; and the third, which is only called out in case of war, is also 55,000 strong and composed of men from thirty-seven to fifty years of age. The total strength of the army is, therefore, 210,000. There is no navy. The Greek Orthodox Church is the state church and is gov- erned by bishops under the supervision of the minister of edu- cation and public works. There is a military academy, a university, and 700 schools of diflTerent descriptions. Thirty-four are supported by the state and the remainder, the elementary schools, are under the local government. The importance of Servia in political history is its position Contempo- ill the Eastern Question. It presents with the Turkish prov- ^^'7 ince of Bulgaria a barrier to Russia and Austria on their road to Constantinople. And the great object of these smaller states is to form a union, which, under one government, shall be strong enough to hold Austrian, Russian, and English In- fluence in check, and thus to maintain an even balance of power. Whoever gains control of Constantinople will en- danger the independence of these Balkan states. In 1884 it became evident that Bulgaria was trying to unite with Eastern Roumelia and form an independent state. This aroused the Servian government, which opposes the creation of another independent power among the Danube provinces, and the Servian army invaded Bulgaria in November, 1885, on the ground that the Berlin treaty of 1878 had been broken by the fact that Philippopolis, the capital of Eastern Roumelia, had arisen in rebellion with the avowed purpose of bringing about a union with Bulgaria. The defeat of the Servians ended the war, and peace was restored in March, 1886, by the interference of the great powers. There were some slight changes made in the Servia-Bulgarian frontier. In the same year all the Balkan states were joined in a common cause against Russian inter- ference with Prince Alexander of Bulgaria. In 1887 the Ristitch ministry came into power. It repre- SERVIA. 327 sented the party in favor of Russia and was supported by Queen Natalie, but could not muster a sufficient majority to keep it long in power. The common people in Servia are Radi- cals, believing in the constitutional representative govern- ments of Europe. The middle and upper classes, on the other hand, are Conservatives. There was a party also favoring Aus- trian protection, whose leader, Garashani, was the leader of the ministry preceding that of Ristitch ; and, finally, there is still another party under the present minister, Ristitch, favor- ing Russian protection. In the midst of these party organizations the king found it impossible to control the election, as he had heretofore, and a Radical Skupshtina was elected in 1888. This necessitated the resignation of Ristitch and the appointment of Gruitch, the Radical leader, much against the king's will. King Milan, however, vetoed all the bills passed by the new House, where- by he succeeded in making matters only worse. He then tried a Moderate-Conservative ministry under Christitch. It was during these political troubles, in April, 1888, that the king and queen were divorced, partly because of general in- compatibility and partly because of the queen's avowed sym- pathies with the Russian government. But it was a hard blow to the king's prestige, and, though he tried to regain his in- fluence by granting a more liberal constitution, by extending the franchise, and by giving the Skupshtina the initiative in legislative matters, he was compelled to abdicate in 1889 in favor of his son Alexander, who was still a minor. The disturbances caused by the divorce of Queen Natalie in- creased in 1891. It had been stipulated that she might return three or four times in each year to Belgrade and be treated with royal honors. Otherwise she was to remain in exile. Her re- fusal to accept these stipulations turned the Ristitch and Gru- itch followers against her and ranged the Conservatives on her side. Riots occurred. Natalie returned to Belgrade and had to be forcibly carried out of the city on May 18, 1891, after a severe street flght. The enforced exile had, however, been recommended by the Skupshtina. Meantime, in February, the Gruitch ministry had given place to a moderate government under Pachich. The ex-king and ex-queen were for some time both out of the country, and as 328 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. long as Milan remained away the Badicals maintained their control of the government, but the ex-king had a strong fol- lowing in the army and he was able to count on its support when the time for his return came. In January, 1893, a rec- onciliation between Milan and Natalie was brought about, and the country is now at peace on this point. SIAM. King, Chulalono Kokn I. The kingdom of Siam lies at tiie southeastern extremity of Asia and runs down the Malay Peninsula to the Straits of Ma- lacca. It is bounded on the north by Burmah and Annam, on the east by Annam, the Gulf of Siam, and the China Sea, on the south by Cambodia and the Gulf of Siam, and on the west by the Straits Settlements and part of India. The govern- ment is that of an absolute but somewhat enlightened mon- archy. Bangkok is the capital. The kingdom of Siam is about 250,000 square miles in area, but the boundaries are so uncertain that it is impossible to give any accurate figures. The population is estimated at 6,000,000. After the Dutch and Portuguese sailors entered Siam from the Straits Settlements in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries they were followed by the English, and a small trade with the outer world was opened. The people of the country were peacefully inclined, until the East India Company interfered with the affairs of the English residents and then the natives ■were drawn into the contests that resulted. Treaties were made with the natives in 1822, 1826, and 1850 ; but the hostile feehng had become chronic, and it was impossible to insure safety to life and property, or to carry on trade. In 1856 Sir John Bowring negotiated a treaty that allows foreigners to own houses in Siam, carry on business there, and that insures a moderate security to private property. Export and import duties were arranged at the same time, and by other commer- cial agreements a good trade has been opened with the country and much benefit is being derived from it by the Siamese government. The Siamese have no constitution, strictly speaking, but a law of 1874 declares that the king has the executive power in conjunction with a Council of Ministers, or Sendbodi. This 329 Historical sketch. Con- stitution. 330 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOKLD TO-DAY. council is made up of the ministers of foreign affairs, war and marine, finance, home government, justice, agriculture, and the royal house. There is besides a Council of State composed of the ministers appointed by the king and an unequal num- ber of from ten to twenty members, also appointed by the king, with six princes of the blood royal. It is probable that a regular system of departments will soon be instituted. The kingdom is divided into departments, or districts, as ^"maient' follows : under the minister of the north, 37 districts under Siamese governors, 37 districts under Laosian governors ; under the minister of the south, 19 districts under Siamese governors, 12 districts under Malay governors ; under the minister of foreign affairs, 12 districts under Siamese govern- ors ; total number of districts, 117. These provinces are governed in different ways, but they are all gradually coming under the general government, which is constantly becoming more centralized at the capital. All the local governors are nominated or appointed by the king, and yet in the midst of this federal government the old feudal sys- tem still stands, and the nobles, though owing allegiance to their king, have an almost absolute rule in their respective ter- ritories. But feudalism is gradually disappearing. Buddhism is the religjon of the country and is fostered by the king. There is but little tolerance of other religions, though Christianity is reputed to be spreading a little. Owing to the study of Siamese young men in Europe the advance of education is discernible. On their return to Siam they do much to introduce European methods. SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. President, S. J. PATIIi KBtjGER. MINISTRY. Secretary of State Dr. "W. J. Leyds. Secretary of Interior .W. E. Bok. f General P. J. Joubert. Executive Council^ W. A. Walmarans. L N. J. Imlt. The South African Republic, or, as it was formerly and is still often called, Transvaal, is in the southeastern part of Af- rica on the Indian Ocean. It is bounded on the north and east by the Limpopo Biver, which divides it from Mashona- land and the Umzilas Kingdom, on the southeast and east by Zululand, Natal, and the Orange River Free State, and on the west by Bechua- naland. The govern- ment is similar to that of the Orange River Free State, a republic with a con- stitution and a more or less liberal govern- ment. Pretoria is the capital with a popu- lation of 5,000. The area of the South African Re- public has been in- creased during the last few years by the \V^^S accession of the Zulu Republic and other adjacent territory. The republic is divided into seventeen districts for local government. The total area 331 332 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. is about 121,854 square miles. Tlie population is largely na- tive, there being over 550,000 of thiese to about 120,000 wliites. Historical Tlie history of the South African Eepublic dates from sketch. 1833-37, when large numbers of Boers, descendants of the Dutch, emigrated from Cape Colony to avoid English rule. There was little or no government until 1850. When in 1843 Natal was brought under British control, the Boers, who had settled there, moved northward and westward into the terri- tory then called Transvaal. Attempts were made to establish some sort of government, but the disputes of Potgieter and Pretorious, two leaders of the Boers, delayed the development of the state. In 1850 Pretorius gained thie ascendency and two years later with the help of the English government at the Sands Convention he succeeded in making the beginnings of a constitution. Pretorius died in 1853 and his son became the first president of the Dutch African Eepublic, afterwards changed to the South African Eepublic. The government was simple, but not organized in its details, until in 1858 a Fundamental Law {Grondwet) was drawn up and adopted by a convention, and this forms the basis of the present constitution. In 1857-59 President Pretorius invaded the Orange Eiver Free State and conquered it, but on his return to his own state he found everything in confusion. Discoveries in 1867 of large deposits of gold first brought the republic before the civilized world, and the influx of Englishmen and people of other nationalities was enormous. With the growth of the population the questions of bound- aries and defense were brought home to the inhabitants and the government had a series of disputes with the mother-coun- tries of the surrounding colonies, which did not tend to increase the state's material prosperity. In 1870 the government fell into bad repute ; the finances were in a desperate condition, and in these straits the British government stepped in and took pos- session of the country, in April, 1876. Sir W. O. Lanyon was made administrator of the state, but in five years the Boers re- volted and kept up such a ferocious guerrilla warfare that the British government was withdrawn, leaving the state under the suzerainty of the queen with an English Eesident at the capital. Finally, in 1884 the suzerainty was practically with- tion. SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. 333 drawn also, and the South African Republic was recognized as an independent sovereign state. . Mr. Kriiger has been presi- dent since 1883 and he succeeded early in his administration in securing order within the country. The constitution that is in force in the republic to-day was constitu- flrst drawn up when the independence of the country was de- clared in 1849-50. It was further amended in 1858 and added to by the Orondwet then drawn up. There have been numerous amendments since then which have changed the constitution in its details somewhat, but in its main features it remains the same to-day. The government is a republic with two legislative houses, having general charge of legis- lation under the veto of the president. The legislative houses, or Volkrdde, are each of twenty-four members, the only difference in the standing of the two being in the qualification for the candidacy. In the First Volkraad members must be native-born citizens, or burghers, of fourteen years' standing, whereas in the Second Chamber four years' residence is a sufficient qualification for candidacy. Candi- dates for membership to either House must be at least thirty years of age, must own land within the republic, and must be Protestants. The suffrage is somewhat limited and is differ- ent for the elections of members to the two Houses. Members of the First Volkraad are elected by native burghers, or-burgh- ers of sixteen years' standing. Those of the Second Volkraad by burghers of two years' standing. The term in both Houses is four years, and half of each House retires every two years. The president is the executive officer and is elected for a five- year term by the burghers who are eligible for election to the Legis- First Volkraad. He has the usual prerogatives of the execu- tive, somewhat curtailed by the infiuenee or authority of the British Resident. As in the Orange River Free State, the Dutch Reformed Church has by far the largest following, though there is no state church strictly speaking. Education is more advanced than is usual in such countries, there being a number of English schools in the state. There are, also, plans laid out for a university. The army consists of the able-bodied citizens, who are aU liable to military service. lature. SPAIN, King, - - - Alfonso XIII. Regent, Maria Cheistina, mother of the king. RULKRS SINCK 1800. Carlos IV ]l^^^ Fernando VII llSI:,oi. Joseph Bonaparte °" ,5™ Fernando VII (restored) ,„„„ ,22„ Isabella II : i^ifl Marshal Serrano (regent) 1868-1869 KingAmadeo 1869-1873 Executive of the Cortes ^°^; President E. Figueras 1873- Presldent P. Margall 1874- President N. Salmeron 1873-1874 President E. Castelar 1874-1875 King Alfonso XII 1875-1886 King Alfonso XIII 1886- MINISTRY. President of the Council M. Sagasta Minister of Foreign Affairs S. Moret Minister of Finance A.Salvador Minister of Interior A. Aguilera Minister of Justice B. Capdepon Minister of Instruction, Commerce, and Agriculture Grolzard Minister of War General J. L. Dominguez Minister of Marine Admiral M. Pasquin Minister of the Colonies Becerra TABLE OF STATISTICS. Departments, Area. Population. New Castilb— Madrid, Guadala- jara, Toledo, Cuenoa, Ciudad-Beal Old Castile — Burgos, Logrofio, Santander, Oviedo.Sona, Segovia, Avila, Leon, Palencia, Valladolid, Salamanca, Zamora Galioia — Corufla, Lugo, Orense, Pontevedra ESTKEMADURA — Badajoz, Caceres... Andalusia— Seville, Huelva,Cadiz, Jaen, Cordoba Granada — Granada, Almerla, Malaga Valencia — Valencia, Alicante, Castellon-de-la-Plana, M u r c i a , Albacete Catalonia — ^Barcelona, Tarragona, Lerida, Gerona - Akagon— Huesoa, Teruel, Zaragoza Navaera GuiPUzcoA — Alaya, Biscay, Gui' puzcoa Balearic Islands and the Ca- nary Islands Total 28,018 44,741 11,344 16,700 22,600 11,063 19,346 12,483 17,976 6,046 2,782 4,668 1,778,475 3,279,950 1,894,558 821,301 2,088,088 1,344,067 2,180,003 1,843,549 912,197 304,122 510,419 604,218 197,787 17,660,947 334 SPAIN. Spain occupies nearly the whole of the southwestern penin- sula of Europe. It is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and France on the north, by the Mediterranean on the east, the Mediterranean, Gibraltar, and the Atlantic Ocean on the south, and by Portugal on the west. The government is that of a constitutional monarchy. Madrid is the capital with a population of 472,228. In 1812, thanks to the tenacity of the Spanish soldiers, the help of the English, and the existence of the Russian war. Napoleon was compelled to give up his idea of intro- ducing the Napoleonic dynasty in Spain. After the success of the Spanish forces had been assured, a provisional junta drew up a constitution, which was adopted by the Cortes in the same year, and this later became the basis of the consti- tution in Italy. In 1814 Ferdinand VII. returned from his French captivity and promised to recognize the constitution, this being made a prelimi- nary to his return to power. On the night of May 10, however, the king undertook a coup d' €tat. He is- sued a proclamation recalling the consti- tution and summoned a new Cortes under the old system. At first he promised amnesty to all Spaniards, but as soon as the power was well in his hands arrests were made on all sides. The Catholic priests demanded severe measures and urged the renewal of the Inquisition, and the people, always in favor of 335 History since i8oo. 336 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. a new government of whatever kind, hailed the entrance of the king into Madrid. The press was at once put under strict censorship. The advisers of the king formed what was termed the " Camarilla," a cabinet made up of servile followers and women of the court, and it became the work of the freemasons, who represented the people's hope of freedom and constitutional government, to oust this " Camarilla." Revolutions broke out constantly from 1814 to 1820. Finally, in the early part of Jan- uary, 1820, an uprising at Cadiz was seconded by the invasion of one of Spain's famous generals, Mina, with an organized force from France. He came southwarci conquering the forces sent against him, and was received by the constitutional party everywhere until he gained control of the government and cornpelled the king to sign a constitution. The " Camarilla" was abolished and one of the first acts of the new government was to confiscate the lands of the Roman Catholic Church. This was Ferdinand's loophole. The pope immediately es- poused his cause in order to save the church lands, and thus, seconded by the papacy, Ferdinand applied to the Holy Alli- ance for assistance in putting down the revolutionary spirit in Spain as well as elsewhere in Europe. The matter came up before the Congress of Verona in 1822 and it was decided that France, in the name of the Holy Alli- ance, should send an army to Ferdinand's assistance. Accord- ingly in April, 1823, the Due d' Angoul^me with 95,000 men in- vaded the northern provinces of Spain. Aragon fell into the hands of the French and the army was soon in Madrid, where a regency was established until such time as the king, who had been forced to go with the Cortes to Cadiz, should be set free and reinstated in power. Cadiz surrendered on the first of Oc- tober and Spain was again in Bourbon hands. Ferdinand im- mediately began to enforce stringent measures. Men were put to death on all sides and all the decrees of the constitutional party were annulled. The vengeance was carried to such an extent that even the French general objected. Toward 1829 it became evident that if the king died child- less, Don Carlos, his brother, would succeed him, and therefore the Jesuit orders and believers in the Inquisition threw their influence on his side. But in October, 1830, a daughter was SPAIN. S37 born to Ferdinand by his fourtli wife and by a decree called the Pragmatic Sanction he annulled the Salic Law, thereby making it possible for a woman to inherit the crown of Spain. The infant Isabella became the heir-apparent, therefore, and Don Carlos and the " Apostolics " were deprived of their prospects of governing Spain. It was out of this change in the succes- sion that many of the wars of this century grew. Maria Christina became the regent during the minority of Isabella, and the Carlists and Ohristinos became the two political fac- tions of the country. Ferdinand VII. died on the 29th of September, 1833, and Carlos was declared king by the Carlists. To maintain her con- trol of the government Maria Christina was forced to throw in her lot with the Liberals and the Constitutionalists. A quad- ruple alliance was formed between Christina, Portugal — where the Carlists had joined with Miguel — England, and France, and eventually in 1889 the Carlists were dispersed and Don Carlos himself forced to fly from Spain. At first, in 1835, it seemed as if under the able leadership of General Zumalacar- reguy the Carlist cause would win the day, but later under General Espartero the Christinos totally defeated them. The Legitimists had no sooner gained control of the govern- ment than they divided among themselves. The Moderados, or Liberals, had never been in sympathy with the Christinos, and when the latter gradually enforced severe measures against the Constitutionalists revolts broke out in Spain. Espartero was the great man of the hour ; no one else could quell the revolt and the queen regent was again forced to turn to him. He became in 1840 the head of a Progressist ministry where Christina found small place for herself and her followers. She led a scandalous life, till in 1844 she was forced to abdicate and leave the country. Espartero was in control of the govern- ment from 1841, but no man could remain long at the head of affairs in such turbulent times, and he fell in 1843. Isabella, then at the age of thirteen, was thereupon declared of age and crowned queen. The Duke of Valencia became minister-presi- dent, and with the recall of Christina the tenets of absolutism again crept into the government. Espartero had reorganized the Cortes and set up the constitution again. It was now abolished ; the press was restricted and the National Guard 338 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOBLD TO-DAY. disbanded. Spain was again under an unfortunate govern- ment that lasted for several years. The young queen in 1846 married Francis of Assis, and finding little to please her in him she turned to the men of her court, and the court and country degenerated with her. Gradually the army gained complete control of the people and the monastic orders the con- trol of the government. Monks and priests filled the political offices. The Liberals everywhere grew more and more ex- asperated with the state of affairs, and the queen by her dis- reputable private life caused the whole court to be held in con- tempt. The public finances fell into worse condition than ever, but with the military always at hand the Duke of Val- encia held himself at the head of the state until his death in April, 1868. The country was then ripe for the fiercest kind of rebellion. Gonzalez, Valencia's successor, gave the opportunity for out- break by setting the army against him. In September, 1868, an insurrection broke out. The celebrated General Prim and General Serrano came back from exile and within a few days all Spain had declared for the revolution. Isabella, who was on her way northward to meet Napoleon III., was obliged, on the last day of September, to hasten her journey and fly to France. Madrid opened its gates to the vic- torious generals and the government was intrusted to them. Serrano became minister-president. Prim, minister of war, and Topeti, minister of the navy. The Jesuits were driven out of power and Protestants appeared in their places. Finally a new constitution drawn up in 1867 was promulgated. Troubles, however, soon arose again ; the Carlists began to gather ; Cuba revolted, and the Spanish people were still in such a state that no government could stand long. The men at the head of affairs tried to find a ruler for Spain. Espartero refused ; then Louis of Portugal and his father ; next Aosta, son of Victor Emmanuel, and then Prince Thomas of Genoa. Finally the crown was accepted and then rejected by Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, the last named being the immediate cause of the Franco-Prussian War.* While France and Germany were preparing for war and im- mediately upon the resignation of Prince Leopold, on account * See Germany. SPAIN. 339 of diplomatic negotiations, Marshal Prim obtained tlie consent of Duke Amadeo of Aosta to accept tlie crown of Spain. But again the impossibility of bringing about any unity among the Spanish parties was proved. The new king had a hopeless task. Ministers followed each other with bewildering rapidity, and in three years Amadeo decided that he preferred his duchy in Italy to the crown of Spain. His resignation on the 11th of February, 1873, no sooner be- came known than the Cortes declared for a republic. Figueras was chosen president of the executive and a plan of a federative republican government like that of the United States was de- termined upon. Democratic principles were promulgated and a new Cortes supported them, but nothing like stability could be put into the government. Margall, Salmeron, and Castelar were presidents of Spain in succession within one year, and by vigorous measures the lat- ter succeeded in putting down a revolt led by the Carlists, but the very vigor of his methods set the republicans against him. In 1875 General Serrano set himself up as dictator. Another Carlist war began which drew all Germany into the contest, on account of the murder by the Carlists of a Prussian named Schmidt. Bismarck brought his influence to bear, and Serrano's government was recognized by the powers excepting Russia. But civil war again broke out in November and December. In the midst of this the eighteen-year-old son of Isabella, who had been with his mother in Paris, was proclaimed king, on the 29th of December, 1874. Spain being ready for another change, the young man was crowned king in January, 1875. He spent the first year of his reign in quieting the country and in 1876 work on the formation of the present constitution was begun. Spain has had several constitutions, all of which have had their influence over the formation of the one in force at pres- Constitu- ent, which was promulgated June 30, 1876. It was prepared by the government and adopted after discussion by an assembly chosen under " limited sufTrage " of the people a year after the accession of Alfonso XII. The rights of individuals and sacredness of private property are insured and the right of as- sembly and free speech are guaranteed to all. The kingdom is made a constitutional monarchy. 340 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. The legislative portion of the government is, by an article of latfr'e" the Constitution, put into the hands of a Cortes, or parliament " with the king." The Cortes consists of a Senate and a Con- gress, two Houses which must meet simultaneously and an- nually, but which cannot sit together. The king, the heir- apparent, and the regent are obliged to. swear fealty to the con- stitution, and the king appoints the president and the vice- president of the Senate. Ministers can only be impeached by the Congress and only tried by the Senate, and the persons of members are sacred during term of office. The Senate is composed of 360 members. Of these 180 are senators by right of office or birth, and almost 100 more are ap- pointed by the crown. Grandees of Spain, sons of the king, generals of the army, and admirals in the navy, presidents of the naval, military, supreme, and exchequer courts, etc., and the patriarch of the Indias come within the first category. The appointments of the king must be made from persons occupy- ing certain ranks. Finally, there is a third category composed of another 180 members who are elected by the universities, economical societies, communal and provincial governments, and acade- mies, churches, etc. For this second half of the Senate the term is ten years, half that number being elected every five years. Candidates must be thirty-five years old and in full pos- session of all their civil rights. The constitution in its amend- ments of 1877 and 1878 has been brought to this final state. The Congress is composed of 431 members since the royal decree of 1878. In that year Cuba received the right to send one deputy for every 40,000 inhabitants, slaves not being enumerated therein. By the electoral law of 1890 the suflTrage is open to male Spaniards twenty-flve years of age, who have been citizens of one municipality two years and are in the possession of all civil rights. They must also pay a $5 land, or $10 income tax. The elections for Congress occur simultane- ously with those for the Senate, 88 of the seats being filled by 26 districts voting according to the French sor-utin de liste,* the rest being returned from communal districts. The Congress elects its own officers. It addition to Cuba, Puerto Rico sends representatives to the Congress. *See under France. SPAIN. 341- The king, besides having legislative powers, is the executive officer of the iiingdom. He has the power to convoke and dissolve both Chambers, but another election must occur within three months. The king has the usual prerogatives of the executive. He commands the army and navy ; he ac- credits and receives foreign emissaries and members of the diplomatic corps and has the appointment of a large number of civil, military, and judicial officers. But he is bound to observe the advice and consent of the Cortes in matters of peace and war, change of territory, and signing of treaties. He can, in company witli either House, initiate measures. His person is inviolable and the ministers are responsible to the Cortes, not to him. All bills require the counter signature of a minister. The king is assisted in the executive and ad- ministrative portions of the government by a council of nine ministers. The constitution provides for a system of courts uniform throughout the kingdom, but up to the present this has not been carried out, and the old system continues. There are different courts in different parts of the country, and magis- trates of communes are still final in minor cases. The Roman Catholic Church is recognized by the constitu- tion as the state church, and though Protestants are allowed the enjoyment of their faith, it must be carried on privately, no public announcement being allowed. Education is back- ward, seventy-five per cent of the inhabitants not being able to read or write. But in 1881 a board of education with a di- rector pf education was appointed, and attempts are being made to introduce popular primary education. Spain, besides being defended along its frontiers by forty-nine fortified towns, has an army of 1,083,595 who in time of war can be summoned to the field. The army consists of (1) the permanent army, (2) the first reserve, (3) the second reserve. Every male able-bodied Spaniard twenty-nine years of age is liable to service, but may purchase exemption by the payment of 1,500 pesetas. The service consists of three years in the reg- ular army, three more in the first reserve, and six in the sec- ond-reserve. The peace footing is nominally set at a little over 115,000 men. As a matter of fact, hawever, the army under the estimates of 1893 was as follows : Executive. Judiciary. Army and Navy. Local gov- ernment. Colonial. 342 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. Infantry 52,239 Cavalry. 14,499 Artillery 9,349 Engineers 3,824 Others 233 Total 80,144 The navy is composed of the following ships : Armor-olads 6 Cruisers 18 Torpedo boats 24 Frigates 2 Submarine boats 1 Gunboats 51 Others 30 Total 132 Spain is divided into forty-nine provinces and these are gov- erned by deputaoiones provinoiales whose powers are prescribed by the constitution. The municipalities or communes, called pueblos, are governed by mayors, who have to assist them ajuntamientos, or councils. These are composed of different numbers of men according to the number of inhabitants in each commune, ranging from five to thirty-nine in member- ship. These bodies elect the mayors (aloaldes) and have ex- tensive local powers in matters of taxation, care of roads, etc. Both the provincial deputations and the councils are free from interference theoretically on the part of the national govern- ment so long as they keep within the powers granted them by the constitution, but in fact the imperial government often does interfere. In the Atlantic Ocean Spain possesses the islands of Cuba and Puerto Eico. Both these colonies are represented in the Spanish Cortes, and Cuba has a governor appointed by the Spanish crown. He is assisted by a council also appointed by the crown. The island is divided into three districts, each having local administrations. In the Pacific Ocean Spain possesses the Philippine Islands and several smaller islands. The government of the Philip- pines is carried on by a governor-general appointed by the crown. There are forty-three districts of diflferent sizes gov-' erned by aloaldes in a manner somewhat similar to the Span- ish local government system. The colonial possessions of Spain have an area and popula- tion as follows : SPAIN. 343 Name of Possession. Area. Population. Cuba 43,220 3,550 114,326 950 560 420 243,000 27 850 1,521,684 806,708 7,000,000 Philippine Islands Caroline Islands and Palaos 36,000 10,172 100,000 6,000 30,000 Rio de Oro and Adrar Ifni Fernando Po, Annabon, Corisoo, Elobey, and San Juan . ... Total 406,903 9,585,564 With the year 1876 regeneration began in Spain, but the ruin caused by nearly a century of war has been so complete that the country is only now beginning to recover. The first great danger was the Carlist Revolution, which was finally suppressed for all time in 1876-77. Then during the premier- ship of Canovas a war against the Catholics began, and parties divided on that issue. Alfonso XII. gradually brought the state back to the clerical party. The press was curtailed to a certain extent and the right of assembly was limited. But the power of the military, the need of unity against the Carlists, and the general tendency of the new king to conduct the government in the interests of his people, even though he did this by monarchical methods, tended to bring about' harmony. Measures were taken for placing the debt on a firm basis and for regulating the tariff of the state. Canovas's ministry fell on the Cuban question in March, 1879, the revolution there having occupied the atten- tion of the government since 1873. The expense of this war and the comparatively small results, together with the question of freeing the slaves in Cuba, brought hostile votes against the ministry, but after a few months of the ministry under Cam- pos, Canovas returned in December. The Liberal movement against the Roman Catholic measures grew stronger and stronger, however, and in 1881 Canovas was forced to resign again. Sagasta, a keen Liberal statesman, took the helm, but the Liberal party was still without suflQcient organization to hold a majority of all its parts and thus defeat the strong and well-trained Conservative Catholic minority. Sagasta fell, be- cause of his lack of organization, while the king was travel- ing in Europe, and Herrera, a somewhat more radical leader. Contem- porary events. 344 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. tried in 1883 to get together a working majority. Within a year, however, the Conservatives had defeated him, and the king recalled Canovas as the only man who could form a min- istry. This difficulty of the more liberal thinkers in the state is to be explained in the fact that some look to a liberal, repre- sentative monarchy as the salvation of Spain and others will hear of nothing but a republic, while the socialist and Radical Left vote first with one and then the other. Occasional up- risings occurred during these years in Madrid and other cities on the part of the socialists and Republicans but they were quickly suppressed, and during all these changes the Conserva- tives maintained their compact organization. King Alfonso died in November, 1885, and the present king, his son, Alfonso XIII., was born of his second wife, Christina, in May of the following year. The birth of this son averted a great danger from the state, since the queen had two daugh- ters but no son, and the Carlists, Republicans, and socialists were already at work to overthrow the regent queen, when Al- fonso was born and the threatening cloud passed away. The extraordinary diplomatic and statesmanlike power of Sagasta in holding the half dozen branches of the Lib- eral party together from 1885 until 1890 is to be explained only in his policy of moderation and his willingness to make concessions, and thus disarm the opposition of the Republicans on the one hand, and of the Conservatives on the other. He introduced in these years, civil marriage, a new suffrage law, extensive labor acts, but the great stumbling block was for him as well as for others the financial question. The general era of labor uprising that swept over the civilized world in 1889 and 1890, combined with the general tottering condition of Sagasta's ministry, which had been reorganized several times during the last four years, led to a dissolution in 1890. Canovas del Castillo again represented the Conservatives, but fell in 1892 owing to the lack of support in his own party on the question of the government of the city of Madrid, which had become so atrocious that a committee was appointed to in- vestigate it. The disclosures made by this committee were such that a popular wave of feeling rose against the mayor, who resigned, and Canovas in attempting to defend him, re- fusing to prosecute him, led to the downfall of the ministry. SPAIN. 345 Sagasta returned to power and began again on the great finan- cial question. He gave place in 1894 to Christitch who early in 1895 fell and again left a vacancy for Sagasta to fill. ii So O z Q Z <: z Q •rS 53 O « p to CO " S" . ^OOO O O O O tn ^rf F-i h O O Tr»HicNi-iegu303t-ioco'^TT*5303;i>25 : £5 CD O O^OO O 0_CD_O^C^_OJ_I>_'--^^'»^QO CO^C^^^ j ^-^■^ca 4L3 tH fH ^. 53^^ ^- c3 Ctt n Co n ra CO p, Q, Q4 P, Pi C pf 0) V V o pflfiflPPfl O O (U ® o J -^j t; . -^5 © a> "S "S "S "S 2S 2 "S d fci &1 Sod fl W " rt S L*5 i is =3 . f^ S a) Qj tfi ""I 2; » c8 "^ be tuo ho fl S^ g Si e ^? i fl8 o3 ci.^ 'itj "i ^ t fl fl o o (S c8 tH ^ I ,A j3 'S *S .0 '3 'S m CO Q F3 ta H n ssggsss a o "m gc3 c3 cS cS o3 ^ ^ h (h Fh F-i (h »-i d cfitjomcocotnusP tuo tiC be bJ} bD bfi bfi O }H P ^1 Ih ^ L-l tl V 4A 4J d 4^ t» OS cS 03 S Sc3 H e8« h {:: ^ tH ^ h c hr^ wja iiotiibiitioiiiio bog a-gnn p a BJiiaJ OgBBBSOgaS •rl 03 •clTi'rl'zlTi. a TJ."53 S43d^*ifl4f4J a a O'o M'Otj a a^-i^ h'^^ ooocooSsooooOQOoOQDoooocxiaocoQOaoooaocoooooooooco |>t^t»^CO (MC^iHCC-* r^o -(U30U3»CqkaiOtO N(M(NeHlM(MCq g 3 g -^ CO ;^ 5H rH « CO cq i-j 00 3j fc; eg 00 5 U5 t-. M "5 00 "-t 50 03 ^ Q iH CO ^H O CD t* t- S OQCO Th 53 ^ O 5 ss^trt ^cOr-(iHcq »c6 .-h^ih l> N 10 55 o tfj^o^co rn SWITZERLAND. The republic of Switzerland lies in the central part of Europe, completely surrounded by other states, and it is therefore with- out any coast-line. The Alps form natural boundaries for the state. Switzerland is bounded on the north by France and Germany, on the east by Germany and Austria, on the south by Italy, and on the west by France. The government is that of a republic of the most advanced form, consisting of a union of a number of cantons, each having extensive powers in local aflfairs. The capital is Berne with a population of 536,679. In the study of Swiss history it is impossible to understand the present government without some examination into the traditional influences that have led up to the republic of to- day. The present state has been made up of bits taken from the adjoining nations. French, German, and Italian are spoken in diflFer- ent cantons, and in the National Assem- blies it is necessary to have an interpreter to translate all speeches into any one of the three languages that the members may re- quire. The three divisions into which the inhabitants are di- vided by language are emphasized by distinct customs, differ- ent traditions, and different theories of government and life. The Confederation has through a long series of years been evolved out of the most heterogeneous material. Differing as they did in many of the essential qualities of government, these 3.57 History since 1800. 358 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. different independent states gradually came together for greater safety, were then first guaranteed by France, and became more closely united as the eighteenth century drew to a close. It was impossible for them to unite in a centralized government on account of these very differences, and thus out of small portions of the adjoining countries and small independent neutral states a confederation has grown into a nation, not very closely bound together within itself, not powerful as a nation, therefore, but so situated on the map of Europe with reference to the great powers that in order to preserve the bal- ance of power its integrity has been guaranteed by these powers themselves. When the revolution broke out in France in 1789 it had a great effect on the Swiss Cantons, as they were then called. France had for nearly three hundred years been closely connected with its cosmopolitan neighbor and the fall of the Bourbons threw the cantons into fierce party struggles. In the east, Austrian influence was thrown off and the districts there joined the western cantons, first in forming three inde- pendent states, and afterwards, following the advice of the Directoire at Paris, in effecting a compromise which resulted in the formation of the Helvetic Eepublic, on the 29th of March, 1798. A constitution was drawn up and accepted by ten of the thirteen districts and the Confederation formed. There were first twenty-three and afterwards nineteen cantons. Since the revolutionists, who were so in sympathy with the French Revolution, had triumphed, they decided that the government of this new state was to be as far removed from a government by the aristocracy as possible. Hence the Helvetic Eepublic was a centralized state. A central government was set up at Lucerne. In place of the collection of small allied aristocratic states, independent within their own territory and speaking different languages, a strongly centralized govern- ment was instituted. There was a central legislature consist- ing of a Grand Council, or Lower House, and a Senate of four delegates from each canton, in place of the almost independent cantonal government. Prefects, agents, and servants of the central government had control of local matters in each can- ton. Such a radical change could not be maintained. Revo- lutions broke out among the forest cantons in 1799, and in January, 1800, the Helvetic Republic was replaced by an Ex- SWITZERLAND. 359 ecutive Committee, again brought about through the influence of the Paris government. Two distinct parties now began to form, the Unitaries and the Federalists. The struggle was a long one and the state of afTairs in the cantons grew constantly worse. Gradually the Federalists gained the power, and in 1802 representatives from all the cantons were summoned to Paris to confer with Na- poleon as to the government of their territory. Napoleon had sufficient interest in the country and sufficient appreciation of its traditions to reinstate the old order of gov- ernment on a new basis, for the conference at Paris amounted to nothing more nor less than the submission of a plan to the deputies which they were forthwith constrained to accept. Thus on February 19, 1803, the Act of Mediation was adopted. In its clauses one may trace many of the sources of the present constitution. It combined many wise measures for the good of Switzerland, as the country was from this time called, which had they not depended on the personality of the emperor might have kept Switzerland at peace. There were now in all nineteen cantons and each was to have extensive local powers. At the same time they were to send delegates to a diet, which was to assemble in successive years at six of the most important cantonal capitals, which were named the " Vororte." Delegates had certain powers in regard to voting, but they could not go beyond or contrary to the instructions given them by the canton government they represented. Napoleon in many cases restored the old sys- tem of legislative government, called the Landsgemeinde, or popular open-air meeting, of the citizens to carry on legislative discussions. In the less democratic governments the Great or Legislative House and the Small or Executive Council were reinstituted. Traces of both these ancient forms of govern- ment can be found in the constitution of to-day. Napoleon's changes were ifaost marked in the destruction of class distinction and of the feudal system where it still existed. But when the fall of the emperor came, the support of the Act of Mediation was taken away and it fell forthwith, without regard to the fact that the country had progressed during ten years under this its latest form of government. When the allied troops began to close around Napoleon, part 360 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. of the Swiss territory was occupied by soldiers for one reason or another, and in 1813 a revolution broke out at Berne, over- threw the government, and set up the old aristocratic, inde- pendent state. Zurich, on the other hand, headed the Oppo- sition, and it was not until the Congress of Vienna in 1815 set- tled the Swiss question that peace was restored. At Vienna the integrity and neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed by the powers. At the same time Valais, NeuchSr tel, and Geneva became regular members of the Confederation, making twenty-two cantons in all. A small amount of terri- tory called Valtelline went to Austria and Miilhausen to France. The next government for Switzerland was the Pact of 1815 as prepared by the same Congress. The cantons were again declared sovereign, and the members of the Diet voted simply within their instructions. They could do nothing without specific authority from their home governments. Here was t he cause of the even tual failure of the system. The aristocracy were masters of the situation again. Switzerland fell back into its old position, as did the rest of Europe, and was only parti- ally awakened by the Revolution of 1830. In 1819 the Helvetic Society became one of the political parties and within the can- tons gradually gained strength, bringing out the democratic centralizing spirit among the people. Finally, in March, 1832, the seven cantons of Zurich, Berne, Lucerne, Soleure, St. Gall, Argovie, and Thurgovie, instituted new constitutions and signed the Siebener Concordat, by which they, finding no safety in the central power of the Diet, agreed to join in a defensive alliance for the greater safety of them- selves and their new constitution. In Bale, in 1833, trouble that had been long brewing came to a head and the canton was divided into Bale City and Bale Country. Another reaction set in in 1839 at Zurich, where the Radicals gained the upper hand. Catholicism entered into the contest in 1840 and stirred up a revolt in Argovie. The ad- vance of democratic ideas meant the inevitable destruction of Catholicism and in Argovie it had arrived at such a state that the church lands were being confiscated. The result was a re- union of the seven Catholic cantons, signed on the 2d of September, 1843, and known as the Sonderbund. In the fol- SWITZERLAND. 361 lowing year they demanded a restitution of all church property in Switzerland. Lucerne became the scene of riots in the next two years, where the Catholics attempted to reinstate the bishops. The Diet in 1847 declared the Sonderbund, which had now become an armed power in Switzerland, contrary to the Pact of 1815, and proceeded against it. Fighting occurred in Novem- ber, but the cantons quickly gave way before the army of the Diet. Meanwhile two men nanaed Kern and Orney had drawn up a new constitution wliich was finally accepted in the next year by fifteen and one half cantons. This constitution, amended in 1874 and later, is the one in force to-day, and the material growth of Switzerland began with the date of its adoption. It came into life before the revolutionary period of 1847 and saved Switzerland from the upheaval that other European countries went through in that year. Gradually, owing partly to its neutrality and partly to its republican government in such close proximity to the older monarchical systems, Switzerland has grown to be the center of social, progressive discussion in Europe. In 1857 King William of Prussia gave up his rights as prince in Neuchatel where his family had been the feudal lords for many generations, and the present emperor has finally severed all connection with the canton by resigning his title to it. The same work of revising cantonal constitutions went on after 1848 though in ,a far more peaceful spirit, the tendency always being toward a more democratic government. Out of this has grown the system of referring the measures to the popular vote after they have been passed by the representa- tives of the people. This became general among the cantons and was eventually introduced into the federal constitution under the name of the Referendum. An attempt was made at revision of the constitution in 1872, but it was not until 1874 that the changes were finally effected. By this revision Switzerland has ceased to be a slight union of individual cantons and has become a single state, which, though com- posed, of divisions possessing large local powers, is still one united government. In 1848, when the revolution broke out in Europe, the chief 362 GOVEBNMENTS OF THE WOKLD TO-DAY. Con- stitution. Legis- lature. result of the movement in Switzerland was a complete re- arrangement of the constitution in an organic law. This constitutes with sundry amendments the present constitu- tion.* The legislative part of the government is in the hands of the Federal Assembly, which is composed of two houses— the Council of State and the National Council. The Council of State was an outgrowth of the experiences of the Swiss people with a single diet. It was found impossible to carry on a sat- isfactory government without some double system for discuss- ing measures. Thus under the new constitution of 1848 the Council of State was formed. Each of the twenty-two cantons is represented in the Upper House by two delegates. The requirements for candidacy and the term of office are, however, prescribed by each state for its own delegates. In this way the membership of the Cham- ber is never certain. Some delegates serve but one year, others three, and in some cases the delegates are returned by the cantonal legislatures, as in the United States Senate, while in others they receive their election by popular vote. This makes the power of the Council unsteady, and it has not the weight throughout the, country that the Lower House has. The Council elects its own officers and observes the usual parlia- mentary procedure for the furtherance of business. The National Council, corresponding to the United States House of Representatives, requires that each candidate be a Swiss citizen holding -no ecclesiastical office, and in the full possession of his rights. There is one member chosen to rep- resent each canton, so that every canton has a representative ; but the proportion is one delegate to every 20,000 inhabitants or fraction over 10,000, in each canton. The cantons are di- vided into districts, and, according to the decennial census, each canton votes for its allotted number of candidates. At present the number is 147. Electors must be citizens of Switzerland, twenty years of age, and in full possession of their civil rights according to the laws of their respective cantons. The term of office is three years and members are * An able monograph on this suhject, by John Martin Vincent, Ph.D., is printed in an Extra Volume IX. or the Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, for 1891. SWITZERLAND. 363 eligible for reelection. The Council elects its own officers and chooses four tellers, who, with the president and vice-presi- dent, form a committee for nominating other committees, for counting votes, etc. Both Chambers meet twice a year, on the first Monday in June and December, and they are called to- gether by the Federal Council, or, in default of that sum- naons, they can be called by any five cantons or one fourth of their own members. All legislative matters that concern the country at large come within the province of the Federal Assembly. It elects the members of the Federal Council, the secretary of state, and the judges of the Supreme Court, and it thus has distinct powers in both the administrative and judicial divisions of the government as well as in the legislative. In the latter departs ment it has the right to make and ratify treaties of commerce with foreign countries and between the different cantons ; it has also the regulation of the election laws for federal offices, and the fixing of the amounts to be paid them, all authority in financial matters that concerns the federal state, and finally it has the power, when called upon by the country at large, to alter the constitution. It is also the highest court of justice in questions that concern the head of the state. When conducting purely legislative matters the two Houses sit apart, a majority being required in both before a bill can become a law. When the Assembly is sitting as a court of justice or is electing federal officials, the two Houses sit to- gether. The delegates of both Houses are free from arrest during the session unless taken in the act of crime, and free speech is insured. Furthermore, delegates cannot be bound by their electors. They represent the country at large. The president of the Confederation has not the right of veto, though he signs all bills as a matter of course. No member may speak more than three times on any one question, but he may use either French, German, or Italian, and the inter- preter is obliged, when so required, to translate a delegate's speech into any of the three languages. It is a remarkable thing that there does not, up to the present time, appear to have been an example of an attempt to delay business by pro- longing a discussion, and though it is necessary to secure a two thirds vote of the members present to close a discus- 364 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. siou, filibustering as practiced in England and the United States is unknown. The executive functions of the government are carried on Executive, by a Federal Council composed of seven members elected by the Federal Assembly sitting in joint session. The president or chairman chosen by the Federal Council is the president of the Confederation. He serves but one year, and cannot be reelected to serve a second term. The members of the Council are also heads of departments, and they attend to the ad- ministration of the laws in detail in their respective depart- ments. At the same time, they are also in a body the admin- istration of the government. As heads of departments they resemble the secretaries in the cabinet of the United States, but they are chosen by the legislature and therefore are not responsible to the president. They do not resign, however, when their policy is not accepted by the legislature, and they are not expected to. They are eligible for reelection and the custom has been to reelect them year by year. This differ- ence between this part of the Swiss government and that of other similar governments is an important one. Each mem- ber of the Council is chosen for three years and he remains in office during that time on the same principle that a member of the Lower House retains his ofHce. Changes of cabinet do not occur, therefore, and as a result the administrative part of the Swiss government is as perfect as that of any other country to-day. The duties of the Council are : the intro- duction of measures into the National Assembly, general supervision and enforcement of the constitution, charge of the national finances, promulgation of laws, the preparation and submission of the budget, general charge of foreign re- lations, and limited control over the army. That is, the ex- ecutive in Switzerland is not centered in one person, but in a Council of seven members who exercise the entire executive power, the president being nothing more than the presiding officer of this Council. The requirements for candidacy are the same as those for candidacy to the Lower House. The highest judicial court, called the Bundesgericht, con- judiciary, sists of nine judges and nine alternates chosen to serve six years by the Federal Assembly sitting in joint session, and the requirements and qualifications are the same as for election SWITZERLAND. 365 to the National Council, it being only necessary that the three nationalities shall be represented. The president and vice- president are chosen for terms of two years. The jurisdiction of this court is civil, criminal, and constitutional, but the line is not distinctly drawn between its powers and those of the Federal Assembly. The civil matters that come before it refer to the cases (with certain restrictions) between the cantons and the federal power, the cantons and individuals and cor- porations, between different cantons, and between the Con- federation and individuals, and this court also has certain jurisdiction in trying appeal cases from cantonal decisions and in cases where groups of cantons are concerned. The criminal cases referring to political matters concerning the federal power, foreign powers, and constitutional matters, come also within the jurisdiction of this court. It is to be noted, however, that this federal court is not, like the Supreme Court of the United States, the final authority in interpreting the federal constitution, that power resting with the Federal Assembly itself. Switzerland is divided into five judicial districts, and the Bundesgericht, in its capacity as criminal court, sits in each one in succession, all cases being tried before a jury. In Switzerland it is forbidden under the clauses involving Army. the neutrality of the nation to maintain a standing army, but all able-bodied men between the ages of 17 and 50 form a militia composed of (1) the Elite, or able-bodied men between the ages of 20 and 32 ; (2) the Landwehr, consisting of all able-bodied men between the ages of 32 and 44 ; and (3) the Landsturm, being the men between the ages of 17 and 50, who are not liable to service unless in case of war. The country is divided into eight military districts. The Elite consists at present of the following : Infantry 97,785 Cavalry 3,019 Artillery 18,085 Engineers 4,991 Others 4,930 Total 128,810 Besides these men there are 80,272 in the Landwehr and 268,715 in the Landsturm, or a total strength of 477,797. The governments of the different cantons are supreme, ex- 366 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. Local gov- ernment. Referen- dum. cept where the federal constitution expressly delegates certain authorities to the Federal Assembly . Each canton has its can- tonal government, diflfering in details from the others and ranging from open-air meetings (Landsgemeinde), composed of all able-bodied citizens who elect administrators and pass legislative acts on the spot without the introductory steps of legislative chambers, to cantonal chambers similar to those of the Federal Assembly. The term of office and the duties of the Chambers in the larger cantons are similar to those of the Federal Assembly. Each canton has its executive commit- tee, with its head, called the Landmann, or Schultheis, chosen by popular vote, or by the cantonal legislature, as the case may be ; each has also a legislative body as described, and a judiciary organized in courts of different grades. The judicial systems differ in each canton, since they are in each case the out- growth of the historical systems. The Swiss Referendum is a unique piece of democratic gov- ernment in practical use only in Switzerland, though it enters to a greater or less extent into all modern democratic govern- ments, and can be traced in the English and United States systems. Briefly, it provides that all laws, not of immediate or urgent nature, when regularly enacted by the Federal As- sembly and after promulgation by the Council, shall stand ninety days before being put into practice. The Federal Coun- cil decides the question of urgency. And if, during these ninety days, a petition for reconsideration of the law be signed by 30,000 citizens of the country in full possession of electoral rights, the Federal Council is obliged to submit the law to a vote of the entire Confederation. The law is thereupon pub- lished throughout the land, and on a certain day within four weeks after such promulgation the entire voting pop- ulation of Switzerland go to the polls and vote for or against the law. If a majority are in its favor, it stands as a law. If, how- ever, the majority declare against it, it is nullified a.nd cannot be carried through the Federal Assembly again. The Federal Assembly examines the petitions and orders the Referendum vote. This is one of the interesting questions in constitutional science and has created much discussion. It was intended as a defense against monarchical measures and SWITZBELAND. 367 as a means of permitting the people to take active part in their own government. The charge brought against it was that it would lead to socialism, but far from being socialistic, it has tended in its workings to centralize the government and has been on the whole a conservative check on the Liberals of ad- vanced standing. It has, therefore, up to the present had the opposite effect to that which was expected. Freedom of conscience is guaranteed by the constitution, but no Jesuit orders can exist in Switzerland, nor can any Jesuit hold educational or religious office. Education is compulsory and each canton has its own educational system. The recent history of Switzerland is largely one of unevent- ful, steady growth of the central government. There was a fear in 1882 that the enormous increase in the use of the Refer- endum might lead to the overthrow of the federal government, but the fear has not proved to be well founded. Since that year the Referendum has not been used as often and the consti- tution is firmer than ever. The influence of the Catholics has been guarded against by the constitution, and when in 1873 the government refused to allow the pope to make Geneva a Catholic bishopric, the con- test with the Catholic Church that was beginning in Germany spread into Switzerland. Monsignor Mermillod, the new bishop, paid no attention to the decrees of the Assembly and finally had to be removed and banished. The pope thereupon denounced the act, and the Swiss government broke off diplomatic connection with the papacy. The Old Catholic party was strong in its principles, also, and in 1876 an attempt was made to make it the state church. This failed, and on the accession of Leo X. to the papacy conciliatory measures were begun. Mermillod returned in 1883 and was received in the bishopric of Geneva and Lucerne, which had been vacant since his exile, and at the same time communication was again opened with the Vatican. But the trouble was not yet over. In April, 1890, in the can- ton of Ticino a revolt occurred against the Ultramontane Con- servatives, who had been in office fifteen years. The charge was made against them that they had removed 1,200 Protestant names from the electoral lists, and that thus the Ultramontanes had returned themselves to office year by year. It appeared Contempo- rary events. Kultur- kampf. 368 aOVEBNMBNTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. also that 1,500,000 francs had been taken from the treasury by the treasurer of the canton. The excitement increased until, on September 11, the Ultra- montane government was forcibly overthrown by a revolution, and a man named Rossi killed. A popular assembly was at once set up, but the Swiss government interfered and sent Col- onel Kunzli as envoy extraordinary to take charge of the gov- ernment of Ticino. He brought with him 1,500 troops to en- force his authority. It was alleged by the Liberals that in 1881 the districts had been arranged so as to give the Ultra- montanes the control of the government, and the demand was now made for a rearrangement of electoral districts. Finally Colonel Kunzli brought about a conference, having first put down an outbreak of the Conservatives against the revolution- ists. The conference resulted in the popular vote October 5, 1890, favoring revision of the cantonal constitution. Mean- time Kunzli, on a formal demand from Respini, the president of Ticino, had reinstated the cantonal government. On the 16th of October a meeting was held at Berne to discuss the question of the killing of Rossi. It was found that Rossi's murderer, Castioni, had fled to England, where he was safe under the extradition laws, the offense being political. In the new elections the Radicals refused to vote and the assembly of the canton in 1891 was, therefore, entirely composed of Conser- vatives. They at once amended the constitution to favor the Ultramontanes, and, the radicals still refraining from voting, it was adopted in March by a small majority. In September those connected with the revolt except Castioni were pardoned. Switzerland has for the last decade and a half been the scene of congresses for the discussion of matters concerning interna- tional posts and telegraph, temperance, labor. Red Cross asso- ciations, international law, international copyright, and many more of the advanced questions of the day. One of the most interesting of these congresses, both as to subject and as to the possible results which accrue from it, was the congress, or series of congresses, of Social Democrats, running through 1893 and 1894. This international congress could not bind any one, but it could and did meet and pass resolutions demanding univer- sal peace, the establishment of an eight-hour day law in all countries, the extension and support of national and inter- SWITZERLAND. 369 national labor unions, and the general recognition of the rights of labor. This last was drawn up in the form of a petition or regards. Switzerland itself signed by over 52,000 names. It is designed to give employment to aU. Swiss citi- zens and to set up bureaus of information for the facilitating and examining of all claims made under the act. There was also a large anarchist congress held in Switzerland in 1893 and 1894, which set up no program of reconstruction, but de- manded that the minority who rule the countries of the earth by their possession of wealth should be annihilated before anything could be done to better the condition of life of the great mass of suffering humanity.- Owing to its neutrality it has had difficulties with Russia and Germany, the one object- ing to the right of asylum it gives to nihilists, the other to that given the Social Democrats. But Switzerland maintains its integrity and its neutrality. TURKEY. Sultau, Abdttl-Hamid II. RULERS SINCE 1800. Selim III n8»-im MustatalV 1807-1808 Mahmoud II 1808-1839 Abdul-Medjld : 1839-1861 Abdul-Aziz 1831-1S76 Murad V (May 20 to August 31) 1876 Abdul-Hamid II 1876- MINISTRY. Grand Vizier..'. General DJevad Pasha Sheik-ul-Islam Djomaleddin Effendl Minister of the Interior Bif^t Pasha Minister of War General Blza Pasha Minister of Foreign Affairs Said Pasha Minister of Finance Nazif Effendl Mlnisterof Navy Hassan Pasha Minister of Public Instruction Suhdi Pasha Minister of Public Works Tewflk Pasha Minister of Justice Hussein Blza Pasha Minister without portfolio Djevdet Pasha Master of Artillery Zekki Pasha Head of the Evkafs (Bishops) Galib Pasha TABLE OF STATISTICS. Vilayet. In Europe: Eight In Asia : Twelve in Asia Minor Five in Armenia and Kurdistan. Three in Mesopotamia Six in Syria Two in Arabia In Africa: Two Total Nominally Tributaby States. Bulgaria Bosnia, Herzegovina, Novibazar... Samos Egypt Total Grand total, Ottoman Empire... . Area. 65,909 204,618 89,364 100,205 115,144 173,700 398,738 Population. 4,786,545 9,123,432 2,457,400 1,350,280 2,676,943 6,000,000 1,300,000 1,147,578 37,860 23,570 232 400,000 27,694,600 3,154,375 1,504,091 48,500 6,817,265 461,662 11,524,231 1,609,240 39,218,831 370 TURKEY. The ottoman Empire extends from the boundaries of Aus- tria on the north westward to the Persian Gulf in Asia. It is bounded by AustriarHungary, Servia, Roumania, the Black Sea, and Bussian territory in Asia on the north, by Persia and the Persian Gulf on the east, by Arabia, Africa, the Mediter- ranean Sea, and Greece on the south , and the Adriatic Sea, the Mediter- ranean Sea, and the southern provinces of Austria on the west. The prov- inces of the Turk- ish Empire extend over the entire sur- face of Asia Minor, and follow the coast of the Mediterran- ean, including Pal- estine, to the Suez Canal, thence run- ning westward to include Egypt. The government is an absolute monarchy. Constantinople is the capital with a population of 873,565. From the beginning of the century the power of the Otto- man Empire, acquired by conquest in the preceding centuries, began to decline. The victories of Napoleon which extended into Egypt led to discussions between the French and Rus- sian governments over the advisability of partitioning Turkey and dissolving the pagan empire altogether. Russia, however, 371 History since 1800. 372 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WOELD TO-DAY. demanded the possession of Constantinople for herself, and negotiations stopped there, the two governments not being able to agree on the first point. The situation of the city of Constantinople, standing as it does on the straits connecting the Black Sea and the Mediterranean and on the junction of Europe and Asia, makes it one of the most important spots on the eastern hemisphere. Each one of the great powers of Europe longs to possess this strategic point — most of all Russia — but at the same time each fears that some other government may secure it, and these conflicting sentiments have led to nearly a century of diplomatic struggles and a long series of destructive wars. Russia has taken any and every pretext to make war on the Porte in the hope of fl.nally gain- ing control of the Bosphorus ; and she has gathered to herself whatever territory of the empire she was able to secure. Several times Constantinople must have fallen into her hands but for the intervention of the rest of Europe. This constant interven- tion to save a pagan, antiquated government, that is slowly disintegrating, has been characterized as the endeavors of the doctors to save a sick man, and the political history of Turkey, necessarily from the student's point of view largely the history of Turkey's foreign relations, is the account of the successive diseases and narrow escapes of this " sick man." At the beginning of the century, when Napoleon and Alex- ander were endeavoring to come to some agreement regarding the disposition of the empire, Selim III., the reigning sultan, was deposed. He was succeeded by Mustafa IV., who in turn was deposed a year later (1808). The cause of these changes was a revolt of the Yamaks, a portion of the Turkish army, under one Baraictar, who brought about the deposition of both the monarchs and the crowning of a third, Mahmoud II., in 1808. Meantime war had been going on with Russia, during which the latter had seized Wallachia and Moldavia. Peace was finally arranged and Russia gave up the two provinces, re- taining only Bessarabia and one of the mouths of the Danube. This waa only one of the many losses of territory the Otto- man Empire sustained during the first half of the century. In 1812 the province of Servia revolted a second time and Turkey was forced to recognize her independence.* In Egypt, • See Servia. TURKEY. 373 too, the rise of Mehemet Ali, the pasha, began to threaten that province of the empire. The sacred places of the Mussulmans were threatened by the wild tribes of Wahabites, and Mehemet Ali, having subdued these peoples and thus won the veneration of all Mussulmans, soon became the virtual ruler of Egypt. From that time on his power increased, until in 1840 the Porte was obliged to acknowledge him as the hereditary ruler of Egypt.* In Greece the spirit of freedom had been fostered for a long time by secret societies, and here, also, in 1820-21 a revo- lution broke out against Turkish rule. In Constantinople, on April 22, the patriarchs of the Greek Church were all hung or massacred. This started the fire of Grecian independence, which in 1829-80, after ten years of the fiercest warfare, com- pelled the Turkish government to acknowledge the independ- ence of the kingdom of Greece.t Thus on all sides trhe Turkish government saw its power waning. In these struggles it has been the ulterior purpose of the tsar of Russia to weaken the power of the Porte, and Rus- sia, one of the most despotic of civilized governments, has therefore stood out as the champion of Grecian independence, as weU as that of Servian and even of Egyptian. It was this apparent solicitude on the part of the Russians for the Christians under the control of the sultan that led to another war with Turkey. For after the battle of Navarino in October, 1827, where the allies defeated the Turks, Russia complained that the Porte had not kept to her treaty stipula- tions in regard to the treatment of foreigners within her terri- tory. The government at St. Petersburg, not being able to get any satisfactory answer to its complaints, thereupon declared war in April, 1828, and pushed into the northern provinces of Turkey .t It was a bad time for the Turkish government to go to war. The sultan had the year before instituted certain reforms in his army with a view to reorganizing it on the European models. The change had caused a serious revolt of the Jani- zaries, the principal portion of the regular Turkish army, and in order to put the reforms through this old and rebellious part *See Egypt. fSee Greece, t See Russia. 374 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. of the organization had to be completely annihilated in the sum- mer of 1826. The rebuilding of the army by regular conscrip- tion, promotion in order, etc., was then introduced. Turkey, therefore, had neither her old army nor a new one, and .the ad- vance of the Russians could not be checked. By 1829 Adrian- ople was in the Russians' hands, and they had a clear road be- fore them to the Bosphorus. Here again the powers interfered to keep the "sick man" alive, and the peace of Adrianople was signed in September. The Turks, humiliated by such a peace, were in a still weaker condition than ever, and the advance of the ambitious Mehemet Ali in Egypt could be the less easily checked. He discovered this at once and de- manded the pashalik of Damascus. When this was refused he sent his son Ibrahim Pasha through Gaza and Jerusalem in a victorious march toward the capital of the Turkish govern- ment. Russia offered to assist Turkey, but England and France, fearing any treaty arrangements between the two countries, in- terfered and compelled Mahmoud to grant Mehemet All's de- mand. At the same time Russia and the Porte formed an eight years' secret treaty in 1833 of which the most important clause was to the effect that Turkey should keep the Bosphorus closed to foreign war vessels. By 1838 Mahmoud II., jealous of the growth of Mehemet All's power, sent a force against him, but the Turks were again defeated. Again the powers interfered in 1839, and in July, 1840, at London, an agreeinent was signed making Mehemet Ali and his heirs rulers in Egypt. Mehemet, however, refused to submit to certain conditions, and the powers with the exception of Prance declared war against Egypt, bombarded Alexandria, and defeated the Egyptians completely. Peace being again restored, Mehemet Ali agreed to the liondon treaty of 1840. Meantime, in 1839, Mahmoud II. had died and Abdul-Medjid ruled in his stead. The internal history of the Ottoman Em- pire during the latter's reign is chiefly memorable for the fa- mous HattirSherif of Oulhane, which, though incompletely followed out, was the program for putting Turkey on an equal footing with Europe. By its clauses private property was de- clared sacred, taxation was to be arranged on European sys- tems, military forces were to be built up on European methods, and a system of judicial courts introduced. TURKEY. 375 The year 1848 and its revolutions did little to disturb Turkish government, but in 1859 the discussion regarding the protector- ate of France, Russia, or Turkey over the holy places in Pales- tine prpved a sufficient cause for Russia to declare war again in May, 1853. Her advance toward Constantinople was checked by an alliance with the European powers, and the result was the Crimean War.* In the treaty of Paris at the close of the war, in 1856, Turkey first entered European diplomacy. The history of the Turks from 1858 to 1870 is a story of misgovernment, cruelty, and a system that became more and more atrocious until the Euro- pean provinces, driven to desperation, arose in revolt. The gov- ernment had dropped the reforms of the Hatti-Sherif of Gul- hane on the death of Abdul-Medjid in 1861, and Abdul- Aziz, his successor, was as absolute a monarch as Turkey had ever seen. In 1874 the revolt began in Montenegro,t and gradually it spread over the other semi-dependent provinces. Horrible atrocities were committed on both sides. The whole of Europe was aroused against such a war, and finally Count Andrassy, the Austrian premier, drew up a circular note demanding of the Porte certain concessions for the pacification of the prov- inces. This was sent out in 1876, but proved to be of no avail, and in 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey and again advanced on Constantinople. After the fall of Plevna, on December 10, 1877, the Russian forces were within a short distance of the capital when the Turkish government signified its willingness to agree to the "Andrassy Note," and a peace was signed at San Stefano on the third of March, 1878. Afterwards, at the Congress of Berlin, where all the European powers were repre- sented, Turkey was deprived of Montenegro, Herzegovina, Bosnia, Bessarabia, and part of Bulgaria. The Turkish gov- ernment w^s required to pay an enormous indemnity to Russia which left its finances in an almost hopeless condition, yet the powers so manipulated aflTairs at the Congress that the pagan state was still kept alive, and in spite of its shattered condition the Porte again interfered in Egyptian aflfairs to reassert its claims, and brought on the Egyptian war that involved all »See Russia and Austria. t See Montenegro, Servia, and Austria. ment. 376 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. Europe and resulted in the occupation of Egypt by England and France.* The constitution of the Turkish Empire, such as it is, is Govern- based on the precepts of the Koran and a code of laws drawn * up by the successor of Mahomet, composed of the latter's say- ings and decisions. To these two codes both sultan and people are subjected. Otherwise the sultan is an absolute ruler. There have been several constitutions in the European sense, especially one drawn up in 1876 which provided for legislative assemblies, election by the people, a council of state, ministers, high courts of justice, etc., but it is impossible to bring the Turkish mind to comprehend and follow them, and the spirit of the people as well as the ruler is so much against these modern changes that the constitutions have never succeeded in having even a fair trial. The Hatti-Sherif of Gulhane of 1839 was one attempt. To this succeeded, in 1856, after the admission of Turkey into European diplomatic circles, a regeneration of the Hatti-Sherif, which provided that private property was sacred, that torture was abolished, taxation remedied and equalized, that trial for all those charged with crime should be instituted. But, as in 1839, it was all on paper. In 1876 came a constitution of 119 ar- ticles, but it was never put into effect. Finally, in 1878, at the Berlin Congress the representatives of the Turkish government agreed to institute laws for the better treatment of the sultan's subjects, but the government is to-day practically what it was fifty years ago, an absolute monarchy with a few traditional restrictions to the sultan's power. The sultan is the executive and legislative power. The suc- cession is by lineal male descendants of the royal family, the choice usually falling among the oldest of brothers, sons, or cousins of the sultan. He holds the power of appointment to all prominent positions in the government and has the right to remove any official. He issues hatti-sherifs and hatti-hum- ayos, or signed orders, which correspond to Russian ukases, and firmans which correspond to the "noted ukases" of the tsar. These laws are subject only to the criticism of the Koran. There are two high officials who are the sultan's direct repre- * See Egypt. Sultan. TUBKEY. 377 sentatives, appointed by him to carry out the executive and legislative parts of the government, the sadr-azam, or grand vizier, corresponding to a European premier, and the Sheik-ul- Islam, who is the head of the church and chief of the Ulema, the body of churchmen, lawyers, and jurists who constitute a high court of justice. The Ulema is connected with the Mufti, or body of men who act as interpreters of the Koran, and sum- mon the Ulema to assist them in what in a constitutional gov- ernment would be deciding on the constitutionality of new laws. All the members of these organizations are appointed by the sultan. Below these officials are eflfendis, beys, and pashas, all civil officers in the government. The sultan also appoints a cabinet of eleven ministers who are the heads of as many departments and see to the execution of the imperial hatti-sherifs in their particular departments. Foreigners in the Ottoman Empire are tried under a court composed of their own countrymen, under the presidency of the consul of their country. Where a Turk is in court with a foreigner, the trial comes before the Turkish court, with a representative from the consulate of the foreigner's native country to defend him against any injustice. If the case is between foreigners, the one bringing the claim must go to the other's consulate court. The final and highest court of the empire is the Ulema, which for that purpose is made up of the greatest jurists in the nation. Education is very lirnited, but of late years there has been some little improvement. The Koran encourages education. There are colleges connected with some of the mosques. The empire is divided into seven military districts, and when the law of 1887 is put into force the army will be about 800,000 strong. Every able-bodied Mohammedan twenty years of age is liable to service. The military force is divided into the nizam, or regular army, the redif, or reserves, and the Tnustqftz, or force corresponding to the German Landsturm. The able-bodied men to a certain number constitute the nizam and serve six years there. They then serve eight years in the redif, and afterwards in the mustaflz. Those able-bodied men not required in the regular army on a peace footing serve, in the first year, six or nine months, and afterwards thirty days in each year. Adminis- tration. Judiciary. Army and Wayy. Local gov- ernment. Bulgaria. 378 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. The navy consists at present of the following ships : Armor-clads •. 15 Gunboats 30 Torpedo boats 32 Frigates ., 32 Corvettes 2 Other vessels 46 Total 157 The Mohammedan religion is the Turkish religion. Within the empire there are about 16,000,000 Mohammedans and 6,000,- 000 Christians. There are besides the Mohammedan seven other religious sects allowed to worship in the empire : Catholics, Greeks, Armenians, "Syrians, Maronites, Protestants, and Jews. The Mohammedans are subordinated in their church to the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the head of the church as well as one of the two most important officers of the political state. Turkey is divided for local government into thirty-one vilayets with sub-divisions into districts, sub-districts, and finally into something corresponding to communes. The sultan appoints thirty-one valis, each to rule in a province in his name. Each vali has his appointed council to assist him. The sultan is irresponsible in his appointments, and the minor offices of the vilayets being under the patronage of the valis are indirectly under the thumb of the sultan. Bulgaria lies north of Turkey proper along the Black Sea. Its capital is Sofia of about 30,428 inhabitants. It has an area of about 37,860 square miles, and is divided into twenty-two districts. The total population is 3,154,375. At the Congress of Berlin the Turkish province of Bulgaria was made a semi-independent state. It was granted a Chris- tian government and a national militia. The state is practi- cally independent, though it still remains under the suzerainty of the sultan. The prince of Bulgaria is elected by the free will of the Bulgarians, but the consent of the sultan and of the European powers is required before he can assume office. No member of a royal family in Europe is eligible for election to the head of the Bulgarian state. Religions of all kinds are alike before the law. The promulgation of a constitution was accomplished in 1879, but it was suspended in 1881 by the Grand Assembly of the state. Finally Prince Alexander I. was given extensive authority and granted the special power TURKEY. 379 of calling for the adoption of a constitution within the next seven years. In 1882 a fairly universal suffrage was introduced and other parts of the constitution of 1879 were partially en- forced, but the disturbances that have arisen with such fre- quency of late years have checked any great advance the state might otherwise have made toward representative govern- ment. A revolt in 1885 added Eastern Roumelia to Bulgaria, and in 1886 Prince Alexander was forced to resign. Ferdinand, prince of Saxony, was thereupon chosen prince of Bulgaria by the Grand Assembly, but his election has not yet been sanctioned by the sultan or the European powers. There was an attempt in 1886 to settle the disputed questions of sov- ereignty by a commission, but the overthrow of the prince put an end to the examination. The success, such as it has been, which Bulgaria has had is due entirely to the sagacity and genius of one man, the prime minister, M. Stambouloff. Crete, or Candia, is an island in the .ffigean Sea. It has been the scene of many battles, struggles of the inhabitants to gain their freedom, which have succeeded but poorly owing to the inability of Greece to send sufficient assistance. After the uprising in 1889 the sultan secured a stronger hold over the island than ever before, and he immediately recalled the grants made to the inhabitants in 1868, 1878, and in 1887, by the European powers. And to-day the island is virtually only another vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. Samos is an island off the west coast of Asia Minor. It is 232 square miles in area and has a population of 48,500. The government is that of a tributary principality, according to an agreement made between the sultan and Great Britain, France, and Russia. A constitution, dating as does the agreement from 1832, is the result of the Greek war for independence. Prince Alexander Karatheodori is the ruling prince and he has a council of four Greeks to assist him. He is appointed by the sultan.* Crete. Samos. * For the discussion of Egypt see under Egypt. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. President, Gkovek Cleveland. RULERS SINCE 1800. Thomas Jefferson, president, two terms. Republican 1800-1808 James Madison, president, two terms, Bepublican 1808-1816 James Monroe, president, two terms, Republican 1816-1824 John Quincy Adams, president, two terms. Republican 1824-1828 Andrew Jackson, president, two terms. Democratic 1828-1836 Martin Van Buren, president, one term, Democratic 1836-1840 William Henry Harrison, president ) 1840-1844 John Tyler, president } °"^ *®™' ^'"^ 1840-1844 James K. Polk, president, one term, Democratic 1844-1848 Zacbaiy Taylor, president 1 Millard Fillmore, president] ' ^ Franklin Pierce, president, one term, Democratic 1852-1856 James Buchanan, president, one term. Democratic 1856-1860 Abraham Lincoln, president 1 . . _ .,. men mon . _ _. .J, . f two terms, Republican 1860-1868 Andrew Johnson, president J ' Ulysses S. Grant, president, two terms, Republican 1868-1876 Rutherford B. Hayes, president, one term. Republican 1S76-1880 James A. Garfield, President 1^^ ^^^.^ jjj^^^ jg80_lg8^ Chester A. Arthur, president J Grover Cleveland, president, one term. Democratic 1884-1888 Benjamin Harrison, president, one term, Bepublican 1888-1892 Grover Cleveland, president, one term, Democratic 1892-1898 CABINET. Secretary of State "W. Q. Gresham Secretary of the Treasury J. G.Carlisle Secretary of "War D. S. Lamont Secretary of Navy H. A. Herbert Secretary of Interior Hoke Smith Secretary of Agriculture J. H. Morton Postmaster-General WiUiamL. Wilson Attorney-Gteneral Richard Olney TABLE OF STATISTICS. State. Alabama Arkansas California Carolina, North Carolina, South Colorado Connecticut Dakota, North Dakota, South Delaware District of Columbia, Florida Georgia Idaho Dllnois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York Ohio. Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia West Virginia Washington Wisconsin Wyoming Dtah Territobies : Alaska Arizona Indian Territory New Mexico Oklahoma Total When ad- mitted. 1819 1836 1850 1789 1788 1876 1788 1889 1889 1787 1845 1788 1890 1818 1816 1846 1861 1792 1812 1820 1788 1788 1837 1858 1817 1821 1889 1867 1864 1788 1787 1788 1802 1859 1787 1790 1796 1845 1791 1788 1863 1889 1848 1890 1894 Area. 51,540 53,045 155,980 48,580 30,170 103,645 4,845 70,195 76,850 l,i 60 54,240 68,980 84,290 56,000 35,910 55,475 81,700 40,000 45,420 8,040 57,430 79,205 46,340 68,735 145,310 76,840 109,740 9,005 7,455 47,620 40,760 94,560 44,985 1,085 41,750 262,290 9,135 40,125 24,645 66,880 54,450 97,575 82,190 531,410 112,920 31,000 122,460 38,830 3,493,410 JPopula- tion. 1,513,017 1,128,179 1,208,103 1,617,947 1,151,149 412,198 746,258 182,719 328,808 168,493 230,392 391,422 1,837,353 84,385 3,826,351 2,192,404 1,911,896 1,427,096 1,858,635 1,118,587 661,086 1,042,390 2,238,943 2,093,889 1,301,826 1,289,600 2,679,184 132,159 1,0,58,910 45,761 376,.530 1,144,933 5,997,853 3,762,316 313,767 5,258,014 345,506 1,767,518 2,235,523 332,422 1,655,980 762,794 349,390 1,686,880 60,705 207,905 31,795 59,620 177,782 153,593 61,834 62,638,800 Capital. Montgomery Little Rock Sacramento Raleigh Columbia Denver Hartford Bismarck Pierre Dover Washington | Tallahassee Atlanta Boise City Springfield Indianapolis Des Moines Topeka Frankfort Baton Rouge Augusta Annapolis Boston Lansing St. Paul. Jackson Jefferson City Helena LincoUi Carson City Concord Trenton Albany Columbus Salem Harrisburg Providence and Newport Nashville Austin Montpeller Richmond Charleston Olympla Madison Cheyenne Salt Lake City Sitka Phoenix Tahlequah Santa F6 Guthrie No. of Rep. No. of Sen. 3 commis- sioners. 2. 11 2 2 1 2 22 2 IS 2 11 2 8 2 11 2 6 2 4 2 6 2 IS 2 12 2 7 2 7 2 15 2 1 2 « 2 1 2 2 2 « 2 34 2 21 2 2 2 30 2 2 2 10 2 IS 2 2 2 10 2 4 2 2 2 1ft 2 1 2 2 2 358 90 381 THE UNITED STATES. The republic of the United States of America occupies the central portion of the continent of North America. It is bounded on the north by the forty-ninth parallel of latitude_ from the Pacific Ocean to the point where it intersects Lake Superior. Thence the northern boundary extends along the chain of the Great Lakes to Ottawa and from there to the Atlantic Ocean along the southern boundary of the province of New Brunswick. The eastern boundary of the United States is the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico ; the southern boundary,- the Gulf of Mexico, the republic of Mexico, and the Gulf of California ; and the Pacific Ocean forms the western boundary. The government is that of a federal republic com- posed of forty-five states and four territories, together with the District of Columbia, within which the city of Washington is situated, and Alaska, the northwesternmost extremity of the continent, which was purchased from Bussia in 1867 for$7,- 000,000. Washington is the capital with a population of 230,- 392, and the president, Grover Cleveland, is the head of the government. It is impossible in the limits of this sketch to more than since 1815. suggest the development of the present government from the beginning of the century. The peace of Ghent, signed on the 24th of December, 1814, closed the war commonly known as the War of 1812, or the Second War of Independence. It had been caused partly by European international difficulties be- tween Napoleon and England, partly by the still strong senti- ment in England against American independence, and per- haps directly by abuses heaped upon American seamen by the English navy. Its final settlement may be taken as the be- ginning of a new period in American history. Up to 1801 the Federalist party had held general control of the government and had done much to strengthen the new and somewhat precarious republic. The election of Thomas JelTerson in 1800 began a re- 382 THE UNITED STATES. 383 vulsiou of feeling from the theory of centralized governnaeiit to the theory of the right of the different states to govern them- selves. The Federalists, however, maintained a strong minority until the close of the war when they disappeared altogether. The war had been opposed by them. They leaned toward England, as the Democratic-Republicans, the name of Jeffer- son's party, sympathized more fully with France, and the in- direct defeat of the English in the war gave the Republicans the upper hand. • Jefferson believed that the existence of the federal govern- ment was for the mere purpose of keeping the union of states in- tact for internal welfare and external safety, that the states were the real sovereign powers in all that concerned them, and that the United States government was concerned with itself pri- marily and with other states only in so far as was absolutely necessary. His party, therefore, in 1815 comprised practically the whole nation. As we have said, the Federalist party was dead at the close Adminis- of the war, and at the end of Madison's administration (1812-16) trations ' * ' and Tkftrfiao the United States had but one political party. With Monroe's election in 1816 the Democratic-Republican party was supreme, so much so in fact that the period of his two terms of office has become known as the "era of good feeling." The policy of "America for Americans " was pushed forward during Mon- roe's two administrations. Money was appropriated by the federal government for internal improvements, the most im- portant of which was the Erie Canal, completed in 1855. Out of this policy the seeds of two new parties were planted. Some of those who might have been Federalists had they dared, who believed in the United States government as on the whole more important than the state governments, interpreted the constitution freely and gave the central government authority to raise and use money for internal improvements. Others of the party, who favored the supremacy of the states, felt this to be the work properly of the states. The latter put a strict, literal construction on the words of the constitution. Hence out of these two divisions of the Democratic-Republican party came the "Strict Constructionists" and the "Loose Con- structionists." Henry Clay headed the latter party in its first great differences with the Strict Constructionists in 1820 over and parties. 384 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. the question of whether slavery should be allowed in Missouri, which was about to become a state. The matter was finally set- tled by the Missouri Compromise, passed in 1820-21. The elec- tions of 1821 turned on these Loose and Strict Constructionist theories, though not yet with any great show of strength for the former. Monroe, however, though a Strict Constructionist, seemed to favor the Loose Constructionists somewhat, and he was reelected with scarcely any opposition. In 1822 the report that the European Holy Alliance was about to aid Spain in suppressing the revolt of her South American colonies led to the final crystallization of the "America for Americans" theory. To be sure, the idea was not new, for Washington in his farewell address had recom- mended that the United States should avoid so far as possible any complications with foreign powers and prevent interven- tion in home alTairs by outsiders. Mr. Monroe in his message to Congress in 1823 spoke a few words which constitute what has since been called the Monroe Doctrine, though the mes- sage had no binding effect. He said that any interference in the affairs of the western hemisphere by European powers would not be tolerated by the United States, and that, on the other hand, the United States would not interfere in any European difficulties. The next election found the two parties now fiercely opposed to one another. John Quincy Adams, a Loose Construction- ist, was finally elected after a coalition with the followers of Clay, who had resigned his claims in favor of Adams. The Strict Constructionists, who were represented by Andrew Jack- son, felt themselves cheated of the presidency by a combinar tion, and when Adams appointed Clay secretary of state, this strong minority in Congress began a bitter fight which ex- tended through the entire Adams administration, and finally elected Jackson in 1828. Out of these " Jackson men," as they were first called — Strict Constructionists as they really were — came the Democratic party of to-day. Out of the Loose Con- structionists, now allied under Clay and Adams, came the National Republicans, or, as they were later called, the Whigs, the last name coming probably from a resemblance between the hostility of the English Whigs to George III. and the hos- tility of the National Eepublicans to " King" Jackson. Their THE UNITED STATES. 385 principles represented tlie old Federalist idea in a modified form, with an added "plank " favoring a protective tariff. Dividing on these lines, the elections of 1828 gave Jackson a large majority and he was therefore declared president. He served two terms. It is probable that most of the opprobrium that now attaches to the name of " politician " was begun dur- ing the "reign of Andrew Jackson." Hitherto parties had been subordinated to the candidates ; now under Jackson's semi-military methods the machinery of party politics, already invented in New York, was made national. Jackson rewarded his helpers by appointing them to offices made vacant for this purpose, and hence the introduction of the "spoils system," which the present Civil Service Commission is endeavoring to crush. In 1833 this machinery won Jackson a complete vic- tory, and in 1839-40, therefore, the Whigs felt that their only chance lay in the construction of a counter-machine, and of counter state and national conventions. During the first term of President Jackson's administration the southern Democrats, who had followed Crawford, and on his disappearance from politics had transferred their votes to Jackson, began to discover in the latter a man who was not likely to go to the Strict Constructionist extremes which they advocated. It therefore became necessary to find another leader, who proved to be the vice-president, Calhoun. This division of the Democratic party opposed the right of the federal government to make tariff for the whole of the United States and declared the right of each state to nullify and de- clare void any act of Congress which it judged unconstitutional. This Doctrine of Nullification, which later merged itself into the Doctrine of the Right of Secession (the right of any state to secede from the Union if it saw fit to do so), became the stum- bling block over which parties in 1860 split the Union into hos- tile camps — the direct cause of the war. Jackson's hostility to the national bank and his final removal of the government de- posits to the different state banks, afterwards called "pet banks," led to a vote of censure against him in the Senate, which he finally put down on the ground that he could not be censured, only impeached. Afterwards he forced the Senate to expunge the vote of censure from its records. Nullification was near actual accomplishment in 1832, when 386 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. South Carolina voted an ordinance declaring the tariff bill not in force within that state, but Jackson issued a proclamation declaring that he would carry out the laws and prevent any nullification by military force. The movement was therefore checked for the time. "Van Buren succeeded Jackson in 1837 and had to bear the penalty of being the successor of an autocratic ruler such as Jackson had been. The financial panic of 1837 and all the misery that followed in its wake occupied most of his adminis- tration. In 1840 the National Republicans, now known as the Whigs, elected Harrison and Tyler. Harrison's death a few weeks after his inauguration left Tyler president, and the Whigs soon found a man at the head of the government who, having been elected to propitiate the southern branch of the party, had no sympathy with the party itself. It was proposed by the southern members, who wished to see slavery extended westward, to annex Texas to the United States and allow slavery within its limits. Tyler pushed the southern side of the question, but in the North a Liberty party was formed, de- nouncing slavery as a moral crime. This came to nothing more than the nomination of a candidate for the presidency, who was defeated. When James K. Polk was elected to the presidency in 1844 he found himself committed to the Texas question. Up to the present each party had had members in the North and in the South, but owing to the constantly increasing importance of slavery the Whigs were growing stronger in the North and weaker in the South and the Democrats vice versd. Parties were fast becoming territorially divided and nullification and slavery were becoming the important questions that divided them. In the Polk elections they divided on the question of the annexation of Texas, which was only finally decided in 1850 by a series of bills known as the Compromise of 1850. This Compromise was the last great political act of Henry Clay. An insurrection had arisen in the territory now known as Texas under the direction and instigation of Sam Houston, an American citizen, and the country revolted from Mexican rule in 1841. Being then independent, it applied for annexa- tion to the United States. When the bill came up during Van Buren's administration it could not be passed. In 1844, under THE UNITED STATES. 387 the presidency of Polk, Texas was annexed, slavery being left unsettled south of parallel 36° 30', and all territory north be- longing to the great district annexed was declared free from slavery. This act of annexation brought on the Mexican War, as Mexico naturally objected. In fact, the whole war was a contest for territory, and was one of the few instances where the United States has attacked a weaker power and seized its territory. The war closed early in 1848, and the United States annexed all the territory now included in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, and seized the whole of California. In 1849 Zachary Taylor was elected president by the Demo- crats and by his death shortly after inauguration the vice-presi- dent, Fillmore, became president. The Compromise of 1850 settled the following questions : that California should be ad- mitted as a state ; that Texas also should be admitted ; that Arizona and New Mexico were to be slave states when they ar- rived at statehood ; and most important of all, a law was passed obliging the authorities in all the states of the Union to return fugitive slaves when applied for by their owners. With the passage of the Compromise and Clay's retirement from politics the Whig party lost its significance. A Free Soil party appeared as its rival, both parties nominating can- didates in 1852. The Whigs had weakened from their original position and indorsed the Compromise of 1850, while the Free Sellers declared the Compromise an infamy and slavery a sin against God. Between them they lost the election and the Democrats elected Franklin Pierce. Out of the Free Soil party, founded in 1852, came in a few years the Republican party, which carried the war through to its close and held the reins of the government thereafter for a quarter of a century. At the time of Pierce's administration there existed for a short time a party which was brought into existence in opposition to the increased immigration of foreign- ers into the United States, people drawn hither partly by the gold discoveries in California and partly by their sufferings in their native countries. This Ejiow-nothing party was opposed to all foreign elements and their name grew out of a party cry of theirs that they ' ' knew nothing illegal or unconstitutional. ' ' During Pierce's and Buchanan's Democratic administrations (1852-60) all parties did their best to dodge the one great issue 388 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. of the hour — slavery. It was the period of the calm before the storm, but the great Kansas-Nebraska question culminating in John Brown's raid prepared everybody for 1860. States rights, nullification, secession, slavery, these were the questions that divided the voters of the United States into two distinct terri- torial parties. No great leader could stand a chance in such a contest ; each had too many enemies. But fortunately, as is often the case in such crises, the Republicans hit upon an un- known yet highly suitable man, Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln had little thought of slavery being at once abolished, but he spoke out openly as to the contested right of one state of the Union to nullify the acts of Congress and secede from the Union. On the 20th of December, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union and repealed all the acts by which the state had originally joined it. Other states followed, and the Con- federate government was formed under Davis and Stephens as president and vice-president. With the disappearance of the southern Democrats from Congress Lincoln's party had a strong majority. He held to his policy with indefatigable zeal and maintained that the Union must be preserved with or without slavery. The war began with the attack on Fort Sumter in April, 1861, and only ended with the surrender of Lee at Appomattox Court-house, near Richmond, on the 9th of April, 1865. Lincoln, elected for a second term, was assassinated by Wilkes Booth in a Washington theater April 14, and the presidency fell to An- drew Johnson, the vice-president. The war had scarcely been a civil war or rebellion proper. " Two communities radically diflfering in social structure and therefore in political require- ments had been clamped together in ill-assorted, uneasy, con- tentious, and immoral union. At length, in the course of nature, they fell asunder and formed two separate nations, the stronger of which proceeded to attack, conquer, and re-annex the weaker. This was the simple fact." * The " irrepressible conflict ' ' had thus been growing for forty years and was finally settled in 1865. Then began the period of recovery, which is still acting and will continue to act until the entire generation that witnessed * Goldwin Smith's " The United States, an Outline of Political History," page 249. THE UNITED STATES. 389 the struggle has passed away. Johnson was not as closelyidenti- fled with the Union cause as Lincoln had been. He came into contact, therefore, with the strong Republican Congress and a conflict resulted. He was denied the right of dismissing offl- eers of the government, and his discharge of Stanton, Lin- coln's secretary of war, brought the matter to a head. Johnson was impeached by Congress, but the necessary two thirds vote was not forthcoming and he was acquitted. Congress, how- ever, had virtually taken the government out of his hands. The first step in reconstruction had been taken in 1865 by the passage of the thirteenth amendment to the constitution, which forbade slavery forever. The next step gave the negro equal rights with whites in the country. It failed, however, to hecome a law in 1866 through Johnson's veto, but in 1868, July 28, it received the required three fourths vote and became the fourteenth amendment with additions. Finally, in Feb- ruary, 1869, Congress passed the fifteenth amendment, which is the last added to the United States constitution. This amendment stipulates that the right of all citizens to vote shall never be denied by the government or by any state gov- ernment on account of color, race, or previous state of servi- tude. From this time for ten years Congress was busy with the vital questions involved in the reconstruction of the South. The parties can be easily defined until the election period of 1884. The Republicans at each successive convention in 1868, 1872, 1876, and 1880 first reviewed the great services which the party had done the country during the war and urged besides a general disapproval of the "solid South," the forcing of proper elections in the South by the introduction of federal troops, etc. The introduction of troops was carried out in Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and other states several times. As time went on, however, the infiuenee which this review of the past deeds of the party exerted became weaker. On the other hand, the Democratic party opposed the intro- duction of federal troops in the southern states, objected to any interference on the part of the United States government in its election affairs, and thus showed a trace of the Strict Con- structionist principle still remaining. It was a long and nerv- ous period for all parties concerned. It was the period during 390 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. which the South though defeated could not and would not fall into the path laid out for it by the North. .Grant, the presi- dent from 1868 to 1877, was the general who had brought the war to its conclusion, and, on the one hand, he was the hero of the Republican party while, on the other, he was an ever present reminder to the southern Democrats of their defeat. The election of E. B. Hayes to the presidency in 1876, though by a very doubtful majority, gave the Republicans again the control of affairs. Hayes was, however, much less of a war president than Grant, and, therefore, much less objectionable to the South. He recalled federal troops from South Carolina and Louisiana soon after his inauguration. He recommended civil service reform, and in other ways tried to conciliate rather than force the South. This policy toward southern Democrats, neutralizing the fevered contest of parties, was as- sisted by the growing importance of financial questions which were not governed by Mason and Dixon's line and conse- quently tended to split parties still more. Hayes's policy and his administration, therefore, while it deprived him of the support of his own party without bringing him the support of the Democrats, yet gave the country a long breathing spell, the first it had had in many decades, and this has proved to be of invaluable advantage. Yet the "Sunday-school politics" of Hayes's admi'nistration are still a by-word. As the time for the resumption of specie payments approached (1879), a party that had come into life to oppose this, and that was called after its great plank the "Greenback " or National party, grew in strength. It opposed the resumption of specie payment and recommended the issuance of greenbacks. United States notes, convertible into bonds on demand as the currency of the coun- try. The Greenbackers, however, never became dangerous rivals of the two great parties and they accomplished nothing more than the nomination of a candidate. In the elections of 1880 the questions of finance and tariff began to take a more important place in party warfare, the Ee- pubUeans recommending protection, the Democrats a reduc- tion of the tariflf. The Eepubliean party reviewed its past achievements again, favored loose constructionism, and elected James A. Garfield president. Garfield urged the necessity of civil service reform, but on July 2, 1881, when his administra- THE UNITED STATES. 391 tiou had scarcely begun, he was assassinated by a fanatic named Guiteau. Chester A. Arthur, the vice-president, became president. The whole of Arthur's term was uneventful, the time of Congress being largely occupied with the discussion of tariff bills that did not become laws. It was during Arthur's term that the great difficulties between labor and capital be- gan to culminate in the Knights of Labor, an organization started in Philadelphia in 1883 with hardly more than 55,000 members, which soon arose to the enormous membership of 600,000 men. The elections in 1884 and the questions involved mark a new period in party politics. The Republican party had lost its significance, because its work was largely accomplished. The southern abuses in elections were all that remained to divide the North from the South. The names of parties, however, still remained. Tariff questions did not divide parties terri- torially as did the war issues, and for want of vital party ques- tions the electoral campaign became a close and bitterly personal contest between James G. Blaine, the Republican nominee, and Grover Cleveland, the Democratic. Cleveland -^on entirely on the vote of New York State, which went strongly Democratic, owing to the appearance of an independent political organiza- tion, known as the "Mugwump " party, which was composed of active men belonging for the moment to neither party but seeking for issues of the hour and leaving behind them those of war. Both the great parties declared for civil service re- form, and both declared for a reduction of the revenue, the Republicans still defending protection, the Democrats con- demning it. For the first time in half a century there was no general removal of office-holders. A Civil Service Commission was appointed, which has done much under many disadvan- tages to do away with the spoils system and make tenure of office depend on good behavior, and appointments subject to an examination. There is much still for the Commission to do, however. Perhaps the most important act passed was the Interstate Commerce Law, creating a commission to regulate the charges of railroads running through two or more states, with the purpose of preventing a smaller charge being made for a "long haul" than a "short haul." This measure is a distinct loose constructionist act passed by the Democratic Congress. 392 GOVEENMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. In the elections of 1888 a reaction occurred and Benjamin Harrison, the Eepublican nominee, defeated Cleveland on his second nomination, the vote being again decided by New York. The party lines were if possible still more indefinite than in 1884, though the tariff question played a more impor- tant part. Grover Cleveland was elected for a second term in 1892 with Harrison again the candidate of the Eepublican party. A tariflf" law was passed in 1789, July 4, whose object was Tariff. " the encouragement and protection of manufactures." Presi- dent Monroe, in his message to Congress in 1817, recom- mended a protective tariff after Congress had abolished the internal tax passed during the War of 1812 for the purpose of raising money. A tariff bill slightly protective had been passed in 1816, and was continued now for seven years, the real purpose being to raise revenue for the government. In 1820, however, the Strict and Loose Construction element among the Democratic-Eepublicans was beginning to divide the party into two camps and the question of tariff was one of the causes of the division. " Strict Constructionists believed that the constitution gave Congress power to lay duties only with the design to provide for the expenses of the government and the paying of the national debt, and that the arrangement of duties for the benefit of any branch of manufacturers was usurpation of a power not granted or implied. Loose Construc- tionists believed that the power to regulate commerce and pro- vide for the common defense implied the power to lay a pro- tective tariff, and that any subsequent benefit to manufactures would be more than offset by the creation of a domestic market for agricultural products."* This expresses, probably as well as it can be expressed in few words, the policy of the two parties then existing, and of the Republican and Democratic parties since then, on the question of tariff. Tariff was, however, not confined within strict party lines, for in 1824 Monroe, himself a Strict Constructionist, advised a protective tariff, and the Congress passed a bill raising duties . higher than they had ever been before. Southern members voted almost entirely against the bill, because the North was the manufacturing portion of the * Johnston's "American Politics," page 9i, edition of 1892. THE UNITED STATES. 393 United States and the South the producing. Four years later the strong protective tariff of 1828 was passed, and, while it fully satisfied northern manufacturers, it incensed the South, which had to pay tariflf" duties without receiving returns. The southern complaint, however, against the tariff act was mainly because it recognized the doctrine of protection, and this hos- tility continued to come from the South, especially from South Carolina, until in 1832 another bill was passed reducing the 1820 tariff, but still favoring to a certain degree the principle of protection. In the following year, through the energy of Henry Clay, a compromise tariff was passed providing for a gradual reduction of duties on imports until in 1842 there was to be a general tariff of twenty per cent on all imported goods. As 1842 approached it was discovered that by the reduction of the tariff the government expenses had become greater than its receipts. Something had to be done, therefore, and a revenue tariff was finally passed and became a law. In the presidential election of 1844 "protective tariff" was one of the planks of the Whig platform. The tariff of 1846 reduced duties slightly and bore the mark of Strict Constructionist theory. In 1857, under Pierce's pres- idency, the tariff was again changed and duties were lowered below those in the bill passed in 1816. Then came the war and the necessity for large sums of money at once. The Morrill tariff of 1861, however, was not so much a matter of revenue — in fact that was a secondary matter — as of protection to manufacturers pure and simple. The southern members having withdrawn from Congress on the secession of the southern states, the Republicans passed their bill at once. Then in 1862 the war taxation laws began. The Internal Revenue Act of July 1st was passed to raise large sums on excise. On July 14 another tariff bill was passed for the avowed purpose of bringing tariff on imports up to and equal with the excise law, both being for the purpose of raising money during the war, both to be annulled at its close. The two acts passed two years later, internal excise and external tariff, were simply higher taxation; the one passed to raise still more money, the other to equal it, as in 1862. And this tariff of 1864 is the basis of the law to-day, for the taxation on imports has never been decreased since then. In 1872 the 1862 and 1864 394 GOVBENMBNTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. internal excise laws were abolished, the war being over and the reason for their existence gone. The 1862 and 1864 import tariff laws were, however, retained. From 1864 to 1883 the tariff was constantly becoming more and more important as a party measure and, the Republicans being in power, the almost yearly changes that occurred far from lowering the war tariffs actually increased them. Such was the wool tariff of 1867, the copper tariff of 1869, and the steel rails and marble tariff of 1870. In each case the duties were raised, and meantime the parties in each election put stronger planks in their platforms concerning taxation. Finally, in 1883, an attempt — the Morrison Horizontal Re- duction Bill — was made to reduce the tariff in general without regard to special subjects. It failed to pass the House, but was finally carried on being referred to a joint committee, A re- duction in the tariff is certainly not an element in this bill. On April 16, 1890, Mr. McKinley of Ohio introduced a bill " to equalize duties on imports and reduce the revenues of the government." It had been in committee for a long time. Discussion began May 7 in "limited debate." The bill was re- ferred to the Senate finance committee on May 23. It came back to the House on June 19, and was again discussed, sent to the Senate, and returned to House, amended, September 9. A conference committee of both Houses discussed the bill and it finally passed both Houses and became a law October 1, 1890. As a result of this bill the percentage of tariff on foreign goods was again raised though certain large sources of revenue were canceled. On December 19, 1893, Mr. Wilson, of the House of Repre- sentatives, reported what has been called the "Wilson Bill." It is a measure " to reduce taxation and to provide revenue for the government and for other purposes." The bill was sent to the Committee of the Whole in January, 1894, and was re- ported again January 27, 1894. On going to the Senate the bill was amended. Many conferences were finally ended by the passage of the bill in a mutilated form August 27 and then it became a law without the signature of the president. The law reduces the tariff somewhat, but only a little, and it admits certain raw materials free. As far back in the history of the colonies as their foundation. THE UNITED STATES. 395 slavery is to be found in all except Vermont. It disappeared, however, gradually in the North, and did not come up as a Slavery, factor in politics until the United States began to spread its territory westward. Up to that time what little reference had been made to slavery in Congress had been made in the cer- tainty that as the free and slave states about equaled each other the Senate could check any radical measure on the part of either party. The purchase of Louisiana in Jefferson's term led, later on, to a discussion as to what division was to be made of the territory as regarded slavery. The state of Louisi- ana had entered the Union in 1812 as a slave state and Mis- souri came up next for admission in 1819. The House having a strong majority against slavery and the Senate a slight but fervid majority in favor of slavery, the result was a deadlock, settled in 1820 by Henry Clay's Compromise, which admitted Maine as, a free state, gave Missouri over to slavery, and pro- hibited slavery ever after north of the parallel 36° 30'. This quieted the question for a time, though the suddenness of its rising is well expressed by Jefferson's remark that it came " like the sound of a bell in the night." Such a question, which, like religious questions, cannot be settled by compromises, was bound to come up again as soon as the westward movement of the population demanded more territory. The South saw the northern territory extending toward the Pacific and looked toward the land now occupied by Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, then the property of Mexico, to offer it a corresponding chance for spreading. Up to this time slavery had not been a subject of legislation. Over this question came the war with Mexico, and, after its close and the annexation of the territory, the settlement so far as slavery was concerned was made in 1850 by Henry Clay's great Compromise. CaUfornia was admitted as a free state. The territories of Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona, were or- ganized without mention of slavery. The question was to be left to them. The slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, and a law was passed which permitted the pursuit of runaway slaves into any state of the Union by their mas- ters, and provided for their trial without jury before United States commissioners and marshals. Texas became a slave state. 396 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. Meantime, since 1830, another movement had been at work in opposition to slavery. This abolitionist movement had nothing to do with politics. It did not consider that anything could be done by legislation. Slavery was a moral wrong and must be crushed out at once, by force of arms if necessary. Such fanatical procedure, while now it seems perfectly natural, at the time raised a perfect whirlwind on all sides. Even then every one instinctively realized that the less said about slavery the better, and these thundering speeches by Garrison and Phillips and the other abolitionists stirred up party feeling on all sides. Riots against the abolitionists occurred. Garrison was dragged through the streets of Boston with a halter around his neck. In Pennsylvania a man named Hall of Phila- delphia was burned, and another named Lovejoy in Illinois. The abolitionist movement, treating slavery on moral grounds, came into politics first when Sumner and Chase en- tered the Senate in 1849-r50, and from 1850 to 1861 the slave question was uppermost in politics. To it secession and nul- lification, and all the theories that hang about these two words, owe their existence. Looking back on the question in the light of history, it is evident that the Union could not have been preserved without the abolition of slavery, and hence it was the real question for which the war was undertaken. Matters were brought to a crisis some time before 1861. For in Kansas in 1854r-56 the question of what status it was to have in Nebraska and Kansas, which were applying for admission to the Union, created severe contests. A bill was proposed and passed abolishing the Compromise of 1820, and deciding that each state on being admitted was to vote whether it would per- mit slavery or not. As soon as this was passed the voting be- gan in Kansas. All sorts of abuses were countenanced. Men came over the line from Missouri by the hundreds and voted illegally in favor of slavery. Out of this grew John Brown's raid, which, coming at this time of intense excitement, grew to considerable proportions and was aided by the abolitionists of New England. Brown moved with a small force into Mary- land and seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, on July 17, 1859. He issued a call to the negroes to join him, but none came and he was soon captured and hung. Finally all parties saw that slavery must be decided by force THE UNITED STI PES OF AMERICA. THE UNITED STATES. 397 of arms and tnat the stronger must crush the weaker into sub- mission, though no one dared to look the matter in the face until he was compelled to do so. Fort Sumter was captured in April, 1861, and Lincoln then issued his Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. By the surrender of Lee in 1865 the war was at an end and slavery had been rooted out of the United States forever. The constitution of the United States, which is one of the most remarkable documents ever drawn up, was adopted on or before the 15th day of September, 1787, by delegates from all the orig- inal thirteen states except Rhode Island, assembled in Federal Convention at Philadelphia. It is "a document effected in a wise spirit of compromise and patriotism when the Articles of Confederation, which had carried the American people safely through the Revolution, had proved to be insufficient for the government of the new United States. This constitution has 'remained unchanged with the exception of fifteen amend- ments. Of these, twelve were passed between 1787 and 1805. The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments were passed respectively in 1865, 1868, and 1870 and referred to the abolition of slavery forever in the United States, to the rights of all men before the law, and to the assurance that neither race, color, nor previous condition of servitude should debar a man from the rights of citizenship. Under the first paragraph of the constitution all men are de- clared free and equal, and the government is to be one by the people and for the people. The purpose is to "form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and to our pos- terity." The constitution marks so strongly a new era in government and has been the basis of so many republican con- stitutions since created that it should be examined at first band, offering the student far better results when consulted in its articles than through the medium of an abstract. The legislative portions of the government are placed in the hands of a Congress of the United States consisting of two houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives. This was the result of the methods in force in England modified to suit a younger state and different social and political institutions. Constitu- tion. Congress. 398 aOVEKNMENTS OF THE WOBI,D TO-DAY. Congress meets on the first Monday in December of each year, but extra sessions may be called. The session in the al- ternate year ends necessarily on March 4th, since a new Con- gress assembles on that day. The regulations regarding elec- tions, qualifications, quorum, rules of procedure, punishment of members, etc., are determined by each House for its own members. Members of both Houses receive a salary of $5,000 a year and traveling expenses. The speaker of the House and the president of the Senate receive $8,000 salary. All revenue bills must originate in the House, but the Senate may propose amendments. No bill can become a law unless it has received a majority of the votes of a quorum of both Houses and the signature of the president, though a two thirds vote of all the members of both Houses will pass a law over the president's veto. Congress has the power to enact all laws necessary to the welfare of the country and to the carrying out of the con- stitution, such as all matters of taxation, direct and indirect,' the public debt, common defense, concerning the naturaliza- tion of foreigners, bankruptcy (though now this is in the hands of the states since the three bankruptcy laws passed by Con- gress at different times have all been repealed), the coining of all money, regulation of weights and measures, establishm.ent of postal facilities, copyright, punishment of offenses against the laws of nations, piracy, declaration of war, establishment of armies and navies, and finally the passage of all laws neces- sary to the carrying out of all these powers. The proportion of the inhabitants to each representative and the number of representatives in the House for each decade since 1800 is as follows : No. of Inhabitants to Decade. No. of Representatives. the Representative, 1803 105 33,000 1803-1813 141 33,000 1813-1823 181 35,000 1823-1833 212 40,000 1833-1843 220 47,700 1843-1853 223 70,680 1853-1863 234 93,500 1863-1873 241 127,941 1873-1883 292 130,533 1883-1893 325 151,911 1893-1903 .358 173,902 The House of Representatives is composed of members chosen every two years. They are elected by the people of the several THE UNITED STATES. 399 states, one for a stipulated number of the inhabitants, this num- ber being determined by law. Every candidate must be at least twentyTflve years of age, must have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and must when elected be a resi- dent of the state he is chosen to represent. The House has the sole right to impeach the civil officers of the United States, but the trial is carried on before the Senate. The Senate of the United States consists of tvi'o representa- tives from each state of the Union. This arrangement was brought about to satisfy those who believed in the supremacy of the states, and it is a part of the wise compromise which made the constitution palatable to all and efficacious. In the House the people of the United States speak direct. In the Senate the states speak direct. The two senators are chosen by the legislatures of the states they represent, and each sen- ator has one vote. The term of office is six years, but one third of the Senate retires every two years. Thus the House is either entirely changed or reelected every two years, while the Sen- ate is what is called a continuous body. Senators must be at least thirty years of age, must have been at least nine years citizens of the United States, and inhabi- tants of the state they represent when elected to the office. The vice-president of the United States is the president of the Senate, but in order to ]seep the state representation exactly even he has no vote. The duties of the Senate are to try im- peachment cases, and to pass upon all bills before they can be- come laws. The executive powers of the United States are vested in one person, the president, who, together with the vice-president, is elected for a term of four years. The president may be re- elected, but it has become an unwritten law that he shall not accept a third election. The constitution provides that in electing a president the people shall vote for electors, each state having as many electors as it has senators and representatives in Congress, and that these electors shall meet and after discus- sion choose a president and vice-president. But custom has broken the spirit of this law to a'certain degree, and now the electors do not discuss, but they are chosen to vote for certain candidates, the candidates themselves having been previously nominated at party conventions. The whole machinery of House of Represen- tatives. Senate. Executive. 400 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBLD TO-DAY. party politics came into life after the adoption of the constitu- tion. Electors are chosen on the Tuesday after the first Mon- day in November every fourth year. If there is a tie, or if no one receives a majority of the votes, the House elects the presi- dent from the three candidates having the greatest number of votes. If no vice-president is elected the Senate chooses him. The president and vice-president must be at least thirty-five years of age, must be native-born, and must have been resi- dents of the United States for fourteen years. The vice-presi- dent is elected merely to succeed the president in case of the re- moval, resignation, or inability of the latter. The president's salary is |50,000. He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia in time of war. He has the right of pardon, the right to make peace by and with the consent of the Senate, to appoint all members of the diplomatic corps, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States not otherwise provided for in the constitution. Admmis- '^^^ executive business of the government is divided among tration. eight executive departments whose heads are appointed by the president and who compose the cabinet. The latter are the secretaries of state, treasury, war, navy, post-office, interior, justice, and agriculture. This cabinet is an outgrowth of the constitution not provided for in its articles. The heads of these departments are gathered together in order to form a body to give advice to the president when required by him to do so. The state department is the most important and includes all foreign afiairs. It has a diplomatic, a consular, and a domestic bureau. The treasury department has control of the finances, and under its chief there is a comptroller, an auditor, and treasurer, a register, and an assistant secretary. The department has sixteen bureaus. The war department has control of the affairs relating to the details and personnel of the army. It consists of eight bureaus for the army. The navy department has charge of the personnel of the navy and naval affairs. It consists of eight departments, in- cluding the coast survey, etc. The post-offlce department has entire charge of all matters THE UNITED STATES. 401 relating to the mails in the United States, their receipt, trans- mission, and delivery. The department of the interior includes six bureaus having in charge respectively matters relating to patents, pensions, land, science, Indian affairs, and education. The department of justice consists of ten oflacials under the attorney-general. The department of agriculture was formerly a bureau under the department of the interior, but agriculture has become so important a matter in the United States that it has recently been given a separate department. The duties of the depart- ment are to encourage and supervise agriculture. The Supreme Court of the United States is unique among civil courts. Its greatest power and its greatest duty is to in- terpret the articles of the constitution and decide upon the constitutionality of the acts of Congress. It consists of a Chief Justice and eight associate justices, all appointed by the president by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Under the Supreme Court are nine circuit courts, one justice of the Supreme Court being assigned to each. Cases of appeal naay be taken from the circuit court to the Supreme Court, and each circuit court is presided over by a circuit judge, a district judge, and a justice of the Supreme Court. The nine circuit courts are divided into district courts, and each state has one or more of these district courts. Tliere are also circuit courts of appeal, created in 1891, to divide the work with the circuit courts, with whom they are identical as to circuits and judges. These are the United States courts having jurisdiction under the constitution in all matters between the United States and foreign countries, in difficulties arising from interpretations of the constitution, in controversies where the United States is a party, in controversies between the United States and an indi- vidual, between the citizen of one state and another state, be- tween citizens of different states, between states, and between states or citizens and foreign powers. All trials for crime must be before a jury except in cases of impeachment. Each state has its constitution drawn up and adopted by a convention at some period of its history. The legislative por- tion of the state government is in each case vested in two Judiciary. State gov- ernments. 402 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. houses, not always known under the same name but composed in the main of a house of representatives and a senate. The former is made up of members chosen by popular vote by dis- tricts into which the state is divided, the latter in the same way, but usually for a longer term and from ditferent and larger districts, making the senate a smaller and generally a more conservative body. The electoral period is one or two years and the term of office varies from one to four years, the general rule being four years for senators and two for representa- tives. The rules and methods of procedure are similar to those in' force in the United States Congress. The executive portion of the state government is vested in a governor who is elected by the people of the state. He is re- sponsible to his electors as the president is to his, and while the governor's term of office is usually two years it is in some cases three and occasionally four. The qualifications for office vary in the diflferent states. Each state has the right to de- clare its own, but they all agree on thirty years as a minimum age, and they all set a term of years for required residence within the state, and citizenship. The governor's duties are to take charge of all executive matters, promulgations, etc., to command the state troops, and occasionally to exercise judicial powers. A lieutenant-governor exists in many states, filling a place similar to that of the vice-president. In nearly all the states there are administrative officers hav- ing duties in the state similar to those of the president's cabi- net. These include a secretary of state, an attorney-general, an auditor, a comptroller, and a treasurer. The judicial part of the state governments differs in each case. It is, however, generally divided into police courts, county courts, a supreme court, and probate courts. The army of the United States, by acts passed in 1866, 1869, N^/f* and 1870, is limited to 25,000 men exclusive of about a thou- sand men in the hospital and signal corps. The army now stands as follows, therefore : Officers 2,169 Men ...25,000 Signal corps 350 Hospital corps 723 Clerks and messengers 170 Total 28,412 THE UNITED STATES. 403 Besides the regular army there is a system, of state militias composed of men between the ages of eighteen and forty, and this is fast becoming an enormous body. It promises in time to train a fighting force of 7,000,000 men capable of serving in the field in time of war. The militia now numbers 114,587 ofiicers and men. The United States is divided into three divisions and again into eight departments for military pur- poses. The navy consists at present of the following ships of war in commission or in process of construction : In commission. Building. Battleships .■ 5 Cruisers 12 11 Earns 1 Coast defense 6 Torpedo boats 1 Dynamite cruiser 1 Total -...14 23 sketch. URUGUAY.* President, J. I. Boeda. The republic of Uruguay is situated in the eastern part of South America and is bounded on the north by Brazil and a portion of Argentine Republic, on the east by Brazil and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean and the mouth of the La Plata, and on the west by the Argentine Re- public. The government is that of a republic formed on the general lines of South American republics. Montevideo is the capital with a population of 170,000. The area of Uruguay is 72,110 square miles and the popu- lation is about 700,000. The state is divided into nineteen departments. Historical The territory occupied by the republic of Uruguay was part of the Spanish territory of the Rio de la Plata basin, until, after the beginning of the century, invasions of the English and uprisings of the people broke up the Spanish rule. In 1814 the army of Buenos AjTes captured the city of Monte- video. This city with the adjacent territory, known as the Banda Oriental, is so situated at the entrance of the La Plata that it has always been coveted by both the Argentine and the Brazilian governments. When civil war has appeared in the country, therefore, both the neighboring governments have ever been ready to step in and seize the control of the small state. The danger from without has been constantly aggra- vated by innumerable rebellions within the state, and between the two Uruguay scarcely knew what it was to be at peace up to 1880. There was hardly an instance up to that date of the peaceful election of a president, or the continuance of an administration through its entire term. General Alvear, who led the Ayrean troops at the taking of Montevideo in 1814, placed a man named Artigas over the * For map see Brazil. 404 URUGUAY. 405 city. Whereupon the people arose in revolt, and it was only by becoming their partisan that Artigas maintained his power. He was eventually overthrown by Brazilian troops in 1820. The Brazilian government considered the Banda Oriental as a part of its territory and this invasion was for the purpose of forcibly taking possession of that district. Two years later, when Brazil declared its independence of Portugal, Montevideo remained true to the mother-country, with the result that Buenos Ayres and Brazil proceeded to fight for its possession. The British government interfered in 1830, and with Brazil declared the territory to be an independ- ent state, guaranteeing its neutrality in order to preserve the more important neutrality of the entrance to the La Plata River. The new government thus guaranteed became the re- public of Uruguay. A constitution promulgated the year be- fore was put into force in 1831, and General Ribera, elected for a four years' term, became the first president. His successor, Oribe, entered upon his office in 1835, and then the trouble that had been for some time brewing broke forth. The Colorados, or Reds, sided with the retired president ; and the Blanquillos, or Whites, stood opposed to them. These two parties represented two diametrically opposed classes in the country. The Colorados comprised the lower classes, the natives, peasants, and uncivilized elements of the population, while the Blanquillos were the landed proprietors and the people who represented what there was of European civili- zation. And as the introduction and increase of the latter has advanced, the breach between the two divisions of the people has widened. The hostility of these two parties was intense, and for many years Uruguay was the battle-field of the La Plata. That party which chanced to be out of power sought foreign aid from either Brazil or the Argentine Republic, and with the assistance of either one or both of these governments, who were ever ready to prey upon the important state, it was sure to overthrow the other party in time, only to be over- thrown itself, perhaps, within the year. In 1842, the Ayrean dictator Rosas, being overthrown, ap- plied to Oribe for aid, and Uruguay fell into war with its southern neighbor, becoming hopelessly mixed up in the civil wars of the small provinces now united under the Argentine 406 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. government. Finally, in May, 1851, Brazil, Entre-Rios, and Uruguay formed a triple alliance for mutual defense and safety. Urquiza, the ruler of the province of Bntre-Rtos, became com- mander-in-chief of the allied armies, but within a year Uruguay and Brazil were again at loggerheads and at the same time civil war broke out afresh in Montevideo. On the death of Eibera, in 1854, Flpres had been chosen presi- dent by the vote of the legislative chamber, but in the following year he was obliged to fly from the country, a division having occurred in his party, the Colorados, which turned the mar jority of its members against him. Periera was then appointed to the presidency by the Blanquillos, and civil war waged again until 1859. Then the powerless government sought foreign aid to quell the revolt and signed a treaty with Brazil and Argentina at Rio de Janeiro by which the two latter were to assist Uruguay in pacifying its own people and were to guarantee its neutrality. Thus peace was restored in 1860, the new leader of the Blanquillos, Bern, becoming president. Floras, who had been in exile, returned in 1863 and with the aid of the Colorados, now reunited, was in the act of waging war against the governnient when Brazil interfered to maintain order. At this point Lopez, the dictator of Paraguay, sent a mes- sage to the BraziUan government that he considered any such interference as dangerous to the proper balance of power among the La Plata states, and should oppose it accordingly. The re- fusal of the Brazilian government to withdraw brought on the fierce Paraguayan war that lasted so long and did so much to crush the spirit of progress in that part of South America.* An alliance was at once formed by Brazil, Uruguay, and Argen- tina against Paraguay, in which the three parties agreed to wage war upon Lopez until his state should be either subdued or exterminated, which they literally carried out. They fought until, in 1870, the male population of Paraguay was practically exterminated. In the meantime, civil war had been breaking out in Uru- guay, the two parties always rallying on opposing sides. Presidents and pronunciamentos followed in quick succession until 1876, and then the government came under the hand of a * See Paraguay. URUGUAY. 407 strong man. Latorre was provisionally elected in 1876 and definitely so in the following year. He served four years and on retirement left the country at peace. The recent history of the state has been less bloody, but no country with such a past as Uruguay has had for the last fifty years can hope to have much material growth of any kind at present. The wars are less frequent, but the hatred of the two great classes of the inhabitants does not seem to decrease. These two parties represent two different races, in different states of civilization, educated to different standards of life, and they cannot understand each other's positions. This in- herent hostility of the two divisions within the state and the constant upheavals going on around it have done all they could to hold back the progress of the republic. And it is only as the governments about Uruguay become more settled in their condition, and as the element of European civilization gains power over the uncivilized Colorados, that the state itself is beginning to become more firmly established. The constitution was originally adopted July 18, 1830, but it has since undergone so many changes that it bears little re- semblance to the original. The legislature consists of two houses, a Senate and a Cham- ber of Representatives. The Senate is composed of nine- teen members chosen by an electoral college which is elected by universal manhood suffrage. The term of ofiice is six years and one third of the Senate retires every two years. The members of the Chamber of Representatives are fifty-three in number, and are elected by direct manhood suffrage, one for every three thousand males. The qualification for electorship requires a voter to be twenty-one years of age and to be able to read and write. The session of Congress extends from the 15th of February to the 15th of July, and during the period from July to February a council of two senators and five representa- tives carries on the legislative portions of the government and gives the president what assistance within its jurisdiction he may require. The president is elected for a term of four years by the elec- toral college. He has the usual executive authority under a republic and is assisted in the administration of the govern- ment by a council, or cabinet, composed of five ministers of Constitu- tion. Legisla- ture. ErecutiTe. 408 GOVERNMENTS OP THE WORLD TO-DAY. state. As in most South American republics the president of Uruguay exercises in practice much more extensive powers than are accorded him by the constitution. Army and The permanent military force of Uruguay consists of 3,482 Havy. officers and men. But there is a large force of police available for military duties and a militia of 4,000 civilians. There is a naval force of seven steamships, three gunboats, and several smaller craft. The state religion according to the constitution is Boman Catholic but other creeds are tolerated. Education has of late advanced materially ; there are laws for compulsory primary education of all children between the ages of six and fourteen. There are 400 public schools, as many more private schools, a university and normal schools, and a new system of manual training schools. But these are of very recent date and educa^ tion is backward throughout the country. Historical VENEZUELA. President, GeneraI/ J. Cbespo. The republic of Venezuela is situated in the northeastern part of South America. It is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by British Guiana, on the south by Brazil and the Central South American territory at present claimed by several bordering states, and on the west by the United States of Colombia. Venezuela is a republic, founded on that of the United States. The capital is Caracas with a population of 71,399. The area of Venezuela is 594,165 square miles and the popu- lation at the latest census was given at 2, 285,054. The state is "sketciT" divided into eight states, eight territories, and two settlements besides the federal district. Up to 1806 the territory occupied by Venezuela was under the rule of Spain, but in the latter year General Francesco Miranda entered the country, and raised the standard of revolt unsuccessfully. In 1811 revolt against the Spanish rule again broke out and a revolutionary assembly met and declared the independence of the colony. From this time all the north of South America was in revolt against Spain. Simon Bolivar, the liberator of South America and a native of Caracas, led the revolutionary forces in a war for independence for nearly eleven years. Spain at the end of that time gave up her attempt to quell the now successful revolution, and, though she did not recog- nize its independence as a state, a government was formed which included the territory now occupied by Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela. The war ended with the famous battle of Carabobo, fought July 6, 1821. Trouble, however, soon arose within the new government, and in 1829 the three independent states were formed. From this time until 1846 the government of Venezuela was conducted under a republi- can constitution which crystallized in 1830, and in 1847 Spain 409 410 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. formally recognized the independence of Venezuela. But in 1846 the disturbances that had been going on in the country around Venezuela caught fire within the state arid a long series of desultory internal wars began which has not ended yet, though since 1870 peace has been more assured. The principal cause during these years for hostilities was the contention of the two parties in the government. The Unionists favored a strongly centralized government, and, on the other hand, the Federalists were as strong for the states' rights. As the government stands to-day, the latter show themselves to have been in the majority, as the powers of the states are very great and their union under one government is principally for safety and security against foreign powers. In 1854 slavery was abolished. In 1864 an amended consti- tution was drawn up, but it had been scarcely three years in existence when the war of parties opened again and con- tinued until, in 1870, Dr. Guzman Blanco of the Federalists put himself at the head of the government, and in three years he was made president. A rearrangement of states was brought about in 1881, and eight large states were organized, each with very considerable independent powers. The rest of the territory is under the management of the central govern- ment and is divided into territories or settlements. Since then the country has been in comparative quiet until 1891, when war broke out again, and trouble with Great Britain arose. The constitution of Venezuela is adapted from that of the Constitu- United States, and in its general features it is practically iden- *'''°- tical with the latter. It was adopted in 1830 on the formal declaration of independence from Spanish rule, but has been since then several times amended. It embodies the usual pre- rogatives of the American republican form of government, but the states have such large powers that the central authority is less extended than usual. The legislative portion of the government is given into the Legisia- hands of two houses, a Senate and House of Representatives, ture. Bach has the right of initiating bills of any kind, but a ma- jority of both Houses is required before a bill can become a law. The Senate consists of three members elected from each of the eight states, in all twenty-four members. They are elected by VENEZUELA. 411 the legislatures of the several states for a term of four years. The House of Representatives consists of one member for every 35,000 inhabitants or fraction thereof exceeding 15,000. They are elected for four years by a universal manhood suf- frage. The House at present consists of fifty-two members. The executive is in the hands of the president of the repub- lic and a council. The president has no power of veto. He is elected by the Federal Council to serve two years, and he is not eligible for reelection at once. He appoints cabinet ministers with portfolios, and the acts promulgated by these men both the president and the cabinet are responsible for. The chief feature of the Venezuelan constitution is the Fed- eral Council. This is a body of seventeen men selected by the Congress from among its own members every two years. One representative and one senator are elected from each state and one representative from the federal districts. These men elect the president and vice-president of the republic. They have an advisory power in all executive matters of the administra- tion. The president, if he is doubtful as to the constitutionality of a certain act, may refer it to the state legislatures and it must then come up again before the federal Congress at its next session.* There is a Supreme Court, or Court of Appeals, at Caracas. There are besides in each state separate criminal and civil courts, which try local cases and appeal to the central courts at Caracas. There are district courts of the first instance and municipal judges. The Supreme Court consists at present of eight members, " as many members as there are states." Con- gress chooses these ofiicers from nominations submitted by the representatives of each state on the fifteenth day of its regular session. There is a small regular army of 3,385. But all able-bodied men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five are liable to service, which makes a potential force in time of war of 250,000 men. The navy is composed of five steamships and there are five schooners of war. Executive. Judiciaiy. Army and Havy. * In this connection see remarks concerning the H«ferendum under Switzerland. 412 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOBIiD TO-DAY. The state religion is Eoman Catholic, though other creeds are tolerated. Education is supposed to be free and compul- sory. As a matter of fact the state pays about 2,500,000 Local COT- '"'^i'*'*''6S annually for the support of schools. There are also erament. two universities and twenty-nine national and federal colleges for boys and girls. Each of the eight states has its two houses of legislature, the members of which are elected by universal suffrage. Each state has also a governor elected in the same way. The powers of the state authorities are very large. Each state government regulates its own finances. The territories are immediately under the federal government. APPENDIX. There have been several independent sovereign states omitted from the list discussed in the course of this work. Occasionally they may have been mentioned in connection with other states, but otherwise it has not appeared that they were prominent enough to the general reader to warrant giving space to them except here in an appendix, where they are merely mentioned as to locality, form of government, population, and area. These are : AFGHANISTAN. Afghanistan is an independent state, practically under the control of Great Britain. It lies in the western central part of Asia. It is bounded, roughly speaking, on the north by the Central Asia states under the rule of Bussia, on the east by the Indian border tribes, on the south by British Beluchistan, and on the west by Persia. The capital is Kabul. The country in area covers a distance from east to west of about 600 square miles and almost 500 from north to south. The population is estimated at 4,000,000. Afghanistan has since 1838 been an important frontier for England and Russia. In 1878 the English captured it, set up a new amir, and since then, while leaving the country on the whole independent, both Eussia and England have had diffi- culties with the government, which would have compelled either to absorb it had not the other prevented this. CBNTKAL AFEICAN STATES. (a) BOBNU. In the Central Soudan south of Lake Chad lies an independent state called Bornu, ruled over by a sultan or sheikh. He is an absolute monarch, and the government so far as is known is little more than that of the primitive tribe. The area is about 60,000 square miles and the popular tion perhaps 5,000,000, though these figures are very uncertain. The inhabitants are negroes and Arabs. 413 414 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. (6) Wadai. This is the most important of the Central Soudan tribes or nations.. It lies in the country south of the Sahara and extends to Lake Chad and the Congo Basin. The government is in the hands of an hereditary sultanate. Sultan Sheikh Aly, the ruler, knows no cheek on his power except the Koran. The capital is Abesher. The population of Wadai is about 2,600,000 and the estimated area is 172,000 square miles. In the government the sultan is assisted by a council which interprets the Koran, and by an army of 7,000 men who collect the tributes. Two independent states, Kaxem and Bagibmi, acknowl- edge the suzerainty of Wadai. The former lies south of Wadai and separates it from Lake Chad. The population is about 100,000, largely Arabs, spread over 30,000 square miiles, and the form of government is an absolute monarchy under a sultan. Bagirmi is a country lying between Lake Chad and Sokoto. It is an absolute monarchy under a sultan and is composed of about 20,000 square miles of low marsh lands. The population, largely made up of negroes, numbers in the vicinity of 1,500,000. DAHOMEY. Dahomey has recently come into some prominence owing to the war carried on there in 1890-1 by the French government, in its attempt to insure the possession and safety of the French stations on the coast, viz., Porto Novo and Kotonu. Dahomey is an independent state on the slave coast of Upper Guinea in Western Africa. The king is the head of this unlimited monarchy. The estimated area is 4,000 square miles and the population is set at 250,000. BHUTAN. Bhutan is an independent state lying in the Eastern Hima- layas, with British India as a southern boundary and Thibet as a northern and eastern boundary. The two ruling authori- ties are the Deb Bajah, who is the temporal head of the state and is elected by the barons, and the Dharm Bajah, who is the spiritual head of the state. Punakha is the capital. The area of Bhutan is 16,800 square miles and the population is be- tween 30,000 and 40,000 souls. Bhutan is practically under British control, since the Indian APPENDIX. 415 government pays the rulers of the country a large sum annually on condition that they keep peace with English outposts. This payment has been made since 1865 and the money procures whatever the Indian government desires. HAWAII. Hawaii in the Hawaiian Islands is a government in Poly- nesia occupying a group of islands in the Northern Pacific Ocean. This group was formerly known and is still often called the Sandwich Islands. The government is that of a republic, formed on the lines laid out by the constitution of the United States, with S. B. Dole as president. This present government was formed in the early months of 1895. The total area of the islands is 6,640 square miles and the popula- tion is given at 80,578. The capital is Honolulu with a popu- lation of 20,487 and is situated on the island of Oahu. The other islands of the group are Hawaii, Maui, Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, Niihau, and Kahoolawe. Up to January, 1894, the government of Hawaii was monar- chical, except in 1887 when the foreigners for a time gained the upper hand. The queen, Lihuokalani, who came to the throne in 1891, was a wretched ruler, tending constantly toward despotism and barbarism. This led to a wider breach between the foreigners, principally Americans, and the native population. This diflSculty has always arisen in times of strife, because all the natives except the most enlightened support the queen, while, on the other hand, the Americans and other foreigners desiring a staple government oppose the uncertain and despotic systems of the natives. In January, 1893, the trouble came to a head. The queen prorogued her parliament, annulled the constitution, and signed a bill for the introduction of a lottery. On the 14th about a hundred foreigners met and formed a Committee of Safety, while Minister Stevens, of the United States legation, asked the assistance of marines from the United States war- ship Boston. Troops were landed and the queen was forced to sign her abdication under protest while waiting to hear whether the United States would annex Hawaii. A pro- visional government was formed and on February 1, 1893, an American protectorate was declared, the American flag was 416 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. hauled up over the government houses, and a delegation was organized to go to the United States and recommend annexa- tion. At the same time the deposed queen sent a counter deputation asking the United States to reinstate her. The treaty of annexation was drawn up and submitted by Presi- dent Harrison to Congress, but when President Cleveland came into office March 4th he recalled the bill then before the Senate and sent James H. Blount to Honolulu to examine into the matter. It appeared from Blount's report that the United States had interfered with the government of an independent country when on the eve of a revolution and that the troops sent from the Boston had caused the deposition of the ruling power. This was contrary to international law, and the president accordingly took measures to reinstate the queen. She, however, demanded that the United States should execute the members of the Committee of Safety, which would have been as contrary to international law as the act of Minister Stevens, and the matter therefore lay in an unsettled condition until the beginning of 1895, when the foreigners finally on their own account arose, imprisoned the queen, set up their government, elected S. B. Dole their president, and instituted the republic. LUXEMBURG. The grand-duchy of Luxemburg is a guaranteed neutral duchy in the northern central part of Europe, with Belgium to the north and west, and Germany on the east and south. Its neutrality was declared in the treaty of London in 1867. Luxemburg is the capital. The area of the duchy is 998 square miles and the population is 211,088. The government is carried on by the grand-duke assisted by a Chamber of Deputies consisting of forty-five members elected every six years by the cantons. Half the Chamber retires every three years. • MONACO. Monaco is a small independent principality on the Mediter- ranean consisting of eight square miles and surrounded by French territory except on the southern side, which is on the sea. Prince Albert is the ruling power, with the assistance of APPENDIX. 417 a governor-general and a Council of State. The population is about 12,000. NEPAL. Nepal is a military oligarchy in the Himalayas from sixty to seventy thousand miles in area. It is bounded on the north by Thibet, on the south and west by British India, and by Sikkim on the east. The Maharajah Adiraj is the sover- eign, though his prime minister actually holds the power and the reins of government. The population is estimated at 2,000,000. Khatmandu is the capital. OMAN. Oman is an independent despotism lying along the coast of the Indian Ocean from the Gulf of Ormuz for a thousand miles. The present sultan, Seyyid Feysal, is the ruling power, though his authority does not go much further than the city of Muscat, the capital and a city of 60,000 inhabitants. The area of the sultanate of Oman is about 82,000 square miles and the population is estimated at about 1,500,000. The country is to-day practically under British control through the Indian government, though in years past Oman was much larger and more powerful. SAMOA. Samoa consists of a government, under a king, Malietoa Laoupepa, of a group of fourteen islands, all but three of which are very small. This group lies in the South Pacific Ocean. The three important islands are Upolu, Savaii, and Tutuila, and the capital, Apia, is on the island of Upolu. The area of the islands is 1,701 square miles and the population is about 36,000. Samoa is valuable as a coaling station in the Pacific and it was because difficulties arose as to who had the right to make it a coaling station, that the conference was held in 1889 at Berlin to settle the matter. The parties entering the confer- ence were the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. The result of the conference was that Samoa was declared an independent principaUty, the natives retaining their right to elect their own king, to make their own laws, and legislate as they saw fit. Representatives of the three powers are resident at Apia and a carefully arranged judicial system is set up 418 aOVEKNMENTS OP THE WOELD TO-DAY. with a European as chief justice. This is one of the few in- stances where the United States has entered into diplomatic relations with other nations to settle matters relating to terri- tory other than that on the continents of North and South America. TONGA. Tonga is a somewhat limited monarchy consisting of groups of islands which he in the South Pacific from 15° to 23° south of the equator in longitude 173° to 177° west. The king, George II., is assisted in carrying on the government by a Legislative Assembly which consists of two parts, one being composed of representatives chosen by the people for a three years' term and the other part of hereditary nobles. The total area of the islands is 874 square miles and the population is about 20,000. The capital in Nukualofa. 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