New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Library CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 1924 055 001 956 LlBRAilV JWL23 194a DEPT. OF The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924055001956 THE EESOTJECES OF TUEKEY. LONDOir PBIIflBD BT SPOTTISWOODB AS D CO. irSW-BIBEBT SQUABE THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY CONSIDERED WITH ESPECTAI. EKPESEWCE TO THB PROFITABLE INVESTMENT OF CAPITAL IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. WITH STAiriSTICS OV TKS TBACE AISTD COUMBRCE 07 THB PBINCIPAL COMMBECIAL TOWITS, VIZ, COSS*ANTINOPLB, SimiNA, BHUSBA, TEEBIZOWD, SAMSOUW, SALONICA, TOLD, MONASTIE, KHODBS, MITTLBITE, SCIO, CYPEUS, COS, CBETE, IBHAILA, GALATZ, ISMAIL, EEWI, BETEOUT, JEEITSALEM, DAMASCUS, ALEPPO, AIJfTAB» HABASH, OEBA, ALBXAfTDEBTTA, TBIPOLI, AKD LATAEIA. By J. LEWIS EAE-LEY, Author of ' Two Tears in Syria ' &c. LONDON: LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS. 1862. ^ //C A //^// TO M. E, EODOCANACHI, ESQ. My dear Sir, In the following pages I have endeavoured to trace the rise and progress of Turkish commerce, and, while engaged in making the necessary researches upon the subject, I have been more and more impressed with the fact that it is to the mercantile community, of which you are one of the principal members, that the extension of British trade in the Ottoman Empire is mainly indebted. In the year 1827 the value of our exports to Turkey amounted only to 531, 704?., whilst in 1860 it had in- creased to the sum of 5,457,839Z. ; and it is to the energy and perseverance of the Grreeks, who now supply the con- necting link so long wanting between Eastern and Western Europe, that this remarkable progress is to be attributed. The Grreeks of the present day possess, in an eminent manner, a thirst for knowledge and improvement, and have carried commercial enterprise to a degree of perfec- tion scarcely paralleled, under similar circumstances, in the history of the world. To that commercial enter- prise it is owing that the consumption of our manufactures in Turkey is daily increasing; for our wares, exported chiefly by G-reek merchants in the first instance to Alexandria, Beyrout, Smyrna, and Constantinople, are again shipped on board of Greek vessels and carried to A 3 DEDICATION. the various ports along the coasts of Asia Minor, Sec, as well as to the numerous islands of the Ottoman Archi- pelago. Under these circumstances, it is not unnatural that I should connect with a work devoted to the commerce of Turkey the name of a house which has so much con- tributed to the extension of British trade in that Empire. But, in dedicating my book to you, I am, at the same time, actuated by the desire of thus expressing my personal re- gard for yourself, and my estimation of those qualities, combining the thrift and energy of your race with the generosity and probity of the English merchant, which have obtained for you so universal a respect. I am, my dear Sir, Yours very faithfully, J. LEWIS FAELEY. PREFACE. In a country like Turkey, where no statistics are pub- lished by the Government, it is exceedingly difficult to arrive at a correct estimate of its Trade and Commerce. An approximate valuation, however, is made, from time to time, by the various Fcfreign Consulates in the Levant ; and, by comparing their official reports one with an- other, a result sufficiently accurate may be obtained. Of these reports I have freely availed myself in the follow- ing pages. My official position for nearly two years, 1857-1858, in Syria, and my residence during the years 1860 and 1861 in Constantinople, where I was appointed Accountant-General of the Bank of Turkey, afforded me many opportunities of obtaining much reliable in- formation ; and I am happy to have this opportunity of very sincerely thanking those gentlemen who so oblig- ingly answered the several questions I addressed to them relative to the trade of the various places with which they wera personally acquainted. To Mr. Whitaker, Her Britannic Majesty's Acting Vice-Consul at GaUipoh, I am particularly indebted; as also to Mr. Sandison, H. M. Consul, Brussa; Mr. Skene, H. M. Consul, Aleppo ; Mr. Finn, H, M. Consul, Jerusalem ; Mr. Campbell, H. M. VI PREFACE. Consul, Ehodes ; Mr. Wilkinson, H. M. Consul, SaJonica ; and Mr. E. J. Van Lennep, Dutch Consul-General at Smyrna. At the present moment our capitalists are advancing a large sum of money to Turkey ; and it may, there- fore, be of some interest to know, as nearly as possible, what the resources of that country are, and to what extent British capital may safely aid in their develop- ment. 1 SoTJiHTwiCK Crescent, Hyde Paek, Lojptdon. CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE I. General Survey of Turret .... 1 II. Tenure of Land 7 in. Finances 15 rV. Agricultural Resources 35 V. Mineral Resources 60 VI. The Growth of Cotton 55 VII. Banking in Turkey : 63 .Vin. Constantinople 75 IX. Smyrna 78 X. Brussa 102 XL Trebizond 116 XII. Samsoun 128 ^ Xin. Salonica 132, XIV. VoLO 140- XV. Monastir 143- XVI. Bosnia 151 ''XVIL Rhodes 156 XVIII. Mitylene 162 XIX. Scio 165 XX. Cyprus 174 XXL Cos 182 XXn. Crete 185 XXIII. Ibraila 191 XXrV. Galatz 193 XXV. Ismail and Reni 198- XXVI. Stria 203 XXVII. Beyrout 209 XXVIII. Jerusalem 227 vni CONTEXTS. CHAPTER PAGE XXIX. Damascus . .... 229 XXX. Aleppo . 233 XXXI. AiNTAB 243 XXXII. Maeash 248 XXXIII. Orfa . . 251 XXXIV. Alexandretta 253 XXXV. Tripoli 257 XXXVI. Latakia 262 APPENDICES. I. Treaty of Commerce between Great Britain and Turkey (August 16, 1838) 267 II. Hatti-Humiyoun of February 18, 1856 . . .272 III. Treaty of Commerce between Great Britain and Turkey (April 29, 1861) 279 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. oj«:o CHAPTEE I. GBNEEAL SURVEY OF TURKEY. As it is proposed in the following pages to examine the resources of Turkey, and to show what is the ex- tent of the trade and commerce which Enghsh capital may develop, it may not be irrelevant or uninteresting to take, m the first place, a general survey of the Otto- man empire, on the subject of which it cannot be denied that much indifference, if not ignorance, exists. Indeed, I have met with persons — even among those whose position demands and should imply a perfect acquaintance with the matter — who possessed so httle knowledge of the country as to imagine that aU the inhabitants of Turkey are Turks, and that in Syria, an Arab must, necessarily, be a Mussulman. Now, Turkey, though an empire, is not a nation ; it is rather an aggregate of nationahties or governments accidentally imited by having been the subjects of a common con- quest. It includes within its boundaries some of the fairest and most fertile portions of the world, and com- B , THE RESOURCES OP TURKEY. prises some of the earliest and most celebrated seats of learning and civilization.* EXTENT. The total area of the empire, including the tributary provinces, is estimated at 1,836,478 square miles, and the extent and population of the several grand divisions in Europe, Asia, and Africa are as follow : — Divisions. Area. sq. m. Population. Popn. to sq. m. Turkey in Europe . Turkey in Asia Turkey in Africa . 203,628 673,746 959,104 15,500,000 16,050,000 3,800,000 76-1 23-8 3-9 Total 1,836,478 35,350,000 19-2 POPULATION. The total population, estimated according to the census taken in 1844 at 35,350,000, is distributed as follows, in the different divisions of the empire : — Turkey in Europe. Thrace .... 1,800,000 Bulgaria .... 3,000,000 Roumelia and Thessaly . 2,700,000 7,600,000 * Some objection may, perhaps, be taken to the introduction of the statistics contained in this chapter, but I think they are essential to a correct appreciation of the subject which is pi-incipally adverted to in the following pages. They ai-e not inserted to increase the bulk of the work, nor are they in any manner intended as an irrelevant pai-ade of topographical learning. Very few persons in England have any adequate knowledge of Turkish affairs, of the number of provinces, the population of the towns, the difference of races and religions ; and this introductory chapter ia therefore designed to supply information to my readers on these points,— to show them, in fact, what Turkey is, before they are invited to consider what Turkey may be. GENEEAL SURVEY OF TUEKET. Albania Bosnia and the The Islands Herzegovina Brought forward 7,600,000 1,200,000 1,100,000 700,000 Moldavia WaUachia • 1,400,000 2,600,000 Servia 1,000,000 1 K Knn nnn Turlcey in Asia. Asia Minor, or Anatolia . 10,700,000 Syria, Mesopotamia, and Kurdistan . . . 4,450,000 Arabia .... 900,000 Egypt Tripoli, Fez, and Tunis Turlcey in Africa. 2,000,000 1,800,000 Total 16,050,000 3,800,000 35,350,000 EACES. The various races of wMcli the population is com- posed may be thus classified : — Races. In Europe. In Asia. In Africa. Total. Ottomans . , 2,100,000 10,700,000 12,800,000 Greeks 1,000,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 Armenians . 400,000 2,000,000 .*■ 2,400,000 Jews 70,000 80,000 *•■ 150,000 Slaves or Slavonians 6,200,000 >*• 6,200,000 Koumains 4,000,000 • • * >•• 4,000,000 Albanians 1,500,000 1,500,000 Tartars . 16,000 20,000 36,000 Arabs 885,000 3,800,000 4,685,000 Syrians and Chaldeans 200,000 *>■ 200,000 Druses 80,000 <*• 80,000 Kurds 100,000 1,000,000 Turkomans 85,000 • •■ 86,000 Gipsies . 214,000 214,000 Total . 15,600,000 16,050,000 3,800,000 35,350,000 B 2 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. RELIGIONS. The classification according to religions is as fol- lows : — Religion. In Europe. In Asia. In Africa. Total. Mussulmans Greeks and Armenians Catholics * . Jews .... Other sects 4,550,000 10,000,000 640,000 70,000 240,000 12,650,000 8,000,000 260,000 80,000 60,000 3,800,000 21,000,000 13,000,000 900,000 150,000 800,000 Total . 16,500,000 16,050,000 3,800,000 85,350,000 TERRITORIAL DIVISIONS. The Turkish empire is divided into eyalets or govern- ments-general, each of which is administered by a Pasha. These eyalets are divided into Sandjaks or provinces, governed by Kaimakams or Lieutenant-governors. The Sandjaks are subdivided into Kazas or districts, and the Kazas again into Nahizehs composed of villages or hamlets. * The term Catholic is applied to the disciples of all the Eastern churches which acknowledge the authority of the See of Home, although there are amongst them numerous differences in matters of discipline and ceremonial. Of these Eastern Catholics there are : — 640,000 1. Latins, or Catholics who use the Roman Liturgy, consisting of Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, Croats, &c., to the number of ... . 2. United Greeks 25,000 3. United Armenians .... 75,000 4. Syrians and United Chaldeans . . 20,000 5. Maronites (with a Patriarch at Kauobin in Mount Lebanon) .... 140,000 260,000 Total .... 900,000 GENERAL SURVEY OF TURKEY. In Turkey in Europe there are 15 Eyalets, divided into 43 Sandjaks and 376 Kazas. In Turkey in Asia, 18 Eyalets, 78 Sandjaks, and 858 Kazas. In Turkey in Africa, 3 Eyalets, 17 Sandjaks, and 86 Kazas. Turkey in Europe. Eyalets. Chief Towns. Population of Chief Towns. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Edirng (Thrace) . Silistria .... Boghdan or Moldavia Eflak or Wallachia . Widdin .... Nisoh .... Uskup .... Syrp (Servia) The Fortress of Belgrade. Bosnia .... Roumelia Yania .... Selanik (Salonica) . l^izair (Islands) . Kyrt (Crete) . Adrianople . Silistria Jassy . Bucharest . Widdin Nissa . TJskup . Belgrade Serajevo Monastir Janina . . . Salonica Rhodes Candia 100,000 20,000 50,000 80,000 25,000 10,000 60,000 60,000 15,000 30,000 80,000 30,000 20,000 The Eyalets of SUistria, Widdin, and Nisch are formed from the ancient Kingdom of Bulgaria ; those of Yania and Selanik (Salonica) comprise the aacient Epirus and Macedonia. The Eyalets of Uskup and Eoumeha are formed from Albania. The Eyalet of Bosnia is composed of Bosnia, a part of Croatia and of the Herzegovina. The Eyalet of Djizak (The Islands) comprises all the islands of the Ottoman Archipelago, of which the principal are Ehodes, Cyprus, Cos, Tenedos, Lemnos, Mitylene, Scio, and Patmos. 6 THE EESOURCES OP TUEKEY. Turkey in Asia. 1 Eyalets. Chief Towns. Population of Cliief Towns. Eastamuni Kastamun . 2 Khowdavendguiar . Brussa . 100,000 3 Aidin .... Smyrna 160,000 4 Earaman Koniyeh 30,000 5 Adana .... Adana . 6,000 6 Bozok .... Angora 60,000 7 Sivas .... Sivas . 8 Trabezoun Trebizond 50,000 9 Erz-rum .... Erz-rum 100,000 10 Kurdistan Diarbekhr 60,000 11 Khabrout Kharput 12 Mossul .... Mossul 65,000 13 Baghdad Baghdad 105,000 14 Haleb (Aleppo) Aleppo 100,000 15 Saida .... Beyiout 50,000 16 Scham .... Damascus 180,000 17 Habeah .... Djedda Medina 18,000 18 Haremi-Nabevi 19,000 The Eyalet of Kastamuni comprises the ancient Paph- lagonia ; that of Khowdavendguiar part of the ancient Bythuiia, Phrygia, and Mysia. The Eyalet of Aidin is formed from part of Isauria, Lydia, Ionia, Caria, and Pisidia ; the Eyalet of Karaman contains part of Isauria, Lydia, PamphyHa, Cihcia, Lycaonia, and Cappadocia. That of Adana comprises Cihcia Petrsea ; those of Bozok and Sivas, Cappadocia ; while Trabezoun (Tre- bizond) is formed from the ancient provmces of Pontus and Colchis. Turley in Africa. Gyalets. Chief Towns. Population of Chief Towns. 1 2 3 Miar (Egypt) . Tharablousi Gai-b (African Tripoli) Timis .... Caii-0 . Tripoli . Tunis . 250,000 20,000 200,000 TE]!fURE OF LAND. CHAPTEE 11. TENURE OF LAND. The different classifications of land in Turkey, according to tlie tenures under which it is held, are four in num- ber: — 1. Miri, or crown lands. 2. Vacouf, or pious foundations. 3. Malikaneh, or crown grants. 4. Mulkh, or freehold property. 1. The mlri, or crown lands, forming by far the largest portion of the territory of the Sultan, are held direct from him ; and his Government grants the right to cultivate an unoccupied tract on the payment of cer- tain fees, which, of course, vary in proportion to its value. The deed which gives the apphcant a title to the grant has the Sultan's cypher attached, and the pos- session of this document ensures the property to the holder and his heirs, while at the same time it forbids its ahenation. The Sultan, however, still continues to exercise the rights of seigniory over the land ia ques- tion, as is imphed in the condition that if the owner neglects to cultivate it for a period of three years, it is forfeited to the crown. Although it is illegal to ahenate this kind of property, the proprietor nevertheless re- serves to himself the right of transferring the usufruct to another. This must be done in presence of the 8 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. municipal coimcil, and tlie deed of transfer is sent to Constantinople to be ratified by the Government. The difficulties encountered in carrying out this operation, such as the loss of time, &c., tend materially to prevent land from changing hands, much to the detriment of agriculture, which thus often suffers from the want of capital. The landlord seldom cultivates the soil himself, but lets it out to tenants, who, being poor villagers, look to the owner for the necessary supply of farming stock. The most common form of contract is that of ortahgulik or partnership. The proprietor, in addition to the use of his land and a cottage rent free, furnishes the seed ; the labourer provides cattle and agricultural imple- ments; and the annual produce, after the tithes are paid to the Government, is equally divided between land- lord and cultivator. This equable division of capital and labour is apparently favourable to the peasant, and, were the conditions always faithftdly observed, he ought undoubtedly to prosper. But the proprietor almost invariably contrives, through injustice and op- pression, and sometimes the improvidence of the labourer himself, to involve him in debt ; and such is the usiu-ious rate of interest, that this is contuiuaUy in- creasing, so that the labourers, as a class, are in a gene- ral state of comparative serfdom to the proprietor. In other cases the farmer, instead of entering into a contract of partnership with the proprietor of the soil, prefers to borrow a sum of money sufficient to carry on a year's farming operations, the lender receiving either his money back with interest or an equivalent share of the produce. But once in the hands of a saraff,* * A SarafiF is a Native Banker. TENURE OF LAND. 9 the unfortunate farmer is quite certain to be victimized. I could give many iastances of the manner in which the peasantry are plundered by the native bankers, but the following, that came under the personal observation of a gentleman resident for many .years in Turkey, will sufficiently illustrate the importance of establishing institutions of credit which would in time reheve the agricultural classes from the burdens that oppress them. A farmer, who a few years ago had been reputed wealthy in his kaza, was peremptorily called upon by the saraff for repayment of a debt of 13,000 piastres. As he could not immediately raise the money, sundry farming and household necessaries were seized, and, being doubtless undervalued, passed into account for 4000 piastres : for the balance, the unfortunate debtor was compelled to transfer his right to 360 of the finest oHve-trees in the district, for which, immediately on possession, his creditor refused sixty piastres per tree, or 21,600 piastres for what barely cost him 9000! The estimated value of these trees when in full bearing condition, to which they were again approximating, was from 100 to 120 piastres each, with the certain prospect of future enhancement, from the vast destruc- tion of similar property during the previous winter. Another example wiU also illustrate what I have said. An industrious farmer ia the neighbourhood of Smyrna was in sad perplexity about a debt of 21,000 piastres, that had been long accumulating : the more he paid, the more it appeared to increase. A casual visitor ia the district, an European, was hiduced to look into the accoimts, and with great difficulty ehcited therefrom the following facts : — The original sum of 2700 piastres had been advanced seven years before ; during the in- terval the debtor had paid in various shapes 16,000 10 THE KESOUKCES OF TUEKEY. piastres, and was still indebted in a balance of 21,000 piastres, which the party who undertook to investigate the accounts succeeded in reducing to 9000 ! The ac- count, it appeared, had been made up and computed at monthly compound interest, repayable periodically in produce, at fixed rates ; but as it was clearly never the intention of the creditor to lose such a customer, part of the produce was periodically received, and part allowed to remain over, the difference between contract price and market value being regularly added to the debt. It is by no means an unusual circumstance for an usurer — banker or merchant may be the title he assmnes — to enter into a stipulation with the elders of a village, whereby, for certain considerations, he engages to supply the villagers with fonds and mate- rials necessary for agricultural purposes. In thus constituting himself the village banker, he charges a monthly interest on his running account, and takes his reimbursement out of the produce raised, with the option, if the value of such produce exceeds the debt, of appropriating the whole at opening prices. Accord- ingly, he furnishes seed, provender, and aU the materials for domestic and agricultural use, loaded with a pre- mium of fifty to a hundred per cent, or more ; he advances the money which may, from time to time, be reqiiisite for the payment of taxes and other incidental claims, exacting the interest for each advance at rates varying from two to five and six per cent, per month. When the crops are matured, and the villagers assemble to fix the opening prices, if — as is usually the case, from the circumstance of such engagements being known — the usurer remains without a competitor, the produce passes mto his hands at so low a valuation TENURE OF LAND. 11 that it is impossible to discharge his claims ; and thus a portion of his advances remains in the form of a permanent debt, which enables him to impose more onerous conditions for the ensuing season. If com- petitors should ofier for the produce, and threaten to drive up the opening prices — a circumstance that rarely happens — he demands immediate restitution of his advances, with the alternative of arrest and impri- sonment. Unless therefore his rivals are themselves prepared to acquit the debt, their superior offers are rejected, and they are compelled to retire from the field. This is the more easy to enforce, as the varied crops of Turkey being matured at different periods of the year, the value of ready produce, for which the casual buyer bids, will not cover the aggregate disburse- ments or cancel the claims of the local banker. Thus the village debt is never hquidated, and varies in amount according as good or bad harvests predominate ; the inevitable result follows that the whole of the fixed property, such as vineyards and similar plantations, eventually changes hands. In some Sandjaks, whole districts, and in others detached villages, are in this deplorable condition. Once entangled in the meshes of these usurers, the independence of the peasantry is irre- vocably lost. Debt and usury is the incubus which weighs most heavily on the agricultural resources of Turkey, and the proprietor who avails himself of these means to plunder the labourer is, in his turn, victimized by the capitalist, who profits by his sloth and prodi- gality to obtain possession of his property when pay- ment can no longer be obtained from his revenue. 2. The tenure of Vacouf is more complete in its nature, and is of two kinds : — Vacouf -el- Zardi and Vacouf-el-Karamdin. The object of both is to pro- 12 THE RESOUECES OF T0EKEY. vide for the religion of the State and the education of the people, by the erection of mosques and schools, besides eleemosynary institutions. The Vacouf-el-Zardi is land or other immovable property, originally obtained by grants from the crown, and entailed, not on the holder's natural heir,^ but on the eldest surviving member of his family. The grant is sometimes conceded for a Hmited period only, but generally in perpetuity. Analogous to this tenure is that which entails the property on all the descendants of the grantee in common, and as in such cases the inheritors in process of time become exceedingly nu- merous, those who are so disposed can, for an equivalent in money, alienate their right to the pro- perty. The Vaeouf-elrKaramain is property bequeathed by private individuals for the same pious purposes as enumerated above, more especially, however, for the erection of caravanseries, fountains, wells, and other accommodations for the convenience of those who make the pilgrimage to the holy cities ; the object of the testators being to place it in the power of the poorest, by means of these pious legacies, to fulfil the great rehgious duty of visiting the tomb and birth- place of the Prophet. Property of this kind descends from father to son, and is inahenable, though means are found to evade the law by letting the land for such a length of time as to be tantamount to a sale. Through the operation of causes pecuhar to the reh- gion and government of the country, an examination of which would not, however, be within the scope of the present work, the tenui-e bearing the name of Vacouf now embraces a vast amount of property beyond the original grants for the purposes named. TENURE OF LAND. 13 The system of transfers called Met (customary), which took its rise at a time when the aegis of " the church " was the most efficient, if not the only, protection against the rapacity of the Government, has continued and ex- tended until at the present day the Vacouf class com- prises a considerable portion of the whole house and landed property of the empire.* 3. The land called Malikaneh was chiefly held by Spahis, the old feudal troops to whom were awarded considerable grants in recompense for the military service required of them, and in particular for the safe conduct of the caravans of pilgrims on their way to Mecca. This property is hereditary, the payment of a fee by the heir being all that is required to make the succession vahd, and, as it is exempt from tithe, the value of the tenure by Malikaneh is considerably en- hanced. Of late years, however, when it has been found that the possessors died without direct heirs, these grants have been revoked; and it appears to be the intention, as it is plainly the interest of the Govern- ment, to annul grants the conditions attached to which have become obsolete, while at the same time they contribute nothing to the support of the State. The same laws forbidding the sale of land, and the same means for evading them, apply to this kind of property as to the preceding. * As the Vacouf s are exempt from all taxation, the loss to the Treasury by this species of property is immense. Sultan Mahmoud II. meditated at one time their entire re-conversion into rmri or crown lands, intending to provide for the religious institutions out of the general revenue ; but pious scruples, or considerations of State policy, interfered to preserve the Vaeoufs as a rich source of wealth to their administrators, and of costly embarrassment to the Government. It is said, however, that the subject is again under consideration by the present Sultan Abdul-Aziz. ]4 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. 4. Mulkh, or freehold property, is naturally the tenure most advantageous to occupiers. A great pro- portion of house property in the towns and of the land in the neighbourhood of villages is mulkh, which the peasants purchase from time to time from the Government, on very moderate terms. As it is free- hold, they can of course dispose of it at their pleasure, and they are interested in its being improved, as Government has no right over it beyond that of claiming the tithe of the produce. To have a valid claim to land held by this tenure, the estate must be registered in books kept for that purpose by the municipal council. The prosperity of the last few years has created a competition for this species of property, and in many places the value of land has consequently increased fifty or sixty per cent. In the same proportion as freehold property is acquired by agricultural labourers, we may reasonably look for im- provement in their social condition ; though from their ignorance of the uses of capital, natural to a primitive people, they find at present few fields for profitable investment, and, from the want of institutions in which their money could be safely deposited, are too frequently tempted to bury, or otherwise conceal their superfluous wealth. FIXAXCES. 15 CHAPTEE in. FINANCES. The system of raising the revenue in Turkey differs very much from ours, as, instead of imposing unequal burdens by indirect taxation, the Ottoman govern- ment follows the systems of aU the great empires of antiquity, the Assyrian, Babylonian, the Eoman, the Persian under Cyrus, the Macedonian under Alexander, and the French under Charlemagne, in raising then- revenue chiefly by direct taxation. But the ruinous system which has prevailed since the reign of Mo- hammed n., of permitting the taxes to be farmed, causes the finances of the country to be in a compa- ratively low condition. " The best and most frugal way of levying a tax," says Adam Smith, " can never be by farm. Over and above what is necessary for paying the stipulated rent, the salaries of the officers, and the whole expense of administration, the farmer must always draw from the produce of the tax a certain profit, proportioned at least to the advance which he makes, to the risk which he runs, to the trouble which he is at, and to the knowledge and skiU which it requires to manage so very comphcated a concern. Government, by establishing an administration under their own immediate inspection, of the same kind with 16 THE EESOUECES OF TUEKEY. that which the farmer estabhshes, might at least save this profit, which ia ahnost always exorbitant. To farm any considerable branch of the pubHc revenue requires either a great capital or a great credit; circumstances which would alone restrict the competition for such an vmdertakiag to a very small number of people. Of the few who have this capital or credit, a still smaller number have the necessary knowledge or experience ; another circumstance which restricts the competition still further. The very few who are in a condition to become competitors find it more for their interests to combine together, to become co-partners instead of competitors, and, where the farm is set up to auction, to offer no rent but what is much below the real value. In countries where the pubhc revenues are in farm, the farmers are generally the most opulent people." . . " They (the farmers) have no bowels for the contributors, who are not their subjects, and whose uni- versal bankruptcy, if it should happen the day after their farm is expired, would not much affect their interest. Even a bad sovereign feels more compassion for his people than can ever be expected jfrom the farmers of his revenue. He knows that the permanent grandeur of his family depends upon the prosperity of his peo- ple, and he wiU never knowingly ruin that prosperity for the sake of any momentary interest of his own. It is otherwise with the farmers of his revenue, whose grandeur may frequently be the effect of his ruin and not of the prosperity of his people." In France, in 1775, the greater part of the actual revenue of the Crown was derived from eight different sources, five of which were under farm, and three levied by an administration under the immediate in- spection and direction of government, and it was FINANCES. 17 universally acknowledged that in proportion to what the latter todk out of the pockets of the people, they brought more into the treasury than the other five, of which the administration was much more wasteful and expensive. With regard to Turkey, I have not the least doubt that if direct collection of the taxes were substituted for the present system of farms, the revenue would, in a very short time, be doubled. As an example of what might be done if the taxes were levied by an adminis- tration under the immediate inspection of government, I may instance the fact that the Customs of Bosnia and the Herzegovina, from the 13th of March, 1852, to the 13th of March, 1853, were sold by auction to a native company for 705,000 piastres, and the company made 80,000 piastres by the speculation. This would give the sum of 6776Z. for the Customs of the year 1852. In the year 1853 the Turkish Government resolved to take them on its own account ; and the result of good management was that in that year they reahsed 23,980/., and in 1854, 24,182/. The revenue of Turkey is chiefly derived from taxes of three denominations — the Verghi, the Aashr, and the Eoussoumiat. The Verghi, which corresponds to our income tax, is a tax on the whole population of about fifty doUars for each house or family. When the last census was taken in 1844, a certain number of families of each rehgious denomination were ascertained to belong to a particular village or town ; the sum to be required was calculated and the collection left to the heads of the different communities, who are supposed to tax the rich according to their means, so as to supply what cannot be paid by famiHes too poor to afford their share c 18 THE KESOUBCES OF TURKEY. of the burden. As may be imagined, the collection of this tax is often a means of oppression in the hands of those entrusted with it, particularly as, notwithstanding any changes in circumstances or population among the different towns or villages, the sum originally fixed when the census was taken is generally required. Thus it happens that some villages, the population of which has decreased, are very heavily taxed, until at last the burden becomes such that the inhabitants desert their homes altogether. Other villages which were formerly small have, on the other hand, greatly increased, and stUl only pay the small amount originally fixed upon. About ten years ago, an endeavour was made to rectify this inequality by an imperfect re-adjustment of the taxation, in certain districts, but Government interests win continue to suffer until a more effective remedial measure be taken, in the shape of a new census. The Aashr or tithe is a tax of ten per cent, upon the produce of cultivation, and is farmed out in districts or villages to the highest bidder. The farmer of the tax does not permit the crops to be cut untU it suits his convenience to attend in person, or, at all events, tUl he sends some one to see that he is not defi-auded. Thus, it is not at all unusual to see crops standing for three weeks after they are fully ripe, so that in the process of reaping they must shed at least half the produce. It is not the fiscal dues unposed by the State which are burdensome to the people ; on the contrary, taxation in Turkey is much lighter than inmost other countries. It is the abuses of collection, the extortion of the re- venue farmers or their agents, and the usurious rates of interest charged by the Saraffs that oppress the agricul- turist, and by retarding the development of the vast natural resources of the empire, prevent her from takino- FINANCES. 19 that position, among the commercial nations of Europe, to which by nature she is eminently entitled. The Eoussoumiat is revenue derived from the sale of the customs, stamps, the sale of animals, taxes on shops, bakeries, butcheries, mills, &c., &c., and from the rent of lands belonging to the crown. The re- ceipts of the customs are derived from a duty of 5 per cent, ad valorem on all descriptions of foreign goods imported, whether raw or manufactured ; 3 per cent, being charged on landing the said goods, and 2 per cent, being due on their sale in the port of disem- barkation, or on conveyance into the interior. This charge is moderate ; but the interference of the Legis- lature with the exportation of the produce or manu- factures, by means of an export duty of 12 per cent., systematically violates the best understood and acknowledged principles of economical law, for, as compared with the 5 per cent, charged on foreign imported merchandise, Turkish goods, on exportation, are saddled with an additional burden of 7 per cent., an inequahty which, of course, acts as a direct ob- struction to a reciprocity of trade. This tax, although prejudicial, is, however, much less so than the system which it replaced. Before the time of Eeschid Pasha, individuals and firms bought from the Government the exclusive right to purchase the produce of a dis- trict or of a province. One man had the monopoly of wheat, another of barley, another of tobacco, and so on. The monopolist fixed his own price, and, of course, resold, either to the retailers or to the exporters, at a large profit. Eeschid abohshed this practice, and every one now does as he likes with what he produces. But the sale of these monopohes gave an important revenue, and an export duty of 12 per cent. 20 THK RESOURCES OF TURKEY. was therefore substituted, viz., 9 per cent, on all com- modities transported from one province to another, and 3 per cent, additional if exported by sea. A new treaty of commerce, however, has been concluded between Great Britain and Turkey, by which the duty on imports will be raised from 5 to 8 per cent, ad valorem, while the duty on exports will be reduced from 12 to 8 per cent. This export duty of 8 per cent, will be annually reduced by 1 per cent. untU it shall in this manner be finally reduced to a fixed duty of 1 per cent., ad valorem, destined to cover the general expenses of administration and control. Simi- lar conventions have been concluded between the Porte and Prance, as well as with the Itahan Government.* Of the above-mentioned sources of revenue, the Verghi remains pretty nearly the same each year, but the Aashr and Eoussoumiat are continually varying according to the state of the crops, harvests, and other circumstances. It is not within the scope of the present volume to enterupon the importantquestion of financial reform,but, nevertheless, I think it will not be out of place if, re- lying upon a personal and practical acquaintance with the condition and resoiu-ces of the coimtry obtained during a long residence in Constantinople and other portions of the empire, I take this opportunity of stating that there is nothing in the financial condition of Turkey which need create alarm or distrust. When a country is overwhelmed with debt, with an enormous deficit in its budget, without power of retrenchment, and with its resources exhausted, then, indeed, the states- man and financier, however great their ability and skill, * See Appendix No, 3. FINANCES. 21- may well despair of being able to retrieve the public credit. But in a country whose debts do not exceed some three years' revenue, where large retrenchments may be made without injury to the pubHc service, where taxation is only oppressive by its unequal distribution, and where immense resources abound on every side, a temporary deficit in the budget, although it may be for the moment a source of considerable embarrassment to the Government, cannot afibrd a legitimate ground for anxiety or fear. The able report just presented to His Imperial Majesty the Sultan Abdul- Aziz by his Highness Fuad Pasha, the Grand Vizier, enters very ftdly into the past situation of the country, and gives a clear and straight- forward analysis of the present finanpial position of the empire. * According to this document the receipts and expenditure for the year 1861 were as foUow : — * The following is a translation of the report of His Highness the Grand Vizier, Fuad Pasha, to His Imperial Majesty the Sultan Abdul- Aziz, upon the financial situation of the empire, and the means to be taken in order to re-establish an equilibrium between the revenue and expendi- ture of the country. IMPERIAX, EDICT. I fully approve all the measures contained in this report, and I hereby order that the same be carried out, and without delay. Sire,— The Imperial Hatt, issued on the 18 Redjeb, 1278 (1862), ad- vising the adoption of prompt and efficacious measures, in order to improve the financial state of the empire, proclaimed at the same time the principle of credit, the basis of every system of finance, and pointed out to the Government of your Imperial Majesty the means of insuring a favourable solution. In fact, public credit is the lever of all the wonders of our age, and the terms on which kingdoms obtain it are, first, economy in their admi- nistration — that is to say, the employment of the public money in matters useful to the State ; and, secondly, the faithful f ulfi l m ent of all obligations entered into. The Imperial Hatt is being carried out ; special budgets are being pre- pared in all the Ministerial departments, and the efforts of Government will be devoted to aii'anging the accounts, under due control, of every -22 THE EESOUKCES OF TURKEY. General total of the revenues . . . £11,164,552 General total of tlie expenses . . . 12,739,088 Leaving a deficit of . . . ^1,574,536 department, so ttat they may be published at the beginning of the nezt financial year. The Government need not go far back in its financial annals to trace the first insufficiency of the ordinary resources of the Treasury. The very recent date of Turkey's first appeal to public credit in Europe proves this, and the small amount of its deficit, in comparison with the public debt of other coimtries, shows the moderate extent of the need which has arisen. It was only in 1270 (1854) and 1271 (1855) that the balance between the revenues and the expenses of the empire was dis- tm-bed. This was the result of a most expensive war, and, later, of con- siderable expenses caused by precautionary measures, which the general state of the world rendered necessary. Moreover, a rigid economy has not always been practised in the internal expenses ; and it cannot be denied that this circimistance has also tended to keep up and increase the derangement of the finances. Owing to these circumstances, the' Treasury not being able to meet punctually aU its engagements, the Government was obliged, on the one hand, to have recourse to the dangerous system of paper money, and on the other to collecting the taxes in advance, to onerous loans, as weU. as to other mea- sures, equally ruinous, which have led to the present embarrassments of the country. None of these events are to be ascribed to the reign of your Imperial Majesty, who has only inherited the difficulties of the past. Your firm determination is to put an end to them, and the happy effects of the com- mands of your Majesty, who requires that every one shall submit to the principle of economy which your Majesty has personally adopted since your accession, are daUy becoming more and more manifest. The prompt and satisfactory improvement which, with Divine aid, is about to be effected in our finances, does not admit of the least doubt. I hasten therefore to obey the orders of your Imperial Majesty, who has commanded me, as the first of my duties, to lay before you the state of the finances of your empire, and to submit at the same time the measures likely to effect the amelioration desired. The total of the floating debt of the Treasury, constituting a deficiency which the ordinary and exti-aordinary resources of the empire have been insufficient to meet, amounts to 4,000,000 purses (18,284,800/.), of which one-half is represented by the paper money in circulation, and the other half by special debts contracted imder various heads. The paper money is one of the most evident causes — indeed, the real cause — of our present difficulties and of the discredit of our finances. The date of the introduction of paper money coincides with that of administi'ative reform. FINANCES. 23 The outlay for the year 1862 will be further increased by the interest and sinking fund on the new Enghsh It was used as a temporary means to remedy the delays in collecting the revenue, caused by important changes introduced at that period in the civil and financial administration of the empire. Later, the causes mentioned above bavLag rendered it necessary to persevere in this meaaiure, the paper money (the quantity of which has varied at difierent periods) has at length attained its present amount. Your Imperial Majesty is well aware that paper money, which has no real equivalent value, is but a ficticious means of credit. It is equal to the depreciation in the value of the exchange, and incessantly disturbs all commercial aifairs. This, reacting on the credit of the State, never fails to insure the most distressing results. The circidation of the Caim6 (paper money) has always been confined to the capital ; but Constantinople, being neither an agricultural district nor a manufacturing town, is obliged to draw its supplies from Europe, or else from the interior of the empire. Constantinople is therefore additionally compelled to provide itself with specie, as the Caim^ could not be sent to Europe, and is not current in the provinces. In proportion as the demand for specie, while raising the price of coin, naturally re- duced the value of the paper money, the burden of which depreciation Constantinople alone was unable to bear, it was intended, fi-om the necessity of leaving the Caimg in circulation, to extend this system to the provinces, in order to modify the effects of a circulation which weighed exclusively on the capital. On the presumption that this ne- cessity would be prolonged, it seemed that no other measure could be adopted; but it is evident that, if Constantinople has suffered in its commercial intercourse vidth Europe in consequence of the depreciation of the paper money, the empire in all parts would suffer from the same causes in its relations with the rest of the world. Numerous instances in history confirm these remarks. Paper money has been current in different States of Europe ; England, France, the United States of America, Sweden, and Denmark cannot but remember it. Kussia and Austria suffer to this day from their dearly-bought ex- perience. Even if it were possible to fix the limit to which these issues might be reduced without much danger, stiU it would not prevent the value of paper money undergoing frequent fluctuations, whether from the effect of conmiercial movement or from alarm to public confidence. It is therefore undoubted that the issue of paper money is not a wise financial measure on the part of the Government of your Majesty, but evidently a dangerous expedient to be adopted only in cases of emergency. It would be impossible to estimate accurately the losses 'on exchange 24 THE EESOURCES OF TURKEY. and home loans, as well as on the new stock of consoH- dated floating debt ; while, on the other hand, the re- which'tlie currency of the paper money at Constantinople causes to commerce and to the Imperial Treasury. But, as regards the Treasury alone, it would not he far from truth to estimate them at 600,000 to 600,000 purses annually (2,000,000?. to 3,000,000i) These losses were well known, and the Government of your Imperial Majesty hajs suhmitted to^Jmany sacrifices in the hope of getting rid of the cause. Indeed, at one time there remained but a small quantity of paper money in circulation, and yet the difficulties caused hy other liabilities obliged the Government to annul the measures which had been adopted; and not only were they an obstacle to the final withdrawal of the paper money, but entailed the necessity of ^ain having recourse to it. Th^Caimfis are a sort of debt on the part of the Government, who should make every efibrt to discharge it, for more than one reason. But under the presstire of the extraordinary circumstances related above, and in presence of liabilities of some importance (to which must also be added the losses in exchange caused by the depreciation of the paper money), the Imperial Treasury, to meet these liabilities, was obliged to make use of revenue assigned to the urgent requirements of the army and navy, and of the other departments of the Ad ministration. Moreover, in order to meet other indispensable expenses the Government was obliged, on the one hand, to contract onerous loans, and on the other to guarantee them by making over in advance its ordinaiy revenues, so that the losses which were entaUed on the Treasury, and the amount of its liabilities, were continually increasing. Nevertheless, since the accession of your Imperial Majesty, the mea- sures of economy adopted in conformity vdth your commands, and the saw-iflces which have been made, have considerably reduced the amount of these liabilities, and according to recent investigations, they now form a floating debt of about 2,000,000 purses (9,142,400?.) Add the debt resulting from the Caim^s in circulation, and these are the only obstacles to the regular discharge of the public service. Before submitting to your Majesty the ways and means which appear to me best adapted for regulating the liabilities resulting from the float- ing debt, including the Caim^s, so as to get rid of them for the future, it is necessary to inquire what are the wants of the public service, and what resources the Imperial Treasury has at its disposal to meet them. The general budget of the ensuing year is in course of preparation ; but, as it has not been possible to complete it in time, the budget of the year 1277 (1860-61) will, for the moment, serve as a basis for the estimates. It will be seen by the tabular statement annexed, which I have the honour to submit to your Imperial Majesty, that the budget of the expenditure of this last year comprises four great divisions, imder the FINANCES. 25 ceipts will be augmented by the proceeds of new taxes and by various proposed economies in the different following heads : — 1. External debt ; 2. Internal debt ; 3. Civil list and pensions ; 4. the sums allowed to the department of each Minister. The external debt resulting from the four Loans contracted in 1271 (1854), 1272f(1855), 1275 (1858), and 1277 (1860-1861), represents a redeemable capital of 3,300,000 purses (15,084,960^.) entailing a charge on the budget of 1277(1860-61) for interest Purses. £ and sinking fund of 209,498 957,657 The internal debt comprises a portion of the floating debt and of the consolidated debt; these, under the names of Tahvilati Munitaz^s, and of Eshami Djedides, re- quire annually 125,000 571,400 The total of the consolidated^debts, or one- eighth of the expenditure' . . . 334,498 £1,529,057 Add the consolidated Eshamis, the Serghis of 10 years, &c 319,514 £1,460,562 654,012 £2,989,619 The third division comprises the civil list, divers pensions granted to retired func- tionaries, presents sent to Mecca, &c. . 398,851 399 £1,823,231 Finally, the fourth division is intended to meet the sums required for paying the public services dependent on each Minis- terial department 1,733,951145 £7,926,238 General total of expenditure .2,786,815 044 £12,739,088 The budget of receipts is subdivided into six heads, under the following denominations:— 1. Direct taxes; 2. Indirect taxes; 3. Public esta- blishments ; 4. Special products and divers duties ; 5. Tributes ; 6. Special revenues accruing to some of the Ministerial departments. Purses Psts. The whole of these revenues amount to . 2,442,368 169 £11,164,552 The expenses as stated above being . 2,786,815 044 £12,739,088 There would be a deficit of . . 344,446 375 £1,574,536 It is necessary to observe here that the revenues of 1277 (1860-61) were naturally influenced by the critical circumstances which the Ti-ea- 26 THE EESOURCES OF TURKEY. departments of the State. Thus by a reduction of ex- penditure on the one hand, and the imposition of new smy had to eneounter, and also that the expenditure was increased by the same causes. As already stated above, the total of the Oaimgs in circulation, and of the floating debt, is estimated at about four millions of purses (18,284,800i) ; but this sum, which exceeds the amount put down in the official registers, includes also the deficit of the budget of last year, estimated at about 300,000 purses (1,371,360?.), and it has been set down at 4,000,000 in order to insure the greatest possible accuracy when the expenditure shall be definitively settled. The summary of the actual state of the Treasury shows a deficiency of— Purses. ^ 1. In Caimfe . . . ' 2,000,000 9,142,400 2. In floating debt . . 2,000,000 9,142,400 And an ordinary deficit of 344,446 purses . . 4,000,000 £18,284,800 Compared with other countries, it is only very recently that Tm-key has experienced a deficiency of revenue and has been obliged to have recourse to loans. No doubt it would have been much better if both could have been avoided, but the amount need not cause the slightest apprehension, either for the present or the future. In comparing the budget of the Ottoman empire with that of some of other States which were long ago obliged to consolidate their debts in arrear, and continue periodically the same course, it should be stated that the amount of the Ottoman public debt which it is intended to con- solidate is relatively very small. For example, in England, on a total expenditure in 1850 of 12,636,800 pm-ses (1,436 millions francs), -a sum of 6,202,000 piirses (715 millions francs) was recLuired to pay the interest on the public debt. In Ptance, in 1850, the budget amounted to 12,584,000 purses (1,434 millions francs), and from this a third had to be deducted to meet the interest on the public debt. In the United States, in 1848 to 1849, the Federal budget amounted to 2,701,600 purses (807 m i llions francs), and more than one-fourth was required for the interest on the public debt. In Austria the budget amounts to about 6,456,400 purses (738 millions francs), one-fifth of which is required to pay the interest on the national debt. In Turkey/where the budget amounts to 2,786,815 pm-ses (12,739,088?.), 334,498 pm-ses (1,529,057?.) are requu-ed for the payment of the interest on the consolidated debt, or only about one-eighth. FINANCES. 27 taxes on the other, an excess of revenue may be antici- pated of 898,483Z. for the current year. The probable The measures taken by some of the Governments of Europe at certain periods of their history to meet the insufficiency of their resources are well known. The state of the Imperial Treasury is not such as would justify the exceptional measures adopted by those Governments for the safety of the State. In order to meet the existing deficit and redeem the public debt, there are two sources to which the Government may legitimately have re- course — viz., taxes and loans. In Turkey the amount of taxation paid by each individual is forty-five piastres ; in England it is probably more than 300 piastres, and in France it exceeds 250. This portion of taxation p^d by each individual shows the wealth of nations. It is not meant to affirm that in countries where the amount of taxation per head is small it can be raised to a level with those most heavily taxed; but as far as Turkey is concerned, in spite of the imper- fection of her system of taxation, which, however, has been much improved in several parts of the empire, it is evident that the taxes per head are too low. It may, therefore, be reasonably concluded that the public taxes might be increased on many articles for which its population at present is too lightly taxed. The collecting of the tithes is in a great measure withdrawn from the hands of the contractors {fermiers), and intrusted directly to those of the people, who derive the same benefits therefrom as were accorded to the former. The laws relating to stamps, licences, and other taxes, which produce such large revenues in all other countries, are put in force again and made more perfect; an important increase in revenue from these sources may therefore be expected. Further, conformably with the new treaties of commerce entered into with the allied Powers, salt and tobacco become a Government monopoly. Tobacco, so far from being an article of absolute necessity, is simply one of luxury, and aU States derive therefrom considerable revenues. In subjecting the tobacco con- sumed in the interior of the empire to a tax which will not in any way afiect its cultivation, and which will be proportioned to the means of the population, a revenue will be obtained which, although at first not so considerable as that derived from it in some other countries, will still be very large. As regards salt, it is true that it constitutes one of the urgent wants of the people, but its consumption, per head, is insignificant. This article is in other countries heavily taxed. In Turkey, the salt-pits belonging ex- clusively to the State, the sale of salt will also be very productive, although it might be much less than the quantity made. The 30,000 pui-ses (137,136/.), or thereabouts, required for the working 28 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. receipts and expenditure for the year 1862 may, there- fore, be summed up as follows : — and proper administration of the mines and forests may be taken from the capital required for the extinction of the debt, and it may be predicted that this measm-e will produce at once large returns from these two sources, which cannot fail to increase considerably in future. Besides the resources which have been enumerated, the duties of the Custom-house, which were formerly so low, have been altered and fixed in conformity with the real value of the merchandise. These new duties win alone produce an increase of 80 per cent., and, notwithstanding the annual diminution which is to take place in the duties on the exports in confoimity with the new treaties, and which will be balanced by other revenues, it is proved by investigations made, that the surplus which will be obtained by the increase of duties on imports -wiYL add largely to the revenue. It may, therefore, be fairly presumed that the resources above stated, exclusive of the budget of 1277 (1860-61), will produce a total increase in the receipts of 715,000 purses (3,268,408i) Moreover, if the paper money be withdrawn, thereby avoiding the loss now caused in the exchange, and the different Ministerial departments receive their allow- ances in time to enable them to. pay for their purchases regularly and in ready money, the Treasury would further save 150,000 purses (685,680/.) Such are the measures which cannot fail to increase the resources of the Treasury. With regard to a loan, the proposals which have been made to us respecting this matter by an eminent banking firm in Eui'ope have been accepted. The produce of this loan, added to the resources which the Government is receiving from the interior, and of which a portion has been already paid, will suffice for insuring the settlement of the various debts of the Imperial Treasury. The basis for the consolidation of these debts has not yet been defini- tively fixed, but a portion of these liabilities wiU be paid in specie ; salaries and pensions will not form part of the consolidation, but wiU also be paid in full and in specie. To sum up, the consolidated debts of the empire with the interest as weU as the floating debt, to be arranged, and the money required for the purpose — in short, the interest which the Treasuiy wiU have to pay for these sums, will not really be of any con- siderable amount. On the other hand, the measures to be adopted are far from onerous, compared with those which have been taken by other countries under pressure of circumstances ; but in this country it wiU be necessary to put into practice these measm-es so as to meet the liabUities contracted in the interior of the empire as well as those conti-^ted abroad. This result can only be attained by establishing an equilibrium FINANCES. 29 RECEIPTS. Receipts of the Budget of 1861 , , £11,164,552 Proceeds of proposed new taxes in 1862, viz. : — Tobacco .... £457,120 Salt . 548,544 Stamps . . 182,848 Licenses and excise duties on spirits . 182,848 Surplus from revenues of- Vacouf 137,136 Direct taxes at Constantinople 91,424 Forests and mines 45,712 Increase in Customs' dues under new Treaty of Commerce 914,240 Increase on the Verghi tax 228,560 „ tithes 342,840 From horse-shoes (tax on horses) 45,712 „ Tapous (transfers of landed pro- perty) 91,424 3,268,408 Total of the receipts . £14,432,960 between the expenditure and the receipts, so soon as we shall have received the funds required for the payment of these debts. Should your Imperial Majesty deign to sanction these measures, the estimates for the receipts and expenditure of the year 1278 (1862) may be summed up as follows : — Purses. 3,307,368 Receipts of 1278 (1862) Expenses of 1278 (1862) Excess of revenue £15,118,640 3,110,815 £14,220,157 196,553 £898,483 It must, however, be remembered that, though the receipts may be equal to the estimates, it is also possible that certain miscalculations may arise both in the ordinary revenues of the country as well as in those of the new receipts j or it may happen that the projected reductions in the expenditure may not be fully realised. Therefore, the excess of receipts over expenditure, cited above, is intended to meet every possible deficiency in the estimates. Competent counsellors are at this moment engaged in drawing up the projects of laws relative to the details for realising regularly the full amount of the revenues to be created. These laws will be duly carried out when the taxes are collected. The Government has decided to establish at the same time a com- mittee (syndicate), empowered to receive directly the revenues which are assigned as guarantees for payment of the internal debt, the foreign 30 THE EESOUECES OF TURKEY. Expenditure. Expenses of the Budget of 1861 . . _ . £12,739,088 Interest and sinking fund on the New English loan . . . . . • • 685,680 Interest on the 400,000 pm-ses to be borrowed in the Empire 109,709 Interest on the stock to be created for the consoli- dation of the floating debt . . . 685,680 £14,220,157 Deduct. Estimated decrease to be carried out in the ex- penses of the various departments . . 685,680 Total of the expenses . . £13,534,477 debt, as well as the loan about to be Gontracted, and to pay over the same as they become due. A commission, composed of competent persons, is now engaged in devising the best measures for carrying out this project. The result of their deliberations will be submitted to the gracious approval of your Majesty. The accoimts of the years preceding that which is now about to commence wiU be kept separate ; that is to say, a department will be specially appointed to re-examine all former accounts, and, considering the advantages which the new system secures, so far as regularity and greater facility are concerned, this method wiU be adopted in all the accounts connected with the receipts and expenses of the State. These measures have been fully discussed, as well as the means best calculated to prevent the various departments from contracting separate debts, and to centralize all financial operations. AU these projects will be laid before your Imperial Majesty as soon as they shaU be drawn up. As the accession of your Imperial Majesty has inaugurated a new era of prosperity for the empire and the nation, and as the welfare of the coimtry is the sole object of your Majesty's solicitude, I am convinced that the temporaiy embarrassments of our finances will speedily disappear, thanks to the efforts which will be made, I am persuaded, by all the functionaries of the empire, to cariy out the measures stated above, in obedience to the commands of your Imperial Majesty, whose reign will be distinguished by glory and prosperity. Translation of the original. The Drogoman of the Imperial Divan. „ , ,. „ A. AAEIFY. Subhme Porte, Feb. 19. FINANCES. 31 Eeceipts of 1862. General total of tlie receipts of 1862 £14,432,960 General total of the expenses of 1862 13,534,477 Excess of revenue . £898,483 The total of the Caim^s (paper money) m circulation, and of the floating debt, is estimated at 18,284,800/. Of this sum 6,000,000/. will be at once paid off with the proceeds of the new foreign and home loans, leaving a balance of 12,284,800/. to be converted into a con- sohdated stock. Of the new taxes above referred to, a special sum has been assigned for the payment of the interests and siaMng funds ; but a very im- portant question here arises — how shall these re- venues be assigned so as to inspire the pubHc with perfect confidence ? Local commissions appointed by Government, or any other imperial institution, would not give this confidence to the pubhc ; the reason is evident, they have been tried and they have failed. But it would be very different if such an institution as a National Bank could be estabhshed. Such operations would come precisely within its legitimate province, as being based on recognised statutes, directed by an in- dependent body, and bound to periodical pubhcity of accounts. The direct assignment to such bank of special revenues for the payment of the interest and sinking fund of some particular government stock would fully maintain its value and satisfy the pubhc, whilst the appointment of the governor, sub-governor, and auditor to the bank, would afford a sufficient secu- rity and guarantee to the Government itself There can be no doubt that the service which such a banking institution might render to the Government and the 32 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEt. country are incalculable, by preventing the various fluctuations in the exchanges, by economising, through its branches and agencies, the collection of the revenues, and by transacting the daily negotiations of the Treasury in the purchase and sale of the precious metals and bills, without subjecting the Government to the snares and machinations of all the jobbers in the market. Li virtue of its national character the bank would natu- rally be in account current with all the local authorities wherever a branch was estabhshed. It would by this means absorb a large proportion of the specie now in circulation, and, by continuing to receive in metallic and pay in paper, the notes of the bank would be dis- seminated widely throughout the empire ; thus money would be rendered more abundant, vast sums would be saved to the pubHc annually which are now paid for the transport of coin, and a stop would be put to the illicit practices of the "Sweaters" who at present carry on so successful a trade. With the establishment of branches ia each town of importance, a certain amount of regularity in money transactions would be diffused over the whole empire. The bank would enter imme- diately into competition with the usurers who oppress and plunder the hapless agriculturists ; the moral in- fluence of the bank would hold in check extortion on the part of the collectors of revenue, and as this influ- ence became gradually perceptible, and the native popu- lation discovered that the high sanction under which the bank was operating was a guarantee for its integrity and not a cloak for iniquitous exactions, 'the im- mense sums which are now hoarded, especially in Asia Minor and Syria, would come to Ught and flow into its coffers. A National Bank then would clearly exercise a very great and very beneficial influence throughout FINANCES. 33 the entire empire. It would be witMn reacli of all classes: it would facilitate the undertakings of the agricultural and industrial portion of the inhabitants ; it would aid by judicious assistance the legitimate ope- rations of the commercial community, and, by thus encouraging all that tends to the development of the vast natural resources of the country, and by propaga- ting those tastes for industry and enterprise which have so largely contributed to our own national wealth, give to Turkey the helping hand she needs to take a first step towards the attainment of that position for which nature destined her among the civilized nations of the world. * Turkey is the last country ia the world to contend against European enterprise, if it once get rooted in the soU. As soon as the higher classes, naturally easy and indolent, see that wealth is flowing ia from sources which to them were valueless, and that their savings can be invested without risk or exertion and realize to them an increasing income, the vast hoards of treasure accumulated and carefully hidden in the nooks and corners of the interior wiH be allowed to see the hght of day, and native capital will itself assist in converting the wilderness of waste into productive fields. The Turkish peasant is a hardworking and patient being ; and, even under difficulties of no ordinary description, * It is no exaggeration whatever, but a melancholy truth, that at the period of the establishment of the Bank of Scotland (1695), that country, partly owing to such a succession of disasters as cannot be paralleled in the history of any independent nation, and partly owing to its position on the outskirts of the civilized world, and fai removed from the humanising influence of commerce, was the most utterly barbarous, savao-e, and lawless kingdom in Europe. And it is equally undeniable that the two great causes of her rapid rise in civilization and wealth, were her systems of national education and banking ! — Maeleocts Theory and Practice of Banking. D 34 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. he exhibits all the characteristics of a good labourer and a peaceful subject. With untold wealth, then, lying actually within a few feet of the surface of the ground, with a soil that lacks but the kindly process of the sower to repay a thousandfold the seed that is dropped on its bosom, and with a people who want but the shadow of protection against those whom custom and ignorance have permitted to ruin and oppress them, the regeneration of Tiu^key ceases to be a hopeless task. The principle of reform, moreover, has been acknow- ledged and approved by the Sovereign power. The win of the Sultan has been published from one end of Turkey to the other, according to Mussulman law. It has, or ought to have, the weight of a sacred ordinance. It has besides been accepted as the initiation of a better state of things by the comity of European nations in solemn conference assembled, and, judging from the sound and statesmanhke measures already adopted by his Highness Fuad Pasha, there can be no doubt that it will soon become an immediate and practical reality. AGRICULTURAL RESOURCHES. 35 CHAPTER IV. AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. Few countries in the world possess, to the same ex- tent, those natural advantages enjoyed by Turkey. Throughout the greater part of the empire, the soil and climate permit of the almost inexhaustible pro- duction, in excess of the wants of the inhabitants, of those ordinary raw materials which form everywhere the great staples of food and manufacture. Grain, wool, cotton, hemp, hides, tallow, timber, are every- where produced in abundance ; while, in addition to these ordinary products, Turkey yields in profusion those rarer articles of merchandise, such as drugs, dyes, gums, fitdt, vegetable oils, silk, sugar, and tobacco, which can only be abundantly and profitably produced under conditions of special advantage of climate and geographical position. GRAIN. From the earhest times the fertility of the soil has been remarkable. In the days of Herodotus, it was so admirably adapted for corn that it never produced less than two-hundredfold, and ia seasons particularly favourable, it sometimes amounted to three hundred. " The ear of the wheat as well as the barley," he says, " is four digits broad. But the immense height D 2 36 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. S !rcD 00 OS c^ «'OCO lO 00 cc . 05 00 cci go 2 03 s^ '^J^^ a ofoTg CO 3 CD CO >~* . ■>* lo lo aj «i03 O CO i~i ■3S'S''*~otfof >dO ^ t^ CO g-*-*oo • ^ iH lO CO 2 CO CD03 a CO 03 1- — ul>- l> 03 CO 03^ r s g cifcD^co'oercD' •3 So 00 1-1 1- CO otTco^irr '^ 00 00 ■ ^ . QOIO-*00 t-. S O 03 03 lO 00 3 00_lO^00 (N r-H^ ! ©"■^"(yToif'O .8 t^ CO IC) w? >o V- 3 O CO rH ^ (N °' i-r ,oo" •1 • ■ • o .£4 ■-§1 II o CD I • ■ ■-§ .£4 AGMCULTUEAL RESOURCES. 37 to which the cenchrus and sesamum stalks grow, although I have witnessed it myself, I dare not men- tion, lest those who have not visited the country- should disbelieve my report." At the present day the soU is not less fruitful, for according to Beaujour, the yield of corn in some parts of Macedonia amounts to three-hundredfold.* In 1847, the value of the agri- cultural produce exported from Macedonia by Salonica alone amounted to upwards of 800,000/., of which cereal productions formed an item of 600,000/, In 1848, the quantity of corn exported from Bulgaria and EoumeKa exceeded 4,440,000 bushels. In 1855, Galatz and Ibraila exported upwards of 2,000,000 imperial quarters of grain, while the annual produce of corn in Asia Minor is estimated at 25,000,000 Turkish kilos. Or 705,100,000 kilogrammes, equal to. 25,473,250 bushels. WOOL. The wools of EoumeHa (Turkey in Europe) are held in very high estimation. They usually contain sixty parts of white, twenty of fine black, first quahty, and twenty of gray, second quality. Macedonia, Thessaly, and Albania produce about 6,500,000 lbs. of wool, of which 2,200,000 lbs. are exported by Salonica, and 1,000,000 lbs. by the port of Volo, in Thessaly. That part of Bulgaria, bordering on the Danube, called the Dobrutscha, contains abundant pasturage, and produces annually about 4,125,000 lbs. Thrace does not * There are some places in European Turkey wliere tlie land is so fruitful that two crops are obtained from it in the year. For example, at the village of Velvendos, in the district of Charshumba, about eighteen hours distant from Monastir, barley is sown in September and cut in May. Indian com is then planted, which is gathered in the September following. 38 THE EESOUKCES OF TUKKET. possess pasturages as rich as those of Bulgaria. and Macedonia; nevertheless, the production of that province is estimated at 6,000,000 lbs., of which two- thirds are exported, and one-third used for home con- sumption. It is impossible to arrive at a satisfactory valuation of the amount of wool produced in Asia Minor. The most important market, however, for that article is Smyrna, from whence is exported 7,150,000 lbs., of which one- half goes to the United States, and the other to Erance and England. The province of Konieh furnishes about 7,000,000 lbs.; and Caramania, which extends along the coast from the Gulf of Satalia to the Gulf of Alexandretta, and inland to the neighbourhood of Angora and Sivas, produces 600,00(^ lbs., containing one part of white, and three parts of black and gray. Syria produces a considerable quantity of wool, but it is difficult to' obtain any rehable statistics upon the subject. In 1855, however, Aleppo exported 1500 tons, value 108,000^. In 1857, TripoH exported to the value of 5360/., and in the same year Beyrout exported to the value of 51,029/.; while, in 1858, 4181 bales were shipped from the port of Alexandretta. The wools of Upper Asia, comprising those of Kurdistan and the provinces bordering on the Black Sea, are shipped at the ports of Trebizond and Samsoun, but no returns are available. The province of Angora, famous for the silky fleeces of its goats, exports about 6,875,000 lbs. of wool or hair by the ports of Smyrna, Samsoun, and Con- stantinople. AGRICtLTURAL BESOUECES. 89 „S00 rH SS ^.s ®.s Sjs 03 00 "■a ^ t- Q > S CO i-H o t- Lbs. 5,10 2,44 ( CO i-H ,-1 lO - Is. CO . 00 I-H Sco^ <> b- T-i iH CD 05 O "5 t- l-H a 50- CO-" « S (M m rH I^ I- lO o CO oo 00 00 oo 0=3-* CJ •s«ti tk §1 «.. =5. •sl o 1-1 i- "-i ■^ CO Lb 698, ,252, Kli :. ^ I' ^. .S CD (N 00 ■!|S ^ s l^^-o- ^- «^i-l © t; ^ i- sia 1^' iH Lbs. 87,588 08,618 CO t- l CO- Francs. 7,808,771 611,934 OO 1-1 il. 7,868 7,686 ^ «^ S § - '^ 53 5- • f s; iO &H Franca. 3,997,691 239,476 s CO (M fe (N lO O rH">0 S »o 00 ^ 40 THE KESOUECES OP TDEKET. _ r o 00 CO o ■<*! §r-^ O rH _ ^ § ^ ^ fe SB 03 is •SS 03 lO S^~co"?f to" i^" g-oToo § ^ <0' rH" O" OO" l-i 9 7-{ eg 03 1— t W i.|| S iff s" 5f a" ^ Is'^^'^ i-T . OrH Ti . . ^ r M ^ p'S CO b» ^ o . ■-• ig 03 lO ^ Value Pounds B 138,6 13,9 ^ 03 ^ l- ■^ S^ if S 5 . >o o fc-O M o" f^ uantil 36,3 9 00 1-H >. aiH "d ?S . o3 O 6s , »n 00 ' i T-i Dg (M 00 o •BS CO 03 CO » "■ CO 03 ^ 00 T-t rH Val Quantity. Pound 99,024 Iba. 78 441 ewts. 5 r »o t^ CD o 00 iH I— < lo Q ^ oq^cM 03 -^ g rH O" CT -* iH -i*r o ^ nT 03 CT CO rH S ^ ^ CO 03 -^ C^ i2 03 otTcTt-r 1 '^ Jg t- O 03 L "3 IH^ iH ^ o R • • ■ • 00 m 00 ■« ICG. ,447 392 342 650 rH 03 00 g CD oTcd' t-T f^ QD S 3^ 2 «J^ CO ^ rH iH g ' oToq" tC CO rH ■* I^ KU. 12,869 9,924 7,019 4,251 gt,g:rH ■ g 'a' o •s ^ . tn , 1 -§ i • 1 3 "s fe o S S) ses ^ .=3^ :^ R R CQ AGRICULTURA.L RESOUKCES. 41 SILK. The rearing of the silk-worm forms one of the most profitable resources of Turkey. In 1852, the production of silk in the province of Adrianople was valued at 184,250 lbs., of which 154,750 lbs. were exported to Prance. In the same year the district of Volo, in Thessaly, produced 138,875 lbs., of wHch 116,875 lbs. were exported. The yield of silk at Brussa, in 1855, amounted to 1,120,000 lbs., of the value of 1,500,000/. In 1857, Beyrout exported to the value of 308,715/.; TripoH, 88,200/. ; and Smyrna, 121,833/. TOBACCO. This plant is cultivated in every part of Turkey where the elevation of the temperature admits of its production. In Macedonia there are two species, known under the name of nicotiana laiifolia and nicotiana rustica, which occupy an eighth part of the ploughed lands, and by the cultivation of which twenty thousand families are supported. The annual harvest, or gathering, of tobacco in Macedonia is estimated at 100,000 bales ; of which 40,000 bales are consumed in European Turkey, 30,000 are exported to Egypt, 10,000 to Barbary, and 20,000 to Italy. The increased exports from the district of CavaUa wiU be apparent from the following table. 42 THE EESOUECES OP TUEKET. 'tS ^ 8 I oooooooinokooo-^tD 0-*^t^i:DO»ffl(NCDOt~<>- ^ 0<©OS100iCMt^O'©t^l^O ea -u £■-1 OOTOSr-lOOCO-^lOTjl© H (MOTOr-5tr a 'ooo "Sg * "§o 1 S uTosTiui" icTuT o"-*' " 00 O CM 03 >0 03 (M •COCOr-1 "1— fi— 1 ■ 'rHCiHi-lrH(CCT iH (M i-T oq~ e >^ & s. d. 3 3 6 2 5 3 14 S17 15 AGEICULTURAL RESOURCES. 43 The following calculation shows the profit arising from the cultivation of tobacco ia Macedonia. Assum- iQg that a plot of five acres can be cultivated by two fa mili es, numbering from four to six adult males and females, and a proportionate number of non-adults, the outlay and return would be as follow : — Otdlay. By the landlord — Tilling the land, at 12«. per acre .... Manure, 400 horse-loads, at 2d. per load . Folding flocks on the field .... Indian-corn flour, rice, oil, and other food, in Jiart main- tenance of the two labourers' families . Deterioration of implements, buildings, and other charges i By the peasant — Quota of outlay for the maintenance of the two families Total outlay £32 Setum. Average yield of crop (500 lbs. per acre) — 2,500 lbs. of tobacco 250 „ less tithes 2,250 „ worth, at average price, Is. . . • 112 10 Net profit . Profit per acre £16 2s. Od. Landlord's share . . . ■ Peasant's share .... Magnesia, Pergamos, and Samsoun, in Asia Minor, produce tobacco of excellent quality; but that cultivated in the district of Latakia (Syria), is the most esteemed. The consumption of tobacco by the native population is enormous ; nevertheless, the exportation continues annually to increase. In 1856, • 5 5 . £80 10 40 40 n 44 THE BESOUKCES OF TUKKET. Samsoun exported by British ships alone 13,662 bales, equal to 2049 tons weight ; and in 1857, Beyrout exported to the value of 112,442/. In 1858, 1859, and 1860, Turkey exported: — 1858 Value in Quantity. Founds sterling. To Great Britaiu . . 1,546,359 lbs. £51,471 To France . . . 507,158 kU. :fi21,098 1859 To Great Britain , . 211,329 lbs. £5,060 To France . '. . 1,165,563 kU. £67,603 1860 To Great Britain . . 1,197,834 lbs. £26,569 To France . . . 384,479 kil. £22,761 MADDER. This root is principally cultivated in Asia Minor and Syria. In 1857 Smyrna exported 117,383 kintals, value 301,065/.*, and in the same year Beyrout exported to the value of 30,580/. The total exports to Great Britain and France were: — 1868 , * , Value in ™ ~ , T. . . Quantit}-. Pounds sterling. To Great Britain . . 157,987 cwt. £411,972 To France . . '. 90,125 kil. £2,884 1859 To (?reat Britain . . 171,920 cwt. £432,916 To France . . . 182,447 kil. £6,641 1860 To Great Britain . . 170,947 cwt. £433,856 To France . . . 856,095 kil. £29,450 • In 1858 Smyrna exported 187,603 kintals of madder root. 1 kintal =125 lbs. English. AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. 45 VALONIA. Valonia, so extensively used for tanning, is the fruit of a species of oak (quercus oegylops), and is found in European Turkey, the isles of the Archipelago, and Asia Minor. With due attention to its cultivation, Turkey is capable of producing, valonia to almost any extent. In 1857, Smyrna exported 476,288 kintals, value 325,682Z. In 1858, 1859, and 1860, Turkey exported: — 1858 A To Great Britain . Quantity. 19,176 tons Value in Pounds sterling, £264,876 To France . 267,736 kil. 1859 £23,560 To Great Britain . 26,242 tons £382,347 To France . 555,665 kU. 1860 A £51,121 To Great Britain . 17,868 tons £261,501 To France 508,549 kil. £46,786 OPIUM. Smyrna is the principal market for the sale of opium. In 1857, there were shipped from that port, chiefly to England, the United States, and China, 3271 cases of 80 to 90 tch^kis, value 266,382^.* * Opium is much used by the Turks as a soporific, or as an incentive. Those Turks who are in the habit of constantly eating it are called 3%e- ridkis. They take it in order to procure a kind of sweet lethargy which seems to place them between life and death. That state, which lulls all thought asleep without excluding the sensations, has such charms that it is by no means imcommon to meet with Theriakis who spend their life in drinking cofiee, smoking their pipe, and swallowing opium. I have heard of an effmidi who took every day thirty cups of coffee, smoked sixty pipes, swallowed three drachms of opium, and whose sole food was four ounces of rice. 46 THE KESOUECES OF TUKKEY. Turkey exported in 1858, 1859, and 1860: 1858 To Great Britain To France . Quantity. . 90,397 lbs. 5,734 kil. 1859 t Value in Founds sterling, £89,449 £12,615 To Great Britain To Erance . . 136,695 lbs. 7,188 kil. 1860 £133,149 £14,376 To Great Britain To France . . 195,366 lbs. . 10,561 ka. £187,643 £23,236 YELLOW BEEEIES. This seed, made use of in dyeing, is the berry of the small buckthorn, or rhamnus minor ; it is of the size of a pepper-corn, of an astringent, bitter taste, and of a green colour, bordering upon yellow. The shrub was known to the ancients under the name of pixacaniha, or prickly box ; the French call it graine d' Avignon. In 1857, Smyrna exported 10,911 kintals, value 24,549Z. In 1858, 1859, and 1860, Turkey exported: — 1858 Value ID Quantity. Pounds sterling. To Great Britain . . 2,863 cwt. £5,964 To Erance , . . 105,221 kil. £5,061 1859 To Great Britain . . 8,795 cwt. £17,089 To France .... 1860 To Great Britain . . 2,844 cwt. £5,262 To France. . . . 158,387 kil. £7,603 AGRICULTUBAL KBSOUKCES. 47 The following tables of the exports from Turkey to Great Britain and France, during the year 1860, wlU give a definite idea of the various products of the Ottoman empire : — Specification of the Exports from Turkey to Great Britam in the year 1860. Names of Articles. Quantities. Value in Pounds sterling. Berries, yellow . . cwts. 2,844 5,262 Boxwood .... tons ■4,133 45,647 Com : wheat . qrs. 163,999 435,268 barley . • }} ■ 669,218 955,889 maize ' » 916,673 1,580,997 other Muds . 3f 28,098 39,123 Figs . cwts. 43,463 90,922 Galls .... „ 7,153 34,529 Gum, tragacanth )J 767 7,406 Iron, chromate of tons 135 2,160 Madder root cwts. 170,947 433,856 Nuts, small .bushels 6,110 4,630 Oil, olive .... tuns 439 24,021 or otto of roses . lbs. 1,143 15,828 Opium ff 195,366 187,643 Raisins .... cwts. 76,896 126,513 Scammony lbs. 26,262 35,758 Seed : £.ax and linseed qrs. 266 674 millet .... fj 53,425 11,519 rape .... jf 15,976 47,444 Silt, raw YhB. 164,194 119,961 cocoons, &c. cwts. 1,623 28,550 Skins, lamb, \mdressed no. 272,603 17,037 Sponges lbs. 369,368 238,383 Stone, in lumps, not in any mamier hewn tons 2,093 28,957 TaJlow .... cwts. 4,118 11,494 Terra umbra ff 394 79 Tobacco, unmanufactured . . lbs. 1,197,834 26,569 Valonia .... tons 17,868 261,601 Wool, or hair, goats' . lbs. 2,512,447 378,071 sheep and lambs' w 1,165,100 49,458 Woollen manufactures: carpet) 3 and rugs sq. yds. 37,316 15,293 unenumerated value , , 674 All other ai-ticles Total 244,576 £6,506,492 48 THE EESOUECES OF TURKEY. Specification of the Exports from Turkey to France in 1860. Rangd' Import- ance. Designation des Marchandifies. Quantites. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Soies 4crue3 gi'^ge , CEufs de vers a soie Graines ol^agineuses Laines en masse Froment (grain) Foils de chevreau bruts . Soies en cocons , Huile d'olive . . Peaux brutes . Coton en laine Baisins sees . Bourre de soie en masse 6crue Seigle, mais, orge, avoine (grain) , Noix de gaUe at avelanedes . Racines de r^gUsse Ouivre pvir de 1" fusion Tabac en feuUles ou en c6tes Viandes salves Gajrance en racines seohes Ouivre alliS d'etain de 1'° fusion Peaux de lievre brutes Essence de roses . Bois d'ebtoisterie . Opium Os et comes de b6- tail brutes . Perles fines . Legumes sees et leur farines Cire j aune ou brune Eponges Tissua, passemen- terie, et rubans de laine Bijouterie Nattes et tresses de paiUe grossieres . Unites. Mlog. uectol. kilog. }) » » » » 1} hectol. kilog. » » » gram, kilog. gram, kilog. 615,807 42,432 14,751,021 5,366,706 470,189 123,153 1,394,243 3;240,746 1,267,866 1,815,156 2,608,520 109,243 198,684 508,549 2,148,490 475,032 384,479 1,123,014 856,095 203,060 35,261 590 1,121,352 . 10,561 628,442 16,537 1,206,695 150,117 27,928 7,998 32,557 12,520 36,948,420 8,486,400 7,504,967 17,053,687 11,566,649 535,716 30,073,346 3,388,895 3,965,625 2,995,007 2,884,798 1,037,808 2,753,767 1,169,663 1,074,245 1,282,586 669,029 914,222 736,242 609,180 176,306 619,500 280,927 580,855 356,608 281,129 458,544 750,685 467,476 113,870 199,379 12,520 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. 49 Rang d' Import- ance. Designation des Marchandiies. Quantitgs. Francs. 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 : Unites. Fruits sees autees que les raisins . kilog. GonriTnes pures ex- otiques . . „ Bois de teintuie en buches . . „ Vins . . . litre Noir mineral natu- rel . . . Mlog. Sangsues . . le mUle Nerprun et rocou . kilog. Pierres k aiguiser . „ Acide oMque . „ Merrains de chene . piece Son . . . Kilog. Autres articles 168,293 71,995 423,349 69,070 124,000 1,990 158,387 91,750 90,989 122,230 521,468 118,768 61,196 42,335 65,332 24,800 129,350 190,065 45,875 77,341 85,501 52,147 1,614,333 Totaux Francs 143,455,053 or ^5,738,202 50 THE HESO0ECES OF TURKEY. CHAPTEE V. MINERAL RESOURCES. Of the various natural resources of Turkey which remain comparatively undeveloped, the most impor- tant, perhaps, are her Mines and Forests. Of the former it would be quite impossible to calculate the value, for the soil teems with mineral wealth ready to enrich those who have the energy to seek for it. PHny teUs us that ia his time the riches of ancient Cyprus arose to a considerable extent from its copper mines, the most productive of which were those of Tamasus in the centre of the island. Soli on the north coast, and Amathos and Cyrium on the south. Gold and silver were found in these mines ; while the precious stones of Cyprus — the emerald, agate, mala- chite, jaspar, opal — and the minerals asbestos and rock- crystal, were valued and held in high estimation by the luxurious Eomans. Mount Atabyros in Ehodes, and the island of Lemnos — the fabled abode of Vulcan — were also famous for their copper mines. The moun- tains of Thrace were remarkable for their mines of precious metals. The island of Thassos was enriched by the possession of her gold mines ; and the forests of Mount Ida, in Crete, supplied wood for the forging and smeltmg of iron. But the ancient Greeks and Eomans, with all their power and grandeur, could not buy up the future, and were compelled to leave the MINERAL RESOURCES. 51 soil with all its hidden treasures to the descendants of those who followed the fortunes of the son of Amurath. The magic power, however, which in old days was supposed to lay open the secrets of the earth, has long since been dispelled ; but there exists in the nineteenth century a greater power than was ever ascribed to magic or to genii, — the power of industry and labour, supported by capital, and backed by those grand dis coveries in science of which our ancestors were ignorant. The application of that moving power — industry and labour, supported by capital — to the undeveloped mi- neral resources of Turkey would prove of incalculable advantage to the government of the Sultan, and open up a wide and remunerative field for commercial en- terprise. Of the numerous mines discovered some years ago in Asia Minor, there are but ten at present in operation, and these yield scarcely two-thirds of what they are capable of producing. The average annual produce of these mines is as foUows : — Silver Mines : — D&^k-Madene . . . 156,436 okes. Gamuch-Han« . . . 17,520 „ Hadjikoi .... 134,976 „ Akdagh-MadSne . . . 119,520 „ Gu6ban-MadSne . . . 142,350 „ 570,796 Lead Mines 175,000 Copper Mines : — Aigana-MadSne . . . 720,000 „ - Essfli 156,888 „ Kur6-Madene . . . 27,612 „ Helvali 61,020 „ , 965,520 1,711,316 okes. Wi.ii ^Sg E 2 52 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. The copper mine of Cun^, whose produce received the designation of Tokat, Tretizond, or Diarbekhr, ac- cording to the place at which it was wrought, is perhaps the richest in the world, the hills all around appearing to be one mass of carbonate of copper ; but it is, I be- heve, very nearly if not altogether abandoned. The silver, lead, and copper mines in the neighbourhood of Trebizond are seriously neglected, although that of Triboly is known to have produced, even under bad management, six to eight thousand hundred weight of copper annually. The rich mines of Bosnia and Servia*, of Wallachia and Macedonia, remain, compara- tively, unproductive ; while the silver and lead mines of Thessaly, which were, a lew years ago, very pro- fitably worked, are now no longer in full operation. The lead and silver mines in the district of Volo, in Thessaly, yield, on an average, about thirty-five per cent, of mixed metal, — consisting of lead, silver, and gold. They were first discovered in 1848, by an Ionian named Cazotti, and a firman was granted by the Sultan to Izett Pasha, the then Minister of PoHce, for a term of eleven years. Izett Pasha, after working a few of the mines on his own account for three years, gave up the enter- prise as unsuccessful ; and in 1856, a second firman was obtained extending the privileges of the first for a term of thirty-one years. The Provinces of Tricalla and Joannina, mentioned in the Sultan's concession, include the entire of Thessaly, a considerable portion of Lower Albania, and a section of Macedonia, — the whole embracing a superficial area of great extent, and many ranges of mountains rich in mineral deposits of gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, antimony, arsenic, and coal, — * See Bosnia. MINERAL EESOUECES. 53 all of which the proprietor of the firman has the ex- clusive privilege of working, upon the annual payment of 70,000 piastres (about 650/.), in Ueu of all royalties, customs' dues, and other taxes. The district possesses unusual advantages for the export of minerals, having a great extent of sea-board, both in the Adriatic Sea and in the Grecian Archipel- ago. The boundary in the Adriatic Sea comprises a length of 200 miles, extending northwards along the sea-coast from the Gulf of Arta, past the island of Corfu, to within a short distance of the town and har- bour of Durazzo, in Albania. The boundary in the Grecian Archipelago embraces about one hundred miles of sea-coast from the Gulf of Volo to Katterina, in the Gulf of Salonica. Along the latter coast, on the eastern slopes of Mount Pelion, and about three- quarters of a mile from the sea, the present proprietor of the firman has expended upwards of 50,000/. on the completion of extensive works which have been profit- ably employed in dressing and smelting the rich ores of Galena, numerous veins having been discovered in Mount Pehon, from which considerable quantities of lead, silver, and gold are extracted. Some of the ores of Galena, in the mountain, are very rich — ^yielding as much as 82 per cent, of metal. The mineral veins vary in breadth fi:om two to ten feet, and, on an average, yield about 35 per cent, of mixed metal, consisting of lead, silver, and gold. The gold and sUver are refined at the works to such a high degree, that not more than two parts in a thousand of any foreign matter can be detected, and. the lead, is admitted to be of the softest and best quality. The Pelion works, when in full operation, are capable of smelting from nine to ten tons of mixed metal daily^ 54 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. and of separating the silver and gold from the lead. There are generally from sixty to eighty, and sometimes as much as 150 ounces of silver, and from six to eight dwts. of gold, in a ton of metal, and its average worth for gold, silver, and lead, is from 28Z. to 30Z. per ton. Thus, the value of the metals which can be produced from only a very small portion of Mount Pehon, amounts to 280/1. or 300^. a day. From the works, the lead, silver, and gold are carried down on mules — about three-quarters of a mile — to Khorefto, the roadstead of Zaghora, and then shipped on board Greek vessels for Salonica, from whence it is re-shipped to Constantinople. House rent and hving are exceedingly cheap in the neighbourhood, the chmate is good, and the locahty in which the works are situated is very healthy. " It is a delightful spot," says Dodwell, in his Travels in Greece, " and exhibits in all their rich mixture of fohage and diversity of form, the luxuriantly spreading platanus, the majesti- cally robust chesnut, the waving poplar, the aspiring cypress, which are happily intermingled with the vine, pomegranate, ahnond, and fig. Here the weary may repose, and those who hunger and thirst may be satis- fied. The nightingale and other birds are heard even in the most frequented streets, and plenty and security are everywhere diffused." THB GROWTH OF COTTON. 55 CHAPTEK VI. THE GROWTH OF COTTON. Cotton was formerly one of the chief staples of Turkish commerce, but, during the past fifty years, its cultiva- tion has considerably declined. As very great anxiety, however, is felt at the present moment with regard to the future supply of this important article, it wiU not be out of place if I here direct the attention of those interested in the matter to the facilities which exist for the growth and improvement of that plant in the Ottoman empire. The natural advantages possessed by Turkey, in her soil, chmate, and geo- graphical position, ofier every inducement to the capi- talist, and few enterprises would, perhaps, be more profitable at the present time than one having for its object the improved cultivation of cotton in that country. In the department of Salonica, cotton is grown to a considerable extent, but it is principally gathered in the district of Seres, a city of. Macedonia, well-known in European Turkey for the richness of its market, and situated fifteen leagues to the north-west of Salonica, in the centre of the great vaUey through which flows the river Strymon. The annual harvest of cotton in the valley of Seres has lately very much decreased, but fifty years ago it was estimated at 70,000 bales. 56 THE EESOUECES OF TUKKEY. of wliich 30,000 were exported to Germany, 12,000 to France, 4000 to Trieste, 1500 to Leghorn, and as many more to Genoa. At present, however, nearly all the cotton goes to Germany, whence S^res takes jewellery, ironmongery, cotton, wooUen and silk manu- factured goods, &c. At the annual fair of S^res, held from the 20th of February to the 30th of March, 1860, imported goods were sold as follow : — £ IVom Austria and Gennany . 64,425 Great Britain . . 17,500 Turkey . 8,827 France . 4,916 HpUand 648 Total £96,316 From the above figures it will be seen that the Germans have nearly a monopoly of the trade, ui con- sequence of the preference which they give to the cotton of Ser^s. It has been estimated that Macedonia produces 800,000 imperial quarters of corn, 100,000 bales of tobacco, and 80,000 bales of cotton ; yet only one-fourth part of the land is under cultivation, and even that part does not yield one-third of what it is capable of doing. Cyprus produces annually about 1,375,000 lbs. of cotton, but its growth in that island is capable of very great extension. In the southern and western parts of the island of Ehodes, there are plains containing about 4000 acres of land belonging to the government, in every way adapted for the cultivation of cotton. In the neighbourhood of Brussa, experiments have been made from New Orleans seed, and the samples were, a short time ago, very favourably reported upon, and give THE GROWTH OF COTTON. 57 promise of the valuable addition being made of superior cotton to the products of that quarter. In the Province of Diarbekhr, and in fact aU over Asiatic Turkey, particularly in Mesopotamia, cotton could be grown to almost any extent ; and when it is considered that Turkey in Asia possesses an area of 673,746 square miles, with a population of but 16,050,000, giving oply 23-8 to the square mile, it may be imagined what vast tracts of fertUe land are there lying unproductive. Enormous areas where water is plentiful and the soil most fruitful could be readily ob- tained upon the easy terms of paying to the government ten per cent, on the value of the produce in Heu of rent, and the cultivation of cotton for the Enghsh market would not only be a remunerative enterprise for those engaged in it, but, while benefiting to a very great ex- tent the condition of the native population, would at the same time increase considerably the revenues of the Turkish Government. Towards the end of the last and the beginning of the present century, when the production of cotton in America and in Egypt was stiU very hmited, large shipments of cotton were made from the port of Smyrna (Asia Minor) to Europe, chiefly to Venice, Genoa, France, HoUand, and a small portion to England. In the mercantile books of the few European firms then existing in Smyrna, the annual export of cotton is often mentioned as attaining a quantity varying from 150,000 to 200,000 bales. Mr. E. J. Van Lennep, the present Dutch Consul-General at Smyrna, has mentioned to me that the old Dutch house of David Van Lennep and Co. alone used to ship at that time, to thfe Netherlands and to Venice, about 50,000 to 60,000 bales per annum. When the war broke out, however, towards the end of 58 THE RESOUECES OF TURKEY. the last century, shipments of cotton from Smyrna be- came a hazardous speculation, as during the French occupation of Egypt many cargoes sent from Smyrna to Europe were seized by privateers and sold in Malta. This state of things continued, with intermittent facili- ties and difficulties, until the years 1814 and 1815, and must have been very prejudicial to the growth of cotton in Asia Minor, for I find from copies of letters written in Smyrna during these two years that the annual exportation is mentioned as having been only about 70,000 bales. In 1820, just before the Greek revolu- tion, the yearly exports of cotton from Smyrna were estimated at 40,000 to 45,000 bales, but since the year 1840 the crop of cotton has never exceeded 8000 bales a year, of which not more than 2000 to 3000 bales were exported, the balance being required for home consumption. Eecently, however, prices have increased, and the peasants appear to pay more attention to its cultivation. During the year 1860, 7000 bales of cotton were exported from the port of Smyrna, while during the past year the exports amounted to nearly 20,000 bales. The locahties in the neighbourhood of Smyrna producing cotton, at present, are Souboudja, Kirek-Agadje, Canaba, Kinck, and Baindir. Formerly cotton was also grown in Magnesia, Menemen, Aidin, and in almost all the flat and level parts of the country. In Tarsus and the vicinity of SataHa, as well as the island of Cyprus, cotton was largely produced. In Syria the cotton plant has been grown for ages, but owing to the defective mode of cultivation, and to the want of new seed, the quahty has degenerated. An experiment has, however, recently been made with seed from America, and the sample of the quahty pro- duced has been pronounced fuUy equal to the cotton of THE GROWTH OF COTTON. 59 New Orleans. Vast tracts of fertile land are lying waste in Syria where cotton could be advantageously grown. The waste lands on both sides of the Euphrates, the valleys of the Bekaa and Baalbek, the plains watered by the Orontes and the Jordan, as well as those be- yond Damascus, and in the neighbourhood of Tarsus and Alexandretta, are capable of producing cotton to an almost unlimited extent. Damascus, Nablous, St. Jean d'Acre, and Tarsus produce at present about 24,750,000 lbs. of cotton annually. There can be no doubt, therefore, entertained as to the possibility of an immense increase of the quantity of cotton grown in Turkey. The two great desiderata are, the introduction of new seed and the substitution of a better mode of cultivation than that now pursued ; but complete success can only be achieved by means of European enterprise and European capital. No country in the world can surpass Turkey in its capabihty of supplying all those various productions required by man, and the seas which wash her shores afford every advantage to her maritime commerce. The Black Sea receives the trade of Bulgaria, of Eou- meha, and Armenia ; the Archipelago that of Anatoha, Macedonia, and Thessaly ; the Adriatic Sea that of Albania; the Persian Gulf that of Irak, while the Bosphorus and Dardanelles give her the absolute command of the Sea of Marmora, which bathes the walls of Constantinople. It is, in fact, this capability of supplying raw material at a low price and of excel- lent quality which gives to Turkish commerce that importance and consideration in which it is held by the European Powers. Turkey is no longer a manufacturing country. The numerous and varied manufactures which formerly sufficed, not only for the GO THE RESOURCES OP TURKEY. consumption of the empire, but which also stocked the markets of the Levant, as well as those of several countries in Europe, have, in some instances, rapidly dechned, and in others become altogether extinct. The soap manufactories in Crete have, it is true, consider- ably increased : the manufactures of light silks and gold and silk embroidery from Cyprus are highly esteemed ; the camlets of Angora, the sandals of Scio, the printed calicoes of Tokat, the crapes and gauzes of Salonica, the carpets of Smyrna, still form a consi- derable portion of the home trade ; but on the other hand, the manufactures in steel for which Damascus was so long famous no longer exist ; the muslin-looms of Scutari and Timova, which in 1812 numbered 2000, were reduced in 1841 to 200 ; the silk-looms of Salonica, numbering from twenty-five to twenty-eight in 1847, have now fallen to eighteen ; while Brussa and Diarbekhr, which were so renowned for their velvets, satins, and silk stuffs, do not now produce a tenth part of what they yielded thirty or forty years ago. Baghdad was once the centre of very flourishing trades, especi- ally those of calico-printing, tanning and preparing' leather, pottery, jewellery, &c. Aleppo was stiU more famous ; for its manufactures of gold thread, of cotton tissues, cotton, and silk, silk and gold, and pure cotton called nankeens, gave occupation to more than 40,000 looms, of which, in the year 1856, there remained only 5560. Formerly, there was no person who did not wear some article of siU?; ; the embroidery of men's and women's dresses, the belts of the peasantry, the inner garments and the shirting of the whole population above the condition of a labourer, were of that ma- terial. But now taste has changed ^ Sheffield steel supphes the place of that of Damascus, cloths and every THE GROWTH OF OOTTOU. 61 variety of cottons liave supplanted silk ; English mus- lins are preferred to those of India, and Cashmere shawls have given place to the Zebras of Glasgow and Manchester. In the year 1827, the exports of cotton manufactured goods from Great Britain to Turkey amounted only to 464,873/. ; in the year 1857, they had increased to the sum of 2,847,386Z., and during the year 1860, to 4,225,395/. In the year 1827, the value of our total exports to Turkey was 531,704/,, but in 1860, our total exports amounted to 5,457,839/. The following tables wUl give an idea of the increased consumption of our manufactures by Turkey since the year 1846, and it wiQ be apparent that in proportion as increased facilities .are afforded for the production of raw material — either by the introduction of foreign capital, by improved means of transit from the interior to the coast, or by a less vexatious mode of collecting revenue — the purchasing power of the people will be to the same extent augmented, and we will continue to find in Turkey an increasing and profitable market for our merchandise. Value of the Exports (the produce and ma/nufacture of the United Kingdom) from Great Britain to Turkey. 1846 1351 18S3 1857 I860 To Turkey Proper 1,749,125 1,937,011 2,029,305 3,107,401 4,408,910 "WaUachia and Mol- davia 195,164 284,348 179,510 201,466 172,872 Syria and Palestine 267,618 359,871 306,580 703,375 655,323 2,211,897 2,581,230 2,515,395 4,012,242 5,237,105 62 THE KESOUECES OF TURKEY. Specification of the Exports (the produce and manufacture of the Urvited Kingdom) from Ch-eat Britain to Turkey, im, the year 1860. Names of Articles. Apparel, slops, and haberdashery Beer and ale ... . Bread and biscuit Butter Coals, cinders and culm . Copper, wrougbt and unwrought Cottons, entered by the yard „ „ at value . Cotton yam .... Earthenware and porcelain Furniture, cabinet and upholstery ware ..... Glass manufactures . Gunpowder .... Hardwares and cutlery Iron, wrought and unwrought, including unwrought steel Linens, entered by the yard _„ „ at value . Linen yam .... Machinery and millwork, in- cluding steam engines . Painters' colours Plate, plated ware, jewellery and watches . Provisions . Silk manufactures Soap Stationery Sugar, refined . Telegraphic wire, &c, Tin, unwrought Tin plates . . Woollens, entered by the piece . w » It yard . ,) „ at value Of all other articles . value barrels cwts. » tons cwts. yards value lbs. value cwts. tons yards value lbs. value cwts. value cwts. value cwts. value pieces yards value Quantities. 1,067 22 321 223,472 13,413 229,201,826 22,824,004 65,795 10,063 20,864 927,549 41,933 Value in Founds sterling. 328 18,410 6,599 33,227 661,097 Total £28,975 4,559 102 1,265 105,053 77,568 3,324,492 22,122 878,781 24,558 3,261 11,458 1,930 4fl,092 172,346 21,817 2,400 2,336 62,097 3,658 10,718 321 14,482 461 29,862 51,636 7,326 44,711 38,193 74,399 34,966 9,440 131,222 .■65,237,106 BANKING IN TURKEY. f,3 CHAPTEE VII. BANKING IN TURKEY. The attention of the public has been directed for some time past to the subject of "Banking in Turkey." Every one knows that the estabHshment of banks must naturally lead to a very great increase in the trade and commerce of the Ottoman empire ; but few, perhaps, are aware to what extent their success will be advan- tageous to ourselves. The commerce of Turkey may be extended, her resources may be more fuUy developed, but the question is, — " Of what importance will that be to us ? " "We are folly ahve to the necessity of draw- ing closer the ties that connect us with France, and we are highly pleased with the prospect that, at some future time, our manufactures will be admitted into her ports, freed from the prohibitory duties which at present exist ; but we appear altogether to overlook the fact, that in Turkey there exists a mart for our manufactures still more extensive than that of France, and that, while the French poits have been in some respects closed against us, the ports of the Ottoman empire have been always open, not alone to our manufactures, but to the commerce of the world. Since the throne of the Sul- tans has been estabhshed at Constantinople, commercial restraints have been unknown, and unlimited free trade has prevailed in the most extended sense imaginable. 64 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. Never has the Divan dreamt, under any pretext of national interest, or even of reprisals, of restricting this advantage, which is still in force, in its most unlimited acceptation, in the case of all nations who wish to fur- nish matters for the consumption of that vast empire, and to take their share of its produce in return. In Turkey, every object exchanged is admitted, and circu- lates without encountering any other obstacle than the payment of an infinitely small part of its value in passing the custom-house. Accordingly, the Turkish markets, supphed by all countries, do not reject any of the produce that commercial spirit may send into cir- culation ; they do not impose any tax on the ships that bring this produce ; they are seldom, or rather never, the theatre of those disordered movements occasioned by the unforeseen rarity of certain articles, which some- times cause the prices to rise to an exorbitant extent, and convert commerce into a system of perpetual alarm and danger. In fact, as I have said, liberty of com- merce reigns without Hmit, and free trade exists in its most extended form.* Previous to the time of Eeschid Pasha, the only re- cognised duty on imports from Great Britain was three per cent, ad valorem ; but other imposts were levied by the authorities at and after the sale of the goods imported, and often in a manner even more oppressive than the amount itself. By the commercial treaty, however, with England, of the 16th of August, 1838, and subsequently by similar treaties with other Euro- pean States, as also with America, aU these imposts and exactions were abolished ; the duty on foreign goods, whether raw or manufactured, being fixed at the same * See " Le Moniteur Ottoman." 1832. BANKING IN TURKEY. 65 rate of three per cent. ; and, in lieu of all other and interior duties, one fixed duty of two per cent, was established, on payment of which all goods could be sold and re-sold without further duty or restriction. * The impetus given to trade by this treaty was very great. For example, the number of British vessels that entered the port of Constantinople in the year 1837 was 432, tonnage 86,253 ; ia the year 1838 there were 419, tonnage 120,860 ; in the year 1848 the number had increased to 1,397, tonnage 358,422 ; and in the year 1856 to 2,504, tonnage 898,753. The imports into Turkey from Great Britain in 1827 amounted only to 531,704Z. ; in the year 1830 they had increased to 1,139,616^. ; but in 1850 the value of British merchandise imported at the port of Constanti- nople alone amounted to 2,512,594Z., viz. : — Cotton and woollen manufactures, and some iron and zinc plates, in sailing vessels from Liverpool, 753,031^. ; East and West India produce, and various kinds of British manu- factures, in saihng vessels from London, 223,425^. ; fine cotton and woollen manufactures, cochineal, indigo, &c., in steamers from Southampton, 833,670Z. ; fine cotton and wooUen manufactures, &c., in screw-steamers from Liverpool, 612,000Z. ; ditto, in steamers from Lon- don, 16,300^. ; iron, 27,000^. ; coals, 8,763Z. ; coals and sundry goods from England in foreign vessels, 38,405Z. ; total, 2,512,594/. The war in the Crimea, which was followed by the peace of Paris, brought us into still closer connexion with Turkey ; and the Hatti-Humdyoun, or imperial order, issued in Constantinople on the 18th of February, * By the recent commercial treaty between Great Britain and Turkey, the import duty on foreign goods has been raised to 8 per cent, ad valo- rem. See Appendices Nos. 1 and 3. F 66 THE EESOUECBS OF TUBKEY. 1856, gave not alone confidence to Europe, but also security to the subjects of the Sultan.* The principal provisions of this imperial order are as foUow : — '3. Full liberty of worship is guaranteed to every re- ligious profession. No one can be forced to change his religion. ' 4. No legal documents shall acknowledge any inferiority of one class of Ottoman subjects to another, in consequence of difference in religion, race, or language. ' 17. All foreigners may possess landed property, obeying the laws, and paying the taxes; for this purpose arrange- ments shall be made with foreign Powers. ' 24. Banks and similar institutions shall be created as means to reform the monetary and financial systems of the empire, and to create capital and wealth. ' 25. Eoads and canals shall be made. All restrictions on commerce and on agriculture shall be abolished.' In every portion of Turkey this confidence and secu- rity was followed by an almost unparalleled augmenta- tion of commercial prosperity. The total number of vessels that entered and cleared at the port of Constan- tinople in the year 1837 was 7,342; in 1838 the number was 11,250 ; in 1848, 13,839 ; and in 1852, 15,770 ; but during the year 1856 there entered and cleared 36,274 ; tonnage, 7,378,769. At Smyrna the number of vessels that entered and cleared in 1852 was 2,733, tonnage 538,904 ; in the year 1856 the number was 3,522, tonnage 879,228. The value of the imports and exports at Samsoun, in * The ordinances of the Sultan are called Hatti-Humayoun (the august writing) or HaUi-ScMrif (the illustrious writing), because eyery document sent to the official department bears at the top, besides the ordinary signature (touhra), a short line of His Majesty's writing, such as — Moudji- bindfe 'amd olowia. Let this accordingly be peiformed. — See Appendix BANKING IN TURKEY. 67 1853, was 836,871/. ; in 1856, 1,429,285/. At Alex- andretta, in 1853, imports and exports 451,634/. ; in 1856, 1,068,313/. At Crete, the imports and exports in 1837 amounted to 192,244/. ; in 1854, to 436,943/. ; and in 1856, to 839,072/. At Trebizond, the im- ports in 1848 amounted to 1,726,052/. ; in 1853, to 1,742,693/. ; and in 1856, to 2,816,304/. At Beyrout, in 1848, the imports and exports were only 799,914/. ; and in 1853, 1,347,408/. ; but in the year 1856 they increased to 1,958,333/. The total value of imports into, and exports from, Turkey in the year 1852 was about 20,000,000/. ; and if we may form an opinion from the increased trade with Great Britain and Prance, that amount must now be doubled.* The increase of the imports and exports from the years 1851 to 1860 may be seen ' from the following table : — Years. Imports and Exports between Turkey and Great Britain. Imports and Exports between Turkey and France. Total. 1851 1862 1854 1868 1869 1860 £ 7,000,398 6,864,741 6,261,131 9,535,239 9,629,536 10,963,329 £ ' 2,S99,2§4 3,476,915 4,031,939 6,236,181 6,900,531 8,385,156 ,£ 9,899,663 10,341,666 10,283,070 16,770,420 16,530,067 19,348,585 The above figures are evidence of the immense growth of the trade and commerce of Turkey ; but the question, perhaps, still remains — " Of what importance is that to us ? " The answer is very simple, namely, that Turkey is one of the best customers we have for our produce and manufactures. In 1858 the value of our * It is estimated that the annual trade of Tirrkey with Foreign countries amounts at present to 48,000,000/., and that between the provinces to 20,000,000/. ; giving a total of 68,000,000/. per annum. F 2 68 THE RESOUECES OF TUHKET. exports (the produce and manufacture of the United Kingdom) was: — To Turkey £5,192,095 „ France 4,863,131 In the year 1860, however, the exportations of British and Irish produce and manufactures to the principal foreign countries were as foUow : — To Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeok . . • £10,364,287 Holland 6,114,862 France 5,249,980 Turkey 5,237,105 Russia 3,268,479 Egypt 2,479,737 Spain 2,471,447 Prussia 1,884,403 Sardinia 1,864,338 Portugal 1,698,931 Belgium 1,610,144 Two Sicilies 1,321,339 Hanover 1,107,570 Sweden and Norway 1,044,717 Tuscany 1,034,435 Austria 993,669 Denmark 731,162 Greece 343,600 Papal States 294,175 Of our exports to Turkey, our cotton manufactiures form the most important item. In 1860, the total exports were 5,457,839?., in which cotton goods entered as 4,225,395?., viz., 22,824,004 lbs. of cotton twist, value 878,781?.; 229,201,826 yards of plain and printed calicoes, value 3,324,492?. ; musUns, lace, and patent net, &c., 22,122?. When we bear in mind that the consumption of our prodvice and manufactures by Turkey has increased from 464,878?. in 1827, to 5,237,105?. in 1860, and that too under circumstances in every way adverse to the exten- sion of commerce, with banking httle better understood BANKING IN TURKEY. 69 there than it was 2000 years ago, and with interest on money ruling as high as in the time of Bocheris the Wise (800 B.C.), who passed a law by which it was for- bidden to aUow the interest to increase beyond double the principal sum, it is but a natural consequence that, with the general commerce of Turkey extended, and her re- sources more fuUy developed, as they must be, by the estabhshment of banks, our commercial relations with the Ottoman empire will still further increase, and the inhabitants of Turkey will stiU. continue to be amongst the best customers for our produce and manufactures. Nor is it at all hkely that new banking enterprises will in any way injure the older one, as in a commercial community one bank always prepares the ground for other similar estabhshments. This has been proved over and over again in England, Scotland, Ireland, India, and Australia, and so it will be in Turkey. It is, however, of the greatest importance that then- operations should not be confined to Constantinople, Smyrna, and a few of the larger towns in the Sultan's dominions, but that branches and agencies should be extended throughout the length and breadth of the land, wherever a field for commerce already exists or may be created. To estabhsh banks with any more hmited view, would be to only half test the resources of the country. At Salonica, Adrianople, Brussa, Diarbekhr, Tarsus, Jaffa, Damascus, and Bagh- dad, there is a large return to be had for money, with quite as safe investment, as at Constantinople, Smyrna, Aleppo, and Beyrout. Moreover, at the present day, every town of any size — especially any seaport — is in such constant communication with the capital, that remittances of money to and fro become a matter of every-day necessity. Nor should it be forgotten that 70 THE KESOUnCES OF TUEKEY. if banking in Turkey, nay, if Turkey itself, is to flourish, the trading community must be rescued from the fangs of the native Saraff, who makes his enormous but un- holy gains by a fictitious raising and lowering of the exchange, by elsewhere unheard-of usury, and, in cases not a few, by " sweating " the coins which pass through his hands. Erom these — and from others like them, who have grown rich on their plunder of the govern- ment itself — EngHsh banking in Turkey, conducted by Enghshmen, and on Enghsh principles, is destined to redeem the country, at the same time legitimately in- creasing Enghsh influence, and making no inconsider- able profits for those whose capital is thus invested. Were the natural resources of the empire less abundant it might be otherwise ; but in every province, from Lake Van to the Adriatic, mines of undeveloped wealth he buried in the soil, needing only capital and industrial activity to multiply, manifold, the pubhc revenues, and enrich both capitahst and cultivator. It is, however, a good deal the fashion in England to talk largely of the " risk" of investing money in Turkey. But most of those who speak thus know nothing what- ever of the country, while many do it with the positive intention of deterring others from shooting over the manor on which they themselves have such profitable sport. Where were — where are — the vast majority of fortunes amassed by Trieste, Leghorn, Marseilles, and Genoa merchants made, if not in the Levant "? If it be so dangerous to invest money in trade with Constanti- nople, Smyrna, Aleppo, Beyrout, or Damascus, why do so many French and Itahan firms — even wealthy houses — establish branches in aU these places ; and how is it that they, almost without exception, reahze such large and speedy profits? Or how is it, if — as these in- BANKING IN TUKKET. 71 terested prophets of evil would have everybody believe — nothing but loss attends transactions with Turkey, that, year by year, more and more continental capital is employed in trade with the Levant ? Galata, indeed, is perhaps less commercially exact than Lombard Street; Smyrna, in the same respect, wiU not bear comparison with Liverpool; nor is a Lebanon silk-grower at aU times as ready as a Yorkshire wool-stapler to " meet his httle bill." But, nevertheless, there are throughout the Levant very few ultimate losses in trade, and ex- ceedingly Httle of that dehberate and systematized fraud which in these days is to be met with, more or less, in every European city. Nor should a very im- portant fact be lost sight of, namely, that if commerce in the East has its special evils, it has also its special and more than counterbalancing advantages. Twelve, fourteen, and sixteen per cent., net profit, are not to be made every day in Europe ; whilst, in Turkey, with proper care and management, no banking or trading estabhshment should return less ; and that, too, without more risk than legitimate speculation wiU authorise. In aU countries losses will and do occur in business ; but with ordinary foresight, common prudence, and knowledge of the people, they need certainly not be greater in Turkey than in any other place where men buy, sell, and discount in the common and legitimate way of trade. STATISTICS OB THE EESOUECES OE TUEKEY. TURKEY PROPER. CONSTANTINOPLE. 75 CHAPTEE VIII. CONSTANTINOPLE. Constantinople is situated between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora, at the entrance of the Bos- phorus, which separates Europe from Asia. In com- mercial importance it ranks immediately after Liverpool and London, and before Marseilles. Its harbour, capable of containing twelve hundred ships, is considered one of the finest in the world. The population of Constantinople was estimated in 1852 at 891,000, divided as follows :— Mussulmans 475,000 Armenians 205,000 United Aimenians 17,000 Greeks 132,000 Jews 87,000 Foreigners 25,000 Total , 891,000 In the year 1850, the value of British merchandise imported into Constantinople amounted, as per the fol- lowing table, to 2,512,594^, In Sailing Vesseh from lAverpool : — Value. Cotton and woollen manufactures, and some iron and zinc plates ....... 16753,031 In SaUing Vessels from London : — East and West India produce, and various kinds of British manufactures 223,425 Carried forward £976,456 76 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. Brought forward £976,456 In ^.earners from Southampton ; — Fine cotton and woollen manufactures, cochineal, indigo, &c. ....... 833,670 In Screw Steamers from lAverpool: — Same Mnd of cargoes as from Southampton , . 612,000 In a Steamer from London ..... 16,300 From England, iron 27,000 „ „ coals 8,763 In Foreign Vessels from. England: — Coals and sundry goods ...... 38,405 £2,512,594 The immense increase which has taken place in the trade of Constantinople wiU be at once evident from the fact that in the above year, 1850, when the importa- tions from Great Britain amomited to 2,512,594^., only 796 British vessels, tonnage 208,136, entered the port, whereas ia 1856 there entered 2504, tonnage 898,753. The total number of British vessels that entered and cleared at the port of Constantinople in the year 1838 was only 838, tonnage 241,720. In 1848 the nimiber had increased to 2,761, tonnage 708,883 ; and in 1856 the number still ftirther increased to 5,341, tonnage 1,763,207. The total number of vessels of aU nations that entered and cleared in the year 1850 was 10,956, tonnage 1,943,347. In 1851 the number was 13,069, tonnage 2,397,316 ; in 1856, the total number increased to 36,274, tonnage 7,378,769 ; while in the year 1859 the nmnber of sailing vessels alone amounted to 27,029, tonnage 5,060,526. The following tabiilar statement gives the number and toimage of the vessels of each nation, exclusive of steam vessels, that entered and cleared at the port of Constantinople in the year 1859 : — CONSTAKTINOPLE. 77 Entered. Cleared. Total Total Nationality of Vessels. Num. ber of ships. Tonnage. Num- ber of ships. Tonnage, number of ships. of Tonnage. -Turkey . . . 4,846 569,862 4,389 497,012 9,234 1,056,874 f 1 WaUachia . . 420 39,096 437 43,602 867 82,697 Moldavia . . . 170 16,060 164 15,131 334 31,191 Servia .... 41 9,808 44 5,648 86 13,366 1 Samos .... 216 20,090 217 19,795 433 39,885 5,692 642,916 6,251 580,988 10,938 1,223,903 Greece 3,354 567,703 3,376 668,703 6,730 1,116,406 Great Britain . . . 1,563 460,166 1,612 474,916 3,176 935,081 Austria 965 349,236 983 354,292 1,948 703,522 Kussia 406 166,796 417 167,970 823 333,766 Naples 351 106,261 364 102,502 716 208,763 Sweden and Norway 338 87,216 332 85,868 670 173,084 Ionian Islands . . 467 80,065 462 77,593 919 157,558 Prussia 109 24.618 112 25,947 221 60,565 Prance 113 24,357 113 24,367 226 48,714 HoUand 136 20,973 133 20,669 269 41,542 Mecklenburg . . . 119 12,152 115 11,812 234 23,964 America 26 9,201 26 9,201 62 18,402 Denmark .... 31 5,579 31 6,579 62 11,158 Belgium 10 3,997 10 3,997 20 7,994 Bremen . . . . ■ 8 1,933 8 1,933 16 3,866 Spain 2 1,030 2 1,030 4 2,060 Lubeck 1 91 1 91 2 182 13,691 2,663,279 13,338 2,607,247 27,029 6,060,526 78 THE EESOUKCES OP TUBKET CHAPTEE JX. SMTIIXA. Resolutions relative to the estahliskment of a Branch Bank at Smyrna. 1. That Smyrna is one of the most important commercial cities in the Ottoman empire, and that its trade is rapidly increasing, as the following tabular statement will testify : — rSITOETS ASS EXPOBIS AT TKB POST OF SITTENA. Years. Imports. Exports. TOTAI.. 1852 1,131,117 1,472.211 2,603,328 1853 1,093,074 1,705,748 2,798,822 1854 1,134,926 1,329,599 2,464,525 1855 2,141,681 2,367,142 4,508,823 1857* 2,549,472 2,497,232 5,046,704 1859 2,320,417 2,213,235 4,533,652 1860t 2,485,991 1,923,319 4,409,310 2. That the exigencies of this increasing commerce re- quire increased banking facilities. 3. That the establishment of a Bank, which would confine itself to the legitimate operations of banking and afford aid in assisting commerce — avoiding on its own part all direct or indirect interference with or competition in trade — would be a great boon to the commercial community of Smyrna, and would at the same time be a safe and profitable medium for the investment of capital. * See Specification of Imports and Exports for the year 1857, page 92. t See General Statement of the Commerce of Smyrna in the year 1860, page 91. SMYRNA. 79 4. That a Bank founded on such principles, and con- ducted by gentlemen in whom the commercial community of Smyrna could repose confidence, would undoubtedly realize considerable profits, and return ample dividends to its share- holders. 5. That the above resolutions be forwarded to- Mr. J. Lewis Farley, and that he be requested to take such mea- sures as may be conducive to the establishment of a Bank at Smyrna as speedily as possible. Smyrna, the 21st of August, 1861. [Here follow the Signatures.*] The town and commerce of Smyrna are so well known that it would be superfluous to say more than that it has an essentially commercial population of about 160,000 persons of all nationsf, transacting busi- * The origmal resolutions," &c., are in my possession. t Mr. Blunt (her Britannic Majesty's Consul), in his report to the Fo- reign Office, estimates the population of Smyrna at 160,000, and states that " the Turkish population of Smyrna, which in 1880 was 80,000 souls, is at present only 41,000, while the Greek population of Smyrna, which in 1830 was 20,000 souls, is to-day 75,000 souls." The local journal V Impartial, however, disputes the accuracy of this statement, and reckons the population of Smyrna as follows : — Mussulmans 42,000 Greeks 28,000 Armenians . , . . . . . 7,000 Jews 14,000 Latins ' . 4,500 Total Ottoman subjects 95,600 Foreigners: — Erench subjects do. protected Austrian subjects do. protected Italian subjects do. protected Carried foiward . . 7,130 95,500 6^6 314 860 3,210 3,060 3,150 60 3,000 60 80 THE EESODECES OF TUEKET. ness "with foreign countries to tlie annual amount (ag- gregating imports and exports) of six to seven minions sterling* ; in addition' to which there is a local and in- land trade of considerable importance, now rendered susceptible of further development through the facilities for transport afforded by the recently-opened railway. Some years ago, a local Joint Stock Bank existed in Smyrna, which prospered well for a time ; but the managers having fallen into the error (not unfrequent among bankers in the East when tempted by a high rate of interest) of locking up a large portion of their capital in mortgages, the bank was unable to meet the extraordinary demands upon its coffers created by the crisis of 1847, and accordingly came to a standstDL Subsequently, a munber of small firms, soi-disant bankers, started up- with httle capital, but with a minute practical experience in the banking affairs of the place, acquired in following the occupation of biU- brokers during the existence of the bank. On its failure, these firms added to their brokerage business a species of biU-jobbing — buying foreign bills and pay- ing for them in three or four weekly instahnents^- Bronght forward . . 7,130 95,500 English subjects , . . 1,200 Maltese 750 lonians 3,500 Protected 1 5,451 Dutch 336 Sussians 50 Americans, Danes, Belgians, Prus- sians, Spaniards, Swedes, &c. 200 Persians 120 Greeks . . • . , 15,000 28,287 123,787 * This amount includes the trade carried on by the Smyrna mer- chants at several of the outports on the coast. See Reports page 96. SMYRNA. 81 re-selling them with their endorsement (on the place) at a profit, and getting a quarter per cent, brokerage besides on the transaction. For several years all the banking business of Smyrna was carried on by these houses, chiefly Chiotes, who, with their proveijbial adroitness in monetary transactions, for the most part amassed con- siderable fortunes ; and the Ottoman Bank would have found in them formidable rivals but for the truly Levantine mania, which afiected one and aU, for con- verting their gains, as soon as reahsed, into bricks and mortar, thus rendering them incapable of coping with an estabhshment possessing a large disposable capital. It was, therefore, a natural consequence, that when in September 1856 the Ottoman Bank opened a branch in Smyrna, the wings of the small bankers were materially chpped, and most of them were forced to fall back upon their old trade of bill-brokers. I must not omit to mention another class of houses which exists in Smyrna in hmited number, and to which — for want of a better — custom has assigned the title of bankers, on the luciis a non lucendo principle, I presume, for no one banks with them, nor do they bank with anybody. These houses are offshoots of Constantinople firms, their province being generally to create funds for the parent estabhshment. It is through the operations of these firms that the commercial tran- quiUity of Smyrna is from time to time disturbed by sudden unmeaning fluctuations in exchanges, of which the local commerce furnishes no explanation, but which are the echoes of some Galata Bourse agitation. These fluctuations are supposed to portend some great event — a war, a loan, a bank, a revolution in the Danubian provinces, &c. ; but the simple truth is, that some large house or other at Constantinople has to draw or to remit o 82 THE KESOUECES OF TDEKET. a heavy amount — as the case may be — and the agita- tion is got up to give the exchange a turn in the right direction. A bank at Smyrna would protect the traders from these harassing influences. The nature, therefore, of the business which offers to a banking house in Smyrna, and of the system which appears best adapted to meet the requirements of that place, will deserve a httle consideration. In order, however, to appreciate the only system applicable to the country, it is necessary to divest one's mind of prejudice in favour of Lombard Street practice. It is impossible to transplant the English system in its integrity into Turkey, and, even were it possible, no satisfactory result would be obtained. The banker must therefore be content to take the practice of the country for his basis of operations, and to engraft upon it such Enghsh customs as may not too much clash with local pre- judices, bearing in mind that, although the Lombard Street system is admirably adapted to the elaborately finished commercial machinery of which it forms a part, it is not necessarily so perfect in itself as to be able to stand the test of isolation — its perfection con- sisting only in its appHcability to surrounding circum- stances. At Smyrna, the circumstances being different, the banker must modify his system accordingly, and, laying down a few general principles for his guidance, must seek to concihate the many conflicting prejudices and interests by which his clientele, composed of aU creeds and nationahties, are influenced. One item of business to which every possible en- couragement should be given, is that of Drawing Ac- counts, not only for the profit which it yields, but for the insight which it gives into the affairs of the bank's customers. Among the merchants, however, very few SMYRNA. 83 will keep a balance ; on the contrary, the bank would be called upon to grant to the majority of its trading customers a cash credit proportioned to the standing, means, and character of each*. I think that the directors of the local Bank fell into an error in the rules they laid down regarding the rates of interest to be charged and paid to customers. From twelve to fifteen per cent, was charged upon credits, while only six per cent, was allowed upon balances and deposits, in consequence of which these last were almost prohi- bited. It would seem more rational to proportion the rate allowed to that which the local commerce is wUhng to pay, and two-thirds appear to me to be a proper proportion. Legal interest in Turkey is twelve per cent., and taking this as a minimum, there is al- ways a demand for money for commercial purposes ; but, on the other hand, for private individuals who wish to place their money at interest without entering into' the intricacies of commerce, or the delusions and snares of a Turkish mortgage, there exists no facihty whatever. Therefore it is my conviction that were twelve per cent, and eight per cent. estabUshed as the rates in prosperous times, subject to increase in seasons of scarcity, a large amount of deposits at the lower * " There is one part of their system, which is stated by all the witnesses (and, in the opinion of the committee, very justly stated) to have had the best effects upon the people of Scotland, and particularly upon the middle and poorer classes of society, in producing and encouraging habits of fru- gality and industiy. The practice referred to is that of cash credits * * * From the facility which these cash credits give to all the small transac- tions of the country, and from the opportunities which they afford to persons who begin business with little or no capital but their character, to employ profitably the minutest products of their industry, it cannot be doubted that the most important advantages are derived to the whole community." — Report of the Committee of the Souse qf Lords to inquire into the Irish and Scotch Circulations, 1826, p. 4. G 2 84 THE BESOUHCES OF TUEKET. rate would flow into the bank, and these coidd be employed at the higher rate among its commercial customers ; while at the same time greater inducement would be offered to constituents to keep a permanent balance to their credit. In addition to the interest charged to customers, a commission not exceeding one- eighth per cent, should be levied on the debit side of every account ; and this item wiU form an important feature in the profits of the bank. It is evident that, in order to carry out the system of cash credits here recom- mended, the manager will have to exercise a great amount of vigilance and discretion, and to consider: — First, the nationality of his customer. Second, the nature of his business, whether import, export, local, or governmental. Third, His individual character. Fourth, His means. It would be out of place here to enlarge upon these poiats : it wiU suffice to state that import houses are for this species of credit more reU- able than those doing an export trade, due regard being had to nationahty ; that but httle dependence can, at present, be placed upon houses doing business with Government; and that the strictly local trader — who buys the goods which arrive from the interior, and sells to export houses, giving often in payment imported goods which he buys on the spot — is, of all, the safest and surest. Smyrna draws annually upon Eiu-ope for about 3,000,000/. sterling, against shipments ; and, probably, another m illion of credit or accommodation paper. Smyrna remits about 4,000,000/. per annum for im- ported goods, and the credit bills have also to be covered. Hence, the balance of trade being against the country, the supply of trade biUs is inadequate to the wants of remitters, and this disparity is the more SMYRNA. 85 sensibly felt from the fact that a large proportion of the drafts are given off in the month of September against fruit, thus creating a glut of paper for a few weeks and leaving an insufficient provision for the rest of the year. The consequence of this is, that during the month of September a great dechne takes place in exchanges, while, for the rest of the year, the rate for three-months bills is invariably ^ to 1 per cent, in favour of the sellers, the difference representing the cost of shipping specie. But this difference is frequently in excess of the charges on shipments of gold, for the fact is that the circulation is maintained by all the abusive coinages, such as the beshhk and copper of Turkey, the swanzig of Austria, and the carbovanz of' Eussia : gold being generally scarce, and at a premium. It is evident, however, that the import houses, whose trade requires regular remittances, can profit but to a very Limited extent by the low rate of exchange which rules during the fruit season, and that they are neces- sarily put to much inconvenience for the rest of the year to find paper suited to their wants. Here, then, is an opening of which the banker alone can take advantage. The course which the manager will have to pursue, with regard to his transactions in foreign bills, will be as follows : — ^He will take biUs within certain limits from aU his exporting customers, and furnish all his import- ing constituents with the paper they require for their remittances. The countervalue of the bills bought, pass- ing through the drawing account of each, wUl be charge- able with the -g per cent, commission ; and since for transactions between the banker and his own customers the intervention of a broker is avoided, the seller, on whom would otherwise fail the ^ per cent, brokerage, 86 THE EESOUKCES OF TURKEY. is glad to accept from the banker a somewhat lower rate of exchange than he would out of doors, and the more so that the proceeds of bills sold to the bank are immediately available, while, if sold elsewhere, the cus- tom of the place is to extend the payment over a period of three or four weeks. In buying his customers' bills the banker wiU naturally regulate the rate of exchange according to the quahty of the paper. There are biUs which it win suit him to buy at ^ per cent, lower than his own selling rate, and others on which he will make 2 per cent, or more ; on an average, his list of drafts and remittances should show 1 per cent, clear profit on exchange, and it will fi?equently be more. The im- porting customers of the bank will also look to that estabhshment to supply them with the periodical remit- tances which they have to make to Europe ; and it wiU be in the interest of the banker to follow to some extent the custom of the place, and allow those who buy their drafts to pay for them in two, three, or four weekly instalments, as a better rate of exchange can always be thus obtained, and the credit thus afibrded being passed in the drawing account, the ^ per cent, becomes chargeable upon it. A brief experience, com- bined with the personal acquaintance which a banker must cultivate among his constituents, will very shortly show who may or who may not be trusted ; and, by firmly insisting on punctuahty, and steadily withholding faculties of this nature from those who once make de- fault, the banker wiU readily bring his chents into order, while, if he follow up a Tiniformly firm but, at the same time, loyal and obhging mode of deahng, they wiU become as manageable a body as if they were aU amen- able to British law. I shall not enter here into the discussion of arbitra- SMYENA. 87 tions of' exchange, because I consider that operations of this kind involve an amount of risk which a manager of a joint-stock bank should not incur. It will be necessary merely to watch the exchanges on the Conti- nent and profit by any evident advantage which may present itself, but only in so far as the regular business of the bank may be thereby facilitated or benefited. The applications for short loans would, at some seasons of the year, be numerous. Importing firms demand accommodation of this kind on shipping docu- ments of goods arriving, or on goods already ware- housed. Exporting firms, more especially those who deal in opium, as well as local traders, frequently re- quire advances on goods waiting an opportunity for shipment in the one case, or held for a rise in the local market in the other. From 12 to 18 per cent, with a small commission, is paid for loans of this nature, which shoxild only be for sixty days at the outside. It win appear strange to the EngUsh banker that the item of bin discounting should not appear in the opera- tions of a bank in Smyrna. The fact is that there are no bills to discount. The balance of trade being against Smyrna, there is no demand in foreign markets for biUs on that place, and the local trade is conducted by means of " Bons," or acknowledgements given by the debtor to the creditor ; sometimes payable at a fixed date, sometimes with no specific maturity. In the latter case, the debtor pays a portion every Saturday, the payments being endorsed upon the Bon. The greater number of these Bons are given by the retail dealers in the bazaars to the importers, through whom their shops are supphed, but they can only be available to the merchant as a collateral security for advances ; the mstances are very raire where they can be discounted 88 THE EESOUECES OF TUEKET. by a banker, although they pass from hand'to hand among merchants, especially native Armenians and Jews, without endorsement. Thus it wiU be seen that the business falling to the lot of a bank established in Smyrna wiU consist of the following items, viz. : — 1. Keeping current accounts on commission, 2. Receiving deposits at interest. 8. Granting cash credits, or advancing money on bills of lading or warelioused goods. 4. Dealing in foreign exchanges. It now remains to be considered what amount the bank should have at its disposal in order to take up and maintain a position of first-rate importance ; and, with this view, I am of opinion that a capital of not less than 120,000Z. would be requisite, or, at all events, desirable ; very extensive transactions could be con- ducted with less, but I am inchned to think that it would be found insufficient after a short period. In addition to the above efiective capital, the bank should have the faculty of drawing on the principal towns of Europe for about double the amoimt of the capital, covering the drafts at or before maturity. These credits should be distributed in about the following proportions : — London £120,000 fandl Paris ■[ oj J" Marseilles .... 60,000 fand"! Trieste i q, f Vienna .... 60,000 Genoa, Leghorn, and other places . . 10,000 £240,000 It is not difficult to calculate the returns which might SMYENA. 89 and should be derived from the above capital, supported and assisted by the credits indicated. Of the 120,000Z. capital, 20,000Z. would suffice for a reserve ; leaving 100,000/. to be employed among the customers of the bank and others. The credits would be employed in furnishing remittances to the importing customers, and would be covered by bills purchased from exporting customers at a lower rate. Taking, then, 12 per cent, interest, and ^ per cent, commission, as the terms of the bank — £100,000, at 12 per dent., would yield . . £12,000 ■^ per cent, commission on four times that amount, as the investments would never exceed three months 600 £2,000,000, drawn and remitted, yielding net i per cent 10,000 ^ per cent, commission on twice this amount , 6,000 The whole giving a certain revenue of at least . £27,500 — to which must be added commissions on accounts current, difference of interest on money received upon deposit and employed at an advanced rate, as well as the profit made during the fruit season, which may be calculated as a certainty. Considering the manner in which the banking business of Smyrna is carried on, it will be apparent that the establishment of another bank in that town would be regarded as a great boon by the commercial classes, and the representations which have been very recently made to me on the subject lead to the same conclusion. I have, therefore, no hesitation in saying that there is an excellent opening for such an undertaking : aU suc- cess, however, would depend upon the manner in which the management turned that opening to account. It must be borne in mind that the commercial body of 90 THE KESODRCES OF TUEKET. Smyrna is made up of a variety of nationalities, each of which has diflferent habits, different ideas, and transacts business in a different way ; and it must be the care of the manager to study the requirements of each, and the nature of his business, in order to determine what is the legitimate course for the bank to pursue under circumstances (to English ideas) of an exceptional nature, rather than to lay down a set of arbitrary rules, based upon English practice, in enforcing which offence would be perpetually given to some national prejudice, and thereby cause the loss of many valuable chents. It is worthy of remark, that few commercial towns support a crisis so well as Smyrna. In 1857, when produce had depreciated in England 60 per cent., and money was in demand in Smyrna at 2 and 3 per cent, per week, there was but one. failure ; and, in the late terrible crisis of 1860, but one firm engaged in regular trade suffered. Tet it must not be argued from this that Smyrna is a wealthy place ; as a body, I should say that the means of the commercial classes of Smyrna were extremely limited ; but I think that no one can fail to be struck with the economy and industry which are there practised. The Smyrna merchant is at his work from sunrise to sundown, and then adjourns from his office to his casino, to combine business for the morrow : a desk, a chair, and a sofa compose his office furniture ; anything in excess of this provokes ridicule, and brings the inno- vator into discredit. At home, the strictest economy is observed ; domestic wants are frugally provided for ; and there is a total absence of luxury or display. This I consider to be the secret of the stabihty of Smyrna firms. SMYRNA. 91 General Statement of the Commerce of Smyrna for the year 1860, Importations. Value in Pounds sterling, Great Britain £805,875 Turkey 624,964 France 387,794 Axiatria 292,840 America 131,754 Kussia 48,622 East Indies (opium) — Sardinia 36,253 1 81,224/ Tuscany Belgium 83,605 Greece . 33,554 HoUand . 27,400 Malta . 12,607 Sundry places, viz. ; — Two SicUies, Romai 1 1 States, Ionian Islam s ^ 19,499 Rio Janeiro, &c. J Total , £2,485,991 Exportations. Value in Pounds sterling. £769,133 186,578 285,770 276,913 204,323 44,778 36,425 81,460 10,360 12,183 15,396 Total £1,923,319 In 1859, the imports amounted to 2,320,417/., whicli gives an increase of 165,574Z. for tlie year 1860. The exports, wHch in 1859 were 2,213,235/., exhibit in 1860 a decrease of 289,916/. 92 THE BESOUECES OP TUEKET. General Statement of the Navigation of Smyrna in the year 1860. No; ToDiiage. Sailing vessels 872 122,600 Steamers . . 622 295,167 Total . . 1494 417>767 Cleared. Ko. Tonnage. Sailing vessels 871 118,449 Steamers . . 622 294,220 Total . . 1493 412,669 Specification and Value of Imports at the Port of Smyrna, in the year 1857. Value in Names of Articles. QuantidesL Piastres. Ei. 120 Ps.. £1. Alum 189 barrels . 85,050 Bottles . 5090 crates . 173,000 Butter 1231 barrels . 2,285,920 Bricks and tiles 494,100 pieces . 501 bales . 225,520 Canvas 570,300 Caps (Fezes) 1292 cases . 7,836,900 Caviar 143 hogsheads 2,224,700 Chairs and other furniture. 1887 packages 1,018,700 Cheese 4008 cases 2,559,660 Cinnamon . 393 „ 262,900 Cloths 2222 bales . 16,968,300 Cloves 239 bags . 107,540 Cochineal . 188 barrels . 876,150 Coals 28,670 tons 6,425,050 Coffee 16,984 bags . 7,642,560 Copper 332 cases, &c 1,560,300 Cordage . 2789 bales . 1,112,100 Cotton and vrooUen ma-' nufactures 16,331 „ 82,152,500 Cotton twist 6682 „ 16,048,900 Dates 1697 barrels . 908,500 Drugs and medicines Earthenware 2839 packages 1560 barrels . 3,345,200 1,622,200 Firearms . 549 cases 2,460,500 Fish (salted) 4831 barrels . 1,424,140 Flour 4498 barrels and bags. 967,700 Frankincense 207 barrels . Carried forward — ^Piastres 140,320 161,004,610 SMYRNA. 93 Specification and Value of Imports at the Port of Smyrna, in the year 1857. — {Continued.) Value in Names of Articles. Quantities. Piastres. Ex. 120Ps.,j81. Brought forward 161,004,610 Glassware and -mndow' glass Gold thread 9512 cases 4,009,700 167 packages 7654 barrels . 2,620,600 Gunpowder 995,020 Henna 2584 bags . 808,000 Indigo 260 cases 2,884,000 Iron, in bars 5136 tons 8,304,070 Ironmongery, &c. . 7893 packages 24,659,600 Logwood . 21,542 pieces . 468,870 Marble and stone . 269,175 cases and pieces. 1,000,620 NaUs, &c. 6381 baiTels, &c. 2,679,370 Paints (prepared) , Paper, &c. 2482 „ . 2875 cases, &c. 166,940 4,407,200 Pepper and allspice 1275 sacks . 567,260 Pewter 349 barrels . 621,000 Pipe sticks 752,000 pieces . 1,131,600 Porcelain . 623 cases 1,064,600 Potatoes , 3974 barrels and sacks 331,140 Rice 31,399 bags . 13,192,600 Rum and brandy , 8185 barrels . 4,868,900 Sal-ammoniac 85 „ . 137,520 Shot, &c. 2027 „ 962,220 Silk goods 1224 cases 11,181,000 Skins (tanned, &c.) 7312 bales, &c. 7,066,460 Soap 7877 cases, &c. 3,962,400 Steel 2094 „ . 650,000 Sugar Sulphur and matches 11,032 barrels . 10,998,400 2544 barrels and cases 1,164.800 Tar and resin 3558 barrels . 302,940 Timber . 2,795,228 pieces . 9,315,270 Tin . . . 2223 cases . 638,.520 Tobacco . 17,868 bales, &c. 13,989,960 Vitriol 533 barrels . 132,400 Watches and jewellery . 226 cases . 4,436,000 White lead 2196 „ . 383,320 Wines and liqueurs 2538 casks and cases 863,560 Wire and scrap iron 2058 barrels 4,047,500 Zinc 216 Total . Piastres 209,150 305,936,710 94 THE EESOUECES OF TURKEY. Specification and Value of Exports at the Port of Smyrna, in the year 1857. Value in Names of Articles. Quantities. Piastres. Ex.l20Ps.,.£l. Almonds , 664 kintals . 838,400 Aniseed . , , 865 „ 172,980 Attar, otto of rose s 47 cases 622,000 Barley 529,122 kilos 7,936,820 Bees'-wax 1971 kintals 2,523,080 Bones 18,554 „ 474,890 Boxwood . 2680 „ 120,600 Carpets 1096 bales 5,727,000 Cocoons (silk) 679 kintals 4,074,000 Copper (old) 142 „ 156,200 Cotton 10,497 „ 8,202,290 Cotton thread (of tolia) . Figs (dried) Ana-' 2683 „ 1,873,100 100,805 „ 25,478,250 Flax seed 618 „ 74,880 Flour 4800 „ 475,000 Fruits (dried) 18,488 „ 1,182,780 GaU nuts . 4598 „ 1,785,600 Goats'-hair 1185 ,, 1,893,300 Gum 8226 „ 3,517,100 Hemp seed 19,160 kilos 459,840 Hides 7578 kintals ^,226,130 Horse-hair 168 „ 95,400 Leeches . 475 cases, & 287,000 L'.quorice juice 4284 kintals 1,285,200 Maize 17,500 kilos 382,500 Madder . , 117,883 kintals 36,127,830 Nuts and walnuts 1100 „ 165,600 Olive oil . 2180 „ 763,000 Opivim r 3271 cases of 80 to 1 t 90 ch6q. 1 170 kintals . 31,965,900 Poppy seed 20,400 Rags 34,750 „ . 2,753,750 Raisins 196,482 „ 41,285,360 Salt 460,250 kilos . 1,956,260 Scammony . 3604 okes . 1,361,820 Sesame seed 31,683 kilos . 1,771,450 Skins (lambs' and goats') ^ 780 bales . 1,089,600 „ (hares') , 432 „ 1,728,000 Silk 8602 kintals and okes. 14,620,000 Cai'ried forward— I 'iastres 203,916,810 SMYENA. 95 Specification and Value of Exports at the Port of Smyrna, in the year 1857. — {Continued.) Names of- Articles. Quantities. Value in Piastres. Ex. ;20Ps., £1. Spirits of wine Sponges . Valonia Wheat Wines of the country Wool Yellow berries Sundries , . \ Brought forward . 3380 kintals and okes. 2746 cases . 476,288 kintals . 257,621 kilos . 21,626 kintals . 67,320 „ 10,911 „ . 103,996 kilos . 1 1129 kintals . J 203,916,310 966,100 4,105,600 39,081,840 9,787,140 3,072,580 33,589,470 2,945,970 2,203,780 Total Piastres 399,667,790 Kintal 125 lbs. English. Kilo 1 bushel. Oke 2jlbs. Report on the Trade of Smyrna in connection with the Establishment of a Branch Banh* Tlie increasing importance of the trade of Smyrna is clearly shown from the statement contained in the resolutions which have been forwarded to you relative to the establishment, in this town, of a branch bank. This statement shows an aggregate amount of imports and exports, for the year 1852, of 2,603,328^., and, by a constant progress, it reaches, in the year 1860, the amount of 4,409,310^. Considerable improvement has * This report has been kindly forwarded to me by a member of one of the oldest mercantile &ms in Smyrna. It strengthens, to a considerable extent, the obseiTations which I have already made upon the subject. 96 THE EESOUECES OE TURKEY. been taking place, during the past few years, in the means of transporting goods from the interior of the country to Smyrna ; amongst which the most important is that of the raih-oad from SmjTna to Aidin, one of the richest agricultural districts in Asia Minor. More civil and personal liberty is, perhaps, enjoyed by the rural population of this part of Turkey than in any other part of the empire, and its immediate consequence has been an increasing production of the soU. The general population of Asia Minor, especially the Christian portion, is also decidedly on the increase. The facts lead to the conclusion that the actual amount of trade in Smyrna will, in the course of a few years, be doubled or trebled. The natural position of Smyrna is such that the greater part of Asia Minor depends upon it for the sale of the country's produce, as well as for the importation of the manufactures of Europe, and the colonial pro- ducts of the East and West Indies. The export trade of Smyrna consistsprincipaUy of the raw produce of Asia Minor, and the import trade of manufactured goods and colonial produce from England, America, France, Holland, Germany, Austria, Italy, &c. The most important productions of Asia Minor exported from Smyrna come to market in the following order : — Silk cocoons, silk cocoon seed, raw silk, sheep's wool, kid, lamb, and goats' skins, opium, grain of aU kinds, such as barley, wheat, Indian corn, dried fruits of different qualities, madder roots, cotton, oil seeds, yellow berries, yellow wax, flax, many kinds of gums and drugs, valonia, ohve oil, &c. The imports consist chiefly of manufactured cotton, woollen and silk goods, , from England, France, Italy, and Switzerland ; cotton yarn, coffee, refined sugar, pepper, arms, gunpowder, SMYRNA. 97 iron bars, nails, many kinds of iron wares, tin, coals, &c. The above enumeration shows the great variety of goods on which the Smyrna trade is based, and banking operations connected with this trade, provided they be properly understood and conducted, are in every way safe and profitable. Besides the trade carried on in- Smyrna itself, almost all the trade along the coast of Asia Minor, from the Dardanelles to the South as far as Tarsus, the islands of Mitylene, Scio, and Ehodes included, is conducted for account of Smyrna houses, by whom the funds are furnished. Vessels are sent to many outports along the coast and to the islands, in order to load direct for Europe, such goods as valonia, grain, seeds, fruits, &c., to a yearly amount varying from three to four millions sterhng. The amount of money required to carry on the whole trade connected with Smyrna may be estimated yearly at an approximate sum of seven or eight millions ster- ling, and this offers a large scope for banking opera- tions. The banking business carried on in Smyrna, by banking houses and such estabhshments, has never been adequate to the actual necessities of the trade, either from a want of sufficient capital, or from the impos- sibOity of embracing the whole range of business doing in Smyrna. This accounts for the large profits made by such establishments, as also for the great fluctuation in exchanges — varying from 1 to 5 per cent, accord- ing . to circumstances — and the necessity in which merchants are often placed to have gold or silver money brought from Europe, in order to pay for their pur- chases. The import trade begins in the months of March, H 98 THE EESOUECES OP TUEKET. April, and June ; importers are then in want of paper to remit to Europe, and, as export trade at that moment is small, a considerable demand for paper takes place in the first six months of the year, with a corresponding rise in the exchanges. Importers then very often take paper on England and Prance, to be paid for at thirty or forty days, with interest usually reckoned on the Exchange at 1 to 1^ per cent, per month. During that period the country merchants also require funds to send into the interior, for the purchase of produce, and money can be lent to them at a high rate of interest. Then, again, when produce begins to come to market in July, and is being bought for exportation, paper is more abundant ; exchanges lower and continue lower- ing as late as the month of November, when they begin to rise once more. Banking operations managed so as to seU drafts in the first part of the year, and purchase drafts for remittance in the latter, always leave a regular and constant profit. It very often occurs that importers, exporters, and country merchants have goods on hand, which they cannot dispose of, on account of the temporary state of the market, and require to make advances to their friends on the same. Money can be advanced on such goods without any risk. There are in Smyrna three com-ses for money : — The exchange rate, in which bills and the produce of the country are paid, the Turkish pound being reckoned at 113^ piastres ; the tarif rate, in which import goods from Europe are paid, reckoning the Turkish pound at 120 piastres ; and the current rate, at which aU the retail dealers' trade is carried on, the Turkish pound reckoning at 140 piastres. All the merchants' accounts SMYRNA. 99 are kept at the exchange rate. Although these various courses of money may give some gain to a bank, they have been abusively introduced in Smyrna ; and a bank, by contributing to bring all money transactions to one uniform rate, would confer a great boon to the mercan- tile community of the country. In connection with a National bank, there are many other operations which would bring very regular pro- fits to a branch, if it should be estabhshed in Smyrna. The revenues of the Customs, of the tithes, and of aU the other duties levied in the provinces of Asia Minor, are sent to Constantinople to the central Government, by way of Smyrna, in groups of money. They amount to about one and a-half to two millions sterhng per annum. Such mode of making remittances is very expensive to Government, and attended with no small risk. Arrangements might be made advantageous to the Government and the bank, so as to have all that money cashed in Smyrna, and either paid by the notes of the bank, or remitted in good mercantile paper on Constantinople with a gain of f or ^ per cent., and thus spare unnecessary expenses and risk. It could also be arranged that merchants who have to send money into the interior for the purchase of produce, could get orders from the Bank of Smyrna to be paid to their agents in the interior. The Turkish Government would then be spared the expense and risk of sending funds from the interior to Smyrna, and merchants in the same manner, from Smyrna to the interior, in which case a commission of 1 per cent, on both sides would be readily allowed to the branch bank for such operations. Many other transactions of smaller importance, but all of them leaving handsome profits, can be occa- H 2 100 THE EESODECES OP TOEKET. sionaJly met with, sucli as drafts at short dates on Con- stantinople, and good remittances at 20 or 30 days' credit, on which a profit of 2 to 3 per cent, is a very common thing. Advances can also be made on deposits of jewellery, &c., and on landed or house property, with high rates of interest, but the latter is out of the range of a regular banking business, and should be avoided. From all that has been stated above, the whole amount circulating in the trade of Smyrna, adding the Government revenues, may be estimated, on an average, at from nine to ten millions sterling per annum. The aim of a bank should be naturally to have as much of this circulation pass through its medimn as possible, by offering such facihties and security to the mercantile community as would prove advantageous and beneficial to all parties. On the supposition of such an estabHshment doing, after some time, business to the amount of three or four nulhons sterling only, it would require a capital of from 200,000^. to 300,000Z., say 250,000/., to carry it on properly, with convenience and good chances of profits to those interested. A capital is naturally required to inspire confidence to the mercantile community. The Mnd of business to which a bank in Smyrna should devote itself, should be, in the opinion of the undersigned, the following : — 1st. To open accounts with merchants of Smyrna enjoying a regular mercantile credit, at conditions to be drawn up in the form of rules by the managers, the bank acting as cashier to the merchants for aU their monied transactions. 2nd. To discount good bills on Europe either to be re-sold in Smyrna or sent for encashment. SMYKNA. 101 3rd. To draw bills on England, France, and other parts of Europe or Asia, to suit the convenience of the clients of the bank. To this end, the bank should be provided with sufficient credits on Europe, Constanti- nople, and other places, which could be made use of when necessary. It is not customary in the Levant for merchants to draw bills on other merchants in the country for the purpose of discount, as done in England and on the Continent. Eor goods sold, obhgations are given by the buyer to be paid after a certain time, and it would be the bank's business to encash such obhgations for account of the merchants. Before closing this report, it is necessary to remark that no banking estabhshment has as yet been conducted in Smyrna on the principles and the system as drawn up under the above heads. There are some four or five private banks, with a capital varying from 1,000Z. to 3,000Z., estabhshed by a few merchants for the sake of aiding their own trans- actions, which shows the want felt for an estabhshment that would embrace and concentrate money operations. There are also good houses doing occasionally banking business in the way of drafts and remittances, when profits are so large that they are induced to enter into such transactions. But, in their full extent, the advantages of a banking estabhshment, confined to the legitimate operations of banking, and avoiding on its own part all direct or in- direct interference with, or competition in trade, have never been tested in Smyrna, nor has capital ever been solely invested in such a kuid of business, so as to show its safety, and the profits to be derived therefrom. 102 THE RESOUKCES OP TUEKEY. CHAPTEE X. BRUSSA. Report by Mr. Sandison, Her Britannic Majesty's Con- sul, on the Inducements for forming a Branch Bank at Brussa. From the importance of Brussa, by its position and trade, tlie establishment of a bank here could not fail to be welcome. The merchants and other men of busi- ness have accordingly signed resolutions, as transmitted to you, in approbation, coinciding with the sentiments of the public generally. By his Excellency, our Gover- nor, and other Ottoman authorities with whom I have commimicated, the project has been received with cordial satisfaction, as calculated, if carried out, to con- fer invaluable benefits on the place and country con- nected, and they gave me the assurance that it should meet with every countenance and support on their part which might be requisite. By none has it been received with disfavoiu", save possibly by some habitual lenders at exorbitant usury, whose exactions render a bank the more called for, enabhng it also to compete with and supersede them to greater advantage, on terms which, though high indeed for the use of money as compared with those customary in advanced countries like England, would here be considered reasonable and ehgible. The common lowest rate of interest being 15 to 20 BRUSSA. 103 per cent, per annum, even on security, and up to double that and more frequently paid, it may be conceived what are the wants here of monied capital, and how willingly applicants of the first class would present for it at 9 to 10 per cent, interest. Besides, money being most wanted during the busy season of cocoon and silk purchases (fi:om the end of June to October), it then happens that buyers, before they can receive fresh funds from their connections at Constantinople, may often be in need of 500^. to 2,000/. or 3,000/. or more, to meet engagements, or extend their purchases when the market is advantageous. In such case, they could not, if at aU, obtain cash for their drafts on Constanti- nople at five to eleven days' sight, under 2, or more likely 3 per cent, of discount agio, and such is the state of things at the present moment. In consequence, mer^ chants, who from regard to their credit will not submit to such sacrifice, must defer payments or forego in- tended operations, seldom finding other resources for their purpose. At other times, when there is not the same pressure for money, bills on the capital at short sight may be at par to 1 per cent, discount, or at a premium, when demanded. It would be part of the business of a bank to regularize the course of such operations, so as to accommodate drawers and remit- ters alike for a suitable moderate commission, and the bank would further necessarily be resorted to for the negotiation at times of bills on foreign countries, the course to be regulated by that at Constantinople, there being no direct exchange here on any other country. Although Brussa had formerly considerable manufac- tures of silk, and silk and cotton stuffs, these, for many years, have become insignificant, being superseded by the use of British cotton goods, and the great staple 104 THE EESOUKCES OF TURKEY. trade of the place is now that in raw silk and cocoons. It was greatly feared that the disease, which was some time ago destructive among the worms, might con- tinue, as identical with the epidemy in Eiirope ; but, happily, this season there has been on the whole a fair product, and even copious beyond wont in various places of importance where sound eggs were employed. There also the insects have renewed their larvae in the most prohfic and healthy state, to furnish provision for a fresh, sound brood over all the silk region, which ex- tends from the peninsula of Cyzicus on the west, at variable distances inland from the coast, to the valley of the Sangarius eastwards. The largest yield of cocoons ever known was in 1855, of which the equivalent in silk reached near 400,000 okes of 2 4-5 lbs. (l,120,0001bs.), of the value of 1,500,000Z. What this last may amount to is yet not perfectly known, but when the product comes to 300,000 okes (840,000 lbs.) of silk, it is stiU accounted very favourable. The prices being, however, highly remunerative, and the fears of the sUk-worm disease, it is to be hoped, truly removed, the culture of the mulberry and production of silk are likely to receive from next year a developement never yet attained. So late as sixteen years back all the silk was woimd off from the cocoons on single reels turned by hand, according to the rude old routine of the country. This is fast going out, and very nearly superseded already by regular filatures worked by steam, or in some cases by water, where adapted; and each year, by successive practice, the silk is being made more uniform and per- fect, so that our best marks sell in England and France much on a par with French and ItaUan silk of the same numbers distinguished by deniers. BRUSSA. 105 There are forty-six of those filatures in the town and villages close adjoining, and thirty-six in other places under the Brussa jurisdiction, fiirnished with 3,700 reels in all, of which 2,100 are at Brussa; but from want of capital to lay in sufficient stocks of cocoons in time, an adverse state of the market, ®r other contin- gencies, few filatures have been worked throughout the whole year. Were they kept constantly employed, those of Brussa might yield annually 350,000 lbs. of silk, of the actual value of 500,000/. on the spot, and the remaining filatures 270,0001bs., of the value of 380,000Z. From this, however, some deduction is to be made for stoppages to repair machinery and other casualties, still leaving a total to the amount of 800,000/. to 840,000/. With almost ah the other filatures besides its own the trade of Brussa is by partnership, or purchases of their silk, in some way connected ; and the owners or workers of nearly aU of them have large need of capi- tal to assist them, as the money which they can borrow here or from sarafis at Constantinople must be on very costly terms ; it is therefore usual for the principal " fileurs," who export on their own account, to get ad- vances, through agents at Constantinople, from houses at Marseilles and Lyons for the purchase of cocoons to a limited extent at a time, consigning the silk as ready to those houses which exercise the power of reahsing at any time they may think fit in order to cover their advances. The interest charged on these advances is 6 per cent., but with extra commissions in receiving the money here, the accommodation costs 2 to 3 per cent, more, and the shippers, as observable, have httle or no control over the sale in the French market. They would therefore prefer, as suiting them far better, to pay 9 to 106 THK EESODKCES OF TUKKET. 10 per cent, interest to a bank for the loan of capital needed, particularly for the purpose of enabling them to lay in their fuU stock of cocoons in the early part of the season when most abundant, and when brought to market in the fresh state. The filature owners, being thus free from foreign engagements, would have the option of shipping to England or France, or seUing their silk here, as found most eligible ; and others who work expressly for local sale, having the same wants, would be willing customers of the bank for the same advantages in providing stock, and being less pressed to seU merely to get in their money. Formerly three-fourths, at least, of the Brussa raw silk went to England, and the rest of what was ex- ported chiefly to France. Now the case is reversed, only one house sending all its filature sUk to the Lon- don market, and some of the others occasional parcels, as they find prices at Marseilles or Lyons suit better. This is partly ascribed to the English throwsters re- quiring extreme nicety in the uniformity of the tissue according to the munbers. Those usually reeled here are 11 to 12 (deniers), but 9-10, being finer, can also easily be produced when more advantageous. The Brussa silk has the property, much looked to in England, of being elastic ; and from what I could collect from a broker in the silk line at home, who was lately here, there seems no reason why the Brussa article should not again be extensively imported into England. The general purchases of cocoons and silk of every kind for export might also be facilitated by the agency of the bank, and this is further needful from the want so much felt for the means of discoimting biUs, the rate being most excessive when such a thing does occur, but no doubt the introduction of the practice would follow BRUSSA. 107 from the existence of a bank. In the course of transac- tions between this and contiguous places, good bills at eleven days, or other short dates, are sometimes drawn on Brussa, and large sums remitted from hence against orders for cocoons and silk, aU which business there is reason to expect might be more conveniently and safely regulated through a bank ; for it is almost incredible what parties perfectly safe, and of first sohdity, are at times, and that very lately, under the necessity of paying for the use of sums for but a few days, the interest ac- tually being as much as one-fourth to one-third per cent, per day. The amount is probably not great of loans or ad- vances made on jewellery or the like valuables deposited in pledge against repayment at a fixed term ; but indi- viduals and famihes have often to pay enormous rates, when in extreme need, to raise money on them, as only to be had from unconscientious usurers. Many persons might avail themselves of the advantages of procuring it on such securities, easily valued, at the moderate rate for the country of 9 to 10 or even 12 per cent. With respect to the secreting of such precious ornaments, that is no longer usual or necessary, the subject being now secure from arbitrary spoliation by those in power, unless perhaps in the more remote and lawless parts of Turkey not yet brought under regular rule. As the bank chest would necessarily be in fire-proof premises, this would ofier the more inducement for de- posits being lodged there of money, and sometimes jewellery, when not wanted for immediate use ; and, though everything new must start from a commence- ment, it is most hkely that merchants and residents generally having any cash of consequence passing through their hands would ere long keep an account 103 THE EESOURCBS OF TURKEY. with the bank, and place their funds there for greater convenience and security. The director of the Mzan office, where the tithe on silk is collected, told me he was quite ready to place a large sum now on hand in such desirable custody untU orders for its disposal. It frequently happens that the superintendent of the revenue of the province has large calls upon him to make remittances to the Porte, or for some local dis- burse on the pubhc service, with an empty chest and taxes probably in arrear, and on such occasions there is but one individual to depend upon who can supply him to any extent, and who has consequently a virtual monopoly of the business, by which his gains for a dis- burse of even a few months are known to come to 20 and 30 per cent. The bank, however, could lend on a moderate scale, and under formal guarantee for being refunded from local taxes, consisting of fixed assess- ments, which are ascertainable from the registers ; therefore no sort of instrument could be more safe. Such contingencies can only be noticed as merely casual and of indeterminate amount, but the resort to those anticipations of the provincial revenue might become more important, and with convenience to the service, when their cost is reduced to fair proportions. In addition to those fixed contributions collected direct by the authorities, there are the Government tithes farmed out annually in gross for each large district to contractors at the capital, who sub-let them in parcels at a profit. The corn tithe of Brussa was for this year, but not untU the nature of the harvest was known, so farmed for a sum equivalent to 33,000Z., to be again subdivided into lots usually bought by local parties. The tithe on ohves, a crop incessantly liablp. BRUSSA. log to failure every second or third year, is let apart. That on silk, the most important of all, is united with the customs on it, which have just been taken conjointly at 120,000Z. Merchants and other inhabitants here, who have always an eye to the piirchase of those tithes for gain, would wish to have facihties for participation in the farming of them more largely in gross or detail, to the exclusion of strangers ; and for this reason, amongst others, they are desirous of a bank being estabhshed, to which they might have recourse for the requisite advances, secured for reimbursement on the successive receipts of the tax. "Were the bank to extend its operations to the aid of the agricultural classes, there is no sort of industry to which the apphcation of capital, could it be adapted, is more copiously wanted. This forms the business of the Armenian saraffs and other of the monied men of the city, among the Turks particularly, who all of them charge at least 18 to 24 per cent, per annum of interest, and it is quite usual for them to get this much on loans for five to eight months, when the peasant is much straitened to pay his taxes, engaging to refund from his next returns in grain or silk, and transferring over as security the title-deeds of his property. One never hears of the lenders failing to get paid in full, though the peasant may be distressed by a debt accumulating at compound interest, from crops falling short, or other adverse circumstances. Exact payment to a day is not to be coimted upon, perhaps from delay in realis- ing produce ; but care is taken to have ample value to meet all contingencies, and the chiefs or community of the village often become collectively or severally sub- stantial guarantees for such loans. Could a satisfactory system be brought to work for 110 THE EESOUECES OF TUBKBT. affording assistance to the rural classes, the extensive scope for it would be found in the improvement which would follow in the better stocking and culture of their farms, to the increase of production, and that of silk in the foremost rank, from the encouragement for it previously stated. Further, it appears that cotton from New Orleans seed ought to succeed weU in this quarter, from experiments made last year close in our vicinity, though on a small scale, and too late in the planting to allow all the pods to come to maturity. The specimens sent home were very favourably reported upon by the Manchester Supply Association, and give promise of the valuable addition being made of superior cotton to our products. The bulk of the opium sold at Smyrna is raised in this province, and the culture of the poppy commences at no great distance from Brussa, though not hitherto a market for the article. Considerable quantities of maize are in some years exported from our coast, and the territory also yields a large surplus of wheat, part of it as fine as anywhere grown, for shipment in plen- teous seasons ; but the rugged roads and heavy expense of carriage from the interior, as usual in Turkey, are the great drawbacks to that trade. "Wool in small quantity, valonia occasionally, salted oHves to the amount of 40,000,000 lbs., when the crop is good ; Olympus wine of merit on a hmited scale, and common wines and spirits largely from our seaboard, are the other exports. The chief import trade is in British cotton stuffs and yarns to the extent of 200,000Z. ; other articles to the value of 100,000Z. annually. Our usual scala or port of communication with the capital is Ohio or Ghemlek, 20 miles from hence, at the head of the Gulf of Mundania. It has safe anchor- BRUSSA. Ill age and depth of water for ships of every draught ; steamers run regularly between it and Constantinople twice, sometimes three or four times a week, and there is as often an intermediate post. It has some direct trade with the Danube and Odessa, but vessels very seldom load there for foreign ports to the westward. The silks of Brussa pass through it to be forwarded by the steamers to the capital, and thence exported. Ghio is a thriving and rising place for trade, and before its destruction by fire a few years ago contained 640 houses, the rebuilding of which has been stopped until the completion of surveys, as shortly expected, for the reconstruction on a regular plan. Ground and buildings there are very valuable alike for residence and stores, and there would be large and safe scope for making advances, if only to the extent of the worth of the ground, to assist in rebuilding the town. The in- habitants, lodged in temporary sheds or huts, are in general possessed of means to rebuild, but it would be so much taken for the time from their ordinary trading capital. There is no sort of regular banking business carried on here, nor anything approaching nearer to it than that of the saraffs already noticed, and which is chiefly with the surrounding country in loans and farming of tithes. Their common rate of interest received is 20 per cent. per annum, but may be often more. (Signed) D. SANDisoif, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul, Brussa. To J. Lewis Farley. The undersigned merchants and others concerned in trade and money transactions at Brussa, being desirous of expressing their opinion on the expediency of a 112 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. branch bank in that city, have agreed to the following resolutions : — 1. That Brussa is the seat and centre of a great trade in .silk, the raising of which product is on the increase, and the value of which, in favourable years, may amount to 1,200,000Z. sterling or more ; and that the town of Brussa alone now contains 43 filatures of all sizes, famished with 1,800 reels, each reel capable of yielding 60 okes (168 lbs.) of silk in the year, making a total of 108,000 okes (302,400 lbs.), of the actual value of about 400,000Z. sterling ; whilst other neighbouring places in connection with Bnissa contain fila- tures of more than the like power in all, which would make the entire product of the filatures, if worked complete, amount to 800,000^. 2. That the requisite facilities in cash are wanting for the stocking with cocoons and working those filatmes, and for other exigencies of the silk and local trade in general, as well as for other operations customary in the country. 3. That the agio or discount on bills on Constantinople for the short term of eleven days has latterly, on any urgency, scarcely ever been below IJ to 2 per cent, for the first signa- tures, when any sum of consequence is to be had, as rarely, against paper, and that this agio is sometimes 3 to 4 per cent, for eleven to thirty days' bills. 4. That there are no means of negotiatiag here bills on foreign countries direct, but solely through the medium of Constantinople, which is a great disadvantage to trade. 5. That the ordinary rate of interest in the country is at least 15 to 18 per cent, per annum, even against pledges in jewels or other precious articles ; and often er loans either on open credit or with any security whatever are only made at the rate of 2 to 3 per cent, per month, Kkewise frequently enough at 18 to 20 per cent, for a term of five or six months. 6. That this enormous rate of interest weighs heavily on the peasantry and other country people, and fetters agriculture. 7. That, from what precedes, the establishment of a branch BRUSSA. 113 bank here is desirable and necessary in the highest degree, at the same time that an advantageous field offers for the employment of its funds. 8. That the merchants and public in general would will- ingly and conveniently agree to the rate of 9 to 10 per cent, per annum interest on advances or loans in gold coin, re- payable in coin of the same denomination ; whilst, according to circumstances, a bank might likewise make loans or advances at 12 up to 15 per cent, on the same basis. 9. That a bank would alike be of great convenience for placing there, in sure deposit, disposable cash which persons may have in hand, and for the greater facility of payments and receipts. 10. That although it may be very difficult to fix the total sum which the bank might employ on extending its opera- tions to neighbouring places, such as those containing fila- tures, and according to the sort of business which its rules might embrace, especially in case of affording aid to agri- culturists, we are of opinion that an effective capital of 100,000L at most would be sufficient for a commencement, and that from caution this might even at first be limited to 50,000?. or 60,000?., making reserve for the extension or developement of business which ought to follow from the formation of such an establishment in a city and province so important as Brussa, and by its soil, products, and in- dustry conjointly one of the most considerable in the Ottoman Empire. (Here follow the signatures.*) Certified as a correct translation and true list, D. Sandison, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul, Brussa. The original is in my possession. — J. L. F. I 114 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. Extract from Official Report to the Foreign Office, by Mr. Sandison, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Brussa, February lAth, 1857. To give regularity and more extension to the trade of Brussa, the two desiderata are, further, a good road to the coast (at least by the completion of that in progress, which must lead to others connectively in the sequel), and the estabhshtnent of a branch bank. Extract from Official Report to the Foreign Office, by Mr. Sandison, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Brussa, February 11th, 1861. There is great need of monied capital iu Brussa ; the rate of interest is so enormous as to appear almost in- credible, at the lowest it is 15 to 20 per cent, per annum, but many transactions, rather the majority, are on a scale ascending from 20 to 40, and even to 100 per cent, per annum for a limited term, whether on valuable pledges ia hand, landed security, or whatever be the sohdity and credit of the borrower. But a branch bank to be serviceable must adapt its operations to the nature of the country, without confining itself rigidly to discoimts for a few months' term ; and at httle risk it would obtain rates of interest or discount not under 10 to 12 per cent., which all would be con- tent to pay as suitable and just. BKUSSA. 115 Specification and Value of the Importations and Ex- portations of the Province of Brussa during the year 1859 : — IMPORTATIONS. Cotton manufactures ■ i "Woollen do. . . Cotton twist Iron, wrought and unwrought Ironmongery .... Arms Glass-wares and window-glass Sugar, coiFee, &c. Silk stuffs .... Clothes (ready-made) . Drugs, medicines . Total . Piastres. 25,000,000 8,000,000 9,000,000 8,500,000 2,000,000 2,500,000 2,300,000 3,500,000 1,600,000 300,000 800,000 Piastres 63,400,000 Silk, Cocoons BXPOETATIONS. Okes. P. 145,000 at 620 16,000 „ 450 210,000 „ 200 2,000 „ 1200 „ Silkworms' eggs „ (waste, &c.) . Wool . . . 70,000 „ Cotton . . . 10,000 „ Opium . . . 4,000 „ Chromate of iron Wines and spirits of wine Hides .... Salted olives Sundries Total . Piastres. 89,900,000 7,200,000 42,000,000 2,400,000 1,540,000 10 . . 700,000 15 . . 150,000 300 . . 1,200,000 6,000,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 12,000,000 4,500,000 Piastres 170,690,000 I 2 116 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. CHAPTEE XL TREBIZOIfD. Trebizond (the ancient Trapezus) is the principal com- mercial port on the Black Sea, and, from its position, is the natural entrepot of the trade of Armenia, north Persia, and Georgia with the west. The foUowiog Table of the imports and exports from the year 1853 to the year 1859 inclusive will give an idea of the immense increase in the trade and com- merce of Trebizond:* Imports. Exports. Years. Value in PounJe sterling. Value in Founds sterling. Total. 1853 1,742,693 728,849 2,471,542 1854 2,023,073 289,173 2,312,246 1855 2,432,160 342,220 • 2,774,380 1856 2,816,304 No returns. — 1857 3,293,422 1,483,334 4,776,756 1858 3,750,529 1,228,794 4,979,323 1859 3,255,762 955,741 4,211,503 It will be seen from the above that the imports and exports in 1858 were more than double the amoimt of those in 1853. This large increase is accounted for * There are few spots on the earth richer in picturesque beauty, or abounding in more luxuriant vegetation, than the south-eastern shores of the inhospitable Euxine. The magnificent coimtiy Ihat extends from the mouth of the Halys to the snowy range of Caucasus is formed of a sin- gular union of rich plains, verdant hills, bold rocks, wooded mountains, primeval forests, and rapid streams. In this fertile and majestic region, Trebizond has been, now for more than six centuries, the noblest and the fairest city. — Finlay's Empire of Trebizond. TKEBIZOND. 117 by the facilities wHcli an extended steam communica- tion has afforded. Within the last six years the French Messageries Imperiales have run their boats regularly ■ every week, bringing Trebizond in almost a direct com- munication with the Turkish provinces in Eoumeha and Syria, with the Danube, Greece, Italy, and France, in all which places the produce of certain Eussian pro- vinces on the Caspian, as also of Persia, Georgia, Erze- rum, and Trebizond, are largely consumed. In 1858 a Eussian boat commenced running every fortnight between Odessa and ports on this coast, linking thereby the Crimea, Sea of Azof, Abassah, and Circassia, Dagh- istan, Tiflis, and the Eusso-Georgian provinces of Guriel, Mingreha, and Immeritia with Trebizond. Again, the estabhshment of a monthly Enghsh steamer between Liverpool and Trebizond connected the latter port, in a commercial point of view, with various towns of Turkey in Europe, and with Egypt ; those vessels touching at Salonica and other places, upon the out- ward voyage, and, frequently, at Alexandria, on their return to England. Such an extensive communication necessarily facilitated trade, and, with time, there can be no doubt that a great number of new branches of commerce hitherto unknown will spring therefrom. During the spring of last year commerce was very brisk in Persia, and gave much activity to the Trebi- zond market ; the trade with Circassia and Georgia was also very hvely, particularly during the first six months of the year. Circassia exported to Trebizond large quantities of grain, receiving in return manufactures, colonials, salt, and tobacco. The Eussian stations on the same coast supphed several cargoes of boxwood, as also important quantities of bees'-wax, ox hides, skins, and wool ; while Georgia provided sUk, salt fish, and 118 THE EESOUKCES OP TUEKET. caviar, taking in return British cotton goods, colonials, tea, and beer, and French haberdashery, wines, spirits, and machinery. The various quahties of grain grown in Circassia and Georgia are inferior to those produced on the Danube and in Eussia, and are therefore cheaper, and better suited to the wants of the lower classes. The crop of nuts iu the district was larger last year than has ever been remembered. Trebizond and Kier- rasond together produced 220,000 to 250,000 cwt. Upwards of 10,000 cwt. were exported to Great Britain, and also large quantities to Eussia, Constantinople, Smyrna, and Egypt. The present price is 30 to 40 per cent, lower than in 1857. Tobacco was likewise pro- duced extensively, and its cultivation around Trebizond is daily increasing. Fruit was very abundant, upwards of 10,000 packages of apples and pears having been sent by the steamers to Constantinople. The following Tables show the gross amount of British and foreign trade, at the port of Trebizond, during the year ending 31st December, 1858 : — BIPOETATIOlfS. Number of Number of Value of Nationality. Vesseb. Tonnage. Crews. Cargoes. Austrian . . ■ 48 30,920 2,131 1,168,839 Turkish . 89 27,030 2,470 1,040,703 French . 51 15,740 1,785 681,080 British . 19 8,798 448 514,492 Egyptian 14 5,242 482 201,412 Dutch . 2 736 31 60,301 Greek 34 6,034 317 35,212 Russian . 63 10,675 1,073 23,728 Prussian . 1 555 13 ■ 21,390 3,372 "Wallachia, Moldavia 3 340 38 Total 324 106,070 8,788 3,750,529 TEEBIZOND. 119 EXPORTATIONS, Nationality. N'umber of Vessels. Tonnage. — - 1 1 1 r r 1 ■ Number of Crews. Value of Cargoes. Specie. Turkish . Austrian . Erench . Egyptian Kussian . British . Greek . Dutch . Prussian . WaUachia,M old avi a 80 48 50 14 63 19 34 2 1 8 26,630 30,920 16,380 5,242 10,675 8,798 6,034 736 655 340 2,360 2,131 1,750 482 1,073 448 317 31 13 38 482,126 362,161 263,271 61,561 46,039 18,418 6,018 200 £ Total. . • 313 104,310 8,643 1,228,794 994,130 It may be remarked, from the foregoing returns, that the amount of the imports is double that of the exports. It were, therefore, well to observe that the province of Kurdistan receives a large portion of its supplies of European merchandise from Trebizond, by way of Erze- rum, and makes returns for same in cattle, overland, to the Constantinople market. It is calculated that 400,000 sheep, 6,000 oxen, and 2,000 to 3,000 horses, are an- nually sent in this manner. ) Again, large remittances from Persia, as well as Turkey, are made in paper. Tiflis also offers much facility to Persia in its remit- tances to Europe, vid Odessa ; and finally, travellers carry large amounts of specie on their persons, to avoid paying a steam freight. If it were possible to make an approximate estimate of the above four items, and add the same to the amount of exports in merchandise and specie, the import and export trade would nearly balance. The English steamers which phed between Liverpool and Trebizond in 1858 now terminate their voyages 120 THE EESOUKCES OF TUBKEY. at Constantinople, and there lias consequently been a considerable diminution in tlie number of British vessels entering the port. In 1859, there were only nine British ships against nineteen in 1858, and during the first six months of 1860 but one British vessel, a coUier from Swansea, entered the port of Tre- bizond. The navigation for the half year ending 30th Jime, 1860, was as foUows : — Entered. NatiODaUty. Number of Vessels. Tonnage Austrian . /Steamers . .26 Sailing Vessels 4 30 . . 21,047 Russian . ("Steamers . .17' Sailing Vessels 8 25 . . 17,274 Turkish . . /Steamers . .201 t Sailing Vessels 23/ 43 . . 15,295 Erench . Steamers. . . . 26 . . 10,410 Greek . . Sailing Vessels . 8 . . 2,372 Sardinian 3 . 1,069 Tjiscan . » 2 . 522 British . . , » 1 . 384 Mecklenburg » 1 . 231 139 68,594 Cleared. Nationality. Number of Vessels, Austrian 30 Bussian 25 Turkish 42 French Greek Sardinian Tuscan . British Mecklenburg 26 7 3 2 1 1 137 Tonnage. 21,047 17,274 15,085 10,410 2,030 1,059 522 384 231 68,042 The following Tables show the quantities and descrip- TKEBIZOND. 121 tion of the various articles imported into and exported from Trebizond during the year 1858 : — IMPORTATIONS. Arms Anchors . Amber Aniseed Beer (in bottles) Bottles (empty) Books Boards (deal) Boxwood . Barley Biscuits . Bricks (knife) Blacking . Butter Brooms Baskets (empty) Coals . Coffee Com (Indian"! com) J Cocbineal Cotton twist Cordage . Carpeting Crockery andl earthenware J Cotton braiding Cotton (raw) . Cloth, called 1 "Abbah" J Cloth Clocks (wooden) Caviar Canvas Chickpeas Chains (for 1 Marine use) J Candles (tallow) Candles (com- 1 posite) J Candles (wax) . Caps (skull) 622 cases 5 do. 1 case 4 bags 610 casks 60 crates . 44 cases 2,746 do. 730 tons 9,006 quarters 44 cases 4 casks 176 packages 9 casks 7 do. 1 bale 1 do. 6,198 tons 3,616 bags 25,638 quarters 989 cases 308 bales 494 do. 73 do. 467 casks 67 bales 127 do. 72 do. 208 do. 6 cases 152 casks 12,600 measures 31 bags 6 90 cases 23 do. 3 do. 19 do. Copper (sheet) Cheese Clothing (old) Cutlery . Chalk Cigars Cirecloth . Chocolate and "I confectionery J Carriages . Drugs Furniture . Flour Fruit (dry) Furs and skins Fish (salt) Grates (iron) Glass ware Glass plates Gum (Ben- jamin) Galoches (In- dian rubber) J" Hardware Haberdashery . Hides (ox and \ cow) J Honey Hemp Hooks (fishing) Horses . Indigo Iron chests 1 and safes J Instruments 1 (musical) J Iron bedsteads Iron . Iron (sheet) Iron (rod) Ink . Jewellery Jewellery(false) I 314 packages 15 do. 28 bales 62 cases 5 casks 14 cases 3 bales 7 packages 2 201 cases 249 packages 1,123 bags 292 casks 123 bales 73 casks 2 cases 619 do. 267 do. 8 do. 3 do. 1,696 packages 357 do. 2,040 20 casks 21 bales 1 box 7 161 cwts. 13 1 case 4 packages 4,266 bars 74 bundles 385 do. 1 Tjox 6 qases 1 case 122 THE EESOUKCaES OP TDKKET. Elienna . Lemons . Logwood . Lentils Linen stuffl Leather . Liquois . Lead (white) Lime (marble) Lead Locusts (car-l rubs) J Manufactures . Manufactures . Marble flags 1 (for furniture) J Mirrors Matches (lu- 1 cifer) J Manufactures 1 (Asiatic) J Madders . Medicines Millet Maccaroni and 1 paste J Mastic (gum) Nails Needles Oats Oranges Olives Oil (olive) Oil (salad) Oil (fish) . Oil (linseed) Perfumery Pipe bowls Plated ware Paper (common) Pickles Paints Porcelain . Pepper Provisions Pearl barley Kice P,um 23 cases 235 do. 200 cwt. 9 bags 55 hales 12 packages 106 cases 13 boxes 20 packages 11 pigs 150 hags 74953 trusses 1,133 bales 13 hales 111 cases 372 do. 296 packages 64 hales 42 cases 14 hags 67 cases 4 casks 514 kegs 14 cases 900 quarters 182 cases 290 casks 756 do. 832 cases 166 casks 2 jars 11 cases 29 do. do. do. do. 194 packages 77 cases 68 hags 85 cases 16 casks 3,885 hags 1,061 casks 16 111 70 Rochu (Arrak) Befined loaf 1 sugar J Sugar (crushed) Salt (Marine) Soap Stores (Military) Silks Satins Sak (raw) Steel Spices . Stoves Sacking . Spirits of wine Shot (lead) Salt (rock, or 1 hasket) J Shoes Saltpetre . . Sulphur . Sal-ammoniac . Sailcloth ") (Cutauna) J Stationery Saddlery . Sweetnaieate Spelter Sundry mer-1 chanuse(not j- detailed) J TaUow . Timber, for \ house building J Tea (chiefly 1 black) J Tin (in bars) Tobacco . Tin plates Trays Toys Trays (silver) Tarpaulin Thread (cot- 1 ton sewing) J Tamarinde Thread (gold) . Tinder (Punk) , Tomb stones 531 casks 4,646 hhds. 11,907 cases 346 barrels 16,800 quarters 2,784 packages 303 do. 164 cases 61 do. 322 hales 725 cases 74 do. 13 do. 54 packages 47 casks 22 do. 4 do. 1 pai^age 2 do. 2 do. 30 casks 5 cases 4 do. 28 casks 40 slabs 10,586 package 182 casks 600 tons 2,638 cwts. 134 casks 5,938 bales ; 40 cases 4 do. 3 do. 4 5 hales 4 cases 1 case 3 5 bales 40 TKEBIZOND. 12S TJmbrellas (cotton) Velvets . Valonia Vinegar . Vegetables (fresh & dried) J Varnish . Vitriol . Wool 3 cases 15 do. 107 bags 92 casks 68 packages 6 casks 1 case 174 bales Wax Wearing ap- l parel J Wines , Watches . Woollen tissues Wire (brass » and iron) J Wheat . Zinc . , 142 packages 866 do. 1,981 cases 13 packages 99 bales 12 packages 7,500 quarters 4 packages EXPOETATIONS. Apples & pears Apricots (dry) Almonds . Arms Beans Boxwood . Butter Berries (yellow) Baggage . Books Beer (in bottles) Bronze and ? brass work ) Charcoal . Copper utensils Copper (in slabs) Coals Carpets and rugs Com (Indian) Coffee Cochineal Caviar Dyes Drugs Earth (potters') Eggs Furs Flour Galls Gums Goldsmiths' 1 sweepings J Glass plates Hides (ox and 1 cow) J 6,300 202 52 17 4,108 904 266 208 123 22 61 packages do. bags packages bags tons packages bags packages cases packages do. 282 bags 41 packages 3,900 cwt. 94 tons 283 bales 1,850 144 7 quarters bags do. 602 casks 427 42 packages do. 196 do. 56 do. 31 do. 11 do. 1,207 184 bags do.' 13 do. 19 packages 3,580 bales Horns (mixed) Horses Hardware Iron . Insect powder Henna Leeches . Linen (Rizeh) Lemon trees Lemons . Leather . Liquors . Lackered work Meat, dried 1 (Pastmtnah) J Meat, salted I (Oavoonnah) J Manufactures . Manufactures, I Aleppo J Nuts Nets (fishing) Olives Olive oil . Oakum Orpiment. Oranges . Packing ma- terials Pitch Potatoes . Planks (deal) Paper Paints Bum 5 bales 122 98 packages 13 tons 106 bags 28 do. 496 cases 184 bales 72 67 cases 26 packages 7 do. 116 do. 1,854 do. 64 900 5 do. do. do. 11,196 bags 378 packages 66 casks 35 do. 53 bales 92 packages 34 do. 670 bales 72 barrels 1,532 bags 423 9 packages 18 do. 1 package 124 THE KESOtJBCES OF TUKKET. Rice , Raisins Rags Reeds, for 1 writing J Salt . Slippers . Straw, for 1 chair bottoms J Skins (goat \ and sheep) J Sundries (not 1 detailed) J Silk. Safflower . Silk (cocoons) Silkworm Silk (refuse) SUks (tissues) Shawls Steel Soap 15 packages 15,978 do. 28 do. 198 do. 11,000 bushels 78 bales 42 tons 982 bales 2,983 packages 5,992 bales 706 do. 609 packages 132 do. 122 bales 5 do. 338 do. 22 packages 27 do. Sulphur . Sugar Tobacco (call- 1 ed Tumbeky) J Tallow . Tobacco (leaf) Tin (in bars) Thread Tea Tar . Wax ^Tieat Wool (goat's tiftic) Wool Wool (camel's) Walnut wood . Walnuts . Vegetables Yeojetables "I (cabbages) J 2 packages 674 do. 15,068 do. 622 do. 6,196 do. 9 do. 1,027 do. 566 cwt. 18 casks 782 do. 566 do. Y 185 packages .342 do. 26 do. 902 pieces 233 bags 94 packages 2,780 cwt. Agricultural Products. — The following is an average estimate of the quantity of agricultural produce annu- ally raised in the Pashalic of Trebizond : — Articles. Indian com Wheat. i Barley . Oats . Quantities. . 620,000 bushels. . 110,000 „ . 25,000 „ . 35,000 „ Articles. Quantities. Rice . , 275,000 Iba Tobacco . 15,500 cwts. Hemp . . 3000 „ riax . . 1000 „ Beans . . 80,000 cwts. OUves . . 1300 „ Nuta . Potatoes . 160,000 „ . 10,000 „ OUveoil . 500 „ Provisic ns are abundant. The present prices are — Per Bread, 1st qv „ 2nd Beef , Mutton oke— 2f lbs. Piastres. ality . 4 „ . . 1* . 3 Per oke— 2| lbs. Piastres Butter .... 12 Milk .... 2 Rice . . . . 2J Beans .... 1 Fish . 3 Fowls, each . . 4 Vegetables . Cheese 2 5 Olives, per oke, 2| lbs. 2 J Forests. — The forests in the Pashalic of Trebizond TEEBIZOND. 125 are very extensive. They abound with oak, beech, elm, chestnut, walnut, red and white pine, box, and maple. The oak is weU adapted for ship-building, and the chestnut is much used in the construction of houses. All kinds of timber might be easily exported, if a con- veyance existed, either by land or water, from the forests to the coast. Small wood only, such as is in- tended for fuel and dwellings, can be floated down the streams ; while all boxwood for exportation is carried down by horses and mules. Mines — The silver mines of Goomooshhanah are eight in number, but only three of them are now open. They are worked on Grovemment account, and yield annually 15 to 20 okes of silver, and 40,000 okes of lead. In the time of Sultan Mustapha III. these mines produced 600,000 okes of lead, and 6000 okes of sUver per annum. The copper mines of Helsah, near Goomooshhanah, produce at present only about sixty to one hundred thousand okes of ore, containing 70 to 80 per cent, of copper. The copper mines of Figaneh and Graoordagh have been closed for the last seventy-five years. The Esserley mines, near Triboly, which are farmed out to various individuals, yield, under very unskilful manage- ment, about 150,000 okes of copper, 27,000 okes of lead, and 30 okes of sUver ; but, although they are situated within eighteen miles of the coast, there is no road by which the ore can be conveyed for shipment.* 126 THE RESOUKCES OP TDEKEY. The iron mines, near Vono, are neglected. The alum pits of Karahissar, wMch formerly supplied all Turkey, are very nearly abandoned ; while the coal, near Kier- rasond, remains altogether untouched. Fisheries. — There is only one fishery ofi" the coast, that of the porpoise, which yields upwards of 250,000 okes of oU per annum. A portion of the oil is con- sumed for Ught by the lower classes, and the rest finds hence, wheat and other commodities, that might, under more favourable circumstances, be brought down to the ports, have now a mere local value. Instances are numerous where the people have been in a state of comparative famine in one section of the country, from scarcity of bread- stufTs, whilst in others wheat, &c., might be pujchased at nominal prices. To bring wheat down 36 and 150 mUes, the average cost of transport may be computed at 4g. and 16s. sterling a quarter, whereas, over good roads, it might be reduced to Is. and 4s. a quarter respectively ; the difference being upwards of 13 and 112 per cent, on the farmer's gross receipts. Tn dealing, however, with the means of transport and communication in foreign countries, a grave error has been almost invariably committed by the concessionaires, who, misled by splendid schemes, have induced the public to embark their money in enterprises which carry with them the seeds of their own Mlure. It is fatal to such undertakings to judge them by the standard of results in this and other equally advanced countries. The scale of such works is usually too far in advance of the state of de- velopemeni of the country, and many an enterprise, which might have been profitable on a proper scale, has been ruined by the magnitude of the plans adopted. Already this has been found the case even in England, and it will be wise to apply the experience, which has cost so much, to obtain from it a compensating profit. Well-constructed horse tramroada will, probably, be found, Ln practice, the most successful measure to introduce into Turkey for facilitating transport. A good system of such roads would permit of an immense increase of traffic, and would not require the costly skilled labour neces- sary in combination with the ordinary railway system. Such roads are already being introduced in many of the agricultural districts of France, and the small cost of their construction and maintenance is a strong argu- ment in their favour. There can be no doubt that the adoption of some such scheme as I have here suggested must precede any great increase of Turkish trade, and, as the safety of investments depends upon the power of the debtor to pay, it is obvious that any means which can tend to augment that power must operate as an additional guarantee for the faithful observance of obligations. TEEBIZOND. 127 a market at Constantinople. Fish for domestic use is abundant and excellent, particularly tlie turbot, skate, herring, mullet, smelts, and sprats. The two last are taken in such vast numbers, that after the natives have provided for their own wants and salted sufficient for the winter's consujnption, a considerable quantity is turned into oil, or made use of as manure. It is not at all unusual to see a horse-load of sprats sold for four piastres. Manufactures. — ^A considerable quantity of silk veils, linen and cotton shirting, woollen aprons, &c., are wade by the lower classes. The beautiful linens, used in the harems of the rich, are manufactured at Eizeh, to the extent of from 50,000 to 75,000 pieces an- nually, and sold chiefly to Constantinople, Egypt, Baghr dad, and Mosul. Twenty thousand to thirty thousand pieces of a common description are used in the local consumption of this and the neighbouring provinces. Eizeh also manufactures annually about 1,500 bales of Unen thread, and 250 bales of fishing nets, which are principally exported to Constantinople. Trebizond is famous for its copper and brass utensils, as well as for its manufacture of slippers and saddlery. A coarse- grained gunpowder, suitable for blasting purposes, is also made at Trebizond, and various dyeing and print- ing establishments give employment to about 200 individuals. 128 THE KESOUBCES OF TUEKEY. CHAPTER Xn. SAMSOUIir. A GLANCE at the amounts of the imports and exports by British shipping at the port of Samsoun from 1853 to 1856 will give the best idea of the immense increase which has taken place in the trade within four years': — Years. No. of British Vessels. Tonnage. Imports. Value In Pounds sterlihe. Exports. Value in Founds sterling. 1853 1854 1855 1856 26 36 96 167 14,105 24,920 69,081 174,988 30,100 150,762 157,194 319,926 45,378 154,613 356,972 220,749 The total number of vessels of all nations which en- tered and cleared at the port of Samsoun in the year 1853 was 203 : the value of their inward cargoes amounted to 329,007Z. in merchandise, and 80,019Z. in specie ; the outward cargoes amounted to 2 35,52 9Z. in merchandise, and 192,316Z. in specie. In 1856 the total number of arrivals was 433 : the value of their inward cargoes was 702,418Z. in merchandise, and 99,951Z. in specie ; the value of their outward cargoes was, in merchandise, 581,917?., and in specie, 44,999?. The following is a general statement of the gross amount of merchandise and specie which passed through the port of Samsoun during the year 1860 : — SAMSOUN. , 129 IMPORTS. In French, Austrian, Turkish, and Russian Steam Vessels (166 Vessels) :— , Merchandise £326,251 16 8 ^Pe'^ie 63,932 19 £880,184 15 8 In 69 Sailing Vessels : — Merchandise 71^673 12 6 Total .... £451,858 8 2 EXPORTS. In Steam Vessels : — Merchandise ..... £320,485 18 8 Specie ..... 124,840 4 2 £445,326 2 10 In 69 Sailing Vessels : — Merchandise ..... 64,856 5 Total . . . £610,182 7 10 More than three-quarters of the manufactures im- ported are British, the remaining quarter consisting of Swiss and French manufacture. The total number of packages of goods brought to Samsoun during the year 1857 by vessels belonging to the Austrian, French, and Turkish Steam Navigation Companies amounted to 34,523, and those exported to 53,072. The accompanying detailed note of the different kinds of merchandise imported and exported by British ves- sels during the year 1856 will give a correct idea of the principal articles of commerce. Tobacco, one of the staple productions, has become an article of very great importance ; 13,662 bales, equal to 2,049 tons weight, figure in the list of exports by English ships, and, as the value has risen nearly 300 per cent.. 130 THE EESOUKCES OF TUEKBY. its cultivation is now greatly attended to. The tobacco from Samsoun chiefly goes to Eussia and Egypt. The production of silk cocoons is annually in- creasing in the neighbouring district of Amassia, and has lately attracted a good deal of attention from several French mercantile houses at Marseilles. The French Messageries Imperiales Company has lately taken up the line of steam communication between Constantinople and Samsoun, in connection or continua- tion of their line of steamers between that capital and Marseilles. The communication is regular and weekly, as is also that of the Austrian Lloyd's Company ; and, in consequence of the competition arising between the different steamers, merchandise is now brought to Sam- soun for one-third of the freight which used to be paid for it a few years ago. The same may be said of the goods exported. If the construction of the railway which is now projected between Samsoun and Sivas take place, an impetus to trade, to an incalculable ex- tent, win certainly be the result throughout this part of Asia Minor ; and its effect wiU be of equally incalculable advantage to British industry in every way. SAMSOUN. 131 Return and Specification of the Imports and Exports at the Port of Samsoun, in British Vessels, during the year 1856. IMPOBTS. Exports. Karnes of Articles, Value in Pounds sterling. Names of Articles. Value in Founds sterling. European manufac . Tobacco 81,972 tures. 198,628 Native manufac- OoflPee . 7570 tures 17,759 Paper . 1000 Paaturmali * . 5720 Sugar . 8270 TcUriaht . 2232 Soap . 612 Yellow berries 4389 Henna . 1680 Copper 47,640 Hardware 2565 Leather 3598 Tin . 925 Leeches 1000 Spirits . mils . 1835 Mahlept 444 263 Skins . 960 Fruit . 748 Hour . 1608 Skins . 405 Silk . 3520 Iron 25,827 Silk cocoons . 4280 Horses . 8231 Hides . 2725 Mules . 1 858 ^ 14,440 Carpets 3712 Buffaloes 100 J Wheat . 2311 Sundries 55,258 Barley meal . Wax . Butter . TaUow . Fi-uit and dried vegetables Sheep . 10,532-1 BuUocks 2520 ' Simdries 397 540 300 644 2164 11,566 21,268 Total . 319,926 220,749 * " Pasturmah" — beef cut into long strips, pickled with garlic and spices, and dried in the sun. f "Tchirish" — a paste used by shoemakers, made- from a bulbous root. J " Mahlep" — a small aromatic seed, used by bakers to spimkle over bread. K 2 132 THE BESOUECES OP TUEKET. CHAPTEE Xm. SALOXICA. Salonica (anc. Thessalonica) is, next to Constautinople, the principal seat of commerce in European Turkey. The population amounts to 80,000, viz. : — • Mussulmans 30,000 Greeks 36,000 Jews 12,000 Franks 2,000 80,0C0 The imports and exports have, of late years, con- siderably increased. Tn 1851, the value of the prin- cipal articles imported into Salonica by sea amounted to 433,919Z. ; in 1852, to 599,216Z. ; in 1853, to 571,555^. ; and in 1854, to 754,074Z. The exports by sea, vrhich, in 1851, amounted in value only to 179,070/., increased in 1852, to 489,648/.; in 1853, to 695,210/. ; and in 1854, to 1,098,596/. IMPOETS. The demand for British cotton manufactures of aU descriptions daily increases, and every year there is some new outlet of sufficient importance for the estab- lishment of agencies in the interior by the importers at Salonica, hence the prospect of an increase of the import trade in proportion with the increasing value of the export trade. The Austrian and Saxon manu- SALONICA. 133 facturers have, however, again turned their attention to this part of Turkey, and are now sending large parcels of low cotton goods into the country. The principal imports are : — Feom Great Beiiain. Manufactured cotton and woollen goods, tin, lead, iron, clocks, -vsratches, jewellery, and colonials. Feom Geemant . . "Woollen cloths, calicoes, muslins, glass-ware, porcelain, steel, copper. Feom Ixait . . Woollen cloths, firearms, glass, sUks, velvet, paper, red caps. Feom Hollaitd . . Colonials and woollen cloths. From Ettssia . . Silk, velvet, gold thread, gold lace, furs. Feom Feance . . Woollen cloths, caps, embroidery, cofiee, sugar, indigo, cochineal, pepper, logwood, drugs, paper, lead and small shot. Feom Egypi . . Mokkha coffee, flax, linens, gum, incense, sal-ammoniac, ' drugs, and henna-powder. f From Smyrna . . Soap, madder, and dry fruits. Feom Castbia. . . Oils, soap, lemons and oranges. From the Islands of THE Archipelago . Fruits, wines, silks. From Consianiinople Silk stuffs, gold and silver brocades, yellow moroccos, worked amber, valuable pipes, &c. EXPORTS. Cotton. — The cottons known under the name of the * Sal-ammoniac is received in small loaves, both round and broad. Some writers have asserted that this salt proceeds from the urine of the camel, sublimated in African . sand ; this, however, is a popular error. The Egyptians bum camels' dung, mixed with straw infused in urine, and it is from the soot %hich proceeds from this that they draw, by sub- limation, the sal-ammoniac. Sal-ammoniac is employed as a dissolvent by the Turkish tanners. It assists the sublimation of imperfect metals, heightens the colour of gold during fusion, and is used in making aqim regia. At the present time sal-ammoniac is manufactured in England from the impure ammoniacal liquors obtained as secondaiy products in the manufacture of coal-gas and animal charcoal. + Henna is a shrub of the family of Salicares, whose leaves, when pulverized and wrought into a pulp with lemon juice, are made use of as a cosmetic. 134 THE RESOUECES OF TUKKET. cottons of Salonica are gathered in the district of Seres, a city of Macedonia, celebrated throughout Eu- ropean Turkey for the richness of its market, and situ- ated fifteen leagues to the north-west of Salonica, in the midst of a vast plain, watered and fertilized by the river Strymon. The annual harvest of cotton in the valley of Seres was, fifty years ago, estimated at 70,000 bales ; of which, 30,000 bales were exported to Ger- many, 12,000 to France, 4,000 to Trieste, 1,500 to Leghorn, and as many more exported to Genoa. Upon the whole, there were exported 50,000 bales. Of late years, however, the production of this staple has very much decreased. Com. — The total annual produce of com in the dis- tricts of Salonica, Volo, and Orphano is estimated at eight hundred thousand imperial quarters, of which three hundred thousand are exported. Wool. — There is no country of the globe more agreeably diversified than Macedonia; it is the com- pendium of every climate. Plants which grow between the tropics flourish in its plains, and those of the most northern countries become acclimatized on its moun- tains. The lands which do not allow of cultivation produce spontaneously thyme, creeping or wild thyme, sweet marjoram, and aromatic plants. Such a coimtry as this, possessing excellent pastures, must be singu- larly weU adapted for the support of cattle and sheep, of which there are numerous herds and flocks. It supports also, during six months of the year, all the flocks of the neighbotiring regions, for the Albanian shepherds, driven firom the mountains by the severity of winter, come to the mild climate of Macedonia in quest of more substantial and more plentiful pastures, and SAIiONICA. 135 they there enjoy the privilege of going, from place to place, over all the uncultivated lands. The wools of Salonica are brought from J4nidge, from Doiram, Strumzza, and from Seres, and are held in the greatest estimation in the Levant. The total exportation from those districts, as well as from the fine plains that surround Salonica, is estimated at 2,200,000 lbs. Silk. — The district of Zagora, in Thessaly, produces the greater part of the raw silk exported from Salonica. The chmate of that district is so mild, the air so pure, and the sky so bright, that the silk-worms spin in places open on every side. Tobacco. — The cultivation of this plant occupies an eighth part of the ploughed lands, and supports a population of 20,000 famihes. The annual harvest or gathering of tobacco in Macedonia is estimated at one hundred thousand bales. European Turkey consumes forty thousand bales ; Egypt, thirty thousand ; Barbary, ten thousand ; and Italy, twenty thousand. The other principal articles of export from Salonica are oil, wax, opium, yellow berries, gum, hides, hare-skins, leather, and carpets. From Mr. Calvert, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Salonica, May 2nd, 1859.* In reply to your letter of the 19th ult., I hasten to express to you my opinion that the formation of a Branch Bank at Salonica would be attended with very great advantage to the local trade, and I beg to assure you that several of the leading merchants vdth whom I have spoken on the subject are in favour of its estab- lishment. * Mr, Calvert is now Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Monasth'. 136 THE KESOUECES OF TUEKET. You have only to look at the map and see what a large radius inland the trade through Salonica, as the nearest seaport, must cover. Erom 2,000 to 3,000 horse and mule loads of merchandise are calculated to pass out of the gates of this town every week for the inte- rior, and when trade is very active they have been known to exceed 5,000 loads. I calculate the imports and exports at a million and a half sterling, at least, annually. Every point, offering fewer &cilities of access from the Adriatic or from the frontiers of Austria, is reached from Salonica for the introduction of British, French, and German goods ; at Seres, only 18 hours inland on the road to Belgrade, the trade with Austria is exceedingly active at certain seasons. The trade in silk and silk cocoons is very important at Salonica. Several large fairs are held in this district every year. There is here a horde of small money- dealers who play with the currency of the place. One advantage of a bank would be their suppression, and the better regulation of the ciurency and the exchanges. The Enghsh sovereign is now at 180 piastres ; last year, at this date, it was at 168 piastres, and aU the coins rise in proportion. A vast amoimt of cash Ues buried imderground in the country for security, but producing no fruit, and I imagine that, so soon as the operations of a bank give sufficient confidence, much of this money will come to Kght again, in order to be deposited in it. SALONICA. 137 Report by Mr. Richard Wilkinson, jun.. Her Britannic Majesty's Consul, on the Inducements for forming a Branch Bank at Salonica. The subjoined approximate returns of tlie trade at the port of Salonica for the year 1860 -will at once show the magnitude and importance of its commerce, and the vast field open to banking operations. It must, however, be observed, with reference to the subjoined returns, that the year 1860 has been, as regards the quantity and value of the exports, far below the average of former years, owing to the partial failure of the grain crops. Tobacco, Indian corn, wheat, barley, silk, and cotton, constitute the staple products of Macedonia and Thessaly. Sesame, oats, rye, rice, and wine are also raised, but scarcely in sufficient quantities to meet the requirements of local consumption. A good deal of ohve oil, to the amount of upwards of 2,000 tons, is on an average exported annually from the port of Volo, in Thessaly. The usual rates of interest here are the same as in most other parts of Turkey, 12 per cent, being the lowest figure charged. The want of monied capital, combined with the complete absence of good roads, and the abuses exer- cised under the tithe system, are evils which obstruct the developement of agriculture in this country, and fetter whatsoever there is of energy in its inhabitants. The sod is everywhere of great fertUity. Capital, good roads, and a fair assessment of the taxes, are only required to increase tenfold the present produc- tions, by bringing under cultivation immense tracts of fertile lands, which are now let run to waste. There are, properly speaking, no real banking estab- hshments here. A few native sarafis occasionally 138 THE EESOUECES OP TUBKET. discount bills and promissory notes, usuaUy charging interest at the rate of 12 per cent, per annum on first- class paper. Considering the scarcity of money and the high interest it commands — and, above all, the natural pro- pensity of the inhabitants, the Christians particularly, to engage in commercial pursuits whenever they can command some capital, however small the amount, to enable them to do so— I think a capital of from 100,000Z. to 150,000/. could be easily and beneficially employed here in banking operations, which could, of course, be increased with the increasing prosperity of the country, which the facilities afforded by a bank for obtaining loans at a reasonable interest would be sure to develope the more, as there is every reason to beheve that the Turkish Government will soon take measures to alter the present mode of levying the taxes, and abohsh altogether the system now in vigour of farming them to the highest bidder. And as orders have already been given for making roads, the moment is certainly most propitious for the establishment of a branch bank in Salonica. Imports hy Sea in 1860. Britisli goods Value £350,000 Foreign „ 150,000 Total . . . £500,000 Exports hy Sea in 1860. Tobacco £5,000 Cotton 1^000 Silk 50,000 Indian com 30,000 "Wieat 100,000 Barley 30,000 Other produce 80,000 Total . . . f296,000 SALONICA. 139 Tobacco and cotton, -whiGli constitute two of the most important articles of export from Macedonia, figure for a small amount only in the above returns, Cavalla and Orfano being the principal outlets for those products. EicHAKD Wilkinson, jun., Consul. Salonica, February 25, 1S61. 140 THE EESOUBCES OF TUBKEY. CHAPTEE XIV. VOLO. The district of Volo contains a population of about 75,000 souls, who reside cMefly in the twenty-four villages of Mount Pehon. Some of these villages might be ranked as towns, as weU from their extent and the style of the buildings as from the number of inhabi- tants, which, in some cases, reaches 6,000. In all of them considerable industrial activity prevails, and wealth to a large amount is often amassed, although it is more frequently hoarded than put into circulation. There remain about 1,000 Mussulmans in the dis- trict, but, small as is this number, it is continually diminishing, for, as the Turks are habitually averse to industrial pursuits, they are, one after another, obhged to mortgage whatever property they possess ; and as the general rate of interest is 20 per cent, they soon be- come deeply involved, bankruptcy foUows, and then they migrate to any place where their co-rehgionists are to be foimd in large numbers. The vacant space is at once occupied by the Greeks, who are remarkable for their industry and intelligence. The surface of Mount Pehon, nearly to the summit, consists of a hght soil, fit for pasture and tillage, but agricuhure has not yet received any benefits from VOLO. 141 modern science. Nevertheless, considerable quantities of grain are produced, together with potatoes, and most of the vegetables used in England. Fruits of excellent quahty grow in abundance, and hght wines are made in large quantities. The summit of Pehon is tliickly wooded with beech and oak ; the chestnut abounds on the eastern side, but the great staples are the mulberry and olive. The latter clothes the eastern and southern slopes of the mountains for mUes together, and receives additions every year. Cotton is grown in small quanti- ties, but the quahty is indifferent, as the farmers do not seem disposed to give it increased attention. The soil and climate, however, are well suited for it, as also for nearly aU European grains, fruits, and vegetables. It is now well known that Mount Pehon contains vast mines of argentiferous lead, as also of copper, iron, manganese, and arsenic. Much has been done to ex- plore this wealth, and it is to be hoped that the skill and capital (upwards of 50,000/.) already expended wiU be followed out to advantageous results. The fisheries of the Gulf form another source of local wealth. Sponges of the best quahty are annually taken to the value of 2,000/., and fish might be caught in great quantities. Volo, being the only port of Thessaly, is the commer- cial entrep&t of the whole province, and, as a safe road- stead and a capacious harbour, it has not a superior in Europe. The subjoined figures show its principal im- ports and exports, but the capabihties of the province are not to be judged of by its present returns, for there is not upon the earth a country of greater and more varied resources : — H2 THE EESOUECES OF TUEKET. Imports at Volo in the year 1858. Names of Articles. Where From. Qoantitf. At. Valoe. Salt . Soap Sundries Sicily . Candia 20,000 tons. 70 „ £ e. 1 8 28 2^000 1,960 100,000 Total £129,960 Expoi-ts at Volo in the year 1858. Names of Articles. Where To. Quantity. At. Value. Wheat . Barley . Sesame . SUk cocoons . OKve oil Tobacco Wool . Sundries r England, I ■ France, and I Trieste Trieste France f Constantinople, ' Smyrna, Salo- • nica J Bo. & Alexandria France and Trieste 185,000 qrs. 100,000 „ 18,000 „ 145 tons. 1,785 „ 1,230 „ 490 „ £ I. 17 10 1 8 450 46 37 157*250 50,000 25,200 65,250 56,580 56,580 18,130 50,000 Total £478,990 MONASTIE. 143 CHAPTEE XV. MONASTIB. The foreign trade of Monastir, and its two dependent Sandjaks of Ochrida and Castoria, is, to a certain extent, carried on through, the port of Durazzo, in Middle Albania, but its principal channel is Salonica, situated in Macedonia. The total value of foreign commodities imported during the year 1856 was estimated at 813,000/., viz. : — From Great Britain £422,000 „ Austria 340,000 „ HoUand 35,000 „ France 16,000 Total .... :e813,000 The imports from Great Britain consist of: — Cotton Manufactures: Prints, Longcloths, Shirtings, Cambrics, Shawls, Handkerchiefs, and Cotton Twist Colonial Produce and Dyes . Tin, Ironware, Nails, Shot, &c. Earthenware and Glass . Total . £306,000 100,000 15,000 2,500 £422,500 The imports from Austria consisted chiefly of woollen 144 THE EESOUECES OF TOEKEY. cloths, demi-cottons, furs, silk-stuffs, and Nuremburg wares ; those from France, of silk manufactures, and from HoUand, of colonial produce. The amoimt of exports during the year 1856 has been computed at 220,000^. They consisted almost entii'ely of grain, and exhibit a great falling off from the exportation of the previous year, which was re- ported to have exceeded half a million sterling in value. Such fluctuations, however, in the amount of exports are inevitable, and must continue as long as the means of communication between the outports and the interior remain so defective.* Although the export of grain has very much dechned, other but less considerable branches of trade have improved. The trade in furs, which is the staple of some of the chief towns of the province, viz., Monastir, Ochrida, and Castoria, displayed, during the year 1858, unusual activity. Monastic also supplies not only Eoumeha, but other provinces of European Turkey, with articles of clothing ready made, both embroidered and plain ; the former, since the introduction of Euro- pean fashions among the official and wealthier classes, are much less in vogue than they used to be, but the demand for plain clothing has increased. The quantity of wool produced for exportation is, as weU as can be ascertained, more abundant now than in former years ; the shepherds, some of whom carry on their operations on a large scale, descend every year with their flocks, * In 1859, the Turkish GoTemment granted 700,000 piastres for the construction of a road from Monastir to Salonica; but this sum was neyer expended upon the road, as the Governor of the province found other and more agreeable means of spending it. In the present state of the road, one horse can cany two-hundredweight in four days from Monastir to Salonica, but upon a well-made road he coidd in the same time convey with a cart at least eighteen-himdredweight. MONASTIE. 145 from the mountains of Eoumelia, into tlie plain of Salo- nica, and, after wintering there, and disposing of their ■wool, return to their famihes with the proceeds, so that the profits of the trade contribute to the resources of Monastir. To these may be added the gains of certain seats of local industry ; for instance, of Kuprili, Veles, and Perhppe : the tanners of the first, and the braziers of the latter town, are much esteemed, and find customers for their wares all over European Turkey, Besides these, there is in the mountainous districts of Eoumeha an itinerant and migratory class of artizans {courhetchis), composed chiefly of masons, buUders^ joiners, bakers, &c., who carry on their trades in every part of the Ottoman Empire, and, after a certain number of years, return to their homes vdth the fruits of their industry. On a moderate computation, it is supposed their number must amount to 25,000, and their average savings to Vol. a year, which wiU give 375,000Z. This sum being subsequently consumed at home, or converted into capital, may be justly considered' as augmenting the ways and means of their native province. The sales effected in the year 1858, of the produce and manufactures of Eoumeha, in other provincial markets and at Constantinople, consisting of olive oil, tobacco, butter, tallow, wool, woollen stockings, coarse cloth (abbas), and ready-made and embroidered wear- ing apparel, amounted to about 260,000Z. This, as well as can be ascertained, was balanced by purchased commodities, the growth and manufacture of other parts of Turkey ; such as Brussa-silk, silk cord, gold and silver cord, as also carpets, shawls, furs,'arms, iron, rice, fruit, jewellery, amber, and soap. The following is a statement of all the vessels that arrived at and sailed from the port of Durazzo during L 146 THE EESOUECES OF TUEKET. the six months from the 26th of May to the 25th of November 1858 : — Entered. Cleared. Nationality. Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tods. TurMsh. Ionian . Austrian Steamers Neapolitan Greek . Papal States French . 213 114 98 55 30 11 8 1 8,227 2,148 4,771 10,481 1,432 692 538 101 210 115 99 55 30 10 9 1 8,113 2,206 4,810 10,481 1,432 483 564 101 Total 530 28,390 629 28,190 The principal articles of export in 1859 were grain and skins ; most of the other productions having been used for home consumption, or sold in the neighbour- ing provinces of Ochrida and TJscup, as well as in cen- tral and northern Albania. The following is an approximate estimate of the exports vid Salonica and Belgrade : — VIA SAXONICA. £ £ Wheat, 98,840 imp. qrs., average price 21«. 103,782 Silk cocoons 2,500 106,282 VIA BEiGEABB. Manufactured sheep-skins, average price per skin ls.5d. 3,670 Manufactured sakhtians, or goats'-sldns, at 3s. per skin "* . 15,380 Lambs'-skins (raw material), at lOrf. per sHn . 5,380 Goats' -skins (raw material), at 2s. per sHn . 5,500 Sheep-skins (raw material), at 1«. Id. per skin 4,400 34,330 Carried forward £140,612 MONASTIE. 147 Hare-skins, at 5d. per skin . , Wool (unwashed), per oke of 2J lbs., Is. 6d. "Woollen socks, at 6d, per pair . . , Total Brought forward :gl40,612 £4,500 8,000 1,000 8,500 £149,112 Besides the above, there is also a large transit trade in oHve oil, produced in the district of Ochrida, which is conveyed through Monastir to Servia and WaUachia. The imports in 1859 were as follow .* — VIA SALONICA. 42,000 84,000 23,000 3,000 10,000 £ 76,000 Coflfee, from Is. 6d. to Is. lOd. the oke of 2jlb3i Sugar, from 1«. 2d. to Is. 4rf. the oke Kiun, from Is. to Is. 4d. the oke i nice, from 6d. the oke . . Soap, from lid. the oke . Iron rods, from 4d. to 6rf. the oke Iron nails, from 8d. to lOd. the oke Sheet iron, from 5d. to 9^. the oke Lead, from 6rf. to 7d. the oke Tin, in boxes, 11. 3s. to 1/. 6s. . Cotton goods (all British manufacture) : Water twist, Nos. 4 to 14, 12s. per bundle " of lOlbs Ditto, Nos. 16 to 24, 14s. ditto . Ditto, Nos. 26 to 32, 17s. Id, ditto Ditto, Nos. 38 to 42, 11. Is, 5d. ditto Ditto, Nos. 48 to 52, 11, 4s. 2d, ditto Printed calicoes, 7s. lOd, to lis. per piece of 28 yards Ditto, 12s. 2d, to 11, 3s. per piece of 36 yds. Madapolams, lis. to 18s. 7d., pieces of 40 yards • • . • Shirtings, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, lis. to 18s. 7d. pieces of 40 yards . White tangibs, 4«. to 6s., pieces of 20 yards Blue cloths, 6s. to lis., pieces of 28 yards Coloured shirtings, 12s. to 15s. per piece of 40 yards Pocket handkerchiefs, coloured, 2s. to 5s. per dozen .... Carried forward £536,000 1 2 > 298,000 148 THE RESOUECES OF TURKEY. BrougM forward ^€536,000 Indigo, 10«. to i;. the oke . . , . . . £6,000 Cochineal, 1/. Ss. to 11. 10«. the oke . . . 2,000 Copper-plates, at 4s. the oke 8,000 Silks . . , 7,500 23,500 ■ TEl BELGEAIE. Glass 8,000 Gold embroidery 4,000 Cloth 50,000 Fezes 22,000 Demi-cottons 28,000 Pocket handkerchief 4,000 Sheep, at 8s. per head 8,000 Oxen, at 41. per head 40,000 Horses, at 61. per head 24,000 188,000 Total .... £747,500 Extract from Official Report to the Foreign Office hy Mr. Longworth, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Monastir. The amount of disposable capital at Monastir has been considerably augmented of late years ; as a proof of which we have only to refer to the rate of interest, which, with fair security, is as low as 12 per cent. ; while in other parts of European Tiurkey, where capi- tal is wanting, it rises to 20, 30, 40, and even to 60 per cent, per annum. This comparative low rate of interest at Monastir indicates a certain accumulation of capital, and this, it might naturally be supposed, would lead to its employ- ment, to some extent at least, in works of pubhc utihty ; for it has been seen elsewhere that there is a period in accumulation, when capital overflows the narrow hmits of individual enterprise, and when banks and joiat- Btock companies are called into existence as the only MONASTIB. £49 efficient macliinery by which undertakings on a large and collective scale can be accompHshed. Eailroads, to which the attention of European capi- talists has been chiefly directed, offer by no means the only profitable mode of investment ; more secure and more advantageous employment of capital must occur, in many shapes, to those acquainted with the country. Among others may be specified the cultivation of silk and of cotton, the adaptation of the abundant water- power everywhere available to industrial processes ; to saw-miOs, for instance, and the spinning of wooUen yarn. To these may be added mining operations, and the draining of marshy grounds ; and, above all, as im- mediately conducive to the extension of the export trade, the improvement of inland navigation, and the means of land transport. The substitution of carriage by carts and waggons, instead of the primitive conveyance of pack-horses and camels (which naturally involves the construction of roads and bridges), presents, I believe, if prudently prosecuted, one of the safest forms of speculation in which capital could be here embarked. Far from interfering with the formation of railroads, it is evident these improvements would greatly facilitate, and indeed, in the natural course of things, ought to precede it. For the accomplishment of these objects, the capital and industry of the country itself are, I repeat, whoUy inadequate. Branch banks, connected with a directing establishment at Constantinople, and founded on foreign capital and enterprise, would, I am persuaded, afford the only practical mediimi. The capital, skill, and industry of Western Europe, in connection with branch banks, would undoubtedly accelerate the developement of the same elements of 150 IHE EESOUKCES OP TURKEY. progress in Turkey, and a great advantage likely to re- sult from their establislmient would be the gradual diffusion of that confidence which is essential to un- dertakings of any magnitude, and without which trade and agriculture must remain but imperfectly developed. 151 CHAPTEE XYI. BOSNIA. BosiiTiA is ricli in pasture grounds, which are particularly- adapted for rearing cattle. The vast forests of oak in the north are hkewise admirably calculated for fattening swine, whilst some parts of the province, owing to the coolness of the chmate, and the quality of the vegeta- tion, are not less favourable for the rearing of sheep, and for the production of a superior quality of wool, much esteemed in the markets of Europe. Thus it is that cattle and sheep form a considerable portion of the wealth of the inhabitants, and hkewise a vast pro- portion of the trade that is carried on with their neigh- bours. The northern districts of Zvornik, Bania-luka, and Bihka produce oxen, swine, and horses ; the south- em districts of Yeni-Bazar, Hersek, and Serajevo pro- duce sheep. Seinitza, JSTovi-Bazar, Priepoli, and Novi- Varosh produce the best quahty of wool, while Sera- jevo, TashHja, and Koprez come next. Tanneries have, for a considerable time, existed in the country, and leather is not an unimportant article of its commerce. Of the vegetable productions, plums, of which large quantities are consumed in Bosnia, are the most import- ant. A great deal of spirit is distilled from them, and considerable quantities are exported. Grain comes 152 THE EESOUKCES OF TUKKEY. next in importance, and yields a great profit, 800 per cent, being the average return to the cultivator. The cHmate is too cold for the culture of the ohve-tree or the cotton-plant, but mulberry-trees thrive, and the silk- worm might be introduced into the coimtry with every prospect of success. Tar is produced, as well as resin, from the fir and pine trees, and timber of every description abounds. Of the mineral riches of the country, the iron mines are the only ones at present worked to any extent by the natives. The following are the positions of the principal mines in Bosnia : — Gold and Silver. — ^The moimtains round Bosnia-Serai contain gold and silver ; and in a forest near Travmk, the excavations of the celebrated gold mine of Hatnizza (hteraUy signifying gold in the Bosnian tongue) are still visible. There are silver mines near Prebemiza on the Drina, Kruppa on the Unna, and Kamengrad, within a short distance of the Verbas. Iron. — ^The iron of Bosnia is of excellent quahty, resembling the best variety of Swedish. Some mines are worked in the vicinity of Bosnia-Serai by gipsies, who have a number of smithies, in which horse-shoes, nails, locks, iron-plates, and other wares are manufac- tured. There are also iron mines at Vakup, Kamen- grad, Kreshovo, Ossoji, Babgaravan, Foinitza, Bussovatz, Varesh, Slari, Maidan, and Borrovitzo. Lead. — Olovo, IQadem, Shedni, Kreshovo, and Zvomik. Copper. — ^The copper ore is very rich, yielding on an average 35 per cent, of pure copper, but that amoimt could be stdl further increased if the apphances of Eu- ropean science were introduced, as fully 8 per cent, of BOSNIA. 153 metal remains in the refuse of the furnace. There are mines at Kreshovo and Eoinitza. Mercury. — Kreshovo, Inact. Zinc. — Zinc is found in considerable quantities in the basin of mines surrounding the town of Kreshovo, 25 miles north-west of Serajevo. Arsenic. — Kreshovo, Ivitza, &c. It is abundant throughout the province in the form of orpiment and realgar : the ore is very fine, and would, no doubt, prove exceedingly remunerative. There are also two mines of cinnabar in Bosnia, both of which have been worked for some time past, but, owing to a fault in the vein, the works have been dis- continued, as the technical knowledge of the miners is not sufficient to enable them to recover the trace of the ore. There are also fine quarries of freestone and mill-stones, alabaster, and marble. Eock-salt is found in large quantities near the town of Jusla, and mineral and hot springs abound throughout the province. Coal is also plentiful. The superficial area of Bosnia (including Herzego- vina) is 2,300 square miles, and the population, about 1,150,000, is thus divided :— Christians. Mussulmans. Total. Sandjak of Serajevo . 42,823 68,964 101,787 ' Teavnik 103,026 54,912 157,938 Banialuka 127,833 35,764 163,597 Bihutah 103,165 76,023 179,188 Svoinik 127,950 110,865 238,815 Novi-Bazar . 46,225 49,350 95,575 Herzegovina . 120,000 80,000 200,000 Jews . ... ... 8,100 Gipsies ... ... 10,000 671,022 465,878 - 1,150,000 15.4 THE EESOUKCES OP TURKEY. Very few articles of British manufactures are con- sumed in Bosnia ; not that the native trader is ignorant of their superior quality, but because his means do not permit him to enter into the trade. The native mer- chants are obhged to receive from their consignors at Trieste whatever the latter choose to send, which is iisually the cheapest and most worthless of Austrian manufactures, and as the trader, in the absence of branch banks or such institutions, is unable to give his foreign correspondent any tangible security, he is obhged to pay heavy interest for these investments, and the eventual purchaser suffers accordingly. Cotton cloth forms a principal article of import, and seems to be, in most cases, of British manufacture, but the price it bears is nearly one-half as much again as in England. Cotton twist is purchased by the peasantry, who find it cheaper to weave their own cloth than pay the high prices demanded for foreign manufactures. ¥me woollen fabrics of French or German manufactures are worn by the Mussulman portion of the inhabitants, who do not condescend to wear the coarse cloth of the comitry. Green and scarlet are the colours most in request. Of the colonial produce consumed in the country, coffee comes from Marseilles, through Trieste, and is probably the production of the French colonies ; the sugar is of Belgian manufacture ; and the rice is im- ported from Egypt. The rum imported is made from beet-root in the neighbourhood of Trieste. The iron wire and sheet iron are said to be of British manufacture, as likewise the tin-plates imported. The articles of importation and exportation that con- stitute the principal trade of Bosnia and the Herzego- BOSNIA. 15S vina may be classed under these two heads in the fol- lowing manner : — Impobtations. EXPOBTATIOMS. Names of Articles. Value in Founds sterling. Names of Articles. Value in Founds sterling. Manufactures Mixed cotton & Chintz , Longcloth Twist Bed caps Gold lace Furs Watches . Paper . Cloth Sugar Coffee . Bice Salt . Baki ■ Sundries . of wool 45,000 30,000 18,700 20,000 2,000 2,500 1,500 4,000 1,200 8,000 18,700 15,800 5,400 8,600 21,500 50,000 Oxen, 75,000 head Cows, 25.000 „ Pigs, 80,000 „ Sheep, 15,000 „ Horses, 1,000 „ Plums . , Leather . Wool . Sheep-sldns Wheat . Indian com . Wax Iron Sundries , , 450,000 87,500 104,000 7,125 4,500 60,000 10,000 3,000 3,000 8,620 865 1,800 12,000 20,000 Total . 252,900 Total . 772,410 156 CHAPTEE XVn. RHODES. The trade of Ehodes has increased considerably during the last eight or ten years. In 1851, the importations amounted to 39,561^., and the exportations to 15,477^.; whereas in 1858 the value of the former was 113,599/., and of the latter, 102,958/. Formerly, a mercha.nt found it difficult to. dispose of a hundred sacks of coffee in a year, whereas the quantity sold by him now in Ehodes amounts, on an average, to a thousand sacks per annum. This same ratio of increase is particularly apphcable to British manufactures, which have replaced those of Switzerland and Germany throughout the en- tire .Ottoman Archipelago. This increase in the con- sumption of British manufactures is not caused,, however by the wants of the scanty population of Ehodes, but by the wants of the inhabitants of the surroimding islands, and especially by those of the people on the neighbouring coast of Asia Minor, from Boudroum to Adaha inclusive. From the coast of AnatoHa, British manufactures are carried into the interior, where they are beginning to be extensively used; and it is the opinion of many intelligent merchants at Ehodes, that if one of our English commercial houses had dep&ts in that island of Manchester and Birmingham goods, enor- mous profits would be speedily realised, as Asia Minor imports annually British manufactures to the amount of several millions of piastres. A great drawback, how- ever, to the extension of our trade exists from there being no direct steam communication between Great Britain and Ehodes. At present, all British goods HHODES. 157 reacli the islands of the Ottoman Archipelago by indi- rect routes. They are first landed at Syra, Smyrna, Constantinople, Beyrout, or Alexandria, and afterwards re-shipped for their respective places of destination, thus making them liable to heavy charges ; for example, the freight and expenses on British goods fipom Smyrna to Ehodes cost about as much as from liverpool to Smyrna. There can be no doubt that if the Enghsh Company, which has a Hne of steamers. between Liver- pool and the coast of. Syria, would cause their vessels to touch at Crete, Ehodes, and Cyprus, great profits would be obtained by them. The deviation from the course would be but slight, and the exportation from Great Britain of our cotton manufactures, ships' gear of aU kinds, especially anchors and chain cables, metals, hardware, and crockery, would furnish the said vessels! with valuable freights, while the return cargo by them of sUks, fine sponges in cases, yellow wax, madder roots, valonia in sacks, dried fruits, and wheat, could not fail to be equally advantageous. The following Tables wiU show the tptal; amount of the trade of Ehodes for the five years ending 31st December ' 1858, ^.nd the respective countries with which it has been carried on : — IMPORTATIONS. Where From. 1854. 1855. 185S. 1867. 1858. ■ Turkey France . Great Britain Grieece . Egypt . : Austria . Sardinia & 152,045 13,983 4,420 6,080 6,837 5,180 & 139,804 14,194 10,900 5,057 7,313 4,436 & 103,564 15,581 2,800 6,621 3,931 3,986 • £• 102,824 . 9,556 7,707 • 4,635 ■ 8,368 ■ 1,684 £ 89,558 8,658 7,900 1,084 3,868 884 1,667 ' Total 187,545 181,704 135,834 129,773. .113,559 158 THE EESOUBCES OP TUEKET. EXPOETATIONS. Where To. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. Turkey . France . Great Britain Austria . Egypt . Greece . Sardinia £ 56,300 23,440 6,950 14,143 6,110 980 2,000 £ 60,834 24^900 450 11,600 10,000 1,100 £ 54,932 26,247 6,581 3,735 1,197 2,949 £ 13,542 32,697 38,462 6,769 3,372 854 £ 19,092 34,000 25,000 22,083 1,960 ' 833 Total 109,923 108,884 95,641 95,696 102,958 The following Table shows the value of the various articles imported into and exported from Ehodes during the year 1856 ; — Importations. EXFOBTATIONS. Name! of Articles. Value in FcU. sterling. Names of Articles. Value in Pds. sterling. Coffee .... 11,410 Sponges, fine 34,872 Sugar .... 4,009 25,385 Pepper 1,068 „ coarse 4,487 Drugs and medicines , 4.273 Honey 2,051 Cotton twist 12,393 Wax . 6,094 „ manufactures . 4,274 Wheat 2,991 „ printed calicoes 6,154 Onions 3,604 Cloths 2,564 Wine . 4,915 WooUen manufactures 3,205 Sundries 11,342 Grey goods . 6,923 Silk, yarious kinds 2,222 Sailcloth , 1,538 Coals .... 6,800 Tin ... . 6,128 Cattle 2,137 Wheat 9,829 Rice .... 2,479 Timber 4,274 Leather 2,709 Sundries 41,945 Total . 135,334 Total . 95,641 RHODES. 159 IMPORTATIONS. Colonials. — The importation of colonials was valued at about 12,000Z. in 1858 ; whereas, in 1848, their value only amounted to 4,000Z. Manufactures. — The articles most in request have been, and still are, printed caKcoes, madapolams, grey- goods, and woollen stuffs. The value of these goods imported in 1858 amounted to 40,000Z. ; in 1848, to 20,000Z. If our manufactures were brought direct from Great Britain to Ehodes, instead of by way of Smyrna, as at present, from which last place the merchants are obhged to purchase them, enormous expenses would be saved ; the inhabitants of all the islands, as well as Ana- toha, would then obtain our goods much cheaper, and, as a natural consequence, the importation thereof would be considerably extended. EXPOKTATIOlfS. Sponge Fishery. — Sponges form the principal article of exportation ; within the last few years the number of boats employed in this fishery has increased one-third, while the number of men has nearly doubled, as is shown by the subjoined return : — Average Number of Boats and Men employed hy each Island in the Sponge Fishery. In 1854. In 1858. Islands. Number of Boats. Number of Men. Number of Boats. Number of Men. Calynmos Symi Halki . Castel Eosso Leros Stampalia Telos Cassos 120 120 60 40 30 10 840 840 420 280 210 70 254 190 65 40 30 12 7 2 2000 1450 480 300 210 90 56 14 Total . 380 2660 600 4600 160 THE EE30UECES OF TOEKEY. The sponges are of three different qualities, namely — fine, common, and coarse. In the fine sponges there is but one in ten of the first, or superior quality ; the rest are of a second, or inferior fine quality. In the common sponges there is but one in four of a first quahty, the rest are of a second common quahty. In the coarse, one-half are of first quahty, and the other half of a second coarse quahty. Thus it will be seen that the fine, common, and coarse kinds of sponges may be divided into two qualities each. The following is the value, in round numbers, of the sponges sold during the five years ending 31st Decem- ber 1858 :— Years. 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 Amounts Sold. Total. Fine. Common. Coarse. £ 30,000 33,000 35,000 51,000 36,000 £ 20,000 22,000 25,500 25.000 50,000 £ 4000 5000 4500 5000 5000 £ 54,000 60,000 65,000 81,000 90,000 Of the sponges purchased iu these islands, about two- thirds of the fine, one-quarter of the common, and one- quarter of the coarse (aU of the first quahties) are sent to London ; half of the best common quahty to France (none of the other quahties are exported to that country) ; one-eighth of the common, and many of the coarse (aU second quahty) to Trieste. The refiise of the fine, common, and coarse sponges are sent to Constan- tinople. Lately, a few good fine sponges have been sent to the United States of America. The foUowing Table shows the total amount of RHODES. 161 shipping, with the value of the imports and exports, at Ehodes, Mitylene, Scio, and Cyprus, during the year 1859:— Rhodes Mitylene Scio . Cyprus . Number of Vessels. Tonnage. Value of Imports. Value of Exports. 2687 1401 1959 678 166,967 231,728 131,520 63,817 137,780 319,800 143,383 103,380 97,476 292,700 163,361 107,550 6725 694,032 704,343 661,087 From Mr. Campbell, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Rhodes. Money here is scarce, and high interest is paid for it to the native merchants. The sponge fishers, particu- larly, who require large pecuniary advances to enable them to carry on their sponge-fishing operations, always borrow money at the rate of 3 to 4 per cent, per month — 36 to 48 per cent, per annum. 162 CHAPTER XVni. MITYLEXE. The island of Mitylene, the ancient Lesbos, is situated in tlie TRg e-an sea, opposite to Asia Minor, and lies between the Gulf of Adramyti on tlie north, and that of Smyrna on the south. It is supposed to number 80,000 inhabitants, and contains mines producing iron, coal, emery, and antimony, as well as forests of con- siderable extent, one of which, that of Tehiamlik, is nearly seven leagues in circimaference, and is, in one part, within one-and-a-half leagues from the sea. Un- fortunately, however, its fine natural harbours are filled up with rubbish, and, in the whole island, there is not one road fit for a carriage. The city of Mitylene, in which the Governor, the Greek Archbishop, and the Vice-Consuls of the various European powers reside, is built on a peninsula, at the extreme point of which stands a fort dating back to the time of the Genoese occupation. It possesses two harbours — one on the north, which is very nearly choked up, and one on the south, which is now only accessible to vessels of 100 tons. The population of the city and suburbs amounts to 10,000 souls : — Mussulmans 2,000 Chiistians — Greek Church .... 7,000 1 g qqq Anueuiaus, Catholics, &c 1,000 J ' 10,000 MITYLENE. 163 IMPOETS. The imports consist chiefly of wheat, barley, maize, Levant tobacco, sugar, coffee, Eussian butter, soda, rum, lead, French leather, EngUsh and Eussian iron, cotton and woollen manufactures from England and Germany, arms, furniture, &c. The value of cereals imported from 1854 to 1858 was :— Year. £ s. d. 1854 . 150,660 1855 . 114,400 1866 . 129,366 1857 . 201,295 8 1858 . 180,436 12 EXPORTS. The exportations consist of ohve-oil, soap, silk, silk cocoons, valonia, skins, wool, figs, fresh fruit, lambs, brandy, cheese, &c. The oil is exported to Turkey, France, England, and Austria ; the valonia to Trieste ; the cocoons to France, and the other articles to various ports in the Levant. The value of the annual exports is as follows : — Year. £ 1854 98,453 1855 33,632 1856 . . . . . 112,476 1857 114,-309 1858 143,233 In 1859, the total imports and exports were : — Number of Vessels. Tonnage. Value of Imports. Value of Exports. 1,401 . . 231,728 , . £319,800 , . ^6292,700 The prices of provisions were doubled by the Crimean war, and have not since then undergone any sensible variation. They are at present : — M 2 164 THE EESOHRCES OF TUEKET. ». d. Bread, per oke of 2^ lbs 4 Beef 8 Kid 6 Lamb „ 1 Ksh „ 10 Kidney potatoes 2 Onions „ 2 Dried vegetables 4 Fresh „ 2 Wine „ 8 Oil 1 Butter „ 3 Milt „ 6 A fowl „ 1 8 A turkey „ 5 The Christians of Mitylene rank very high in the Levant for their skill in masonry, rough joinery, rough casting and painting. There are about 4,000 employed in these trades, half of whom emigrate every year, in search of employment, to Smyrna and Constanti- nople. The wages have considerably risen since 1854, viz. : — In 1854. la I860 «. d. g. d. Ship-caulker, per day 3 5 Carpenter „ 3 4 2 Painter „ 2 4 4 Mason „ 1 10 3 Eeaper „ 1 6 2 4 Labourer „ 1 4 2 Hodman „ 10 1 6 Female Olive-gatherer 5 8 16S CHAPTEE XIX. SCIO. The island of Scio possesses an area of 340 square miles, and is divided naturally into two districts : the highlands, comprehending the villages situated in the north and west, and the lowlands, containing those of the centre and south. The number of these villages is sixty-six, of which thirty-six are in different parts of the north, inhabited by a population of 17,000 souls ; nine, including the city, he iu the centre, with a population of about 20,000 souls ; and twenty-one in the south, with 23,000 inhabitants. The total population of the island before the revolutions of 1821 and 1827 amounted to more than 120,000 souls; but in the year 1830, the number was scarcely 20,000. As the births, how- ever, are in excess of the deaths, in consequence of the healthiness of the climate, the population has sensibly increased, and the number is now estimated at 60,000, viz: — Mussulmans ..... 1,800 Greeks _ • 57,400 Eoman Catholics (descendants of the ancient Genoese) ..... 400 Jews 200 Negroes . . • • • 200 Total 60,000 The inhabitants of Scio are laborious, intelligent, economical, honest, and enterprising, and devote them- 166 THE EESOUECES OF TUEKET. selves cMefly to the three foUowing branches of industry : agriculture, commerce, and navigation. They are re- markable for ability, activity, and a determination to overcome every difficulty, and possess, in the highest degree, a natural predilection for commerce, and turn to some account whatever produces money. In confirma- tion of this, it may be stated that the largest proportion of the commercial establishments in Turkey are owned by natives of Scio, and that the richest Greek merchants in Europe have nearly all come originally from that island. The two distinctive traits in the character of the natives of Scio are, great honesty and great economy. The latter, indeed, sometimes verges on parsimony, for the richest native of Scio will often deny himself import- ant necessaries to save expense, and will not ordinarily enjoy his easy circumstances, but continue to toil on for the piLq)Ose of amassing money. A case of burglary, murder, or assassination is hardly ever known in the island. The Turks are not very fiinatical ; they take but Uttle interest in commerce, living generally on the revenues of tiieir land, and are on very good terms with the Christians. PRODUCE. The chief products are: mastic, oranges, lemons, almonds, silk, cereals, beans, lentils, grey peas, oU, wine, cotton, leather, brandy, confections, which are the com- modities exported; and grapes, caroubs, walnuts, figs, apricots, prunes, pistachios, peaches, &c., which are consumed at home. Mastic. — All the twenty-one villages of the south pro- duce this gum. Before the cold of 1850, they produced from 45,000 to 50,000 okes; but, in consequence of many of the trees having been killed by the frost, the amount SCIO. 167 collected was mucli reduced. Since then, however, the quantity has greatly increased, and in 1858 as much as 20,000 okes were collected. Mastic, one of the chief resources of the island, is a kind of gum which oozes from the trunk of a tree of the same name, but it can only be cultivated in the southern part of the island. AU endeavours to propagate this tree, whether in other parts of the island or in other countries, have totally failed. The tree which produces mastic rarely exceeds eight feet in height ; its leaves are evergreen, and re- semble those of the turpentine-tree. To extract the mastic, incisions are made on the main trunk, and from them the gum issues. Lemons and Oranges. — The cold of the same year, 1850, injured also the orange and lemon trees, the value of the produce of which had hitherto been as high as from 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 piastres. The old stocks have, however, since put out new shoots, and the quan- tity of oranges and lemons increases every year. Their present value is about 2,000,000 piastres, and it is hoped that the former prosperity wUl be soon attained. Almonds. — The quantity of almonds varies much; sometimes it is as great as 400,000 okes, and sometimes as low as 40,000 or 50,000 okes only. They are esteemed some of the best in Turkey. These great variations in the quantity of almonds are owing to the unseasonable warmth occasionally experienced in the early spring, which brings the blossoms too forward, and then the high winds in the beginning of summer cause them to fall, and there remains thus but httle to gather. Silk. — The cocoon harvest is estimated at about from 15,000 to 16,000 okes annually, from which, formerly, the silk was taken on the island ; but now the cocoons 168 THE KESOUECES OF TUKKET. are usually bought by French merchants, who have the silk spun either at Smyrna or in France. Wheat and Barley. — Scio does not produce more than 75,000 to 80,000 kilos of wheat, which only sup- ply the home demand for three months. During the remaining nine months, the island is dependent on com brought by Scian vessels from the Danube, Eoumeha, Karamania, and Egypt. These vessels carry com also to the neighboiuing coasts of Tchesme, Alazata, &c., which are without cereals. Barley is very little culti- vated or imported, and animals are fed generally with hay and beans. Pulse. — The average crop of beans is from 16,000 to 18,000 kilos ; that of lentils from 1,500 to 2,000 kilos, and that of grey beans from 4,000 to 5,000 kilos. These vegetables are of excellent quahty, and are mostly exported to Constantinople. Oil—The supply of oil ranges from 25,000 to 30,000 okes, which were formerly consimied in the island, but its excellence having in time been discovered at Constan- tinople, the largest portion is now exported there, and Mitylene and Candia send what is wanted by the island. Wine. — ^The wine of Scio, once highly esteemed, has lost much of its former reputation. Before the disease of the grapes, about eight years ago, the crop amounted to from 200,000 to 250,000 okes ; it has since much diminished, and it is now necessary to import for home consumption. CoUon. — ^From 600 to 800 kintals of cotton are annually produced. This cotton is used in the local manufacture of the cloth employed for the sails of ships. The British Vice-Consul made a free distribution, some time ago, of American cotton seed, which has succeeded SCIO. 169 well, and will contribute to increase the cultivation of this plant. Madder. — This has only been cultivated since 1853. It has been exported to England, and its success has induced many landholders to plant it ; in a few years, it is expected that this root will become one of the chief branches of commerce in the island. Leather. — ^In Scio there are several tanneries, which are supphed with skins from Egypt and Buenos Ayres. When tanned, the skins are exported to the islands of the Ottoman Archipelago. These tanneries promise well, and business has already been transacted with Anatoha, Syria, and even Dalmatia. Brandy. — The brandy is considered the best in Turkey, chiefly on account of the mastic put with it, which gives it a peculiar flavour. It is sent to Con- stantinople to the value of nearly 1,000,000 piastres. Confectionery. — Scio is renowned for its confections and preserves. Many people carry on trade in this branch with the capital and the principal cities of the Ottoman Empire. Grapes. — ^Many merchants buy the grapes of Tchesme for export to France, Hamburgh, England, and Trieste. The island produces but few grapes. COMMERCE. The commerce consists not only in the exportation of the chief products of the island, such as mastic, lemons, oranges, almonds, brandy, leather, vegetables, &c., and the importation of the articles which the island does not afford, such as wheat, oil, &c., together with colonial produce, manufactured goods, hardware, &c., &c., but likewise in external mercantile enterprises. 170 THE EESODECES OF TURKEY. The latter are conducted through the medium of native ships, maintaiaed by the merchants of Scio, which enter foreign ports for the purpose of speculating, and load cargoes on their own account. The products of which the island is in want are procured chiefly from Turkey ; wheat, however, which is required as well for the neighbouring coasts and islands as for Scio itself, and the imports of which amount to about 300,000 kilos, comes from the Danube, Eoumeha, Karamania, and Egypt. Oil is brought from Candia and Mitylene ; wine from Cyprus ; the larger portion of manufactured goods and hardwares from Smyrna, Constantinople, and England ; chains, iron, anchors, and rigging are im- ported from Europe; sugar, coffee, &c., exclusively from France. All these articles come to Scio in native vessels. Schooners and other vessels used in the coast- ing trade are generally employed in the voyages to Anatolia, whence they convey wheat for the use of Scio and the other islands. These vessels make a twofold use of thefr journey, by carrying at the same time such products from Scio as may be in demand, and very often taking over European goods, such as manufactures, hardware, and earthenware, &c., which they have purchased at Scio itself. The greater part of the imports from the European markets is also conveyed by native vessels, which likewise bring cereals from Eussia and the Danube to Marseilles, Trieste, Leg- horn, and England. The total capital employed in the import and export trade, and in the construction of ships, &c., exceeds annually 60,000,000 piastres. In addition, the capital sunk in shipping belougmg to the island, including the expenses of their equipment, exceeds 40,000,000 piastres; SCIO. 171 thus making a total of more than 100,000,000 piastres. There are at Scio two insurance companies, held in shares by merchants of the island, which insure native vessels only. The annual amount insured in these companies is calculated at about 50,000,000 piastres. Failures are uncommon, but if one occurs, it is sub- mitted to a severe examination ; and, if the merchant is found guilty of fraud, he is condemned to prison for a longer or shorter period, according to the offence. The following Table wiH convey some idea of the value of the various commodities imported and ex- ported during the year 1858 : — IMPOETS. Names op Articies. Weights and Measures. Quantity. Value. Wheat .... quarters 28,280 £ 54,359 Barley jj 3,150 2,872 15,697 Manufactured goods bales 436 Coffee, sugar chests 3,193 15,966 Drugs English iron, chains SJ 324 3,769 cwts. 6,040 3,948 Timber . JJ , ^ 3,846 Rigging . ft , , 6,385 Pewter and copper pounds 16,875 649 Hardware . cases 215 2,743 Paper bales 167 1,555 Cotton yarn J? 74 2,376 Raw hides poimds 235,000 6,632 Pottery, glass . cases 401 2,4.36 Salt fish . hogsheads 1,780 2,692 Butter, cheese, &c. pounds 287,500 7,650 Spirits of wine . , , 6,648 Sundries . , , . . 7,600 Tobacco and salt 4,872 Total 151,695 172 THE RESOURCES OP T0RKET. EXPORTS. Names of Abticles. Weights and Measures. Quantity. Value. Wheat .... quarters 6,870 14,102 Mastic pounds 43,760 22,325 Silk cocoons yf 43,750 11,992 Grapes cwts. 11,715 10,521 Almonds . pounds 100,000 17,735 Brandy . . . , 11,282 Confectionery . cases 750 4,100 ?; pounds 46,250 21,598 Oranges and Lemons packages 11,500 12,778 Madder cwts. 1,760 3,700 Shrubs number 2,500 684 Sundries . . , 7,692 Sail cloth . pieces 2,000 1,368 Vegetables . . , , 4,102 Oil pounds 100,000 2,051 Totals 146,030 NAVY. The island of Scio possesses about 120 ships, of from 150 to 200 tons, with crews of 15 or 16 persons; 140 schooners, of from 30 to 100 tons, with crews of 7 or 9 persons; and 160 to 170 small sailing boats, employed in the coasting trade between the islands and the neighbouring coast of Anatoha. AU these vessels belong to merchants or captains of Scio, and it is cal- culated that the capital sunk in them, including the salaries of the captains, amoimts to a sum of 40,000,000 piastres. Native ships not uncommonly make the voyage of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and within the last few years they have even undertaken the voyage to England. The Scian ships are preferred generally to aU other Greek vessels, on account of the integrity and naval skill of their captains. It is seldom at Scio that a vessel belongs to a single owner ; almost SCIO. 173 aU are the property of joint owners, among whom is the captain, and the largest merchants have an interest in several ships. Both captains and sailors are natives of Scio, and come principally from the village of Vrondado, which is situated about two miles from the city, and has about 6,000 inhabitants, who are mostly seafaring. The shipping of the island increases every year. The following Table shows the amount of shipping, together with the value of imports and exports, during the six years from 1854 to 1859 inclusive : — Years. Kumber of Vessels. Tonnage. Value of Imports. Value of Exports. 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1,066 864 891 842 890 1,959 69,579 79,320 119,906 120,262 122,420 131,520 £ 135,540 141,250 191,900 156,655 151,695 143,383 £ 104,425 104,030 170,070 142,470 146,030 163,361 174 CHAPTEE XX. CTPETJS. The island of Cyprus is separated from the coast of Karamania by a channel of about twenty-five leagues in width. Its area approximates to 1,000 square leagues, which may be subdivided in the following manner : — One-fifth, having a mountainous character, is adapted chiefly for the growth of timber ; but, nevertheless, a portion could be turned to account for the culture of the vine. This mountainous district of the island ofiers immense resources ; the forests of Thrados alone, which he in this section, if properly managed, woidd produce annually a considerable number of pine-trees. Oaks are also seen in thousands on the dechvities of this mountain district, which extends, for five leagues, close to the sea. Two-fifths of the island are occupied by hills, on which grow chiefly ohves, mulberries, vines, and fruit-trees of all sorts. The remaining two-fifths are composed of magnificent plains and extensive open coimtry, which, though wanting in rivers and streams, are still very productive in cereals ; in feet, the eastern portion of the island, where is situated the ancient port of Famagosta, has always been the granary of the island. Soil. — ^The soil of Cyprus, which is of very great fertility, and which formerly supphed the wants of a CYPRUS. 175 population exceeding a million and a half, still responds too kindly to the natural indolence and want of skiU of its present inhabitants, of whom hardly one-fourth are devoted to agriculture. Agriculture. — Labourers use a kind of plough, a rude and miserable implement, without wheels, drawn by two oxen, and driven by one man ; like the earhest plough, it penetrates the soil scarcely more than two inches. It is used in the tillage of the plains, and the cultivation of the vineyards and vegetable gardens. The husband- men wait generally till the autumnal rains have softened the soU, and then, after ploughing up twice, they sow the seed, and merely level the earth with a common plank. Any young man, though far from able-bodied, can drive one of these ploughs, sow, and, with the aid of the women, reap and store the produce. The few districts in the island which have the advantage of run- ning water are chiefly devoted to the culture of cotton, barley, and wheat ; sesame and vegetables are but httle cultivated. The water is, at stated times, distributed over the different meadows, but, as these are not well levelled, the earth is unequally moistened — and often, indeed, the water soaks away without rendering any service. Products. — ^The island produces cereals in abundance, wool, cotton, madder, silk, flax, sesame, tobacco, colo- cynth, oil, wine, figs, currants, oranges, honey, pitch, skins, yellow, red, and green umber, butter, and cheese. The products, which have been more abundant in later than in preceding years, will continue to increase in proportion with the importance acquired by the agri- cultural population of the island ; for immense tracts of waste land exist, which might be cultivated success- fully for every purpose. The cultivation particularly of 176 THE EESOUECES OF TURKEY. the vine and mulberry would be followed by satisfac- tory results. The silkworm at Cyprus furnishes two harvests in one year : the first generation produces the cocoon in the early part of April, lays eggs, revives, and in thus reviving spins a second cocoon about the end of May. This has often been confirmed by ex- periments. The silk harvest at Cyprus will always be in proportion to the number of hands engaged in that branch of industry ; mulberry-trees flourish, and the sflkworm-sheds may be erected in the open air. Mineral Products. — The mineral products of the island have hitherto been miexplored ; it is, however, certain that many mines would be discovered of sul- phur, coal, copper, iron, and perhaps also of gold and silver. Tradition and romance speak much of treasures concealed in the Isle of Cyprus. As far as is known, no one ever yet explored the island who was cognizant of these matters. In the neighbourhood of Cape Blanc, sulphur may be seen on the surface of the soU, and the entire character of the island promises most satisfac- tory results to those who would develop its mineral productions. Salt-pits, (^c. — Cyprus possesses two rich natural salt- pits, one of which is situated half a league from Lamica, and the other a third of a league from limassol. There are also coloured earths, trees, and roots, adapted for dyeiQg ; pot-herbs grow wild in the fields and prairies, while on the hUls exist rich pasturages, which would feed numerous flocks. Manufactures. — At Cyprus the arts and trades remain stationary; machinery and all other contrivances for simplifying work and saving hand labour are quite xm- known. At Nicosia, at Lamica, at Killani, and some other places, silk tissues for the consumption of the CYPUDS. 177 island are prepared, wMcli are good and solid, but of coarse execution. Woollen bags and slippers are also made, especially the red and yeUow ones used by the Turks. Besides these there are manufactiired — lace, stuffs, and other articles ; but the production is hardly adequate to the demand, and there is, consequently, a large field for speculation in manufactures, metals, different tools, &c. Ports. — Larnica, the residence of all the European Consuls, is the chief seaport of the island, and carries on a considerable commerce. War steamers and sailing vessels coming to Cyprus usually cast anchor in the roadstead, which is formed by the two capes of Pdla and of Kitti, and affords a tolerable anchorage. Through Larnica pass aU the manufactured goods imported, as well as almost all the cereals, and a considerable part of the wines, caroubs, and sUks exported from the island. The population amounts to 15,000, of whom a third are Turks. Limassol is the chief port for the wine and bean trades, and has acquired considerable importance within the last few years on account of the demand for wines and spirits. It would be difficult to calculate the pos- sible produce of Cyprus, after some years of active and scientific cultivation, if the island contained a miUion of agriculturists, for the entire place is one unworked mine of enormous wealth. The hiUs alone which surround Limassol might produce annually, to an almost unhmited extent, the currants so highly prized in Europe ; and, although there is not a single vine in a circuit of more than four leagues from the town, Limassol nevertheless sends out a milHon barrels of wine as the produce of the mountains of the province, of which hardly one- N 178 THE EESOUECES OF TUEKBY. tenth, is cultivated. The oKve and caroub trees grow together on the chain of mountains encircling Limassol, ■without any cultivation being bestowed on them, while the hiUs are covered in some places with the oats planted in the time of the Venetians. Limassol con- tains between 5,000 and 6,000 inhabitants, of whom one-third are Turks. Famagosta, so famous under the Venetians, possesses an excellent spacious port, which, however, is now so choked up with mud, that it can only hold about a dozen small craft. It is well sheltered from all winds, and, if deepened, which could be done at a small ex- pense, would contain hundreds of large ships. Commerce. — The export of the products of the island, such as cotton, silk, madder, wool, lamb-skins, wheat, barley, new commanderie wine, caroubs, linseed, colocynth, sesame, and currants, is for France, England, Trieste, Malta, the Ionian Islands, Leghorn, Genoa, and Venice ; the other products are exported to Alexandria, Constantinople, Smyrna, Syria, and the islands of the Archipelago. To France is sent all the silk, and a large portion of the cotton, madder, wool, sesame, and flax- seed. To England, cereals and madders. To Trieste and Venice, commanderie wine, cottons, madders, beans, flax-seed, colocynth, lamb-skins, sesame, and currants. To the Ionian Islands are exported cereals and beans. To Leghorn, commanderie wine, wool, cotton, madder, and cereals. To Constantinople, Alexandria, Smyrna, Syria, Karamania, and the Isles of the Archipelago, common wines, brandy, spirits of wine, beans, cereals, pitch, tar, cheese, onions, and vinegar. Tlie present prices of products sold free on board, including every expense, are as foUow : — CYPEUS. 179 Cotton . Madder Wool . SUk Flax seed Colocynth Curranta Commanderie wine Common wine Brandy Spirits of wine Vinegar Beans, per kintal Wheat, per kilo Barley „ . per oke of 2J lbs. 7J pia^ » » 6 , » t> 6 , » » 260 , }> « 3 , » » 10 , » jf H , e „ » 3 » tr f> 2 ,, » » 6 „ » » 34 , ' ?» >f • 1 » 40 „ 30 , 15 „ The imports are limited to the mere necessaries of local consumption. Formerly, Cyprus furnished to the neighbouring coasts of Syria and Karamania the articles which she now imports. These are sugars, coffee, leather, cotton yam, copper boilers and saucepans, iron, steel, paper, glass, small shot, fowhng-pieces, woollen cloths, silks, rice, soap, candles, vitriol, alum, logwood, sal-ammoniac, codfish, sardines, eels, indigo, boards, &c. All cotton goods and indigo come from England by Beyrout. France furnishes colonial produce, leather, woollen cloth, small shot, silk stuffs, gums, and codfish, Trieste contributes glass, steel, iron, nails, wrought cop- per, paper, wax candles, boards, and sardines. Eice comes from Egypt ; soap and eels from Syria. The following approximate Table will give some idea of the general navigation, and the imports and exports of the single port of Larnica, during the five years ending 31st December, 1858 : — N 2 180 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. Year. Number of Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Value of Imports, Value of Exports, 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 320 385 563 799 715 47,643 59,629 64,347 66,892 76,993 4,451 5,478 7,358 7,015 7,415 £ 87,750 60,125 60,890 61,910 57,939 £, 179,690 136,060 140,300 131,070 131,110 Population. — In the time of the Venetians, the popu- lation of Cyprus was 1,000,000. In 1840, the entire population of the island was only 100,000 ; it is now, however, calculated at 180,000, distributed amongst 605 towns or villages, of which 118 are exclusively inhabited by Turks, 248 by Christians, and 239 by a mixed population. The number of Turkish famihes is 7,299, and of Christian families 19,215, making a total of 26,514 famihes. Condition of the Inhabitants. — Those inactive masses who hve from hand to mouth are not to be found in Cyprus ; aU who wish for employment can obtain it. The want of hands is so much felt, that anyone having a distaste for the calhng of fisherman or boatman can find employment at once, as cooper, porter, wine- gauger, broker for foreign captains, &c. There is pro- bably no country where Hviag is so easy as at Cyprus ; even the beggars, who are generally blind, maimed, or worn out by age, and have mostly a small house of then- own, are able to hve quietly at home, without begging more than one or two days in the week. The country enjoys perfect tranquilhty ; thefts are very rare, and robberies are unknown. Many years have passed since an assassination occurred in the island ; and altogether Cyprus enjoys the reputation of being the most peace- able island in the world. Its present state is that of a CYPRUS. 181 country which once was celebrated, rich, and populous ; which now is but the shadow of its former days ; but for which a better destiny may be reserved. Extract from Official Report to the Foreign Office, by Mr. Campbell, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Cyprus. There is not a single bank in all the island ; and, as capitaUsts are rare in Cyprus, the want of an estabhsh- ment of the kind is sensibly felt, especially within the last few years, in which commerce, both in imports and exports, has been so much developed. At present, mer- chants find themselves compelled to negotiate at Beyrout their drafts on Europe, which causes them delay, ex- pense, and risk, while it fetters the course of their transactions. 182 CHAPTEK XXI. COS. The island of Cos is twenty-tliree miles in length, and five miles in width, and contains a population of about 8,000 souls, of which two-thirds are Greeks, and the remainder Turks and Jews. This island is remarkably fertile, and well cultivated, considering its scanty population. In 1850, the frost destroyed or seriously damaged, as in many other islands of the Archipelago, the greater part of the lemon, orange, and other fruit trees. Previous to that year, the exportation of lemons was from 25 to 30 milHons ; of oranges, 4 millions ; of raisins, of five different sorts, fi-om 20,000 to 23,000 kmtals ; of fi-esh grapes and other fruits, from 90,000 to 100,000 okes ; of red and white wine, from 90,000 to 100,000 okes ; of spirits, only a small quantity; of almonds, from 1,300 to 1,500 kilos ; and of white Indian com, from 20,000 to 30,000 kilos. Everything is, however, gradually improving, and the principal articles now annually exported are : — 7,000 cantars of raisins, sold at 140 to 150 piastres the cantar; 6,000,000 lemons ; 150 cantars of wool ; 2,000 cantars of onions ; 4,000 kilos of sesame seed ; 1,000 kilos of ahnonds; 30,000 to 40,000 kilos of salt; some figs, melons, and water melons, and a small quantity of COS. 183 olives. Cotton, hemp, and silk are also exported, but not in any great quantities ; 40,000 kilos of wheat, and 90,000 to 100,000 kUos of barley. The principal articles imported are: — Oil, butter, rice, soap, oxen ; manufactures from England and France : coffee, sugar, iron, cotton twist, cloths, and prmted calicoes. The following is a general return, showing the amount of the populations of all the islands under the jurisdic- tion of the Governor-General at Ehodes : — Islands. Population Rhodes ..... 30,000 Cyprus 180,000 Scio 60,000 Mitylene 80,000 Cos . 8,000 Lemnos 24,000 Tenedos 4,500 Samothraki 2,500 Imbros 6,000 Mosco Nissi 6,000 Castel Rosso 4,000 Cassos . 5,000 Scarpantos 7,000 Halki . 2,000 Symi . 8,000 Telos . 2,000 Nissiros 2,500 Stampalia 1,500 Calymnos 9,500 Leros . 5,000 Patmoa 3,500 Nicaria 7,000 Psara . 2,000 Total . 460,000 T 11 Shipbuilding is carried on to a considerable extent in the above islands, particularly in the islands of Cassos, Castel Kosso, Halki, and Symi. The greater part of the vessels built in the two former islands, which, on an 184 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. average, amouiit to about sixty a year, are sold at Con- stantinople, Trieste, Marseilles, Greece, &c. ; so that sMpbuilding is becoming in these two islands an im- portant branch of commerce. The total niunber of vessels built in aU the islands of the Ottoman Archi- pelago amounts annually, on an average, to about one hundred and fifty, of from 100 to 500 tons each, besides nxmierous smaller craft. At present, the trade throughout the Archipelago is carried on in these vessels, which, when the weather is at all rough, often take a fortnight to beat up a distance of eighty or ninety miles against the strong north- easterly winds that prevail during nine months of the year. If steam-vessels, however, say from 200 to 300 tons, were to ply among these islands, there can be no doubt that, in a few years, an immense increase of trade would be the consequence. 185 CHAPTEE XXII. CRETE. Crete is well known to be one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Homer describes it as an extensive island in the midst of the stormy main, the soil being rich and fertile ; containing an immense number of inhabitants, and adorned with a hundred cities. At present, the island products com, wine, oil, opium, liquorice, flax, cotton, sUk, caroubs, oranges, lemons, dates, &c., and, besides the common domestic animals, game, wild sheep, chamois goats, bees, and fish are very- abundant. In 1832 the population was estimated at 153,000, but by the year 1851 it had increased to 221,265, divided as foUows : — Greek rural population . . . 143,050 „ ciiy „ . . . 7,181 150,231 Mohammedan rural population . 39,784 city „ . 28,216 68,000 Armenians 100 Jews 284 Foreigners 2,650 Total . 221,265 186 THE EESOUECBS OF TURKEY. The population has since gone on increasing (in the year 1855, the Greek births at Canea were exactly- double the deaths), and is now considered to be about 260,000 souls. As a natural consequence, the agricul- tural produce has also considerably increased. In the year 1837, the value of the tithe on agricultural pro- duce was estimated to be 5,675,000 piastres, exchange at 100 piastres per pound, say 56,750Z. ; whilst, for the two years, 1856-1857, commencing on 1-13 March, it was farmed out to several individuals for 22,499,170 piastres, making, at the exchange of 115, 195,645/. for two years, or 97,822/. 10s. for one year, being an increase of 41,072/. If to this sum of 97,822/. 10s. we add 10 per cent, as the probable expense of collection and profit to the farmer of the tithes, we have 1,076,040/. as the actual value of the agricultural produce of Crete for one year, exclusive of the value of animals. At a rough calculation, this amount may be di\ided as foUows : — Olive oil £a42,410 Barley 186,000 TMieat 127,075 Oats 71,800 Beans 20,955 Wine 124,404 Silk 47,499 Kaisins 32,044 Cheese . 31,936 Caroubs 22,484 Wool . 15,176 Oranges and lemc >ns 14,770 Almonds 11,130 Chestnuts 10,000 Honey 6,462 Cotton . 6,545 Talonia . 4,330 Wax 3,395 Brandy . 758 CEBTE. 187 The following is a comparison of the imports and exports for the years 1836, 183T, 1856,.and 1857 :— Imports . . . Exports . . . 1836. 1637. 1856. 1857. 151,654 161,703 £ 127,804 64,440 £ 406,832 433,240 £ 435,628 402,556 The following Table shows that a considerable in- crease has taken place in the number of vessels enter- ing the ports of Canea and Candia : — Nationality of Vessels. I 1838. 1855. 1856. Number. Tonnage. Number. Tonnage. Number. Tonnage. Turkish . . Greek , . . Ionian . . . French . . . Sardinian . . British . . . Neapolitan Austrian . . , American . . Tuscan . . . Samiote . . Roman . . . Norwegian Russian , . Syrian . . . 133 389 63 5 7 4 32 4 7 1 6,172 14,235 1,507 630 543 419 4,856 167 993 130 443 138 167 23 18 13 10 1 1 1 3 22,166 4,822 4,605 3,022 3,001 2,226 608 100 75 30 325 495 203 152 18 16 11 19 5 1 2 4 1 25,877 8,897 4,270 2,484 1,979 1,884 1,370 753 288 194 192 32 Total . 645 29,662 818 40,880 927 48,220 Of the manufactures, the chief is that of soap, which is highly esteemed all through the Levant. Any person can hire a soap manufactory for one single operation— that is, to make seven to eight tons of soap ; so that to become a manufacturer of this article does not requke any considerable capital. At Canea, about eight tons 188 THE BESOURCES OF TUEKET. of soap are produced per week from one boiler ; but at Candia, ten to eleven tons are made at one time. In the year 1837 there were only twenty-three soap manu- factories ; there are now fifty-one. At Canea and Candia, manufactories for reeling silk in the Italian manner have been estabhshed ; and im- proved machinery for expressing oil from the refuse of the oil mills has been introduced, with considerable profit. Some researches into the mineral resources of the island have also been lately made, and the result is, that fron and hgnite are said to be abundant. Manganese, nickel, and sulphur have likewise been discovered. The following is a list of the number of houses, shops, and soap manufactories in the three cities of Crete: — Cities. Houses. Sliops. Soap Maau- factories. Canea . Candia Ketimo 2,117 3,620 936 825 1,.314 403 23 20 8 Total . 6,672 2,542 51 WALLACHIA AND MOLDAVIA. 191 CHAPTEE XXin. IBRAILA, Ibeaila, situated on the left bank of the Danube, and fifteen miles south from Galatz, is the chief shipping port of Wallachia, whence the corn and other products of that principahty are exported. The town has of late years risen rapidly in extent and importance, and its population, which in 1838 amounted only to 6,000, is now estimated at 20,000. The trade of Ibraila has considerably increased, for whereas in 1847, a year of extraordinary exportation, in consequence of the famine in Ireland, there were exported from Ibraila and Galatz 1,836,647 imperial quarters of com (wheat, maize, rye, and barley), in 1852, a year of ordinary consumption, 1,769,799 im- perial quarters were exported. In the latter year, the value of the total exports from Ibraila amounted to 916,933^. ; but in 1855, they increased to 1,696,929^. The following Table shows the quantities and value of the different articles exported from Ibraila during the year 1852 : — 192 THK EKSOUECES OF TURKEY. Names of Articles. Quantities. Value in Pounds sterling. Grain, Wheat 843,684 quarters 343,584 Barley 80,278 „ 40,139 Rye . 1,296 „ 778 Maize 725,259 „ 489,550 Millet 5,180 „ 3,108 Linseed 849 ,; 1,358 Kapeseed 2,554 „ 3,320 Wool . 254,667 lbs. 8,489 Tallow 12,084 cwts. 18,126 Butter 274 „. 544 Cheese 912 „ 593 Staves 334,020 pieces. 5,567 Bones, calcined 282 tons. 917 Sundries Total . 860 916,933 The imports into Ibra'ila during the year 1852 were — British manufactured goods, 261,140Z. ; Turkish manu- factures, 1,260Z. ; cotton yam, 10,215^. ; sugar, refined and crushed, 65,800^. ; tea, 500Z. ; coffee, 5,852^. ; rum, 2,828Z. ; tin plates, 5,368Z. ; iron, iu bars, rods, and sheets, 12,600Z. ; nails, 5,660Z. ; coals (645 tons), 645Z.; oil, 20,666Z. ; ohves, 1,567Z. ; wine, 8001. ; champagne and other wines, 2,220Z. ; spirits, 814Z. ; raisins, 5,398/. figs, 1,505Z. ; lemons and oranges, 2,343Z. ; rice, 1,133Z. tobacco, 16,355Z. ; salt fish, 3,960Z. ; aniseed, 1,110Z. window glass, 4,500Z. ; dressed leather, 3,000Z. ; sun- dries, 10,667Z. ; total, 447,906/. 193 CHAPTEE XXIV. GALATZ. GALATZ^on the left bank of the Danube, is the chief seat of commerce in Moldavia. Its trade, hke that of all the other ports in the Ottoman Empire, has been of late years considerably augmented. In the year 1848, the importations into Galatz amounted to 319,405^. ; and in 1855, to 624,880Z. The value of the exporta- tions in 1848 was only 333,271Z. ; whereas, in 1855, the amount had increased to 1,271,209^. The following Table will show the steady increase that has taken place in the imports and exports since the year 1848 :— Years. Imports. Exports. £ e. 1848 319,405 333,271 1849 410,644 528,342 1850 435,090 367,700 1851 500,803 496,368 1852 441,759 567,110 1853 559,440 542,080 1854 121,440 148,280 1855 624,880 1,271,209 It wiU be seen from the above that the imports in 1855 almost doubled those in 1848, while the exports during the former year were nearly four times as much as the exports during the latter year. 194 THE EESODECES OP TURKEY. The quantities and value of the exports in the year 1852 were as follow : — Names of Articles. Quantities. Value in Pounds sterling. Grain, Wieat 187,555 quarters 206,310 Barley 468 „ 211 Eye . 96,900 ,, 62,985 iiaize 329,279 ,, 271,655 Linseed 1,351 1,824 Wool .... 229,120 lbs. 9,547 Tallow 866ewts. 1,472 Preserved beef . 170,280 lbs. 2,128 Bones, calcined . 197 tons. 634 Wine .... 30,200 gallons. 1,007 Planks and deals 193,000 pieces. 3,217 Masts and spars . 8 rafts 5,600 Sundries Total . 520 567,110 The importations into the port of Gkilatz during the year 1852 were: — British manufactured goods, 211,695Z. ; manufactures not British, 6,150Z. ; cotton yarn, 990^. ; sugar, refined and crushed, 55,602Z. ; tea, 2,160Z. ; cofiee, 6,264Z. ; rum, 3,780Z, ; tin plates, 11,427Z. ; iron (rods, bars, &c.), 13,050/. ; nails, 1,056Z. ; coals, 13,690Z. ; sal-ammoniac, 1,500Z. ; cotton wool, 1,055Z. ; soap, 4,098Z. ; oil, 18,869Z. ; ohves, 1,959Z. ; wine in barrels, 765/. ; champagne and other wines in cases, 2,060/. ; raisins and figs, 20,985/. ; lemons and oranges, 7,586/. ; almonds, 810/. ; rice, 8,526/. ; tobacco, 8,950/. ; cigars, 3,094/. ; caviar, 8,775/. ; fish, salted, 5,523/.; earthenware, 1,570/. ; leather (dressed), 4,780/. ; skins, 1,870/. ; sundries, 13,120/. ; total, 441,759/. IBHAiLA AND GALATZ, 195 GENERAL EEVIEW OF THE TRADE OF IBRAILA AND GALATZ. The following Table shows the great increase which has taken place in the exports of grain since the year 1837: — Years. 1837 1840 1843 1846 1849 1852 1855 1868 From Ibralla. Imp. Quarters. 128,247 281,227 612,321 668,014 523,178 1,155,597 1,172,009 1,278,982 From Galatz. Imp. Quarters. 186,344 419,605 251,887 523,636 493,918 614,202 890,630 347,531 Total. Imp. Quarters. 313,591 700,832 864,208 1,191,649 1,017,096 1,769,799 2,062,637 1,626,513 Table of estimated Vahte of all Articles exported from Ibraila and Galatz. Years. From Ibrula. From Galatz. Total. £ £ £ 1838 148,238 172,168 230,406 1841 226,610 189,036 414,646 1844 561,044 303,886 854,929 1848 611,968 333,271 945,229 1852 916,933 567,110 1,484,043 1865 1,696,929 1,271,209 2,968,138 1866 1,294,181 792,258 2,086,439 1867 891,672 696,386 1,486,968 Total Number of Vessels Loaded at Ibraila and Galatz in the years 1838, 1848, and 1858. Years. At Ibraila. At Galatz. Total. 1838 1848 1858 461 726 1291 517 397 490 968 1123 1781 o 2 196 THE EESODRCBS OF TUBKEY. Number of Vessels Loaded atlbraila and Galatz direct for the United Kingdom in the years 1843, 1845, 1848, and 1858. Years. At Ibraila. At Galatz. Total. 1843 3 4 7 1845 35 9 44 1848 115 115 230 1858 443 162 605 Number of Vessels, under different Flags, which Loaded at Ibraila and Galatz during the years 1838, 1848, and 1858. Nationautt of Vessels. Years. 1838 1848 1858 Greek 259 432 667 Britisli . 6 132 219 Turkisli . 358 247 211 Sardinian 120 66 124 Austrian . 90 99 115 Prencli . 8 8 75 Dutch . 1 — 61 "WaUachian 12 24 55 Ionian 40 28 55 Norwegian — — 34 TTanoverian — — 28 Danish . — 1 20 Oldenberg — — 18 Swedish . — — 15 Moldavian — 17 14 Samian . 8 5 13 Tusran . — 1 12 Prussian . — — 12 Neapolitan 2 1 9 Russian . 61 56 8 Servian . — — 5 Mecklenburg — — 2 Hamburg — — 2 Bremen . — 1 2 Jerusalem ■ — 1 2 Boman . 1 2 2 Belgian . 2 2 1 Total . . 968 1123 1781 IBEAiLA AND GALATZ. 197 In 1860, the value of all articles exported from Ibraila and Galatz to Great Britain alone amounted to 2,252,246^., viz. :— FniNcirAL AND Other Articlbs. Quantities. .Valoe in Poondb Steeung. 1856 1858 1860 1856 1858 1860 Com: "Wheat . qrs. „ Barley . „ „ Maize . „ „ Other kinds „ Seed : Linseed and Flaxseed . . „ „ MLUet. . cwts. „ Bape . . qrs. Tallow . . . cwts. All other Articles value TOTAI . . 124,671 11,135 196,706 1,844 14,631 2,046 133,566 203,324 431,597 14,799 1,069 5,818 21,540 97,400 539,826 656,054 22,590 47,793 15,976 1,104 i, 333,494 15,589 314,730 5,025 9,510 4,857 1,577 £ 262,807 223,314 633,8C0 18,908 2,770 1,745 64,800 5,177 £ 260,979 769,951 1,123,333 31,922 10,305 47,444 3,058 5,254 684,782 1,213,316 2,252,246 198 CHAPTEE XXV. ISMAIL AND KENI. The territory recently annexed to Moldavia, and known as New or Bessarabian Moldavia, differs in no respect from tliat of the province to whicli it now belongs. The land is equally fertile, and capable of producing a very large amount of grain, and other articles of commerce. The chief towns in the interior are Bolgrad, Cahul, and Leova ; and on the banks of the Danube, Ismail, Eeni, KHia, and Vilcof. The two principal ports from whence shipments are made by sea-going vessels are Ismail and Eeni ; the grain produced' in the neigh- bourhood of KHia and VUcof being almost entirely sent in small river craft to Ismail, which is well adapted for all purposes of shipping, having a long extent of open natural quay, with deep water, where upwards of 100 vessels can commodiously load at one time. The chief articles of export are grain and oleaginous seeds, wool, tallow, hides, cheese, butter, oxen, and sheep. The quantity of grain and seed exported from Ismail and Eeni during the year 1857 was as follows : — ISMAIL AND Umi. 199 Wheat . Indian com Eye Barley- Oats MiUet Linseed 38,845 Kisloz 47,636 do. 1,859 do. 37,685 do. 1,178 do. 4,545 do. 1,470 do. Total . 133,218 Kisloz,* equal to 199,827 Imperial Quarters. In 1858 the exports of grain from Ismail and Eeni were : — Grain. From Ismail. From ReDi. Total. .Wheat .... Indian com . Barley .... Eye .... Oats .... Total . . . Imp. Qrs. 73,337 24,843 75,192 14,066 5,847 Imp. Qrs. 18,337 34,423 28,476 4,073 2,309 Imp. Qrs. 91,674 59,266 103,668 18,139 8,156 193,285 87,618 280,903 * 1 kisloz equal to IJ imperial quarters. SYRIA. 203 CHAPTEE XXVI. STBIA. When Greece was in her infancy, and long before Eome had even been founded, the coast of Syria was covered with magnificent and wealthy cities. On the north stood Aradus (the Modern Eouad) ; eighteen miles to the south, TripoUs; at a similar distance Byblos (Djebail), with the temple of Adonis ; again, farther south, Berytus (Beyrout); at a like distance Sidon ; and, finally, about fifteen miles farther, stood the "Queen of the Waters," the stately Tyre. Erom the latter city arose commerce, civilization, the arts and sciences, and, above aU, that great instrument of social progress, the gift of letters. To its inhabitants, the Phoenicians, we are indebted for the knowledge of astronomy and arithmetic, as well as for the discovery of weights and measures, of money, of the art of keeping accounts or book-keeping ; for the invention, or at least for the improvement, of ship-building and navigation, and likewise for the discovery of glass. They were also famous for the manufacture of fine hnen and tapestry ; for the art of working in metals and ivory ; for their skUl in architecture, and especially for the manufacture of that rare and costly article of luxury, the Tynan purple.* A new and formidable rival, however — Alexandria * See Heeren on the " Manufactures of the Phoenicians." 204 THE EESOUBCES OF TURKEY. — at length competed with Tyre, and the trade of the latter became, to a considerable extent, transferred to that great city founded by the Macedonian conqueror. Nevertheless, when subsequently reduced to a Eoman province (b.c. 65), Syria lost nothing of her material prosperity; for the commerce which created her wealth, far from decreasiag, received an imexpected impulse, and found a new source of profit in the luxurious habits of her masters. Another and a more remimera- tive market was immediately opened, as the conquerors, having once tasted the delights of Asia, soon felt wants unknown to their frugal forefathers, and eagerly de- manded her perfumes, her silks, and her precious stones, which they paid for with the spoils of the world. The ports of Syria continued to send forth ships filled with rich and costly merchandise; with gold, sUver, tin, and other metals ; with vessels of brass, slaves, mules, sheep, and goats ; pearls, precious stones, and coral ; wheat, bahn, honey, oil, spices, gums, woven silk, and wine. Berytus (Beyrout) was famous for her immense exportation of com, oil, and the choicest wines. The cedars of Lebanon furnished the Eomans with wood for the manufacture of magnificent orna- ments, as well as for the domestic architecture of the rich, and the adornment of the temples of their gods. The dates of Syria were well known ; for Galen, in one of his treatises, mentions their properties, and compares them with those of Egypt. The plimas and other fruits of Damascus appeared, among various exotic luxuries, upon the tables of the epicures ; and Virgil tells us of a delicious species of pear, the cultivation of which had been, in his time, introduced from that country into Italy. Since the fall of the Eoman ascendency, however SYRIA. 205 (a.d. 638), tMs wondrous and classic land has been the scene of many contests, and the battle-field on which the destinies of many kings have been decided. But the details of these contests are foreign to the pur- pose of this work. Notwithstanding, however, all the vicissitudes through which the country has passed, and the oppression under which the people have groaned, the Syria of to-day is as rich and fertile as the Syria of twelve hundred years ago. Upon her fruitful soil, wheat, barley, maize, rice, cotton, spring up with the same luxuriant abundance. The sugar-cane and to- bacco, those two modern sources of wealth, abound ; and the white mulberry trees afford food for myriads of silkworms, which supply the manufactories of Lyons with their precious products. Limestone, sandstone, basalt, slate, coal, iron, and copper are plentiful in the mountain districts ; timber of every description may be had for the felling ; while sycamores of enormous size spread their branches wide enough to cover a whole caravan with their grateful shade. Here are valleys where everything useful or beautiful in the vegetable kingdom is produced, by the most superficial cultivation, in rich and prodigal abundance. Here are gardens where the rose, the orange-fiower, the jasmine, mingle their perfumes into one dehcious odour, almost too powerful for the senses. Avenues of fig-trees shade the roads ; growths of oleander foUow the course of the rivers ; red-flowered grass blends its hues with a thousand gay flowers that enamel the meadows ; above is the beautifully blue vault of heaven, and between stretches the clear ocean of pure, pellucid atmosphere. In the poetry of the Turks, this favoured region has been called " the odour of Paradise ; " in that of the Hebrews, "a garden planted by God for the first 206 THE EESOUECES OP TURKEY. man ; " and in that of tlie Arabs it is described as a country "where the mountains bear winter on their heads, spring upon their shoulders, autumn aroimd their bosoms, while summer is ever sleeping at their feet." For some years past, a very extraordinary improve- ment in the commercial prosperity of Syria has been everywhere apparent, despite the disadvantages arising from a want of that internal communication which is so necessary to the extension of trade. For example, in the year 1851 the imports at Aleppo amounted to only 486,060/., whereas in 1855 they increased to 1,414,059/. In 1854 the exports were 993,630/., but in 1855 they amoimted to 1,254,130/. At Beyrout, the imports in 1841 were only 66,748/. ; in the year 1848 they had increased to 546,266/. ; in the year 1853 they amounted to 722,864/. ; in 1856, to 1,162,676/. ; in 1857, to 1,324,550/. ; while during the year 1859 they still further increased to 1,448,860/. The ex- ports in 1841 amounted only to 25,128/. ; in 1848 they were 253,648/. ; in the year 1853 they increased to 624,544/. ; in 1856, to 795,657/. ; m 1857, to 983,398/., and in the year 1859, to 1,698,456/.* At Alexan- dretta, Latakia, Tripoh, Sidon, Kaifia, and Jaffa, signs of an increasing conamerce have been also evident, and there can be little doubt that, now the Lebanon has been pacified, the country wiH soon resume its former activity, trade will revive, and plenty wiU again spread happiness over the land. The traffic between India and Europe, so long carried on through the Atlantic * The value of our exports to Syria (the produce and manxrfactures of Great Britain, exclusive of foreign and colonial produce), in the year 1848, was 258,186/. ; in 1853 this amount increased to 306,580i ; in 1854, to 366,993t ; in 1857, to 703,375?. ; and in 1858, to 760,497/. SYRIA. 207 and Indian Oceans, is gradually returning to its more direct and natural course ; and it is by no means im- probable that the route by the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf will shortly prove to be the best and cheapgest, a it is decidedly the shortest. The royal cities of Nineveh and Babylon are, it is true, no more, and the mean towns of Mosul and HiQah alone mark the places where they stood; but the great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, which contributed to their grandeur, are still capable of being made important arteries of commerce. * The Jordan, although only sixty * On the Tigris and Euphrates, the same means of communication that prevailed centuries ago are still in use, without the slightest attempt at improvement. Rafts made of skins form the only means of transport, and these even are only available for descending the stream. A raft is composed of 110 inflated sheep-skins, which cost each about one shUling and twopence. They are fastened together by poplar poles, of which also a rough flooring is made. Each raft is navigated by two men, whose wages, from Diarbekhr to Mosivl, are about thirteen shillings. The ordinary hire of a raft is between five pounds to six pounds, and each carries about flfty-four cwt. of merchandise." From Diarbekhr to Mosul, and thence to Baghdad, merchandise and produce are usually con- veyed by these rafts, but from Baghdad and Mosul to Diarbekhr all goods are conveyed by pack animals — camels, horses, mules, and asses. The latter, in fact, form the only means of conveyance between Diarbekhr and the Black Sea, or between Baghdad, Diarbekhr, Aleppo, and the Mediterranean. These animals are capable of carrying as follows : — Camel ... 6 cwt. Mule Horse Ox . Sf 3i „ 2J „ H „ Some few years ago it was estimated that Baghdad sent annually, even as far as Erzerum, two thousand mule-loads of pearls, sDk, cotton, stuffs, shawls, coffee, gaU-nuts, indigo, &c. ; stiU more to Mosul, Diarbekhr, and Orfa, and five thousand to Aleppo. The making of good roads, and the substitution of carriage waggons for these primitive and expensive methods of conveyance, would form one of the safest modes of specula- tion in which capital could be embarked in Turkey. 208 THE EESOUECES OP TUEKET. feet wide, is ia some places twenty feet deep, and might easily be rendered navigable ; while the Orontes rushes through the plain with a velocity and a headlong im- petus that have induced the Arabs to caU it El-'Asy, or The EebeL The maritime cities of Syria are de- spoiled and neglected. Tyre, whose " merchants were princes, and her traffickers the honourable of the earth," has become " a place for the spreading of nets in the midst of the sea ; " but the old Berytus still remains, bereft, to a great extent, of her artificial splendour, yet possessing those natural beauties which time can- not destroy, and reviving, by her increasing trade, the memory of the vast commerce which she once enjoyed, and that greatness to which, from the advantages of her position, she is now again so hkely to attain. The eyes of Europe are, once more, eagerly turned towards this land for whose deliverance the proud chivalry of Christendom once shed its blood and won its victories in vain. This land, endeared by so many hallowed re- collections, made famous by the superhuman prowess of a Eichard Cceur-de-Iion and a Salah-ed-Din ; this land, teeming vdth untold wealth, and whose soil bursts spontaneously with productiveness, is now being quietly and gradually occupied by the descendants of those who, nearly eight hundred years ago, fought and fell upon its plains ; and civilization, which here had its birth, but which fled in terror before rude and ignorant barbarians, finding a refuge in the West, is now coming back again upon the wings of Peace, seeking for its ancient but stiU. remembered home. 209 CHAPTEE XXVII. BEYROUT. Beyeout is the port of Damascus, and the entrepot for the commerce of the Druses and Maronites of Mount Lebanon, who are the most industrious and intelUgent of all the native populations of Syria : hence its thriv- ing condition, and the steady augmentation of its trade and affluence. Within the last few years, a new town seems to have sprung up from the ruins of the old. The means and apphances of European civihzation have been introduced ; streets have been paved, and spacious warehouses erected.* No longer than fifteen years ago, there was scarcely any steam communication between Beyrout and Europe. Now, the mails leave London for Syria every ¥nd.aj,vid Marseilles, and every Monday, via Trieste ; while EngUsh steamers run regularly between Beyrout and Liverpool. In the year 1853, only thirty- nine British vessels entered the port of Beyrout, tonnage 8,546 ; while in 1855 there were 113, tonnage 39,132. The hne of steamers belonging to the " Messageries Irnperiales" and "Austrian Lloyd's Company" has also been increasing : thus, ninety-two of the former, ton- nage 21,049, entered Beyrout in 1855 ; while in 1856 * Here, in Beyrout, turn which way you will, houses are being erected on every vacant space, and land for building purposes has risen in value more than a hundred per cent, during the last eighteen months. The greatest improvements, however, are the roads, which, having been begun in one long trunk road by the Damascus Road Company, are now being carried on in various directions by the government. Anyone who left Beyrout, even so late as a year ago, would hardly know where he was, if put down now in many of the suburbs of the town, — Beyroui Correspondent of the Levant Herald, April 2, 1862. P 210 THE EESODKCES OP TURKEY. there were 106, tonnage 41,354. Of the "Austrian Lloyd's," fifty-eight steamers, tonnage 22,812, entered in 1855 ; and sixty-six, tonnage 28,278, in the year 1856. The following Tables show the trade with foreign countries during the years 1853, 1856, and 1837 : — Return of Imports at the Port ofBeyrout in the years 1853, 1856, and 1857. Wbebe from. 1853. Valae of car- goes in Founds sterling. 1856. Valae of car- goes in Founds sterling. 1857. Value of car- goes in Founds sterling. Great Britain .... Austria France Turkey Jerusalem flag .... Neapolitan and Boman . Sardinia Tuscany Greece Russia Norway HoUand 225,875 268,569 109,020 89,205 3,540 8,899 4,420 6,821 3,200 1,300 1,015 1,000 434,166 268,081 260,788 184,820 7,354 4,156 1,342 1,969 276,472 353,005 463,580 230,635 3,355 3,065 2,878 1,560 Total 722,864 1,162,676 1,324,550 Return of Exports at the Port ofBeyrout in the years 1853, 1856, and 1857. Wbebe to. 1853. Value of car- goes in Founds sterling. 1856. Value of car- goes in Pounds sterling. 1857. Value of car- goes in FouU'ls sterling. Great Britain .... Austria France Turkey Jerusalem flag .... Sardinia ...... Tuscany Greece Bussia U. S. of America . . . Holland 41,995 333,878 161,016 67,820 1,470 1,145 1,000 5,400 1,050 9,000 770 45,330 267,062 247,244 202,239 17,632 12,115 3,779 256 66,912 341,390 286,787 254,934 5,050 8,208 2,517 16,000 1,600 Total 624,544 795,657 983,398 BEYROUT. 211 00 to "S> s e ft? ^fc Jl mill 03 CDCDvnO 05 o 00 Ci ■* 00 >o "cS tj 33 1-1 os^ CO 05 o c^ o ft. «3 o 5^ i-T of>o"io"c3rio"io~ (m" t-ToTcTuf oq- ^'- H rH CO (O » 0 1 ^ 1 1 rH o U3 E S 1 1-1 ■* eg «tj 1 CO CT 1 (NIOCO 1 1 CO 1 1 (N lO o ^5 co" .2 o o ■* O o tj 1 CM 1-i 1 CQCOCTCQ ■^ CO £l co" Iffl -* tt> O lO oo o >a oooo -^ lO - >» ~ r-Tr-TsC ^^ ^^ lo" tH CN 05 CO O -"ll O CO ss'-M 'ii 1 lO" co^T-T io~ tiT TjT otToo^Oi CO ^- co^ -If CT CO rH 00 rH ffl 1> J-i ^ — \ ^ s "■1" 'i ■-^1 • ■ -^ Qj OJ rg ^ d ID 2 3 ^ i a s ^ s n S ° te fe opw^Stn S -J |s ■s s • • 1 ■< o ca 3 'If g^ -a ell 111 ^M^ g >i5 g ^> p 2 212 THE EESOURCES OF TTJEKET. 00 '^ fi^ H r-j_ i-H^ i-j^c^i-i oo_oo oo-*ioajt~-*o M ^ o o i-H o'a3coaoaStDC>oooo<^<-^ co~ ■H I-l i-l OJ CD CO i-H O r-H lO Oq i-ti-l 03 rH k £3 4 ^1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 o5S ^1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 s 8 o ll ^s 1 |i 1 1 is 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I-H >* ^i 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 s 1 od~ a in -* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1— 1 CO lO" P O O O OfMO O ^1 3, |S| 1.1 1 l||S-p. 1 « s S; 5 ^ *l 3 ^1 S3 gs§8 gg| 1 , , , cc t~ 1 X •= ^ O 1 ac_.- O CT ll < oo o X o c ox o-^ ooicsg £- J o e 1 ill ll fill iijiiiii 5 H JD 4 BEYROUT. 213 Description of Cotton Manufactures Imported into Beyrout during the year 1857. Grey T cloths. MadapoUams. Water twist. Handkerchiefe. Lapetz, English manufacture. Lapetz, imitation of Syrian manufacture. VeUs for the face, called yasmi. Levantines. Calico shirting and sheeting. Zebra shawls. Coton satinS. Curtains. Cambrics. Cotton velvet. Coloured yam. Chintz. Printed calicoes. Shirts. Muslins. Comparative Statement of the Number of British Vessels that Entered the Port of Beyrout during the years 1855 to 1859 inclusive. Years. Number of Vessels. Tonnage. 1855 113 39,132 1858 92 35,003 1857 66 26,381 1858 73 30,837 1859 63* 25,661 The foregoing statistics of the importations into Beyrout are well deserving the serious consideration of EngHsh merchants, for they disclose a state of things by no means flattering to our pride as a commercial nation. The growth and extension of our external trade is, no doubt, highly gratifying, and evidences the intensity and universality of our business enterprise. * Consisting of twenty-eight colliers, seven sailing vessels in ballast, three ditto with general cargoes, and twenty-five screw-steamers. 214 THE EESOURCES OP TURKEY. Not only are we keen competitors with other nations in almost every mart where the standard of civilization has been planted, but an incessant war is waged between our merchant princes, as the representatives of social advancement, on the one hand, and uncivilised tribes, who strenuously resist the encroachments of modern ideas, on the other. To open new markets for the produce of our looms and fiirnaces, is a distinct pro- fession in the world of commerce — a profession which is followed with such earnestness and devotion as, in the absence of other evidence, to induce the belief that our trade with old coimtries has been pushed to its utmost development consistent with commercial safety. Such, however, is unfortimately not the case. Our shipowners complain, yet the carrying trade of the Levant is pass- ing from our hands into those of the Greeks and kindred races ; and our merchants bewail the quietness of mar- kets and paucity of orders, whilst our neighbours in Europe are, in many places, monopolising the trade and pocketing the profits which by right ought to be ours. Syria is one of those countries where British com- merce has not attained the developement of which it is susceptible. For example, the imports at Beyrout, which in the year 1853 were only 722,864^., rose in the year 1856 to 1,162,676Z., and m the year 1857 to 1,324,550Z., or nearly double in the short space of four years. The exports also steadily increased from 624,544Z. in the year 1853, to 795,657/. in the year 1856, and to 983,398Z. m 1857. The imports from France, in the year 1853, were 109,020/.; and this amount increased in 1856 to 260,788/., and in 1857 to 453,580/. The imports from Austria, which hi the year 1853 were 268,569/., did not much vary during 1856; but in the following year they increased to BEYBOUT. 21S 353,005^. The imports from Great Britain in 1853 were 225,875^., which increased in 1856 to 434,166^. ; but were only 276,472^. during the year 1857. So that, with an increasing demand for the products of Western Europe, we find the French and Austrian trade steadily and rapidly increasing, whilst the value of the imports from this country diminished in the course of a single year to the serious extent of nearly one-half. The number of British ships which entered the port of Beyrout during the year 1855 amounted to 113 ; whereas, in 1859, there were only sixty-three, of which twenty-eight were coUiers. In fact, with the single exception of the article of coal, we would seem to have resigned the trade of Beyrout into the hands of Austria aud France. For example : in the year 1857, whilst the value of the copper and lead imported at Beyrout under the Austrian flag was, in round num- bers, 28,000/., and under the French flag 36,000/., the total declared value from this country was under 1,000/. ; in the articles of iron and steel, we only exported to the extent of one-eighteenth of the united French and Austrian value, which two countries divide with us the articles of cotton manufacture ; and in wooUen goods, while the value of the French exports amounted to 80,000/., and the Austrian to 70,000/., the exports from Great Britain were nil.* It cannot be supposed, for one moment, that the countries I have named can compete with us, in an open market, in the articles of metals, and cotton and woollen goods. These are our specialties ; and it is * It is also worthy of remark that, whilst the total trade between Turkey and Great Britain increased from 7,000,398/. in 1851, to 10,963,829/. in 1860, that between Tm-key and France increased, during the same period, from 2,899,254/. to 8,385,156/. 216 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. just possible that our merchants may neglect the Syrian trade until they find themselves practically excluded from all profitable participation in its benefits. It is idle to seek an excuse for this state of things in the geographical position of Austria and France. We pos- sess means of production and of transport far more considerable than these two countries ; yet we permit ourselves to be outstripped by them in the Syrian mar- kets. One cause, however, which may have contri- buted, in some measure, to this undesirable result, is the want of sufficient banking facilities between Great Britain and Syria ; and the following resolutions, un- animously adopted by the leading merchants of Beyrout, relative to the estabhshment of a branch bank in that city, testify how much such accommodation is required by the mercantile community : — " 1. That the importance of the affairs and the progressive developement of the commerce of Syria, render daily more apparent the necessity of a new bank at Beyrout. " 2. That an establishment of this nature, under the super- vision of a local committee of management, vifould secmre beforehand the sympathies of the whole mercantile community, and would unite the elements of undoubted success. " 3. That it is, therefore, of the highest moment for the mercantile community of Beyrout that the projected bank should be forthwith carried out." (Signed) (Here follow the signatures.) * " I hereby certify and attest that the signatures attached to the foot of the original declaration, exhibited at this Con- * The original is in mv possession. — J. L. F. BEYROUT. 217 sular-office, and whereof the foregoing is a faithful and correct translation, are known to me to be those of the subscribing firms respectively, that the said firms are of standing and respectability, and that the native houses subscribing are the leading Arab firms of Beyrout. "Noel Temple Mooke, " Her Britannic Majesty's Vice-Consul, Beyrout." The usual rate of discount in Beyrout for first-class paper, with two or three indorsements, and not having more than ninety days to run, is about sixteen per cent, per annum ; but in the bazaars the native saraffs, or bankers, charge as much as from twenty-four to thirty- six per cent, per annum on advances for two or three months, the security required being either lands, houses, goods, or gold ornaments. To a person unacquainted with the country, this rate of interest may perhaps appear excessive, particularly Avhen he considers that there is a large amount of wealth accumulated in the towns ; but it must be borne in mind that wealth is not necessarily capital ; and that although we may be, like Midas, surrounded with gold, yet, if that gold be unproductive, it is commer- cially valueless. ' The essence of wealth consists in the capacity of supplying the wants and ministering to the desires of men, and not in the capacity of beuxg accu- mulated ; ' * and it is, therefore, only when wealth is made use of for the purpose of reproduction that it becomes really useful, and takes the name of capital. In Syria, there is a great deal of wealth, but very httle capital. * M'Culloch's " Principles of Political Economy." 218 THE BESOUBCES OP TUBKET. The insecurity of property, which existed for so many years under the Ottoman rule, and the total ab- sence of any establishments in which money could be safely deposited, compelled the Syrians to invest their gains in the most valuable and, at the same time, the most portable articles. In consequence of this, a con- siderable proportion of the wealth of the place consists in jewels ; and it is startling, when visiting at the pri- vate houses of the native population, to see the quantity of diamonds and other precious stones worn by the females of the family. The head-dress is generally one mass of brilliants ; and the long hair, braided with silk, hangs over the shoulders loaded with gold ornaments and coins. The harem has always ajfforded a place of security ; it is the sanctuary of the wife, and has ever been held sacred and inviolable ; there is no instance of a pasha, or officer of any description, forcing his way into its hallowed precincts. No matter what poHtical change may affect the husband, the property of the wife is always secure ; under aU circumstances, it remains her own ; nor is it in any way hable for her husband's debts, any more than the trust-property of a married woman in England secured under settiement. And this applies to all her property whatever — not only that which she possessed before marriage, but, if her husband subsequentiy purchase lands or houses in her name, they belong to her absolutely, and no claim of any kind against the husband will reach them. The natives have largely availed themselves of this mode of investment for their savings, and thus, instead of being made use of in the ordinary way for the purposes of trade, the accumulated wealth of centuries has been BEYKOUT. 219 uselessly hoarded, and diverted from its proper function of reproduction. The following letters, received from an Enghsh mer- chant, for many years estabhshed at Beyrout, give some interesting particulars relative to the extensive field existing in Syria for the investment of capital : — ' The resolutions which have already been forwarded to you, signed by the leading merchants of Beyrout, are, I should think, conclusive proof of the unanimous feel- ing prevailing here upon the subject of estabhshing a new bank ; and I scarcely imagine that I can throw any further hght upon a matter with which, from practical experience, you are yourself so well acquainted, and, consequently, so well able to elucidate. Nevertheless, as you appear to think that my opinion may be of some importance, I can have no hesitation in stating that there is plenty of room, not only for one but for two or three banks in this city, and that, so far firom injuring, they would respectively aid and create business for each other. In this opinion every mercantile man in Beyrout coincides. As regards the probabihty of success which such an estabhshment as a branch bank would have in Beyrout, I feel assured that, inasmuch as the whole mercantile community anxiously desire its formation, and as it would be cordially and weU supported by every respectable house in the place, you would safely divide a net profit of 12 per cent. ; and if the paid-up capital of the bank permitted your -making advances out of the town, where the rates of interest are much higher, you might with safety expect a net profit of 15 to 18 per cent. I am now speaking alone of Beyrout, and I leave altogether out of the question the profits to be derived from the operations of the bank at Aleppo and Damascus, where at present no banking facilities 220 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. exist, and where, consequently, the rates of interest are even higher than they are here. THE TRADE OF BEYROUT. As all banking must depend more or less upon the commercial movements of the place for which the bank is intended, I have taken some paias to compile the foUowiag Tables of the imports and exports at Beyrout upon an average struck from the last five years, and taken from official papers of the different consulates, as well as of the custom-house, duly compared one with another : — Importations and Exportations at Beyrout, tahing an average oj the last Five Tears. IMPOKTS. Value in Francs. Flour, com, &c. . . . . 1,367,172 Tarbooshes (red caps) 347,400 Cofif'ee and colonials . 1,068,450 Cotton yarn, water twist, &c. 2,287,953 Otter Manchester goods 10,477,704 Coal .... 585,750 Wines 94,227 Hardware 638,422 Cloth 1,282,000 Drugs 596,964 Copper, lead, &c. 76,470 Specie 7,697,903 Paper 311,113 Silk goods 2,806,812 Sugar (refined) . 842,220 Iron and steel 546,580 Glassware 339,325 Sundries 1,357,172 Total Fr. 34,241,214 BEYROUT. i221 EXPORTS. Raw silk and cocoons Com . Madder roots Wool Wax, gum, &c. Oil . Camel skins . Soda Specie Tobacco Fruits Manufactured goods Silk tissues . Old copper Sundries Value in Francs. 10,131,825 4,076,360 160,175 344,150 120,255 1,496,322 35,600 24,700 7,425,440 2,617,175 415,500 7,181,977 4,722,000 4,145 1,235,722 Total Fr. 40,190,246 The foregoing Tables do not include the imports and exports on the coast, at Jaffa, Kaiffa, St. Jean d'Acre, Tyre, Sidon, Tripoh, and Latakia, the counting- house and banking business for which is transacted ia Beyrout. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF BUSINESS WHICH A BANK MIGHT DO IN BEYEOUT. 1. Discounting the bills given to importers by the native merchants against purchased Manchester, Swiss, or French goods. These bills are chiefly at 60 and 90 days for fine goods, and at 30 days for the more ordinary kinds of cloths. They are almost always paid punctually ; but, in the event of non-payment or delay, can be enforced quite as well as in England. The discount in ordinary times ranges from 12 to 16 per cent, per annum, and this even by selecting only the very best paper. 2. Granting cash credits, on the Scotch system, to 22-2 THE RESOUKCES OF TURKEY. the merchants of the place, upon undoubted security, charguag interest at the same rate as that for discount- ing bills, with the addition of a stipulated commission. 3. Eeceiving money on deposit, at rates of interest varying according to the time for which such money was deposited. This would, after some time, be a source of considerable profit to the bank, as the security afforded by such an establishment would create a con- fidence in the minds of the native population which would result in their preferring to deposit their savings in the bank, at a stipulated rate of interest, instead of, as at present, making unremunerative purchases of diamonds, &c., or, as is often the case, hiding it under groimd. 4. Making advances on produce. For these ad- vances, which are perfectly safe, and are paid at the season of the proprietors' harvest, interest at the rate of 24 per cent, is freely given, and I have frequently known 30 per cent. paid. Take one article of produce alone, viz., oU. I know a fixm here that has often turned 50 per cent, in the course of the year by lending money to the proprietors of ohve gardens, and this, too, on first-rate collateral security. The same may be said with regard to another most important article of pro- duce, viz., silk. 5. A great deal of busiuess might be done in making advances upon goods in store in Beyrout, but for which at the moment there is no market. The small importers often seU these at a considerable loss, in order to remit to cover their European correspon- dents ; whereas, if the bank would advance two-thirds of their invoice value, the importers would be able to redeem them when the market got higher, and would BEYEOUT. 223 gladly pay 1^ to 2 per cent, per month (18 to 24 per cent, per annum) for the advance. From a consideration of the above, I do not think I have overstated the profits of a bank doing a, purely local and legitimate banking business in Beyrout ; on the contrary, I feel confident, and so do aU the mer- chants with whom I have spoken on the subject, that a net profit of at least 15 per cent, should be reahsed, and that only doing a perfectly safe business.' ' Yours of the 2nd inst. reached me on the 15th, and, according to the best of my abilities, I hasten to answer the questions therein contained. 1. — ^The gross yearly agricultural produce of the PashaHc of Acre (of which Beyrout is the chief town) amounts in sterhng money to 4,200,000/. 2. — This could be extended (and the same remark applies to Syria generally) to almost any amount by the introduction of capital, and wherever capital has been invested in the drainage of land, &c., the return has been little short of 50 per cent, per annum net profit. I am personally acquainted with many indi- viduals who have in four or five years made large sums of money (I might, indeed, say large fortunes) by rent- ing villages and using capital in planting mulberry trees, draining, sinking weUs, and so forth, and I am certain that in many parts of the Acre Pashalic any one with a capital of 2,000Z., setting to work the right way, would make at least an income of 1,000Z. per annum. 3. — The gross yearly produce of cocoons in Bey- rout and the neighbouring parts of Lebanon, together with the reeled silk made in the same district, repre- sents in English money between three and four millions. 224 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. 4. — This amount is capable of being considerably extended, were a bank or discount company established which would make advances, on good security, to cul- tivators and reelers in Lebanon. The security given would be the title-deeds of their land and filatures,* together with the bond of wealthy men in Beyrout. Fifteen per cent, would be freely given. The advances would have to be made in May or June, and would all be repaid by the end of September without the slightest risk. This is a business which the large Marseilles agency houses find exceedingly profitable. The silk is sold in the Lyons market for the account and risk of those who have borrowed the money. 5. — In Beyrout and the neighbourhood there are about 1,700 native reels, 12 large filatures containing 1,000 reels, and 40 small filatures containing 500 reels. 6. — The investment of capital in filatures is highly profitable, and is calculated, one year with another, at not less than 25 per cent, per annum net. 7. — The land in the neighbourhood of Beyrout, and all over the country, is fireehold. 8. — The population of Beyrout, and that portion of Lebanon depending upon Beyrout, is as follows: — Beyrout ..... 50,000 Lebanon, namely, the Kesrawan (region of the Maronites), and country of the Druses 200,000 To which may be added as the population of Sidon, Tyre, Tripoli, Latakia, &c., for all of which Beyrout is de facto the coimting-house .... 100,000 Total 350,000 * Filature — Silk-reeling manufactory. BEYEOUT. 225 Of these 350,000, there are 250,000 Christians, &c., and 100,000 Mohammedans. The population of Bey- rout is divided into the following sects: — Mohammedans Orthodox Greeks Greek Catholics Roman Catholics Maronitea .... Armenians Jews .... Different Sects 20,000 15,000 5,000 1,000 7,000 500 1,000 500 Total . . . . 50,000 From the "Levant Hebald." ' Mr. Lewis Farley, in his work on Syria {Two Years in Syria), supphes a mass of statistical and other data in support of his appeal to capitalists which certainly demonstrates, as far as figures and statements of notori- ous accuracy can do so, the want of banking accommo- dation in Beyrout, and, consequently, the certainty of a profitable return to shareholders. " The usual rate of discount (says Mr. Farley) on the Beyrout market for first-class paper, with two or three indorsements, and not having more than ninety days to run, is from 12 to 16 per cent." And again — "The Syrians have great faith in everything Enghsh; this confidence opens a wide field for commercial enterprise, and no under- taking would be more successful at the present moment than a well-conducted and properly-managed bank. The security thus afforded would cause much of the hoarded wealth to find its way into the bank in the shape of deposits." That all this is in strict accordance with fact and probability will be at once admitted by 226 THE EESOUKCES OF TURKEY. those of our readers who know the country and are aware of the prestige which, like the scent from a broken vase, still hangs around the British name from Aintab to Hebron. Without going deep into the figures before us, we observe that the imports into Beyrout alone were, in the years 1853 1856 1857 £722,864. £1,162,676. £1,324,550; whilst the exports were 1853 1856 1857 £624,244. £795,657. £983,398. During 1858, the effects of the crisis were still too severely felt to permit of any great increase in com- mercial enterprise, but we understand that, whilst during 1859 the imports at Beyrout have increased to 1,448,860Z., the exports in the same period have more than doubled what they were in 1853, forming a total of 1,698,456^. ; thus for the first time exceeding the imports by upwards of 200,000Z. This augmentation of exports is chiefly owing to the greatly increased, and still increasing, cultivation of the olive and mulberry, and the consequent production of oil and sOk, all over the Lebanon, vast tracts being every year redeemed from waste and planted with those trees. Surely, in such a country, a good return can be had for almost any amount of capital which an English bank may bring into it ? ' 227 CHAPTEK XXVIII. JEEUSALEM. From Mr. James Finn, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Jerusalem. It is with mucli pleasure that I learn from you the probable establishment of a bank in Constantinople, and I most anxiously wish to see a branch of the same in Jerusalem. Jerusalem is not an emporium of commercial trade, but it is a place into which money is being continually poured from without. The great religious estabhsh- ments, as Convents, Patriarchates, Episcopates, not to mention the six Consulates, all have money dealings, and would be benefited by a banking institution, with good capital and character. At the Russian buildings now in progress, and which will continue four years more, they were lately paying for mere cutting of stone 500Z. weekly. Those works began with a capital in hand of above a miUion ster- ling. The Greek convents also are spending consider- able sums in agricultural works about us. But almost all the money affairs here are in the hands of a few petty firms, who transact their business at enormous interest, and money, when obtained on loan, often costs at the usurious rates of 50 or 60 per cent, per Q 2 228 THK RESOURCES OF TURKEY. annum : 24 per cent, per annum is considered very moderate. A bank here would prove a great blessing, and under its operation I should expect to see credit generally revived, trade enlarged, even in lines not yet tried: coins of foreign currency (as they mostly are) less fluctuating in value and more uniform between one town and another in Palestine, with less possibility of Pashas playing tricks with the currency. Any bank that would lend money at moderate rates upon security of jewellery or lands, might have a large business here. (Signed) James Fixx. Jerasalem, January I5th, 1861. Extract from Official Report to the Foreign Office, by Mr. Finn, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Jerusalem. Of late years, an export trade of grain from this country to Europe has been opened up, from which the peasantry, notwithstanding the losses sustained by ex- tortion of their own Sheikhs and of the tax-farmers, have accumulated an unprecedented degree of wealth ; but in some cases they bury the coin in holes, and in others they make use of it in decorating the women. We see the rapid change in the latter of these re- spects. The peasant women of Bethlehem and Bait Tala wear gold instead of silver coins on their heads, and the style of dress in which they formerly indulged only on wedding occasions is now adopted upon the road in walking from one town to another. Money in coin is accumulating hke heaps of mamu-e over the country, but is employed in no wholesome direction. 229 CHAPTEE XXIX. DAMASCUS, Damascus, the capital of Syria, is situate in a fertile plain at the east base of the Anti-Lebanon, about 180 miles from Aleppo, and 60 miles from Beyrout. It is one of the most ancient cities in the world, and has been from the earhest times remarkable alike for the unrivalled beauty of its situation, the superiority of its manufactures, and the magnitude of its trade. Standing on the high road between the Mediterra- nean and the Persian Gulf, it became, in the flourishing days of Phoenician commerce, an emporium for the trade between Europe and India ; and, although subse- quently overshadowed by the magnificence and grandeur of Palmyra, it rose to great wealth and power. In the time of Solomon, it was the capital of an independent kingdom, which afterwards, under the name of the Kingdom of Syria, was engaged in wars with the Jews. Subsequently Damascus was annexed to the empire of Assyria, as well as to that of Persia, ; it then fell into the hands of the Macedonians, the Eomans, the Arabs, and lastly of the Ottoman Turks, when in a.d. 1517 it was taken by Sultan Sehm I. Still, though so often taken and devastated, it has always risen again, and while the wonderful ruins of Baalbec and Palmyra 230 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. mournfully attest the greatness of their former splendour, Damascus has remained the most opulent city in Syria. The population of Damascus amounts to 180,000, viz. : Mussulmans 130,000 Christians 30,000 Jews 20,000 The city contains 60 places of worship, 31 khans, and large entrepots for merchandise, besides the great Bazaar destined to receive the caravans, and capable of containing from 1,200 to 1,500 camels ; 150 coffee- houses, some of which are considered the finest in the East ; 750 dealers in damask stuffs, 185 dyers, 70 printers on stuffs, 200 dealers in handkerchiefs and fancy articles, 98 fringe makers, 72 saddlers'-shops, 78 tobacco manufacturers, and 48 pipe makers. The PashaUc of Damascus extends, north to south, from Hamah on the Orontes down to the deserts of Arabia Petrsea south-east of the Dead Sea, a length of about four degrees of latitude. It comprehends the country of Haurftn and the other districts on the east side of the Jordan, the Lake of Tiberias and the Dead Sea, besides the greater part of Judaea west of the Jordan, including Jerusalem and Nablous. Com, hemp, flax, madder, tobacco, cotton, silk, and cochineal are the chief products. The siuface, except in the west, is level; and the land, susceptible of cultivation, is ex- tremely fertile, capable of supporting a population of six mUUons of souls. The population at present, ex- clusive of the Bedawin, is not more than 500,000. From its favourable position, Damascus is the seat of an extensive trade. The productions of India, consist- ing chiefly of spices, pepper, cinnamon, nutmegs, Java and other sugars ; musk, cardamoms, aloes, camphor ; DAMASCUS. 231 cotton manufactures, coarse and fine muslins, gold stuffs ; porcelain, indigo, &c., are in great demand and bring high prices. They are brought from India by the Persian Gulf, Bussora and Baghdad. The manufactures of Great Britain are much sought after and held ia very high esteem, particularly grey T cloths, printed cot- tons and chintzes, grey caUcoes, long-cloths, calico shirtiag and sheeting, jaconets, cotton handkerchiefs and silk and cotton shawls of gay colours, made in imitation of those of Cashmere. About 150,000 pieces of plain cahcoes are annually used for local consump- tion; also 20,000 pieces of various kinds of printed calicoes, about 5,000 dozens cotton handkerchiefs, and 500,000 lbs. of cotton yarn used in mixing with silk in the manufactures of the place. Besides these, there are imported a considerable quantity of sheet copper, sheet and bar iron, tin in bars and plates, some refined sugar, West India coffee and spices. The manufacture of sabre-blades, for which Damas- cus was formerly so celebrated, has long since declined ; but the manufactures of silk stuffs, embroidered with gold, as well as of plain cotton, and cotton and silk mixed, are carried on. to a considerable extent; while in the bazaars are to be seen the manufactures of almost every country in the world. Superb caparisons for horses from European Turkey ; rich bridles, martin- gales and sUver-embossed breastpieces from Persia ; richly ornamented fire-arms from France and Germany ; sUk from India and China ; furs froili Eussia, Georgia, Circassia and Armenia ; velvets from Italy, and cottons from Great Britain, as weU as various other articles of an inferior kind from England, Germany, and France. The great Hadji caravan, consisting of from 50,000 to 60,000 pilgrims, goes every year from Damascus to 232 THE RESOUECES OF TURKEY. Mecca, and on its departure and arrival occasions con- siderable activity to trade. On its passage southward, it gives origin to a retail trade in English, cotton manu- factures, small articles of Persian manufacture, and, sometimes, jewellery. On its return, the Hadjis bring back Indian and Arabian produce, coffee, spices, aloe- wood, and various articles of Indian manufacture. 233 CHAPTER XXX. ALEPPO. The Consular district of Aleppo comprises the Pashaliks of Aleppo, Adana, and Tripoli, and embraces within its jurisdiction the Vice-Consulates of Mersina, Alexan- dretta, Suedia, Latakia, Tripoh, all being on the sea- board of the Mediterranean, and Antioch, Aintab, Marash, and Orfa, in the interior. Of these, Alexan- dretta, Suedia, Antioch, and Aintab are included in the Pashahk of Aleppo ; Latakia and Tripoh, in that of Saida, as it is now called ; Mersina, in the Pashahk of Adana; while Marash and Orfa are themselves the seats of independent pashaliks. The above districts, lying between 37° 40' and 35° of K. latitude, and 35° and 39° of E. longitude, com- prise an extent of territory of 22,250 square miles, divided in the following proportions : — Pashalik of Aleppo, exclusive of the three Kaimakamliks foUowing 2,450 Kaimakamlik of Aintab 2,800 do. Antioch 1>500 do. Alexandretta .... 500 do. Latakia 2,800 do. Tripoli 1)800 do. Mersina 1,300 Pashalik of Marash 3,800 do. Orfa J^ Total 22,250 234 THE BESOUKCES OP TURKEY. The town of Aleppo is built at the eastern extremity of a range of rocky hills, which terminate in the great plain extending to the Euphrates, and is watered by a river which runs from the neighbourhood of Aintab, 60 miles to the north. Its early history is involved in much obscurity. There is a tradition that an inscription in Hebrew on a stone tablet was found some fifty years ago, to the effect that Joab took possession of the castle in the name of Kiog David, and a copy of this inscription is preserved in a Jewish family of the town. Some assert that it is the ancient Bercea, others Hiera- pohs, and others again Chalybon ; but by whatever name it was known, it seems to have been indebted for its commercial importance as the entrepdt for Eastern trade to the fall of Pahnyxa and Baalbec, the traffic en- grossed by which cities sought a new channel farther north through Aleppo, or Haleb, the name by which it has been known from the beginning of the Christian era to the present time. At that early period it became a frequent subject of quarrel between the Greek empe- rors and the kings of Persia, tiU in the year 637 it fell before the conquering sword of the Arabs in the reign of the Greek Emperor Heracfius, and was selected as a place of residence by the Hamdanian sultans. In the year 998 it submitted to the yoke of the Seljoukian sultans, and passed successively into the power of the Attabeks, the Fattimites, the Ayoubites, and the Tar- tars, who in 1260 took it by assault. The Mamelukes became its next oppressors ; they were succeeded by the fierce Tamerlane in 1400, and it was finally incor- porated in the Turkish Empire in 1517, under the reign of Sultan SeUm L Its prosperity, notwithstanding so many vicissitudes, continued unabated tiU the com- mencement of the eighteenth century, when it was supposed to contain 300,000 inhabitants, but the ALEPPO. 235 natural effects of misgovernment, and the increasing commerce by the Cape of Good Hope, checked its growth. It reached, perhaps, its lowest point twelve years ago, when a reaction took place, and a growing commercial activity has since then been observable. The houses are substantially built of cut stone, one or two storeys high, and are provided with a court, where a fountain of water may generally be seen playing. The town is clean for the East, and altogether wears an appearance of sohdity which gives it an historical character; a castle of considerable strength, in the Saracenic style, and lofty walls, attesting its mihtary importance. The population amounts to 100,000, and is divided as foUows : — Mussulmans 66,500 Greeks 19,000 Maronites 5,000 Armenians 3,000 Syrian Catholics .... 2,000 Jews 4,500 100,000 There are at present, in Aleppo, 5,644 shops, viz. : — 22 wooUen-drapers' shops, 250 hnen-drapers, 70 gold- smiths and jewellers, 220 dealers in hardware and. glass, 170 druggists, 200 dyers, 300 cobblers, 250 butchers, 500 shops for the sale of butter and oil, 150 flour-dealers, 50 pastry-cooks, 100 cook-shops, 300 green-grocers, 170 barbers, 70 carpenters, 50 stone- cutters, 120 pewterers, 150 tailors, 50 shops for the sale of leather bottles and buckets, 50 gunsmiths, 60 dealers in powder and shot, 15 workers in tin, 50 upholsterers, 100 dealers in cotton, 400 spinners em- ploying 6,000 workmen, 40 sellers of planks and beams, 30 turners, 40 pipe-seUers, 50 boot-makers, 60 pipe bowl- makers, 240 sellers of tobacco, 50 sellers of snuff, 40 sellers of coffee, 30 sellers of fine paper, 30 farriers, 25 236 THE EESOUBCES OF TUEKEV. saddlers, 37 baths, 80 coffee-shops, 25 sellers of sherbet, 100 bakeries, 60 horse mills, 40 water mills, 250 dealers in firewood, 15 furriers, 35 braziers, 15 house painters, 150 soap dealers, 250 sellers of ready-made clothes, 30 perfumers, and 40 dealers in earthenware. The number of workmen employed in these shops amount to 18,685. Aleppo has ever been celebrated for its manufactures, which are sent to all parts of the East, on account of their strength and durability. In 1856, there were 5,560 looms at work, and last year no less than 10,000 were infull operation, consuming upwards of 40,000 cwt. of cotton twist, chiefly imported from Great Britain. The following Table wiU show the munber of looms, and the quantity of goods manufactured in 1856 : — No. of Value io Articles. Style and Tenure. Looms. No. of pieces. Piastres per piece. Total value in Piastres. Chitara . Cotton and silk »Lufls 2500 1,200,000 25 30,000,000 Gazlich . Cotton-stnffi througlioat 1000 600,000 11 6,600,000 Cottonee. Cotton and silk satinet 500 120,000 75 9,000,000 Alagai . Silk and little cotton 400 134,400 60 8,064,000 Sawa-ee . SUk and gold thread 100 9,600 200 1,920,000 Agabanee Cotton embioideied with sUk . 50 12,000 50 600,000 Chekmak Silk and gold thread with cotton 50 7,200 100 720,000 Atlaas . SUk satins . 15 3,600 70 252,000 Fontah . Cotton and sUk aprons 50 48,000 10 480,000 Boshch . Silk bandkerchiefe 25 24,000 20 480,000 Girdles . Cotton and silk colouied . 20 4,800 20 96,000 Girdles . Cotton coloured . 50 24,000 8 192,000 Kham Cotton cloth, not dyed 200 134,400 20 2,688,000 Abee. Woven wool and cotton 100 28,800 ^5 620,000 Mandeel . Black cotton band- kerchiefe . 300 192,000 30 5,760,000 Mandeel . Coloured cotton do. Total . 300 96,000 20 1,920,000 5560 2,638,800 Pias. 69,292,000 ALEPPO. 237 The growth of cotton, which is just now occupying the attention of manufacturers in England, is confined to two places in the Pashahk, namely, Idlib and Killis. Twenty years ago, three times as much cotton was grown, chiefly for locd consumption ; but the importa- tion of Enghsh twist discouraged its cultivation, as the native manufacturer finds that he can weave more cheaply with the wrought material imported. If capi- tal, however, were introduced and encouragement given to the cultivation of cotton, the natives would find it more to their advantage to supply us with the raw material and take our manufactures in exchange. The following list of the caravans arriving at Aleppo, with the principal objects brought by each, will show that fine cottons form a large portion of the internal commerce. 1. From Bussora and Baghdad. — Pearls, cottons, shawls, Indian drugs, perfumes, porcelain. 2. From Mossul and Merdin. — Cotton yarn and cotton stuffs, galls. 3. From Diarbekhr. — Cotton and cotton stuffs, red cotton, thread, Morocco leather, goats' hair, galls. 4. From Marash. — Timber, furs, goats' hair. 5. From Orfa.— White cotton and cotton stuffs, Mo- rocco leather, goats' hah. 6. From Aintab. — ^White cotton stuffs, wrought Mo- 'rocco leather. 7. From Killis. — Cotton stuffs and cotton yarn, silks, gaUs, oil. 8. From Idhb and Kiha.— 5,000 quintals of soap, oil. 9. From Van, Tiflis, and Kars.— Chiefly furs. 10. From Erz-rum and Sivas. — Furs, goats' hair, wax. 11. From Guzun. — Linens. 12. From Tokat.— Silk, furs, copper. 238 THE KESOUECES OF TURKEY. 13. From Trebizond. — Cotton stuffs and lint. 14. From Malatic. — Cotton stuffs, dried fruits. 15. From Latakia. — Silk, coffee, rice, tobacco, and Egyptian produce. 16. From Constantinople. — Cotton and woollen stuffs of Germany, printed muslins, wrought amber and furs. 17. From Brussa. — Silk, satin, velvet sofa covers. 18. From Smyrna. — European cotton and woollen stuffs, hardware, horlogerie, &c. 19. From Tripoli of Syria.— Silk. 20. From Damascus. — Mokkah coffee, soap, silk, pro- duce of Damascus looms, cotton yarn of India, dried fruit. 21. From Mecca. — Coffee, scented wood, pearls, am- bergris, drugs of Arabia and India. The imports and exports have been increasing con- siderably at Aleppo, viz. : — Imports. Exports. 1851 . :e486,060 1854 £993,630 y^l855 . 1;414,059 1855 1,254,130 K The imports from Great Britain consist chiefly of manufactured cotton goods. They amounted in 1851 to only 146,405Z. ; while in 1855 they increased, as per the annexed Table, to 444,689/. ALEPPO. 239 Imports from Great Britain to Aleppo in the year 1855. Articles. Quantities. Price. Total value in Pounds sterling. Manufactures, cotton twist, calicoes, &c. Sugar . Coffee . . _ . Pepper and pimento Cochineal . Indigo Drysalteries Sundries 20,480 bales 878 barrels 634 bags 325 „ 97 cases ■ 48 „ 1,231 barrels 5,252 packages £ s. 20 per bale 6 „brl. 4 10 „ bag 3 10 „ „ 30 „ case 100 „ „ 3 „ brl. 3 per_pge. 409,600 4,390 2,403 1,137 • 2,10 4,800 3,693 15,756 444,689 Total The exports in 1855, which amounted to 1,254,130/., were as follow : — Articles. Quantities. Price. Total v.ilue in Pounds sterling. Wheat Barley . MiUet . Sesame Galls . Cotton . Wool . Flour . Madder root, mony,yello-v ries, gums, i 3cam- rber- fec. 120,000 quarters 60,000 „ 24,000 „ 6,000 tons 760 „ 600 „ 1,500 „ £ S. 2 per quarter 1 5 " 15 „ 12 per ton 70 „ 40 „ 72 „ Coasting trade . Total . 240,000 62,500 31,250 60,000 52,500 20,000 108,000 150,000 100,000 824,260 429,880 1,254,130 240 THE EESOUECES OF TURKEY. The following resolutions have been adopted by the leading merchants at Aleppo, on the expediency of establishing a branch bank in that city : — " 1. That the monetary state of the trade of Aleppo calls for the aid of a regular system of banking. " 2. That the establishment of a branch bank at Aleppo would be received as a boon by the mercantile community, and would be a profitable investment of capital. " 3. That it is therefore desirable that some such measure should be adopted with as little delay as possible." (Signed) (Here foUow the signatures.)* " I hereby certify and attest that the above signatures are known to me to be those of the subscribing firms respectively, and that those firms are the leading com- mercial firms at Aleppo. " J. H. SKEIfE, " Her Britannic Majesty's Consul, Aleppo." In reference to the above, LIr. Skene writes as fol- lows : — " It is needless to observe that in every country where a regular systematic banking establishment has been founded for the first time the development of trade has been an immediate consequence, and this fact borne in mind wiU, of course, render calculations based on exist- ing commerce underrated, and an allowance for it should therefore be made. Such as it is, the trade of Aleppo can well support a bank. Money is scarce. Loans are next to ruinous, interest ranging from 3 to 6 per cent, per month (36 to 72 per cent, per annum). The ex- change is variable to a degree which impedes remit- tances, and, above all, the practice of native saraffs or * The original is in mv possession. — J. L. F. ALEPPO. 241 money-changers oppresses legitimate commerce. The transmission of bullion is often dangerous too. Credit is uncertain, and the best houses are accustomed to see their bills looked at with suspicion. Thus the opening for a bank cannot but be favourable. The actual state of the market is deplorable. Every merchant is obhged to send money out of the country, the amount of importation being much greater than that of exportation. Cash has come to such an agio that the merchant's gains are greatly diminished, and his transactions necessarily decrease. Uncertainty, more- over, deprives him of courage to undertake many ope- rations, when he fears not to be able to replace the money employed at the same or a profitable rate of exchange. When the importation from England rose last year to 346,000/., money disappeared; in 1847, the best year of exportation, bills were abundant, and there was a consequent increase of 60 per cent, in the quantity of merchandise imported, yet no difficulty of remitting ensued. Now that difficulty is felt in every considerable counting-house of Aleppo. A bank would remove it, increase business, and not only enrich itself by existing tr-ade, but also on the extension of it pro duced by the facility of remitting, besides aU the con- comitant advantages which are self-evident. The total amount of the imports and exports here is upwards of 2,500,000Z. per annum. This is a wide field for one estabhshment, and I feel assured that a bank is a fehci- tous idea, and whoever turns this way with that view must make a fortune with common prudence. I have mentioned the sarafi" system. It is the most absurd thing in the world. About ten or twelve sarafis, mostly without capital of their own, hold aU the cash of the merchants, and issue cheques, nominally payable R 242 THE EESOUBCES OF TDEKET. at sight, but rarely paid at all, except by an exchanging of cheques with other saraffs, and when paid in cash, or even at 15 or 20 days after sight, a discount of at least 2 per cent, is charged. These people thus rule the trade of Aleppo by an unsound system of credit, a currency unrepresented by security, while they carry on all sorts of illicit traffic, usury, &c., for their own advantage, with the money belonging to the merchants, to whom they pay no interest and offer no guarantee. I do not mean to say anything against a system of bank cheques, which is excellent ; but let it be a sohd system, such as a regular bank would establish to its own great advan- tage and that of trade, acting and re-acting on each other." 243 CHAPTER XXXI. AINTAB. The town of Aintab is situated sixty miles to the north of Aleppo, of which Pashahk it forms a part, and is governed by a Kaimakam, also dependent on the Governor of Aleppo. Its ancient name was Antioch ad Taurum, but all traces of its antiquity have disappeared, and nothing is left to remind the modern traveller of the existence of the ancient town. It is celebrated in Northern Syria for the salubrity of its chmate, a character which it owes doubtless to its elevation, the consequent dryness of the air, and the abundance of the springs, which gush from the hiUs on which it is built, and run through the streets in every direction. The town covers three httle hills and their intervening val- leys, and is commanded by a castle which crowns the summit of an artificial elevation, exactly resembling that of Aleppo, though not on so large a scale. The houses are small but weU built, being constructed of the loose boulder stones which strew the high lands for miles around, and in respect to cleanliness, it contrasts favour- ably with any other Turkish town. The population amoimts to about 27,000 souls ; of whom 18,000 are Turks, 8,500 Armenians, and 500 Jews. Turkish is the language universally used; the R 2 244 THE KESOUKCES OF TUEKET. Armenians having completely forgotten their mother tongue, though in the books which they make use of they employ the Armenian characters, from their su- perior simphcity to the Arabic. The inhabitants of the country are chiefly Turks, who claim their property in the land as far back as the time of the old Seljoukian dynasty. They inhabit 320 villages, the population of which does not probably exceed 70,000, of whom about 10,000 are Christians. These villages are scattered over an extent of country, measuring 50 miles from north to south, by 30 from east to west. Of this extensive dis- trict, not more than two-thirds have been brought under tillage ; and even of this cultivated portion, only one-half comes under the plough every year, owing to the defective system of agriculture, which allows the land that has produced a crop one year to lie fallow the next. This ignorance of the method of the rota- tion of crops, which has doubled the productive power of the soil wherever it has been introduced, tends naturally to keep down, the population, and to check commercial activity, by diminishing the amount of agricultural produce which would otherwise be avail- able for exportation. The government derives an annual revenue of 930,000 piastres from the land tax, amounting to 10 per cent, of the net produce ; which is farmed out to Turks residing at Aintab, who form the wealthy portion of its Mussulman population. The tax on houses and other immovable property amounts to 650,000 piastres ; that on weights and measures, to 250,000 piastres ; stamps, and other miscellaneous duties, bring in another 250,000 ; thus raising the revenues of the Kaimakamlik to about 2,000,000 piastres per annum. The land produces wheat, barley, Indian corn, AINTAB. 245 millet, rice, lentils, sesame, olives, fruit of various kinds, castor oil seed, yellow berries for dyeing, gall nuts, scammony, tobacco, and wax. Of these there is a regular exportation of the six latter articles ; and when prices in the European corn markets are sufficiently high to admit of a profit, wheat is added to the above exporta- tions. The following Table will show more clearly the amounts annually exported from the province through its port Alexandretta, the prices and quantities quoted being taken to represent the annual average, since they vary considerably, according to the demand in Europe. Quantities Exported. Prices free on board. Articles. Shumbuls.* Cantars* Piastres. WBeat Castor oil seed Yellow berries Gall nuts . Scammony . Tobacco Wax . 20,000 200 30 60 3 200 30 Per shumbul, 70 — from Per cantar. 1,000 1,500 to 2,300 3,500 1,450 5,000 Enghsh imported goods have a Umited sale, and are confined almost entirely to cotton and caHco stufis. From the circumstance of there being no British or other merchant corresponding direct with England, the cost prices are extremely high. Upon a rough estimate, there is an annual importation of English manufactured goods of 2,500 bales, of which 400 or 500 consist of cotton twist, selling at the rate of 2,600 piastres the bale, which, allowing a higher price for calicoes, would make Note. — 3 J sliumbuls= 1 quarter ; a cantar = 5 cwt. 246 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. a total of 7,000,000 piastres, or 54,000Z. This internal commerce is quite of recent origin, the trade of former times having been confined to the transport, for the European markets, of the more costly productions of India, which were exchanged for manufactured goods intended for Aleppo, Baghdad, and the East. This inland trade has been thus instrumental in introducing our manufactures to t^e towns and villages of the interior, so that now even the wandering Arab delights to deck himself out in the gay coloured clothing woven in the looms of Manchester and Leeds. The great bar to carrying on an active commerce consists in the absence of carriage roads, which obliges all goods to be transported on the backs of mules and camels, entailing an enormous expense on their original cost ; and, as the distance between Aintab and Alexan- dretta is about 100 miles, which, at a camel's pace, cannot be traversed imder five days in summer, and eight, ten, or even fifteen, in winter, only a few of the most valuable products of the country can bear such ruinous transport charges. Wheat, for example, which can be purchased at Aintab at 35 piastres a shumbul, by the time it reaches the sea, has incurred expenses which have raised its price to upwards of 60 piastres, consequently it is only exported when a scarcity in Em-ope calls for a supply. At the present moment, how- ever, a company is in course of formation at Aleppo, for constructing a carriage road between that town and Alexandretta ; and, an example once given, we may hope that the benefits derived from the undertaking will encourage native enterprise to make a network of roads, connecting the different towns of Syria. The population of Aintab is almost exclusively trad- ing and manufacturing, the operations of weaving, AINTAB. 247 tanning of leather, and dyeing employing a great number of hands. There are also three soap manufac- tories, producing annually 9,000 cwt. of soap, two- thirds of which are sold in the neighbouring towns and district. The native hand-looms supply the middle and lower classes of the population with the striped woollen garments universally worn in the East; whilst the richer inhabitants have contracted a taste for the finer textures of Europe. A considerable part of the popu- lation is occupied in the cultivation of the extensive orchards and vineyards surrounding the town, the fruit of which is much esteemed for its flavour, and is sent to great distances, while the grapes produce excellent wine. The country people are quiet and orderly, and, as the tent of the Bedawy or Turkoman is never seen in the district, the pursuits of agriculture can be followed, and the harvests gathered in vsdth perfect security. 248 CHAPTEE irxxn MAEASH. The town of Marasli is situated at the junction of the Taurus with the Ghiaour Dagh, or Mount Amanus, in 37° 30' N. latitude, and 37° E. longitude. It is the seat of a Pashalik of the second rank, and the terri- tory comprised within its jurisdiction contains 18,000 square miles. The general character of the country is mountainous, as it extends over a considerable part of the Taurus ; but it contains many large and fertile plains capable, if cultivated, of supporting a population of several millions. The population of the town of Marash is 25,000, about 10,000 of whom are Armenians, and the rest Mussulmans. The local manufactories are engaged almost exclusively in the fabrication of a coarse striped cloth of cotton or wool, which is in general use in the country, and its durabihty and cheapness have obtained for Marash a provincial celebrity. The looms are, of course, worked by the hand, some 300 being in opera- tion, giving employment to upwards of 1,000 workmen, principally Mussulmans. A few years since, the cotton twist used in the fabrication of these goods was all made in the district, from the raw material, then much cultivated ; but it has been found that Manchester cotton MAEASH. 249 twist is both cheaper and superior in every way to the native, which has consequently been entirely superseded. The manufacture of iron and saddlery are also pursuits employing many hands, while a considerable part of the poorer population is engaged in agriculture ; rice, wheat, and barley being grown in the plain at the foot of the town, while the vine and various fruit trees flourish upon the higher lands on the mountain sides. The only necessaries of Hfe, however, which may bf considered cheap in this place are rice and wood. Of the former 1,500 quarters are annually produced, and sold at from 21. 10s. to 2^. 15s. the quarter. Wood is largely feUed in the mountains, and conveyed to great distances for fuel and building purposes, the whole of Northern Syria being supphed from the Marash forests. The Christians of Marash are divided into three com- munities — Armenians, Armenian Catholics, and Pro- testants : the first numbering about 6,820 ; the Cathohcs, 2,560 ; and the Protestants rather above 1,000. They are the most industrious portion of the inhabitants of Marash, a large ^proportion being engaged in carrying on a commerce with Aleppo and Aintab ; each mer- chant keeps his own shop, where he sells his merchan- dise, either wholesale or retail, but five or six only aspire to the title of wholesale merchants. The trade with Great Britain is carried on through the Aleppo houses, as there is no one engaged in direct trade with Europe. The closest approximation that can be made as to the amount of British goods annually imported into Marash is as follows : — 2S0 THE RESODECES OF TURKEY. Articles. Quantities. Value. Total value. & 8. d. £ Cotton twist . 300 bales 19 per bale 5,700 Calico 400 „ 22 5 „ 8,900 Prints 70 44 „ 3,080 Muslins . , . 50 ;; 26 10 „ 1,325 Linen kerchiefs 20 cases 45 per case 900 Miscellaneous linen, | wooUen, and cotton J- 30 bales 30 per bale 900 goods , . J Copper . 6 tons 188 per ton 1,128 Total ■ 21,933 ■■251 CHAPTER XXXIII. OBFA. Oepa (the ancient Edessa) is a large, well-built town, surrounded by high and strong walls, 7 miles in circuit, and contains between 40,000 and 50,000 inhabitants. The district of Orfa produces the following articles in the quantities, and sold at the prices, set forth in the following Table : — Annual Produce. Annual Export. Market Prices. Wool, 1,500 cantars 1,000 cantars 500 to 1,000 piastres Sesame, 5,000 „ 4,000 „ 250 piastres per cantar Wheat, 2J millions of Aleppo shumbuls . } Mostly bought 1 at Aleppo . J 35 to 50 „ pershumbul Barley, 1\ millions of Aleppo shumbuls . — 13 piastres „ Lentils, 1,300 of :' Aleppo shumbuls . ■" 30 piastres „ Raisins, 1,000 cantars 500 cantars 300 „ per cantar Sili, 4 worked in Aleppo 2,100 „ perrottolo Cotton, 15,000 „ not exported 200 „ per cantar Wax, 53 „ 60 cantars 20 to 22 „ peroke Sulphur . 150 „ . . uncertain Butter, 2,000 cantars 1,000 „ . 36 „ per rottolo Two soap factories have lately been established at Orfa : within a few months they have produced 800 cantars of soap, which is sold in the town and surround- ing villages at 1,200 piastres per cantar. 252 THE EESOUKCES OP TUBKET. European manvifactured goods (purchased at Aleppo) are sold annually to the amount of 15,000,000 piastres ; and articles of consumption, such as sugar, pepper, coffee, cinnamon, and spices, to the amount of 5,000,000 piastres. In 1857, about 7,000 camels, laden with manufac- tured goods, passed through Orfa, en route for Northern Syria, Asia Minor, and Baghdad ; and about the same number en route for Alexandretta, laden with Persian silk, wool, andjumbar.* The revenue of the district of Orfa amounts to 2,500,000 piastres, and the expenses to 2,000,000; leav- ing a net surplus of 500,000 piastres. * Each camel carries one cantar, or five cwt. 253 CHAPTER XXXIV. ALEXANDRETTA. Alexandretta, or Iskenderoon, was founded by Alex- ander the Great, and called Alexandria ad Issum. It is the most important port on the coast of Syria, being situated on a bay of considerable extent (24 miles broad), capable of containiag any amount of shipping, Tvhich can ride upon its waters in perfect safety during any season of the year ; the anchorage is good, and it is weU sheltered from all the prevaihng winds by ranges of high mountains, some of them 4,000 feet above the level of the sea. Nevertheless, and although it is the port where all goods are discharged and shipped for and from the entire districts of Northern Syria, Mesa- potamia, and Kurdistan, there is not a more neglected harbour in the Turkish dominions. There are but two miserable jetties in the place, and the Hghters employed in conveying goods from the ships to the shore, and vice versd, are of the most wretched description. The climate of Alexandretta, in consequence of the marshes which surround the town, is most imhealthy, more particularly during the months of June, July, August, and September, at which season the few re- spectable inhabitants who reside there leave for the villages in the mountains, about two hours' distance, 254 THE BESOUBCES OF TURKEY. where they remain until the commencement of October. In the year 1832, an attempt was made by Ibrahim Pasha to drain, these marshes, but it was left unfinished, and nothing has siace been done in the matter. The sum required to complet ethe work is only 2,000^., by the outlay of which about 1,500 acres of prime land would be brought into cultivation, and become the property of the person or company making the ad- vance. The plain around Alexandretta is of the most fertile description, and well suited for the production of cotton, wheat, maize, barley, sesame, indigo, rice, &c. ; in fact, for any produce which the East is capable of yielding. It could be irrigated to any extent, as there are several mountain streams running through it ; not- withstanding which, and the advantages that are held out by the situation of the port for exportation, the cultivation of the soil is confined to the bare wants of the native population ; thus a plain capable of supply- ing many of the largest cities of the United Kingdom with corn, does not at present produce sufficient to feed 2,000 people. Another project, which woidd aid very much in the improvement of Alexandretta, is a carriage-road be- tween that town and Aleppo ; could this most desir- able work be carried out, the entire of Northern Syria would be much benefited, and the trade with Eiu?ope be at least doubled before the end of two years after the completion of the road. The heavy carriage paid for goods between Alexandretta and Aleppo, a distance of 70 nules, is over 3^. per ton on the average throughout the year, being nearly as much as the freight of same to England : this, of course, prevents many parties embarking in the export trade with Europe, and thus causes large plains of fertile country to remain vmculti- ALBXANDRETTA. 255 vated for want of an outlet for the produce ; but, even putting this part of the question aside, the large traffic which even at present passes between this port and Aleppo would in itself pay the shareholders of a com- pany a handsome dividend on the capital required. Such an undertaking, while reahzing large profits, would, at the same time, be of vast importance to the mercantile interests of both countries, and open a field for the immigration of small capitalists from Eng- land to cultivate the plains now lying waste and unpro- ductive. The imports and exports at the port of Alexan- dretta for the half-year ending June 30, 1858, were as foUows : Imports. — 6,866 bales manufactured cotton goods, 92 bales silk, 29 bales cloth, 1,215 casks sugar, 722 casks copper, 66 casks alum, 72 casks cop- peras, 24 casks saltpetre, 20 casks turmeric, 68 casks rice, 27 casks sal-ammoniac, 1,156 bags coffee, 53 bags pepper and pimento, 65 bags indigo, 24 bags cochineal, 498 boxes tin, 272 boxes oranges, 8,052 bars iron, 180 bars steel, 475 tons coals, 15^ tons dye-woods, 300 crates glass, 500 chairs, and 3,276 packages sundries. Exports. — 10,147 shumbuls wheat, 357 shumbuls maize, 12,211 shumbuls sesame, 69 sacks lentils, 167 sacks Hnseed, 2,347 sacks galls, 327 sacks peas, 106 sacks flour, 1,225 sacks raisins, 59 sacks pista- chios, 30 sacks yeUow berries, 1,379 bales manufac- tured goods, 4,181 bales wool, 385 bales cotton, 170 bales silk, 66 bales cocoons, 833 bales tobacco, 395 bales saffron, 80 cases soap, 88 cases gum, 69 cases wax, 9 cases scammony, 125 barrels eels, and 1,636 packages sundries. Valonia does not figure amongst 256 THE EESOUECES OF TURKEY. the exports, but large quantities grow on the mountains around Alexandretta, and, if prepared and shipped with due care, would prove a valuable export to Great Britain. 257 CHAPTEE XXXV. TBIPOLI. The district of Tripoli extends from Heri on the one side, to the end of Safita, or the village of Der-Terreen, on the other, its greatest length being . a distance of twenty hours' journey. The breadth, from the sea, at the Marina, to the end of Jebel-Nerbeen in the district of Daniy^, is about thirteen hours' journey. It contains a population of 120,000 souls, of whom the greater part are Christians, either Maronites, Greeks, or Greek Cathohcs; the next, according to number, are the Ansayrians, and then the Mussulmans, Metawfi,hs, and Jews. Tripoli is well watered by numerous rivers, and is said to be one of the best cultivated districts in the Turkish Empire. It produces grain, silk, ohves, mul- berries, oranges, lemons, and almost aU the fruit trees of Europe. Oranges alone are exported to other parts of Syria, &c., to the amount of 15,000/. a year. The produce of oil amounts to 55,000 koUes, of which 15,000 are consumed in the country itself.* That of silk is about 15,000 okes, the greater part of which is exported, and com, &c., is produced to the amount of * The kollg is 26 okes and f Jg. 258 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. 340,000 shumbuls, of which 240,000 shumbuls are shipped to other parts of Syria, or to Europe. Not iacluding the oranges (before mentioned), Tripoh also produces 1,500,000 piastres worth of fruit, and 1,000,000 piastres worth of other vegetable pro. duce. The former is chiefly exported to other parts of Syria, as also to Greece and Constantinople. The town of Tripoli is situated on the Eiver Kadisha, which divides it into two parts. That on the left bank is flat, while the right bank is much elevated. It is well bmlt for an eastern town, the streets being generally wider and straighter than is usual in Turkey, and the houses possess the advantage of having always a constant supply of good water, which is foimd even up to the second floor. There are (including the Marina) about 4,128 houses, 12 mosques, 3 Greek churches, 4 Latin churches, 1 Maronite church, and 1 synagogue. There are also 10 khans, 10 baths, and 13 cafes. The popu- lation is estimated at 18,100, viz., 13,000 Mussulmans, 4,700 Greeks, 300 Maronites, and 100 Jews. The port of TripoH (Marina, or the Mina, as the natives call it) is the best on the coast of Syria, after Alexandretta, It is sheltered by several islands (the Isle of Palms, &c.) from the south-west winds, and only open to those from the north-west, which, however, very seldom blow. It is the sea-port for the most fertile countries of the Ottoman Empire, namely, the provinces of Hamah, Homs, and the Bekaa, but, unfor- tunately, the roads communicating with these interior provinces are, as usual throughout Turkey, very indif- ferent. The road from TripoH to Homs runs along a broad vaUey between the northern and southern chains of Lebanon ; and were it sufficiently improved to admit of the introduction of wagons, instead of the primitive TEIPOLI. 259 mode of conveyance at present existing (camels, mules, &c,), the exports, and, as a natural consequence, the imports, would be enormously increased. The following Tables give the imports and exports for the year 1857 : — s 2 260 THE KESOUECES OF TURKEY. S5 0, a u e H CO IS. Francs. 15^000 ' " 200JOOO ' 175,000 ' 150J000 " 50J000 ' Francs. 50J000 " 30J000 ' 60JOOO ' 6OJOOO ' 40,000 ' 4O0J000 ' cT CM Francs, 36,000 60,000 45,000 5^000 ' 22*000 " 96,400 ' 88,000 3^ I— 1 1 I-H '2 1 Cotton manufactures Cloths .... Cora, &c. Coffee .... Fraits .... Iron .... Leather .... Rice .... Salt .... Soda .... Sugar Wood .... Sundries .... 1 TKIPOLI. 261 00 IT -« e s 93 Jllllllllllll o 9 ^ "a ^ 8, ^i i ^fe S'o S'S'S"© 9"S ot'ot OT rsrj- l« fc;■ r (d !kQO O O 00 O r-H I— 1 (N p 262 CHAPTEK XXXVI. LATAKTA. Latakia is an agricultural district, and, from the ricli- ness and fertility of its soU, sustains by its produce not only its own population, but, in favourable years, exports a large quantity of grain. The mode of culture and the implements in use are, however, of the most primitive description, and one-half of the best ground for cereal crops is imcultivated. The present farmers are too poor to provide working cattle, implements, and seed, and are accustomed to look to the richer class for advances with which to provide all these requisites, while they furnish the necessary labour, and give to him who makes the advance one-half or three- fourths in kind of the entire produce. The chief produce of the mountainous part of the district is tobacco, of which large quantities are ex- ported; that grown in the district of Djebail being considered the best. When this has been hung up in the rooms of the peasants, and there allowed to absorb the smoke of the dwarf oak, it acquires a delightful perfume, and is then called Abu Bicha, or Father of Scent. The peculiar property which this tobacco derives from being exposed to the smoke was acci- dentally discovered as follows : — One year, there being LATAKIA. 263 no demand for tobacco, the leaves were hung up for the winter in the peasants' huts, exposed to the contuiual smoke of their fires, and the succeeding year it was sent to Egypt, where it was considered so good, that a large order was sent to Latakia for more of the same quality, which was then called Abu Richa. The produce of the low country consists chiefly of wheat, barley, millet, sesame, silk and cotton, for export ; ohve-oil and figs, for home use and occasional export ; while nut-galls, wax, and cochineal can be had for the gathering. It is almost needless to add, that with the introduction of capital and the use of improved agri- cultural implements, all the products of the soil could be increased to a considerable extent. A very profitable branch of industry is the making of earthen jars, both for water, as well as for the stowage of winter family necessaries, such as corn, flour, butter, oil, &c., and large quantities, especially those of very great size, are annually exported. Another source of considerable gain is to be found in the sponge fishing on the coasts ; in which severe but successful commercial pursuit a small fleet of boats, of from fifteen to twenty tons, manned each by six or ten hands, including the divers, are daily occupied. The port of Latakia was formerly a very large and safe one, capable of containing a thousand galleys, but it now requires considerable clearing and improvement. It could, with a little expense, be made an excellent harbour for both steamers and saihng vessels, as the holding-ground is trustworthy, the entrance favourably situated, and it is well sheltered by closely surrounding hills. 264 THE BESOUECES OF TUKKET. The population of Latakia and its district, in 1856, was as follows : — Greeks 75,000 Muflsulmans 46,000 lamailines 10,000 Maronites 1,000 Armenians 500 132,600 APPENDICES. 267 APPENDICES. APPENDIX I. Convention of Commerce and Navigation between Her Britannic Majesty and the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. Signed at Balta-Liman, near Constanti- nople, August 16, 1838. During the friendly intercourse which has happily subsisted so long between the Sublime Porte and the Kings of Great Britain, capitulations granted by the Porte, and treaties concluded between the two Powers, have regulated the rates of duties payable on merchandise exported from and imported into the dominions of the Sublime Porte, and have established and declared the rights, privileges, immunities and obliga- tions of British merchants trading to or residing in the Imperial territories. But since the period when the above- mentioned stipulations were last revised, changes of various kinds have happened in the internal administration of the Ottoman Empire, and in the external relations of that empire with other powers ; and Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Highness the Sultan, have therefore agreed now to regulate again, by a special and additional Act, the commercial inter- course of their subjects, in order to increase the trade between their respective dominions, and to render more easy the ex- change of the produce of the one country for that of the other. They have consequently named for their Plenipoten- tiaries for this purpose, that is to say : 268 THE EESOUKCES OF TUBKEY. Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Eight Honourable John Brabazon Lord Ponsonby, Baron of Imokilly, a peer of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath, of the Nishan of Honour, &c., &c.. Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary at the Sublime Porte, &c., &c. ; And His Highness the Sultan, the most Illustrious and most Excellent Vizier MustaphaEeshid Pasha, Minister for Foreign Affairs, bearing the decoration belonging to his high rank, a Knight Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour of France, &c., &c. ; the Excellent and most Distinguished Mustapha Kiani Bey, a member of the Supreme Council of State, Assistant to the Prime Minister, President of the Council of Agriculture and Industry, a Minister of State of the First Class, bearing the two decorations belonging to his offices, &c., &c. ; and the Excellent and most Distinguished Mehemed Nouri Effendi, a Councillor of State in the department for Foreign Affairs, bearing the Nishan of Honour of the First Class, &c., &c. ; Who, after having communicated their respective full powers, found to be in due and proper form, have agreed upon and concluded the following Articles : — Art. 1. All rights, privileges, and immunities which have been conferred on the subjects and ships of Great Britain by the existing capitulations and treaties, are confirmed now and for ever, except in as far as they may be specifically altered by the present Convention : and it is moreover ex- pressly stipulated, that all rights, privileges, or immunities which the Sublime Porte now grants, or may hereafter grant, to the ships and subjects of any other foreign Power, or which it may suffer the ships and subjects of any other foreign Power to enjoy, shall be equally granted to, and exercised and enjoyed by, the subjects and ships of Great Britain. Art. 2 .The subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, or their agents, shall be permitted to purchase at all places in the Ottoman dominions (whether for the purposes of internal trade or exportation) all articles, without any exception whatsoever, the produce, growth, or manufacture of the said APPENDIX I. 269 dominions; and the Sublime Porte formally engages to abolish all monopolies of agricultural produce, or of any other articles whatsoever, as well as all permits from the local governors, either for the purchase of any article, or for its removal from one place to another when purchased ; and any attempt to compel the subjects' of Her Britannic Majesty to receive such 'permits from the local governors shall be considered as an infraction of treaties, and the Sublime Porte shall immediately punish with severity any viziers and other officers who shall have been guilty of such misconduct, and render full justice to British subjects for all injuries or losses which they may duly prove themselves to have suffered. Art. 3. If any article of Turkish produce, growth, or manufacture be purchased by the British merchant or his agent for the purpose of selling the same for internal con- sumption in Turkey, the British merchant or his agent shall pay, at the purchase and sale of such articles, and in any manner of trade therein, the same duties that are paid, in similar circumstances, by the most favoured class of Turkish subjects engaged in the internal trade of Turkey, whether Mussulmans or Rayahs. Art. 4. If any article of Turkish produce, growth, ol- manufacture be purchased for exportation, the same shall be conveyed by the British merchant or his agent, free of any kind of charge or duty whatever, to a convenient place of shipment, on its entry into which it shall be liable to one fixed duty of 9 per cent, ad valorem,, in lieu of all other interior duties. Subsequently, on exportation, the duty of 3 per cent., as established and existing at present, shall be paid. But all articles bought in the shipping ports for exportation, and which have already paid the interior duty at entering into the same, will only pay the 3 per cent, export duty. Art. 5. The regulations under which firmans are issued to British merchant vessels for passing the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, shall be so framed as to occasion to such vessels the least possible delay. Art. 6. It is agreed by the Turkish Grovernment, that the regulations established in the present Convention shall be 270 THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY. general throughout the Turkish Empire, whether Turkey in Europe or Turkey in Asia, in Egypt, or other Afiican possessions belonging to the Sublime Porte, and shall be applicable to all the subjects, whatever their description, of the Ottoman dominions: and the Turkish Government also agrees not to object" to other foreign powers settling their trade upon the basis of this present Convention- Art. 7. It having been the ciistom of Great Britain and the Sublime Porte, with a view to prevent all difficulties and delays in estimating the value of articles imported into the Turkish dominions, or exported therefrom, by British sub- jects, to appoint, at intervals of 14 years, a commission of men well acquainted with the traffic of both countries, who have fixed by a tariff the sum of money in the coin of the Grand Signior which should be paid as duty on each article ; and the term of 14 years, during which the last adjustment of the said tariff was to remain in force, having expired, the high contracting parties have agreed to name conjointly fresh Commissioners to fix and determine the amount in money which is to be paid by British subjects, as the duty of 3 per cent, upon the value of all commodities imported and exported by them ; and the said Commissioners shall estab- lish an equitable arrangement for estimating the interior duties which, by the present Treaty, are established on Turkish goods to be exported, and shall also determine on the places of shipment where it may be most convenient that such duties should be levied. The new tariff thus established to be in force for seven years after it has been fixed, at the end of which time it shall be in the power of either of the parties to demand a revision of that tariff ; but if no such demand be made on either side within the six months after the end of the first seven years, then the tariff shall remain in force for seven years more, reckoned from the end of the preceding seven years ; and so it shall be at the end of each successive period of seven years. Art. 8. The present Convention shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at Constantinople, within the space of four months. In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the same, and have affixed their seals thereunto. APPENDIX I. 271 Done at Balta-Liman, near Constantinople, on the 16th day of August, 1838. (Signed) (L.S.) PoNSONBT. (L.S.) MtrsTAPHA Eeshid, (L.S.) MUSTAPHA KlANI, (L.S.) Mehemed Nouei. 272 APPENDIX n. Hatti-Humdyoun du 18 Fevrier 1856. A vous, mon grand vizir Mehemed-Emin-A'ali-Pasha ; que Dieu vous accorde la grandeur et double votre pouvoir. Mon desir le plus cher a toujours ete d'assurer le bonheur de toutes les classes de mes sujets que la divine Providence a places sous mon sceptre imperial, et, depuis mon avenement au trone, je n'ai cesse de faire tous mes efforts dans ce sens. Graces en soient rendues au Tout-Puissant ! Ces efforts inces- sants ont deja porte des fruits utiles et nombreux. De jour en jour, le bonheur de la nation et la richesse de mes _Etats vont en augmentant. Desirant aujourd'hui renouveler et elargir encore les r^glements nouveaux, institues en vue d'arriver a obtenir un etat de choses conforme a la dignite de mon empire et a la position qu'il oceupe parmi lea nations civilisees, et les droits de mon empire ayant aujourd'hui, par la fidelite et les louables efforts de tous mes sujets, et par le concours bienveillant et amical des grandes puissances, mes nobles alliees, repu de I'exterieur une consecration qui doit etre le commencement d'une ere nouveUe, je veux augmenter le bien-etre et la prosperite interieure, rendre heureux tous mes sujets, qui sont tous egaux a mes yeux et me sont egale- ment chers, et qui sont unis entre eux par des rapports cor- diaux de patriotisme, et assurer les moyens de faire, de jour en jour, croitre la prosperite de mon empire. J'ai done resolu et j'ordonne la mise a execution des me- sures suivantes : 1. Les garanties promises de notre part a tous les sujets de APPENDIX 11. 273 mon empire par le Hatti-Hmnayoun de Gulhane at les lois du Tanzimat, sans distinction de classe ni de culte, pour la securite de leurs personnes et de leurs biens, et pour la con- servation de leur honneur, sont aujourd'hui confirmees et consolideeSj et des mesures efficaces seront prises pour qu'elles repoivent leur plein et entier e£fet. 2. Tons les privileges et immunites spirituals accordes ah antiquo, et a des dates posterieures, a toutes les communautes chretiennes ou a d'autres rites non musulmans, dans mon empire, sous mon egide protectrice, sont confirmes et main- ienus. 3. Chaque communaute chretienne ou d'autres rites non musulmans sera tenue, dans un delai fixe, et avec le concours d'une commission formee ad hoc dans son sein, de proceder avec ma haute approbation, et sous la surveillance de ma Sublime-Porte, a I'examen de ses immunites et privileges, et d'y discuter et soumettre a ma Sublime-Porte des reformes exigees par le progr^s des lumi^res et des temps. Les pou- voirs concedes aux patriarches et aux eveques des rites Chre- tiens, par le sultan Mahomet II et ses successeurs, seront mis en harmonic avec la position nouvelle que mes intentions genereuses et bienveillantes assurent a ces communautes. Le principe de la nomination a vie des patriarches, apr^s la re- vision des reglements d'election aujourd'hui en vigueur, sera pxactement applique, conformement a la teneur de leurs fir- mans d'investiture. Les patriarches, les metropolitains, archevSques, eveques et rabbins, seront assermentes a leur entree en fonctions, d'apres une formule concertee en commun entre ma Sublime-Porte et les chefs spirituels des diverses communautes. Les redevances ecclesiastiques, de quelque forme et nature qu'elles soient, seront supprimees et rempla- c6es par la fixation des revenus des patriarches et chefs des communautes, et par I'allocation de traitements et de salaires equitablement proportionnes a I'importance, au rang et a la dignite des divers membres du clerge. II ne sera porte aucune atteinte aux proprietes mobilieres et immobili^res des divers clerges chretiens ; toutefois, I'administration temporelle des communautes chretiennes, ou d'autres rites non musulmans, sera placee sous la sauvegarde d'une asserablee choisie dans T 274 THE EESOUECES OF TUKKEY. le sein de chacune desdites communautes parmi les membres du clerge et les laiques. 4. Dans les villes, bourgades et villages ou la population appartiendra en totalite au meme culte, il ne sera apportee aucune entrave a la reparation, d'ajpres les plans primitifs, des edifices destines au culte, aux ecoles, aux hopitaux et aux cimetieres. Les plans de ces divers edifices, en cas d'erection nouveUe, approuves par les patriarches ou chefs des commu- nautes, devront etre soumis a ma Sublime-Porte, qui les ap- prouvera par mon ordre imperial, ou fera ses observations dans un delai determine. Chaque culte, dans les localites ou ne se trouveront point d'autres confessions religieuses, ne sera soumis a aucune espece de restriction dans la manifestation publique de sa religion. Dans les villes, bourgades et villages oil les cultes sont melanges, chaque communaute, habitant un quartier distinct, pourra egalement, en se conformant aux prescriptions ci-dessus indiquees, reparer et consolider ses eglises, ses hdpitaux, ses ecoles et ses cimetieres. Lorsqu'il s'agira de la construction d'edifices nouveaux, I'aiitorisation necessaire sera demandee, par I'organe des patriarches ou chefs des communautes, a ma Sublime-Porte, qui prendra une de- cision souveraine, en accordant cette autorisation, a vfioins d'obstacles administratifs. L'intervention de I'autorite ad- ministrative dans tons les actes de cette nature sera entiere- ment gratuite. JIa Sublime-Porte prendra des mesures pour assurer a chaque culte, quel que soit le nombre des adherents, la pleine liberte de son exercice. 5. Toute distinction ou appellation tendant a rendre une classe quelconque des sujets de mon empire inferieure ^ une autre classe, a raison du culte, de la langue ou de la race, sera a jamais effacee du protocole administratif. Les lois seviront centre I'emploi, entre particuliers ou de la part des autorites, de toute qualification injurieuse ou blessante. 6. Vu que tons les cultes sont etseront Hbrement pratiques dans mes Etats, aucun sujet de mon empire ne sera gene dans I'exercice de la religion qu'il professe, et ne sera d'aucune mani^re inquiete a cet egard. Personne ne pourra etre contraint a changer de religion. 7. La nomination et le choix de tons les fonctionnaires et autres emploj es de mon empire etant entierement dependants APPENDIX II. 275 de ma volonte souveraine, tous les sujets de mon empire, sans distinction de nationalite, seront admissibles aux emplois publics et aptes a les occuper selon leurs capacites et leur merite, et conformement a des regies d'une application generale. 8. Tous les sujets de men empire seront indistinctement refus dans les ecoles civiles et militaires du Grouvernement, s'ils remplissent d'ailleurs les conditions d'age et d'examens specifiees dans les r^glements organiques desdites ecoles. De plus, chaque communaute est autorisee a etablir des ecoles pu- bliques de sciences, d'arts et d'industrie. Seulement, le mode d'enseignement et le choix des professeurs dans les ecoles de cette categorie seront sous le controle d'un conseil mixte d'instruction publique, dont les membres seront nommes par un ordre souverain de ma part. 9. Toutes les aifaires commerciales, correctionnelles et criminelles, entre des musulmans et des sujets Chretiens ou d'autres rites non musulmans, ou entre chretiens et autres su- jets de rites differents, seront deferees a des tribunaux mixtes. L'audience de ces tribunaux sera publique ; les parties seront mises en presence et produiront leurs temoins, dont les depo- sitions seront repues indistinctement sous un serment prete selon la loi religieuse de chaque culte. Les proces ayant trait aux affaires civiles continueront d'etre juges publique- ment, d'apr^s les lois et les rdglements, par-devant les conseils mixtes des provinces, en presence du gouverneur et du juge du lieu. 10. Les procds civils speciaux, comme ceux de successions ou autres de ce genre, entre les sujets d'un meme rite Chre- tien ou autre non musulman, pourront, a leur demande, §tre envoyes par-devant les conseils des patriarches ou des communautes. 11. Les lois penales, correctionnelles et commerciales, et les regies de procedure a appliquer dans les tribunaux mixtes, seront completees le plus tot possible et codifiees. II en sera publie des traductions dans toutes les langues en usage dans mon empire. 12. II sera precede, dans le plus bref delai possible, a la reforme du systeme penitentiaire dans son application aux maisons de detention, de punition ou de correction et autres T 2 276 THE RESOURCES OP TURKEY. etablissements de meme nature, afin de concilier les droits de rhumanite avec ceux de la justice. Aucune peine corporelle, meme dans les prisons, ne pourra etre appliquee que con- formement a des reglements disciplinaires emanes de ma Sublime-Porte, et tout ce qui ressemblerait a la torture sera radicalement aboli. Les infractions a ce sujet seront sev^re- ment reprimees, et entraineront, en outre, de plein droit, la punition, en conformite du code criminel, des autorites qui les auraient commises. 13. L'organisation de la police dans la capitale, dans les villes de province et dans les campagnes, sera revisee de fapon a donner a tons les sujets paisibles de mon empire les garanties desirables de securite quant a leurs personnes et a leurs biens. 14. L'egalite des impots entrainant I'egalite des charges, com me celle des devoirs entraine celle des droits, les sujets Chretiens et des autres rites non musulmans devront, ainsi qu'il I'a ete anterieurement resolu, aussi bien que les musul- mans, satisfaire aux obligations de la loi de recrutement. Le principe du remplacement ou du rachat sera admis. 15. II sera publie, dans le plus bref delai possible, une loi complete sur le mode d'admission et de service des sujets Chretiens et d'autres rites non musulmans dans I'armee. 16. II sera precede a une reforme dans la composition des conseils provinciaux et communaux, pour garantir la sincerite des choix des delegues des communautes musulmanes, chre- tiennes et autres non musulmanes, ainsi que la liberte des votes dans les conseils. Ma Sublime-Porte avisera a I'emploi des moyens les plus efficaces de connaitre exactement et de con- troler le resultat des deliberations et des decisions prises. 17. Comme les lois qui regissent I'achat, la vente et la disposition des proprietes immobilieres sont communes a tons les sujets de moa empire, il pourra etre permis aux- etrangers de posseder des proprietes fonci^res dans mes Etats, en se conformant aux lois et aux reglements de police, en acquittant les memes charges que les indigenes, et apres que des arrange- ments auront eu lieu avec les puissances etrangeres. 18. Les impots sont exigibles au meme titre de tons les sujets de mon empire, sans distinction de elasse ni de culte. On avisera aux moyens les plus prompts et les plus energiques APPENDIX 11. 277 de corriger les abus dans la perception des impots, et notam- ment des dimes. Le syst^me de la perception directe sera successivement, et aussi-tot que faire se pourra, substitue an re- gime des fermes dans toutes les branches des revenus de I'Etat. Tant que ce syst^me demeurera en vigueior, il sera iaterdit, sous les peines les plus sev^res, a tons les agents de I'autorite et a tous les membres des Tnedjlis de se rendre adjudicataires des fermes qui seront annoncees avec publicite et concurrence, ou d'avoir une part quelconque d'interet dans I'exploitation de ces fermes. Les impositions locales seront, autant que possible, calculees de fapon a ne pas affecter les sources de la production, comme a ne pas entraver le mouvement du com- merce interieur. ' 19. Les travaux d'utilite publique recevront une dotation convenable, a laqiielle concourront les impositions particu- lieres et speciales des provinces appelees a jouir de I'eta- blissement des voies de communication par terre et par mer. 20. Une loi speciale ayant deja ete rendue, qui ordonne que le budget des recettes et des depenses de I'Etat soit fixe et communique chaque annee, cette loi sera observee de la ma- niere la plus scrupuleuse. On procedera a la revision des traitements affectes a chaque emploi. 21. Les chefs et un delegue de chaque communaute de- signes par ma Sublime -Porte seront appeles a prendre part aux deliberations du conseil supreme de justice dans toutes les circonstances qui interesseraient la generalite des sujets de mon empire. lis seront specialement convoques a cet effet par mon grand vizir. 22. Le mandat des delegues sera annuel. lis preteront serment en entrant en charge. Tous les membres du conseil, dans les reunions ordinaires et extraordinaires, emettront li- brement leur avis et leur vote, sans qu'on puisse jamais les inquieter a ce sujet. 23. Les lois contra la corruption, la concussion ou la mal- versation, seront appliquees, d'apres les formes legales, a tous les sujets de mon empire, quelles que soient leur classe et la nature de leurs fonctions. 24. On s'occupera de la creation de banques et d'autres in- stitutions semblables, pour arriver a la reforme du syst^me monetaire et financier, ainsi que de la creation de fonds 278 THE EESOUECES OF TURKEY. destines a augmenter les sources de la richesse materielle de mon empire. 25. On s'occupera egalement de Tetablissement de routes et de canaux, qui rendront les communications plus faciles et_ augmenteront les sources de la richesse^du pays. On abolira tout ce qui pent entraver le commerce et I'agriculture. Pour arriver a ces buts, on recherchera les moyens de mettre a profit les sciences, les arts et les capitaux de I'Europe, et de les mettre ainsi successivement en execution. Tels etant mes volontes et mes ordres, vous, qui fetes mon grand vizir, vous ferez, suivant I'usage, publier, soit dans ma capitale, soit dans toutes les parties de mon empire, ce fir- man imperial, et vous veillerez avec attention et prendrez toutes les mesures necessaires afin que tons les ordres qu'il contient soient dorenavant executes avec la plus rigoureuse ponctualite. 279 APPENDIX ni. Commercial Treaty between Her Britannic Majesty and the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. Signed at Kan- lidja, near Constantinople, April 29, 1861. Article 1. All rights, privileges, and immunities which have been conferred on the subjects or ships of Great Britain by the existing capitulations or treaties, are confirmed now and for ever, with the exception of those clauses of the said capitulations which it is the object of the present treaty to modify; and it is, moreover, expressly stipulated that all rights, privileges, and immunities which the Sublime Porte now grants or may hereafter grant to, or suffer to be enjoyed by, the subjects, ships, commerce, or navigation of any other foreign power, shall be equally granted to, and exercised and enjoyed by, the subjects, ships, commerce, and navigation of Great Britain. Art. 2. The subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, or their agents, shall be permitted to purchase, at all places in the Ottoman dominions and possessions (whether for the purpose of internal trade or of exportation) all articles, without any exception whatsoever, the produce or manufacture of said dominions and possessions ; and the Sublime Porte having, in virtue of the second article of the convention of commerce of the 16th of August, 1838, formally engaged to abolish all monopolies of agricultural produce or of any other article whatsoever, as well as all permits (teskeres) from the local governors, either for the purchase of any article, or for its removal from one place to another when purchased, any attempt to compel the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty to receive such permits from the local governors shall be 280 THE KESOUKCES OF TURKEY. considered as an infraction of treaties, and the Sublime Porte shall immediately punish with severity any viziers or other officers who shall have been guilty of such misconduct, and shall render full justice to British subjects for all injuries or losses which they may duly prove themselves to have suffered thereby. Art. 3. If any article of Turkish produce or manufacture be purchased by British merchants or their agents, for the purpose of selling the same for internal consumption in Turkey, the said British merchants or their agents shall pay, at the purchase and sales of such articles, and in any manner of trade therein, the same duties that are paid iu similar cir- cumstances by the most favoured class of Ottoman subjects, or of foreigners engaged in the iuternal trade of Turkey. Art. 4. Xo other or higher duties or charges shall be im- posed in the dominions and possessions of either of the con- tracting parties, on the exportation of any article to the dominions and possessions of the other, than such as are or may be payable on the exportation of the like article to any other foreign country ; nor shall any prohibition be imposed on the exportation of any article from the dominions and possessions of either of the two contracting parties to the dominions and possessions of the other, which shall not equally extend to the exportation of the like article to any other country. No charge or duty whatsoever will be demanded on any article of Turkish produce or manufacture purchased by Bii- tish subjects or their agents, either at the place where such article is purchased, or in its transit from that place to the place whence it is exported, at which it will be subject to an export duty not exceeding 8 per cent., calculated on the value at the place of shipment, and payable on exportation ; and all articles which shall once have paid this dutv shall not agaia be liable to the same duty, however they may have changed hands, within any part of the Ottoman dominions. It is furthermore agreed that the duty of 8 per cent, above mentioned will be annually reduced by one (1) per cent., until it shall be in this manner finally reduced to a fixed duty of one (1) per cent, ad valorem, destined to cover the general expenses of administration and control. APPENDIX III. 281 Art. 5. No Other or higher diities shall be imposed on the importation, into the dominions and possessions of Her Britan- nic Majesty, of any article the produce and manufacture of the dominions and possessions of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, from whatever place arriving, whether by sea or by land, and no other or higher duties shall be imposed on the importation into the dominions and possessions of His Imperial Majesty of any article the produce or manufacture of Her Britannic Majesty's dominions and possessions, from whatever place arriving, than are or may be payable on the like article the produce or manufacture of any other foreign country ; nor shall any prohibition be maintained or imposed ■ on the importation of any article the produce or manufacture of the dominions and possessions of either of the contracting parties into the dominions and possessions of the other, which shall not equally extend to the importation of the like articles being the produce or manufacture of any other country. , His Imperial Majesty further engages that, save as herein- after excepted, he will not prohibit the importation into his dominions and possessions of any article the produce or manufacture of the dominions and possessions of Her Britan- nic Majesty, from whatever place arriving ; and that the duties to be imposed on any article the produce or manufac- ture of the dominions or possessions of Her Britannic Ma- jesty, imported into the dominions or possessions of His 1 Imperial Majesty, shall in no case exceed one fixed rate of \ eight (8) per cent, ad valorem, or a specific duty, fixed by / common assent, equivalent thereto. Such rate shall be calculated upon the value of such articles at the wharf, and shall be payable at the time of their being landed, if brought by sea, or at the first custom-house they may reach, if brought by land. If these articles, after having paid the import duty of eight (8) per cent., are sold at the place of their arrival or in the interior of the country, neither the buyer nor the seller shall be charged with any further duty with respect to them ; and if such articles should not be sold for consumption in Turkey, but should be re-exported within the space of six months, the same shall be considered as merchandise in transit by land. 282 THE EESOURCES OF TURKEY. and be treated as is stated in Article 12 ; the administration of the customs being bound to restore at the time of their re-exportation to the merchant, who shall be required to furnish proof that the goods in question have paid the im- port duty of eight (8) per cent., the difference between that duty and the duty levied on goods in transit by land, as set forth in the article above cited. Art. 6. It is understood that any article the produce or manufacture of a foreign country, intended for importation into the United Principalities of Moldo-Wallachia, or iuto the Principality of Servia, which shall pass through any other part of the Ottoman dominions, will not be liable to the pay- ment of customs' duty until it reaches those principalities; • and, on the other hand, that any article of foreign produce or manufacture passing through those principalities, but destined for some other part of the Ottoman dominions, will not be liable to the payment of customs' duty until such article reaches the first custom-house ynder the direct administration of the Sublime Porte. The same course shall be followed with respect to any article the produce or manufacture of those principalities, as well as with respect to any article the produce or manufacture of any other portion of the Ottoman dominions, intended for exportation : such articles will be liable to the payment of customs' duties, the former to the custom-house of the afore- said principalities, and the latter to the Ottoman custom- house, the object being, that neither import nor export duties shall in any case be payable more than once. Art. 7. The subjects of one of the contracting parties shall enjoy, in the dominions and possessions of the other, equality of treatment with native subjects, in regard to warehousing, and also in regard to bounties, facilities, and drawbacks. Art. 8. AU articles which are or may be legally import- able into the dominions and possessions of Her Britannic Majesty, in British vessels, may likewise be imported in Otto- man vessels, without being liable to any other or higher duties or charges of whatever denomination than if such articles were imported in British vessels ; and reciprocally all articles which are or may be legally importable into the dominions and possessions of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, APPENDIX HI. 283 ill Ottoman vessels, may likewise be imported in British ves- sels, without being liable to any other or higher duties or charges of whatever denomination than if such articles were imported in Ottoman vessels. Such reciprocal equality of treatment shall take effect without distinction, whether such articles come directly from the place of origin or from any other country. In the same manner, there shall be perfect equality of treatment in regard to exportation, so that the same export duties shall be paid, and the same bounties and drawbacks allowed, in the dominions and possessions of either of the contracting parties, on the exportation of any article which may be legally exportable therefrom, whether such exporta- tion shall take place in Ottoman or in British vessels, and whatever may be the place of destination, whether a port of either of the contracting parties or of any third Power. Art. 9. No duties of tonnage, harbour, pilotage, light- house, quarantine or other similar or corresponding duties, of whatever nature, or under whatever denomination, levied in the name or for the profit of Government, public function- aries, private individuals, corporations or establishments of any kind, shall be imposed in the ports of the dominions and possessions of either country, upon the vessels of the other country, which shall not equally and under the same condi- tions be imposed in the like cases on national vessels in gene- ral. Such equality of treatment shall apply reciprocally to the respective vessels, from whatever port or place they may arrive, and whatever may be their place of destination. Art. 10. All vessels which according to British law are to be deemed British vessels, and all vessels which according to Ottoman law are to be deemed Ottoman vessels, shall for the purposes of this treaty be deemed British or Ottoman vessels respectively. Art. 11. No charge whatsoever shall be made upon British goods being the prodiice or manufacture of British dominions or possessions, whether in British or other ships, nor upon any goods the produce or manufacture of any other foreign country carried in British ships, when the same shall pass through the Straits of the Dardanelles or the Bosphorus, whether such goods shall pass through the Straits in the ships 284 THE EESOUECES OF TUEKEY. that brought them, or shall have been transhipped to other vessels; or whether, after having been sold for exportation, they shall, for a certain limited time, be landed in order to be placed in other vessels for the continuance of their voyage. In the latter case the goods in question shall be deposited at Constantinople in the magazines of the custom-house, called transit magazines ; and in any other places where there is no entrepdt, they shall be placed under the charge of the Admi- nistration of the Customs. Art. 12. The Sublime Porte desiring to grant by means of gradual concessions all facilities in its power to transit by land, it is stipulated and agreed that the duty of three (3) per cent, levied up to this time on articles imported into Turkey, in their passage through Turkey to other countries, shall be reduced to two (2) per cent, payable, as the duty of three per cent, has been paid hitherto, on arriving in the Ottoman do- minions ; and at the end of eight years, to be reckoned from the day of the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty, to a fixed and definite tax of one (1) per cent., which shall be levied, as is to be the case with respect to Turkish produce exported, to defray the expense of registration. The Sublime Porte at the same time declares that it re- serves to itself the right to establish, by a special enactment, the measures to be adopted for the prevention of fraud. Art. 13. Her Britannic jSIajesty's subjects, or their agents, trading in goods the produce or manufacture of foreign coun- tries, shall be subject to the same taxes, and enjoy the same rights, privileges, and immunities as foreign subjects dealing in goods the produce or manufacture of their own country. Art. 14. An exception to the stipulations laid down in the 5th article shall be made in regard to tobacco, in any shape whatsoever, and also in regard to salt, which two articles shall cease to be included among those which the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty are permitted to import into the Ottoman dominions. British subjects, however, or their agents, buying or selling tobacco or salt for consumption in Turkey, shall be subject to the same regulations, and shall pay the same duties, as the most favoured Ottoman subjects trading in the two articles aforesaid; and furthermore, as a compensation for the prohi- APPENDIX III. 285 bition of the two articles above-mentioned, np duty whatso- ever shall in future be levied on those articles when exported from Tm-key by the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty. British subjects shall, nevertheless, be bound to declare the quantity of tobacco and salt thus exported to the proper cus- tom-house authorities, who shall, as heretofore, have the right to watch over the export of these articles, without thereby being entitled to levy any tax thereon on any pretence what- soever. Art. 15. It is understood between the two high contract- ing parties, that the Sublime Porte reserves, to itself the faculty and right of issuing a general prohibition against the importation into the Ottoman dominions of gunpowder, cannon, arms of war, or military stores ; but such prohibition will not come into operation until it shall have been officially notified, and will apply only to the articles mentioned in the decree enacting the prohibition. Any of these articles which have not been so specifically prohibited shall, on being im- ported into the Ottoman dominions, be subject to the local regulations, unless Her Britannic Majesty's Embassy shall think fit to apply for a special licence, which licence will in that case be granted provided no valid objection thereto can be alleged. Gunpowder, in particular, when allowed to be imported, will be liable to the following stipulations : — 1st. It shall not be sold by subjects of Her Britannic Ma- jesty in quantities exceeding the quantities prescribed in the local regulations. 2nd. When a cargo or a large quantity of gunpowder ar- rives in an Ottoman port on board a British vessel, such ves- sel shall be anchored at a particular spot to be designated by the local authorities, and the gunpowder shall thence be con- veyed, under the inspection of such authorities, to depots or fitting places designated by the Government, to which the parties interested shall have access under due regulations. Fowling-pieces, pistols, and ornamental or fancy weapons, as also small quantities of gunpowder for sporting, reserved for private use, shall not be subject to the stipulations of the present article. Art. 16. The firmans required for British merchant vessels, 286 THE RESOUECES OF TURKEY. passing through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, shall always be delivered in such manner as to occasion to such vessels the least possible delay. Art. 17. The captains of British merchant vessels, with goods on board destined for the Ottoman Empire, shall be obliged, immediately on their arrival at the port to which they are bound, to deposit ia the custom-house of the said port a true copy of their m^inifesC Art. 18. Contraband goods will be liable to confiscation by the Ottoman treasury, but a report or proces^erbal of the alleged act of contraband must, as soon as the said goods are seized by the authorities, be drawn up and communicated to the consular authority of the foreign subject to whom the goods said to be contraband shall belong, and no goods can be confiscated as contraband unless the fraud with regard to them shall be duly and legally proved. Art. 19. All merchandise the produce or manufacture of the Ottoman dominions and possessions, imported into the dominions and possessions of Her Britannic Majesty, shall be treated in the same manner as the like merchandise the pro- duce or manufacture of the most favoured nation. All rights, privileges, or immunities which are now or may hereafter be granted to, or sufiered to be enjoyed by, the sub- jects, ships, commerce, or navigation of any foreign power in the British dominions or possessions, shall be equally granted to, and exercised and enjoyed by, the subjects, ships, com- merce, and navigation of the Ottoman Porte. Art. 20. The present treaty, when ratified, shall be sub- stituted for the convention concluded between the two high contracting parties on the 16th August, 1838, and shall re- main in force twenty-eight years from the day of the exchange of the ratifications ; each of the high contracting parties being, however, at liberty to give to the other, at the end of fourteen years (that time being fixed, as the provisions of the treaty will then have come into full force), notice for its re- vision or for its determination at the expiration of a year from the date of that notice, and so again at the end of twenty-one years. The present treaty shall receive its execution in all and every one of the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, that is APPENDIX III. 287 to say, in all the possessions of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan situated in Europe or in Asia, in Egypt, and in the other parts of Africa belonging to the Sublime Porte, in Servia, and in the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wa^achia. The Sublime Porte declares that she is ready to grant, to other foreign powers who may seek to obtain them, the com- mercial advantages contained in thfe stipulations of the present treaty. Art. 21. It is always understood that Her Britannic Majesty does not pretend, by any article in the present treaty, to stipulate for more than the plain and fair construction of the terms employed, nor to preclude in any manner the Otto- man Government from the exercise of its rights of internal administration, where the exercise of those rights does not evidently infringe upon the privileges accorded by ancient treaties, or by the present treaty, to British subjects or British merchandise. Art. 22. The high contracting parties have agreed to ap- point, jointly, commissioners for the settlement of a tariff of custom-house duties, to be levied in conformity with the stipulations of the present treaty, as well upon merchandise of every description, being the produce or manufacture of the British dominions and possessions imported into the Sultan's dominions and possessions, as upon articles of every descrip- tion the produce or manufacture of the dominions and pos- sessions of the Sultan, which British subjects, or their agents, are free to purchase in any part of the Ottoman dominions and possessions for exportation to Great Britain or to any other country. The new tariff to be so concluded shall remain in force during seven years, dating from the 1st of October, 1861. Each of the contracting parties shall have the right, a year before the expiration of that term, to demand the revision of the tarifif. But if, during the seventh year, neither the one nor the other of the contracting parties shall avail itself of this right, the tarifif then existing shall continue to have the force of law for seven more years, dating from the day of the expi- ration of the seven preceding years ; and the same shall be the case with respect to every successive period of seven years. 288 THE RESOUECES OF TURKEY. Art. 23. The present treaty shall be ratified, and the rati- fications shall be exchanged .at Constantinople in two calendar months, or sooner if possible, and shall be carried into execu- tion from the 1st of October, 1861.* Done at Kanlidja, on the 29th day of April, 1861. (L.S.) Henkt L. BtJLTraR. (L.S.) A'Aii. * By a subsequent convention it was agreed that this treaty should not come into operation untU the 13th of March, 1862. THE END. LONDOW FBIITTEl) BY SPOTTIS WOOBE ASD CO. KEW-SIBEBT SQUAEB