s LONGMANS' School Geography FOR North America mm° n P r °- emphasizes their various resources, and, more valuable, it lays the foundation for the comprehension of the economic dif- ferences that obtain in various sections, and shows the basis and reason of commerce. The paragraphs devoted to agricultural, mining, and manu- facturing products, as well as that on commerce, all aim to present these subjects from a national stand-point. Comparisons are made with foreign countries, and a way opened for an understanding by the pupil of the relative position of his coun- try among the nations. The paragraph on population shows its origin, growth, and present composition, and is supplemented by statistics of oc- cupations in all the States, and by accounts of the government, religion, and education. Statistical tables furnish materials for a further industrial Carefully se- and social study of the States and groups of States, and, in «cs and the connection with the carefully prepared Index, can form a tjLn Pt to r th" basis for searching review work. The distinguishing charac- er with the in- teristics of the groups of States receive further exposition in occasion™?^ r the text. thorough re, views. In the chapter on towns the States and groups of States have been allowed to guide the arrangement so far as was possible, so that here also previous work of lower grades (for the book is not a beginning book) finds opportunity of being sum- marized ; for the industries centering in each town are at once the outcome and an epitome of the climate and resources of the section of country which has created the town and is influenced by it. In the portion of the book devoted to the Old World, the The old countries of the Eastern continents have for the first time found equate'iy de- adequate description in an American text-book on geography. « crlbe d in When the scanty accounts usually studied are placed in com- Geography, parison with these carefully prepared sections, the superior value of this part of the book is seen at a glance. importance The United States has received lengthy treatment as the of EfropT Phy home country, but the countries of Europe have a more than equal area and six times as many inhabitants. These compli- cated geographical conditions have acted upon the inhabitants, through long periods of time, to produce a -wide variety of national, industrial, and social traits. To depict this clearly and succinctly, and in a suitable style, is a task which, it is hoped, Longmans' School Geography has accomplished. A s i a — the The densely populated lands of India and China, with nearly of al Tn°dia St Lnd half the population of the world, also merit special attention, Scu"ar ' n par " as here the P 0SsiDilit y of sustaining an enormous population for hundreds and thousands of years almost entirely upon the products of area occupied, and not by drafts upon the fertile lands of the outer world, excites the greatest geographical inter- a better un- est, and affords a basis of estimating the future of other lands. the St u SlnVd An inspection of this part of the book will show that these states gained an £ other problems have received due attention, and a result byan adequate , knowledge of of their study will be that the pupil will come to a better un- and" I com n par- derstanding of his own land, and of its social, industrial, eco- ison. nomic, and political future, than has heretofore been obtainable from any of the text-books in use. Longmans' Maps have been purposely omitted from the book. The 6W aB ' best geographical thought is at one on this point. A bulky, unhandy volume is thus avoided. " Longmans' New Atlas," which in its English edition has proved its superiority for teaching purposes, will offer in its American edition (now in active preparation) equally valuable contents, and its maps present the facts adapted to school study with clearness and sufficiency. Advanced Both atlas and text-book adapt themselves to pupils of intel- text-book and ligence, and will be highly appreciated by all teachers imbued atlas Te ^ d " with a spirit for teaching real geography, not attempting to er ciass'of ge- supersede their functions by dictating the length of the daily than P is y ordina- tasks or the questions that shall be asked, but furnishing a rUy attempted, body of material so selected, arranged, and presented that its perusal is at once pleasurable, suggestive, and of substantial value. wl^* v'^i^fsi 'aJfaJSKaBa IMil - : i ,■'■■".. ■■:,■.■.■ :;■>■■.:•. . ." ; 1 i|fi|i*l! it 1' |i|, 1,11,1 llllmil "■ '•■/ 'j , LIij**'"^ 8 ' * / COPYBIGHT, 1890, BY CHARLES J. MILLS TROWS PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY, NEW YORK, PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. In the American edition of Longmans' 'School Geography the portions on America in general, North America, and the United States, are those that have been newly written. The other parts have been changed but little, though alterations and adaptations have been made wherever they seemed called for by the fact that American instead of English or Australian pupils were to be the readers. A treatment of foreign countries is thus obtained sufficiently extended for an adequate description, and which gives such a knowledge of them as should be had by pupils completing a school course in geography, i.e., broad enough to afford basis for intelligent comparison with their own country. As to the manner of treatment adopted for the American sections, it may be said that it is the outcome of a belief that a topical description, and one viewing the country as a whole, is more satisfactory than a recital of a similar series of data for each of its numerous subdivisions. Enough of the separate data, it is thought, are included in the tables on pp. 140-142, and in the paragraphs on Subdivisions and Towns. The special facts of surface, climate, productions, &c, of each State and Territory should be deduced from its position with reference to the chief features and conditions with which the general description has to do. Space is thus afforded for a more detailed general description, and for the introduction of facts and statistics showing more minutely the results of geographic conditions. The statistical tables are intended to furnish material for instructive comparisons and deductions, which have much more VI PREFACE force if worked out by the pupil than if simply read and memorized. In the paragraph on Towns it has been sought to show some- what of the causes that promote town growth and that direct the grouping of population. The figures showing town popula- tions are added as a simple means of indicating in a measure a. place's importance and of assisting comparison. To illustrate and accompany the text several maps have been prepared for the American edition of Longmans' New Atlas, in which are indicated the surface features mentioned, as well as the climatic conditions, the principal areas of production, lines of communication, and density of population. Sufficiently impressed with the value of the book to adopt it for school use in New York even in its English form, the writer willingly undertook the preparation of an American edition. He is under deep obligation to the English author for many valued criticisms, to whom also is due all credit for the plan of the book and the spirit of its execution. C. H. LEETE. Beblin, 1889: PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. It is an unusual thing to prefix a long preface to an ordinary school- book, but the position which geographical teaching at present holds in this country makes it necessary to explain why a new departure is attempted, and what the nature of the new departure is. It is not long since we were told, on the authority of the Royal Geographical Society's Inspector of Geographical Education, that in this country geography is as a rule almost entirely neglected as a subject of educa- tion ; and that among other reasons for this state of matters is the want of text-books fitted to aid teachers in putting the subject on a more satisfactory basis. We are also informed by the same authority that " Germany may be taken as the model which all the other Continental countries are following, as far as their special circumstances will permit ;'' and it may be confidently asserted that all those who have bestowed adequate attention upon this matter are satisfied that, as with regard to the general methods of geographical teaching, so with respect to text-books in particular, Germany does in fact furnish us with the models most worthy of imitation. Why it should be so is easily understood when we consider the place which geography holds in that country in the universities and in the higher education generally ; but in order to appreciate fully the services which Germ.nny has rendered to geographical education, it is necessary to take into account the length, of the experience of German educationists in the working of an advanced system of education in all departments. In a country in which there has long been ample provision both for elementary education and for all intermediate stages leading up to the universities and to the best equipped commercial and technical schools, the teachers have at least been able to learn what is possible and what ia impossible in school-years. Knowing that a limited period must" be turned to account for the thorough teaching of a great variety of subjects, they have learned that it is impossible for school-teaching to be both thorough and full of minute detail. They have learned, accordingly, one of the most important of all lessons in educational method — to distinguish between what is indispensable as a ground- work and what it is better to neglect if the pupils are really to be Vlll PREFACE educated, instead of having their minds overloaded, distracted, embar- rassed, and perplexed. This, then, is the particular in which the author of the present text- book has most earnestly endeavoured to guide himself by German examples, and he believes that on this feature it is impossible to lay too much stress. To those who are familiar with English text-books of geography the work now submitted to the public will hence perhaps appear more remarkable for what it omits than for what it contains. But while this is really the case, while the author has really sought to exclude from the text-book almost all details which the pupils cannot be expected to keep permanently in mind, and can hardly attempt to keep in mind without doing injury in some way to their mental training, he has kept constantly before him the necessity for taking care that what the text-book does contain should be really foundational — should consist of what is most effective as discipline, most important to know. In making this endeavour he has first of all sought to draw a mental picture of the different countries and regions of the world, giving due relief to what is most distinctive in each region. For this reason all countries are not treated according to a uniform plan, as if all the variety to be found on the surface of the globe could be held as adequately described by an enumeration of similar particulars under the same headings. Secondly, while in order to make the picture of any country coherent, the relation between different features and characteristics is always kept in view, special prominence is given to the relation of cause and effect, so as to enable the pupils to realise that in geography there is something to understand as well as to commit to memory ; in other words, so as to make geography a mental discipline as well as a body of instruction. Hence in selecting the particulars for notice under different headings, special attention has been given to such as illustrate general laws. With this in view, frequent references are made from the body of the book to the Introduction, which deals with the general facts of physical geography, and to other passages of the text which may be usefully compared with those from which the reference is made. With regard to other features of this text-book, it may be noted that it is assumed throughout that no adequate teaching in geography 'can be given without the aid of maps. From the map alone can be gained a satisfactory knowledge of the position of different places, and from good maps it is possible, in some respects, to acquire a much more accurate idea of the character of the surface of the globe than can be gained from any description. A text-book ought, in fact, to be supple- mentary to an atlas and other aids to geographical education, and by no means to attempt to supersede them. Hence in the present text- book much is omitted, not as being useless, but as being out of place. PREFACE IX In the spelling of foreign names an attempt is made to secure an approximation to consistency, for it is obvious that to accustom boys and girls to a rational system from their school-days is the likeliest way to arrive ultimately at uniformity of practice in this respect. The rules adopted by the Council of the Eoyal Geographical Society, and repeated at the end of this Preface, have, therefore, been followed in the text. It need hardly be explained that no more than an approximation to consistency is thereby secured, seeing that, as stated in Rule 2, many names — including most of those which naturally find a place in a school geography — are already too familiar under spellings not in harmony with the rules laid down. London, June 1886. NOTE. In the paragraph devoted to latitude and longitude at the head of the principal sections into which the text is divided, a number of places in nearly the same latitude are always given. Those places which do not belong to the country or region with which the section deals are given in parentheses ; and where they lie less than 180° to the west of the place named within such country or region, they are printed to the left of that place, otherwise to the right. The figures given in the text are always more or less round numbers, and especially where they represent variable numbers, like populations, or indefinite numbers, like the average height of plateaux. Towns containing 100,000 inhabitants or more are printed in capitals. 'Where the population exceeds 200,000 it is stated in thousands in parentheses after the name of the town. Thus, LIVERPOOL (600), means that Liverpool has, in round numbers, 600,000 inhabitants. In the American section the population is given also for smaller towns. RULES ADOPTED BY THE COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL GEOGRA- PHICAL SOCIETY AS TO THE SPELLING OF NATIVE NAMES OF PLACES. 1. No change will be made in the orthography of foreign names in countries which use Roman letters : thus Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, &c, names will be spelt as by the respective nations. 2. Neither will any change be made in the spelling of such names in lan- guages which are not written in Roman character as have become by long usage familiar to English readers : thus Calcutta, Cutch, Celebes, Mecca, &c, will be retained in their present form. 3. The true sound of the word as locally pronounced will be taken as the basis of the spelling. 4. An approximation, however, to the sound is alone aimed at. . . . 5. The broad feature of the system is that vowels are pronounced as in Italian, and consonants as in English. 6. One accent only is used, the acute, to denote the syllable on which stress is laid. . . . 7. Every letter is pronounced. When two vowels come together, each one is sounded, though the result, when spoken quickly, is sometimes scarcely to be distinguished from a single sound, as in ai, au, ei. 8. . Indian names are accepted as spelt in Hunter's Gazetteer. PREFACE The amplification of these rules is given below : Letters. Pronunciation ami Remarks. . . ah, a as in father . ... ck d f. 3 ■ k. kh gh I mn P ■ ?• ■ rstvi y. . Examples. Java, Banana, Somali, Bari. e1i,e win benefit Tel-el-kebfr.OUleb^ezo, Medina, Levtfka, Peru. English e ; i as in ravine/ the sound of ee in beet. \ y..^ Hin( ii. Thus not Feejee, but J o as in mote ■ . lokio, long u as in flute; the sound of oo in 6oot. Thus, | Zu i Uj s uma tra. not Zooloo. but ,,.',, ' i „ * m ■»* All vowels are shortened in sound by doubling the \ Yarra, Tanna, Mecca, following consonaut [ Jidda, Bonny. Doubling of a vowel is only necessary where there ) Nuulua Oosima. is a distinct repetition of the single sound - j English i as in ice Shanghai. ow as in how. Thus, not Foochow, but . , . Fuchau. is slightly different from above .... Macao, is the sound of the two Italian vowels, but is] frequently slurred over, when it is scarcely to Y Beirut, BeiluL be distinguished from ey in English they . . ) English b. is always soft, but is so nearly the sound of s that "J it should be seldom used. ( If Celebes were not already recognised it would be F Celebes. written Selebes. ) is always soft, as in church . • • Chingchin. English d. English/, ph should not be used for the sound) of/. Thus, not Haiphong, but .... is always hard. (Soft g is given by j) . is always pronounced when inserted. English j". Dj should never be put for this sound. English k. It should always be put for the hard | i7- n __ ft y Haifong, Nafa. Galapagos. Japan, Jinchuen. Thus, not Corea, but The Oriental guttural is another guttural, as in the Turkish As in English, has two separate sounds, the one hard as in the English word finger, the other as in singer. As these two sounds are rarely employed in the same locality, no attempt is made to distinguish between them. As in English, should never be employed ; qu is given as Jew As in English , Sawakin. is always a consonant, as in yard, and therefore ] should never be used as a terminal — i or e being > Kikiiyu. substituted ) English 2 Zulu. Accents should not generally be used, but where "j there is a very decided emphatic syllable or I Tongatabu, Galapagos, stress, which affects the sound of the word, it j Palawan, Sarawak. should be marked by an acute accent. J Khan. Dagh, Ghazi. Kwangtung. To this statement it need only be added that, in accordance with Rule 6 and the note at the end, accents are used in this text-book in the spelling of Indian names only where they indicate stress ; that in certain more or less familiar spellings (such as Punjab, Bussora) u has the sound which it has in but; and that in some Russian names the combination zh is used to represent the sound of z in azure. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. I. Mathematical Geogeapht : Form of the Earth . .16 Movements of the Earth . 17 "Rotation. Latitude and Longitude . .17 Revolution. The Seasons 19 II. Physical Geography : Land and Water . 24 Changes and Agents of Change . . .24 Modelling of the Land . 25 Rivers . . . .26 Dissolving Action of Rain- water .... 29 Springs . . . .30 Lakes . . . .31 General Result of the Ac- tion of Running Water 32 Marine Deposits . . 32 Emergence of Marine De- posits . . . .33 Folding of Strata . . 34 Mountain-building . . 34 Earthquakes . . .34 Volcanoes . . .35 Underground Heat . . 36 Effect of Surface Inequali- ties on the Habitability of the Earth . . 37 The Atmosphere . PAGE 38 Winds 38 The Ocean . 42 Temperature . 43 Movements of the Ocean J3 Waves . 43 Tides . 43 Currents 45 Marine Life 48 Climate 49 Temperature and Rainfall 49 Effects of the Relations of Sea and Land . 50 Effects of Marine Cur- rents . . .51 Effects of Superficial Configuration . . 52 The Snow-line . . 53 Glaciers . . .53 Icebergs and Ocean Ice 55 Salubrity . . .57 Vegetation and Animal Life 57 Man 59 Density of Population, &c. 59 The Growth and Position of Towns ... 60 Table showing the Area and Population of the great Land-masses . ■ ,62 12 CONTENTS DESCRIPTION OF CONTINENTS AND COUNTRIES. PAGE America : General . . 64 North America : General . 68 North American Countries . 84 Greenland and the Arctic Archipelago . . .84 British America . . 84 A. Dominion of Canada 84 B. Newfoundland . . 92 C. Bermudas . . 92 United States . 93 Mexico . . 162 Central America . 166 West Indies . . .166 South America : General . 168 South American States . 172 Brazil . . . .172 Colonial Guiana . . 174 "Venezuela . . .174 Colombia .... 175 Ecuador .... 176 Peru . . . .176 Bolivia . . . .177 Chile . . . .177 Argentine Republic . . 178 Uruguay . . . .178 Paraguay .... 180 Europe : General . . .181 The British Isles . . 189 Great Britain . . . 195 Ireland .... 204 France .... 205 Belgium and Holland . 213 Germany .... 220 The Alps .... 229 Switzerland . . . 234 Austria-Hungary . . 239 The Eastern European Plain : Russia and Rou- mania .... 248 Scandinavia . . . 256 Denmark .... 260 The Iberian Peninsula . 261 Italy . . . .269 The Balkan Peninsula . 277 Colonial and other Posses- sions of European Powers 284 PAGE Asia : General . . .286 I. Countries outside of the Monsoon Region . .291 Siberia . . . .291 Russian Central Asia . 293 Caucasia and Armenia . 294 Turkey in Asia . . 297 Arabia ... 302 Irania . . . .303 II. The Monsoon Countries and their Dependencies 305 India .... 305 Ceylon . . . .316 Indo-China . . .316 Eastern Archipelago . 318 China . . . .321 Korea . . . .327 Central Asia . . .328 Japan . . . .329 Africa : General . . . 331 African Countries . . 335 Egypt .... 335 Independent Soudan . 337 Western Mediterranean States . . .337 From the Senegal to the Congo . . .339 Congo Free State . . 340 Portuguese Lower Guinea 341 British South Africa . 341 East and South - east Africa . . .343 African Islands . . 345 Australia and Oceania Australia and the Austra- lian Colonies : General . "Victoria .... New South Wales . Queensland South Australia West Australia Tasmania .... New Zealand . Australasian Islands (ex- cept Tasmania and New Zealand) Polynesia . Antarctic Regions Table of the Area and Popu- lation of the Principal Countries of the World 347 347 355 356 357 357 358 359 359 363 366 369 370 ILLUSTRATIONS. The Garden of the Gods— A Colorado Park. From a Photograph Frontispiece FIG. PAGE 1, 2, 3. diagrams to illustrate the seasons . . . . 20, 21 4. diagram showing the altitude op the sun at different Latitudes at Midsummer 21 5. Diagram Illustrating the Difference in the Distribution of the Sun's Rays at the Summer and Winter Solstices in the Latitude of London 22 6. Diagram Illustrating the Increase in the Length of the Day from South to North at Midsummer in the Northern Hemi- sphere 23 7. Sand-Dunes, Desert of Sahara. From Naehtigal's Sahara und Sudan 26 8. Diagram to Illustrate the Origin of Springs. ... 30 9. Diagram to Illustrate the Formation of Artesian Wells . 31 10. The Giant Geyser, Yellowstone Park. From the Report of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the U. S. : Montana, cor- responding parallel south of the T^^^Vlt Cer summer position for the northern hemisphere (June 21), the latter that of midwinter for the same hemisphere (Dec. 21). Now it will be observed that in both positions there is a circle round one pole within SUN PlQ. 1.— (L indicates the latitude of London.) which no light can reach the earth from the sun during an entire rota- tion, and at the opposite pole another circle which will remain con- stantly in daylight. The distance of each of these latter circles from the respective poles is again 23£°. The parallel of latitude at which the sun is directly overhead in its midsummer position for the northern hemisphere is called the Tropic of Cancer, that in which the same thing happens at midwinter, the Tropic of Capricorn, and the circles which lie at the same distance from either pole are called respectively the Arctic •SUN Fra. 2.— (I indicates the latitude of London.) Circle (in the northern hemisphere) and the Antarctic (in the southern). Fig. 3 illustrates the gradual passage of the earth from one position to another, and shows that in passing from the midsummer to the mid- winter position of the northern hemisphere, and again from the latter to the former, the earth reaches two positions, the vernal and autumnal equinoxes (March 21, September 23), in which the sun is directly overhead at the equator, and in which day and night are equal all over the world. Between the vernal and autumnal equinoxes the sun is THE SEASONS 21 overhead at some point or other in the belt between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer, and the nearer it is to the latter the larger is the circle of perpetual light round the North Pole and of perpetual dark- ness round the South. Hence, too, within the Arctic Circle, the nearer Via. 3. — (T* Indicates the latitude of London.) a place is to the North Pole the longer will be its periods of light in summer and darkness in winter. The same is true of the Antarctic Circle and the South Pole. At either pole the periods of light Tig. 4.— Illustrating the altitude of the sun at midsummer in the northern hemisphere. A at the Tropic of Cancer, B at the latitude of London, at opposite points on the Arctic Circle. Z the zenith. and darkness last about six months. The diagram thus also makes it plain that winter and summer occur at opposite periods of the year in the northern and southern hemispheres. The areas of the earth bounded by the circles just mentioned are called zones or belts, and receive special names from the general effect 22 MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY of the heat of the sun within them. The strength of the sun's rays on the surface of the earth increases with the height of the sun — first, because the higher the sun is in the sky the smaller is the surface on which its rays are expended, and, secondly, because the higher it is the less is the thickness of the atmosphere through which the rays pass, and the less heat therefore is intercepted in the passage. An examination of figs. 4 and 5 will make these facts plainer. In fig. 4 it is seen that the altitude of the sun, or the angle which the line pointing to S makes with the horizon (H), steadily diminishes from the Tropic of Cancer to the furthest limit of the Arctic Circle, on one point of which the sun is just on the horizon. Fig. 5 shows the effect of differences in the height of the sun on the distribution of an equal band of rays (a b) on the surface of the earth (c d). From the facts above stated, it follows that the part of the earth within the tropics, where the sun is always overhead at some part, is z c d A B Fib. 5.— Showing the difference in the distribution of the snn's rays at London at midsummer (A J, and at midwinter (B). the hottest as a whole, and is for that reason called the torrid zone ; the parts round the poles are called the north and south frigid zones, as being the coldest ; and the intervening zones are called the north and south temperate zones. But we shall afterwards see that there are other circumstances besides the height of the sun which have an im- portant effect on climate, and that these consequently are not true zones of climate, but merely zones of illumination. Though the temperate zones have a regular alternation of day and night all the year round., it must be borne in mind that there is no sudden increase in the length of daylight as we cross the Arctic or Antarctic Circle. The days of summer become longer, those of winter shorter, the nearer we advance to either pole. This will be at once plain from Fig. 6, which shows the extent of daylight on the earth when the sun is in its midsummer position for the northern hemisphere (directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer), and when it is midday at "the prime meridian. It is clear that all places inlatitude 50° N. are then in day THE SEASONS 23 light from rather more than 120° W., where the sun is just rising, to, rather more than 120° E., where it is just setting. There are therefore more than 240° of this parallel in light, and since the earth turns through 18° in an hour, a place in latitude 50° will have more than 16 hours of daylight. Similarly, » place in latitude 20° N. will have 13 £ hours of daylight. It follows that, though latitude is no sure in- dication of climate, places in the same latitude agree with one another at all periods of the year in the length of the day — a fact of importance with reference to the habitability and civilisation of the earth in more Fig. 6. ways than one. It is the long days of summer which enahle grain to be grown in the short time available in one or two parts of the world near the northern limit of the temperate zone (in Norway even beyond it) ; and it is at least worthy of note that all the oldest civili- sations both in the Old World and the New (in the Old World, those of China, India, Assyria, Egypt, Greece, Eome ; in the New World, those of Mexico and Peru) rose in latitudes where the shortest day is nearly ten hours long or longer. 1 1 This advantage enables artificial light to be more easily dispensed with a matter of no little consequence where artificial light is dear, or before the advance of civilisation made it cheap. i4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY II. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY". Land and Water. The total area of the water surface of the earth ig about 144$ millions of square miles, that of the land surface about 55£ millions ; the ratio of the one to the other consequently about 11:4. Three- fourths of the land surface of the earth lies in the northern hemisphere J and, what is still more important, the two great land masses of the northern hemisphere, North America with Greenland and the Eurasian * continent, spread out in the east and west so as to leave only narrow communications with the Arctic Ocean, while the two great continents of the south, South America and Africa, taper to narrow peninsulas, leaving wide stretches of ocean between each other. The freedom of communication between the Arctic Ocean and the South is found to be still further diminished when we take the depth into consideration. Behring's Strait has an average depth of less than 60 fathoms, and a submerged bank at a depth of under 500 fathoms connects Iceland with Europe. Less is known about the depth of the Antarctic Ocean ; but, so far as it has been explored, the depth would appear to decrease gradually southwards. When eastern and western hemispheres are compared the greater proportion of land is found in the former ; and when we divide the earth into two hemispheres, one containing the greatest possible amount of land and the other the same of water, it is found that Great Britain as a whole occupies nearly the centre of the former. The average depth of the ocean is enormously greater than the average height of the land. The former is estimated at about 2,000 fathoms or 12,000 feet, the latter at about 1,500 feet, so that the ocean could receive all the land of the earth above water's edge at least twenty times over. The continents must therefore be conceived as vast plateaux 2 rising to so great a height above the ocean bed that the mountains on their surface are in respect of their mass relatively insignificant. Changes and Agents of Change. The outlines of the continents are not permanent. There is the clearest evidence to show that sea and land are constantly, though slowly, changing places to a certain extent. On the other hand, it has now been shown to be extremely probable that the great oceans as a 1 Eurasia is a name frequently applied to the combined continents of Europe and Asia. 1 A plateau or table-land is a region or district with a uniformly high or mode- rately high level (above the sea or above the surrounding country). CHANGES AND AGENTS OF CHANGE 25 whole have occupied the present great troughs from a period incal- culably remote, and that the continents, though submerged now at one place, now at another, have remained similarly, as a whole, pretty much in their present positions. The margins of the sea and land have been mostly subject to change, and the whole of what may be called the unstable area (liable to be at one time sea, at another land) has been estimated at equal to about one-fourth of the entire surface of the earth. The unstable area of the ocean is generally indi- cated by its comparative shallowness. modelling of the Land. — Various agents are constantly at work reducing the harder parts of the crust of the earth J to small particles and even to powder, and others in carrying this crumbled material from higher to lower levels. There are three chief crumbling agents. (1) In dry countries, which are all liable to extremes of heat and cold within short periods, 9 these variations of temperature causing alternate expansion and contraction of the surface of the rocks, lead to the splitting off of scales and fragments, which become strewn at the base. In the absence of water, wind is the principal agent in carrying these fragments to still lower levels ; for, though the dust may be whirled high in the air and may even settle on higher levels after a particular gust, the tendency on the whole is downwards. By this means vast areas in the interior of Africa and North America have got covered with loose matter brought from a distance of thousands of miles ; in Asia great cities (Babylon and Nineveh) have been buried, and wide and deep valleys are said to have been filled by the same process. 3 In distributing the loose matter which they carry the winds act differently in different circumstances. In some cases, where they blow with con- stancy over vast plains or level plateaux, they build up sand-dunes or mounds of sand, with a gentle slope on the side turned towards the wind, and a steeper slope on the opposite side. Sand-dunes so formed are not fixed in position, but travel slowly along in the direction of the wind, the change in place being due to the same process as that by which they are formed. The loose sand from the gentle slope on the wind side is blown over the top and falls down the steeper slope on the other side, while fresh sand is constantly raised from the plain. In other places where the winds are less constant the loose sand may be distributed pretty equally over the surface, and hence in dry regions mountains are often seen to rise with remarkable abruptness from very level plains at their base. 4 (2) In moist countries, with a vigorous 1 The term crust of the earth is applied to the few thousand feet beneath the surface which cau be brought within the reach of our observation, and is not intended to imply that the outer part of the earth is a hard coat of armour sur- rounding a fluid interior. 2 See pp. 52-3. » See p. 323. * See cut, p. 344. 26 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY vegetation but with little frost, the work of disintegration is principally performed by the roots of plants, which as they thicken act as powerful wedges and open the cracks even in hard rocks, and in some cases by their juices dissolve the rock ; but (3) frost is probably the most powerful crumbling agent of all, and attacks the rocks all the more fiercely the more they are ramified by fissures and permeated by pores. Bain fills the cracks and enters the pores, and, as water in freezing expands with great force, large masses or small particles are burst off, and ultimately fall down through their own weight, or are easily washed off by subsequent rains. Every muddy drop that we sea trickling down a hill slope after a shower of rain is a sign and an Pia. 7.— Sand-dunes, Desebt of Sahara. illustration of the processes just described, and thus enables us to see how the valleys are widened and the mountains carved. At the bottom of the valley the action of the rain is continued by the rills and larger streams which are ultimately formed. Bivers.- — The area from which the water of a river is collected is called its basin, and the boundary of a river-basin, except where it borders the sea, is likewise the boundary of adjoining basins, and thus forms a water-parting, or line from which the water flows in different directions on opposite sides. Frequently a water-parting is the crest of a chain of mountains, but in many other cases it is only a slight swelling in a valley (Kur, Eion), 1 and it is by no means an uncommon thing for rivers to have cut a channel right across mountain chains. 2 1 See p. 295. 2 g ee pp. 288, 306, ka. RIVERS 27 A few instances are known in which bifurcations l take place where there is no proper water-parting, but part of the same channel of water flows in one direction, part in another. More frequently the same lake has outlets in different directions. Several examples of this occur in the Bocky Mountains, lakes sending waters on one side to the Pacific, on the other to the Atlantic, ocean. 2 As an agent of change a river wears away the land at one part, and deposits material in another part. The course of a typical river is divided into three parts — an upper, a middle, and a lower course. In the upper part of its course the fall or slope of the bed is steepest, and hence the wearing or eroding action is most rapid and predominates over deposition, the energy of the action being due not only to the swiftness of the current, but still more, probably, to the gritty matter which it carries along with it. The upper part of a river thus tends to recede higher and higher up a valley ; or, to use the phrase frequently employed, a river eats back its bead. In the middle course of the river erosion and deposition are more equally balanced, the river eroding where its current is swiftest (on the concave or hollow side of winding banks, 3 &c), and depositing where it is slowest (on the convex side of winding banks, 4 &c). In the lower course of the river deposi- tion predominates over erosion, and almost all the matter still retained by a river in suspension is deposited at the mouth, where the flow is checked by the sea or lake into which the river empties itself. Frequently from this cause there is formed at the mouth of a river a tar or submarine ridge which prevents the entrance of vessels drawing above a certain depth. "When the matter laid down at the mouth of a river rises above the surface it forms a delta. Usually a delta is traversed by several branches of the river, whence the name, which was first applied to the delta of the Nile, the outer branches of which, along with the sea- board, form a A (the Greek letter for D). Occasionally, however, the river remains undivided, and traverses a true delta or deposit of alluvial matter in a single stream. 1 The most noted example is that of the Casiquiare, which belongs both to the basin of the Amazon and that of the Orinoco. 2 The name Two Ocean Pass is given from this circumstance to a particular pass in the Yellowstone Region (lat. 44° N. 110° W.) 3 The banks of a river are known as right and left, according as they are on the right or left hand of a person looking in the direction in which the river flows. 4 The convex side thus tends to grow more and more outwards, the concave side to become more and more hollow, till at last the river may burst through the neck on the inner side of the convex protuberance. The Isle of Dogs, in the East End of London, is a good illustration of a deposit formed in this way, but the neck connecting it with the land is now protected by artificial embankments. 28 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY From the mode of their formation, deltas are frequently flooded, and as every flood tends to raise the river banks, while the bed of the river is also being constantly raised, it follows that the river branches in a delta almost always run along natural embankments above the level of the surrounding surface, until, perhaps, the side of an em- bankment is broken through and a new channel formed along another line. Altogether, the course of a river is a scene of constant change. Only where a stream has worn for itself a deep gorge in hard rock does its channel become a permanent one, and in such places the changes are chiefly in the swiftness and depth of the current. Such gorges are specially characteristic in dry regions, where the river derives little assistance from rain, frost, and vegetation in widening its valley ; and the most remarkable examples of the kind are the canons of the Eocky Mountains in Western North America, 1 the rivers of which are fed chiefly by melting snow near the source, and have their own erosive action assisted by the rapid fall of the bed. The action of a river is variously modified by the tributaries which it receives on both its banks. Each tributary, with the assistance of its feeders and trickling waters, tends to form a valley of its own, and when it joins the main stream it not only adds to its volume, but has other effects according to circumstances. It generally aids more or less in eating away the bank of the main stream opposite to the influx, and thus to shift the course of the latter in that direction. This effect is greatest when the tributary is impetuous, and its course at right angles to that of the main stream, as in the case of some of the tribu- taries of the Theiss in Hungary. But at the actual point of junction the course of a tributary hardly ever has such a direction, for, as its current is more or less checked at the confluence, alluvial matter is always laid down at the inner angle between the main stream and its feeder, so that a wedge of such deposits tends to grow longer and longer in that situation, pushing the mouth of the tributary along more or less in the direction of the course of the main stream. By the continuation of this process the tributary may ultimately get wedged off altogether, and finally enter the sea as an independent stream. The navigation of a river, which has so great an effect on the dis- tribution of population on its banks, depends not only on the depth of its water, but also on the rate of flow (that again on the volume of water and the directness of the course as well as on the fall or slope of the bed) and the freedom from waterfalls and shallow rapids ; and the advantage of a river for navigation is often greatly reduced by the length of its windings. 1 See pp. 102, 103, and illustration p. 119. DISSOLVING ACTION OF RAIN-WATER 29 The Dissolving Action of Rain-water. — The action of water in wearing away the land drained by rivers is not confined to the surface. Bain- water sinks into the ground sometimes to an enormous depth, the depth depending on the thickness of porous rocks. In doing so it may become muddy from the washing away of solid particles, just as when it trickles down a hill slope, but it exercises a much more powerful action in many cases in another way. There are many substances which rain-water can dissolve, 1 as water dissolves salt or sugar, causing them to disappear wholly from sight. Various soluble salts are always present in the ground, and hence rivers always contain a certain pro- portion of salt, though seldom enough to impart a salt taste. Carbonate of lime, of which chalk, limestone, and marble are three different forms, and which, accordingly, is one of the most widely diffused substances in nature, is easily acted on by rain-water in this way ; where such rocks abound, caves are apt to be formed by the continual action of rain-water filtering in through pores and fissures, 8 and further conse- quences ensue from this process. Sometimes the hollows in lime- stone rock and the openings into them are so enlarged that considerable streams may precipitate themselves into them and continue their course for a time underground. Underground rivers are consequently a frequent characteristic of limestone regions. 3 Generally these rivers re-emerge at some point on the surface of the land, but sometimes they find their outlet under the sea. Sometimes the overlying crust of the earth is left by the process of cave-making without support and falls in, so that basin-shaped hollows take the place of subterranean caves. 4 Very frequently floor and roof in a cave are connected by a magnificent array of picturesque or fantastic pillars, which are them- selves the result of the process by which the caves are made. For the process of cave-making is a slow one. It is carried on by the water, drop by drop. Each drop dissolves a little of the limestone ; but where the percolation of the water is very slow, each drop as it hangs on the roof of the cave partly evaporates, and the carbonate of lime that had been dissolved in the evaporated water is left as a thin crust on the roof. Subsequent drops enlarge and elongate this crust till what is called a stalactite 6 is formed. The same process goes on beneath on the floor of the cave where the drop falls, and so, in course of time, a column of carbonate of lime, to which the name of stalagmite is given, is built up from the floor, and the meeting of the two forms a pillar, which the continuation of the process thickens and models. 1 This dissolving power rain-water owes chiefly to the fact that it always contains a certain proportion of carbonic acid derived from the atmosphere. 2 See p. 235, n. 2. 3 See p. 298 (middle of page), and compare p. 299 (under Jordan). 4 g e e p. 246. 5 From the Greek stalaktos, ' dropping ' or ' trickling.' 30 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Springs.— Even where the rocks are less easily acted on than lime- Btone and its allies, the action of underground water is important. It is to this water that springs owe their origin. Deep as water may sink in certain kinds of rock, whether porous or traversed by numerous inter-ramifying fissures, it is stopped by other kinds which are practi- cally impermeable to water. So stopped, it creeps along the junction between the permeable and impermeable rock till it finds an issue on the surface of the ground in the form of a spring, which drains so much of the porous rock as lies above its own level (Fig. 8). Such being their origin, springs always contain some substances in solution derived from the°rocks through which the water that feeds them has percolated. Hence many are known as mineral springs, and among these not a few have a repute on account of their medicinal action. Where the water comes from a great depth below the surface it is always warm, 1 and, Fio. 8.— A, b, porous rooks ; 0, a rook with inter-ramifying fissures ; «, j, springs. as warm water is capable of dissolving many substances which cold water (even rain-water) cannot dissolve, hot springs are always richer in dissolved minerals, and more frequently than cold ones have a medicinal reputation. One widely diffused substance, silica, 2 is as readily dissolved by very hot underground water as carbonate of lime is by cold, and hence deposits of silica (known as siliceous suiter) are very often found round the mouths of hot springs. In many parts of the world springs can be made artificially by deep borings. These are called Artesian Y/ells from having first been made in Europe s in the French province of Artois. A peculiar form and structure of ground are required to render the sinking of such wells possible. (1) The ground must be hollow, so that the mouth of the well is lower than the surface where the water destined to feed it is collected. (2) A bed of porous rock must form a similar hollow beneath the surface, emerging at the surface only at certain places where the rain-water can soak into it. (3) Above and below this porous bed must be beds of impermeable rock, the lower bed to keep the water from i See p. 80. a A substance of which quartz and sand ore different forms, 5 Long previously elsewhere. ARTESIAN WELLS 31 sinking still deeper and bo escaping, the upper to prevent it from oozing to the surface at all parts and so forming a marsh. "When these conditions are fulfilled a boring in the hollow down to the porous d ^ (2 Fig. 9. — a, artesian well ; 6, 6, impermeable strata ; c, e, porous stratum j d, d, collecting surfaces. bed will enable the water to well forth at the top (Fig. 9). Such borings are often of great importance in arid countries. 1 Lakes. — The action of running water is frequently modified by the presence of lakes. Lakes may occur either at the head of a river, when they are fed by a number- of small streams, none of which can be identified with that which forms its outlet, by springs, or by rains and trickling water ; or they may occur in the course of a river (form- ing expansions in its bed) ; or they may be the final recipients of the water of one or more rivers having themselves no outlet ; or they may stand quite isolated, fed by rains and springs and kept within limits by evaporation. The last two classes of lakes are nearly always salt, from the gradual accumulation of the salt conveyed by the rivers or other waters that feed them. Lakes with underground outlets (Zirknitz 2 ) are only apparent exceptions. 3 All lakes, whether fresh or salt, tend to be filled up and disappear in course of ages. Where they are, as it were, expansions in the bed of a river, their obliteration goes on rapidly by a double process. At the upper end of the lake the river deposits almost all its sediment in the still water which checks its flow on its entry ; 4 at the lower end it constantly saws its outlet deeper, and thus keeps reducing the level of the entire lake. So long, however, as lakes exist, they have an impor- tant effect on the lower course of the stream, an effect which often has a great influence on the habitability of the country on its banks. They serve to regulate the volume of the river below, gradually rising in level when floods swell the upper reaches, and thus making the flow of the lower parts of the river more constant, and protecting the neighbouring country from inundation. 6 1 See p. 338. * See p. 246, n. 2. s Lob Nor, in Eastern Turkestan, is a peculiar case. Its waters are fresh, though there is no outlet, but it is described by Przhevalsky as in reality merely the expansion of a river, and as flowing on like a river till its waters evaporate, its salts then forming an incrustation on the surface of the ground. 4 Lakes are thus filterers of rivers. 5 The Aar, in Switzerland, has been diverted by an artificial channel into the Lake of Bienne, in order that the lake may serve for this purpose. 32 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY In the case of salt lakes the process of obliteration is a more gradual one. The sediment carried into them by the feeders slowly raises the level of the lake, causes it to have a smaller depth but a greater extent of surface. The extension of the surface is, however, retarded by the fact that evaporation is accelerated when the area of the surface is enlarged. But it is only a retardation. The level of the lake tends to rise, the surface to spread, until in the end one of two results is bound to happen. Either the level is so much raised that an outlet is formed to the sea, or the surface becomes so extended that the lake dries up from the rapidity of evaporation. Hence there are large areas of the earth which are constantly dry at least in summer, but have the surface strongly impregnated with salt. 1 From this account the conclusion may be drawn that all lakes must be regarded as recent formations in the history of the earth, and the hollows which they fill are due to various changes in the crust. General Result of the Action of Water. — Since, then, it is the destiny of lakes to be filled up and disappear, and of matter at higher levels to be carried down to lower levels, it follows that the ultimate tendency of running water is to carry all the higher land of the earth into the sea. But in doing so it acts unequally — here eating away the land with great energy, there enfeebled or even temporarily checked in its action ; and hence the general effect of the process is in the first instance to exaggerate the inequalities on the surface of the earth instead of removing them. Table-lands are thus sculptured into mountains and valleys, and mountain chains and peaks are rendered more and more rugged and precipitous. Many of the mountains of the world are due as such to no other cause. Marine Deposits. — The sea, being the ultimate receptacle of the matters worn away from the land, sorts them out according to their weight and fineness, and by means of its waves, tides, and currents, spreads them out in vast flat sheets, layers, or strata. The heavier matters sink to the bottom first and form sands, which ultimately get consolidated into sandstones. The finer matters are carried farther out, but sink in the end likewise, forming a muddy bottom which ultimately gets hardened into fine-grained rocks like shale, mudstone, or slate. 2 The soluble substances are carried out farthest of all, and amongst them the carbonate of lime is transported in great quantity into deep waters, there to Suffer a sea change Into something rich and strange. i Changes in climate and physical features may modify these processes. * All these rocks may be described as hardened mud ; but while mudstones are compact and homogeneous, shales easily split into thin layers parallel to the plane of stratification, and slates can be split into leaves more or less inclined to that plane. MARINE DEPOSITS 33 Myriads of living creatures take hold of it, and ' by some strange alchemy' build it up into an infinite variety of beautiful skeletons, which during the life of the animals serve as their means of support and protection, and after their death sink to the bottom and form the ' material out of which new limestones arise similar to those from which the substance was originally derived. 1 The insoluble substances derived from the land are never carried far out to sea. Even the largest rivers and strongest currents never transport them farther than 200 or 300 miles from the shore. If the sea-bed keeps stable the shore-line is gradually extended seawards, where deposits are abundant, as at the mouths of rivers and on coasts where currents are arrested. But if the sea-bed happen to be sinking the deposits grow thicker and thicker in the same place, and changes in depth or in the currents may lead to deposits of one kind being laid down immediately above those of another kind. Thus are built up whole series of strata, limestones, sandstones, shales, &c, and from the strata so formed the land is renewed. Emergence of Marine Deposits. — The changes of level already referred to raise sea-formed strata in many cases high into the air. This has taken place at different times in the world's history, and the strata themselves often furnish an indication of the period when this has taken place, or, if not that, at least of the relative order in which they have themselves been formed. They do so by means of the fossils which they enclose. Fossils are remains of living things, whether animals or plants (generally animals), which have been preserved in a recognisable form from the time when they got imbedded in the rocks as these were forming; and an examination of these remains collected in regions where we can tell the order in which strata have been laid down from the order in which they still lie one above the other, has brought to light the fact that in the course of ages there has been a gradual change in the character of the living things on the globe, and hence in the fossils. By the character of the fossils geologists are thus able to tell the relative age of the rocks in which they are found, and 1 Of the animals which acquire skeletons of carbonate of lime the most impor- tant geographically are minute creatures called coral p"lyps, the skeletons of which have formed reefs and barriers in the neighbourhood of coasts in warm seas, and an almost innumerable crowd of small islands in mid-ocean. When wholly composed of coral remains these islands are generally ring-shaped, and are then known as atolls. They are necessarily always Hat and low, the animals being unable to live out of water. The part of the island above the surface is due to the arrest of drifting matter, by the coral beneath the surface, the heaping of broken fragments of coral on the top of the reefs by the waves, and the subsequent accumulation of vegetable remains — the plant-life itself being either brought originally with drifted material, or derived from seeds dropped by birds. See p. 3G6, and cut, n. 367. C " 34 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY hence we may speak of rooks being in a geological sense older and newer. 1 Folding of Strata. — Though originally, as a rule, spread out level at the sea-bottom, the strata are scarcely ever found to be level, or nearly level, when raised to form dry land. They are folded and crumpled as layers of cloth might be when squeezed from side to side while at the same time under pressure from above. There can be no doubt that the rocks forming the crust of the earth have been subjected to a similar squeezing, a squeezing of such tremendous force as to bend im- mense thicknesses of the hardest rocks into greater or smaller wrinkles, sometimes forming gentle undulations, sometimes close-set folds. 2 Mountain -building. — Along certain lines the crust of the earth seems to have been peculiarly weak, so as to be less able than other parts to resist the enormous upward pressure resulting from this lateral squeez- ing. In such situations great masses of matter have been forced high into the air, forming mountain chains like the Alps, Himalayas, and Andes. The formation of deep seas like the Mediterranean seems to have been part of the same process, a great hollow corresponding to a great swelling. The greatness of the force exercised during this process is evidenced by the abruptness of the folds of the strata, which often in mountainous regions stand upright, and sometimes are tilted over so that older rocks come to lie above newer. But, tremendous as the forces are which give rise to upheavals of this kind, the process is generally an extremely slow one, a striking proof of which is furnished by the fact already mentioned, 3 that rivers often cut right across mountain chains, for there is often the clearest evidence to show that the rivers were there before the mountains, and have deepened their beds as the mountains rose, forming themselves the gorges by which the chains are broken. Earthquakes. — There is strong reason to believe that earthquakes also are, in many cases, among the consequences of the enormous lateral pressure which crumples the strata of the earth's crust and builds up mountain chains. We can imagine that the snapping of a part of the crust deep below the surface in consequence of the intense strain which that pressure causes is the origin of the shock which sometimes destroys whole cities along with thousands of human beings. Many earthquakes are, however, due to volcanic outbursts, and still more, in all probability, to subterranean movements of the same nature as those which lead to such outbursts. The localities in which earthquakes most frequently occur are such as might be expected in ' Vegetable remains.found chiefly among a particular series of older rocks, forming the Carboniferous system, have given rise through chemical and other changes to coal. - See Fig. 40, p. 229. s g ee „ 26. EARTHQUAKES 35 accordance with those two surmises as to their cause ; for those aro, in the first place, regions where active volcanoes are most abundant (see next paragraphs) ; and, secondly, mountainous countries, and above ah the neighbourhood of mountain chains. Besides the shores of the Pacific Ocean and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, the parts of the world most frequently visited by earthquakes are the Mediter- ranean Peninsulas (including Asia Minor), the Caucasus, Elburz, Ilimalayas, Tian-Shan, and Appalachian Mountains and the districts in their vicinity. Minor shocks may be due to various other causes, and careful observations with instruments in different parts of the world have made it likely that the whole surface of the earth is in a constant state of tremor. Volcanoes. — All mountains are not due to the processes already described, nor are all parts of the earth's crust composed of rocks originally laid down in water. Volcanoes are built up of material ejected from beneath the surface of the earth, and their generally conical form is due to the mode in which that matter has been deposited round the opening from which it is ejected (the crater). 1 The matter thrown out is sometimes molten (lava), and pours forth in a glowing stream, which may flow to a distance of scores of miles. Sometimes the molten matter is sent forth with such violence as to be torn into spray, which solidifies in the air into dust, mingled with larger and smaller rounded 2 stones (bombs and lapilli). Sometimes the matter ejected is solid, even when blown from the crater, but there is always gas along with the vapour of water present, and occasionally there is nothing else. In former geological ages wide sheets of molten lava appear to have issued in certain places from cracks in the earth's crust, and to have covered extensive plains. Solidified matter (previ- ously molten) filling a fissure in the crust is known as a dyke. Many volcanoes are extinct, and have not undergone eruption in historical times, and some such volcanoes are remarkable for still preserving their characteristic form with well-marked craters (Auvergne, Eifel). Others are dormant, not having undergone eruption since a remote period. Others are said to be active, being still subject to eruption from time to time. 3 Almost all active volcanoes are situated 1 Greek, ' a cup.' Usually there are many secondary craters in a volcano in addition to the principal one. ' The rounded form due to whirling in the air. ' The number of active volcanoes distributed over the globe is upwards of 300, but it is impossible to state the precise number, since it cannot always be deter- mined whether a volcano is to be considered active or dormant, or even extinct. Those which are undoubtedly active are mainly scattered round the Pacific, on the west coast of America (with a wide gup in temperate North America) in the 36 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. near the sea, and this fact would appear to havo a great deal to do with the occurrence of volcanic outbursts. It is believed that such outbursts may be due in some, if not in all, cases to the sudden con- version into steam of water that has filtered through porous rocks to heated matter deep down in the crust of the earth. Underground Heat.— In any case the existence of volcanoes is a proof of the presence of heated matter below the earth's surface. But it is not the only proof. Everywhere it is found that when we descend below a certain depth ' at which the temperature is constant all the year round, the temperature increases the deeper we go. The rate varies at different places, and even for the same place at different depths, but on an average is estimated at about 1° Fahr. for every forty-five feet of descent. Hot springs are one of the effects of this internal heat of the earth. Geysers, or hot springs liable to periodic eruptions, during which water is sometimes shot hundreds of feet into the air, occur in Iceland, Western North America, and New Zealand. In the last- mentioned region they are known in the Maori tongue as puia. Both the geysers and the other hot springs of New Zealand are in the North Island, where they abound on the line of volcanic action which passes from Mount Kuapehu through Lake Taupo to the Bay of Plenty (see pp. 360, 361). Here also are volcanoes, which throw up mud, and have been known to do so in greater quantity than any similar volcanoes in any other part of the world. Near Lakes Botorua and Tarawera, about 30 miles from the Bay of Plenty, such springs, geysers, and mud volcanoes are particularly numerous, and the small Lake Kotomahana, to the south of Lake Tarawera, used to be visited by travellers from all parts of the world on account of the beautiful pink and white terraces of siliceous sinter 2 which had been formed by liot springs on its shores ; but in the winter of 1886 these were wholly destroyed by a tremendous volcanic outburst. An adjoining volcanic hill named Tarawera, which had never before been known to break forth in eruption, was then swept away by a volcanic explosion which overwhelmed all the neighbourhood. The eruptions of geysers are probably due to sudden alterations in pressure in a deep column of very hot water. The boiling-point of water is higher the greater the pressure, and the water at the bottom of the crater of a geyser may be at a very much higher temperature than that of boiling water under the pressure of the atmosphere, and yet not high enough for the water to boil under the superadded weight of the column above. If, however, through the increase of heat, the north-east of Asia, and on the islands in the east and south-east of Asia. Many islands in mid-ocean are of volcanic origin, and many volcanoes are submarine. 1 Varying in different places according to climate. 2 See p. 30. UNDERGROUND HEAT 37 column once begins to boil over, the pressure is immediately reduced, and the boiling then goes on with violence for a longer or shorter period. Effect of Surface Inequalities on the Habitability of the Earth Mountains and plateaux act in some respects favourably, in others unfavourably, in the development of population. (1) Long mountain chains interrupt communication between the people on different sides more or less, and the interruption is the more serious the denser the popu- lations that are thus separated. From this point of view the height, slope, and number of passes across moun- tains are of much more importance than the height and number of the peaks. (2) Mountain slopes are difficult of cul- tivation, and more difficult in propor- tion to the steepness. Cattle-rearing is al- most the only agri- cultural industry that can be carried on high up on moun- tain sides. (3) On the other hand, in regions that require irrigation the lower slopes of hills and mountains present one peculiar advantage for agriculture, inasmuch as they can be cut out into level terraces, to which the fertilising water can be led down from stage to stage. In warm countries this is a very common mode of cultivation. (4) Mountains and plateaux have various important effects on climate, which will afterwards be explained. 1 (5) Mountains and highlands generally, in virtue of the i See pp. 52, 263. Fio. 10 —The Giant Geyser, Yellowstone Park. 38 THYSICAL GEOGKAHiY processes already described, are the sources of soil for the plains lying at their feet ; hence the fertility of the valleys of the Po, Ganges, and many others. (6) Through the contortions to which mountains owe their rise a great variety of strata, old and new, are brought to the surface, and with these a great variety of minerals, 1 the working of which employs a large population. The Atmosphere. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases 2 forming an envelope round the globe. Its height above the surface cannot be definitely stated, for the gases of which it is composed gradually become rarer and rarer the greater the elevation. The greater density of the lower strata is a consequence of the attraction of the earth, which gives weight to every substance on the earth's surface, though in the case of the atmosphere this weight cannot be felt by us, because it presses equally on all sides. The pressure on one side of the hand exactly balances that on the other side. The weight or pressure can, however, be made observable in various ways. The commonest way is by means of a tube closed at one end, exhausted of air and inverted over a basin of mercury. The mercury then ascends the tube, in consequence of the pressure of the atmosphere outside, unbalanced by any corresponding pressure inside. It rises till the weight of the column of mercury is exactly equal to the weight or pressure of a column of air of the same diameter. A tube like this, with a scale marked on it to show the height to which the mercury rises, is called a barometer. The average height at sea-level is nearly thirty inches. The differences in the height to which the mercury rises in a baro- meter at different levels above the surface of the earth are sometimes, taken advantage of to measure the elevation of mountains and pla- teaux ; but such measurements are not very trustworthy because the height of the barometer, or in other words, the pressure of the atmo- sphere, varies at different times at the same place, as it varies at different places at the same level. Winds. — Of the latter differences, which are of the highest import- ance in geography as giving rise to winds, the great cause is the heat of the sun. Heat expands or rarefies the air, and hence causes the pres- sure to be less, while cold condenses the air and increases the pressure. But as water always tends to assume the same level, air always tends to acquire the same pressure at the same level. This it does by flowing from the place where the pressure is high to where it is low, and hence from where it is condensed to where it is rarefied. The most familiar illustration of this is presented by land and sea breezes. 1 See P- 263. ' The principal being nitrogen and oxygen. WINDS 39 These are due to the fact that the land is more rapidly heated by day, more quickly cooled by night, than the sea. 1 Hence by day it is warmer on land than at sea, and, if the weather is otherwise calm, a sea-breeze blows on the coast by day. For the opposite reason, a land breeze blows at night. Under the same law there blow over a great part of the ocean con- stant winds which, directly and indirectly, are of the highest importance for the climate of the whole earth. These are called the trade-winds, which are winds blowing more or less from the north and south towards a belt near the equator, where the amount of heat and consequent rarefaction is greatest, and where calms and variable winds prevail. The position of the dividing belt between these two winds varies from Fig. 11. season to season through about 8° in the Atlantic, 5° in the Paciflo Ocean, being farther north when the sun is high north of the equator, farther south when it is high south of the equator. In the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans they blow on each side of the dividing belt over a breadth varying from 20° to 25°. In the Indian Ocean only the south trade-wind prevails. If the direction of these winds depended solely on the difference of temperature in tropical and extra-tropical seas it would be exactly north to south in the northern hemisphere, south to north in the southern, but there are three causes which alter, or seem to alter, their direction. Two of these are direct consequences of the rotation of the earth. The first and most important of these effects is illustrated by 1 See p. 43, under Temperature. 40 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Fig. 11, in which the arrows represent the vibrations of a pendulum continued uniformly in the same direction while the earth is turning on its axis, the upper part of the figure showing how the motion of the pendulum, which began as a due north and south vibration in long. 0° comes to cross the direction of the meridian in the northern hemisphere, as the rotation of the earth brings the position at which the motion commenced into those positions which were then occupied by the meridians 10°, 20°, &c. ; the lower part of the figure shows similar effects in the southern hemisphere. By causing a pendulum to vibrate in this manner a French physicist named Foucault made the effect of the rotation of the earth visible. So also if the direction of motion of a current of air at starting in lat. 30° S. is due north, then in long. 0° (Fig. 11, lower part of fig.) it is represented by the arrow pointing northwards upon that meridian; but if, while keeping the same direction, the current of air reaches lat. 10° S., when the earth has rotated from 0° to 60°, the original direction will be represented by the arrow pointing to c ; the point moving from a to 6 will arrive at c instead of d ; the wind will have become more or less south-east. Thus all winds of the northern hemisphere tend to appear as if de- flected to the right, those on the southern hemisphere for similar reasons to the left. Secondly, the movement of rotation along parallel 30° is slower than along parallel 10° ; hence the air coming from 30° tends to lag behind at 10°, and so become more easterly. Thirdly, in the case of the Atlantic trade-windSj the greater rarefaction on the land tends to suck in the air from the opposite region of the ocean, and this increases still further the easterly element of the direction of the trade-winds in the neighbourhood of South America. The winds which constantly pour in from the outer margin of the trade-wind belts must necessarily be balanced by others flowing out- wards. Near the dividing belt this outward flow, constituting the anti-trades, takes place at an elevation too great for us to have any direct evidence of it, but the signs of it become more and more frequent the farther we advance towards the outer margin of the trade-winds. Within twelve or fifteen degrees of the equator occasional evidence of it is furnished by volcanic dust being projected up to the height at which this outward wind is blowing, and hence falling to the east instead of the west of the volcano. Nearer the margin high clouds can sometimes be seen moving eastwards ; and on mountains, such as Teneriffe, in lat. 28° N., there is a constant south-west wind, which blows, however, only at the top in the height of summer, descending lower and lower as the winter advances and the margin of the trade- wind belt recedes to the south. This shows that the anti-trades sink in elevation as they recede WINDS 41 from the place of their origin. The air which they carry cannot all advance farther and farther polewards, for it is obvious that, as the intervals between the degrees of longitude grow narrower in that direction, there cannot be room round the poles for the air that starts from the equatorial belt. A struggle hence takes place among the particles of air, and this leads to a condensation of the air about the margin of the trade-wind zone, where the barometer generally indicates a higher pressure than almost anywhere else on the globe. Thence accordingly the wind flows at the surface of the earth equator-wards and polewards, with the normal apparent deflection. Hence south-west winds (anti-trades) prevail throughout the year on the west coasts of Europe and the corresponding coasts of North America ; but in the northern hemisphere, owing to the frequent interchange of sea and land, the winds of the temperate zone are extremely variable. In the southern hemisphere, on the other hand, there is little land beyond 40° S., and hence the anti-trades blow there with more constancy, and are known to seamen, from the latitudes in which they prevail, as ' the Soaring Forties.' A certain constancy can be observed even in the variable winds of the northern hemisphere. Normally they either blow from all sides inwards to a centre of low air pressure, or outwards on all sides from a centre of high pressure, In the former case they form what is called a cyclone, 1 because the isobars or lines connecting the places having an equal pressure outside the centre of such a wind-system are circular or nearly circular in shape. In the latter case they constitute a wind- system known as an anti-cyclone. The direction in which winds blow spirally 2 inwards in a cyclone is (in the northern hemisphere) opposite to that of the movements of the hands of a watch lying face upwards, in an anti-cyclone the opposite. The position of an anti-cyclone is nsually pretty constant for days, or even weeks together, but that of a cyclone is constantly changing, as the centre of low pressure is always shifting, generally in a more or less easterly direction. Cyclones vary greatly in dimensions, but most commonly they are between 1000 and 2000 miles in diameter, so that one that extended only from the Shetland Islands to the middle of France would be a small one. In low latitudes cyclones are much rarer than nearer the poles, but when they do occur are generally smaller in size and more violent in character. They constitute in fact the revolving storms known in different regions as hurricanes and typhoons, as well as cyclones. In the seas where they occur these are most prevalent at certain seasons of the year. The hurricanes of the West Indies and the North 1 From Gr. kyhlos, a circle. 2 Not directly, because they are deflected as explained on p. 40. 42 PHYSICAL GEOGHAPHY. American coast, and the typhoons of the China Sea and the coasts of Japan, occur chiefly from July to October, and above all in August and September; the cyclones of the Malabar coast and the Bay of Bengal, chiefly in April and May, October and November ; those of the South Indian Oceaa, and in the South Pacific Ocean between the Australian coast and the Low Archipelago, chiefly from December to March or April. In both hemispheres accordingly they take place mostly in the summer months, except in the Indian seas, where they are most prevalent about the change of the monsoons (see next paragraph). In the southern hemisphere the direction of rotation in a cyclonic storm is opposite to that, experienced in the northern hemisphere. In many parts of the world, sea and land breezes take place on a large scale, alternating not by day and night, but from season to season. The region in which such alternating winds prevail most extensively and in the most marked degree is South-Eastern Asia, including the Eastern Archipelago and the northern part of Australia, throughout which the winds are known as monsoons, from the Arabic word for seasons. The contrast between the different seasons is most marked in the area to the south of about lat. 25° N. (India, Indo- China, and Southern China, as well as Northern Australia and the Islands), where sea breezes (south-westerly, southerly, south-easterly) blow more or less steadily for half the year, while the sun ia in the northern hemisphere, and the rarefaction greatest over the land, and land breezes during the rest of the year. Even as high as lat. 60° N, the seasonal changes are indicated by the predominance of sea and land breezes, in summer and winter respectively. South of the equator the monsoon winds are governed chiefly by the rarefaction and conden- sation in the interior of Australia. Hence the sea breeze (in the Eastern Archipelago and the greater part of Northern Australia a north-west wind, in the north-east of Australia a north-east wind) occurs while the sun stands high in the southern hemisphere. Seasonal winds of the same nature, though less constant, are observed in other parts of the world, as to the north-east of the Gulf of Mexico and of the Black Sea. 1 The Ocean. The ocean is a vast body of salt water, the volume of which rela- tively to the land surface of the earth has already been indicated. The saltness varies from thirty-three to thirty-eight parts in a thousand, being greatest in the trade-wind area and in inland seas like the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, where evaporation is rapid and the 1 See pp. 72, 295, 344. THE OCEAN 43 influx of fresh water slight. In other inland seas, where opposite con- ditions prevail, the saltness is much less than that of the ocean. In some parts of the Baltic it is only ahout seven parts in a thousand. Temperature. — The temperature of the ocean generally, as compared with that of the land, is remarkable for its uniformity. At the surface the mean daily range, or difference between the highest and lowest temperature within a single day of twenty-four hours, is not more than 1° F. in deep seas, 4° F. in shallow waters. The annual range exhibits a corresponding equability, although, of course, the extremes in this case are wider apart. There are two causes of this very important geographical fact. (1) Water requires a greater amount of heat to raise its temperature one degree than any other substance, a much greater amount than is required by the solid substances com- posing the land surface of the earth. (2) The movements which go on unceasingly in the waters of the ocean, and of which some account will be given presently, have the effect of distributing and equalising the temperature. Another consequence of the slowness with which water is heated (and the like slowness with which it is cooled) is that the hottest and coldest months for the ocean (August and February) occur a month later than the corresponding months of the land surface of the earth, except in those maritime places where the temperature is governed in a marked degree by marine influences. Movements of the Ocean : Waves. — The movements of the ocean are all of great importance with relation to the inhabitants of the earth. The most obvious of these consists in wind waves — sometimes only a gentle rocking and lapping, at other times terrible in their violence. Great difficulty exists in measuring the height of waves. The highest storm waves are said to measure forty-four to forty-eight feet in height, the average storm wave about thirty feet. The distance from crest to crest in the case of great waves is said to vary from 500 feet to half a mile in extreme cases. With regard to the force of the waves, it is recorded that at the Skerryvore Lighthouse, off the west coast of Scotland, a mass of rock five and a half tons in weight has been hurled by a wave to a height of seventy-two feet above the surface of the sea, and a mass thirteen and a half tons in weight dislodged from a cliff at a height of seventy-four feet. Such instances convey a good idea of the power of the waves in wearing away an exposed coast. Tides. — The tides, which consist in a gradual rise and fall in the level of the ocean completed twice in about twenty-five hours, are practically important in relation to navigation, and more particularly in relation to the navigation of narrow seas and river mouths. In narrow channels the tides are not merely a rise and fall of the level, but also a backward and forward flow or current, and as such assist in 44 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY propelling craft now up and now down a river ; and, moreover, have in some cases an important effect in preventing the formation of river bars, since they scour the lower part of the river bed and wash the sediment far out to sea, or cause it to be deposited chiefly on the river banks and not in mid-channel. But as a rise and fall also the tides are of great consequence in relation to shipping, as enabling vessels of large burden to ascend the estuaries 1 of rivers to a considerable distance, so as to facilitate the growth of great seaports in perfectly sheltered positions easily accessible on the land side as well as by sea. Great Britain and the shores of the North Sea are peculiarly favoured in respect of tidal influences, tho tide rising in these waters to an exceptional height, as will be understood when the rise and fall of the tide is explained. The tides are due to the attraction of the sun and moon on the earth, but chiefly that of the moon. If it were the whole amount of attraction exercised by the sun or moon on the earth that gave rise to the tides, then the influence of the former would be by far the greater ; but it is not the whole amount of the attraction in either case that has the effect in question, but the difference between the attraction of either upon the solid (or at least rigid) globe and that exercised on the movable body of waters on its surface. The waters swell up in a great wave on the side nearest the moon, because they are pulled more strongly towards the moon than the solid globe is. Those on the opposite side get heaped up likewise, because the solid globe is, as it were, pulled away from them. Two great waves are thus caused simultaneously by the action of the moon, and the course of the tides (the period and height of their rise and fall) depends chiefly on the phases of the moon. The influence of the sun is principally manifested in increasing the height of the tidal waves at new moon (when the sun and moon are on the same side of the earth and reinforce each other by pulling in the same direction), and at full moon (when they are on opposite sides and reinforce each other in another way, the sun's near wave being increased by the moon's distant one, the sun's distant wave by the near wave of the moon). The high tides occurring at these times are known as Spring Tides, which therefore occur at intervals of a fortnight, and the very low tides which occur at half moon (also accordingly at intervals of a fortnight) are called Neap Tides. In mid-ocean the height of the great tidal wave is much less than on the coast, and especially where the sea becomes gradually shallower as the coast is approached. In mid-Pacific it is only about three feet, in mid-Atlantic about twelve feet. The effect of a shallowing coast is » The term estuary from Lat. aestia, the tide, ia properly applied to the wide mouths of rivers exposed to tidal action. TIDES 45 to retard the progress of the wave, so that the advancing waters over- take those in front and cause them to be heaped up. The shallow bank on which the British Isles lie ' thus serves to increase the height of the Atlantic wave, and this effect is enhanced in certain funnel- shaped estuaries or gulfs, where the wave is more and more retarded as it advances.'- 1 In the Bristol Channel, which has the highest tides in the British Isles, or indeed in Europe, there is sometimes a difference of more than forty feet between high and low water at spring tides ; in Cumberland Basin, at the head of Fundy Bay, between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia (where are the highest tides in the world), the extreme difference is as much as seventy feet. In the case of the Bristol Channel the effect is partly due to the fact that two tidal waves unite to advance up the Channel at once. The wave from the Atlantic breaks into branches on the south coast of the British Isles. One branch passeB round the North of Ireland, and at the mouth of the Bristol Channel meets and combines with a second branch belonging to the next tidal wave, about twelve and a half hours later. Inland seas like the Mediterranean or the Baltic have scarcely any tide. Their narrow mouths prevent them from sharing in the tides of the ocean, and the volume of water in them is too small for them to have considerable tides of their own. There are few points in the Mediterranean where the tides reach three feet in height, few in the Baltic with tides of even one foot. The smallest body of water in the world in which tides have been ascertained to exist is Lake Michigan, where the highest rise at Chicago even in spring tides is only about three inches. Currents. — With reference to the habitability of the earth, by far the most important movements of the ocean are its currents, chiefly owing to their effect on climate. The currents principally concerned in these effects are surface currents ; but a consideration of these requires us to pay attention to another great movement of the waters of the ocean. The movement referred to is the gradual in-creeping of a vast body of cold water from the polar regions towards the equator, a movement whose existence, long surmised on the ground of observations of deep- sea temperature, has been clearly proved by the numerous additional observations that have been taken in recent years. These observa- 1 See p. 189. 8 It must be carefully noted that the advance of the tidal wave is different from the upward flow in a tidal river. The advance of the wave is indicated by the period of high water — that is, the time at which the crest of the tidal wave reaches a particular place ; but the river continues to flow upwards for a considerable time after high water, as it continues to flow downwards for some time after low water. 46 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY tions have shown (1) that all the deeper parts of the ocean in free communication with the surrounding waters (from about 1,000 fathoms downwards) are occupied by a layer of ice-cold or nearly ice- cold water (31£°-35° Fahr.) ; (2) that inland seas (like the Mediterranean) and isolated depression basins cut off from the surrounding waters by a submarine ridge have bottom temperatures either corresponding to the mean winter surface temperature of the place, or the same temperature as that of the water at the level of the ridge ; (3) that submarine banks or islands cause the cold waters to rise nearer the surface (they being, as it were, forced up by the obstruction) ; and (4) that the colder waters rise nearer the surface about the equator than they do even at a distance of from 30° to 35° on either side. All these facts are explicable only on the supposition above stated, and we may hence assume that there is a slow but steady inflow of cold water from the polar regions to the neighbourhood of the equator, where the meeting streams rise towards the Burface. The surface currents, on the other hand, mainly result in a transference of water from the equatorial regions towards the poles. In the case of the chief surface currents there is little doubt that the prime movers are the winds ; and hence in the domain of the most constant winds of the globe — the trade-winds — there are in both the great oceans two westerly * surface currents known as the North and South Equatorial Currents, in the Indian Ocean only the latter of the two. By means of these currents the waters are driven up against the eastern shores of the opposite continents or the islands lying off them, and are hence compelled to take another direction. Part of the water consequently returns eastwards, forming what is known as the Equa- torial Counter-current, which in the two great oceans is between the north and south equatorial currents, in the Indian to the north of the only direct trade-wind current. Part of the water passes, however, obliquely to the north and south along the eastern shores of the continent. Now here we may note an important consequence of the disposition of land and water. In the Atlantic the eastern shoulder of South America lies to the south of the equator and under the influence of the south equatorial current, so that a considerable portion of its waters is deflected northwards along with other waters derived from the north current, and, owing to the contraction of the Atlantic towards the north, the benefit of this gain of warm water is confined within a limited area, within which it is all the more appreciable. The benefit, too, is almost confined to the eastern shores of the North Atlantic basin, which are consequently more favoured than any other part of the world in the same latitude. 1 Currents are named (unlike winds) from the direction in which they flow. CURRENTS 47 To understand this, we must trace the subsequent course of these equatorial waters. A large body of these waters enters the Gulf of Mexico, and being there deflected to the north-east, mingled with other water, quits the gulf at the strait between Cuba and Florida as a swift, 1 narrow, 2 warm, 3 current of deep blue 4 water, called the Gulf Stream, which thence proceeds north-eastwards, shallowing, spreading out, and finally breaking up into branches (a marine delta) as it advances. As a distinct current it comos to an end between long. 30° and 40° W., but a great deal of its waters is swept north-eastwards to the shores of Europe and Iceland (Gulf Stream Drift) under the in- fluence of the prevailing south-westerly winds ; a portion, however, returning southwards along the coast of Portugal and North- West Africa. 5 The south-west branch from the south equatorial current of the Atlantic is much feebler, and there are no currents elsewhere which have anything like the same effect as the Gulf Stream in high latitudes. In the Pacific the current which answers to the Gulf Stream, known by the Japanese name of Euro Siwo, or Dark 6 Stream, is the most important, but is colder than the Gulf Stream. In this ocean also the configuration of the continent is favourable to the transference of a considerable body of warm water by drift currents to the north-east shores of the basin (north-west coast of America), but the benefit derived therefrom is less than on the corresponding shores of Europe for the reasons already indicated. Like the Gulf Stream, the Euro Siwo gives off a return branch that proceeds southwards, this branch bringing relatively colder water which skirts the coasts of California. Though the principal surface currents are equatorial in their origin, cold surface currents are by no means wanting, and, as regards the action of these also, the northern hemisphere is greatly favoured as compared with the southern through the disposition of land and water. The only important surface current from the Arctic seas proceeds from Davis Strait along the east coast of North America. It is known as the Labrador current, and advances southwards between the Gulf Stream and the coast of the United States, where it is known as the Cold Wall, on account of the sharp distinction in temperature between its bright green waters and the blue waters of the Gulf Stream. The 1 About four miles an hour. 2 About thirty miles wide. 5 Above 80° Fahr. 4 The depth of colour due to the high degree of saltness, and that again to the great amount of evaporation from the warm water. 5 Within the area round which the currents belonging to this system flow lies what is known as the Sargasso Sea, where the surface of the ocean is thickly strewn with a floating seaweed. 8 That is, dark blue. See Note 4. 48 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY shallow Behring's. Strait does not admit any cold current to the Pacific Ocean ; but, on the other hand, no less than three cold surface currents take their origin in the Sea of Okhotsk, in the north-east of Asia— one skirting the west coast of Kamtchatka and passing southwards by the Kurile Islands, and one on each side of the island of Sakhalin. But in the more open seas of the south the cold currents are very important. Everywhere beyond 45° S. the waters of the Southern Ocean appear to be drifting north-eastwards, and on the western coast of all the great land-masses of the south (South America, Africa, Australia) this drift is continued in the form of a cold current proceed- ing northwards. The most important of these is the Humboldt or Peruvian current, which advances along the west coast of South America to 4° S. The presence of this cold water is now, however, ascribed by many to the rise of water from below to replace the surface water drifted westwards by the trade-winds. Local currents are often produced at the mouths of inland seas from different causes. Through the excess of evaporation over rainfall and over the influx of rivers in the Mediterranean and the Bed Sea, there are inflow currents at the Straits of Gibraltar and Bab-el-Mandeb to make good the loss of water which thus ensues ; and for the opposite reason there are outflow currents at the mouth of the Baltic (Kattegat) and Black Sea (Bosporus). In each case, however, there is a deeper current in the opposite direction, no doubt due to the differences in saltness between the communicating seas. There are numerous other local currents which it is not always easy to explain, but which often have important effects through the sediment which they carry extend- ing the coast-line seawards and silting up harbours. 1 Coasts directly exposed to currents carrying much sediment are generally flat and bordered by shallow seas, often lined with sand-dunes, and hence not easily accessible to shipping ; while rocky coasts, on the other hand, are generally bordered by deep seas and have numerous creeks and natural havens. Marine life. — In the sea, as on land, the greatest variety of animal and vegetable life is found within the tropics, species becoming less numerous towards the poles. In the sea, animal life is everywhere much more abundant and varied than vegetable, and it extends to a much greater depth. Even the lower forms of Algas (the group to which most sea-plants belong) do not extend below 250 fathoms, while animals have been dredged up even from a depth of 3,000 fathoms. Among the forms derived from these dark deeps a large number are phosphorescent— emit a light of their own. The effect of the uniform deep-sea temperatures on the life of the waters is worthy of note inas- 1 See pp. 178, 210, 211. MARINE LIFE 40 much as it enables some species of whales, for example, to live in all parts of the ocean. The oceanic circulation is of importance to ocean life in several respects. In the first place it is chiefly by means of the vertical cir- culation — that is, the sinking of cold polar waters from the surface to the bottom (to rise again at the equator) — that oxygen, which is as necessary to life in the ocean as on the land, is carried down to great depths ; and the comparative dearth of life in the Mediterranean, for instance, is explained as a consequence of the submarine ridge at its mouth shutting out the bottom waters of the Atlantic and so limiting the supply of oxygen. Secondly, almost all the fishes extensively used for food (cod, herring, &c.) inhabit cold water, and are brought in immense profusion by cold currents to lower latitudes than they would otherwise reach, as to the shores of Newfoundland in North America, Yezo and Korea in the east of Asia, Table Bay in the south-west of Africa. Climate. Under this head three subjects are considered : temperature, rainfall, and salubrity. On the distribution of temperature and rainfall over the surface of the oarth much light is thrown by facts that have been mentioned already. Near the beginning of this Introduction it was explained why temperature is on the whole higher within the tropics than elsewhere. There also temperature is on the whole most equable* throughout the year, because in that zone the variations in the height of the sun are less, especially in very low latitudes. 1 The torrid zone is also on the whole the region of the greatest rainfall, which is a natural consequence of the nature and origin of rain. The source of rain is vapour or invisible moisture in the air, and the vapour is due to evaporation, or the conversion into an invisible form of water (snow or ice), a process always going on over the surface of the globe, and especially over the ocean. Though the process goes on even at freezing temperatures, evaporation is hastened by heat, and is always greatest where heat is greatest, and hence most rapid in tropical seas. To condense or render visible this vapour, cold is neces- sary ; but even in the torrid zone that cold is found in the higher regions of the atmosphere, to which the moisture is drawn up by ascending currents of warm air. The vapour is first condensed into clouds, which consist of minute drops of water (hence elevated mists), i Except on the borders of the torrid zone the sun is to be Been at midday some- times to the north, sometimes to the south, of every place within that zone, and the variations in the height of the sun are consequently less than where for half the year its position at midday is always becoming further north, for the other half of the year further south, as it does everywhere outside of the torrid zone. D 50 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY or, when very high, of particles of ice. The necessity for a, certain amount of cold to produce condensation is an important fact to bear m mind in considering the distribution of rainfall. The greater the cold the less the amount of moisture that can remain as vapour in the atmosphere. Hence it is that all parts of the earth where the rainfall is very deficient are such as have, at least, very warm summers, for where the atmosphere is very cold even a, small amount of moisture will be condensed. Hence, too, on the other hand, even in the torrid zone, the trade-wind region has very little rain, for, great as the evapora- tion is, the winds are always carrying the moisture onwards to latitudes where still more vapour can be retained without condensation. The belt of calms and variable winds between the trade-wind belts is that in which the most regular tropical rains occur. In it heavy rains take place daily, but, as generally happens in tropical climates, the rain falls in deluges ' when it does fall, but not for long together. Such are the most general facts regarding the distribution of rain- fall and temperature over the globe ; but the circumstances that modify that distribution are of even greater interest, if not of greater impor- tance. And with regard to the modifying circumstances there is one general fact to be borne in mind, that it is the winds which are the direct carriers both of temperature and moisture from one part of the earth to another. The modifying circumstances accordingly are those which affect the amount of heat and moisture which the winds carry. Of these there are three of sufficient consequence to be taken into account even in the briefest outline of the present subject. These are (1) the general relations of sea and land ; (2) ocean currents ; and (3) super- ficial configuration. (1) Effects of theEelations of Sea and land. — (a) As regards tempera- ture, the sea being more slowly heated and cooled than the land, 8 regions under the influence of sea breezes have a more equable tem- perature than those in tb.6 interior of continents removed from such influences. This is shown in the most instructive manner on charts indicating the average or mean temperature of different parts of the globe by means of isothermal lines — that is, lines connecting places having the same mean temperature for particular periods (as the whole year, the winter or summer months, the months of January and July &c.) A comparison of the isothermal lines for January and July in the north temperate zone is what brings the fact now dwelt on most prominently into view, showing at a glance that the former isothermals (those for the coldest month) rise, while those for the hottest month sink on both sides towards the sea. In other words, they show that when 1 Mostly in the afternoon and evening, when the power of the sun has declined. '' £ee above, p. 4.3. RELATIONS OF SEA AND L.«t> 51 we proceed inland from either coast on the same parallel of latitude we come to places that have greater cold in the deptli of winter, greater heat in the height of summer, than those from which we started. (6) As regards rainfall, regions exposed to winds from relatively warm seas have abundant rain. Hence it is that, except where mountains intervene, all parts of the earth in which monsoon winds prevail have abundant rains during the summer of the respective regions (in opposite seasons accordingly in the northern and southern hemispheres), and that the rains are most plentiful where they come from tropical seas (India, Indo-Cbina, Eastern Archipelago, north of Australia). (2) Effects of Marine Currents. — These are most marked where the temperature of the current is considerably different from the average temperature of the latitude. Hence the warm currents which have the most noteworthy effect in this respect are the Gulf Stream Drift and Euro Siwo Drift, and more especially the former. The effect of these currents is, on the one hand, to equalise the temperature of the west coasts of Europe and North America in a much more marked degree than is done by the mere proximity of the sea, and, on the other hand, to supply the same coasts with plenteous rains, which fall all the year round, but chiefly during the autumn and winter months. The equalis- ing of the temperature is chiefly the result of the raising of the tempera- ture of winter by the prevailing south-west winds, which have their temperature maintained by the warm currents over which they blow. But it must also be remembered that the summer is cooled not only in consequence of the sea being everywhere in that season colder than the land, but also through the prevalence of clouds which keep off the heat of the sun. The abundance of rain is due to the relatively great amount of evaporation over the warm seas, and its greater abundance in autumn and winter to the fact that there is then the greatest difference between the temperature of sea and land. A moist, mild, and equable climate is thus the characteristic of the regions under the influence of the currents above named, and in the latitudes to which they belong the extremes of temperature increase and the rainfall on the whole diminishes as we go eastwards, until wo approach the eastern shores, where again an equalising effect is observable to a comparatively slight extent. The easterly increase in the cold of winter is especially marked, and the part of the habitable land surface of the globe where the greatest cold is experienced lies near the north-east of the broader of the two great land masses of the northern hemisphere. The cold current which has the most marked effect on climate is the Humboldt or Peruvian current, which advances so far within the tropic 52 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY of Capricorn on the west coast of South America. 1 Similar but less marked effects are noticed in the west of Africa and Australia, where corresponding currents are found. (3) The effect of superficial configuration on climate is shown in various ways, (a) In the first place, mountains often act as barriers to winds, and cut off the regions behind them from the temperature and moisture which they carry. 2 In the case of rainfall the effect of a mountain barrier is even more marked than in the case of temperature, because mountains (or the edge of a plateau), in compelling rain- bearing winds which strike against them to ascend to higher and colder regions of the atmosphere, cause most of their moisture to be condensed on the side exposed to the wind. The highest rainfalls are, therefore, always met with in elevated regions, and mountains, even when far in the interior of a continent, often have their position pretty well determined on a rainfall map through the indication of a higher rainfall whore they are situated. Especially is this the case when their general direction is at right angles to the prevailing rain-bearing winds. (5) The effect of elevation in lowering temperature has already been alluded to incidentally more than once, and is a fact familiar to almost every one. The effect is due to several causes. (1) Air is boated with greater quickness in proportion to its density. The rarity of the air at great elevations is therefore unfavourable to its tempera- ture. The effect of the sun's rays on the ground or any object on which they shine directly is not diminished by the elevation. At the height of 10,000 feet in the Himalayas, Hooker on one occasion observed the temperature to rise to 132° Fahr. when shaded snow close by was at a temperature of 22°. (2) Air at any elevation receives very little heat from the direct rays of the sun. Almost all its heat is derived from the ground, partly by direct contact, but mainly through the dark rays 3 which are reflected from the surface of the earth ; and hence not only is the temperature greater or less in accordance with the elevation, but also in accordance with .the nature of the ground (its power of absorbing or reflecting heat). For this reason, too, the decrease in temperature with elevation is the more rapid the more isolated a mountain is— most rapid of all in balloon ascents. (3) Air is more readily heated the greater the amount of vapour it contains, since vapour absorbs the heat of the dark rays to an enormously greater extent than dry air ; and, as a rule, the lower the elevation the greater is the amount of vapour present. The presence of vapour is of special importance in preventing the loss of heat by ni^ht, and hence dry regions even on plains are subject to great extremes of 1 £?* f: iS - "' See p P- 184 ' 186 > 2^ 2 73 (n. 2), 283, 295, and comp. p. 72. " lhat is, rays of heat unaccompanied by light. SUPERFICIAL CONFIGURATION : EFFECT ON CLIMATE 53 temperature by night and day, which has thia advantage, that during the eold nights the ground becomes so chilled that what moisture there is near the surface becomes deposited in the form of dew. On account of the variations in the circumstances affecting the de- crease of temperature with elevation, the rate of decrease varies so much that no general rule can be given with regard to it. On a very general average the rate of decrease is about 1° Fahr. for every 300 feet of ascent. The Snow-line. — Whatever the rate of decrease may be, it is every- where sufficiently rapid to allow of the existence in all latitudes of mountains which rise above a limit beyond which their sides are clothed winter and summer with snow — the limit shortly called the snow-line. Even in the torrid zone near the equator a mountain 16,000 feet in height rises beyond that limit. The elevation of this line does indeed depend largely on temperature, and more particularly on the tempera- ture of the hottest months, but is not determined by that exclusively. The moisture of the climate has a marked effect upon it and where more snow falls in the course of the year on the sunny than on tho shady slopes of a mountain range, the former side, which usually has the higher, may have the lower snow-line, as on the Himalayas. 1 One advantage of this accumulation of snow on mountains con- sists in this, that it affords a partial protection of the valleys from floods ; but this advantage is not the sole one. Below the snow-line the winter cloak of snow is necessary to preserve many of the so-called alpine plants from a greater cold, which would destroy them; and it need scarcely be added that it has a similar advantage in plains that have a regular winter garment of the same nature. It is in consequence of this protection that winter wheat can be grown in Canada and the Canadian North-West, while it cannot be grown in the south-east of Russia, where the dryness of the ah-, and the consequent scantiness of the snowfall, leaves the seed exposed to the rigours of the winter frosts. Glaciers. — In the folds or high-lying valleys of snow-clad moun- tains the snow gradually sinks through the pressure from above, and, after passing through a stage* in which it is composed of large granules which are neither ice nor snow (due to melting by day and freezing by night), at last gets consolidated into a mass of ice, called a glacier. The behaviour of a glacier is highly remarkable. Solid as it is, and rigid and brittle as we know ice in small lumps to be, the glacier moves slowly downwards like a river. It moves, that is to say, quicker at the surface than at the bottom, quicker in the middle than at the sides, quicker towards the inside of concave bends in its course than towards the opposite side. The rate of motion, however, is so slow as to amount in the Alps to only a few inches per day. The mode of its motion is 1 See p. 63, o. • In this stage known as nevi (French), oxfirn (German). 54 PHYSICAL GEOGKArllV difficult to explain but it is known that even below the freezing-point f ecat be "etd C extreme pressure and that the water whence freeze again when the pressure is removed ; and it is also known that gnteniofieereadilygetre-frozenintoasoUdlump. Uj^. therefore, the motion which makes a glacier appear as if it were com- posed of a very thick or viscous fluid, is due to crushing or melting of the ice at different places, and to the melted parts freezing again, or the crushed parts becoming re-consolidated when ^y ha ™ esc ^J from the action of the crushing or melting force. The level to winch a glacier may descend depends (like the snow-line) upon the tempera- Fjg. 12.— Arctic Icebergs. ture and the amount of moisture by which it is fed, but it is usually thousands of feet below the limit of perpetual snow. Slow as the motion of a glacier is, so great is their mass (hundreds and sometimes thousands of feet thick), that glaciers act even more powerfully than running water in wearing away the land. They round off the inequalities in the surface of their bed, scratch the rocks, and bruise the smaller fragments against one another, and press the soft materials of their bed into a tough clay. From an ice-cavern at their lower end almost invariably issues an ice-cold turbid stream (glacier milk), the solid matter in which is in part an evidence of the GLACIERS 55 grinding action of the glacier mass. Yet this solid matter is far from being wholly due to the grinding of the glacier on its bed. Much of it comes from above. By the process already explained frosts cause great quantities of matter to be poured down upon the surface of the glacier from the rocks which bound and surmount it, and the finer matter is washed down by the rains and melted ice, which chiefly feed the stream at the bottom, through the numerous fissures by which the glacier is traversed. The larger fragments remain at the sides of the glaciers, forming moraines. 1 "Where two glaciers from two adjoining valleys unite, a middle moraine is formed by the union, and in the end many of these fragments are strewn at the foot of the glacier, where they form an end moraine. Prom the existence of such deposits at levels far below their present ones (as well as from other signs), it is known that at some remote period (yet geologically a recent one) glaciers in many parts of the world covered an enormously greater extent than they do now. a Icebergs and Ocean Ice. — "Where (in high latitudes) glaciers descend below the water's edge in sufficiently deep water, their ends get broken off, and float away as icebergs, which also have in certain parts of the world an important effect on climate. From the mode of their origin it will be observed that they are composed of fresh-water ice, and in computing their true size the relative weight of fresh-water ice and sea-water must be taken into account. The" difference in weight between these two substances is such that only from one-tenth to one- ninth of the whole mass of an iceberg rises above the surface. The actual depth below the surface depends largely on the form of the ice- berg, but has been found in certain cases by actual observation to be more than eight-ninths of the total height. In the case of regular flat- topped icebergs (such as are very common in the Southern Seas), it may be always assumed that that proportion of the total height is beneath the surface ; and accordingly a single jceberg of such a size as has been observed on more than one occasion may contain as much as a cubic mile of ice. One of three miles in length, and about 200 feet high, which was seen during the Challenger expedition, would have that bulk even if its width was only one-third of its length. From the high latitudes where they take their birth, icebergs aro drifted into lower latitudes by the cold currents which issue from Arctic and Antarctic Seas, and hence the set of these currents has an important effect on their distribution. Owing to the general north- easterly drift of the waters of the Southern Seas, icebergs may be 1 See out, p. 232. 2 At this period, known as the Ice Age, a large part of North America appears to have been covered with ice, in some places thousands of feet thick. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY encountered in comparatively low latitudes at many places in the south, but in the north they are confined to the western parts of the Atlantic aDd Pacific Oceans. It is only in these parts that they Scene in a Tuopical FouitST (Brazil). ICEBERGS AND OCEAN ICE 57 descend below 40° N., whereas they may be fallen in with at 40° S., or even lower, everywhere in the South Atlantic Ocean. The freezing of salt water takes place at a lower temperature than that of fresh — about 29° Fahr., instead of 32° — and the ice when formed is different in composition from the water of the ocean, which in freezing manages to get rid of a good deal of its salt. It is met with in various forms. When covering wide surfaces it is called field-ice ; a large floating mass is called a floe ; pieces of broken ice closely crowded together constitute pack-ice ; and when floating about more freely in the direction in which they are carried by currents, they are known as drift-ice. The greater cold of the eastern shores of the Old World, as compared with those of the New, allows of the freezing of the China Sea below latitude 40°, while in North America the most southerly sea that freezes is the Gulf of St. Lawrence, about eight or ten degrees farther north. In both of these cases, however, the freezing is promoted by the exceptional freshness of the waters. Salubrity. — The healthiness of a climate depends on such a variety of circumstances that little of a general nature can be said on this subject. A healthy climate for the natives of the region is often unhealthy for the natives of other regions. All low-lying tropical lands are more or less unhealthy for Europeans, and in warm countries generally, whether tropical or outside of the tropics, stagnant water is peculiarly unhealthy, producing malaria, and rendering the inhabitants liable to fever and ague. Vegetation and Animal Life. .The vegetation of the land surface of the earth often has a distinct stamp in accordance with the physical features, and the nature of the animal life is greatly affected by the vegetation. Heat and moisture are the conditions most favourable to vegetable life ; the most luxuriant vegetation, therefore, is to be found in the moister parts of the torrid zone (the valley of the Amazon and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago), and the moister and warmer parts of the monsoon area. Dense forests, composed of an almost endless variety of trees and filled with an even greater variety of vegetable life of other kinds, are characteristic in all these regions, except where there are thickly inhabited plains. Trees even advance into the ocean, forests of mangroves lining coasts within and near the tropics for hundreds of miles together, especially about the mouths of rivers. Palms are also highly characteristic, about a thousand different kinds being found within the tropics, and none far beyond their limits. Almost equally characteristic among animals are monkeys, parrots, and termites or white ants, the last of which are 58 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY terrible devastators, and in some places, from the ravages which they commit among woodwork, compel the inhabitants to build houses of such light structure that they can easily be restored when their timbers have been hollowed ont by these insects. In the temperate zones the variety of vegetation diminishes, and in the cultivated parts of those regions the forests are for the most part confined to the mountains. There they are of use, like snow, in arresting the moisture and thus helping to protect the river valleys from inundation, as well as to prevent mountain pastures from being washed away by the violence of the rains. Still further north, forests, less varied still in their character, being now chiefly composed of pines Frrc. 14.— A Mangrove Swamp. and firs, again cover the plains, and are haunted by fur-bearing animals. Trees, shrubs, and herbs all in turn disappear, until at last on the borders of the Arctic seas the only vegetation consists of mosses and lichens, uniform in their character, but often rich, splendid, and highly varied in colouring. Characteristic changes are likewise observed if we pass to warm but arid regions. In Bteppes, grasses and lily-like plants, which by means of their thick matted roots and their large underground bulbs are enabled to withstand long periods of drought, are the prevailing vegetation ; and hence burrowing animals which feed on these roots and bulbs are among the characteristic fauna (the bobak in South Russia, the prairie-, dog in North America, the vizcacha in South America). Above ground, fleet-footed antelopes, horses, oxen, &c, graze the herbage, and these are VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 50 followed by the carnivorous animals which make them their prey. In the vegetation of dry regions, trees and bushes with thick leathery leaves, with fleshy stems and prickles, like the cactuses of the interior of America and the euphorbias of Africa, are also characteristic. In deserts where there is any vegetation at all it is mostly composed of prickly plants (on which only the camel can feed) ; and in salt steppes the chief covering of the ground consists of pale green herbs (salt- bush, &c), which sometimes afford good fodder for sheep and cattle. The increase in cold with elevation causes similar changes in vege- tation to be observed in ascending a mountain to those which are seen in going from lower to higher latitudes. A snow-clad tropical mountain exhibits all the varieties of vegetable life met with between the equator and the Arctic Bcgions. Man. The vigorous vegetation of the moister parts of the torrid zone is in itself unfavourable to the development of man, leaving little room for human habitations ; while the enervating effect of the heat and the ease with which food can be obtained from the vegetable kingdom, cause him to be little disposed to contend with nature so as to keep down the aggressive plant life. Hence the island of Java and some parts of southern India are the only regions of the torrid zone in which the density of the population approaches that of the more populous districts of Europe. Both of these countries, it should be observed, are now under European control. In Java the present density of population is a direct consequence of European (Dutch) management ; and though southern India may have had a tolerably dense population before it came under British influence, it must be noted that the greater part of that region suffers rather from a deficiency than from an excess of moisture. The oldest civilisations of which we have any record arose in the warmer parts of the temperate zone, and were in some cases (Assyria, Babylon, Egypt) assisted in their growth by regular inunda- tions, which fertilised the ground and facilitated irrigation. The colder parts of the temperate zone, where the most advanced civilisations are now found, had to a large extent to be made fit for human habita- tion by the clearing of forests and the draining of marshes, 1 and the seeds of civilisation were planted there by people who had become powerful in warmer and drier regions. Borne laid the foundation of the higher forms of civilisation throughout a great part of Europe, both in the warmer and the cooler and moister regions ; and even where it did not do so directly its example was, no doubt, directly or indirectly, of great importance in promoting that development elsewhere. In particular, it is to Borne that southern and western Europe owed l See p. 223 (under Forests). GO rnYSiCAL geography the first construction of many of their chief roads, for road-making was one of the principal means adopted by that power for the spread of her own civilisation. Eoads, indeed, are an essential condition of the maintenance of a dense population wherever there is not an exceptional abundance of waterways. The ease with which a country can be supplied with roads is ac- cordingly a circumstance of great importance with reference to the growth of its population, and this does not depend solely on the super- ficial configuration. Mountainous countries present one obstacle to road-making too obvious to need pointing out ; but vast level plains may present obstacles of another kind, as in the plains of Hungary, where there is an entire absence of road-making material, and in those of Russia and Siberia, where, in addition to that deficiency, extensive marshes or soft ground offer further difficulties. Hence in such countries the construction of railways in quite modern times is a fact of peculiar importance. The railways (as well as the roads) of mountainous countries show the importance of superficial configura- tion by the way in which their course marks out the lowest levels and the easiest slopes. And here we may note that the importance of rivers with regard to communication does not lie solely in their navigability, but largely arises from this : that the valleys which they, with the help of rain and other denuding agents, have made for themselves often contain the routes along which roads and railways are most easily carried. The Growth and Position of Towns. — Where a dense population exists, it is in some places pretty equally distributed over the surface, in others congregated to a great extent in large towns. Each town has its own history, and though the growth of all towns must depend more or less on physical features, the conditions that favour their growth are so varied that it is impossible to say why certain towns should be in certain places without taking that history into account. 1 Nevertheless there are one or two general facts of interest which it is well to bear in mind regarding the growth and position of towns. Most towns, whatever their subsequent history may be, are originally centres of trade. They arise in places where it is most convenient for the products of a district to be collected in order to be sent out again in other directions to the places where they are required. Hence it is that in new countries or regions with a one-sided industry, like the British colonies of America and Australia, and parts of the United Slates, which are chiefly engaged in the production of food and raw 1 The modifications which man himself makes in the physical features of the globe have in many cases an important influence on the position of towns. It is for this reason, among others, that many of the chief towns of Roman Britain no longer have the importance which they once had. THE GROWTH AND POSITION OF TOWNS 61 materials, large quantities of which must be sent to distant parts in exchange for manufactured articles, large towns have grown up with extraordinary rapidity (Chicago, St. Louis, San Francisco, Melbourne, Sydney). When the positions most generally occupied by towns are con- sidered, the influence of trade in promoting their growth may be observed under most of the heads under which these positions may be classified. (1) Out of 233 towns which, according to the most recent returns or estimates, had at least 100,000 inhabitants, 102 are seaports — either situated on the sea-coast or near the mouths of rivers where they are navigable for sea-going vessels. In the case of river seaports, the situation is sometimes (• >• P-f fitffitf £« « o4p4«'m m Ph p5^p5 ^ p4 13 ■a — v- a . .3 g g> — v~ . — A — , ^A-s bo 03 i C cS O .£2 J3 CO 1. 1! 'P. / W 'S 'S'c'S'c 'c c^ rf cd C3 C3 C!S -^ ^ ^ ja _c ja* x5 -9 .2 .J2-2 o o m o.JS "& S'&Sa g s s H (Jo's Pn R P Pr a? 1 ft C H a s *2 3 *-" T! £3 3 d d cj o o" o 3 3322 3 x x" X* g '3*3 '3 ,2 J 3 B 5 o B S b =i 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 OS P a Ph Z-, Z, Z, Ch Cl, Ph I » iNCOt* Oi CO i>. com co thcq O rt-g ■H t- os -* M« CM CM CO m iH CM O — CO "^P ^5 O 8* 2 ■** r-i -# TJ* C0C0COCM CM COCMCO CM ■* © O iH -: .s co .3 -§ 1 *s -a oj -a S > t* <3 ft 1 Si © s g of fe C OS - ^ EH ■si 1 ■ S.so a > s-a S a o) a g g. 2^3 a a S a 3wS|! IP alii Tl 3 »S G 13 •S ol O 35 03 - ?„ "3 • ^ " t3 C 0) « 5 a * o SB n3 CD '8 o E g •§ g 1 P3 S g o S.S g „ "to J -£ m CO Q.G u^ M 02 PQ Pq c3 I 84 NOB.TH AMERICA COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 1. GREENLAND AND THE ARCTIC ARCHIPELAGO.— Greenland is a large mass of land or group of islands (it is uncer- tain which), almost completely buried under ice, which reaches in some parts to at least ten thousand feet above sea-level, and which in the numerous fiords 1 of the coast has its ends broken off to form icebergs. 2 The east and south coasts are difficult of approach on account of the pack-ice by which they are constantly fringed, and the only settlements therefore are upon the west coast. These belong to the Danes. The inhabitants are mostly Eskimo, who live, like their unsettled kinsmen of the more northerly puns of Greenland and on the north coasts of the mainland of America, chiefly by seal and whale fishing, pursuing these animals in peculiar boats called kayaks. Between Green- land and the Arctic Archipelago lies Baffin's Bay, with Smith Sound and its continuations, by means of which the nearest approach has yet been made to the North Pole. 3 Only one or two of the islands of the Archipelago are inhabited (by Eskimo). Between them a North-west Passage to Eastern Asia was sought for centuries in vain, and, though discovered by M'Clure in 1853, it is too encumbered by ice to be of any use for commerce. 2. BRITISH AMERICA.— A. The Dominion of Canada, north of the United States, from which it is separated partly by the middle line of the four northern great lakes, partly (west of the Lake of the Woods) by the parallel of 49° N. It embraces a territory upwards of three millions of square miles in extent, but the populous portion of this vast area is confined to the region bordering the St. Lawrence and the lakes, and embraced between the eastern shore of Lake Huron and the meridian of the city of Quebec. The lake peninsula which lies between Lake Huron on the one side, and Lakes Erie and Ontario on the other, has an area of less th:in20,0N0 square miles, and yet contained in 1881 about two-sevenths of the entire population of the Dominion, 4 and the smaller area south of the St. L;iw- rence and west of Quebec had about one-eleventh of the whole. The whole of the populous area lies at least two degrees farther south than 1 See p. 257. 2 See Introd., pp. 54-5. 3 By the British expedition under Nares in 1876, 83° 20' N. ; by the United States expedition under Greely in 1883, 83° 24' N. 4 The density of population in this peninsula was about 65 to the square mile ■ — somewhat less than that of Ohio, but greater than that of Illinois. CANADA 85 the southernmost point of England, but from two to six degrees far- ther north than Manchuria, which maybe considered the corresponding region of Asia. (See p. 289.) The surface is generally low-lying east of the Rocky Moun- tains, and toundras similar to those of northern Russia and Siberia cover large tracts in the north, descending in the east to the southern shores of Hudson's Bay, and still farther east along the whole coast of Labrador. There next follows a region of vast forests, chiefly of pines and firs, amongst which the principal products in the north-west are, as in the corresponding latitudes of Russia and Siberia, furs, and in the south-east lumber, huge rafts of long timbers being floated down the smaller streams to the larger ones, the Ottawa and St. Lawrence, and by tjhese to Quebec, whence it is exported to Europe and elsewhere. Much sawed lumber is sent to the United States by rail. South of the forest region there lies in the west, between the L'ocky Mountains and the Great Lakes, an area of level plains or gently rising table-lands almost destitute of trees, but well grassed in most places. These plains contain tracts of the highest importance for the future development of the Canadian Dominion. Though part of this area is covered with a barren soil which forbids all hope of cultivation (at least for many years to come), there are still larger areas, chiefly along the Red River (which enters Lake Winnipeg from the south) round Lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba, and in the valley of the Saskatchewan, where the soil is of the richest description, and the climate, though subject to great extremes, is admirably adapted for agriculture. Two feet of snow may cover the ground during the winter, but the warm summers are sufficient to ripen wheat in three or four months. The average number of bushels of wheat to the acre grown on these rich soils with very little manure is about twenty, an average higher than in any other country for which statistical information is obtainable except England. Coal also is among the r-oducts of this region, and is already worked at more than one place. For the development of this region, so remote from the markets of Europe, the natural water-ways of the Dominion are of the highest importance. From the mouth of the St. Lawrence, it is possible lor ships to ascend, with the aid of a few canals, to the head of Lake 86 NORTH AMERICA Superior, and thence with little interruption the journey by water may be continued by Rainy Lake and River, and Winnipeg Lake and River, to the head-waters of the Saskatchewan, a, distance of 4500 miles m all One of the interruptions to navigation (avoided by a canal) on this system of water-ways is formed by the Falls of Niagara, at which a river more than half a mile wide, forming the connection between Lakes Erie and Ontario, is precipitated over a cliff upwards of 150 feet in height. Railways have been laid where water communication does not exist, and the aid to transportation afforded by the Canadian Pacific Railway is sure to have an important effect on the pro-perity of this Fia. 19 — A Lombering Scene. region. The northern rivers of Canada, the Mackenzie, Peace, and Atha- basca, and Great Fish River, have their course interrupte 1 by too many rapids and falls to be of much use as water-ways, but this is of less consequence since they empty themselves into a scarcely accessible sea. It is a more serious disadvantage that the Nelson River, the outlet of Lake Winnipeg to Hudson's Bay, has its navigation interrupted in the same way (except for 100 miles above its mouth), for the naviga- tion of that wide inlet, though difficult, is believed to be practicable, and this route is the shortest from Liverpool to the Canadian north-west. CANADA 87 The construction of a railway from Winnipeg to a port on Hudson's Bay has accordingly been commenced. The people of Canada are mainly of British origin and Pro- testant in religion ; but French Roman Catholics make up about one-third of the population, chiefly in the east (Quebec, &c ), those regions having been originally colonised by the French, from whom they were gained by the English in 1759. There are about 100,000 Indians, most of whom are hunters roaming over the forest regions of the north-west, and living by the sale of furs to the fur-trading companies. With the view of encouraging emigration and promoting the development of the fertile areas in the west, the Government of the Canadian Dominion gives a free grant of 160 acres of land to settlers who undertake to reside on the land and prepare it for cultivation. The Dominion, though having a general government and parliament for the common affairs, is divided into a number of provinces, each of which has a parliament of its own, to deal with matters of local interest, but there is a large territory on both sides of Hudson's Bay which is not so organised. The seat of the general government is Ottawa (29), 1 in the province of Ontario, at the confluence of the Rideau River with the Ottawa, 2 about ninety miles above the confluence of the latter with the St. Lawrence. It is the center of the lumber trade of the province in which it lies. Provinces and Towns. — (1.) Nova Scotia (in the time of the French Acadie), a province including both the peninsula of that name and the island of Cape Breton in the north : in all, about two-thirds of the size of Maine. Its fertile land, less than half the entire area, is mainly situated in the interior. The valley of Annapolis is the most favored district in point of soil and climate, and is above all noted for its apple-orchards. The pro- vince is rich in coal and other minerals, and has extensive fisheries. The capital is Halifax (40), on the east coast, at the end of a fine natural harbor, which is the chief naval station of British North America, and being in most years free from ice all the winter through, makes Halifax the chief winter port of Canada. The city and harbor 1 Numbers in parentheses are used to indicate population in thousands, Ottawa, 29,000. The populations given for Canadian towns are all estimates taken from the "Official Handbook of Information " for 1888. 2 See p. 61 (2) (a). 88 NORTH AMERICA are defended by fortifications, and Halifax is the only place in the Dominion at which British troops are still stationed. (2.) Prince Edward Island, somewhat greater than Long Island in size, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between New Bruns- wick and Nova Scotia. From the nearest point of New Brunswick it is distant nine miles. Charlottetown (13), the capital, on a large, deep, and well-sheltered harbor, which nearly divides the island in two, exports fish and farm produce. (3.) New Brunswick, rather less than Maine in size, very rich in forests, which furnish more than half of the value of the ex- ports of the province. The fisheries are also valuable. The capital is Fredericton (6), a small town in the interior, at the head of navigation for steanic-rs on the St. John River, but the largest town and chief seaport is St. John (27), occupying a fine harbor on the Bay of Fundy at the mouth of that river. This harbor is open all the year round. (4.) Quebec, on both sides of the St. Lawrence, mostly east of the Ottawa, nearly three times the New England States in area, but the population of which is mainly confined to the small area above indicated (p. 84). The winter is long, snow generally covering the ground from December to April. During this long period labor is largely turned to account in lumbering. The frozen state of the ground and the rivers and the abundance of snow are also an advantage in transporting the logs to the streams, down which they will float in the spring. (See p. 53.) The summer, on the other hand, is warm enough to grow even corn and tobacco, but oats, together with potatoes and hay, are the leading crops. The iron of the province and coal from Nova Scotia are used in manufacturing. The capital of the province is Quebec (63), the li Pad-quarters of French Canada, 1 one of the oldest cities founded by Europeans on the North American continent. It is situated at the junction of the Charles River with the St. Lawrence, 2 partly on the top of a commanding pro- montory. Once the head of navigation for large vessels, it has had its urowth checked by the deepening of the river above the town, and by other causes. MONTREAL (240)', situated on an island, nearly 200 miles (by river) higher up the St. Lawrence, can now be reached by vessels of 3000 tons burden ; and as the Lachine Canal, which avoid* the princi] al rapids of the St. Lawrence, begins immediately above the port of Mon- treal, and admits no vessels drawing more than 12 feet, this port is the present head of navigation for the larger class of ocean-steamers. 3 Here 1 The capture of Quebec by General Wolfe in 1759 secured for the English the possession of French Canada. 2 See p. 61 (2) (a). 3 See p. fll (1) (b). 90 NORTH AMERICA accordingly most of the produce of the west is brought by rail or by smaller lake and river vessels for shipment during the period when the Sf. Lawrence is free from ice ; and Montreal is consequently a pros- perous seaport, with a rapidly increasing population. 1 The port of Montreal is closed by ice, as a rule, from about the beginning of December to the end of April, during which time much of its commerce is carried on through Portland, Me. A railway bridge nearly two miles in length connects Montreal with the right bank of the St. Lawrence. (5.) Ontario, about equal in area to Michigan and Minnesota, is the province to the west of Quebec, extending along the north of the great lakes. The populous region, which is the most southerly part of the whole of the Dominion, has a much shorter winter than that of Quebec, and in the extreme south, through the favorable influences of Lake Erie upon the climate, even wine is grown. In this province barley is an important crop, and it is the only grain which is exported in large amount from Canada to the United States. Iron and copper are mined, but the lumber interest predominates. The capital is TORONTO, near the west end of Lake Ontario, on which it has a fine harbor. It is growing as rapidly as Montreal, and though its population at the census of 1881 was under 90,000, it is estimated to have increased to about 140,000 since that date. Another thriving town is Hamilton (38), at the extreme west, of the same lake. Kingston (16), near the outlet of the same lake, is the terminus of a system of naviga- tion which allows of small vessels reaching Ottawa partly by canal and partly by the River Ridean. The chief inland town is London (20), about midway between Lakes Erie and Huron. Port Arthur, on the northern shore of Lake Superior, is the terminus of the lake navigation in the Dominion of Canada, and is the place at which the Canadian Pacific Railway leaves the shore of Lake Superior. (6.) Manitoba, the rich, flat, wheat-growing province in the west, is about two-thirds of the size of Minnesota. It encloses the lake of the same name, and the greater part of Lakes Win- nipeg and Winnipegosis. The capital is Winnipeg (22), situated at the confluence of two navig- able livers, 2 the Red River (p. 85), which flows northwards from the United States, and the Assiniboine, which comes from the west. (7.) British Columbia, nearly two-thirds the size of Alaska, 1 Its population in 1881 was 141,000 ; in 1861, 90,000 ; while that of Quebec was in 1881 only 62,500, as against 60,000 in 1861. Since 1881 the population of Montreal is estimated to have increased to above 200,000, but this is partly in consequence of the incorporation of smaller towns adjoining. 2 See p. 61 (2) (a). 3i 92 NORTH AMERICA occupying the dry table-land of the Rocky Mountains, with the moist mild strip of coast (p. 85), and the islands to the west. The principal wealth of this province consists in its mine- rals and forests. The discovery of gold first brought a rush of settlers here in 1856. 1 There are important coal-mines on Van- couver Island. The forests on the western or Coast Range of the Rocky Mountains, composed of gigantic pine and fir trees, are among the grandest in the world. The capital is Victoria (14), on a beautiful harbor at the south-east end of Vancouver Island. Nanaimo (5) is a coal-mining town anil seaport on the east coast of this island. New Westminster (5), near the mouth of the Fraser Eiver, and Vancouver (8), on Burrard Inlet, are the two western termini of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The North-West Territories and the Provisional Districts. — The area to the west of Hudson's Bay and the province of Manitoba as far as the fron- tier o f Briti sh Columb i a is known generally as the North-West Territories. It contains as yet but a small settled area, but settlement is going on along the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the course of the northern branch of the Saskatchewan 2 River, which is navigable by steamers to Edmonton, about 113|-° W. Four areas have been marked out under the name of provisional districts. These are (1) Assiniboia, to the west of the southern part of Manitoba ; capital, Eegina. (2) Saskatchewan, north of Assiniboia. (3) Alberta, to the west of boih the previously named districts ; capital, Calgary, finely situated at the meeting-place, of two streams at the base of the Eocky Mountains. Having rich grasses, this district is pre-eminently the cattle and dairy region of western Canada. (4) Athabasca, north of Alberta, not yet settled. The name of Keewatin is given to an unsettled district to the north of Manitoba. B. Newfoundland, a separate colony, to which also belongs the dreary and scarcely inhabited Atlantic coast of Labrador. The island is about as laTge as Maine and New Hampshire. It may be called the Yezo of North America, though situated about six degrees farther north than that island. 3 Like Yezo, it is washed by a cold current on the east, which brings with it a great abundance of food-fishes, 4 and the inhabitants are chiefly fishermen, settled on the coast. The cod-fisheries on the Bank of Newfoundland, a shallow to the east, are the largest in the world. They are carried on in summer and autumn. The seals of Newfoundland are also extensively hunted. Trinity Bay, on the south- east coast, is the terminus of several telegraphic cables. Capital, St. John's (30), on the east coast. C. The Bermudas, a group ofsmall islands about 750 miles south of Nova Scotia, producing tropical and temperate fruits, and frequented by invalids for the sake of their equable climate. 1 Comp. California, p. 126, and Australia, p. 354. - Pronounce Sas-kat' -che-wan. 3 See below, p. 329. * See Introd., p. 49. UNITED STATES 93 3. UNITED STATES. Approximate latitudes : Sitka (Aberdeen, Nizhni-Novgorod), 57° N. ; Olympia (Quebec, Nantes), 47° ; St. Paul (Montreal, Venice), 45° ; (Hakodate), Salt Lake City, New York (Naples, Constantinople, Khiva), 41° ; (Niigata), San Francisco, Richmond (Athens), 38° ; (Yohohama), Memphis (Kabul), 35°; (Hangchau), New Orleans (Cairo, Lhassa), 30°. Approximate longitudes : Eastport, Me., 67° "W. ; Boston (Santiago), 71° W. ■ Mouth of Mississippi, 89° W. ; Pike's Peak, 105° W. ; coast of Oregon, 124° W. Position and Size. — The United States occupy the central portion of North America, together with its north-west peninsula of Alaska, in all, very nearly one-half the mainland of the continent. The position of its main area is one that combines important advantages. Climatically it is entirely within the temperate zone, and so in no part uninhabitable. For commerce it is so situated that, while its Atlantic ports lie opposite the densely-populated lands of Europe, its western harbors are easily reached from the most populous countries across the Pacific, and already a few Asiatic products, which formerly reached America by way of Europe from the East, are now being carried thither across the Pacific. From a political point of view it has been of advantage that the United States were far enough from the Odd World to develop successfully a republican form of government, and to be practically unaffected by the wars and other disturbances that have occurred there. Instead of separate nations growing up in the areas that were added, 1 three and a half million square miles 2 are occupied by one nation, whose territorial area is thus the fourth in the world. 3 Outline. — The boundaries are mostly natural, and those parts that are artificial, as along the 49th parallel, west of the Rio Grande, or east of Alaska, pass through areas with but' scanty population. 1 See sketch of territorial increase on p. 82. 2 3,602,990, including Alaska. 3 Three empires are larger : the British, 2£ times as large ; the Russian, 2£ ; the Chinese, \\. Brazil is fifth in size, with 3,218,000 square miles. Australia is nearly equal to the United States without Alaska. Europe, with 3,786,000 square miles, is larger. 94 UNITED STATES The high and rocky western coast, from the 49th parallel to the Mexican boundary, has but three indentations that reach through the coast range into the fertile valleys to its east. 1. Puget Sound, 1 in Washington, extends southward about 75 miles from the inner part of the Strait of Fuca. Its steep shores, heavily wooded with dark forests of fir and pine, the numerous islands, and the many narrow inlets or fiords, combine with the snow-capped peaks of the Cascade Range to form a region strikingly similar to the western coast of Norway, and the rainy climates of the two regions carry out the resemblance. The deep waters afford harbors to the largest vessels, on which account the Northern Pacific Railroad has made here its western terminus at Tacoma, so that grain from Idaho and Montana, as well as the products of the region about the Sound, is brought here for export". 2. The Columbia River, six miles wide at its mouth, with its southern tributary, the Willamette, affords navigation for ocean-steamers up to Portland, 112 miles from the sea. The completion of the canals now being made around the cascades of this river will establish uninterrupted inland navigation for several hundred miles farther, and thus increase the importance of this port. 3. The Bay of San Francisco is the third of these larger indenta- tions ; its southern arm lies in a depression between two ranges of the coast mountains, while its northern arm, known as San Pablo and Suisun Bays, extends eastward through the inner range, and receives the navigable Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. Through this break in the coast mountains the cool sea-wind reaches the interior valley, and gives San Francisco and places directly east of it a lower summer temperature than others north or south. 2 Opening to the ocean by the narrow Golden Gate, San Francisco Bay has much the character of an inland sea, while its great size, depth, and commanding position lor both inland and oceanic commerce have made the city the terminus of three trans-continental railroads and the central point for Pacific shipping. Two bays on the south-west coast of California, San Pedro and San Diego, though not large, are important because they are situated opposite a depression in the coast mountains, the San Gorgonio Pass, through which the Southern Pacific Railroad first reaches the coast region. Several other bays (Monterey, Humboldt, Shoalwater) are capable of being used by coast-shipping. 1 The«name Puget Sound belongs properly to the southern part only of this watery labyrinth. Admiralty Inlet connects the sound with the strait. Hood's Canal occupies it depression oyer 60 miles in extent, and there are a dozen or more inlets, bays, and channels enclosing several islands. The total shore-line from the entrance of the strait is said to measure 1600 miles. 2 July's average temperature at Marysville, 7S° ; at Sacramento, 72° ; San Francisco, 59° ; Fort Miller, 87°. In October, when the interior valley has be- come cooler and the "keyhole" breeze does not blow, the temperature at San Francisco is higher than it was in July. OUTLINE 95 The boundary from the Pacific coast to the Gulf begins at a point one nautical mile south of the southern end of the San Diego Bay, and terminates at the mouth of the Rio Grande. It is practically a natural boundary, as the line from the starting- point to the Colorado passes along the southern edge of the Colorado Desert, and the line from the Colorado to the Rio Grande is drawn along the divide between the Gila basin and the rivers of Sonora and Chihuahua. The coast along the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic, as far north as New York Bay, is low and sandy, in striking contrast to the steep and rocky shores of the Pacific. Here there are no mountain ranges near the coast, but broad alluvial plains, from 50 to 300 miles in width, form the border of the continent, and are gradually being extended into the shallow coast-waters by the deposit of the sediment carried down by the rivers. Great areas of swamp land extend with intervals from Texas to New Jersey, and the coast is fringed with low sandy islands formed from sediment and bordering shallow sounds and lagoons. The largest of the indentations are the Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. The two bays are deep 1 and com- modious, and contain many important ports, among them Philadelphia and Baltimore, each a terminus of a trunk-line railroad. The many rivers emptying into Chesapeake Bay are, in their lower courses, prac- tically arms of the sea, and make Maryland and Virginia accessible to ships at many points. The two sounds, and the many other sounds and bays, are for the most part shallow, and sand-bar3 lie across their entrance, as also at the mouth of many rivers on this coast. The Mississippi River, Mobile Bay, and Pensacola Bay. St. Simon's Sound, and the harbors of Savannah, Charleston. ' J and Wilmington, N.C., are easily entered, but at most ports large ships must have a part of their cargo discharged or loaded with the help of lighters. Formerly the bars at the mouths of the Mississippi River prevented or greatly hindered the enLrance of large ocean-going vessels, but since one of its mouths, the South Pass, was artificially narrowed by jetties, 3 the current has scoured out the bottom and established a deep safe passage. 1 The Gfreat Eastern, the largest steamship yet built, steamed up to Phila- delphia. 2 The most important harbor between New Orleans and the Chesapeake. 3 Planned and built under the supervision of Captain James B. Eads. The artificial deepening of harbors and rivers is constantly in progress, money being usually appropriated each year by Congress for that purpose by a " River aud Harbor Bill." 96 UNITED STATES New York Bay forms the most important harbor in America. It consists of two parts, the lower or outer bay, and the upper, inner bay, which are connected by the Narrows, a strait between Staten and Long Islands. The broad and deep Hudson or North River, on the west of Manhattan Island, and the East River, a strait on the east side leading to Long Island Sound, are also parts of the real harbor, and contain nearly all the docks at which vessels load. The bays contain the chief anchor-grounds of the harbor. 1 New York harbor receives tides from two directions — through tlie Narrows and from Long Island Sound through East River. Tides rise in the sound on the average 2J feet higher than in the bay ; hence a Mirplus of water pours through East River and out at the Narrows, and together with the water from the Hudson prevents the filling of the harbor with sediment. At New York the sandy coast comes substan- tially to an end. On the south of Long Island, however, are many "beaches" with summer resorts, and the Cape Cod peninsula is of the same formation. The coast of New England becomes more and more rugged and broken towards the east, and its harbors are numerous and good. The coast of Maine is so indented with narrow fiord-like bays that the total length of the shore-line is nearly 2500 miles, although the Salmon Falls River is less than 225 miles distant from the St. Croix. 2 Numerous rocky islands (Mount Desert) increase the picturesqueness of the scenery, which combines wilh the invigorating tea-breezes and moderate climate to make this a great summer resort ; while shipbuild- ing, lishing, and commerce are natural occupations of the inhabitants. Narragansett Bay with the well-protected Long Island Sound form the route of much of the traffic between New York and Boston, lor which Providence and Fall River are the points of trans-shipment. Buzzard's Bay with New Bedford has long been famous for its whaling fleets, and the near-lying Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Islands are renowned for their healthful climaie. Jn Cape Cod Bay the May- flower first cast its anchor. Massachusetts, Casco, and Penobscot Bays are deep and spacious, the former containing Boston Harbor, one of tne best of America. Portland, on Casco Bay, is the winter terminus for the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada, Montreal becoming inaccessible by steamers in winter on account of ice. The boundary-line between the United States and the British Possessions is the result of several treaties between the two Powers, the last determining the course through the Strait of Fuca. The small extension north of the 49th parallel was due 1 The anchor-place for foreign war-vessels is in North River, 2 Compare note on Puget Sound, on p. 94. SURFACE 97 to the wrong belief that a line drawn due west from the outlet of the Lake of the Woods would meet the Mississippi River. Surface. — As the chief mountain systems, plateaus, and plains of North America extend north and south, the United States in its extent across the continent from east to west includes a portion of each of the great surface features, its western part consisting of the central and broadest part of the extensive series of plateaus that, with numerous and lofty mountains, form the highest portion of the continent, while its eastern half is the southern part of the broad lowland plain, broken only by the comparatively low rolling ranges of the Ozark and Appalachian Mountains. The contour-line of 2000 feet that extends from the Rio Grande in Texas to the Canadian border of North Dakota, usually between 98° and 100° W. longitude, divides the land area into two sections of about 1,500,000 square miles each. Out of a total area of 1,333,000 square miles of land having an elevation of 2000 feet or more, only 20,000 1 square miles are in the eastern half ; and of 1,648,000 square miles below 2000 feet elevation, only 142,000 2 square miles are in the western half. The two parts differing thus in elevation are much unlike also in climate, vegetation, and mineral resources, and conse- quently in the occupations of their inhabitants. The more elevated west, with a dry climate and a scanty forest area, is, as a whole, better adapted for grazing than for agriculture, while its chief mines are those of the precious metals. Coal and iron are the chief minerals in the east, and the abun- dant rainfall makes its plains everywhere suitable for farming, and nourishes extensive forests. I. The Western Highland — This comprises an area of about one and a half million square miles, the plateau portions of which are elevated to a height of from 1000 to 12,000 feet above the sea-level, the average elevation being about 5000 feet. As the average height of the Appalachians is but 2500 feet, and that of their highest peaks not 7000 feet, it is seen that the land w r est of the 100th meridian is, as a whole, higher than the eastern mountain ranges, while large areas of it are higher than the top of Mount Washington or Black Dome. 3 1 Mostly in Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia. 2 Mostly in western Washington, Oregon, and California. 8 Mount Washington, 6293 feet ; Black Dome, 6707. a 98 UNITED STATES The numerous ranges of mountains of the western plateau region (probably 200 ranges could be named), form a part of the Cordilleras of North America, which have here their greatest east and west expansion, though not their greatest height. 1 These ranges have, with few exceptions, a north and south trend, and their elevations are of from 3000 to upwards of 14,000 feet. The highest and most massive ranges occur in two systems, that of the Rocky Mountains, a little east of the middle of the plateau, and the system near the western edge, known only by the names of its several ranges, the Sierra Nevada, the Cascade, and the Coast Ranges. That portion of the highland that lies between these two systems is known as the Plateau Belt ; the portion to the east of the Rockies is called the Great Plains. The Rocky Mountain System occupies the highest part of the plateau, and constitutes or contains the water-parting be- tween the rivers that flow to the Pacific and those that flow to the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico. The ranges of this system have a parallel arrangement, there being usually an eastern and a western range, between which are broad elevated valleys. There is no one range continuous from north to south across the whole country, but there are instead several irregular sections separated by river valleys and crossed by many passes. From the Canadian border to the Laramie Plains in southern Wyoming the system extends south- east, crossing about ten degrees of longitude, and here the ranges are widely apart and in open order, while from Wyoming south- ward they have a more meridional direction and are near together. 2 In the north are the Missouri Mountains and the Bitter Boot Bangs, between which are numerous short ranges and many fertile valleys, the most valuable portion of Montana. Here rises the Clark Fork of the Columbia, while on the plateau, which lies south of the end of the 1 The highest peaks are in Mexico and in Alaska. Popocatepetl, nearly 18,000 feet ; St. Elias, 19,500. In the United States proper :— Mount Whitney, in Sierra Nevada ; Mount Eainier, in Cascade Range ; Pike's Peak, in Front Range ; Mount Harvard, in Sawatch Mountains, all between 14,000 and 15,000 feet high. 2 This arrangement obtains also in the Andes. The ranges of Asia, crossing many meridians, are arranged similarly to those of the section from Wyoming to Canada. SURFACE 99 Missouri Range, are the headwaters of the Missouri, of the Yellowstone, and of the Snake. This plateau is of peculiar interest, since here is a display of Nature's forces in geysers and hot springs, so remarkable that Government has reserved a large surrounding tract as the Yellowstone National Park. The park is an oblong, 65 miles from north to south and 55 miles wide, mostly in the north-west of Wyoming. Within this area are thousands of hot springs and scores of geysers, some of which throw columns of water to a height of 250 feet. Some springs and geysers consist of boil- ing mud instead of water. Many are heavily impregnated with minerals, and their deposits have formed beautiful petrifactions. The region Fio. 22.— Boiling Springs, Wyoming. contains, in lava beds and dykes, evidences of volcanic action, while the Grand Canon of the Yellowstone is cut 1000 feet deep through volcanic rock. East of this plateau the Yellowstone Mountains, with rugged volcanic peaks, and the Big Horn Kange enclose the Big Horn Basin. To the south-west lies the lofty Wind River Range, whose peaks of archaic granite are snow-capped and bordered with glaciers. The beautiful Wind River and Sweetwater Valleys are famous for the many battles here fought between Whites and Indians, since the road by which early settlers made their way westward passed through the latter valley. The Green River Basin and Laramie Plains extend in southern Wyoming east and west for 250 miles as a high flat plateau, 1 on which are small i 7000 to 8000 feet high. 100 UNITED STATES salt lakes lying on the divide between the Platte and Green Rivers, and across which the first Pacific railroad found an easy way. Between the parallel ranges of the southern section of the Rockies occur the great Colorado parks, North, Middle, South, and San Luis Parks, 1 whose eastern border is formed by the Front Range and the Sangre de Cristo Mountains with their high granite and basaltic peaks, 2 while on their west are the Park Range, the Sawatch Range, and the broad, massive, radiating group of the San Juan Mountains. 3 These parks form a series of broad basins, in which the head-waters of four large rivers are collected from the forest-covered and well-watered slopes of the bordering mountains. The Platte rises in North Park, the Grand in Middle Park, of the Rio Grande del Norte in San Luis Park, while the Arkansas has tributaries from South Park, 4 though rising in the narrow valleys to its west. The Plateau Belt lies between the system of the Rockies and that containing the Sierra Nevada. At its north, near the Canadian border, the two systems are not far apart, and the space between is nearly filled by a number of lower ranges, while near the Mexican line the Gila depression extends far eastward, and the plateau is lower between this depression and the valley of the Rio Grande than it is either north or south. 5 This plateau belt, thus, in a measure, isolated from the rest of the continent, is a region of much interest, since here are seen the extreme results of the action of some of Nature's forces. The western mountains shut out the moist winds from the Pacific, and the south-east winds bring but little rain to the Colorado basin, so that the whole region has an exceedingly dry climate. 6 The excessive evaporation causes rivers almost to dis- appear in the air, and many streams cease to flow after a course of a few miles. Two large streams, the Columbia and the Colorado, which have their sources high up among the well- watered peaks of the Rockies, continue their course to the ocean. Great beds of salt and white glistening fields of alkali that 1 San Luis, the largest, contains about 5000 square miles, or four times the area of Rhode Island ; North Park, 700 square miles. The Laramie Plains and all the parks are almost too high for tillage, but are good grazing grounds. 2 Long's, Pike's, Gray's, and Blanea Peaks, with many others. 3 The San Juan group contains over a hundred peaks between 13,000 and 15,000 feet high. 4 The South Platte receives most of the drainage from South Park. 6 This circumstance, so favourable for railroad building, was one reason for the Gadsden Purchase, and the Southern Pacific Railroad now crosses the high- land by this route. ® See p. 73. SURFACE 101 dazzle the eyes of travellers show where ancient lakes existed. Several large areas are real deserts, sandy and have. Thousands of square miles are covered with lava beds, the product of volcanic activity, yet so old that rivers have cut their channels down through them hundreds of feet deep. Of especial interest are the canons, the deep and narrow river gorges, here dividing and subdividing a plateau till it remains only a skeleton of its former self, there splitting a mountain-range in two, or cutting deep down through the strata of the earth's crust till the underlying granite is reached and the book of geology opened wide. Three easily distinguished sections constitute this plateau belt — 1. The northern section belongs to the basin of the Columbia River, and is called the Columbia Plateau. The dry and grassy plains of the Columbia or the Spokane Plateau in eastern Washington rest upon a huge bed of lava, the northern edge of which is skirted by the Columbia until turning southward and then westward the stream cuts its way through the Cascade Range to the sea. Among the mountains that border and cross the Columbia Plateau in eastern Washington and northern Idaho are many fertile valleys adapted to grazing and wheat-growing. South- east of this are the Snake River Plains in Idaho, desolate fields of lava, around and across which the Snake or Lewis River 1 flows in a tumul- tuous course ; its Shoshone Fall, 190 feet high, with its deep dark canon and towering columns of spray, is a fair rival of Niagara. Other streams from the mountains find channels under the lava beds, and are seen no more. An arid region, nourishing only sage-brush, lies south-west of the Blue Mountains, in south-eastern Oregon, and forms a connecting link with the even more arid Great Basin. 2. The Great Basin, occupied by Nevada, Utah, and south-west California, lies between the Sierra Nevada and the Wasatch Mountains. Its northern boundary is the low divide that serves to send northward the waters of the Snake River and other tributaries of the Columbia, while on the souih the plateaus of the lower Colorado and the coast mountains of southern California are its limit. Numerous narrow steep-sided ranges extend across its surface from north to south, sepa- rating flat desert valleys which appear white with alkali or bluish-grey from the prevailing sage-brush. Many valleys contain sinks or swampy basins into which the slender streams from the mountains pour them- selves, but which they never fill, so great is the amount evaporated. Even the Great Salt Lake was formerly much larger 2 than at present, as is shown by thick layers of alkali and clay in the Great Salt Lake Desert adjoining it on the west. It is supplied with fresh water by the 1 Called also the Shoshone, and formerly the Mad River. 2 In a former era of the earth's history, this lake covered a large part of the Great Basin and had an outlet through the Snake River. As is shown by ancient shore-lines on the sides of the Wasatch and other ranges, it was then nearly 1000 feet deep. The elevation of the enclosing highlands and the great evaporation have reduced it to its present size. 102 UNITED STATES Bear, the Jordan, and other streams from the neighboring Wasatch Range ; and as the year is dry or moist, so the lake decreases or increases in size. 1 Other lakes and sinks are found in the western part of the basin. The Humboldt Sink receives the Humboldt Kiver, which, flowing from the Humboldt Mountains westward, has cut gorges through Beveral intervening ranges, thus making the way along which the first Pacific railroad was constructed. The valleys of the Humboldt and a few other streams have, through irrigation, become fertile oases, a source of considerable wealth, especially to the Mormons, but their area is only a small fraction 2 of the whole section, the prosperity of the popula- tion being dependent more on the rich silver mines and other mineral wealth than on agriculture. In the southern part of the Great Basin in California are two depressions, descending below the sea-level. Death Valley, directly east of Mount Whitney, between the Mohave and Ralston Deserts, reaches 225 feet below sea-level, and the Sink of the San Felipe in the Colorado Desert, over 300 feet. Both are extremely hot and dry. The Southern Pacific Railroad goes through the latter. 3. The Colorado Plateau region lies to the east and south-east of the Great Basin. The southern water-shed of the Gila Eiver forms its southern limit, and the continental divide its eastern. Like the Great Basin, it receives very little rain, the water which the Colorado and its tributaries carry being mainly derived from the surrounding ranges, which are, as a rule, fairly well-watered and wooded, and contain many snow-capped peaks. 3 Hence, in this region, the erosive action of the streams, constantly wearing deeper and deeper into the rock, is the chief force at work. 4 By this action canons have been formed with bottoms lying from a few hundred feet to seven thousand feet, or more than a mile and a quarter, below the level land, so deep and dark in places that a person standing above cannot see the river below. Clouds, he might see, far beneath his feet, even there floating at a height that would enable them to pass without hindrance over the mountains of the east. Where streams approach one another, the plateaus between dwindle to thin walls, or, severed by cross channels, stand like huge pinnacles or like colossal obelisks carved with creation's hieroglyphics. In the walls of the canons occur strange forms, the harder rock making broad shelves or standing out in sharp crags or turrets, some grey, some red, or brown, or bluish-black, while great caves and labyrinths of alcoves have been hollowed out in the softer strata. The canons separate the 1 In 1872 it measured 2290 square miles ; in 1882, 2360 square miles. Its depth averages only about 30 feet. 2 Not over 3 per cent, of the region can be used for farm crops, water for irrigation nojfc being obtainable. 3 Small glaciers also exist. 4 As the canons are sometimes cut across plateaus that are higher than the land on either side, it must be supposed that the plateaus were gradually elevated while the streams were flowing across them, but so slowly that the cutting action of the water was able to maintain the channel in the same position. But in soma places it seems probable that the original bed of a stream was even at a higher level than that of the highest land remaining, as where the Green River has cut across the Uintah Mountains, SURFACE 103 neighboring plateaus so completely that the country is practically im- passable. Two railways, however, have been constructed. The Denver and Rio Grande, from Denver, Colorado, to Ogden, Utah, passes along the Grand River by means of some of the most remarkable feats of modern engineering, and discloses scenery unequalled in grandeur. Farther south the Atlantic aud Pacific road crosses the Little Colorado and also the Colorado itself. Upon the southern plateaus are many mountains, chiefly in three groups, of which the Zuni in Mexico and the Mogollon and Pinal in Arizona are representatives. The San Francisco Peaks on the Colorado Plateau are extinct volcanoes, and in many places are basaltic peaks, beds of lava, cinder cones, and ashes. To the lava- beds are due in large part the mesas, flat-topped mountains or plateaus, which border the Grand River, and are especially numerous in New Mexico. The hard layer of lava has preserved the softer rock below, while the level of the surrounding country was lowered hundreds, and in some cases thousands of feet. On these mesas the ancient inhabitants of this region, probably the ancestors of the present Pueblos and Moquis, built their villages or pueblos after the invading Apaches, Utes, and other "Red-Skins" had driven them from the more fertile bottoms. And in the caves in their sides and in canons, as a last resort, cave-dwellings were built, to which ladders and steps cut in the rock were the only means of approach. The basin of the Colorado begins in Wyoming with the arid valley l of the Green River, north of the Uintah Mountains. In this range begin the canons, their names 2 evidencing their nature. South of that range is a series of plateaus from twenty to sixty miles wide, each rising gently to the south and then abruptly descending as cliffs from 1200 to 2000 feet 3 high. Straight across these plateaus extend canons, 4 in one of which the Grand Kiver joins the Green, and the real Colorado begins 1300 feet below the surface. Its course for 500 miles onward is cut through plateaus varying from 5000 to 8000 feet in elevation. Its canons grow deeper, and numerous side canons of tributary streams increase the wildness of the region. At the mouth of the Little Colorado is Marble Canon, cut 3800 feet deep, and farther west is the Grand Canon, its great gorge descending first by wide terraces, then steep slopes, and finally by cliffs to the granite bottom 7000 feet below. From here on, the surface descends across lower plateaus, where occurs the wonderful Black Canon, to the lands of the Mohave and Gila Deserts. The Pacific Ranges. — As in the Rocky Mountain System, 1 This valley, really the western extension of the Laramie Plains, bears also the name of the "Great American Desert." 2 Flaming Gorge, Canon of Lodore, Red Canon, Whirlpool Canon, Split Moun- tain Canon. » Called Bad Land Cliffs, Brown Cliffs, Roan Cliffs, and Orange Cliffs. 4 Desolation Canon, Labyrinth Canon, Stillwater Canon. Farther down the river occur Cataract Canon, Marble Canon, Grand Canon of the Colorado, Black Canon, Painted Canon, Pyramid Canon, Mohave Canon, Canebrake Canon, besides innumerable side canons. 104 UNITED STATES the ranges on the west of the Plateau Belt have a parallel arrangement with broad valleys between. The broad lava-covered Cascade Range with its many volcanic peaks, 1 and the northern part of that complexity of low ranges collectively known as the Coast Range, form the east and west walls of the fertile and well-watered valley of the Willamette in Oregon, and of Pnget Sound in Washington, for which the Strait of Fuca and the Columbia Fig. 23. —The Royal Gouge— The Denver and Rio Grande R.R. Eiver furnish outlets to the ocean. To the south are cross ranges forming also the northern boundary of the great Valley of California, whose eastern wall, the lofty Siena Nevada, descends by a long gent'e 1 Mount St. Helen's was active in 1843 ; Mount Baker, Mount Rainier or Tacoma, and Mount Shasta still give evidence by hot springs or otherwise of the presence of internal heat. SURFACE 105 slopei lo the level land about the Sacramento and Snn Joaquin Rivers At its northern end, between the volcanic p ,-iks of Mount Lasson and :::: "as th t L Sien ' a is low ana — d ** ^ *» * w" interior plateaus to escape through tlie Klamath and Pitt Rivers. Farther south it contains many lofiy peaks, Mount Whitney, nearly 15,000 feet high, being the lof- tiest in the United States. 2 At its mid- dle point lies the famous Tosemite Valley, remarkable fur its steep tower- ing walls and the strange forms of rocks that they con- tain, as well as for the great height and beauty of its water- falls. 3 The Coast Range on the west lias many small val- leys opening to the ocean, and is divided in two by the de- pression of the San Francisco Bay. At Tejon Pass 4 it unites with the Sierra Ne- vada, and thence southward into Mexico they con- tinue together a con- fused mass of low ranges, distinguishable from one another only by the different rocks of which they are composed. 1 Average breadth of this range is about 80 miles. The eastern slope facing the Great Basin is steep, like the slopes of the Basin Ranges, and presented many engineering problems to the builders of the Central Pacific Railroad. At the great "loop" the road after a long circuit passes over itself to gain a higher elevation. 2 Except peaks in Alaska. 3 The base of the valley is a level area about six miles long and about half a mile wide, but nearly a mile below the level of the land around. The falls 400 feet, 600 feet, 700 feet, or even 1500 feet high. 4 At 35° N. latitude in southern California. Fig. 24. — Ancient Cliff Dwellings in the Mesa Region. 106 UNITED STATES The Great Plains have at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains an elevation ranging from 4000 feet in Montana to 7500 feet in Colorado and 5000 feet in New Mexico. From these heights they descend to the east in a long gentle slope, being at places apparently quite horizontal, and reach the line of 2000 feet elevation at about the 100th meridian. The surface is what is called rolling, the rivers have wide valleys, and the divides between them are low. In the north the monotonous aspect of the plains is broken in Mon- tana and South Dakota by detached ranges of mountains, Little Rocky Mountains, Powder River Range, and Black Hills ; and Bad Lands occur in these states and in Wyoming, where the action of water and wind has disintegrated the soft clay-rock and left strange-looking pillars and cliffs standing in a sterile waste. 1 In the north-west of Nebraska is an extensive area of sandhills. In the south, in New Mexico and Texas, is the Llano Estacado or Staked Plain, 2 which is a level waterless region, more plateau-like than the land to the north, since its slopes are more abrupt. From its north-east a line of low hills extends across Texas and Indian Territory, rising in Arkansas and Missouri into the Ozark Mountains. From these hills the rivers of Texas take a course more southerly than easterly, and, excepting the tributaries of the Ked River, they flow to the Gulf of Mexico instead of to the Mississippi. II. The Eastern Lowland. — Eastward from the Great Plains the long slope of the Rockies is continued into the lowland half of the United States. The part of this slope that lies south of the Red River 3 terminates at the Gulf of Mexico. The central and largest part from the Red River to the Height of Land in northern Minnesota descends gradually to the Mississippi, and constitutes the western portion of the Mississippi Basin. Thence eastward the surface rises slowly to the Appalachian Highland, which forms the eastern rim of the basin, and from this elevation descends gently to the Atlantic, here constituting the Atlantic Slope, and occupied by what are called the Atlantic States. 4 In the south the Atlantic Slope and Mississippi Basin are not separated by the Appalachians, but 1 In eastern and southern Montana, the western part of North and of South Dakota, and in north-eastern Wyoming. 2 Its name is said to be derived from the stakes set up upon it to indicate to travellers the localities where springs exist. Another derivation is from the stake-like appearance of the yucca plant, the most prominent vegetation. 3 Of Louisiana and Texas. i See profile, D. p. 63. SURFACE 107 rather are joined together by the land sloping southward from those mountains to the Gulf of Mexico. North and north-east of the Basin of the Mississippi the long slope of the Rockies continues eastward to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and here contains a broad depression, deepest on the south, and there occupied by the Great Lakes and the St. Law- rence River. This Basin of the St. Lawrence includes in the east the northern slope of the Appalachian highland, which separates it from the Atlantic Slope in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York. Farther west it is separated from the Mississippi Basin by low divides, scarcely distinguishable above the surrounding surface, and usually quite near the shores of the lakes. Its northern boundary is the Height of Land, in northern Minnesota, and the low range of the Wotchish Hills in Canada. North of the Height of Land is a small area with a northward slope, a part of the great northern plain that is occupied almost wholly by Canada. The Red River of the North, which flows to Lake Winnipeg, has its rise in a small lake, whose waters are sometimes joined by floods to the head-waters of the Minnesota River, thus uniting indirectly the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson Bay. The Red River Valley is evidently the filled-up basin of an ancient lake, and is so level that it shows the curvature of the earth, the tops of distant trees being first perceived, like the upper sails of vessels at sea. The Appalachian System, which forms the highest part of the lowland half of the United States, has, like the system of the Rockies, an arrangement of parallel chains and groups enclosing a centra] valley. This valley, called the Great Appalachian Valley and also the Great Valley of the Alleghanies, is less sharply subdivided than the series of parks and basins in the west, having a recognised continuity throughout the system from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Alabama. It bears, however, different names in different sections, as do the mountains on its border. In Canada it is the valley of the lower St. Lawrence. Next it is occupied by Lake Champlain and the middle course of the Hudson as far as Kingston, and then trending to the south-west, it becomes in Pennsylvania the Lebanon Valley and the Cumberland Valley, both rich and fertile. 108 UNITED STATES Still farther south it is the Great Valley of Virginia with the famous and beautiful Shenandoah Valley, and in its southernmost section it expands into the broad and flat Valley of East Tennessee. In its northern and southern parts this long depression is of great service as a route for commerce, much of the traffic between New York and Montreal and Quebec passing through it, and also much of that between Norfolk and Memphis or New Orleans. Besides this division into an eastern and a western half, two sets of cross valleys, the Mohawk-Hudson depression and that of the James and Kanawha Rivers, divide the Appalachian System into a northern, a central, and a southern section. Each of these sections has a curved outline bending away from the coast, and they run roughly parallel to the three great curves that charac terise the coast between Nova Scotia and Florida. 1. The northern section extends from the Mohawk-Hudson depression to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In the United States it contains the Adirondacks in New York (Mount Marcy, 5400 feet), a group of granite ranges of the oldest geolo- gical formation of the continent ; the Green Mountains in Vermont (Mount Mansfield, 4430 feet), next in age to the former, called in Massa- chusetts Taconia and Hoosac Mountains ; and the White Mountains in New Hampshire (Mount Washington, 6288 feet), the Switzerland of America. North-east of the White Mountains are numerous peaks of moderate elevation (Katahdin, 5200 feet), forming part of the low lake- dotted plateau that occupies the north of Maine. These groups of the northern division are well-wooded with pine, spruce, and hemlock, and the many short and rapid livers that descend from them to the St. Lawrence or to the Atlantic carry logs 1 and furnish power to numerous lumber-mills as well as to various factories, and early made manufac- turing a leading industry in these states. Between the Green Moun- tains and the Adirondacks is that part of the Great Appalachian Valley occupied by the picturesque Lake Champlain, to which come numerous small streams from the neighboring mountains. To its south and east lies Lake George, one of the most beautiful of the lakes of New York. 2. The middle section of the Appalachians, beginning with the picturesque group of the Catskills, reaches with a strong westward curve from the Mohawk and Hudson to the New Eiver in southern Virginia. In Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia it consists of low ridges and ranges enclosing numerous small valleys, which are very fertile if 1 Compare p. 235, on tie rivers of Switzerland. SURFACE 109 in a limestone formation, but much less so if the soil be slaty. The strata here have been much folded and broken, imd great denudation has taken place, so that this middle section is the lowest part of the system. Eailroads cross it from east to west, and three large river?, the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Potomac, make their way in zigzag courses from valley to valley, through breaks in the ranges, of which the Delaware Water Gap and the pass by which the Potomac crosses the Blue Kidge are famous for their beauty. The folding and tipping of the strata, which are mostly of the Carboniferous Period, served to expose the many coal-seams, and, when the heat that resulted from the pressure had driven off the more volatile elements, the harder anthraciic coal was formed. In other sections, where the coal-beds have been less folded, the coal remains bituminous. It is noteworthy that the central section, the lowest part of the system, has been the scene of the greatest amount of canal building that has been done in the United States. The Erie Canal, connecting Lake Erie and the Hudson, follows the valley of the Mohawk for a long distance. After its completion in 1825 New York City, which had previously been smaller than Philadelphia, rose to the position which it has since held of the first commercial city of the Union. Branch canals connect the Erie with. Lake Ontario 1 and with the Black, 2 Alleghany, 8 and Susquehanna 4 Rivers. The Hudson is similarly united to Lake Champlain 5 and to the Delaware River, 6 the Delaware to the Susquehanna, 7 while other canals parallel these streams and their branches. Two canals to connect the Potomac 8 and James Rivers 9 with the Ohio were planned and partly constructed, when the development of railways prevented their completion. 3. In the southern section the ranges are at their highest (Black Dome, 10 6707 feet), and the system is complicated by a number of cross ranges that extend from the Blue Ridge in North Carolina to the mountains to the west, dividing the high valley between into small enclosed basins, from which tributaries to the Tennessee flow westward into the Great Valley. 1 Oswego Canal. 2 Black River Canal. 3 Genesee Valley Canal. 4 Cayuga and Seneca, Chemung and Chenango Canals. 6 Champlain Canal. * Delaware and Hudson, Morris and Essex Canals. ? Union Canal. 8 Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. 9 James River and Kanawha Canal. 10 Called also Clingman's Mountain. 110 UNITED STATES Farther southward the ranges are much lower, and finally the system ends in low hills, beyond which lies the broad coast plain of the Gulf of Mexico. In the southern and middle sections the highland is continued westward from the mountain ranges by the Appalachian Plateau, of considerable extent, and with an elevation at the highest parts of from 1000 to 2000 feet. From the Catskills it reaches to Lake Erie, in places deeply marked by grooves of ancient glaciers, wherein are now long narrow lakes (Cayuga, Seneca, &c), and it is its northern edge over which the Niagara and the Genesee plunge to reach the level of Lake Ontario. Southward from the shores of Lake Erie the plateau 1 has a triangular form with the apex to the south, its eastern escarpment being called in Penn- sylvania and West Virginia the Alleghany Mountains, and in Kentucky and Tennessee the Cumberland Mountains. Its western boundary is very irregular, since a great deal of erosion has taken place, the valleys of the Ohio and its tributaries descending by gentle slopes several hundred feet below the general level, 2 so that the plateau is gradually succeeded by a hill country, which continues the westward descent to the prairies. In West Virginia the coal-beds of the great Alleghany coal- field, which occupies a large part of the plateau, stand exposed to view in many valleys, having been cut through by streams. The Cumberland Plateau, between the Cumberland and Ten- nessee Rivers, has a more even surface. All the Appalachian highland was covered originally with a great forest of such trees as maple, oak, ash, chestnut, hickory, butternut, and walnut. Much woodland still remains, and the valuable hard woods are much used in building and in manufactures, besides furnishing still a great part of the fuel used. The Basin of the Mississippi, an area of about one and a quarter million square miles, includes in the east the western slope of the Appalachians and the accompanying plateau, and in the west the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains and the Great Plains. Its central portion begins in the north with the hilly region that lies south of Lake Superior and the Height of Land 1 The part of the Appalachian Plateau in Pennsylvania is called the Alle- ghany Plateau, and the part in Tennessee the Cumberland Plateau. 2 The Ohio Valley is a good example of erosion in a well-watered region, as compared with the steep-sided canons in the arid Western Plateau. SURFACE 111 in northern Minnesota and Wisconsin, 1 a region of almost innu- merable small lakes 2 and of extensive and dense pine forests. The large number of the lakes here, their small size, and irregular outlines are features repeated in northern New York in the Adiron- dacks, and in northern Maine, as well as in Finland and the adjoining parts of Europe. Southward the land is more level, the forests are of deciduous trees and more open. In southern Wisconsin the fertile prairie region begins, and extending eastward to the foot-hills of the Alleghany Plateau, and westward till it merges in the Plains, includes southern Michigan, western Ohio, the greater part of Indiana, 3 all of Illinois and Iowa, northern Missouri, and eastern Nebraska, and Kansas. This is the great grain-growing, section of the United States, and contains also enormous coal- fields. The prairies were originally a great grassy expanse, with but few trees except along the streams ; 4 but as such land becomes settled and cultivated, trees are planted, the advance of the farmer here having the opposite effect to what it has in the thickly-wooded regions to the east. The surface of the prairies is seldom flat, but usually con- sists of very broad gently rising swells, which give the land an undu- lating appearance. 6 Along many of the river valleys bluffs rise abruptly from the low rich well- wooded bottom land to the level of the prairie above. South of the Missouri and west of the Mississippi a section, known as the South- West, 6 contains a broad extent of uneven upland, which, beginning in Missouri as the Ozark Mountains, extends thence across Arkansas, Indian Territory, and Texas to the Rio Grande. This higher portion, and the lowland extend- ing from it to the Gulf Coast and Mississippi, is a region of alternating woodland and prairie. 1 The peninsula between Lake Superior and Lake Michigan has a similar surface. 2 Over 12,000 are given as in Minnesota and Michigan alone. 3 The southern part is hilly and much cut by river valleys. 4 Probably the absence of trees is to be ascribed to the fineness of the soil, which prevents its oxidation to any great depth, so allowing only the short-rooted grasses to grow upon its surface. When artificially disturbed, however, it allows the growth of trees. The " black lands " of Russia are also treeless, probably from the same reason. 5 The elevation above sea-level varies from 500 feet in Illinois to 1500 feet in Iowa. 6 The North-West is a term applied to the states west of the Great Lakes. 112 UNITED STATES Grassy tracts, here called savannahs, occur between belts of timber that grow on the hills or in favoured portions of the plain. From the Missouri to the Bed River this section forms a part of the basin of the Mississippi, while from the Red to the Rio Grande it constitutes the western portion of the Gulf Slope. Prom the mouth of the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico on both sides of the Mississippi extends a strip of alluvial land, 40 to 100 miles wide and 500 miles long, the surface of which is at a lower level than that of the river itself. Only the higher banks of the streams and the levees constructed upon them prevent this overflow basin or bottom land from being constantly under water, while the larger part of it is occupied by cypress swamps, bayous, small crescent-shaped lakes, and standing water left from the ever-recurring floods. Only the small portions that are above the reach of the floods can be cultivated, but these produce abundant crops of corn, cotton, sugar-cane, rice, and oranges. East and ■west the bottoms are bordered by the bluffs, upon which, at places where the river flows at their base, the large towns Baton Rouge, Natchez, Vicksburg, and Memphis are located. Bayous which flow out from the river take their course first away from it to the bluffs, along which they flow, until, at a place where the bluffs and the river approach, a re-entrance into the larger stream is effected. Below the mouth of the Red River several similar streams or bayous flow from the Mississippi to the Gulf (Atchafalaya, Iberville). Besides occupying this large area along the Mississippi, this bottom land extends also along the Arkansas River nearly to Little Rock, and along the Red River to and beyond Shreveport, and constitutes also the delta of the Mississippi. 1 The eastern portion of the Gulf Slope and much of the Atlantic Slope have along the coast a broad belt of swampy land much like the delta and the bottom lands in formation. The Okefinokee Swamp in Georgia, Alligator Swamp between Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds, and the Great Dismal Swamp in North Carolina and Virginia are extended portions of this unhealthy belt, the southern portion of which is formed by the Everglades, iu the Florida peninsula. Cypress and live-oak trees abound in it, and even mangroves 2 grow on the coast of Louisiana, while, especially in South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana, large tracts are utilised as rice-fields. Inland from the swamp belt is a sandy plain of very slight elevation, that extends from the Mississippi Bottoms eastward into Georgia, and then north east to New York. It is widest in the south, where it occupies nearly the whole of Mississippi, 3 and western Tennessee, and Kentucky, here meeting the prairies of Illinois. The southern third of Alabama, northern Florida, 1 Consult a geological map to see the extent of this formation. 2 See p. 58. 3 Only the bottom lands and the north-east corner of Mississippi are outside of the plain. SURFACE 113 and the half of Georgia belong to it. Thence northward, gra- dually diminishing in breadth, it constitutes the eastern part of South and North Carolina, of Virginia, of Maryland, the whole of Delaware, and all but the northern highland part of New Jersey. Its further continuation may be recognised in the low southern half of Long Island and in the sandy Cape Cod penin- sula. The soil of this plain is in the south not very rich, except along the streams, but it supports extensive pine forests, which remain a steady source of supply of lumber and naval stores. 1 A series of extensive beds of a kind of rich earth called marl extends from Mississippi to New Jersey through this sandy region, and furnishes a needed and much-used fertiliser. In South and North Carolina rocks containing much phosphate of lime are quarried in great quantities and made into a fertiliser, which, besides being widely used in America, is exported to England and Germany. Lying between this sandy plain and the Appalachians is a more elevated area, which rises gradually to the mountains, and, like them, is highest in the south. To the north-east it con- tinues farther than the sandy coast plain, forming in the New England States the whole of the slope from the mountain to the sea. Its underlying rock is mostly granitic, and contains a great variety of mineral wealth, while its eastern edge forms through- out a most important economic feature ; it causes falls or rapids in the rivers that flow across it, thus determining the location of many towns. Of such may be mentioned Montgomery, Ala. ; Milledgeville and Augusta, Ga. ; Columbia, S.C. ; Ealeigh, N.U. ; Petersburg and Rich- mond, Va. ; Washington, 2 D.C. ; Baltimore, Md. ; Wilmington, Del. ; Philadelphia, Penn. ; and Trenton, N.J. From the sea up to this granite escarpment the rivers are navigable, being usually tidal streams, 3 thus adding another circumstance favorable to the growth of these towns. In the New England States this edge forms the rocky coast there pre- valent, and having been subject to glacial action, is worn into numerous fiord-like bays, which are prolonged inland by the river valleys. 1 Lumber from the long-leaved yellow pine, and tar, pitch, rosin, and tur- pentine from the short-leaved pitch pine. 2 More exactly its suburb Georgetown, the eastern terminus of the Chesa- peake and Ohio Canal. 3 Hence the term tide-water plain, applied to the sandy belt. H 114 UNITED STATES Hence Hartford, Conn., Providence, R.I., Augusta and Bangor, Me., the heads of navigation, are at a distance from the sea. In the southern states this elevated area is the more healthful section, and its surface combines gently sloping hills and valleys with considerable stretches of more level land. Its soil is through- out fertile and easily cultivated. In the New England States, however, it is somewhat stony. 1 Rivers. — The rivers of the United States are grouped accord- ing to their location, and discharge into various systems. Those that flow into the Atlantic constitute (1.) the Atlantic System; those east of the Mississippi flowing into the Gulf, (2.) the Alabama System ; those to its west, (3.) the Texas System ; the St. Lawrence and its tributaries, (4.) the St. Lawrence System; the Mississippi and its tributaries, (5.) the Mississippi System; the Red River of the North and others belong to (6.) the Hudson Bay System. West of the Rocky Mountains are (7.) the System of the Columbia; (8.) the continental rivers of the Great Basin ; (9.) the System of the Pacific Coast, including the rivers of Cali- fornia and those west of the Cascade Range; and (10.) the Colorado System. The rivers of the Atlantic, the Alabama and Texas Sys- tems, are not of great length, but as they nearly all furnish ■water-power in their upper courses and are available for navi- gation in their lower courses, they are of much local importance, many furnishing harbors to ocean-shipping at their mouths. The Hudson, occupying the deep and picturesque valley between the northern an 1 central sections of the Appalachians, is the most impor- tant, since, with the Erie Canal and the Great Lakes, it forms the great waier route between the east and the west, and is for the United States what the St. Lawrence is for Canada. The ocean tides affect it to Troy, to which city the largest river steamers ascend, while between Albany and New York great tows of canal-boats and barges find easy passage. Its valley offers also an easy route for railroads, which turn westward through the gateway of the Mohawk Valley and find an almost level way to the lakes and the prairies beyond. Only south of the Appa- lachians, along the southern plain, is there another such level connection between the Atlantic seaboard and the Mississippi Valley. In connec- tion with Lake ChampLdn the Hudson is the natural route between i The New England States and New York, Michigan, Minnesota, and the northern parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Wisconsin contain much stony soil and many boulders, since they lie in the area which was in a previous geologic age covered by extensive glaciers. RIVERS 1 1 5 New York City and Canada, and its strategetical importance made it the scene of many conflicts in the early history of the country. The Delaware and Susquehanna have shorter navigable courses than the rivers farther south, since the mountains here are not far from the heads of the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, into which they flow. The Potomac, James, Savannah, and Alabama are the most important of the southern streams. In the Texas System the Trinity in the fiat eastern plain and the Rio Grande are navigable for 300 to 400 miles, the city of Galveston on the bay at the mouth of the Trinity being the chief commercial town of the state. The Brazos and Colorado offer only coast lagoons to the navigator. Many of the Texas rivers are subject to sudden floods, con- tain much reddish clay as sediment, and receive, like the rivers of the Great Plain, salty tributaries in their upper courses. 1 The St. Lawrence System drains but a small part 2 of the United States, yet it derives high importance from its great volume of water, its superior navigability, from its extending far into the centre 3 of the continent in a direction from east to west, and its situation in the midst of the mineral and agri- cultural wealth of the land. The five Great Lakes, Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, constitute the largest collection of fresh water on the earth, the five greatest lakes of Africa being nearly equal in area, but not belonging to one system. Lake Superior, the largest and highest, 4 has an area of 32,000 square miles, or about the same as Maine, and Lake Ontario, the lowest 5 and smallest, 7500 square miles, or six times the area of Rhode Island. Three canals, the St. Mary's Canal around the rapids between Lakes Superior and Huron, the canal in Lake St. Clair to deepen the channel, and the Welland Canal, made on account of Niagara Falls, have made the lakes navigable throughout, and with the canals along the rapids in the St. Lawrence enable vessels large enough to cross the Atlantic to pass into the continent nearly as far as from Gibraltar to Constantinople. The total length of navigable waters of the system is about 4000 miles. The greater part of the commerce, however, is upon 1 The total drainage area of the Atlantic System is 300,000 square miles ; of the Alabama, 145,000 ; of the-Texas, including the Rio Grande, 280,000. 2 82,000 square miles, or less than is drained by the rivers that flow to Lake Winnipeg, 102,000 square miles. 3 The centre of North America lies within the boundaries of Minnesota. 4 The surface of the lake is 602 feet above the ocean's level. 5 247 feet above sea-level. 116 UNITED STATES the four largest lakes, and centers in Buffalo, at the eastern end of Lake Brie, from which point it takes the shorter route to the seaboard viA the Erie Canal and the railroads to New York, in preference to the passage vid the St. Lawrence. In winter the border of ice that forms along the shores of the lakes pre- vents navigation, the " season " closing usually about the end of November and opening about the first of May. The shores of Lake Superior are usually high and steep, especially on the north, and contain many points of great natural beauty, while the low mountains on its south contain valuable deposits of copper 1 and iron. The other lakes have low shores, often sandy with high dunes, as on the east of Lake Michigan. The Niagara River, with its great cataract and deep gorge, is counted as one of the wonders of America. The great roar of the torrent, which falls at once about 150 feet, 2 may be heard several miles distant, and the spectacle presented is, especially in winter, one of great beauty and sublimity. As the rock at the brink of the falls is slowly wearing away, thus lengthening the gorge that leads northward to Lake Ontario, the length of the gorge gives a measure of the time that has elapsed since their beginning, for in a previous age Lake Huron had a direct connection with Lake Ontario. 3 The Thousand Islands 4 in the St. Lawrence, where it passes over a wide neck of granitic rock, and the numerous rapids in the stream below are noteworthy among the attractions of the river. The influence of the Great Lakes on the climate of the neigh- boring land is to temper the heat of summer and the cold of the early winter, thus making southern Michigan, southern Ontario in Canada, northern Ohio, and western New York favored sec- tions for fruit-growing, the celebrated Catawba grape maturing on the south of Lake Erie. A deep snowfall — the deepest in the United States — occurs, and a late spring is caused by the influence of the ice in the lakes. The Mississippi System, occupying the great valley between the Appalachians and the Eockies on the east and west, with the Height of Land at the north, is composed of three chief streams coming from these three border elevations, the Missouri, the 1 Copper-mines were found here that had been worked by Indians, probably of the mound-building races. 2 The American Fall is 164 feet high, the Canadian 150. 3 The two lakes then formed part of an arm of the sea, of which the Mohawk and Hudson depression was the eastern continuation. From this is explained the salt deposits in Michigan, Ontario, and New York. 4 Another group of the same name lies off the south-west coast of Florida. RIVERS 117 upper Mississippi, and the Ohio. The longest, the Missouri, about 3000 miles from source to mouth, unites in its upper course the waters of many streams (the Jefferson, Gallatin and Madison Porks, and the Yellowstone), coming from the Yellow- stone Park and the near-lying ranges ; but in its long passage across dry plains loses so much by evaporation and absorption x that it has less volume at its mouth than the much shorter Ohio. Its navigation, which extends in times of high water even to Fort Benton in Montana, is rendered difficult by sandbanks and a changing muddy current. Of similar character are the Platte and Kansas and other rivers of the plains, whose chief value is for irrigation. The Arkansas and the Red, which join the Mississippi below the Missouri, also suffer from evaporation as they cross the plains, but are navigable in their lower courses, and together equal the Missouri in volume. From the north comes the Mississippi, rising in Lake Itasca, one of the smaller of the 5000 lakes of Minnesota, having the Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois as tributaries. Its upper course contains many rapids and falls, of which the St. Anthony Falls at Minneapolis, Minnesota, have enabled that city to become the chief flour-making center of the country. Below these falls at St. Paul the continuous navigation of the river begins. The area drained by the upper Mississippi 2 is but one-third that of the Missouri, 3 but its rainfall is nearly double, 4 making the volume of the stream nearly as great. The Ohio bears its name only from the confluence of the Alleghany and Monongahela, or from the head of ordinary navigation to its mouth. Its total length is about 1300 miles, or a little less than that of the upper Mississippi, but its basin 5 is larger, its rainfall 6 greater, and it carries much more water, receiving large navigable tributaries, the Cumberland and Tennessee from the south, and the Wabash from Indiana, besides many lesser streams. 1 In its mountain source and long course across dry plains the Missouri bears a resemblance to the Nile, as does also the Colorado. 2 Area of Basin of upper Mississippi, 179,000 square miles. 3 Area of Missouri Basin, 627,000 square miles. * Rainfall of Missouri Basin, 18 inches per year ; rainfall of upper Mississippi Basin, 34 inches per year. 5 Area of Ohio Basin, 207,000 square miles. 6 Rainfall of Ohio Basin, 43 inches per year. 118 UNITED STATES A reef of coral limestone at Louisville necessitated a canal for ascending vessels, but the rapids, like those of the St. Lawrence, may be descended with safety. The Ohioand Mississippi are dis- tinguished from the Missouri by the clearness of their water. All three streams are very wide, 3000 to 5000 feet at their mouths. The lower Mississippi has a length of some 1300 miles, about one-half caused by its windings through thebottom lands. Navigation is practicable throughout the year un- less low water occurs, not being interrupted by ice, as on the three great head-streams. Only once in four or five years does the Mississippi freeze across at St. Louis. The floods, which occur yearly, are highest in late March, with a second rise in June, at which time the water reaches a height of 50 feet above its lowest stage, which occurs in October. This height is also reached by the Ohio, while the Mis- souri and upper Mississippi rise about 35 feet. The danger from floods is less below the mouth of the Red River, as the numerous side channels relieve the main stream, and high-water at Baton Rouge or New Or- leans is much less than at Natchez, although the chan- 120 UNITED STATES nel is narrower, while at the passes in the delta the rise is less than three feet. Beyond the delta the presence of river-water is easily noticed by the dark muddy color which extends ten to fifteen miles into the Gulf. It is estimated that the amount of sediment yearly discharged by the river would cover a square mile 300 feet deep. The basin of the lower Mississippi constitutes with the Alabama basin the best- watered area 1 of the United States, and, aided by an almost tropical climate, is a region of great productivity. 2 The system of the Columbia drains an area within the United States about equal to the basin of the Ohio, but with less than half as much rainfall, 3 since it lies almost entirely east of the Cascade Mountains. 4 From the great extent of mountainous land that borders its basin, the Columbia receives many tributaries, abounding in falls and rapids and surrounded with picturesque scenery. Gold is found in many of the streams, and the salmon-fisheries are world-renowned. The falls of the Spokane promise to create a second Minneapolis, and numerous flouring and saw mills make use of the abundant water- power at other places. Navigation is far from continuous, the Cascades and the Dalles offering serious obstruction, and in the long section from the mouth of the Snake across the lava-beds to the Canadian border occur numerous rapids. Improvements, however, are being made, and the upper reaches of the main stream and its leading tributaries are already navigable by light-draught steamers. At the same time Canals are being constructed around the lower falls, and jeLties at the entrance of the river into the Pacific. The rivers of the Great Basin, with their salt lakes and swamps, are like those of other such enclosed arid areas, 6 as the Bolivian Basin in South America or that of Eastern Turkestan in Asia. Their chief use is in irrigation. 6 The Colorado 7 Basin has only a small supply of rain, 8 mostly in the mountains. The river is too far below the surface to be of use in irri- gation, except in very small areas of bottom land. Its occasional floods sometimes make a lake in the depression of the Colorado Desert, but this eventually disappears through evaporation. The lower 500 miles 1 The lower Mississippi Basin of 65,000 square miles, not including the areas drained by the Eed and Arkansas, receives 50 inches ; the Alabama Basin, 52 inches of rain per year. 2 On the Bed Eiver of the North, see p. 107. 3 Columbia Basin, 18 inches per year ; Ohio, 43 inches. 4 See pp. 72 and 101. 6 The rainfall of the Great Basin is but 12 inches per year. The mountains receive the most, some sections almost none. 6 See paragraph on Great Basin, p. 101. 7 See p. 102. 8 Fifteen inches per year. The southern part by Fort Yuma has but three inches. CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURE 121 of the river are navigable, and copper ore from mines in Arizona finds shipment in this way. Of the many short rivers that flow to Puget Sound 1 and to the Pacific, the Sacramento and those northward, lying in a region of abundant rain, are of much value for their water-power, especially to the lumbering interests. The San Joaquin and those southward are in a region of slight precipitation, and are used mostly for irrigating. Climate and Agriculture. — The situation of the United States in North America is so central and its extent so great, that to speak of its climate would be but to repeat much that has already been said on the climate of the continent. 2 It will suffice to observe how the climate determines the productions in the in- dustries that most closely depend upon it. As determined by the amount of rainfall, the chief agricul- tural region lies in the eastern lowland section 3 and occupies about one-half the total area of the country, extending from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian border and from the Atlantic westward to about the 100th meridian. Along some river valleys it reaches beyond this western limit, and in some places not so far. A second area of about one-twentieth the size of the eastern occupies the lowland valleys of Washington, Oregon, and Cali- fornia to the west of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains. On the dry plateau lands between the Pacific ranges and the 100th meridian but small portions of the surface are cultivated, in all perhaps one per cent, of the whole, and mostly through irrigation. 4 In the eastern agricultural area differences in temperature and in rainfall cause a difference in the crops, which vary chiefly according to the amount of heat and moisture required for successful cultivation. Three principal agricultural belts are easily distinguished — 1. A southern belt, whose chief crop is cotton, a plant of tropical origin and requiring much warmth and moisture. This cotton belt includes nearly all the land from the Gulf coast to the mouth 1 Puget Sound area has 42 inches rainfall per year, the California Valley, 21 inches ; but Monterey and Santa Barbara sections only 13 and 12 inches. 2 See pp. 71-77. 3 See pp. 97, 106. 1 It is estimated that a larger area, possibly 150,000 square miles, or about 12 per cent, of the arid area, may be reclaimed by extensive irrigation works, and a Commission has been appointed by the Government to examine the matter and report on its feasibility. 122 UNITED STATES of the Ohio, as well as the Atlantic slope north-east to the James River in Virginia. 2. A middle belt, raising chiefly corn, like- wise a tropical plant, but having a wider range than cotton. The corn belt includes most of the Prairie States, and reaches eastward to the Chesapeake, and thence north-east into New Hampshire. 1 3. A northern belt, in which wheat and oats pre- dominate, the former in the drier western section, the latter in the more moist east. In the northern belt are grown also the larger part of the barley, rye, and buckwheat of the country, and it represents well the agriculture of Canada, whose farming area is directly adjoining and has a similar climate and soil. In the agricultural area of the Pacific States the moist climate suitable for oats is found along the coast north from San Francisco, especially in western Washington, while wheat and barley are the chief crops in the drier parts. The fanners here sow their grain mostly in January and February, so that it shall have the advantage of the winter rains ; but in the east, where the winter is more severe, the sowing and planting are done in the spring, except in the southern part of the wheat belt, where " winter wheat" is sown in the autumn. Products of Agriculture and Grazing. — The leading crop of the United States is corn, the yearly value of which is greater than that of all other grains together, or double that of the wheat or cotton. The greater part of the corn is consumed in the country, the finer varieties being used for food, and the common corn in fattening animals, for which purpose its large percentage of oil makes it valuable. Corn-stalks are much used for fodder, while in some of the western prairie states the ears are used now and then as fuel, a hundred bushels being equal in heating power to a cord of hard wood. The leading corn-growing states, Illinois, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, and Indiana, 2 are also foremost in the numbers of cattle, swine, and sheep that they raise. Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Mil- waukee, and other towns do a large business in such provisions 1 In the north-east extension of the cotton belt and of the corn belt along the coast is seen the effect of the longer duration of warm weather that these regions enjoy, by reason of their favorable situation between the mountains on the one side and that portion of the Atlantic most warmed by the Gulf Stream on the other. 2 Although produced most advantageously in the sections mentioned, the various grains are not confined to them, wheat and oats being produced in every state and territory, corn in all but one, barley and rye in all but two, and buck- wheat in all but the warmest areas. PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE AND GRAZING 123 as beef and pork, and these two articles form a large part of the exports of the country. Large numbers of cattle and sheep are raised also wherever extensive grass-lands are found, ranches being numerous in Texas, California, and the states of the plains. The two states just mentioned and Ohio lead all others in the production of wool. . The manufacture of woollen goods, how- ever, is most largely carried on in the New England States, New York, and Pennsylvania. Hay is the second crop in value, 1 being cut 2 most largely in New York, Iowa, and other states in the two northern agricul- tural belts, which contain also the states that produce the most milk, butter, and cheese. Oats, although the first crop in Maine, Vermont, and New York, are more largely harvested in Indiana, Illinois, and other prairie states. These states, first in the production of oats, contain also the largest number of horses, but mules are used more in the states of the cotton belt. Potatoes are extensively raised in the oat-producing states. Wheat is not only the leading crop in the northern belt and in California, but is the second in amount in the corn belt. For many years this grain and the flour made from it have been among the first of American exports, for although the number of bushels raised to the acre is relatively small, the great acreage gives a larger aggregate crop than can be consumed at home— -a larger crop than that of any other country. Much of the superiority of the United States in the produc- tion of wheat is due to the extensive use of highly developed machinery used in ploughing, sowing, reaping, and threshing, and to the large areas, giant farms, devoted to wheat alone. In the western European markets wheat from America has to com- pete with that from Russia, Austria-Hungary and the Danubian states, India and Australia. Great waterfalls, as those of the Mississippi at Minneapolis, or those of ihe Genesee at Rochester, have made such cities centers for flour- making, the products of flour and grist mills being the most valuable of the manufactured products of the country. Chicago, Duluth, and St. 1 Corn, hay, wheat, cotton, oats, potatoes, tobacco, barley, rye are the leading agricultural products in order of value in 1886. ! Hay is cut in all the states and territories. 124 UNITED STATES Louis are leading grain ports in the west, Buffalo, New York, and New Orleans, the points of trans-shipment. The value of the cotton produced is often very nearly equal to that of the wheat. It forms the first export, the two-thirds of the whole crop which are sent to Europe constituting over one-fourth of all the exports of the United States. Two kinds of cotton are grown, the sea-island and the upland, the former on the low sandy islands along the coast of Georgia, tlie latter mostly in the upland region that lies between the sandy plain and the interior highlands. The sea-island cotton is remarkable for the length and fineness of its fibre, and commands the highest price in the great cotton markets of the world. New Orleans is the leading port for the shipment of cotton, but it is the chief article of commerce for Galveston, Mobile, Savannah, and Charleston. The manufacture of cotton in the United States is mostly clone in the New England States, New York, and Pennsylvania, but in late years the amount manu- factured in the cotton-growing states has rapidly increased. Nearly the whole of the cotton belt is devoted to cotton; corn is its second crop. In southern Louisiana sugar-cane is grown, though not so favorably as in Cuba, where an acre will produce from three to six times as much sugar as here. Some sugar is also made from sorghum, a plant Tesembling corn, and the cultivation of the sugar-beet in California and elsewhere is beginning to provide here a source of supply already much used in Europe. Maple sugar, made from the sap of the maple tree, is produced in the most northerly states from Maine to Michigan. The amount of sugar made in the United States is about one-tenth the amount consumed, the balance being imported, mainly from the islands and countries lying to the south and from the Sandwich Islands. Louisiana, Georgia, and South Carolina are the chief rice- growing states, but this crop is one of the least important. The production of oranges and other sub-tropical fruits is receiving much attention, especially in Florida and in California. Other fruits, such as apples, pears, plums, and cherries, thrive best in the section between the Chesapeake Bay and the Connec- ticut, and in the mild climates of southern Michigan and western Oregon. Peaches are a leading product of Delaware and New Jersey. Grapes, for the making of wine, are grown best in southern California, where the choicest of the European varieties flourish. In Missouri, Illinois, and Ohio grapes of native stock FOREST PRODUCTS 125 are especially cultivated, and large quantities of table-wine are made. Tobacco is grown in all the states. The largest producers are Kentucky, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Tennessee. In more northerly states, as Connecticut and Massachusetts, the culture is carried on with great skill, rich fertilisers being exten- sively used, and crops are raised reaching a value of two hundred dollars per acre. Tobacco was the first paying article of export of the settlers in Virginia, and hence to it is due the successful foundation of that colony. Hops are a crop of some of the most northerly states, New York leading. Flax is grown, for the sake of its oily seeds, in some of the states of the upper Mississippi and in the region west of the Cascade Mountains. Forest Products. — The forests 1 of the United States cover about one-fourth the area of the country. This is a smaller pro- portion than is found in Sweden, Russia^or Austro-Hungary, but about the same as in Germany, and greater than in other European countries. Pine, spruce, cedar, and hemlock are obtained in the northern part, Michigan. Pennsylvania, New York, Wisconsin, and Maine, and in western Washington and Oregon. Maine and Washington furnish much material for shipbuilding, the long spars and masts from the tall trees of the western coast forests being exported even to European navy yards. Much lumber from the Puget Sound mills goes to Australia, and from Maine to the West Indies, the exchange of barrels and casks for molasses and rum, having been a profitable traffic even in colonial times. Large quantities of hides from the Xia Plata States are brought to New England, New York, and Pennsylvania on account of the great abundance there of the hemlock bark used in tanning. 2 In the other regions the leading production is of timber, boards, lath, and shingle for house-building. Throughout the eastern half of the Mississippi Valley and on the slopes of the Appalachians much hard wood, such as hickory, maple, and walnut, is cut and used in the manu- facture of tools, machinery, wagons, cars, furniture, and in the interiors of buildings. Shipments of furniture have been made from Chicago to Scotland and of cars to South America. The southern or yellow pine is cut chiefly in Georgia, and is used for floors and in ship*. Live oak, one of the toughest of woods, is also cut along the Gulf. The United States navy yard at Pensacola was established there on account of the abund- 1 See p. 78. 2 A further result is seen in the prominence of the shoe industry in the New England States. 126 UNITED STATES ance of ship-building material so near. A fine-grained wood x found in Florida is used in making lead pencils. In. the prairie region and in the west the lack of timber is a great drawback, and efforts are made to encourage tree-planting by giving grants of land and respite from taxes. To protect the woods already grown from being cut down too wastefufly is a matter that has already been acted upon by some State Legisla- tures, but a general Forestry Commission, after the model, perhaps, of some of those of Europe, is a pressing need. The yearly amount of lumber made is enormous, the products of sawmills being the fifth among manufactures. Products of Mining and Manufacturing. — The mineral wealth of the United States is great. Gold is produced most extensively in California, where it was discovered in 1848. The rush of miners which followed the discovery increased the population from a few thousands to over 90,000 in 1850, and by 1860 it was nearly 400,000. In later years the amount of gold has decreased, but, as in Australia, the inhabitants found other sources of wealth, and the products of farming and grazing are now of greater annual value than the gold. After California, the most gold is produced in Colorado, Montana, South Dakota, and Nevada, and it is found in all the region along and west of the Rockies as well as in small quanti- ties in the Appalachians. Silver is found in nearly all the gold- producing states, especially in Colorado, where it is found in con- nection with lead, in Montana, Utah, and Nevada. Gold is always found pure, sometimes free in loose earth, in beds of streams, or where streams have b^en, and in this case it is obtained by the use of water ; or it is found imbedded in quartz, and the more costly crushing process is necessary. Silver is nearly always found in combination with some other substance, as with lead at LeadvilL', Colorado. Mercury or quicksilver is found abundantly in the coast ranges of California, at New Almaden, 2 and elsewhere. Copper is found most largely on the upper peninsula of Michigan, on Keweenaw Point, and on islands in Lake Superior, especially Isle Royale. These are the richest mines of this metal in the world, the copper being found in great masses and almost wholly pure. 1 Called cedar, but properly a juniper. ! At Almaden in Spain was the chief quicksilver mine of the world, but Cali- fornia now produces more than half the world's supply. PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES 127 Corn Oats Bab lei Wheat Cotton I j Buckwheat I Quicksilver I Cofter Lead Oil ■■ Salt Machinery Cotton Goods Leather Fig. 27. — Products of the United States. (Annual Amounts.) 128 UNITED STATES In Montana several rich deposits occur, those near Butte City being the chief. Copper is found also in nearly all the states and territories on the western highland, pre-eminently in Arizona. 1 Lead is found in small quantities in the east, but most largely and widely in the Rocky Mountain region. At Leadville, in Colorado, the greatest quantity is produced ; Utah has great deposits, as have Missouri and Kansas in the Mississippi Valley. A less valuable lead region has done much to build up the towns of Dubuque in Iowa, and Galena, Illinois. 2 Zinc is associated with lead in the mines of Missouri and Kansas, and occurs also largely in Illinois at Peru, and in several states of the Appalachian region, especially New Jersey. The zinc oxide found in New Jersey is used in the manufacture of paint. Tin, heretofore not found in paying quantities, is now being produced in South Dakota in the Black Hills, where so much gold has already been mined. The greatest value, however, in any one metal product of the United States is in the iron that is made. The total amount of pig iron made yearly is nearly equal in value to the gold and silver together, and places this country next to Great Britain in this manufacture. The Appalachian Mountains are peculiarly rich in iron ore, all the states from New York to Georgia and from Ohio to Alabama containing large deposits. The great abupdance of coal and lime in these mountains have long since made this the leading iron-making section of the country. Other rich iron-beds are in northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minne- sota, where the high quality of the Lake Superior ore has raised the production of these regions to more than a third of the total output of the country. In Missouri the famous Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob are but small parts of the iron wealth of the state. In nearly all of the other mountainous states and territories iron ore has been found, but it has not as yet been mined to any great extent. . Different kinds of iron ore are found in the different regions, and as a mixture usually makes a better product than a simile ore, the iron of the Lake Superior beds, for example, is carried to Missouri, to i See p. 121. 2 These mines are spoken of as the upper mines, and those in Missguri as the lower mines. PRODUCTS OF MINING AND MANUFACTURING 129 Pittsburgh, or even to Alabama. Scotch iron is also imported for this purpose, and even iron ore from Algeria, Spain, and Greece. The coal area of the United States is several times larger than the area of that of any other country, so far as is known, except China. 1 Two hundred thousand square miles is given as its size. The country with the next largest coal area is Canada, with about 65,000 square miles. India is third with about 35,000, Russia has 30,000, Australia 20,000, and Great Britain 12,000. In the amount of coal mined Great Britain leads with over 160,000,000 tons 2 yearly, while the United States raises above 110,000,000 tons. 2 The chief coal-field is the Alleghany, which extends from northern Pennsylvania southward into Alabama and Georgia, with its greatest width between Cumberland, Md., and Akron, Ohio. The coal of this field is bituminous or soft coal, and it is, as a rule, easily mined, some of the veins being of great thickness, as the Pitts- burgh seam, eight to sixteen feet. This rich seam has made Pittsburgh the great center for such industries as need fuel, especially the making of iron and glass. The great amount of coal used early gave Pittsburgh the name " smoky city," but of late years the use of natural gas lias largely taken the place of coal, and the name is not so appropriate. It is estimated that the use of ihis gas has saved in one year over ten million dollars' worth of coal. This gas is found usually in connection with petroleum, and, besides in Pennsylvania, in south-western New York, in Ohio, West Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, and even in southern California, and is used to furnish not only heat to factories and houses, but also light, whole towns having their gas-supply from this under- ground source. Some varieties of the Pittsburgh coal are also rich in gas, and are mined and sent to other cities for its manufacture. Out of the coal-tar which remains after the gas is extracted are obtained the beautiful aniline colours, naphtha, carbolic acid, and various other pro- ducts, while the coke has great value as a fuel. In Alabama occurs a remarkable juxtaposition of iron, coal, and lime, 3 which, is fast making Birmingham a rival of Pittsburgh. In West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee are many mines, this Alleghany field giving out three- fifths of the bituminous coal used in the country. In eastern Pennsylvania are the three chief anthracite coal basins, so small that their total area is less than 500 square miles, yet furnishing fuel to probably one-fourth the inhabitants of the Union. The value of their yearly output is greater than the greatest gold yield of California. 1 The coal-fields of China are little developed, but may prove to have an area of between 200,000 and 400,000 square miles. 2 Of 2240 lbs. 3 See p. 81. 130 UNITED STATES Pottsville, Mauch Chunk, Wilkeabarre, and Scranton are centers of mining and distribution. Much of this coal is carried by rail to Buffalo and shipped thence even to the remotest lake ports, and it was largely in order to enable easier shipments into New England that the Hudson was bridged at Poughkeepsie. A small quantity of anthracite coal is raised in Rhode Island and in Virginia. Anthracite coal contains less gas and more carbon than bituminous. It burns with great heat and no perceptible smoke. Besides in the Alleghany field bituminous coal is found in Michigan, where are mines near Lansing. The great Illinois coal-field extends from the mines near La Salle, Illinois, south- east into Kentucky, with mines of excellent cannel coal at Brazil, near Terre Haute in Indiana, and of ordinary bituminous along the lower course of the Kaskaskia River. In these prairie coal-mines the miners must always first work down- wards in shafts, hence not so easily as in the Alleghany field, where the mines are often dug straight into a hillside. The third great bituminous field, the Missouri, occupies parts also of Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Arkansas (where it contains some coal almost of the quality of anthracite), and the Indian Territory. A small deposit is found in Texas. Between these fields and the Pacific, deposits, often from ten to twenty feet thick, of a kind of coal called lignite exist in nearly every state and territory. Lignite has less carbon than the bituminous coal, and more bitumen and gaseous matter. It does not make so hot a fire, but is mined considerably, especially in Colorado and Wyoming, in Washington, where bituminous beds also occur, and in New Mexico, where a sort of hard lignite or anthracite is found. Lignite is much used by the railway companies, who own many of the mines. Coal from Australia, however, finds a market in California. Petroleum has its chief source of production in Pennsylvania ; Titusville, Oil City, Bradford, and many smaller towns owing much of their prosperity to this one commodity. From here and other points in the oil region the oil is conducted through iron pipes to refineries which are located at places convenient for shipping and marketing. Such pipes lead to New York, to Cleve- land, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh, being usually laid alongside the railways. The refined oil is sent in tanks or barrels to all parts of the country, and to Europe and Asia. Petroleum is found also in Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Colorado, Wyoming, and California. The United States is the chief petroleum-producing country, but in recent years great wells have been opened in Trans-Caucasia, and Russian petroleum now competes in Europe and in Asia with the American product. PRODUCTS OF MINING AND MANUFACTURING 131 Salt exists throughout the United States, being obtained from wells, as in New York and Michigan ; from springs, as in Kansas ; from salt lakes, as in Utah ; from beds of rock-salt, as in Louisiana or Nevada ; 1 or from lagoons on the sea-shore, as in Texas and California. In Texas, California, and Utah the heat of the sun and the dryness of the air are sufficient for the necessary evaporation. In the eastern states artificial heat is also used. Michigan produces the most salt, the cheapness of the fuel there used being an advantage, for the salt-makers burn the refuse from the sawmills. In the Great Basin the inhabitants can in many places obtain a plentiful supply with no trouble other than collecting it from the surface, as do the Tuaregs in the Sahara. The finer grades used in dairying are, however, imported. Besides the resources of the soil and climate, forests and minerals, the rivers of the United States are one of the foremost of its wealth- producers. The great amount of water-power which numerous streams that flow from the Appalachians provide has been the means of making the states of that region, especially the more northerly, preeminent in manufacturing. Not only flour-mills and saw-mills are operated, but factories of every kind. Where the water-power is not sufficient or is badly located steam-power is used, and the total amounts of the two kinds of power used throughout the country are about equal, steam being used more largely west of the Appalachians and water east. Manufactures. — In the total value of manufactured articles, New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Illinois, Ohio, and New- Jersey are the leading states, but Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, the most densely peopled states, have the largest proportion of the population engaged in manufacturing. The leading manufactures, after food stuffs, 2 are steel and iron, which are especially Pennsylvania products ; clothing, made in New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cincinnati and Boston ; lumber ; 3 machinery, in New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and Ohio ; cotton goods ; 4 leather ; 5 boots and shoes ; and woollen goods. 6 Of the great manufacturing cities, the ten leading are New York, making especially clothing, food stuffs, printed matter, tobacco, and liquors; Philadelphia, textiles, sugar, and cloth 1 1 In the south-eastern part of Nevada is a cliff twenty-five miles long and in places several hundred feet high composed mostly of rock-salt. 2 By food stuffs is meant flour and other products of milling, and provisions, such as beef, pork, &c. The total value of these two items is nearly one-fifth of all products that are classed as manufactured. 3 See p. 125. * See p. 124. s See p. 125. « See p. 123. 132 UNITED STATES ing ; Chicago, food stuffs, clothing, and steel ; Brooklyn, sugar ; Boston, sugar and clothing; St. Louis, food stuffs; Cincinnati, clothing, food stuffs, and liquors ; Baltimore, clothing, canned fruits, and fertilisers ; Pittsburgh, iron, steel, and glass ; and San Francisco, provisions, and a wide variety in small amounts. The annual total manufactured l is about seventy-five dollars' worth for each inhabitant, and nearly all are used in the country, manu- factures forming but a small part of the exports. Commerce. — The exchanging of products of one part of the United States with those of another part, or the internal com- merce of the country, is much aided by (1.) the generally level character of the land, allowing railways and canals to be easily constructed wherever needed ; (2.) the navigability of the rivers and lakes and their great extent through the low land ; (3.) the numerous small bays, sounds, and estuaries that aid in coastwise navigation. The railways of the United States have an aggregate length greater than all the railways of Europe, and, at the present rate of construction, will soon exceed all others in the world. Nowhere else have railways been so rapidly and extensively constructed. The reason lies in the many great improvements that have been made in the means of pro- ducing the necessaries of life, and the great opportunities offered by the rich natural resources of America. Thus if farmers are sure of produc- ing a good crop of wheat in land now unoccupied, railways will be built through the land to carry first the machinery, by means of which the crop will be made ready, and then the grain back to the markets. A discovery of gold, as in the Black Hills, brings railways to Deadwood. The increasing production of the Pacific coast and the increasing trade with East Asiatic lands has led to the construction of several railways entirely across the Western Plateau. The fact that the bulk of the exports is derived from the Mississippi Valley and the South necessitates long carriage, and, as with the Pacific trade, in a west and east direc- tion. In order to assist in building railroads across wide stretches of thinly-peopled country, Congress and various Legislatures have made large grants of the land across which the roads were to go. Through the sale of such land to settlers, the railway companies get direct aid, and also indirect benefit in the receipts from the traffic now established. Even in the more settled parts, the lack of good highways leads to the building of railroads for local use. The great Pacific roads connect Puget Sound with Chicago and St. Louis, at each of which places the choice of a land or water route to the coast is to be had ; also San Francisco with Chicago, St. Louis, and New Orleans, the last an ocean port. 1 Not including food stuffs. COMMERCE 133 The eastern Trunk lines connect Chicago with Portland, Me., via Montreal, and with New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston, from each of which ports steamers leave for Europe ; St. Louis with New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore ; and New Orleans with Savannah and Charleston. New York, on the Atlantic, Chicago, in the central valley, and San Francisco, on the Pacific, are the leading centers. The chief north and south lines are guided by the topography. In the east, lines follow the Atlantic slope and the great Appalachian Valley, connecting Baltimore and Norfolk with New Orleans. Parallel with the Mississippi are lines connecting Chicago and New Orleans. Along the eastern base of the Rockies the Union Pacific and the Southern Pacific are joined by a line from Cheyenne through Denver, and on the Pacific coast a line follows the great valley from Puget Sound to the south. Hundreds of other connecting lines make the advantage of cheap transportation felt in every town and village. The increasing cheapness of transportation has made it possible for the western farmer and the southern planter to raise the staple crops and depend on distant markets. The eastern farmer can get his grain from the west and devote his own land to the production of crops that a denser population makes profitable. Hence Delaware and New Jersey produce fruits and vegetables, largely for New York and Philadelphia ; and the four counties with the greatest value of agricultural products are Lancaster and Lawrence in Pennsylvania, Wor- cester in Massachusetts, and Hartford in Connecticut. At several points connection is made with the railways of Canada and with those of Mexico. Of the canals the Erie is the most important, but in recent years the amount of freight carried upon it has much decreased. Its chief value is as a competitor to the railways parallel to it, since, where speedy delivery is not important, canal transportation is cheaper than railway. Wheat, lumber, iron, and coal are the chief freights. The Pennsylvania canals, extending along the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers and their branches, carry chiefly coal, as do the Delaware and Hudson, the Morris and Essex, and the Chesapeake and Ohio. Those in Ohio and Indiana have become of little importance since the railways were built, being now used only as local conveniences. 1 The Illinois and Michigan 1 The reservoir that burst and flooded Johnstown and other towns in south- western Pennsylvania in the summer of 1889 was built to furnish water to a canal, but since the abandonment of the canal had been used as a pleasure and fishing resort. 134 UNITED STATES Canal, if enlarged enough to admit the larger river steamers, will make it possible for a vessel to carry cotton direct to the factories in Canada, or iron ore from Lake Superior to the coal-fields of Missouri. A large part of the inland commerce is done by means of steamers and barges on the rivers and Great Lakes. In this traffic St. Louis and New Orleans on the Mississippi, and Chicago, Milwaukee, and Buffalo on the lakes, are the chief points. Coast- wise, traffic is much more important, especially along the Atlantic coast. The amount on the Pacific coast is about equal to that of the rivers of the Mississippi System, that of the Great Lakes is slightly in excess of the sum of the two, while that of the Atlantic coast and rivers is more than all the rest, the Gulf having relatively little. The vessels engaged in this traffic are owned entirely by Americans, since foreign vessels may not carry goods from one part of the United Slates to another. The great amount of the inland or inter-state commerce may be partially understood when it is noticed that, out of a total production of manufactures, mining, and farm products of the value of about eight thousand million dollars, only about eight hundred millions worth, or one-tenth part, are exported. Hence the foreign commerce of the United States is relatively small when compared with its domestic trade. Russia exchanges but one-sixth of its productions for those of other countries ; France, nearly one-fifth ; Germany, one-fourth ; Great Bri- tain, one-third • and Australia, over one-half. The great specialisa- tion in production practised by the countries last mentioned gives them a surplus of certain articles, and by the export of the surplus, as wool from Australia, or manufactures from Germany or England, the dif- ferent products of other countries are obtained. In the absolute amount of foreign commerce, however, the United States is fourth among nations, Great Britain, Germany, and France preceding. Its chief exports, in order of value, are cotton, bread stuffs, provisions, petroleum, and tobacco, which together are about 65 per cent, of all. Manufactures of wood, iron, cotton, and leather make together about 8 per cent. American firearms, watches, sewing-machines, locks, tools, agricultural implements, cars, and engines are foremost in practicality and durability. One-half the exported articles are sent to Great Britain, Germany takes POPULATION 135 one-tenth, and other countries smaller amounts. New York City leads in the foreign trade, having more than all other ports in value. After New York come San Francisco, New Orleans, Boston, Baltimore, and Philadelphia with from 14 to 5 per cent, each. The leading imports are dry goods J from England, France, and Germany ; sugar from Cuba, Hawaii, and Brazil ; coffee from Brazil, Middle America, 2 and Java; iron and steel from Great Britain, Germany, and Belgium ; chemicals and drugs from England and Germany; hides and leather from England and Argentine Republic ; raw silk from Japan, China, and France, and fruit of many kinds. Of lesser values are tea from China and Japan ; lumber from Canada ; India-rubber from Brazil, England, and Central America ; tobacco from Cuba and Holland ; and precious stones ; this last item, the smallest mentioned, amounting to eight million dollars yearly, or a little over one per cent, of all imports. 3 As showing somewhat of the relative importance of the leading industries, it may be stated that the number of persons in the United States engaged in commerce and in transporting goods is about 10 per cent. of all the occupied classes ; twice as many are engaged in manufacturing and mining, 4 and four times as many are in farming and grazing. The number engaged in the professions and in rendering various personal services is about the same as the number in manufacturing and mining, or half as many as those in agriculture. Population. — The population of the United States, according to the census of 1880, numbers a few more than fifty million, and in this respect places this country fourth among nations, China, India, and Russia leading. At the first census, taken in 1790, the population was nearly four million, inclusive of 750,000 negro slaves. The white popu- lation consisted almost entirely of English stock, the other Euro- pean countries having only a moderate representation, Germany's being the largest. Germans were settled most largely in Pennsylvania, where they had founded Germantown. In the middle of the eighteenth century fully 1 Dry goods is a term applied to woollen, silk, cotton, and linen goods. 3 See note to p. 64. * About one-third of the goods imported are free of duties ; on the other two- thirds the duties are about one-half the value of the goods. Ships cannot be imported. There is no duty on exports. * The miners are but 2 per cent, of all. 136 UNITED STATES one-half the inhabitants of this colony spoke German, and it was at one time a question there as to whether that language or English should be official. During trie fifty years from 1790 to 1840 the growth of the population was very rapid, the number in the last year being seventeen million, or four times as many as in 1790. In this period there was very little immigration, the native Americans constituting the bulk of the white population. After the potato famine in Ireland there was a great emigration from that island to America, nearly one-fifth of the population leaving. The census of 1850 showed over two million foreign-born persons in the United States. In 1860 there were over four million, or about 13 per cent, of all, and an equal number of negroes ; and the same proportion existed in 1880, when the census showed about six and a half million foreign-born and six and a half million negroes, each number about 1 3 per cent, of the total fifty millions. The various peoples coming to the United States seek natu- rally the same kind of climate and occupation as they were accustomed to in their native country. Hence nearly all the foreign element is found in the northern states, where the tem- perature is most like that of Europe and where similar occupations are carried on. The less distance to the northern seaports, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, as compared with that to Charleston, Savannah, and New Orleans, leads to the same result. The greater part of the two million Germans are in New York, Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and Missouri, engaged most largely in manufacturing and agriculture. Chicago has the largest number of any city, but in Milwaukee they constitute a larger propor- tion than elsewhere. Of the nearly two million Irish the most are in New York, Pennsyl- vania, Massachusetts, and Illinois, especially in the cities. New York City has the largest number, it being often said to have more than even Dublin. Lawrence, Mass., has the largest proportion. About one- seventh of the Irish have engaged in farming, twice as many are in manufacturing, while as many as in both these occupations are classed as doing various kinds of service. The natives of Great Britain and Canada who are in the United States number about one and two-thirds million, and are found mostly in New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Massachusetts. Manufac- turing and mining occupy nearly a naif, chiefly the French-Canadians, and agriculture a fourth part of them. Minnesota, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa contain the majority of GOVERNMENT 137 the half-million Norwegians and Swedes, who are most largely farmers. A hundred thousand French are settled chiefly in New York, Ohio, Louisiana, California, and Illinois, and an equal number of Chinese live principally in California and the neighboring states. The colored population is almost wholly in the States of the cotton-belt. In three States, South Carolina, Mississippi, and Louisiana, there are more < negroes than white people ; and in Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Vir- ginia the two races are nearly equal in numbers. Government. — In government the United States form a re- public, of which the official name is United States of America. 1 Under this term are included the forty-two states, six territories, the so-called Indian Territory, the District of Alaska, a small area of unsurveyed public land, and the District of Columbia, contain- ing the capital, Washington. The plan of government is laid down in the Constitution, a document prepared by an assembly of delegates from the thirteen original states in 1787, and adopted as the basis of government by the legislatures of these states. New states joining the Union accept the Constitution and are bound by it. According to the Constitution, the laws of the United States are made by Congress or the Legislative Department, which consists of two bodies, the House of Representatives and the Senate. Members of the House are elected by the people, each congressional district sending one member, whose term continues two years. Some small states have population enough for but one representative. New York sends thirty- four. Each state sends two senators, so that the Senate consists of eighty-four members. Senators are chosen by the legislatures of the states ; the term is six years, and the elections are so arranged that one- third the senators are chosen at the end of every two years. Congress meets on the 1st of December of each year in the Capitol at Wash- ington. The President is the head of the Executive Department, and his chief function is to enforce the provisions of the Constitution and to see that the laws made by Congress are carried into effect. He signs or vetoes bills that are passed by Congress, appoints the foreign repre- sentatives of the Government and various home officials and judges, makes ' treaties with foreign powers, and is commander-in-chief of the army and navy. In the more important appointments and in treaties confirmation by the Senate is essential. For advice and assistance the President selects the Cabinet of eight members. The President is chosen by the states, each state selecting electors according to the number of 1 The name United States of North America is used by Europeans to distin- guish between the several American republics called United States. The terms "the Union," "the Republic," and "the States "are also used. The inhabitants are called Americans, as distinguished from Canadians and Mexicans. 138 UNITED STATES representatives and senators that it has. The electors are chosen by direct vote of the people. The Presidential term is four years, as is also that of the Vice-President, who is elected at the same time as the President. The Vice-President presides over the Senate, and becomes President in case the elected President dies. After the Vice-President the Secre- tary of State and the other members of the Cabinet are possible suc- cessors to the Presidency. The President resides at Washington, in the White House or Executive Mansion. The Judicial Department of the United States, or the Federal Courts, consist of the Supreme Court at Washington, with a chief-justice and eight associate judges, nine Cir- cuit Courts, and sixty District Courts. The judges of the Courts are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The consti- tutionality of laws passed by Congress is, if questioned, decided by the Supreme Court. Bach state and territory has a governor, legislature, and courts, whose functions are similar to those of the corresponding branches of the National Government. A territory, however, receives a governor and judges appointed by the President, and sends to Congress only a delegate, who has no vote. Laws passed by a territorial legislature must be submitted to Congress. The District of Columbia is governed by three commissioners appointed by the President, who also selects the governor and other officials for the administration of the District of Alaska. In the Indian Territory the various tribes have their own forms of government, a general government for the whole territory not having yet been organised. Religion. — Religion is in the United States subject only to the voluntary action of the people. The Government can neither aid nor oppose in matters that are simply religious. Christianity is the prevailing faith, being represented by many denominations of Protestants and by the Roman Catholic Church. Judaism is professed by a small number. The total number of sittings in all places of worship in the United States is nearly equal to the number of the inhabitants. Education. — Education is likewise a matter with which the general Government has directly very little to do. Government appropriations are made only for Indian education and for the training schools of officers for the army and navy, of which the two leading are the Military Academy at West Point on the Hudson and the Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md. Indirectly the Government has done much for education, through extensive EDUCATION 1 39 grants of public lands for school purposes. Altogether about one twenty-fifth part of the total area of the country has been thus donated. The amount of support which the public schools receive yearly from these grants is but a small part of the whole sum expended, a much larger amount being provided by direct taxa- tion laid by states and territories, as well as by cities, counties, towns, and school districts. Laws for compulsory attendance at elementary schools exist in several states, but not in all, and the quality of the schools varies considerably in different localities. Secondary instruction is most largely given in private schools (academies, seminaries, &c, mostly with only English courses), of which nearly one-half are supported and controlled by the various religious denominations. Next in number of scholars are the city high schools, the preparatory departments of colleges, the special college prepara- tory schools, and the Normal schools for teachers, which contain a large number of students not in the professional courses. Of colleges and universities giving a liberal education there are nearly six hundred, 1 including those for women (or without doing so, nearly four hundred, many of which are co-educational). Of those of high rank many have post-graduate departments and one or more professional schools of theology, law, or medicine connected with them. Thus Harvard, Yale, Boston University, Michigan University, and North-Western University have each the three professional schools, and a dozen or more institutions have both medical and law schools. Many other professional schools have an independent establishment. Science schools, as of agriculture, mining, engineering, and architecture, are also departments of colleges or independent. For the especial benefit of science-education Congress granted in 1862 a large amount of public land, the proceeds from which were, as a rule, given to one science school in each state. A large proportion of the colleges of the United States is under the patronage of religious denominations. Many, however, are unsectarian, especially those founded by states on the basis of the Congressional land grants. 1 A diminution of this number by concentrating the funds of several colleges in one state for the support of one university of high grade is a proposition often discussed. to UNITED STATES r *90IAJ9g 1BU0SJ9,J puis I'BUOIBSaj -ojj Suuopuajj uoi^mdod b t* (O CD O o^ oi cn t- o H HOOHt- iO HI * 1 iH o t- suaiox jo aaqaiu^j Cft 01 t- IO H CO CO rH CO o> CO to CO IO C4 IO CM HI CO COt-t-WOCOOl4< «*• CI CO « « rH HI •088T in uo^indod - ra Cft fc- M co £•* «* CO CO gtO CO CO fc- a ** C- CO CO HI CO CM CO CO CO CO O rH CM io~i-fV 00 o IO rH CO CO CO t- IO rH IO CO IO Cft C- t- CO rH CO CM CO CO rH Cft O W CO^fc- CO H rH CO^ofi-Ti-f rHOf paxdnooo «3.iV $ 00 ■* OS 00 ^COrH CM •<* — CNOOCOcM GO O GO OS t-b-T^ COlO I>-t£ 00 HiOCQ co"t-" , Vi-r CO CO © GO CO HH OS rH CO CM o CD CO 00" CD •H oooiooioioio to COlOinrHtCDCNH SJ* ococDcnocco-* -^ ,-fto'to" co"co*"eo" «f of oo" * CO IO IO IO 00 IO CO * '1 Augusta. Concord. Montpelier. Boston. Providence. ) New Port. J Hartford. Albany. Trenton. Harrisburgh. Columbus. Indianapolis. Springfield. Lansing. Madison. St. Paul. Des Moines. JeffersonCity. Bismark. \ Pierre. J •SUOt'J'BTASjqqV Me. N.H. Vt. Mass. Conn. N.Y. N.J. Penn. 0. Ind. 111. Mich. Wis. Minn. la. Mo. N.Dak. S.Dak. 03 V -i •si ■0 North Atlantic Group. Maine .... New Hampshire Vermont . . Massachusetts . ■a 1 o T3 o Connecticut . New York . . New Jersey . . Pennsylvania . North Central Grroup. Ohio .... Indiana . Illinois . . . ■Michigan . . . Wisconsin . . Minnesota . . Iowa .... Missouri . . North Dakota . South Dakota . AREAS, POPULATION, AND OCCUPATIONS en * CO CO t~ en rH OS o t- CM OS ^ ^ 0O ^t CO CO CO O rH H H o en IO CM OS rt* ■# *t* ; t-* os©cn : H • CO GO ■ OS OS OS CO IO IO CD rH CN CO 00 IO to en o H HHV^IOCO CO rH r-C H CN fr- ee rH fr— CO 4* 4* OS I i-i iH CN CO OS IO • CN CO rH CO 00 CO H CO to o i-T « IO iH CO IO rH co eo 41 o co os CO CM CO CN CO 01 o CO CN rH CO CO H • :h : co co CO CN H CO OSg iH cf 00 rH in en i-l 44 OO rH IO C4 en IO O CO Ol CO IO C1HCON* en rH CO i-T H04■ CO <* b-CNlO 4H«D ejf^Tef ©"enco" 4> CN IO CO IO IO o CO IO of 00 IN OOOQOtHOSOOO IQHIOOW^^^INCO CNCOO^COt>.OSt--l^b- cn" co" cn" o" w i-T cn" iq" oo' io" IO4<<**4< g o c 13 J ..3 ." ■gsii.sJS:! «OKO !> Zi Cfi O fr EX - - m" S u • : 0! <» hHtH d el in V> rO 3 § . ° 3 8 g-'S ° ce 05 fiSfi ••S.g C • • ■^It If? 3 o H ~s £>:•■ 1 s llS||i1|la < 3 H W -5 fl O Ph hh El 3 be, 3 < CO •a _ s - i !«■ & - 1 , I 3; § 2 ^ D c* w a 142 UNITED STATES j - 0DIAJ3g renOS-If^ pile CEUOISS3J -oj,i Suuapuay uui^umdoj 'o«"0'l , t-*HO00Cilt-t- Od« rH rH 01 rH O rH CO CI <*< o ftioiqu^JodsuB.ix piiu ap^.ix ui uopi^ndojj g rH «S a o rH © iH °°« i-T m paSuSug; ubi^indoj ■-Tj«aD(MQ0t-O«t-0000t> o ^ rH rH i-H i-H O I-C CI CN co CO eo" hi paStfSug uoi^ndoj OHH rH fc- N rH O C © 00 rH "8Jom jo 'qvqui 000^ jo siuiox jo aaqarnx rH ^ :« •*»!-!© rH : ... rH CM CO *088I in aoi^Bindoj grHH H OOi-l 41,199 1,767 ... i 30 CO CO N ©" lO CO lO <© CO "sui.rej A*q psidnooo vaxy p3.I9A0Q ■BO.iy "•COO'-^Tpei-'^aSrHr-OfN .ScOCC-CSCOrHCNtMr-KMCN© j£j OS b- rH CD ifl O^CQ ON®WX ^ lO OS CO ©00 OINOCOOH S esTeo t^cer^r^ro" w deTufoT .cqom^ooooHHiooiio qtH iH rH rH rH rH CO 1,187,535 577,390 © t>. © © 1 Santa Fe. Denver. Cheyenne. Helena. Boise City. SaltLakeCity. Carson City. Tucson. Sacramento. Salem. Olympia. cd ■s«oi^i3iA8jqqv' N.M. Col. Wy. T. Mont. I.T. U.T. Nev. Ariz. T. Cal. Or. Wash. CO -1 c Cordilleran or Westeim Choup. New Mexico T. . Colorado . . . Wyoming T. Montana . . . Idaho Territory Utah Territory . Nevada . . . Arizona Ter. California "Oregon . . . Washington . Alaska . . . 03 u o CO 3 o .a OD OJ t-l 3 5 S'= > -£ !3 -ai '-S §-.s 1 1 ; » h £ C a r |a «- IB r£ W I TO .a >a a' 4 DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 143 The various subdivisions of the United States, their areas, capitals, and population, are given in the preceding table. The column giving the agricultural areas shows the practical outcome of the topography, climate, and history, besides affording a basis of comparison. The number of cities and towns of more than 4000 inhabitants indicates density of population, social con- ditions, and the amount of industrial activity. The columns showing the number of persons engaged in the various classes of occupations gives a fair idea of the industrial development of the different states and groups, and in connection with the other columns affords material for many comparisons. The states are easily grouped, according to topographic features and climate, into three main sections — the Atlantic States, the Central States, and the Cordilleran or Western States. The Atlantic group is subdivided into the North Atlantic and the South Atlantic States, the dividing-line being the southern boundary of Pennsylvania and Delaware Bay. Similarly the central group has its North Central and South Central States, separated by the Ohio River and the southern boundary of Missouri and Kansas. 1 These five groups differ in many respects. In density of population the North Atlantic leads with eighty-six persons to the square mile, 2 and is followed by the South Atlantic with twenty-seven, the North Central with twenty-three, the South Central with fifteen ; while in the States of the Cordilleras there are but three persons to two square miles, which is about the same as in the desert of Sahara. The North Atlantic group is the chief manufacturing section, about one-third of the working population being engaged in mechanical pursuits. 3 In the North Central States one-fifth of the population are so engaged, and in the two southern groups only one-tenth. The South Atlantic, South Central, and the North Central States are the agricultural sections, nearly seven-tenths of the population in the two southern groups being dependent on agriculture, and nearly one-half the population in the northern group. In the North Atlantic group 1 Other terms used, as the Gulf States, the Lake States, the Rooky Mountain States, the Plateau States, and the Pacific States, are self-explaining. The six most north-easterly states are called also the New England States. 2 Compare table on p. 370. 3 Compare with totals of the other groups. 114 UNITED STATES the proportion in agriculture is only one-fifth. Of the products of farming, grain, hay, potatoes, hops, butter, and cheese are most largely produced in the northern sections, and cotton, sugar, rice, and sweet potatoes in the southern. 1 In the States of the Cordilleras mining and grazing are especially prominent. The foreign-born population of the country is nearly all con- tained in the two northern groups, nearly all the negroes in the two southern, while the Cordilleran group has the greater part of the Chinese and Indians. 2 The city population shows a striking contrast. Out of 229 cities of 10,000 or more inhabitants, 181 are in the two northern groups, 37 in the two southern, and 1 1 in the Cordilleran group. If towns of 4000 or more inhabitants be considered, it is found that while in the southern groups a little over one-tenth the population is urban and in the Cordilleran group about one-fifth, no less than one-third of the inhabitants of the northern states are gathered into the towns and cities. 1. Towns. — Of the North Atlantic States. — In the six New England States there are fifty-nine cities with over 10,000 in- habitants each, and 110 towns with from 4000 to 10,000. 3 At the head of navigation on the Penobscot is Bangor (17), 4 the chief lumber and ice market of Maine ; similarly, on the Kennebec, is Augusta (9), the capital of Maine, a manufacturing town. The falls of the Androscoggin have created Lewiston (20), and those of the Saco, Biddeford (13), both makers of cotton and woollen goods. Portland (34), on a high peninsula on Casco Bay, has a deep harbor, and is the leading commercial town of Maine. 5 The Merrimac has favored the growth of many manufacturing towns, — in New Hampshire, Concord (14), the capital, Manchester (33), and Nashua (14) ; and in Massachusetts, Lowell (64), Lawrence (39), Haverhill (21), and Newburyport (14), the two last mentioned being on its navigable part. Cotton and woollen goods are most extensively made in these towns, and here, as in other factory towns of the East, there is a large proportion of foreign-born population, especially French- Canadians. The public and parochial schools are usually good ; tech- nical instruction, evening lectures and classes, and reading-rooms are provided, and in some towns, as Lowell, attention is given to furnishing suitable homes for the operatives. On the irregular and picturesque 1 See pp. 122-125. 2 See pp. 81, 135. 3 Compare with numbers of similar towns, as given in table on pp. 140-142. 4 The numbers in brackets after names of towns give the population in thousands, usually according to the census of 1880 or 1885. 6 See p. 96. TOWNS 145 coast of Massachusetts have grown up Gloucester (22), with extensive fisliing interests ; * Salem (28), formerly the lending commercial city of the coast, and now a residential town of much historic interest ; and Lynn (46), a centre for shoemaking, with two hundred factories, and in many respects a suburb of Boston. Other suburban towns are Maiden (16), making India-rubber goods ; Cambridge (60), with Harvard University ; Chelsea (26) ; Waltham (15), with watch-factories ; and Quincy (12), from which conies the Quincy granite. BOSTON (390), 2 the capital of Massachusetts, and one of the first commercial and manufacturing cities of the Union, occupies three peninsulas projecting into Massachusetts Bay, and is constantly extend- ing inland. The site of the city was chosen by its founders on account of its advantages for commerce and its facilities for defence against the Indians. The irregular surface of the older portion is probably the reason for its crooked streets, for which the town is noted, but the newer parts, built on made land, are regularly laid out in long avenues and rectangular cross streets, while even in the old part much improvement was made after the great fire of 1872. Boston is 145 miles nearer to Liverpool than New York, but lacks equally good western connections, a defect remedied in part by the Hoosac Tunnel, which pierces the mountains that lie east of the valley of the Hudson. The city is famous for the many scenes of historic importance enacted in and near it, of which Faneuil Hall, Old South Church, and Bunker Hill Monument are memorials. The high schools are especially well arranged, and the public library is next to the Congressional at Washington in size. In the south-east of Massachusetts, at the Falls of the Taunton and Watupha Kivers, are Taunton (24), and Fall Eiver (57), large manu- facturers of iron wares and cotton. New Bedford (33), on Buzzard's Bay, has numerous manufactures besides its extensive whaling interests. The Blackstone River is, like the Merrimac, lined with manufacturing towns, of which the largest are Worcester (68), in Massachusetts, on the Boston and Albany Railroad ; and PROVIDENCE (118), Rhode Island, at the head of Narragansett Bay. Boots and shoes, iron goods, and textiles are extensively made, and in Providence much jewelry. New Port (20) alternates with Providence in being the capital city of Rhode Island, and is one of the most fashionable of summer resorts. Connecticut contains many cities whose manufactures are similar to those of the neighboring states. Hardware and fire-arms are pre- eminent, New Haven (63), the largest city in the state, is a beautiful town, with considerable commerce, and is the seat of Yale University. Bridgeport (28) has extensive factories for the manufacture of sewing- machines and is a center of trade for the Housatonic Valley. In Water- bury (17) brass manufactures, in Meriden (16) silver-plated goods, in New London (11) fisheries are of chief interest. On the Connecticut River is Hartford (42), the capital, with a State-house, said to be the finest structure in New England. This is 1 The total value of the product of the Atlantic coast fisheries, including oysters, is about $33,000,000 yearly, or about one-half of 1 per cent, of the total productions of the country, 2 In 1885. K 146 UNITED STATES the richest city in the United States in proportion to number of inha- bitants, and is largely interested in insurance companies. The clear water of the Connecticut is favorable to paper-making, which is carried on here, but not so extensively as at Springfield (38) and Holyoke (28) in Massachusetts. In Vermont, Rutland (12) has extensive quarries of white marble, and Burlington (11), picturesquely situated on Lake Champlain, has a large trade in Canadian lumber, and is the seat of the University of Vermont. The capital of the state is Montpelier (3). The spacious waterway of the Hudson, and the level belt of land that extends through central New York westward to Lake Erie, were recognised routes for travel even by the Indians, and the most powerful tribes had their homes in this region. With the advantages of canals and railways and increased commerce, there has grown up here a series of cities and towns containing more than half the people of New York State. NEW YORK (1400), 1 on Manhattan Island and the main- land to the north; BROOKLYN (710), 1 and Long Island City (17), on Long Island; JERSEY CITY (154), 1 and Hoboken (38), just across the Hudson, and New Brighton (13), on Staten Island, contain a population of about two and a half millions, and constitute practically one city, though in two states and under separate municipal governments. As the chief business section is the southern part of New York, means of rapid transit are a prime necessity. The Brooklyn Bridge connects New York with Brooklyn, and a tunnel is being built under the Hudson to Hoboken. Elevated railroads extend throughout New York and Brooklyn, and numerous ferryboats ply between the several cities. At the same time, quick trains upon the many railways that center here bring a large number of the surrounding towns into almost as close connection with the business part of New York as are its own up-town districts. The greatness and importance of New York are due to its com- mercial advantages, its harbor being one of the best in the world, and most favorably located for trade with Europe and for handling goods for the great industrial sections of the United States. The most important of the trunk-line railroads terminate at New York ; the commerce from the Erie Canal and the Hudson and that coming by Long Island Sound meet here, and from the city's wharves go out a large majority of the ocean-steamers and sailing-vessels that connect the United States with commercially related countries, besides the numerous vessels engaged in the coasting trade. The exports sent out from New York are largely agricultural pro- ducts, grain, provisions, dairy produce, cotton, and tobacco, besides 1 In 1886. TOWNS 147 petroleum ; and the leading imports are groceries, dry goods, iron and steel, and hides, the latter largely from South America. A full list of New York's imports would include almost every commercial product of the world. Altogether, more than half the foreign trade of the country is done through this city. Two-thirds of the immigrants land here, Castle Garden, a large building at the southern point of the island, being used solely for their accommodation. Besides the great com- mercial interests, which, moreover, make New York the chief money center also of i lie country, there is a great amount of manufacturing done, the products of which exceed in value those of any other American city. Fio. 28.— The "L" Road, New York. The very long and narrow form of Manhattan Island, "a tongue that laps the commerce of the world," has brought about a peculiar arrangement of the trade and residential sections ; the water-front being occupied by docks and warehouses, and the neighboring streets largely by tenements, there is left a long narrow central section divided among Other interests. Along the middle line, Broadway and Fifth Avenue form the main thoroughfare, and monopolise so much of the traffic, and have along them so large a portion of the costly structures, that New 148 UNITED STATES York is sometimes called the city of one street. Columbia College and the New York Normal College for training teachers are prominent among the educational institutions of the city. Brooklyn is largely a residence city, although the storage warehouses which border its docks contain a greater value of goods than even tliose of New York, and it is fourth in. importance in manufactures. The city forms a part of the customs port of New York, but has separate municipal organisation. Prominent among its features are the numerous churches, the spacious Prospect Park and Greenwood Cemetery. Prom the center of the great Brooklyn Bridge is got a most com- prehensive view of both the neighboring cities and of much of the surrounding region, together with a vivid impression of the varied activities that pertain to the commercial center of America. On the sandy coast of Long Island, to the south and south-east of Brooklyn, are numerous seaside resorts, much frequented during the hot season. Adjoining New York on the north is Tonkers (19), the home of many New York business men. Farther up the Hudson, Newburg (18), rich in historic interest ; Poughkeepsie (20), the seat of Vassal' College, and the lowest point at which the Hudson is bridged ; x Kingston (18), at the terminus of the Delaware and Hudson Canal ; Catskill (5), a center of summer travel to the neighboring mountains ; Hudson (9), with smelting furnaces. ALBANY (100), 3 the capital, at the eastern terminus of the Erie Canal, and where the Hudson is crossed by several bridges, is an im- portant railway center, and a large market for Adirondack and Canadian lumber and Western cattle. North of Albany, at the falls of the Hudson and of the Mohawk, has grown up a cluster of manufacturing towns, Troy (57), West Troy (9), Lansingburgh (7), and Cohoes (19), with iron- works and many cotton and woollen mills. The Champlain and the Erie Canals have outlets at Troy. The Troy laundries owe their ex- cellence largely to the clearness of the Hudson's water. A few miles northward is Saratoga Springs (8), a leading health and fashion resort. Westward along the Mohawk are Schenectady (14), with Union College ; Utica (34), a manufacturing town and center of trade for a rich dairying region, and Rome (12), handling much lumber. Farther west, Syracuse (52), the second salt-making center of the country, and a busy trading and manufacturing city at the crossing of several railroads ; Auburn (22), beautifully placed on the outlet of wasco Lake, and containing the great State Prison ; ROCHESTER (100), at the last great falls of the Genesee, where the river is crossed by the Erie Canal, a flour-making and manufacturing town, and with extensive nurseries ; Lockport (14), where the canal descends by a series of locks, the surplus water from which drives many mill-wheels. Near by are large limestone quarries. At the western end of the canal on Lake Erie, BUFFALO (225), an important point for the trade of the Great Lakes, 3 and hence a terminus for the chief railway systems of New York, and of several Pennsylvania roads. North of central New York are but three localities that have been favorable to city growth. At the falls of the Oswego Riyer and on the l See p. 130. » In 1886. s See pp. 116, 134. TOWNS 149 harbor at its mouth is Oswego (21), a grain port, with several starch- factories, and having canal connection with the Erie at Syracuse. The falls of the Black Eiver furnish power to Watertown (11). Ogdensburg (10), on the St. Lawrence, is a grain and lumber port and point of con- nection between American and Canadian railways. In the south of New York are Elmira (21), with canals to Seneca Lidte and to theanthra cite coal-fields, and Binghamton (17), on the Susquehanna, at the terminus of the Chenango Canal, which joins the Erie at Utica. Ithaca (9), at the head of Cayuga Lake, is the seat of Cornell University. The cities of New Jersey have grown up mostly in the north- eastern part of the state, where they partake of the commercial advantages of New York and Newark Bays and their tributary streams, and where the Pennsylvania coal supplies are within easy reach. Many of them are in a measure dwelling-places for New York business men. JERSEY CITY (154), opposite New York, is the terminus of many railroads, and the starting-point of several lines of ocean steamers. Exceeding Jersey City in size is Newark (153), on the Passaic Eiver and Morris and Essex Canal, with numerous factories, among which those of leather goods and jewelry are preeminent. Farther up the same stream, at its powerful falls, lies Faterson (63), with the largest silk product of the country and extensive locomotive works. To the west and south are Orange (15), and Elizabeth (32), both handsome residence towns, the latter with sewing-machine works. At the head of navigation of the Baritan Eiver and at the terminus of the Delaware and Earitan Canal is New Brunswick (18), with the greatest rubber- works of the country. Where the Delaware becomes navigable stands Trenton (34), the capital, making use of an extensive clay deposit to produce a large part of the pottery and china-ware used in the states. Between New Brunswick, which contains Entger's College, and Tren- ton lies Princeton (3), with the College of New Jersey. Camden (53\ opposite Philadelphia, is really a suburb of that city. Long Branch, Atlantic City (8), and other resorts have great summer populations, but become quiet villages after the bathing season. Pennsylvania's wealth of iron and coal has made its towns preeminently manufacturing. PHILADELPHIA (1000), 1 the second city in size in the United States, is a great industrial centre. Its commerce is less than that of New York, for the Delaware, though here a mile wide and of good depth, is frozen in winter, hence the trunk-line railroads entering the city extend to tide-water on New York Bay. In manufactures Philadelphia has superior advantages, being especially favored by nearness to the great iron and coal beds, by excellent means of transportation, canals, rivers, and railroads, and by the cheapness of living. The region about is renowned for its fruitfulness, and as the city is built on a level plain: 1 In 1886. 150 UNITED STATES along the Delaware and Schuylkill, it can expand without hindrance, and consequently land is not eo expensive as on the narrow Manhattan Island. Tiiere is on the average one house foT every five persons in Puiladelphia, and but one to fifteen persons in New York. The beautiful suburban sections are especially attractive, and Fairmount Park, of 3000 acres, is like a stretch of open country. The University of Pennsyl- vania, and the famous Girard College are in Philadelphia. Below Philadelphia, on the Delaware, are Chester (15), and Wilmington 1 (43), Delaware, both with extensive works for building iron ships, the latter town making also railway cars and gunpowder. The valley of the Schuylkill is the natural route from the coal and iron fields to Philadelphia, and it is lined with furnaces and manufac- turing towns. Reading (43), the largest, occupies a most picturesque situation, and is the converging point for several railroads, one of which brings iron ore from the rich Cornwall ore banks to the west, and others coal from Pottsville (13), the center of a region shipping ten million tons a year. The Lehigh Valley, in which anthracite coal was discovered, is similarly occupied, and contains also zinc-works and slate quarries (Slatington). Along the eastern bend of the Susquehanna and in the Lackawanna Valley are Scranton (46), and Wilkesbarre (23), among numerous coal towns in a region so rich in this fuel that six great railways have forced their way into it. Williamsport (19), on the west branch of the Susquehanna, is the greatest lumber market of the state. Harrisburgh (21), the capital, where the Susquehanna is a mile wide, receives lumber, iron, and coal by river, canal, and rail, and is a manufacturing and distributing center. At Altoona (20), half-way between Harrisburgh and Pittsburgh, in a district rich in coal and iron, are extensive railway shops of the Penn- sylvania Road. Where the Alleghany and Monongahela unite to form the Ohio, PITTSBURGH (200), 2 and ALLEGHENY (100), 2 share the advantages of navigation to the Gulf, and of rich coal, iron, oil, and gas supplies. 3 Erie (28), the only lake port of Pennsylvania, has a large harbor sheltered by the long natural breakwater of Presque Isle. 2. Of the North Central States. — The commercial advantages of the Great Lakes are the cause of much, of the prosperity of many of the cities of this section, and the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers have attracted a large population to their valleya CLEVELAND (200), Sandusky (16), and Toledo (50), are the chief lake towns in Ohio. Cleveland is a receiving point for iron, coal, oil, and live-stock from Pennsylvania and Ohio, and a large part of the valuable Lake Superior iron ore comes here for transhipment to the furnaces of the Appalachians. 4 The city has iron-works, refineries, ' Properly in the South Atlantic group. 2 In 1886. s See pp- 129 _ 130 _ 4 The geographical center of the iron-producing regions of the country lies not far from Cleveland. TOWNS 151 and packing-houses, is one of the handsomest cities in America, and contains Adelbert College. Its water-supply, like that of Chicago, is obtained by means of a tunnel under the lake. Sandusky is the leading market for fresh fish from the lakes, and is in the midst of a rich wine-making region. Toledo draws largely on the resources of the forests of northern Indiana and Michigan, and is a center to which more than a dozen railways bring lumber and grain for water-shipment. Its wagon-works are the largest in the country, and its grain receipts less only than those of Chicago, St. Louis, and Minneapolis. Natural gas is used here as a fuel. On the Ohio River below Pittsburgh are Wheeling (31), 1 in West Virginia, with industries like those of Pittsburgh, and farther down several small cities with coal and iron, of which Portsmouth (11) has canal connections with Cleveland. At the great northern bend of the river, half-way between Pittsburgh and Cairo, and almost on a line with St. Louis and Philadelphia, is CINCINNATI (300), 2 the rich metropolis of the Ohio Valley. The city is built on a series of natural terraces rising up from the river, and contains many handsome structures. Its great bridges over the Ohio connect with it Covington (30) and Newport (20) in Kentucky, which thus share in the advantages of the situation. Numerous railroads center here, and from the products of the surrounding region iron and wooden wares, tobacco, whisky, beer, clothing, and provisions are manu- factured. Columbus (52), the capital of Ohio, in a central location on several railways, has considerable wholesale trade, and manufactures especially carriages, and the interior of the state contains also a number of other cities — Dayton (39) and Springfield (21), in the basin of the Great Miami, being the largest. Both are engaged in various manufactures, especially those combining wood and iron. The agricultural implements made here are sold throughout the West, and many go eastward. In Indiana, the capital, Indianapolis (75), is the largest town. It stands in the midst of the corn belt, and its receipts of grain and live-stock place it among the first five collecting points. Coal-mines are near by at Brazil, and the city manufactures for the trade of the surrounding country. On the Ohio are New Albany (16), utilising the same falls that have built up Louisville in Kentucky ; and Evansville (29), at the head of navigation during the dry season. Terre Haute (26), up to which the Wabash is navigable, is, like Indianopolis, a center of trade and manu- facturing in a rich farming region. The Wabash and Erie Canal leads from here to Toledo, and on it, in the north-east of the State, is Fort Wayne (26), a crossing point of several railways, with extensive car-shops. South Bend (13), at the falls of the St. Joseph, utilises the hard woods of Indiana and Michigan in making wagons and carriages. CHICAGO (703), 3 Illinois, has a situation of great superiority for commerce. Its water communications reach eastward to the Atlantic and southward to the Gulf. It lies almost at the center of the great agricultural prairie region ; to the north are forest regions and mines * Of the South Atlantic Group. 2 In 1886. » In 1886. 152 UNITED STATES of copper and iron ; to the south, coal. More than twenty railways bring to the city the various products, and Chicago is at once the lead- ing grain, provision, and lumber market, as well as the greatest railway center of the world. Its manufactures are also great, its products in this industry being, in 1880, equal in value to the farm products that it shipped. Chicago was chartered as a city in 1837, having then about 4000 inhabitant?. Its growth since then has been the most rapid ever known, and the great wealth that has been accumulated is shown by numerous magni- ficent buildings. A series of parks connected by boulevards extends entirely around the city, from the shore of the lake on the north to the shore on the south. The city's water-supply is derived from the lake by means of a long tunnel, and is forced by strong pumps to a height of 160 feet to get the necessary fall. About ten miles south of Chicago is the suburb of Pullman, con- taining the shops at which are made the Pullman cars, but especiall}' interesting as a model village, built entirely by the company for the workmen, and equipped with everything necessary to their comfort and entertainment. Much of the building-stone used in Chicago comes from quarries at Joliet (12), about forty miles to the south-west. The coal of Illinois has made manufacturing an industry in nearly all its cities. Peoria (29), at the head of navigation on the Illinois River, over- looking an expansion of the stream called Peoria Lake, is a prominent railway center, and is extensively engaged in distilling whisky. The amount of internal revenue paid here is at times as great as that at Cincinnati. Springfield (20), the capital, Elgin (9), and Rockford (13) have watch-factories. Bloomington (17), Aurora (12), and other towns make railway cars. On the Mississippi, Rock Island (12), with excellent water-power, and containing the largest of the U.S. arsenals ; Quincy (27), on a lime- stone bluff overlooking rich bottom-lands ; and East St. Louis (9), are points at which the river is bridged, and which have considerable river commerce. Cairo (9) was built at great expense on swampy land at the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi, levees being necessary to protect the city from floods. The wharves of Cairo are yearly visited by many hundred river-steamers. The commercial facilities of the Great Lakes, besides pro- ducing Buffalo, Chicago, Toledo, and Cleveland, have built up DETROIT (133), 1 in Michigan ; MILWAUKEE (159),' in Wis- consin, and many lesser cities, of which Duluth (37), 3 in Min- nesota, has the advantage of being the nearest shipping point for the products of the Red River Valley and a wide surrounding region. All these towns, except Buffalo, it will be noticed, are 1 In 1884. i In 1886. TOWNS 153 on the west or south-west of the lakes, and east and north-east of the regions they serve as collecting points. For the movement of trade has heen constantly to and from the east, and each town lies between the country dependent on it and the eastern markets. Detroit, on the Detroit River, where it is crossed by the trunk-lines from Chicago to Buffalo and Montreal, is one of the leading points for collecting and shipping grain. It manufactures a great deal also in tobacco and iron, its tobacco-factories being the largest in the Union. Much lumber is made, and copper ore from the Upper Peninsula is brought to Detroit to be smelted. Bay City (29), West Bay City (9), Saginaw (14), and East Saginaw (29) form a group of towns interested in lumber and salt. 1 The strata yield- ing salt are continuous with those appearing in New York at Syracuse and elsewhere, and in Ontario at Goderich. The remarkable system of rivers that flow from the north, west, south, and east, and center at Saginaw puts a large area of rich pine-lands under contribution to the mills of these towns. Another lumber town is Muskegon (18), at the mouth of the Mus- kegon River, making iwo-thirds as much lumber as is made in the Saginaw district. At the powerful falls of the Grand River, and at the head of its navigation, is Grand Rapids (42), a town that makes much furniture besides lumber and brushes. Extensive gypsum beds lie near the town. Coal deposits exist in the neighbourhood of Lansing (10), the capital, and Jackson (19). The University of Michigan is at Ann Arbor (8). Marquette (6), on Lake Superior, is the chief shipping point for the rich iron ore of the Upper Peninsula. Milwaukee has a spacious harbor on Milwaukee Bay, and is fourth among the grain-collecting places, being a center for numerous railways that extend far to the west and north-west. The city is famous for its beer, but both the leather and flour made there precede in value. Much pork is packed here, and much tobacco manufactured. As a residence town Milwaukee is particularly attractive. Racine (20) has a portion of Wisconsin's lake commerce, and does some manufacturing. Oshkosh (22), on Lake Winnebago, at the mouth of the Fox River, has, like Saginaw and Muskegon, an enormous output of pine lumber. Madison (12), the capital and seat of the University of Wisconsin, is picturesquely situated between small lakes, and is widely known as one of the most healthful of residential towns. Lacrosse (22), on the Mississippi, builds a great many steamboats for the river trade, and ships much lumber and ice. MINNEAPOLIS (129), and ST. PAUL (111), in Minnesota, form the most northerly of the three large aggregations of popu- lation that have grown up on the Mississippi Eiver. Farther south are ST. LOUIS (450), 2 in Missouri, and NEW ORLEANS (240), 2 in Louisiana. i See p. 131. ' In 1886. 154 UNITED STATES These four towns contain nearly four-fifths of the population of the Mississippi cities. It will be noticed that the city population north of the mouth of the Ohio is more largely on the west bank of the river, in situations adapted to gathering products from lands to the west for shipment eastward. South of the Ohio, on the contrary, the cities are on the east bank, since here the cotton crop, grown mostly east of the river, finds its readiest outlet by means of the river. St. Paul, the capital of Minnesota, is at the head of the continuous navigation of the Mississippi, and is a railroad and commercial center of great activity. Its trade reaches far to the west, and its shipments of grain by rail and by water are very large. The city is handsomely built upon a succession of terraces that rise up from the river. Minneapolis owes its prosperity largely to the Falls of St. Anthony, at which the river makes a descent of about eighty feet within one mile. Sawmills utilise this force, and still more flouring-mills, and the superior quality of the hard wheat used, together with the most im- proved methods of milling, have given Minneapolis flour a high repu- tation. The University of Minnesota is at Minneapolis. Between St. Paul and St. Louis, on the west of the Mississippi, in Minnesota, are Winona (16) ; in Iowa, Dubuque (26), near lead-mines ; Davenport (24), opposite Rock Island ; Burlington (23), Keokuk (13), with water-power from the canal around the rapids ; and in Missouri Hannibal (11). At each of these towns the Mississippi is bridged for railway traffic. Two of the rivers that flow across Iowa, the Cedar and the Des Moines, have developed each an industrial and commercial town, Cedar Rapids (10) and Des Moines (22) ; the latter is the capital and a railway center. At the western edge of the state, Council Bluffs (22) shares with Omaha (62), 1 in Nebraska, the advantages of being where the great trunk lines from Chicago converge, to be continued on to San Francisco by the Union and Central Pacific roads. These cities are built in the valley of the stream at the foot of the steep bluffs, are connected by a long bridge, and for a part of the year have navigation to St. Louis as well as into Montana. At Omaha are smelting-works for silver and lead, and considerable manufacturing and trading is done in each city. Lincoln (20), the capital of Nebraska, is the seat of the University of Nebraska. On the Missouri, in South Dakota, is Yankton, near the mouth of the James River. Deadwood. in the west of the state, owes its prosperity to the gold mines of the Black Hills. In North Dakota, Bismark, the capital, is located at the crossing of the Missouri by the Northern Pacific Road. Where the Missouri forms the boundary between Kansas and Missouri stand St. Joseph (32), in Missouri, and Atchison (15) and Leavenworth (29), in Kansas, each an important railway point, with bridges across the stream. Furniture is a leading manufacture in all of i In 1885. TOWNS 155 them, material being obtained from forests in southern Missouri, On the Kansas River are Topeka (23), the capital of Kansas, an important railroad town with a large production of steel rails, and Lawrence (11), with the University of Kansas. At the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri is KANSAS CITY (125), 1 Missouri, one of the first collecting points for grain and live-stock, with extensive packing-houses and manufactories. Farther south-west is Wichita (16), on the Arkansas, with a large development of industries like those of Kansas City. ST. LOUIS (450) l has a situation especially adapting it to be a receiving and distributing point for a large region. Located nearly in the center of the Mississippi Valley, it was early in command of the trade of the Missouri, the upper Mississippi, and the Illinois rivers ; but the build- ing of railroads has taken a part of this trade to Chicago. The roads that reach out from St. Louis to the west and south-west, however, have laid other extensive areas under tribute, and the building of eleva- tors and the establishment of barge-lines to New Orleans have greatly increased the city's shipping facilities. St. Louis is the second largest grain-collecting point, and it is a strong rival of Minneapolis in flour- making. Great numbers of live-stock are brought here, and much beef and pork are packed. Coal, lead, and iron are found near by in abund- ance, while leather, lumber, tobacco, and cotton are heavily dealt in, and there are many breweries and sugar-refineries. All the railroads entering St. Louis from the east cross the Mississippi on the great tubular bridge, a structure remarkable for its size and plan, and carry- ing two lines of rails, as well as a wide roadway. From its west end a tunnel leads to the Union Depot in the heart of the city, whence the trains of some twenty roads go westward. St. Louis was founded by French traders in 1764, but in 1830 it had not 6000 inhabitants. Hence it is within a comparatively short time that its population has been accumulated, and a great proportion, nearly one-third, is foreign-born. 3. Of the South Atlantic States. — The two southern groups of States, with industries so largely agricultural, have a large rural population and but comparatively few large towns. 2 Of the eight great cities of the Union, but one is in the South Atlantic States and one in the South Central. The development of manufacturing is, however, beginning to increase the urban population. The chief city of the South Atlantic group of States is BALTIMORE (460), 1 Maryland. It lies on the estuary of the Patapsco River, and has an excellent harbor, from which vessels reach the open sea either vid Chesapeake Bay or by way of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal and Delaware Bay. Several lines of steamers ply between Baltimore and European ports, and the city is a terminal point of a railway system that reaches to Chicago and St. Louis, as well as of other systems that extend into the cotton belt. Coal and iron are easily obtained, and much manufacturing is done, machinery, ships, flour, and tobacco being 1 In 1886. 2 See table, p. 141. 156 UNITED STATES among the chief products. Fruits and vegetables and oysters from Chesapeake Bay are canned for shipment, and quantities of fertilisers made. The John Hopkins University is in Baltimore. At Annapolis (7), the capital of Maryland, is the United States Naval Academy. Cumberland (11), at the west end of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, is in the midst of the coal-fields of the state. The Federal capital, WASHINGTON (174), in the District of Col- umbia, is almost entirely a residence town, having very little of either manufacturing cr commerce. The population consists principally of members and officials of the Government and of army and navy officers. The city was founded solely for governmental purposes, and in order to avoid the jealousies that would arise were any existing city made the capital of the nation. Its streets cross one another at right angles, and are further intersected by broad avenues, which radiate in all directions from the central point, where stands the Capitol. With its numerous and magnificent Government buildings, its broad avenues, and many monuments, Washington is the most imposing city in America. One of the largest of the Government navy yards is located here, and a few miles down the Potomac is Mount Vernon, the old homestead of General Washington. Howard University, for the colored race, is one of the prominent educational establishments of the capital, and the Congressional Library is the largest in America. Richmond (64), Virginia, at the head of navigation of the James River, has fine water-power, 1 and manufactures considerable quantities of flour, tobacco, machinery, and fertilisers. The city is a railroad center, and a collecting and exporting point for cotton, flour, petroleum, and tobacco. Norfolk (22), and Portsmouth (11), separated by the Elizabeth River, have one of the best harbors on the coast. Norfolk is the terminus of an important railway system, and has a large coast trade, sending many garden products to Northern cities. In Portsmouth is a Govern- ment navy yard, and from here extends the Albemarle Canal through Dismal Swamp to the Sound. Petersburg 1 (22) and Lynchburgh (16) are largely interested in tobacco manufacture, and the former town has cotton factories also. In North Carolina, Raleigh (9), the capital, is in the midst of the cotton-growing region, and Wilmington (17) has a good harbor, and exports cotton, lumber, and naval stores. Columbia 1 (10), the capital of South Carolina, at the head of navi- gation of the Congaree, has good water-power, and is the seat of South Carolina College. Charleston (50) is the chief commercial town of the South Atlantic States. It lies on a flat island between two rivers, a position similar to that of New York ; its harbor is excellent and well protected, and the city is an important railway center. Cotton is exported in consider- able quantities. The leading manufacture is lumber. Savannah (31), Georgia, about twenty miles from the sea on the Savannah River, has exports like those of Charleston and Wilmington, with the addition of rice. Much guano is imported. Augusta (22), at the end of the navigable part of the Savannah, 1 See p. 113. TOWNS 157 utilises its water-power 1 in cotton manufacturing. Macon (13) and Columbus (10) have resources and industries like those of Augusta. Atlanta (37), the capital of Georgia, is the most important railroad center of the south-eastern states, has a large trade, and is steadily gaining in manufacturing. The mild and healthful climate of Atlanta attracts many winter residents. Jacksonville (8) and St. Augustine, in Florida, are likewise much visited by invalids. The latter has a large trade in fruit. Key West (10), the most southerly town of the United Stales, handles sponges, tortoise-shells, and especially tobacco. Tne capital, Tallahassee, is the site of the State University. 4. Of the South Central States. Mobile (29), Alabama, has an excellent harbor, and exports much cotton, lumber, and naval stores. Coffee is one of the imports. Above Mobile the Alabama River is navigable to the capital, Montgomery 1 (17), an important railway town and cotton center. Birmingham (25), 2 in the northern part of the state, has recently come into prominence as an iron-making town, the products of its furnaces competing easily in the Northern markets with Pennsylvania iron. In Mississippi, Jackson (5), the capital, is in the midst of the cotton- growing part of the State. Vicksburg (12) and Natchez (7) are the chief points on the river, and ship much cotton to New Orleans. Memphis (34), Tennessee, on high bluffs overlooking the river, is the most important commercial town between St. Louis and New Orleans. It has extensive railway connections, and handles much cotton, its wharves being reached by ocean-going steamers although over 800 miles above New Orleans. Cotton-seed oil is made extensively, Chattanooga (13) lias extensive resources in iron and coal and in the forests near by. Its manufactures find shipment on the Tennessee River and by several railroads. Nashville (43), the capital of Tennessee, can be reached by boats on the Cumberland during high-water. It is a busy manufacturing and trading town in the center of a fertile region. lion, cotton, grain, tobacco, and hemp are the chief products dealt in. Nashville is the seat of Vanderbilt University, and of two others, Fisk and Roger Williams, that are devoted to the education of the colored race. LOUISVILLE (140), 3 Kentucky, is situated where falls in the Ohio made trans-shipment of goods necessary. A canal now allows the passage of boats, and having excellent railway connections, Louisville has become a prominent commercial town, sending grain and manu- factures to the south. Its manufactures are similar to those of Cin- cinnati, though of less quantity, and it is the leading tobacco market of the world. Lexington (17), near the capital, Frankfort, is in the midst of the blue grass region, so famous for good horses, and is also the seat of the Kentucky University. In Arkansas, the capital, Little Rock (13), has a large trade in cotton, grain, wool, hides, and lumber, and in general merchandise. But little 1 See p. 113. * In 1887. See p.129. » In 1886. 158 UNITED STATES manufacturing is done, the development of the state having been almost entirely agricultural. Hot Springs is visited by many invalids in winter for the sake of the baths. Shreveport (8), Louisiana, is, like Little Rock, the center of trade for an extensive agricultural section. The Red River is navigable to the city during about eight months of the year. Baton Rouge (7), the capital of Louisiana, is the seat of the State University. As a commercial town it handles principally cotton and sugar. NEW ORLEANS (240) l is preeminently a commercial city. As a seaport it stands in somewhat the same relations to St. Louis that New York does to Chicago, exporting the products collected at the inland city ; and it is also a railway center, the systems of the lower Missis- sippi Valley, of the Gulf States, and even Pacific and Mexican roads sharing in the commerce of the city. The products marketed here are mostly agricultural ; hence the autumn is the busiest season, and then cotton and corn, flour, pork, tobacco, whisky, sugar and molasses, and barrel staves are brought here in enormous quantities and shipped to European and other ports. The imports are much less in amount, and consist mainly of sugar and coffee. Cotton-seed oil is the chief manufacture. The city is built along a bend of the river, whence the title Crescent City. The level of the streets is some four feet lower than high-water, against which the levees afford protection ; the drainage leads away from, instead of into the river. The residence part of the town extends over an area as large as New York ; the streets, mostly unpaved, are shaded by trees, many of which are fruit-bearing ; while the houses or villas stand detached, and are surrounded throughout the year by foliage and flowers. The population has a large element of the French Creole, and their language, many customs, and much of the older architecture, together with the city's name, are constant reminders of the early history. Here occur the famous Mardi Gras carnivals, with their strange symbolical representation of history and myth. The cemeteries are unique in that there are no graves, on account of the lack of deep drainage, but tombs of stone or brick built above the surface. New Orleans is the seat of Tulane University, as well as of three others that are especially intended for negroes. Galveston (22), Texas, upon a sandy island at the entrance to Gal- veston Bay, is reached by a railway from the mainland, and is the chief commercial town of the State. Its harbor admits large ships. The exports consist almost wholly of cotton ; coffee is the leading import. Houston (17) has a good harbor, and lying in the midst of a fruitful region, is a center of trade. San Antonio (21), an old town with a considerable Spanish element in the population, has especially Mexican trade, and deals largely in cattle. Austin (11), the capital, is picturesquely situated at the head of i In 1886. TOWNS 159 navigation on the Colorado, and is the seat of the State University. At Laredo and at El Paso connection is made with the railway system of Mexico. 5. Of the Cordilleran or Western States. — The cities in the Rocky Mountain region owe their prosperity chiefly to the mines about or near which they have grown up. Only in a few in- stances (e.g., Salt Lake City) have other resources caused their growth. DENVER (54), 1 the capital of Colorado, is the most important, being a railway center and having a large trade with tlie rich mining region round about. So much silver and gold are mined that a branch of the United States mint has been located here. Lead is also produced in large amounts, especially at Leadville (15). Colorado Springs (5) is the seat of Colorado College, and is an important health resort. To the north, gold-mines are the principal cause of the growth of Virginia City in Montana, Boise' City and Salmon City in Idaho, and of Baker City in Oregon. Butte City, Montana, lies near rich copper and silver mines. Santa Fe (7), the capital of New Mexico, is the oldest town in the United States. Much of the traffic with Mexico passes through here, the old Santa Fe trail having been one of the routes most used before the advent of railroads. Near Silver City, New Mexico, are valuable mines of copper, and near Tombstone, Arizona Territory, rich deposits of silver are being worked. Salt Lake City (21), the capital of Utah, situated in a fertile valley eleven miles from tlie Great Salt Lake, was for many years a place isolated from all others, and hence of necessity largely self-supporting. The carefully irrigated land produced abundant food, and the city now sends dried fruit, eggs, and butter to the mining regions. Woolen goods, boots, and shoes are manufactured. The streets of the city are very wide (137 feet), and the blocks between, 600 feet long. Irrigating canals are conducted through the streets to all parts of the place. The great Temple of the Mormons rises high above all other buildings. Ogden (6) is an important railroad center, being the meeting-point of the Union and Central Pacific roads, and the terminus of several others. Virginia City (11), Nevada, owes its prosperity to rich silver-mines. It contains nearly one-filth the population of the state. In the rich and fertile region west of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains and on the Pacific coast a number of large towns have grown up. Sacramento (30), the capital of California, lies at the head of navi- gation of the Sacramento River, and is the meeting-point of several railroads. The Central Pacific Road has its car-shops here. There are also woolen and flour mills, beet sugar-factories, and iron-foundries, and » In 1885. 160 UNITED STATES the produce of the surrounding agricultural sections is marketed here. The land on which the city stands has been artificially raised several feet above the swampy level of the early gold washings that first deter- mined its location. Stockton (16) 1 is in the midst of a fine wheat section, which it serves as a center for collection and distribution. Besides railroads, the San Joaquin River, from which a navigable canal leads to the city, connects Stockton with San Francisco. The " keyhole breeze," which pours in through the Golden Gate, is put to use by the farmers round about in driving windmills, which pump the water used in irrigation. San Jose (25), l in the rich wine and fruit growing Santa Clara Valley, has also medicinal springs, and attracts many invalids. Artesian wells are here the source of most of the water-supply, as in other towns to the south. Los Angeles (35), 1 of which the full Spanish name was " la Pueblo de Nuestra Sefiora la Reyna de los Angeles" (the town of our lady the queen of the angels), is a place of great attractiveness on account of its mild and very equable climate. The country round about is the best wine and fruit section in the United States, large quantities of each Eroduct being sent yearly to the Eastern States and abroad. Much oney is also obtained, and wool is a leading shipment. The growth of Los Angeles has been very rapid, its population rising from 6000 in 1870 to 35,000 in 1885. Like other towns in southern California, it is frequented by invalids and winter residents. The city is becoming an important railway center, the neighboring ports of Wilmington and San Diego giving easy connection with Pacifie steamship lines. SAN FRANCISCO (300), 1 the metropolis of the Pacific coast, is established in its superiority by its central position and unexcelled harbor. The residence city, Oakland (70), 2 on the east of the bay, is essen- tially one with San Francisco in its interests, as are also several other smaller towns. As the converging point of the leading railroads of the west, San Francisco handles the products of a wide area — grain, wool, fruit, and wine from the fertile valleys, lumber and fish (mostly salmon) from the mountains and rivers to the north, furs from Alaska, and gold, silver, and quicksilver from the mines of the Sierras and the Coast Mountains. Tea, coffee, rice, silk, and sugar, the last mainly from the Sandwich Islands, are among the imports. Manufacturing is also carried on with a large variety of products. The very irregular surface of the peninsula on which San Francisco is situated seemed at first so unfavorable for a city site that an attempt was made to build the metropolis farther within the bay. The advan- tages of position, however, prevailed, and the steep barren hills and shifting sand-heaps have been covered with buildings or included within parks. The Golden Gate Park, three miles long with half a mile of ocean frontage, is a striking example of what wealth and skill can accomplish. The houses of the city are largely of wood. In early days, when labor was scarce and dear, house-frames were brought in sections from the east by ships sailing around Cape Horn, and later, when stone was wanted, granite was brought from China for many structures. 1 In 1885. 2 In 1888. ALASKA 161 The hills of the city have caused an extensive use of cable street- car lines, over fifty miles of such roads being in operation. Originally a Spanish settlement, San Francisco rapidly became cosmo- politan when the discovery of gold drew miners from all countries, and tlie foreign element is still prominent. The University of California is at Berkeley, near Oakland. In Oregon, the fertile valley of the Willamette contains the greater part of the population. In it ate Salem, the capital, and near the con- fluence of the Willamette and Columbia, Portland (18), the commercial and manufacturing center of the state. Lumber, furniture, foundry products, and woolen goods, as well as a wide variety of other manufactures, are made in Portland, and besides these wheat, flour, and salmon form articles of commerce. Eugene City is the seat of the State University. The shipping advantages of Puget Sound, and the wealth of minerals, forests, and soil of western Washington, are building up a number of towns. Of these, Seattle, with the State University, and Tacoma are the most important. They both handle much lumber, grain, coal, and fish. A line of steamers takes shipments from Tacoma to Alaska. In eastern Washington is Spokane Falls (8), the chief milling town of the state, and possessing also large foundries. Walla Walla is the center of a rich wheat-growing valley. Alaska. — Alaska occupies the north-west peninsula of North America, a strip along the coast southward to latitude 54° 40', the neighboring coast islands, and the Aleutian Archipelago, with several islands to its north. The most western extremity is the island Attoo, in longitude 173° E., which is farther west from San Francisco than that city is from Maine. From Mount St. Elias southward the Coast Range or Sea Alps form the eastern boundary. On account of the great amount of snow that falls, they contain numerous (5000) glaciers. The Muir glacier unites nine large glaciers and seventeen lesser ones, and at the coast is over a mile wide. Much ice is taken from the glaciers and carried to California and elsewhere. The Aleutian Islands contain several active volcanoes, and others exist in the narrow mountainous Alaska Peninsula. The large northern part of Alaska is a rough uneven plateau with no lofty mountains. The Yukon River has a volume much L 162 MEXICO greater than the Mississippi, and is navigable for about 1500 miles to Fort Selkirk, The climate of Alaska is much milder than that of Labrador, but is extremely rainy, especially along the coast. Forests of heavy timber exist in the south-east, and at places in the interior. Very little agriculture is possible, the summer being too short and cool. Potatoes and turnips do well, but grain does not ripen. The best section is the peninsula east of Cook's Inlet, where grazing might be profitably carried on and fair crops raised. Furs are the chief source of revenue, the fox, marten, and beaver, the sea-otter and the fur seal abounding, the last mentioned being at present the chief object that makes Alaska valuable. Tho world's supply of sealskins is derived almost entirely from this source, the two Pribylov Islands, St. Paul, and St. George, being the only places of importance where fur-seal hunting is carried on. The coast waters abound in fish, cod being found in the east of Bering Sea and along the southern coast of the territory over a total area four times as great as the famous Newfoundland banks. Salmon are even more numerous than in the Columbia River region, while herring, and also whales and walruses, are caught in the neighboring waters. Coal exists in several places, and gold is found in paying quantities. Sulphur is obtained from the craters of volcanoes and in hot springs. Silver, copper, niter, and petroleum are found, and marble is quarried near Sitka. The population of Alaska numbers about 30,000, but includes fewer than 500 white persons. The greater number are Eskimo and Indians. But little is done in educational matters, schools, which were conducted by Russian priests, now in many cases lacking teachers. The land was purchased from the Russian Government in 1867 for $7,200,000. Sitka, the capital, formerly called New Archangel, is on Baranof Island, and has a population of about 2200. St. Paul, on Kodiak Island, has a situation well adapted for control- ling much of the commerce of the coast. 4. MEXICO, which extends from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific, and from 32° N. to 15° N., has a total area about one- fourth of that of the United States without Alaska. The larger 164 MEXICO part of the country is elevated table-land, of which the northern portion forms a continuation of the arid and desert region of Arizona and New Mexico. The densest population is found to the south of the tropic of Cancer, and more particularly on a portion of the plateau of Anahuac, which lies at an elevation of 7500 feet above sea-level. Here, on an area about equal to that of New York and Pennsylvania, is settled two-fifths of the entire population of ten and a half million. This elevated table-land, surrounded by mountains, many of which are the cones of active or extinct volcanoes, forms what is called the cold region of Mexico, and temperate and warm regions : are successively entered as one descends the outer slopes of the surrounding mountains to the belts of low flat land that border the coasts. On the table-land there is a marked contrast between a rainy season (in our summer months) and a dry season throughout the rest of the year; but in the lower levels, with their tropical heat, rain falls from time to time, even in the dry season. Among the lowlands the outlying thinly populated peninsula of Yucatan has a dry climate almost at all times. On the table-lands the products, in consequence of the elevation, are not unlike those of the South Atlantic states- corn (the principal food of the people), cotton, and even wheat and barley ; but there is one product that has always formed a very marked feature of Mexican agriculture. This is the agave or American aloe, grown chiefly for its sap, which when fer- mented yields the favorite drink of the Mexican people, called pulque. In the lowlands are grown coffee and cacao, sugar, tobacco, and vanilla. On the table-land irrigation is necessary, and the Spanish settlers have constructed great aqueducts similar to those which have existed in Spain since Roman times. Silver is found in great abundance in many places, and forms the prin- cipal export, after which come "hemp" (from Yucatan), various woods, hides, coffee, and other lowland products, and India- rubber. The so-called hemp, more properly henequen, is a fibre derived from a species of agave, and is now largely used to make packing. The export is rapidly increasing in amount. Railways are still few, but an important addition to the railway system has been made by the completion of the roads connecting 1 Tierras frias, tierras templadas, and tierras caliettes respectively. MEXICO 165 Mexico with the United States at El Paso, Piedras Negras, and Laredo on the Rio Grande, and an important railway is now in progress across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where the Rocky Mountains become nar- rowed to a single chain little more than 4000 feet in height. Another road connects Vera Cruz and the capital ; and through the rich silver- producing State of Sonora a line extends from the coast to the Southern Pacific in Arizona. Among the people the dominant race consists of Europeans of Spanish origin (Creoles), but these are greatly outnumbered by Fig. 30.— An Agave Plantation— An Aqheduct. (By the kind permission of Mr. Coles, Curator of the Map Department, Royal Geographical Society.) natives and mixed breeds (Mestizoes). Hundreds of years before the arrival of Europeans the plateau of Anahuac was the centre of powerful native empires— first, that of the Toltecs, then of the Aztecs— and monuments of both still remain scattered over Mexico and Central America. The empire of the Aztecs was overthrown by Cortez in 1521, and till the present century 166 CENTRAL AMERICA Mexico remained a Spanish dependency, but ultimately the people, following the example of the British colonists in North America, threw off the yoke of the mother country, and founded a federal republic (1824). The only towns with more than 100,000 inhabitants a;-e MEXICO (300), on the Lake of Tezcuco, and LEON (120). Three have more than 50,000, Guadalajara (80), Guanajuato (52), and Puebla (75), all si mated, like Mexico, on the table-land. Vera Cruz (24), on the Gulf of Mexico, is the chief eastern seaport ; Acapulco (3), and Mazatlan (16) the western ports. Tehuantepee (7) is growing in importance. 5. CENTRAL AMERICA.— The territory to the south of Mexico is chiefly divided among five small republics, Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, which have together an area nearly one-fourth that of Mexico, and a popula- tion a little over a fourth of that of the larger neighbor. The general character of the surface is similar to that of Mexico, but the elevation is on the whole lower. An important depression is the valley between the western mountains of Nicaragua and those of Costa Rica. In it lies the large fresh-water lake, Nicaragua, which dis- charges into the Caribbean Sea by the navigable San Juan River. This lake and river it is proposed to use as portions of an interoceanic canal, and an American company has been chartered, and has begun the necessary excavations. The elements of the population of Central America are also much the same as in Mexico. The products are those of the tropical parts of Mexico, coffee being the chief, though indigo, india-rubber, and various drugs, are of importance. Valuable timber and dyewoods are obtained from the forests, and Belize, in British Hon- duras, the only place with a good harbor on the Atlantic coast, is a great place of export for mahogany. Guatemala (59) is the largest town in Central America. The largest towns in the other Republics have from 12,000 to 15,000 inhabitants each. 6. WEST INDIES, a group of islands with a situation similar to that of the Eastern Archipelago, but differing from the latter in that they all lie to the north of the equator, and in having a much smaller aggregate area. Their whole area is not far from twice that of New York State, or only about one-third of that of the island of Borneo. Their total popu- lation is about four millions, the two largest islands, Cuba and Hayti, being very thinly populated. The group is divided into the Greater Antilles in the west, the Lesser Antilles in the east. All the islands except the Bahamas, which are flat coral islands, are more or less mountainous. The mountains, and WEST INDIES 167. higher parts of the islands generally, are covered with dense woods, to which palms and tree-ferns give the prevailing aspect, though mahogany, ebony, and other valuable timber trees are also numerous. In accordance with their tropical situation, they have a dry alternating with a rainy season. The former occurs during our winter months, when the trade- wind blows strongly over the group ; the latter during our summer, when the trade-wind moves farther north in consequence of the higher position of the sun. During the month of September, when the sea is at its hottest, the winds are very variable, and hurricanes ' are then most frequent. The chief food of the people is derived from the fleshy under- ground parts of three different plants, manioc, 2 yams, and sweet potatoes, 3 and the chief plantation crops (grown for export) are sugar, coffee, and tobacco. Mineral products are of little impor- tance, some iron being exported to the United States from Cuba, and the only important product from the animal kingdom is sponges,* obtained from the banks of the Bahamas. The population is entirely descended from natives of other continents — Europe, Africa, and Asia. At the time of their discovery by Columbus 5 the West Indies were inhabited by a pretty dense population, principally gentle Arawaks and wild and warlike Caribs, but on most of the islands the natives were speedily exterminated through the barbarities of the invaders. 6 ' Hence a large proportion of the inhabitants are the descendants of negroes, originally slaves, but now all free. Indian and Chinese coolies 7 have been introduced as laborers since the liberation of the negroes, in consequence of the unwillingness of free negroes to work. With the exception of Hayti, which is now divided between the Republic of Hayti in the west and that of San Domingo in the 1 See Introd., p. 41. 2 See p. 174. 3 A plant allied to the convolvulus, and totally different from what is now called the potato. It was this plant, however, that was first known as the potato, that name being a corruption of a word of unknown origin (batatas) designating the sweet potato. * Sponges consist of a horny skeleton of a kind of animal, the living part of which consists of a slimy substance investing the skeleton. 5 The first land reached by Columbus in the New "World was one of the Bahamas, probably Watling Island. 6 On the island of Porto Eico, no natives survived forty years after the advent of the Spaniards. 7 See p. 313. 168 SOUTH AMERICA east, all the islands now belong to European Powers ; Spain still holding the largest area, Great Britain the next largest, while France, the Netherlands, and Denmark hold the remainder. 1. To Spain belong : (1) Cuba, noted for its tobacco as well as its sugar. Its most populous part is in the west, where there are several rail- ways, and where on a fine bay on the north coast is situated the capital, HAVANA (-30), the only large town in the whole archipelago. (2) Porto Rico, in winch coffee is the product next in importance alter sugar. 2. To Great Britain belong : (1) Jamaica, south of eastern Cuba, in which, besides sugar and coffee, pimento 1 is an important product; chief port, Kingston, on the south coast. (2) The Bahamas. (3) The Leeward Islands, 2 composed of all the British Islands between Porto .Rico and Dominica, and including the latter. The principal products of the group are sugar, limes, tamarinds, and arrowroot. (4) The Windward Islands, 2 including all the islands, except Tobago, between Martinique and Trinidad ; principal, Grenada. (5) Barbados, the most densely peopled of the West India Islands, where accordingly the negroes are obliged to work in order to gain a subsistence. (6) Trinidad and Tobago, opposite the delta of the Orinoco. Trinidad has a rich soil in the west, producing sugar and cacao, and remarkable for the possession of a large asphalt lake in the interior, from which nearly all the asphalt used in paving the streets of cities is obtained. 3. To France belong the islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, besides some smaller islands. 4. To the Netherlands belong the three considerable islands of Curacao. Aruba, and Bonaire or Buen Aire, along the north coast of Venezuela, besides two smaller islands and half of a third among those of the British Leeward group. 5. To Denmark belong Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and one or two other islands among the Virgin group. SOUTH AMERICA. Approximate latitudes : Oaraccas (Saigon), 10° N. ; Quito (Stanley Palls, middle of Sumatra), 0° ; Rio de Janeiro, 23° S. ; Buenos Ayres (Adelaide), 35° S. Approximate longitudes : Cape St. Roque, 35° W. ; Punta Parinas (Key West), 82° W. South America has an area about seven-eighths that of the continental part of North America, and is the fourth continent 1 Also known as Jamaica pepper and allspice. 2 This use of the terms Leeward and Windward Islands is confined to Britain, and is quite inappropriate to the facts of the case. There is better justification for other two uses of the names adopted elsewhere. Some geographers apply the name Windward Islands to the Lesser Antilles, as being directly exposed to the trade-winds ; that of Leeward Islands to the Greater Antilles. By others, again, the latter name is applied to the islands along the north coast of Venezuela. 170 SOUTH AMERICA in order of size. It has its broadest part, in all four-fifths of its area, within the torrid zone. The Andes or Cordilleras, the longest chain of mountains in the world, traverses its whole length parallel to the west coast, with only a few breaches made by river valleys near its southern extremity. The southern part of this system is single, unless the mountains of the islands that here fringe the Chilian coast be considered as belonging to the Andes ; but north of that fringe two chains can generally be made out more or less distinctly, and about the point where the coast begins to trend north-westwards the main chains diverge most widely and enclose a table-land varying from 11,000 to 16,000 feet in height, and about 400 miles in breadth. 1 The chains again converge towards the equator, a little to the north of which the system divides into three, enclosing elevated valleys which gradually slope towards the north, and are drained by two livers, the Magdalena and Cauca, which unite before falling into the Caribbean Sea. The greater part of the system is highly volca- nic, and the whole coast which they face is subject to earthquakes. The highest summit in the chain is believed to be Aconcagua, about 32* S., which attains an elevation of more than 22,000 feet. A short range running parallel to the north coast east of the lower Magdalena takes the name of Sierra Nevada (or Snowy Sierra) of Santa Marta, from containing peaks clothed with per- petual snow, but it is the only range in South America not belonging to the Andes which reaches that limit. Two table- lands crowned with mountain ranges, whose general direction is also parallel to the nearest coast, occupy the north-east and the east, the first forming the highlands of Guiana and eastern Venezuela, the other those of Brazil. Between these highlands and the Andes stretch the great plains of South America, drained by the three great rivers, the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the Paraguay (of which the lower Parana forms a continuation). 2 These rivers are all magnificent navigable streams. The Orinoco, the upper half of which describes a somewhat semicircular course, is navigable for nearly 1000 miles; the Parana and Paraguay are navigable continuously to the interior of Brazil ; and the Amazon is more important than either in this 1 See section in diagram E., p. 63. 2 See comparison of surface of North America and South America on p. 70. CLIMATE 171 respect, being navigable without interruption for 2600 miles from its mouth, while 6000 miles of navigation in all are afforded by the main stream and its tributaries. All the main tributaries of this river and of the Paraguay, including the upper part of the course of the Parana, have their navigation more or less inter- rupted by falls and cataracts. The climate of South America is greatly affected by the chain of the Andes, the two sides of which present striking contrasts as regards rainfall and vegetation everywhere, except in the extreme north. In the north copious rains with a rich tropical vegetation occur on both sides ; the eastern plains of this region, forming the Llanos of the Lower Orinoco, are flooded during the rainy season (our summer), and during the dry season, before they become quite parched, present to view chiefly vast expanses of grass, though they are no longer so treeless as they were de- scribed by Humboldt in the early part of the present century. The contrast of climate begins about 4° S. Thence to about 30° S. the east (trade) winds, which blow from the Atlantic for the greater part of the year, deluge the eastern slopes of the Andes with rain, and cover them with dense forests as high as trees can reach. Dense tropical forests (selvas) likewise occupy the valley of the Amazon to its mouth. South of the Amazon, however, the Brazilian coast mountains deprive the Atlantic winds of much of their moisture, so that the table-lands and plains intervening between them and the Andes (the campos of Brazil and the northern part of the Gran Chaco) have only a scanty rainfall. On the west of the Andes, between the latitudes mentioned, no rain whatever falls except high up on the mountain sides, and moisture appears on the low grounds only in the form of mist (garua). Vegetation is consequently scanty except beside the rivers, and for six or seven degrees north of 28° S. the strip of coast is a desolate wilderness. South of latitude 30° S., the contrast is opposite to that just described. There the prevailing winds are from the north-west, and bring plenteous rains from equatorial seas to the western slopes of the Andes, and still farther south to the lowlands at their base ; while on the eastern side, the plains (the treeless Pampas of the Argentine Confederation and the bleak steppes of Patagonia) get drier and drier as one goes southwards. In this southern part, the western slopes of the Andes are as densely clothed with forests as the eastern slopes farther north ; but the abundance of moisture has the effect of suddenly depressing the snow-line, which is between 8000 and 9000 feet lower behind the island of Chiloe (about latitude 40°) than it is seven degrees farther north. 1 The animal world of South America is surprisingly different from that of the rest of the globe, even from that of the neigh- i SeeIntrod.,p. 53. 172 SOUTH AMERICA boring continent on the north — one proof among others that the two halves of the New World were separated from each other by water down to a comparatively recent geological period. Here and here alone are to be found great numbers of monkeys, living entirely on trees and provided with tails which can be used in grasping, blood-sucking bats, sloths, armadillos, llamas, and alpacas, a large number of gnawing animals like the rabbit (one of which, the vizcacha, burrows underground like the prairie-dog, and is as abundant in the plains of the south as the latter animal is in parts of North America), besides a greater variety of parrots and humming-birds that are found elsewhere. The latter birds are absolutely confined to the New World. The rhea, a peculiar kind of ostrich, is to be seen on the southern plains. The population is still very scanty ; according to the best estimate that can be formed, not more than 28,000,000, or about a third of that of North America. Four-tenths of the popu- lation are estimated to be native Indians, two-tenths whites, one-tenth negroes (chiefly in Brazil), and the remainder mixed races, so that on the whole the Indian element still largely pre- dominates. The white population in Brazil is of Portuguese origin, but elsewhere, except in Guiana, chiefly of Spanish descent, almost the whole continent having been divided between Spain and Portugal early in the sixteenth century. The enervating effect of the climate in the tropical portion of the continent lias retarded the development of the immense resources of the land, notwithstanding the facilities presented by the navigable streams ; and it is believed by some that Chinese labor alone can bring wealth and prosperity to these burning lands. In spite of tne fact that the land has been so long in the hands of the Europeans, it is said that there are not in all South America at the present day 100 miles of what in Europe would be called roads. Railways are now of more importance, and there are in Peru two of the most remarkable railways in the world, ' the railways in the clouds' as they have been called, since they ascend to the plateaux between the chains of the Andes, one from Lima to Oroya attaining a height of 15,600 feet. SOUTH AMERICAN STATES. 1. BRAZIL, on the east side of the continent, formerly an empire, but declared a republic under the name of the United States of Brazil after a revolution in November 1889. In size it 174 SOUTH AMERICA is, the rival of the United States and Canada. (See table, p. 370.) The population is about 12,000,000, the great majority of whom are either negroes or partly of negro descent. Many of the negroes were slaves down to the year 1888, when slavery was abolished. The population is densest in the coast provinces south of the equator. The interior is chiefly occupied by wandering native tribes. In tropical Brazil are grown all kinds of tropical products, but the great staples are manioc, coffee, 1 sugar, and cotton, the three last for export. The poisonous tubers of the manioc, when bruised and heated, yield tapioca, the principal food of large numbers of the people. Cacao and india-rubber 2 are important products of the north. Among the hills in ilie portion of Brazil outside of the tropics (only about one-fifteenth of the whole), numerous German colonies have been founded, and to these Italian colonies have more recently been added. The principal towns of Brazil are on the coast. The capital is RIO DE JANEIRO (350), situated on one of the most beautiful landlocked bays in the world, forming an excellent harbor. South of the equator the portion of the coast of Brazil exposed to the south-east trade-wind is flat, surf-beaten, and in many places bordered by sand-dunes ; 3 and BAHIA (140), or San Salvador, and PERNAMBUCO (130) are the only important seaports. The latter owes its origin to the protection afforded by a natural breakwater or reef, which gives it another name, Recife (reef). North of the equator, the coast, like the whole of the north-east coast of the continent, is bordered by shallow mud-flats, generally bear- ing mangroves. 4 2. Colonial GUIANA 5 consists of three portions — one British, with capital, Georgetown (37), at the mouth of the Dem6rara; one Dutch, called Surinam, capital Paramaribo (20), and one French, called Cayenne, capital Cayenne (5). Surinam and Cayenne are together about equal to British Guiana in size, and all three to South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. They are all engaged in the production of sugar, coffee, rum, and molasses, besides which Cayenne produces spices, Surinam cotton, and British Guiana lumber. The laborers are negroes, mulattoes, and coolies. 3. VENEZUELA, a federal republic in the north of the conti- nent, consisting chiefly of the basin of the Orinoco ; population 1 Half the coffee produced in the world, though not the best, is grown in Brazil. 2 Obtained here chiefly from a tall tree allied to the manioc shrub, not from the twining plant from which it is obtained in Africa. 3 See Introd., p. 25. * See cut, p. 58. 5 Part of Guiana belongs Brazil and Venezuela. COLOMBIA 175 more than 2,000,000, the majority of whom are settled on a small area in the north-west beyond the basin of the Orinoco, along the north and north-western slopes of the branch of the Andes, which here runs north-eastwards through the territory. People of Spanish, Indian, and negro descent, all now free, make up the population. The staple product is coffee ; but cacao, cotton, tobacco, and sugar, besides other tropical products, are grown. Gold and copper are important minerals. The llanos of the Orinoco me devoted to cattle- and horse-rearing, but the number of the live-stock Fig. 33. — Scene in Honda, Colombia. (By the kind permission of Messrs. Hacbette.) has greatly declined compared with what it once was. Capital, Caraccas (56) ; chief ports, La Guayra and Porto Cabello. 4. COLOMBIA, a federal republic in the north-west, extending as far south as the equator, with a population of more than 3,000,000, chiefly settled in the upper parts of the valleys of the Cauca and Magdalena, where in consequence of the high eleva- tion the grains of temperate climates are grown. BOGOTA (100), the capital, at the height of 8000 feet, has, though less than five degrees north of the equator, a very healthy climate, with a temperature like that of a perpetual spring. The mineral wealth is great, and gold and precious stones take a leading place among the exports, 176 SOUTH AMERICA which also include Peruvian bark, 1 coffee, cacao, &c. The great channel of communication is the Magdalena, which is navigable as high as Honda, between 500 and 600 miles from its mouth. As yet there are few railways, but one of these is of high importance, as forming the shortest connection between the shipping of the Atlantic and Pacific. The Isthmus of Panama belongs to Colombia, and here a depression in the mountains has allowed of the construction of a railway across the isthmus, at the height of 260 feet at the highest point, from Colon, or Aspinwall, on the Atlantic side, to Panama, on the Pacific side Through the same unhealthy depression an attempt is now being made to pierce a ship-canal. Cartagena (12), on the Caribbean Sea, is the chief seaport. 5. ECUADOR, 2 a republic chiefly south of the equator, but which owes its name to the fact that its capital, Quito, is almost on that line. The population is little more than 1,000,000, nearly all settled on the plateau between the chains of the Andes. Quito (80), situated at an elevation of between 9000 and 10,000 feet, has a temperature all the year round like that of our May, The only port is Guayaquil (4ort'), at the mouth of the Seine, founded by Francis I. (sixteenth century), is the chief French seaport on the west coast, the starting point of the French telegraph cable to America, and the chief seat of the French trado with that continent, whence it imports cotton and some other materials of French industry, as well as articles of food. ROUEN, the former capital of Normandy, higher up the Seine, can be reached by smallei sea-going ships, and hence is to some extent a seaport of Paris, while at the same time it, with the surrounding towns, is a great seat of cotton manufactures, and thus is for Havre on a small scale what Manchester is for Liverpool. Still higher up, just below the junction of the Seine and Marne, stands PARIS, the capital of the country, in the centre of northern France, and at the meeting-place of the two chief roads to the south, 1 the one by way of the valley of the Bhone, and the other crossing at Orleans and Poitiers, the depression separating the Central Plateau from the highlands of Brittany. Originally built on a small island in the middle of the river (now the heart of the city), it at present occupies both banks and contains 2\ milli ons of inhabitants, second to London alone among the cities of the world in point of population. Its exposed situation renders defen- sive works necessary, and, besides being surrounded by a strong wall, it is protected by a ring of forts extending a considerable distance into the country round. Famous all over the western world as the centre of fashion and elegance, it is in France without a rival in influence, the focus of all the best intellect and energies in the country, and the originator of all the movements by which the destiny of the people is decided. W.S.W. of Paris is Versailles, formerly a favourite residence of the French kings, from Louis XIV. downwards. 2. Lowlands of the Loire basin with. Brittany and western Normandy, a district without important industrial towns, but containing many towns of historical celebrity. On the deeply indented rocky coast of Brittany, the inlets, though like those in the West of Ireland, Wales, and the Scottish Highlands, too far removed from the seats of agricultural, manufacturing, and mining industry to serve as seaports, are well suited for naval stations, of which there are two on these coasts — Lorient on the south, and Brest on the west (the Plymouth and Portsmouth of France). On the less favoured coast of Normandy another great naval station has been constructed at great expense at Cherbourg, on the small bay in the north of the western peninsula facing the south coast of England. The coasts of Brittany abound in fish (sar- dines, &c), and the fishermen are the hardiest seamen in France. There are two seaports at or near the mouth of the Loire : NANTES, 80 miles from the mouth, the elder of the two, now, in consequence of i See Introd. p. 61 (8). FRANCE 211 the silting of the river bed, accessible only for small sea-going ships, and hence superseded for large vessels by St. Nazaire, at the mouth. 1 Higher up the Loire valley are Angers, on the Maine, the capital of the former province of Anjou ; Tours, on the Loire itself, capital of that of Touraine, ' the garden of France ; ' and Orleans, capital of the much less fertile OrUannais, a town which has long been of importance in consequence of its favourable position, (1) at the bend of the river Loire, and (2) at the point where the river is crossed by the highway from Paris to the south-west 2 ; Poitiers, on a tributary of the Vienne, to the south of the Loire, capital of Poitou, an old and old-looking town, long important on account of its position on the same highway. Higher up the same tributary, on the skirts of the Central Plateau, stands the considerable town of Limoges, capital of the old province of Limousin. 3. South-western France (greater part of the Garonne basin, with those of the Charente and Adour). The principal old provinces of this region are Guienne, 3 on both sides of the Lower GaronDe, and Gascony, in the south-west, named after the Basques, 4 a small remnant of whom still occupy the extreme south-west corner. In the northern part of this region there are no towns with more than 50,000 inhabitants, not even the fortified coast towns of la Bochelle, and Bochefort (the latter a naval station) ; but on the Garonne a short distance above the head of the long estuary of the Gironde, formed by the union of that river with the Dordogne, stands BORDEAUX (240, the ancient Burdigala), the third seaport in France, the place of export of the claret of Medoc and other wines grown in the surrounding country. Here also, however, has arisen lower down a seaport for larger steamers, Pauillac, on the left bank of the Gironde. The tract on the coast south of the Gironde is the flattest in France, and one of the most unhealthy and least populous,* though it has increased in population and salubrity within the last generation, since it has been drained by a well-constructed system of canals. Formerly the population consisted mainly of shepherds, who tended their scattered flocks on stilts. The fortress of Bayonne, at the mouth of the Adour, is said to have given name to the bayonet (though this is not certain). Pan, at the base of the Pyrenees, on a rapid Pyrenean tributary of this river, called the Gave de Pau, is celebrated as a resort for invalids. 4. The North-eastern Highlands (part of the Meuse and Moselle basins, and those of the head-waters of the Seine). In the extreme north-east is the portion of the province of Lor- i See Introd. p. 61 (1) (c). s See Introd. p. 61 (2). * A corruption of the ancient Aquitania. 4 See Spain, p. 267. 6 In the north of the department of Landes and the south of that of Gironde there is an area about twice as large as Ehode Island, in which the population is less than 50 to the square mile, or only one-fourth the average density. 212 EUROPE raine left to France after the Franco-German war, with the fortified towns of Verdun and Toul, and the considerable manufacturing town of Nancy. To the west lies the province of Champagne, the greater part of which has a chalky soil, which is suited for little but sheep pastures, and hence supplies wool to the woollen manufactories, which are the source of the present prosperity of the historically celebrated town of Reims (where the French kings used to be crowned). The western slopes of the hills in this province are planted with carefully tended vineyards producing the famous wine, in the making of which the numerous lime- stone caves play an important part. The trade in champagne is centred at Epernay and at Chalons-sur Maine. 1 5. The Central Plateau, for the most part bleak, unproductive, and thinly peopled, especially in the south, has no considerable towns except those already mentioned (Clermont, 2 St. Etienne, 3 Creuzot 3 ). Here the Arverni, who give name to the province of Auvergne, offered a stubborn resistance to the Romans, and in the Middle Ages and down to the second half of the seventeenth century numerous practically independent barons occupying strong castles defied the authority of the kings. At present the Auvergnats, a frugal honest race, are chiefly known, like the inhabitants of Savoy and other mountainous districts, for their habit of migrating to the richer provinces of France to earn a living, but always returning when they can to their unproductive but much-loved homes. 6. Valley of the Saone and Rhone and Mediterranean Region. — The northern part of this section of France (one of the most populous in the whole country) once formed the nucleus of the Duchy of Burgundy with the Franche Comt6, the former of which was united to the kingdom of France towards the close of the fifteenth century, the latter not till two centuries later. Dijon, where the Burgundy Canal quits the vineclad slopes of the Cote d'Or, is the centre of the trade in Burgundy wine. Chalon-sur- Saone is a place of some importance in consequence of its situation at the point where the Canal da Centre communicates with the Saone. On the Doubs, a tributary of the Saone, stands Besan.). II See p. 200. 8 Seep.2J8. BELGIUM AND HOLLAND 213 Nemausws, important towns in the ancient Provincial (Provence), and interesting on account of their Eoman remains ; on the Isere, a left- bank tributary of the Rhone, Grenoble (see Alps). West of the Lower Rhone the greater part of the region once formed the province of Languedoc, the chief town in which is the long celebrated TOULOUSE, on the Garonne, at the place where that river is joined by the Canal du Midi (southern canal), the canal which connects the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean by means of the Garonne and other canals parallel to the Garonne. In the same old province, near the coast, is Montpellier. with a celebrated school of medicine founded by Arabs.* The still important seaports of the Mediterranean coast are confined to the east, and among these is the greatest and oldest of all French seaports, MARSEILLES (380), the ancient Massilia, a town which was founded by a Greek colony in the eighth century B.C., on a fine bay as near as possible to the delta of the Rhone, 3 and speedily developed into a great seaport on account of its situation at the end of the only convenient route connecting north Europe 4 with the western half of the Mediter- ranean. Farther east is the almost impregnable fortress of Toulon, with a naval station ; and under the shelter of the spurs of the Alps are the mild health resorts of Cannes, Nice, and Mentone, and between the two latter Monaco, the capital of a nominally independent principality less than ten square miles in extent. The unsheltered parts of this coast are exposed to a hateful scourge in the form of a bitterly cold wind, known as the mistral, which sweeps down from the cold plateau on the north-west, or the icy summits of the Alps in the north and north- east. At Marseilles it blows on an average for nearly half the number of days in the year. The highly mountainous island of Corsica (about twice as large as Long Island) has several summits between 8,000 and 9,000 feet in height, and is thinly peopled by an Italian-speaking population. It has two small coast towns, Bastia in the north-east, and Ajaccio in the west, the latter celebrated as the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte. BELGIUM AND HOLLAND OR THE NETHERLANDS. 6 (With the Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg.) Approximate latitudes: (Birmingham), Amsterdam (Berlin), 52J°; Antwerp (Leipzig). 51°. Approximate longitudes : south-west point, 2£° E. ; north-east frontier, 7° E. 1 So called as being the first Roman province formed in France ( Gallia trans- alpina). 2 See Spain, p 264 n. 1. 3 On the marshy and unhealthy delta itself there is no suitable site for a sea- port. * Through the valleys of the Rhone, Saone, and Rhine. 6 Kingdom of the Netherlands is the name given by the people of that kingdom 214 EUROPE The south-east portion of the territory forming these two countries belongs to the highlands of Central Europe, and attains an elevation of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet. Thence the surface gradually sinks towards the west and north, till it forms the lowest part of the European plain. A large area in the west even lies below sea-level. At one time the chain of downs which begins in the north-east of France and ends on the west coast of Jutland was continued right round the coast of Belgium and the Netherlands, being only broken by the mouths of the FIO. 89.— Wisdmills pon the Dbauukg of a Poldek at Zaandam, North Holland. Ehine, Maas, and Scheldt ; but the land here subsiding enabled the sea to break in and convert the deltas of these rivers into a network of sea-channels. Farther north, the sea in the thirteenth century bursting in through the downs now forming the islands of Texel, Vlieland, &c, brought a lake which then occupied the south-eastern part of the present Zuider Zee 1 into to the country which we call Holland, the latter name being applied by them only to two low-lying provinces in the west (provinces which, however, contain the bulk of the population). Formerly the name Netherlands included most of the provinces of both Holland and Belgium of the present day. '" "" 1 Pronounced Zoider za, Dutch =' South Sea.' BELGIUM AND HOLLAND 215 connection with the ocean, and spread over a large area that intervened. Little of the land then lost has since been recovered ; but in the west, where the submerged area was overspread with deposits from sea and river, fitting the ground when drained for rich pasture lands and fertile corn-fields, a district somewhat larger than the state of Rhode Island has been added to the laud surface of the country since the sixteenth century. All this part of the country, as well as other low-lying tracts subject to occasional flooding, are divided up into sections called polders, enclosed by dykes, or artificial embankments, and drained by pumping machinery. This machinery is mostly driven by windmills, for the flatness of the country and its proximity to the sea enable the winds to blow over it with the same steadiness as over the ocean, and thus to form an unusually serviceable source of power. The chief rivers of Belgium and the Netherlands all have their sources outside the boundaries of these countries. The Ehine, entering from Germany on the east, soon divides into two branches, that on the right retaining the name of the Rhine, while that on the left receives the name of Waal. The former gives off on the right two small branches (the second of which again divides), while the main stream is continued under the name of the Lek. The Waal ultimately unites with the Maas, and this name is henceforth applied to the single stream, which lower down receives the Lek also. The Maas (French, Meuse) enters Belgium on the south from France, receiving thence also its largest tributary, the Sambre, on the left, and before joining the Waal describes a semicircle to the east ; a similar curve is described by the other principal river, the Scheldt (Fr. Escaut), which also enters on the south from France, and also receives from the same country on its left bank an important tributary, the Lys. The union of the Maas and Ehine constitutes in one way a pecu- liar danger for the Netherlands, since the fine mud which theycarry down from the higher parts of their course is steadily deposited in the sluggish reaches near their mouth, where accordingly the bed of the united rivers is constantly being raised higher and higher, the surface ever nearer the tops of the embankments, which thus have from time to time to be raised in height. To remedy this it is now proposed to dig a new channel for the Lower Maas, so as to prevent its union with, the Ehine. (See Introd. pp. 27-8.) 216 EUROPE In other respects the rivers, of the Netherlands especially, are of extreme value, for they are not only themselves navigable channels, but their height above the land makes it peculiarly easy to feed navi- gable canals by their means, and all the chief dykes have canals as well as roads running along them. Canals are numerous even in the cities. The density of the population is high in both countries. In Belgium 1 it is higher than in any other country in the world except Saxony, which is only half the size. In both countries this high density is due in part to the same causes, the advanced condition of commerce and agriculture. The Dutch 2 in particular are a nation of merchants, and the value of the foreign commerce per head of population is greater than in any other country in Europe. This pre-eminence is largely due to the vast colonial possessions 3 in Asia, whence the mother country derives immense quantities of coffee, sugar, rice, indigo, spices, &c, much of which is re-exported. Agriculture is almost everywhere pursued with the greatest industry and success, though it has not in all places the advan- tage of a rich soil such as that of the Polders. In both countries there are large tracts where the soil is naturally unfruitful, but even these have in great part been rendered fertile by the labour of centuries. In the north-east of Belgium and south-east of the Netherlands there is, however, a large area of sandy soil which is still thinly peopled, and in the east of the Netherlands exten- sive peat-bogs which are only with difficulty brought under culti- vation by draining the land by means of deep canals and trenches, stripping the surface of peat (for fuel) and manuring the under- lying soil. Such tracts are known as Hohe Veenen (high fens). In the Netherlands cattle-rearing is more general than tillage, and hence butter, cheese, and live animals are what that country supplies most abundantly to others out of its own resources. In Belgium, on the other hand, tillage predominates, and besides great quantities of grain 4 there is produced much flax and beet. In both countries the chief grains are rye, wheat, and oats. Wine is grown in the south-east (including Luxemburg). Except 1 Nearly 500 to the square mile. 2 This term, a corruption of the Ger. Deutsch, meaning German, was applied to the Germans in the last century, but is now applied to the people of the Netherlands. 3 See p. 285. * Relatively to area, Belgium produces a greater quantity of grain than any Other country in the world regarding which statistics can be obtained. BELGIUM AND HOLLAND 217 wine, the Netherlands grow in smaller quantity all the products of Belgium, and in the former country the growing of vegetables and ornamental flowers (Dutch bulbs) is an important specialty. But besides commerce and agriculture the inhabitants depend to a large extent on manufacturing industry, those of Belgium also on mining, and it is chiefly to this cause that the extremely high density of population is due. The outer margin of the plateau in the south-east, like the margin of the same plateau in west Germany, is occupied by a rich coal-field, containing also iron, the products of which not only support large manufac- tories in Belgium itself, but also supply a large surplus for export, chiefly to France. The chief manufactures of Belgium are cotton, linen, and woollen goods, and machinery ; and the chief manufacturing centres are Liege, on the Meuse, Mons, on a tributary of the Scheldt near the French frontier, and Ghent, at the confluence of the Scheldt and Lys. Besides coal and iron, zinc is also an important mineral product. In Holland also linen and cotton manufactures are highly important, and Holland now comes next after Great Britain in the quantity of raw cotton it imports per head of population, to be made into yam or cloth in the country. Another important mechanical industry is the building of wooden ships, the timber for which is floated down the Bhine from the Black Forest. Various industries are, however, pursued on a small scale, and as in draining the polders the wind is very largely made use of to drive the machinery for the purpose. Windmills grind corn, coffee, and chocolate, scutch flax and hemp, bruise oil-seeds, mash paper-pulp, and perform other operations. To understand the great density of population in Belgium and the Netherlands, we must have regard also to the history of the countries. Though the absolute amount of the commerce of these regions can never have been as large as it is at present, its relative amount was in earlier times even greater. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century the seaports of Antwerp and Bruges were the rivals in commerce of Venice and Genoa, and the development of population dates from that period. Commerce stimulated all other branches of industry. Manufactures flourished from the ease with which raw materials could be obtained from abroad, manufactured goods sent away to distant 218 EUROPE markets. Supplied with wool from England and elsewhere, Ghent and other cities of Flanders wove immense quantities of cloth at a time when English manufactures were unknown, and to meet the wants of artizans and traders the soil was cultivated with an amount of care which would have been thrown away elsewhere. This wealth made the possession of the Low Countries or Netherlands an object of desire to many princes, and after fre- quently changing masters the provinces came into the hands of the kings of Spain about the beginning of the sixteenth century. About that time the Eeformation movement began, and the zealous Eoman Catholic king of Spain, Philip II., made every effort to prevent the adoption of Protestant principles by the people of the Netherlands. In the end, the northern provinces, which had firmly embraced Protestantism, acquired their independence, but the southern provinces were subjected and kept attached to Roman Catholicism. Both divisions ultimately became kingdoms, but their present existence as separate kingdoms dates only from 1880. 1 The Dutch language is a Teutonic tongue, more closely allied to English than German is, and a dialect only slightly different (Flemish) is spoken by more than half of the inhabitants of Belgium, the remaining half of whom in the south (Walloons) speak French. Elementary education is compulsory in both countries.; but education generally is more advanced in Holland than in Belgium. In religion the former country is Protestant, the latter Roman Catholic. Towns and Districts.— 1. Belgium. GHENT (prov. East Flanders), at one time the residence of the Counts of Flanders, attained the height of its prosperity in the fifteenth century, at which date it was more populous than Paris. Its modern prosperity it owes to cotton manu- factures ; Ghent containing half of all the Belgian cotton spinneries. Bruges, in West Flanders, formerly the port of Ghent, is a declining town, and has now only interesting relics of a past glory. Ostende" amidst the downs of the coast, is chiefly noted as a sea-bathing place ANTWERP s (nearly 200 ; in 1846, 100 ; prov. Antwerp) a little above the head of the estuary of the Scheldt, occupies a position nearly as favourable for commerce as London, and is now growing with rapid strides as a seaport. In former days it reached the height of its 1 Luxemburg is divided between Belgium and the Netherlands. The Belgiau portion is a province of that kingdom, but the Dutch portion has the tide of a grand duchy and has a separate government and legislative body, the King of Holland, as grand-duke, merely appointing a governor. > See Introd. p. 61 (1) (o). ' BELGIUM AND HOLLAND 219 prosperity in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, declining in the seven- teenth on the rise of the Dutch seaports ; hut it has now once more outstripped the latter, and beoome one of the greatest seaports on the mainland of Europe, importing the raw material not only for the manufactories of Belgium, but also to a large extent for those of the middle Bhine basin. It is strongly fortified, and is likewise noted for its fine cathedral and its art treasures. BRUSSELS (prov. South Bra- bant), near the centre of the country, at the meeting of hill and plain, with manufactures of carpets and lace, a town of comparatively modern origin, but now the capital of Belgium. Immediately to the south lies the battlefield of Waterloo, louvain, in the same province, east of Brussels, is the seat of the most flourishing of the Belgian universities. In the fertile province of Hainaut is lions, the neighbourhood of which is crowded with coal-mines and ironworks, and is the most densely inhabited part of Belgium. LIEGE, capital of the eastern province of the same name, on the Meuse, where it begins to turn northwards, is the Belgian Birmingham, and its suburb, Seraing, is noted for its machinery and other iron manufactures. Verviers, in the same province, has important woollen manufactures. 2. Netherlands.— In North Holland, AMSTERDAM (370), on the Ij.'a branch of the Zuider Zee, the chief commercial town in the country, first acquired importance after the revolt against Philip II. of Spain. The Zuider Zee being too shallow for shipping, a canal was constructed first of all northwards to Helder, opposite the island of Texel, but this has recently been superseded by another canal, which proceeds westwards to the North Sea at Ijmuiden, 2 and is capable of being used by the largest ships. The population includes a large proportion of Jews, among whom are many diamond merchants. Haarlem (prov North Holland), a few miles west of Amsterdam, is the centre of the flower cultivation of the Netherlands. Leiden (South Holland) is the seat of a well-known university, 3 famous in last century for its medical school. The Hague (Dutch, 'S Gravenhage, ' The Count's Hedge '), also in South Holland, a few miles to the south-west of Leiden, is the political capital of the country. ROTTERDAM (South Holland), south- east of the Hague, on the Maas, still the chief seaport in the Nether- lands, having outstripped Amsterdam when that port was not accessible for ships of a large size. Utrecht, in the province of the same name, important as a seat of trade and industry, first of all on account of its situation at the point where the Old Bhine 4 and the Vecht 4 diverge, the former the water-way from Germany to Leiden, the latter to Amster- dam ; now a railway centre. It is also the seat of a university, and his- torically is noted as the place where several important treaties were concluded in 1713. 1 Formerly spelt T, pronounced like the English letter I. 8 That is, ' Mouth of the Ij : ' ui in Dutch is pronounced like oi in English. s Pounded by William of Orange in 1575 to commemorate the heroism dis- played by the inhabitants during the siege which it had just sustained against the Spaniards. 4 The two most northerly arms of the Rhine, formed by the branching of the Eromme (crooked) Rhine. 220 EUROPE GERMANY. Approximate latitudes: (York), Month of Elbe, Liibeck, 54°; (Bir- mingham), Berlin, 52£ c ; (Mouth of Loire), southern frontier (Buda- pest), 47J°. Approximate longitude : 6° to 23° E. Germany is an empire in Central Europe, rather larger in area and considerably more populous than France. It is for the most part without natural boundaries 1 in the east and west, but separated in the south from Austria and Switzerland by a series of mountains and the Lake of Constance. The surface is for the most part mountainous or highland (above 1,000 feet) in the south-west, while in the north and east it is part of the great Central Plain of Europe. If we begin our description in the south-west we notice first of all a range of mountains, the Vosges (Ger. Vogesen), running north and south on the left bank of the Ehine, and now forming part of the Franco-German frontier. On the opposite side of the Ehine, at the point where that river turns to the north, we observe the junction of two mountains or narrow plateaux, one of which runs north, parallel to the Vosges, the other north-east. The former is known as the Black Forest, from its covering of dark pines ; the latter is a continuation of the Swiss Jura, and in Germany first receives the name of the Suabian Alps (in Wurtem- berg), and afterwards that of the Franconian Jura (in Bavaria). The direction of these latter ranges is at first nearly parallel to the course of the Danube, but opposite the bend of that river, where Eatisbon stands, becomes more northerly, the Franconian Jura advancing in that direction nearly to the Fichtelgebixge, in the north-east of Bavaria. From the neighbourhood of this somewhat isolated group other three mountain ranges strike off in different directions — one, the Franconian 2 and Thuringian 3 Forests, to the north-west ; a second, the Erzgebirge, 4 to the north-east ; and the third, the Bohemian Forest, 5 to the south-east. These mountains may be considered as marking off different regions of the German highlands. 1 By natural boundaries is meant boundaries formed by some well-marked physical feature, such as seas or mountain chains. 2 Ger. Franhenwald. 5 Ger. Thilringenvald. * Ger. = Ore Mountains. * Ger. Bohmerwald GERMANY 221 (1)^ The German Jura, the Bohemian Forest in the east of Bavaria, and the Alps in the south of Bavaria, enclose a triangle consisting mainly of a bleak plateau with considerable stretches of moorland. (2) A second triangle lies to the north-west of the Jura, and is bounded on the other two sides by the Thurin- gian Forest and a plateau of ancient slates, through the middle of which the Bhine has cut for itself a deep gorge, where it flows from Bingen towards the north-west. This triangle, drained by the Neckar and the Main, as well as the Rhine, is very varied in surface, but its valleys are among the most favoured parts of Germany in respect of soil and climate. Specially favoured is the flat portion of the valley of the Bhine between Mainz ' in the north and Basel 2 in the south, and between the Black Forest and the Vosges in the east and west. (3) A third triangle looks to the north-east, bounded on two sides by the Thuringian Forest and the Erzgebirge, the latter of which slope gradually towards Germany with parallel undulations, while the third side is formed by the irregular outline of the German plain, which, in the west, begins only at the base of the Hartz Mountains, a some- what isolated range, stretching parallel to the Thuringian Forest, a little to the south of lat. 52° N. This triangle is also very varied in surface, though still mainly highland. The valley of the Weser separates this triangle from the slate plateau in the extreme west, a plateau which is itself surmounted here and there by smaller plateaux or mountains. These are in some cases masses of granite, in others, as in the Eifel, north of the Moselle, on the left bank of the Bhine, ancient' volcanoes like those of the Auvergne region in France. 3 Their craters now form in some cases the basins of small lakes. Beyond the Erzgebirge, the frontier mountains of Germany again take a south-easterly direction, like the Bohemian Forest, as well as the Thuringian Forest and the Hartz Mountains, and they lie indeed in the same line with the last-mentioned range. The general name of the Sudetes is sometimes applied to the whole series ; but the north-west section is most usually distin- guished by the name of Riesengebirge. 4 It is opposite the Sudetes that the German plain spreads out to its widest. The German lowlands are for the most part undulating. i$l.Mayenoe. 'Ei.Bdle. Seep.238n.2. 'See cut, p. 206. «Ger.=GiantMountains. 222 EUROPE Only here and there are there perfectly level tracts. The soil is not in general very fertile, but in the west there occurs near the coast a considerable tract, over which the sea has in former times spread a covering of rich deposits now occupied by corn-fields and meadows. This tract, which is divided up by dykes and canals like the Dutch polders, presents a marked contrast to the more barren and heathy region behind. The outskirts of the German highlands contain nearly all the important mineral deposits of the country. At the foot of the Sudetes in Upper Silesia (Prussia) are found coal, iron, and zinc, the former of which have made this the seat of a great iron industry, of which BRESLATT (300), on the Oder, is the centre. The Erzgebirge yield silver, lead, and tin ; and a rich coal-field at their base has converted this part of Germany into an important manufacturingregion, the centre of which is CHEMNITZ, 1 the Saxon Manchester (in the kingdom of Saxony). The Hartz Mountains, one of the oldest mining districts of Germany, yield metals of all sorts, and the northern slopes of the western plateau furnish nearly inexhaustible supplies of coal and iron, so that this region, favoured also by its situation near the coast, and its easy access to the Ehine, is the most important of all the industrial dis- tricts of Germany, and is almost as thickly studded with manufac- turing towns as South Lancashire or the south-west of Yorkshire. The district belongs entirely to the Prussian provinces of the Ehine and Westphalia. The principal towns in it are the twin towns of BARMEN and ELBERFELD, with manufactures of silk and cotton ; COLOGNE, 2 Dttsseldorf (also famous for its school of painting) ; Aachen, 3 chief seat of the German woollen manufactures ; Krefeld, chief seat of the silk manufactures • Dortmund and Essen, the chief centres of the coal and iron industry of Germany, the latter with the vast iron and steel works of Krupp ; Bonn, on the Rhine, more celebrated as the birthplace of Beethoven than as a manufacturing town. Besides the minerals already mentioned, amber is still an important product on the eastern shores of the Baltic. 4 Salt is obtained in various places ; and besides common salt, there are 1 It is worthy of note, however, that in the kingdom of Saxony the textile and other manufactures are not so much centralised in large towns as in other great industrial regions, but are distributed over a crowd of small towns and villages. 8 Ger. Koln, both forms being corruptions of the first half of the ancient Roman name, Colonia Agrippina. It is famous for its cathedral, commenced in 1248, bat not completed till 1880. 8 Better known by the French name of Aix-la-ChapeUe. * See p. 233. GERMANY 223 produced at Stassfurt, in Prussian Saxony, great quantities of potash salts, which form a valuable manure. In other parts of Germany the people are chiefly engaged in agriculture and cattle-rearing. The chief crops are rye, potatoes, and sugar-beet. 1 In the warmer valleys lying amidst the highlands of Central Germany, fruit and wine become important products, but more fruit than wine is grown ; while further to the south-west, and especially on the hills looking down on the Ehine and its tributaries, the Neckar and the Main, wine is the staple production, and tobacco, maize, and hops also attain importance. Forests cover one-fourth of the entire surface, and in ancient times all Central Europe appears to have been, like Britain, chiefly an area of woodland and marshes. The rivers of Germany, all of which, except the Danube and its tributaries, drain into the German Ocean and the Baltic, are of great value as highways of commerce, and hence have an exceptionally large number of important towns on or near their banks. The Rhine, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula are navigable for all or nearly all that part of their course which lies within the German frontier. The first two, both broad and deep rivers, are specially important, and still carry enormous quantities of merchandise, notwithstanding the development of railways, and the banks of the Ehine are studded with a larger number of important towns than those of any other river in Europe. In the commerce of Germany wool takes an important place among the imports, as among those of France, and the same two countries, the Argentine Republic and Australia, are the principal sources of the supply. Along with wool, grain and raw cotton are the chief imports, and woollen and silk manufactures together with sugar form the chief exports. The population of Germany is rapidly increasing, notwith- standing a rapid emigration, especially to the United States and Australia. Its average density is upwards of 200 to the square mile. 2 The majority speak German dialects, but in the east 1 A plant allied to mangold, with a thick tapering root, the chief source of sugar on the mainland of Europe. 2 The densest population is in the kingdom of Saxony (where the density exceeds BOO to the square mile) and in the industrial region of the west. Comp. p. 216, n. 1. 224 EUROPE (Prussian province of Posen, and parts of the provinces of West Prussia and Silesia) the people are chiefly Poles, a Slavonic people. At one time Slavs extended much farther west. The migrations of German tribes which broke up the Eoman empire in the fourth and fifth centuries were largely due to the pressure of Slavs in the east, and gradually the Slavs advanced as far as the Elbe and the Saale (the middle of Germany). By degrees they were driven back, and those who were left for the most part Germanized. The German-speaking tribes then became the leading power in Central Europe. A German Empire, consisting of a large number of feudal states, embraced not only the greater part of the present Empire, but, at the height of its power, also Bohemia, Moravia, the entire domain of the Alps, the north of Italy, the Burgundian plain in the basin of the Bhone and Saone, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The supreme ruler claimed to be the successor >of the Boman emperors, and, being crowned by the popes, called his dominion the Holy Eoman Empire. From the sixteenth century, in con- sequence of the wars between Boman Catholics and Protestants after the Beformation, the power of the emperors rapidly diminished, the different states becoming more and more independent, and during the Napoleonic wars the empire ceased to exist even in name. A confederacy was then formed, of which Austria was a member ; but Austria was expelled in 1866 after a war with Prussia, which henceforth became the leading state. The present German empire, comprising twenty-five independent states, besides the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine, 1 was con- stituted in 1871 during the continuance of the Franco-German war. The following table shows the principal members of the German Empire : — Area in Fop in Area in Pop. In Kingdoms thousands of millions Grand-duchies thousands of millions sq. miles (1885) sq. miles (1885) Prussia , . 134 28 3 Haden . . • 5-8 1-6 Bavaria . . . 29 5-4 Hesse-Darmstadt . 3 1 Saxony . . . 5-8 x 3-2 Mecklenburg- Wiirtemberg . . 7-5 2-0 Schwerin . . 6 0-6 Imperial Territory Mecklenburg-Stielitz 1 Saxe-Weimar . . 1'4 01 0-3 Alsace-Lorraine . 5-6 1-6 Oldenburg . . .2-5 0-3 1 Ger. Elsass-Lothringen, but generally known in this country by the French name on account of the long connection of the provinces with France, from which GERMANY 225 There are in addition five duchies > and seven principalities, with an average area about equal to that of Maryland, besides the three cities 2 of Hamburg, Bremen, aud Liibeck, which have a republican form of government. The position of these states can be learned only from the map ; but it may be noted that Prussia extends (with interrup- tions) along the whole length of North Germany; in Soutli Germany between France and Austria, Alsace-Lorraine, Baden, Wiirtemberg, and Bavaria, succeed one another from west to east, and Saxony lies to the south of Central Prussia. The kingdom of Prussia is divided into twelve provinces, most of which are at least twice as large as Yorkshire. Three-fifths of the inhabitants of the empire are Protestants. scarcely two-fifths (chiefly in the east and south-west) Roman Catholics. Education is very widely diffused and highly ad- vanced. There are twenty-one universities, the chief of which are at Berlin, Leipzig, and Munich. Towns. — 1. Seaports. — On the coast of the German Ocean, where a line of downs, fringed by small islands (the Frisian Islands), separated from the coast by a sea so shallow 3 that several of them can be reached on foot at low tide, forms a con- tinuation of the coast-line of Holland, the only seaports are at the mouths of the rivers. On the Weser stands BREMEN, at the head of navigation for sea-going ships, but no longer accessible for ships of large burden, 4 on which account Bremerhaven. at the mouth of the estuary, was founded by the city on land purchased in 1827 from Hanover, which has itself founded the contiguous seaport of Geestemunde ; HAMBURG (300 ; pop. of the entire state, 600), at the head of the estuary of the Elbe, is still accessible, with the aid of the flood-tide (which rises on an average above 6 feet), for the largest sea-going vessels, and is the chief seaport in Germany. This pre-eminence it owes not only to its commerce with the eastern ports of Britain and North America, but also to the fact that it stands at the mouth of a river which is navigable they were acquired by Germany only at the conclusion of the Franco-German war in 1871. It is directly under the Imperial government. 1 Brunswick, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Altenburg, Anhalt. 2 Often called the Hanse Towns, and until quite recently the/«e cities, as being the last independent survivors of the Hansa, a league of trading towns formed in the Middle Ages for mutual protection. The league had a dep6t in London which was long known as the Steelyard. 8 The so-called Watten. * See Introd. p. 61 (1) (c). P 226 EUROPE even into the heart of Bohemia. The contiguous port of Altona is in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. Cuxhaven, a port belong- ing to Hamburg, at the mouth of the estuary, is naturally of less importance to Hamburg than Bremerhaven to Bremen, though useful, especially in winter. Tonning, at the western end of the Eider Canal, 1 which affords a passage for small seagoing ships between the German Ocean and the Baltic, is a small town but a seaport of rising importance, in consequence of its exports to Britain of sheep and cattle. The inlet in the north of the duchy of Oldenburg, known as the Jahde, due to an irruption of the sea in the Middle Ages, was purchased in 1823 by Prussia, which at great cost established here the naval station of Wilhelmshaven, the only German naval station the waters of which do not freeze in winter. 2 The east coast of Schleswig-Holstein presents a complete contrast to that of the west, having a large number of beautiful creeks, forming admirable natural harbours, only one or two of which, however, have anything but local importance. Kiel (Prussia), having the finest natural harbour on the German shores of the Baltic, is the principal station of the German navy, and a place of considerable trade. Liibeck, at the head of the next bay to the south-east, was in the Middle Ages, before the extension of German civilisation to the seaports in the east of the Baltic, and before the dis- covery of America gave greater importance to the seaports communi- cating more directly with the Atlantic, one of the leading seaports in Europe, for some time at the head of the Hansa, but is now only of local consequence through its Baltic trade. Wismar (Mecldenburg-Schwerin) is still more decayed, and Stettin (Prus. prov. Pomerania), at the mouth of the Oder, is the next impor- tant seaport. Swinemunde, on the island of Usedom, has the same relation to Stettin as Cuxhaven to Hamburg, and is, besides, a fortified naval station of the German Empire. On the low, flat coast 3 border- ing the sterile strip of Eastern Pomerania, there are no seaports of consequence ; but in the provinces of East and West Prussia there are three ports, Danzig, Konigsberg, and Memel, all of which carry on a large export trade in the products of the land behind them (timber, grain, flax, and hemp). DANZIG (prov. of West Prussia) stands at the mouth of a small branch of the Vistula, which diverges to the Gulf of Danzig, instead of entering the shallow lagoon called the FriBCb.es Haff, which is separated from the gulf by a long, low sand-spit. KONIGSBERG (Eastern Prussia), at the mouth of the Pregel, at the eastern extremity of the Haff just mentioned, owes its rise to an inroad of the sea, which effected a communication with the Baltic at this part. It is the seat of a university at which the philosopher Kant was a professor. Memel 1 Another canal to admit the largest vessels is being constructed from the mouth of the Elbe to Kiel Bay, and will supersede the Eider Canal. 2 The comparatively fresh waters of the Baltic freeze very readily, see p. 186. 3 See Introd. p. 48. GERMANY 227 stands at the northern extremity of the Kurisohes Haff, which is even shallower than the Frisches Haff, and hence inaccessible to sea-going vessels. 2. Inland Towns of the Plain.— The most important of these is BERLIN (Prussian province of Brandenburg), capital of Prussia and the German Empire, on the insignificant river Spree, which communicates with the Elbe, partly by means of artificial channels. Situated in the midst of an unfruitful, sandy district, it owes its im- portance solely to the fact of its lying in the centre of the German plain, which made it a convenient spot to select as the capital of the power which acquired predominance in that plain. 1 This fact has likewise promoted the development of its trade, and manufacturing industry (above all, the making of machines) has naturally been added. Its population is now upwards of 1,300,000. About 20 miles to the west is the garrison town of Potsdam, with the summer palaces of the Prussian kings. Posen (prov. Posen), a flourishing commercial town on the Warta (trib. Oder), almost due east of Berlin, likewise owes its rise to its central situation. South of Posen, EBESIAU, the chief town of Silesia not only the seat of a great iron industry (see above p. 222), but also of various other manufactures and the chief market for Silesian wool and zinc. MAGDEBURG (prov. Saxony), west-south-west of Berlin on the Elbe, where some harder rocks rise above the plain to form the banks of the river, and where accordingly the river was easily bridged ; 2 hence an important place both in war and commerce. It also lies at the westernmost point of a long reach of the river which divides a fertile tract on the west from barren sands in the east, and as the former is the chief district in Germany for the growth of sugar-beet, Magdeburg is the centre of the German manufacture of sugar. 3 In 1631 the town was cruelly sacked by the soldiers of Tilly the Im- perialist general, and its military importance is still recognised by the fact of its being the only place in the centre of Germany the forti- fications of which are maintained. West-north-west of Magdeburg is situated HANOVER (prov. Hanover), on the Leine, where it begins to be navigable, the residence of the former kings of Hanover, and now important as the centre of the Hanoverian railway system. All the towns of the plain hitherto mentioned are now in the kingdom of Prussia, but there are two large towns in the kingdom of Saxony 4 in this part of Germany, one, DRESDEN (250), the capital, celebrated for the beauty of its situation, its art treasures, and its mild 1 See Introd. p. 61 (3) (a). 2 See Introd. p. 61 (2) (c). 3 See p. 223, n. 1. 4 This kingdom was formerly known as an electorate, because in the days of the old German empire the ruler of Saxony was one of the seven princes who elected the emperor. The merino sheep (see p. 267) having been introduced into this electorate about the middle of the eighteenth century and reared there with great care, ' electoral wool,' as it is still called, has attained the reputation of being the best ' clothing wool ' in Europe, and indeed in the world, though it has a rival in Silesian (Prussian) wool, and occasionally in Bohemian (Austrian) wool. 228 EUROPE climate, all of which make it a favourite place of residence for men of means (including many English). It is also noted as the centre from which one may visit the scenery of the so-called Saxon Switzerland, where the Elbe breaks through the mountains at the end of the Erzgebirge amidst fantastically weathered sandstone rocks. 1 The second of the cities referred to is LEIPZIG, in a rich plain at the meeting-place of two great high-roads, 2 the one from Frankfurt and the Main valley across the Franconian forest, the other from Bohemia. Hence from an early period the city has been a great seat of trade, largely conducted at periodical fairs, which are kept up to this day, being held twice a year. Furs and woollen goods are the staple articles of trade, and at the Easter fair an immense book-market is opened, Leipzig being the centre of the German book-trade. Since the creation of the present German Empire it has been made the seat of the supreme courts of law. Brunswick, 3 the capital of the duchy of the same name, is also a flourishing town. The Duchy, like the adjoining Prussian province of Saxony, is a great seat of the cultivation of sugar-beet, and the town of Brunswick, like that of Magdeburg, a centre of the sugar industry, as well as of various manufactures. 3. Towns of the Highlands. — On the north-west of the German high- lands are the industrial towns of the Prussian provinces of the Rhine already mentioned. On the Main FRANKFURT (Pruss. prov. of Hesse- Nassau), formerly a free town, but annexed in 1866 to Prussia, still one of the chief seats of banking and exchange in Germany, but chiefly celebrated as the birthplace of Goethe, the greatest of German poets. Near the left bank of the Rhine, STRAS3BURG, the chief town of the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine, the seat of a university very liberally endowed since the province in which it lies was acquired by Germany. Further south Miilhausen, 4 the centre of a busy cotton manufacturing district. In the valley between the Black Forest and the Suabian Alps STUTTGART, on the Neckar, capital of the kingdom of Wurtemberg, a rapidly growing town, another important seat of the German book-trade. In the middle of the southern plateau MUNICH 4 (260), capital of the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Isar, the largest town in South Germany, with a famous university and poly- technicum, and rich art treasures. West-north-west Augsburg, on the Lech, formerly a place of great commercial importance on account of its situation at the meeting of the roads leading across the Alps by the Splugen and Brenner Passes, and at the head of the marshes which border the lower Lech. 6 Ulm, in "Wurtemberg, at the point where the road across the Suabian Alps from the Neckar valley joins the Danube, and where this river begins to be navigable for vessels of 100 tons, has had a similar history. Ratisbon (Ger. Regensburg), in Bavaria, near the northernmost point of the Danube, where it begins to be navigable for steamers, is likewise a town of great historical importance. In northern Bavaria (Franconia), NttRNBERG, an old and antique-looking 1 See cut, p. 230. * See Introd. p. 61 (3). * Ger. Braunschweig. * Fr. Mulhouse. 5 Ger. Mihwlien. 6 Were it. not for these marshes the town would naturally have grown up at the confluence of the Lech and Danube. See Introd. p. 61 (2) (o) and (3). THE ALPS 229 town celebrated for its manufacture of and trade in wooden toys, the material for which is obtained from the Black Forest. The small mining town of Eisleben at the eastern end of the Hartz Mountains (Prus. prov. Saxony) is memorable as the birthplace of Luther. Alon« the northern skirts of the Thuringian Forest, among the small states known as the Thuringian States, Eisenach, Gotha, Erfurt, and Weimar (the last the home of Goethe for the greater part of his life) succeed one another from west to east at the distance of from fifteen to twenty miles. Erfurt is in the Prussian province of Saxony. THE ALPS. Approximate latitude : (Mount Katahdin), Mont Blanc, 46° N. ; longitude, 7° B. The Alps are, beyond comparison, the most important mountain system in Europe. They do not cover the largest area, for both the highlands of Scandinavia and the Ural Moun- tains have a greater extent, but they contain the highest peaks, have the greatest average elevation, and, what is most important, instead of being situated in a thinly populated region, lie between countries in which the population is dense, and has long been highly civilised. The mountains belonging to this system sweep round the west and north of Italy, and spread out to the east in a number of nearly parallel chains in Austria. In consequence of this curved form, and the great breadth which in some places the system attains, the inner margin is much shorter than the outer, in round numbers 460 as against 800 miles. The slope on the inner side (towards Italy) is much more rapid than on the outer, and hence the appearance of the Alps as seen from Milan is much more imposing than when seen from Bern. The structure of these mountains as illustrated in the accom- panying figure (fig. 40) showing how in the valley of Chamounix below Mont Blanc the strata have been folded be- tween masses of gneiss and granite, proves that the forces to which they owe their elevation have been extra- ordinarily violent in their action. The ~'--."_"l'--'' greater steepness of the slope on the inner side indicates that on this side there has been most resistance to the crushing force that led to their folding and elevation. 1 In the broader (east to west) part of the system, the moun- tains can be divided according to the nature of the rocks of i See Introd. p. 34. THE ALPS 231 which they are composed into three zones, succeeding each other from north to south. The middle zone consists of granite and other crystalline rocks, 1 which form the core of the system ; while in the outer zones various limestones predominate, so that these parts of the system have been called the Limestone Alps. On the north the limestone zone extends farther west than on the south or inner side, where in the west the limestone zone is wanting, crystalline mountains descending right down to the plains of Italy. On this side the limestone zone begins only on the east of the Lago Maggiore in the form of a very narrow fringe, which spreads out to the east. The narrowest part of the system is that which runs from north to south, between Italy and Prance, and in this part the principal valleys are those which, traversed by the Durance and Isere, wind in numerous zig-zags to the valley of the Ehone. The system suddenly increases greatly in breadth where it turns eastwards, and here we begin to meet with its most striking features — its loftiest peaks, its snow-fields, glaciers, 2 and water- falls, its parallel chains with intervening longitudinal valleys 3 traversed by important rivers, (the Ehone, Ehine, Inn, Enns, Drave, &c), and sometimes occupied by large and beautiful lakes. 4 All of these longitudinal valleys open on the outer side of the curve described by the whole system, but some of the transverse valleys on the inner side are occupied by lakes of even greater beauty. 5 The most important of the longitudinal valleys is that of the Upper Ehone, between the Bernese Alps on the north and the Alps of Valais on the south, and into it descends from the former chain the largest of the Swiss glaciers, the Aletsch. The chains that bound this valley contain the highest peaks of the whole system, several on both sides rising to above 14,000 feet in height, and two (both in the south) to above 15,000 feet. One of these, Mont Blanc, in the French department of Upper Savoy, at the angle where the general direction of the mountain system becomes east and west instead of north and south, attains 1 Crystalline rocks are composed of small particles or fragments of particles ol a definite and regular form. Most rocks due to the action of heat are crystalline, and crystalline rocks are generally hard. 2 See Introd. p. 53. 3 Longitudinal valleys are valleys separating parallel mountain chains, those which run at right angles to the general direction of a chain being called transverse valleys. * See Switzerland, p. 237, * See Italy, p. 2§9, Fig. 42.— The alstsch Glacieh. THE ALPS 233 the height of 15,800 feet, or not far short of three miles. The other is Monte Rosa situated to the east of Mont Blanc on the Italian and Swiss frontier. 1 It is one of the most noteworthy features of the whole system that the peaks rise to a great height above the general elevation of the mountain chains, and that there are numerous deep notches or passes led up to by gradual ascents on both sides, enabling commercial intercourse to be carried on across the mountains. Hence, from an early period, these mountains have not acted as a barrier to communication so much as might be expected from their extent and elevation. Even in ancient Roman times one of the great routes of trade was that by which amber was conveyed from the east shores of the Baltic across the Eastern Alps, where the passes are lowest. In this part of the system there are scarcely any important passes above 5,500 feet in height, while in the Middle Alps, from the sources of the Adige to Mont Blanc, there are few under 6,500 feet, and the principal passes in the Western Alps are also above that height. In many places the passes have to be protected by galleries (arch- ways with openings for light on one side) against avalanches. 9 The chief passes are : (1) in the Western Alps, the part of the system running mainly north and south — (a) the Col di Tenda, across the Maritime Alps, between the south-east of France and the south-west of Sardinia. (6) The Mont Cenis Pass, between the Isere valley (with the fortress of Grenoble) and the valley of the Dora Biparia (a tributary of the Po leading direct to Turin), in the Middle Ages the most frequented of all the passes of the Western Alps. (2) In the Middle Alps, between Mont Blanc and the valley of the Adige (Ger. Etsch) — (a) the Great St. Bernard Pass, between the valley of the Rhone and the north-west of Italy (Aosta on the Dora Baltea, a tributary of the Po), only a bridle- path, (o) The Simplon Pass, a much more important pass, now crossed by a fine carriage-way, between the Bhone valley and the valley opening on the west side of the Lago Maggiore. (c) The St. Gothard Pass, another carriage road, between the valleys of the Beuss (head of Bay of TTri) and Ticino. (d) The Splugen Pass, between the valley of the Hinter-Bhine (in which the road passes through the fearful gorge of the Via Mala) and the valley leading down to the Lake of Como. (e) The Maloja Pass, between the head of the valley of the Inn (East Switzerland) and another valley leading down to the same laie. (f) The Furca Pass, between the head of the Bhone valley and that of the valley of the Beuss — the most important of all the passes connecting 1 See section across Europe, p. 63. s An avalanche is a fall of a mass of snow, and often works great destruction. The mere agitation of the air caused by an avalanche has been known to uproot trees. 234 EUROPE longitudinal valleys. (3) In the Eastern Division : (o) the Brenner Pass, oonneoting the two great valleys of Tyrol, that of the Adige in the south (with the town of Trent) and that of the Inn in the north, where the road leading from the pass crosses the Inn at Innsbruck." (6) The Semmering Pass, between Lower Austria and Styria, on the route from Vienna to Trieste. The Mont Cenis, St. Gothard, Brenner, and Semmering Passes are now largely superseded by railways piercing the Alps by tunnels. The Mont Cenis tunnel, however, lies fifteen miles to the south-west of the pass from which it takes its name. The St. Gothard tunnel is the longest in the world — nearly ten miles in length. Though lying between two populous regions, the Alps them- selves are necessarily thinly populated. The principal occupation of the people is rearing of cattle, for which the rich pastures, nourished by the plentiful rains characteristic of mountainous regions, 2 and the moisture derived from the melting snows, afford abundant food. The limit in height of permanent habi- tation is about 6,000 feet, this being also the limit of forests, which serve as a protection not only against avalanches but also against the washing away of the soil by torrents and torrential rains. The zone between 2,000 and 6,000 feet in height is known as the Fore-alps. From 6,000 feet to the snow-line, 3 about 9,000 feet (rather higher on the southern slopes), is the zone of the alps in a special sense — that is, mountain pastures grazed by cattle in summer, pastures on which the only woody growths are crooked and stunted pines and a few shrubs, above all the beautiful Alpine roses (rhododendrons). This is the zone of the chalets or summer-huts of the Alpine herdsmen. The highest zone of all is that of perpetual snow, and the scene from one of the higher peaks overlooking this zone is very different from what might be expected from the aspect presented to spectators at the base. Instead of a continuous line of peaks one sees a broad plateau rising everywhere into billowy crests, all snow-wrapt, or only here and there exhibiting a surface of naked rock. SWITZERLAND. Approximate latitude : middle point, 47° N. ; longitude, 8£° E. Switzerland occupies the heart of Europe. Its area is about twice that of Massachusetts, and its population nearly three millions. Altogether about five-sevenths of the surface 1 Ger.= Inn-bridge, s See Introd. p. 52 (3) {a}, 3 See Introd. p. 53. SWITZERLAND 235 is divided between the Alps, in the south and east, and the Jura in the north-west, while the remainder forms a plain or rather a hill-studded plateau stretching north-east from the Lake of Geneva to Lake Constance (German, Bodensee). The length of the plateau, which contains most of the agricultural land and the majority of the population of Switzerland, is about 100 miles, and its average breadth from twelve to twenty miles. Of the surface occupied by mountains the part belonging to the Alps is four times as great as that belonging to the Jura. The latter consists of a series of nearly parallel mountain chains, which begin in the south-west (in France, where they have their highest peaks), and extend north-eastwards along the north-west borders of Switzerland into Germany, the average height of their crest gradually diminishing from about 4,000 to 2,000 feet. They are mostly composed of a light-coloured limestone, 1 in which there are numerous caverns, and in which the streams often dis- appear into underground channels. 2 Unlike the Alps, they have few peaks rising very far above the general height of the crest, and few transverse valleys. 3 The longitudinal valleys are bleak, high-lying depressions. The Jura Mountains agree with the Alps in having the more gradual slope to the north-west (the outside of the curve), so that the more abrupt descent in this case is towards the Swiss plateau. Since the Alps form the great water-parting of Western Europe, 4 the rivers of Switzerland flow outwards in all directions — the Rhine to the German Ocean, the Rhone to the Gulf of Lions (west of Italy), tributaries of the Po and Adige to the Adriatic, the Inn to the Danube, and hence to the Black Sea. Almost all the Swiss rivers are too impetuous for navigation except by small craft, but they are much used for floating timber from the mountains. The Aar, the Rhine tributary which traverses the plateau, becomes navigable on leaving Lake Thun. About midway i The limestone of the Alps is generally of a dark colour. 8 'No whisper, nor murmur, nor patter, nor song of streamlet disturbs the enchanted silence of open Jura. The rain-cloud clasps her clifis, and floats along her fields ,- it passes, and in an hour the rocks are dry and only beads of dew left in the Alchemilla leaves,— but of rivulet or brook,— no vestige, yesterday, or to-day, or to-morrow. Through unseen fissures and filmy crannies the waters of cliff and plain have alike vanished, only far down in the depths of the main valley glides the strong river unconscious of change.' — Rcskin. See Introd. p. 29- 8 See p. 231 n. 3, * See p. 183. SWITZERLAND 237 between that lake and the Rhine it is led by an artificial channel into the Lake of Bienne, so as to protect the lower part of its course from inundations. 1 The numerous lakes, partly on the north of the Alps (Geneva, Brienz, and Thun ; Lucerne, Zurich, Wallenstadt, Constance, &c), partly on the plateau (Neuchatel and Bienne), are important as means of inland com- munication, while those of the Alps are all celebrated for the beauty of the surrounding scenery. Besides the crops grown in England, Switzerland produces in the warmer parts maize, wine, and tobacco. The vine flourishes even to the height of 2,000 feet, and is grown prin- cipally in the south-west and the north-east (round the Lakes of Geneva and Ziirich). The products of the pastures are more important than those of the fields and vineyards, and cheese forms a large export, 2 an export that is increasing at the expense of field produce, since the railways of modern times are giving increased value to the products of the Swiss mountain pastures, and making it increasingly easy for Switzerland to obtain supplies of grain from abroad. But with an average population of 180 to the square mile, and nearly a third of the area unproductive, the soil of Switzerland alone is unable to sustain the inhabitants, and great quantities of grain and other agricultural produce have to be imported. This import is balanced chiefly by an export of manufactured goods, Switzerland, notwithstanding its scarcity of minerals, and in particular of coal and iron, having a high place among the manufacturing countries of Europe. For such industries, it has two advantages to place against its disadvantages : (1) the water-power of the Alps, which is more largely utilised in Switzerland than elsewhere; (2) its central position be- tween populous and highly civilised countries. The chief manu- facturing industries are cotton (in the north-east), and silk (in Zurich and Basel). Watchmaking is an important handicraft in the Jura, and Geneva is the centre of the Swiss trade in watches. The divisions of Switzerland, 22 in number, are known as cantons, the largest of which, the Grisons, is about one-third the size of Massachusetts. Though none of them has a single town with 100,000 inhabitants, they are all, to a certain ex- tent, independent states, managing their own local affairs as 1 See Introd. p. 31. 2 Gruyere cheese is made in the canton of Freiburg, in western Switzerland. 3 See also on education, p. 238. 238 EUROPE little republics, 1 but all uniting to form a Confederacy for the regulation of affairs common to the whole. The Confederacy, as it now exists, originated in the present century, and the dif- ferent cantons composing it had a different history, as they still differ in language, religion, and culture. German is spoken by more than two-thirds of the people, French by almost one-fifth (chiefly in the south-west), Italian in Ticino and some other southern valleys, and in the south-east a few thousands speak Rumonsh, a language peculiar to the locality, an independent descendant of the Latin. About three-fifths of the entire popu- lation are Protestants, the remainder Roman Catholic s, the latter inhabiting chiefly the more mountainous cantons. The northern and western cantons are most advanced in culture, and the encouragement given chiefly through their influence to educa- tion (which is obligatory to a certain extent in all cantons) is one of the chief causes that have enabled this little country to triumph over the obstacles to the development of manufacturing industry within her borders. There are four universities ; and at Zurich there is one of the best-equipped technical schools in Europe — a school in which students are taught everything connected with manufactures, as well as agriculture, forestry, building, and engineering. Chief Towns. — There are only three with more than 50,000 (in- cluding suburbs). Zurich, the intellectual and commercial centre of German Switzerland, is situated at the lower end of the lake of the same name, its suburbs extending for several miles along both shores of the lake. Its commercial importance is largely due to the fact that it is the first considerable town in Switzerland both on the road and railway through the heart of the country by way of the St. Gothard to the south, and on the road across the Splugen Pass farther east. Basel, 2 at the bend of the Rhine 3 and the head of the fertile valley lying between the Vosges and the Black Forest, has been a place of consequence since the time of the Romans, and is noted for its manu- facture of silk ribbons. Geneva, at the south-west end of the lake of the same name, at the point where the Alps and Jura almost meet, is the intellectual centre of French Switzerland, and a favourite place of residence for strangers. In the early part of the sixteenth century it was the residence of Calvin, the founder of one of the chief Protestant sects of the Continent, and was then practically under his sway. Bern, on the Aar, has been chosen as the seat of the legislature of the Confederacy, chiefly on account of its central position. The seat of the supreme courts of law is Lausanne, on the north shore of the Lake 1 Only one, Neuchatel (Ger. =Neuenburg, both names meaning New Castle), formerly had a monarchical form of government, being subject to the King of Prussia. 2 A German-speaking town, but more familiarly known by its French name of Bale. 3 See Introd. p. 61 (2) (6). AUST&IA-HUNGARY 239 of Geneva. Lucerne, at the lower end of the lake of the same name, and Interlaken, 1 on the plain between the Lakes of Thun and Brienz, though both small places, are well known throughout the western world as the head-quarters of the numerous visitors who make the mountains of Switzerland their holiday-ground. Of these there are known to have been nearly a million and a half in a single year. Within sight of Lucerne, on the shores of the lake, is the Rigi, a mountain ascended by crowds of tourists for the sake of the magni- ficent views which its summit commands. Its top can now be reached by railway. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Approximate latitudes: (south-west extremity of England), Prague, Cracow, 50° ; (Munich), Vienna, 48° ; (Lyon, Milan), Trieste, 46°. Approximate longitude : 10° to 26° E. Austria-Hungary is the second in size and the third in popu- lation among the great states of Europe. Of all these it is that which has the smallest length of coast-line. The coasts are almost everywhere steep and rocky. Opposite Dalmatia, the long strip on the east of the Adriatic, is a row of rocky islands, the northernmost of which form the eastern boundary of the stormy Gulf of Quarnero (with the seaport of Fiume). On the other side of the peninsula of Istria is the more sheltered Gulf of Trieste, with the much more important port of Trieste at its head. In most parts Austria-Hungary is without natural boundaries. The surface is composed of extensive mountainous areas, exten- sive plateaux, and extensive plains, the last lying in the interior. In the west, the chief mountain area is that of the Alps, which in the south are connected by a series of arid limestone plateaux with the Dinaric Alps and the mountains of the Balkan Penin- sula. With the exception of the Hohe Tauern, the central range of the Alps beginning immediately to the east of the Brenner Pass, a range in which the chief peaks rise to upwards of 12,000 feet, all the Austrian Alps can easily be crossed at almost any part. All the important streams from these western and south- western mountains flow down to the right bank of the Danube. On the opposite bank of the Danube lies in the first place a series of mountain-girt plateaux embracing Bohemia, Moravia, Austrian Silesia, and parts of Upper and Lower Austria. On the east of this highland area a relative depression of about 1,000 feet in height, known as the Moravian Gate, separates the Sudetes* » ' Between the lakes.' 2 See p. 221. 240 EUROPE from the Carpathians and forms an important line of communi- cation between north and south in this part of Europe. It leads along the valley of the Morava directly down to the point where the Danube valley, the great line of communication between the east and west, begins to open out into the plain of Upper Hungary. The slope of this series of plateaux is different in different parts. The west (Bohemia) is drained northwards by the Moldau and Elbe, the east chiefly southward? by the March or Morava. East of the Moravian Gate the Carpathian Mountains sweep round in a semicircle of about 1,000 miles in length from the north to the east of Hungary, and both in the north and east have on the interior parallel ranges or tortuous spurs extending for a great distance into the plain. In the north the inner range, called the Tatra, is the loftiest and most rugged part of the whole system, the mountain sides being mostly too precipitous for the accumulation of perpetual snow or glaciers. The eastern assem- blage of mountains forms the province of Transylvania. The narrower and lower connecting portion in the middle (in the north-east of Hungary) is known as the Forest Carpathians. The great plains of the empire he chiefly to the east of the Danube (in the area watered by the Theiss and its tributaries) and along the banks of the Drave (Drau ') and Save, the chief tributaries of the Danube on the right bank. The former area, one almost unbroken plain of about the size of Indiana, is the region of the Hungarian pusstas, a region which is in winter a succession of morasses or storm-swept snow-wastes, in spring a carpet of green, in summer a scorched and withered desert. Permanent morasses of great breadth border the Theiss and its tributaries. 2 The principal occupation of the people in this region is cattle-rearing, and the rods and poles of the wells for the cattle are in many places the most conspicuous features in the landscape by day, as the fires of the shepherds are by night. 3 But there are also large areas fit for agriculture, and above all in the district known as the Banat, the square enclosed by the Maros, Theiss, Danube, and the mountains of Transylvania, a region covered with a rich soil which brings forth the most abun- dant crops of wheat and maize, together with those of a more southerly climate (cotton, rice). 1 The German name. 8 See p. 28. B See cut, p. 242 i also p. 53. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 241 The wide low-lying valleys of the Drave and Save bring forth luxuriant crops of wheat and maize as well as good wine. Outside the Carpathians is the plateau of Galicia and Buko- vina, 1 drained partly by the Vistula and its tributaries, partly by affluents of the Dniester (average height 1,000 feet). From the structure just described it will be seen that by far the greater portion of the Austro-Hungarian Empire is drained by the Danube, which being navigable for steamers throughout its course within the Austrian dominions is an important channel of trade. The chief tributaries are likewise navigable for steamers for a large part of their course. The principal lakes of the Austrian Empire are Lake Balaton (German Platten-see 2 ) and the Neusiedler-see, in the west of Hungary, the former among the hills to the west of. the Danube, where it flows from north to south, the latter in the plain of Upper Hungary south of the Danube. Austria-Hungary is mainly an agricultural state. About three-fourths of the people are dependent on agriculture, and, though the methods of cultivation are not very advanced, grain (more especially wheat) is an important article of export in all ordinary years. Fruit and wine are likewise abundantly produced. Manufacturing industries are relatively insignificant except in Vienna and the north-west strip (from Bohemia to beyond Cracow), where the presence of coal and iron furnishes the means of carrying on manufactures on a large scale. Among the mineral products are the precious metals (in the production of which Austria- Hungary is surpassed only by Bussia among European states), and salt. In the north of Hungary opals are obtained. The commerce of Austria by sea is almost confined to the Mediterranean. None of the great states of Europe is more diverse in race and language than Austria-Hungary. The people in the west are chiefly of German origin and speak the German language ; but elsewhere the majority of the people are Slavs. The ruling race in Hungary is that of the Magyars 3 (whose language still survives), and in the east of the empire the Jews form an influ- ential and rapidly increasing element of the population, having 1 'Land of Beeches,' so called from the immense extent of its beech forests. 8 See is German for lake. 8 See p. 188. 242 EUROPE AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 243 the command of the entire trade. Intellectually the Germans are the most advanced section of the population. As this section decreases in number towards the east, so also does the general level of intellectual culture decline, and with it the state of agri- culture and manufacturing industry. The most thickly popu- lated parts of the empire are the plains on the Danube, along the spurs of the Alps, and the manufacturing strip in the north. The diversity of the political divisions and the complexity of the government correspond to this variety of race and language ; and these differences are indications of the manner in which the monarchy grew. The great political divisions having historical names and designations (Archduchies of Austria, Kingdoms of Hungary, Bohemia, &c.) are mainly the representatives of once independent states, which have been successively added entire to the possessions of one reigning family, that of the Hapsburgs, who acquired the sovereignty of the archduchies of Austria in 1282, and that of the kingdoms of Bohemia, Moravia, and Hun- gary in 1526. The Government is a limited monarchy, and there are various Parliaments. First, the crown-lands or political divisions just referred to are divided into two great groups, one of which com- prises the territory enclosed by the Carpathians on the north and east, bounded mainly by the Save and Danube on the south and by the Alpine provinces in the west, while the other comprises all the rest The latter are called the Cis-Leithan, the former the Trans-Leithan crown-lands, from the Leitha, a small tributary of the Danube on the right bank on the frontier of Lower Austria. Each of these groups has a Diet or Parliament to legislate on matters common to the members of the group, and each of the crown-lands has a separate Diet for local affairs, while affairs common to the whole empire are debated in an assembly com- posed of delegates elected in equal numbers by the Cis-Leithan and Trans-Leithan Diets. 1 In religion the inhabitants of Austria-Hungary are more uni- form than in race, language, and government. Nearly four-fifths of the people are Boman Catholics ; of the remainder, a large proportion Protestants, another large section Greek Catholics. 1 The province of Bosnia and Herzegovina ia not included in either of the groups mentioned. See Balkan Peninsula, p. 283' 244 EUROPE Towns * and Districts. — 1. Upper and Lower Austria and the North-western Plateaux. VIENNA (720; including suburbs 1104) in Lower Austria, originally a stronghold to defend the eastern entrance to the narrow valley of the middle Danube, founded in the fourth century to replace the more ancient (Eoman) stronghold of Carrmntum, farther east ; restored in the twelfth century, since which period it has constantly grown in importance, not only in consequence of its being the political centre of the growing Austrian dominions, but also on account of its admirable situation for commerce. The advantages of its situation in this respect are due (1) to the fact that here the navigation of the Danube, which, above Vienna, passes through a long series of rapids and narrows, begins to be more convenient ; (2) that it lies at the point where trade routes are left open between the three great highland areas of the monarchy, a westerly route along the valley of the Danube between the Alps and the north-western plateaux (a route communi- cating with South Germany and the Bhine), and a northerly route, communicating with East Germany, through the Moravian Gate, between these plateaux and the Carpathians ; (3) that it lies on the point of the Danube nearest the head of the Adriatic, between which and Vienna the Alps are easily traversed, so that it serves as a centre in the trade between the plains of Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean. 2 At the present day Vienna is not only the capital of Austria, but the seat of one-seventh of the manufacturing industries of the empire, of a great university with a world-renowned medical school, a great art centre and money market. In Upper Austria s the chief town is Linz. Bohemia, the lozenge-shaped province in the north-west, the drainage of which is to the North Sea, has an area about two-fifths of that of New York, with a population nearly the same in numbers and consequently more than twice as dense. Active manufacturing industry and advanced agriculture combine to give it this dense population. The sheep reared on the upland pastures, and the flax grown in similar situations, have long fostered the spinning and weaving of wool and linen, to which in more recent years, since the development of machine factories and the opening .of coal- mines, cotton manufactures have been added. The extensive forests (covering in all nearly a third of the surface) have furnished material for another important industry, the making 1 There are only twelve towns in Austria-Hungary with more than 50,000 in- habitants. ' Nowlgreatly promoted by the railway across the Semmering Pass (see p. 234 ). 5 In this province lies the district hnown as the Salzkammergut, ' the estate of salt chambers,' the district from which Austria-Hungary derives a great part of its salt. .AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 245 of glass, 1 for which Bohemia lias long been celebrated. Though the chief mineral wealth of the Erzegebirge is on the German side, there are on the Bohemian side some mines of tin and silver in this range, the latter in Joachimsthal, 2 whence the silver thaler 3 obtained its name, and here also are the famous mineral springy of Marienbad, Franzensbad, and Karlsbad. 4 The chief town is PRAGUE, a strongly built town in the centre of the province, where the Moldau begins to be navigable for larger vessels, and its valley is crossed by the road from northern Bavaria to Moravia. It is the seat of the oldest university in Central Europe (founded in 1348). No other town contains more than 50,000 in- habitants. The population in Moravia and Silesia 5 is of about the same density as that in Bohemia, and the products are similar. Brfinn, at the confluence of the Schwarzawa " and Zwittawa, near a coal-field, is an important industrial centre ; chief manufacture, woollens. 2. The Alpine Provinces. — Among these the population is comparatively thin, and there are few considerable towns. The chief products of the Alpine provinces are those of the hill pastures. In the more open valleys and on the hill slopes to the east (southern Styria) there are extensive tracts of fertile land, bearing wheat, maize, fruit, and wine. In the valley of the Etsch (Adige), the largest transverse 7 valley in the Alps, there is more of an Italian than a Central European aspect. The pro- ducts include silk, besides wine and fruit, and the Italian language is spreading farther north every day. In North Styria there are large quantities of iron. The Erzberg is almost one mass of haematite, 8 and in summer ore can be quarried, being worked in shafts only in winter. Graz, on the Mur (trib. Drave), in Styria, now an important railway centre, is the only town with a population approaching 100,000, and is the largest is the Alps. Salzburg, picturesquely built between two 1 Wood ashes yield potash, which is largely used in this manufacture. 8 Thai (pronounced tat) German = dale or valley. 8 The thaler was a coin in general circulation in Germany till within the last few years. * Bad, German = bath. 8 Austrian Silesia is only a small remnant of the large province of that narrm, which once belonged to Austria, but the greater part of which was wrested out of Austrian hands by Prussia in the last century. 6 -awa, a Slavonic termination signifying stream. 7 See p. 231 ». 3. 8 A very rich kind of iron ore. 246 EUROPE hills, has long been of some importance as the starting-point of a route across the Alps leading into that which crosses the Brenner Pass. Innsbruck and Trent are the two towns of importance north and south of the Brenner Pass in Tyrol. 3. The Provinces bordering on the Adriatic. — Here, in Carniola, Istria, Western Croatia, and Dalmatia, limestone is the predominant rock, and as the hill slopes have been almost wholly divested of forests, 1 the surface is liable to be stripped of its soil by occasional floods and torrents of rain, and is left exposed to the piercing north and north-east winds (the bora). These blast the vegetation, which a blazing sun is at other times apt to scorch. Everywhere in this region rivers disappear in fissures ; and caves, underground lakes, and temporary surface lakes 2 are numerous. Only here and there are fertile tracts in bowl-shaped depressions, (probably due to the fall of cavern roofs 3 ), where the soil cannot be washed away. Elsewhere crops are rare, and the thin pastures are grazed mainly by goats and sheep. The population is accordingly scanty, and is mostly confined to the coast, where the barrenness of the land drives the inhabitants to the sea for their maintenance. Hence the islands and the borders of the inlets of the Dalmatian coast are peopled by fishermen, from among whom the Austrian Navy obtains its best seamen. 4 Of the two chief seaports on this coast, Fiume, at the head of the Gulf of Quarnero, belongs to the Trans-Leithan provinces, the govern- ment of which is endeavouring to promote its growth at the expense of Trieste, the Cis-Leithan port, which is still by far the most important seaport of Austria. The latter town has a fine roadstead and relatively easy communication with the interior, but though it has doubled its population in the last forty years, it has latterly been somewhat checked in its growth by the revival of Venice and the growth of Fiume. It is the head-quarters of the Austrian Lloyd's, a ship- building company that carries on a large trade with the Levant, The town itself occupies but a narrow strip between the sea and the edge 1 Felled in former times to supply timber for the fleets of Borne and afterwards of Venice. The most desolate part of the region described in this paragraph is known as the Karst. 3 Such lakes have communications with underground cavities and form on the surface only when the latter are full to overflowing. Zirknitz is the largest lake which ia thus from time to time formed and drained away. s See Introd. p. 29. 4 Compare Brittany (p. 210) and Norway (p. 259 ). Like the Norwegians of the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Dalmatians (or Ulyrians, as they were anciently called) were notorious for their piracy at different periods in history, the numerous creeks on the coasts of both countries affording retreats which facilitated piratical operations. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 247 of the Istrian plateau, the top of which is now occupied by numerous suburbs. The population is almost entirely Italian in speech. 4. Galicia and Bukovina (the former acquired about 100 years ago at the division of Poland, 1 the latter from Turkey) are similar in physical features but differ in population and religion. Galicia is inhabited chiefly by Eoman Catholic Poles, Bukovina by Euthenians (another Slavonic people), adherents of the Greek Church. Both provinces are rich in agricultural produce, and in timber, salt, and petroleum. Cracow, on the Vistula, in the west of Galicia, formerly a residence of kings of Poland, still has a Polish university, and so too has LEMBERG, in the east. At Czernowitz, the capital of Bukovina, there is a German university recently founded. Near Cracow are the cele- brated salt-mines of Wieliczka. 5. Hungary and Transylvania, Croatia and Slavonian — Most of the towns in the Hungarian plains are more like large villages than towns. They are each spread over a wide area, with large spaces between the houses, and have few public buildings or paved streets, for which, as well as for roads, the country is scantily supplied with materials. The capital of Hungary is the double town of BTJDA-PEST (360), on the Danube, the Magyar town of Pest on the left bank (subject to inun- dations), and the German town of Buda or Of en on the right bank. The town lies at the foot of the last hills bordering the banks of the Danube, where for the last time the river can be conveniently bridged before it spreads out over the marshy plain 3 ; and this position early made it the centre of commerce for Hungary. Its growth has been greatly accelerated since the revival of Hungarian nationality in recent times ; the population of Pest almost trebled itself in the thirty years 1850-1880. Next in population to Buda is Szegedin, the only important town on the Theiss (at the confluence of the Maros), now an im- portant railway centre. In 1879 it was to a large extent destroyed by an inundation, which was partly ascribable to the works that had been executed to prevent such disasters in the upper part of the course of the river. Debreczin, farther north, is the centre of the pusstas on the Upper Theiss. Temesvar, the chief town of the Banat, south-east of Szegedin, is another important railway centre, and stands at the head of a shipping canal communicating with the Danube. In Transylvania the chief town is Klausenburg, in the principal valley leading down to the plains of Hungary. In Croatia, Agram, on the Save, is the prin- cipal town, and it is the seat of a Slavonic university. 1 Seep. 253n. 1. 3 These provinces, together with Fiume and its territory, make up the Trans- Leithan crown-lands. Hungary and Transylvania together constitute one crown- land, Croatia and Slavonia another. 3 See Introd. p. 61 (2) (c). 248 EUROPE THE EASTERN EUROPEAN PLAIN: RUSSIA AND ROUMANIA. Approximate latitudes : (south of Shetland Islands, Christiania), St. Petersburg, 60° ; (Edinburgh, Copenhagen), Moscow, 56° ; Odessa, Astrakhan, 47° ; (mouth of Po) mouth of Danube (western end of Caucasus Mountains) (northern boundary of New York), 45°. Approximate longitudes : west of Poland, 18° E. ; Ural Mountains, 60° E. I. RUSSIA. — Russia, which, including Finland, has an area of upwards of two million square miles, or more than half of all Europe, occupies the whole of the east of the Continent between the Arctic Ocean and the Black Sea. 1 In the north the shallow White Sea communicates with the former, and in the south the still shallower Sea of Azof with the latter. The western coasts all line the Baltic and its branches (Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga), and in some places are bordered by a breastwork of small islands. On the south-east there is the in- land Caspian Sea. Almost everywhere the coasts are low and flat. The only great mountain range is that of the Urals, which extend for about 1,400 miles from north to south in the east, and these, though they rise in some places to upwards of 4,000 feet in height, slope up with such gentle undulations from the European plain, that their mountainous character cannot always be recognised. Especially is this the case towards the south, where one may follow the great trade route which crosses these mountains at the height of 1,000 feet, in about lat. 57°, between Perm and Ekaterinburg, 2 without ever perceiving that a mountain range has been traversed. Hence in this part the Ural Mountains do not form a political boundary, European Russia extending 200 miles beyond them. West of the Ural Mountains Russia may be regarded as one vast plain, though the highest part of it rises to 1,100 feet above sea-level. This elevation is reached in the central plateau of the Valdai Hills, from which the principal rivers of Russia radiate, 3 and from which the descent is so gradual that it is impossible to fix a boundary between plain and plateau. So level is the surface, 1 The large uninhabited Arctic islands of Novaya Zemlya or Nova Zembla ( ' New Land' ) and the Spitzbergen group are considered part of European Russia. 2 Now connected by railway. See p. 293. 3 See p. 183. RUSSIA AND KOUMANIA 249 that the water (as in Ireland) is apt to collect in marshes, and all the rivers occasionally overflow their banks. The Finsk or Rokitno Marshes, traversed by the Pripet, a tributary of the Dnieper, cover an area nearly as large as Louisiana, but are now in process of being drained. In the south-east, north and west of the Caspian Sea, is a considerable area below the sea-level, the surface of the Caspian itself being eighty-three feet below that of the Black Sea. From this structure of the land it results that the rivers of Eussia are of much more importance than its elevations. Among these is the longest river in Europe, the Volga, whose basin is larger than any two countries in the continent except Eussia itself, even that of one of its great tributaries, the Kama (left bank), being almost as large as France. All the rivers are rich in fish, among which the sturgeon of the Volga and its tribu- taries (as well as the Caspian) is especially prized. As means of communication the rivers of Eussia are of great value on three grounds. (1) Having a gentle fall, all the chief rivers and their larger tributaries are navigable almost to their source. (2) They flow from the heart of the country to all the Bussian coasts. (3) They are easily connected by canals. 1 As against these advantages it must be noted that all the great rivers of Eussia suffer from certain drawbacks — some from one, some from others. (1) The longest, the Volga, ends in an inland sea. (2) Of those which flow to the southern coast, the Son traverses the driest part of the country and hence is deficient in water, and the Sea of Azof, into which it falls, is itself too shallow for large vessels ; the Dnieper, the Dniester, and the Bug all have to cross a granite plateau where the navigation is impeded by rapids (on the Dnieper over a course of twenty-three miles). Bapids also impede the navigation of the Neva abo.ve St. Petersburg. (3) The rivers of the north (Northern Dwina and Fetchora), though fine full-flooded streams, traverse a part of the country less rich in products than those of the south, and terminate in a sea difficult of navigation. (4) All Bussian rivers have their navigation stopped by ice for a longer or shorter period every year. Even at Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga, in the latitude of Bordeaux, the stoppage of navigation lasts for three months. Only the Don in some years escapes being frozen. In addition to these difficulties besetting the inland navigation there is another hindrance to communication in Bussia in the fact that the marshy character of a large part of the surface and the want of road-making material have been adverse to the making of roads, and hence the construction of railways is of peculiar importance in this country. In many parts of Bussia travelling is still easiest in winter by means of sledges. i See p. 184. 250 EUROPE The lakes of Russia are relatively as important as the rivers. The principal lie round the Gulf of Finland. 1 Finland itself is a large granite plateau, the south of which is more thickly studded than any other part of Europe with lakes, 2 both large and small, all very irregular in outline. Lake Ladoga, 3 between Finland and Eussia Proper, the largest lake in Europe, is nearly as large as Lake Ontario. Next in size are Lakes Onega (north-east of Lake Ladoga) and Peipus (south of the Gulf of Finland). In Fio. 45.— Wtntes Travelling in Russia. the depressed area north of the Caspian are hundreds of small lakes without outlets, useful as sources of supply for salt. 4 As regards climate, Eussia occupies that part of Europe where extremes of temperature are at their greatest 6 and rainfall is least. Astrakhan has a January twenty degrees colder and a July fourteen degrees warmer than that of London ; and even Archangel, on the White Sea, which has a January more than ten i See p. 184. * See Introd. p. 31. 2 See p. 288. 8 7,000 sq. miles in extent. 6 See p. 185. RUSSIA AND ROUMANIA 251 degrees colder than Astrakhan, has a July as warm as that of the northern coasts of England. The rainfall, though scanty, occurs most abundantly in the summer months, 1 when most wanted, and hence, everywhere, except in the south-east, is sufficient for agriculture. Vast as the country is, its population is but one-fourth part of the people of Europe. The average density is only about forty-one to the square mile, and there are wide areas over which it is much less. The cold of the north and the drought of the south-east cause these regions to be very sparsely peopled, the greater part of the population being thus confined to the middle region, and especially to its western portion. The variations in density correspond to variations in the nature of the products. Five zones of production may be distinguished. (1) In the extreme north is the region of the toundras, where the ground thaws in summer to the depth of at most one foot, and where the only inhabitants are a few thousand Lapps and Samoyedes, who wander about with reindeer herds, as in the north of Scandinavia. This region extends to the south of the Arctic Circle only in the extreme north-east. (2) To the south of that is the Forest Zone, where, besides timber, resin, potashes, and other forest products, the chief commodities of trade are furs (from sable, ermine, and other fur-bearing animals). This zone is hounded by an irre- gular line stretching, on the whole, south-eastwards from St. Petersburg. Forests were recently estimated to cover nearly forty per cent, of the surface of Russia, but they are now being rapidly thinned. In this zone the population is still scanty. (3) The next is the Industrial Zone, in the heart of Eussia, where agriculture is extensively pursued, but manufacturing industries are also practised to a considerable extent, so that the agricultural products of this region would suffice to support the inhabitants for only about three-quarters of the year. (4) The Agricultural Zone, to the south and west of the Industrial, where the agricultural produce is not only sufficient for the inhabitants, but leaves a large surplus for other parts of the country as well as for export. The southern part of the agricultural zone is known as the Black Earth Region, from the colour of its soil, i See p. 186. 252 EUROPE which is so fertile that, where it is found and the rainfall is sufficient, grain can be grown with less labour than in any other part of Europe. 1 This region is almost treeless, and its aspect resembles that of the Hungarian pusstas. 2 The part of the agricultural zone in the west of Bussia embraces the whole of the former kingdom of Poland, 3 with part of the adjoining districts. It is in the last two zones, and more particularly in the latter, that the population is densest ; but even in these the density is one of the smallest in Europe, both manufactures and agriculture being still very far behind. Only one-third of the entire surface of Euseia is under culti- vation ; and the region in which there is the richest soil is that in which agriculture is pursued with least care. (5) The last zone is that of the south and south-east, that of the true Eussian steppes, 4 where agriculture can be pursued only with difficulty, and the inhabitants, largely Tatars and Kalmucks, dwell in tents, and roam over the arid plains with flocks of cattle, horses, and camels, as they do in the precisely similar parts of Central Asia. The chief agricultural products of Eussia are rye, wheat, maize, and oats ; but flax and hemp have greater importance here than in any other country in Europe, and their cultivation is here increasing, while in all other countries in Europe it is declining. The mineral wealth of Eussia is chiefly concentrated in the region of the Middle Urals, where excellent iron, gold, 5 platinum, copper, and precious stones are found in abundance. The coal- fields, which exist on the Donetz (a tributary on the right bank of the Don), round Moscow, and elsewhere, are able to furnish large supplies of coal, but are as yet far from being adequately worked. Eelatively to the population, the foreign commerce is not great. Among the exports, corn sometimes makes up more than one-half of the total value, and next in importance are flax and linseed and wood. The principal imports are raw cotton, tea, and iron ; and the steady increase which has gone on for many years in the first-mentioned import is an indication of the growth that is taking place in the manufacturing industry of the country. 1 The covering of black soil is not continuous, having been washed away to a large extent in the river valleys. " See p. 240. ' See p. 253 n. 1. 4 The term steppes is often used in a wider sense to include the whole of the treeless region of Russia. » In the production of gold Russia (including Siberia) is the rival of the United States and Australia. RUSSIA AND ROUMANIA 253 Though inhabited by many distinct races speaking distinct languages, Eussia is to a large extent as uniform in its popula- tion as in its surface. Three-fourths of the people are Russians Proper, and of the remaining inhabitants the most numerous are the Poles in the west, speaking an allied Slavonic language. Lithuanians, speaking another language more distantly related to the Kussian, form the bulk of the population south of the Gulf of Finland. There are numerous Germans in the provinces south of the Gulf of Finland, and many of the towns in that region were founded by Germans before the rise of the Eussian power. In Finland the majority of the people are Finns, but the most influ- ential section of the population consists of the Swedes in the south. To these differences in race correspond for the most part the differences in religion. All the Eussians Proper are adherents of the Greek Church, while the Poles and inhabitants of the Baltic provinces are mainly Roman Catholics, and the Finlanders are chiefly Protestants. In Poland the difference of religion is one of the causes of the still surviving feeling of hostility between Poles and Eussians ; but the chief cause is to be found in the fact that Poland, 1 after having long been what Eussia now is, the greatest of the Slavonic states, was, towards the end of last century, over- thrown, and its territory divided by Eussia, Austria, and Prussia. In the great plain occupied by Eussia extensive territories have always been under one rule ; but the growth of the present empire of Eussia dates only from the second half of the fifteenth century, when the Grand Prince of Moscow conquered the western dominion of Novgorod. 2 From that time the growth of the Eussian Empire has been almost constant, and, though it has received a check in Europe, it is still progressing as rapidly as ever iu the plains of Asia, so that the territory of the empire now covers an unbroken area almost as large as the aggregate total of the British Empire. 1 Poland once comprised not only what is now known as Poland in Russia (the part which was formerly called the Kingdom of Poland and had till 1864 a separate government with the Emperor of Russia as king), but also many of the adjoining provinces of Russia, together with Posen and other parts of the present kingdom of Prussia, and Galicia, Bukovina, and some smaller districts now belonging to Austria. * This town, situated at the outlet of Lake Ilmen, in a river valley immediately to the west of the Valdai plateau, is now of no great importance, but was in the Middle Ages one of the principal centres of commerce in Eastern Europe and a lead- ing member of the Hansa (seep. 225 b. 2). Its decline dates from the event mentioned in the text, and was completed by the foundation of St. Petersburg, 254 EUROPE The Czar, or Emperor, is an absolute monarch everywhere except in Finland, which has a constitutional government, the Emperor of Russia being there a limited ruler with the title of Grand Prince. Towns. — 1. Coast towns. — The principal seaports of Eussia are on the gulfs communicating with the Baltic. ST. PETEBSBUEG (900), on the Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland, the present capital of Bussia, yet a town of quite modern origin. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1703 in the midst of unhealthy marshes and dreary wastes, these disadvantages being counterbalanced in the eyes of its founder by the importance of having the seat of government on the sea, so as to facilitate communication with the more civilised powers of the West. Till the latter part of 1885, when a large ship-canal through the shallow end of the Gulf of Finland to the Neva was opened, it was not even a seaport except for small vessels, although its position as capital, the canals connecting it with all the navigable rivers of Russia, and the more recently con- structed Russian railways had already made it the principal seat of commerce in the empire. Before the opening of the canal, Cronstadt, the impregnable fortress on a small island in front of St. Petersburg, the principal naval station of Russia, was indispensable as the port of St. Petersburg for large shipping. RIGA, at the mouth of the Western Dwina, on the gulf named after it, the old capital of Livonia, is the second seaport in Russia, and carries on a similar trade to the east German ports of Danzig, Konigsberg, and Memel, 1 but above all in flax. Bevel, an old German town, on the south shore of the Gulf of Finland, is of less importance. Opposite on the north shore is Eelsingfors, the present capital of Finland, seat of a university. On the Black Sea are ODESSA, a rapidly rising seaport between the mouths of the Dniester and Bug, the chief seat of export of the wheat and other grains of South Russia ; Nikolaief, near the mouth of the Bug, the chief naval station on the Black Sea ; KHERSON, near the mouth of the Dnieper ; Kertch, at the mouth of the Sea of Azof. Taganrog, at the head of that sea, a little to the west of the mouth of the Don, is accessible only for small vessels. 2 Sevastopol, in the west of the Crimea, is of importance not as a seaport but as a fortress, and till 1855, when it was taken by the allied armies of the English and French, was considered impregnable. 3 The rocky coast on the south- east of the Crimea, at the base of the Yaila Mountains, has numerous small seaports, and, being protected by this mountain range from the cold winds from the north, 4 is remarkable for the contrast which its rich vegetation, quite Mediterranean in its aspect, presents to the dreary steppes occupying the greater part of the peninsula. Astrakhan, on the delta of the Volga, is the centre of trade with the Persian coast, and Archangel, at the mouth of the Northern Dwina, the principal port on the White Sea. » See p. 226, » See p 249. 8 Its fortifications, destroyed after the Crimean war, have since been restored. 4 See Introd. p. 62. RUSSIA AND EOUMANIA 255 2. Inland Towns. — Small wood-built 1 villages, thinly scattered over tho surface, are a characteristic feature in the Kussian plain ; larger towns are few in number, and many of these have, like those of Hungary, the appearance of aggregates of villages rather than towns proper. In the Volga basin the chief town is MOSCOW (750), in the heart of Eussia, on the Moskva, where it begins to be navigable, formerly the capital of the country, still the chief seat of its manufacturing industry, and next after St. Petersburg the principal commercial centre of the empire ; also seat of the most largely attended of Kussian universities. It is largely built of wood, but the gilded domes and pinnacles of its churches, and in particular those of the Kremlin, the old seat of the Czars, a walled enclosure full of churches and palaces, give it a very picturesque and striking appearance. Between Kaluga and Tula, south of Moscow, is an important coal-field with iron ores, and the latter town is an important centre of the manufacture of arms and hardware. Nizhni-Novgorod, at the confluence of the Oka and Volga, has not a large stationary population, but is celebrated for its annual fairs, at which two continents 8 exchange their products, when thousands of booths cover the peninsula between the two rivers, and vessels of all sizes moored along the river banks for miles together are converted for the time being into shops and magazines. Kazan, at the point where the Volga turns southwards, 3 is an important centre of trade. In western Eussia the chief town is WARSAW (400), the former capital of Poland, and still the seat of a Polish university. With its suburb of Fraga, it commands the principal passage of the Vistula, and hence is strongly fortified. Vilna, on a tributary of the Niemen and the high road from Warsaw to St. Petersburg, is the chief town belonging to the old kingdom of Lithuania. Dorpat, west of Lake Peipus, is chiefly noteworthy as the seat of the easternmost German university, and hence the most advanced outpost of German civilisation. In the south-west and south the chief inland towns are KISHINEF, the centre of the fertile government of Bessarabia ; KIEF, on the Dnieper, and KHARKOF, between the Dnieper and the Don — all towns belonging to the Begion of Black Earth. II. EOUMANIA, akingdom to the south-west of Bussia, formed in 1861 out of the two principalities of Moldavia (in the north) and Wallachia (in the south-west), to which the plateau of the Dobrujaonthe right bank of the Danube was added in 1878. Physically it is for the most part a continuation of the Eussian • plain, but the northern portion is higher, and must rather be regarded as a continuation of the plateau of Galicia and Bukovina. The country is drained by numerous tributaries of the Danube, the principal being the Sereth and Pruth, the latter of which divides Eoumania from Eussia. The state is essentially agricultural, and produces enormous quantities of maize for 1 The use of brick is extending. 2 Asia and Europe. 3 See p. 61 (2) (6). 256 EUROPE export. The language is one of the corruptions of the Latiti, The inhabitants are adherents of the Greek Church. The density of the population is little over 100 to the square mile. The capital is BUKAEEST (220), in the centre of the plain of "Wal- lachia ; and the other important towns are Jassy, in the centre of the plateau of Moldavia, and Galatz, the chief port near the mouth of the Danube, situated at the point where that river turns to the east. l SCANDINAVIA. Approximate latitudes : Hammerfest, 70£° ; Throndhjem, 63J° ; (south point of Shetland Islands), Christiania, Upsala (St. Petersburg), 60°; (Copenhagen), Malmo (Moscow), 56°. Approximate longitudes : west of Norway, 5° ; river TorneS, 24° E. Norway and Sweden, the two kingdoms which compose this peninsula (the largest in Europe), are the most thinly populated countries of the Continent, the former having a population of only sixteen, the latter twenty-six to the square mile. This small density is explained by the position and the physical features. A large part of the peninsula lies within the Arctic Circle, and though the western shores are under peculiarly favourable influences as regards climate, 2 the benefit of these influences is felt only to a slight distance inland, owing to the nature of the surface. The greater part of the peninsula con- sists of a plateau of hard rocks, which sinks abruptly down on the west or Norwegian side, and more gradually in a series of terraces on the east or Swedish side. The plateau increases in ele- vation from north to south, 3 and its surface is everywhere too high for cultivation. It is not even covered to any great extent with pastures, but chiefly with mosses and lichens, where it does not rise above the limit of perpetual snow. The aspect is extremely dreary. It is for the most part that of a vast elevated plain, 4 broken up into tabular masses by deep but narrow gorges, and dotted here and there with mountains, which appear like large rocks scattered over the surface, and nowhere form a mountain . chain. The highest mountains rise from the highest part of the plateau, where the Galdhoppigen rise to the height of 8,400 feet. In this region also are the most extensive glaciers, one, that of Jostedalsbrae, covering an area of nearly 400 square miles. I See Introd. p. 61 (2) (i). 3 See Introd. p. 51, and p. 186. 8 From about 1,000 to upwards of 8,000 feet. 4 Called by the people themselves ihefjetd (pronounced fyel). SCANDINAVIA 257 On the west side the gorges that break up the plateau reach even to the sea, and form the numerous steep-sided rocky fiords, which are so characteristic of the Norwegian coast. In front of the fiords is an almost continuous breastwork of rocky islands (so-called skerries), the principal group of which is that of the Lofoten Islands, within the Arctic Circle. The Swedish coast, on the other hand, is almost everywhere flat, and so also are the numerous small islands by which it is bordered. The lowlands of the pensinula lie chiefly on the gentler eastern slope of the plateau, and hence occupy a much smaller area in Norway than in Sweden. In the former country they constitute only about one-hundredth part of the whole surface (on the Skager Eak), while in the latter they occupy one-third. The chief rivers belong to the same slope, and almost all of them expand at intervals into long lakes with cataracts at their lower end, and hence, though they can be used for floating timber, are scarcely anywhere navigable. Lakes Wener and Wetter, the largest lakes in Europe after those of North Russia, occupy rocky basins in the lowland peninsula in the south of Sweden. About three-fourths of the people of Sweden are dependent on agriculture and the rearing of live-stock, and in that country the export of grain (chiefly oats) exceeds the import. In Norway the rearing of live-stock is of more importance than the tillage of the ground. In the neighbourhood of the plateau the cattle are driven up in the summer to the highland pastures, while in winter they are poorly fed under cover. Besides agriculture the chief occupations of the people are, in Sweden, wood-cutting and mining ; in Norway, wood-cutting, fishing, and shipping. Almost one-half of the timber of European commerce is derived from the Scandinavian peninsula. The forests 1 are chiefly pine and fir, and the wood is peculiarly hard and durable. 2 The great majority of the inhabitants belong to a Teutonic stock. (SeeDBNMAEK, p. 2o0.) The northern half of both Norway and Sweden is chiefly inhabited in the interior 3 by a separate race, known as the Lapps or Finns, who number at most 50,000 (probably much less). Some of these live by fishing (Sea Lapps) ; 1 Two-fifths of the surface of Sweden is estimnted to be covered with forests. * Because the short summers mnke the annual rings of the wood very close. 5 Almost the only settled population in the interior of northern Sweden is that round the huge ironstone mountain of Gellivara — the ore from which is conveyed to the LuleS river by means of a railway, the most northerly in the world. 258 EUROPE while others (the Reindeer Lapps) travel about with herds of reindeer, which feed on the mosses that cover the plateau, and which supply them with food, drink, and clothing, and in winter drag their sledges with great swiftness across the snow. Both Norway and Sweden now acknowledge the rule of one king, but they have separate legislatures, and in every other respect a separate government. Fro. 46.— An Encampment of Lapps wtth Reindeer. I. Sweden. — The more populous part of Sweden lies to the south of 62° north, and is divided into the territories of Svea- land ' in the north and Gottland in the south (the peninsula between the Kattegat and the Baltic). In the former area are the principal mines of Sweden. In the > That is, the land of the Swedes proper. SCANDINAVIA 259 valleys of the Osterdal and Westerdal, the district known as Dalarne — that is, the valleys — are the principal copper mines, and nearer the coast, a little to the north of the sixtieth parallel, are the celebrated ironworks of Dannemora, where the iron is not obtained by means of underground shafts, but is quarried in the open air. 1 In this area also lies the capital of Sweden, STOCKHOLM (205), beautifully situated at the lower end of Lake Malar, which is connected by a canal with an inlet on the south, and thus placed in communication with a series of caDals with locks connecting Lakes Wener and Wetter with the Baltio and the Kattegat. North-north-west of Stockholm, Upsala, the seat of a famous university, at which Linnsus was professor. The peninsula of Gottland is the principal agricultural region of Sweden. Here, on the Kattegat, at the mouth of the Gota-elf, 2 Gbte- borg (Gothenburg), the second largest town in Sweden, and the most important of its industrial towns (cotton spinneries, &c. ; best known in this country through its matches). Opposite the coast of Gottland is an island of the same name, with Wisby on its west coast, now an insignificant town, but with extensive walls and various ruins, to call to mind the period when it was one of the chief towns of the Hansa. 3 Near the southern end of the peninsula, Malmo, the chief place of transit to Denmark and Germany. II. Norway. — The chief area for the production of timber and corn crops in Norway is a small triangle in the north of the Skager Bak. In this triangle lies Christiania, the capital of Norway, at the head of the fiord of the same name, the only town in Norway with more than 50,000 inhabitants. All the other chief towns are on the fiords of the west coast, and depend mainly on the fisheries. The principal market for fish is Bergen, the second largest town in Norway, on a fiord near the south ; and the coasts between this inlet and the south- ern point of Norway (Cape Lindesnaes) are the principal scene of the herring fishery. Cod, on the other hand, are principally caught in the channel between the Lofoten Islands and the mainland, where they arrive in countless shoals about the beginning of February. Here, while the long Arctic night still continues, from 15,000 to 20,000 fisher- men assemble every year with about 4,000 boats, and the fishery goes on till April. The cod are split open and dried on long lines of wooden framework (stockfish), or salted and dried on the cliffs behind the fishermen's huts (TMppfish),*' and the liver is preserved for the making of cod-liver oil. Throndhjem lies farther north than Bergen, on a comparatively broad fiord, affording some space for agriculture on its shores, and from it an easy road (now a railway) leads across the fjeld into the south-east of Sweden. Tromso and Hammerfest are small towns still farther north, the latter in a latitude at which the winter night and summer day last for three and a half months. On the neigh • bouring cliffs eider-down is collected from the nests of the eider ducks. * Comp. the Erzberg, p. 245. ' Elf, Swedish. = river. * See p. 225 ,i. 2. * That is, 'cliff fish.' The cod-fish of Norway are chiefly exported to the Soman Catholic countries on the Mediterranean. 260 EUEOPE DENMARK. Denmark, which was long associated in history with Scandi- navia, is a country of very different aspect. Both mainland and islands, with the exception of the more distant rocky island of Bornholm, are essentially a part of the great European plain. The mainland is separated from Sweden by the Kattegat, which communicates with the Baltic by means of three narrow straits — the Sound, between Sweden and Seeland ; the Great Belt, between Seeland and Fyen ;' and the Little Belt, between Fyen and Jutland. Of these, the Great Belt is the only one deep enough to be used by war vessels ; but merchant vessels come and go by way of the Sound, which is not only the shortest route, but one in which sailing vessels are favoured in either direction by the prevailing westerly winds. The mainland portion of the country, forming the peninsula of Jutland (with which a detached portion on the north, now completely separated by the Liimfiord, was connected in the west till 1825), presents the same contrast on the east and west as the more southerly portion of the same peninsula now belong- ing to Prussia. The west coasts are bordered by a chain of downs or sand-hills inaccessible to shipping, while the east coast is richer in harbours. On the west a barren sandy soil extends more than half-way inland, and thus reduces considerably the density of the population, but the eastern part of the peninsula and almost all the islands are fertile. The inhabitants are mainly agriculturists, and many of the peasants own the land which they till. Eelatively to population, more corn is grown and more cattle are reared in Denmark than in any other country in Europe, and different kinds of grain form by far the most important export. Till the beginning of the sixteenth century Denmark was at the head of the Scandinavian countries, having both Norway and Sweden subject to its rule ; but first Sweden acquired its inde- pendence (1526), and in the present century Norway was detached. Still, however, the inhabitants of these three kingdoms are much alike in language, religion, occupations, and customs. Norwe- gian is only a dialect of Danish, and Swedish is a language very closely allied. The inhabitants of all three countries are Lutheran 1 Often called Funen in this country, that name being a corruption of the German one. The Danish name (in the text) means ' fine,' oi ' beautiful,' IBERIAN PENINSULA 261 Protestants in religion, and among the Danes, as among the Swedes and Norwegians, education is very generally diffused and highly advanced. There is an excellent university at Copenhagen. Towns.— COPENHAGEN (235), the capital, chiefly on the island of Seeland, partly on the small island of Amager, arose on the beat natural harbour on the Sound. Besides Copenhagen there are only two towns with a population of more than 20,000, one of which is Frederiksborg, the summer residence of the royal family, a short distance from Copenhagen. The other is Odense, on the east side of the island of Fyen. The towns in Jutland are all small places, mostly at the head of the inlets, here called fiords, though unlike the steep- sided rocky fiords of Norway. Distant Possessions. — The Faroe 1 Islands, north-west of Scotland, in lat. 62° N., are rocky islands, inhabited by a small number of people employed in sheep-rearing and fishing. Iceland, still farther to the north-west, an island bisected by the 65th parallel of north latitude. It is nearly of the same size as Newfoundland, and is the largest island of Europe except Great Britain. The surface is elevated, consisting chiefly of volcanic rock covered with mosses and lichens, and the summer is too cold and damp for the cultivation of grain. The inhabitants number only about 70,000 people, who derive a scanty subsistence from the rearing of sheep and horses, and from fishing. They are the descendants of old Norwegian farmers of noble birth, and still speak the old Norwegian language, the mother language of Danish and Norwegian, and retain to the present day the love of learning inherited from their ancestors, so that education is as general among the Icelanders as among the people of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The island is chiefly celebrated for its active volcanoes (Eecla, &c), geysers, 2 and hot springs. Chief town, Reikjavik, in the south-west. IBERIAN PENINSULA. Approximate latitudes : middle of Pyrenees (Balkan Mountains), 43° ; (Albemarle Sound) Point Tarifa, 36° N. Approximate longitudes : 9° W. to 3° E. The Iberian Peninsula, 3 composed of Spain and Portugal, is the most westerly of the Mediterranean peninsulas, and that which contains the greatest proportion of land in the south. Nearly half of the peninsula lies to the south of the parallel of 40°, while 1 In Danish Far Oer, that is, 'sheep islands.' 2 See p. 36. 8 So called from the Iberi, who formed a large proportion of its anoient inhabitants. 262 EUROPE only the southernmost of the minor peninsulas of Italy and the Greek portion of the Balkan Peninsula extend south of that line. The coast is little varied in outline, except in the north-west, where the rias or fiord-like indentations, similar to the lochs of Scotland and Ireland and the gulfs of Brittany, are, like these, washed by high tides. 1 The surface of the peninsula is one of the most elevated in Europe. The greater part consists of a large plateau, upwards of 2,500 feet in height, higher in the north than in the south, crossed from east to west by ranges of mountains (sierras). The eastern edge of this plateau is a semicircle, which descends in the north-east more or less abruptly to the valley of the Ebro, and farther south advances closer to the sea. In the south its boundary is marked by the Sierra Morena, which looks down on the valley of the Guadalquivir ; while in the west the plateau is broken in upon by the narrow plains and terraced uplands of Portugal bordering the lower course of the Iberian rivers. In the north-east this plateau is connected with the Pyrenees, a lofty chain, with peaks rising about its middle (the Maladetta group) to upwards of 11,000 feet, and crossed by few passes as low as those of the Alps, so that the chain forms an admirable defensive frontier. The principal roads, and at present the only railways between France and Spain, are round its extremities. The long spurs from this range to the south greatly restrict the extent of the low grounds in the triangular basin of the rapid Ebro between the Pyrenees and the central plateau. Another lofty and rugged range is less markedly connected with the central plateau in the south-east. The Sierra Nevada, 8 the snowy summits of which 3 are almost always visible in the clear air of Spain overlooking the sub-tropical gardens of the plain of Granada, runs north-eastwards towards the plateau without meet- ing it, the water-parting in this district being formed merely by high ground dotted with hills. On the south the Sierra Nevada is flanked by a long series of coast ranges of mountains, and be- tween these and the plateau extends the only considerable tract of lowlands in the peninsula, the broad valley of the Guadalquivir. 1 The Mediterranean coasts are almost without tides (see p. 45). 8 Spanish = Snowy Sierra. 5 The highest peak, Mulahacen, is even higher than the loftiest summit of the Pyrenees. IBERIAN PENINSULA 263 On the plateau the water-parting between east and west runs generally near the eastern edge, so that most of the chief rivers have a long course westwards towards the Atlantic, while their basins are limited in breadth by the mountain ranges that cross the plateau. These rivers are — the Douro, between the Cantabrian Mountains (a continuation of the Pyrenees along the north coast) and the series of sierras which wind from Lisbon to the south-west frontier of Aragon, 1 forming in its eastern section the boundary between the old provinces of Leon and Estremadura, Old and New Castile ; the Tagus, between this series of sierras and that of which the Sierra Toledo is the principal section ; and the Guadiana, 2 between the latter and the Sierra Morena. None of the table-land rivers is of great impor- tance for navigation, chiefly because they all have rapids caused by rocky shallows in their lower course where they have to pierce their way through mountain barriers. Hence they do not serve as a means of union for Spain and Portugal. In this respect they agree with the Ebro, but contrast with the Guadalquivir, which, having throughout a gentle flow, has been made navigable by dredging for large vessels to Seville, and can be ascended by boats far into the interior. The rocks of which the surface of Spain is composed are, like those of Britain, very varied in geological date ; and to this cir- cumstance it probably owes its extraordinary wealth in minerals, exceeding that of most, if not of all other countries of Europe, though this wealth is far from being fully utilised. The minerals are most abundant on and near the north and south boundaries of the plateau. In the north the Basque Provinces (in the south-east angle of the Bay of Biscay) are remarkably rich in iron, and coal is now known to exist in many districts, the largest field being in the Asturias. In the south are found the enormous^ deposits of copper at Kio Tinto, for which Huelva, in the south-west, is the place of export ; farther east the lead ores of Linares, and within the plateau the quicksilver mines of Almaden. Sulphur and salt are also abundant. The climate a is on the whole the driest in Europe. The edges of the plateau condense the moisture from the surrounding seas before it reaches the interior, which is hence to a large 1 The chief member of this series of sierras ia the Sierra de Guadarrnma. 8 The first part of the names Guadiana and Guadalquivir (as well as of other rivers in Spain) is derived from the Arabic wadi, a river : see below, p. 264. 5 Regarding the climate and vegstation of the Mediterranean countries gene, tally see Europe, pp. 184-5, 264 EUROPE extent an arid steppe without trees, and fitted at most for sheep pastures. Only the north and north-west are abundantly supplied with rain, and hence have forests and agricultural products simi- lar to those of Central Europe. On the other hand, the upland terraces and lowlands surrounding the plateau on the west, south, and east, are rich in evergreens (the olive and the cork-oak), in wine, and southern fruits, the cultivation of which, especially in the south, is almost wholly dependent on irrigation. The oases thus dotted here and there over vast barren expanses give to many parts of the peninsula an African aspect, on which account it is fre- quently described as Africa in Europe. The most unhealthy part of the peninsula is the marshy district on both banks of the Lower Guadalquivir. In almost all parts the principal grain is wheat. For six centuries the Iberian Peninsula was subject to the dominion of Rome, and was then thoroughly Romanised, so that notwithstanding all the subsequent changes the language has remained essentially a daughter of the Latin. At the break-up of the Roman Empire (fifth century a.d.) Spain was overrun by the Teutonic tribes of the Western Goths (Visigoths), who settled among, but did not displace, the old Romanised inhabitants. A different sort of invasion took place early in the eighth century, when the Mohammedan Arabs or Moors 1 crossing over from Africa soon made themselves masters of most of the peninsula. Though gradually driven backwards they retained the southern provinces till the close of the fifteenth century. For a great part of this period these Moorish provinces were the home of the highest civilisation in Europe, and many beautiful buildings, adorned with the peculiar kind of ornamentation known as arabesques, 2 have survived as witnesses of this extinct civilisation ; and the fine irrigation works of the south are a still more important relic of Moorish dominion. The gradual wresting of the soil of Spain out of Moorish hands took place from different centres, whence arose several independent states, 3 which were only in course of 1 Really Arabs, but generally known as Moors because they came over from Morocco. 3 The Mohammedan religion forbids the imitation of living things, whether animals or plants, and hence arose a style of ornamentation called arabesque after the Arabs, in which gracefully curved lines are the prevailing feature. 5 The names of which still survive in those of the old provinces of Spain, but these old provinces have now given place to others of smaller and more equal size. IBERIAN PENINSULA 265 centuries merged in one. The final expulsion took place just after all the provinces of the present Spain except those in Moorish hands had been brought under one rule. Portugal, separated from Spain by a belt of inhospitable thinly populated country, has remained independent except for a period of sixty years (1580 to 1640). Both countries were at the height of their power at the time of the discovery of America, and their maritime situation encouraged them to undertake marine enterprises, which resulted in their making settlements and establishing their dominion in large areas of the newly discovered lands across the Atlantic, as well as in the East Indies and on the route thither round Africa. Of these only a small proportion remain connected with the mother countries. 1 In both countries the government is now a limited monarchy. I. PORTUGAL, a country of nearly the same size as the State of Maine, well adapted by its situation for maritime activity, but which shows scarcely a vestige of the enterprise which it once displayed by sea. Almost all the trade is in the hands of England, whence are derived most of the manufactured goods used in the country, which exchanges for them chiefly wine and cork (the bark of the cork-oak). About half of the surface is unproductive (yielding not even timber), the productive portion being confined to the vicinity of the coast and the banks of the rivers; the only mineral product is salt. There are only two important towns in the country, both seaports. PORTO or OPORTO, at the mouth of theDouro, is the place of export of the wine to which it gives name {'port), which is grown on the banks of the river. LISBON (200) at the mouth of the Tagus, the capital of the country, though like Oporto an ancient town, has quite a modern appear- ance, having been mostly rebuilt after its destruction by the tremendous earthquake of 1755. The small town of Coimbra, on the Mondego river, between the Douro and the Tagus, is the seat of a university. II. SPAIN, a country about one-fifth larger than California, with a population equal to nearly one-third that of the United States, is yet thinly peopled for a European country. Only round the coast does the population exceed 100 to the square mile, and more than half the plateau (in the east and south) has a density of less than thirty to the square mile. 1. Catalonia, 2 in the north-east, has a soil not naturally fertile, but the inhabitants, the most energetic in Spain, have cultivated it with great care, and have developed cotton and other manufac- turing industries on a great scale. 1 See p. 285. 2 The names following the numbers are those of the old provinces. 266 EUROPE On the coast BARCELONA (250), a town which has grown up round a rock that rises boldly above the richest plain on this part of the coast. It is the principal seaport as well as the principal seat of manufactures in Spain, and the second town in population. In the north of this province, among the Pyrenees, is the small in- dependent republic of Andorra, less than 200 square miles in extent. 2. Valencia and Murcia, the next maritime provinces to the south, are characterised by numerous short rivers, on the banks of which are still to be seen some of the finest examples of the old Moorish irrigation works ; in the so-called huertas, 1 in which every field is surrounded by small canals. The province of Valencia is the chief silkworm-rearing province in Spain ; and the city of VALENCIA, occupying a delightful situation on the delta of the Guadalaviar is the chief seat of the Spanish silk in- dustry. It is an old Roman town, and a little to the north the site of another ancient seat of commerce, Saguntiim, is marked by the village of Murviedro. 8 In the south of the province, Elche, a celebrated oasis of date-palms ; on the neighbouring coast the fine seaport of Alicante, from which are sent out the products of the rich plain of Murcia, as well as the esparto grass which covers a large part of the maritime strip. Cartagena, on the coast of the latter province, owes its founda- tion 3 to a fine bay which admirably adapts it to serve as a naval station. It is strong in its situation, and strongly fortified, and is now also a thriving commercial seaport. 3. Andalusia is made up of the lowlands forming the valley of the Guadalquivir and the highlands in the south, wnich once formed the kingdom of Granada. On the steep, rocky coast of the latter ancient kingdom are two seaports of some consequence, on account of their trade in southern fruits, &c. — Almeria and Malaga, the latter on a small strip of flat land where the mountains retire a little from the coast. Near the south point of Spain, on the Bay of Algeciras, Gibraltar, an almost impregnable fortress, commanding the entrance to the Mediterranean, held by the British since 1704. But it is on the plain of Andalusia that the chief cities of the province lie. It is on this sunny plain, where sugar-cane, ootton, and the cactus known as the prickly pear are among the objects of cultivation, and the agave, castor-oil plant, and olive even run wild, that we meet with the Spanish cities which still retain something of the splendour which they had during the time of the Moorish occu- pancy. SEVILLE, on the Guadalquivir, an active seaport as well as a rising seat of industry ; Cordoba, 4 higher up on the same river, once a seat of Moorish dominion, but now greatly declined, partly in conse- quence of the fact that the Guadalquivir is no longer navigable so high up for vessels of large size ; Granada, on a small plain near the head- 1 Spanish = ' gardens.' a A corruption of Lat. muri veteran' old walls.' 5 By the Carthaginians. It is the Carthago Nova of the Romans. 4 Often spelt Cordova, the Spanish b between two vowels being pronounced very like a v. IBERIAN PENINSULA 267 waters of Jenil 1 (trib. Guadalquivir), the last Beat of Moorish dominion (taken by the Spaniards in 1492), and celebrated for its Alhambra, the old palace of the Moorish kings. The irrigated plain which surrounds it, here called by the Arabic name of the Vega, rivals in fertility and beauty the huertas of Valencia and Murcia. On a small island off the coast stands the fortified seaport of Cadiz, founded by Phoenicians about 1100 B.C., the place of export of the wine which takes its name of sherry from the neighbouring town of Jerez. 1 To the north-west of Cadiz lies Falos, situated on a little inlet at a distance of some four miles from the coast, and noteworthy as the starting-point from which Columbus, Magellan, and other navigators set out on their western voyages. 4. The Northern Provinces of Spain. — Galicia, the Asturias, and Biscay, with a strip of Old Castile ; a region covered with forest-clad mountains, noteworthy in the history of Spain as having always been the last refuge from invaders. The most easterly province, Biscay, takes its name from the Basques, who are the last remnant of a population whose language has no recog- nisable affinities with any other known speech. All the places of importance are on the coast. Ferrol, on one of the rias of the north- west, is the principal Spanish naval station. Santander and Bilbao, on the north coast, two busy seaports, the latter exporting a great deal of iron ore from the neighbouring mines. 5. The Provinces of the Castiles, Old and New, the name of which is a memorial of the numerous castles or strongholds erected by the Christians to secure their successive conquests from the Moors, embrace the most desolate portions of the Spanish table-land, these occupying the east (round the head waters of the Tagus and Jucar) 1 and south (La Mancha). The somewhat more favourable tracts to the west produce a number of aromatic herbs which afford a suitable pasture for the migrating sheep (merinos), 2 which are kept in summer on the table-lands of New Castile and Leon, while in winter they are driven down to the more sheltered valleys of Estremadura and Andalusia. MADRID, the highest capital in Europe (2,200 feet), and the drea- riest in situation, owes its elevation to the rank of capital (by Charles V. in the first half of the sixteenth century) solely to its central position ; and Valladolid, in Old Castile, an earlier capital of Spain, owes its im- portance to a similar cause, being the centre of one of the minor table- lands of the peninsula. Toledo, forty miles south of Madrid, occupies a strong situation on a rock overhanging the Tagus, and was one of the older capitals, but is now decayed ; it has long been celebrated, as it still is, for its swords. 1 Formerly spelt Xenil, Xerez, &c, j being now used in Spanish for the sound once represented by x. This sound is that of a strongly aspirated h. 2 The stock from which this breed of sheep is derived is said to have been intro- duced from North Africa in the fourteenth century. 268' EUROPE 6. Aragon, on the north-east of the Spanish tableland, is a thinly-populated province, in which the inhabitants display little of the energy shown by their neighbours of Catalonia in over- coming the defects of the soil. Fig. 47. — The Alhambra. (By the kind permission of Messrs. Hachette.) ITALY 269 Ita only large town, Zaragoza, on the Ebro, has always been of great military importance, since it stands at the point whence the easiest route leads up to the cenlral plateau (by the valley of the Jalon, 1 a route now followed by a railway). 7. The Balearic Islands, to the east of the Gulf of Valencia, are all more or less mountainous. The principal town, Mahon (for part of last century in the possession of the British), stands in Minorca, the least mountainous of the three larger islands. ITALY. Approximate latitudes : (St. Etienne) Milan, Venice, 45£°N. ; (Chicago) (north of Portugal) Rome 42° ; (San Francisco) Palermo (Athens), 38°. Approximate longitudes : 7°-18|° E. The mainland of Italy, a country nearly equal in area to Georgia and Florida, is composed of a long peninsula almost filled by the Apennine Mountains, and a plain on the north, bounded by the Alps, and drained chiefly by the Po. Besides smaller islands, the kingdom includes also the two large mountainous islands of Sicily and Sardinia. Almost everywhere the Alps descend rather abruptly to the north plain. Immediately at their base, and enjoying in an eminent degree the shelter afforded by them from cold north winds, 2 lie four beautiful lakes (Maggiore, Como, Iseo, Garda), amidst vegetation which will not flourish in the plain farther south. On the opposite side of the plain the Apennines descend inwards more gradually in a series of terraces, and the straight road connecting the towns of Eimini, Bologna, Modena, Parma, and Piacenza, the road anciently called the Via JEmilia, and now giving name to the Emilian provinces, marks very well the limit between highlands and lowlands. At Eimini this road, now accompanied by a railway, touches the coast, which it henceforth follows as far as the peninsula of Gargano, thus showing how close the Apennines advance to the sea in this part of Italy. It is on this side, a little to the north-west of the peninsula just named, that these mountains reach their highest elevation (a little under 10,000 feet) in the rugged province of the Abruzzi. The principal plains of the peninsula are — ( 1 ) that of the Arno, in the north of Tuscany ; (2) that of Campania, 3 round Naples ; and (3) the larger but less fertile lowlands of Apulia, in the » See p. 267 n. 1. * See Introd. p. 52. 3 Not to be confounded with the Campagna round Rome. 270 EUROPE south-east. All of them are small by comparison with the great plain of northern or so-called Upper Italy. Unhealthy marshea occupy many parts of the coast, especially in the west and south. The only lake belonging to the Italian Plains is the Val di Comacchio, at the mouth of the Po, south of the delta, a shallow lagoon cut off from the Adriatic by a low and narrow spit of land. It is valuable for its eel-fisheries and salt-pans. Of the lakes of the Apennines (Trasimeno, Bolsena, Bracciano), the two latter occupy the craters of extinct volcanoes. Though mountains and highlands occupy so large a part of the area and have been to a large extent stripped of the forests that once covered them, the productive surface of the country is relatively large, hill pastures being very extensive. Only about two-fifths of the surface, however, is suitable for agriculture, and Italy is among those countries which have to import grain ; while its dearth of coal and iron prevents it from taking a hign place in manufacturing industry, and necessitates a large import of manu- factured goods. The products on which it chiefly depends for export are wine, oil (from the olive), and above all raw silk. Among minerals, iron, though not abundant, is found of excel- lent quality at various places (island of Elba, &c.) A fine kind of marble is quarried at Carrara, among the Apuan Hills, in North Italy j but the sulphur of Sicily and southern Italy makes up at least half the value of the mineral produce of the kingdom. Though apparently formed by nature to constitute a single state, few countries have had a greater variety of settlers and dominions within their boundaries than Italy. In ancient times, numerous flourishing Greek Colonies studded the shores of the southern half of the mainland, and both Greeks and Carthaginians formed settlements in Sicily, while Kelts, break- ing in through the passes across the Western Alps, 1 occupied the northern plains. Ultimately, however, the whole country was subdued by the strong hand of Borne, and was kept under one rule for more than 500 years. But on the downfall of Borne, in the fifth century a.d., Italy became a prey to numerous foreign invaders, and once more broke up into a number of different states. A German tribe, the Lombards* (Longobardi), settled in the north- ern plains, and others advanced farther south. At a later date Arabs (Saracens) and Normans settled in Sicily and southern 1 See p. 233» 2 Whence the name Lombardy. ITALY. 271 Italy, and Germany, France, and Spain, all in turn invaded Italy and seized on parts of it, which they retained for a longer or shorter time. Throughout the greater part of the Middle Ages, and for centuries after, the country was broken up into a large number of independent cities and small states, yet this is one of the most brilliant periods of Italian history. The favourable situation of Italy in the middle of the Mediterranean gave this country the command of the trade between the east and west, and the wealthy trading republics of Genoa and Venice, for example, had settlements even on the Black Sea. Their trade and their glory declined, however, when by the discovery of the New World Italy came to be no longer in the centre of the highways of com- merce. 1 The political unity of Italy was completely effected only in 1870, when the last remnants of the States of the Church were annexed to a kingdom, the original nucleus of which was the kingdom of Sardinia, made up of the island of that name together with the north-western portion of the mainland. The government is a limited monarchy. The population, upwards of 250 to the square mile, is one of the densest in Europe, and there is a considerable annual emigra- tion, principally to the republics of South America. The Italian language is the least modified of all the descendants of the Latin. The religion is Eoman Catholic. Elementary education is rapidly extending, but great numbers of the inhabitants, espe- cially in the south, are still unable to read and write. Italy is divided into provinces, the average size of which is about the same as that of a French department, but some of the names of the older divisions (Venetia, Lombardy, &c), still survive as those of groups of provinces called territorial compartments. Towns and Districts. — 1. The Northern Plains. — Besides the Po and its tributaries, these plains are drained by numerous other rivers, the chief of which (Adige, Brenta, &c), enter the Adriatic to the north of the Po. Numerous irrigation and some navigable canals are led from these streams, and the region is thus one of the best watered and most productive in Europe. The abundant sediment brought down from the Alps by the rivers is constantly extending the land seawards, particularly in the region of the Po delta, where Adria, in ancient times a coast town from which the Adriatic obtained its name, is now more 1 Comp. British Isles, pp. 193-4. 272 EUROPE than twenty miles inland. Though sharing in the benefit of .1 warm climate enjoyed everywhere in the Mediterranean region,' this part of Italy has summers too moist and winters too cold for the cultivation of the olive and the members of the orange tribe. The summers are warm enough, however, for the growth of maize and wine, and for the rearing of silkworms ; the vines being often hung in festoons between mulberry trees, on the leaves cf which the silkworms feed. The silk thus produced furnishes the material for the making of silks and velvets — the chief manufacturing industry, not only of these provinces, but of the whole kingdom. The pastures are rich, and are the mainstay of another leading industry of the region, the making of cheese. The district round Lodi, where the so-called Parmesan 2 cheese, is made, is famous for its six crops of grass in the year. Rice is grown on the marshy depressions on the banks of the Po. Large towns are numerous. On the Po, before it enters on the plains, stands TURIN (230), capital of the former kingdom of Sardinia, afterwards the first capital of the kingdom of Italy ; situated at the point towards which three passes across the Alps converge, and now on the railway which pierces the Alps at the Mont Cenis tunnel. Lower down on the Fo, Piacenza, at the point where the banks of the river begin to be marshy, and hence at the lowest point at which the river could be conveniently bridged, so that it became not only the terminus of the iEmilian road, but also the meeting-place of the roads from Italy and Switzerland. Still lower down on the Fo is Cremona, once noted for its violins. MILAN (300), in the centre of the rich plain between the Ticino and the Adda, occupies a similar situation to Turin, at the focus of the chief passes leading from the north across the Alps, now on the railway which pierces these mountains by the St. Gothard tunnel, and hence an important centre of trade between Italy and Central Europe. In the Middle Ages the seat of a grand-duke, it is now of importance chiefly as the town in which manufacturing industry is most highly developed in Italy. Its marble cathedral is also celebrated. On the east and west of Lombardy, lines of defence are created by broad_ rivers with marshy banks. On the west the line is that of the Ticino, near the mouth of which is the town of Pavia, which has in consequence been a frequent scene of battle. On the east the lines referred to are those of the Adige and the Mincio, and on these rivers stand the fortresses of the famous Quadrilateral (Mantua, Verona, 3 Peschiera, and Legnago). On the coast stands VENICE, built on a hundred islands 4 behind a line of low sandbanks (Udi), due to the joint action of rivers and sea- 1 See Europe, p. 184. ' Not made at Parma, as the name would imply. 8 Verona defends the mouth of the valley leading down from the Brenner Pass (see p. 175). * Now connected with the mainland by a railway bridge more than a mile in length. ITALY 273 currents, but now strengthened by walls, while the openings between them (narrow enough to be stopped by the sinking of a single vessel) are protected by forts. In this easily defended situation Venice waa founded in the fifth century a.d. by refugees from neighbouring Roman towns sacked by the Huns, and through its admirable position for commerce (the valley of the Adige and the Brenner Pass serving as a communication between it and Central Europe), it soon became a thriving city, and ultimately for a time the centre of commerce in Italy. Art and luxury followed the attainment of wealth and power, and the beautiful buildings whose foundations rest on piles and are washed by the arms of the sea which in this remarkable town take the place of streets, are the admiration of all the cultivated peoples of the west. It is still a busy seaport, and has regained a little of its former prosperity since the opening of the Suez Canal. On the Brenta, Padua, the seat of a university long famous. Of the towns on the iEmilian road already mentioned, Parma and Modena are noted in history as the seats of independent dukes, whose territories were annexed to the kingdom of Italy only in 1860; Bologna is the seat of one of the oldest of European universities, once specially famous as a school of Boman law ; Ravenna, though now an unimpor- tant inland town, was the Venice of ancient times, a city built on islands, and hence on account of its strength made by Augustus a naval station, and during the time when the northern barbarians were overrunning Italy chosen as the seat of government by some of the later Boman emperors, and afterwards by the exarchs or governors of the Italian territory which remained under the rule of the emperors of the East. 2. Middle Italy and the Riviera. — The Eiviera is the name given to that sheltered strip of coast, partly in France and partly in Italy (San Remo), where invalids from all parts of Europe come to enjoy the benefit of a mild climate amidst charming scenery and a sub-tropical vegetation. From the ancient inhabi- tants this strip of coast has the name of Liguria . GENOA, the former rival of Venice, and now the chief seaport of Italy, built tier above tier in face of a fine bay, which lies at the mouth of the Bochetta Pass 1 across the Apennines, once the most im- portant trade-route in this part of Italy, but now superseded by a railway. In recent times Genoa has prospered even more than Venice, from the fact that all the railways of the north converge here (the line piercing the Apennines in a tunnel situated a little to the east of the pass just mentioned). In Tuscany are several cities formerly celebrated, if not still of great importance. Chief of these is FLORENCE, 3 on the Amo, in the midst of the Tuscan lowlands, which are broken up by ranges of bills » See Introd. p. 61 (3) (6). 2 The winter temperature of Florence ia 5° Fahr. higher than that of Bologna, only fifty miles distant but on the north side of the Apennines. (See p. 62.) Before the introduction of railways the pass of Pietra Mala or La Futa (3,000 ft.), on the road from Florence to Bologna, was one of the most frequented in the Apennines, but the railway between the two towns (less direct in its route) now ascends the valley of the Reno and crosses the Apennines farther to the w«st. S J?ia 4Sl— Feont of A Venetian Palace, with Gondolas, ok Yenktiau Boats, ■ - "IN THE FOEESEOOHD. • ITALY 275 into a number of small plains, each as carefully watered and as fertile as the_ plains of Lombardy, but enjoying under the shelter of the Apennines a much warmer climate, so that the olive gardens are the most celebrated in all Italy. A city of comparatively recent growth, it was during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries one of the most powerful in Italy, and, being then a favourite home of artists, is famous for its art treasures. Straw-plaiting and silk manufactures are the principal industries at the present day. Pisa, near the mouth of the Arno, before the rise of Genoa and Florence a great seaport and powerful republic, is noteworthy on account of its university and of the old buildings, splendid relics of the Middle Ages, enclosed within its walls. It is now inaccessible to sea-going vessels in consequence of the silting up of the mouth of the river. To take its place as a seaport the Florentines constructed on the coast farther south the harbour of Leghorn. 1 Be- tween Leghorn and Genoa is the fine natural harbour of Spezia, the chief naval station of Italy. Among the thinly populated and poorly watered provinces of South Tuscany, Siena, though no longer a populous town, is worthy of mention as having also been in former times the seat of a powerful republic. In Latium, Umbria, and the Marches, which are nearly covered by the Apennines and its branches, there is only one town with more than 60,000 inhabitants. That town is EOME (275), on the Tiber, since 1870 the capital of the kingdom of Italy, in succession to Florence ; in ancient times the capital of the Eoman Empire, of which the ruins of the Forum, the Pantheon, and the Colosseum are symbols ; after- wards the seat of the popes and as such the head of Western Chris- tendom, which is still more conspicuously symbolised by the magni- ficent dome of St. Peter's on the right bank of the Tiber. Founded (it is said in the eighth century B.C.) on the last hills bordering the Tiber, at a point to which the river could be ascended by small ships, 2 it soon became the meeting-place of the chief roads across the Apennines, and hence grew in size and power. It is now the chief resort of artists, and is visited on account of its historical associations by people from all parts of the civilised world. The country round, the Campagna, in ancient times carefully cultivated, has fallen out of cultivation and is now a barren plain rendered almost uninhabitable by malaria. Still more pesti- ferous are the Pontine Marshes, in the extreme south of Latium, uninhabit- able even in ancient times. On the east coast is the seaport of Ancona. 8. lower Italy, comprising the wild region of the Abruzzi, the sheep pastures of Apulia in the south-east, the mountainous Calabria with its malarial coasts in the south-west, and in the west the fertile plain of Campania. On the coast, on a beautiful bay fronting the small islands of Ischia and Procida, stands NAPLES (460), the most populous city in Italy with a considerable silk industry, till 1860 the capital of a king- dom which embraced the whole of Lower Italy and Sicily. Overlooking the same bay is Mount Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe. Its first recorded eruption (a.d. 79) overwhelmed with its ashes the cities of Hercnlaneum and Pompeii, the disinterring of which in the present day has brought to light many Boman remains of the 1 Ital. Livorno, 8 See Introd. p. 61 (1) (6), (3) and (4). 276 EUKOPE greatest interest. Capua, on the Volturno, in ancient times the chief town in Campania, has s unk into complete decay, chiefly in consequence of the swamps now existing on the banks of the river. On the coast of Apulia is Brindisi, in ancient times, under the name of Brundusiwm, the place of transit to Greece, and now again an important seaport as the terminus of the land-route (through the Alpine railways) to Alexandria and the East. 4. Sicily and Sardinia. — Though nearly equal in size, these islands present a great contrast in natural fertility and hence in popukmsness. The former has considerable moun- tains, only in the north ; most of its surface is ; covered with whe atfields and groves bearing sou- thern fruits. Three towns in it have at least 100,000 inha- bitants— MESSINA, on the straits of the same name (under which it is now pro- posed to pierce a tunnel); CATANIA, on a charming plain at the foot of Mount Etna, on the east coast, and the beau- tiful PALERMO (200), on the north coast. Mount Etna is an active volcano, rising with an ex- ceedingly regular and gentle slope to about lljOOO feet in height. The an- ciently celebrated city, of Syracuse, near the southern end of the east coast, is now only a gloomy 'and dirty town of no importance. The island altogether; though less than one-third of the size of Ireland, has a population more than half as great. > Sardinia has only one plain of importance, stretching from north-west to south-east, between the Bay of Oristano and thatof Cagliari, which latter takes its name from the chief town in the island. Oranges are an im- portant product, and in the south-west are rich mines of silver-yielding lead and of zinc. < Tin. 49, -A Stkkbt in Pompeii : Vesuvius is the distance, THE BALKAN PENINSULA 277 Midway between Sicily and the coast of Africa lie the rocky limestone islands of Malta, Gozo, and Oomino, inhabited by a dense population speaking a corrupt mixture of Arabic and other languages. They have been held by the British since 1800. On Malta is the strong fortress of La Valletta, which carries on a large trade with North Africa, and is an important coaling station. THE BALKAN PENINSULA. Approximate latitudes : (New York) (Naples) Constantinople, 41° ; (Mouth of Potomac River) Athens, 38°. Approximate longitudes : west of Bosnia to the Bosporus, 16°-29° E. This name is applied to the easternmost of the three Mediterra- nean peninsulas, lyingbetween the Adriatic and Ionian Seas on the west and the Black Sea and the iEgean on the east ; on the north we may assume as the boundary the lower Save and Danube, as far as the south point of the Dobruja, thus excluding Roumania. The whole peninsula, along with the adjacent islands, may be described in general as a land of mountains, partly depressed below sea level, so that the higher parts on the margin are in some cases cut off as islands separated by valleys and passes now submerged, and in other cases run out to sea as peninsulas between which the lower parts of former land valleys now form deep ^gulfs. A rise of the sea-bed to the extent of about 100 fathoms would bring almost all the smaller islands into connection with the! mainland. So closely are the mountains crowded together that communis catiohbetween different plains and valleys is always somewhat difficult, and hence the main routes marked out by nature for intercourse have in this part of Europe a special degree of importance. Two great roads following such natural lines proceed from different points in the south to the heart of the peninsula, neither route rising at any part more than 2,500 feet above sea- -level. One of these starts at Constantinople, in the south-east, and, traversing one of the largest plains of the peninsula, ascqnds the valley of the Maritza, 1 passes the important towns of Adrian- ople and Sofia, and after crossing the water-parting descends into the basin of the Morava, and from the town of Nish follows that valley till it approaches the Danube ; the other, starting at Salo- 1 The largest river in the peninsula except those on the northern frontier. 278 EUROPE nica, in the north-west of the -i^Egean Sea, ascends the valley of the Vardar as far as lat. 42° N. (Uskiib), and after crossing a water- parting only about 1,700 feet in height descends into the valley of the Bulgarian Morava, by which it proceeds to Nish. There it joins the road from the south-east. The depressions followed by these roads, depressions along which railways have recently been constructed, mark off the mountains of the peninsula into three groups — a western, a north-eastern, and a south-eastern. In the western group the mountains, where they form chains at all, trend for the most part more or less north and south. The principal range is that of the Dinaric Alps, a limestone chain having the same character and aspect as the Karst region, 1 backed by plateaux of a similar nature, extending from north-west to south-east along the frontier of Bosnia. Towards the south they merge in the irregular mountain groups of Montenegro, 2 where some of the summits rise to the height of 8,000 feet. Farther south the Lake of Skodra or Scutari 3 and the valley of the Drin form a depression between the mountains of Monte- negro and the short range of the Shar Dagh, which, running north-east and south-west, attains as great an elevation as the former ; and between this range and the lower range of the Kara Dagh, to the north-east, the road and railway from Salonica are continued northwards from Uskiib. To the south of the Shar Dagh the general trend of the mountains becomes more or less north-west and south-east. Such is the direction of the Pindus chain, the principal chain in Greece, forming the western boundary of the plain of Thessaly or valley of the Salamvria. 4 Farther south the mountains, many of them 6,000 to 8,000 feet in height, become still more thickly crowded together. North of the Gulf of Corinth the celebrated Mount Parnassus, visible from almost all parts of Greece, rises to a height of more than 8,000 feet. The peninsula of the Morea or Peloponnesus, south of the Gulf of Corinth, consists of a ring of mountains (enclosing the elevated province of Arcadia) with 1 See p. 246, n. X, 2 An Italian name signifying ' Black Mountain.' The native name, Chernagora, and the Turkish name, Kara Dagh, have the same meaning. The Italian name be- came current throughout Europe at the time when the Italians were the chief traders in the Mediterranean. 3 An Italian form. See previous note. 4 The Peneios or Peneus of the ancients. TIIE BALKAN PENINSULA 279 finger-like ranges radiating outwards to the ends of the minor peninsulas in the south-east and south (in Argolis, Laconia, and Messenia). The loftiest of these outer ranges is Taygetos, which terminates in Cape Matapan, in the extreme south of Greece. In the two mountain groups east of the Salonica-Belgrade road the trend of the mountains where they form a chain is more or less east and west. The most important of these chains is that from which the peninsula takes its name, the Balkan Moun- tains, a chain which for the greater part of its course separates the principality of Bulgaria from Eastern Eoumelia, and forms the water-parting between the rivers on the north and south. Like the Pyrenees, this chain is remarkable for the great height of its passes relatively to the general height of the mountains, few of these — except in the east, where the chain sinks in elevation — being under 5,000 feet above sea-level. In the middle of the chain the most important is the Shipka Pass, between Philippopolis and Tirnova. West of the Isker, the only river which cuts across the chain (in a narrow defile affording no convenient route for traffic), the Balkans become less con- tinuous, and trending more to the north-west almost merge in the mountains of Eastern Servia, which form a continuation of the Carpathians to the south of the Danube. From the Balkans these latter mountains are separated only by the valley of the Timok. The chief route between Bulgaria and Eastern Eoumelia is situated west of the Isker. In the angle between the routes from Constantinople and Sa- lonica to Nish, the most important chain is that of the Ehodope mountains, which run parallel to the Balkan at a lower elevation. For inland navigation the frontier rivers on the north are much more important than any of the rivers in the interior ; but a great hindrance to the navigation of the Danube exists in what is known as The Iron Gate, a narrow defile seventy-fivo miles in length, with rapids and rocky shallows, occurring where the Carpathians cross from Hungary into Servia, and terminat- ing at Orsova, the Iron Gate proper, the most dangerous point in the whole defile, at the commencement of the Eoumanian frontier. The climate of the Balkan Peninsula is subject to greater extremes than that of the other peninsulas of the Mediterranean, and especially extremes of cold, in consequence of the fact that some of the plains and higher inland valleys are exposed to the 280 EUROPE cold winds from the north-east. In most parts the rainfall is abundant and pretty equally distributed throughout the year". Only Greece and the western coasts have the nearly rainless sum- mers characteristic of the Mediterranean, with the characteristic thick-leaved orange and olive trees. 1 In all parts the summer is warm enough for maize and tobacco, in the warmer valleys, also for cotton, and the fertile soil of the plains renders cultivation easy. Forests of beech and oak, and, on the higher mountains, of firs and pines still cover vast areas, though in many parts (espe- cially the north-west) they have been cleared, sometimes greatly to the injury of the country. The hill pastures, generally too meagre for horses and cattle, are better fitted for the smaller kinds of live stock, such as sheep (above all in Servia and Greece) and goats (in Greece, Bosnia, and Servia) ; and in some parts, particu- larly in Servia, immense numbers of pigs are reared on the mast of the forests. Horses and cattle are chiefly reared in the lower parts of Bosnia and Bulgaria, along the Save and the Danube. Minerals are widely diffused but not much worked. The density of the population is estimated at about seventy to the square mile, a low degree of density, ascribable partly to the extent of unproductive surface occupied by mountains, partly to the natural obstacles in the way of commerce, but chiefly to the long misrule to which the region has been subjected under the Turks. The densest population is in the low grounds north- west of Constantinople. Judged by language, the inhabitants of the peninsula may be divided into four principal groups : (1) Slavs, making up more than half of the entire population, occupying all the northern regions, and divided into Bulgarians in the east, Servians in the west (in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro, as well as in the kingdom of Servia) ; (2) Arnauts or Albanians, descendants of the ancient Ulyrians, chiefly in the region between Greece and the area occupied by the Slavs — in the southern part of Albania (Epirus) Greek is now spoken, and hence the Greeks claim to have this portion of the province of Albania added to their kingdom; (3) Greeks in the kingdom of Greece, in the lowlands behind Constantinople, on the coast of the ^Egean Sea and the Sea of Marmora, on the islands of the JEgean Sea and in Crete ; * See p. 185. THE BALKAN PENINSULA 281 (4) Turks, the smallest division, mostly scattered over the area under Turkish rule as owners of the soil. Besides these there are many Jews and Armenians as traders in the towns. As regards religion, the Slavs, except in Bosnia, and Greeks are for the most part adherents of the Greek Church, the Turks and a portion of the Albanians and Bosnians Mohammedans. The highly mountainous character of the peninsula has always been an obstacle to its being under one political rule, and the peninsula has in fact never formed a single state by itself. At one period it formed a part of the Boman Empire, and later it was almost entirely brought under the sway of the Turks, when these were at the height of their power in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Only Dalmatia remained in the possession of Venice till, about 1800, it fell into Austrian hands. Since the seventeenth century Turkey has been constantly losing ground, and now the peninsula is divided among four independent states, besides the coast strip of Dalmatia (part of the Austrian Empire), the provincec of Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian administration, though still nominally part of Turkey, and the principality of Bulgaria, which is tributary to Turkey, but other- wise independent. States and Towns. — 1. European Turkey, extending from the Adriatic and Ionian Seas to the Black Sea between Greece and the northern States. The total area now directly under Turkish rule is only about as large as the State of Wisconsin. The sovereign, who beare the title of Sultan, is an absolute monarch. By the Turks he is regarded as the Caliph or successor of Mohammed, and head of the Mohammedan religion (see p. 231). CONSTANTINOPLE (875), the capital of the whole Turkish Empire, occupies one of the most favourable sites in the world, where the land route for the commerce between Europe and Asia is crossed by the sea route between the Black Sea and the iEgean, 1 and where the narrow- ness of the straits at either end of the Sea of Marmora renders defence easy. A small inlet from the Straits of Constantinople or the Bosporus, 2 forms an excellent natural harbour, 3 and confines the Turkish town proper, with its domes and minarets, its narrow streets and its gay bazaars, 4 to a triangular peninsula between it and the Sea of Marmora. The suburbs of Pera and Gala ta, occupied by foreigners 1 See Introd. p. 61 (3). 8 Gr.=' Passage of the ox,' equivalent to Ox-ford. 5 The so-called Golden Horn. * A Persian word applied in the East to a place where goods are exposed for sale. It is usually something like what in our towns is called an arcade— that is, a narrow street with rows of shops on either side and arched over, but frequently it is open or only shaded by some light material laid from roof to roof. 282 ETIEOrE from Western Europe, and wearing a Western aspect, lie on the other side of this harbour. The importance of this site was early recognised by the Greeks, who founded here the colony of Byzantium in the seventh century b.c. This town was completely superseded by the city founded by and named after Constantino the Great, early in the fourth century a.d., the city which continued to be the capital of the Eastern Boman Empire till it was taken by the Turks in 1453. Gallipoli, on the strait of the Hellespont (Dardanelles '), is the chief station of the Turkish navy. Salonica, the second seaport in rank in the Balkan Peninsula, is likewise the second town in population ; and the only other town with more than 50,000 inhabitants is Adrianople, situated at the point where the Maritza is joined by a tributary on the Fia. 50,— Mosque of Sultan Achmed, Constantinople. left bank, 8 the valley of which leads up to the passes across the Eastern Balkans, and accordingly at the meeting-place of important roads from the north-east and north-west. In the western province of Albania, chiefly a region of wild and precipitous limestone mountains, the most noted town is Yanina, occu- pying the site of the anciently famous oracle of Dodona, on a fruitful tableland of Epirus. Of the islands subject to Turkey, the largest is Crete or Candia, facing the mouth of the ^gean Sea. Only its north coast is provided ' Properly the name of the fortresses erected by the Turks on both sides of the strait. * The Tunja. See Introd. p. 61 (2) (o) and (3). THE BALKAN PENINSULA 283 with numerous bays ; and on one of these, near the middle, stands its capital, Candia. 2. Bulgaria is a principality with which the province of Eastern Boumelia is now practically united. The independence of the principality dates only from the Treaty of Berlin, 1878. The capital of the princi- pality is Sofia ; the chief town in Eastern Boumelia, Philippopolis. On the coast of Bulgaria is the fortified seaport of Varna, and on the right bank of the Danube — which, unlike the Roumanian or left bank° is high and not subject to inundation — are several towns of importance : Widdin, Nicopolis, Bustchuk, &c. 3. Servia, a kingdom situated to the west of Bulgaria. The inhabi- tants made themselves partly independent of Turkey early in the present century, and the independence was made complete and the territory of the state enlarged by the Treaty of Berlin. The capital is Bel- grade, a strong fortress at the confluence of the Save and the Danube. 4. Bosnia and Herzegovina, with the district of Novi-bazar, lie to the west and south of Servia. They are rich in minerals, and have one or two fertile valleys, but their resources await development. The capital is Serayevo, in an expansion of the valley of the Bosna. 6. Montenegro, a natural stronghold in the south of Bosnia, where a Servian people has maintained its independence against the Turks since the fourteenth century. Its territory was enlarged by the Treaty of Berlin, which first gave the liitle principality (noc much more than one-third the size of New Hampshire), a strip of coast. Capital, Cetinye. 6. Greece, a kingdom in the south of the peninsula, more than nine-tenths the size of Maine, with a population of 2,000,000. It achieved its independence of Turkey in 1830, and had its boun- daries extended fifty years later, when the fertile wheat-growing valley of Thessaly and other districts in the north were added to it. The mainland is divided into two parts by the Gulfs of Corinth and iEgina, between which lies the Isthmus of Corinth, through which at its nar- rowest part (less than four miles) a canal navigable by the largest vessels is now being pierced. 1 A large part of the kingdom consists of islands, the largest of which is the long island of Eubcea or Negroponte, separated from the mainland only by the narrow channel of Euripus. The islands farther to the south-east are known as the Cyclades, 3 those farther north as the Sporades, 3 while those on the west of the mainland, together with Cerigo in the south, are called Ionian Islands — Zante, Corfu (Corcyra or Kerkyra), &c. Except in Thessaly, the most important products of Greece are olives, wine, and a small kind of dried grapes, which take the name of cwrrants from the town of Corinth. From the nature of the surface, however, Greece has always been less a country of agriculturists than of seamen and merchants. 4 The capital and the only considerable town in the country is Athens, in the province of Attica, north of the Gulf of .ffigina. Its citadel, called the Acropolis, is still crowned by some fine ruins, relics of the time when this small but famous city was at the head of civilisation, the home of 1 A project originally started by the Roman Emperor Nero in the 1st century a.d. ! Gr. kykbs, a circle ; so-called because they were imagined by the Greeks to form a circle round the sacred island of Delos. ' Gr.=the ' scattered' islands ; so-called in contradistinction to the Cyclades. * Compare Brittany Illyria, Norway (pp. 210, 246, 259). 284 EUROPE artists, poet's, and philosophers, -who have been "the admiration of all succeeding ages. At the present day it is the seat of a largely-attended university. Its port is the Piraeus, with which if is now connected by railway. The anciently celebrated cities of Argos, at the head of the bay of Argolis, Corinth, on the isthmus, and Sparta, on the Eurotas, are now all insignificant plaees ; and, besides Athens, the only towns on the mainland of any importance at the present day are Patras, on the southern shore of the Gulf of Corinth, with a large export of currants, and larissa, on the Salamvria, in the plain of Thessaly. Of the towns on the islands, the most important is Hermopolis, on the island of Syra, a town with an excellent harbour, which, on account of its central situation J in the J5gean Sea, has become a much-frequented coaling station for steamers, as well as a busy centre of commerce ; 6n the Ionian Islands, the most important town is Corfu, on the side of the island facing the Turkish province of Albania; besides being the centre of a considerable shipping trade, it is the seat of a ujrreetsity. COLONIAL AND OTHER POSSESSIONS OP EUROPEAN POWERS. Denmark. — Greenland and the West Indian islands of St. Thomas, St. John and Santa Cruz. » See Introd. p. 61 (3)/ COLONIAL. POSSESSIONS 285 France. — Immediate Possessions : Algeria ; the territory on the Sene- gal and Gambia, the territory between the Gaboon and the Congo, the islands of Ste. Marie and Nossib6 near Madagascar, Mayotte, Comoro Islands, and Reunion or Bourbon ; Obock and the neighbour- ing part of the coast of the Gulf of. Aden ; Pondicherry, Chandernagor, Carical, Mahe, and Yanaon in India; 'the Society Islands, including Tahiti, the Marquesas, and some other islands in the Pacific ; Saigon or Erenchr Cochin-China,. Cambodia, and Tongking in Indq-Ghina ; ,New Caledonia, the North American islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon off the 'Newfoundland coast, the West Indian Islands Of Martinique and Guadeloupe, part of St. Martin and some smaller isfands; French 'Guiana or Cayenne. Protectorates : Tunis, the island of Madagascar, and the empire of Anam. ' ■'■..--- Germany. — In West Africa, Togo-Land in Upper Guinea, the coast Of the Bight of Biafra, the coast from Cape Frio to the Orange River with the exeeption j of Walvisch Bay ; in East Africa, the territory of TJsagara, &c, behind Zanzibar ; in. the Pacific, -Ocean, the north-east of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago (composed chiefly of the islands formerly known as New Britain, New Hanover, arid the Admiralty Islands to the north of New Guinea), and the Marshall Islands in "Polynesia. j : .'.,. / ; Great Britain. — See page 194. • " ; ' ■ Italy.— Assab, Massana, and other parts of the African coast of the .Red Sea. Protectorate : Abyssinia. . ; Netherlands- — Java, Madura, and other possessions in the Eastern Archipelago ; Surinarh or Putch Guiana and the West Indian islands of Curasao, Bonaire, Aruba, &o. , . Portflgal. — The African island's of the Azores, Madeira, Cape Verde, 1 St. Thornas, and Prinee's Island (Principe), a small part of the coast of ; Senegambii.,. Lower Guinea from the:. Congo to Cape Frioj the East African coast from Belagoa Bay to Cape Delgado ; Goa, Salsette, Bardez, Daman, and Diu in 'India j. Mapao off the south-east coast of China, r, and part of the island of Timor in the Eastern Archipelago. J i. Russia.— Siberia, the Trans-Caspian territory, Russian Central Asia, .and the lieutenancy of the Caucasus. -_'■ Spain. — Ceuta and. several stations known as the Presidios on the * coast t>f Morocco, the Canary Islands off the liorth-west coast of Africa, cthe islands of -Fernando Po and Annobbn off the coast of'Guinea, and some smaller possessions on the same coast; the Philippine '.and Suhi r Islands, ^belonging- to the Eastern Archipelago;, the Caroline, Ladrone, ■"And Peletr Islands iri the Pacific ; and the West Indian islaridsVof Cuba f-and Porto-Rico. : Spain also claims a protectorate over the west coast cpf Africa! (desert of Sahara) from. Cape. Bojador to Cape.Blancb. j, Turkey. — Immediate Possessions. — Asia Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, '.arid partfe of Arabia ; Tripoli! " Protectorates : . the tributary principality 'of Santos m the- JEgean Sea, the viceroyalty of Egypt. 1 i ... The.. British and Russian, possessions outside of Europe are the ;Only ones^whici contain extensive ; territories suitable, for colonisation . : »y the' inhabitants of the mother countries. There are a few French 'colonists in Algeria: u " ~ x '' ----•* ' 286 ASIA. Approximate latitudes : Cape Chelyuskin, 78° N. ; (north of LaTce Victoria Nyanza), Cape Romania, 1" .N. ; (mouth of San Francisco River, north of Lake Nyassa) south of island of Timor, 10° S. Approximate longitudes : west coast of Asia Minor, 27° E. ; East Cape, Behring's Strait, 170° W. Asia, the largest of the continents, has an area of upwards of seventeen million square miles, or about five times that of Europe, the smallest ; while the estimated population, about 800 millions, is only about two and one third times that of Europe. In comparing the position of these two continents, it is most in- structive to follow the parallel of 40° N., which in the west of Europe has Madrid immediately to the north of it, in the east of Asia has Peking immediately to the south of it. Whereas there- fore this line cuts off only relatively small areas in the south of Europe, it divides Asia into two nearly equal parts ; and the con- trast as regards the distribution of population is much more striking, inasmuch as less than one-twentieth of the population of Europe dwells to the south of that line, which in Asia has a much smaller fraction of the population on the north. The chief point of correspondence in outline between the two continents lies in the fact that in both there are three great peninsulas in the south, Arabia, India, and Indo-China, corre- sponding to the Iberian Peninsula, Italy, and the Balkan Penin- sula. In Asia, however, all is on a larger scale. The Arctic coasts of both continents are similar. The islands and peninsulas on the east side of Asia enclose several border seas more or less cut off from the main body of the ocean, though none of them to so great a degree as the Baltic and the Mediterranean in Europe. The Sea of Okhotsk, between the peninsula of Kamchatka and the mainland, though an inland sea, may be most usefully compared with the part of the Arctio Ocean between Scandinavia and Iceland, since it is cut off from the Pacific by a submarine bank 1 the situation of which is marked » See Introd. p. 24. PHYSICAL FEATURES 287 by the line of the Kurile Islands. The Sea of Japan, between the islands of Japan and the mainland, naturally falls to be compared with the North Sea of Europe (the peninsula of Korea answering to that of Jutland) ; but this difference must be noted, that the elevation of the sea-bed to the extent of 600 feet, though it would unite the islands to the mainland, would leave a deep inland lake occupying the greater part of the area where the sea now lies. 1 The Yellow Sea, farther south, between Korea and China, together with the Eastern Chinese Sea at its mouth, would all be converted into dry land by a similar elevation, and so also would the Gulfs of Tongking and Siam (respectively north-east and south of Indo-China), while the land on the south-east of Indo- China would stretch out so as to enclose all the larger islands near (Borneo, Sumatra, and Java, with Bali). 2 To connect these with the mainland a much slighter elevation of the sea-bed would suffice than in the case of the archipelago of the Mgea.n Sea. As to the storms of Asiatic seas, see Introduction, p. 41. As regards surface, there are two important points of agree- ment between Europe and Asia. (1) In both continents the high- land regions lie chiefly in the centre, and in the southern penin- sulas, while the greater part of the north is a plain. In the case of the southern peninsulas the character of the surface increases the correspondence between Europe and Asia; Arabia being like Spain, a region of arid plateaux, India like Italy, composed of a mountainous region in the peninsula proper, cut off by wide allu- vial plains from a continuous barrier of mountains in the north, Indo-China, like the Balkan Peninsula, a mass of irregularly dis- tributed mountains associated with equally mountainous islands. (2) In both continents the principal mountain chains trend more or less east and v west. Only in the north-east do they assume a more northerly trend like that of the Ural Mountains. There are, however, three important points of difference. (1) The mountain ranges of Asia are not only, as might be expected from the greater size of the continent, of much greater extent than those of Europe, but also of much greater height. The Himalayas, in the north of India, are the highest mountains in the world. Mount Everest, 3 the highest known peak in the chain, attains a height of 29,000 feet or more than five miles, and besides it there are in the southern or 1 Comp. p. 182; * A deep strait separates Bali from Lombok. * Sometimes called Ganrisankar, though it is doubtful whether this native name properly belongs to Mount Everest. 288 ASIA higher of the two chains of whichit is composed seventeen peaksof more than 25,000 feet in height, and accordingly, all higher than the highest of the Andes of South America, the next highest range in the -world. 1 (2) The extent and height of the plateaux of Asia are enormously greater than those of Europe. The whole of Central Asia is indeed a series of lofty plateaux varying from 2,000 to 20,000 feet in height, enclosed and partly cut off from one another by mountains, the chief of which take their origin in an elevated region to the north-west of India (about 72° E.) From this centre the Himalayas proceed south- r eastwards, the Karakorum Mountains (by some regarded as a third chain of the Himalayas) for a shorter distance in the same direction ; the Kuen-lun Mountains proceed east and slightly south; the Tian^Shan Mountains more towards the north-east. (3) While all the great mountain ranges of Europe form water-part- ings, those of Asia are frequently pierced by river valleys, and hence many of the mountain passes of Asia are not across the heads of valleys but through narrow defiles along river-banks or in their neigh- bourhood. The southern chain of the Himalayas is broken up by river gorges into a great number of sections, while the two greater rivers, the Indus and Brahmaputra, cut right across the whole system. The principal rivers of Asia are necessarily of much greater length than those of Europe. All except those of the Siberian plains rise in the central plateau and flow east, south-east, or south to the Pacific and Indian Oceans ; and these all belonging to the monsoon region 2 are all liable to overflow their banks' in summer, while at all seasons of the year they are fed with copious supplies of water from the elevated areas in which they have their head-streams. In the interior, both on the high plateau from Which the encircling mountains cut off the supplies of rain, 3 and in the plains of the west, between the Caspian Sea and the mountains, there are numerous rivers which after a longer or .shorter course dry up in sandy deserts, their water being partly absorbed by the porous soil, partly evaporated. Such rivers are, however,, of the highest importance, since on their banks are found fertile oases, sometimes with large towns for their centres.* The fresh-water lakes of Asia are relatively of far less import- ance than those of Europe. The largest, Lake Baikal, on the Siberian slopes of the mountains in the north-east, is nearly twice the size of Lake Ladoga ; 5 but there is no lake-studded dis- trict in Asia like that of Finland and Scandinavia, or even like that of the Alps in Europe. On the other hand-, there are large inland seas of salt or brackish water, besides, an immense number 1 See section across Asia, p. 63. 2 See . pp. 42, 51. s g ee p. 52 4 See pp. 294, 305, 328. 5 Or of Lake Ontario. 6 Or of Minnesota. CLIMATE 289 of sili ill salt lakes in the low-lying region adjoining Europe south of the Ural Mountains, and other salt lakes elsewhere. The Caspian Sea, 170,000 square miles in area, 1 is the largest inland sheet of water in the world. The Sea of Aral (rather more than twice the size of Lake Baikal) is inferior in size only to. the largest lakes of Africa and America, 2 Lake Balkhash, about one- seventh larger than Lake Ladoga. 3 From its most easterly position, Asia 4 has a climate subject to greater extremes of temperature than Europe. The- mean temperature of the year is everywhere lower than in corresponding latitudes in the western Continent, the mean tempera? ture of January, the cfcldest month, relatively still lower, but the mean temperature of July, the hottest, everywhere higher, notwithstanding that on and near the east coast the sea has a certain effect in moderating extremes. " Owing to the great width from east to west of the land-mass to which it belongs, the coldest area in the world lies towards the north-east of this continent, and it is a fortunate thing for that part of Asia which lies to the south that the mountains intervene to shelter it from the cold winds that would otherwise sweep down on it from this area. The rainfall is insufficient, not only, as already intimated, in many, parts of the interior, but also in the south-west (as far east as the Indus valley), where the southerly winds of summer blow not over the ocean but over Africa or both Africa and Arabia. On the other hand, in the monsoon region in the south-east, and especially in the tropical portion of it, the rainfall is very abundant. The region just referred to, including the whole area from India to the north of China, together with the islands of the Eastern Archipelago and Jfipan, is that which contains the great mass of the Asiatic popula- tion. It comprises, according to the best estimates, seven-eighths of the inhabitants, although not very much more than a quarter of the area. In the rest of Asia, the average density of the population is only about eight to the square mile, or about half that of Norway ; the prin- cipal parts in which a greater density is found are the western skirts of the central tablelands and some districts in Asia Minor. of the inhabitants of Asia belong to two types, the Mongolian and Caucasian, the former characterised among other things by yellow complexions without ruddy tinge, small almond- shaped obliquely set eyes and high cheek-bones ; the latter by a fair complexion usually with a ruddy tinge, low cheek-bones, and round eyes set straight. Of the Mongolian type (most abundant m the east) the Chinese are the most numerous representatives, 1 More than five times the size of Lake Superior. 2 Lake Superior and Victoria Nyanaa only are larger. See pp. 115, 331. » See p. 250. * See Introd. p. 5L 290 ASIA as the Hindus are of the Caucasian. Each type is broken up into great groups the languages of which are entirely distinct from each other, while the groups are themselves subdivided into smaller groups speaking allied languages. Among the races of the Mongolian type, the most important of the great groups are the Chinese and Anamese, the Finno-Tatars, inhabiting Siberia and Western Asia, and the Malays * in the south-east. Of those of the Caucasian type, the chief great linguistic groups are the Aryan (comprising Hindus and Iranians), and the Semitic (of which the Arabs are now the principal representatives). To this type belong also the ma- jority of the inhabitants of the Caucasus (whence the name Caucasian). As regards religion, Asia is remarkable as the cradle of all the great religions of the world — Judaism, Christianity, and Moham- medanism; Zoroastrianism, Brahmanism, Buddhism; and three of these (the first three) arose among Semitic peoples, the others among Aryans. Brahmanism or Hinduism, Buddhism, and Mo- hammedanism are now the prevailing religions, the first in India, to which it is confined, the second throughout the monsoon area except in India, the land of its birth, and the third in western Asia and partly in India and the Eastern Archipelago. Of these religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism all agree in declaring the existence of one Supreme Being, and are hence known as monotheistic religions. Mohammedanism takes its name from Mohammed, an Arabian who founded this religion early in the seventh century of our era. The most noteworthy effects of Mohammedanism on the life of its professors arise from its recognition of polygamy, its prohibition of the use of wine (a prohibition observed in some Moham- medan countries with great strictness, in others scarcely regarded at all), and its injunction on all its followers to make a pilgrimage to the sacred city of Mecca (see Arabia, p. 303) at least once in their lives. In some Mohammedan countries, those who have made this pilgrimage are distinguished by a peculiar dress. In all the more civilised Mo- hammedan countries, the mosques or temples are a striking feature, and are generally distinguished by the possession of tall slender towers called minarets, from which a crier (muezzin) calls the people to prayer (see cuts, p. 282 and p. 314). Brahmanism or Hinduism is the ancient religion of the Hindus, and, though possessing sacred books of an exalted character, is in its present degraded form chiefly characterised by the worship of innumerable idols and the observance of caste distinctions, in consequence of which different sections of the people are kept entirely separate from one another, intermarriage being prohibited, and members of one caste not allowed to follow callings peculiar to another. The four original great castes of the Brahmans or priests, the Kshatriyas or warriors, the i See pp. 319, 346. SIBERIA 291 Vaisyas or merchants and tillers of the ground, and the Sudras or labourers, have in process of time been subdivided into a great many minor castes, the isolation of which is often as strictly maintained as that between the great castes. Pariahs or those who are members of no caste are treated with contempt by all who can claim to belong to any caste, even the lowest. Buddhism derives its name from the epithet Buddha, meaning en- lightened, applied to the founder of this religion, who lived in the fifth or sixth century b.o. The religion he taught was meant to be a reform of the corrupt form of Brahmanism which then prevailed in India, and was specially directed against idolatry and the observance of caste. He endeavoured to substitute for the Brahmanism of his time a lofty system of morality, in .which the virtues of gentleness and kindness to animals were particularly enforced ; but at the present day the chief outward signs of the observance of this religion are the numerous (often colossal) statues of Buddha, the dagobas or pagodas erected to enshrine relics of Buddha (see cut, p. 318), and the monasteries in which the swarms of yellow-robed priests or houses generally dwell. Zoroastrianism is the religion of the ancient Persians, and is now almost extinct, having only a few professors in the heart of Persia and in Bombay, and one or two other towns in India. They believe in the existence of a good and an evil deity, and are sometimes called fire- worshippers, because they regard light and fire as symbols of the former. In India they are known as Parsis. ASIATIC COUNTRIES. L COVNTBIES OUTSIDE OF THE MONSOON BEGION. 1. SIBERIA is the Asiatic continuation of the more northerly parts of Eussia in Europe, and in the north-west is politically as well as physically separated from Eussia in Europe by the Ural Mountains, which in this part of their extent have a much more abrupt slope on the Asiatic side than on the European side. Its area is not far short of five millions of square miles, and about five millions make up the number of its settled population — a result chiefly of its severe climate, but partly also of its remote- ness from the chief seats of civilisation. Plains occupy the greater part of the west, but mountains and hills cover a considerable area in the east, and more espe- cially the south-east (Yablonoi and Stanovoi ranges). Amidst these mountains, partly on the Chinese frontier, flows the navi- gable Amur. Mountains also occupy the southern frontier as far west as the 80th meridian of east longitude. Among these are the Altai and other mountains, the northern spurs of which are rich in 292 asia minerals (silver-yielding lead, graphite, 1 coal, &c). Siberia also yields abundance of ivory derived from the tusks of the mammoth or woolly elephant, now extinct. 2 The New Siberian Islands, off the mouth of the Lena, are specially rich in these remains. The aspect of the vegetation is similar to that of the corre- sponding parts of Eussia in Europe. In the north is a vast area of toundras, extending in some parts almost to 60° N. There then follows an area of forests and marshes with fur-bearing animals, an area traversed by magnificent navigable rivers draining into the Arctic Ocean — the Ob or Obi and Yenisei in the west, the Lena in Eastern Siberia. Only in the southern parts of Western Siberia is there land suited for agriculture, and here, among the valleys opening out from the central highlands of Asia, there are some deposits of rich black soil such as is found in Southern Eussia. 3 There chiefly lies the hope of the future development of Siberia, when it has been brought into more intimate connection with the commerce of Western Europe. Severe as the winter is (too cold for European fruit-trees), the summers are not only suitable for the growth of wheat, but even warm enough for melons to ripen in every Siberian garden. The great defect of Siberia at present is the want of communica- tions. There are few roads, and no railways. The navigable rivers are hence invaluable for commerce, and, above all, the rivers of the Ob and the Yenisei basins, which are made use of in the overland trade (in tea, woollen goods, and furs) between Russia and China. Near the right bank of the Selenga, in the south-east of Lake Baikal, he the two adjoining towns where the products of the two empires are ex- changed— Kiakhta, on the Russian, Maimachin, on the Chinese side of the frontier. Thence the products are conveyed by the navigable Selenga to Lake Baikal, and thence chiefly by water to Tobolsk, the nearest town on the Irtish, to the southern passes across the Urals. 4 Important as these highways of commerce are, they are subject to the drawback that they can be used only for part of the year, the rivers being frozen over for a longer or shorter time in winter, in some parts for nearly six months. Hence the breaking-up of the ice at the end of winter is the most important event of the year in Siberia, and the spectacle then produced on the Siberian rivers is on a scale of grandeur corresponding to its importance. The break-up of the ice begins in the 1 Exported to Niirnberg, in Germany, for the making of lead pencils. 8 Entire carcases of this long extinct animal have been found preserved in the frozen ground of northern Siberia. s g ee „„ 251-2. * The sea-route to the mouths of the Siberian rivers which the Swedish navi- gator Nordenskiold maintained to be practicable, after his voyage round the north coast of Europe and Asia in 1878-79, has not yet proved commercially successful. RUSSIAN CENTRAL ASIA 293 south, and so rapidly does it proeeed that the lower parta of the rivers, still dammed by ice, are unable to carry off the water, which conse- quently streams swiftly up the tributaries laden with numberless ice- blocks. Backwards and forwards the water sways for days together, until, under the influence of the south winds, the ice melts away, and the long winter is followed at a bound by the long summer. To increase the utility of the river trade-route the railway from Perm to Ekaterinburg (entirely in European Russia) is at present being continued to the point in Siberia at which the river navigation begins, and a canal is being cut to connect the basins of the Ob and Yenisei. The inhabitants of Siberia are partly native, partly colonists from Eussia, partly Eussian convicts and political offenders, who have been deported thither. The native inhabitants are chiefly of the Mongolian type anij members of the Finno-Tatar family. In the north they are fishers ari$ hunters, and are mostly heathen ; in the south, nomadic herdsmeoj followers of Mohammed. The colonists lead a settled life, are chiefly engaged in agriculture and mining, and the same occupations are pursued under comparatively little restriction by numbers of the deported population. The principal tribes in the extreme north are the Samoyedes, Tun- guses, Yakuts, Yukaghirs, and Chukchis, occurring in that order from west to east. Farther south in the west are the Ostyaks and Kirghiz. All the chief towns stand on the great rivers and their navigable tributaries. The largest is Irkutsk, on the Angara, a tributary of the Yenisei, a little below its issue from Lake Baikal, hence an important station on the trade-route between Bussia and China. Yakutsk, on the Lena, at the point nearest the Sea of Okhotsk, is an important centre for the fur trade. Tomsk, on the Ob, the chief centre of the gold- washers. 1 It is now the seat of a university. Tobolsk, see above. 2. EUSSIAN CENTRAL ASIA.— The territory lying to the south of the Ural Mountains, east of the Caspian, west of the Chinese Empire, and north of Persia and Afghanistan, comprises an area of about one-and-a-half million square miles, with a popu- lation of less than five millions. This population is chiefly collected in the south-east, where the valleys opening out from the Tian-Shan Mountains, contain the most fertile and best watered soil, and where accordingly there is a settled population pursuing agriculture. Farther to the north and west agriculture can be carried on only in the neighbourhood of rivers, which supply water for irrigation, and the chief towns are the centres of oases seamed with canals, led from the rivers for that purpose. 1 That is of those who obtain gold from earthy matter by washing away the lighter material with which it is mixed, as distinguished from those who obtain i "w the crushing of quartz reefs. 294 ASIA The principal rivers are the Hi, which finally flows through a Bwampy delta into Lake Balkhash ; the Sir, 1 which flows into the north, the Amu, 1 which flows into the south of the Sea of Aral ; the Zerafshan, which rises among the southern mountains, but after a westerly course dries up in the sands ; and the Murghab, which enters this region from Afghanistan in the south, and also dries up. On or near the Sir stand Khokan and TASHKENT, the latter the principal town in Central Asia r- near the Amu, Khiva ; on the Zerafshan, Samarkand and Bokhara ; on the Murghab, Merv. The greater part of the region consists of steppes, roamed over by no- madic tribes (Kirghiz, &c.) , who dwell in felt tents, called yurtas, and rear horses, cattle, and camels. Mohammedanism is the prevailing religion. Fig. 52 .—A YufcTA or Felt Tent op Central Asia. Most of this territory is under Russian sway, and even where not directly subject to Russia is under Russian influence. A railway (the Trans-Caspian Railway) has been constructed by the Russians from the Caspian Sea south-eastwards near the line of the Persian frontier, and then across the desert north-eastwards to Merv ; and when com- pleted the railway will extend to Samarkand. 3. CAUCASIA AND ARMENIA.— These are mountainous territories lying to the south-east of Eussia in Europe, between the Black Sea and the Caspian. Caucasia takes its name from 1 To these names the word Darya, meaning ' river,' is often added. CAUCASIA AND ARMENIA 295 the Caucasus Mountains, a range which stretches from west-north- west to east-south-east for a distance of 700 miles, and has several summits above 16,000 feet (Elbruz, 18,500 feet). The principal pass in the chain lies about the middle, just to the east of Mount Kazbek, and is now crossed by a well-made Eussian road leading from Vladikavkas 1 on the north through the gorge of Dariel to Tiflis in the south. The western half of the chain is the narrower, the eastern half spreading out to a considerable extent on the north, where it consists of an assemblage of lofty plateaux, natural fortresses bounded by huge precipices, which are washed at their base by torrents. A still greater contrast is presented by the north and south. On the north, steppes occupied by nomads and their herds come close up to the base of the mountains, while on the south, protected by the mountain barrier from cold winds, 3 and hence from winter frosts, the orchards of the lower slopes are succeeded by vineyards, cornfields, and pastures in rich alternation. Steppes are found on this side only in the eastern lowlands, while in the west, where summer rains are drawn from the Black Sea with the regularity of the monsoon area, 3 dense forests advance to the water's edge and leave little room for man. The southern limit of the Caucasus is formed by the valley which bounds the Armenian plateau on the north, and is traversed by two rivers flowing in opposite directions — the Eion (ancient Phasis 4 ) to the Black Sea, and the Ear to the Caspian. A railway, the highest eleva- tion of which is about 2,400 feet, now traverses this valley from end to end, from the ports of Saturn and Foti, on the Black Sea, to Baku, the centre of a district rich in petroleum, on the Caspian. The petro- leum is used as fuel in working the engines on the Trans-Caspian railway. In the west of the Caucasus, north of the main chain, there is another supply of petroleum, less abundant, but more important in the commerce of the west, since the petroleum is conveyed by a pipe to a small port on the Black Sea. The Armenian Plateau is composed of a series of mountain- traversed table-lands, two of which are so completely isolated as to be occupied by salt lakes s (Van and TTrumia) . Lake Gokcha is almost completely enclosed by mountains, from which it receives numerous influents on all sides, but it has an outlet to the Aras (tributary Kur), and is therefore fresh. Among these table-lands are the head-waters, not only of the Eur and its tributary the 1 The terminus of a line of railway connected with the railway system ef Russia, in Europe. 5 See Introd. p. 62, and the pages referred to in the note. 5 See Introd. pp. 42, 51, and p. 308. * Traversing the country whence the pheasant or Phasian bird was introduced into Europe, 5 See Introd. p. 31, 296 ASIA Aras, but also of the Tigris and Euphrates. The table-lands are mostly steppe-like in character, and hence the occupations of the people are mostly pastoral ; but agriculture is also largely pursued, and fruit-trees 1 are abundant. The isolation both of the valleys of Caucasia, and the table- lands of Armenia is illustrated in several ways by their inhabi- tants and their fauna. 2 The Caucasus is inhabited by a large number of tribes belonging to the .type which takes its name from this region, but speaking languages wholly distinct from those of the Aryan stock, and even in some cases from each other. Inde- pendent, and lovers of freedom, like all mountain tribes, they have been brought under one rule only through being conquered by Eussia in the present century after fifty years of conflict, and one of the chief tribes, the Circassians, rather than submit to the Eussian yoke, migrated to Turkey and settled there among fellow-Mohammedans. Among the animals of the Caucasus are the European bison, elsewhere extinct except in the forests of Western Eussia, the chamois, and a peculiar kind of ibex, one of the highest of mountain-climbers. The Armenians, another people of Caucasian type, are peculiar both in language and religion, the latter being an ancient and independent branch of Christianity. Cattle-rearers and tillers of the ground at home, they emigrate in large numbers, and are among the principal traders of the Levant. The Armenians have never obtained political unity, however, nor have they been able to keep out foreign elements from their isolated table-lands, which are in many places the haunts of nomadic plundering Kurds. At present Armenia is divided among three states, all the three divisions meeting in Mount Ararat, an extinct volcano 17,000 feet high. The northern division, with the town of Erivan and the fortress of Kara in the west, and the Aras region in the east, belongs to Bussia ; the South-western division, with Lake Van and Erzernm, the chief town on the trade-route between Trebizonde and North-western Persia, to Turkey ; 3 the south-eastern division, with Lake Urumia and the town of TABRIZ, to Persia. The whole of the Eussian territory in this part of Asia forms the Lieutenancy of the Caucasus, which is divided into Cis-Caucasia, north of the Caucasus Mountains, and Irans-Caucasia (including Bussian 1 The apricot is a native of this region, and was introduced thence into Southern Europe in the fourth century B.C. * A pojiecfcive nanje for the animals of a region, 9 Comp. p. 305, TURKEY IN ASIA 297 Armenia), to the south of that chain. The seat of government is TIFLIS, 1 occupying the centre of a rich valley, and, as already indicated, at the point where the main road through that valley is crossed by the only road across the Caucasus. 4. TURKEY IN ASIA.— The territory under Turkish rule in Asia comprises Asia Minor with part of Armenia (see p. 295), Syria, Mesopotamia, and parts of Arabia (see p. 302). Asia Minor is a plateau upwards of 3,000 feet in height bordered on the north and south by mountain chains parallel to the sea-coast, but opening on the west by numerous valleys, the submerged portions of which, as in the opposite Balkan Penin- sula, 2 now form gulfs lying between rocky promontories and behind a breastwork of islands. The principal continuous moun- tain range is that on the south, the Taurus, which follows the windings of the coast, till in the east it turns inland north-east- wards, and is succeeded by the lower range of the Anti-Taurus. In the portion that trends northwards are the gorges known as the Cilician Gates, which afford a passage into Syria for the com- merce of the west and north of the table-land. Towards the south coast flow only a large number of mountain torrents from the Taurus range, the general slope of the plateau (except in the west) being towards the north, where the Halys, or Kizil Irmak, 3 pierces the mountains before entering the Black Sea by a delta. On the west the principal river is the Menderes, ancient Meander, which on account of its numerous windings has given a word to the English language. At the broadest part of the peninsula the drainage of the interior is inland, and here a large salt desert has at its lowest part a long and shallow salt lake. This salt desert is the most arid part of the peninsula, but the rainfall is scanty everywhere within the border mountains. Only in the western valleys, where the rivers afford the means of irrigation, does cultivation ascend far into the interior, and there the products are those of the warmest parts of the Mediter- ranean peninsulas — not only sweet wine, olives, oranges, and other southern fruits, but also tobacco and cotton, as well as mastic. 4 On the inland steppes sheep are reared, and the district of Angora adjoining the salt steppe on the north is famous for a silky-haired race of goats (whence Angora wool). I See Introd. p. 61 (3) (6), » See p. 277. 8 Turkish = ' Bed River.' * A kind of resin. 298 ASIA The inhabitants of the interior are chiefly Turks ; on the coasts, where the largest towns have always been situated, are still many Greeks, as there were in ancient times. Of the coast towns now exist- ing the most important is SMYRNA, at the head of a deep inlet about the middle of the west coast. It is the last survivor of a number of ancient seaports (Miletus, JEphesus, and I'hoeeea), most of which have decayed through the silting up of their harbours. 1 A railway now proceeds from Smyrna inland as far as Alashehr, from which point now start the camel caravans that cross the interior. Konieh, on the south- west of the inland salt steppe, is the meeting-place of the chief caravan routes. Brussa, a little to the south of the Sea of Marmora, is cele- brated as having been the capital of the Turkish Empire before the Turks gained a footing in Europe. Scutari, on the Bosporus, is a suburb of Constantinople. Of the islands, Samos, about the middle of the west coast, is tributary to Turkey, but otherwise independent. Cyprus, 2 off the south coast, about half the size of Wales, consists of a rich plain, furnishing wine, cotton, mastic, and other products, stretching between two bays in the east and west and ranges of mountains in the north and south. It is now under British administration, though still nominally a part of the Turkish Empire. Its capital is Levkosia, or Nicosia, in the plain ; its chief port, Larnaca, on a bay in the south-east. Syria and Palestine.— This portion of Asiatic Turkey consists mainly of a limestone plateau, but the southern two-thirds of it is divisible into four longitudinal strips running parallel to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In the west there is a plain, extremely narrow in the north (the ancient Phoenicia), broader to the south of Mount Carmel (the fertile plain of Sharon), and still broader farther south, where the coast trends south-west- wards towards Egypt, and the interior (the land of the ancient Philistines) becomes first steppe-like 3 and then desert. East of the plain the ground rises rapidly in the north to the chain of the Lebanon Mountains, which are followed on the south by an almost continuous plateau. The next strip on the east is a long valley, which in the north, between the ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, is above the level of the sea, but rapidly falls below that level in the portion known as the Ghor. In this valley rise all the chief rivers. The Orontes flows northwards and finally westwards round the northern extremity of a continuation of 1 Smyrna owes its continued existence to the fact that the river which enters the inlet on which it stands enters not at the head of the inlet but on the north Bide, where its deposits have extended the coast-line without blocking up the entrance to the gulf. ' Anciently rich in copper, this island derives its name from the Greek word for that metal, b See Introd, p, 68. TURKEY IN ASIA 299 Lebanon ; the Leontes southwards and then westwards round the southern extremity of the same range ; and the Jordan, suddenly emerging from underground as a full-bodied stream, 1 proceeds southwards with a rapid fall through the Ghor, traversing in succession the fresh- water lakes of Huleh (Merom) and Galilee (the latter nearly 700 feet below sea-level), and ends in the Dead Sea, a sea remarkable for the intense saltness of its waters as well as for the fact that it occupies the deepest depression on the land surface of the earth (the surface of the sea 1,300 feet below that of the Mediterranean). South of the Dead Sea the Ghor gradu- ally rises in elevation till the ground again reaches a higher level than that of the Mediterranean. The fourth longitudinal strip is another plateau which gradu- ally passes eastward into a desert. From a remote period a land of Semites, first of Jews and then of Arabs (whose language has been the prevailing one since about the eighth century), Syria is a country of peculiar interest to all the civilised nations of the West, as the home of the Judaic religion and the birth- place of Christianity. To the adherents of both these religions Jerusalem is a sacred city. It stands at the height of 2,500 feet above the sea on a plateau west of the mouth of the Jordan. Not less sacred to Chris- tians is Bethlehem, the birthplace of Christ, three miles to the south. Several of the other important towns are also well known from the sacred writings of the Jews and Christians ; among these, DAMASCUS, ' on the banks of Abana and Pharpar lucid streams,' a city occupying a site of rare beauty and fertility, with such geographical surround- ings that it has been a place of importance from the very dawn of history. The Abana of Scripture, now the Barada, besides endowing its environs with luxuriant verdure, is the source of its commerce, in- asmuch as in breaking through the range of Anti-Lebanon it opens up a pass by which in ancient times the traffic of the West was brought from Tyre and Sidon? as it is in modern times from Beirut. Land- wards, caravans proceed north, east, and south, across the desert. Haleb, or Aleppo, 3 200 miles farther north, occupies an oasis situated about midway between the Mediterranean and the Euphrates, where that river in its middle course approaches nearest to the sea, and has hence been a trade-centre from time immemorial. In ancient times the seaports on this route were Antioeh, on the Orontes, and Seleucia on the coast ; the modern seaport is Alexandretta or Iskenderun, 4 I See Introd. p. 29. s The harbours of Tyre and Sidon have been destroyed by the rise of the land on this part of the Syrian coast. 5 The latter name, an Italian form, is another survival of the former predomi- nance of Italy in the commerce of the East (see p. 278 n. 2). Before the discovery of the seaway to India the Venetians had forty large trading-houses in Aleppo. 4 Both names, the Utter Turkish, derived from Alexander (the Great). 300 ASIA on the gulf of the same name, in the angle between Syria and Asia Minor. Along one of the routes connecting Aleppo with the sea it has frequently been proposed to construct a railway. TURKEY IN ASIA 301 Mesopotamia. —Loth this name, derived from the Greek, meaning 'the middle of the rivers,' and the Arab name El Jezireh, meaning ' island,' refer to the two great rivers Euphrates and Tigris, by which in fact the region is almost islanded. These two rivers, after quitting the Armenian plateau, first diverge but afterwards approach one another to within a distance of about thirty miles, and ultimately unite to form the Shat-el-Arab. In ancient times the two streams flowed separately into the Persian Gulf instead of uniting. To these streams the region owes all its fertility. The rains are too scanty for agricul- ture, but the inundations due to the melting of Armenian snows annually cover the adjoining surface with layers of rich soil, and at .the same time supply the necessary moisture, and at an early date taught the dwellers on the banks of the rivers to use their waters more effectually by means of irrigation canals. Hence this region has always been occupied at least by a toler- ably dense population, and the density has reached at different times and at different places a very high degree round great towns which arose on or near the banks of one of the rivers and became the centres of powerful states. On the Tigris, such towns have always stood at points from which roads ascend to convenient passes in the eastern highlands. In such a position, on the left bank of the Tigris, stood in ancient times Nineveh, the immense, ruins of which were discovered about forty years ago, and opposite the same point afterwards rose Mosul, still an important town. . Lower down, Seleucia, Ctesvphon, and Bagdad, all arose on sites within no great distance from each other at the end of another pass- road ; and the last of these still survives, although greatly declined as compared with what it w&s when the Arabs were at the height of their power, and this was the capital of their empire. 1 On the Euphrates there is now no town of importance, that river being too much exposed to the attacks of the plundering tribes of the desert ; but in ancient times there stood on its banks the large and magnificent city of habylon, at the point where the river begins to be navigable both up and down stream. In the middle part of their course both Euphrates and Tigris are too impetuous for up-stream navigation, and goods are only floated down on rafts supported by inflated sheep-skins. The wood of the rafts is itself an important commodity in this treeless region. " On the Shat-el-Arab stands Basra or Bussora, accessible to seagoing ships, and formerly the chief seaport of this region, but now outvied by the Persian town of Mohammera, at the head of the delta. 1 This was the seat of empire of Harun-al-Rashid, the famous contemporary of Charlemagne, so well known from the ' Arabian Nights;' 302 5. ARABIA, the largest peninsula in the world, being upwards of a million square miles in extent, or nearly five times as large as the Iberian Peninsula, which it also exceeds in average elevation (3,500 feet as against about 2,500). One half of the peninsula lies to the south of the tropic of Cancer. The mountains of Arabia are situated along the coasts, and especially along the Eed Sea coast in the west and the Gulf of Oman in the south-east. Less elevated are the heights along the south coast facing the Indian Ocean, and along the east facing the Persian Gulf. In the extreme north-west, between the Gulfs of Suez and Akabah, the northern branches of the Eed Sea, the granite Mount Sinai rises abruptly 1 to the height of more than 9,000 feet amidst a rocky peninsula. Nearly the whole of Arabia is scantily supplied with rain, and the coast mountains rob the interior of rain almost entirely. 2 Hence in the north and south the greater part of the interior is an utterly uninhabitable desert. Only in the middle the region inown as the Nejd or Ne.gd is studded with numerous date- crowned oases, the home of the Beduins or no- madic Arabs, who rear with care and affection immense numbers of horses and single-humped camels, both of which are among the finest in the world. Here, too, ostriches and gazelles bear witness to the likeness which this part of Asia presents to Africa (see p. 333). Fii] ., T;l , ,, The settled population inhabits the coast-strips, i>le, or pad, ox an( i a bove all the more mountainous tropical por- wiiich a Camel's , load is laid, tions, which are the best supplied with rain — Yemen and part of Hejaz in the west, Oman in the south-east. Even in these districts, however, the rains are only periodical, and sometimes fail for years together, and hence water has from the remotest period been stored in reservoirs for irrigation. Among the products of these regions, besides the date and coco- nut 3 palms, durrah 4 and other grains, are numerous aromatic i See Introd. p. 25. 2 See Introd. p. 52. 3 Frequently spelt cocoa-nut, but throughout this textbook coco-nut, to avoid confusion with the cacao tree from which the ^-called cocoa is obtained. 4 One of the cereals to which the name of millet is given. Like several ether so-called millets, it has several ears of grain at the end of each stalk. \t is the principal cereal grown by the natives in most parts of Africa and in Southern India. 303 trees and shrubs, balsam, gum, frankincense, as well as the cele- brated coffee which takes its name from the port of Mocha, whence it was at one time chiefly exported. Politically the greater part of the west coast is part of Asiatic Turkey, and so also is the northern half of the strip on the Persian Gulf, but even in these parts the Arabs have an organisation of their own. Small groups of families acknowledge the authority of a sheikh, and the subjects of several sheikhs acknowledge the supremacy of an emir. The most powerful emir is the Imaum of Maskat (Muscat), who rules over Oman. The fortress of Aden, with its fine natural harbour and a small district round on the south coast near the Straits of Babelmandeb, belongs to Great Britain, which also possesses several small islands on the coast. Sinai and the north-west form part of Egypt. The most celebrated towns are in the Turkish portion of the penin- sula on the west. Here, about the middle, is Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, 1 the founder of the Mohammedan religion ; the sacred city of the ancient Arabs, and now of all Mohammedans. At the pilgrim- age, or Haj, which takes place in spring, myriads of pilgrims, attended by immense troops of camels, assemble for worship and trade. To the west is Jeddf ^hf> port of Mecca ; to the north Medina. The Ar/' °5fpw the most numerous, long the most aggressive of the Semitic r^T'-*ouahabit the whole peninsula, but their true home is the plateau of/kejd, whence have issued all the continuous streams of Arabs, who, soon after the founding of the Mohammedan religion, spread in conquering armies eastwards to India, and westwards to the Iberian Peninsula, and established in the Middle Ages splendid monarchies both in the East and West, and have since then constantly spread as traders through Eastern and Inner Africa, as well as in Asia as far as the Eastern Archipelago. 6. IRANTA. — This is a general name applied to the table- lands between Mesopotamia and the plains of the Indus, and thus embraces an area of about a million square miles wholly outside of the tropics (nowhere below 25° N.). The population, however, is estimated at only about twelve millions, a consequence partly of the nature of the surface and climate, partly of the state of government. The table-lands have an average elevation about equal to that 1 Born a.d. 571. The Mohammedans reckon time from the date of the flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina on the occasion of a rising against him in the former city. The date of the flight or Hcjra (Hegira) was July 6, 622, which ig hence the beginning of the Mohammedan era. 304 ASIA of Arabia (about 3, 500 feet), and are begirt and traversed by moun- tain ranges, the passes across which are generally high and incon- venient. In the western half the mountains generally trend south-eastwards (in a direction corresponding to that of the Caucasus) , while in the east they have an east and west trend on the north and south, a northerly trend on the eastern borders (Sulai- man Mountains), and a north-easterly trend on the north-east. There the lofty range of the Hindu Kush (higher than the Alps) separates some of the most elevated and secluded valleys in the world ; those on the south-east draining to the Indus, those on the north-west, including the Pamir Plateau, to the desert region of Inner Asia. In the west the loftiest mountain range is that of the Elburz, parallel to the south shore of the Caspian Sea, and at no great distance from it. Cultivation everywhere demands irrigation, and is thus con- fined to the borders of the rivers and the bases of the mountains, 1 into the heart of which canals (karezes) are often pierced till water-bearing beds are reached. Wheat, rice, cotton, tobacco, and opium are grown. Fruit-trees are abundant (the p jf"" 1 a native of Western Irania). The date-palm 2 flourishes in thef ^^toest and south, but is banished from the interior by the wii? m ^ e "^due to exposure to the north-east winds. Nomads inhabit^ g^ 'jigtiicts incapable of cultivation, rearing horses and camels, sthe two- humped camel now replacing the single-humped camel of Arabia. The western half of Irania is under the despotic and crush- ing sway of the Shah of Persia, the eastern half divided between Afghanistan in the north and Baluchistan in the south. Of the former the emir of the Afghans is the nominal ruler throughout, but many of the tribes, and particularly those belonging to the lofty valleys on both sides of the Hindu Kush, are virtually inde- pendent. In the thinly inhabited steppes and deserts of Baluchi- stan there is hardly a pretence of common rule. The inhabitants of Irania are mainly of Aryan race and lan- guage, and indeed the table-lands of this region seem to have been the centre from which that now widely extended stock dispersed. The religion is almost everywhere Mohammedan ; but the Moham- medans of Persia and some of the tribes to the east belong to a Beet regarded as heterodox by the rest of the Mohammedan world, J See Introd. p. 62. a g eo p .333. INDIA 305 the sect of the Shiites, who reject the Sunna or hody of traditions supplementary to the Koran, held sacred by the other Moham- medans, who are hence called Sunnitea. In the desert (chiefly round Yezd) are a few adherents of Zoroastrianism. The capital of Persia is TEHEEAN (200), at the southern base of the Elbmz Mountains. Even more populous is TABEIZ (300), in the north-west, on the Armenian plateau, the centre of the northern trade with Europe, a trade which, since the construction of the Transcaii- casian railway, has been almost entirely in the hands of the Russians. At the sacred city of Meshed (a Shiite Mecca), in the north-east, the products of Europe are passed on to Afghanistan and Central Asia. Among the south-western mountains of Persia is Ispahan, the former capital, one of the residences of the caliphs ' in the glorious days of the Arabs ; and still farther south, in the original country of the ancient Persians, not far from the ruins of Persepolis, is the lovely town of Shiraz, celebrated for its rose-gardens, vineyards, and nightingales." In the part of Persia to which these towns belong the trade is mainly in the hands of the nations of Western Europe (chiefly the English), and enters the country by the ports of Bushire and Mohammera, the former on the Persian Gulf, the latter at the head of the delta of the Shat-el-Arab. Afghanistan and its principal, towns derive their importance chiefly from the fact that they command the north-western passes leading into India. Of these the most important lie north and south of the Sulaiman Mountains; in the north the Khaibar Pass, on the, route which mostly follows the Kabul river, commanded by the city of Kabul, and the Kurrum Pass, a little to the south ; in the south the Bolan ' and Nari Passes, leading from Kandahar. The only railway as yet existing in any part of Irania is one constructed for defensive purposes by the Government of India across a desert which lies in the route of the latter passes. The chief town of Western Afghanistan is Herat, on the issueless Heri Rud, 3 which fertilises a long valley running east and west, and forming the natural approach to Kabul. In Baluchistan, Kelat. II. TEE MONSOON COUNTRIES AND THEIR DEPENDENCIES. 1. INDIA. — This vast country, which is now entirely under British influence, occupies, if we include all the Himalayan States but exclude British Burma, an area of nearly one - and a half million square miles, or more than sixteen times the size of Great Britain. Its population at the last census (1881) was upwards, of 250 millions, two-fifths of whom were congregated in VSeep.281.. 1 . s Also, celebrated at one time as the centre of Persian culture. Two of thejnost celebrated of Persian poets, Hafiz aud SiJi, were both natives of this town. " " ■* Bud, Persian=river. U 30fi ASIA the valley of the Ganges in Bengal and the North-West Provinces, •which comprise together only one-sixth of the area. In shape the country is quadrangular, the mainland portion being bounded by two sides •which slope north-eastwards and north-westwards to the north of Kashmir, where they meet in about latitude 86° N., and the peninsular portion by two sides which taper to a point in Cape Comorin, in about latitude 8°, N. India thus extends through twenty-eight degrees of latitude, entirely to the south of the most southerly latitude of Europe, and for fifteen and a half degrees within the torrid zone. By its natural boundaries India is more completely isolated than Italy, the corresponding peninsula of Europe. On the north the Himalayas form a complete protection against foreign aggres- sion, and the few lofty passes merely serve as a means of carrying on a scanty trade with the thinly populated regions beyond. On the north-east a succession of mountain ranges and gorges render it equally safe against attack in that quarter, and even prevent the existence of trade with the populous provinces of China, which lie immediately beyond. It is only on the north-western frontier accordingly that India has ever been open to invasion by land-routes, and even there the routes by which invading armies can enter are few and easy of defence. In the southern part of that frontier mountains and deserts render the peninsula almost unapproachable, and consequently the passes by which foreign armies have always found access to the plains of India lie more to the north. The Ehaibar Pass is that which has been most frequently chosen. Surface. — Within the frontier mountains lie two extensive plains, following the same general direction as the mountains, and watered by two great rivers with their tributaries, the basins of which form in several respects striking contrasts. The north- western plain is that of the Indus, a river which rises on the table-land of Tibet, and bursts through the whole Himalayan system, before it emerges on the arid expanse traversed by the greater part of its course, a river extremely difficult to navigate on account of its shifting shoals, and very destructive on account of the numerous changes of its bed. The north-east plain is that of the Ganges, a river which, like most of its tributaries breaks through only the southern or loftier chain of the Himalayas and INDIA 307 which becomes a navigable stream as soon as it enters on the plain, this plain being one of the best watered, most fertile, and most densely populated in the world. Ultimately the Ganges unites with the Brahmaputra to form a delta as large as Louisiana, on the outer margin of which new land is being formed with aimosc unparalleled rapidity. South of the plains extends a saiSe-land varying from 2,000 to upwards of 3,000 feet in height, occupying the greater part of the peninsula proper. Its northern boundary roughly corresponds in direction with the frontier mountains of India, but on the north-west the table-land is broken in upon by a tract of low- lands stretching across the neck of the minor peninsula of Gujerat, and connecting the lower valley of the Narbada with the plains of the Indus. The south-west and south-east boundaries of the plateau are much better denned. The south- west edge of the plateau, seen from the narrow strip of fiat coast to which it descends with remarkable abruptness, appears like a mountain range, and, is known as the Western Ghats, 1 from the passes by which it is ascended. About the southern extremity of the Ghats rises the lofty group of mountains called the Nilgiri Hills, which terminate the plateau, for immediately to the south occurs a remarkable depression called the Palghat Gap (about twenty-five miles wide and only about 1,000 feet in height), which affords an easy route for the railway from Beypur near Calicut to Madras, and separates the table-land from the Cardamom Mountains, which stretch southwards to Cape Comorin. On the south-east the table-land is bordered by the Eastern Ghats, which are lower than the Western, and leave at most places wider tracts of lowland between the elevated interior and the coast. On both sides the coast is generally surf-beaten and difficult of access. The principal rivers by which the table-land is traversed are the Narbada and Tapti, which flow into the Gulf of Cambay in the north-west, and the Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna, which enter the Bay of Bengal. They are all more or less impeded in their navigation by rocky rapids, but the Narbada, Mahanadi, and Godavari are navigable in the lower part of their course. 1 Ghat is an Indian word for ' a stair,' especially a broad stair leading down to a river each as is common in India ; hence ' a mountain-pass.' 308 ASIA A largo part of the table-land is covered with a rich black sol! as important to Southern India as the black soil of Europe is to Southern Eussia. It is said to have produced crops for a thousand years without manure, and is often called cotton soil from its being so well adapted for the growth of cotton. Extending over so vast an area, and embracing tracts so diverse in elevation, India necessarily has a very varied climate, but everywhere the climate is greatly affected by the monsoons. 1 It is upon these that the rainfall depends, but yet the rains occur ia different parts of the country at different times. Fio. 55. — A. Persian Water -wheel as used in India for Irrigation, Similar water-wheels are in use throughout the Mediterranean region. The parts which invariably receive abundant rains from the sum- mer monsoon are the south-western edge of the southern plateau, the hills to the north-east of the Bay of Bengal, and the valley of the Ganges, up which this monsoon is diverted as a south-east wind. Hence in these parts the rainy season is the summer, and above all the third quarter of the year ; and in good seasons rain falls during the same period over three-fourths of India. The land monsoon brings rain to different districts at two different periods — to the eastern half of the peninsula as a north-east wind in the first quarter of the year. A small area in the south, where the Palghat Gap affords access to the south-west monsoon, receives rain both from it and from the north-east monsoon. 1 See Introd. pp. 42, 61. INDIA 309 The variations in the extent and abundance of the rains are the chief cause of the famines from which different portions of India suffer from time to time. Throughout a large part of the country it is uncertain whether the rainfall of the year will be sufficient , to produce a crop at all, and hence the necessity for irrigation. About one-tenth of the cultivated area in India is supplied with water by this means ; in the north canals being led from the rivers, while in the south there are numerous tanks or reservoirs in which water is stored. With regard to its chief agricultural products, India may be divided into three regions : (1) the colder and drier parts of the north, form the wheat region (North-West Provinces and Punjab) ; (2) the moist warm plains from Bengal to Krishna form the rice country ; (3) the drier parts of tropical India, including all the black soil area, form the region of millets. 1 Wheat, however, extends also into this region, and the finest kind is grown on the black soil of the valley of the Narbada. In general the growth of wheat in India for export is becoming every year of more importance, and since the beginning of the present decade India has come next after the United States in the amount of wheat it supplies to England. Besides these food-grains the agri- culture of India produces cotton (chiefly on the black soil), linseed and other oil-seeds, jute 2 in Bengal, opium and indigo in the same province, tea at various places along the slopes of the Himalayas (particularly Assam and Darjiling), coffee (in the hill districts of Southern India), sugar-cane, tobacco, numerous spices and other less important products. Forests are found chiefly on the mountain slopes. A broad strip of forest known as the Tarai stretches, however, along the base of the Himalayas, forming with its underwood a dense jungle, the haunt of wild beasts and a source of poisonous exhalations ; and a still more deadly jungle occupies the marshy tract called the Sandarbans, at the mouth of the delta of the Ganges. Alto- gether the forests in the British provinces are estimated to cover one-twelfth of the total area. Most of these are now under the management of the Government. The principal' timber treos belonging to them are teak and 1 Both the durrah of Arabia and Africa, here called jodri, and another cereal «9lled in India bajra, 2 A strong vegetab>« fi "^e used in making sacking and cloths, 310 ASIA sal, both remarkable for the hardness of their wood, that of" the teak tree being highly valued as material for ship-building. Among the other trees of India may be mentioned the mulberry, on which large numbers of silkworms are reared, particularly in Bengal and the Punjab ; the coco-nut palm, which fringes and adorns the coasts of the peninsula ; and the date-palm, which is grown on irrigated land in the valley of the Indus as high as Peshawar and Amritsar. Fig. 56.— Ploughing with Zebus, or Humped Oxen, a beeed very abundant is India. Among the more noteworthy animals of India are the tiger and other beasts of prey, the elephant, and numerous serpents and monkeys. Under British rule a great deal has been done towards extirpating beasts of prey and venomous serpents, but even yet thousands of people in India are killed every year by vild animals, chiefly snakes. Monkeys often commit great ravages INDIA 311 in the cultivated fields, and some of these are preserved from destruction through being held sacred. Elephants are of great value as beasts of burden. The mineral wealth of India is far from abundant. There are many coal-fields, but the coal is generally of poor quality, and the only district in which many mines have been opened is round Eaniganj, 120 miles north-west of Calcutta, where coal was worked more than a hundred years ago. The roads of the country till the middle of the present century were little better than mere tracks, fit only for rude ox-wagons, and human carriers and pack-bullocks were the principal agents of commerce except where there are navigable rivers. So favoured, however, is Bengal in the possession of this means of communi- cation that in some parts of the province almost every cottage has a navigable stream at its door, and the Bengalese farmer keeps his boat as regularly as the English farmer his gig. All the principal towns in India are now, however, connected by roads, and in addition 12,000 miles of railway have been constructed. With the increase in the means of internal communication the foreign commerce of the country has advanced with enormous strides under British rule. Since 1840 th9 value of the imports has increased ninefold and that of the exports sevenfold, and now the value per head is much greater than that of any other Asiatic country. The chief articles of export are raw cotton, grain (particularly wheat and rice), opium, indigo, jute, and tea; while among the imports by far the most important item is cotton- goods. The external commerceis chiefly with the United Kingdom, the cotton fabrics of which have now almost entirely superseded the hand-woven goods of the natives, and with these have nearly extinguished the production of the delicate muslin fabrics for which some parts of India have long been noted (Dacca muslin). Native manufactures now survive chiefly in the Punjab, but cotton factories on a European model have been introduced in the territory under the Governor of Bombay, and jute factories in Bengal. The people of India may be roughly divided into two great sections, those of the northern plains, and those of the hills and the peninsula. The former are mainly an Aryan race, speaking a variety of languages allied to the Sanskrit, and cannot be re- 31 2 ASIA garded as the oldest inhabitants of the country. They immigrated by the north-western passes many centuries before the beginning of the Christian era, and seem to have driven the earlier inhabit tants to the hills. The latter are now chiefly represented by the Dravida peoples of the peninsula proper, a race darker in colour and not as well formed as that of the plains, and speaking lan- guages wholly distinct (Tamil and Telugu). As regards religion, about three-fourths of the people are adherents of Hinduism. Next to Hinduism, Mohammedanism is the religion most largely professed, its adherents numbering about one-fifth of the entire population. The number of Christians does not yet reach two millions. The Mohammedanism of India is a result of several successive conquests by Mohammedan powers both in the north and south. The last of these conquests which left important permanent results was that of Baber, who invaded India in 1525 and founded the Mogul Empire, which continued to exist at least in name till 1857. Shortly before the invasion of Baber, the Portuguese had acquired a footing in the peninsula, and for about a hundred years this people retained in their own hands almost all the trade of the East. They were followed by Dutch, English, Danes, and French, but about the middle of last century the English influence (represented by the East India Company), through victories over the French and natives, became paramount, andnow England rules directly over considerably more than half of the entire country. Since 1858 the government of British India has been vested in the Crown, wbich appoints a viceroy or governor-general for the whole country, and a council of fifteen members who assist in legislation. The revenue is mainly derived from a land-tax, the sale of opium (which is a Government monopoly and an important export to China), and a tax on salt. The principal native states are Haidarabad, Mysore, Baroda, and the states of the Bajputana and Central India Agencies. There are in addition three native states in the Himalayas, Kashmir, Nepal, and Bhutan,which are entirely independent, except that in Kash- mir the ruler ia bound to consult the British authorities in case of disputes. The provinces of British India are placed under the adminis- tration of officials bearing various titles. The native states are subject to their own rulers, who are, however, bound to allegiance INDIA 313 to the British authorities, and have a British official stationed at their court. The provinces are the following : — Under the Governor-G"neral: Ajmir and Mhairwara . Berar Coorg Andaman and Nicobar Islands 3 . Under Governors : Presidency 5 of Madras . Presidency of Bombay (including Sind and Aden) . Under Lieutenant-Governors : Bengal North-West Provinces and Oudh . Punjab Under Chief Commissioners : Assam ...... British Burma . , Central Provinces , Area in thousands of square miles I 2-7 17-7 1-5 •8 140-0 124-2 150 106 106 46 87 84 Population in I ., thousands I Density per (1881) square mile 460 2,670 178 15 30,870 16,490 66,690 44,110 18,850 4,880 3,740 9,840 170 150 112 220 133 443 415 177 105 43 110 The total population of British India, including British Burma, about 200,000,000, of the native states about 55,000,000. The average density of the population throughout the country is under 200 to the square mile, but many parts are greatly over-peopled, and are inhabited by swarms of human beings living in a state of the most abject poverty. Nevertheless the people of India, unlike the Chinese, exhibit great unwillingness to emigrate. A small number leave the country every year to work as coolies on sugar and other plantations in tropical colonies, or colonies near the tropics. About half a million Indian coolies are now esti- mated to be living in various colonies, chiefly British. Provinces and Towns. — 1. Bengal, the provinee of the Lower Ganges, but including also the delta of the Mahanadi (Orissa). CALCUTTA (450 ; 800),~the seat of the supreme government, on the Hiigli, a branch of the Ganges, liable like all the others to be choked by silt, which has led to the decay of several predecessors of Calcutta ; Nit the Hugh' is now kept open by engineering works for ships of the 1 For the sake of comparison it may be mentioned that New York has in round numbers an area of 50,000 square miles, Ehode Island 1,250 square miles. 2 These two groups of islands in the Bay of Bengal have each a convict station on one of their islands, and the population here given is chiefly composed of convicts, and does not include aborigines. 5 India was formerly divided under three governors called presidents, but the ftrmer presidency of Bengal has bow been divided up among various officials. 314 ASIA largest tonnage. The North or Black Town is occupied by natives, the South by Europeans. PATNA, higher up on the main stream of the Ganges, centre of the opium trade, and the scene of great Mohammedan festivals. Gaya, farther south, memorable as the birthplace of Gautama or Buddha, founder of the Buddhist religion. 2. North-West Provinces, including Oudh, the latter one of the most fertile districts in the world, with a dense but now stationary population. LT/CKNOW (260), formerly the capital of the kingdom of Oudh, between the Ganges and its tributary, the Goghra. On the Ganges itself BENARES (200), the sacred city of the Hindus, and seat of a Sanskrit college. ALLAHABAD, at the junction of the Ganges and the Jumna, and now at that of the railways to Calcutta and Bombay, hence a great and rapidly rising centre of trade; also seat of a university, founded by the British. CA WNPORE, memorable as the scene of a massacre of the English by revolted sepoys in 1857. On the Jumna, AGEA, once the Fig. 57.— The Jama Masjid, the PamoiPAL Mosque at Delhi. residence of the Great Mogul, 1 celebrated for its great mausoleum, called the Taj Mahal. South of Agra, in the native state known as Sindhia's Dominion, is the town of Gwalior, with a magnificent fortress which was kept in the hands of the British from 1858 to 1885. 3. Punjab, ' the land of the five rivers,' so called from the five rivers which here unite to contribute their waters to the Indus, a land divided by these streams into duabs, or districts lying between two rivers. Among the inhabitants are numerous Sikhs, a fanatical and warlike religious sect. On the Jumna, DELHI, also one of the former seats of the Great Mogul, situated at the edge of the more or less desert country intervening between the Jumna and the passes of the north- west. In the richest of the duabs, between the Bavi and the Bias, is Lahore, from the earliest period a meeting-place of trade routes, and * The name given to the ruler of the Mogul Empire, INDIA 315 now a great railway centre. To the east, AMRITSAR, with manufac- tures of Cashmere shawls, &c. In the extreme north-west, Peshawar, important as a defensive station from the fact of its lying opposite the mouth of the Khaibar Pass. In the north-east, among the Himalayas, Simla, at the height of upwards of 7,000 feet above sea-level, an impor- tant sanitary hill-station, and residence of the Government of India during the hot season. 4. Rajputana, the collective name for a number of native states, Dhiefiy occupying desert plains in the lower valley of the Indus, but containing two large and fine towns, JAIPUR and Jodpur, in fertile tracts watered by streams descending from the Aravalli Hills. 5. Bombay and Sind. — Karachi, 1 in Sind, at the extremity of the north-west coast of India, a seaport rapidly rising in importance on account of its export of Punjab wheat. Between Sind and the rest of the Bombay presidency lies the district of Catch, with the Run of Catch (a sandy waste, encrusted here and there with salt, and flooded during the wet season), and the peninsula of Gujerat, at the root of which is situated the important town of AHMED AB AD. STJRAT, at the mouth of the Tapti, has a considerable trade in cotton. BOMBAY (775), capital of the presidency, on a small island connected by an artificial cause- way with the mainland, has the largest and safest harbour in India, and is the rival of Calcutta as a seaport (acquired by the English from the Portuguese in 1061). On the neighbouring islands of Salsette and Elefante are fine remains of cave-temples. Among the inhabitants of Bombay are 50,000 Parsis (see p. 291), who occupy a very influential position in trade. On the table-land behind Bombay, on the railway to Madras, POONA. 6. Central Provinces and Berar, occupying the north of the table-land ; comparatively thinly populated, except in the valley of tho Narbada. NAGPTJR, the most important town in the Central Provinces, once one of the chief towns of the Mahratta kingdom, which, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, embraced a large part of the table-land of Southern India. 7. Haidarabad, or the Dominion of the Nizam, the most extensive native state in the table-land, with a fertile soil producing cotton, wheat, and oil-seeds. HAIDARABAD (350) near the centre of the domi- nion is the capital, and six miles to the west is Golconda, with the famous tombs of the kings — namely, those who reigned over this territory in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; once noted also for its diamond beds (now exhausted). 8. Mysore, a large native state farther south, producing grain, sugar, and coffee. Chief towns, Mysore and BANGALORE. 9. Madras Presidency. — On the west or Malabar coast, Calicut, at One time the most important place on the entire west coast of the peninsula. On the east or Coromandel coast, MADRAS (400), the third largest town in India, and the third seaport in rank, notwithstanding the fact that it is situated on a surf-beaten shore, difficult of access. It is now provided with an artificial harbour formed by two long piers built out to sea. To this presidency belong the Laccadive (coral 2 ) Islands, off the west coast. 1 Often spelled Surrachee. s See Introd. p. 33 n. 316 ASIA 10. British Burma. See Indo-Ohina. : - 11. Kashmir is a mountainous state in the extreme north-west, having in the centre a small high-lying valley, with a fine equable climate, producing corn, wine, and silk, besides roses and other flowers innumerable. The chief town in this valley is Srinagar, on the Jhelmn, a tributary of the Indus. NEPAL, the native country of the warlike Gurkas, has for its capital Katmandu, important as the key of the chief passes across the Himalayas. BHUTAN, further east, now confined to the most mountainous parts of its former area, the duars, or hill country, further south, having been ceded to Britain, in return for which a small subsidy is paid to the ruler of the state. 2. CEYLON, an island more than half the size of Cuba, lying to the south-east of India, from which it is separated by a strait so shallow as to have only two or three channels navigable for small vessels. It consists of a belt of low country surrounding a core of mountains. The island is a British crown colony. Coffee was long without a rival among its products for export, but of late has been giving place to tea, and since 1884 Ceylon has been the chief source of the Peruvian hark (p. 176) imported into Britain. Pearls are obtained in the Gulf of Manaar. The native inhabitants are mainly a gentle race of Buddhists ; but Hindu immigrants, speaking Tamil, are numerous in the north. The Maldive (coral) Islands, lying to the south- west, are tributary. Capital of the colony, Colombo, on the west coast. 3. INDOCHINA is the name generally given to the peninsula between Iudia and China. 1 It lies almost entirely within tho torrid zone. Its area is about 800,000 square miles, and its population, estimated at about 36,000,000, has a density of only about forty-five to the square mile, much smaller accordingly than either of the other great monsoon countries in the east and west — a consequence of the highly mountainous surface, and the density of the tropical forests. The mountains generally trend north and south parallel to the chief rivers, which they confine in many places to narrow gorges, receding at other parts to form wide and fertile valleys. The chief seats of population are the vast rice-fields of the river deltas, all of which are liable to be flooded during the summer rains, on which account the houses are frequently built on stakes to raise them above the flood-level, sometimes on rafts moored on the rivers themselves. l Also known as the Eastern Peninsula and Further India, INDO-CHINA Si 7 The principal rivers are (1 and 2), in the west the Irawadi and the Salwin, the former with RANGOON on its wide delta, the latter with Maulmain l at its mouth ; (3) the Menam, with BANGKOK (500) at its mouth, flowing into the Gulf of Siam ; (4) the Mekong, flowing into the Chinese Sea, and forming a large delta, on which stands the town of Saigon; and (5) the Song-koi, 2 or Eed Eiver, flowing south-eastwards into the Gulf of Tongking, with Hanoi or Kesho near the head of its delta. Numerous rapids impede the navigation of the rivers, and only the Irawadi is capable of being ascended by steamers for any great distance. On that river British steamers ascend to Bhamo, close to the Chinese frontier. The inhabitants of the peninsula are mainly of Mongolic race, and speak languages allied to the Chinese. In religion they are Buddhists, and Buddhist pagodas are among the most con- spicuous ornaments of the towns. On the Malay Peninsula, which stretches like a finger southwards almost to the equator, the inhabitants are Mohammedan Malays, but on all the coasts, and especially in the east and south, Chinese immigrants and settlers form the hardest-working section of the population. Politically the peninsula is divided among various powers. A strip on the north-west, extending from Bengal to the root of the Malay Peninsula (latitude 10°), till recently known as British Burma, is under the government of India. It has an area about twice that of New York, and is divided into the provinces of Aracan, Pegu, Irawadi, and Tenasserim. It is specially valuable for its rice and teak. The population of these provinces, being small relatively to their resources, has been growing under British rule with extraordinary rapidity. Between the censuses of 1871 and 1881 it increased by thirty-seven per cent., the density from thirty-two to forty-three to the square mile. British Burma is the only part of Indo-China in which railways have yet been introduced, two starting from Kangoon, one for Prome, on the Irawadi, the other proceeding northwards by Pegu. Proposals are now being made for the construction of a railway from the Gulf of Siam to the Chinese frontier, with the view of extending commerce with the rich pirjvinces of south-western China. . On January 1, 1886, the former kingdom of Burma, with MANDALAY, on the Irawadi, for its capital, was added to the British dominions, so that Britain has now the command of the whole course Of the Irawadi as far. as Bhamo. On the east side of the straits of Malacca a considerable portion of the Malay Peninsula is in British possession or under British proteo- 1 Also spelled Moulmein. ' Also called the Song-ha, 318 ASIA tion (chief town Malacca) : and on a small island at the extremity of the peninsula is the British seaport of SINGAPORE, lying in the route from India to Australia, as well as Eastern Asia, and hence the most important seat of marine commerce in Indo-China, although in the early part of the present century it contained only a handful of people. 1 The inhabitants are chiefly Chinese. The lower and middle parts of the hasin of the Menam, and the middle part of the basin of the Mekong, form together the Kingdom of Siam. The lower part of the basin of the Mekong above the delta is the former kingdom of Cambodia, which, after existing for some time as a feeble state under French protection, has now been taken under direct French rule. At one time it was the seat of a highly developed civi- lisation, of which there are some magnificent remains, the most remarkable being the temple known as Angkor Wat. The delta itself, j5B-i sUvi.-.] ^' - : : : v - v -^ipiB m .^v-'S;-',^ . .-=-==V^^sii^J^ ,r^rT^ ^^^^^r^ * -f - ii--^ 1 ^-**---^ 1^ i \ r— -^ ----^— ---- -■-•■ ■s=---r_- -^"^S Fig. 58. — View of Bangkok, showing Floating Houses, and m thb Distance a Buddhist Pagoda. (By the kind permission of Mr. Murray.) forming French Cochin China, is under French rule, and France also possesses the delta of the Song-koi (Tongking), and claims a protec- torate over the Empire of Anam, in the east of Indo-China (capital Hue, on the coast). In the interior are numerous independent tribes, the chief of which are those of the Shan {States. 4. THE EASTERN OR MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.— This large assemblage of islands in the south-east of Asia extends over an area nearly as great as that of Europe, although the land sur- face is only about one-fifth of the area of that continent. It consists of islands both large and small, Borneo, the largest, being more than six times, and Sumatra, next in size, nearly four times as 1 The island was bought by the British in 1819, on the suggestion of Sir Stamford Baffles, who perceived thepeculiar advantages of its situation for Eastern commerce. THE EASTERN OR MALAY ARCHIPELAGO 319 large as Cuba. A line of active volcanoes (about fifty in all) passes round the outside of the group, just touching Celebes, in the north-east. The whole group lies within the tropics, and all. except the Philippines, between 10° north and 10° south. Favoured by the monsoon rains, the vegetation is almost everywhere as luxuriant as the tropics can show. Dense forests cover the slopes of the mountains, which occupy the greater part of the surface. Coco- nuts, bananas, and the pith of the sago palm supply food with too much ease to demand much energy on the part of the people. From the sago palm ten days' labour suffices to obtain food that will last a man for an entire year. Other wants are supplied with equal ease. Of clothing little is needed, and for house- building, bridge-building, and all kinds of domestic utensils the bamboo furnishes abundance of material, which can be worked with the greatest facility. Hence the native population seldom exhibits any energy except under foreign influence. Most of the original inhabitants are Malays, a brown-com- plexioned race, with smooth straight hair, rather silent in disposition and subdued in manners, expert in fishing and in the management of small slim boats, with which they make long voyages from island to island. At one time Buddhists, they attained in Java, under Buddhist influences, a high degree of civilisation, of which there are relics in the form of a Malay literature and splendid buildings, 1 rivalling those of Cambodia. Afterwards the Arabs gained them over to Mohammedanism, and that religion is still professed on most of the islands, on some of which the Arabs, though few in number, hold a very influential position. After the discovery of the sea-way to India at the close of the fifteenth century, the Arabs were followed by Portuguese and Dutch, the latter of whom now claim possession of most of the archipelago, except the Philippine Islands, which, together with the adjacent small islands of the Sulu Archipelago, belong to Spain. Chinese traders and miners are pretty numerous. The Dutch possessions consist of the Great Sunda Islands, in the west, the Lesser Sunda Islands, forming a string stretching eastwards from Java, and the Moluccas, between Celebes and New Guinea. Among the Great Sunda Islands Java is that in which Dutch influ- 1 The moat remarkable is tbe temple of Boro Buddor, near the middle of the island. 320 ASIA enoe has been most exerted, "and this island is consequently the most productive and most densely peopled of all large tropical islands. Fields of rice and sugar cane occupy the lower levels along with Fig. 59,— The Temple of Angkok Wat, Cambodia. 1 See Jnti-od. p. 59. CHINA 321 tobacco, higher up follows coffee, and then tea and cinchona. 1 Some of these products are grown in plantations belonging to the government, others on native plantations, the owners of which are bound to sell their crops to the Dutch Government at a low fixed price, so that the revenue gained from Java has heretofore made up all the deficiencies in the other Dutch islands. Under this system the population has grown from 6,000,000 in 1825 to upwards of 20,000,000, and the density now exceeds that of England. The principal towns are on the north coast -BATAVIA in the west, SURABAYA 2 in the east. On Sumatra the natives are to a large extent independent, living in fortified villages called kampongs. The smaller island of Banca, adjoining on the east, is rich in tin. Of Borneo only the south-east is claimed by the Dutch, and even this part is chiefly left to the natives. Off the north-west coast is the small island of Lahuan, belonging to Britain. It produces coal. The territory of the British North Borneo Company, in the north of the island, the native state of Brunei, adjoin- ing it on the south-west, and Sarawak, a state subject to a rajah of British family, are now all under British protection. The very irre- gular island of Celebes has coffee and other plantations, under Dutch supervision, in the north-eastern peninsula (Menado), but in most parts the natives are not interfered with. The coffee is said to excel that of Java. Of the Lesser Sunda Islands the largest is Timor, the eastern half forming the last relic of Portuguese rule in the archipelago. The Moluccas, also called the Spice Islands, from the nature of their principal products, grow cloves, nutmegs, cinnamon, and other spices, and are very carefully managed by the Dutch. Spanish rule in the Philippines has resulted in the nominal conversion of the inhabitants to Christianity, but has done little for industry and commerce. Only one island, Luzon, has a tolerably dense population (more than 100 to the square mile). Here the chief products are tobacco, sugar, and a strong fibre known as manilla hemp, MANILLA (200), on a fine bay on the west coast, is the chief town, and is the largest in the whole archipelago. It has frequently suffered from earthquakes and typhoons. 3 5. CHINA occupies the east of Asia, from the latitude of Southern France to five degrees beyond the tropic of Cancer (in the island of Hainan). Shut off from the rest of Asia on the north and west by scarcely habitable table-lands, and in the south-west from the fertile plains of India by the mountain barriers of Indo-China, it is by nature one of the most isolated countries in the world, and, being at the same time blessed with a soil of extraordinary fertility and a genial climate, it supports a dense population, which has for the most part remained i Seep. 176ii.l. • Spelled ia accordance with the Rules, p. 9. The Dutch spelling is Suerabaja, which haa the same sound. s See Iutrod. p. 41. 32& ASIA separate from the rest of the world, and developed at an early period a High civilisation, with manners and ideas quite peculiar. Its total area, even including the parts of Central Asia and Man- churia, now under direct Chinese government, is less than half that of Europe, but the population, according to the most likely estimate that can be formed, is equal to, if it does not exceed, that of Europe. CHINA 323 The country is, for the most part, elevated, and even moun- tainous, though there are plains and lowlands of great extent. The great plain, or lowland region, is that which extends in the east from Peking to the Yang-tse-kiang, interrupted only by the mountainous peninsula of Shan-tung. Of the mountains by far the most important, as a physical feature, are the Fu-niu- shan Mountains, forming the eastern continuation of the Kuen- lun, and running from west to east, about the parallel of 34° N., more than half across the country: this range separates two regions in the north and south, presenting a marked contrast to one another. 1. As regards physical features in the north the valleys and hollows between the mountains are filled with a yellow 1 earthy deposit of great fertility, known as loess, which rounds off the outlines of the surface like snow-fields in high mountains, though the loess itself, sometimes thousands of feet in depth, is apt to weather away in such a manner as to form terraced perpendicular precipices. 2 To the south this loess is generally absent, and the mountains, frequently separated by chasmy hollows, stand out in all their grandeur. In the north again the rivers are not easily navigable, partly from their impetuosity, and partly from their being filled with shifting shoals derived from the soft loess. The great river of the north is the rapid Hoang-ho, or Yellow Eiver, which now flows in the end north-eastwards into the Gulf of Pechili, on the north side of the mountainous peninsula of Shan-tung, but about thirty years ago continued its eastern course to the Yellow Sea, south of that peninsula. 3 To the south is the Yang-tse-kiang, one of the finest navigable rivers in the world 4 (hence having on its banks many of the largest towns in China), while its tribu- taries on the right bank form in many cases admirable means of communication between it and the extreme south. 1 Hence the names Hoang-ho = Yellow River, Hoang-hai= Yellow Sea, due to the colouring derived from this deposit. 2 See cut, p. 324. This mode of weathering is probably due to the presence in the lcess of innumerable minute perpendicular channels lined with calcareous deposits. In northern China millions of human beings live in caves hollowed out in the sides of these precipices. The lcess is believed to have been blown into the hollows which it fills from the highlands of Central Asia. See p. 25. 3 Within a short time the eastern course was again taken by the stream, and then again abandoned for the ono to the Gulf. 4 The continuous navigability of the Yang-tse-kiang for steamers extends as Sigh as Ichang, in about Ion. 111^° E., but is there stopped by dangerous rapids. ',24 ASIA 2. As regard's communication, in the north are numerous roads, and horses, mules, asses, and the two-humped camel are abundant as beasts of burden, while in the south human carriers are mostly employed where boats and ships are not available. 8. As regards products, the north is the land of wheat, millet, cotton, and pod-fruits, the south of rice, tea, silk, sugar, 1 and opium (the last chiefly in the south-west) ; and while in the north Fret. 61.— View among the Lasss Terraces of Northern China. (By the kind permission of Mr. Dietrich Reimcr.) agriculture may be pursued on the fertile loess as high as 8,000 feet above sea-level, in the south it is mostly confined to the plains and valleys, and to artificial terraces 2 cut out on the lower slopes of the mountains. Only in the western parts of the south, the pro- vince of Se-chwan, where a fertile red soil takes the place of 1 The best Chinese sugar is grown on the island of Formosa, 8 See Introd. p. 37 (3) and comp. p. 329. CHINA 325 the yellow loess, is agriculture pursued to a great height up the mountain sides. 4. As regards climate, there is in the north only an alternation between a warm, cloudy, and rainy summer, and a long winter with clear skies and icy north winds ; while in the south, on the other hand, there is a more gradual succession of the seasons. People. — The original seats of the Chinese are unknown, but it is certain that this people immigrated from the north, and it was in the northern part of China that the emperor, an absolute monarch, acquired the title of ' Hoang-ti,' meaning ' Lord of the Yellow ' (earth). The Chinese are the chief representatives of the Mongolian type of the human race, but though they make up the great bulk of the population in China itself, and, being by far the most industrious and energetic race in Asia, are rapidly over- flowing into all the neighbouring countries and islands in the south-east, and are even spreading beyond the limits of the con- tinent, they have for the last 250 years been subject to a Manchu dynasty, which invaded China from the north-east. 1 In religion they are nominally Buddhists, but all religions that have taken a strong hold on the Chinese have been reduced by them to little more than ceremonial observances, and the worship to which the people most stedfastly cling is the worship of their forefathers, tablets in honour of whom are preserved in every Chinese household. The system of Confucius, an ancient Chinese sage whose descendants are still held in great reverence by the Chinese, can scarcely be called a religion at all, consisting as it does merely of a code of duties. It is the system adhered to by the learned classes, and all the higher officials are obliged at stated times to perform certain rites connected with it. Education is prevented from being general by the vast num- ber of characters used in writing in Chinese, but there are never- theless few countries in which more direct encouragement is given to learning. All government offices are the reward of success in examinations. The Chinese in their own country have maintained their isolation in a large measure down to the present day. From a remote period there has 1 been a trade with the West by land, chiefly in silk. Intercourse with Europe by sea began in the l .It was from their Manchu conquerors that the Chinese adopted the practice of wearing their hair in a ' pig-tail,' that ia, in a single long plait hanging down behind. 326 ASIA early part of the sixteenth century, but was confined to Canton till within the last half century, since when several ports have been opened by treaty (hence treaty ports) to European and American commerce. The chief articles of export are now silk and tea, and the chief import, opium, from India ; next to which come various manufactured goods. Even yet, however, the whole foreign trade of China is only about one-fortieth of that of Europe ; and the long-continued aversion of the Chinese Government to the construction of railways was an obstacle to its development. The construction of a network of railways has often been proposed, and would have all the more importance, since China is known to possess enormous coalfields— coalfields the united extent of which is estimated to be twenty times as great as that of the coalfields of Europe. The gold, copper, and other minerals of the province of Yun-nan in the extreme south-west are among the products which it is hoped lo make accessible to European commerce by railways. Tele- graphs are already extending in China with remarkable rapidity ; and the attitude of the Government towards railways has at last been changed. The large towns of China have been known by repute in Europe since the time of the Venetian traveller Marco Polo (end of the thirteenth century), but his accounts were then ridiculed as exaggerated. Even according to the best estimates of the present day, however, China can boast of several towns contain- ing more than a million inhabitants. PEKING, the Beat of government, stands in a densely populated plain in the north-east (prov. Pechili), but in one of the dreariest parts of it. Its population is variously estimated at from 500,000 to upwards of a million. 1 Its port is TIENTSIN (1000), on the Pei-ho, a treaty port accessible to Chinese junks, a but much more important as the northern terminus of the Grand Canal, a canal 700 miles in length, which forms the great channel of communication between north and south, 3 as far as HANGCHATJ, 4 at the head of the inlet or gulf of the same name. Of the towns on the Yang-tse-kiang the largest is HANKAU 4 (700), at which place, though lying in the centre of the country, sea-going ships can be freighted with tea from the rich tea-growing districts all round. Lower down lies NANKING s (500), a former capital of China, and still a great seat of Chinese learning. On the Wusung, a little above the mouth of the estuary of the Yang-tse-kiang, stands SHANGHAI (350), 1 All the estimates of population of Chinese towns are very uncertain. 9 The name of a kind of flat-bottomed ship, high in the prow and stern, used in China and Japan. 3 The Grand Canal is no longer navigable throughout, on which account one of the Chinese railway schemes most actively promoted at present is that for a railway from Nanking to Tientsin and Peking. i Also spelled — mo. See Rules, p. 9. * Meaning ' Southern Court,' as distinguished from Peking, ' Northern Court' KOREA 327 khe most important of the treaty ports, the principal centre of foreign commerce on the mainland of China. The chief town of the south, and indeed the most populous apparently of all China, is CANTON (properly Quang-tung, which is the name also of the province in which it lies ; pop. 1000), on the delta of the Si-kiang (a branch of which is known as Canton Biver). It lies in the middle of a region rich in rice, sugar, and indigo, and possessing admirable (water communication with the silk and tea districts further north. Close by, on the river, a population of 300,000 dwells in boats moored in long rows. At the mouth of the estuary of the Canton Biver are two small islands, in European hands : at the northern entrance the rocky island of Hongkong, with the town of VICTORIA, belonging to the British; at the southern, Macao, belonging 10 the Portuguese. Of these the former is by far the more important, being the principal seaport of Southern China. Pig. 62. — Chinese Gateway. (By the kind permission of Messrs. Chapman and Hall.) Manchuria, in the north-east of China, separated before the accession of the Manchurian dynasty by a long palisade, is a fruitful _ country, rich in pastures, hitherto thinly ^populated, but now receiving large numbers of Chinese colonists in the south. MUKDEN, on a tributary of the Liau-ho, is the capital, and Niuchwang (Newchwang), on the coast, is a rising treaty port. 6. KOREA, the mountainous peninsula to the east of the Yellow Sea, is only now beginning to open itself up to foreign intercourse. In 1883 a treaty port was opened on the west coast, near the capital Seul. Ginseng, a drug highly prized by the Chinese, is exported as a monopoly of the king. Three small islands about 30 miles from the south coast enclose a fine natural harbour known as Port Hamilton, 328 ASIA 7. CENTRAL ASIA. — The vast mountain-girt tablelands to the north and west of India and China (covering an area of about two-and-a-half millions of square miles in all) are mostly unin- habited solitudes, in some parts of which explorers may travel for three months together without seeing a human being. * Tibet. — The southern part of the area is the loftiest tableland in the world, in the south and west nowhere less than 12,000 feet in height, though sinking in the north, at the base of the Kuen-lun Mountains, to about 4,000 feet in some parts. On this great tableland lie the head- waters of all the great rivers of South-eastern Asia. The inhabitants, who profess an exceedingly corrupt form of Buddhism, and suffer under an oppressive priesthood, are chiefly settled along the narrow basin of the Sanpu (Upper Brahmaputra). Here stands Lhassa, the residence of the Dalai Lama, or high-priest, who is wor- shipped as a god. North of Tibet and China lies a long relatively depressed area, mostly desert, called by the Chinese the Han-hai, or Dry Sea, a name' so far appropriate that the region is known to have actually been a sea in some previous period of the history of the world. This area, stretching from the abrupt eastern slopes of the Pamir plateau, in the west, to the so-called KMngan Mountains 1 in the east, is as long as the Mediterranean, and, like it, is divided into two portions by a narrowing in the middle. This narrowing is important for two reasons: first, because it reduces the journey across the desert to fourteen days ; and secondly, because at this part are situated the only two openings by which great bodies of people can emerge from the Han-hai, either northwards along the northern base of the Tian-shan Mountains, or southwards into China along the Nan-shan Mountains. Through these gates 2 great hordes of mounted barbarians have swept north and south at different periods, and hence they are now included in a province directly under Chinese rule. It was to prevent such inroads that the Chinese in the third century erected the Great Wall — a stone-faced earthen rampart, more than 1,200 miles in length, ex- tending from Peking to Suchau, on the northern slopes of the Nan-shan Mountains ; but the wall (now in many places in a state of decay) did not always prove effectual. In both halves of the Han-hai a caravan trade with China is carried on. The western half, or Tarim basin, forming Eastern Turkestan, is inhabited by Mohammedan Tatars, who during the short but hot summers, grow wheat, maize, and even rice and wine along the banks of the numerous short rivers which dry up in the sands soon after quitting the base of the mountains. The chief towns are Kashgar and YARKAND, 3 the former the starting point of the caravans across the Pamir to the valley of the Sir, the latter to the valley of the Amu. 1 In reality merely the eastern edge of a loess plateau. 9 Compare the 'Moravian Gate' (p. 239). 3 Both situated on the routes of the old overland silk trade between China and the West. JAPAN 329 The eastern half of the Han-hai is the Shamo l or Gobi, which, along with the mountain-traversed area stretching westwards to Siberia, makes up Mongolia, a region inhabited by nomadic Mongols, Buddhists in religion. Maimachin 2 is the town of greatest importance. All Central Asia is either directly or indirectly subject to China. 8. JAPAN consists of a group of large islands opposite the Sea of Japan, together with a string of smaller ones in the north opposite the Sea of Okhotsk (the Kurile Islands), and another in the south opposite the Yellow Sea (Lu Chu Islands 8 ). Their area is less than three times that of New York State, but their popu- lation (about thirty-seven millions) more than five-eighths that of the United States. Hondo, Sikoku, and Kiusiu, the most populous islands in the group, lie in the same latitude as the eastern or more southerly half of the Mediterranean (including the JEgean Sea). In some respects Japan may be regarded as an Asiatic Britain. The islands are well situated for commerce, their shores deeply indented, and provided with numerous harbours, especially in the east and south ; and the difference in tempei ature is less than might be expected from the latitude. 4 At Tokiyo, the capital, which is in the latitude of Malta, the hottest month is about 15° warmer than at London, but the coldest a few degrees colder. Yezo, the northernmost island, though in the latitude of Southern France, has a severe climate, and is inhabited only by from 100,000 to 150,000 people round the coasts. The entire group is mountainous, so that even on the populous islands the level cultivated ground, including the terraces on the hill slopes, 6 forms less than one-eighth of the entire area. The few plains of any importance lie along the lower courses of the rivers. The principal mountain peaks are conical volcanoes, active or extinct, which rise to a gteat height above the general elevation of the mountain ranges, thus leaving low and easy passes between. Fusinoyama, 6 the highest, is upwards of 12,000 feet in height. The old lavas from these volcanoes, crumbled by vegetation and changes of weather and washed down by rain, have yielded to the plains and valleys an exceedingly rich soil, 7 and this, together with the warm summers and the copious summer (mon- soon) rains, renders the low grounds so productive that, small as 1 Chinese= ' Sea of Sand.' A portion of this desert extends even to the east of Khingan. ' See p. 292. 5 This name, a Chinese one, is more familiar than the Japanese one, Eiu-kiu, these islands having been claimed by the Chinese (as well as the Japanese) till 1879. The Chinese language has no r, the Japanese no I. 4 See Introd. p. 51. 5 See Introd. p. 87 and comp. p. 324 e Also known as Fusiyama, Fujiyama, and Fujisan. Tama=' mountain 'in Japanese, ««a in Chinese. ' See Introd. pp. 25 and 37-8. 330 ASIA their area is, the density of the population in all the three more populous islands is upwards of 300 to the square mile. The principal summer crop is rice (the staple food of the people), but barley and wheat are largely grown as winter crops, the young grain springing up before the winter, and remaining green, but not growing all the winter through. Tea and silk are likewise staple products. The Japanese, mostly Buddhists in religion, attained a high degree of civilisation before they came much into contact with Europeans and Americans, and their manufacturing industries had reached a corresponding degree of advancement. Their silk fabrics and lacquered wares are particularly celebrated, and their skill in lacquering has even given a word to our language (japan- ning). For a long period the Japanese showed the same jealousy of foreign intrusion as the Chinese, and foreign trade was strictly limited to Chinese and Dutch. Now, however, several ports have been opened to other nations, and foreign trade has been greatly extended in consequence. Still more recently the Japanese have begun to show an eager readiness to learn from Western nations : to teach European languages (especially English) in their schools, to employ foreign teachers of science in their colleges and universities, and to send Japanese students to the universities of Europe and America for education. At present the use of the extremely difficult Chinese mode of writing is a great hindrance to education, but an agitation is now on foot for the adoption of the Eoman alphabet. The capital of Japan, the residence (since 1869) of the Mikado, or ruler of the country, is TOKIYO, formerly called Yedo (800), situated at the head of an eastern bay, on one of the most extensive and best watered of the Japanese plains. It is a treaty port, but being acces- sible only for small vessels, the foreign commerce is chiefly centred at Yokohama, another treaty port on the same bay. West-south-west of Tokiyo, about 7 miles to the south of a beautiful lake in another rich plain, is KIYOTO (250), capital of Japan for 1,000 years previous to Tokiyo, and still the chief seat of Japanese industry, the centre of Japanese art, and the most interesting of Japanese towns, in virtue of itB general appearance and historical associations. OSAKA (300), and Hiogo, on the bay to the south, are its ports (both treaty ports). Nagasaki, in the south of the island of Kiusiu, is a treaty port, with one of the deepest and safest natural harbours in Japan. Niigata is the only port on the west coast, and is accessible to shipping only in summer, navigation being stopped for half the year by the strong surf which beats along the whole of the flat and dangerous west coast during the prevalence of the north winds of the wjnter monsoon 331 AFEICA. Approximate latitudes : (Cartagenal Cape Blanco, the northernmost point of the continent, 87 £° N. ; north of Lake Victoria Nyanza (Cape Eomania), 1° N. ; (Montevideo) Cape Agulhas, the southern- most point, 35° S. Approximate longitudes : Cape Verde to Cape Guardafui, 17° W. —51° E. Africa is a continent lying to the south of Europe, and bearing some resemblance in outline to the other great tropical continent of South America, inasmuch as it is broader in the north, and tapers towards the south, but, having a more northerly situation than South America, the broader part is not so entirely tropical as in that continent. Its total area is about eleven and a half million square miles, or two million square miles greater than that of North America ; its population is very uncertain, but it is estimated at upwards of 200,000,000. Misgovernment, in- ternal wars, and the practice of slavery keep down the density of the population almost everywhere in the interior. The superficial features contrast markedly with those of all the other continents. Africa has no wide plains near the coast, but consists principally of plateaux, varying from about 2,000 to 9,000 feet in height, surmounted in many places by mountain chains, and generally sinking pretty rapidly to the coast, where the strips of lowland are comparatively narrow. The principal mountain ranges are those cf the Atlas, which run parallel to the western half of the Mediterranean, and the Drakenberg ' or Kwathlamba Mountains, in the south-east ; the principal series of plateaux, one which begins in the south of the Eed Sea and proceeds southwards nearer the east coast than the west, finally turning westwards in the north of the Zambezi basin. Towards the east coast these plateaux are surmounted by two lofty mountains, Kenia and Kilimanjaro, rising within a short distance of the equator above the snow-line, hence to upwards of 16,000 feet. On these plateaux lie also a number of great freshwater lakes. The largest of all is- Lake Victoria Nyanza, or Ukerewe, on the equator, a lake estimated to have an area of about 30,000 square miles, and hence little smaller than Lake Superior (32,2f)0 sq. miles). To the south-west 1 Dutch = Dragon Mountains. Seo p. 343 ». 332 AFRICA is the long and narrow Lake Tanganyika, about half the size of Victoria Nyanza, and still further south Lake Bangweolo. East of the latter, on. a lower plateau, is Lake Nyassa, about the same size as Tanganyika. All these lakes lie within the southern half of the torrid zone, except a small portion of Victoria Nyanza. All the great rivers of Africa except the Nile belong wholly to the tropical portion of the continent. The Nile, the longest of all, has its head-waters collected by Lake Victoria Nyanza, from which it issues in the north, and after touching the end of a smaller lake (Mwutan 1 ), in the north-west, winds north- wards to the eastern half of the Mediterranean. From Abyssinia it receives two important tributaries on the right, the Bahr-el-Azrek, or so- called Blue Nile, 2 and the Atbara, but in the lower half of its course it does not receive a single tributary on either bank. The other three great rivers of Africa, the Niger, Congo, and Zambezi, all describe great curves among the interior plateaux before making their escape to the coast through the bordering mountains. The Niger, rising far west, sweeps northwards, and then south-east and south, before it empties itself by a delta into the Gulf of Guinea. The Congo has its head- waters collected by Lake Bangweolo 12° south of the equator, and reaches 2° north before bending southwards again to enter the Atlantic Ocean in about 6° south. In respect of the volume of its water dis- charge 3 this river is by far the greatest of African rivers. The Zambezi has numerous headwaters in a region thickly streaked with rivers, partly belonging to its basin and partly to that of the Congo, between 10 and 15° south, and after describing an s curve enters the Indian Ocean (Mozambique Channel) by a delta opposite the middle of Madagascar. All these rivers are great navigable streams, but all of them have their navigation interrupted, in their lower course, by falls and cataracts. In the Nile, however, these are high enough up to allow of nearly 800 miles of unimpeded navigation from the mouth. The nature of the surface, together with other circumstances, causes Africa, as a whole, to be very deficient in rain. It lies in latitudes where the atmosphere is always able to retain large quantities of vapour uncondensed, 4 and, consisting like Spain mainly of plateaux with bordering mountains, 5 its interior is in most parts reached only by winds that have been deprived of the greater part of their moisture. Hence the only regions with 1 Sometimes called Lake Albert Nyanza ; but since this lake, formerly supposed to be one, has been discovered to be made up of two lakes, the northern one is dis- tinguished as Lake Mwutan, the southern as Lake Muta. * Bahr is Arabic for a stream. Bahr-el-Azrek means properly the turbid stream, as distinguished from the Bahr-el-abiad, or white (that is, clear) stream (of the Nile itself above its confluence with this tributary). s The discharge of a river is the volume of water it pours into the sea within a given time, usually expressed as so many feet per second. It is estimated by finding the breadth, the average depth, and average rate of a river at the mouth, ane" multiplying. * See Introd. p. 49-£0. 6 g ee p- 253. VKGKTATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 333 abundant raiuiall are the western part of the equatorial area and narrow strips on the south and south-east coasts. Two regions of exceptional drought occur, one in the north and one in the south. The former is the Sahara, extending from the Nile to the Atlantic, between the Atlas Mountains and the Eastern Mediterranean in the north, and the Soudan countries in the south, a region visited chiefly by dry winds from the Asiatic continent. Much of this vast area, measuring 3,000 by 900 miles, is absolute desert, sandy, stony, or rooky, but where there are temporary streams ' or underground moisture there are inhabited oases, some of them thousands of square miles in extent. The other region of exceptional drought is in South- west Africa, north of the Orange Kiver, where the dryness of the air is increased by a cold current which creeps along the south-west coast, and reduces the evaporation. 8 This region is known as the Kalahari Desert, though it is in fact mainly covered with thin grass, and is generally visited by copious dews at night 3 South of Sahara lies Lake Chad, a large freshwater lake, which in times of flood has an outlet on the north-east to a depression inorusted with salt. North of Kalahari is Lake Ngami, the outlet of which similary loses itself sooner or later in salt lagoons. 4 The vegetation and animal life of Africa answer to the climate. Dense liana B -bound forests occupy the moist equatorial regions, but the greater part of the continent capable of supporting vege- tation at all is occupied by grassy plains with trees only thinly scattered over them, or without trees at all. On these plains tall thick-stemmed leafless prickly euphorbias 6 are in many places conspicuous, and in the south there is an immense variety of bright-flowered woody heaths. In the desert almost the only vege- tation consists of thorny shrubs or tufts of coarse grass 7 growing here and there, and in the oases the sole dependence of the people is the date-palm, 8 which loves a sandy soil, but can suck up moisture by its long roots from a great depth. The principal cultivated grain is durrah. 9 The characteristic animals of the continent are fleet-footed grass-feeders, and above all antelopes, which are to be seen at certain times assembled in countless herds and in great variety along with zebras, quaggas, and other animals, at well-known watering places, where they are watched at evening by the lion, hyaena, and other beasts of prey. The swift-running bird, the ostrich, also scours the plains, and where there are clumps of 1 Generally known by the Arabic name of wadia. 8 See Introd. p. 51-2. 3 See Introd. p. 52-8. * See Introd. p. 31, 5 Lianas are climbing and twining trees, such as are found in great abundance in all tropical forests. 6 See Introd. p. 59. 7 See cut, p. 26. 8 See cut, p. 334. ° Sue p 312 n. i. 334 AFRICA trees small troops of giraffes may be seen grazing the lower twigs with the aid of their long necks, or galloping from clump to clump across the country. Elephants and rhinoceroses haunt the forests and marshes, and hippopotamuses and crocodiles are found in many of the rivers. Monkeys and apes (chimpanzee and gorilla) are found both among trees and among rocks. 1 In the desert the camel (single-humped) is as indispensable as a beast of burden as the date-palm is on account of its fruit. The inhabitants of the north and north-east of Africa, in- cluding the Abyssinians (a Semitic people), Egyptians, and Ber- bers, as well as the Asiatic settlers, the Arabs and Jews, are all Fro. 63 .— TCatrtjn, an Oasts in Fezzav bukrouxded by Date-Palm^. markedly different from those of the south and south-west, among whom the Negro features are more or less prominent. Among these features are protruding jaws, swollen lips, projecting heels, a black or very dark skin, and woolly hair, all of which are most highly developed in the true Negroes inhabiting the region to the south-west of the Sahara. The Jews are settled in consider- able numbers in the Atlas States, and the Arabs are more widely diffused, being settled in large numbers in the north and east, and having the command of the trade (largely a slave trade) of a great part of East and Central Africa. The Mohammedan religion has been introduced by the Arabs into all North Africa, 1 Comp. South America, p. 172. EGYPT 335 East Africa as far south as the Zanzibar coast, and into the Soudan states between the Nile and the Niger basin ; and in Central Africa Mohammedanism is constantly gaining ground. Ancient Christian sects survive in Abyssinia and Egypt (in the latter country called Copts). The rest of Africa is heathen, ex- sept where there are European settlers (chiefly English and Dutch colonists in the south). COUNTRIES AND REGIONS OF AFRICA. 1. EGYPT, the country of the lower Nile, together with a portion of North-west Arabia, including the peninsula of Sinai, has an area of between 300,000 and 400,000 square miles ; but so large a part of this is desert that the whole extent capable of cul- tivation is less than twice the size of New Jersey. This cultivated region is almost confined to the delta of the Nile (Lower Egypt) and the narrow valley, varying from ten to fifteen miles in breadth, which borders that river above the delta (Upper Egypt). There accordingly the immense majority of the six or seven million inhabitants of the country are settled, and the density oi population is very high (above 500 to the square mile). In this nearly rainless region the regular inundations of the river occur- ring in autumn (in consequence of the monsoon rains of Abyssinia) supply both moisture and a fertile soil, as on the banks of the Eu- phrates and Tigris. Hence from the remotest period this valley has been the seat of a dense population, and in ancient times was occupied by one of the oldest of civilised nations, remains of which are to be found both in Lower and Upper Egypt. In Lower Egypt are the famous pyramids at the head of the delta opposite the modern Cairo ; in Upper Egypt the ruins of the equally wonderful temples of ancient Thebes (at Luxor and Karnak). At all times the principal occupation of the inhabitants of this valley has been agriculture, in the pursuit of which water- wheels and other irrigating apparatus are necessary. The prin- cipal products, besides grains grown both for food and for export, is cotton, which now forms by far the largest of the Egyptian exports. The cultivators (the fellahin) are oppressed by a despotic ruler (the khedive), who is tributary and pays a nominal allegi- ance to Turkey, 1 but the government is at present to a large extent under English influence. The occurrence of petroleum » Egypt was conquered b) the Turkfl in 1617. 336 AFRICA may ultimately give some importance to the otherwise unpro- ductive part of Arabia which belongs to Egypt. Eailways connect the principal towns in the delta, and one line ascends several hundred miles up the Nile valley. The Suez Canal, which allows the largest ships to cross the isthmus of that name from Port Said, on the Mediterranean, to Suez, on the north-western arm of the Bed Sea, runs through Egyptian territory. The capital is CAIBO 1 (375), at the head of the delta, near the site of the ancient Memphis, connected by the Mahmudieh Canal as well as by railway with ALEXANDRIA 2 (230), which has in consequence greatly increased its population, though even in size it is still far behind what it was in ancient times, when it was the residence of the Ptolemies, and for centuries the chief seat of Greek culture, and numbered, it js said, about a million inhabitants. Pig. 61.— A Tembe, one of thh Commonest Forms op Dwelling in Central Africa. The name of Egyptian Soudan has been given since 1821 to vast regions in the south of Egypt,which,when the power of the khedive was at its highest, almost reached the equator, and brought up the area of his dominions to upwards of a million square miles. These regions (Nubia, 3 Eordofan, Dar-for, &c.) are extremely arid in the north, but rains begin to be more abundant about the latitude where the Nile is joined by its lowest tributary, the Atbara ; and the 1 Founded by the Arabs in the first half of the seventh century, after the conquest of the country by that people during the rise of the Mohammedan religion (see p. 303). 8 Founded by and named after Alexander the Great, 332 B.C. 5 Egypt proper is now considered to end, and Nubia to begin, at the second cataract of the Nile (the Wadi Haifa), about lat. 22° N. WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN STATES 337 rainy season increase'! in duration as one goes southwards. The com- mercial and political centre of this region is Khartum, at the confluence of the White and Blue Nile; and Suakim (Saw&kin), on the Bed Sea, is the chief port. At present the government in these regions is wholly unsettled, the tribes having risen in rebellion against the rule of Egypt. 2. INDEPENDENT SOUDAN.— The term Soudan also em- braces all the states south of the Sahara between the Nile and the sources of the Niger. A race called the Fulbeh is rapidly spreading in these countries, and is perhaps the most energetic of all tropical races, certainly of all those of Africa. Many parts of this vast area are thickly inhabited, especially near the angle of the Gulf of Guinea, where the rains are more abun- dant. Throughout this region a kind of palm, called the dsleb, is almost as important for the food it yields to man as the date-palm further north. But the people also grow various kinds of grain and rear cattle. Kuka, the capital of Bornu, near the west coast of Lake Chad, is the largest town in the Soudan ; but Timbuktu, situated on the edge of the desert, 1 a few miles from the Niger north of its great bend, is bettor known in Europe from the fact of its being the centre of trade between Western Soudan and North Africa, the focus of numerous caravans which take their way thither between November and January. 3. WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN STATES.— (a). Tri- poli, a vast region opposite Italy, with an area larger than Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada, but in which the whole extent of cultivated land is estimated to be only about as large as the State of Delaware. The cultivated land lies chiefly on the coast, partly in the neighbourhood of the town of Tripoli, partly on the borders of the plateau of Barka, where in ancient times stood the Greek colony of Gyrene and the other towns of Cyrenaica. Tripoli, long a dependency of Turkey, is now administered as a pro- vince of the Turkish Empire. Population about one million. In this province, asm all the countries to thewest, the population is mainly composed of Arabs, Berbers— a race peculiar to North Africa — and Moors, the last being a mixed race descended from the two others, and inhabiting the towns. On the whole line of coast (700 or 800 miles) there is only one seaport of consequence, that of Tripoli, which is chiefly important as the centre of the trade across the de- sert, the point of arrival and departure for camel caravans, through the oases of Fezzan, to Bornu, and south-westwards to Timbuktu. (6). Algeria and Tunis, the former a French colony since 1830, the latter under French control, are both traversed by the parallel chains of the Little and Great Atlas, which in Algeria i See Introd. p. 61 (3) (o). 338 AFillCA leave only a narrow strip of well-watered cultivated laud (the Tell), betweon the Little Atlas and the coast, while in Tunis the plateau which separates them, sinks down towards the Gult ot Tunis, and becomes the fertile valley of the Mejerdah, watered by a permanent river. The climate and products of the low- lauds are similar to those of Southern Europe (see pp. 184-5). Round the city of Algiers are grown fine early vegetables for the London and Paris markets. Alfa, the only product of the plateau (which in Algiers has a breadth of more than a hundred miles), is one of the chief exports of the country, and is mainly sent to England for use in paper-making. Since Algeria has been occupied by the French, much has been done for the development of the country chiefly by the making of roads and railways, but also by the sinking of Artesian wells. 1 French settlements in the colony have not been very successful, but in the portion under cultivation (chiefly the Tell) the Berbers (here called Eabyles 2 ) are settling in increasing numbers. The Berbers are essentially an agricultural people, and present a complete contrast to the Arabs, who are pastoral and nomadic. These are therefore found solely in the remainder of the territory, which is under military government, and, above all, in the region south of the Atlas, the Biled- nl-jerid, or ' Land of Dates.' In the east of the territory a district occupied by shallow salt lakes, called sliotts, 3 is beneath the level of the Mediterranean ; and proposals have been made for piercing the intervening barrier and letting in the waters of that sea to submerge the district. 4 The whole population of Algeria, which, exclusive of the portion belonging to the Sahara, is nearly as large as California, is under 3,500,000. Tunis, with a much smaller area (one-third the size of California), lias about two millions, and is hence much more densely peopled ; and the town of TUNIS is the only one in the two countries with a population above 100,000. It stands on the Gulf of Tunis, about ten miles from the ruins of ancient Carthage. The coast towns of Algiers (in the middle), and Oran (in the west), and the inland town of Constantine (in the east) give name to the three civil provinces under French rule in Algeria. (c). Morocco, a country subject to a Mohammedan despot, and generally known as the Empire of Morocco. Its area can only be vaguely estimated as somewhat less than that of Tripoli, but as iu Algeria the bulk of the population is confined to a limited extent of fertile and comparatively well-watered 1 Known in this region, however, long before th« arrival of the French. See p. 30. 2 The representatives of the ancient Numidians, who furnished the Itoman army with its best cavalry. From among the Kabylos the Zouaves of the French army were at one time recruited, as the Turcos are still. » Shotts also exist on the plateau. 4 The project is now abandoned as too costly. FROM THE SENEGAL TO THE CONGO 339 land, called the Tell, extending along the base of the mountains. 1 To this country belong the Atlas Mountains proper, which, sweep- ing round from Cape Ghir on the west coast, attain as great an elevation as the Pyrenees, and ultimately merge in the coast moun- tains on the north, called Er Kif, and can hardly be regarded as continuous with the longer ranges which bound the plateau of Algeria and Tunis. This plateau extends only a short distance into Morocco. The area of the Morocco Tell is estimated as equal to about half the area of California; the total population of the empire is roughly calculated at about six millions ; but nothing but good government and proper cultivation are wanted to make it much more numerous. Almost all kinds of grain might be grown in abundance, and the country is also rich in minerals and timber. All the chief towns, Fez, the capital, and fflekinez in the north, Morocco in the south, lie at some distance from the west coast among the mountains. They are all manu- facturing towns, and the preparation of the kind of leather to which Morocco gives name is still an important industry. Fez makes and ex- ports great quantities of red cloth caps, which take their name from that city, and are almost universally worn in Mohammedan countries. 4. WEST AFRICA FROM THE SENEGAL TO THE C0NO0. — Along the whole coast in this region English, French, and Germans have established at intervals trading stations and protectorates. The French have pushed their influence furthest into the interior — up the whole of the Senegal to the Upper Niger — and they have commenced the construction of a railway along the former river, which is navigable for about half its length, but higher up has its navigation stopped, like other African rivers, by rapids and cataracts. The French also claim a protectorate over most of the region between the Lower Congo and the Atlantic to the north of the Gaboon Kiver. The centres of English influence are Sierra Leone, on the surf-beaten west coast, Cape Coast Castle, on the Gold Coast (the whole of which is now British), and Lasos, further east, on the Slave Coast. The two latter belong to Upper Guinea, which is a general name for that part of the west coast which looks to the south. The German stations are principally in the neighbourhood of the Cameroon Mountains, opposite the Spanish island of Fernando Po, in the angle between Upper and Lower Guinea ; but Germany has also another small settlement to the east of the Gold Coast i See Utrml. p. 52. 340 AFRICA called Togo Land. Two native states of some importance, Ashanti and Dahomey, also touch the coast, and the Pepper Coast, which runs from north-west to south-east, belongs to the republic of Liberia, which was founded early in the present cen- tury by some philanthropists as a home for freed slaves. Agriculture is generally neglected, but where pursued rice and ground-nuts l are the chief products. The principal exports of this region are palm-oil 2 (especially from Lagos, the chief centre of trade on the whole of the Guinea Coast), gold (especially from Cape Coast Castle), ivory and india-rubber (obtained from a liana 3 ) ; and the articles taken by the natives in exchange are chiefly coarse cotton and other cloths, rum, fire-arms, and gunpowder. 4 Coffee plantations, under the supervision of Europeans, have been tried in some places with success. For Europeans the coast, as everywhere else in tropical Africa, is very unhealthy. 5. THE CONGO FREE STATE.— Till 1877, when the Congo was descended by Stanley, the course of that river was unknown. The descent of the river on that occasion made known the fact that this magnificent stream affords 1,000 miles of uninterrupted navigation between Stanley Falls (just before the river first crosses the equator) and Stanley Pool, about 300 miles from the mouth. On the next 200 miles numerous falls and rapids occur to interrupt the navigation. After Stanley's descent of the river an International African Association was founded, under the head of the King of the Belgians, for the exploration of Central Africa, and more particularly for the opening up to commerce of the Congo basin, which seems to be pretty thickly peopled. With this view a road has been constructed to avoid the rapids, and a railway is now projected. Numerous European stations have been set up at various points along the course of the river, and steamers have been launched, which ply regularly between Stanley Pool and Stanley Falls. Finally, in 1885, a treaty was concluded be- tween the chief European Powers, by which free trade was established throughout a large portion of Central Africa; including the Congo basin ; and a portion of that basin, equal to about one-tliird the area of tlie United States, was set apart to form the Congo Free State, the manage- ment of which is entrusted to tlie International African Association. At the same time it was provided that special measures should be taken against the slave trade, the curse of the region. The trade of the region, at present small, is in the same articles as in the rest of Western Africa. 1 A pod-fruit like the pea or bean, but having this peculiarity, that it buries its pods underground to ripen ; hence the name. 2 Used for soap-making, greasing the axles of railway carriages, &e, 8 See p. 333, n. 5. * The trade is largely carried on by barter, in which glass beads have a high value with the natives. A kind of shells called cowries circulate as money. BRITISH SOUTH AFlUCxV 341 6. PORTUGUESE LOWER GUINEA, from the Congo to 18° S., a little beyond the river Cunene. In the north tho left bank of the Congo belongs to Portugal for ninety miles up, and Portu- guese territory extends about 300 miles inland to the Kwango, a southern tributary of tho Congo. Here, as in most parts of Africa, there is a comparatively rapid rise from the coast to the interior, and next the coast there is an arid and nearly desert tract, -which increases in. width towards the south from about five to about 100 miles. At a distance of about 100 miles from the coast lie some of the richest and healthiest regions of West Africa, at an elevation of several thousand feet above the sea level. On these higher parts coffee ia an important product. The oil- palm is met with only in tho north of the region, but india-rubber is abundantly obtained from the sumo liana as in the rest of West Africa, and cotton and sugar are grown for export. The number of whites among the population is only about 12,000, some hundreds of whom are Portuguese convicts. The chief seat of tho Portuguese govern- ment is Loanda on the coast. The coast regions of Portuguese territory become more and more arid as we advance southwards, no rivers in that region flowing all the year round to the sea, so that the population con- sists only of a few hunting and pastoral tribes. The British have founded a whaling station on this coast at Walviscb. 1 Bay, about 1° N. of the tropic of Capricorn ; but all the rest of the coast is now claimed by Germany, and a German station has been founded at Angra Pequena, a few degrees south of Walvisch Bay. 7. BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA. — The British possessions in South Africa, including the protectorate of Bechuana Land, now embrace an area of upwards of 400,000 square miles, or between four and five times that of Great Britain. Cape Colony, south of the Orange Eiver, but now includ- ing also Griqua Land West, north of that river, has an area equal to Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Iu the southern and more populous part of the colony the rise from the coast to the interior takes place in well-marked terraces, the edges of which, facing seawards, present the appearance of mountains on the outside. The innermost terrace is bounded on the south by a true mountain range with peaks of from 5,000 to 6,000 feet in height, but the table-lands on either side are 8,000 feet in height or more. These table-lands are called karroos, and that which 1 Dutch = Whale-fish. See p. 343 n. 1. 342 AFRICA lies to the south' of the mountain range just mentioned is in most parts at least seventy miles in breadth, and is known as the Great Karroo. The general slope of the karroos is towards the interior, but outside of the inner mountain range the rivers nevertheless all flow directly seawards, and break through the edges of the table-lands in deep gorges (kloofs). The climate is warmer, yet not much warmer, than that of Oregon. The rains in the west are chiefly brought by the winter winds from the north-west, but are small in amount. The summer rains of the south-east, on the other hand, are brought by south-east winds (trade winds), and are copious on the mouu- tain slopes ; but the whole of the interior is extremely dry, and hence large tanks for water are a prime necessary in inland settle- ments. The karroos, which afford excellent pasture in the rainy season, are hard 1 and burnt up for the greater part of the year. The Orange River, though nearly as long as the Columbia, is on account of this drought a small stream navigable only for boats, and even for these only a few miles up. With such a climate Cape Colony as a whole is more suited for the rearing of live stock than for agriculture. Sheep-rearing is in fact by far the most important industry of the colony, and wool (including the hair of the Angora goat 2 ) forms about a half of the total value of the exports (not including diamonds). The rearing of ostriches is now likewise largely carried on. Besides the ordinary cereals, all kinds of fruic belonging to temperate and warm climates are grown, and the vine, introduced at the close of the seventeenth century by a small body of French Huguenots, is cultivated with moderate success. The principal minerals are copper in the north-west, coal and iron in the south-east, and (much more important than either of these) diamonds in the arid plains of Griqua Land West (first discovered there in 1867). Railways have been introduced both in the east and west, and the main lines, after being carried through notches in the karroos and the inner mountain range, meet in the interior, and a single line is then con- tinued as far as Kimberley, the centre of the diamond-bearing district. About two-thirds of the people of the colony (numbering in all less than 1,000,000) belong to the native races, the chief of which is that of the Kaffirs, 3 a very dark-coloured race, which under British rule is 1 Karroo is a Hottentot word signifying ' hard. ' 2 See p. 297. 3 Kaffir is not a native, but an Arabic name, meaning 'infidel' that is heathen or non-Mohammedan. BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA '343 increasing rapidly, and showing great capacity for a settled civilised life. The arid regions of the north-west are thinly inhabited, chiefly by Hottentots and Bushmen, degraded and dwindling tribes, living either as nomadic stock-rearers or as hunters (the Bushmen solely as hunters). The inhabitants of European origin are mainly of Dutch and British descent. The Dutch element was introduced in the middle of the seventeenth century, when South Africa was first colonised by that people, 1 and prevails along with the Dutch language in many inland parts in the west. The colony was acquired by the British in 1806, and since then the British element has been rapidly increasing, and the English language (that of legislation and com- merce) is gradually spreading over the whole colony. Education is well provided for, and a university exists at Cape Town, the capital, which lies under the shelter of a flat-topped mountain, called Table Mountain, on a hay on the west coast in the south of the colony. Port Elizabeth, on Algoa Bay, is the chief seaport, and Grahamstown the chief town in the east. East of Cape Colony proper lies British Kaffraria, sometimes known generally as the Transkei, from the fact that since 1846 the Great Kei river has formed the boundary hetween Cape Colony proper and this dependency, in which British authority is represented by magistrates appointed by the Cape Government. British Kaffraria is separated from Basuto Land by the Drakenberg Mountains, the highest range in South Africa, is fertile and well-watered, and is inhabited by Kaffirs engaged in the growing of maize (locally called mealies) and the rearing of «attle. Basuto Land, now a British Crown colony, also inhabited chiefly by native races, is a fertile and healthy plateau, cooler than Kaffraria in consequence of its greater elevation. It ii the best grain-producing country in South Africa. Bechuana land (taken under the direct protection of the British crown early in 1885 in order to resist the encroachments of the inhabitants of the Transvaal) is a vast territory half as large again as Great Britain, bounded on the west by the meridian of 20° E., and on the north by the parallel of 22° S. The west is chiefly occupied by the Kalahari Desert, but the east is inhabited by the Bechuanas, another African race of cattle-rearers and maize-growers, and is said to contain many tracts suitable for settlement by Europeans. The town of Shoshong, in the north (a little to the north of the tropic of Capricorn), is a centre of inland trade. Natal, north of Kaffraria, a British colony rather more than one-fifth of the size of Oregon, with a population of nearly half a million, the great majority being Zulus and other Kaffirs. It grows sugar and other sub -tropical products upon a low strip next the coast, cereals higher up, and the mountain slopes are clothed with dense forests. Sheep, cattle, and ostriches are reared. Capital, Pietermaritzburg, in the interior ; seaport, Durban. 8. EAST AND SOUTH-EAST AFEICA, comprising the whole region between the British colonies and the Bed Sea. 1 Hence the Dutch names of physical features. 344 AFRICA Immediately to the north of the British colonies are situated two republics founded by Dutch settlers (Boers 1 ) at the Cape, who became discontented with British rule. These are the Orange River Free State, between the Orange Kiver and the Vaal, and the Transvaal, now known as the South African Republic, between the Vaal and the Limpopo. The latter s!ate now includes a part of the former Zululand, the maritime part of which is now British territory. To British Zulu- land belongs St. Lucia Bay, a harbour of little value. From Delagoa Bay northwards the whole coast opposite the island of Madagascar belongs to the Portuguese, who, however, have done very little for the promotion of civilisation in the interior. The chief efforts in that direction have been due to English missionaries, who have launched steamers on Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika, made a road con- necting these lakes with each other and with the part of the Shire which is continuously navigable for steamers, and founded stations at fig. 60.— shoshong, bechuana land, showing the abruptness "with which Mountains risk prom Level Plains in Arid Regions. (By the kind permission of Mr. C. G. Oates.) various points along this route. The chief centres of Portuguese influence are Sofala and Mozambique. North of Cape Delgado, Arab influence prevails, and an Arab Sultan reigns on the island of Zanzibar, his capital, which has the same name, being a town of about 100,000 inhabitants. This is the centre of Arab trade (formerly of the slave-trade) with the interior, a trade which was very early developed owing to the fact that the winter monsoon or trade-wind favoured the voyage from Arabia, the summer monsoon the return voyage. It is now also the starting-point of numerous exploring expeditions into the interior. Behind Zanzibar, in the interior, a mountainous, well-watered, and comparatively healthy territory about 1 A Dutch word meaning ' peasants.' AFRICAN ISLANDS 345 the size of Natal is under German protection. By a treaty between Great Britain and Germany, German influence in Eust Africa has been recognised as extending from the Rovuma to a diagonal line running from north-west to south-east north of Mount Kilimanjaro, and British influence from that line to the River Tana. A smaller German protec- torate lies to the north of the Tana. Throughout the portion of East Africa just described from the Zambezi northwards, merchandise must be carried by human porters, beasts of burden being killed either by the climate, or, in some places, by the tsetse fly, whose bite is fatal to horses and cattle. Farther north, in the drier Somali Land, which occupies the eastern angle of Africa, the camel can be used. The centre of the caravan trade in this region is Harrar, the Timbuktu of East Africa. Abyssinia is a country about equal to California in area, composed of an assemblage of more or less isolated plateaux, difficult of access, and often bounded by precipitous sides. The plateaux are all high enough to be supplied with abundant rain (chiefly in summer *), but, as they differ in elevation, some are clothed with tropical forests while others are too high to grow any grain but oats and barley. The inhabitants, a dark- coloured Semitic race, received Christianity at an early date, and have ever since retained at least the forms of that worship. At present the country is under one rule, but the character of the surface renders it difficult to maintain a single rule throughout the area, and the country has consequently been broken up at times into several states. East of Abyssinia, several points on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden are in the hands of European Powers — Britain (Berbera), France (Obock), Italy (Assab, Massaua or Massowah). 9. AFRICAN ISLANDS.— (a) In the Atlantic Ocean. Almost all these islands are of volcanic origin, and most of them were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans. They all now belong to European Powers. The Azores, 8 usually considered as African islands, although by the Portuguese, to whom they belong, they are treated as a part of the kingdom of Portugal. The climate is healthy, and the islands are now covered with orange groves. Madeira, 3 also Portuguese, a favourite resort for invalids requiring a mild climate ; noted also for its wine. The chief town is Funchal, a calling station for Atlantic steamers. The Canary Islands belonging to Spain. On the largest island is an active volcano upwards of 12,000 feet high known as the Peak of Teneriffe. Cochineal is now the principal product for export. 1 See Introd. pp. 42 and 51 (6). 2 From the Portuguese word for ' a hawk.' 5 Portuguese = wood, from the forests that covered the island at the time of its discovery, but which were soon after for the most part destroyed by a conflagration. 340 AFRICA The Cape Verde Islands, belonging to Portugal. The island of St. Vin- cent, though arid and unfruitful, has a magnificent harhour, on which account it is often used as a calling station by Atlantic steamers. The four Guinea Islands (in the angle between Upper and Lower Guinea) produce sugar, cacao, quinine, and other products. Fernando Po and Annobon, respectively the northernmost and southernmost, belong to Spain ; the two middle ones, Principe and St. Thomas, to Portugal. The three islands of Ascension, St. Helena, and Tristan da Cnnha belong to Britain. Ascension is used as a store depot and a sanatorium for the British West African squadron. It is celebrated for its turtles. St. Helena has a fine natural harbour, and is hence another place of call used by Atlantic steamers, On this island Napoleon was confined after the battle of Waterloo till his death in 1821. (b) In the Indian Ocean. Madagascar, an island a thousand miles long and two hundred in average width. It has a mountain- ous core rising to nearly 9,000 feet in height and enclosed by plains traversed by lower mountains. A belt of dense forests surrounds the inner core. Eain falls most abundantly on the east coast, where accordingly the vegetation is most luxuriant, but where the climate of the plains is fatal to Europeans. In the south-west are steppes similar to those of Inner Africa, but without any of the antelopes and other large mammals of that continent — a proof that the island must have been separated from the mainland from a comparatively remote geological period. 1 Rice and manioc * are the principal food-products. The ruling tribe is that of the Hovas, who belong to the Malay family, and accordingly have immigrated from Southern Asia. The earlier inhabitants, be- longing to African races, are chiefly found in the outer parts of the island. The whole island is now under French protection. The capital of the country is Antananarivo, in the interior highlands. Between the north of Madagascar and the mainland are the volcanic Comoro Islands, among which Mayotte belongs to the French ; and east of Madagascar are other two important volcanic islands, Mauritius and Bourbon, the former belonging to Britain, the latter to France. Both are important for the production of sugar, and, in respect of the quantity produced, Mauritius kas no rivals among the British possessions except British Guiana. The labourers of this densely peopled island are principally Indian coolies. 3 Among the dependen- cies of the Mauritius are the Seychelle Islands, farther north, celebrated for their double coco-nuts. 4 i Comp. p. 3C3. 2 See p. 107. s See p. 313. 4 The fruit of a palm-tree, the largest fruit in the world. It resembles two coco-nuts joined together. The tree from which it is derived is one of the loftiest and most graceful of the palm-tribe, sometimes attaining a height of about one hundred feet. 347 AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA. AUSTRALIA. Approximnte latitudes : (mouth of Rovuma River, Africa \ northernmost point, Cape York (mouth of San Francisco River, South America), 11° S. ; Adelaide (Buenos Ayres), 35° S. ; southernmost point, Wilson's Promontory (Bihia Blanca, South America), 39° S. Approximate longitudes : 113° to 153° E. This vast island or continent is nearly three millions of square miles in extent, and thus almost exactly equal in size to the United States exclusive of Alaska, and a good deal more than three-fourths of the size of Europe. In the nature of the coast- line, the character of the surface, the climate and productions, it presents no little resemblance to the part of Africa with which it corresponds in latitude. Its coast-line agrees with that of Africa generally in being remarkable for its long stretches of uniform character, without inlets that can be made use of by shipping even for shelter. As in southern Africa, the part of the coast which is on the whole richest in inlets and natural harbours is that in the east and south-east. On the south coast, on the other hand, the long, gently curving coast-line" which forms the Great Australian Bight is one unbroken stretch of sandy beach, backed by barren cliffs a few hundred feet high. Between Spencer Gulf, which is the principal gulf on the south coast, and Cape Leeuwin, the first cape sighted by vessels coming from Europe by Suez or the Cape of Good Hope, the only good natural harbour is that of King George's Sound, about 200 miles from that cape. Equally unin- viting is a large part of the west and north coast. Ou the shores of the warmer seas, within and near the tropics, there are long stretches of mud-flats covered with mangroves (see p. 58). Such, for example, is the character of a large part of the coast-line that borders the shallow waters of the Gulf of Carpentaria, the great gulf of the north coast. Off the whole of that part of the east coast of Australia which trends from south-east to north-west and ends in Cape York numerous cora: 348 AUSTRALIA PHYSICAL FEATURES 3 * 9 reeft (see p. 33 n)' rise to the surface of the water, making the seas somewhat dangerous, to shipping ; and about one degree north of the Tropic of Capricorn there begins a series of coral reefs such as are to be seen nowhere else in the world over the same extent of sea. These form together the Great Barrier Reef. The whole length of the reef is about 1,200 miles, for it advances into the latitude of Torres Strait, which it nearly closes. The widest part of the reef is in the south, where it extends for about 100 miles from east to west, and in that part also it lies furthest from the coast At low tide the surface of the reef is just about the level of the surface of the water, and at all states of the tide the edge of the reef can be distinguished by the strong breakers that wash over it. The reef, however, is not continuous. It is broken up by many deep channels, some of which are narrow, others from 10 to 12 miles wide. To seamen these channels are of importance, as allowing a choice of routes (an inner and an outer) between the seaports in the east of Australia and Torres Strait. Torres Strait itself is greatly encumbered by the work of the coral- builders. The hundred miles of shallow sea here left between Cape York and the coast of New Guinea, besides being studded with numerous small islands, are crowded with coral reefs and sandbanks, amongst which there are only one or two safe channels for shipping. The chief feature of the surface of Australia, as of that of South Africa, is a range of highlands running from north to south near the east coast, and then turning westwards. In Australia it ends in that part of the continent that juts out furthest to the south. Throughout its length it is known as the Dividing Range, and it is a dividing range in more senses than one. It varies in character in different parts. In some places it is a plateau, and presents the appearance of a steep mountain range only on its outer or eastern face. In some places the plateau is crowned by mountain ranges running in different directions. In the south- east, where the highest elevations occur, it forms a true mountain range sinking down to plains on both sides. This part of the Dividing Kange is known as the Australian Alps, a range of about 400 miles in length. It is densely wooded, except near tlie tops of the highest summits, which occur in groups on small elevated table-lands. The highest peak of all is 7,350 feet above sea-level. It belongs to the Kosciusko Group, and has been named Mount Townsend in honour of the surveyor by whom this part of the Australian Alps was first named. The group to which it belongs lies near the north- eastern end of the range, within the borders of New South Wales (see p. 356). The interior of Australia, like that of South Africa, consists for the most part of broad stretches of level or rolling country. In the east of Australia the surface is high ; in the middle there are 350 AUSTRALIA low plains, and the western half of the continent, so far as it has been explored, consists mainly of a table-land of about 1,000 feet above sea-level. The Dividing Eange forms an important line of division in the climate of Australia, inasmuch as there are hardly any parts of the continent within this range which have a plentiful supply of rain unless they lie within the tropics. In most parts of Australia the most abundant rains are brought by winds from the eastern or southern seas, and the mountains in the east and south-east have their usual effect of causing the rainy winds to lose most of their moisture on the side facing them. 1 The prevalence of easterly winds in temperate Australia, as in South Africa, is due to the latitude, which is that in which the trade-winds 8 blow over the ocean. The existence of such large masses of land modi- fies the direction of the winds, but not to such an extent as to cause strong rain-bearing winds to blow from the western seas. Moreover, the summer is the period of the year at which there is the greatest ten- dency for the winds to blow inland in consequence of the great heat and rarefaction of the air on the land, 3 but that is the period of the year when most vapour can be retained in the air without condensation. 4 The result is that there are vast tracts in the interior of Australia that are absolutely desert, and for ever doomed to remain without inhabitants, these lying more to the west than to the east, and there are other large areas that can produce only a scanty herbage, fit for nothing but sheep-rearing, and in many places not to be depended on every year even for that. A large part of tropical Australia has abundant summer (monsoon) rains, 5 and there are small areas in the south-west and south which have the rainfall chiefly in autumn and winter. The nature of the climate of Australia explains that of the Australian rivers. Most of those which enter the sea on the east and south-east of the Dividing Eange are comparatively short, but are, as a rule, well supplied with water all the year round. All the great rivers take their rise on the inner slopes of the Divid- ing Eange, and flow towards the west or south-west. Only one of these, the Murray, enters the sea by an independent mouth. This river takes its rise in the Kosciusko group of the Australian Alps, and flows on the whole westwards, but finally turns south-west before entering the sea. The Murray itself, and its two great tributaries on the right bank, the Murrumbidgee and the Darling, might be reckoned i See p. 52 (3) (a). " See p. 39. 8 See p. 38 (under Winds). 4 See pp. 49-60. B See pp. 42 and 51 (6). RIVERS 35 1 amoTig Die great rivers of the world in respect of their length, for they are all much more than 1,000 miles in length, but the climate of the region causes them to be very scantily supplied with water. The Darling even dries up in summer in many places into a chain of small lakes. The shorter feeders on the left bank of the Murray help to keep that liver more constantly supplied with water through the melting of the winter snow of the Australian Alps. Though shallow, all these rivers can be made use of for a longer or shorter period of the year by small steamers, which ascend for many hun- dreds of miles into the interior. Unfortunately for Australia, however, Ibis river navigation is greatly impeded at the river mouth. In the region in which the Murray enters the sea, the coast-line is formed by a long line of sand-dunes, which at the mouth of the river give place to a bar (p. 27), the navigable channels in which are dangerous and shifting. Many of the rivers of the Australian plains end by drying up in the sands, or in swamps, like the Diamantina, and others flow into large shallow salt lakes (see pp. 29, 31), which are a highly characteristic feature of the interior of Australia. Of the rivers that end in this way, the chief is the Barcoo or Cooper's Creek, 1 which in times of flood is a broad stream flowing into Lake Eyre, but in dry periods does not reach this lake. Besides Lake Eyre, Lakes Torrens and Galrdner in South Australia and Lake Amadeua in West Australia may be mentioned a3 among the chief salt lakes belonging to the continent. The use of the great rivers of the plains as navigable highways and for the watering of flocks is the most important to which they have yet been put, but the gradual slope of the plains over which they flow seems likely to admit of their being employed in the future to irrigate large tracts of country,to which they will then becomeas valuable as some of the rivers of Spain and Italy are to the land on their banks (see pp.264, 266 (2), 271). The vegetation and animal life of Australia are highly peculiar — so different from those of the rest of the world, as to show that this great island cannot have had any land connection with the continent within a recent geological period. 2 The characteristic trees are many different kinds of eucalyptus, some of which grow to a greater height than even the tallest giants of the Sierra Nevada. 8 They do not, however, grow, like these latter trees, in dense forests, but are somewhat thinly scattered over the surface. Their roots are long, so as to be able to suck up moisture from a considerable depth ; 4 their leaves narrow, and in full-grown trees, 1 Greek is used in America and the Australasian colonies in the sense of a small river, or a river with little water in its bed. 2 Comp. pp. 346, 363. 3 See p. 76. Some of the commonest kinds of eucalyptus are popularly known in Australia as gum-trees, from their containing a gummy sap. The species most widely introduced into other countries is the so-called "blue gum." 4 Comp. the date-palm, p. 333. 352 AUSTRALIA VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 353 attached in such a manner that their edges are above and below instead of sideways. In this position they are not so apt to give off vapour as the leaves of trees of moister climates, and their texture also fits them in several ways to retain moisture. 1 Acacias are also very numerous and characteristic, and many of them when full-grown lose their leaves and preserve in their place only flattened leaf-stalks attached like the leaves of the eucalyptus. True forests (mostly with a dark and gloomy foliage) are found chiefly on the well- watered slopes of the eastern mountains. In many parts of the interior dense thickets of bushes or low trees (scrub), sometimes thorny, form an almost impenetrable barrier to progress. Many kinds of native grasses cover the ground, among which the tall kangaroo grass is valuable for its power of withstanding long drought. On some of the salt plains grows a shrub known as the salt-bush, which forms a valuable fodder-plant — in some places, and especially in dry seasons, the only one. Among animals, Australia possesses, in place of the mammals of the great continents, a great variety of marsupials, a group scarcely met with outside of the Australian region, 2 and of which the kangaroo is the best-known representative. From other mammals the group is distinguished by the fact that in most species the female has a pouch (Latin, marsupium), in which it carries about its young for some time after birth. The native Australian dog, the dingo, is not a marsupial, but was probably introduced at some remote date by man. Rabbits, which have been introduced more recently, have multiplied to such an extent as to have become a real plague, through the ravages which they com- mit in the pastures. There are no monkeys even in the tropical parts of Australia, but parrots and cockatoos abound, and a running bird, the emu, resembling the ostrich of Africa and the rhea of South America, scours the plains. Alligators are found in all the rivers within the tropics. The native Australians, a very dark-coloured race, were at the time of the discovery of Australia by Europeans in a very backward state, and have since made no advance in civilisation. Having no domesticated species of animals yielding milk, and no cereal or other food-crops suited for agriculture, they had not the means of living a settled life, and were condemned to live by hunting and fishing, and gathering the poor fruits and edible seeds and roots afforded by a few of the native trees and herbs. A few boughs or pieces of bark form their only shelter, and their clothing consists of a scanty covering of skins or mat- ting. At no time were they numerous, and 6ince the arrival of Europeans they seem to be quickly dying out. 1 Comp. the Mediterranean region, p. 184, and Introd. p. 59. 2 The opossums of America belong to this group, which, however, has no living representatives in Europe, Asia, or Africa. Z 354 AUSTRALIA Tlie present inhabitants are mainly colonists. The majority are of British origin, but latterly there has been a large German element. Now there are also many thousands of Chinese (nearly all men), and Polynesians from the islands of the Pacific have been introduced in considerable numbers as labourers into the tropical parts. The colonisation of the island began in 1788, after the eastern coasts had been surveyed by Captain Cook, and the first people settled here were convicts. Free colonists first began to settle in great numbers after the dis- covery of rich gold deposits in 1851, but the great and growing wealth of Australia consists in its sheep-pastures, no other part of the world, taken as a whole, being so well adapted for the production of wooL Politically, Australia is now divided among five British Colonies, the government of which is in most cases modelled more or less on that of the mother country. By an Act passed in 1885, the Australasian Colonies, including New Zealand, Tas- mania, and Fiji, are authorised to form a federation, the council of which is to have the right of dealing with matters of common interest, the most important of which is that which concerns the relations of the Australian Colonies to the islands of the Pacific. So far the only colonies that have joined the federation are Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, West Australia, and Fiji. The following table gives the names of the Australian Colonies, including Tasmania and New Zealand, with other particulars relating to them : — Colonies. Area in thousands of square miles. ■8 0) U • O a °i & Population in thousands. S o £ a " P. Number per head of population iu 1886-7. 1871. Esti- mated Dec. 81, 1886. Sheep. Cattle. Acres under crop. Victoria . . . New South Wales Queensland . . South Australia . West Australia . Tasmania . . . New Zealand ■ . 88 309 668 903 1,060 26 104 1 Si n 10 12 4 732 504 120 186 25 102 256 1,003 1,002 343 313 40 137 5891 37 99 186 68 58 34 130 10-6 391 26-5 21-42 45-7 11-8 28-3 1-30 136 11-90 1-242 2-22 1-09 1-52 2-41 097 0-65 8-902 218 3-26 2-33 1 Exclusive of Maori (see p. 362). a 1884-5. VICTORIA 355 Railways now extend for hundreds of miles inland from various places on the coast, and at the end of 1887 the last links in the series of lines connecting all the Australian capitals, from Adelaide in South Australia to Brisbane in Queensland, a distance of about 1,800 miles, were approaching completion. Already the series is so far complete that the port of Adelaide has become " the Brindisi of Australia,' the place at which all the mails are collected and landed by vessels follow- ing the south coast route. Since 1872 the Australian Colonies have been connected by electric telegraph with the rest of the world through the completion of the great overland line, which crosses the colony of South Australia between Adelaide and Port Darwin, and is there con- nected with a submarine line to Java. In the commerce of the Australasian Colonies taken together, the chief exports are wool, gold, and grain, and the chief imports from distant countries manufactured articles, such as cotton, woollen, and linen goods, clothing, iron, and articles made of iron, and other metals. The importance of this commerce to the mother country is shown by the fact that, notwithstanding the comparatively small population, these colonies received on an average, during the period 1881-5, more than one-tenth in value of all the exports of British and Irish produce from the United Kingdom, only about 2$ per cent less than India with its enormous population. THE AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES.— A Victoria, the smallest colony on the mainland of Australia. It lies to the south of New South Wales, from which it is separated mainly by the Murray River. It was a dependency of New South Wales till 1851. The eastern half of the colony is to a large extent occupied by the Australian Alps and their spurs. The highest mountain belonging to this range in Victoria (and the highest in the colony) is Mount Bogong. In the western half of the colony the Dividing Eange goes by various names. The chain contain- ing the highest summit in this part of the colony is called the Grampians. The district to the south of the Australian Alps is called Oippsland, and is partly a region of dense forests with few inhabitants, partly a region with rich pasture-grasses, forming the principal horse and cattle rearing part of the colony. In the north-west is the district called Wimmera, at present mainly a waterless desert, but containing a tract on the borders of the Murray on which large irrigation works are projected. Victoria is the colony which has produced and still produces the largest amount of gold, but the yield of the gold-fields has gradually declined. The production of wool and wheat is, however, in- creasing, and in recent years Victoria has become noted even in Europe for its wine. 356 AUSTRALIA The capital is MELBOURNE (including suburbs within ten miles 370), on the Yarra, a short distance above its mouth in Port Phillip Bay. It was founded on an uninhabited site in 1835, just after the discovery of rich pastures in the neighbourhood, and named after the British Prime Minister of the day. It is the seat of a university. On a western arm of this hay stands the port of Geelong. In the interior north-west of Melbourne is Ballarat, the centre of the richest alluvial gold-field ever opened up, but which is now to a large extent exhausted, gold being now mainly obtained not by digging, but by the crushing of quartz rock. In a more northerly direction from Melbourne lies Sandhurst, the chief centre of quartz-crushing. On the Murray, Albury, at the head of the ordinary navigation of the river, 1 and the place where the river is crossed by the railway to Sydney ; lower down, Echuca, at the place where the river makes a sharp bend to the north-west, 2 and where another railway now crosses into New South Wales. B. New South Wales, so called by Captain Cook, who was reminded of the Wales of Great Britain by the appearance of the mountains which he saw from off the coast. It was in this colony that the first settlement was founded in Australia, namely, on the magnificent natural harbour of Port Jackson, the harbour of Sydney, which has few rivals in the world either for beauty or convenience. Throughout this colony the Dividing Range forms a more continuous barrier between the coast lowlands and the interior plains and tablelands than it does in Victoria, and it was long before the settlers found a way across the Blue Mountains, as the part of the Dividing Eange behind Sydney is called. The interior is traversed by the chief tributaries of the Murray, and the treeless plains which lie to the north of the Murray, and are noted for the fine quality of their wool, are hence known as the Riverina. Besides gold, tin is found in large quantity (mostly near the northern frontier), and New South Wales possesses the chief coalfield worked in the southern hemisphere. Great silver deposits have begun to be worked in the extreme west. The capital is SYDNEY (including suburbs 220), so named after Viscount Sydney, who first suggested the establishment of the colony. At the head of the so-called Parramatta Eiver, which is in reality a prolongation of the inlet of Port Jackson, stands Parramatta, in a district noted for its oranges. North of Sydney, on the estuary of the Hunter Biver, is Newcastle, the chief coal-mining town, to which fact it owes its name. 3 The coal from this port is now despatched not only to all the other Australian colonies, but also to India, China, South America, and even San Francisco. Bathurst, on the table-land behind Sydney, is the centre of the chief wheat-growing region of the colony. » See p. 61 (2) (d). = See p. 61 (2) (6). 8 Oomp. p. 201. QUEENSLAND AND SOUTH AUSTRALIA 357 0. Queensland, the colony to the north of New South Wales, once, like Victoria, a dependency of New South Wales, from which it was separated in 1859. It includes all the islands in the narrowest part of Torres Strait. The surface consists mainly of table-land above 1000 feet in height, and the district in the south-east known as the Darling Downs, on which are the finest pasture-grasses in the colony, is about 2,000 feet high, and thus has a comparatively cool climate for its situation within five degrees of the Tropic of Capricorn. Extending far into the Torrid Zone, Queensland has more varied products than the more southern colonies. Among the tropical and sub-tropical products are cotton, arrowroot, ginger, coffee, fruits, and at pre- sent sugar -cane, which is largely grown in the low river- valleys on the coast. The chief minerals are gold, tin, and copper. Labourers are obtained for the sugar-plantations from the islands of the Pacific, bargains being made with the natives to come and work for the planters for a term of years ; but by an Act of the Queensland Parliament this mode of obtaining labourers is to cease in 1890. The capital of the colony is Brisbane, 500 miles north of Sydney, situated on both sides of the Brisbane River, at the head of navigation for large sea-going vessels. 1 Toowoomba, on the table-land to the west of Brisbane, is the chief town on the Darling Downs ; Stanthorpe, near the southern frontier, the chief tin-mining centre ; Gymple, the chief gold-mining town in the south ; Charters Towers, the chief gold-mining town in the north. Rockhampton, close to the Tropic of Capricorn, at the head of navigation on the Pitzroy Biver, is the second town in popu- lation in the colony, the outlet for a rich and extensive pastoral district, as well as for districts producing gold and copper. All these towns are within a hundred miles of the east coast. D. South Australia does not answer to its name, but ex- tends from south to north to the west of the three colonies already treated of. It was founded in 1834 by an Act of the British Par- liament, and at the time of its foundation was expected ulti- mately to include the territory belonging to Victoria. Most of the inhabitants are confined to a comparatively small district in the south, which is the only part of the colony in temperate latitudes that receives a fairly large supply of rain (chiefly in winter). This is the district traversed by the Mount Lofty Range and the Flinders Range of mountains to the east and north of Spencer Gulf and the Gulf of St. Vincent. This colony is the principal wheat-growing colony of Australia, aud wine and i See p. 61 (1) (b). 358 AUSTRALIA olives are also among its products. From an early date copper has been its chief mineral, but a gold-field, said to be rich, has been discovered about 200 miles north-east of Adelaide. Irrigation by Artesian wells 1 and other means is practised in the drier parts of the colony, and there is now a project lor carrying out large irrigation works in the north-east in a district bordering on the Murray River. Irrigation by Artesian wells is found to be practicable at several places in the neighbourhood of Lake Eyre, which is the lowest lying part of Australia. Further north the telegraph line passes through many well-grassed regions, which may some day be settled, and other grassy tracts are now known to border some of the river-courses. The most important of these rivers is the Finke, which flows south- eastwards from the MacDonnell Ranges (on the Tropic of Capricorn), but dries up before entering Lake Eyre. The northern territory of Australia is tropical, and the few inhabi- tants are mostly Chinese. The capital of the colony is Adelaide, situated on the plain near the east side of the Gulf of St Vincent. It was founded in 1837 and named after the queen-consort of William IV. About seven miles from the city stands Fort Adelaide, on a small inlet opening out of the Gulf of St. Vincent. This port can be reached by tolerably large ships, but the largest ocean-steamers have to touch at quays on the gulf itself. Burra Burra, about a hundred miles north of Adelaide, is the seat of the chief inland copper-mines, but the principal copper-mines in the colony are those of Moonta, on the peninsula between Spencer and St Vincent Gulfs. From a neighbouring port some of the ore is shipped for smelting to Newcastle in New South Wales in vessels which bring back coal to carry on smelting at the South Australian port. B. West Australia, the largest but the least populous of all the colonies. The vast deserts belonging to it will always cause it to be more imposing in extent than population, and even in the principal settled area, the district in the south-west* which receives autumn and winter rains brought by north-west winds corresponding to the south-west winds of western Europe, 8 the population is very sparse. Fine hard timber has always been an important product of this colony. In the northern parts of West Australia pearl-fisheries are carried on along the coast ; a gold-field has been discovered in the interior, and good pasture-lands are now attracting settlers. The chief pastures are in Kimberley District, along the banks of the Fitzroy River, which flows into King Sound about 17£° S. ' The capital of the colony is Perth, on the Swan River, about twelve miles above its port, Fremantle, on the west coast. Albany on Kine George's Sound, 260 miles distant from Perth, is the place where the nrst settlement was made on West Australian territory (m 1826): Since i See Introd. p 30-1. a gee pp. 41, 184. TASMANIA AND NEW ZEALAND 359 the close of 1886, a railway intended to connect Albany with the line that already runs eastwards from Perth has been in progress, and this railway, it is hoped, will attract settlers to this hitnerto unoccupied region. F. Tasmania. — This colony consists of the island so called, together with the smaller islands adjacent. It is separated from Victoria by Bass Strait. Like Victoria and Queensland, the colony was originally a dependency of New South Wales, and the first settlement upon it was a convict establishment formed in 1803, but it was made independent in 1825. At that time the island was known as Van Diemen's Land, the name given to it by its discoverer, the Dutch navigator Tasman, in honour of the governor of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies at the time of the discovery ; but the name was afterwards changed to Tasmania in honour of the discoverer himself. The surface of the main island is in great part high. A bleak table-land from 2000 to 3000 feet in height occupies the middle and a large part of the western half of the island, and is crowned by mountains and cleft by deep chasms through which issue the torrents which come to form the rivers of the west coast. To the east of this table-land lies a tolerably level and open district, which forms the great grazing ground of the colony. Elsewhere the colonists have had to contend with land more or less heavily timbered. The climate is a warm temperate one, well adapted for all crops of the middle part of the temperate zone, and specially well adapted for fruits. Tin and gold are important minerals, and coal-mines are also worked. At the time of its settlement by the British, Tasmania was inhabited by a race not unlike the Australians, but having curly instead of straight hair. These people were treated by the settlers with no little cruelty, and soon began to die out rapidly. The race became extinct in 1876. The capital of the colony is Hobart, situated at the end of the island furthest from Australia, an inconvenience which is, however, out- weighed by the excellence of its harbour, formed by the estuary of the Derwent. Laxmceston, the next town in size, is situated at the head of navigation on the Tamar, forty miles from the mouth of the estuary known as Fort Dalrymple, on the Bide of the island nearest to Australia. O. New Zealand. — This colony (first settled in 1840) con- sists mainly of two large islands and one smaller one situated at the distance of about 1,000 miles from the nearest points of the south-east coast of Australia. The large islands are usually 360 AUSTRALIA known as the North and the South Island, and are separated from each other by Cook Strait. The smaller island is called Stewart Island, aud is separated from the South Island by Foveaux Strait. Besides the main islands juBt mentioned, New Zealand possesses several groups of small islands at the distance of from 150 to 350 miles. The principal are the Chatham Islands to the east, the Auckland Islands to the south, and the fertile group of the Kermadec Islands to the north- east (the last annexed to New Zealand in 1887). The coast-line of New Zealand is in most places high and rocky, especially on the west coast. In the extreme south-west it is broken up by numerous inlets, with very steep and lofty cliffy shores, resembling the fiords of Norway. 1 The surface of all the islands is highly mountainous. One long succession of mountains runs through both islands from the extreme south-west to the extreme north-east. It is interrupted by Cook Strait, and divided by gaps into a number of chains, to which different names are given. In the South Island these mountains lie for the most part close by the west coast, and it is about the middle of this island that the highest part of the whole series is found. This part is called the Southern Alps, and, like the Alps of Europe, they are crowned by perpetual snow, and have their higher valleys filled with large glaciers, and their lower valleys occupied by large and picturesque lakes. The highest summit of the Southern Alps, Mt. Cook (named after the celebrated navigator who was the first among Englishmen to visit these islands), attains the height of 12,350 feet, about 3,500 feet lower than Mt. Blanc. The mountains that continue the series of the South Island lie on the east side of the North Island, but the loftiest peaks of this island are in the west, and are all of volcanic origin. They lie in one of the most remarkable volcanic regions in the world. Tongariro, near the middle of the island, is the chief active volcano, the crater of which is known by the name of Ngaurohoe. A little to the south is Euapehu, 9000 feet high, the loftiest summit in the island, a volcano now nearly extinct. Apart from these, the regular volcanic cone of Mt. Egmont rises in the west from plains of great fer- tility. Lake Taupo, the largest lake in New Zealand, is considered by some to be the crater of an extinct volcano of immense size, and still further north, hot springs, geysers, and other signs of volcanic action l See p. 257. NEW ZEALAND 361 abound alt the way to the Bay of Plenty, which is studded with volcanic islets. The small Lake Rotomahana, about thirty miles from the Bay of Plenty, used to be visited by travellers from all parts of the world on account of the beautiful pink and white sinter 1 terraces, which had been formed by hot springs on its shores, but in the middle of 1886 these were destroyed by a tremendous volcanic outburst which overwhelmed the whole neighbourhood. The most extensive plain in New Zealand is that known as the Canterbury Plains, which occupy the middle of the South Island on the eastern side, extending for upwards of 100 miles from north to south, with a varying breadth. The rivers of New Zealand are numerous, but the longer ones are, for the most part, unfit for navigation. Those of the South Island are mostly rapid torrents, fed in summer by the melting snows and glaciers of the Southern Alps. The chief navigable river is the Walkato, which drains Lake Taupo, and enters the sea on the west of the North Island. The Molyneux or Clutha, a noble stream draining south-eastwards three of the chief lakes at the base of the Southern Alps, is the largest river of the South Island. The climate of New Zealand is not characterised by the liability to droughts from which so much of Australia suffers. The prevailing rain-bearing winds are from the north-west, as in the south-west of Australia, 2 and hence the western slopes of the mountains and the plains at their base are plentifully supplied with rain, whereas the plains on the east have a much more scanty rainfall. 8 Hence the forests are chiefly on the west side of the mountains, and the Canterbury plains are the chief pas- toral and agricultural region in the colony. The temperature resembles that of England more than that of Italy, with which New Zealand corresponds in latitude. The New Zealand crops, therefore, are similar to those of England (the chief grain crops wheat and oats), and though grapes are grown in the open air in the northern districts, wine cannot be made from them. The more abundant rains of New Zealand cause the pastures to be richer than those of the Australian colonies (except Queensland), and hence New Zealand supplies New South Wales with considerable numbers of horses and cattle, as well as butter and cheese. The native plant and animal life of New Zealand are to a large extent different from those of Australia. New Zealand has no native eucalypts, and no native acacias, no native marsupials, » See p. SO. * See p. 358. » See p. 62 (3) («>, 362 AUSTRALIA The most valuable native tree is the kauri pine, which is confined to the northern end of the North Island. It yields a fine timber, and the finest of all resins, the well-known kauri gum. Large lumps of this hardened gum are dug out of the ground on the sites of old forests of this tree. The so-called New Zealand flax, a plant with long sword- shaped leaves, yields a very strong fibre, well suited for rope-making. Among native birds is a wingless bird called the apteryx or kiwi, and many skeletons exist of an extinct bird called the moa, which is one of the largest running birds that ever existed. The minerals of New Zealand are of great value, the chief being gold and coal. The natives of New Zealand, called the Maori, are the most intelligent of all the natives whom the Europeans met with on any of the Australasian colonies. They are a brown-skinned, Fig. 68. — Natives of New Zealand (Maori). well-formed people, fond of tattooing themselves. Their whole number is little more than 40,000, aud most of these live on the North Island. The capital of the colony is Wellington, in the south of the North Island, on an inlet from Cook Strait, forming a safe and commodious harbour. It is about 1,200 miles from Sydney, 1,400 from Melbourne. Auckland, on a narrow isthmus of the long peninsula of the North Island, which runs out to the north-west, is the largest town in New Zealand, and was once the seat of government. It is a calling station for steamers from San Francisco to Sydney, and as it lies on the east side of the isthmus (the west side having only a shallow harbour) vessels from Auckland to Sydney have to. sail round the northern end NEW GUINEA 363 of the island. In the South Island the chief towns are Christchurch and Dunedin. Christchurch is the principal town on the Canterbury- Plains. It is situated a few miles from the east coast, and separated by a tunnelled hill from its port Lyttelton, situated on one of the inlets of Banks Peninsula. Dunedin stands at the head of an inlet further south, in the old province of Otago, and is the port of the principal gold-fields of New Zealand. Invercargill is the chief town on Foveaux Strait. Its port for large vessels is Bluff Harbour. Greymouth and Westport are the ports of the New Zealand coalfield on the west side of the South Island. THE AUSTRALASIAN ISLANDS. (Except Tasmania and New Zealand.) 1. New Guinea, which is somewhat larger than Texas, is the largest island in the world, with the exception of Aus- tralia. It stretches obliquely from near the equator in the north-west to about the same latitude as Cape York on the mainland of Australia in the south-east. Its western half, as far as the meridian of 141° E., has long been claimed by the Dutch, but till recently its eastern half was independent. Now, however, this portion also has been declared to be under the protection of European powers, and the southern portion of the eastern half has been declared under British, the northern under German protection. The latter is now called Kaiser Wilhelm 1 Land. The surface of the island is in many parts mountainous. The whole of the narrow south-eastern extremity (which lies almost entirely within the British protectorate) is traversed by chains of mountains, one peak of which, Mt. Owen Stanley, is believed to exceed in height the highest summit in New Zealand. Lying within the monsoon area, the whole island receives copious rains during about half the year (see pp. 42 and 51 (b)), and, like other tropical countries with an abundant rainfall, New Guinea is covered with dense forests, which are one of the chief causes why the interior of the island is as yet so little known. Like Tasmania, which is also separated from Australia by a shallow strait, New Guinea was probably at one time connected with the main- land of Australia by land, and hence has native plants and native animals similar to those of its larger neighbour. The forests of New 1 Ger.= Emperor William. 364 THE AUSTRALASIAN ISLANDS Guinea are haunted by many beautiful and gay- plumaged birds, among which are birds of para- dise. The cassowary, a running bird with a bril- liantly coloured bony crest on the head, takes the place of the emu of Australia. The resem- blance in animal and plant life extends also to the islands to the west of New Guinea as far as a deep strait between the two islands of Bali and Lombok. 1 The natives are known as Papuans, and are a very dark- skinned race with black curly hair, often growing in numerous tufts. They dwell in villages, the houses of which are built on stakes alongthe margin of the sea-coast or the rivers,andare frequent- ly placed in the water and connected with the shore by a bridge. 1 This strait forms part of what is known as Wal- lace's Line, which, as was pointed out by the English naturalist A, R. Wallace, divides two groups of islands, one of which was probably connected at one time with the mainland of Asia, and has plants and animals more nearly allied to those of the Asiatic continent, and the other probably connected with Australia. MELANESIA 365 Pile-dwellings similar to those inhabited by the Papuans are very widespread. They are in very general use among the Malay racesj 1 md have been met with also in New Zealand, in Central Africa, and m the coasts of both North and South America ; and remains of similar iwellings belonging to prehistoric times are known in Switzerland, Scotland, and Ireland. The example shown in the cut belongs to the Eastern Archipelago. Like other uncivilised natives of tropical countries, the Papuans are rery_ indolent The food-plants which they grow are mainly such as require but little cultivation — bananas, yams, sugar-cane, coco-nuts, md taro; 2 but, in addition to these, tobacco is also' grown, and is indeed so highly prized, that it is the chief article of barter with the natives. Mission-stations have now existed for many years at different points of the coast now under the protection of Great Britain, and in the schools belonging to these stations many native children are now educated, many of tlie teachers being natives of other islands of the Pacific. No planta- tions belonging to Europeans as yet exist in the British protectorate, or are even allowed; since the land belongs to the natives, and none but natives are at present allowed to acquire it. The residence of the British governor or Special Commissioner of New Guinea is at Port Moresby, which lies to the east of the Gulf of Papua, and has regular steam com- munication with several ports in Queensland. It lies behind a long barrier reef which skirts the whole of this part of the New Guinea coast, access being obtained to it by one of the numerous deep channels by which this reef, like the Great Barrier reef of the neighbouring coast of Australia (see p. 349), is crossed. 2. Melanesia. — This name, meaning ' islands of the blacks,' is applied to several groups of small islands to the east and south- east of New Guinea, inhabited by Papuans. The islands of New Britain, 3 New Ireland, 3 the Admiralty group, and others to the north of the eastern end of New Guinea, are now known 1 See p. 319. 2 The banana grows everywhere within the tropics, and also five or six degrees beyond them. It begins to bear fruit soon after being planted, and will after- wards go on' yielding a hundredweight of fruit year after year without any ittention. Many different kinds are cultivated both in the Old World and the New. The yam is a climbing plant with tubers or underground stems from twelve to twenty inches in length, and four to six inches in thickness. Like those of the manioc (see p. 174), they are injurious when eaten raw. So also are those of the taro, a plant cultivated (in marshy soil) not only for its tubers, but ilso lor the sake of its leaves, which are eaten as vegetables. Coco-nuts are the fruit of a tall palm tree, which adorns the coasts in all parts of the tropics, and =s the only tree that grows on many of the small islands of the Pacific. The nut ifhen green yields a refreshing drink ; when ripe and brown, it contains the white . sernel, which is eaten as food, and which, after being dried, is known as copra. rhis article is of great value for its oil, used in making soap and candles. 3 Now called respectively New Pomerania and New Mecklenburg. 366 POLYNESIA by the name of the Bismarck Archipelago, ami belong to Germany. These are followed south-eastwards by the Solomon Islands, 1 the New Hebrides and New Caledonia. The last-mentioned island, along with the adjacent group of the Loyalty Islands to the east, belongs to the French, who make use of it as a place of deportation for convicts and political offenders. It is skirted all round by a long line of coral reefs, which stretch for a considerable distance to the north-west, enclosing a number of small islands. Numea or Noumea, in the south-west of New Caledonia, is the chief town on the island. The New Hebrides are now under the joint protection of the British and French. POLYNESIA. This name is applied to all the small islands of the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of those already mentioned. They are mostly coral islands, and hence flat (p. 33, n. 1), b'ut some (those generally of greater size) are of volcanic origin and mountainous. They are almost all situated within the tropics, and the chief food of the people is the bread-fruit, 2 in addition to those already mentioned as cultivated in New Guinea. The people belong to a race with a clear brown skin and smooth hair, and are a branch of the great Malay stock, to which the Maori also belong. Christianity has been introduced with considerable success on many of the islands. 1. The Fiji Islands are a group composed mainly of volcanic islands situated to the north of New Zealand, and mostly lying between the parallels of 16° and 19° S. Their total area is not far from eight thousand square miles, and Viti Levu, the largest of the islands, embraces more than half the land surface belonging to the group. The islands were ceded in 1 874 by their native king to Britain, and now form a British Crown colony. 3 Even before that time people of European origin had established plan- tations of tropical crops on several of the islands, and since that date the products of such plantations (chiefly sugar, but also 1 Under an agreement concluded between the British and German Govern- ments in 1885, part of the Solomon group is declared to belong to the British, part to the German sphere of influence. 2 The bread-fruit is the fruit of a tree confined to the tropics. The fruit weighs from three to four pounds, and the tree is so productive that two or three trees are said to be capable of supporting a man for a year. As to the other products here mentioned, see p. 365, note. » See p. 195. FIJI ISLANDS 367 coco-nut, maize, tobacco, coffee, and cotton) have increased very greatly, and a large trade has thus grown up. The plantation labourers are partly natives of the islands them- selves.; but as these are not enough, labourers from other islands (principally the New Hebrides and the Solomon Islands) are intro- duced to work for the planters for a period of years, as in Northern Queensland. The introduction of these labourers and their treatment on the plantations are entirely under the control of the Government. The chief towns of the group are seaports with fine harbours protected by coral reefs. The capital is Suva, in the south-east of Viti Levu. Fig. 70. — An Atoll or RiNO-SHAPEir-eaRATr Island -with Coco-nut Palms. The next in importance is Levuka, the former capital, on a small island to the east of Viti Levu. The small island of Rotumah, to the north of the Fiji group, is now also British, and is annexed to the colony of Fiji. The total population of the group is about 130,000. 2. The Tonga and Samoan, or Navigator Islands, lie to the east of the Fiji group, and still further east are the Society and Low Islands. The port of Apia, on one of the Samoan Islands, is the centre of the German trade with the Pacific Islands, the chief product of which for European markets is copra. 1 The Society Islands, of which the most important is the charming volcanic island of Tahiti, are under French protection, and so also are the Low Islands, and the Marquesas group to the north of the latter. 3. Between the equator and 15° N. are the Pelew, Caroline, i See p. 365 n. 368 ANTARCTIC REGIONS and Marshall Islands, in that order from west to east, and south of the last-mentioned group the Gilbert Islands. The first two of these groups belong to Spain, which possesses also the Marianne or Ladrone Islands to the north of the Carolines. The Marshall Islands have been taken possession of by Germany. 4. The Sandwich or Hawaian Islands are an important group of volcanic islands nearer the coast of North America, between 19° N. and the Tropic of Cancer. In area they are about equal to the Fiji Islands, which they resemble in the nature of their products. Nearly all the sugar exported is sent to San Francisco. The chief island is Hawaii, on which the extinct volcano of Mauna Eea rises to the height of nearly 14,000 feet. Farther south is the active volcano of Mauna Loa, with the vast so-called crater of Kilauea — a depression about 3£ miles in length by 2J miles in breadth, formed by the dropping in of the roof of a cavity filled with molten lava. When eruptions take place from this cavity, the lava which is poured forth is remarkable for its very liquid character, flowing almost as readily as water. The population of the group is under 100,000. As in the Fiji group, the plantations belong to people of European stock, and the labourers are partly natives, but to a large extent composed of immi- grants. Many of these are Chinese, and recently many Portuguese from the Azores have come to the islands for the same purpose. The government is a constitutional monarchy, nnder a native king, but under foreign (chiefly American) influence. The capital is Honolulu, on the island of Oahu. ANTARCTIC REG-IONS. Compared with the Arctic regions, those round the Antarctic pole are remarkable for the uniformity of their low temperatures. To the south of 62° S. the mean temperature of both sea and air is at or below the freezing-point of fresh water even in summer. Still nearer the south pole, ice barriers have stopped the advance of explorers at a latitude of about five degrees lower than that attained in the Arctic regions. The highest latitude ever reached in southern seas was 78° 10' S., the latitude at which the progress of Sir James Ross was arrested in 1842, after he had sailed along an icy barrier about 400 miles in length, and from 150 to 200 feet in height. He had previously sighted land, the coast of which he traced from the parallel of 72°. To this land, the most extensive ANTARCTIC REGIONS 369 that has been seen in the Antarctic regions, he gave the name of Victoria Land, and on it he observed in the course of his voyage an active volcano, Mt. Erebus, nearly 13,000 feet in height. But though Victoria Land is the most extensive piece of Ant- arctic land that has actually been seen, the swarms of icebergs in Antarctic seas, and the deposits of terrestrial origin that have been found in the vicinity of the ice barriers of the south, afford the clearest evidence of the existence of an Antarctic continent. In 1887 the Government of the Australian colony of Victoria made a proposal for fitting out an expedition to explore the Antarctic lands south of the latitude reached by Sir James Eoss. 370 ABE A AND POPULATION IN BOUND NUMBERS OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES OF EUROPE AND THE MOBE POPULOUS COUNTBIES OF OTHEB CONTINENTS. in c M ga TO 91 in § al ea cr TO is -5 O CO St. 5 s M o as Is Is. - > 1 " I +3 •s« ■8 a H" ■s a Australian Colonies. See p. 313 ~2S 3° o n ■S3 ?, a g>.s ft" "a© « ft Austrian Empire ' . . 242 1 36 150 38 157 Belgium . . 11-4 5 450 5-5 487 Brazil 3,200 36 10 3 12 4 Canadian Dominion 3,470 39 3-7 1-1 4-3 1-3 China (proper) Denmark . 1,550 15-4' 17 1-8 120 2 128 Egypt . [ 13 * £ 5-2 406 6-8 530 France . 206 4 36 175 38 185 German Empire 209 4 41 197 45 217 Bavaria 29 i 4-8 166 5-3 180 Prussia , 134 if 25 185 27 200 Saxony 5-8 "& 2-5 440 30 515 Wilrtemberg 7-5 t 1-8 240 2-0 260 Greece 25 1-5 75 2 80 India * . 1,290 u 4 --— 250 194 British India * 781 183 234 195 250 Italy 111 l\ 27 243 28-5 257 Japan . 150 33 220 37 247 Mexico . 750 4 10 13 Netherlands 6 . 12-5 3-5 280 4 315 Norway . . 126 4 1-8 14 1-9 16 Portugal . 34 i 4-1 120 Roumania 51 t 5-4 106 Russia 6 . . 2,080 23 74 36 85 41 Servia . 19 i 1-8 97 Spain . , 196 4 17 88 Sweden . 174 2 4-0 24 4-6 26 Switzerland 16 i I 2-7 170 2-8 177 Turkey in Europe 59 4-5 70 Bulgaria 25 a ■5 2-0 80 Eastern Roumelia 15 & 0-8 65 United Kingdom 121 H 32 260 35 290 United States 7 . 3,000 m 39 13 50 17 l Exclusive of Iceland, but inclusive of Faroe Islands. > Exclusive of desert. B Exclusive of Burma and of Kashmir, Nepal, and Bhutan. * Exclusive of Burma. 6 Exclusive of Luxemburg. « Including Finland. 7 Exclusive of Alaska. INDEX. CONTRACTIONS. AC Africa. Me. Algiers. A. H. Argentine Republic. Arch. Archipelago Ausb. Austria. Brit British. Braz. Brazil. Br. Col. British Columbia. C. Cape. Cent. Am. Central Ame- rica. C'h. China. Co. County. Col. Colony, d. duchy. ties, desert, dist. district. A A THEN, 222. Aar, R.. 235, 238. Abana, R., 299. Aberdeen, 204. Abruzzi, 269, 275. Abyssinia, 332, 345. Acadia, 82, 87. Acapulco Harbor, 69 n. Acapulco, 166. Aconcagua, 170. Adda, R., 272. Adelaide. 347, 355, 358 Aden] 195, 813. Aden, Gulf of, 345. Adige, R., 183, 245, 271. Adirondncks, Mts., 108, 111. Admiralty Is., 365. Adour, R„ 211. Adria, 271. Adrianoplc, 277, 282. Adriatic Sea, 235, 239, 271, 277. .Egean Sea, 278, 2S0, 284. ^Igina, Gulf of. 283. ^milian Road, 209, 272. Afghanistan. 304. Africa, 331-346. Africa, Br. S., 341. Africa, S., 347, 349, 350. Agra, 314. div. division. Dom. Dominion. Du. Dutch. emp. empire. est. estuary. For. Forest. [sions. For. Pos. Foreign Posses- Fr. French. H«.-Kg. Hong-Kong. I. Island. I.-C. Indo-China Ind. India. Is. Islands. isth. isthmus. Jam. Jamaica. kgd. kingdom. L. Lake. lang. language. Mesop. Mesopotamia. Mor. Morocco. Mts. Mountains. N. A. North America. Nn. Northern. N. S. Nova Scotia. N.S.W. New South Wales. N. Zd. New Zealand. Ont. Ontario. P. Pass. penin. peninsula. plat, plateau. pt. point. pop. population. pr. prov. province. Prea. Presidency. Agram, 247. Agulhas, C„ 331. Ahmedabad, 315. Aix-la-Cbapelle, S22, 71. 3. Ajaccio, 213. Ajmir, 313. Akabah, Gulf of, 302. Akron, 129. Alabama, 112, 128, 129, 137, 141, 157. Alabama basin, 120. Alabama R., 115. Alabama system, 114, 115. AUshehr, 298. Alaska, 72, 75, 78, 82, 93, 98 n. 1, 105, 137, 138, 142, 161, 162. Albania, 260,262, 264. Albanians, 260. Albany, U.S., 140, 148. Albany, W.Af 358i Albemarle can-il, 156. Albemarle Sound, 69 7i., 95. Alberta, 92. Albert Nyanza, L. , 332 n. 1. Albuquerque, 73 n. 5. Albury, 356. Aleppo, 299, 300. Aletsch Glacier, 231. Aleutian Archipel- ago, 161. Aleutian Is., 161. Alexandretta, 299. Alexandria, 2,6, 336. Algeciras, Bavof, 266 Algeria, 285, 337 Algiers, 338. Algoa Bay, 343. Alicante, 266. Allahabad, 314. Alleghauies, Great Valley, 107. Alleghany, 129, 150. Alleghany Mts., 110. Alleghany Plat ear , 110 71. 1 111. Alleghany, R., 109, 117. Allier, R., 205. Alligator Swamp, 112 Almaden, 126 n. 2. Almaden, New, 126. Almeria, 266. Alps, Bernese, 231. Alps, Limestone, 231. Alps<#Maritiine, 231. Alps, Passes across, 233, 234. Alps, The, 67, 75,183, 205, 229, 234, 229, 269. Alps of Valais, 231. Alpine tunnels, 234. Alsace-Lorraine, 224, 225, 228. Altai Mts., 291, 292. Altona, 226. Altoona, 150. Amadeus, L., 351. Priii. Prussia. Qd. Queensland. It. River. rep. republic. Rus. Russia. S. South. Si.-. Scotland. Sp. Spain. st. state. Str. Strait. Syr. Syria. Tas. Tasmania. tn. town. U. S. United States. Vic. Victoria. W. A. West Australia W. I. West Indie*. Amager, Is., 261. Amazon, R., 70, 170, 171,176, 177. America, 64-68. America, Brit., 81, 84-92. America, Central, 64, 68, 72,78,80,81,82, 135, 166. America, Middle, 64, 135. America, North, 66, 68-168. America, Sp. North, 81. America, South, 65, 68, 70, 78, 80. 168- 180. Amritsar, 310, 315. Amsterdam, 219. Amu. R., 294, 328. Amur, R , 291. Anahuac, plat., 164, 165. Anam, 285, 318 Aname&e, 290. Ancona, 275. Andalusia, 266, 267. Andaman Is., 313. Andes, 93 n. 2, 170, 171. Andorra, 266. Androscoggin Falls, 144. Angara, R„ 293. Angers, 211. Angkor Wat, 318. 372 INDEX Anglesey, 196. Angora, 297. Angra Pequena, 341. Aiihalt, 225 n. 1. Anjou, 211. Aim Arbor, 153. Annapolis, 138, 141, 156. Annapolis, Valley of, 87. Annobon, 285, 346. Antananarivo, 346. Antarctic Circle, 20. Antarctic Ocean, 24, 55. Antarctic Regions, 369. Anti-cyclone, 41. Anti - Lebanon, 298, 299. Antilles, 69, 166, 167, 168 n. 2. Antioch, 299. Anti-Taurus, 297. Anti-trades, 40, 41. Antwerp, 199. Aosta, 233. Apennines, 269. Apia, 367. Appalachian High- land, 106, 107. Appalachian Mts., 71, 97, 106-109, 126, 12S, 131. Appalachian Plateau, 110. Appalachian system, 107, 108. Apuan Hills, 270. Apulia, 269, 275. Aquitania, 211 n. 3. Arabia, 285, 286, 302. Arabs, 270, 319, 334. Aracan, 317. Aragon, 263, 268. Aral, Sea of, 289, 294. Ararat, Mt., 296. Aras, R„ 295, 296. Araucanians, 177. Arawaks, 167. Arcadia, 278. Archangel, 250, 254. Arctic Arch., 65, 84. Arctic Circle, 20. Arctic Ocean, 24, 55. Arelate, 212. Argentine Rep., 135, 171, 178. Argolis, 279. Argonnes, For. of, 207. Argos, 274. Arizona, 66 n. 4, 73, 77. Arizona des., 164. Arizona Ter., 142. Arkansas, 111, 130. Arkansas R., 100, 141. Aries, 212. Armenia, 294-296. Armenians, 281, 296. Arno, R., 269, 273. Artesian mils, 338, 358. Artois, 30. Aruba, 168. Aryanlanguages, 290. Aryans, 304, 311. Ascension, 846. Ashanti, 340. Asia Minor, 285, 297. Aspinwall, 176. Assab, 285, 345. Assam, 309, 313. Assiniboia, 92. Assiniboine, R., 90. Astrakhan, 249, 250, 254. Asturias, 263, 267. Atchafalaya,The,112. Atbara, R.. 336. Atchison, 154. Athabasca, dist., 92. Athabasca, R., 86. Athens, 283. Atlanta, 140 n. 1, 141, 157. Atlantic City, 149. Atlantic Ocean, 39, 44, 46, 49, 56, 64, 67, 71, 95. Atlantic slope, 106, 107, 112. Atlantic States, 143. Atlantic system, 114, 115. Atlas, Great, 337. Atlas, Little, 337. Atlas Mts., 381, 339. Atmosphere, 38. Atolls, 33 n. Attica, 283. Attoo or Attu I., 68, 161. Auburn, 148. Auckland Is., 360. Auckland, N. Zd., 362, 363. Augsburg, 228. Augusta, Ga., 113. Augusta, Me., 114, 140, 144, 156. Aurora, 152. Austin, Texas, 75 n. 2, 141, 158. Australia, 42, 48, 51, 52, 60, 64, 93 n. 8, 129, 130, 134, 347- 359. Australian Alps, 349, 355. Australasian Colo- nies, The, 354, 355- 362. Australians, 353. Austria, 224, 229. Austria- Hungary, 239 -247. Austria, Lnwer,prov., 234, 239, 244. AuBtria, Upper, prov. , 239, 244. Austrian Empire,S70. Auvergne, 206, 212, 221. Avignon, 212. Avon, R., Lower, 203. Avon, R., Upper, 203, Azof, Sea of, 181. Azores, 285, 345. Aztecs, 165, 177. Bab-el-Mandkb, Str. of, 48, 303. Babylon, 25, 59, 301. Bad Land Cliffs, 103 )t. 3. Bad Lands, 106. Baden, Grand Duchy, 224, 225. Baffin's Bay, 84. Bagdad, 301. Bahamas, 69, 166, 167, 168. Bahia, 174. Bahr-el-Abiad, 332 n. 2. Bahr-el-Azrek, 232. Baikal, L., 288, 292. Baker City, 159. Baku, 295. Balaton, L., 241. Bale, 220 n. 2. Balearic Is. , 269. Bali, 287, 364. Balkan Mts., 279. Balkan Peninsula, 182, 262, 277-284, 286, 287. Balkhash Lake, 289, 294. Ballarat, 356. Baltic Sea, 43, 48, 182, 258. Baltic, Tides of, 45. Baltimore, 95, 113, 133, 135, 136, 155, 156. Baluchistan, 304. Banat, 240. Banca, 321. Bangalore, 315. Bangkok 317 Bangweolo L., 332. Bangor, U.S., 114, 144. .Ear (of a river), 27. Barada, R., 299. Barbados, 168. Barcelona, 266. Barcoo, R., 351. Bardez, 285. Barka, 337. Barmen, 222. Baroda, St., 312. Basel, 221, 238. Basin (of a river), 26. Basque Provs., 263. Basques, 211. Basra, 301. Bass Strait, 359. Bastia, 213. Basuto Land, 194, 343. Batavia, 321. Bath. 203. Bathurst, 356. Baton Rouge, 112, 118, 141, 158. Batum, 295. Bavaria, 220, 224, 225, 228, 245, 370. Bay City, 153. Bayonne, 211. Bayous, 112. Bear, R., 102. Bechuana Land, 194, 341, 343. Behring's Strait, 24, 48. Beirut, 299. Belfast Lough, 205. Belfaat, 205. Belgium, 135, 216 n. 4, 213-219, 224, 370. Belgrade, 283. Belize. 83, 166. Belt, Great, 260. Belt, Little, 260. Benares, 314. Bengal, 306, 310, 311, 313. Bengal, Bay of, 42, 307. Ben Nevis, 198. Benue R., Lower, 195 Berar] 313, 315. Berbera, 345. Berbers, 334, 337, 338. Bergen, 259. Bering Sea, 162. Bering Strait, 64. Berkeley, 161. Berlin, 225, 227. Bermudas, 92. Bern, 229, 238. Besancon, 212. Bessarabia, 255. Bethlehem, 299. Beypur, 307. Bhamo, 317. Bhutan, 312, 316. Bias. R., 314. Biddeford, 144. Bienne, L., 31 n. 5, 237. Big Horn Range, 99. Bilbao, 267. Biled-ul-Jerid,. 338. Bingen, 221. Binghamton, 149. Birmingham, 62, 203. Birmingham,. Ala., 129, 157. Biscay, prov., 267. Bismarck Arch., 366. Bismark, 73 .n., 140, 154. Bitter Root Range, 98. Black Cafion, 103. Blick Dome, Mt.,.62, 97, 109. Black Earth,, Rus., 251, 255. Black Forest, 220, 229. INDEX 373 Black Hills, 106, 128, 132, 154. Black R., 109, 149. Black- River Canal, 109. Black Sea, 42,48, 188, 235, 248, 271, 281, 295. Blackstone, R , 145. Blanc, Mt., 229, 881. Blanca Peak, 100 n 2. Blanco, C, 331. Bloomington, 158. Blue Mts., Oregon, 101. Blue Mts., N.S.W., 356. Blue Ridge, 109. Bluff Harbour, 363. Bluffs, 111, 112. Bochetta Pas-, 873. Bndensee, 235. Boers, 344. Bogong, Mt., 355. Bogota, 175. Bohemia, 209, 224, 239, 240, 243, 241. Bohemian Forest, 220. Bohmerwald, 220 re. 4. Boise City, 72 n. 7, 142, 159. Bolan P., 305. Bolivia, 177. Bolivian basin, 120. Bologna, 269, 273. Bolsena, L. , 270. Bombay, 314, 315. Bombay, Pres., 311, 313, 315. Bonaire, 168. Bonn, 222. Bora, The, 246. Bordeaux, 211, 249. Borneo, 287, 318, 321. Borneo, N., 195. Bornholm, I., 260. Bornu, 837. Boro Buddor, 319 re. Bosnia, 243 re., 278, 280, 281, 283. Bosporus, 48, 188, 281. Boston, U.S., 93, 96, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 139, 140, 145. Boston Harbor, 96. Bothnia Felix, 71. Bothnia, Gulf of, 186, 248. Bottom land, 112. Boulogne, 209. Bourbon, 285, 346. Brabant, 8., 219. Bracciano, L., 870. Bradford, U.S., 130. Bradford (York.), 803. Brahmanism, 290. Brahmaputra, R. , 288, 307, 328. Brandenburg, prov., 227. Brasilia, 67. Braunschweig, 228 re. 5. Brazil, 68, '93 re. 3, 135, 172-174, 370. Brazil, mountain ]and of, 70, 170. Brazil, Ind., 130, 151. Brazos, R., 115. Bremen, 61, 201, 225. Bremerhaven, 61, 225. BrennerPass, 22S.234, 239, 246, 272 n. 2, 273 Brenta, B., 271. Breslau, 222, 227. Brest, 210. Bridgeport, U.S., 145. Biieg, 62. Brienz, L., 237, 239. Brighton, 201. Brindisi, 276. Brindisi, Australian, 355. Brisbane, 355, 357. Brisbane, B., 357. Bristol, 190, 202. Bristol Channel, 45, 202. British India, 194, 370. British Isles, 45, 55, 194. Brittany, 207, 208, 210, 246 re. 4, 283 Brooklyn, 132, 146, 148. Brown Cliffs, 103, re. 3. Bruges, 217, 218. Brundusium, 276. Brunei, 321. I Ji ii .,n, 245. Brunswick, d., 225, n. 1. Brunswick, tn. and d., 228. Brussa, 298. Brussels, 219. Buda-Pest, 61 247. Buddhism, 290, 291. Buen Aire, 168. BuenosAyres,pr. ,178. BuenosAyres,tn. ,168, 178. Buffalo. 116, 124, 130, 134, 148, 152, 153. Bug, R., 249, 254. Bukarest, 61, 256. Bukhara, 294. Bukovina, 241, 247, 253, re. 1, 255. Bulgaria, 279, 280, 283, 370. Burdigala, 211. BurgundianPlain,224 Burgundian Plateau, 207. Burgundy, 208. Burgundy Canal, 206. Burlington, 146, 154. Burma, 313, 317. Burra Burra, 358. Burrard Inlet, 92. Bushire, 305. Bushmen, 343. Bussora, 801. Butte City, 128, 159. Buzzard's Bay, 96, 145. Byzantium, 282. Cacao, 174. Cadiz, 267. Cagliari, 276. Cairo, 336. Cairo, U.S., 152. Calabria, 875. Calais, 209. Calcutta, 313, 314. Calgary, 92. Calicut, 315. California, 47, 72, 77, 81, 97 n. 2, 101, 121, 122, 123, 124, 186, 129, 131, 137, 142, 159, 160. California, Gulf, 69 re. California Valley, 104. Callao, 176. Cambay, Gulf of, 307. Cambodia, 285, 318, 319 Cambridge, U.S., 145. Camden, 149. Cameroon Mts., 339. Campagna, 275. Campania, 269, 275. Campos, 171. Canada. Dom. of, 80, 81, 83, 84-92, 107, 129, 135, 370. Canada, forests of, 78. Canada, French, 87. Canal du Centre, 206. Canal du Midi, 213. Canary Is., 285, 345. Candia, I. , 282. Candia, town, 283. Canebrake Canon, 103 ii. 4. Cannes, 213. Canon of Lodore, 103 re. 2. Canons, 101, 102, 103. Cantabrian Mts., 263. Canterbury Plains, 361, 363. Canton, 226, 227. Canton, B., 227. Cape Barrow, 68. Cape Breton, 87. Cape Charles, 68. Cape Coast Castle, 239, 240. Cape Cod, 69, 96. Cape Cod Bay, 96. Cape Cod Peninsula, 113. Cape Colony, 194, 341. Cape Farewell, 68. Cape Gallinas, 68. Cape Mendocino, 68. Cape Prince of Wales, 68. Cape Sable, 68. Cape St. Roque, 68. Cape Town, 343. Cape Verde Is., 285. Capua, 276. Caraccas, 168, 175. Cardamom Mts., 307. Cardiff, 202. Caribbean Sea, 69, 72, 170. Caribs, 167. Carical, 285. Carmel, Mt., 298. Carniola, 246. Carnuntum, 244. Carolina, North, 97 re. 1, 113, 141. Carolina, South, 112, 113, 124, 137, 141. Caroline Is., 368. Carpathian Mts., 183, 240, 279. Carpentaria, Gulf of, 347. Carrara, 270. Carson City, 142. Cartagena, 176. Carthago Nova, 26 re. 3. Cascades, the, 120. Cascade Mts., 70, 72, 94, 98, 101, 104. Casco Bay, 96, 144. Casiquiare, 27 n. 1. Caspian Sea, 181, 184, 248, 249, 288, 289. Castile, Old and New, 263, 267. Catalaunian Plain, 212. Catalonia, 265. Catania, 276. Cataract Canon, 103 re. 4. Catskill, 148. Catskills, Mts., 108, 110. Cauca, R., 170. Cauca Valley, 175. Caucasia, 294. Caucasian type, 289, 290. Caucasus, Lieutcy., 285, 296. Caucasus Mts., 35, 295, 304. Cawnpore, 314. Cayenne, 174. Cayuga Canal, 109. Cayuga, L.. 110, 149. Cedar Rapids, 154. Celebes, 319, 321. Cenis, Mt. , pass, 233. Cenis, ML, tunnel, 272. Central India Agen- cies, 312. Central Provs.. Ind„ 313. 374 INDEX Central States, 143. Cerigo, 283. Cerro de Pasco, 176. Cetinye, 283. Ceuta, 285. Cevennes Mts., 205. Ceylon, 194, 316. Child, L., 333, 33T. Chalons - sur - Marne, 212. Chalon - sur - Sa6ne, 212. Chamounix, 229. Champagne, 208, 212. Cliamplain Canal, 109, 148. Cliamplain, Jj., 107, 108, 109, 114, 146. Chandernagor, 285. Charente, 14., 211. Cnarles, R., 88. Charleston, 124, 133, 136, 141, 156. Charleston Harbor, 95. Charlottetown, 88. Charters Towers, 357. Chatham Is., 360. Chattanooga, 157. Chelsea, U.S., 145 Chemung Canal, 109 Chemnitz, 222. Chenango Canal, 109, 149. Cherbourg, 210 Chcmagora, 278 n. 2. Chesapeake Bay, 80. 95, 115, 156. Chesapeake Canal, 109, 113, 133. Chester, 202. Chester, U.S., 150. Cheviot Hills, 196. Cheyenne, 133, 142. Chicago, 61, 122, 123, 125, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 151, 152, 153, 155, 158. Chihuahua. R., 95. Chile, 177-178. Chiloe, I., 69, 171. China, 42, 129, 135, 286, 306, 321-327, 370. China Sea, 42. Chinese Sea, E., 287. Christehuroh, 363. Christiania, 186, 259. Christianity, 290 Cilieian Gates, 297. Cincinnati, 131, 132, 151, 157. Cis-Caucasia, 296. Cis - Leithan crown- lands, 243. Clark Fork, 9S. Clermont, 206. Cleveland, U.S., 130 150, 151, 152. Clutha, R., 361. Clyde, Firth of, 196. Clyde, R., 203. Coast Range, 98, 104, 1 Copenhagen, 261. Fr. 105 Cochin - China, 285, 318. Cohoes, 148. Coimbra, 265. Col di Tenda, 62, 233. Cold Wall, 47 Cologne, 222. Colombia, 175, 176 Colombo, 316. Colon, 72 n , 176. Colonia Agrippina, 222. Colorado basin, 100, 103, 120. Colorado des., 95, 102, 120. Colorado Parks, 100. Colorado plateau, 102, 103. Colorado, R., 71, 73, 95, 100, 102, 103, 115. Colorado Springs, 159 Colorado, St., 103, 126, ISO, 14-', 159. Colorado Bystem, 114. Columbia, 113, 141, 156. Columbia, 90,92. Columbia, 11, 137. 156. Columbia 101. Columbia. Brit., 72, Dist. of, 138, 141, plateau, R.,71, 73, 80, 94, 100, 101, 104, 162. Columbia system, 114, 118. Columbus, 140, 151, 157. Comacchio.Val di, 270 Comino, 277 Como, h., 233, 269. Comorin, C, 306, 307 Comoro Is , 285, 846 Concord, N.H., 140, 144. Congo Free State, 340. Congo, R., 332, 339. Connaught, 204. Connecticut, 81 n, 4, 125, 131, 140, 145, 146. Constance, L , 220, 235, 287. Constantino, 338. Constantinople, 280, 281. Constantinople, Str. of, 281. Continents, area and pop., 62. Cook Inlet, 162. Cook, Mt., 360. Cook, Str., 360, 362. Coolies, 813. Cooper's Creek, 351. Coorg, 313. Copts, 385. Coral, 83 n. Coral reefs, 349.- Corcyra, 2S3. Cordilh-ran or West- ern stntes, 143, 144, 159-162. Cordilleras, 70, 98, 170. Cordoba, pr. and tn., A.R., 178. Cordoba, Sp., 266. Cordova, 72 n. Corfu I , 283. Corfu, tn., 284. Corinth, isth., gulf., and town, 283 Cork, 205. Coromandel Ct., 315 Corsica, 213. Costa Rica, 82, 83, 166. Cdte d Or, 207 Council Bluffs, 154. Covington, 151, 157. Cracow, 247. Cremona, 272. Creoles, 165. Crete, 280, 2S2. Creuzot, 208 Crimea, 254 Croatia, 246, 247. Cronstadt, 254. Ctesiphon, 301 Cuba, 68, 69, 124, 135, 166, 168 Cumberland, 156. Cumberland U S., 110. Cumberland plateau, 110. Cumberland, R., 117, 129. Cumberland Valley, U.S., 107. Cunene, R., 341. Curacao, 168. Carrents.Ocean, 45-48. Cutch, 315 Cuxhaven, 226 Cuzco, 177. Cyclades, 283. Cyclone, 41. Cyprus, 195. Cyrenaica, 337. Cyrene, 337. Czernowitz, 247. Dacca, 311. Dahomey, 340. Dakota, North, 97, 140. Dakota, South, 126. 128, 140. Dalarne, 259. Dalles, the, 120. Dalmatia, 239, 246 281. Daman, 285. Damascus, 299, US. Mts. Dannemora, 259. Danube, R., 183, 240, 241, 255, 277, 279, 280. Danzig, 226. Dardanelles, 182, 286. Dar-for, 336. Dariel. Gorge of, 295. Darjiling, 309. Darling, R , 350, 351. Darling Downs, 357. Davenport, 154. Davis Strait, 47. Dayton, 151. Dead Sea, 299. Deudwood, 132, 154. Death Valley, 102. Debreczin, 247. Dee R. (So.), 204. Delagoa liay, 285, 344. Delaware Bay, 95, 115. Delaware Canal, 109. Delaware, R., 109, 115, 133, 149. Delaware, st. , 113, 124, 133, 141. Delaware Water Gap, 109. Delgado, C, 265, 344. Delhi, 314. Belos, 283 n. 2. Demerara, R., 174. Denmark, 82, 260, 261, 370. Denmark, For. Poss., 163. Denver, 73 n., 103, 133, 142, 159. Derwent, R., Tas., 359. Derwent Water, 199. Des Moines, 140, 154. Desolation Canon, 103 n. 4. Detroit, 152, 153. Devonport, 202. Diamantina, R., 351. Dieppe, 209. Dijon, 212. Dinavic Alps, 239, 278. Diu, 285. Dividing Range, 349, 350, 855, 356. Dnieper, R., 183, 249. Dniester, R., 241, 249, 254. Dobruja, The, 255. Sodona, 282. Dominica, 169. Don, R., Bus., 183, 249. Donetz., R., 252. DoraBaltea, R.,233. Dora Riparia, R. , 233. Dordogne, R., 211. Dorpat, 265. Dortmund, 222. Doubs, R„ 212. Douro, R, 263. INDEX 375 Dover, U.S., 141. Dover, Str. of, 189. Dover, tn., 201. Drakenberg Mts. ,331 , 348. Drau, R., 240. Drave, H., 231, 210, 241. Dravida (race), 312. Dresden, 227. Drift-ice, 67. Drin, R„ 278. Dublin, 205. Dubuque, 154. Dulutu, 123, 152. Dundee, 204. Dunedin, 863. Durance, R, 231. Durban, 343. Dwina, N., 183. Dwina, W., 183. Earth, Area of laml and water surface, 24. Earthquakes, 34. Earth-tremors, 35. Ea-t River, 96. East Saginaw, 153. East St. Louis, 152. Eastern Archipelago, 35, 42, 61, 166, 303, 318. Eastern Peninsula, 316 k. Eastport, Me., 93. Ebro, R., 209. Eclmca, 356. Ecliptic, 19. Ecuador, 176. Eden, R., 196. Edinburgb, 203. Edmonton, 92. Egmont, Mt., 360. Egypt, 285, 303, 335- 339, 870. Eider Canal, 226. Eifel, 221. Eisenach, 229. Eisleben, 229. Ekaterinburg, 248, 293. El Jezireh, 301. El Paso, 159, 165. Elba, 270. Elbe, R., 201, 224, 227, 240. Elberfeld, 222. Elbruz, Mt., 295. Elburz Mts., 804. Elche, 266. Elefante, 815. Elgin, U.S , 152. Elizabeth, 149. Elmira, U.S., 149. Elsass-Lothringen, 224 n. England, 82, 135, 189- 203. English Channel, 189. Enns, R., 231. Entre Rios, 178. Epemay, 212. Epltesus, 298. Epirus, 282. Equator, 17. Equinoxes, 20. Erebus, Mt., 368. Erfurt, 229. Erie, 150. Erie Canal, 109, 114, 116, 133, 146, 148, 151. Erie, L, 84, 86, 90, 109, 110, 115, 116. Erivau, 296. Er Bif, 3S9. Erzberg,245, 2-";9 n. 1 Erzerum, 296 Erzgebirge, 220, 222, 228. Escaut, R., 215. lissen, 222. Essex Canal, 109, 133. Estremadura.263,267. Etna, Mt., 266. Etsch, R., 233, £45. Eubcea, 283. Eugene City, 161. Euphrates. 299, 301. Eurasia, 24 it. 1. Europe, 41, 47, 93 it. 3, 181-286. Eurotas, R., 284. Evansville, 151. Evaporation, 49. Everest, Mt., 287. Everglades, The, 112. Eyre, L., 351, 358. Falkland Is-. , 180. Fall River, 96, 145. Faroe Is , 182. Faucilles, Mts., 207. Fen Country, 199. Fernando Po, 285, 346. Ferrol, 267. Fez, 839. Fezzan, 337. Fichtelgebirge, 220. Fiji Is., 195, 354, 867. Fingal's Cave, 196. Finke, R., 358. Finland, 250, 254, 288. Finland, Gulf of, 248. Finno-Tatars, 290. Finns, 253, 257. Fiords, 257. Firn, 53 n. Fitzroy, R., Qd , 357, 358. Fiume, 239, 246. Flaming Gorge, 103 n. 2. Flanders. 218. Flinders Range, 357. Florence, 273. Florida, 68, 69, 77, 82, 112, 124, 1-J6, 137, 141, 157. Florida, Str , 69. Formosa, 324 n. 1. Fort Benton, 117. Fort Colville, 72 n. Fort Kearney, 75 n. Fort Miller, 94 n. 2. Fort Mohave, 73 n. Fort Selkirk, 162. F..rt Wayne, 151. Forth, Firth of, 196, 203. Foveaux Str , 360, 363. Foyle, Lough, 205. France, 82, 134, 135, 16S, 205-213, 358, 370. France, For. Poss., 285. Franche Comte, 212. Franconia, 228. Franconi.in For., 220. Frankenwald, 2:0 n. i. Frankfort, U.S., 141, 157. Frankfurt, 228. Franks, 209. Franzenshad, 245. Fraser basin, 73. Fraser, R., 71, 80, 92. Frederieton, 88. Frederiksborg, 261. Fremantle, 858. Frisches Haff, 226. Frisian Is., 225. Front Range, 100. Fuca, strait, 94, 96, 10». Fujisan, 329 n. 6. Fujiyama, 329 it. 6. Fulbeh, 337. Funchal, 245. Fundy Bay, 45, 88. Funen, I., 260 n. 1. Fu-niu-shan Mts., 323. Furca Pass, 235. Further India, 316 it. Fusinoyama, 329. Fusiyama, 329 n. 6. Fyen, I., 260, 261. Gaboon, R., 285, 339. Gairdner, L., 351. Galapagos Is., 176. Galata, 281. Galatz, 256. Galdhoppigen, 256. Galicia, Aust., 241, 247, 253 n. 1, 255. Galicia, Bp., 267. Galilee, L. of, 299. Gallatin Forks, 117. Gallipoli, 282. Galveston, 115, 124 158. Gambia, 285 Ganges, R„ 306. Garda, L., 269. Gargano, 269. Garonne, R., 208 Gascony, 211. Gauchos, 178. Gaurisankar, 287 n. 3. Gaya, 314. Geelong, 356. Geestemunde, 225. Gellivara, 257 it. 3. Genesee Falls, 148. Genesee, R, 110, 123. Genesee Valley Canal, 109. Geneva, 238. Geneva, L., 235, 237. Genoa, 217, 271, 273. George, L., 108. Georgetown, U.S., 113 n. 2. Georgetown, Dem., 174. Georgia, 97 n. 1, 112, 113, 124, 125, 129, 137, 141, 156. (-eorgia, Gulf, 69 it. Georgia, S., Is., 195. Get man Empire, States of, 224. German Ocean, 18ij, 235. Germantown, 135. Germany, 134, 135, 192, 220-229, 370. Germany, For. Pos., 174, 285. Geysers, 36, 99. Ghats, Eastern, 307. Ghats, Western, 307. Ghent. 217, 218. Ghor, The, 298, 299. Gibraltar, 266. Gibraltar, Str., 182, 183. Gila basin, 95. Gila depression, 100. Gila, des., 103. Gila R, 102. Gila valley, 82. Gilbert Is., 368. Gippsland, 355. Gironde, The, 211. Glaciers, 53, 72. Glasgow, 190, 203. Glen More, 196. Gloucester, U.S., 145. Goa, 285. Gobi, des., 329. Godavari, R., 307. Goderich, 153. Gokcha, L„ 295. Golconda, 815. Gold Const, 339. Golden Gate, 94. Golden Horn, 281 it. 3. Gota-elf, R., 259. Goteborg, 259. Gotha, 229. Gothenburg, 259. Goths, 209, 264. Gottland, 258, 259. Gozo, 195, 277. Grahamstown, 343. Grampians, 8c., 198. Grampians, Vic, 356. Granada, 262, 266. Gran Chaco, 171. Grand Canal, Ch„ 326 376 INDEX Grand Canon, 103. Giand Rapids, 153. Grand R., 100, 103, 153. Gray's Peak, 100 n. 2. Graz, 245. Great American Des. , 103 n. 1. Great Appalachian Valley, 107, 108. Great Australian Bight, 347. Great Barrier Reef, 349 365. Great Basin, 101, 102. Great Basin, rivers of, 120. Great Britain, 129, 134, 135, 168. Great Britain, For. Puss., 168. Great Dismal Swamp, 112. Great Fish River, 86. Great Lakes. 84, 85. 107, 115, 116, 134, 148, 150, 152. Groat Miami, The, 151. Great Plains, 98, 106. Great Salt Lake, 101, 102. Great Salt Lake Des- ert, 101. Great Wall of China, 328 Greece, 280, 283, 370. Green Mts., 108. Green R., 102 ».. 4, 103. Green River Basin, 99 Greenland, 65, 82, 83, 84. Greenock, 18, 19, 204. Greenwich, 201. Grenada, W.I., 168. Grenoble, 213, 233. Greymouth, 363. Griqua Land West, 341, 342. Grisons, 237. Guadalajara, Mex., Guadalavir, R., 266. Guadalquivir, E., 263, Guadarrama, Siena de, 263 n. 1. Guadeloupe, 168. Guadiana, R., 263. Guanajuato, i66. Guardafui, C., 331 Guatemala, 82, 166. Guayaquil, 176. Guayaquil, Gulf of, 69 n. Guiana, 185. 170, 172 174. Guiana, Br., 174. Guiana, Du, 174. Guiana, Fr., 174. Guiana, Plateau of, 70. Guienne, 211. Guinea, Gulf of, 332. Guinea Is., 340. Guinea, Lower, 285. Guinea, Upper, 329. Gnjerat, 307, 315. Gulf Slope, 112. Gulf states, 143 n. 1. Gulf Stream, 47, 61, 69, 72, 185. Gwalior, 314. Gympie, 357. Haarlem. 219. Hague, The, 219. Haidarabad, 315. Hainan I., 321. Hainaut, 219. Haleb, 299. Halifax, N.S., 87, 88. Halys, R., 297. Hamburg, 201, 225. Hamilton, Ont., 90. Hammerfest, 259. Hangchau, 326. Hangchow 326 n. 4. Haii-hai, 328, 329. Hankau, 326. Hankow, 326 n. 4. Hannibal, 154. Hanoi, 317. Hanover, town and prov., 227. Hanse Towns, 225 n. 2. Harrar, 345. Harrisburgh, 140, 150. Hartford, 114, 133, 140, 145. Hartz Mts., 221, 222, 229. Harvard, 139. Hastings, 201. Havana, 168. Haverhill, 144. Havre, 210. Hawaian Is , 368. Hawaii, 368. Hayti, I. and rep., 82, 166, 167. Hebrides, 196 Hecla, Mt., 261. Height of Land, 70, 107. Hejaz, 302. Helder, 219. Helena, 73 n., 142. Heligoland, 195. Hellespont, 282. Holluland, 65 n. 4. Helsingfors, 254. Hemisphere, Eastern and Western, 64. Herat, 305. Herculaneum, 275. Heri Rud, R., 305. Hermopolis, 284. Herzegovina, 243 n., 280, 281, 283. Hesse-Darmstadt,224. Hesse-Nassau, 228. Highlands, Scottish, 198. Highland, Western, U.s:, 97-106. Himalayas, 287, 306, 309, 316. Hinduism, 290, 312. Hindu K.usb, Mts., 304. Hinter-RhineR.,233. Hiogo, 330. Hoang-hai, 323 n. 2. Hoang-ho, 323. Hobart, 359. Hoboken, 146. Hohe Tauern, 239. Hohe Veenen. 216. Holland, 82, 135, 213- 219 225. Holland, 'n. and S. provs., 219. Holyoke, 146. Honda, 176. Hondo, 229. Honduras, 82, 83, 166. Honduras, Br., 166. Hong-kong, 195, 327. Honolulu, 368. Hoosae Mts., 108. Hoosac Tunnel, 145. Horizon, 16 n. 1. Horn, C, 64, 180. Hot Springs, 158. Hottentots, 343. Housatonic Valley, 145. Houston, 158. Hovas, 346. Hudson, 148. Hudson Bay, 70, 85, 87, 92. Hudson Bay system, 114. Hudson Bay Terri- tory, 82. Hudson Canal, 109. Hudson Falls, 118. Hudson, R., 96, 107, 109, 114, 115, 130, 146. Hudson Strait, 70. Hue, 318. Huelva, 263. Hiigli, R., 313. Huleh. L., 299. Hull, 190, 201. Humber,The,199,201. Humboldt Bay, 94. Humboldt Current, 48, 51. Humboldt Mts., 102. Humboldt R., 102. Humboldt Sink, 102. Hungary, 60, 240, 243, 247. Huron, L., 84, 90, 115, 116. Hurricanes, 41. Hvitramannaland, 65 Iberian Peninsula 267-269,286,302,3(>3. Iberville, The, 112. Ice Age, 55 n. 2,36,47. Icebergs, 55, 72. Iceland, 182, 261. Ichang, 323 n. 4. Idaho, 94, 101. Idaho Ter., 142. i jmuidenj 219. Ij, R., 219. Hi, R., 294. Illinois, 112, 122, 123, 124, 129, 130, 131, 136, 137, 140, 151, 152. Illinois Canal, 133. Illinois, Peru, 128. Illinois R., 117. Illyria, 283 n. 4. llhjrians, 280. Union, L., 253 n. 2. Incas, The, 177. India, 129, 135, 286, 303, 305-316, 370. Indian Ocean, 332. Indian Territory, 111, 130, 137, 138, 141. Indiana. Ill, 122, 123, 129, 140, 161. Indianapolis, 122, 140, 151. Indians, American, 81, 87. Indo-China, 316. Indus. R., 2-8, 306 Inn, R., 231, 233, 234, 235. Innsbruck, 234, 246. Interlaken, 239. Invercargill, 363. Ionian Is., 283. Ionian Sea, 277, 281. Iowa, 111, 122, 123, 130, 136, 140. Iowa, R., 117. Irania, 303. Iranians, 290. Irawadi, div., 317. Irawadi, R., 317. Ireland, 136, 204, 205. Irish Sea, 189. Irkutsk, 293. Iron Gate, The, 279. Iron Mountain, 128. Irtish, R., 292. Isar, R., 228. Ischia, 275. Iseo, L., 269. Isere, R.,213,231, 233. Iskenderun, 299. Isker, R., 279. Isle Royale, 126. Isothermal Lines, 50. Ispahan, 305. Istria, 239. 246, 247; Italy, 229,269-277,287, 306, 370. Italy, For. Poss., 174, 2S5. Itasca, L., 117. Ithaca, U.S., 149. INDEX 377 Jackson, 141, 153, 157. Jacksonville, 157. Jahrie, The, 226. Jaipur, 315. Jalon, R., 209. Jamaica, 72 «., 168. James Bay, 68. James R., 108, 109, 115, 156, 329, 330. James River Canal, 109. Japan, 67, 135, 329, 330, 370. Japau, Sea of, 287,329. J assy, 256. Java, 135, 319-321. Jedda, 303. Jefferson City, 140 Jefferson, R., 117. Jenil, R., 267. Jerez, 267. Jersey City, 146. Jerusalem, 299. Jews, 241, 2S1. Jhelum, R. , 216. Joachimsthal, 245 Jodpur, 315. Johnstown, 133 n. 1. Joliet, 152. Jordan, R., 299. Jordan, R, U.S. 102. Jostedalsbrae, 256. Jucar, R , 267. Judaism, 290. Jumna, R., 314. Jura, Franconian, Mts., 220. Jura, Mts., 205, 212, 220, 235. Jutland, 214, 260. Kabul, 305. Kabyles, 334. Kaffirs, 342. Kaffraria, Br., 343. Kaiser Wilhelm Land, 363. Kalahari, des., 333, 343. Kalmucks, 252. Kaluga, 255. Kama, R., 249. Kamtchatka, 286. Kanawha Canal, 109. Kanawha, R., 108. Kandahar, 305. Kansas, 111, 122, 128, 130, 131, 154, 155. Kansas City, 122, 155. Kansas, R., 117. Karachi, 315. Kara Dagh, 378. Karakorum Mts., 288. Karlsbad, 245. Karnak, 335. Karroo, Great, 342. Kars, 296. Karst, The, 246 v.. 1, 278. Kashgar, 323. Kashmh-,306,312,316. Kaskaskia, R., 130. Katahdin, Mt., 108. Katmandu, 316. Katrine, Loch, 198. Kattegat, 182, 258. Kazan, 255. Kazbek, Mt., 295. Keewatin, dist., 92. Kei, Great, R., 343. Kelat, 305. Kenia, 321. Kennebec R. , 144. Kent, 209. Kentucky, 112, 125, 129. 141. Keokuk, 154. Kerkyra, 283. Kermadec Is., 360. Kertcli, 254. Kesho. 317. Keswick, L., 199. Keweenaw Pt., 126. Key West, 157. Khatbar P., 305, 306, 315. Kliarkof, 255. Khartum, 337. Kherson, 254. Khingan Mts., 328. Khiva, 234. Khokan, 294. Kiakhta, 292. Kief, 255. Kiel, 226. Kilauea, 368. Kilimanjaro, 345. Killarney, Lakes, 204. Kimberley Dist , 358. Kimberley, 3. A., 342. King George's Sound, 347, 358. King Sound, 358. Kingston, Jam., 168. Kingston, N.Y., 148. Kingston, Ont., 90, 107. Kirghiz, 293, 294. Kishinef, 255. Kiusiu, 329. Kiyoto, 330. Kizil Irmak, 297. Klamath, It., 105. Klausenburg, 247. K51n, 222 n. 2 Konieh, 298. Konigsberg, 226. Kordofan, 236. Korea, 287, 327. KosciuskoMoun tains, 349, 350. Krefeld, 222. Krishna, R., 307, 309. Kuen-lun Mts., 288, 323 Kuka, 337. Kurds 296 Kurile Is., 287, 329. Kurisches Half, 227. Kuro Siwo, 72. Kurrachee. 315 n. 1. Kur, R., 295. Kurrum Pass, 305. Kwango, R., 341. Kwathlamba Mts Lehigh Valley, 150. 331. Leiden,219. Leine, R., 227. Labrador, 70, 85, 92. Leinster, 204. Labrador current, 47. Leipzig, 225, 228. Labuan, 195, 321. Leith, 203. Labyrinth Canon, 103 Leitha, R„ 243. n. 4. Lek, R.,215. Laccadive Is., 315. Leraberg, 247. Lachine Canal, 88. Lena, 1!., 292, 293. Lackawanna Valley, Leon, 166. 150. Leontes, R^ 299 Lacouin, 279. Levant, The, 246, Lacrosse, 153. 296. Ladoga, L., 184, 250, Levkosia, 298. 288. Levuka, 867. Ladrone Is., 285, 368. Lewis K., 101. La FutaP., 273 n. 2. Lewiston, 144. Lagoa dos Patos, 69 n. Lexington, 157. Lagos, 339, 340. Lhassa, 328. La Guayra, 175. Liau-ho, R. , 327. Laguna de la Madre, Liberia, 340. 69 k. Liege, 217, 219 Lahore, 61, 314. Liffey, R., 205. Lake District (Eng.), Liguria, 273. 198. Liimfiord, 260 Lake States, 143 n. 1. Lille, 208. La Mane li a, 267. Lima, 172, 176. Lancashire, 203. Limagne, The, 206. Lancaster, U.S., 133. Limoges, 211. Land breezes, c8. Limnusiu, 211. Landes, The, 2.1. Limpopo, R., 344. Land's End, 199. Linares, 263. Langres, Plat, of, 207. Lincoln, U.S., 141, Languedoc, 213. 151 Lansing, 1M>, 140, 153. Lindesnaes, C, 259. LansingbUrgh, 148. Linnhe, Loch, 198. La Paz, 177. Linz, 244. Lapilli, 85. Lions, Gulf of, 235. La Plata,, est., 178. Lisbon, 265. La Plata system, 71. Lithuania, 255. La Plata, town, 178. Lithuanians, 253. Lapps, 257. Little Rocky Mts., Laramie Plains, 98, 106. 89, 103 n. 1. Little Rock, 112, 141. Laredo, 159, 165. 157. Larissa, 284. Liverpool, 190, 202. Larnaca, 298. Livonia, 254. La Rochelle, 211. Livorno, 275 n, 1 La Salle, 13 >. Lizard Point, 19. Latitude and longi- Llano fistacado, 10b. tude, 17. Llanos, 171, 175. Latium, 275. Loanda, 341. Launceston, Tas,, 359. Lock port, 148. Lausanne, 238. Lodi, 272. Lava, 35. Lass, 323. La Valletta, 277. Lofoden Is., 257, 2 9. Lawrence, 133, 136, Lofty Range, Mt., 144, 155. 357. Leadville, 126, 128, Loire, 11., 205, 207, 159. 210. Leavenworth, 154. Lombards, 270. Lebanon Mts., 298. Lombard)-, 272. Lebanon Valley, U.S., Lombok I., 364. 107. Lomond, Loch, 198. Lech, R., 228. London, 190, 199, 2 H, Leeds, 203. 225 n. 2. Leeuwin, C, 347. London, Ont., 90. Leeward Is., 168. Londonderry, 205. Leghorn, 275. Long Brand), 149. Legnago, 272. Long Island, 96, 113, Lc Havre, 210. 146, 148. 378 INDEX T,ong Island City, 146. Long Island bound, 96, 146. Long's Peak, 100 n. 2. Lorient, 210. Lorraine, 211. ' Los Angelos, 160. Louisiana, 82, 112, 124, 131, 137, 141, 153, 154, 158. Louisville, 118, 151, 157. Louvain, 219. Lowell, 144. Lower Guinea, Portu- guese, 341. Low Is., 367. Lowland, Eastern, U.S., 105, 131. Loyalty Is., 366. Lubeck, 225, 226. Lucerne, 239. Lucerne, L., 237. Lu Chu Is.. 329. Lucknow, 314. Lugano, L., 269 n. 3. Lulea, R., 257 n. 3. Luxemburg, 216, 218. Luxor, 335. Luzon, 321. Lynchburgh, 156. Lynn, 145. Lyons, 207, 208. Lys, R., 215. Lyttelton, 363. Maas, R., 214, 215. Macao, 285, 327. Macdonnell Ranges, 358. Macuillicuddy Reeks, 2ii4. Mackenzie, R., 71, 73, 86. Macon, 157. Madagascar, 346. Madeira, I., 285, 345. Madeira, R.. 177. Madison, 140, 153. Madison Forks, 117. Madras Pres., 313, 315. Madras, town, 315. Madrid, 267, 236. Madura, 285. Magdalena, H., 170, 176. Magdalena Valley, 175. Magdeburg, 227. Magellan, Str. of, 177, 180. Maggiore, L., 231,269. Magyars, 241. Mahanadi, R., 307, 313 Mahe, 285. Mahmudieh Canal, 236. Mahon, 269. Maimachin, 292, 329. Main, R., 221, 228. Maine R., 211. Maine, St., U.S., 96, 111, 123, 124, 125, 140. Mainz, 221. Malabar Coast, 315. Malacca, 318. Malacca, Str. of, 317. Maladetta, 262. Malaga, 266. Malar, L., 259. Malay Arch., 318. Malay Peninsula, 195, 317. Malays, 290, 319, 366. Maiden, 145. Maldive Is., 316. Malmo, 259. Maloja Pass. 233. Malta, 195, 277, 329. Manaar, Gulf of, 316. Manchester, 202. Manchester, U.S. ,144. Manchuria, 85, 322, 327. Mandalay, 317. Manhattan, Is., 96, 146, 147. Manich Depression, 181. Manich, R., 181. Manilla, 321. Man, Isle of, 196. Manitoba, 90, 92. Manitoba, L., 85. Mantua, 272. Maori, the, 362, 366. Marble Can™, 103. March, R., 240. Marches, The, 275 Marianne, Is., 368. Marienbad, 245. Maritza, R., 277, 282. Markland, 65 n. Marmora, Sea of, 1S2, 280, 281. Marne, R., 207, 210. Maros, R. T 240, 247. Marquesas Is., 367. Marquette, 153. Marseilles, 213. Marshall Is., 368. Martaban, 817. Martha's Vineyard, I., 96. Martinique, 168. Maryland, 95, 113, 141, 155, 166. Marysville, 94 n. 2. Maskat, 303. Massachusetts, 81 n. 4, 125, 131, 136, 140, 144, 145. Massachusetts B., 96. Massaua, 345. Massilia, 213. Massowah, 345, Matagorda Bay, 69 n. * Matapan, C.,279. Mauch Chunk, 130. Maulmain, S17. Mauna Kea, 368. Mauna Loa, 368. Mauritius, 195, 346. Mayence, 221 n. 1. Mayotte I., 285, 348. Mazatlan, 166. Meander, R., 297. Mecca, 290, 303. Mecklenburg -Schwe' rin, 224. Mecklenburg - Stre - litz, 224. Medina, 303. Mediterranean Sea, 34, 42, 45, 48, 64, 77 it., 182. Medoc, 211. Mejerdah, R., 338. Mekinez, 339. Mekong, R 317, 318. Melanesia, 365, 366. Melbourne, 356, 362. Memphis, 336. Memphis, U.S., 93, 112, 157. Memel, 226. Menado, 321. Menai Strait, 196. Menam, R., 317. 318. Menderes, R., 297. Mentone, 213. Meridians, 18. Meriden, 145. Merom, Water of, 299. Merrimac, R., 144, 145. Mersey, R., 202. Merv, 294. Mesas, 103. Meshed, 305. Mesopotamia, 301. Messenia, 279. Messina, 276. Mestizoes, 165. Meuse, R., 215. Mexico, 65, 66, 68, 72, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 162, 166, 370. Mexico, Gulf of, 42, 47, 64, 69, 72, 75, 77, 80, 95, 110. Mexico, town, 166. Michigan, 111, 114 it. 1, 124,125,128,130, 131, 136, 139, 140, 152. Michigan Canal, 134. Michigan, L. , 115, 116, 126. Michigan, L., tides, 45. Middle Park, 100. Middlesbrough, 201. Milan, 229, 272. Miletus, 298. Miiledgeville, 113. Milwaukee, 122, 134, 136, 152, 153. Mincio, R., 272. Minneapolis, 1 1 7, 123, 151, 153, 154, 159. Minnesota, 111, 114 n. 1., 115 n. 3, 117, 128,136, 140, 152. Minorca, 269, Minutes, 18. Miquelon, 285. Mississippi basin, 106, 110, 112, 117 ii. 2, 120. Mississippi Delta, 112. Mississippi, R., 9;j, 95, 117, 118, 123, 150, 154. Mississippi Sound, 09 n. Mississippi system, 71 114, 116-120, 134. Mississippi valley, 66, 68, 75, 77, 81, S>2, 125, 132. Missouri basin, 117 71. 3 and 4. Missouri Mts., 98. Missouri, R., 73, 99, 116-118. Missouri, st., Ill, 122, 124, 128, 130, 136, 140, 153. Mistral, 213. Mobile, 124, 157. Mobile Bay, 95. Mocha, 303. Modena, 269, 273. Mogollon, Mt., 103. Mohammedanism, 290. Mohammera, 301,305. Mohave Canon, 103 n. 4. Mohave, des., 71, 102, 103. Mohawk-Hudson de- pression, 108. Mohawk valley, 114. Mohawk Falls, 148. Moldau, R., 240, 245. Moldavia, 255, 256. Moluccas, 319, 321. Molyneux, R., 361. Monaco, 213. Mondego, R., 265. Mongolia, 329. Mongolian type, 289, 290. Monongahela, R., 117, 150. Mons, 217, 219. MonsoonRegion,Asia, 289. Monsoons, 42, 308 Montana, 94, 98, 06, 126, 128, 142, 159. Montana, the, 176, 177. "Montenegro, 278. Monterey Bay, 94, 121 n. 1. Montevideo, 178 n. 1, 180. Montgomery, 113, 141 , 157. Montpelier, U.S , 140, 146. ' Montpellier, 213. INDEX 379 Montreal, 75, n., 88, 90, 96, 133, 153. Moon, The, 19. Moonta, 858. Moors, 264. Moraine*, 55. Morava,Bulgarinn,R,, 878. Mor:iva, It., A us t ,340. Morava, 11., Servia, 277. Moravia, 239, 243, 245. Moravian Gale, 239. Moray Firth, 198. Morea, 278. Mormont, the, 108. Morocco, emp., 338. Morocco, town, 339. Morris Canal, 100, 133 Moscow, 255. Moselle, I!., 221. Moskva, fi., 255. Mosul, 301. Moulmein, 317. Mount Baker,104 n.l. Mount Desert, 96. Mount Harvard, 98 n. 1. Mount Lasson, 105. Mount Mansfield, 108. Mount Marcy, 108. Mount Owen Stanley, 363. Mount Rainier, 98 n. 1, 104, n. 1. Mount Shasta, 104 n. 1, 105. Mount St. Helen's, 104 n. 1. Mount Vernon, 156. Mount Washington. 97, 108. Mount Whitney, 9f 7i. 1, 102, 105. Mozambique, 344. MozambiqueChannel, 342. Mukden, 887. Mulahacen, 262 it. 3. Mulhausen, 228. Mulhouse, 228 >i. 4. Muir Glacier, 161. MUnchen, 228 71. 5. Munich, 228. Munster, 204. Mur, R., 245. Murcia, prov., 266. Murghab. R., 294. Murrav, R., 350, 351, 355, 356. Murrutnbidgee, 350, 351. Murviedro, 266. Muscat, 303. Muskegon, 153. Muta, L., 332, ?i. 1. Mwutan, L., 332. Mysore, St., 312, 315. Mysore, town, 815. Nagasaki, 330. Nagpur, 315. Nanaimo, 92. Nancy, 212. Nanking, 326. Nan -sh an Mts., 328. Nantes, 210. Nantucket I., 96. Naples, 275. Narbada, R , 307. Nari Pass, 305. Narragansett Bay, 96, 145. Narrows, The, 96. Nashua, 144. Nashville, 141, 157. Natal, 194, S43. Natchez, 112, 118, 157. Navigator Is., 867. Nebraska, 106, 111, 122, 130, 154. Ncckar, R., 221, 228. Negd, 302. Nejd, 302, 303. Negroponte, 283. Nelson, R., 86. Nemausus, 213. Nepal, 312, 316. Netherlands, 213-219, 224, 370. Netherlands, For. Poss., 168, 285. Neuchatel, L.,237. Neusiedler-see, 241. Neva, R., 249, 254. Nevada, st., 101, 126, 131, 142. Nevf, 53 n. New Albany, 151. New Altnaden, 126. New Amsterdam, 82. New Archangel, 162. Newark, 149. New Bedford, 96, 145. New Brighton, 146. New Britain, 285. New Britain, I., 365. New Brunswick, 88, 149. Newburg, 148. Newburyport, 144. New Caledonia, 366. Newcastle, 201. Newcastle, N.S.W., 356, 358. Newchwang, 327. New England States, 96, 113, 114, 123, 124, 143 n. 1, 144. Newfoundland, 69,80, 82, 83, 92, 162. New Guinea, 363-365. New Hampshire, 140, 144. New Hanover, 285. New Haven, 145. New Hebrides, 366, 367. New Ireland, I., 365. New Jersey, 95, 113, 124, 128, 131, 133, 149. New Jersey City, 149. New London, 145. New Mexico, 66 n., 73, 77, 103, 130, 142, 159, 164, 172. New Netherlands, 82. New Orleans, 75 n. 77, 82, 93, 118, 124, 132-136, 140, 157, 158. New Port, 140, 145. Newport, US , 151. New Siberian Is., 322. New South Wales,354, 356, 359, 361. New Spain, 82. New Westminster,92. New World, 64. New York Bay, 95, 96. New York, St., 81 n. 4, 82, 93,111,114 71. 2, 116, 123, 124, 125, 129, 131, 136, 137, 140, 146-149. New York, town, 75 n,, 96, 109,124, 130- 133, 135, 136, Hi, 158. NewZcaland,35*,359- 362. Ngamt, L., 333. Ngaurohoe, 360. Niagara, Falls of, 86, 115, 116. Niagara, R., 110, 116. Nicaragua, 68, 82, 83, 166. Nicaragua, L., 166. Nice, 77 u. 1, 213. Nicobar, Is., 313. Nicopolis, 283. Nicosia, 298. Niemen, R., 183. Niger, R., 832, 339. Niger, R., Lower, 195. Niigata, 330. Nikolaief, 254. Nile, Blue, 332, 337. Nile, It., 832, 337. Nile, White, 332, 337. Nilgiri Hills, 807. Nineveh, 301. Nish, 277, 279. Nismes, 212. Niuchwang, 327. Nizam's Dura., 316. Nizhni-Novgorod, 255 Norfolk, U.S., 133, 156. Normandy, 2 i7, 209, 210. North Atlantic States, 143, 144 150. North Central States, 143, 150-155. North Island, The, N. Zd., 360, 362. North Park, 100. North Pole, 17, 84. North River, 96. North Sea, 44, 189. North - West, 111 71. 6. North-West Pass., 67, 84. North -West Prov., Ind., 306, 309, 313, 314. North - West Terri- tories, 92. Norway, 246 n. 4, 256, 259, 283 71. 4, 289, 370. Nossibe, 285. Nottingham, 203. Noumea, 366. Nova Scotia, 69, 87. Novaya Zemlya. 248. Nova Zembla, 248. Novgorod, 253. Novi-Bazar, 283. Nubia, 336. Numea, 3f6. Numidians, 33S 71. 2. Nuruberg, 228, 292. Nyassa, L., 332, 344. Oakland, 160. Ob, R., 292, 293. Obi, R., 293. Obock, 285, 345. Ocean ice, 57. Ocean, l'emperature of, 43. Ocean, Tlie, 42-49. Odense, 261. Oder, R., 222, 223, 227. Odessa, 254. Ofen, 2)7. Ogden, 103, 159. Ogdensburg, 149. Ohio, 111, 116, 123, 124, 125, 129-131, 136, 137, 140, 160, 151, 154. Ohio Basin, 117 ?i. 4, 5. Ohio Canal, 109, 113, 133. Ohio,' R., 110,117,118, 150. Ohio Valley, 110 n. 2. Oil City, 130. Oka, R.,255. Okefiuokee Swamp, 112. Okhotsk, Sea of, 886, 293, 329. Oklahoma Ter., 141. Oldenburg, 224, 22 1. Oldham, 203. Old World, 65, 71,72. Olympia, 93, 142. Omaha, 154. Oman, 302. Oman, Gulf of, 302. Onega, L., 164, 250. Ontario, pr., 90. Ontario, L., 84, 86, 90, 109, 110, 115, 116. Oporto 265. Oral), 838. Orange, 149. Orange Cliffs, 103 n. 3. 380 INDEX Orange River, 333, 342. Orange River Free State, '344. Oregon, 97 n. 2, 101, •121, 124, 125, 142. Orinoco Basin, 70, 174, 175. Orinoco, R., 27 n. 1, 170. Oriasa, 313, 314. Oristano, Bay of, 276. Orizaba, 70. Orkney Is., 196 Orleannais, 211. Orleans, 210, 211. Orontes, R., 298, 299. Oroya, 172. Orsova, 279. Osaka, 330. Oshkosh, 153. Ostendo, 218. Osterdal, 259. Osti/aks, 293. Oswega, 149. Oswega Canal, 109. Otago, 363. Ottawa, R., 85. Ottawa, town, 87, 90. Oudh, 313, 314. Ouse, R.,199. Owa-co L., 148. Oxford, 281 n. 2. Ozark Mts., 97, 106, 111. Pacific Coast Sys- tem, 114. Pacific Ocean, 35 u. 3, 39, 42, 43, 67, 71, 77. Padua, 273. Painted Canon, 103 ?i. 4. Palermo. 276. Palestine, 298. Palghat Gap, 307, 308. Pamir Plateau, 304, 328. Pamlico Sound, 69 n., 95. Pampas, 171. Panama, isth. , 68, 176. Panama, town, 176. Papua, Gulf of, 365. Papuans, 364. Paraguay, R., 170, 171, 180. Paraguay, St., 180. Parana, R., 170, 171, 178, 180. Parimaribo, 174. Paris, 210, Park Range, 100. Parma, 269, 272, 273. Parnassus, Mt., 278. Parramatta, 356. Parsis, 291, 315. Passaic R. , 149. Patagonia. 171, 178. Paterson, 149. Patna, 314. Patras, 284. Pau, 211. Pauillac, 211. Pavia, 272. . Peace, R., 72, 86. Pechili, Gulf of, 323. Pegu, tn. and div., 327. Peiho R., 326. Peipus, h., 184. Peking, 323, 326, 328. Pelew Is., 368. Peloponnesus, 27S. Pembina, 71. Pernios or Peneus, 278. Pennine Chain, 198, 199. Pennsylvania, 81 n. 4, 114 n. 1, 123, 124, 125, 129, 130, 131, 136, 140, 150. Pennsylvania Canal, 133. Penobscot Bay, 96. Penobscot, 11., 144. Pensacola Bay, 95, 125. Pentland Firth, 196. Peoria, 152. Pepper Coast, 340. Pera, 281 Perm, 248, 293. Pernambuco, 174. Persepolis, 305. Persia, 296. 304. Persian Gulf, 301, 305. Perth, 8c, 204. Perth, W.A., 358. Peru, 65, 66, 172, 176, 177. Peru, Upper, 177. Peruvian Current, 48, 51. Peschiera, 272. Peshawar, 310, 315. Petchora, R., 249. Petersburgh, 113, 156. Pharpar, R., 299. Phasis, R., 295. Philadelphia, 75 n., 95, 113, 131, 133, 135, 136, 149. Philippine Is., 285, 319, 321. Philippopolis, 279, 283. Phoccea, 298. Pliosnicia, 298. Piaoenza. 269, 272. Piedras Negras, 165. Pierre, 140. Pietermaritzburg, 343. Pietra Mala, P., 273 n. 2. Pike's Peak, 93, 93 n. 1, 100 n. 2. Pilot Knob, 128, Pinal, Mt. 103 Pindus Chain, 278. Pinsk Marshes, 249. Piraeus, 284. Pisa, 275. Pitt, R., 105. Pittsburgh, 129, 130, 132, 150, 151. Plateau Belt, 98, 100. Platte, R., 73, 100, 117. Plattensee, 241. Plenty, Bay of, 360. Plymouth, 202. Po, R., 183. Poitiers, 210, 211. Poitou, 211. Poland, 247, 252, 253. Polders, 215, 222. Polynesia, 366-368. Pomerania, 226. Pompeii, 275. Pondicherry, 285. Pontine Marshes, 275. Popocatepetl, 70, 98 n. 1. Port Adelaide, 358. Port Arthur, 90. Port Dalrymple, 359. Port Elizabeth, 343. Port Hamilton, 327. Port Jackson, 356. Port Moresby, 365. Port Phillip Bay, 356 Port Said, 336. Portland, Me., 90, 94, 96, 133, 144, 161. Porto, 265. Porto Cabello, 175. Porto Ricb; 68, 167 n. 6, 168. Portsmouth, 202. Portsmouth, U S,, 151, 156. Portugal, 265, 285, 370. Portugal, For. Pos., 172. Posen, tn. . 227. Posen, prov., 224,253. Poti, 295. Potomac, R., 109, 115. Potosi, 177. Potsdam, 227. Potteries, The, 203. Pottsville, 130, 150. Poughkeepsie, 130, 148. Powder River Bange, 106. Praga, 255. Prague, 245. Prairie Region, 111. Prairies, 111. Pregel, R., 216. Presidios, 285. Presque Isle, 150. Pribylov Is., 162. Prince Edward Is- land, 88. Prince's I., 285. Princeton, 149. Principe, I., 285, 346. Pripet, R., 249. Procida, 275. Prorne, 317. Provence, 213. Providence, 96, 114, 140, 145. Provincia, 213. Prussia, 224, 227, 370, Prussia, E , prov., 226. Prussia, W., prov., 224, 226. Pruthj R., 255. Public land, 141. Puebla, 166. Puget Sound, 69 «., 94, 94 n. 1, 104. 121, 125, 132, 133, 161. Pullman. 152. Puna, 315. Punjab, 309, 310,311, 313, 314. Punta Paiinas, 168. Pusstas, 240, 254. Puys, 206. Pyramid Canon, 103 n. 4. Pyrenees, 183, 205, 279. Qr/ANG-TUNG, 827. Quarnero, Gulf of, 239, 246. Quebec, tn.and prov. , 75 ji. 2, 84, 85, i7, 88. Queensland, 354, 357, 359, 361, 367. Queenstown, 205. Quincy, 145, 152. Quito, 168, 176. Quittebceuf, 209 n. 2. Racine, 153. Rainy L. and R., 86. Rajputana, 312, 315. Raleigh, 113, 141, 156. Ralston des., 102. Rangoon, 317. . Raniganj, 311. Raritan R., 149. Ratisbon, 220, 228. Ravenna, 273. Ravi, R., 214. Reading, 150. Recife, 174. Red Caflon, 103 n. 2. Red River (of tho North), 85, 90, 107. Red River, I.-C., 317. Red River (trib. Mississippi), 106, 117, 158. Red River valley, 107, 152. Red Sea, 42, 48, 302, 345. Regensburg, 228. Regina, 92. Reikjavik, 261. Reims, 212. Reno, R., 273 n. 2. Reunion, 285. Reuss, R., 233. INDEX 381 Revel, 251.' Rhine, Krumme, 219. Rhine, Old, 11 ., 219. Rhine Pr„ 212. Rhine; R„ 62, 214, 215, 223, 231, 235. Rhode Island, 81 n. 4, 130, 131, 140, 145. Rhodope Mts., 279. Rhone, It., 183, 207, 231, 233, 235. Rial, 262: Richmond, U.S., 93, 113,141,156. Rideau R., 87, 90. Riesengebirge, 221. Riga, 254.. Riga, Gulf of, 248. Rigi, Mt., 239. Rimini, 269. Rio de Janeiro, 16S, 174. Rio Grande, 93, 94, 97, 115. RioGrande del Norte, 100. Rion, R., 26, 295. Rio Tinto, 263. Riu-kiuls.,329n.3. Riverina, 356. Rivers, 26-28. Riviera, The, 273. Roads, 60. Roan Cliffs, 103 n. 3. Roaring Forties, 41. Rochefort, 211. Rochester, U.S., 123, 148. Rock I., 152. Rockford, 152. Rockhampton, 357. Rocky Mountains, 27, 28, 70, 73,' 77, 82, 85, 92, 98, 107, 126, 128, 165. Rokitno Marshes, 249. Rome, 53, 246, 275. Rome, U.8., 148. Rosa, Monte, 233. Rosario, 178. ftotemahana, L., 861. Rotterdam, 219. Rotumah, I., 367. Roubaix, 208. Rouen, 210. Roumania, 255, 370. Roumelia, E., 279, 283, 370. Rovuma, R., 345. Ruapehu, Mt., 360. Rumonshf 238. Russia,. 53, 58, 60, 85, 129, 134, 135, 248-255, 296, 358 n. 1, 370. Russia,' minerals, 252. Russian Cent. Asia, 285, 293. Rustchuk, 283. Ruthenians, 247. Rutland, 146. Saale, R, 224, 227. Siico Falls, 144. Sacramento, 94 n. 2, 142, 159, 160. Sacramento, R. , 80, 94, 105, 121, 159. Saginaw, 153. Saguntum, 266. Sahara, 131, 333. Saigon, 285, 317. Salamviia. R., 278, 284. Salem, 142, 145, 161. Sallbrd, 202. Salmon City, 159. Salmon Falls River, 96. Salonica, 277, 282. Salsette, 2S5, 315. Salt L.ike City, 72 n., 93, 142, 169. Salt lakes, 31. Salt water, Freezing of, 57. Salwin, R., 317. Salzburg, 245. Salsskammergut, 241 n. 3. Samarkand, 294. Sambre, R., 215. Samoan Is., 367. Samos, 285, 298. Samoyedes, 293. Sanddrbans, The, 309. Sand-dunes, 25. Sandhurst, 356. Sandusky, 150, 151. Sandwich Is., 368. San Antonio, 158, San Diego Bay, 69 n., 94, 95. San Domingo, 167. San Felipe, 102. San Francisco, 61, 93, 94 re. 2, 132, 133, 135, 154, 160, 161. San Francisco- Bay, 69 7i., 94, 105. San Francisco Peaks, 103. San Gorgonio Pass, 94. San Joaquin, R., 94, 105, 121, 160. San Jose, 72 n., 160. San Juan Mts., 100. San Juan, R., 166. San Luis Park, 100. San Pablo Bay, 94. San Pedro Bay, 94. San Remo, 273. San Salvador, Braz., 174. San Salvador, Cent. Am., 82, 83, 166. San'gredeXristo Mts., 100. Sanpu, R., 328. Santa Barbara, 121 «. 1. Santa Clara Valley, 160. Santa Cruz I., 168, 309. Santa Fe, 159. Santa Fe, prov., 178. Santander, 267. Santiago, 178. Sa6ne, R., 207, 212. Saracens, 270. Saratoga Springs, 148. Sarawak, 321. Sardinia, I., 276. Sardinia, kgd., 272. Sargasso Sea, 47 re. 5. .Saskatchewan, 92. Saskatchewan, R , 73, 85, 86, 92. Savannah, 124, 156. Savannah Harbor, 95. Savannahs, 112, 116, 133, 136. Save, It.. 240,241, 248 277, 280. Savoy, 212. Sawikin, 337. Sawatch Range, 100. Saxu-Alteuburg, 225 71. Saxe - Coburg - Gotha, 225 71. 1. Saxe-Meiningen, 225. Saxe- Weimar, 225! Saxon Switzerland, 228. Saxony, kgd., 222, 223; 224, 370. Saxony, prov. Prus., 227, 229. Scandinavia, 229, 256- 259, 260. Scandinavian origin, Hames of, 20J n. 2. Scheldt, R., 208, 215, 218. Schenectady, 148. Schleswig - Holstein, 226 Schuylkill, 150. Schvvarzawa, R., 245. Scotland, 196, 198. Scranton, 130, 150. Scutari, L., 278. Scutari, town, Asia Minor, 298. Sea-breezes, 38. Seasons, 19. Seattle, 161. Sebastopol, 254. Se-chwan, 324. Seconds, 18. Seeland, I., 260, 261. Seine, R.,207,209,210. Selenga, R, 292. Seleucia, Mesop., 301. Seleucia, Syr., 299. Selvas, 171. Semitic langs. , 290. Semmering Pass, 234. Seneca Canal, ln9. Seneca Lake, 1 10, 149. Senegal, R., 339. Senegal, 285. Senegambia, 285. Seraing, 219. Serayevo, 288. Sereth, It., 256. Servia, 280, 283, 370. Seul, 327. Severn, R., 199, 203. Seville, 61, 263, 266. 8eychelle Is., 346. 'S Gravenhage, 219: Shamo, 329. ' Shanghai, 326. Shannon', it ., 204 Shan-si, 323 n. 1. Shan States, 318. Slian-tung, 323. Shar Dagh, 278. Sharon, Flain of. 298. Shat-el-Arab, 301. Sheffield, 203. Shenandoah Valley, 108. Shetland Is., 196. Shiites, 305. Shipka Pass, 279. Shiraz, 305. Shoalwater Bay, 94. Shoshone Fall, 101. Shoshone R., 101 71. 1. Shoshong, 343. Shieveport, 112, 158. Siam,Gulfof.'287,317. Si am, kgd., 318. Siberia, 67, 77, 85, 252 Siciy,'270, 276. Sidon, 299. Siena, 275. Sierra Leone, 339. Sierra Madre Mts. , 70. Sierra Morena, 262. Sierra Nevada, U.S., 70, 72, 73, 78 71., 98, 104, 105, 289. Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta, 170. Sierra Nevada Sp , 262. Siklis, 314. Si-kiang, R., 327. Sikoku, 329. Silesia, Aust.,239, 245. Silesia, Prus.,222,224. Silver City, 159. Simla, 316. Simplon Pass, 233. Sinai, Mt., 302, 303. Sind, 313, 315. Sindhia's Dominion, 314. Singapore, 318. Sinter Siliceous, 30. Sir, It.. 294, 328. Sitka, 93, 142, 162. Skager Rak, 182. Skerries, 257. Skodra, L., 278. Slatington, 150. Slave Coast. 339. Slavonia, 247. Slavs,Wi, 241, 280, Smith Sonnd, 84. Smyrna, 298. 382 INDEX Snake R., 99,101. Snake River Plains, 101. Snow-line, 53. Society Is., 367. Hocotra, 195. Soerabaja, 321 «. 2. Sofala, 311. Sofia, 277, 883. Solomon Is., 366, 867. Solway Firth, 196. Somali Laud, 345. Somme, B., 209. Song-ka, B.,317. Song-koi, B.. 317, 318. SonOra B., 95. Sonora St., 165. Sorata, Mt., 62. Soudan, 333. Soudan, Egypt, 386. Soudan, Iudep., 337. Sound, The, 260. SouthAtlauticStates, 143, 155-157. Southampton, 202. South Australia, 354, 357, 358. South Bend, 151. South-Central States, 143, 157-159. Southern Alps, 360, 361. South Island, N.Zd., 360, 361. South Park, 100. South Pass, 95. South Pole, 17. South- Vest, 111. Spiin, 77,82,265-269, 289, 358, 370. Spain, For. Poss., 168, 172. Sparta, 284. Spencer Gulf,347, 357. Spezia, 275. Spice Is., 321. Spitzbergen, 248 n. 1. Split Mts. Canon, 103 n. 2. Spltigen Pass, 228 St. George I., 162. St. Gothard Pass, 233. St. Gothard Tunnel, 272. St. Helena, 346. St. John I., 284. St. John It., 88. St. John's, N.Bruns. St. John's, N.Found., Spokane Falls, 72 «., 120, 161. Spokane Plateau, 101. Sporades 283. Spree, R.. 227. Springfield, 140, 146, 151, 152. Springs, 30. Srinagar, 316. St. Anthony, Falls, 117, 154. St. Augustine, 157. St. Bartholomew, 81 n. 5. St. Bernard, Great Pass, 233. St. Clair, I/., 115. St. Croix, 96. St. Elias, Mt., 98 n. 1, 161. St. Etienne, 208. St. Joseph, 154. St. Joseph Falls, 151. St. Lawrence basin, 68, 107. St. Lawrence, Gulf, of, 75. St. Lawrence, B., 84, 85, 88, 90, 107, 118. St. Lawrence system, 70, 114. 115, 116. St. Lawrence Valley, 107. St. Louis, 75 n., 118, 122, 124, 132, 133, 184, 151, 153, 154, 155, 158. St. Lucia Bay, 344. St. Marie, 285. St. Martin I., 285. St. Mary's Canal, 115. St. Nazaire, 211. St. PauL 93, 117, 140, 153,154. St. Paul, Kodiak I., 162. St. Paul I., 162. St. Petersburg, 253 n. 2, 254. St. Pierre, 285. St. Boque, Cape, 168. St. Simon's Sound, 95. St. Thomas, I , Af. , 285, 346. St. Thomas, W.I., 168. St. Vincent, I., Af., 346. St. Vincent, Gulf, 357, 358. Staffa, I., 196. Staked Plain, 106. Stalactite, 29. Stalagmite, 29. Stanley Falls, 340. Stanley Pool, 340. Stanovoi Mts., 291. Stanthorpe, 357. Stassfurt, 223. Staten Island, 96, 146. Steppes, 58;— Bus., 252. Stettin, 226. Stewart I., 360. Stillwater Canon, 103 n. 4. Stockholm, 259. Stockton, U.S., 160. Straits Settlements, 195. Strassburg, 228. Stratford-upon-Avon, 203. Stuttgart, 228. Styria, 234, 245. SuabianAlps,220,228. Suakim, 837. Suchau, 328. Sucre, 177. Sudetes Mts., 221,239. Suez Canal, 336. Suez, Gulf of, 302. Suez, town, 336. Suisun Bay, 94. Sulaiman Mts., 304. Sulu Is., 285. Sulu Arch., 319. Sumatra, 287. 318,321. Sundals.,319. SundaIs.,Lesser,321. Sunnites, 805. Superior. L., 86, 90, 115, 116, 126, 128, 134, 150. Surabaya, 321. Surat, 315. Surinam, 174. 285. Susqueh anna, B. , 109, 115, 133, 149, 150. Suva, 367. Svealand, 258. Swan, B., 358. Swansea, 202. Sweden, 256, 258, 370. Swedes, 253. Sweetwater Valley,99 Swinemirnde, 226. Switzerland, 234-239, 370. Sydney, 356. 362. Syra, I., 284. Syracuse, 276. Syracuse, U.S., 148, 149, 153. Syria, 285, 297, 298. Szegedin, 247. Table Bay, 49. Table Mtn., 293. Tabriz, 296, 305. Tacoma, 94, 161. Taconic Mts., 108. Taganrog, 254. Tagus, 263. Tahiti, 367. Tallahassee, 141, 157 Tamil dang.), 312. Tana, B., 345. Tanganyika, L., 332, 344. Tapti, B., 307, 315. Tarai, The, 309. Tarim Basin, 328. Tashkent, 294. Tasmania, 194, 354, 359. Tatars, 252. Tatra, MtB., 240. Taunton, U.S., 145. Taunton Falls, 145. Taupo, L., 360. Taurus Mts., 297. Tay, Firth of, 204. Taygetos, Mt., 279. Tees, E., 201. Teheran, 305. Tehuantepec, 166. Tehuantepec, isth.. 165. Tejon Pass, lc5. Tell, The, Alg., 338. Tell, The, Mor., 339. Telugu (lang.), 312. Tumusvar, 247. Temperature, Varia- tions of, 25. Tenasserim, 317. Teneriffe, 40, 345. Tennessee, 97 n. I, 112, 125, 129, 141, 157. Tennessee, B. , 107. Tennessee, Valley ox East, 108. Termites, 57. Terre Haute, 130, 151. Texan systems, 78. Texas, 73 n, 4, 82, 95, 111, 123, 120, 131, 141, 158. Texas rivers, 106. Texas system, 114, 115 n. 1. Texel, I., 214. Tezcuco, L., 166. Thames, R., 199. Thebes, 385. Theiss,B.,28,240,247. Thessaly, 278, 283. Thousand Islands, 116 Throndhjem, 259. Thun,L.,235,287,239. Thiiringerwald, -220. Thuringian Fo 220, 229. ThuringianStates,229 Tian-Shau Mts., 85, 288, 293, 828. Tiber, B., 275. Tibet, 62, 306, 328. Ticiuo, R., 233, 272. Tides, 43, 44. Tientsin, 326. Tierra del Fuego, 177, 180. Tiflis, 61, 295, 297. Tigris, 296, 301. Timbuktu, 332, 345. Timok, B., 279. Timor, 285, 321. Tirnova, 279. Titicaca, L., 176, 177. Titusville, 130. Tobago, 168. Tobolsk, 292, 293. Togo Land, 285, 340. Tokiyo, 329, 330. Toledo, U.S., 150, 151 152 Toledo, Sierra, 263. Toltecs, 165. Tombstone, 159. Tomsk, 293. Tonga Is., 367. INDEX 383 Tongarlro, lit., 860. Tongking, 285, 318. Tongking, Gulf of,287. Tunning, 226. Toowoomba, 357. Topeka, 141, 155. Toronto, 90. Torrens, L., 351. Torres Str., 349, 357. T..ul, 212. Toulon, 213. Toulouse, 213. Toundras, 77, >S. Touraine, 211. Tourcoing, 208. Touro, 211. Townsend, Mt., 349. Trade-winds, 39, 72. Trans-Caspi.-in Terri- tory, 285, 294. Trans-Caucasin, 130, 296. Transkei, 343. Trans-Leitlian rrown- lands, 243, 247 n. 2. Transvaal, 343. Transylvania, 240,247. Trasinieno, L.. 270. Trebizonde, 296. Trent, E., 199, 203. Trent, town, 234, 246. Trenton, 113, 140, 149. Tiieste, 234, 239, 246. Trieste, Gulf, 239. Trinidad, 168. Trinity Hay, 92. Trinity R., 115. Tripoli, 337. Tristan da Cunha, 346. Tromso, 259. Tropics, 20; — Vegeta- tion of, 57. Troy, U.S., 114, 148. Tucuman, 178. Tueson, 142. Tula, 255. 'funguses, 293. Tunis, Gulf of, 338. Tunis, St., 285, 337. Tunis, town, 338. Tunja, n., 282 n. 2 Turin, 233, 272. Turkey-iu-Asia, 296, 297. Turkey - in - Europe, 281, 370. Turkestan, R. 328. Turtle Is., 176. Tuscany, 269, 273 Tweed, K., 196. Two Ocean Pass, 27 Tyne, R., 196. Typhoons, 41, 321 Tyre, 299. Tyrol, 234. Uintah Mts., 102 n. 4, 103. Ukerewe, L., 331. Ulm, 228. Ulster, 204, 205. Umbria, 275. Union Canal, 109. United Kingdom, 370. United States, 80, 81, 83, 93, 161. Upsala, 259. Ural Mts., 181, 248. Ural, B., 181, 183. Uri, Bay of, 233. Uruguay, K., 178. Uruguay, St., 178-180. Urumia, 295, 296. Usagara, 285. Usedora, I., 226. Uskub, 278. Utah, 73 71., 101, 126, 128, 181, 142, 159. Utica, 148. Utrecht, 219. Vaal, E.. 344. Valais, Alps of, 231. Valdai Hills, 183. Valencia, Gulf of, 269. Valencia, prov. aud town, 266. Valeutia, 197 Valladolid, 267. Valparaiso, 178. Valparaiso Harbor, 69 n. Vancouver, I., 69, 92. Vancouver, town, 92. Van Dieinen's Land, 359. Van, h., 295, 296. V.irdar, R., 278. Varna, 283. Vecht, 1!., 219. Venezuela, 16S, 170, 174, 175. Venice, 217, 246, ». 1. 272, 281. Vera Cruz, 72 n., l0 o, 166. Verde, Cape, Is., 346. Verdun, 212. Vermont,123,140,146. Verona, 272. Versailles, 210. Verviers, 219. Vesuvius, Mt., 275. Via JEmilia, 269. Via Mala, 233. Vicksburg, 112, 157 Victoria, Br Col., 92. Victoria, Col. of, 354, 355, 356, 357, 359. Victoria, Hg. - kg., 327. Victoria Land, 369 Victoria Nyanza, L., 331 Vienna, 75 -n., 234, 244. Vienna, R., 211. Vilna, 255. Vinland, 65 n. Virginia, 95, 97 n. 1, 113, 125, 127, 130, 137, 141, 156. Virginia City, 159. Virginia, St., Valley, 108. Virginia, West. 141. Virgin Is., 168. Visigoths. 209. 264. Vistula, R., 223, 241, 247, 255. Viti Levu, 367. . Vladikavkas, 295. - Vlieland, 1., 214. Vogesen, Mts., 220. Volcanoes, 35. Volga, R., 183. Volturno, R., 276. Vosges, Mts., 205. Waal, R., 215. Wabash, R., 117, 151. Wadi Haifa, 336 «. 3 WahsatchMts., 3)2. Waikato, R., 361 Wales, 189, 195. Wallace's Line, 364 it. 2. Wallachia, 255, 256. Walla Walla, 161. Wallenstadt. L., 237. Walthara, U.S., 145. WalvischBay,285,341 Warsaw, 255. Warta, R.. 227 Wasatch Mts., 70, 101, 102. Wash, The, 199. Washington, 77 «., 97 n 2. 113 137, 138. 156. Washington Ter , 101, 121, 125, 130, 142. Waterbury, 145 Wa'crloo, 219. P? ler-parting, 26. wafcertown, 149. W.itlingl., 167 n. 5. Watten, 225 n. 3 WatuphaR., 145. Waves, 43. Weimar, 229. Welland Canal, 115 Wellington, 361. Wener, L., 184. Weser, 201. West Australia, 354 358, 359. West Bay City, 153. West Indies, 41, 67, 68, 72, 81, 82, 166- 168. West Indies, Brit , 88 West Indies, Sp., 83 West Indies, Fr Dan. Dist., 83. West Point, 138. West Troy, 148. Westerdal, 259. Western States, 143. Westminster, 201. Westphalia, 222. Westport, N. Zd.,363. Wetter, L., 184. Wheeling, 151. Whirlpool Canon, 103 n. 2. White Mts., 108. White Sea, 182. Wichita, 165. Widdin, 283. Wieliczka, 247. Wight, I., 196. Wilhelmsuaven, 226. Wilkesbarre, 130, 150. Willamette, R., 94, 104. Willamette Valley, 120, 161. Williamsport, 150. Wilmington, 118, 150, 156. Wilminglon Harbor, 95. 106. Wilson's Promontory, 347. Wimmera Dist., £55. Wind River Range, 99. Wind River Valley, 99. Windermere, L., 199. Winds, 38-42, 50. Windsor, 203. Windward Is., 168 Winnebago, 153. Winnipeg, L., 75 n., 85, 86, 90, 107, 115 n. 2. Winnipeg, R., 86. Winnipeg, town, 90. Winnipegosis, L., 90. Winono, 154. Wisby, 259. Wisconsin, 111, 125, 128, 136, 140, 152. Wisconsin, R., 117. Wismar, 226. Woods, L. of the, 84, 97. Worcester, U.S., 133, 145. Wotchish Hills, 107. Wiirtemberg. 220, 224, 225, 228, 370. Wusung, R, 326. Wyoming, 98, 103, 130, 142 Xenil, 267 n. 1. Xerez, 267 n. 1. Tablonoi Mts., 291. YailaMts.,254. Yakuts, 293. Yakutsk, 293. Yale University, 139. Yanaon, 285. Yang-tse-kiang, 823. Yanina, 282, Yankton, 154. Yarkand, 328. Yarra, R., 856. Yellow River, 323. Yellow Sea, 287, 323. 384 INDEX Yellowstone National Park, 99, 117. Yellowstone Region, 27 n. 2, 99. YellowstoneB. ,99, 1 17 Yemen, 802. Yenisei, R., 292. Yezd, 307. Yen), 49, 92. Yokohama, 330. Yonkers, 14S. Yonne, R„ 207. York, C, 347, 349. Yorkshire, 203. Yosemite Valley, 105. Yucatan, 69, 161. Yucatan Channel, 69. Yukaahirs, 293. Yukon, R., 71. SO, 101, 162. Yuma, 72 n. Yun-nan, 826. Yvetot, 209 n. 2. Zambezi, 331, Zante, 283. Zanzibur, 335, 344. Zaragoza, 269. Zerafshan, R., 294. Zirknitz, L., 31, 246. Zones, 21-22. Zoroastrianism, 293, 291, 305. Zuider Zee, 214, 219. Zulus, 313. Zuni Mt., 103. Zurich, tn., 238. Zurich, L., 237- Zwittawa, K„ 3d. UiBKVD. 1