WJ l-4s5:3 I^.U-uyi'. % CORNELL UNIVERSITY. BosmeK THE THE GIFT OF ROSWELL P. FLOWE?fl '^ FOR THE USE OF THE N. Y. STATE VETERINARY COllLEQE 1897 8394-; i Cornell University Library RA 1216.N97 Veterinary toxicology. 3 1924 000 309 678 DATE DUE _-tii^^i-l_ i^^ »-v j • <. ^' £-4- ^C-'i'f ^ ,V-4-» — ir- X !. r-///^ GAYLORD ■PRINTED INU.S.A. Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000309678 VETERINARY TOXICOLOGY iii:n'i f;T;riv > I {; f; /'. [; \ BY JOSHUA A. NUNN, F.RC.V.S., &c. Pmnoipaij Abuz Vbteeinaet Officer. Indian Empibb; Joint Editoe "Veteei- NART JOUENAIi ;" PEINOIPAL PUNJAB YeTEEINAET CoI/LEGE ; CONSULTING Vetreinaey Subgeon to the Punjab Goveenment ; Examinee IN Hygiene, Botal College op Veteeinaey Suegeons ; Examinee in Veteeinaey Toxioolology and jueispbudenob, liteepool tjniyeksity l%mii ^. i.i New Toek WILLIAM E. JENKINS CO. PUBLISHERS 851-853 Sixth Ayenue 1907 3) * n r, V, « :> PREFACE These pages originally appeared in the VETERINARY JOURXAL, and at the suggestion of my friend, Professor W. Owen Williams, at the .time Editor of that Journal, they are now being brought out in book form. The subject-matter is not original; the book is only a compilation, the greater part from foreign sources, and the sole excuse for its seeing the light of day i? that, although many valuable papers have from time to time appeared in the various periodicals and in some of the standard works on medicine and therapeutics, they are not easy of access, and, as far as I am aware, nothing in the shape of a small volume on Veterinary Toxicology for ready reference has as yet been printed in England. Being only a compilation it was thought best to adhere to the figures given by various authors, hence some are given in foreign, others in English weights and measures. It is hoped that the different authorities quoted have been acknowledged in the text, but if from some oversight any have been omitted I can only tender my apologies. The papers were commenced in England in the middle of great stress of other work and concluded in South Africa, so that there has been no opportunity of rewriting them, as had been originally intended, and I am well aware there are many shortcomings in them. If, however, this little work will act as a stop-gap till some confrere with more leisure and abilities than I have produces a better and more perfect one it will have fulfilled its purpose. JOSHUA A. NUNN. Simla, October, 1 906. INDEX. Page Absorption of Poisons ... ... 6 Accidental Poisoning ... ... 5 Accumulation of Poisons in the System ... ... ... ... 7 Acid, Arsenious ... ... ... 29 Carbolic ... ... ... ... 140 Carbonic ... ... ... 124 Hydrochloric ... ... ... 103 Hydrocyanic ... ... ... 127 Hydro Sulphuric ... ... 125 Meconic ... ... ... ... 149 Nitrate of Mercury ... ... 70 Nitric ... ... ... ... 106 Oxalic ... ... ... 143 Prussic ... ... ... ... 127 Sulphuric ... ... ... 104 Acids, Free Detection of ... ... 24 Acids, Mineral ... ... ... 102 Aconite ... ... ... ... 175 Aconitine ... ... ... 175 Aconite and Aconitine, Treatment ot Cases of Poisoning by ... ...176 Action of Poisons ... ... ... 9 Air, Foul 125 Air, Foul, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by ... ... ... 123 Alcohol 132 Alcohol, Detection of 135 Alcohol, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by ... ... .• '35 Alcoholism ... ... ... ..132 Alkalies, Caustic ... ... ... 84 Alkaline, Carbonates... ... ... 84 Alkaloids Cadaveric ... ... ... 189 Alkaloids, Examination for 26 Alkaloids, Solid and Non-volatile, Detection of ... ... ... 27 Alkaloids, Volatile and Liquid, De- tection of ... ,., ... ... 27 Page Almonds, Bitter ... 127 Almonds, Bitter, Essence of.. ... 127 Almonds, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by ... ... ... 130 Ammonia, Detection of ... ... 89 Ammonia, Liquid ... ... ... 86 Ammonia, Salts of ... 87 Amygdaline ... ... ... ... 128 Anatomy, Morbid ... 5 Antagonism 13 Antidotes ... ... 13 Antimony, Compounds of ... ... 43 Antimony, Detection of ... 24, 46 Antimony, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by 46 Apparatus — Distillation for the Analysis 01 Hydrocyanic Acid ... Dusart and Blondlot's ... Flaudin and Danger's Distilla- tion For the Analysis of Chloroform Fresenius and Babo's for Arsenic Marsh's 39; Mitscherlich 131 117 21 137 20 i 47 117 Apple Spiked (Datura) ... ... 170 Arsenic and Arsenical Compounds... 29 Arsenic, Detection of. . . ... 24,41 Arsenic,Treatment of Cases of Poison- ing by 36 Atropia, Belladonna 169 Atropine ... ... ... ... 169 Atropine, Detection of 171 Atropine, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning B Barium, Carbonate ... Barium and its Compounds . 171 Inde: Page Barium, Detection of 83 Barium, Treatment t)f Cases of Poisoning by Salts of ,.. ... 82 Beans, St. Ignatius ... 151 Belladonha 169 Belladonna, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by ... 171 Bichloride of Mercury ... ... 71 Bioxalate of Potash ... 144. Bleaching Hypochlorates 99 Blight in Cereals and Food Grains 188 Blight in Food Grains, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by ... ... 190 Brain Symptoms from Lead Poisoning 63 Bread, Mouldy 189 Brine ... ... ... ... ... 93 Bromine ... ... . loi Brucine . ■■ IS9 Burning, Destruction of Organic Matter by ... ... 20 Page Cadaverine Calomel Cantharides ... Cantharides, Detection of ... Cantharides, Treatment of Poisoning by Cantharidine ... Carbolic Acid, Detection of ... Carbolic Acid, Treatment of Poison- ing by Carbonates, Alkaline.., Carbonic Acid, Detection of. .. Carbonic Acid, Treatment ol Poison- ing by Carbonate of Barium.., Carbonate of Lead ... Carbon Oxide Carbon Oxide, Treatment of Poison- ing by Caustic Alkalies, Treatment of Poisoning by Caustic Potash Caustic Soda Cereals, Blight in Cevadilline Pheipical Analysis 71 84 86 86 85 43 142 84 12s 123 81 59 121 123 8S 84 Chili Nitre, Treatment of Poisoning by Chloral Hydrate Chloride of Lime Chloride of Lime, Detection of Chloride of Mercury ... Chloride of Sodium ... Chloride of Sodium, Detection of Chlorine Chloroform Chloroform, Detection of ... Chloroform, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by Cicutinine and Conicine Cicutinine and Conicine, Detection of 171 cicutinine and Conicine, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by . . . Circulation of Poisons Classification of Opium Alkaloids Classification of Toxic Agents Clavi'ceps, Purpurea ... Coal Smoke ... Cocaine Colchicine Colchicum Colchicum and Colchicine, Treat- ment of Cases of Poisoning by Colchicum, Deleclion of Copper and ils Compounds ... Copper, Detection of... ... 24, Copper, Treatment of Poisoning by Corrosive Sublimate ... Cuprism Curare Cyanic Compounds ... Cyanides Cyanides, Detection of 93 138 99, 99 71 93 96 97 137 137 136 171 172 7 146 3 187 125 161 173 173 175 I7S 48 52 52 71 51 14 127 127 131 Datura Stramonium ... ... ... 170 Datura Stramonium, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by ... ... 171 Definitions ... ... ... i Destruction of Organic Matter by Burning ... ... ... ... 20 Destruction of Organic Matter by Flaudin and Danger's Process .,. zi Index. m Page Page Destruction of Organic Matter by Detection of Strychnine IS7 Fresenius and Babo's Process 20 Sulphuric Acid ... 106 Detection of Poisons Generally ... II Sulphuric Ether 137 Aconitine ... 177 Veratrine 163 Alcohol ... •■• 135 Volatile Substances 27 Alkalies ... 86 Zinc S8 Alkaloids ... 25 Diagnosis 11 Alkaloids of Opium ... 149 Dialysis 13 Alkaloids of Strychnia ... 158 Digitalis 177 Ammonia ... 89 Digitaleine, Digitaline and Digi- Antimony ... 46 toxine 177 Arsenic ■•• 37 Digilaline, Detection of 179 Atropine ... . . 171 Digitaline, Treatment of Poisoning Barium ... ... 83 by .~. 179 Cantharidine ... 186 Distillation 20, 26 Carbolic Acid ■■■ 143 Distinction between Various Poisons Carbonic Acid ... 125 and Viruses 2 Chloride of Lime ... 99 Doses of Arsenic 36 Chloride of Sodium 96 Doses, Toxic 32 Chloroform •■■ 137 Carbolic Acid 141, Cicatine and Conicine ... ■•■ 173 Copper 1 49 Corrosive Acids... ... 104 Lead 65 Colchicine ... 17s Mercury ... 71 Copper ... ... 52 Dragendorffs Method 28 Cyanides 131 Duration of Elimination 8 Digitaline ... 179 Free Acids ... 106 Hydrochloric Acid ... 104 E Hydrocyanic Acid ... 131 Hypochlorites ... 99 Effects, Local 10 Iodoform ... 140 Elinaination, Duration of Process ... 8 Lead ... 68 Elimination of Poison.s 7 Liquid and Volatile Alkaloids ... 27 EUenberger and Hofmeister Methods 64. Mercury 23. 78 Emetics 13 Metallic Poisons and Fluid ... iS Ergot, Ergotism, Ergotine 187 Metallic Substances ... 23 Ergot of Rye, and Ergotine Treat- Morphine ... 149 ment of Cases of Poisoning by ... 188 Nicotine .. 167 Eserine 159 Nitrate of Potash ■■ 93 lither. Sulphuric 136 Nitrate of Soda • 93 Ether, Sulphuric, Detectionof 137 Nitric Acid .. 107 Ether, Sulphuric, Treatment of Opium .. 149 Poisoning by 136 Organic Cases . 26 Etiology 4 Oxide of Carbon .. 123 Exhumations 14 Phosphorus .. 116 Experiments on Animals ... 157, 177 Potash. .. 86 Experiments, Preliminary 18 Soda .. 86 Experts 3 Solanine ... .. 169 False Angustura ... 15' Solid and Non- Volatile Alkaloids 27 | Fennel 182 IV Inde; Page F Flaudia and Danger's Method Modi- fied by Gaulier and Chapuis ... 21 Flaudin and Danger's Process for the Destruction of Organic Matter ... 21 Food, Decomposed and Altered ... i88 Food, Decomposed, Treatment of Poisoning by ... ... ... 190 Fresenius and l?abo's Method Modi- fied by Ogier ... 20 Fresenius and Babo's Process for the Destruction of Organic Matter ... 20 Gas, Illuminating ... ... ... 121 from Burning Materials ... 121 from Cesspools ... ... ... 126 from Sewers ... ... ... 126 General Method of Conducting an Analysis ... ... ... ... 18 H Hellebore, White 162 Hellebore,'White, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by ... ... ... 164 Hellebores and their Alkaloids ... 162 Hemlock 171 Hemlock, Treatment of Poisoning by 172 Henbane, Black and White 170 Henbane, Treatment of Poisoning by 171 75 104 103 127 '31 130 125 170 171 Hydrargism ... Hydrochloric Acid Hydrochloric Acid, Detection of Hydrochloric Acid, Treatment Poisoning by Hydrocyanic Acid Hydrocyanic Acid, Detection of Hydrocyanic Acid, Treatment Poisoning by ... Hydrogen, Sulphuretted Hyoscyamine ... Hyoscyamine, Treatment of Poison ing by of Hypochlorates, Bleaching .. Hypochlorates, Detection of I Page 99 99 Icaja ... .. 151 Incineration ... .. 20 Intoxication, Definition of ... .. >3S Iodine • 99 Iodoform •• 139 Iodoform, Detection of .. 140 Iodoform, Treatment of Cases . of Poisoning by .. 140 Laudanum Laurel... Law of Rabuteau Lead, Brain, Symptoms from Lead, Treatment of Poisoning by Lead, White Oxide of Lead Compounds Lead Detection ... ... 24 Lead Paralysis Lead Poisoning Legal Medicine Leucomaines ... Lime Chloride Lime Chloride, Detection of Local Efifects ... M Malicious Poisoning Matches M'boundou Mephitism, Nitrogen Mephitism, Sulphur Mercurialism ... Mercury, Acid Nitrate of ... Mercury, Bichloride of Mercury, Compounds of Mercury, Detection of ... i.^ Mercury, Salts of Mercury, Treatment of Poisoning by Metallic Substances, Detection of ... Method of Conducting an Investiga- tion 146 127 9 63 67 60 59 , 68 63 64 2 191 99 99 10 4, 12 109 151 121 126 75 70 74 71 3,78 70 77 20 19 Index. Page Methods of Destruction of Organic Material ... ... ... ... 20 Method of Dragendorff ... 28,108 Methods, Ellenburger and liof- meister ... ... ... 68 Flaudin and Danger, Modified by Gautier and Chapuis ... 21 Fresenius and Babo, Modified by Ogier 20,78 Pouchet 69 Roussin 107 Stas 26 Wohler 22 Dusart and Blondiot 117 Mitscherlich 117 Methylgadinine 189 Miasma, Definition of 1 25 Mineral Acids, Treatment of Poison- ing by ... ... ' 103 Morbid Anatomy 14 Morphine 146 Morphine, Detection of 149 Moulds 188 Muscarine 189 Mushrooms ... ... 189 Mydaleine 189 Nitric Acid, Treatment of Poisoning by 105 Nux Vomica ... ... ... ... 151 Nux Vomica, Treatment of Poisoning by 156 O Oats, Mouldy igo Opium 145 Opium, Detection of Alkaloids of ... 149 Opium, Tincture of ... ... ... 146 Opium, Treatment of Poisoning by,. , 149 Organic Matter, Destruction of by Burning ... ... .. ... 20 Organic Matter, Destruction of by Flaudin and Danger's Process ... 21 Organic Matter, Destruction of by Fresenius and Babo's Process ... 20 Oxalic Acid ... ... 143 Oxalic Acid, Detection of ... 24,145 Oxalic Acid, Treatment of Poisoning by 145 Oxide of Carbon, Detection of ... 123 Oxide of Carbon, Treatment of Poisoning by ., 123 N Papaverine ... 146 Paralysis, Lead 63 Narceine 146 Paste Phosphorus 108 Narcotine 146 Pathogenesis 9 Nervine 189 Pathological Anatomy S Nicotine 165 Perchloride of Mercury 71 Nicotine, Definition of 16S Peronasporos ... 189 Nicotine, Treatment of Poisoning by 167 Phosphorism '. "S Nicotinism ... 166 Phosphorus 108 Nightshade, Treatment of Poison- Phosphorus, Detection of 116 ing by 169 Phosphorus, Treatment of Poisoning Nitrate of Mercury ... 72 by "3 Potash 89 Physiology of Poisoning 8 Silver 80 Poisoning, Definition of 2 Soda 91 Poisoning, History of 3 Nitrate of Potash, Treatment of Poisoning, Physiology of 9 Poisoning by 93 Poisoning, Spontaneous, Accidental, Nitre Chili, Treatment of Poison ing and Malicious 4 ' by ... 93 Poisoning, Theory of. 4 Nitric Acid, Detection of ... 24, 107 Poisoning, Treatment of 13 VI Inde: Page Poisons, Absorption of 6 Poisons, Action of ... ... ... 9 Poisons, Channels of Introduction . 5 Poisons, Circulation and Retention of 9 Poisons, Elimination of 8 Poisons, Retention of 9 Poisons, Vehicles for Conveyance of 4 Poppy Heads... ... 146 Poppy Heads, Treatment of Poison- ing by 149 Post Mortem Examination';... ... 14 Potash, Bioxalate of ... 144 Potash, Caustic 84 Potash, Detection of 86 Potash, Nitrate of 89 Potash Nitrate, Detection of ... 93 ■ Potash Nitrate, Treatment of Poison- ing by 91 Potash, Salts of 89 Potatoes, Damaged ... ... ... 190 Pouchet, Method of ... ... 22, 69 Presumption of Poisoning ... ... n Prussic Acid ... ... 127 Ptomaines ... 189 Rabuteau ... ... 3 Ranunculacea ... 181 Ranunculacea, Treatment of Cases of Poisoning by ... ... ... 182 Retention of Poisons... 7 Roussin, Method of 25,167 Rust in Cereals ... ... ... 190 Salt of Sorrel ... Salt, Sea Salt, Spirit of... Salts of Ammonia Barium . . , Mercury ... Potash ... Sodium . . . Saponine Saturnism 144 93 103 86 81 71 89 91 182 63 Page Silver, Nitrate of 23,80 Smoke, Coal 125 Smut in Cereals ... ... 188 Smut in Wheat 188 Soda, Caustic... ... ... ... 84 Soda, Detection of 86 Soda, Nitrate of 91 Soda, Nitrate of, Treatment of Poisoning by 93 Soda, Treatment of Poisoning by ... 85 Sodium Chloride 93 Sodium Chloride, Treatment of Poisoning by ... ... ... 95 Sodium, Salts of ... ... ... 91 Solanacea, Poisonous ... ... 168 Solanine ... ... ... ... 168 Solanine, Detection of ... ... 169 Solanine, Treatment of Poisoning by 169 Sorrel, Salt of. .. ... ... ... 144 Spiked Apple (Datura) ... ... 170 Spontaneous Poisoning ... ... 4 Stas, Method of 26 Strychneas, Natural Order of ... 151 Strychnia Castelnceana ... ... 151 Strychnia, Detection of Alkaloids of 158 Icaja 151 Ignatii ... ... .. ... 151 M'boundou ... ... ... 151 Nux Vomica ... ... 151 Tiente ... ,. ... ... 151 Strychnine ... ...151 Strychnine, Treatment of Poisoning by 156 Subchloride of Mercury ... ... 71 Sublimate, Corrosive... ... ... 71 Suiifocation from Nitrogenous Fumes 125 Suffocation from Sulphur Fumes ... 125 Sulphohydric Acid, Detection of ... 127 Sulphuretted Hydrogen ... ... 125 Sulphuric Acid, Detection of 24, 106 Sulphuric Acid, Treatment of Poison- ing by 105 Sulphuric Ether, Treatment of Poisoning by ... ... ... 136 Symptomatology ... ... ... 11 Tares 183 Tares, Treatment of Poisoning by ... 184 Index. vu Page TaxusBaccata ... ... ... 1 79 Thebaine 146 Theory of Poisoning 9 Tiente 151 Tjettek 151 Tobacco ... ... 165 Tobacco, Treatment of Poisoning by 167 Toxalbumins ... ... ... ... 189 Toxicology, Chemical ... ... 17 Definition of ... ... ... I Physiologico-Medical ... 9 Toxines ... ... ... ... 189 Treatment of Poisoning ... ... 13 Treatment of Poisoning by — Aconite and Aconitine .. . ... 176 Alcohol 135 Altered Food 190 Antimony ... ... ... 46 Arsenic ... ... 36 Atropine ... ... ... 171 Barium, Salts of... ... ... 82 Belladonna ... ... ... 171 Bitter Alnionds 130 Blighted Grain 190 Cantharides and CanthariJine... l85 ' Carbolic Acid ... 142 Carbonic Acid ... 123 Caustic Alkalies ... ... ... 85 Chili Nitre 93 Chloride of Sodium ... .. 95 Chloroform 136 Cicutine or Conicine ... ... 172 Colchicon or Colchicine 175 Copper ... 52 Datura Stramonium ... ... 17' DigitalisandDigitaline .. ... 179 Ergot of Rye and Ergotine ... 188 Ether 136 Sulphuric 136 Foul Air 126 Hellebore White 164 Hemlock 172 Henbane ... ... 171 Hydrochloric Acid 103 Hydrocyanic Acid ... ... 130 Hyoscyamine ... ... ... 171 Iodoform,.. .. ... ... 140 Lead 67 Mercury ... ... ... ... 77 Treatment of Poisoning by Mineral Acids Nicotine ... Nightshade Nitrate of Potash Nitrate of Sod.^ . Nitric Acid... Nux Vomica Opium Oxalic Acid Oxide of Carbon Phosphorus Poppy Heads Potash ... Ranunculacea Soda Solanine ... Strychnine Sulphuric Acid . Tares Tobacco ... Veratria and Veratrine Yew Zinc, Salts of ... Page 103 167 171 91 93 107 156 149 I4S 123 "3 149 85 182 85 169 156 105 184 167 164 181 57 Vehicles for Conveyance of Poisons Veratria and Veratrine Veiatria and Veratrine, Treatment of Poisoning by Veratrine, Detection of W White Lead .. Wohler, Method of Yew Yew, Treatment of Poisoning by Zinc, Compounds of Zinc, Detection of ... Zinc, Treatment of Poisoning by 4 164 164 164 60 22 179 181 55 58 57 VETERINARY TOXICOLOGY. CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOXICOLOGY. DEFINITION. Toxicology (from the Greek words ro^ixov poison and Xoyog a •discourse) is defined by Hugounenq to be " that section of biology which treats of poisons in relation with living creatures." This de- finition leads on to the question, " What is a poison ? " According to Foddr6 and Orfila poisons are " Any substances which, taken internally, or applied in any way to the living body, are prejudicial to health or destroy life." Devergie's definition is, " All substances which, taken internally or applied externally to the body, that are capable of altering the health or destroying life without acting mechanically or reproducing themselves." But this definition is faulty, as it would not include certain substances, such as powdered glass, that act mechanically, or micro-organisms, which are capable of multiplication. Littrd and Robin describe a poison as " Any substance which, if taken into the body by cutaneous ab- sorption during respiration, or by means of the digestive system, acts on the tissues in such a manner as to endanger life, or to cause death in a short space of time " ; and Vulpian, " All substances in- troduced by absorption into the organisms that give rise to struc- tural alteration or functional disturbance of greater or less inten- sity, and whose action, when it reaches a certain degree of severity, is capable of causing death or endangering life." These different definitions from high authorities show the diffi- A 2 Veterinary Toxicology. culty, if not the impossibility, there is of including all poisonous substances in one concrete sentence ; and Tardieu says, " Poison- ous properties are never absolute, and are dependent, not on the nature of the substance, but on accessory conditions such as the dose used, method of administration, &c." ; as, for example, arsenic and strychnine, which, in certain quantities, are violent and deadly poisons, and in others valuable remedies. The same may be said with regard to hydrocyanic acid, digitaline, and many others. Taylor {Poisons, 3rd edition) gives three supplementary defini- tions — viz., the popular, legal, and medical. With regard to the first, he says, " A poison is commonly defined to be a substance which, when administered in small quantity, is capable of acting deleteriously on the body " ; and to the second, " A poison is a sub- stance which, when absorbed into the blood, is capable of seriously affecting health or of destroying life." Taylor allows that this de- finition is faulty, as there are some substances, such as the mineral acids and alkalies, that are corrosive, and destroy life by the changes, they cause in living tissues and the resulting inflammation. On the Continent the giving of poisons is specially provided for by the legislature ; in France, to human beings by Articles 301 of the Penal, and 1382 and 1383 of the Civil Code; to animals, by Articles 452 and 454 Penal Code ; in England, where the law is not codified, by the Drugging of Animals Act of 1876 (39 and 40 Vict, chapter 13). Although at first it may seem a simple matter enough to dis- tinguish between a poison and a medicine, on reflection it will be found that the border line is ill defined, the species, sex, and indi- vidual all being factors to be taken into consideration ; as, for in- stance, carbonic oxide; which is so fatal to man, is much better tolerated by the rabbit, and this animal is almost immune to the effects of belladonna. The study of toxicology is intimately blended with other bio- logical sciences, particularly physiology and chemistry, both of which it on many occasions even overlaps, especially the latter,. General Toxicology. 3 and, in addition, a knowledge of botany, zoology, and pathology are required, as the effects produced by a poison are diseased conditions. CLASSIFICATION. The necessity for the classification of poisons became apparent to both medical men and lawyers at a very early date, and several different systems have from time to time been prepared based on different facts, but up to the present a really satisfactory one has not been arrived at. In 1785, Jacob Plenck placed poisons according to their origin — viz., animal, vegetable, mineral — those contained in vapour, and those given off by the volatilisation of certain substances. In 1 80 1, Mahon, the first Professor of legal medicine at the " Ecole de Paris," reduced Plenck's classification to three — viz., animal, vegetable, and mineral, placing both volatile and fixed poisons in one or the other categories. Huseman, in 1862, proposed two groups, organic and inorganic. Amongst the first he placed the animal, vegetable, and mineral poisons ; in the latter, the metalloids, metals, and their compounds. Orfila classified poisons according to their effects ; also Tardieu, the latter author, distinguishing them as irritants or corrosives, hyposthenics, stupefactives, and neurosthenics. The tendency now is to classify poisons, not on the symptoms they give rise to, but the way in which they act ; and this has been adopted by Taylor, Claude Bernard, and Rabuteau. The follow- ing is Rabuteau's classification : — ( Poisons acting on the blood globules. Hematics, . < , (. ,. „ „ plasma. {Poisons paralysing motor nerves. „ „ sensory nerves. „ „ cerebro-spinal system. Neuro-muscular. Muscular. Irritants. 4 Veterinary Toxicology. This classification of Rabuteau's, which is rational in principle, is a long way from being perfect, as there are many poisons whose effects are not well known ; and others that are complicated, and which permit them to be placed in more than one group. Bouis's classification is what has been adopted by most Con- tinental writers on the subject, and, although it is artificial and arbitrary, it has the advantage of being simple, and is really what would be adopted in the analysis for an unknown poison. It is as follows, and is what is proposed to be adopted in the following pages : — Simple bodies and their compounds, J " I Metalloids and mineral acids. ^ J ( Gas. Gas and vapours, . . j { Vapours. (Organic acids, f Alkaloids. Organic bases, i ^.rr ^ . , (. Different organic bases. Various poisonous substances. ETIOLOGY. Mode of Entrance of Poison into the Body. — It is extremely rare that poisons are taken into the body in a pure state ; they are usually mixed with some substance that acts as a vehicle, and which in many cases greatly modifies the effects. It may act as a solvent and facilitate absorption, or it may, on the contrary, retard it by preventing solution ; by its chemical action the nature of the poison may be completely changed ; or by disguising the taste the animal may take the mixture voluntarily. Spontaneous, Accidental, and Intentional Poisoning. — Spon- taneous poisoning takes place from the food or the air breathed, and domestic animals are much more subject to this than wild ones, as they are more likely to come into contact with such sub- stances when hungry. The sense of taste is not very acute in General Toxicology. 5 ruminanfs, and poisoning from such substances as colchicum, tobacco, ergot of rye, and mildewed wheat, is by no means uncommon. With the smaller animals, such as dogs and cats, poisoning by food cooked in copper vessels, lead poisoning from water, and salt in the form of brine, are well known. The air breathed may contain volatile poisons or gases, such as fumes of mercury, small particles of metal in the shape of filings, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, coal gas, &c. Accidental poisoning is the most frequent with the domestic animals, either in the form of medicines not being sufficiently diluted, too large doses being given, or the drug being continued for too long a period. Intentional or malicious poisoning is generally through the food, the victims usually being dogs or small animals. It may be perpe- trated from feelings relating to the animal itself, such as a fierce dog that has bitten some one, or from personal resentment against the owner or owners, of which a good example is the poisoning of hounds. Channels of Entrance. — The various mucous membranes and the skin are usually the portals through which the poison is absorbed. No doubt poisoning sometimes takes place by introduction into the subcutaneous cellular tissue, the different serous cavities, and even directly into the circulation, but the most usual portals are the digestive and respiratory systems, with the food or air. PATHOLOGY. Local Effects. — These are the results of the action of the poison on the living surface that it comes in contact with, and generally consist of more or less diffused irritation, varying in degree from congestion or inflammation to mortification, and which local effects react on the whole system, giving rise to fever, collapse, &c. These effects are not uniform, and depend on many circumstances, such 6 Veterinary Toxicology. as the nature of the poison, the vehicle it has been administered in, the dose, the surface it has been absorbed from, and the conditions that exist in that surface, such as whether the stomach is empty or the process of digestion going on. Absorption. — Most authorities state that absorption is necessary before poisoning can take place, but this is hardly correct, as it only takes place in the case of soluble or volatile substances. The nature of the absorbent surface has to be remembered, as, for instance, un- broken skin, which readily absorbs gases, only takes up a very small portion of any other material. Skin altered either by mechanical irritation, such as friction, an irritant or vesicant, becomes very absorbent, also wounds, in which in some cases the vessels will allow of direct access to the circulation. All the mucous membranes, and more especially the gastro-intes- tinal, allow ready absorption of poisons, also those of the respira- tory system, which not only allow of the passage of gas, but also substances dissolved in dialysable fluids. The serous membrane and subcutaneous cellular tissue are also absorbent, and when a poison is introduced directly into the current of the blood, grave results follow almost at once. Other conditions may cause the degree of absorption to vary, such as the nature of the vehicle, the condition of the membranes, and even the state of health of the patient. Certain substances, by their action on the vaso-rnotor system, contract the capillaries and retard absorption. The state • of the stomach and intestines must also be considered, viz., whether they are full or empty, and, if full, the nature of the contents. Animals that are in a weak state either from loss of blood or wast- ing disease absorb poisons much more rapidly and completely than healthy ones. These various reasons show that it is not possible to lay down a hard and fast rule as to the dose of poison given and the quantity absorbed, and furthermore it must be remembered that a portion may be lost by vomiting, as well as passed in the faeces, particularly if there is diarrhoea. General Toxicology. 7 Circulation. — Once the poison is absorbed, it is carried to various parts of the body by the circulation, and its special results are then made manifest, and here the part of the body from which absorp- tion has taken place must be remembered, as this has a considerable influence on the symptoms. Most poisons before they can produce any result have to gain access to the circulation, but in transit a ■considerable portion may be retained in some special organ or organs, or eliminated from the body, as, for example, one that is absorbed through the stomach or intestines may have a large por- tion either retained in or eliminated by the liver ; or, if volatile, exhaled by the lungs. For this reason, sulphuretted hydrogen is less poisonous when taken by the stomach, and the potash salts, which are very poisonous when injected intravenously, are in the stomach inert. Deposition. — Most poisons are found dissolved in the blood plasma, but some only in the red corpuscles having undergone in many cases changes in their constitution, which will be discussed under each special heading, but the majority of the metals are in the form of chlorides combined with albumen ; phosphorus and arsenic remain unaltered. Some poisons have an affinity for certain tissues or organs, and the effects they produce to a considerable extent depend on their power of selection. These are chiefly metals, and lead, arsenic, and mercury can be given as examples, the liver being the principal organ in which they are to be found ; in it also are deposited most of the alkaloids in various forms, which will be mentioned further on. This deposition, as well as the proces,s of elimination, diminishes .the quantity of the poison in the circulation, and retards the ap- pearance of or lessens the severity of the symptoms. In certain cases the process of deposition is the result of the formation of a more or less stable compound from the poison in combination with the proteids of the tissues. Elimination. — Poisons in the blood are eliminated in the excre- tions in exactly the same way as those that are deposited in the 8 Veterinary Toxicology. varioQS tissues. The time occupied in this process greatly varies, but, if the patient survive, in a longer or shorter time no trace is found in the body. Dr. Geoghegan found that arsenic continued to be deposited in the liver for fourteen hours after administration, after which time the quantity diminished and entirely disappeared in from fourteen to seventeen days. Orfila's observations are the same. Taylor gives a series of cases that go to prove that if the patient lives from fourteen to twenty-one days arsenic is not likely to be found in the soft tissues, and that under proper treatment it may disappear in a few days from the contents of the stomach and intestines. Elimination will take place through the kidneys of nearly all the mineral poisons ; many alkaloids, alcohol and chloroform,, mercury, and many other metallic salts, through the liver in the bile, although some of them, passing with it back into the intestines,, may be reabsorbed, hence elimination by this channel is slower and more uncertain than through the kidneys. Gases, vapours, and volatile poisons are eliminated by the lungs, and their peculiar smell in the breath will often be a valuable indi- cation ; the same with the skin, which eliminates many volatile substances, especially alcohol. The salivary glands, those of the skin, and various mucous mem- barnes also all help to eliminate poisons, but not very actively. Chattin has found traces of arsenic in serum from a blister. Some poisons are eliminated unaltered, especially those derived from the vegetable kingdom — such as strychnine, morphine, and cicatine, also chloroform ; but others undergo change during the process — either during absorption or after they have gained access to the general circulation. Rabuteau gives the following changes which he has demonstrated by experiment : — sulphides, sulphites, and hyposulphites into sulphates ; cyanates, acetates, tartarates, matates, citrates, formiates, valerinates, quinates, meconate.s, alka- line succinates, &c., into carbonates, ferriccyanide into ferrocyanide ;, perchloride of iron into protochloride ; iodates and bromates into. General Toxicology. 9 iodides and bromides ; tannic into gallic acid ; and the compounds- of oxygen and phosphorus into phosphoric acid. The time it takes for a poison to be eliminated is one of much practical importance, and greatly varies not only with the particular poison but the dose given, the period over which its administration has extended, and the condition in which the excretory organs are in. Certain substances remain a long time in the body, and others cause such changes in the tissues that the functions are altered or impaired, and they cannot be got rid of ; also the repeated admini- stration of small doses may so saturate the organism that elimina- tion can only take place very slowly. PHYSIOLOGY OF POISONING. The way in which poisons act has given rise to much discussion,, and even now the matter is not satisfactorily settled. Mosselman and Hebrant classify their mode of action under three headings : — ■ (i) By deoxygenation of the blood, chiefly by derivatives from the vegetable kingdom, such as citrates, tartarates, and oxalates ; these are turned into carbonates at the expense of the blood, which is left with insuificient oxygen, and consequently asphyxia takes, place ; (2) by the formation in the body of stable compounds,, which cause such alterations in the nutritive functions of the tissues^ as to be incompatible with life ; most of the metallic poisons — copper, lead, mercury, arsenic, and antimony — act in this fashion ; (3) those substances that do not give rise to material lesions, but whose action is dynamical. Rabuteau formulated a law on relative poisonous properties, viz.,. " The activity of metals is in proportion to their atomic weight and in inverse proportion to their specific heat ; " but if this were the case the heaviest metals would be the most poisonous. The axiom has been disputed by many toxicologists, especially Chas. Richet, who denies that there is any relationship between atomic weight and poisonous properties, but many authorities, although lo Veterinary Toxicology. they allow that Rabuteau's law is not absolutely correct, neverthe- less consider that it is of considerable value. Some ingenious theories in support of it have been advanced, based on the fact that the atomic weights of the substances that form the body are low, and those of the poisons are high, and in particular a pamphlet by Leo Errera can be mentioned, but after all these are academical distinctions, and can be disregarded for practical purposes. Poisonous doses. — It is difficult to precisely lay down what is and what is not a poisonous dose of any substance, as so many different conditions and circumstances will cause variation. It has been mentioned how the process of absorption can be interfered with, as well as the elimination of the poison, both of which will considerably modify the effects of a dose of any particular one. The species must also be taken into consideration, as what is fatal to some is inert in others, especially vegetable poisons, as, for instance, the Mercurialis annua, which is a deadly poison to the 'OX, has little effect on the pig. Rabbits can eat belladonna with impunity, bovines colchicum, and the camel the euphorbia. Weight and age are also factors as well as the state of health, temperament, and condition. Also climate has to be considered, as -some poisons are made more active in a tropical country. LESIONS. Contrary to the popular idea, post-mortem lesions are not of primary importance to the toxicologist. They are very variable, and no way in accord with the virulence of the poison ; in addition, the specific appearances caused by a particular one, which at the best are not absolutely certain indications, may co-exist with others which are common to many various conditions. The lesions that present themselves are the results of local action, notwithstanding that the poison in the system acts on the General Toxicology. ii blood, the organs of elimination, and certain tissues for which it has a special affinity. It must be remembered furthermore that certain lesions are invisible to the naked eye and a microscopical examina- tion is necessary. The visible lesions generally consist in inflammation in a more or less advanced condition, but we may find both superficial and interstitial haemorrhage, exudation, retrogressive changes, and even necrosis or sclerosis. Some of these lesions develop but slowly, and are only seen in advanced cases of chronic poisoning. SYMPTOMS. The symptoms of poisoning must be treated separately under the section of each special substance. The local effects are usually the first symptoms noticed, and as most poisons are taken in the food or water, they usually are ■derangements of the digestive system. In most cases they mani- fest themselves with little delay, but in ruminants this takes longer than in other animals. These symptoms are generally a variable ■degree of irritation of the upper digestive canal characterised by stomatitis, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, thirst, colicky pains, and diarrhoea. There is also in most cases derangement of the circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems, which may either be primary or secondary. The chief excretory organs also are affected, liver, kidneys, salivary and intestinal glands, giving rise to icterus, nephritis, ptyalism, &c. The progress and duration of these symptoms are variable, and entirely depend on the nature of the poison, as well as whether the case is an acute or chronic one. DIAGNOSIS. In case of sudden illness or death, especially if it is an obscure one, the tendency of the public is to at once rush to the idea of 12 Veterinary Toxicology. poison, but a certain diagnosis is exceedingly difficult in most instances, and can only be arrived at by the exercise of consider- able care, the first step necessary being to clearly establish the fact that there is a poison in the system and that the symptoms observed are due to its presence. This is arrived at by carefully considering the circumstances of the particular case, the symptoms seen, and if the patient is dead, the lesions manifested by a post- mortem examination. Careful inquiries should be instituted as to the food and water, and any changes that have been made. The remains of any meal taken, and the vessels that it has been prepared in, should receive attention, also the stools and matter vomited. If any medicine has been given, any remaining over should be examined and inquired into, as many cases of poisoning are caused by mistakes or over-doses. It should be ascertained if the symptoms have come on suddenly, and all details carefully noted, no matter how trivial, as such frequently permit of cases of poisoning being differentiated from other diseases that they resemble. If a post-mortem examina- tion is made, particular attention should be devoted to the digestive system, as to the extent and nature of the lesions, and the physical characteristics of the contents, which are sometimes valuable indications as to the nature of the poison used. A chemical analysis, however, is always necessary. If the subject is still alive, this is made on the remainder of the food or water that has been used, material vomited, and in some cases the urine. If dead, on the contents of the stomach and intestines, and portions of those organs in which the suspected poison is known to be likely to be deposited in. What are known as "'physiological tests" can be made with suspected food, vomited matter, and substances obtained by chemical analysis, and sometimes these are of great utility. They consist in the inoculation or administration of the suspected sub- stance to suitable animals and careful observation of the results, as to whether they coincide with what may be expected or not. General Toxicology. 13 TREATMENT. In the presence of an acute case, certain lines of treatment are indicated, as in the majority of cases the poison has been taken by the mouth and the object of all remedies is to delay or prevent absorption, to neutralise the poison or render it insoluble, to •eliminate out of the system both what is absorbed and what is unabsorbed, and to counteract the effects produced and the re- ■sulting lesions. The first can be accomplished by purgatives and ■emetics in those animals that are capable of vomiting. These latter, from the rapidity with which they act, are most valuable and are ■only contra-indicated when the poison itself is an emetic. Purgatives ■are not nearly so reliable, as they act slower, and before the result is ■attained a considerable portion of the poison is absorbed. Their greatest use is when agents that retard absorption are adminis- tered in conjunction with them (such as fatty or oleaginous substances for arsenic), or those that unite with the poisons and form an insoluble or inert compound, such as sulphate of soda ■or magnesia in cases of poisoning with metallic salts. In this case the antidote exercises a double action, combining with the poison to neutralise its effects and acting as a purgative to eliminate it. Antidotes act in three ways ; they neutralise the poison, render it insoluble, or arrest the injurious effects, as acids in cases of poisoning by alkalies, and vice versa. The rendering of a poison insoluble is seldom or ever complete as regards the entire dose, and •only certain special ones can be acted upon in this way. In the case of poisoning by metallic salts, sulphides, tannin, and albumen, such as white of egg, milk, &c., are used. With a view to the elimination of poisons that are already absorbed, the excretory organs are stimulated by diuretics, sudorifics, cholagogues, and purgatives, and in certain cases agents that enter into combination with the poison and dialysable com- pounds, such as iodide of potassium with mercury and lead. Antagonistics are substances that produce a contrary train of 14 Veterinary Toxicology. symptoms to the poison. Substances .cannot be looked upon as antagonistic unless they produce counteracting results which will neutralise each other in relative doses, but such antagonistic agents are few and their action is not well understood. In most cases they are themselves poisons, and their action may cause death, Curara would, for instance, seem to be an ideal antidote for strych- nine, but it is not so in reality ; it no doubt prevents the tetanic spasms, but not the anatomical lesions. In chronic poisoning the object aimed at is to not only eliminate the poison deposited in the various tissues, but to counteract the special anatomical and functional lesions and phenomena produced by the poison, also the fact must be remembered that in chronic poisoning, in addition to the primary lesions, that secondary ones, which may become more important and dangerous than the primary, are likely to develop, such as paralysis, muscular atrophy, cachexia, &c. POST-MORTEM EXAMINATIONS. Particular care should be exercised in the making of a post- mortem examination. It should be remembered that the public are very apt to jump at the conclusion that animals are poisoned that die suddenly, and in the case of pets, such as house dogs, are prone to show much feeling and animosity against the supposed perpetrators of the outrage, hence when called in to such a case the veterinary surgeon should act with great caution, and be ex- ceedingly careful how he commits himself to any statement or expression of opinion without ample proof He should also take full notes as to the appearance of the body, &c., as he goes on, which, if necessary, he can dictate to a third person. On conclusion of the examination these notes should be read over, signed by both parties, and carefully kept, in case they are required if the matter goes into Court. These notes should be taken in ink or indelible General Toxicology. 15 .pencil, for then there can be no question as to their being tampered with. If the body is that of a large animal it should be pulled on to a: pavement that has been previously sluiced down with clean water, or else on some clean planks, so placed as to receive the viscera when the abdomen is opened ; if a small animal, a clean plank, such as the top of a packing-case, will do. The stomach and intestines should always be opened outside the body, and before the former is re- moved a string should be tied round the oesophagus and two round the small intestine close to the pylorus, a couple of inches apart, the oesophagus being divided anteriorly to the single string and the intestine between the double ones, by which plan the contents will be prevented escaping. The intestines should be treated in the same way, a string being tied round the rectum, which is divided posteriorly to it, when the whole mass can be removed and examined. On opening both the stomach and intestines, notice if any smell of garlic or white fumes is given off, as this will denote phosphorus,, out of which many rat and beetle pastes are made. If the quantity taken is large and the examination made soon after death, the characteristic light may frequently be seen in the dark. The folds and pockets of the bowels when they are opened should be care- fully examined to see if there ^re any foreign substances lodged in them, such as particles of arsenic, corrosive sublimate, oxide or biniodide of mercury, pieces of matches, scales of cantharides, yew or hemlock leaves, as such will after give a valuable clue as to the poison, and thereby avoiding much unnecessary delay and expense. Such substances should be picked out, placed in clean new pill- boxes, and labelled, with the contents and "where found. They can then be examined separately, and may at once clear up the cause of death without further trouble. The colour of the contents of the intestines should also be noticed ; copper salts give a blue or green, picric acid a yellow, and indigo, which is used to colour many vermin pastes, a blue colour. j6 Veterinary 'Toxicology. The smell given off is also most valuable evidence in many cases, (Carbolic acid, chloroform, ether, acetic acid, and iodine, &c., all ;being recognisable by their peculiar odours. It is best not to open any of the organs in the field or stable but if possible to pack them in the manner to be described and examine them afterwards. This can be done with small animals, but of course in the case of the larger ones it is out of the question. Several glass jars should be provided — if possible new. They should be washed out with dilute hydrochloric acid and afterwards spirits ■of wine, turned upside down, and allowed to dry. Wide-mouthed French prune or pickle jars answer well, but earthenware ones are not advisable on account of the lead in the glazing. They should be fitted with tight-fitting bung corks, covered over with parchment paper, and the string sealed. It is advisable to have some luggage labels to note the contents, which should be done at once ; in fact this should be the rule, as it is astounding how easy it is to make a mistake and label the wrong jar. The stomach should be placed in the jar No. i with the contents if it has been opened, and the small and large intestines in Nos. 2 and 3. If it is considered necessary the pharynx and a portion of the oesophagus may be placed with the stomach. The liver or a portion of it, and some blood, which can be obtained from one of the large vessels or the heart, should be placed in jar No. 4 ; and in a case of suspected poisoning by carbonic acid from charcoal fumes, &c. some blood should be separately collected in a small bottle which has been previously cleaned, the same as the jars ; but in veterinary practice such cases are uncommon. The lungs and some muscle should be placed in jars 5 and 6: Of the latter about a pound weight will be enough, taken from the diaphragm, sides of the chest, and thighs. A ligature should be put round the neck of the bladder to prevent the escape of urine, it and the kidneys placed in jar No. 7, and the brain and spinal cord in No. 8. Any suspected food or ingesta (which latter is most valuable) General Toxicology. 17 should in a like way be placed in separate vessels, and any medi- cines found sealed up in the original packets or bottles. It is most inadvisable to bring disinfectants into contact with the body, on account of the danger of introducing foreign substances and so misleading the analyst, and for the same reason the organs should not be placed in alcohol, which alters the composition of many poisons. In small animals the organs, such as the stomach, &c., should be removed intact, but of course in the larger ones this is not practi- cable, and a portion only with the contents will do, but they should be kept separate in the manner described. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. Although this subject will be entered into, and a knowledge of the technique is essential in the majority of cases, especially if they come into Court, it is hardly worth the practitioner's while, even if it is desirable, that he carry it out himself It requires considerable time, special apparatus, and a properly equipped laboratory to obtain definite and reliable results, and the whole can be done in most large towns for a moderate fee by a specialist. F"urthermore, if the case should be brought into Court, the evidence of an independent person, who has no connection with either party, carries more weight, although no doubt this is increased if the practitioner can confirm it by the result of an independent analysis that he has made himself Organs in tvhich Poisons are deposited. — The whole of the tissues are not uniformly impregnated, as particular poisons have a special affinity for certain organs, which is accentuated in chronic cases, when the agent has been absorbed from the stomach and intestines, and not eliminated, but deposited in certain tissues and localities. Thus the blood contains carbonic oxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, and the liver and kidneys arsenic and phosphorus, in addition to their undergoing structural changes, which are easily recognisable B i8 Veterinary Toxicology. on microscopic examination, both these organs being remarkable for the time they will retain mineral poisons. Volatile poisons, especially anaesthetics, are found in the brain and medulla, and Pouchet found trace of minerals in the bones a long time after ingestion. This author remarks : " Appreciable quantities of arsenic, lead, and mercury were detected in the bones of the skull, vertebrae, scapula, and pelvis a long time after all traces had disappeared from the other organs." — Article on Toxi- cology by J. Pouchet in " Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology" by MM. Sequard, Saulle, and Pouchet. The urine, being a comparatively simple organic fluid, lends itself readily to analysis, and as very many poisons are eliminated by the kidneys, it is of great value for analytical purposes, for with the contents of the stomach and intestines it may contain the poison in an unaltered condition. Pouchet gives the following table of the principal organs in which poisons are deposited. Non-volatile Mineral Poisons. —Liver, nerve-tissue, cancellated tissue of bone. Volatile Mineral Poisons. — Blood, nerve-tissue, liver, respiratory organs. Anasthetics. — Nerve-tissue, liver, blood. Alkaloids. — Liver, spleen, kidneys. Apportionment of the Material for Analysis. — When a general analysis has to be made, as in a case where there are no indica- tions of or suspicions of any special poison having been used, Dragendorff recommends the following proportions of the material collected. Half of each specimen should be kept in reserve for a control analysis, and the other half divided into the following proportions, which are given under the headings of each group of poisons to be tested for, and to be used for the first analysis. I. Neutral poisons (alcohol, chloroform, nitro-benzine, mineral oils, &c.) iodine, chlorine, cyanides, and phosphorus. A. Stomach and its contents, vomited matter, and remains offood one-fifth General Toxicology. 19 B. Intestines, their contents and faeces one-fourth C. Liver, spleen, and brain one-fifth D. Blood and urine one-fifth II. Alkaloids, ammonia, and its derivatives (aniline, &c.), glucose compounds, cantharadine, and picrotoxin. A. Stomach and its contents, vomited matter, and remains of food one-fifth B. Intestines, their contents and faeces one-fourth C. Liver, spleen, and brain one-fifth D. Blood and urirle one-fifth III. Metals and alkalies. A. Stomach and its contents, vomited matter, and remains of food one-fifth B. Intestines, their contents and faeces one-fourth C. Liver, spleen, pancreas, lungs, brain, kidneys, and muscles one-third D. Blood and urine one-third IV. Strong corrosive acids when their presence is suspected. A. Stomach and its contents, vomited matter, and remains of food one-fifth B. Intestines, their contents and faeces one-eighth C. Liver, spleen, &c . one-fifth D. Blood and urine one-fifth Tlie procedure at the toxicological laboratory of Paris when there is no indication of any special poison is as follows : — 1. Examine the blood for carbonic acid. 2. A portion is taken of about a fourth of each viscus and tested for phosphorus, hydrocyanic acid, volatile com- pounds, acids and alkalies, and, lastly, metals — lead, mercury, and especially arsenic. 3. A similar portion is tested for alkaloids. If a positive result is obtained, the analysis is recommenced on each viscus separately, so as to act as a control on the first, and to localise the poison, a third or a quarter of the remains of the material being used for this purpose, the balance being reserved for control. By this plan the material, before being analysed for a metal. 20 Veterinary Toxicology. can be used to test for other suspected poisons, such as hydro- cyanic acid, carbonic acid, &c., and has the advantage of being economical, which is a matter of importance, as it frequently happens that there is only a small quantity available. I. Metals and stable alkalies.— M.ost of these substances are poisonous in small quantities, and before death are rapidly diffused throughout the whole body, being scattered over a large mass of material. This adds considerably to the difficulty of detection. When deposited they often form an insoluble compound on which the characteristic tests are inert, and therefore it is necessary to destroy or get rid of the organic matter, at the same time taking care that none of the poison is lost. Incineration is not to be recom- mended, as most of the volatile poisons will be lost, either partially or totally, and the same takes place by the use of strong chemicals. There are many methods for carrying this out, but it is only necessary to mention a few of those most commonly in use. A. Fresenius and Babds Method, modified by Ogier. — This consists in the destruction of the organic matter by the combined action of chlorine and hydrochloric acid. The suspected material is beaten up with water till it becomes fluid, but is not to be diluted, an equal weight of chlorate of potash is added, and the whole placed into a flask. In a second flask commercially pure hydrochloric acid is placed, and into it pure sulphuric acid is slowly introduced by means of the funnel. By this means hydrochloric acid gas is given off, which after passing through a wash bottle, passes into the first flask, and destroys the organic material. A test tube, containing distilled water, receives any volatile material that may be driven off. All these flasks and the test tube are coupled together by means of glass tubing, and it is advisable to use two wash bottles. Organic material is destroyed very rapidly by this process,. Ogier having reduced looo to 1500 grammes of viscera in half an hour. The residue is a clear yellow fluid, which after filtration is. General Toxicology. 21 deprived of the excess of chlorine by passing through it a current of sulphurous acid, which is obtained by treating pure bisulphite of soda with sulphuric acid and adding it drop by drop to the product, the excess of sulphurous acid being given off, and the fluid filtered while hot. B. Flandin and Danger's Method modified by Gautier and Chapuis. — The drawback to the preceding method is that certain volatile substances may be formed and lost in the process, also that fatty matters are not destroyed. For this reason many chemists prefer Flandin and Danger's method, which consists in the destruc- tion of the material by the successive actions of nitric and sulphuric acids. The original method has been considerably modified with the object pf completely oxidising the material without destroying the poison. Gautier, who has carefully studied the question, recom- mends the following plan : — loo grammes of the suspected material »is cut up if necessary into small fragments and placed in a porcelain vessel of 600 cc. capacity, 30 grammes of pure nitric acid is added, and the whole slightly heated, the material gradually liquefying, becoming of a viscid consistency and turning an orange colour. The vessel is then removed from the flame, and 5 grammes of pure sulphuric acid added, and it is again heated until fumes of sulphuric acid are given off". From 10 to 12 grammes of nitric acid are then added drop by drop, causing the material to again liquefy, and give off" nitrous fumes, and when all the acid has been added it is again heated to carbonisation. The resulting matter, which is easily pulverised, is washed out of the capsule with boiling water, the fluid, which is of a light brown colour, filtered, treated with a few drops of bisulphate of soda, and reserved for testing. Chapuis has introduced several improvements. One hundred grammes of the suspected material in small pieces is mixed with 30 grammes of pure nitric acid in a vessel of a litre capacity, heated for 10 minutes and allowed to stand till the 22 Veterinary Toxicology. next day. It is then heated again over a sand-bath, care being taken at first not to overdo it, and this is continued till it car- bonises. When the mass commences to adhere to the sides of the vessel, without, however, giving off white fumes, it is taken off the flame, allowed to cool, and lo cc. of nitric acid added. A large amount of vapour is given off, when the vessel is again placed on the fire until the fumes disappear. A porous friable coal is then obtained without any arsenic being lost, which is treated with 300 cc. of sulphuric acid, diluted with water to xV> brought up to boiling and filtered while hot. The residue is washed in a similar manner two or three times with the same boiling liquor, so that 100 cc. of fluid remains. This plan is specially applicable when arsenic is to be tested for. C. Pouchets Method. — This consists in heatin'^ the suspected material up to nearly 350° Cent, with nitric and sulphuric acids and bisulphate of soda. About 100 to 150 grammes of the suspected material is mixed in a porcelain vessel with a fourth of its weight of pure bisulphate of potash, and an equal quantity by weight of the total of fuming nitric acid, the whole slightly heated till the action ceases. An excess of pure concentrated sulphuric acid is added so as to com- pletely dissolve the residue ; it is again heated nearly to boiling, when the oxidation commenced by the nitric acid is completed. This method has to be conducted with care, to prevent the vessel breaking. If the last portions of organic matter are slow in dissolving, the process can be quickened by allowing the mixture to cool, adding a little nitrate of potash and reheating. The resulting fluid is nearly colourless and solidifies when cooled. It can be dissolved by boiling water and the fluid reduced by evaporation to 900 cc. D. Wohler's Method. — This plan has the advantage of being carried out at a low temperature, and any loss by evaporation is impossible. General Toxicology. 23 The suspected material is cut into small pieces if it is not already in a pulp, and mixed in a mortar with sand into a paste, which is placed in a large flask, through which a current of chlorine is passed until it is saturated, coagulated, and turned white. The flask is closed and allowed to stand for 24 hours, when the fluid is filtered and the residue frequently washed with boiling water. The chlorine treatment can be preceded by heating the mixture and adding gradually a concentrated solution of potash, so as to completely dissolve the organic matter. The resulting fluid is slightly acidulated by dilute sulphuric acid and a current of chlorine passed. Whichever plan is adopted a yellow fluid is obtained which contains most of the metals, and which, if too acid, can be neutralised with ammonia heated to 60° Cent, and treated by a current of pure sulphuretted hydrogen.' To carry out this, it is introduced into a flask with a ground glass stopper sufficiently large for only one-third to be filled, the gas being passed in through a pipe till the flask is filled, when it is corked up and well shaken, this operation being repeated two or three times when the flask is let stand for several hours in a warm place tightly corked up. The residue is then placed on a filter washed with boiling water, treated with a small quantity of nitro-hydrochloric acid, and evaporated to dryness, after which a little more water is added till a solution is formed that can be tested for silver, mercury, copper, lead, arsenic, and " if Fresenius and Babo's method has been used," antimony. The different metals give the following reactions : — 1. Silver. — A purple red precipitate with chromate of potash, a brick red with arsenate of soda, and a flaky white with alkaline chlorides. 2. Mercury. — A drop of the solution on a strip of copper will leave a white stain that becomes shiny when rubbed, but disappears when heated. 34 Veterinary Toxicology. 3. Copper. — A drop of the solution on a polished strip of steel, such as a knife blade, gives a bright red stain that turns blue with a drop of ammonia. 4. Lead gives a yellow precipitate with iodide of potassium, and a white with sulphate of soda. The latter is insoluble in acids, but soluble in acetate of ammonia. t,. Arsenic and Antimony. — The solution can be tested by Marsh's method, when it will give the characteristic patches and rings. The mother fluid treated with hydrosulphate of ammonia gives a precipitate which can be tested for iron, manganese, and zinc ; after filtration and treatment with nitro-hydrochloric acid the filtrate can be tested for alkaline metals and earths. The remaining coal or cinder in some cases contains lead and antimony, which can be tested for as described. II. Corrosive Acids. — The common ones met with in cases of poisoning are sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric, and oxalic. To a great extent their poisonous properties are due to the corrosive action they exert on the intestines ; this is only possible when they are in a concentrated form. Although the local lesions may be strong presumptive evidence of the agent used, the analysis for these acids is not easy, as a considerable portion may have been vomited, and that retained in the organism not only is rapidly more or less completely neutralised, but the newly-formed combination is quickly eliminated. Two different cases may come under notice ; one in which there is an appreciable amount of free acid present, and in the other only the salts resulting from their neutralisation. In the first the examination can usually be confined to the vomited matter and the walls of the upper parts of the digestive track, first ascertaining approximately the quantity of acid present with litmus paper, by which means in many cases it can be deter- mined if this acidity is due to a mineral organic or acid salt, as, for General Toxicology. 25 instance, methyl violet and Congo red are turned blue by the strong mineral acids. It must be remembered, however, that this test is not infallible, as the change in colour will not take place unless there is a certain amount of acid present (0-25 grammes of sulphuric acid to the litre). Acetate of peroxide of iron will not colour red with sulpho-cyanide of potassium. There are several methods of isolating free acids. isL The dried material can be digested in a large excess of alcohol, cold if nitric acid is to be tested for, at 50° Cent, if any other, the resulting solution being submitted to the appropriate tests. 2nci. Roussin's method is founded on the solubility of quinine salts in alcohol. The material is diluted with distilled water filtered and neutralised with hydrate of quinine, again filtered, and evapo- rated to the consistency of syrup. To this is added alcohol, which dissolves out the sulphates and nitrates of quinine, and the residue is kept for analysis. If hydrochloric acid is to be tested for, the watery extract is divided into two portions. From one the free acid is drawn off by evaporating it to dryness and the residue treated with water acidulated with nitric acid, the remaining hydrochloric acid being estimated with nitrate of silver. The other portion is neutralised with liquor potassse and pre- cipitated with nitrate of silver, thereby indicating the amount of hydrochloric acid present. The amount of free hydrochloric acid is ascertained by subtracting the first result from the second. In cases where there is no free acid, the analysis is exceedingly difficult ; for although it is true that the presence of an appreciable quantity of the salts of these acids can be demonstrated, it must be remembered that certain of them normally exist, or they may have been taken mechanically into the system. III. Volatile Substances. — Phosphorus, hydrocyanic acid, alcohol, ether, and chloroform are the common agents of this nature that give rise to poisoning. 26 Veterinary Toxicology. The suspected material is usually subjected to distillation, the substance being looked for in the distillate. It is liquefied with water before distillation and acidulated with sulphuric or tartaric acids. The details will be described further on. IV. Alkaloids. — Alkaloids are most difficult to detect, and the process and manipulations necessary are exceedingly troublesome and delicate. Most alkaloids are poisonous in very small doses, and consequently have to be separated from a large quantity of organic matter, and by the putrefaction of this ptomaines are formed, that greatly complicate if not entirely obscure the analysis. Furthermore, care has to be taken to avoid using certain agents, which, acting as ferments, disintegrate organic matter, and in doing so produce new compounds that will entirely mask all tests. If there is no indication of the suspected poison being an alkaloid, the case is even still more complicated, as a general analysis has to be made. Stas's method, which he discovered in 1852, and which has been slightly modified, is the best and the one most generally used. It is based, \st, on the solubility in water and alcohol of the acid salts of alkaloids ; 2nd, on the property of alkaloids set free by a base of remaining in either temporary or permanent solution in the fluid in which they are dissolved ; -^rd, the property possessed by ether of removing the free alkaloids from the solution. The following is the process adopted by Stas. The suspected matters or organs are cut into small pieces, and double their weight of pure absolute alcohol is added with half to two grammes of tartaric or oxalic acid. The mixture is then placed in a flask and heated over a water bath for half an hour at 75° Cent. ; it is then let cool, the contents placed on a filter and washed with alcohol ; the filtrate is evaporated at 35° Cent., by which means most of the alcohol is driven off. The fatty matters are deposited in the resulting fluid. It is again passed ' through a filter previously moistened with distilled water, and the filtrate again carefully evaporated in vacuo or under a glass bell in the presence of sulphuric acid or quicklime. General Toxicology. 27 The extract is again treated with absolute alcohol and again evaporated, the residue being dissolved with a very small quantity of water, and put into a test tube, a small quantity of pure powdered bicarbonate of soda being added till effervescence ceases. It is then shaken up with four or five times its volume of ether, and allowed to stand. A portion of the ether is decanted into a watch-glass and evaporated ; the residue being tested to detect if there is a volatile or fixed alkaloid. Liquid and Volatile Alkaloids. — If on evaporation the ether leaves faint streaks of fluid on the sides of the watch-glass or dish which run to the bottom when slightly warmed, and a disagreeable smell is givdn off, either pungent, irritating, or suffocating, as the case may be, it will indicate the presence of a volatile alkaloid. To the contents of the test tube i or 2 cc. of a concentrated solution of potash are added, the mixture shaken up and allowed to stand, when the ether is decanted and shaken up with i or 2 cc. of sulphuric acid. The sulphates of almost all the alkaloids, being insoluble in ether, are found in the acidulated fluid. This, previously neutralised with soda, is treated with pure ether, which is slowly evaporated at a low temperature, leaving the alkaloid in almost a pure state. Solid non-volatile Alkaloids. — If after the ether is evaporated from the watch-glass a solid residue remains, or opaque fluid holding solids in suspension, without any pungent or disagreeable smell, and turns red litmus paper blue, the alkaloid is a solid one. The material should be neutralised with bicarbonate of soda treated with ether and again evaporated. In some cases it is advisable to first add a small quantity of concentrated solution of potash. The extract contains the alkaloid which it is necessary to crystallise. This is done by adding a few drops of water undiluted with sulphuric acid, which will dissolve and separate it from any fatty matters that may be present. The solution is decanted slowly, evaporated, and reduced to three-fourths. A strong solution 28 Veterinary Toxicology. of pure carbonate of potash and alcohol is added, by which the alkaloid is dissolved, and from which it is recovered after evapora- tion in crystals. Dragendorff has improved on Stas's original method by using several dissolvents (Petrol, benzine, and chloroform), instead of a single one, and preserves a considerable portion of the alkaloid, which previously was lost. Furthermore, as each dissolvent has- a special affinity for certain substances, the testing for them after evaporation is easier than is the case if one only is available ; also time is saved. Dragendorff, after cutting up the suspected material into small pieces, adds water until a clear solution is formed, to which is added 5 per cent, sulphuric acid. The mixture is put into a flask heated over a water bath for several hours at 50° Cent., and filtered. The residue is treated a second time in the same manner, the two solutions added together, and evaporated over a water bath to the consistency of a syrup. To this is added four or five times its volume of alcohol at 95° proof, in order to precipitate the mineral salts, and it is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, then filtered. The filtrate is distilled to get rid of the alcohol, and the residue brought up to 50 cc. with water. It is then treated with petrol, benzine, and chloroform. This operation is carried out by placing the fluid in a flask or test tube, to which, first of all, about 20 to 25 cc. of petrol is added, the whole shaken up and decanted. This process being repeated several times, the benzine and chloroform are used in a similar manner. The fluid, after all traces of chloroform have been got rid of by a current of air, is neutralised with excess of ammonia, and again treated with the dissolvents. By this plan a series of solutions are obtained, which, after filtration, are evaporated, and leave residues which can be tested for the various alkaloids which will be found in one or other. CHAPTER II. SPECIAL TOXICOLOGY. METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS. ARSENIC. The different compounds of arsenic greatly vary in their toxic properties, metallic arsenic, if pure, being nearly inert. Orfila, Chevalier, and Barruel, it is true, claim to have poisoned dogs with it, but this can be attributed to impurities, as Bayen, who has ex- perimented with chemically pure arsenic, has given dogs as much as 4 grammes without causing serious injury. The sulphides of arsenic (realgar and orpiment), being, insoluble, are rarely causes of poisoning, but cases in cattle have been reported from Algeria. The combination of arsenic with oxygen, in the form of arsenious acid, or white arsenic and arsenic acid, are the most commonly met with, particularly the former, probably because it greatly resembles,, when powdered, flour or powdered sugar, and for which it can be easily mistaken. Arsenate of soda (Pearson's solution) is often used in medicine, also Fowler's solution, and an overdose of either may cause fatal results. Predisposing Causes. — Arsenical fumes given off in c^tain manufactures, such as the smelting of metals which contain it, and vessels used in the preparation of food that may become contaminated, are predisposing causes ; also the fact that it is used as a paste to destroy rats and vermin, and overdosing, when used medicinally. Individual idiosyncrasy does not seem to play any important part, the dose and solubility of the poison being the chief 30 Veterinary Toxicology. factor ; but horses appear to be the least susceptible of the domestic animals, the dog the most. Determining Causes. — Dust and vapours containing arsenic may- be taken into the lungs, or particles deposited on food and drink, such cases being generally seen in the neighbourhood of tin and copper smelting works in Cornwall and Wales. ( Vide Report of Select Committee of the House of Lords, ist August 1862, and in particular the evidence of Mr. W. H. Michael, of Swansea.) Acci- dental poisoning almost invariably arises through an overdose used as a medicine, or absorption through the skin of sheep dips. When given intentionally and continuously, in the majority of cases it is mixed in the food or water, and arsenious acid or white arsenic is used. Absorption. — The usual channel of introduction into the circula- tion is through the stomach. Certain authors state that metallic arsenic and the sulphides, being absolutely pure, are not absorbed at all ; but this for practical purposes is not important, as in com- merce they are not usually found in this condition. In soliftion it is more rapidly absorbed than if solid, the presence of food retarding it, also fats, which act as a coating to the particles,^ but alkalines favour it. Absorption takes place through. the respiratory organs when in the form of vapour, but can take place through any of the mucous membranes. Cases are on record of arsenical poisoning through the vagina. Circulation and Deposition. — According to certain authorities arsenic after being absorbed is deposited in the red blood cor- puscles, and by them carried to the different parts of the body, the liver, spleen, kidneys, and brain having the greatest affinity ; in the brain it is said to replace the phosphate of licithin. It soon makes its appearance in the urine, and, according to Chatin, in the serum of blisters. Brouardel and Pouchet,^ using Fowler's solution ^ Chapois. Influence of fats on the absorption of arsenic, Lyons, 1879. ^ Journal of Pharmacy and Chemistry, 1885. o J> •005 1 1 » o :: •00012 )) o )J •00004 I part. 3 parts. 84 „ 129 „ Special Toxicology. 31 found I milligramme of arsenious acid in 100 grammes of milk, and the same authors found appreciable traces in bone eight to ten weeks after the last dose had been taken. Ludwig ^ found the quantity retained as follows : — 100 grammes of liver contained o grammes ^00338 of arsenic. „ kidney „ „ muscle „ „ brain ,. Or, in other words — Brain, Muscle, . Liver, Kidney, . . , Elimination. — There is not much known as to what form it is eliminated in ; some observers consider it to be as arsenious acid, Roussin as arsenate of lime, and MM. Chapuis and Selim, that if it has been in contact with a fat, as arsenicated hydrogen or arsine. In ordinary conditions the greater part of the arsenic taken will liave been eliminated in from three to iive days, although in certain ■cases it has been detected in the urine six weeks after. Physiology. — The symptoms of arsenical poisoning are not mani- fested until it is absorbed into the circulation. It is a corrosive irritant poison, and has no marked chemical action, the lesions seen in the stomach and intestines being the results of inflamma- tion, viz., acute gastric enteritis. The general effects vary according to the amount and celerity of absorption, the quantity taken and eliminated, also the individual tolerance of the subject. The degree •of tolerance is one that plays an important part, and about which little is known ; but that it is the case is proved by the enormous quantities that are taken habitually by human beings, as, for in- stance, the arsenic eaters of the Tyrol and Styria. Nothnagel and Rossbach consider that they are able to tolerate it by elimination so rapidly taking place as not to allow time for poisonous symptoms io manifest themselves. 1 Strieker's Medical Jahrbuch, 1 880. 32 Veterinary Toxicology. The toxic dose is given as follows by Kaufmann :- By the mouth. Absorbed through a wound Horse, lo to 45 grammes. 2 grammes. Ox, 15 to 45 )) J) Sheep, 5 0-2 „ Dog, o-i to 0-15 „ 0'2 „ Pig, 0-5 to I „ ,) 5J Fowl, Q-I to 0'15 „ ,5 ,1 Pigeon, 0-5 )) 1, Law gives the poisonous doses : — As horses, 140 grains in solu- tion, 3| drachms solid ; cattle, 3^ to 7 drachms ; sheep, 2 drachms ; dogs, 2 grains ; pigs, 15 grains — but both the last-named animals can save themselves by vomiting. There therefore seems to be considerable uncertainty as to the dose, but the state of the digestion must be taken into considera- tion, also the possibility of the arsenic being adulterated with some harmless material. Symptoms. — Poisoning by arsenic, according to Laborde and Renault, may present itself in three forms — acute, subacute, and cljironic. Acute. — The symptoms appear somewhat suddenly about an hour after the poison has been taken. There is profuse salivation,, with frequent movements of deglutition, and great thirst. The animal is restless and anxious, with convulsive movements of the lips, acute colicky pains and nausea ; in the dog there is vomiting, the material brought up being large in quantity and of a white colour. ' There is a great pain over the epigastric region, which is increased on pressure, and at first there may be constipation, but it is succeeded by a foetid diarrhoea with blood in the stools. The pulse at first is full, but soon becomes small, irregular, and imper- ceptible, respiration difficult, the movements being short, and in some cases there is a distressing hiccough ; urine is scanty, albuminous, and often bloody ; the temperature low, and the extremities cold. After a time rigors set in, with weakness and special Toxicology. 33 paresis, the gait is staggering, and pupils dilated. There is ex- cruciating pain, and the animal dies in a state of syncope in from four to five hours. Subacute. — The symptoms are much the same as those pre- viously described, but not so violent. There is a dryness of the mouth, great thirst, colic, and in the dog vomiting, fcetid diarrhoea, and tympanitis. The mucous membranes are pale in colour, urine scanty, the pulse frequent and irregular, and the beats of the heart intermittent. This condition lasts for about twenty-four hours, when the patieat seems to recover a little, however, only to again become worse,' when he is greatly depressed, weak, and unable to stand, the pulse is weak and almost imperceptible, and respiration performed with difficulty ; in some cases there is coma, in others delirium. There is cedema of the eyelids, and loose skin in the dependent portions of the body ; paralysis of the hind-quarters then sets in, and death follows in two or three days. Chronic. — This form has only been seen in cattle and is caused by arsenical fumes from smelting works. The chief symptoms are catarrh of the various mucous mem- branes, progressive cachexia and paralysis, accompanied often with chronic diarrhoea, cough, and conjunctivitis. There is marked alteration in nutrition, and great emaciation, the animal becoming very weak, especially In the hind-quarters, and hidebound, the hair standing on end and easily breaking ; after a longer or shorter time death takes place. During the course of the attack the secretion of milk is sup- pressed, and often abortion takes place. All these symptoms may be caused by continuing a course of arsenic as medicine for a long time. In some cases, where arsenious acid has been taken in the form of a powder, perforation of the rumen and abomasum is seen,^ and the symptoms are those of gastritis, enteritis, and peritonitis. ^ Cornevin, Journal de Medicine VHirinaire de Lyons, July 1895. C 34 Veterinary Toxicology. Arsenical poisoning may also take place from external applica- tions, when all the above-mentioned symptoms will be seen, but preceded by pain, swelling, and redness of the part attacked. Post-mortem Appearances (acute form). — The lesions found in the stomach and bowels, although always present, are by no, means diagnostic. They are the results of inflammatory action tvith hemorrhage, and are most marked when the poison has been given in the form of a powder or concentrated solution. In the oesophagus and stomach white or yellow grains of arsenious acid or sulphide of arsenic may sometimes be found, and if present are extremely valuable evidence, but this conclusion must not be hastily arrived at, as Tardieu^ has pointed out that they may consist only of small portions of fat and albumen. The lesions are usually seen in the right cul de sac of the stomach and the abomasum of ruminants, the mucous membrane being deeply injected, infiltrated, and friable, of a dark violet or black colour, and easily detached from the muscular coat. Sometimes these appearances are diffused, at others in patches, especially when the poison has been given in the form of a powder, in which case the inflammation extends very deeply, almost causing perforation, the muscular coat of the stomach having patches of extravasation on it. The same condition is also seen when the poison has entered the body through other channels besides the mouth, and its selection of , the stomach appears to depend on the acid reaction of the gastric juice, especially when the process of digestion is going on. This has been proved by an experiment made by Filchne, who poisoned two rabbits with arsenious acid subcutaneously. To one calcined magnesia and bicarbonate of soda were given to neutralise the gastric juice, and in this animal there were no lesions in the stomach ; in the other that had not received the magnesia and soda they were well marked. If there is perforation the tissue is removed as by a punch, and the edges are red, swollen, and surrounded by a reddened zone. ' Etude medico legale et clinique sur I'empoisonnement, 1875. Special Toxicology. 35 The membrane of the small intestines, especially round the • mouth of the bile duct, is greatly tumified, swollen, and in the duct itself false membranes form. Peyer's patches are enlarged and con- gested, and the epithelial covering removed from the intestinal ■villi. The epithelium, on microscopic examination, is seen to be undergoing fatty degeneration, but in spite of the intensity of the inflammation there is rarely suppuration or gangrene, which can be accounted for by the antiseptic properties of arsenic. Arsenic, in common with ammonia, phosphorus, and antimony, causes fatty degeneration of the liver, pulmonary endothelium, renal epithelium, and muscular tissue of the heart, the liver ■especially being enlarged and stained a deep yellow colour. The red blood corpuscles are distorted in shape and broken -down. The mucous membrane of the urino-genital organs is red and congested, and usually the neck of the bladder is constricted. There are other lesions present, such as hemorrhagic patches on the lungs and heart, but they are not of much value for diagnosis. Much stress is laid on the preservative properties of arsenic on the body. This is no doubt true, but it is only the portions in which the arsenic is lodged and retained, and in cases in which a large amount of the poison has been taken that this applies, as it is quite possible that a dose sufficiently large to destroy life may not be large enough to preserve the body. If it is, the organs into which it is absorbed will remain preserved for a long time even if those in contact are not. M. Hugounenq^ mentions a case of a body that had been buried for eight months in which the stomach appeared as if death had only just taken place, although the other parts were in an advanced state of decomposition. Chronic. — There is catarrh of most of the mucous membranes, ga.stric, intestinal, pulmonary, and ocular, and in ruminants there may be fistula of the reticulum or abomasum. Fatty de- generation of the organs is well marked, and the patient is in an ^ Traite des Poisons. 36 Veterinary Toxicology. emaciated, wretched condition. The bodies of animals that perish from chronic arsenical poisoning appear to be mummified, and resist putrefaction, the fat almost entirely disappearing, and the muscles- atrophied, being in places reduced to mere connective tissue. Prognosis. — Is grave and usually fatal, but when taken im time and proper antidotes given about 50 per cent, recover. It should be remembered that excessive doses are not the most dangerous, as they induce vomiting, by which a portion of the arsenic is got rid of before it is absorbed. Treatment. — If the patient is suffering from the result of fumes from smelting works or manufactures, he must be removed to a healthy locality, or at all events get uncontaminated food and water. Curative treatment is directed first to the poison in the stomach and intestines not absorbed. In animals capable of vomiting an emetic should be given. " Ipecacuanha is recommended by M. Stourb," but care must be taken not to push them too far on account of their depressing action, which favours the absorption oF the arsenic. Milk, fatty substances, glycerine, and lime water can also be used, but alone they are not enough, as the poison must be rendered insoluble. The most popular chemical antidote is peroxide of iron, but it has to be freshly prepared, which can be done by treating a solution of perchloride of iron with ammonia, filtering the precipitate, and washing it well with warm water. The arsenic combines with it to form arsenate of iron, which is insoluble and inert, and can be eliminated by a purgative, for which purpose sulphate of magnesia is recommended. Hydrated magnesia, pre- pared from a solution of sulphate of magnesia and caustic potash,, is recommended by Bussey, turning the arsenic into arsenate of magnesia, but this is not so efficacious as the peroxide of iron. Both these antidotes should be given in large quantities, the latter diluted with twice its weight of water, and care should be taken that no sugar is added, as this dissolves arsenate of magnesia^ Dialised iron is almost as good as the peroxide, and more readily- special Toxicology. 37 ■obtained. Bouchardat and Sandeas recommend sesqui-sulphate of iron. In the earlier stages a subcutaneous injection of morphia •every half-hour will retard absorption and counteract irritation. Opium later on may be given with the same object. In chronic cases the object is to facilitate elimination, with which object purgatives, diuretics, and sudorifics are indicated with olea- .ginous purgatives, and enemas if there is constipation or abdominal pain. The system must be sustained by good, easily digested food. Chemical Analysis. — The small white granules that are often found in the pharynx, stomach, and oesophagus should be first examined,; this can be done first by placing them in an ordinary test tube and •heating them over a flame. The arsenic will sublime and condense ■again on the cold portion of the tube, in a ring of shining crystals, found to be regular octahedrons, or portions of such, with facets that are equilateral triangles -when examined with a pocket lens. Oxide of antimony, which much resembles arsenic, is not so vola- tile, condenses lower down the tube, and much more slowly in the •form of needles. Secondly, the arsenic should be mixed up with black flux, which consists of charcoal and cyanide of potassium, and introduced into a very small test tube, or, better still, one of those specially made for the purpose, with a narrow neck and a bulb. It is heated to redness, the arsenious oxide giving off oxygen, and the metallic arsenic, being volatilised as a gas, with a smell of garlic, is again condensed in the form of a shining grey ring on the narrow part of the tube. This part of the tube is cut off with a fine file or glazier's diam.ond, and placed in an ordinary test tube, which is heated, when a white ring with the characteristic octa- hedral crystals will form on the upper pai't. The viscera and their contents should next be proceeded with, ■and the first step is the destruction of the organic material. This ■can be accomplished either by Fresenius and Babo's method, which has already been described, or by Armand Gautier's, which is ;specially adapted for arsenic. Armand Gautier's Method. — The material is divided into small 38 Veterinary Toxicology. pieces and placed in a new china capsule that has at least five or six times the capacity of the material placed in it ; this is necessary oh account of the bubbling over that takes place during the process. About 30 grammes of concentrated nitric acid is added for every- 100 grammes of material, and gently heated until the mass is fluid, when the vessel must be removed from the flame, or the contents will catch fire and be destroyed. When cool about 10 grammes of pure concentrated sulphuric acid is added, and the mixture again heated till the white fumes of sulphuric acid are given off. It is again removed from the flame, and, drop by drop, with constant stirring, about 25 grammes of pure nitric acid added, and again heated till the contents turn intO' a friable mass of charcoal that can be powdered in the capsule. This charcoal is washed with boiling water acidulated with hydro- chloric acid and filtered, the residue being again washed with boiling distilled water. The two fluids are mixed together and bisulphate of soda added until a strong smell of sulphuric acid is- given off, and then boiled until all smell of sulphur disappears, the resulting fluid being of a clear yellow colour, which is tested for the suspected arsenic. To a portion of this fluid a small quantity of bisulphate of soda is added, which reduces the arsenic into arsenious acid, rendering it more easily precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen. In the toxi- cological laboratory of Paris the custom is to neutralise the liquid by a few drops of ammonia, and expose it for twelve hours to a weak stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, obtained by the action of pure hydrochloric acid on pure sulphate of iron, the flask containing the liquid being placed in a water bath at about 50° Cent. When this part of the operation is concluded the liquid is decanted into a fresh flask, corked up, and let stand for twenty-four hours, when a yellow precipitate is formed by the sulphur being thrown down by the sulphuretted hydrogen. If there is arsenic present it is thrown down with the sulphur as sulphide of arsenic. The precipitate ia allowed to stand, then filtered, and washed with distilled water. Special Toxicology. 39 If the case is one of poisoning by arsenic or antimony, either of them will be present in the form of a sulphide, and a ready way of separating them is to make use of the solvent property of ammonia for sulphide of arsenic, the sulphide of antimony remaining in- soluble in it. The precipitate is treated several times with ammonia diluted with one part its volume of water, the resulting clear fluid being an ammoniacal solution of sulphide of arsenic. Sometimes the liquid is turbid, but this is immaterial. The ammonia is evaporated over a water bath, the sulphide of arsenic left as a residue, and submitted to Marsh's test. Marsh's test was discovered in 1836, and based on the facts — 1st, that arsenious acid is decomposed by hydrogen formed from the action of dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid on zinc, forming arsenurated hydrogen. 2nd, arsenurated hydrogen is decomposed by heat, the hydrogen being given off, and the arsenic deposited in a black shining patch. The sulphide of arsenic is converted into arsenious acid, before being placed into Marsh's apparatus, by treating the residue of the ammoniacal solution left after evapora- tion with pure nitric acid, and evaporating it over a water bath to dryness, when it. is again treated with both nitric and sulphuric acids ; evaporated first over a water and finally a sand-bath, till white fumes of sulphuric acid are given off. It is important that all excess of nitric acid should be driven off, as it impedes the reaction. To the residue is added water acidulated with sulphuric acid, which is placed in the Marsh apparatus. This is so simple and well known that it is not necessary to enter into a description of it. The zinc and sulphuric acid are placed in the large vessel, but they must be absolutely pure, for it should be remembered that they both are liable to be contaminated with arsenic. The zinc can be purified by melting, and adding one- half to I per cent, chloride of magnesia ; volatile chloride of zinc being formed, which removes with it the arsenic and antimony as chlorides. The fact of zinc containing arsenic, and the great difficulty of obtaining it pure, has led to chemists seeking for some substitute. 40 Veterinary Toxicology. Seline proposed hydrochlorate of ammonia, and Tardieu mag- nesium, which is more easily obtained pure.^ Sulphuric acid may contain sulphate of lead, nitric and hyponitrous and sulphurous acids, and arsenic; it can be purified by Bussy and Buignet's method.^ Commercial sulphuric acid is placed in a flask and heated over a sand-bath ; lo grammes of nitrate of potash per kilogramme is added, and brought to boiling-point, when the temperature is reduced by turning down the flame, and lo grammes of sulphate of ammonia in powder is added, the mixture being allowed to cool. It is then placed in a still, and the first portion of the distillate, or about one-fifth of the total, is rejected, also the last fifth. When pure sulphuric acid and zinc are brought in contact there is sometimes difficulty in getting a chemical reaction ; and some chemists bring this about by the addition of a few drops of a solution of sulphate of copper. This is not, however, a practice to be recommended, as the copper enters into combination with a certain amount of the arsenic, and causes error in estimating the true quantity present ; a few drops of platinum chloride is to be preferred. About 25 grammes of zinc to 50 cubic centimetres of sulphuric acid are required, but Dragendorff recommends a larger quantity. The chemical reaction, however, should not be violent, for if too much heat is generated sulphuretted hydrogen will be formed, which will decompose in the heated portion of the tube and form a layer of sulphur. It is advisable to stand the flask in which the hydrogen is generated in cold water, and in order to prevent regurgitation into the tube, it should only be two-thirds full. Brouardel and Ogier recommend that the apparatus should be set working for at least half an hour before the material to be tested is placed in it, so as to be certain there is no extraneous arsenic in ^ Tardieu Etude medico legale et clinique sur I'empoisonnement, 1875. ^ Bussy et Buigenet, Purification de I'acide sulfurique arseniftre Journal de phar- inacie et de Chimie. 3"^ s^rie, xliv. p. 177, et tome xlv. pp. 369 and 465. 1864. Special Toxicology. 41 the materials ; also to ascertain that it does not leak, by putting the ■finger on the orifice of the tube, when the acid will rise up in the -straight one if air-tight. The jet of hydrogen is then lighted and a clean china plate or saucer held in front of it. If there is no black patch formed it is certain that there is no ■arsenical contamination of the reagents, and the liquid to be analysed can be then introduced carefully into the apparatus. It may be desired only to ascertain if there is arsenic in the suspected material, or it may be necessary to ascertain, the quantity of the poison there is in the material. 1. Qualitative Analysis. — A. Formation of Patches. — The hydro- ;gen flame, which should not be more than f inch long, is at first of a yellow colour from the presence of sodium in the glass, but this soon disappears, and it becomes pale, and at the same time slight white fumes appear, from the oxidation of a small quantity of arsenic in contact with the atmosphere under the influence of heat. If the flame is interrupted by a cold white body the arsenic is •deposited on it in characteristic black patches, but to obtain them satisfactorily certain precautions are necessary. The plate or saucer must be held before the flame for just the right length of time, for if too long the deposit will be evaporated by the heat. For this process it is not necessary to heat the tube, as a ring of arsenic is not required. B. Characteristics of the Patches. — i. The patches of arsenic are •of a greyish black, with a metallic lustre in the centre, a white film •of arsenious acid outside, and between the two a dark ring, which, when viewed by transmitted light, is brown towards the ,outer, but •opaque towards the inner margin. Deposits of antimony have riot this brown colour; they are less homogeneous, and in parts are white. Arsenic in burning also gives off the characteristic smell of -garlic, which antimony does not. 2. The arsenical patch disappears quickly when warmed, the antimony one does so much slower, and before it volatilises fuses in places. 42 Veterinary Toxicology. 3. Bischoff's test may be used ; a solution of hypochlorate of soda will rapidly and totally dissolve the arsenical stain, but the antimonial will not be affected. 4. If the arsenical stain is covered with an ammoniacal solution^ of sulphuretted hydrogen, and then carefully evaporated in the presence of a drop of hydrochloric acid, it turns to a bright yellow colour — sulphide of arsenic, but it must not be confounded with sulphur, which is the result of a contamination. If the patch is com- posed of sulphide of arsenic it will completely disappear if treated, with ammonia. If the antimonial patch is treated in the same fashion it turns an orange red. 5. The suspected patch is dissolved by a little nitric acid, and evaporated over a water bath, allowed to cool, and treated with a drop' or two of ammonia, which is evaporated. It is then touched lightly with nitrate of silver, and if arsenic, turns brick red — "arsenate of silver," but if antimony, there is no reaction. If ammoniacal nitrate of silver is used, the treatment with ammonia may be dispensed with. 6. The fumes of iodine and bromine turn arsenical patches first yellow, then brown, and if heated they disappear. Antimony turns; brown at once. II. Quantitative Analysis. — MM. Brouardel and Ogier's method is that which is used in the Paris Laboratory. It is useless to light the gas that escapes from the apparatus. If the tube is heated' the arsenic will be deposited on the cool portions, and if it is long enough there will be no loss. The process must be carried out slowly, and occupies from twelve to twenty-four hours. The portion of the tube on which the arsenic is deposited is cut off with a file, and weighed in a scale registering up to one-tenth of a milli- gramme. The arsenic deposit is removed by nitric acid, the tube washed with distilled water, dried, and again weighed, the difference representing the amount of arsenic deposited. The solution of nitric acid can be evaporated and the residue tested in the manner described with ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver or sulphate of copper. If several rings have formed, it may be found convenient Special Toxicology. 45 to unite them by gentle, heat, and allow the vapour to deposit on the cool part of the tube. All the reactions and tests can be carried out as mentioned in the same way, or with the patches on china plates. Fatal consequences are recorded of sheep being poisoned after using an arsenical sheep dip. A well-known case. Black v. Burton^ was tried at Newcastle Assizes in February 1859. Accidents also have taken place from sheep being turned out into pastures after- dipping, and contaminating them. Arsenic is used by the professional cattle poisoners of India,, usually in the form of a suppository made up with flour and gum or honey, and thrust into the wall of the rectum with a sharp stick, that lacerates the bowel, the animal dying from enteritis and peri- tonitis. An inflamed wound is left in the rectum, " usually at the side," and arsenic can generally be detected in the surrounding tissues. This crime is very common in parts of the Punjab. ANTIMONY. The various compounds of antimony were at one time in high repute as medicines, but have of late years dropped out of fashion. Potassium and antimony tartarate, or tartar emetic, however, still holds its place, and sometimes what is known as the kermes- mineral, or yellow antimony, a mixture of the oxide and sulphide, as well as sesqui-chloride (or butter) of antimony, the former as an alterative, the latter as a caustic, in canker and thrush in the horse, foot-rot in sheep, and foul of the foot in cattle. Algaroth powder (antimony oxychloride) and black antimony (antimony sulphide) have in some remote parts a reputation for improving the con- dition of animals, and as they would only be used by ignorant persons, it is possible that accidents might be caused by them. Some of the condition mixtures sold contain, amongst other in- gredients, antimony sulphide, and are still used by carters, grooms, and other such persons. 44 Veterinary Toxicology. The only form of antimony likely to cause poisoning is the tartar emetic, and, as far as can be ascertained, cases have all been accidental ; no malicious one has yet been recorded in animals. Ruminants are exceedingly tolerant to it, and as it is a powerful emetic, animals capable of vomiting eject a considerable portion of the dose taken. Antimony is almost always taken into the system by the mouth. It is sometimes used as an external application in cattle in cases of rheumatism and chest diseases, causing pustules to form, but it is likely to give rise to deep-seated inflammation and sloughing, with permanent blemishes. Toxic Doses. — These have not been determined with any degree -of certainty ; they depend greatly on the rapidity and amount of absorption that takes place, also on individual tolerance. Kaufman gives the poisonous dose as — Horse, . . 25 to 30 grammes. Pig, ... 6to 8 „ Dog, . . . 0.2 to 0.5 „ Finlay Dun states that he has administered one in four drachms •of tartar emetic in a bolus to the horse night and morning for several <3ays without any result. Mr. Barlow gave a horse 10 oz. 6 drachms in six days before the animal died. Frohner found an ounce in a bolus was not fatal, but the same amount in solution caused death in eight days, and two ounces in two and a half hours.^ Hert- wig found that, given intravenously, one drachm caused great dis- turbance, and two drachms death in about three hours. Cattle appear to be most tolerant to tartar emetic. Hertwig has given up to ten drachms without any effect, and Finlay Dun an ounce twice a day. Hertwig records doses of one and three drachms in solution and seven in a bolus being given to sheep. Gilbert states that four to six drachms in solution were fatal. In the pig Hertwig found that two drachms in solution caused death. ■■ Jahrbuch der Arzneimittellehre fiir Thierarzte, 1900. . Special Toxicology. 45 Dogs are less tolerant, but they have a safeguard in being able to vomit ; if unable to do so, one grain has been fatal. Intra- venously, Taylor states that three to six grains is fatal in eight to- ten hours ; Frohner half a grain in half an hour. Elimination. — In animals capable of vomiting this is the chief channel of elimination. After absorption it is deposited in the muscles, intestines, brain, liver, and bones, especially the latter, in which it has been found several months after death. Absorption takes place principally in the stomach, especially when it is empty. , It differs from arsenic in that it induces diuresis, and a large pro- portion is eliminated in the urine and perspiration. Millon and Juveran noted that a considerable amount was deposited in the- fat, and that it could pass from the mother to the fcetus. Symptoms, Acute. — -The first symptoms are violent vomiting and diarrhoea with blood, the vomit having a disagreeable smell. There is weakness, syncope, and vertigo, with staggering gait, the animal appearing to be drunk. At first the pulse becomes thready, and almost imperceptible later on. The diarrhcea then becomes more profuse and frequent, the motions being passed involuntarily, with colicky spasms ; a persistent hiccough sets in ; the temperature falls below normal,, and the mucous membranes turn a livid colour. The animal becomes convulsed, delirious, and the hind quarters are often paralysed, to be followed by death in five or six days. If the patient lives, a characteristic pustular eruption, somewhat resembling variola, appears on the skin, and in some cases the mouth. Chronic. — The symptoms manifest themselves more slowly, and there is almost invariably the characteristic pustular eruption, the animal falling into a state of cachexia. The ease may apipear to mend, but relapses again, and after lingering for some time, even months, death takes place. Post-mortem. — There is nothing very specific in the post-mortem lesions. The oesophagus is of a deep red colour, and there are all the usual appearances of gastritis and enteritis, " more particularly ia 46 Veterinary Toxicology. the horse," in the right cul de sac of the stomach and caecum, the mucous membrane being of a violet or dark red colour. The blood is dark, almost black, and does not coagulate ; the liver, lungs, and brain are congested, and the lungs and heart studded over with petechia. Majendie, from this fact, came to the opinion that antimony had a special affinity for the lungs ; but further observations have shown his error. In some cases pustules form on the lining membrane of the stomach, which may even run on to ulceration. If the case is a chronic one, the characteristic pustular eruptions on the skin will be seen ; the liver greatly enlarged, and undergoing fatty degeneration. This effect of antimony is taken advantage of by breeders of geese in parts of Germany, the livers of which birds are used for the manufacture of pat^ de foie gras, a portion of oxide of antimony being given them in their food. Prognosis is bad unless the patient vomits. Treatment. — Vomiting should be induced as soon as possible, and mucilaginous fluids, tannic or gallic acid, or substances which contain them, viz., oak bark, gall nuts, pomegranate rind, tea leaves, blackberries, or quinine given. Diuretics will assist the kidneys in eliminating the poison, but on account of its depressing properties it is well to avoid nitrate of potash. Analysis. — The organs in which antimony accumulates, viz., the liver, muscles, spleen, bones, and brain, may be at once examined by Reinsch's process without previously destroying the organic matter. 1. Reinsch's Process. — The suspected material is boiled with hydrochloric acid, in which a strip of bright copper is placed. If antimony is present a violet black film will be formed on the copper, which is much less volatile than arsenic, and which, if heated in a test tube, will not give a white sublimate ; but this test is only a rough one, and cannot be relied upon. 2. Ordinary Method. — The organic matter should not be got rid of by Fresenius and Babo's method, or chloride of antimoriy is formed, which is volatile ; it is preferable to use Gautier's or Naquet's. Special Toxicology. 47 100 grammes of the suspected material in small pieces are placed in a new china vessel of i litre capacity, with 25 .grammes of nitrate of soda and 39 of pure sulphuric acid, then iheated over a sand-bath, constantly stirring. The material is turned •into charcoal containing oxide of antimony, from which it is separated by boiling with a 10 per cent, solution of tartaric acid. The fluid is filtered and divided into two parts, one of which is •submitted to Marsh's, the other to Naquet's test. A. Marsh's Test. — The same apparatus is used in the same manner as when testing for arsenic. The hydrogen burns with a white flame, and gives off oxide of antimony in white fumes, without any smell of garlic. Antimony is deposited from the hydrogen much easier than arsenic, and it is usual to find more than one ring in the tube ; it may even be deposited in the gene- rating flask if care be not taken to cool it. The film of antimony looks like a piece of tinfoil inside the tube ; that of arsenic reminds one of steel. The arsenic adheres tightly to the glass, the antimony is easily detached in fine shreds. The differential tests have been described under the heading of arsenic. B. Naquet's Method. — This plan should be adopted when both antimony and arsenic are suspected, and is based on the property of arsenated hydrogen to form with nitrate of silver a soluble arsenate of silver, whereas the antimony and hydrogen gives an insoluble precipitate of antimonide of silver, the arsenic remaining soluble in the fluid, the antimony being precipitated and easily separated. The apparatus consists of a Woolf's bottle, in which the hydrogen is generated by the action of water on an amalgam of sodium. The solution is introduced, and the hydrogen with it forms arsenic and antimony hydrides. The end of the tube fits into a larger one, loosely packed with cotton wool to abstract the .moisture from the gas, and to the other end of this is fitted a Liebig's tube, containing a solution of nitrate of silver, which re- tains the two hydrides — the arsenic in solution, the antimony precipitated in an insoluble form. This is separated through a 48 Veterinary Toxicology. filter, the filtrate being tested by Marsh's method for arsenic. The precipitate is melted in a crucible, with a mixture of carbonate and nitrate of potash, and turned into an antimoniate. It is then treated with hydrochloric acid and filtered. The filtrate is divided into two portions, one of which is tested in Marsh's apparatus for antimony ; the other can be tested as follows : — 1. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives an orange red or red precipitate if the solution is acidulated, depending on the amount of antimony present. Ammoniacal sulphuretted hydrogen gives the same reaction (the formation of yellow sulphide of antimony). 2. Potash and soda give a white precipitate (oxide), which is: soluble in excess of the reagent, and the same with am- monia, except that the precipitate is not so soluble. 3. Carbonate of soda and carbonate of ammonia give a white precipitate, that forms slowly, particularly in the presence of tartar emetic. 4. If the solution is free from nitric acid a slip of zinc is turned black. The film is not soluble in cold hydrochloric acid,., but is in hot nitric. 5. Oxalic acid gives a white precipitate. 6. Tannine gives a yellow-white precipitate. 7. Phosphate of soda gives a thick white precipitate. 8. Permanganate of potash is decolorised. COPPER AND ITS COMPOUNDS. Metallic copper internally is not poisonous. Pereria mentions some experiments in which ounce doses of filings were given to various-sized dogs without ill effects, although two drachms of the oxide caused vomiting and diarrhoea. In the human being workers in brass and copper are affected by absorption through the skin • but there is no mention of such taking place in animals, and it is Special Toxicology. 49 not likely that the conditions under which they live would expose them to such risks. Sulphate and acetate of copper are the two most commonly employed compounds, both being used in medicine) the former also for preserving (pickling) wheat and other grains, and cases are on record where flour and bread have thereby been con- taminated. Copper is used to colour preserved vegetables, but this is chiefly of interest to the human toxicologist, numerous cases of such poisoning being recorded. Copper exists normally in many articles of food, and Gautier ^ gives a long list of such, with the number of milligrammes of metallic copper per kilogramme of each article, of which the follow- ing are a few examples : — Wheat, 5 to 10; bran, 14 ; barley, iO"8 ; oats, 8'4; carrots, trace; ox beef, i ; ox blood, 07 ; potatoes, I'S to 2-8 ; bran, 11. Raoult and Breton obtained 6 milligrammes of copper from 400 grammes of liver, and consider that its existence naturally in such comparatively large quantities in the organism explains why such large doses can be tolerated. Galippe has given dogs 3 to 4 grammes of sulphate of copper without any ill result, one taking 98 grammes in 150 days, and if anything improving in condition.^ One ounce of sulphate of copper has proved fatal to the horse, but if diluted or with a mucilaginous fluid it is much less injurious. Ten grains to two drachms subcutaneously are fatal to the dog. — (Law). The acetate appears to be more active than the other salts, oxalates, chlorides, or citrates ; but large doses can be tolerated by even young subjects, and the manufacture of acetate of copper, which is largely carried on by women and children in France, does not appear to injure their health. Amongst animals Guiraud has seen a case of copper poisoning in cattle fed on food mixed with grape skins and cooked in copper 1 Le cuivre et le Plomb dans I'alimentation et I'industrie au point de vue de I'hygiene. Paris : 1883. 2 Galippej These de Paris, 1873. D 50 Veterinary Toxicology. vessels ; Saake, in pigs, and Grognier, in the goat, from a like cause. Heine and Hergatt report a fatal case from a preparation of copper injected into a fistula. In parts of Wales and Cornwall chronic copper poisoning has been reported in animals grazing in the neighbourhood of smelting works, but in these cases it is doubtful if the arsenic contained in the fumes is not the real cause. The larger ruminants appear to be most tolerant, and the dog vomits so easily that he is with difficulty poisoned by copper. The pig and goat appear to be most sensible, and as they prefer acid food, probably the taste of the copper is hidden. The stomach and mouth are the only channels of entrance ; externally applied, in animals the effects would be only very local. Poisonous Dose. — The poisonous dose has not been accurately determined, and, as has been mentioned previously, dogs will tolerate large doses of copper without injury. Ellenburger and Hofmeister found that a sheep died from chronic poisoning in from two to three months when doses varying from 0'50 to 3 grammes were given daily. Burcq has given dogs from 10 centigrammes to i gramme daily of various soluble salts of copper without any ill result fol- lowing ; but with i to 4 grammes daily vomiting was induced. After a certain time the animals refused to feed, became emaciated, and died. According to Feltz and Ritter, in young dogs from 0"45 to 0*50 grammes of acetate of copper per kilogramme of live weight is fatal, and 0"io grammes in the rabbit.^ Absorption and Elimination. — The whole of the surface of wounds are capable of absorbing copper into the circulation, the amount of which depends on the degree of solubility of the precipi- tate that is thrown down with albumen. In the blood it appears to combine with the red corpuscles, and by them to be carried into the tissues, in some of which it is deposited and retained for a long time, viz., the liver, lungs, and kidneys. 1 Feltz and Ritter ; Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, 1877. Special Toxicology. 51 A considerable quantity is eliminated by vomiting and purga- tion ; but if absorbed, this process takes place slowly, chiefly in the bile, urine, and perspiration. The form in which copper is elimi- nated is unknown, but Huseman states that in the faeces it is as sulphide. Physiology. — The general effects vary with the rapidity with which poisoning runs its course, and can only be seen in the chronic form i-n which changes in the blood take place, chiefly in the red globules and haemoglobin. There are also all the appearances of debility. To a slight extent it causes fatty degeneration and nutritive derangement, that ends in progressive cachexia. Symptoms, Acute. — The symptoms manifest themselves more or less rapidly according to the amount of the poison taken. There is a disagreeable smell about the patient and a discharge of saliva. The mouth is dry ; there is unquenchable thirst and complete loss •of appetite. In the human being a burning pain is complained of in the oesophagus, with colicky pains. Animals that are capable of the act vomit matter of a green or blue colour, sometimes mingled ■with a little blood. There is considerable straining, faeces of a black <;olour being frequently passed. There is great weakness and rigors, ■difficulty in standing, and the circulation and respiration are feeble. If death takes place, it is from stoppage of the heart's action. This, Jiowever, is not the usual termination, as the larger portion of the drug is got rid of by vomiting, and the patient recovers. Chronic. — The above-mentioned symptoms are present, but de- velop slowly, and are chiefly dependent on alteration in the nutritive function. Jaundice, albuminuria, and haematuria are seen, with gradually progressing emaciation and weakness. The animal may live for a long time before he dies from sheer weakness, but most ■cases are complicated with gastric intestinal catarrh. Post-mortem Appearances. — In acute poisoning the lesions are ■confined to the intestines, and are those that might be expected as resulting from inflammation, but are more marked in the stomach and small intestines than elsewhere, and may either be diffused or in circumscribed patches. 52 Veterinary Toxicology. Trasbot noticed dilatation of the stomach in the horse, and in- all cases the lining membrane of the intestines and their contents, are coloured blue or green. In chronic cases the lesions are the same, but not so well marked. The blood is black in colour, the red corpuscles being indented in outline, distorted, and broken down, and the haemoglobin in part transformed into methemoglobin. There is chronic hepatitis and fatty degeneration of the liver, with interstitial hemorrhage. The kidneys are inflamed, showing parenchymatous hemorrhagic nephritis with granulations of haema- tine in Bellini's tubes. There is fatty degeneration of the heart, and the whole body is. extremely emaciated. Treatment. — It is useless giving emetics, as copper is one itselL Treatment should be directed to turning what remains of the poison in the intestines into an insoluble compound, and eliminating what has been absorbed. The readiest antidotes are : — ^Milk, white of eggs, soap and water. Dumas and Payen recommend iron filings ; Bouchardat and Sandras, zinc ; these metals precipitate copper as a metal from saline solutions. Magnesia (Boucher) and freshly prepared sulphate of iron (Navier) have been recommended ; also ferrocyanide of potassium, a harmless compound, which precipitates copper in the form of insoluble ferrocyanide of copper. Marcellin Duval recommends sugar, with the object of reducing the copper to an insoluble oxide ; but the sugar has first to be turned into glucose, and even then exposed to a temperature much greater than the body. Grape juice has been suggested with the same object, also because it contains carbonate of potash. Diuretics can be given, also bromide of sodium ; the colicky pains are best combated by hypodermic injections of morphia. Analysis. — If there is a large quantity of copper present, by acidulating a portion of the material with hydrochloric acid it can be detected by simply placing a piece of bright steel, such as Special Toxicology.'' 5-3 the blade of a knife, in it, when the copper will form a red stain' on the metal ; if, however, there is only a minute portion, the organic matter must be previously destroyed. The process used is indifr ferent, as copper, being a heavy metal and stable, resists a consider- able degree of heat. Fresenius and Babo's, Flandin and Danger'^, are both applicable, also Ellenberger's and Hofmeister's, which will be described further on under the heading of lead. The fluid obtained is neutralised with ammonia, and submitted for an hour to the action of suphuretted hydrogen, taking care that it is kept at a temperature of about 70° Cent. It is then let stand for twenty- four hours "in a corked flask, and if copper is present a black preci- pitate — sulphide of copper — will be thrown down. The precipitate is collected on a filter washed with a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, placed in a small porcelain capsule, sprinkled with a little warm concentrated nitric acid, and then submitted to the tests that will be mentioned later on. Arnaud GautieT^s Method} — The material is finely divided and -weighed, placed in a platinum capsule, dried, and moistened with sulphuric acid. This is carefully heated over a spirit lamp till turned to charcoal, and no more fumes are given off? it is then powdered in the capsule with a glass rod and treated with boiling water acidulated with nitric acid. The residue is dried, calcined at a low heat, and added to the fluids that have been used in washing, the whole placed in a platinum vessel, treated with sulphuric acid, and again calcined. The residue is treated with an excess of water brought to boiling-point, and left standing for the day. Lead and tin, if present, are thrown down in the form of insoluble sulphate and bioxyde, the copper remaining in solution as a sulphate. The solution is acidulated and put into an open-mouthed platinum -vessel, which is placed in a porcelain vessel containing mercury. The negative pole of a battery is placed in the mercury, and the positive, round which a platinum wire is placed into the suspected ' Gautier. Le cuivre et le plomb dans I'alimentation et I'industrie au point de vue de I'hygifene. '1883. 54 Veterinary Toxicology. fluid, when the copper will be found deposited on the surface of the vessel. The current, is allowed to pass for twenty-four hours, when the fluid is drawn off with a syphon or pipette and the capsule weighed ; the deposit of copper is then carefully washed off it, the vessel being drained and again washed first with alcohol, afterwards with ether, let dry, and again weighed, the difference being the amount of copper present in the material made use of In some cases the copper becomes oxidised by contact with the air, and then the quantity cannot be determined by simply weighing it. The capsule must be heated to redness in the flame of a spirit lamp, placed under a bell glass, with a watch glass of sulphuric acid, and allowed to cool. It is then weighed, and the increase gives the amount of cupric oxide, which, multiplied by 079874, gives the weight of copper. The residue of oxide, moistened with a small quantity of nitric acid, which is evaporated with caution, is then diluted with water, and the solution can be submitted to the following tests : — A. Sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonium hydrosulphide give a black precipitate (disulphide of copper) insoluble in sul- phates of potassium, sodium, or hydrochloric acid, but soluble in cyanide of potassium. B. Potash and soda give a profuse blue precipitate that turns brown. If heated, this takes place much more rapidly. C. Carbonate of soda gives a greenish-blue precipitate, changing to black. D. Ammonia gives a greenish-blue precipitate, soluble in excess- of the reagent, and forming a sky-blue solution. This test will give a reaction in a i in 200,000 solution. E. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a reddish-brown precipitate,. or a red solution if the quantit}' of copper is small. It will give a reaction in a i to 200,000 solution. F. A slip of steel or zinc will be covered with a film of metallic copper. G. A warm solution of glucose gives a red precipitate. Special Toxicology. 55 H. Iodide of potassium gives a white precipitate — iodide of copper. I. Sulphocyanide of potassium gives a white precipitate. J. Tincture of guaiacum and hydrocyanic acid turn the solution blue. K. Borax and phosphorus melt the oxide of copper in the outer portion of the blowpipe flame. The bead is green when warm, but turns blue on cooling. In the inner portion of the flame the borax bead is uncoloured, the phosphorus turns a dark green ; both when solidified turn a brownish- red. Hadon has proposed to use ferrocyanide of potassium for the detection of copper in bread. He places a slice of pure bread and the suspected one together, sprinkling them with a solution of the ferrocyanide. After a short time, if there is copper present, the bread will turn a pink or red colour. The author states that this test is only useful for proportions of 2 per cent, or over. ZINC. Although zinc and its compounds have not the toxic properties of other metals, such as lead, copper, &c., they are capable of exert- ing a deleterious influence, and indeed of causing death. Zinc, which is sometimes known as Indian tin, is a whitish-blue crystalline metal, fusible at 400" Cent. By exposure to moisture it becomes coated with an insoluble film of hydrocarbonate of zinc, so that in the form of pipes and gutters water has very little action on it, but acids have, such as butter-milk kept in zinc pans, and house wash for pigs in zinc buckets. Commercial zinc is seldom pure ; it nearly always contains a proportion of arsenic, and this fact must be remembered in consider- ing its toxic properties. This is especially the case when animals are exposed to fumes from zinc works, a certain amount of arsenic being given off. 56 Veterinary Toxicology. Oxide of zinc is frequently used as an ointment, arid it is not usual to take any particular precautions to prevent the animal lick- . ing the part ; but Boucher ^ records a case of poisoning in a dog frdm this cause. The oxide is not, however, easily acted upon by- acids, and thus resists absorption when in contact with the contents of the stomach. Chloride of zinc acts chiefly as a caustic, and more partakes of the nature of corrosive acids. An impure solution is sold under the name of Sir William Burnett's disinfecting fluid. It is either colourless or yellow, from the presence of oxide of iron. It has in the human being been the cause of accidents through being mis- taken for fluid magnesia or water in the first place, and in the second for beer. Sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol, greatly resembles Glauber's salts, and several accidents through mistake are reported ; but being a powerful emetic, those animals that are capable of vomiting are able to relieve themselves. Physiology. — It is probable that the salts of zinc combine with the albuminoids to form an albuminate which is partly soluble, especially if there is excess of zinc. Absorption is generally quick, although elimination is slow ; according to Michaelis it is not present in the urine for the first five days after administration. The reason of this, no doubt, is that zinc is not precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen with hydrochloric acid, which is present in the stomach. Zinc is chiefly deposited in the liver and spleen, and is eliminated in the milk. Toxic Doses. — Three ounces of the sulphate intravenously has proved fatal in the horse, and 10 to 50 grains in the dog. 3 to 5 drachms caused nausea, colic, and attempts to vomit in the horse. — Tabourin. In small doses, that is to say from 4 to 5 grammes in a litre of water, it only acted as a strong astringent, drying up and discolouring the mouth, and causing thirst and constipation, the faeces being very hard. ' Journal de Midecine VHirinaire et de Zootechnie, 1893. Special Toxicology. 57 With 10 to 20 gramme doses swallowing was difficult, the mouth becoming dry and patulous ; loss of appetite, increased thirst ; marked constipation and straining, the faeces being hard and coated with mucus. There is often colic, and the abdomen may be tucked up, ■or, on the contrary, tympanitic. There is nausea, violent attempts at vomiting, hiccough, salivation, and general depression, with in many instances eructation, the food being expelled through the nostrils. In large doses of 30 to 40 grammes the same symptoms take place, only they are more acute and rapid. Orfila found that 7^ drachms caused dogs to vomit without any lasting effects, but that when it was prevented by ligaturing the oesophagus, a much smaller quantity was fatal in three days from gastro- enteritis, and 30 grains intravenously caused almost instantaneous death. Symptoms, Acute. — Salivation, nausea, vomiting, colic, and ■diarrhoea, followed by great weakness, cramps, and rigors. The beats of the heart are slow and feeble, the temperature falls, para- plegia sets in, and death soon follows. In Boucher's case, already mentioned, the head was considerably swollen, and the depending parts of the body were cedematous, the enlargements varying from the size of a pea to a hazel nut. They were present at the base of the neck, along the back, at the root of the tail, and extremities of the limbs. The eye was glassy, fixed, and the conjunctiva pale in colour. The mouth was dry and livid, and the breath hot but without any smell. The abdomen painful, and the movements of the intes- tines continuous and violent. The respirations were jerky, quick, and painful, with increase of the respiratory murmur ; the pulse weak, •quick, irregular, and at times imperceptible, the temperature low — 35-8 Cent. Treatment. — The best antidotes are calcined magnesia, any of the alkaline carbonates, and albumen. This must be given in large ■quantities, for the insoluble albuminate formed is redissolved in the presence of free zinc. It is not usually necessary to administer 58 Veterinary Toxicology. an emetic, but if one is required ipecacuanha is preferable. Elimi- nation can be assisted by oleaginous purgatives and enemas, with diuretics, especially acetate of ammonia, and the system supported by stimulants and tonics. Post-mortem.— The post-mortem lesions are due to the local' action of the drug. The mucous membrane of the mouth, oeso- phagus, stomach, and sometimes the duodenum, is white, opaque,, and of a hard leathery consistency, the membrane being corrugated and frequently ulcerated or sloughing. There is also enteritis,, especially marked in the large colon, with the formation of false membranes. In chronic cases there is extreme emaciation and cachexia, and there may be stricture of the bowel. Analysis. — The organic matter has to be destroyed, and Fresen- ius' and Babo's method is the best, giving chloride of zinc dissolved in the fluid with hydrochloric acid, but care must be taken not to use too great a degree of heat, as the chloride of zinc formed is- volatile. To this is added an excess of acetate of soda, with the object of replacing the hydrochloric by acetic acid, which does not hinder the formation of sulphide. The fluid is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, and the precipitate formed by the sul- phuric acid evaporated till white fumes are given off. The residue of sulphate of zinc is dissolved in water, again filtered, and. submitted to the following tests : — 1. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives a white precipitate, soluble in the mineral acids, but insoluble in acetic, ammonia hydrosulphide,. or cyanide of potassium. 2. Ammonia hydrosulphide gives a white precipitate — sulphate of zinc. 3. Carbonate of soda gives a white precipitate — carbonate of zinc. 4. Ammonia gives the same reaction. The precipitate is gela- tinous, and soluble in excess of the reagent, but this test is not often- employed. Potash gives the same ; the precipitate is soluble in. excess of the reagent and sulphuric acid. Special Toxicology. 59 5. Ferrocyanide of potassium in small quantities gives a white precipitate, insoluble in hydrochloric acid. According to Mylius,. this test will give a reaction with ^V milligramme per litre. 6. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a brownish yellow pre- cipitate. 7. On charcoal under the reducing flame of the blow-pipe a small quantity of the residue after the fluid has been evaporated,, and a drop of nitrate of cobalt and chloride of ammonia applied will give a green bend — Penmann's green. LEAD. Criminal poisoning by lead is unknown in veterinary practice,, but accidental is not at all uncommon. Pure metallic lead is harmless, but it is easily acted upon by a number of reagents, and poisonous compounds formed. It is chiefly found in the forms of sulphides and carbonates, and if exposed tO' damp air is covered over with a coating of oxide. Aerated water dissolves a considerable portion, also alkaline waters, and those containing certain organic matters, more especially if they are aerated. Most acids will attack lead, but lime dissolved in water will prevent it. Broadly speaking, potable waters dissolve lead quicker than impure ones. Gautier^ found one decimilligramme per litre in water from the Seine, and five times that amount in the Vanne, a much purer stream. Water containing carbonate or sul- phate of lime acts slowly on lead, but the reverse takes place with nitrate of ammonia. The solvent action of aerated water should be remembered, when the water supply is filtered through broken brick or sand, as- is now done with many town supplies. Lead is not only used for cisterns, water-pipes, &c., but many compounds are in everyday use in arts and manufactures, viz., mon- oxide (litharge or Manicot), dioxide (pure coloured oxide), red ^ Le cuivre et le plomb. Paris, 1883. €d Veterinary Toxicology. ■oxide (red lead or minium), carbonate (cerusite), acetate (sugar of lead, saturne), chromates (red and yellow chrome). White lead is much used as a paint, and in a compound of carbonate and hydroxide of lead. The sulphide or " galena " is used in the glaze on pottery, and in the human being has been the cause of many accidents. Car- bonate of lead is used in the manufacture of linoleum and oilcloths, and M. Stourb has calculated that a piece ij metres square will •contain 700 grammes. Predisposing Causes. — Cases of lead poisoning are more fre- quently observed in the dog than the other domesticated animals, no doubt on account of his living more in intimate relationship with man. Cattle and poultry appear to be the most susceptible, but the strange perversion of appetite in pica renders all the domesti- cated animals liable. Animals feeding near lead smelting works suffer from chronic poisoning. — {Chemist, 1855 ; Finlay Dun's Veterinary Medicine, 418.) Determining Causes. — There are a fairly large number of cases reported of animals being poisoned by licking newly painted fences, &c. Bojoly reports one where paint containing white lead was splashed over the grass when a paling was being newly painted, and Salembier and Lavigne from the cattle licking the same substance. Collins mentions one where some clover had been top-dressed with cinders from a lead work, and Dewer where stable manure had first been used in the manufacture of carbonate ■of lead by the Dutch. process. Mosselman has seen it take place where road scrapings have been put down on grass. Cartwright {Edinburgh Veterinary Review, 1863) reports a case of some cows being poisoned by eating the lead foil wrapped round tea ; and in the Veterinarian, 1864-65, and Taylor on Poisons, 402-439, cases of sheep and cattle that were grazing on rifle ranges and being poisoned by the fragments of bullets are mentioned. Some years ago a number of the Royal buckhounds were poisoned in the Ascot kennels by drinking water conveyed through lead pipes. Special Toxicology. 6jy Channels of introduction. — In the majority of cases lead enters- the system through the mouth, although it is possible it might be absorbed through a mucous membrane, such as the uterus. In the human being workmen are affected through the respiratory organs,, but this is not likely to take place with animals. The dog may become affected through the application of ointments containing lead. Toxic Dose. — There is much-divergency of opinion on this point.. Rey has given dogs large doses of carbonate and sulphate without any effect, and Guiserone had the same result when two grammes were given daily for twenty-seven days, although lead was detected in •the urine. Trousseau gave large doses to cats, and one dog received from 2 to 60 centigrammes daily for ten months ; in neither case- was there any ill result, although there were considerable quantities- of lead detected in the organs after death. On the other hand,. Combemale and Francoise produced symptoms of lead poisoning' in dogs with from i to 5 centigrammes of chloride of lead daily for a month. Hertwig found in the horse that a pound of the acetate was fatal, and a smaller quantity in cattle. Prinz gave half an ounce daily for three days to cqws that produced ill results, but was. ■not fatal. Mecke gave cows 8 ounces in two days, death taking place in from one to fourteen days afterwards. Orfila found that half an ounce killed dogs in from nine hours to two or three days if prevented from vomiting ; and Kaufmann gives the following as. toxic doses : — Cattle, 50 to 100 grammes Horse, . SCO to 750 J, Sheep, 30 ,j Pig, 8 J, Dog, 10 to 25 jj Absorption. — There is usually no local action except in the case of acetate of lead, which is an astringent, and the effects are not 62 Veterinary Toxicology. tnanifest till after absorption takes place. Miahle thinks that lead is absorbed in the form of a chloride, but other authors, amongst whom is Millon, consider it to be albuminate of lead, and is as such transported by the red corpuscles, "not the serum," to the various organs of the body. Absorption is facilitated by the poison remaining in the stomach or small bowels, and purgatives, together ■with sulphates and sulphuretted hydrogen, retard it, as the latter form insoluble compounds of lead. The alterations that metallic lead, " such as the debris of bullets or lead foil," undergo before it is absorbed are complex and not properly understood ; but no doubt the change is a long time in taking place, which accounts for it in many cases doing but little harm, and being expelled naturally. The longer it is retained the greater are the chances of absorption taking place, as in the process of digestion compounds such as .lactic and butyric acids are formed, which act on the metal and render it soluble. Circulation and Deposition. — After absorption the poison passes into the circulation, and its first effects are on the blood, but the -whole body is influenced by it, more especially the nervous system. A considerable amount is deposited in the bones, where it is de- tected as a phosphate, and in the liver, where, according to Gautier, it forms an albuminoid precipitate and an insoluble salt. It can also be detected in the kidneys, brain, and muscles. Ellenberger fed a sheep with 164 grammes of acetate of lead, extending over a period of four months, and found the following proportions in the various organs : — Liver, . . . Grammes 0.065 per cent. Kidneys, . Bones, Nervous system, Muscles, 0.047 0.032 0.018 0.0084 Elimination chiefly takes place through the bile and urine, but a ■certain amount passes off in the saliva and perspiration. Accord- Special Toxicology. 63, ang to Melsesis, it is assisted by iodide of potassium, whicii unites with lead compounds, rendering them easily eliminable. Symptoms, Acuie.^The symptoms sometimes continue in a more ■or less aggravated form for weeks or even months. There is loss ■of appetite, with colicky pain, but these latter are not so continu- ally present as in the human subject ; and at first the disease may be mistaken for stomach staggers in the horse and tympanitis in ■cattle. The limbs become paralysed, and the animal suffers from ■cramp, with progressive atrophy of the muscles, the extensors .being more severely affected and involved than the flexors. If the ■case runs on for any time paralysis of the hind quarters sets in, and it would seem that the motor nerves are more affected than the •sensory. In the horse a cough sets in, and the animal becomes a roarer. Schmidt has seen a number of such cases in lead works in ■Germany, and he states that such horses may become roarers with- out manifesting any other symptoms, although after death he has 'detected considerable amounts of lead in their bodies, and that some of them have lived under these conditions for years, if the ■danger of asphyxia is prevented by performing tracheotomy. There is also a rough, staring coat, with a tucked-up abdomen .and general unthrifty appearance, a slight amount of fever and ■diflSculty in breathing, but the pulse is usually not much over 60 beats per minute. Cattle are much more sensible to the effects of lead than horses, ■and the symptoms appear very suddenly, without any warning, ■usually seven or eight days after the poison has been taken. There is loss of appetite and rumination ; the cow goes off her milk, and ■obstinate constipation sets in. The limbs are drawn together, the back arched, with the head being down, and there is great loss of •condition. In cattle the various complications are almost invariably seen. The eyeball is retracted in the orbit, giving the face a haggard appearance, and vision is dull, even if the patient is not altogether .blind. Convulsions set in, alternated with periods of calm, and 64 Veterinary Toxicology. during the fits there are violent rigors, tremors, grinding of the teeth, and a great discharge of frothy saliva from the mouth. The pulse then becomes small and thready, the heart-beats imper- ceptible, and the respiration accelerated. In certain cases delirium sets in, the animal bellowing, and even biting or butting at imaginary enemies. If let loose he will keep turning round in a circle or pushing his head against a wall ; if tied up, will hang back on the halter till he falls in a fit of ' convulsions. During the intervals the patient is semi-comatose, lying in unnatural positions, or if placed in such not attempting to rectify them, and continually champing the jaws. Death takes place sometimes within a few hours, but the patient may linger for some days. Chronic. — Chronic lead poisoning is seldom seen in cattle, on account of their peculiar susceptibility to this metal. The patient becomes anaemic, and gradually loses condition, the hair standing" on end ; the skin is hide-bound and corrugated ; the appetite capricious ; mucous membranes pale or yellow in colour, with a characteristic blue line on the gums. There sometimes are attacks- of colic of a varying degree of severity. The abdomen is painful on pressure, and there is a drawn, anxious expression of the face,, but these symptoms may not make their appearance for from twa to six months after the patient has first been exposed to the influ- ence of the poison. Rumination is suspended in cattle. There is obstinate constipation, the passage of faeces being accomplished with difficulty and attended with much pain and straining, the excrement being hard and black. Urine is passed with difficulty in small quantities and at long intervals. There is great emacia- tion, the eyes are sunk deep into the sockets, and the animal presents the unmistakeable appearance of " plumbism." Death may not take place for from three months to a j'ear, and towards the end delirium, convulsions, coma, and paralysis set in. Ellenberger and Hofmeister have produced cjironic plumbism Special Toxicology. 65 in the sheep by gradually increasing doses of acetate of lead for from three to four months, giving altogether 150 grammes. There was loss of appetite, disturbance of rumination, constipation, followed by diarrhoea, dulness, great muscular weakness, without paralysis, and suppression of urine, which was loaded with albumen, but poor in carbonates and hippuric acid. There was no appear- ance of any nervous symptoms. In the Hartz mountains chronic poisoning has been seen in both sheep and goats, giving rise to abortion and sterility. According to some observers, the dog resists the effects of lead, but others report him to be sensitive to it. Orfila has caused fatal gastro-enteritis and collapse by large doses of acetate of lead, and in smaller quantities chronic poisoning, identical to that observed in the human being. Laho and Mosselman have noted epileptic convulsions. Combunale and Francois gave 5 centigrammes of chloride of lead daily for a month to dogs. The animals became timid, running away and hiding themselves, as if they suffered from hallucinations, barking in a characteristic manner at imaginary objects and suffering from epileptic fits, which could be in- duced by any slight excitement, such as the administration of a dose of alcohol, threatened chastisement, or passing a catheter. In some there was chorea of the muscles of one side of the face. The cat presents the same symptoms, but the convulsive fits are sooner seen. Birds of all species appear to be peculiarly sensible to the action of lead. Post-mortem. — Acute : The lesions chieily consist of a variable degree of gastric enteritis in patches, due to the irritation caused by the poison. In ruminants vesicles are seen in the abomasum and small intestines running on into ulceration ; and if the case has existed any length of time, eschars where they have healed up. The surrounding membrane is of a dull grey colour, due to the E 66 Veterinary Toxicology. absorption of lead salts. The brain is congested, the meninges CEdematous, with in some cases fluid in the ventricles, the spinal cord being in the same condition. The mucous membranes of the larynx and pharynx are also congested and covered with petechise. The lungs and trachea are inflamed and engorged, the bronchii filled with a quantity of bloody froth. In a case reported by Finlay Dun {Veterinary Medicine) the caecum was gangrenous. Chronic. — The peculiar changes are fatty degeneration of the cell elements of the tissues that the lead comes in contact with, and in many instances sclerosis. The red blood corpuscles are diminished in number, and either broken down or indented along the margin. There is an increase in the number of white corpuscles and quantity of fibrine. In some instances there is granular fatty degeneration of the intestinal glands and fibres of the muscular coat, and some authors have noticed thickening of the areolar con- nective tissue. The liver undergoes fatty degeneration and some- times sclerosis sets in. There is nephritis, which if at all advanced gives rise to calcareous accumulations in Henle's tubes.and the corticular portions of the kidnej- show traces of sclerosis and atrophy. In the sheep Ellenberger found tumefaction and degeneration of the cell elements, especially in the epithelium composing Bellini's tubes. In some cases there is fatty degeneration of the heart. The brain is ana;mic, yellow, and harder than natural, but there is no appreciable change seen on microscopical examination. The spinal cord shows the usual lesions of myelitis, and the peripheric nerves those of neuritis. In some cases the myelitis is absent and the ganglia enlarged, a condition generally noticed in the laryngeal nerves. The abdominal ganglia of the pneumo-gastric nerve are often enlarged, indurated, and anaemic. The bones are not likely to undergo any alteration, but cases have been reported of caries. The muscles undergo granular fatty degeneration, and take on a brown tint, giving them the appearance of sun-dried meat. Special Toxicology. 67 A blue line round the gums at the junction with the teeth is looked upon as diagnostic of chronic lead poisoning. Taylor points out that this is also seen in mercurial poisoning in some instances, and that in the human being well-marked cases of undoubted lead poisoning have come under his notice with absence of the blue line. Finlay Dun mentions a case of plumbism in cattle in which the blue line was dissected out, and under the blow-pipe with car- bonate of soda a white bead of lead was obtained. Prognosis. — Except in the earlier stages of the subacute form the prognosis is bad, and where convulsions and brain symptoms set in the result is always fatal. Treatment. — -Treatment is preventive and curative. The first consists of either removing the animals to a healthy locality or stopping the contaminated food or water. Curative measures are directed to elimination by means of emetics of the unabsorbed portion of the poison in the stomach, if the patient can vomit, rendering it insoluble ; and elimination of this compound treatment of the attacks of colic and treatment of the secondary symptoms. Apomorphine injected subcutaneously is recommended as an emetic for the dog and cat, \ to -^ of a grain being given in a hypodermic injection ; but emetics should only be used in the earlier stages of the case, and are contra-indicated later on, especially when cerebral symptoms are manifested. The poison is rendered insoluble by milk, albumen, and white of egg, with sulphate of soda or magnesia, which form an insoluble sulphate of lead, and at the same time relieve the constipation. Dr. J. Peyron highly recommends sodium sulphide, and Bouchardat sulphide of iron. Lutz {^Journal de Pharmacie et Chimie) in chronic plumbism in the human being recommends flowers of sulphur, 50 grammes, divided in three doses the first day, gradually reducing the quantity, the course lasting nine days. The sulphur has a purgative action, and forms sulphide of lead. Christison suggests the phosphate of soda, which forms phos- 68 Veterinary Toxicology. phate of lead, but this compound is not completely insoluble. Melseus has had great success with iodide of potassium, which com- bines with the lead and forms a salt that is rapidly eliminated in the bile and urine. This should only be used for six or seven days with an interval of a fortnight. M. Combemale advocates a large dose of olive oil, followed up by daily ones of a fourth the quantity, claiming for it a deobstruent and sedative action. He combines with it menthol or cocaine to reduce the reflex action of the stomach and render it tolerant. The paroxysms of colic can be obviated with morphia or chloral, and the general anaemic state by vegetable tonics and iron. In cases of paralysis strychnine and electricity may be had recourse to, but usually treatment is of but little use. Analysis. — The poison may be present in suspected food or other materials, or in the various organs of the body, liver, brain, blood, muscles, urinfe, or bile. If there is a large quantity, and in a soluble form, the material can be macerated in water and filtered. The filtrate will contain the lead, for which it can be tested. If the lead is in an insoluble form a small portion of the material is dried at a gentle heat, and with a carbonate of soda flux on charcoal submitted to the reducing flame of the blow-pipe, when a greyish blue metallic bead will be obtained that will leave a mark when drawn across a piece of paper. Under the oxidising flame this bead gives a yellowish pink colour — oxide of lead. The material boiled with a solution of caustic or neutral chromate of potash gives a precipitate — yellow chromate of lead. When there are only small quantities it is necessary to destroy the organic matter. Any of the methods described for arsenic can be employed, and as lead is only slightly volatile at a white he;\t the manipulation is comparatively easy. There are, however, two special processes — Ellenberger and Hofmeister's, and Pouchet's. Ellenberger and Hofmeister's method consists in reducing to a charcoal by a low heat the suspected material which has been previouslydried, and then treating it first with strong, afterwards with special Toxicology. 69 dilute, nitric acid, which is decanted off or filtered. The residue is then heated to redness, treated with very dilute nitro-muriatic acid and filtered, the two filtrates being mixed together. They are rendered slightly acid, and treated with a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. The resulting precipitate is washed with boiling water, and dissolved in dilute nitric acid. The solution contains lead, and can be sub- mitted to any of the tests to be described hereafter. Pouchefs Process. — To 250 grammes of the suspected material are added 250 grammes of nitric acid and 25 grammes of sulphate of potash, heat being applied, when a violent reaction takes place. Sulphuric acid is then added, and again heat applied till it boils, when it is diluted with water. The fluid is placed in a platinum capsule, and the positive pole of a battery placed in it. The lead will be deposited on the platinum. It is washed off, dissolved with nitric acid, and the solution divided into two portions. One is treated with sulphuric acid. Sulphate of lead is precipitated, which is washed, dried, and weighed ; this, multiplied by o"6829i and then doubled, will give the quantity of lead in the material examined. The second portion is evaporated over a water-bath to get rid of the acid. The residue is redissolved in water, and the solution, as well as that obtained by Ellenberger and Hofmeister's pro- cess, can be submitted to the following tests : — 1. Potash, soda, and ammonia give a white precipitate. 2. Carbonate of soda gives a white precipitate, which is insoluble in cyanide of potassium. 3. Hydrochloric acid gives a dense white precipitate — chloride of lead, soluble in excess of hydrochloric acid and boiling water. 4. Sulphuric acid gives a white precipitate — sulphate of lead, which blackens with sulphuretted hydrogen. 5. Dilute solution of chromate of potash gives a yellow pre- cipitate — chromate of lead, soluble in excess of potash. 6. Iodide of potash gives a yellow precipitate — yellow iodide of lead, soluble in boiling water. 70 Veterinary Toxicology. 7. A slip of zinc or magnesium placed in the solution precipi- tates the lead in crystals in the form of a blackish grey film over it. Quantitative Analysis. — The lead is converted into sulphide, sulphate, or bioxide : — 1. The acid solution is evaporated, and the residue treated with a saturated solution of acetate of soda, a current of sulphuretted hydrogen being passed through it. The precipitate is filtered, dried, and heated to redness with sulphur, forming sulphide of lead, which is weighed. 2. The acid solution is treated with excess of sulphuric acid, the precipitate washed in dilute alcohol, dried, and weighed. 3. This method is known as Riche's. Salts of lead in a solution of nitric acid form a bioxide under a negative current, and an ordinary Bunsen cell will deposit about two grammes in twelve hours. To prevent the compound from being redissolved, the liquid should be syphoned off at the end of the operation without interrupting the current. The vessel in which the operation has taken place should be washed with distilled water, dried, and weighed : the difference will represent the quantity of lead. It is best carried out at about 60° Centigrade. MERCURY. Metallic mercury is not poisonous ; ind eed at one time large doses, amounting to pounds weight, were given in the human being in cases of bowel obstruction, with the object of overcoming it mechanically. Malicious poisoning is rare in animals, but accidental is by no means uncommon. Mercury gives off a small amount of vapour even at an ordinary temperature, and animals living in the neighbourhood of works and mines suffer from the effects, a notable case being mentioned by Finlay Dun as having occurred in Italy, where not only the workmen and animals Special Toxicology. 71 employed in the mine were affected, but even fish in a neigh- bouring pond. The oxides are poisonous, but chiefly the yellow, which enters into the composition of paints, and has generally been the cause of accidents. The sulphides, which occur native in the form of cinnibar, are not very toxic on account of their insoluble properties, but Dr. Bennett mentions a case of a dog that became affected with chronic mercurial poisoning from a habit of licking vermilion oil paint. Mercurial chloride, or calomel, is very slightly soluble, and not likely to cause accidents, but small doses constantly re- peated have produced hydragism. Miahle is of opinion that it is altered into bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) in contact with alkaline chlorides, but this is not supported by MM. Adam or Guinard ; and Voit considers that it is absorbed as an albuminate. Thiocynate of mercury, which is the basis of the scientific toy known as Pharaoh's Serpents, is a very toxic salt, and possibly might be formed in the organism if calomel was given in conjunction with a decoction of bitter almonds, which contains hydrocyanic acid. The usual cause of poisoning is chloride of mercury or corrosive sublimate, which, being largely used for disinfectant purposes, may be easily mistaken for other harmless substances, particularly as it is colourless in solution and inodorous. Toxic Doses. — The dose tolerated is variable, appearing to depend a great deal on individual idiosyncrasy and tolerance acquired by habit. Birds and ruminants appear to be peculiarly sensitive, probably from the poison being retained in the crop and first stomach, and being more certainly absorbed. Bouley and Hertwig caused the death of a horse by the application of mercurial ointment to the skin, but only after the expenditure of several kilogrammes and the lapse of a month ; whereas Lafosse poisoned an ox with 100 grammes, and Warnessou caused symptoms of poisoning by injecting i gramme of corrosive sublimate in 15 grammes of alcohol into the udder of a cow. Kaufmann places 72 Veterinary Toxicology. the degree of intolerance to mercury of animals as — birds, cats, sheep, ox, pig, solipeds, and the toxic doses of corrosive sublimate- Ox, 4 to 8 grammes. Horse, 8 to lo „ Dog, 0-2S to o-so Hertwig found that 7 to 8 grains killed dogs in from 7 to 30 hours, 4 drachms horses in 12 hours, 2 drachms cattle in 14 days, and i drachm sheep in 12 hours. Law's Veterinary Medicines give the toxic dose as — horse 2 drachms, ox i to 2 drachms, dog 4 to 6 grains. Calomel is not so irritant as corrosive sublimate, but Hertwig found that in horses 3 to 4 drachms, cattle 2 to 3, sheep 1 5 to 30 grains, and dogs 6 to 30, caused in 24 to 36 hours colicky pains with, purgation, there being a large quantity of bile in the faeces, which were of a greenish colour. If these doses were repeated for three or four days there was a fatal result, with the usual symptoms of mercury poisoning. Cogswell reports a case of a setter that died from a drachm of iodide of mercury in five days. Absorption. — Mercury before it can be absorbed has to be con- verted into a soluble compound, and although the exact nature of this process is not properly understood, it would appear that the chloride and albuminoids in the stomach and intestines play an important part as well as the hydrochloric and lactic acids, which act on the metal and form lactate of mercury. Berthelot has shown that at an ordinary temperature it unites with the oxygen of the air and forms an oxide, and that this process can be carried out in the stomach, also that the chlorides present acting on it form a double chloride, but nevertheless the absorption of metallic mercury takes place very slowly and a large proportion is passed off in the excrements. Alkaline carbonates would appear to act on calomel to form oxide of mercury and the double chloride. Mercury is absorbed into the blood and is found in the metallic Special Toxicology. 'j-^ form in the bones ^ and various tissues. When contained in an ointment it is as well to remember that if this has been made for some time absorption will take place quicker than if it is fresh. Voit points out that metallic mercury is absorbed slowly, proto- chlorides and mercurial salts more rapidly, and bichloride and mercurial salts the quickest of all. Circulation, Absorption, and Elimination. — Mercury in combina- tion with albumen is dissolved in the blood by the action of the chlorides. Voit points out that by repeated washing it is possible to eliminate the chlorides from a compound of mercury and albumen, and therefore it must be as a protoxide and not a chloride that the former unites with the latter. Once entered into the circulation, mercury is not directly elimi- nated from the body, as it is deposited in most of the tissues, the liver and kidneys being the chief, but it is also found in the muscles, brain, &c. Roederer administered to a dog in 30 days 2 • 789 grammes of calomel divided into 68 doses, and found the following proportions in the tissues in the form of sulphide of mercury : — Brain, heart, lung, spleen, pancreas, kidney, testicles, and penis, 0-009 Liver, 0-0114 Muscles, 0-0114 During life in faeces, 2 - 1 175 „ urine, 0-0550 Drogendorfif^ gave a dog in 78 days i -709 grammes of calomel in 69 doses; 0-1084 were eliminated in the fasces, 0-0467 in the urine ; the experiment was continued for 24 days, the figures during this period being 0-0563 and 0-009. The animal was then destroyed; the liver bnly contained 0-0026, and the muscles scarcely 1 Hufeland's Journal, f. pr. Heilkunde, vol. ii., page 117 ; Virchow's Arch., f. Path. Anat., vol. xviii., page 364. ^ Manuel de Toxicologie, 1866. 74 Veterinary Toxicology. a trace. The facility with which mercury is deposited is an .im- portant point in the changes undergone by the excretory organs that have an affinity for it. Ehmination takes place in the urine,^ bile, perspiration, saliva, and faeces in the form of a double chloride combined with albumen, but it is slow, and in chronic cases the metal has been detected in the liver months after any contamination could have been pos- sible. The alkaline iodides assist elimination in the same way as they do lead. Symptoms. — Acute : If a considerable dose of corrosive subli- mate is taken, the symptoms will be those of acute gastro-enteritis, complicated with those caused by the corrosive action of the poison, to the exclusion of any other special ones. There will be nausea, and if capable of vomiting, aquantity of bilious mucus ejected, which afterwards is tinged with blood ; acute colic and diarrhoea, at first bilious, afterwards tinged with blood, and foetid. The pulse is small and quick, and the animal dies in a few hours in a state of collapse. Should the amount taken be of a smaller quantity, and the course of the attack not be so violent, the special symptoms due from the presence of the poison in the circulation will present them- selves. It is immaterial by what channel it gains access to the circulation, i.e., whether by the mouth or through the skin, they will manifest themselves sooner or later, according to the degree of rapidity with which the poison is absorbed. If the dose is given by the mouth the acute symptoms described will be seen, but in a milder degree. This form of mercurial poisoning is usually seen in cattle, and the first symptoms appear in about eight days after the poison has been taken. There is salivation, which is glairy and ropy. At first it is not very profuse, and is swallowed, but later on it runs from the corners of the mouth and hangs in long threads. The mouth, gums, and sometimes the tongue, are red and swollen, often ' Schmidt. Elimination des Quicksilbeis. Dorpat, 1879, Special Toxicology. 75 covered with a yellow-coloured fur, and bleeding. At the same time there may be stomatitis and characteristic mercurial ulceration. The teeth become loose, fall out, and the breath and saliva have a peculiar foetid smell. The respirations are painful, loss of appetite, and rumination is suspended, also the secretion of milk. The urine is scanty and frequently albuminous, pulse small and irregular, and in many cases cedema of the limbs and dewlap. There is a peculiar muscular twitching, and partial paralysis (mercurial paresis), eczema of a peculiar type is seen, characterised by the formation of small abscesses, which burst, leaving behind them indolent ulcers that heal slowly, and there is often epistaxis. Death usually takes place in from eight to fifteen days. The same symptoms and course of the attack are seen in the other animals, — in cat, dog, and horse. Chronic. — The symptoms of chronic mercurial poisoning much resemble those of acute, except that they are longer in making their appearance, and come on more gradually. There is very often a diminution in the secretions, urine, milk, synovia, and perspira- tion. After the lapse of a certain time there is progressive anaemia, and the animal sinks into a state of profound cachexia, with great weakness, chronic catarrh of the mucous membranes, which are blanched, oedema of the dependent parts of the body, and easily excited haemorrhage. There is also excessive nervous irritability, which is characteristic, and which shows itself in muscular tremors and twitching of the limbs. These tremors are more violent during motion, and seem to extend themselves more to some particular groups of muscles than others. Animals suffering from chronic mercurialism will- live for a considerable time, even months. Post-mortem. — The local lesions have nothing specially characteristic about them ; indeed, they differ greatly, depending on the nature of the compound, the form in which it is applied or given, dose, and channel of introduction. If the mercury is in a soluble form there is corrosion and inflam- mation of the surface it comes in contact with. If it is corrosive 76 Veterinary Toxicology. sublimate taken by the mouth there is violent diffused gastro- enteritis, in itself sufficient to cause death, the mucous membrane is highly injected, infiltrated, covered with patches of ecchymosis, and in places ulcerated and gangrenous. Taylor mentions a case in a human being in which there was perforation ; but this violent gastro-enteritis cannot be considered as a characteristic lesion of mercurial poisoning.. The local effects are usually not so acute, and are subsidiary. Acute Poisoning. — When the poison is soluble there is irritation and inflammation of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines, but if it is insoluble there may be no local lesions at all. Mercury when absorbed into the blood causes certain changes in it that are not properly determined. It is black, very fluid, does not clot, and according to Senger contains a considerable quantity ot lactic acid. An important lesion is the existence of a diphtheritic inflam- mation, with the formation of false membranes in the intestines, especially the large. This is due to the mercury in the circulation and not from local action, as it has been seen when the poison has been absorbed through the skin. Grawitz established an artificial anus in the dog, opening the caecum ; the animal was then poisoned with mercury, and all the usual diphtheritic lesions were present in the intestine behind the artificial anus.^ The liver is usually enlarged and of a pale colour. The kidneys, and in some cases the voluntary muscles, undergo fatty degeneration. The kidneys, which are the chief organs by which elimination takes place, present the appearance of parenchymatous nephritis. In the earlier stages there is effusion, especially round the glomeruli, with which there may be extravasation of blood. The lining epi- thelium in the convoluted tubes is tumefied, necrotic, and in places has undergone fatty degeneration. It is frequently displaced, and blocks up the tubes with casts. Salkowski ^ has shown that these 1 Grawitz. Deut. Med. Woch. 1888. ■^Salkowski. Virchow's Archives, vol. 37. 1888. Page 348. Special Toxicology. ^1 casts may consist of calcareous material, and he has been confirmed in his observations by Bouchard, Carnil, Prevot, Virchow, and Senger. The latter gives the following explanation : — The lactic acid in the blood dissolves a portion of the lime salts in the bones, in the form of lactate of calcium. This is converted into a carbonate in the blood, and is eliminated in the urine, but when the secreting function of the kidney is interfered with it lodges in the tubes. To the naked eye the kidneys are pale and of a yellow colour, especially in the corticular portion. The extreme fluidity of the blood gives rise to passive congestion and haemorrhage into certain organs, especially the lungs, heart, and brain, and the long bones are in a measure decalcified ; indeed they sometimes are flexible. Chronic Poisoning. — There is stomatitis and ulceration of the mouth, which may run on into necrosis of the bony structures. The gastro-enteritis takes the form of a chronic catarrh, and is con- fined to the large intestine, the mucous membrane of which is in- filtrated and of a slate colouf. Letulle points out that in mercurial cachexia in portions ot the peripheric nerves the myeline is broken down into minute particles, which are reabsorbed, leaving the sheath of Schwann empty but the axis cylinder intact, though there are no signs of inflammation, as is the case in lead poisoning. If the case has been going on for any length of time there are all the usual appearances of advanced cachexia. Prognosis. — In acute mercurial poisoning the prognosis is bad, death usually taking place in from two to three days. In chronic cases removal of the cause and rational treatment usually is suc- cessful. Treatment.— The. antidotes recommended in acute gastro-en- teritis. are white of egg in water, milk, flour and water, linseed gruel, &c., with freshly prepared sulphide of iron or iron filings, which form an insoluble compound that is readily eliminated either by an emetic or purgative. Chlorate of potash is also useful in com- bating salivation. 78 Veterinary Toxicology. If the accident has been caused by absorption from the skin the application must be washed off, taking care that it is done thoroughly. In chronic poisoning, or where any quantity has been absorbed, Melseus recommends iodide of potassium, which, as with lead, forms a soluble compound that passes into the circulation and is readily eliminated in the secretions, especially the urine. Care, however, must be taken that this process is carried out gradually, for if toe lar^e a quantity of the deposited mercury is set free in the circula- tion acute poisoning is apt to be set up. The various secondary complications, such as gastro-enteritis, paresis, paralysis, eczema, and cachexia, &c., must receive the clas- sical treatment. Chemical Analysis. — Mercury is detected in the food, vomit, fjeces, urine, saliva, and milk ; in acute fatal cases in the contents of the stomach and intestines, and in chronic ones in most of the parenchymatous organs, bile, and urifie. The liver and kidneys more especially are the organs in which mercury is deposited. If the suspected material is liquid, Mayengon and Bergeret's method may at once be had recourse to and will save time and labour. The suspected liquid is acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and a platinum wire wound round an iron nail is placed in it for about an hour. The mercury is deposited on the platinum, which is removed from the nail, washed, dried, and exposed to a current of chlorine gas. The wire is then drawn over or placed on a sheet of blotting paper impregnated with iodide of potassium, and the spots where it has been in contact will be marked red by the mercury being changed into biniodide. With solid material the organic matter must be first got rid of. Ogier's modification of Fresenius and Babo's process is a good one, but it is immaterial which is used, as long as it does not involve too great a degree of heat, which would volatilise the mercury. The fluid contains the mercury in the form of bichloride, and is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, which gives a white precipitate passing Special Toxicology. 79 to yellow and finally black, insoluble in ammonia or nitric acid, but soluble in nitro-muriatic acid. The precipitate is filtered, washed, dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid, and evaporated, the residue being redissolved in distilled water and submitted to the following tests : — 1. Sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrosulphide of ammonia (in a small quantity) gives a white precipitate, turning into red, orange brown, and black, by increasing the quantity of the reagent forming mercuric sulphide. 2. Potash gives a yellowish red precipitate insoluble in excess of the reagent (mercuric oxide). 3. Ammonia gives a white precipitate (ammoniated mercury, the white precipitate of the British Pharmacopoeia). 4. Iodide of potassium in small quantities gives a yellow pre- cipitate, turning into a bright red — biniodide of mercury ; it is soluble in excess of the reagent. 5. Chromate of potash gives a yellow precipitate. 6. Protochloride of tin gives a white precipitate, which boiled with hydrochloric acid sets free a globule of metallic mer- cury. According to Schneider this test is sensitive up to 1/50,000. 7. A polished strip of copper placed in the fluid becomes coated with a grey film which takes a metallic lustre when rubbed with a cloth or wash leather. If dried and heated in a test tube mercury is given off, which condenses on the cold parts of the glass. Heated to 40° Cent, with iodine it forms iodide of mercury, with the characteristic red colour when cold, turning yellow with heat. Smitkson's Method.- — A slip of gold leaf is wound round a piece of copper. The mercury is deposited on the gold leaf, which is heated in a test tube as before described. Caseneuve's Method. — This method is carried out by electrolysis of the acidulated fluid obtained by Fresenius and Babo's method. To the" negative pole of the battery is attached a slip of gold foil 8o Veterinary Toxicology. on which the mercury is deposited ; the gold foil can be tested as in either of the two above-mentioned methods. Mergers Method. — This has been devised to detect mercury in the atmosphere. Lines or characters are traced on paper with chloride of platinum, or palladium, which turns red in the presence of mercury. Mercury does not normally exist in the body, and if detected it must have come from some extraneous source, perhaps from medicines taken a long time ago. Quantitative Analysis. — -The globule of mercury given by proto- chloride of tin can be weighed, but it goes without saying that this method is only approximate of the total amount in the system. NITRATE OF SILVER. Accidents have taken place in the human being from a pencil of nitrate of silver being swallowed in cauterisation of the mouth and fauces, and it is quiet possible that the same might happen in veterinary practice. Nitrate of silver undergoes decomposition in contact with the tissues, metallic silver being deposited, forming a black stain, oxygen and nitric acid being set free. The mucous membrane is at first white and caseous from the formation of chloride of silver at the expense of the chlorides in them, but they rapidly change to brown or black. If administered for any length of time it will become deposited in the skin, discolouring it, also in the liver, spleen, pancreas, and bones, which undergo fatty degeneration. It is excreted chiefly by the bowels, but also in the bile and urine. There is great pain and vomiting of matter containing clots, fre- quently streaked with blood ; 30 to 60 grains give rise to toxic effects in the dog, with convulsions and paralysis. The best antidote is salt in white of egg and water, gruel, or any form of albumen, both of which turn the nitrate of silver into an insoluble compound. Special Toxicology. 8i Analysis. — Organic matter must be destroyed, and the resulting fluid will contain chloride of silver in solution. This is filtered while hot and let stand for twenty-four hours, again filtered, and the residue melted in a porcelain vessel. A fragment of zinc is added, and drop by drop sulphuric acid, till the zinc is dissolved. Nitric acid is then added, and evaporated, the residue — " nitrate of silver" — is redissolved in water, which will give the following reaction : — ■ 1. A dirty yellow precipitate is given, with ammonia soluble in excess. 2. Hydrochloric acid gives a white flocculent precipitate that turns black, insoluble in nitric acid ; soluble in ammonia, and partly so in hot water. 3. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives a black precipitate. 4. Arsenate of soda gives a brown or brick red precipitate. 5. Yellow chromate of potash gives a blood red precipitate. 6. Arsenate of soda, a yellow precipitate. 7. Phosphate of soda, do. 8. Iodide of potassium, do. BARIUM. The salts of barium have toxic properties, and, several being used in manufactures and arts, are the cause of accidents, nitrate and chlorate in giving a green colour to fireworks, oxide and carbonate in glassmaking, chromate in paint, and white powders are adulterated with the sulphate. The chloride is used in certain processes in wood staining, and also in medicine in the treatment of bowel obstruction. The chloride and nitrate are soluble. The carbonate is rendered soluble by the gastric fluids, but the sulphate is insoluble. Carbonate is used- sometimes in rat paste, and Christison mentions a case of cattle being poisoned by it. Orfila poisoned dogs with four grammes, and Husard and Debiron horses in five days by daily doses of 5 grammes of the chloride. F 82 Veterinary Toxicology. The use of baiium chloride in an intravenous injection in the treatment of colic was first recommended by Dickerhofif, and has come extensively into use, no doubt partly on account of its low price compared with eserine and pilocarpine, but it is not un- attended with danger if employed rashly. The barium salts appear to be irritants with a special action on the nervous system, and when introduced into the circulation cause rapid diminution in the contractility of the muscles. If continued for any length of time the poison is deposited in the various organs of the body, but principally the bones. Symptoms. — When the barium is swallowed they are all the usual ones of acute gastro-enteritis, with diarrhoea, colic, and emesis in animals capable of vomiting, with great prostration, and diminu- tion in the number and intensity of the heart-beats. The animal staggers about, has great difficulty in standing, and is unable to control his movements. The hind quarters are paralysed, which gradually extends to the rest of the body, the pulse is small and imperceptible, respiration difficult, and death from failure of the heart's action and asphyxia takes place. Administered hypoder- mically it causes toxic and clonic convulsions, increased peristaltic action of the bowels, with discharge of faeces and urine, emesis in animals that can vomit, restlessness, muscular prostration, quick shallow respiration, weak thready pulse, coma, and death. Treatment.— 'StvX'^zX?^ of soda or magnesia are the best anti- dotes, but carbonate of soda, which is more easily obtainable, can be used, or even wood ashes, which contain a large quantity ot carbonates. The poison should be eliminated by purgatives and emetics, with opium and mucilaginous fluids. When injected into the circulation stimulants and excitants are, indicated, especially such as also cause diuresis. Certain Con- tinental writers have in the human beirig recommended artificial respiration and inhalation of oxygen, which Toepper's apparatus would bring within the reach of the veterinary surgeon. Lesions. — These vary according to the nature of the compound special Toxicology. 83 taken and dose. There is inflammation of the anterior portion of the digestive canal, chiefly the stomach, but it is not characteristic or very pronounced, and ulceration or corrosion are absent. There is congestion of the lungs, kidneys, and sometimes the brain and meninges. Analysis. — The food, faeces, and vomited matter can be examined if the patient lives ; in a fatal case the contents of the stomach and intestines, urine, and liver. The organic matter can be destroyed by incineration, when phosphates, chlorides, bromides, and iodides will be detected as such in the charcoal. Sulphates will be turned into sulphides. The charcoal is treated with hydrochloric acid, which dissolves most of the barium. When Flandin and Danger's process has been used the barium will be present in the charcoal as a sulphate. This is fixed with carbonate of soda and potash, treated with boiling water and hydrochloric acid, which converts the carbonate of barium into a soluble chloride. The solution obtained, by whichever process is employed, gives the following reactions : — ■■ 1. With chromate of potash a clear yellow precipitate is given, soluble in nitric acid. With this test lime salts give no precipitate, and strontium only a feeble one. 2. Sulphuric acid gives a precipitate insoluble in water or acids. Those given by strontium and calcium are soluble in water, the former in the proportion of ttVit. the latter -g-^. CHAPTER III. ALKALINE METALS. Potash and soda are the two most important metals to be con- sidered of this class. They are found under normal conditions in the tissues, sodium almost exclusively in the fluids, potassium in the solids of the body. Their toxic properties differ not only as to the amount that can be tolerated, but in the effects produced, potassium being much more active than sodium. The nature of the substances with which they are combined greatly modifies their action, some rendering them almost harmless, others having almost a corrosive action. In some cases it is the metal only that has a toxic action, in others it is the acid. Again, some may be taken in large quantities without harm, but become poisonous when absorbed, and the normal 'amount in the organism brought to too high a proportion. CAUSTIC ALKALIES, POTASH, SODA, AND ALKALINE CARBONATES. The hydroxides, caustic soda and potash, are the two principal poisons that come under this class. Commercial soda and potash are carbon,ates of variable degrees of purity, and it is necessary to distinguish between the neutral carbonates and the bicarbonates. Poisoning by all these agents is always accidental. Freidberger and Frohner mention its taking place in dogs from lapping alkaline lye, which Law states is lethal to the dog in 5-grain doses intra- venously, and M. Curot from the use of beetroot molasses as food, which practice is coming more into use owing to means having been discovered to make it portable in the form of " molassine " and other compounds. Beetroot molasses contains a considerable proportion Alkaline Metals.' 85 of soda and potash, and if an excessive amount is given it will give rise to poisoning. The effects of soda and potash are due to their toxic pro- perties ; therefore it depends on the degree' of concentration they are in when taken, and this also explains why the hydroxides are rnore active than the carbonates. They are liquefying caustics, re- moving water from the tissues, altering albuminoids and saponi- fying fats, the whole structure with which they come into contact being turned into a soft pultaceous mass. Symptoms. — Poisoning by caustic alkalies causes great pain on account of the terminal filaments of the nerves being exposed by the desquamation and liquefaction of the mucous membrane. There is violent gastro-enteritis, with stomatitis and pharyngitis, and high temperature, salivation (sometimes tinged with blood), difficulty in swallowing and vomiting, unquenchable thirst, and when the oesophagus is pressed manifestations of pain. The abdomen is sensitive on pressure, with colicky pains and diarrhoea, the faeces being tinged with blood, and towards the end containing shreds of mucous membrane. The patient sinks into a state of collapse, the temperature falls, and death takes place. Treatment. — Acid fluids, such as vinegar and water, lime juice, or dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acids should be given, together with emollient fluids, linseed gruel, white of egg, and oleaginous pur- gatives. The fever and the caustic effects of the alkali must be treated in the usual manner. Post-mortem. — The lesions consist of inflammation and softening of the tissues of the upper part of the digestive canal, the lips, tongue, pharynx, stomach, and a considerable portion of the in- testine being implicated. The tissues of all these organs are infil- trated, softened, and of a red colour, the walls of the stomach frequently being perforated. If death does not take place at once the animal may live for some time, but is affected with chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh, and contraction of the intestines and oesophagus, especially the latter. 86 Veterinary Toxicology. I Analysis. — Usually the action of the suspected materials on litmus paper is sufficient. If, however, it is. necessary to make a more elaborate analysis, the materials can be macerated in water and filtered, the filtrate submitted to the following tests : — 1. Carbonates will effervesce with an acid. 2. To distinguish between sodium and potassium, vlf there is a considerable quantity of potassium in the filtrate a white crystalline precipitate will be given with tartaric acid and sulphate of ammonia. 3. If potash is present, chloride of platinum or picric acid will give a yellow precipitate. 4. If soda is present there will be no precipitate given by these, but a brown crystalline precipitate will be given, with bi- antimonate of potash. This is a characteristic reaction if there is only potash and sodium in the solution. 5. By the blow-pipe, soda will give a yellow and potash a blue flame. AMMONIA. Liquid ammonia, which is a solution of ammonia gas in water, is the form that most commonly gives rise to accidents, although the carbonate, chloride, and acetate are all poisonous if taken in too large quantities. Ammonia poisoning is always accidental, usually due to too large quantities being given by ignorant persons for medicinal purposes, and the majority of cases are seen in the ox, liquid ammonia being a favourite remedy in cases of tympanitis. All the ammonia compounds are both absorbed and eliminated rapidly, and their toxic action is chiefly dependent on the local lesions, coupled with excitation of the nervous centres, and altera- tion in the red blood corpuscles. The degree of toxity depends on the dose taken and how much it is concentrated. Liquid Ammonia. — The toxic dose is not accurately determined. Alkaline Metals. 87 Ox, . 70 Dog, 2 Horse, . ' I oz. Ox, . 2 OZ. Dog, J drachm. but the following are what are given by various authors on the subject: — Hertwig — Horse, . . 32 grammes. Law — Finlay Dun found that half an ounce -diluted had no ill effect on the horse, but one ounce was fatal in sixteen hours and three ounces in fifty minutes. In the dog half a drachm retained in the stomach was fatal in twenty-four hours. Carbonate of Ammonia. — Orfila found 2.\ drachms fatal to the dog. Kaufifman gives it at eight grammes for the horse, ten for the dog. Chloride of ammonia — Dog, Dog, 6 grammes subcutaneously. 8 grammes by the mouth. Sheep, 25 to 80 grammes. Horse, 500 grammes. — Hertwig. Horse, 2 oz. Dog, 2 drachms. — Moiroud. These quantities mtist be accepted with some reservations, as they are not invariably poisonous, their action depending on theii^ caustic properties, and this in its turn on the condition of the intestines and their contents. Symptoms. — Are much the same as those produced by any of the other caustic alkalies, but in many cases they are complicated by the respiratory organs being implicated ; also more or less well- marked vertigo and delirium, caused by the action of the absorbed ammonia on the central nervous system. In some cases death takefe place suddenly from abstraction of water from the tissues and cauterisation of the fauces, larynx, and bronchial tubes ; in others 88 Veterinary Toxicology. it is later, from gastro-enteritis. There is great distress, salivation, inability to swallow, and the tongue is swollen and protruding from the mouth. There is a cough, which is not present in poisoning with potash and soda, also a smell of ammonia, the pulse and respirations are quickened, and muscular tremors are seen. If the case is not at once fatal diarrhoea sets in, and those animals capable, vomit. If the animal has been exposed to the fumes of strong ammonia there is violent coughing, secretion of tears, sneezing, salivation, and spasmodic contraction of the muscles of respiration, causing dyspnoea and convulsions. If death does not take place croupal inflammation and partial necrosis of the con- junctival, buccal, pharyngeal, and bronchial mucous membrane supervenes. Treatment. — Any acid is an antidote, but if the stronger ones are given, such as sulphuric or nitric, they must be largely diluted. Mucilaginous drinks, like linseed gruel or white of Gg% in water, are indicated, with anodynes. If there is danger of asphyxia from oedema of the larynx, tracheotomy should be at once performed. Post-mortem. — Ammonia being a liquefying caustic, the lesions produced are much the same as those caused by caustic soda or potash. Being volatile, it often affects the respiratory organs, giving rise to inflammation of a croupous nature and hsemorrhagic extravasations over the course of the larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes. It should be noticed that ammonia is characterised by a tendency to form pseudo-membranes as a secondary result. When ammonia is absorbed into the blood it is at first a dark red, but as the red globules become disintegrated it becomes almost black. The effects produced are, first, deoxidation followed by disin- tegration of the red blood corpuscles and dissolution of the haemoglobine, which is transformed into hasmatin. The albumen in the blood combines with the ammonia, forming an ammoniacal albuminate which keeps, it fluid. The local lesions seen in the tissues that ammonia comes in contact with are caused by its liquefying and caustic properties, the Alkaline Metals. . 89 structures being disorganised by the loss of water abstracted from them. The cell elements, both epithelial and epidermic, are dissolved, albuminoids liquefied, and fats saponified, the resulting eschar being soft, pultaceous, and grey in colour, but brown if there is any blood present in the tissue. Analysis. — This should be carried out as soon as possible on the contents of the stomach and intestines and vomited matter. They are made into an emulsion with water and distilled, the free ammonia being passed over in the distillate, which will give the fol- lowing reactions : — 1. The characteristic smell of ammonia. 2. Turns red litmus paper blue. 3. Gives a white precipitate with mercuric and a black with mercurial salts. If the ammonia is not free, which in many cases takes place from the action of the acids of the stomach on it, Dragendorff recommends that to the fluid material should be added an equal volume of alcohol and a quarter volume of milk of lime, the whole being left to stand for a few hours. It is then distilled and' the distillate treated as above described. It should be remembered that ammonia is naturally formed during the processes of digestion and putrefaction ; also according to MM. Hugounenq and Laccassagne in cases of poisoning by hydro- cyanic acid, which decomposes very quickly in the stomach. SALTS OF POTASSIUM AND SODIUM. NITRATE OF POTASH. The poisonous effects of nitrate of potash take place both from the metal and acid base, and when taken in a very concentrated form from the resulting gastro-enteritis. In animals accidents usually are caused by its being given 90 Veterinary Toxicology. for medicinal purposes, either in too concentrated a form in an excessive dose or in mistake for something else. Small animals, especially lambs, are occasionally poisoned from licking walls on which there is a saline efflorescence, which contains a considerable quantity of nitrate of potash. In addition to its local irritant action it causes paralysis of the spinal cord, and gives rise to muscular weakness, commencing in the hind quarters, with convulsions, and diminution of the force and frequency of the heart-beats ; it also gives rise to alteration in the constituency of the blood. The toxic dose of nitrate of potash has not been accurately de- termined. Kauffman gives it as — ■ Ox, . . 200 grammes. Sheep, . . 25 „ Dog, . . 5 „ to 0'02 grammes per kilogramme of live weight. Morton gave a horse 2 lbs. in 6 lbs. of water without any toxic effects. — ( Veterinarian, 1887.) Moiroud, however, found that half a pound to a horse and 2 to 3 drachms to dogs caused fatal results in twenty-four hours; Huzard, that three doses of 16 ozs. each, at intervals of eight days, killed a horse, and 5 to 6 ozs. cattle, but there is no doubt that under certain condition^ Kauffman's doses are too high. Symptoms. — If the quantity taken is large, symptoms of gastro- enteritis appear, colicky pains, nausea, salivation, vomiting, and diarrhoea, which are complicated with those systemic ones due from the absorption of the poison, viz., weakness, the animal tottering in his gait, swaying from side to side when standing, and sometimes falling down if made to move, with violent spasmodic contrac- tions of certain groups of muscles. The contractions of the heart are fluttering and weak and the circulation sluggish, as is shown by the blue congested appearance of the mucous membranes, respiration Alkaline Metals. 91 is difficult and laboured, and the temperature gradually falls. The secretion of urine at first is above the normal, but decreases in ratio with the rate of circulation, and often contains blood. Death takes place in a few hours, and indeed often quite suddenly. Treatment. — The poison retained in the stomach and intestines should be eliminated by an emetic or oleaginous purgative. Alco- holic stimulants are indicated, not only to sustain the vital force, but to overcome the suppression of urine that always exists. Muci- laginous and demulcent drinks should be "given, and stimulant applications used to the skin and extremities with smart friction, the body being warmly clothed to promote circulation. If at hand galvanism is highly recommended. Post-mortem. — The local effects are more or less well-marked gastro-enteritis, especially in the stomach and small intestines, the mucous membrane of which is of a bright red, purple, or brown, with patches of ulceration and exudation of blood. The bladder is congested with patches of ecchymosis, and usually contains bloody urine, and the kidneys are congested, also most of the other organs, which can be explained by the feebleness and stagnation of the circulation. The blood does not coagulate, and the red corpuscles are broken down and in many instances completely destroyed. Analysis. — This is described with that of nitrate of soda. NITRATE OF SODA. Nitrate of soda, under the designation of "Chili nitrate," is largely used in agriculture as a fertiliser, and although not so poisonous as nitrate of potash, it frequently causes accidents, usually in cattle, but cases are recorded in the horse, sheep, and poultry, usually from its being used as manure, but also through its being mistaken for common salt. Rossignal points out that some years ago poisoning was very common in cattle and sheep in France, caused by the animals drink- ing the water in which manure sacks had been washed, and bringing 92 Veterinary Toxicology. on gastro-enteritis. Nowadays this is done in tubs and the water thrown on the manure heap ; none of the nitrate is lost, and the animals are protected. They also will lick and chew the sacks if they can get access to them, and poultry will pick up the crystals dropped about the farm. A case is reported in the Veterinarian, September 1876, of animals being poisoned through grazing on land that had been top-dressed with Chili nitrate. M. E. Curot points out that in the system of feeding on beetroot molasses, that is common on the Continent, and which is coming into use in England through methods having been invented to render the molasses por- table, that poisoning from nitrates of soda and potash may take place, a? both salts are contained in beetroot molasses. He however mentions that extremely large quantities of molassfes would have to be given to the animals, and that if reasonable precautions are taken there is no fear of accidents. There are several preparations of both cane and beetroot molaSses on the market under the names of "Molasscuit" "Molassine," &c. The poisonous effects of soda are not so great as nitrate of potash. Lenghen noticed them in horses that had taken ^ of a kilogramme in 15 litres of water, and 150 grammes in water poisoned sheep. These doses, however, appear to be excessive, and Jules Chapuis reports fatal results in sheep that had taken 100 grammes ; Fr5hner with 39 grammes per kilogramme of live weight in the rabbit. It has been stated that when nitrate of soda and potassium are introduced into the blood that the oxygen is set free and exerts a toxic action. The violence of both these salts as poisons is less when the stomach is full than when it is empty. Symptoms. — Symptoms appear in the horse in about two hours and in cattle a little later, being the usual ones 6f gastro-intestinal enteritis, uneasiness, muscular spasms and retraction of the eyeball, colic, thirst, and diarrhoea, the faeces being mingled with blood. Usually the animal remains down with the eyes closed in a state of coma. The pulse is small, quick, and weak, the temperature low ; at first there is polyuria ; afterwards the urine is scanty in quantity, convulsions set in, and death takes place rapidly. In poultry there Alkaline Metals. 93 is gastro-enteritis, diarrhoea, great weakness," and low temperature, the comb turns a blue or leaden colour, and the feathers all stand up on end. Treatment. — Large quantities of milk or other demulcents should be given with oleaginous purgatives ; strong black coffee and alcohol are recommended as stimulants and diuretics by Con- tinental authorities, with grooming and stimulant applications to the body and limbs. If the circulation gets very stagnant bleeding may be had recourse to. Post-mortem. — Like nitrate of potash the lesions are those of gastro-enteritis. The membrane of the small intestine, stomach, and in cattle the abomasum in particular, is much inflamed, varying from bright red to purple or brown, and in places there may be superficial ulceration. The stomach and intestines contain a quantity of red or brown fluid, all the abdominal viscera are con- gested, and there are patches of hemorrhage on the membrane of the bladder and kidneys. The blood does not coagulate and is of a bright red colour. Chemical Analysis. — This can be carried out on the suspected food or contents of the stomach and intestines. The salts can be dissolved out by treating them with distilled water, and then crystallising by evaporation and submitting them to the following tests : — • L With strong sulphuric acid it forms nitric acid, giving a brown colour with salts of iron. n. A boihng solution of sulphate of indigo acidulated with hydrochloric acid is decolorised. This reaction is ex- tremely sensitive. SALT AND BRINE. Given in large quantities, common salt has poisonous pro- perties, which may manifest themselves when given as a medicine 94 Veterinary Toxicology. by ignorant persons, salt being a popular domestic remedy. Large quantities are sometimes given to cattle before sales to make them drink and improve their looks. Usually pigs, cattle, and poultry are the victims. A case is reported in the Veterinarian of December 1 87 1 of a number of pigs being poisoned from licking salt from tlie sides of a railway truck ; and in the same publication, April 1865, of the same with calves. Salt is not poisonous unless taken in large quantities in a solid or very concentrated form, when it acts as a local irritant, causing gastro-enteritis. It is quickly absorbed, and eliminated principally by the kidneys. When absorbed into the blood it appears to exert a special action, but what it precisely is has not yet been determined. Cases of poisoning from brine are fairly common in pigs and dogs, either from eating salt kitchen wash, or from its being given medicinally. In parts of Holland herring brine is a popular domestic remedy. Brine in addition to salt contains nitrate of potash, and no doubt certain toxines are formed during the process of salting the food, which accounts for the difference in its action to that of salt, especially on the nervous system. Reynal has shown that brine becomes more poisonous with age, that which had been kept for six years being three times as virulent as freshly made. He also noticed that its toxic properties were increased if the meat was' rancid, and that they were preserved when the brine was mixed with the food. Poisonous Doses. — The poisonous dose of salt has not been accurately determined, as its power greatly depends on its degree of concentration and the rate at which it is absorbed and elimi- nated. Frohner gives it at 3 to 6 kilogrammes for the ox, i to ij for the horse, 250 grammes for the pig, and 3-7 grammes per kilo, live weight, for the dog. Finlay Dun gives 4J ounces to the pig, repeated for several days, and i lb. in 4 quarts water as being a fatal dose for yearling calves. Gohier, horse 2 to 3 lbs. Hertwig, cattle 4 to 5 lbs., pig 7 to 8 oz., dog 6 to 7 oz. Reynal found that 31 pints of brine were fatal to the horse, \ pint to the pig, and 6 to Alkaline Metals. 95 7 oz. to the dog, but this varies according to the strength and age of the brine. Symptoms. — The eariier symptoms are those of gastro-enteritis and loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhoea, colic, and great thirst, followed after the lapse of a few hours by general nervous distur- bance. In cases of poisoning by pure salt the nervous symptoms are not as well marked as is the case with brine, and indeed rriay be altogether absent except in the pig, which animal is almost always subject to epileptic fits. There is excessive weakness and dulness, with staggering motion and partial paralysis, pulse small and very weak, with difficulty in breathing, great increase in the quantity of urine passed, and death takes place within forty-eight hours. In the ox a subacute form has been reported with chronic diarrhoea and mai'ked anaemia. In cases of brine poisoning the nervous symptoms are always well marked. There is grinding of the teeth, spasmodic contrac- tion of various groups of muscles, particularly those of the face and neck ; and in the pig epileptic fits, the eye being turned up in the socket, champing of the jaws, and profuse salivation. These fits succeed each other with shorter intervals, when the animal becomes paralysed and insensible. Brine is more active than ordinary salt, and kills the animal quicker. In poultry there is giddiness and rotary movement, the dog sits up on his haunches, and in cows abortion and prolapse of the uterus are common results. Treatment. — Emetics are indicated with animals that can vomit with water and mucilaginous drinks ad lib. ; any bland oil is also useful both as a purgative and emollient to the intestines. It can be given both by the mouth and as an enema. Cold applications also should be applied to the head. In brine poisoning stimulants and anodynes are also required, and when there are head symptoms bromide of potassium. Drewien recommends chloral hydrate in oil for pigs. Camphor as a stimulant is in favour on the Continent, also subcutaneous injections of ether. 96 Veterinary Toxicology. Post-mortem. — There is acute gastro-enteritis, and in rumi- nants this is specially noticeable in the abomasum ; it is more intense when the cause is from brine poisoning than common salt, and the mucous membrane of the intestines and stomach are studded over with patches of ecchymosis. These are also notice- able in nearly all the organs of the body. The mucous membrane lining the bladder is a bright red, and the contained urine tinged with blood. The brain is much congested, with exudation of serum into the ventricles and meninges. Analysis. — In practice this is not of importance, as salt is seldom used as an agent for malicious poisoning, but it may occasionally be useful to confirm the diagnosis. It can be dissolved out of the suspected material with water, which is evaporated, and the salt left in crystals, or the fluid can be tested with nitrate of silver or yellow chromate of potash. If it is desired to distinguish between brine and common salt it can be done by the presence of trimethylamine, which is easily decomposed by an alkali. The suspected material is put into a flask with a small quantity of potash solution, and left for about fifteen minutes ; when the flask is opened a characteristic smell of salt herrings will be given off, denoting trimethylamine. The mixture thus obtained may be submitted to a further test by distil- lation into dilute hydrochloric acid. Hydrochlorate of trimethy- lamine is, formed by evaporation of the fluid, which is distinguishable from hydrochlorate of ammonia by being soluble in alcohol. CHAPTER IV. METALLOIDS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS. CHLORINE. Chlorine is a highly poisonous gas, with a great afiSnity for hydrogen, in combination with which it forms hydrochloric acid, and water at a temperature of 50° F. absorbs about three volumes of the gas. Locally it acts as an irritant to all the tissues, and on the skin its effects vary from simple redness to vesication or even ulceration, according to the strength of the application and time it is in contact with the part. These effects are caused by the tissues being decomposed by the chlorine, which combines with the hydrogen present in them to form hydrochloric acid, which coagulates albumen, the oxygen set free also acting on the organic matter, the result being that a thin eschar is formed, the same effects being produced on mucous membrane as on the skin. When inhaled with air chlorine gives rise to cough, sneezing, and spasm of the glottis, causing temporary asphyxia, also bronchitis, pneu- monia, and death. Largely diluted with air or steam, chlorine loses its irritant properties and acts as a stimulant to the mucous membrane of the respiratory organs. It is easy to demonstrate its absorption, as a very short time afterwards the blood becomes dark-coloured and more fluid than natural ; the flesh has the peculiar smell of chlorine, which according to Caten and other observers will last for two or three weeks. When taken in solution into the stomach, chlorine assists the digestion and decolorises the faeces, but too large or concentrated a dose will cause fatal gastro-enteritis. A medicinal dose will act G 98 Veterinary Toxicology. as a slight stimulant, with quickening of the circulation and respira- tions, but if pushed too far the blood remains fluid, the animal weak, and falls into a condition of fatal marasmus. Symptoms. — Chloral rapidly causes suffocation and cough, irri- tating the back of the throat ; respiration is laboured and painful, as if there was difficulty in expanding the chest and filling the lungs. In some cases there is retching and spitting up blood. In the human subject there is intense headache even when the cause has been removed, and animals appear to be equally subject. If the action of the chlorine lasts for any length of time the patient falls into a comatose condition and dies. It is exceedingly difficult to fix what is a poisonous dose of the gas, as individual susceptibility is most variable, some subjects being greatly distressed by the very smallest quantities. Elimination. — Chlorine is eliminated in the form of sodium chloride, and Wallace has found that the urine of animals poisoned by it has bleaching properties. Prognosis. — The prognosis is bad, and even if life is saved the patient becomes greatly emaciated, and appears to possess but feeble powers of resistance to any disease he may be subsequently attacked with. Treatment. — Carefully administered inhalations of sulphuretted hydrogen or ammonia have been recommended with a view of neutralising the chlorine, but as it does not remain long in its primitive condition in the body, these antidotes are not very prac- tical, and after it has undergone transformation they are useless ; furthermore, in themselves they are dangerous, and unless carefully handled, likely to cause accidents. Ether is preferable, or in- halations of alcohol or steam, also carbonic acid. Magnesia or sulphate of iron in milk may also be given. Post-mortem. — There is nothing specially characteristic in the lesions produced. There are the marks of local inflammation where the chlorine has come in contact with the tissues, as it acts as a corrosive. When any of the cavities are opened it is possible Metalloids and their Compounds. 99 to detect the peculiar smell of chlorine, but the examination must be made as soon after death as possible. Analysis. — A strip of polished silver can be held over the viscera at the moment the cavity is opened, and a white film of chloride of silver, which turns black in the light, will form on it, which can be removed with ammonia. Certain bleaching compounds, whose action depends on chloral, are in common use, and may give rise to poisoning. Chlorine is given off when in contact with an acid, and in the stomach the gastric juice is sufficient to effect this and give rise to chlorine poisoning, but there are generally complications from the caustic action in addition. The treatment is what has already been de- scribed, and the prognosis much worse than with pure chlorine. In addition to the lesions mentioned, those due to corrosive action will also be seen. Care must be taken to avoid giving anything with the slightest acid reaction. A small quantity of the suspected substance placed in a flask and slightly heated, with the addition of sulphuric acid, will give off the characteristic smell of the gas. IODINE. Cases of poisoning by iodine are rare, although one is men- tioned by Stourbe from the application of the tincture as a dressing to the parotid gland. Internally in the form of iodides, chiefly iodide of potassium, it may manifest toxic effects, the gastric juice acting on them and setting iodine free. Tabourin found that \ an ounce of iodine cau.sed colic in the horse, and Potu that 2 drachms intravenously injected were fatal. Hertwig gave horses 40 to 60 grains twice daily for fourteen days, causing a black-coloured diarrhoea, with emaciation. Professor Dick gave a horse 2 drachms daily for three weeks, increasing the quan- tity to 2 ounces, the only effect being that the animal refused to drink ; he confirmed this experiment by others. Finlay Dun points loo Veterinary Toxicology. out that in these cases the iodine was given in a solid form, and was only slowly dissolved and absorbed, and during this process a considerable portion must have been neutralised by the starch in the food. Orfila killed dogs in a few days with 5 to 6 drachms by the mouth. Cogswell found that when 2 to 3 drachms were retained in the stomach it was fatal in from two to seven days, and Hertwig the same. Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of acute gastro-enteritis, violent colic, salivation, diarrhoea, weakness, debility, vertigo, and convulsions. The pupils are dilated and the conjunctiva red. , In some cases the mucous membranes and skin have a yellow tinge, and a characteristic symptom is violent inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, and eyes, with a profuse discharge, sneezing, and coughing. There is a burning sensation in the throat, with great thirst, an anxious expression, giddiness, myosis, and convulsive movements of the limbs ; these last, however, are somewhat tardy in appearance, and indicate that the poison has been absorbed. In animals capable of vomiting the matter has the peculiar marine smell of iodine, and if there is starch in the food they are blue or black, otherwise yellow. If the case is not fatal there is great emaciation, with a scruffy eruption on the skin, and atrophy of the whole of the glands of the body, particularly the mammae and testicles. Lesions. — Iodine, being both irritant and corrosive, causes con- gestion, ulceration, corrosion, and sloughing of the mucous mem- branes of the oesophagus, stomach, and intestines, which are stained yellow. The contents of the stomach and intestines are of a blue colour if there is starch present, and when opened give off the characteristic marine smell. Treatment. — Boiled starch is the best antidote, but if there is severe pain opium may be required both by the mouth and in an enema. With animals capable of vomiting emetics are indicated. Elimination takes place through all the secretions. Metalloids and their Compounds. loi Analysis. — If the iodine is free it can be separated by distilla- tion ; the distillate treated with chloroform gives a violet or purple colour characteristic of iodides. If it is in combination, the organic matter, such as the contents of the intestine, is destroyed by calcination in combination with potash, and the residue treated with bioxide of manganese and sulphuric acid, iodine being set free (Berthollet's process) and re- cognised by its colour, crystalline form, and turning a solution of starch blue. If iodides have been formed a yellow precipitate is given by _ nitrate of lead, a red by soluble mercuric, and a green by mercurous salts, a black with chloride of palladium. The latter distinguishes iodine from bromine and chlorine, which are precipitated by it. BROMINE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. Bromine is a powerful poison, acting in the same way as chlorine, but its price and the difficulty in handling it confine its use to laboratory purposes and a few industries. It gives off dangerous fumes even at an ordinary temperature, and being a powerful caustic, causes bad burns. Bromides are frequently employed in medicine, and may undergo a secondary reaction in the stomach, free bromine being given off. According to Law 2 drachms killed a dog in five hours, and lo • to 1 2 drops in an ounce of water given intravenously caused sudden death. The tests for bromine are the same as iodine ; with sulphide of carbon it gives an orange-coloured precipitate in chlorine water. CHAPTER V. MINERAL ACIDS. The mineral acids of interest are sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric, which are true corrosives. Their action chiefly depends on the degree of concentration they are in, as in combination they are not as a rule poisonous, in this respect differing from many other substances — strychnine, for example, all the salts of which are poisonous. With animals cases of poi.soning by mineral acids appear to be uncommon. Gerlach reports the case of a horse that was poisoned by straw used to pack jars of sulphuric acid with, and Johne one in which it was taken with the food. Abadie of Nantes in 1877 reports a case of malicious poisoning of cattle with sulphuric acid by two quacks in the neighbourhood of Ancenis. When called in to treat them they pronounced them to be incurable, purchased them for a small amount, and sent the meat to the market at Nantes. In a few months they caused over 25,000 francs damage. External injuries, however, to animals are tolerably frequent, particularly in the dog and small animals. The local effects consist of violent inflammation of the anterior parts of the digestive track, which varies with the different acids to a slight degree, sufficient to be able to afford some indication as to which has been the cause. The symptoms are those that might be expected from the lesions produced — viz., stomatitis, pharyn- gitis, laryngitis, and violent gastritis, and these may either give rise to immediate death, or leave permanent cicatrices that cause constriction of the parts, such as" the oesophagus. W hen swallowed they are more active with horses and dogs Mineral Acids. 103 than ruminants, as the large quantity of food in the stomachs neutralises their effects. HYDROCHLORIC ACID. Hydrochloric acid or spirit of salt is a colourless gas, that fumes on exposure to the air, is irritant when breathed, and is very soluble in water. The solution is often of a yellow colour from the presence of perchloride of iron in its manufacture. It has a strong affinity for water and albuminoids, and when it comes in contact with mucous membranes leaves them white. A soft scale is formed, which leaves an ulcer, often a perforating one. It appears from Mr. F. Waller's experiments with rabbits to diminish the alkalies in the blood, causing death independent of its corrosive action. Symptoms. — There are none that are absolutely characteristic ; they consist of salivation, difficulty in swallowing, violent colic, and vomiting. The vomited matter has a dark coffee colour from the action of the acid on the heemoglobin, is acid in reaction, and when slightly warmed with ammonia gives off white fumes. With carbonates it effervesces, and in the human being Taylor relates a case in which this was noticed when it fell on the floor. The acid can sometimes be detected in the fseces, together with epithelium and the remains of the eschars that have been sloughed off. The inflammatory lesions in the mouth and pharynx may be so severe as to threaten asphyxia. » Treatment. — Alkalies should be given, such as bicarbonate of soda or calcined magnesia, carbonate of magnesia, carbonate of lime or soapsuds ; mucilaginous drinks with white of eggs and opium are also indicated. Post-mortem. — The lesions are chiefly situated in the anterior part of the digestive canal, the mucous membrane of which, at the points where the acid has come in contact with it, are white and softened in places, being converted into a Sort of a pulp ; it is usually much inflamed and swollen, and in places has on it large I04 Veterinary Toxicology. erosions. The peculiar smell of hydrochloric acid will be given off from the contents of the stomach and intestines, together with fumes, which will be increased if the stopper of an ammonia bottle is brought near, hydrochlorate of ammonia being formed. Analysis. — If the acid is still free it may be detected by the action of litmus paper, or by the fumes of hydrochloride of ammonia given off as described above. Another test is to iilter the contents of the stomach, adding to the filtrate chlorate of potash. The fluid is slightly warmed,. and a slip of gold leaf put into it, which will be dissolved. The same test can be used for suspected stains on cloth, which are at first red, but afterwards turn brown. SULPHURIC ACID. Both the common sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) and the fuming (Nordhaussen's) are powerful caustics ; the first is one of the easiest poisons obtainable, being used for many domestic purposes. It has a great affinity for water, on account of which it destroys organic matter, completely disorganising living tissues, and causing, if concentrated, a black eschar. The inflammation caused is very violent and extensive, penetrating to the surrounding tissues to a considerable depth. M. Tabourin has applied it to the quarter of a horse, and found traces of its action in the tissues round the coxo- femoral articulation. Burns on the skin caused by it are very pain- ful and penetrating ; the neighbouring tissues being thickened and indurated, the epidermis becoming hard and corrugated, with a tendency to pus being formed under it. Symptoms. — These depend on whether the acid is dilute or concentrated, and much resemble those caused by hydrochloric acid, but are more intensified. There is difficulty in swallowing and breathing, so much so that the patient may die from asphyxia ; there is also swelling of the throat, and over the course of the oesophagus. The animal is generally in a condition of collapse, the pulse quick and weak, temperature sub-normal and persistent, Mineral Acids. 105 spasms of the superficial muscles. There is violent and continued colic, and death takes place in from twelve to twenty-four hours, either from acute peritonitis caused by perforation of the stomach, or asphyxia, resulting from oedema of the glottis. With animals capable of doing so there is profuse vomiting, the material being dark or black, and containing shreds of membrane from the oesophagus or stomach, which is broken down and discoloured by the acid. The vomited matter has an acid smell and reaction ; in the human being it has been noticed to effervesce when it fell on a stone floor. If death does not take place at once there is often salivation. In ruminants there is seldom gastro-enteritis, the bulk of food in the stomachs diluting the poison. In some cases the urine contains blood and albumen. Treatment. — Usually magnesia and chalk are given in milk and water, or antidotes. Taylor recommends carbonate of soda in milk and water, or Diniford's fluid magnesia ; soapsuds in soft water or oil may also be used, or any thick or viscid fluid, such as gruel, linseed oil, and lime water, or white of eggs, all of which act mechanically. During convalescence care must be taken to give easily digested soft food. All external injuries must be washed with a thick solution of soapsuds or magnesia, and then treated as an ordinary burn. Post-mortem, — The principal lesions are in the mouth and anterior portions of the digestive canal, the membrane of which is exfoliated in shreds. If concentrated acid has been taken these will be black, if dilute, white. The pharynx, larynx, and oesophagus are all inflamed, and the left jugular channel is filled with serum and studded over with patches of ecchymosis. The stomach is col- lapsed and contracted, and contains a thick coffee-coloured fluid, largely made up of mucus and blood. The lining membrane is dark and corrugated, and the colour is not removed by washing but when the blackened membrane is scraped off the tissue is in- tensely red underneath. In some cases the darkened portion is in io6 Veterinary Toxicology. lines, not extended over any surface. The vessels contain coagu- lated blood of a dark brown colour. If there is perforation the edges are black and irregular, the surrounding tissue being soft. There may be one or more perforations, and the longer the poison has remained in contact with the parts and the more concentrated it is, the more intense will be its action. In a suspected case the body should be examined for burns, more particularly about the nose and mouth. Analysis. — Free Acid {a?) The suspected material is diluted with water and iiltered, carbonate of barium being added to the filtrate, which the sulphuric acid will decompose with effervescence, forming sulphate of barium. This is separated by filtration and treated with dilute hydrochloric acid ; the sulphate of barium can be washed off, dried, and weighed ; its molecular weight being known, the quantity of sulphuric acid can be calculated. [b.) Dragendorff digests the material with absolute alcohol at 60° Cent., and then filters. The filtrate is neutralised with potash and evaporated to dryness ; the residue is a sulphate. (c.) Roussin proposes a process by which nitric and sulphuric acids can be distinguished. The suspected material is diluted with water, macerated with quinine, and filtered, the filtrate being evaporated to the consistency of a syrup, and treated with boiling alcohol. This solution is treated with barium chloride, and barium sulphate is precipitated. If sulphuric acid is present nitrate of quinine remains, which can be crystallised by evaporation. Acid in combination. — If the analysis is not made shortly after death the organic material is treated with potash evaporated to dryness and calcined, a small quantity of nitrate of potash being added. The residue is treated with hot distilled water acidulated with nitric acid and barium chloride added, a white precipitate, barium sulphate, being thrown down. NITRIC ACID. Nitric acid, commonly termed aquafortis, or red spirit of nitre, Mineral Acids. 107 is when pure colourless, but becomes a yellowish-red colour when exposed to the light. It is a powerful caustic, eating deeply into the tissues with which it comes in contact, causing great pain and intense peripheric inflammation. The tissues are disorganised by removal of water, decomposition of their salts, saponifaction of fats, and coagulation of albumen. The resulting eschar is at first soft and flexible, but afterwards gets hard and horny, turning yellow from the formation of xanthoproteic acid. There is always very considerable inflammation of the surrouhd- ing structures, and pus forms under the centre of the scab. Symptoms. — Are much the same as those caused by the other mineral acids, but the membranes and skin with which it has come into contact are stained yellow. The enamel of the teeth is de- stroyed by the action of the acid, and in the human subject they are turned a remarkably white colour. On the skin the yellow stain is very well marked, large vesicles forming, which burst and give exit to a clear, yellow-coloured fluid, leaving a deep ulcer behind. These are sometimes seen between the toes of the dog, caused by the animal getting nitric acid on his feet when upset on the ground. Vomited material has the peculiar odour of nitric acid. Lesions. — These also are the same as the other corrosive acids, with the exception of the yellow colour of the mucous membranes ; there are also black patches of ecchymosis with a surrounding yellow zone. Perforation of the stomach has rarely been reported, but as it acts slower than the other acids, constriction of the oeso- phagus is not an uncommon sequel. Treatment is the same as has been previously described. Analysis. — The presence of any quantity of nitrates in the organism would of itself be sufficient to indicate poisoning, as in the normal state they only exist in very small quantities. The tests for the acid can be carried out by the following methods : — A. Roussin's Method. — The suspected material diluted with water is filtered, and quinine added to the filtrate, which is filtered io8 Veterinary Toxicology. a second time. The fluid is evaporated to dryness over a water bath, the residue treated with absolute alcohol, again filtered and evaporated to dryness, leaving nitrate of quinine in the form of oily globules, which will crystallise. This can be dissolved with water and treated with potash, which precipitates the quinine, leaving a liquid rich in nitrogen. The fluid, when evaporated with care, gives a residue, nitrate of potash, which can be tested in the ordinary manner. B. Dragendorff's Method. — The material is treated with absolute alcohol, and after filtration tested for nitric acid. Chemical Reactions.- — A. Free Acid — 1. Free nitric acid gives a red colour with brucine. 2. A small quantity placed in a test tube gives off reddish coloured fumes on the addition of copper filings. 3. It decolourises a solution of indigo. 4. According to Armand and Fade it gives an insoluble nitrate with cinchona. These reactions, however, with the exception of the copper test, are not specific. Sulphuric acid will colour brucine pink, and chlorides decolourise indigo. B. Nitric Acid in the form of Nitrates — 1. A small quantity of the dry residue placed on hot charcoal or iron will burn with a bright flame. 2. Warmed with a few drops of sulphuric acid and a fr9.gment of copper reddish coloured fumes are given off. 3. With sulphuric acid and phenylaniline a bright blue colour is given. PHOSPHORUS. The compounds of phosphorus are very seldom it ever the cause of accidents to animals, and in veterinary practice cases of poisoning are confined to small animals eating vermin paste or the heads of Mineral Acids. 109 matches. Chronic phosphorism, with necrosis of the lower jaw, which is seen in workmen exposed to the fumes of phosphorus in match factories, is unknown in the lower animals. The red or amorphous phosphorus, out of which safety matches are made, is not poisonous. Metallic phosphorus is a waxy-looking, colourless, translucent solid, at an ordinary temperature of the consistency of beeswax. When kept any time its surface turns red or black. It has a distinct smell and taste, and exposed to the air, gives off white fumes that have an odour of garlic, which in the dark are luminous, but this property is destroyed by sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia, ether, alcohol, turpentine, and petroleum. Applied to the skin in a weak solution it causes considerable pain and redness, with inflammation and ulceration if continued for too long, and if it comes in contact with a wound or mucous mem- brane its action is more pronounced, the resulting ulcer being slow in healing. In the stomach it is partially transformed into phosphorous and phosphoric acids and phosphuretted hydrogen, giving off a great deal of heat. It is rendered soluble by the bile and fats in the intestine. Usually poisoning takes place by way of the mouth, but phosphorism has been artificially produced by the subcutaneous or inter-peritoneal injection of oil of phosphorus. Local Effects. — Phosphorus is not of itself an irritant, but taken into the stomach in a solid state it causes inflammation and ulcera- tion at the points it comes in contact with. Munk explains this by the affinity for water of the products formed by the oxidation of phosphorus, which is facilitated by the gas which is present in the anterior portion of the digestive canal. Absorption. — The phosphorus passes unchanged into the cir- culation, the phosphorous and phosphoric acids and phosphuretted hydrogen, which are formed in the intestines, play very little part in intoxication. The poison is rendered soluble by the bile and fatty matters, and if finely divided or dissolved in a fatty vehicle it no Veterinary Toxicology. is more readily absorbable, but if the stomach and intestines are full, this process is retarded, also if taken in a solid form. Circulation and Elimination. — Once absorbed into the current < of blood, the effects are made manifest over the whole body, and the poison is either oxidised or eliminated very rapidly, a portion being converted into phosphoric acid, but phosphorous acid has not yet been detected in the circulation. Elimination takes place by - the expired air, which becomes luminous in the dark, and by the urine and perspiration, with an odour of garlic. Physiology of Phosphorus Poisoning. — In poisonous doses phos- phorus hinders oxidation, but it is scarcely to be supposed that the abstraction of oxygen from the tissues is the cause of the lesions, for 50 centigrammes of phosphorus, " the poisonous dose for the larger animals " only require 64 of oxygen or 147 cc. for its conversion into phosphoric acid, which quantity would be easily replaced by the respiration. Certain authors have advanced the theory that in the process of oxidation ozone is formed from the oxygen of the blood, which gives rise to exaggerated but incomplete nutritive changes. The toxic effects of phosphorus can, however, be explained by the dis- arrangement it causes in the process of nutrition, and by oxidation taking place at the expense of the protoplasm of the cells. As is well known, a marked lesion of chronic phosphorus poispn- ing is fatty degeneration, which is more intense in the more active organs of the body, and is accompanied by an increased consumption of albuminoids, and a decrease in that of oxygen, also only half the normal quantity of carbonic acid is formed, so that dehydration is increased and oxidation diminished, giving rise to increased forma- tion of fats, starch, and ammoniacal salts. This fatty degeneration gives rise to paralysis, hemorrhage, icterus, suppression of urine, and intoxication from retention of urinary and biliary products in the blood. Mayer contends that in subacute cases the heart is affected, its activity being greatly diminished. Mineral Acids. m Poisonous Doses. — The fatal dose has not been accurately determined, especially when obtained by macerating the heads of matches. Stourbe mentions that in one case sixty matches pro- vided a fatal dose in man, and in another 3000 had no effect. In the stomach a portion is oxidised and not absorbed, being eliminated in the excrements and vomit, and when respired this process of oxidation is much increased. Thiernesse has given phosphorus by the mouth, and shown that 25 centigrammes per 100 kilo live weight is a fatal dose, and from the conclusions of other authors the following table has been made : — Horse and Ox, O'S to 2 grammes Fig, • CIS .. 0-30 „ Dog, 0-05 „ o-io „ Fowl, . 0-025 Man, 0-20 „ 0-25 „ The quantity is much smaller when given subcutaneously. Symptoms, Acute. — The symptoms are anything but uniform. If the dose is large they manifest themselves very rapidly, and death takes place in a few hours. In such cases from the com- mencement there is deep depression, the patient being restless and anxious, the heart-beats are confused and tumultuous, pulse quick and imperceptible. Respiration slow and deep, the expired air having a smell of garlic, and luminous in the dark. There are constant attempts to vomit, mucus and bile being ejected. The depression becomes greater, the mucous membranes injected of a deep purple colour, and death takes place, according to Mayer, from arrest of the heart's action. Usually, however, the symptoms are slower in appearing, about five to six hours after the poison has been taken, and the first are eructations of a garlic odour, luminous in the dark, with nausea and vomiting of bile and mucus, in some rare instances mingled with blood. These have even been seen in cattle. Colicky pains set in, the abdomen being very tender, with 112 Veterinary Toxicology. diarrhcEa, the excrement having the characteristic smell, which is also conveyed to the breath, perspiration, and urine. At first there is considerable excitement followed by a period of depression. The pulse is small, irregular, and imperceptible, the temperature sub-normal, muscular rigors, with difficulty in movement, relaxation of the sphincters and tumefaction of the mucous membrane of the mouth. About the third or fourth day- symptoms of icterus appear, with suppression of urine, which contains albumen, peptones, lactic acid, leucin, tyrosine, colouring matter from the bile and biliary acids, with, in some cases, haemo- globin. M. Cazeneuve, has shown that the amount of urea and uric acid is increased, but this is subject to variation. Delirium, convul- sions, and coma appear shortly before death, but there are more indications of bile poisoning and uraemia than the action of phos- phorus on the nerve centres. Death usually takes place in from six to twelve days, but if delayed, local hemorrhages, especially from the stomach, sets in, giving rise to dysentery. This hemorrhage is due to excessive fluidity of the blood and degeneration of the walls of the vessels, and causes general anaemia. Merkt has seen cattle poisoned by phosphorus fumes gene- rated in a closely shut stable. In accidents of this nature the predominant symptoms are dyspncea with noisy respiration, frequent violent fits of coughing, and emphysema, both pulmonary and subcutaneous, of the dependent parts, which he considers is caused by the local action of the phosphorus. With birds " and poultry are very liable to be poisoned from picking up matches " - the symptoms are that the creature stands still, as if stupid, the eyes half shut, and the body huddled up, the beak half opened, feathers all on end, thirst, diarrhoea, and convulsions, and the comb and wattles white : death from coma rapidly takes place. Diagnosis can be made by the garlic smell of the vomited matter, faeces, urine, perspiration, and breath, and their luminous appearance in the dark. Mineral Acids. li o Treatment. — In the majority of cases the result is fatal, but nevertheless, if taken in time, there is some hope. The indications are to fix the poison in the stomach and intestines, so as to render it insoluble and inactive, and then evacuate it as quickly as possible, as well as what has been absorbed through the agency of the excretory organs. The most effective antidote is turpentine, and Thiernesse has shown that it depends on the oxygen it contains for its activity, uniting with the phosphorus and forming inert com- pounds, and according to Rommelaere and others hypophos- phorous acid and monoterebenthene and diterebenthene,, as well as being a stimulant and diuretic. The doses are — Horse, . . . 50 to 100 grammes. Ox, . . " 100 „ 200 „ Pig. • • • 25 „ so Dog, . . 5 „ 18 „ Fowls, . . . 5 „ 10 „ Old essence of turpentine should be used, as it contains more oxygen than new, but according to Winslow ( Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics, page 221), only the French variety is of any use. It should be given in mucilaginous drinks or hay tea. Sulphate of copper is also indicated both as an emetic and an antidote, forming an insoluble phosphide of copper ; permanganate of potash and hydrogen dioxide are both useful on account of their oxidising action. Afterwards demulcents and opiates will pro- bably be required, but oil and milk must be avoided, as it arrests the solution and absorption of the poison. Daunecy recommends essence of turpentine to be administered in a bolus with equal parts of white wax, and in the human being Eulenberg and Wohl claim good results from charcoal. Post-mortem — Acute Poisoning — Local Lesions. — Are not uni- form, and greatly depend on the dose and form in which it is taken, also the oxidation that the poison undergoes. This H tI4 Veterinary Toxicology. explains why the lesions are more clearly marked when absorp- tion takes place slowly, and why they are confined to a small space when it is taken in solid pieces. They are chiefly seen in the oesophagus and stomach, and in birds the gizzard. They consist of clearly defined and circumscribed inflammatory points or patches, running on into ulceration, which is more commonly seen in the stomach than the intestines. The ulcers are often covered with a black eschar, which contains a fragment of phosphorus. Besides these local lesions, stenosis of the intestinal glands and arteries, with hemorrhage, are frequently present as secondary complications, and in cases of poisoning by arsenical fumes there are well-marked appearances of local inflammation in the lungs. General Lesions. — Under ordinary conditions those which are caused by the absorption of the poison are not manifested till the local ones have disappeared, and consist of fatty degeneration of the whole of the organs, but especially the liver, muscles, heart, and walls of the blood-vessels and intestines. The blood is black and does not coagulate, the white globules being largely increased in number. In the stomach the peptic glands undergo fatty degeneration, being increased in size, and giving the mucous membrane a mammillated appearance and a yellow colour ; the intestines are similarly affected, especially the duodenum. This degeneration of the vessels, together with the fluid condi- tion of the blood, causes hemorrhage, resulting in the mucous mem- brane being coloured dark red or even black, and the bowels contain a quantity of dark -coloured tarry-like blood. The liver is greatly enlarged, friable, and contains no glycogen. It is either of a uniform yellow or yellow marbled with red. The hepatic cells are greatly affected and enlarged or even ruptured. The epithelial cells of the biliary canals are often so enlarged as to cause obstruction and give rise to icterus, but the connective tissue is not involved. The kidneys are enlarged, softened, and of a yellowish brown Mineral Acids. 115 appearance, especially marked in the cortex. The Malpighian bodies are of a bright red and clearly defined; and the tubes blocked up by the epithelium, causing non-secretion, or albuminous and sanguineus urine. The heart is friable, of a yellowish red colour, and hemorrhagic patches are visible under the pleura, peri- and endo-cardium, peri- tonium, and subcutaneous tissue. The fatty degeneration of the muscles gives them a uniform yellow appearance, and under the microscope the muscular fibres appear like elongated tubes filled with small particles of fat, the nerves and spinal cord participating in this general fatty degenera- tion. Miura states that in pregnant guinea-pigs the foetus shows the same lesions as the mother, when the poison does not induce abortion. Chronic Poisoning. — This form of phosphorous poisoning, which is common in workers in match manufactories and other trades in which phosphorus is used, is for obvious reasons not often seen in the domestic animals, although it has been brought about experi- mentally, thus proving that, given equal conditions, they are as susceptible as mankind, and for that reason it is advisable to mention it. What is known as match-workers' disease, or " phossy " jaw, is characterised by necrosis of the maxillary bone. This is ushered in with swelling of the gums, dental caries, abscess, and fistula that give exit to a constant discharge of fcetid pus. The periosteum sloughs off, leaving the bone denuded, from which sequestria are given off. A peculiarity is that it is usually the lower jaw that is attacked, and most frequently in those subjects who have carious or defective teeth. M. Magilot, in the Academic de Medicine of 27th November 1888, has collected and tabulated a number of cases, and this peculiarity is shown in a striking' manner. The teeth fall out and high fever sets in, with vomiting, nauseous eructations, purging and straining, a burning sensation in the stomach, and in many cases irritation to the respiratory organs, and bronchitis, and the patient dies in a state of cachexia. ii6 Veterinary Toxicology. Magilot is of opinion that, contrary to the accepted one, the rarefaction of the bone is not due to the solvent action of the phosphate of Hme, but that the phosphorus acts itself and not by one of its by-products. M. Dupasquier {Journal de Pkarmacie, October 1846, page 284, and Jourl. Med., December 5th, 1846, page 946) thinks that phos- phorous vapour has no poisonous action, and all that it does is to irritate the mucous membrane of the air passages, especially that of the bronchial tubes, which persons that are exposed get used to and tolerant of. When dangerous symptoms are seen, he thinks that they are attributable to the accidental presence of arsenic in the phosphorus. Taylor {Taylor on Poisons, 4th edition) disputes this theory, and points out that it is not borne out by practical experience, and that there are numerous facts on record to prove that it is the vapour of the phosphorus alone that causes the injurious effects. Since the introduction of red or amorphous phosphorus and the use of safety matches, cases of chronic phosphorous poisoning are now uncommon, although they are still seen in France, where it is apparently more frequent than in England. Red phosphorus is not poisonous, a fact that has been known for a long time, and was confirmed by Liebeg in some experiments made by him at the Alfort Veterinary College {Ann. d' Hygiene, 1857, vol. i., page 432). M. Busey and de Vrij in 185 1 gave dogs 30 grains without causing any harm, and Orfila and Rigault gave it in doses amounting to several ounces for periods extending over twelve days without giving rise to the slightest harm {Annuaire de Tyrapeutique, 1855, page 103). Analysis. — Great care must be exercised in making the post- mortem, and the various organs and tissues should be examined in the dark, as they may be luminous, which would be a valuable in- dication, together with the smell of garlic from the contents of the intestines and stomach. The analysis is based on the following facts ; — . Mineral Acids. 117 1. Phosphorus, if it has not been transformed into phosphates, is taken up by steam, when a solution is distilled, and this steam will be phosphorescent in the dark. 2. Certain substances, such as alcohol, turpentine, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphuretted hydrogen, and carbon sulphide, destroy this appearance. 3. Phosphorus and phosphorous acid with nitrate of silver form phosphuretted silver, which, with hydrogen, gives phos- phuretted hydrogen, which burns with a characteristic green flame. These facts show that in testing for this poison — A. The necessity of being certain that turpentine has not been employed with the case. B. That the suspected material has not been preserved in alcohol. C. That ammoniacal products resulting from putrefaction have been neutralised. D. That the analysis is made as soon as possible, as phosphorus is changed into phosphates, which exist in the body normally. On this point there is a divergence of opinion, as from fifteen to twenty days is the usually accepted time during which phosphorus can be detected, but Medicardi has made a successful analysis twenty-three days after death, MuUer and Fischer eight weeks, and Hessier five hundred days. The two most usual methods used are Mitscherlich and Dusart and Blondiot's. The first is based on the luminous property phosphorus displays in the dark with steam at 60° Cent, and a small quantity of air. The apparatus consists of a flask with a tube bent at two right angles, one end of which is inserted through a cork in the flask, the other passes into a Liebig's refrigerator, so that the vapour passing ii8 Veterinary Toxicology. through it is condensed, the end opens into a vessel to catch the distillate, and which contains a solution of nitrate of silver. The arm of the tube and refrigerator are enclosed in a dark box. The suspected material, which is acidulated by sulphuric or pre- ferably tartaric acid, is diluted with water placed in the flask and gradually heated, the stream of water running through the re- frigerator being set going. The phosphorus is taken up by the steam, and its luminous properties are seen in the cold portion of the tube. The degree to which the light is visible depends on the amount of phosphorus present, and disappears when the oxygen in the flask and tube are exhausted, but become visible again when a fresh supply of air is admitted. This process must be carried out in a dark place, but it is preferable to enclose the cool end of the tube in a box, so that there is no interference by the flame of the lamp. Half the suspected material can be distilled and the distillate preserved for further tests. The process is exceedingly delicate, the inventor having obtained a phosphorescence lasting for half an hour from 150 grammes of material containing i^ milligrammes of phosphorus. The absence of any phosphorescence during the operation must not be taken as positive evidence that the case is not one of phos- phorous poisoning, as the substances mentioned will interfere with this test. The distillate will contain globules of phosphorus if it is present in any considerable quantity, which dissolve carbon disulphide, and treated with nitric acid, give phosphoric acid, which is easily recog- nised. It gives with nitrates of silver and mercury a black precipitate (phosphorous acid), and with chlorine solution phosphoric acid. Dusart and Blondiofs Process. — Mitscherlich's method is the most commonly employed, but in certain cases the results are not satisfactory, and further research has to be made. Dusart and Blondiot's process is based on the property possessed by metallic phosphorus, phosphorettes, and phosphorous acid of forming phos- Mineral Acids. ii0 phuretted hydrogen with pure hydrogen, and this gas burns with a characteristic green flame. The apparatus consists of a double-nozzled hydrogen bottle, the centre being furnished with a funnel and the side one with a tube bent at two right angles, the end of which passes into a second bottle nearly to the bottom. This bottle, which contains a solution of caustic soda, is furnished with a second tube bent at opposite right angles, but does not go further than the nozzle, the other end having a platinum burner fitted to it. The hydrogen bottle is first set working, and then the suspected material, blood, urine, or vomited matter diluted with water, is introduced through the funnel, or, better still, the distillate obtained by Mitscherlich's method. The hydrogen passes through the tube and the caustic soda, which takes up any sulphuretted hydrogen that may be present. The gas is lit at the platinum burner, and if phosphorus is present, will burn with a characteristic green flame. The platinum burner is necessary, as otherwise the flame would be tinged yellow by the chloride of sodium in the glass. Medico-legal Remarks. — The diagnosis of phosphorous poisoning cannot be made merely because there is a metallic phosphorus in the material under examination, but the surroundings of the case and the circumstances must be taken into consideration, and a negative analysis should not be accepted as positive proof. Phosphorus is very easily decomposed in the body by oxidation, and converted into phosphoric and prosphorous acids. M. Le Fort {Annales d' Hygiene, 1874, vol. i., page 405) shows that phosphorus is likely to disappear by oxidation in two or three days in a living person, and in two or three weeks after death. Dr. Neumann mentions a case of a man and his dog who were both suspected of having been poisoned by the same meal. The man survived for two days, but the dog died within two hours. Both were exhumed after being buried for fourteen days, but were in an advanced stage of decom- position, and nothing could be discovered. Some of the food that both had partaken of was, however, obtained, and phosphorus was 120 Veterinary Toxicology. detected, which fact, with other circumstantial evidence, brought the guilty party to justice {Casper's Wochenschrift, 31st May 1854). Phosphorous paste is one of the most common causes of acci- dental poisoning in the domestic animals, being in some parts of the country largely used for the destruction of rats, mice, black beetles, and other vermin. It consists of finely pulverised phos- phorus mixed up with flour paste, and generally coloured with Prussian blue or indigo. It is said to contain one-eightieth of its weight of phosphorus {Annales cT Hygiene, 1869, vol. ii., page 396), but another authority {Pharmaceutical Journal, 1852-53, page 402) gives its composition as i drachm phosphorus, which is finely powdered by melting it in rectified spirit, 5 ounces of flour, and I J ounces brown sugar. It is luminous in the dark, and gives off a vapour characteristic in appearance and smell, and when spread in a thin layer on a sheet of mica and heated, the particles of phosphorus burn with a flash. It should be remembered that in a case of poisoning by this substance that when not in contact with the air it is colourless, so that if coloured with Prussian blue it may not be seen when the stomach is first opened, also that the colour from Prussian blue will be destroyed by the ammonia exhaled by the putrefaction. CHAPTER VI. GASES AND VAPOURS. Carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, illuminating gas, sulphuretted hydrogen. CARBONIC OXIDE. Carbonic oxide is a colourless, inodorous neutral gas that burns with a blue flame in the atmosphere. It is formed by the incomplete combustion of coal or charcoal with a limited supply of oxygen, also by the decomposition of certain organic bodies Ill-constructed chimneys and flues often allow the escape of a certain quantity of this gas into the air of rooms. Illu- minating gas contains a considerable quantity, as well as other toxic gases ; and as it is now universally used, is exceedingly likely to give rise to accidents. According to M. Berthelot the analysis is : — Methane 35-0 per 100 Hydrogen 45-8 „ Carbonic oxide 6-6 „ Ethyline ... '... 6-4 „ Nitrogen 2-5 „ Carbonic acid ... 37 .. The vapours from burning materials also contain it, such as chalk and lime kilns, and burning rubbish heaps in the neighbour- hood of mines, numerous instances of persons who have gone to sleep in such places having been poisoned being on record. In regard to this matter, MM. Delaud and Stourbe mention that they have seen a peculiar form of anaemia in horses and mules worked in such places, which they consider is due to subacute carbonic oxide 122 Veterinary Toxicology. poisoning. It is generated by fire-damp in mines, and kills both men and animals that have escaped the first effects of the explosion. Carbonic oxide is always taken in the respired air ; and as it is in a high degree diffusible it easily passes through the walls of the pulmonary cells into the blood, where it displaces the oxygen of the oxyhsemoglobin, and forms a new and more stable compound, oxy- carbonated haemoglobin. This renders oxygenation of the blood impossible, and causes death, the system being deprived of oxygen. It is a powerful poison : dogs die almost instantaneously in an atmos- phere of three per cent., rabbits in seven minutes in twelve per cent., and human beings in one per cent. The blood of an animal poisoned by carbonic oxide does not coagulate ; is of a bright cherry red, and communicates this tint to the tissues with which it comes in contact, and it is particularly noticeable in the mucous membranes and parts where the skin is thin and not coloured with pigment. The body remains warm after death longer than natural, and decomposition sets in slowly. Symptoms.— V any according to the rapidity with which poisoning takes place. In some cases death is very sudden, the animal falling down paralysed, movement of the heart ceasing, and death taking place almost immediately ; in others, however, a cry is uttered, and con- vulsions set in. When the amount of the gas inhaled is small, the symptoms are slower in showing themselves — in the human beings about twenty-five minutes after the first inspiration of the gas. There is vertigo, loss of power, and twitching of the muscles, difficulty in standing, and the respirations become quick and stertorous ; the heart-beats are confused and fluttering, and the mucous membrane injected. There are violent spasmodic pains, the body covered with perspiration, and, according to Hugounencq, in the human being at the moment, when conscience is lost, complete relaxation of the sphincters of the bladder and rectum. Death takes place when the animal is in a comatose condition. In man, if the result is not fatal, a violent headache persists for a long time, with nausea and movements of the limbs that resemble ataxia, and loss of memory. Gases and Vapours. 123 Post Mortem. — The smell of charcoal remains for a long time about the body, which preserves its natural- heat, and does not readily decom- pose. The cornea remains lustrous, and on the internal surface of the thighs, back and scrotum there are large pink patches. The genital organs are red and swollen (Hugounencq). The blood is a cherry-red, and the froth on it violet, according to Hoppe Seyler (pink, Eolenberg), and this is especially noticeable if a fragment of lung is squeezed between the fingers — Lacassagne terms it carmine oedema. These appearances are, however, not absolutely characteristic, and a chemical analysis is necessary. Treatment. — The point to be kept in view is to replace the carbonic oxide in the haemoglobin by oxygen, either by inhalations of the pure gas or placing the animal in a free current of fresh air, taking care that no tight clothing interferes with the respiration, and, if necessary, artificial respiration should be used. Vomiting should also be in- duced. Friction with a stimulating embrocation is useful in restoring heat and circulation. In man, electricity is used, and it would be practicable with small animals. Chapuis recommends an ascending current, the positive pole of the battery to be placed in the rectum, the negative in the mouth. The patient should be kept warm, and a recovery not despaired of, as human beings have been resuscitated after twelve hours of apparently hopeless efforts. Chemical Analysis. — This can be carried out on the air, the body of the victim, or the blood. Atmosphere. — A flask is filled by means of an aspirator, and shaken up with 100 cubic centimetres of defibrinated blood diluted to 1 per 1,000, and submitted to a spectrum analysis. If the quantity of the gas is desired, the carbonic oxide in the blood is displaced by a current of oxygen, and passed over hot oxide of copper, converting it into carbonic acid, which can be weighed after absorption in a solution of potash. Spectrum Analysis. — Oxygenated blood gives two absorption bands in the vicinity of the sodium rays. If carbonic oxide is present the same takes place, but the rays are slightly deviated to the right. If oxygenated blood is treated with ferrous sulphate or ammonium sulphide the double bands disappear and are replaced by a large one 124 Veterinary Toxicology. with indistinct borders — " Stokes's band," but if there is carbonic oxide the double bands remain. CARBONIC ACID. Carbonic acid, also called carbon dioxide or carbonic anhydride, exists in a natural condition in the form of carbonates, and as a gas is found free in the air, and the water of many mineral springs. In the air the quantity amounts to from 0-3 to 0-4 volumes per 1,000. A proportion of 50 to 100 per 1,000 is fatal, and so small a quantity as I part per 1,000 renders the atmosphere of a room close and unpleasant. It is a colourless, inodorous gas with a slightly acid taste, I'jag times heavier than air, and soluble in water, but is expelled from it by boiling. It is produced by combustion such as of coal gas, the process of fermentation, and by the respiration of both plants and animals, together, in this latter case, with effete matters from the skin and lungs. It is found in the bottoms of old wells, sewers, and in the choke and after-damp of coal mines. For a long time carbonic acid was not looked upon as a poison pev se and was supposed to act passively when fatal consequences occurred, by taking the place of the oxygen in the blood, thus causing asphyxia. Under a certain pressure it will give rise to asphyxia, as the blood cannot get rid of what it is charged with, and consequently it is retained in the tissues (Mathias-Duval). CoUard and Martigny have, however, shown by experiment that it is a poison in the true sense of the word. This has been confirmed by Hugounencq and Paul Bert, who demonstrated that some animals were more tolerant than others, 40 per cent, killing mammalia (dogs), and 24 per cent, birds. Robertson classifies it as a true muscular poison, giving rise to convulsions. Ingenhousz, Brown-Sequard, and Weill state that it has a nervine action like alcohol, and it no doubt possesses anaesthetic properties to a certain extent. It does not act on the haemoglobin, a portion being dissolved in the blood plasma and a portion in the blood corpuscules, but the combin- ation is not stable, and is decomposed by the presence of oxygen. Gases and Vapours. 125 Carbonic acid poisoning is death from asphyxia' ; the blood and tissues, especially the lungs, are dark in colour, and decomposition of the body is delayed. Treatment is the same as in poisoning by car- bonic oxide. By confined air is meant an atmosphere rendered unfit for respir- ation by a number of animals breathing it for a certain period without its having been changed. The normal amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere is 0-4 per 1,000, and when it rises to over o-6 pfer 1,000 it can be termed confined. The actual amount of carbonic acid present is not toxic, but the absence of oxygen and the presence of emana- tions from the skin and lungs of the animals that have been using it renders the air unfit for breathing. What is commonly known as coal smoke consists of a mixture of hydrogen, carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide, which latter renders it poisonous in a confined space. In conflagrations the oxygen rapidly diminishes, and the atmosphere becomes irrespirable and asphyxiating. Carbonic oxide is the active toxic agent of coal gas, which contains from 3 to 20 per cent. Chemical Analysis. — It is impossible to determine the abnormal quantity of carbonic acid in the tissues, but the quantity in the medium that has caused the accident can be ascertained by Boussingault's method. This, however, is complicated, and requires special apparatus, but it consists in passing a known quantity of air over pumice-stone, some of which is damped with sulphuric acid to take off water, and the remainder with a solution of caustic potash to retain the carbonic acid, the quantity being determined by weighing before and after the process. A more simple way of testing the atmosphere, however, is by the well-known means of a lighted candle. SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. Sulphuretted hydrogen, or hydrogen sulphide, is a colourless gas, heavier than the air and soluble in water. It has a strong smell of rotten eggs and burns with a blue flame, forming water and sulphur dioxide. It is present in certain mineral waters (Harrogate) and is gene- 126 Veterinary Toxicology. rated by the putrefaction of animal matters that contain sulphur, such as albumen and white of eggs, also by the deoxidation of sulphates in decaying animal matter, as, for instance, in the intestines of animals, drains, sewers and cesspools. It is a powerful poison, and may be taken into the system either in the inspired air absorbed through the skin, or the stomach ; its activity varies according to the channel by which it gains access, for if it is taken by the mouth, before it can arrive at the left side of the heart it has to pass through both the liver and lungs, and a large portion is eliminated by the latter organs. In the body it is oxidised and eliminated in the form of sulphates in the urine, but the greater portion passes through the lungs, intestines and skin in an unchanged condition. Claude Bernard has shown that when sulphuretted hydrogen in a solution has been injected into the jugular it can almost immediately be detected in the breath. It is a true blood poison, acting on the red corpuscles, which are unable to absorb oxygen, and in this respect it resembles carbonic oxide and hydrocyanic acid. Different species of animals are susceptible in varying degrees. Mosselman gives the fatal proportion in the air as i in 1,500 for birds, I in 800 dog, and i in 250 horse, but these are only approximate. According to certain authors, its action is much more rapid when combined with ammonia, which can take place when the gas is given off from drains and cesspools. Death takes place almost instantaneously ; the animal is excited, gives a cry, become rigid, the sphincters are relaxed, and death take^ place at once ; in certain cases preceded by convulsions. If the case is not quite so acute there is a general state of feebleness, with dilated pupils and difficulty in respiration. Decomposition sets in very quickly, the blood is black and fluid, and it stains the same colour all the organs in which it stagnates. Many antidotes have been advocated, but oxygen is the best, com- bined with artificial respiration. Chlorine has been recommended by Guyton de Morveau; it decomposes a molecule of the sulphuretted hydrogen, decreases the toxic properties of the gas and helps elimina- tion by the lungs. Ammonia acts in the same manner, also alcohol and Gases and Vapours. 127 ether ; they are also stimulants, but, as a rule, death takes place so quickly that there is np time for treatment. The air of the locality and the breath can be tested by passing them through a solution of arsenic and hydrochloric acids, yellow sulphide of arsenic being formed. Paper wetted with a solution of acetate of lead becomes blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen, and the characteristic smell when present in even the smallest quantities will denote its presence. VAPOURS, ALCOHOL, ANESTHETICS. I. HYDROCYANIC ACID AND CYANIDES. Hydrocyanic or prussic acid (so-called from being first obtained from Prussian blue) is one of the most powerful and dangerous poisons known, and acts on all living creatures, although warm-blooded animals are more susceptible than reptiles. It is a popular superstition that the hedgehog is tolerant to hydrocyanic acid, but Preyer has shown this to be a fallacy. The pure or anhydrous acid, however, is seldom seen, except as a laboratory curiosity, the medicinal only containing 2 per cent, in solution. It was first discovered by Scheele, a German chemist, but according to Hoefer it was known to the ancient Egyptian priests. It is found in the leaves and kernels of certain plants, especially laurel, peach and bitter almond. It is also one of the products of distillation of coal, and exists in badly purified gas. It is a colourless liquid with a smell of bitter almonds, and very volatile, soluble in water, alcohol and ether, and easily decomposes on exposure to light or air, especially when in solution. Accidents may be caused by both hydrocyanic acid and the cyanides (particularly cyanide of potassium), almond cake, and laurel or peach leaves. Bitter almond cake is used in parts of the Con- tinent, and although perfectly fresh may ferment in the stomach, setting free hydrocyanic acid and sugar. The cyanides are all poison- ous, especially cyanide of potassium and mercury, the former of which is very soluble. They are classified by Pelikan : — 128 Veterinary Toxicology. (i) Simple and soluble cyanides, such as those of magnesium and calcium, the effects of which are the same as hydrocyanic acid. (2) Simple and insoluble ; those of zinc, lead, copper and silver, which are decomposed in the stomach and form hydrocyanic acid : these are toxic, whereas those that are not acted on by the gastric juice, like cyanide of gold, are not. (3) The double and soluble cyanides, zinc, potassium, gold and palladium act like the simple ones. The toxic properties of ferrous and ferric cyanides of potassium are destroyed at 27° C. They are not decomposed by acids, and do not form hydrocyanic acid, but Wolz and Sonnenschein consider that they are. M. Chapuis {Precis de Toxicologie) states that with a certain amount of ammonical salts and tartaric acid at 40° C. a small quantity of prussic acid is given off. The sulpho-cyanide of potassium is not so poisonous as the cyanide, and according to Robertson and Massul, the cyanates are not poison- ous even in 2 gramme doses, as they turn in the body into carbonates, the cyanate of potash in 3 gramme doses rendering the urine of the dog so alkaline that it will effervesce with an acid. They also found that although medium-sized dogs were killed by a i gramme dose of cyanate of potassium injected into a vein, that it acted as a potash salt, not as a cyanate. Channels of Entrance. — The ordinary channel of entrance to the body is through the digestive system, but it can also take place through mucous membranes and wounds ; indeed, in the human being cases have been recorded amongst photographers from cyanide of potassium being absorbed through cuts on the hands, and dogs have been destroyed by the instillation of a few drops into the eye. Inhalation of the fumes is also fatal, the chemist Scheele, who discovered the acid, was killed in this manner. Absorption, Circulation, Deposition and Elimination. — All the cyanide compounds enter into the system very rapidly, and it was at one time thought for this reason that they destroyed life before absorption by acting in some way on the nervous system, but Krimer and Preyer have pointed out that between the time that the poison is taken and effects are first seen, there is ample time for the blood to complete Gases and Vapours. 129 one circulation round the body. The poison acts on the red blood corpuscles, and according to Hoppe Seyler, Lecorche, and Meuriot, combines with both the haemoglobin and oxyhsemoglobin. Certain authors explain the mechanism of poisoning from cyanides by the deposition of the acid in the nerve cells, but the only argument in favour of this theory is the rapidity with which it takes place. It has been stated that the acid is eliminated in an unchanged condition by the lungs, and certain observers have imagined that they could detect its characteristic smell in the breath, whereas by others it has been found in the body several days after death. Schonenstein is reported to have found it under the form of formiate of ammonia. The best explanation, however, has been given by MM. Lacesagne and Hugounencq, who noticed a strong smell of ammonia when the natural cavities of the body were opened, and that with hydrochloric acid, nitrate of mercury, and Nessler's test, the characteristic reaction was given. They explain these phenomena by the fact that cyanide of potassium is almost invariably contaminated with cyanate, which is early decomposed into carbonate of potash and ammonia. Poisonous Doses. — The poisonous doses are very small. For the pure acid Huseman gives the dose as 0"073, and Tardieu 0*05 grammes for the human being. KaufFmann gives 6 to 10 drops for the horse, and I to 2 for the dog. MM. Trousseau and Pidoux gave horses 6 drops on cotton-wool to inhale. They dropped as if dead in ten seconds, and for an hour were affected with serious nervous derangement — convul- sions, spasms, vertigo, paralysis, and stupor — and Magendie found that I drop intravenously killed a dog instantaneously. The toxic dose of the 2 per cent, medicinal acid, according to Kauff- mann, is : horse, 2 to 3 grammes ; ox, 2 to 3 grammes ; dog, 2 minims. Finlay Dunn states that 4 to 5 drams usually kills the horse in an hour. One to four drops of the pure acid placed in the eyes of dogs produced tetanic convulsions and death in about three minutes, and 40 to 60 minims of the 2 per cent, acid acted as quickly. Air saturated with the acid killed dogs in 10, cats in 2 seconds. An attempt was made to kill an elephant in Birmingham with 6 ozs. of the medicirial acid, but it was a failure. 130 Veterinary Toxicology. The toxic dose of cyanide of potassium is, by the mouth, according to Kauffmann : horse, 4 to 8 grammes ; dog, o'2o to 0-50 grammes ; and man, o-io to 0-25 grammes, but this depends on its purity, as it often contains a large proportion of carbonate of potash. Symptoms. — The rapidity with which the poison usually acts does not allow of the development of any very clear symptoms. The dog is usually the victim, and if the dose is not immediately fatal, after about two minutes he becomes greatly distressed, with difficulty in breathing, convulsive movements of the fore-limbs, and the head and neck extended. He then falls over on his side and appears to be partly paralysed, showing no pain if pricked with a pin, the feet trodden on, &c. There are violent convulsive movements, the spine being alternately arched and curved. There is champing of the jaws, flow of saliva, paroxysms of hiccoughing, and death. In the human being there is vertigo and contraction of the throat and chest, with asphyxia. Post-mortem Lesions.— Th& post-moytem appearances are nothing characteristic, except the pervading smell of almonds from the intes- tines and in a lesser degree the whole body. Hugounencq mentions that in cases of poisoning by cyanide of potassium there is a large amount of free ammonia in the intestines from the decomposition of the cyanide, giving rise to the appearance of cauterisation that might be expected from any caustic. The same author has called attention to the condition of the stomach, the membrane of which is congested, and the colour of a dead leaf; filled with a reddish-brown exudate, floating in which are shreds of the exfoliated membrane. The walls of the stomach are corroded, thinned in parts and corrugated into folds (Traite des poisons). Treatment. — As a rule, death takes place so quickly that there is no time for any treatment, but if there is the poison should be neutralised by the administration of a mixture of sulphate and perchloride of iron, or the sesquioxide, any of which will form Prussian blue. In animals capable of it vomiting may be induced by the hypodermic injection of hydrochlorate of apomorphine. Gautier recommends the inhalation of chlorine, carefully adminis- tered, to excite the organism, until the poison has been eliminated, and Gases and Vapours. 131 a solution of ammonia can be employed with the same object ; also cold water on the spine, hypodermic injection of camphor and ether, galvanism over the diaphragm and tracheotomy when asphyxia is threatened, with bleeding, as a large amount of the acid is kept in suspension in the blood. Anaesthetics are also highly spoken of by Ch. Bernard and Thenard, who found that when a rabbit was placed under the influence of ether three times the fatal dose of hydro- cyanic acid could be tolerated. Chemical Analysis. — The analysis is made on the stomach and its contents and the first portion of the small intestine, bipod, liver, brain, urine, and vomited matter ; but it must be done quickly, as the poison is exceedingly volatile. In a case of suspected poisoning by hydrocyanic acid some of the suspected material is first acidulated with either tartaric or phosphoric acid and put into a well-corked flask, in which a piece of paper wetted with tincture of guaiacum and solution of sulphate of copper is sus- pended by a thread. The paper will turn a characteristic blue tint, and the test which is known as Schoenhein's is a very delicate one. The suspected material finely divided is diluted with water acidulated with tartaric acid and placed in a retort, which must be a fairly large one. It is heated over a sand-bath to 105*' C, and the hydrocyanic acid will be given off in the first distillate, which will have the charac- teristic smell, and can be submitted to the following tests : — (i) A white precipitate is given with nitrate of silver, cyanide of silver, which is soluble in ammonia and hot nitric acid, but insoluble in cold. This test will detect i in 250,000. (2) The precipitate, when washed and heated in a test-tube with a small portion of iodine, gives off acid fumes which condense on the cold parts of the glass in the form of white crystals, iodide of cyanogen. (3) The distillate, treated with a mixture of ferrous and ferric sulphates and excess of potash after slightly heating, gives a deposit of Prussian blue. (4) The distillate, evaporated in a porcelain dish over a water- bath, is treated with hydrosulphate of ammonia, forming sulpho- cyanide of ammonia, and again evaporated. The deposit is treated 132 Veterinary Toxicology. with hydrochloric acid and perchloride of iron ; a bright red stain is given, sulphocyanide of iron. (5) The fluid, treated with picric acid and potash, gives a dark red colour. (6) Mercuric nitrate is reduced to metalHc mercury. (7) The addition of sulphate of copper, potash, and a slight excess of nitric acid, gives a white precipitate, cyanide of copper. The quantity of acid can be ascertained by weight in the form of cyanide of silver, the distillate being received in a flask or Liebig's bulbs containing a 3 per cent, solution of nitrate of silver. The dis- tillation should be stopped when the nitrate of silver is no longer precipitated, the cyanide of silver collected on a filter and dried. When heated it gives off cyanogen, which burns with a characteristic blue flame, leaving metallic silver. If a positive result is given, it should not be forgotten that hydro- cyanic acid is contained in certain articles of food, and that cyanides are used as medicine. 11. ALCOHOL. The term alcoholism is usually applied only to poisoning by ordinary or ethylic alcohol. Although nothing like so important to the veterinary surgeon as the medical man, cases of alcoholic poisoning in animals are not unknown, instances having been recorded by Gamgee (" Diseases of the Domesticated Animals "), Andre, and others. Such cases are chiefly caused by impure alcohol or through feeding on the refuse of distilleries and breweries ; a more common custom in France than this country. Alcoholic fermentation is the change of certain sugars into alcohol and carbonic acid by the action of yeast. Any saccharine material will undergo alcoholic fermentation, but for commercial purposes the products resulting from the germination of cereals are generally made use of, also starchy matters such as potatoes and other roots and fruit. All these when fermented form ethyl alcohol and other alcoholic liquids ; some of them are highly poisonous, viz., Propylic, Butylic and Amylic alcohols ; glycerine and acetic aldehyde. When the fermented Gases and Vapours. 133 matter is distilled a volatile liquid and a residue are obtained, the first given ofif consisting of ethylic aldehyde, acetic ether and ethylic alcohol, the later one Propylic, Butylic and Amylic alcohols. Alcohol cannot be completely separated from water by simple distillation, the strongest obtained containing 10 per cent. ; but it can be removed by distilling it with potassium carbonate or quicklime the pure spirit bein termed absolute alcohol. Proof spirit contains 50-8 by weight of alcohol to 49-2 of water. Weak spirits are known as being under proof, strong as over proof : thus 25 per cent, over proof means that 100 volumes of spirit diluted with water yields 125 volumes of proof spirit, while 25 per cent, under proof means that it contains in 100 volumes 75 volumes of proof spirit. Methylated spirit consists of 90 parts alcohol and 10 parts wood spirit. White wines contain 10 to 14 per cent, absolute alcohol, sherry and Madeira 15 to 20 per cent., claret and Burgundy 10 to 14 per cent., port 15 to 25 per cent. ; whisky 44 to 50 per cent, by weight, or 50 to 58 per cent, by volume ; brandy and gin about the same ; rum 40 to 50 per cent, absolute alcohol. In addition to the alcohol, a number of complex ethers and essential oils are also given off that need not be mentioned. Etiology. — -The different domestic animals are not all equally liable to the effects of alcohol. Cattle and pigs appear to be most pre- disposed and also are most liable, especially animals that are being fattened on the residue from distilleries, and of them the pig is most likely to get such food. A case is related by Gamgee (" Diseases of the Domestic Animals ") of cows being poisoned in Scotland by straw steeped in burnt ale, and by Gener from eating the residue of apples from which cider had been pressed and put on to the land as manure, where it had fermented. Epinald reports a case of chronic alcoholism in a dog that had learned to drink absinth. Poisoning will also take place by the administration of overdoses of alcohol as medicines. A case is mentioned by Major Marriott, A.V.D., in the Veterinary Journal, 1904. All the alcohols are poisonous, but the ethylic and methylic are the least, and crude spirits less than rectified; moreover, they cause greater excitement and heavier stupor. 134 Veterinary Toxicology. Physiology of Poisoning. — Absorption takes place very rapidly, but, according to some observers, a small portion is converted in the stomach into acetic acid. In the general circulation a further portion is turned into acetic acid at the expense of the oxygen. The brain and nerve-tissue have a great affinity, and elimination is rapid through all the secretions, chiefly the kidneys and lungs ; but the maximum eliminated is 25 per cent. Alcohol lowers the temperature, and Winslow (" Materia Medica ") remarks that some of the lowest tempera- tures ever observed were in drunken persons exposed to the cold. Manquat accounts for this by the loss of heat through the hyperemia of the skin and diminution in the process of oxidation of the tissues, a paralysing effect being exercised on the red corpuscles. Toxic Doses. — Kaufmann gives the poisonous dose of absolute alcohol as 50 to 150 grammes horse, 100 to 300 ox, 30 to 60 sheep and pig, and i to 10 dog. Hutwiz found that 8 oz. absolute alcohol killed a horse in ten minutes, but 4 to 6 oz. were not fatal. Dr. Percy found that 6 oz. injected into the stomach of a dog caused death in an hour and ten minutes, and that if the cesophagus was ligatured so as to prevent vomiting, 2 oz. caused death in half an hour. Dr. Harley found that half an ounce with the same quantity of water injected into the portal vein caused diabetes in the dog in three hours. Dujardin, Braumetz and Audgie found that the following doses per kilogramme live weight injected subcutaneously in the dog caused death in from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. Methylic alcohol 7 grammes Ethylic ,, 8 „ Propylic ,, 3-90 „ Butylic ,, 2 Amylic )) 170 „ Post-mortem Appearances. — In acute poisoning there is a certain amount of gastro-intestinal inflammation, but not of a very severe degree, the mucous membrane being of a dark red colour, softened and in places studded over with hsemorrhagic patches, which are sometimes seen in the other organs of the body. The blood is dark in colour. Gases and Vapours. 135 clots are found in the heart and large vessels, and there is congestion of the brain and its meninges, the liver and spleen. In Gamgee's cases blood clots were found in the lateral ventricles and round the cervical portion of the spinal cord. The gastro-enteritis is more marked with impure than pure alcohol. In chronic poisoning fatty degeneration of various organs is seen, particularly cirrhosis of the liver and that condition termed " nutmeg." Symptoms. — In acute poisoning, in addition to gastro-intestinal irritation, there is drunkenness, commencing with restlessness, quick- ened pulse, which is full and hard, and possibly different forms of nervous derangement ; but this stage does not last long, and quickly runs on into collapse, with loss of sensibility and power of motion, fall in temperature and stertorous breathing, in which condition death from asphyxia may take place. Abortion is likely to take place in pregnant animals and excitement of the generative organs. Gamgee mentions that when pressed in the axilla the patient would fall, or if the head were inclined to one side would roll over. Treatment. — To counteract the depressing effects of alcohol, stimu- lants are indicated, such as camphor, coffee, ether, ammonia, with cold applications to the head, followed by a brisk purgative. Chemical Analysis. — The materials used are the contents of the stomach and intestines, blood, liver and brain, but the analysis must be made without delay, and the material preserved in large-mouthed jars hermetically sealed. If the amount of alcohol present is con- siderable the usual characteristic smell will be noticed. The material should be cut up into small portions, a small quantity of water added, and then distilled, only the first fifth part of the total being taken for use. This, on being rectified with anhydrous carbonate of potash, will leave a residue of alcohol. It has the characteristic smell and burns with a pale smokeless flame : treated with sulphuric acid and bichro- mate of potash it reduces the yellow chromic acid into a green sesqui- oxide. With sulphuric and acetic acid it gives off acetic ether v/ith the characteristic smell, and with a trace of iodine and a few drops of caustic potash, when heated, small crystals of iodoform are formed. Medico-legal. — None of these tests, however, can be considered abso- 12,6 Veterinary Toxicology. lute ; they will be observed with certain products of putrefaction, and they are valueless without further evidence. III. — ANESTHETICS. Poisoning by anaesthetics, whether accidentally or maliciously, is rare in the domestic animals, but cases are on record from sulphuric ether, chloroform, chloral hydrate and iodoform. I. SULPHURIC ETHER. Sulphuric ether is a colourless, volatile liquid with a sweetish smell and a burning, acrid taste, but slightly soluble in water. Its use as a medicine, whether inhaled or taken by the mouth, may cause poisoning. It is readily absorbed and eliminated by the breath and different excretions. Like other anaesthetics, it affects the brain and spinal cord, but nothing is known about the way it acts. The exact toxic dose is not determined, as it varies with different species, individuals, and the state of health, those that are in a debilitated condition or that suffer from heart or pulmonary troubles being much the more susceptible. When inhaled the dose varies according to the amount of air it is diluted with and the length of time it has taken to administer. The post-mortem appearances of an animal poisoned with ether present nothing diagnostic. The symptoms are those of an extreme degree of anaesthesia, the three phases of excitement, insensibility and resolution rapidly succeeding each other. In the first stage there are disorganised movements — the eyes bright and glistening, pulse and respirations quickened, and great excitement ; this is followed by insensibility, the pulse and respirations becoming slower, the first being almost imper- ceptible, lowering of temperature and deep depression, death taking place from asphyxia or syncope. Treatment. — Artificial respiration, inhalation of ammonia or acetic acid and galvanism. Gases and Vapours. 137 Analysis. — This has to be carried out without delay, by distillation as for alcohol at a low temperature, 35° C. The lung and brain are the best materials to use, the distillate being recognised by its char- acteristic smell and burning with a slight amount of black smoke. Ether gives the same chemical reaction as alcohol. 2. CHLOROFORM. Chloroform is a colourless, clear, heavy fluid, with a characteristic smell and a sweetish, burning taste. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, benzol, benzine, fixed and volatile oils, and in 200 times its volume of cold water ; it is very volatile, and boils at 140° to i4i'8° C. It is not very inflammable, but burns with a sooty flame that is green at its edges. It is largely used as an anaesthetic and is more certain in its action than ether, but more dangerous. It acts in the same manner as ether but quicker. There is no case on record of malicious poisoning of animals with chloroform, as is the case with human beings ; it would be too difficult to administer, and cases of death caused by it have all occurred during or after surgical operations. The action of chloroform as an anaesthetic belongs to the domain of therapeutics and will not be entered into. Accidents, however, generally take place from the use of decomposed chloroform in which various gases, particularly chlorine, have formed. Chemical Analysis. — The suspected material, "blood, lungs and brain," is divided into small portions and diluted with distilled water to a thick bouillon. One .portion is put into a still and heated over a water-bath to about io5° F., a heavy oily liquid being given off. When treated with an alcoholic solution of potash and a drop of aniline, phenylcar- bilimine is formed which has a characteristic repulsive smell. A second part of the fluid, heated to 106° F., with strong potash lye and a drop of napthol B gives a blue colour (Lustgarten's test). The third portion is placed in a flask with two bent tubes and heated to 104° F. over a water-bath ; one tube reaches to the bottom of the flask and is connected with a bellows ; the other, a short one with a porcelain tube, that is heated to redness by a Bunsen K 138 Veterinary Toxicology. burner. This porcelain tube is connected with a set of Liebig's bulbs containing a solution of nitrate of silver. A current of air is blown through the flask by the bellows, which carries the chloroform with it into the hot porcelain tube, where it is decomposed into chlorine and hydrochloric acid, which again decomposes the nitrate of silver into chloride. 3. CHLORAL HYDRATE. Chloral is in France used largely as an anaesthetic, and is highly commended for that purpose by M. Kaufmann {TraiU de Therapeutic, p. 576) as an intervenous injection. He found it act in two minutes, with little or no previous excitement or after-effects. Other observers, however, record contrary results, and state that the anaesthesia pro- duced is neither so safe, complete, or lasting as that produced by chloroform or ether, and it has been little used in this country. In small doses it has been used by unscrupulous persons for fraudulent purposes, such as keeping a vicious animal quiet at the time of sale. Symptoms. — In large doses insensibility and loss of muscular power, the animal falling in a comatose state, with the pupils dilated. The pulse is at first weak and quick, afterwards slow and irregular, also the respiration. The sphincters are relaxed, and urine and faeces passed involuntarily. There is profuse perspiration. Winslow ("Veterinary Materia Medica," p. 300) gives four ounces as the toxic dose for the horse, and two to six drams the dog, but instances are recorded of horses receiving that quantity and recovering (Finlay Dun, "Veterinary Medicines," 9th edition, p. 356). Kaufmann gives the poisonous dose as — Small dogs 8 to 12 grammes Large „ 10 to 16 „ Cat 4 to 8 Pig 20 to 8 Horse 200 to 300 ,, Gases and Vapours. Falck gives the following :^ 139 Rabbit Cat Dog Intravenous injection. 0'35 gramme 0-31 0-23 „ Subcutaneous injection . i'i3 grammes 0-40 „ 1-20 „ By the mouth. I -30 grammes. IODOFORM. Poisoning usually takes place in dogs where wounds are dressed with iodoform, and they are allowed to lick the part. Winslow ("Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics") has seen it in a cow after abdominal section where the pelvis was packed with iodoform gauze. In acute poisoning there is slight gastric disturbance, loss of appetite, vomiting and constipation, with convulsions alternating with somnolence, coma, and stupefaction ; but in some cases, from the very commencement, there is great excitement much resembling rabies. In some cases the pulse is very quick, in others infrequent ; the tem- perature may be high or remain normal. There is disturbance of the respiration, and in some cases albuminuria. ' Chronic poisoning resembles chronic iodism, with atrophy of the glands, especially the udder, characteristic eczema, with catarrh of the pituitary membrane, conjunctiva, and those of the larynx and bronchi. Iodoform is absorbed from the intestine after being formed into an emulsion with the contained fats. In the circulation it is decomposed and iodine set free, which turns into iodides that are rapidly eliminated by the urine, in which they can be easily detected by the starch test. Post Mortem. — There is fatty degeneration of the liver, heart, striped muscles, and in some cases nephritis. The blood is fluid. Toxic Doses. — 0-5 gramme per kilogramme live weight when injected into the serous cavities (Potjakow), one to two grammes hypoder- mically, and one gramme by the mouth. A cow died in thirty-six hours 140 Veterinary Toxicology. after taking fifty grammes, but ten grammes did no harm to a calf fifty days old (Frohner). Winslow states that one dram will kill a dog of 10 lbs. weight. Treatment consists in eliminating the poison by emetics. There is no antidote, but starch might be given with the object of forming iodide of starch, an insoluble substance. Chemical Analysis. — The suspected materials — liver, brain, intestine, and stomach— are distilled, and the distillate, rendered alkaline with soda, is shaken up with ether, which dissolves the iodoform. The ether is evaporated, and the iodoform remains. The residue is melted in a porcelain capsule with a little soda, and the mass neutrahsed with nitric acid and water gives the character- istic reactions of iodides, a yellow precipitate with nitrate of silver blue, with, a solution of chlorine or starch. Lustgartin's test can also be used. The residue can be dissolved in a few drops of alcohol, with the addition of phenate or resurcinate of sodium ; the resulting mass, with absolute alcohol, gives a deep carmine, rosolic acid. ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. A. ORGANIC ACIDS. I. CARBOLIC ACID. Both carbolic and oxalic acids have corrosive actions that closely resemble caustics, but they differ from them inasmuch as, in addition, they both exert a special toxic property. Carbolic acid is one of the numerous coal-tar products, and pure, it is in the form of needle- shaped crystals, colourless, or brown or red, that melt at 91 "5° F., boil at 371 "^ F., and burn with a smoky flame. It has a peculiar penetrating smell and a hot, burning taste. The specific gravity is 1060 to 1066, soluble in water at 60° F. in five to ten parts, and fifteen in cold ; freely soluble in glycerine, volatile oils, alcohol, ether, alkaline solutions, and acetic acid. Wood-tar oils and crude creosote are apt to be mistaken for impure carbolic acid, but they are less soluble in water, boil at 212° F., and do not solidify at 40' F. Gases and Vapours. 141 There are five varieties in general use, the first three being crystals. No. 4 is a pale yellow liquid, containing about 10 per cent, phenol and 90 per cent, creosote. No. 5 is a dark-coloured fluid of uncertain strength. Calvert's disinfecting powder consists of 20 to 30 per cent, carbolic acid, mixed with the refuse of alum works, and M. Dougall's 33 per cent, calcium carbolate and 59 per cent, magnesium sulphite. Carbolic acid is largely employed for disinfecting purposes, as an antiseptic, and for the destruction of parasites, and on this account cases of poisoning by it in the domestic animals are frequent, both by being taken internally and when applied to the skin. In concentrated solutions it acts as a caustic, coagulating the albumen in the tissues it comes in contact with and turning them white. It is rapidly absorbed into the blood, even through intact skin. It is rapidly eliminated, chiefly in the urine. Its toxic effects are not solely due to its caustic properties, but what this general action is has as yet not been properly determined. Paul Bert has, however, shown that it is principally localised in the nervous system. The poisonous dose greatly varies, according to the way it is taken and the degree of concentration. The cat is the most susceptible animal, also dogs and sheep, accidents from over-dressing or dipping with too strong a dip being common with them. Finlay Dun ("Veterinary Medicines") gives three to four drops per pound live weight as the fatal dose for cats, rabbits, and dogs, and an ordinary dog half to one dram. Dr. Cullen found one dram caused death in about ten minutes, with excitement, dilated pupils, shallow, stertorous breathing, and convulsions. Friedburger found that fifteen grammes killed dogs in a few hours. Kaufmann gives half-ounce as dangerous, and one ounce as a fatal dose for the horse; but Finlay Dun states that two drams were frequenty given to a donkey without any ill result. In the human being carbolic dressings frequently cause nausea, vomiting, giddiness, high-coloured urine, collapse, and even death is not unknown from absorption. Post-mortem Appearances. — The viscera, their contents,, the various organs, blood and urine have the peculiar smell of carbolic acid. When taken by the mouth in a concentrated form, in the mouth, throat. 142 Veterinary Toxicology. stomach, and intestines are white cauterised patches, with inflam- mation in the deeper tissue underneath and surrounded by rings of ecchymosis. These appearances are usually well marked in the abdo- men of ruminants. The blood is dark and fluid, the red corpuscules not being altered, and there is effusion and extravasation into the brain and lateral ventricles. The kidneys are congested and inflamed and the urine varies from an olive-green to a very dark brown or even black. The lungs are congested and covered with ecchymosed patches. Where death has taken place within twenty-four hours, the smell of carbolic acid per- vades the whole body, but if the patient has lived longer it may not be discovered, and if the case is a prolonged one, there probably will be a granular fatty degeneration of the liver, heart, kidneys, and principal parenchymatous organs. Applied externally it withers and shrivels up the epidermis. In about ten minutes the dermis is congested and tumefied, and a thin scale is formed which falls off, in about fifteen to twenty days, with the hair, which, however, is reproduced and leaves no scar (Delsol, Recueil de Medecine V&terinaive, 1872, page 532). Symptoms. — The first symptoms noticed are those produced by the caustic action and consist of stomatitis, pharyngitis and gastro-enteritis, much the same as those produced by mineral acids, but not so severe. When absorbed into the general circulation the special toxic properties which exert themselves on the nervous centres are seen. The animal is rather anxious and distressed. There are fits of rigors and con- vulsions, followed by paralysis of the hind-quarters. The pulse is quick, small and irregular, and almost imperceptible; respiration quick and difficult, temperature subnormal. The animal is unable to keep on his legs, falls down and dies in deep coma. Zwaardemaeker in the cat noted that there was progressive respira- tory paralysis. Decroix records a case of poisoning in the horse by bathing in a 10 per cent, solution, and this case was complicated by suppression of the functions of the skin. Treatment . — If available, vinegar in the same quantity- as the dose of carbolic acid should be given; and emesis should be encouraged when practicable. Oleaginous purgatives should be used with Gases and Vapours. 143 mucilaginous drinks and Glauber's salt to neutralise the poison, turning it into phenal sulphuric acid, which is secreted by the kidney. The pharyngeal and laryngeal irritation can be relieved by inhaling steam. Husemann speaks with favour of the use of saccharated lime. Chemical Analysis. — The contents of the stomach and intestines, blood, urine, liver and brain, can be submitted to analysis, and they all give off the characteristic smell of carbolic acid. They are macerated in alcohol or ether for twenty-four hours, filtered, and then distilled at a low temperature. The residue is treated with ether, which is evaporated, leaving the poison in crystals, and which gives the follow- ing reactions : — (i) The characteristic smell. (2) With a dilute solution of a persalt of iron a violet-blue colour. (3) An aqueous solution of bromine gives yellowish-white needle- shaped crystals of tribromophenol. (4) An excess of ammonia and a solution of hypochlorate of lime gives a dark blue. It is in many cases important to ascertain the quantity, which is done with the tribromophenol. Giacausa's method is : Dissolve 15 grammes of caustic potash in a litre of water and gradually add 10 grammes of bromine ; a solution of hypobromite is thus obtained, which is diluted, so that 50 cc. correspond with 10 cc. of a |- per cent, solution of carbolic acid ; 50 cc. of this- is placed in a glass and the suspected fluid added till it is discoloured, the quantity used being a guide to the amount of carbolic acid present. It should be remembered that carbolic acid is sometimes present in normal urine, especially in the herbivora, and as much as 0*9 gramme has been detected in that of the horse ; also it is often given for medi- cinal purposes ; and for these reasons chemical analysis must not alone be relied upon. 2. OXALIC ACID. Oxalic acid and certain of its salts are powerful poisons, and cases of animals having been destroyed by them are recorded, particularly 144 Veterinary Toxicology. with the acid, on account of its resemblance to sulphate of soda or magnesia, for which it is mistaken. It is found in certain plants, rhubarb and sorrel, in the form of potassium or calcium oxalate, and is commonly known as salts of sorrel. This plant is grown as forage in parts of the Continent, and feeding on large quantities has been known to cause accidents. It is used by leather and straw makers, and for domestic purposes, such as cleaning brass work and removing stains of ink. It is a white crystallised powder, very soluble in water, with a bitter, inky taste. It is absorbed unchanged from the intestines, and eliminated in the form of oxalates in the urine. In a concentrated form it is a corrosive and powerful irritant, giving rise to acute gastro-enteritis, but is less likely to cause perforation of the intestine than some of the mineral acids. According to Huse- mann, it has a general action on the nervous system and is a power- ful cardiac depressant. The exact poisonous dose is not known, as it greatly depends on the degree of concentration and the local effects produced, but Kaufmann gives the medicinal doses as — Carnivora J to i gramme. Small ruminants and pigs ... 2 to 3 ,, Large animals 4 to 8 ,, Journal of Veterinary Medicine, vol. ii., gives the toxic dose as fifteen grains for the dog and three for the cat. Finlay Dun (" Veterinary Medicines"), page 193, says that two drams killed rabbits in fifteen minutes and half a dram in thirty. Symptoms. — These appear suddenly in the form of violent and painful colic, with nausea, vomiting and diminished force of cir- culation, the heart beats being very weak and feeble, death taking place very rapidly, sometimes in the course of a few minutes. Lesions. — The post-mortem lesions are chiefly found in the stomach, and are characterised by acute diffused inflammation. The mucous coat of the stomach is of a dark red colour, thick and friable, the Gases and Vapours. 145 muscular coat tumefied, infiltrated and studded over with ecchymosed patches. If the post-mortem examination is made soon after death, the blood is of a bright red colour, as is seen in carbonic oxide poisoning, and if the animal has lived any time, crystals of oxalate of lime will be found in the urinary tubes of the kidney. Treatment. — It is not possible to neutralise the acid with alkaline carbonates, as the oxalates that are formed are themselves poisonous. Lime-water, carbonates of lime and magnesia, and saccharate of lime are indicated, with milk, with the object of forming oxalate of lime, which is eliminated by an oleaginous purgative ; emetics are counter- indicated. Chemical Analysis. — The contents of the stomach and part of the organ itself are examined. The material is finely divided and treated with boiling water, slighly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, The fluid is filtered and evaporated to dryness over a water-bath, and treated with alcohol, which dissolves out the oxalic acid. This is again filtered and evaporated, leaving behind the acid, which is treated with water. It gives the following reactions : — (i) With chloride of lime a white precipitate is given, soluble in hydrochloric and nitric acids, insoluble in acetic. (2) With nitrate of silver a white precipitate is given, soluble in both ammonia and nitric acid. When dried it explodes on being heated. (3) The addition of a drop of sulphuric acid in the solution will, on being heated, reduce chloride of gold and permanganate of potash. (4) The residue of the solution after evaporation, heated in a test tube with a drop of sulphuric acid, gives oxide of carbon, which burns with a blue flame. In making these tests it should be remembered that oxalates exist normally in the body. B. ORGANIC BASES. OPIUM AND ITS ALKALOIDS. Opium is the inspissated juice of the Papaver somniferum, and con- tains nineteen or more alkaloids. Morphine, codeine, and narceine are used in human medicine, but the first is the most important. 146 Veterinary Toxicology. Claud Bernard and Rabuteau give the following table of the degree of toxicity of the different alkaloids in animals and man : — Man. Animals. Morphine Thebaine Codeine Codeine Thebaine Papaverine Papaverine Narceine Narceine Morphine Narcotine Narcotine According to these authors, in animals hydrochlorate of morphine is twenty times less toxic than the same salt of thebaine. Morphine is obtained in colourless, prismatic, inodourless crystals, with a very persistent bitter taste. In cold water it is nearly insoluble, but is in the proportion of i to 500 in boiling ; also in alcohol. It is insoluble in ether or benzine. It combines with most acids forrning soluble salts, the acetate hydrochlorate and sulphate being most com- monly used. M. Hugounencq gives the following equivalents of other prepara- tions to one of morphine : — Extract of opium 5 parts. Hydrochlorate of morphine ... ... i-25 Tincture of opium, Sydenham's... ... 80 Tincture of opium, Rousseau's ... ... 40 Tincture of opium (French codex) ... 65 Dover's powder ... ... ... ... 50 It is exceedingly rare to hear of animals eating poppies, as the taste is bitter, but in parts of Southern Europe accidents from this cause have taken place. Poisoning generally has taken place from the accidental administration of too large a dose of either opium or morphine, the former generally in the form of the tincture. By absorption through the skin it will give rise to dyspepsia, vomiting, and constipation from suppression of the secretions. It undergoes no change in the intestines, but in the system it is oxidised, forming oxydi-morphine, and is in this form eliminated by the kidneys, Gases and Vapours. 147 perspiration and other secretions. Its rapid elimination, coupled prob- ably by slow absorption, explains the great tolerance of certain sub- jects for it and the large quantity that can be taken without harm. Morphine has different actions in the different domestic animals. In the dog it has a powerful soporific effect, but in the horse and the larger ruminants this is not so pronounced (Guinard). This effect is less marked with opium and poppy-heads, which have a more complex composition. The poisonous dose of morphine has not been accurately determined in the different species of domestic animals, as it varies very greatly ; for instance, a larger dose is necessary to kill a rabbit than a dog. The poisonous dose also depends on a variety of circum- stances, such as age, individual idiosyncrasy, and the way it has been taken into the system. Youth renders the animal more susceptible to the action of morphine, and certain subjects show great powers of resistance. In the human being it is well known that habitude can be acquired, some persons being able to take fifty times the toxic dose with comparatively little evil effect, and a horse can take by the mouth nearly 100 times as much opium as would kill a man. Dr. Harley (" Old Vegetable Narcotics") gave four drams of powdered opium to a horse, with hardly any noticeable result. Hertwig found that two and a half ounces caused convulsions and death in twenty hours. Finlay Dun (" Veterinary Medicines ") gave an old mare and a donkey three-dram doses in solution three times a day with a fatal result on the fourth day, after the ninth dose in the first case, and on the third day after the sixth dose in the second. Dr. Harley (" Old Vegetable Narcotics ") found that acetate of mor- phine in four-grain doses injected hypodermically in the horse caused restlessness, pawing, sweating, and slight dilatation of the pupils ; twelve grains, restlessness, and slight delirium in three, lasting for six hours ; thirty-six grains, stupor in fifteen minutes, delirium in three, lasting for twenty-four hours. The same author found that twelve grains given by the mouth had no efifect. Dr. Wood ("Treatise on Therapeutics") states that 100 grains killed a horse in three hours. Ruminants are not so susceptible as horses. Finlay Dun (" Vete- rinary Medicines ") says that in the cow and sheep an ounce and four 148 Veterinary Toxicology. drams respectively of crude opium had little effect. Frohner gave a cow 15 grains of hydrochlorate of morphia hypodermically, causing excitement and tympanitis that lasted for about an hour. Dogs are more easily affected, two to three drams of opium causing spasms of the limbs, stertorous breathing, and stupor in a few minutes. Dr. Harley (" Old Vegetable Narcotics ") found that 20 drops of tincture of opium injected subcutaneously in a dog weighing 25 lbs. caused vomiting in about a quarter of an hour and stupor in an hour, but not true narcotism. The same observer injected half a grain of acetate of morphia subcutaneously in another dog also weighing 25 lbs., producing complete narcotism that lasted for three hours, and found that doses of two to three grains killed dogs of 12 lbs. to 16 lbs. weight in from ten to twelve hours. Kaufmann gives the toxic dose of morphine, used subcutaneously, as — Horse ... ... ... ... 3 to 5 grammes. Ox 5 to 8 Small dogs ... ... ... o-i gramme. Large dogs ... ... ... i ,, Post-mortem Appearances. — There is nothing characteristic in the post- mortem appearance in a case of opium or morphia poisoning, the lesions being those of asphyxia. The blood is dark-coloured and fluid, and the chief organs of the body discoloured, but especially the lungs and brain, in the ventricles of which and subarachnoid space is a larger quantity of serum than natural. If the cause of death has been from eating poppy- heads there will be renal congestion and slight gastro-enteritis. The blood gives no indications on analysis as to the cause of poisoning. Symptoms. — In the dog and small animals there is first a variable period of excitement, followed by narcotism, characterised by torpidity, drowsiness, dulness of the senses, loss of instinct and inteUigence. There is difficulty in standing, and a staggering, uncertain gait,- with a fixed, stupid expression of countenance. The mucous membranes are congested, and the pulse and respiration slow ; temperature falls, and the animal is in a state of collapse, with paralysis and relaxation of the sphincters. Death takes place from asphyxia, and in some Gases and Vapours. 149 cases it is preceded by convulsions from the accumulation of carbonic acid in the blood. M. Guinard has carefully studied the symptoms of opium poisoning in the ox, which are those of acute cerebral congestion. There is at first a stage of great excitement ; the animal bellows, the respirations are blowing, pulse full and hard, 100 beats per minute, profuse secretion of saliva and tears ; temperature rises. In about six to eight hours coma sets in, the animal remains down with the head thrown on to the shoulder ; general sensibility is diminished, the pulse and respiration become slow and laboured, and the temperature subnormal. There is marked constipation and tym- panitis, and the urine contains sugar and albumen. In the horse the symptoms are the same as in the ox. If cattle are poisoned with poppy-heads, the digestive symptoms are more marked, and the animal becomes delirious, bellowing, strik- ing with the horns, and attacked with epileptic spasms. The symptoms develop more slowly than with the other alkaloids of opium and the tympanitis is more marked. The chronic form of poisoning (morphinism), which is not uncommon in man, is unknown in animals. Treatment. — The stomach and intestines should be emptied by purgatives or emetics and tannin, or sulphate of zinc given to render the alkaloid insoluble. The general state of depression is counteracted by tonics such as ether, camphor, or strong black coffee ; and in cases of cerebral excitement, cold applications and ice to the head. Chemical Analysis. — The contents of the stomach and intestines, vomited matter, liver and urine can be made use of, but in the case of the latter it should be evaporated to the consistency of a syrup. In an analysis a double one may have to be made, both for the detec- tion of the alkaloids mentioned, and for opium or poppy-heads in cases of suspected poisoning by the latter, in which case the characteristic essential, meconic acid, will be present. The analysis is complicated and difficult, and as it is only necessary to determine the presence of meconic acid or morphine for all practical purposes, only the tests for these two will be mentioned. Dragendorff's method can be used, meconic acid being obtained 150 Veterinary Toxicology. from the acidulated fluid by alcohol and morphine from it, neutralised by treating it successively with chloroform and alcohol. Meconic acid with perchloride or persulphate of iron gives a deep blood-red colour, which is not removed by boiling with dilute sulphuric acid. If the liquid contains tannic acid the red colour will be obscured by the formation of tannate of iron, which can be removed by dilute acetic acid, when the blood-red colour will reappear. Sulphocyanide of potassium also gives a red colour with the persalts of iron, but it disappears with the addition of ether. Morphine gives the following reactions : — (i) A blue colour is given with the persalts of iron that disappears with acids, alcohol, or heat. (2) Salts of gold give a blue colour and a deposit of metallic gold. (3) An ammonical solution of sulphate of copper gives an emerald- green precipitate. (4) Morphine mixed with finely powdered sugar gives a purple colour, changing to violet and green with a drop of sulphuric acid. (5) Dragendorff gives the following table, showing the relative sensitiveness of certain tests for morphia. One-fifth cc. of a -g-^,^ solution of sulphate of morphine with iodide of potassium or bismuth gives a distinct precipitate. With chloride of gold the solution becomes turbid, with bromide of potassium a distinct precipitate is given. One-fifth cc. of a ytto^ solution with iodide of mercury or po- tassium gives an abundant amorphous precipitate. With iodide of cadmium or potassium a precipitate that crystallises in about an hour or two. With tannin, a slight cloudiness. With nitrate of silver slight cloudiness in about five minutes. The same quantity of a yj^ solution with chloride of platinum gives a slight precipitate ; with chloride of mercury, a crystal- line precipitate ; with bichromate of potash, a very sHght disturbance, and with picric acid, a profuse precipitate. Medico-legal. — Morphine is preserved for a long time in the system. Stas has recognised it in a body that had been buried for thirteen months, but the analysis is rendered more difficult by advanced decomposition. CHAPTER VII. STRYCHNINE AND ITS ALKALOIDS. STRYCHNINE. Strychnine is the most powerful vegetable poison known, and is found in several plants of the natural Order Loganiaceae that are inhabitants of Southern India, the Malay Archipelago and tropical Australia. The principal varieties are Strychnos nux vomica. The fruit resembles a small orange i-J- to 2^ inches in diameter, containing in the pulp from one to eight discoid-shaped seeds f to i inch in diameter, of a greyish-white colour and covered with silky hairs that give them a velvety appearance. These seeds are known as "nux vomica," and contain J- to J per cent, strychnine, and from -jV to i per cent. brucine. The bark contains a smaller proportion, and is commer- cially known as " False angostura bark." The Strychnos Ignatii, the seeds of which are known as St. Ignatius beans, contains a larger quantity of strychnine, i| per cent. It is a native of the Philippines. The Strychnos Tiente is a creeper found in the mountainous parts of Java, from which is extracted the Tjettek arrow poison. The Strychnos Icaja, or Strychnos M'boundon, of the Gaboon and West Coast of Africa, contains strychnine in the bark and roots, and is used by the natives for poisoning weapons. There are several other varieties in tropical America, the best known of which is the Strychnos Castelnorana. All these plants have poisonous properties, due to the alkaloids mentioned. Strychnine occurs in white octahedral or prismatic crystals, and was first isolated by Pelletier and Caventon in 1818. It is inodorous, and is soluble in boiling rectified spirit and chloroform, but not in ether or absolute alcohol, and only in 7,000 of cold and 2,500 of boiling water. It has an intensely bitter taste, that can be detected 152 Veterinary Toxicology. in a I to 1,600,000 solution of water. It is the active ingredient of Battle's Vermin Killer, a compound of starch, sugar, Prussian blue and 10 per cent, of strychnine, and is frequently the cause of accidents in animals, especially dogs and cats. Strychnine is usually taken into the system by the mouth, but, experimentally, poisoning has been caused by the absorption through other channels, such as the skin and mucous membrane of the rectum, when it is absorbed very rapidly, and in a few minutes there are violent muscular tremblings, followed by spasms lasting for a minute or two. They gradually become worse and implicate the diaphragm, muscles of respiration and glottis, causing death from asphyxia. In the stomach absorption takes place more slowly, and the symptoms are more tardy in appearing when the poison is incorporated with a fatty medium. Rabuteau has seen 50 centigrammes given to dogs, mixed with fat, and the first symptoms not developed for two hours afterwards. Strychnine is not changed in the system and is found unaltered in the blood, liver, kidneys, and certain parts of the nervous centres. Rautenfeld has recovered 50 per cent, of the pure alkaloid. According to Vulpian it is eliminated at once, but DragendorfF, Rabuteau and Chapuis maintain that it only does so very slowly, and that it is an accumulative poison. A large proportion is conveyed to the liver and from thence to the kidneys, where it is slowly eliminated in the urine. This explains why it is detected in some cases and not in others. Masing made a number of observations on dogs' urine, and during the first few hours after receiving the dose no strychnine could be detected, but then it was suddenly. This was some time after the first symptoms had subsided, as he did not give a poisonous dose. In human beings poisoned by nitrate of strychnine Rautenfeld found that with a dose of 2 milligrammes in some cases it could be detected in an hour in the urine, and in others, even with 3 milligrammes, there was no trace of it. This fact is of importance, as, owing to the variation in elimination, the urine and liver, as well as the stomach, should be examined. Physiology of Poisoning. — Strychnine eventually acts on the nervous Strychnine and its Alkaloids. 153 centres and spinal cord, according to Vulpian, increasing the sensi- bility of both and causing violent and generalised motor reaction. The spasms that are so diagnostic are not due to the action of the alkaloid on the brain, as they are seen in decapitated animals, and previous ligaturing of an artery has no effect in any way on the parts which are supplied by it. In the mammalia the reflex nervous action causes death rapidly from asphyxia, due to spasm of the muscles of the glottis, and the excessive accumulation of carbonic acid in the system, the result of the general muscular contraction. It particularly acts on the sympathetic ner- vous system and the muscul.ar fibres of the intestine, bladder, &c. Certain authors maintain that when absorbed through the digestive canal into the circulation that it is eliminated in the same state without undergoing any alteration in the body. Rautenfeld holds to this view and claims to have recovered 50 per cent, of pure strychnine from the bodies of animals poisoned with it. According to Vulpian, strychnine is rapidly eliminated and is not accumulative ; on the other hand, DragendorfF and Rabuteau maintain that it is, in a very marked degree. It is taken from the blood by the liver, and from there passes slowly to the kidney, to be eliminated in the urine. Masing has made some lengthy enquiries into this point, and on some occasions easily found it, on others he failed until a long time after the symptoms had disappeared. Doses. — The poisonous dose varies greatly in different animals ; men and dogs are the most susceptible, then horses and cattle. Domestic fowls are said to have greater powers of resistence than other birds ; hedgehogs, guinea-pigs, and certain monkeys are credited with being almost immune when the poison is given by the mouth (Dr. H. C. Wood, " Treatise on Therapeutics "). Nothnagel and Rossbach give the following table of poisonous doses : — Weight in grammes. Minimum poisonous dose. Frog ... •25 O'OO0O5 Mouse ■25 0*00005 Rabbit i-ooo L 0"00006 154 Veterinary Toxicology. Weight in grammes. Minimum poison Fowl 380 0'0O076 Cat ... 2080 o-ooi6 Dog ... 3000 0-0025 Pigeon 270 0-004 Hedgehog 5000 0-015 Man ... 70000 0-030 Kauffmann gives both the average toxic dose and the relative one per kilo, of weight : — Toxic dose. Hare Ox Pig • Dog 0-20 to 0-30 gramme 0-20 to 0-40 )) o-oi to 0-05 ij 0-005 to 0-02 >> Toxic dose per kilogramme live weight. Man ... ... ... 0-40 milligramme. Rabbit ... ... ... 0-60 ,, Cat 0-75 Dog ... 0-75 Fowl ... ... ... 2-00 ,, Winslow (" Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics ") states that KaufFmann's calculation of the toxic dose for the dog is too large, small dogs having been destroyed with ^ of a grain and that from 5 to 8 grains of nux vomica have proved fatal to medium -sized dogs. He relates that he gave a dog weighing 25 lbs. -^ oi a. grain subcu- taneously, death taking place in half an hour. The same author gives the minimum toxic dose for horses as i-| to 3 grains of the alkaloid subcutaneously, 3 to 5 by the mouth, and of nux vomica i to 2 ozs. With cattle by the mouth it greatly varies according to the condition of the stomach, whether full or empty. Subcutaneously it is a little larger than for the horse. In the Veterinarian for November, 1870, a case is mentioned by Macgillivary, of Banff, where a cow was given 30 grains followed shortly afterwards by 60 grains, the Strychnine and its Alkaloids. 155 effect being a few tremors that lasted for twenty minutes. McQueen (Finlay Dunn's "Veterinary Medicine"), on the other hand, found that 30 grains killed a cow in seventeen minutes. For the pig, Winslow puts the dose at from ^ to f of a grain. The dose of nux vomica varies, as not only are there differences in different samples, but the alkaloid is not so readily absorbed as in its pure state, and large quantities have been taken without giving rise to any harm. Vallon gave a horse daily 15, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28, and 30 grammes, and it was only on the seventh day that any action was observable. Symptoms. — The symptoms of strychnine poisoning are most characteristic and consist of acute tetanic spasms that last for a variable period, from a few seconds to five minutes, with intervals that, may be as rriuch as half an hour. The symptoms are the same whether the poison is given by the mouth or subcutaneously. The first thing seems to be uneasiness or anxiety, with a haggard expression and fixed look about the eyes, accompanied by salivation and in some cases vomiting, which is quickly followed by the characteristic muscular spasms that affect the whole of the body, the limbs become stiffened, the animal is no longer able to remain standing and falls on his side, the jaws are tightly closed "in a state of trismus," the spasms being more violent in the extensor than the flexor muscles. The stiffness of the limbs is so great during the paroxysms that it is impossible to flex them, and a small animal can be lifted by one of them as if carved out of wood. The spine is curved (opistotonos) and inspiration is difHcult, the mucous membranes are of a blue or leaden colour. Eyes prominent, pupils dilated, pulse small and quick, but the artery full and hard ; any excitement increases the spasms. After the attack the respirations become normal, and the muscles relax till a new paroxysm sets in, and these become more and more frequent till ultimately the patient dies from asphyxia in the middle of one of the convulsive fits. The duration of the case varies according to the dose and condition of the animal, instances are on record that have lasted for five or six hours. The time that elapses before the appearance of the first symptoms also varies, it may be seen within fifteen minutes or as much 156 Veterinary Toxicology. as two hours may elapse. The mixture of the poison with a greasy substance seems to retard its action. Treatment. — If called in time an emetic should be given, but in most cases this is not practicable, as the poison has had time to act and the jaws are so firmly closed that it is impossible to give anything by the mouth ; under these conditions antidotes must be given as enemata, or subcutaneously. Vomiting may be induced by apomorphine given subcutaneously with chloroform, ether, opium, or chloral, and in the intervals between the paroxysms, tannin, tea, coffee, &c. ; of all these chloral is the most trustworthy antidote as an intravenous injection. Dr. Ore, of Bordeaux, looks upon it as a direct antidote to strychnine. A dose of "oi gramme of strychnine is fatal to a dog 10 kilogrammes in weight, but life is prolonged if during the spasm chloral is adminstered intravenously, and while under its influence the paroxysms do not make their appearance, but they come on when the animal wakes up. If the anaesthesia is kept up the poison eliminates itself. Dr. Ore has given dogs poisonous doses of strychnine and counteracted it by intravenous injections of chloral — saving the animals. Kaufmann (Traite de Tlterapeutique et de Materia Medicale Veterinaires) mentions that he kept a dog alive for three hours to which he had given a poisonous dose, a control animal of the same weight that had had a similar amount dying. He says that he is certain that if he had continued the chloral the animal would have recovered. Curare, conium, tobacco, opium and calabar bean may also be given. Post-mortem Appearances. — With the exception of marked rigor there is nothing characteristic in the post-mortem lesions of a case of strychnine poisoning. The rigidity sets in in most cases very shortly after death and is generally well marked, the spine being curved downwards, but contrary to the popular idea this is not always present. Taylor (" Taylor on Poisons ") says that in rabbits he has noticed that the body of one remained rigid for a week while another lost all rigidity and began to putrefy in thirty-six hours. In the well-known Rugeley case rigidity was observed in the body when it was exhumed three months after burial. On the other hand, Mr. Gurney {Reg. v. Vyse, C.C.C, 1862) and Professor Casper, of Berlin (Vierteljahrsschrift fiir gerichtliche Medicin, July, 1874), in cases of known strychnine poisoning, says it disappears Strychnine and its Alkaloids. 157 in twenty-four and forty-one hours after death. If death takes place quickly there is nothing to be seen in the stomach and intestines, but if life is prolonged for several hours there may be isolated patches of redness and congestion. The blood is fluid and dark in colour, the venous system engorged, and the lungs and meninges of the brain congested, and if the spasms have been severe the left side of the heart is firmly constricted. The voluntary muscular fibres lose their striated appearance and have an acid reaction. Analysis. — The analysis of most alkaloids is a delicate process, both on account of the minute quantity that is present in the body and the ease with which they are affected by putrefaction. In cases of strychnine poisoning in which the drug has been administered hypodermically the greatest skill is required, as not only would the dose be extremely small but would be widely distributed over the whole organism, but in the vast majority of cases the poison is given by the mouth. On the other hand, it will resist putrefaction, Stevenson detected it in the body of a horse three weeks after death, and Nunneby forty-three days. Presenius claims to have detected it after eleven years. The materials to be tested are the stomach, intestines and their contents, liver, kidneys, urine, vomited matter, and remains of food ; both physiological and chemical tests should be had recourse to. A. Physiological. — This method was first put to practical use by Tardieu in the Lapommerais case (" Etude medico legale sur I'empoisonnement," 2nd Edition, Paris, 1875). Three frogs are used for the purpose. The first is given J a cc. of distilled water hypodermically, and if there is no reaction it is presumed that the syringe is all right. With the same instrument frog No. 2 is given ^ a cc. of the suspected material in a solution of distilled water and No. 3 the same quantity of a i in 500 solution of strychnine, and the effects produced are compared with No. 2. The control animal (No. 3) rapidly shows tetanic .symptoms with spasms of the hind limbs, and when turned on its side scratches at its abdomen in a convulsive manner with the fore feet, and becomes so stiff that it can be lifted up by one leg. Like other animals the frog shows paroxyms followed by intervals of calm. Chapuis and 158 Veterinary Toxicology. certain other authors point out that the symptoms are better seen if the frog is placed in water. B. Chemical. — Stas and Dragendorff's method is the most con- venient one, but if it is known that strychnine is present such as positive results being obtained by the physiological test, Rodgers and Girdwood's modification will save time and labour ; it is based on the great solubility of strychnine in chloroform. The material is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and water, i part of acid to 10 of water; it is then filtered and evaporated to dryness over a water-bath. The residue is treated with alcohol, which is evaporated to the consistency of a syrup, and a small quantity of dilute ammonia added. To this about 15 grammes of chloroform is added and allowed to evaporate. The residue is sprinkled with strong sulphuric acid, so as to destroy any organic material remaining, and after a few hours distilled water is added. This fluid is again filtered and neutralised with ammonia. An equal quantity of chloroform is again added and evaporated and the residue can be tested for strychnine. (i) Strychnine has an intensely bitter taste that persists in the mouth for a long time. (2) The addition of a drop of sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash, peroxide of lead, or permanganate of potash, will give a violet colour, turning to red and canary yellow after a few hours. (3) Iodide of potassiam gives a brown colour, which is sensitive in a solution of i in 8,000. (4) Bichloride of platinum and chloride of gold give a white precipitate. (5) Chlorine water in excess gives a white precipitate. (6) A drop of nitric acid and a crystal of nitrate of potash gives a brilliant red. (7) Tannin gives a precipitate and is a delicate test. (8) Sonnenschein's test, oxide of cerium and sulphuric acid, gives a violet blue. (9) Hydrogen iodate gives a blue colour, turning into a claret-red without any precipitate. Eserine. 159 Brucine. Brucine was discovered by Pelletier and Caventou. It is found in false angostura bark, and in conjunction with strychnine in nux vomica, which it greatly resembles, except that nitrate of strych- nine easily crystallises and nitrate of brucine does not. In veterinary toxicology it is only of interest in cases of poisoning by nux vomica, when it would be found in conjunction with strychnine, but it is not nearly so poisonous. Mojender puts it at twelve times, Andral twenty-four, and Falck thirty-six times less ; it also has not such a remarkably bitter taste as strychnine. It resists putrefaction, and Dragendorff has found it in a body in an advanced stage of decom- position. Chemical Analysis. — Brucine can be isolated by Dragendorflf's method. With nitric acid a temporary bright blood-red colour is given, turning into an orange-red and finally yellow, which a drop of sulphide of ammonia or sulphate of soda will change into a deep violet-red. Dissolved in a little sulphuric acid the addition of nitric acid will give a red colour. This is a very delicate test, sensitive up to the hundredth of a milligramme. Eserine. Eserine, or physostygmine, is the active principle of the Calabar bean, and of late years has been employed subcutaneously for the relief of bowel obstructions. It crystallises in white plates and is slightly soluble in water, ether and chloroform, but in combination with acids becomes completely soluble, the most common combina- tions met with being sulphate and salicylate of eserine. Watery solutions rapidly turn a deep red colour, but remain active for a long time. Symptoms. — The animal becomes excited, with muscular spasms. In the cat they first appear in the back, in the dog in the hind limbs, and the horse round the elbow and stifle, but they gradually extend all over the body. If the spasms are not very severe the animal will remain i6o Veterinary Toxicology. standing, but if they are he will tumble down, when the limbs and jaws will be violently agitated. The spasms are not of the same intensity, as there are periods of relative calm. There are frequent and violent expulsions of faeces of a semifluid nature, with flatus and energetic rumblings of the intestine and incontinence of urine. The muscular spasms gradually diminish in intensity and paralysis sets in, respi- ration becomes difficult and laboured, and finally cease, although the heart may continue to beat. In the carnivora there is vomitingi There is profuse sweating and secretion of saliva, the pulse quickened, and temperature slightly increased. In some cases the pupil is con- tracted, but if the quantity taken is very large it is dilated. Doses. — The poisonous dose hypodermically is given by KaufFmann : Dog of 5 kilogrammes ... .. 0-005 gramme Dog of lo to 20 kilogrammes .. o-oo6 ,, Cat .. 0.005 Horse •■ 0-15 Ox .. 0-30 Mr. Rutherford, of Edinburgh, gave a horse 5 grains and two and a half hours after 3 more, which killed him in half an hour. Winslow ("Veterinary Medicine and Therapeutics ") gave an aged animal suffer- ing from bowel impaction 12 drops of extract of Calabar bean, causing a fatal termination in a few minutes. The same author gave 6 grains in two doses at intervals of twenty-five minutes, the animal recovered in three hours. He gives the minimum fatal dose for the dog as from ^ to -^j and cats -^ to ^, of a grain. Treatment. — Neither the alkaloid or the bean are very soluble, and therefore emetics should be given if the animal can vomit. The best antidote is atropine given hypodermically, but some authorities recommend chloral with alcoholic stimulants, digitalis and ammonia. Atropine counteracts eserine by stimulating the respiratory centres and depressing the peripheral cardiac vagi, and so counteracts the effect of the eserine on the heart ; therefore care should be taken not to give too large doses, as the secondary depressive effects of the eserine on the heart will be increased and the result fatal. Strychnine also counteracts eserine in stimulating the respiratory centres. Artificial respiration is also useful, and heat applied by means of hot rugs, &c. Cocaine. i6i Post-mortem Appearances. — The peristaltic action of the intestines continues for a considerable time after death. The large intestine is blanched, wrinkled up, and hard. The bladder is empty and both it and the uterus contracted. Bauer states that the spleen is smaller than natural. Chemical Analysis. — The alkaloid is extracted in the usual manner and gives the following reaction : — (i) With sulphuric acid a yellow colour. (2) A solution of chloride of lime gives a red colour. (3) Chlorate of gold gives a precipitate ; this test is sensitive up to I in 2,000. (4) A solution of bromine gives a red colour. DragendorfF found this was sensitive up to i in 1,000. (5) Chloride of potassium gives a precipitate. The physiological test on the eye causing the pupil to contract is not diagnostic, as there are other substances, especially muscardine, that have the same effect. Cocaine. The hydrochlorate of cocaine is the preparation generally used. Cocaine is an alkaloid that was first isolated in 1859, by Niemann, from the Erythroxylon coca, a native of Peru and Bolivia, and was introduced into medicine by Koller in 1884. It acts as a local anaesthetic, paralysing the terminals of the sensory nerves, and is used in minor surgical operations. In veterinary practice it is chiefly employed in the form of a subcutaneous injection over the course of nerve trunks, to remove pain and assist in the diagnosis of lameness. It also has a stimulating effect, relieving fatigue and more than doubling the response of tired muscles to stimulus, and is said to be used in the practice of " dopeing " racehorses. Frohner found that 60 to 80 grains given subcutaneously to the horse gave rise to restlessness, the animal pawed with the fore feet, neighed, became excited, the pulse going up to 90 and the temperature rising. The pupils were dilated, there was considerable flow of saliva. i62 Veterinary Toxicology. and frequent motions passed. In about an hour the animal was in a state of frenzy, the effects not going off for three hours. He noticed the same in cows, with dram doses the effects lasting for four hours. Winslow gives the poisonous dose for the dog as -J of a grain per I lb. live wteight. He mentions that 3 grains given hypodermically to a dog weighing 100 lbs. had no effect except dilating the pupils and causing slight movements of the tongue. He found that in some horses that were particularly sensitive, 3 grains was sufficient to cause great excitment. Treatment. — If there are dangerous respiratory symptoms or heart failure, diffusible stimulants should be given, with strychnine, atropine and brandy injected subcutaneously, but in veterinary practice such extreme cases, except in small animals, are not likely to occur. Tests. — Greitther's test consists of adding a small quantity of chlorine water and a drop or two of a 5 per cent, solution of chloride of palladium to a solution of cocaine, when a red colour will be given, insoluble in alcohol or ether, but soluble in hyposulphate of sodium. Also with permanganate of potash a violet-red precipitate is thrown down. Hellebore. The black hellebore, Christmas rose, or bear's foot, is grown as a garden plant in this country, and is indigenous in many parts of Europe ; but there are other species, the white and the green, or American, the former being the most virulent. The whole of the plant is poisonous, but the rhizome and the rootlets are the most active, and this activity is increased when it is dried. The active principles are ill-defined, but the most virulent are helleborin and helleborein. Accidents usually take place from animals eating the plant when out at grass, but it is employed in a decoction for killing lice and parasites, and in places a portion of the rhizome is used as a seton in the dewlap of calves and may cause poisoning by absorption. All the varieties of hellebore are depressants, lowering the action of the heart, and causing muscular weakness and vomiting ; large doses give rise to unconsciousness and collapse. Hellebore. 163 Symptoms. — Applied to the skin it gives rise to redness and vesica- tion, but this latter symptom is not well marked in animals. If applied to the mucous membrane or broken skin, its irritant effects are better marked, and absorption takes place, causing vomiting in the pig and dog. Used as a seton it has a most energetic action, causing great swelling in about forty-eight hours, but with little suppuration, the swelling sub- siding in from nineteen to twenty days. The surrounding connective tissue is mortified and sloughed off in a black mass the size of a hen's egg. If the swelling is scarified there is considerable haemorrhage. The same symptoms are seen in sheep, but with horses and the car- nivora this plan of setoning is dangerous. Taken by the mouth, it causes vomiting and nausea with colicky pains and all the symptoms of gastro-enteritis. There may be diar- rhcEa, but not invariably, and if it is present at all it is always profuse, foetid and frequently tinged with blood. There is always a great flow of saliva, and the animal is violently agitated and anxious. The re- spiratory movements are irregular, the pulse quick and small, especially if there is diarrhoea, there are muscular spasms especially affecting those of the abdomen and neck, with trembling of the tail and great prostration. The animal throws itself down on the ground, the mucous membranes become a leaden colour, and death takes place in about forty-eight hours from the commencement .of the attack, the animal being usually in a comatose condition. Dragendorflf has observed that veratrine is easily eliminated in the urine, which is voided in large quantities. Post Mortem. — There is a greater or lesser degree of inflammation and haemorrhage into the stomach and intestines. Thierry has seen ulceration of the duodenum. There is engorgement of nearly all the parenchymatous organs and the heart, and the blood is black in colour and fluid. Doses. — The poisonous dose is 60 to 90 grammes of the dried root for the horse, 4 to 12 goat and sheep, and 4 to 8 dog. According to Montemem, the dried root is four times more poisonous than the fresh plant. A case is recorded in the Edinburgh Veterinary Review for 1863, of a horse that ate about two ounces of powdered root, but recovered in about three hours. 164 Veterinary Toxicology. Veratrine, the alkaloid, is a most virulent poison, and KaufFman gives the toxic doses both by the mouth and hypodermically as : — Hypod ermic. By the mouth. Horse . . 0-40 gramme I to 3 grammes. Ox ■ 0-25 tj I to 3 Dog . 0-02 J) 0-05 to 0'25 gramme Cat . o'oo5 )t 0-005 Rabbit . . 0'005 tt 0-03 „ The same author gives the toxic do^e of the white hellebore as : — Horse Ox ... Sheep Dog ... 150 grammes. 180 15 Treatment consists of emetics, stimulants, such as acetate of am- monia, demulcents, morphia, or opium, to relieve nausea and gastric irritation (Hugounenq), and infusions of tannin, which form insoluble compounds with the alkaloids. Analysis. — The material may be reduced by Dragendorff s method and the alkaloid subjected to the following tests : — (i) Boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid, veratrine at first gives a green colour, rapidly changing to red. (2) Sulphuric acid gives a deep red. (3) Mixed with sugar and damped with sulphuric acid, veratrine at first gives a yellow colour, changing to green and violet (Weppen's test). (4) With nitric acid a pale pink colour is given. (5) Bioxide of barium and cold sulphuric acid give a brick-red colour which when heated changes to violet. M. Stourbe remarks that veratrine causes violent sneezing and that this simple physiological action is quite as valuable as any chemical tests. Tobacco. 165 Tobacco. The tobacco plant {Nicotiana tabacum) belongs to the natural order Solanaceie, and is a native of tropical America. The active principle is the alkaloid nicotine, a most powerful poison, which is found In all parts of the plant, but principally in the leaves, one or two drops of the tobacco juice from a pipe being enough to rapidly kill a rabbit if placed on the tongue. In the process of manufacture a considerable amount of the nicotine is got rid of, also the amount present greatly depends on the class of leaf and the nature of the land on which it is grown, the best flavoured leaf containing only 2 per cent., while in the rougher it is as high as 6 to 7 per cent. (Schlossing). Nicotine is a colourless oily liquid, with a smell characteristic of tobacco, which is increased by heating, it is soluble in water, oil, ether and alcohol, and on exposure to light turns a brown colour. Accidents take place from the use of a decoction as a parasiticide, the nicotine being absorbed through the skin ; cattle also will eat tobacco readily. Both tobacco and nicotine are local irritants to the skin and the lining membrane of the intestines. The alkaloid is readily absorbed, its effects being seen half a minute after it has been taken. It undergoes no change in the body and can be detected in the natural secretions. According to Melsens, it preserves its properties for a long time after death, even resisting putrefaction. Fresh green tobacco leaves are harmless. Physiology of Tobacco Poisoning. — Like strychnine, nicotine gives rise to tetanic spasms, rapidly followed by paralysis. It has a special action on the sensitive fibres of the pneumo-gastric nerve, causing derange- ment of the respiratory and circulatory systems. It also stimulates the motor nerves of the intestines, causing what is sometimes described as "intestinal tetanus.'" If the dose taken is very large, there is no pre- liminary excitement, death taking place almost at once from general paralysis. In burning, a number of compounds are formed, viz., water, nicotine, ammonia, resinous and colouring matters, carbonic' oxide (8 litres per 100 grammes o,f tobacco, Vohl and Eulenburgh), hydro- cyanic acid and a small quantity of coUidene, a highly poisonous compound which gives the characteristic perfume in high-class tobaccos. Tobacco. Nicotine. 300 grammes ... 5 to 6 drops. 500 „ — 30 to 60 ,, — 4 to 8 „ I to 3 drops. Powdered Tobacco. Nicotine. 30 grammes — 40 — o-8o gramme ... I to 2 drops. 166 Veterinary Toxicology. and which is in larger quantities in the Havana leaf than coarser sorts. Hugounenq also mentions another aromatic substance, pyridine. Poisonous Doses. — According to Kauffman the poisonous doses of dry- tobacco and nicotine are, by the mouth : — Horse ... Ox ... Sheep ... Dog ... Hypodermically : — Horse ... Ox Dog ... Poisonous effects were produced by Hertwig with half an ounce of powdered leaves in the horse ; two ounces dissolved in water in two doses at two and a half hours' interval with the cow ; and one to two ounces in goats ; in these latter animals death taking place in about ten hours. Orfila killed dogs in nine and a half hours, with five and a half drams of powdered tobacco given by the mouth, and in an hour with two and a half drams applied to a wound. Sj/mpioms. — Chronic poisoning, or " nicotinism," which is seen in man is not likely to take place in the domestic animals. In the acute form there is profuse salivation, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, tympanitis, violent colic, increased peristaltic action of the bowels and expulsion of fseces and flatus. The animal is restless and has an anxious look, spasms of different groups of muscles, and dyspnoea. The contractions of the heart are weak and irregular, intermittent pulse, sometimes weak, at others full and hard. The mucous membranes are at first red and injected, but afterwards become blanched, and there is polyuria. In many cases there is vertigo with coma. The eye is retracted in the socket, the pupil dilated and the membrana nictitans protruded. Tobacco. 167 In many cases death may take place at this stage from asphyxia, but in others from general paralysis, the patient sinking into a state of profound coma. Treatment. — The unabsorbed tobacco must be got rid of in those cases where it has been absorbed through the skin, by washing ; when taken into the stomach, by purgatives and emetics, or the stomach pump. Tannin renders nicotine insoluble, and stimulants are in- dicated, such as coffee, alcohol and the inhalation of ammonia to counteract the nausea and depression, with artificial respiration and hypodermic injections of strychnia to prevent death from, asphyxia. The patient should be clothed and kept warm. Post-mortem Appearances . — When the tobacco has been taken into the stomach there is inflammation of it and intestines, with hasmorrhage into the cavity. The blood is black and does not coagulate, and in common with the other organs of the body gives off the characteristic smell of nicotine. Most of the organs of the body are congested and there is extravasation of blood into the meninges of the brain, kidneys, liver and lungs. There are patches of ecchymosis in the lungs and on the auriculo-ventricular valves, especially on the left side of the heart. Analysis. — Vomited matter, the contents of the stomach, liver and blood, can be used for analysis, and either Stas' or Dragendorff's methods used to isolate the nicotine. The result will be an oily residue strongly smelling of tobacco, very irritant to the eyes and nose and with an alkaline reaction. With strong sulphuric acid it gives a deep red precipitate; with iodide of potassium it gives a brown precipitate that clears up after a certain time. If a small quantity of the oily residue is dissolved in ether and treated with a solution of iodine in ether a brown precipitate is thrown down, which is transformed into ruby-red needle-shaped crystals, iodide of nicotine (Roussin's test). Chloride of platinum with an aqueous solution gives an orange- yellow precipitate, corrosive sublimate a white, and arsenio-nitrate of silver a yellow precipitate. Ammonia gives similar reactions, but can be differentiated by the following tests : A solution of iodine gives a brown precipitate with nicotine, not with ammonia. Tannic acid gives i68 Veterinary Toxicology. a yellow-white precipitate with nicotine ; with ammonia there is no precipitate, but a red colour. Chloriodide of potassium and mercury- give a profuse precipitate even in a very dilute solution. Gallic acid gives a pinkish-red colour changing to olive-green with ammonia ; with nicotine there is no change. Sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash give a green colour with nicotine, and, in addition to these tests, there is the characteristic smell and the physiological test, a drop placed on the tongue of a bird causing convulsions and rapid death. Medico-legal. — It must be remembered that the reactions of nicotine are neither numerous nor very well defined, also that those of certain putrefactive products greatly resemble them, so before giving an opinion the clinical history of the case should be carefully considered. The Solanace/E and their Alkaloids. The natural order of the Solanacea contains a large number of poisonous plants, the active principle of which depends on an alkaloid, and they are frequent causes of accidents in both herbivora and omnivora, more particularly cattle. The active principle is an alkaloid, solanine. It is found in the form of white, silky crystals, that are but slightly soluble in water; when dry it has no smell, but when wet that of potatoes ; the taste is acrid, bitter and nauseous, and is found in several plants, particularly the nightshades (Solanum dulcamara and Solanum nigrum), and potatoes, especially in the stalks and buds, also in green potatoes that have sprouted in the dark. Solanine is removed by cooking, which explains the rarity of poisoning by it in man. Accidents amongst animals almost always take place from feeding on tops, or an excessive quantity of raw potatoes. It may also take place from eating the other plants mentioned. It acts on the central nervous system, paralysing the respiratory and circulatory functions. It is not a very active poison, and as the proportion is small a large quantity of potatoes have to be eaten. According to Cornevin, it is eliminated slowly, and if food that Atropine and Hyosciamine. 169 contains it is used for any length of time it accumulates in the system and accidents take place. The lesions are not characteristic ; the gastro-intestinal irritation that some authors have noticed is more likely due to mouldy potatoes than the solanine they contain ; congestion of the large organs has been recorded, especially of the brain and its meninges. Symptoms. — Cattle are dull and depressed, the appetite and rumi- nation are suspended, and they go off milk. There is tympanitis with constipation, often followed by diarrhoea ; the animal is usually down, in a drowsy condition and insensible to surrounding objects. The respirations become deep and slow, the heart-beats weak, pulse small and somewhat quickened, and sometimes there is a vesicular eruption on the skin. If the quantity taken is large the narcotism is well marked ; death takes place quickly, often in a few hours, but in some ' cases the patient lasts for as much as three weeks. If the digestive organs are affected there is great loss of condition, the patient dying in a state of marasmus. The same symptoms are seen in the goat and pig, but in the latter animal there is vomiting. Treatment. — The antidotes are stimulants, especially coffee, also tannin. Chemical Analysis. — As a rule the contents of the stomach are sufficient evidence as to the nature of the case, but the solanine can be isolated by Dragendorff's method, and will give the following reactions :— (i) Treated with absolute alcohol and sulphuric acid, and heated over a water-bath, it gives a clear red colour. (2) With concentrated sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash a blue colour, changing to green. (3) A watery solution of iodine is darkened in colour. It should be remembered that these reactions are only obtained with absolutely pure solanine. Atropine and Hyosciamine. The alkaloid atropine is the active principle of the deadly night- shade, Atropa belladonna, and is found in every part of the plant,. M 170 Veterinary Toxicology. but more particularly in the root ; the" quantity also varies with the season of the year. It is also found in the seeds of the Datura stramonium. It is white and crystallises in the form of fine needles, has a bitter taste, is soluble in alcohol and chloroform and slightly so in water and ether. Hyosciamine, or aubosine, is an alkaloid very much resembling atropine and has almost the same chemical reaction. It is chiefly found in both black and white henbane, datura, and in small quantity in the Atropa belladonna. Poisoning from this cause is uncommon, as animals appear to be instinctively aware that the plants are noxious ; the pig, sheep, goat and rabbit appear to have great powers of resistance when the poison is taken by the mouth. The carnivora, however, are more sensitive than the herbivora. .'Atropine is readily absorbed and rapidly eliminated in the urine, especially by the herbivora, which explains the great powers of resistance of these animals and the rapidity with which they recover. The Atropa belladonna has berries that are at first green, but turn brown and black, and being mistaken by children for other fruits are a frequent cause of poisoning. According to Florence, fifteen berries are a fatal number for man and a gramme of the extract is dangerous. Hertwig gave horses 6 oz. of dry powdered belladonna leaves in water at intervals of four to eight hours, toxic symptoms appearing in about five hours and death in about fifty hours. Cattle, he states, are as susceptible as horses, and for dogs 50 grains of the dried platit proved fatal. The action of the poison is to cause general excitement, rapidly followed by progressive paralysis and death from failure of the heart's action. Symptoms. — The earliest are nausea followed by vomiting, the mucous membranes are infected and there is excitement, hallucinations and convulsions, accompanied by cries that may be mistaken for rabies. The pulse is small and quick and the respiration laboured and quickened. This period is of short duration and is quickly followed by paralysis, the heart-beats getting weaker, the sphincters relaxing, the temperature falling several degrees, and death taking Hemlock. 171 place in a state of coma. In some cases there is polyuria. The mydriatic action on the eye is not always seen, and M. Stroube says that it does not affect birds in this manner. Treatment. — The antidotes to atropine are coffee, tannin and iodine, which form insoluble salts that can be eliminated by purgatives or ■emetics ; animal charcoal is also recommended. The local symptoms are treated by sedatives during the period of excitement and stimulants during that of depression. Chemical Analysis. — -Atropine resists putrefaction for a long time. The post-mortem examinations must be made with great care, as the vegetable debris from the stomach and intestines may furnish a valuable clue, and the urine also should be collected for analysis. The alkaloid can be isolated by Dragendorffs method ; its principal characteristics are : — (i) The addition of sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash gives rise to a smell of bitter almonds. (2) 'With fuming nitric acid and potash a reddish-violet colour is obtained. (3) The physiological test may be had recourse to, a drop applied to the eye of a rabbit or small animal causing dilatation of the pupil, but it is not reliable, as datura, hyoscyamine, digitaline and certain poisonous fungi have the same effect. Hemlocks and their Alkaloids. The natural order of Umhellifera contains a ■ number of plants that are highly poisonous ; amongst them the most noticeable are the hemlocks, the toxic properties of which were known to the ancients, Socrates having been put to death with it in 400 B.C. The varieties chiefly met with are the large hemlock (Conium maculatum), the water hemlock {Cicuta virosa), and the fool's parsley {Arthusa cynapium) ; there are also several aquatic plants — CEnanthe crocata, CEnanthe gistolosa, g.nd CEnanthe phellandrium. All these plants can be mistaken for certain edible ones, .such as parsley and chervil, but they can be distinguished by their nauseous and acrid smell. 172 Veterinary Toxicology. The poisonous principle of the hemlock is an alkaloid conine, a colourless, oily substance with an acrid smell somewhat resembling tobacco. It is soluble in water, ether and alcohol, and turns yellow when exposed to the light. The other alkaloids are methyl conicine and conhydrine. The quantity present depends on the species of the pliant and the season of the year ; in the seeds more being present when they are ripe and in the leaves when the plant is flowering. By drying most of the poisonous properties are removed, and they are , altogether so by boiling. The large hemlock is the chief cause of poisoning, and the victims usually are cattle in the spring of the year, but a large quantity of the plant has to be taken before dangerous symptoms are produced, and it is generally eaten with other forage. The small ruminants appear to be nearly refractory to its effects. The CEnanthe crocata that grows in ditches is also a cause of accidents in cattle who eat it readily, the whole of the plant being poisonous, but especially the roots. The poisonous doses per kilogramme of live weight are, according to Cornevin : — Horse I Ox 1-25 Sheep 2-00 Pig 1-50 Rabbit ... 1 r^ • 0-20 „_ 1 it_ _ gramme of fresh leaves. Symptoms. — Conine paralyses the peripheric nerves, but does not act on the muscles, it extends to the motor centres of the cord and brain, causing death by asphyxia. Locally it is a powerful irritant. There is profuse salivation with champing of the jaws, nausea and vomiting, and at the same time colic and diarrhcea. The pulse is quick, with tremors, convulsions and toxic spasms, followed by paralysis commencing in the hind quarters. There is relaxation of the sphincters, and death from asphyxia. Like nicotine, conine is a most virulent poison, a single drop placed in the eye killing a guinea-pig. Treatment usually is without avail, as when the animal is discovered Colchicum. 173 to be ill it is too far gone, but the line of treatment is stimulants, emetics and artificial respiration. The antidotes are tannin, iodine, and iodide of potassium, with demulcents to combat the gastro-enteritis, but it is essential that the animal be treated at once. Post-mortem appearances are gastro-intestinal enteritis with haemor- rhage, the degree of which depends on the rapidity of death. The other organs of the body are generally engorged with black fluid blood. Chemical Analysis. — This is rarely required, as it is extremely improbable that animals would be poisoned by the alkaloid, and the leaves of the plant would be recognised in the ingesta ; in fact, the only time it might be necessary to make an analysis would be if the animal were poisoned with a decoction of hemlock leaves, but this is not likely to take place. Stas' method can be used, always remembering that conine is liquid and volatile. The ethereal extract will give the following reactions : — ■ (i) Hydrochloric acid gives a purple colour, changing to an indigo blue. (2) With nitric or chromic acid butyric acid is formed, which is recognised by its smell. (3) A veiry minute trace of the product subcutaneously injected into a frog will cause death in a few seconds. The analysis, of course, is a delicate one, as it is likely to bs con- founded with trimethylamine, which exists in herring brine and cadaverine. Colchicum. The two poisonous plants that most frequently come under notice that belong to this natural order are colchicum and veratrin, or white hellebore. The Colchicum autumnala, meadow saffron, or kill dog, is a plant with a subterranean bulb that flowers with a lilac-coloured bloom in the autumn. It grows in wet pastures, and the whole plant, but par- ticularly the bulb and seeds, contains the active principle colchicine, which is a yellow amorphous powder with a very bitter taste and a 174 Veterinary Toxicology. faintly alkaline reaction. It is soluble in water and alcohol, and slightly so in ether. Cases of accidental poisoning in the domestic animals are not rare,. " cattle usually being the victims," from eating the flowers in the autumn and the leaves and fruit in the spring, which may also be cut with hay from the fields the plant grows in. The active principle is- very virulent, and is a violent irritant, giving rise to gastro-enteritis and haemorrhage. The alkaloid is very slowly absorbed, which explains why the- symptoms are so slow in showing themselves even after a large amount of the plant has been eaten. May and September are the times that cases usually take place. The colchicum first^excites and then paralyses the central nervous, system as well as the peripheric extremities of the nerves, and the effects are seen sooner when the dose is large and causes asphyxia. The carnivora are much more susceptible than ruminants, as it has been shown that the toxic dose per kilogramme live weight is two- milligrammes for the cat and dog, three centigrammes for the pig, and one centigramme for the rabbit. The quantity of colchicum capable of killing the large ruminants has not yet been determined, as it varies with the season of the year, but Cornevin gives the following as the average : — Green leaves, 8 to lo grammes per kilo, of live weight in ruminants. Fresh bulbs, 0-30 ,, ,, in the pig. Dry bulbs, 2 ,, ,, in the dog and cat. Dried leaves, 3 „ ,, in the dog and cat. Symptoms. — The symptoms are slow in appearing, there is profuse salivation, difficulty in swallowing, nausea and vomiting, at first of food, followed by mucus and bile ; there is violent colic.and diarrhoea, which may run on into dysentery and great straining. The respira- tions are laboured and weak, pulse quick and weak, mucous membranes- of a livid colour, and the temperature falls. At first there is polyuria, followed by suppression of urine, when paralysis sets in with loss of Aconite. 175 sensation, and death from asphyxia takes place in from a few hours to several days. Treatment. — The antidote is tannin, and besides treatment of symptoms, opiates are indicated for the gastro-enteritis. Post-mortem appearances are gastro-enteritis with haemorrhage, especially with the large intestine. The mucous membrane is congested and infiltrated with blood ; in places it is swollen, and Peyer's patches are ulcerated. The contents of the intestine are mucus stained with blood. The blood is black and coagulated, the kidneys greatly con- gested, and the bladder usually empty. Chemical Analysis. — The poison is found in the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, lungs and spleen, and the alkaloid colchicine can be isolated by Dragendorff's method. It gives the following reactions : — (i) With acetic acid it gives a clear yellow colour. (2) With sulphuric and hydrochloric acids a green colour. (3) Nitric 'q.cid gives a green colour that rapidly changes to red and violet. (4) A crystal of nitrate of potash dissolved in 10 cc. of sulphuric acid gives a green colour. (5) A solution of i in 20 of bichromate of potash in sulphuric acid gives a red colour that changes to yellow and green. All these tests should be made, as certain ptomaines have some of the same characteristics (Brouardel, Ann. Jiyg., 1886, vol. xv., p. 230). Aconite and its Alkaloids. There are several species of aconite, Aconiium ferox, A. lycoctonum, A. variegatum, and A. napellus, or monk's hood, which is the most common. The latter variety grows in shady places in woods, and is often cultivated as an ornamental garden plant. The poison is an alkaloid, " aconitine," the root containing 2 to 4 per cent., the flower 3 to 7 per cent., and the leaves about one-third less. It is a white crystallised body, soluble in ether, alcohol and chloroform, with a bitter, burning taste and slightly alkahne reaction. Cases of poisoning 176 Veterinary Toxicology. by the plant usually take place from its getting mixed in the forage, for animals will not usually eat it when grazing. Taken by the mouth both the aconites and their alkaloids act as irritants, and give rise to gastro-enteritis ; absorption takes , place rapidly and elimination through the kidneys. Aconitine is a nerve poison, according to Liegeois and Guillaud, first exciting and then paralysing the cerebral system.' It first acts on the cerebric, then the peripheric extremities, and lastly on the sympa- thetic, nervous and muscular systems. Death takes place from asphyxia, but Laborde and Duquesnel attribute to it a peculiar action ■on the heart, which it throws into a state of tetanic spasm. The alkaloid is a virulent poison, a centigramme of' nitrate of aconitine injected hypodermically killing the horse and ox, and two milligrammes a medium-sized dog. The amount in the plant varies with the season of the year, but the poisonous dose of the dried plant is given by Kauffmann as 375 to 400 grammes for the horse and 5 grammes for the dog. Symptoms. — When taken by the mouth there is at first salivation with champing of the jaws, nausea, attempts to vomit, colic, •and diarrhoea. There is painful contraction of the inferior cervical and abdominal muscles, and increase in the secretion of urine. Paralysis then sets in, respiration is difficult and stertorous, the heart- beats weak and quick, pulse fluttering, the mucous membranes blanched, temperature falls, the pupils are dilated, movement becomes difficult, there is loss of sensation, and the animal falls down and dies in convulsions. In the dog the same symptoms are seen : uneasiness, salivation, polyuria, and painful and violent vomiting with colic and diarrhcea. The animal champs his jaws and licks his face, rubbing his nose and mouth with his paws as if to remove some foreign body. The pupils are dilated, the respirations panting and the heart-beats become weak, finally stopping, but the animal retains his senses to the last. Treatment. — Treatment must be prompt. The antidotes for aconitine are tannin and iodide of potassium, with purgatives and emetics. Stimulants, such as coffee, ether, and camphor should be given to Digitalis and Digitaline. 177 counteract the paralysis, and the hypodermic injection of ether is also recommended with the same object. ' , , Post Mortem. — There is gastro-enteritis, but if thenervous^ymptoms are rapidly developed this is not very well marked. The kidneys and bladder are congested, and there is congestion and ecchymosis of the meninges of the brain, endocardium, lungs and pleura. Chemical Analysis. — The leaves and debris of the plant will probably be found in the stomach and intestines on post-mortem examina- tion. The alkaloid can be isolated by Stas' method and the extract will give the following reaction : — (i) Concentrated sulphuric acid gives a yellow colour, turning brown and finally violet (Frohde's test). (2) The physiological test can also be used, a frog first becoming •convulsed and then paralysed. Dr. Headland recommends an alcoholic extract of the acid contents of the stomach, -^^ of a grain being sufficient. He states that' -g^-^ of a grain will poison a mouse, ■j-^ a small bird, and xotcj '^^'^ cause numbness and tingling of the tip of the tongue, j-J^ dissolved in spirit and rubbed into the skin causes loss of feeling {Lancet, March 29, 1856). Digitalis and Digitaline. The digitalis belongs to the natural order Scroplialariacece, and the most common variety is the Digitalis purpura., It is about 2| ft. high, leaves oval and crenulated, brown on the upper and white and downy ■on the lower surface, flowers pink and purple, the carolla gamopetalous in the form of the finger of a glove, fruit an ovoid capsule with numerous small pale brown seeds. The plant grows in woods, on low hills, in ■dry, sandy, uncultivated places, but will not live on chalk. The •different parts, but more particularly the leaves, contain the active principle digitaline. This alkaloid was .first discovered in 1843 by Homolle and •Quevenne, but the method of preparation was modified by Nativelle, who obtained it in a crystalline form slightly soluble in water, to which 178 Veterinary Toxicology. it imparts a distinctly bitter taste. In addition to digitaline the plant contains digitaleine, digitoxine, and digitine, which have all toxic properties. Animals are usually poisoned by the plant getting mixed with the forage. Digitaline is a nervo-muscular poison, which after a preliminary stage of excitement, causes paralysis, more especially of the heart, death taking place from stoppage of this organ. It is not determined how absorption and elimination take place, but both are slow processes. DragendorfF has found the alkaloid in the urine. The carnivora are the most sensitive to its action, and the fatal doses of fresh leaves are given by Stourbe as : — Horse ... ... ... ... 120 to 140 grammes. Ox ... ... ... ... 160 ,, 180 ,, Sheep 25 „ 30 Pig T-5 .. ao The dried leaf is about a fourth less powerful. The dose of digitaline is ; — Horse ... ... ... ... 15 centigrammes. Dog 2 Cat ■ I Symptoms. — Bouley and Reynal have made some observations on poisoning with digitaline. About six to eight hours after eating the plant there was dulness, depression, loss of appetite, followed by excitement, the mucous membranes were injected, nostrils dilated, th& eyes bright and glistening, the face pinched, and the respiration and circulation quickened, the beats of the heart being very violent. There was colic, the animal getting up and down, scraping the ground with his forefeet, and profuse perspiration. After about twenty-four to thirty-six hours coma set in, the head hung down, the eyes were haggard, pupils dilated, and the walk staggering. There was extreme- weakness, and the animal fell down. The respirations and the heart- beats became weak, pulse small, intermittent and imperceptible, and the temperature fell below normal. In some cases there was diarrhoea. Death takes place from heart failure, which stops during the diastole.. Yew Leaves. 179 In the dog there is vomiting, followed by weakness, diarrhoea, and muscular paralysis. In some cases of chronic poisoning by repeated small doses, the poison appears to be cumulative and the symptoms appear slowly and insidiously. Treatment. — If general symptoms have not appeared, purgatives and emetics are indicated, stimulants, such as alcohol and coffee, should be given, and diuretics and sudorifics to facilitate elimination. Local symptoms must also be treated. Post Mortem. — There is gastric enteritis, with patches of ecchy- mosis, especially in the caecum and large colon, endocarditis, myocarditis and acute pericarditis. There are patches of ecchymosis on the pericardium, and frequently white clots in the sac. The pericardium contains a yellow-coloured fluid, especially when the case has lasted some time. The blood is black and tarry, and the different organs congested, especially the kidneys ; the muscles are pallid in appearance. Chemical Analysis. — The analysis for digitaline is difficult, but it can be isolated by either Stas' or Dragendorff's method. The physio- logical test on animals causes heart disturbances and increased arterial tension, with irregularity in the beats of the heart, followed by failure. The extract gives the following reaction : — (i) Concentrated sulphuric action gives a brown colour. (2) The residue dissolved in equal parts of alcohol and sulphuric acid and heated gives a yellow colour, which the addition of per- chloride of iron changes to a bluish-green. (3) Hydrochloric acid gives a yellow colour. Yew Leaves. The yew [Taxus baccata) is a well-known shrub or tree belonging to the natural order Conifera, and its poisonous properties have been known from the earliest ages. It is frequently grown as an ornamental plant, especially in churchyards. The leaves when bruised have a iSo Veterinary Toxicology. nauseous smell and bitter taste. The fruit consists of a round, bright red, fleshy berry, containing a hard seed. The poisonous properties are certain ill-defined principles, but according to Marme the chief one is faxine, that is unequally distributed over the plant, but is in a larger proportion in the leaves than elsewhere. The older leaves ■are more virulent than the young shoots. According to Reynal the poisonous properties of the leaves are not lessened by drying or boiling, and are not dissolved out by water. Cornevin killed a horse with 650 grammes of boiled leaves. Taxine is not soluble in alcohol, but it is in ether. Horses are the usual victims to yew poisoning, but other animals are susceptible, and one of the reasons that cases of yew-poisoning are so common is that the tree remains green in the winter when nearly all other vegetation is dead. Cornevin thinks that this poison acts on the central nervous system, rapidly causing death from failure of both heart action and the respirations. Poisonous Doses. — The toxic doses of the leaves vary according to the condition of the digestive system and the degree of tolerance of the animal, which appears to acquire an immunity. Virborg reports that in Hesse the farmers, in times of scarcity, accustom their animals to yew leaves, by giving them mixed in the food, and in time they are able to take large quantities. Baillet for thirty days gave a medium- sixed ox 24 kilogrammes of yew leaves daily without any ill result, and Philippeaux for sixty days gave a rabbit 5 grammes daily with the same result. Viborg also says that the plant is only toxic when taken on an empty stomach, when mixed with other forage it is harmless. Cornevin gives the poisonous dose per kilogramme of live weight as : — Horse J JL\JL ^\^ ... ... ... Ass and mule ... i'6o ,, Cow and sheep 10 ,, Goat 12 ,, Pig 3 Dog 8 Rabbit ... 20 Ranunculacese. i8i Symptoms. — If the quantity is large, death generally takes place suddenly in from one to six hours after partaking of the leaves. If the quantity is small, there is uneasiness and gastro-enteritis, with nausea, vomiting, colicky pains, tympanitis, and very foetid diarrhoea^ The state of excitement is rapidly succeeded by one of depression, the pulse is small, weak, and almost imperceptible, the respiration slow, the temperature falls, the senses become dull, and the patient sinks into a comatose condition, dying in convulsions. The symptoms may last from half to two hours, or more, but when death does take place it is sudden. Post Mortem. — The post-mortem appearances present nothing special. There may be patches of ecchymosis in the pharynx and oesophagus, and gastro-enteritis with petechiae and dark-brown patches of effused blood. In some cases there is enlargement of the liver, which has a dark yellow colour. Treatment. — In most cases death takes place so quickly that treat- ment is of no use. If there is time, purgatives should be given, with demulcents, such as linseed gruel, milk, &c., and stimulants, such as coffee, alcohol, camphor, &c., to counteract the narcotic effects of the poison. Chemical Analysis. — The leaves are found in the stomach and can be recognised by. their characteristics. The active principle, taxine, according to Marme, is soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and benzine, which, when evaporated, leaves behind crystals that turn red with sulphuric acid ; but this test is uncertain, and there are probably other substances that act in a similar manner. Ranunculace^. The green Ranunculus, which is found in wet places, is poisonous, and the most common varieties are Ranunculus sceleratus, R. acris, R. bulbosus, R.flammette, or small spearwort, R. langne, or large spear- wort, and R. thora, which is the most dangerous of all, R. rampanti, and R. ficaire. The poisonous properties of the plant increase with i82 Veterinary Toxicology. age, and attain their maximum when it is in flower. Drying diminishes them. The active principle appears to be a complex substance, but M. S. Martin has found a very bitter volatile acid that he terms ficaric acid. Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of gastro-enteritis, with grind- ing of the teeth, eructation, nausea, vomiting, colic, and black, foetid diarrhoea. There are brain symptoms resembling those of cerebral congestion, the animal hanging back in the halter, or pressing forward against the wall, crouching down on its haunches ; there is frothing at the mouth, dilatation of the pupils, loss of vision, stertorous breathing, and weak, feeble pulse. If the case is a fatal one there are convulsions, the animal bellows, the eye is retracted into the socket, it falls down, and dies in a convulsed condition. Treatment. — Symptoms have to be treated, particularly the gastro- enteritis and cerebral congestion. The antidote is tannin. Field Fennel (Agrostemma Githago). This plant belongs to the natural order of Caryophyllacea. Accord- ing to Malepert the active principle is saponine, a white glucocide powder, inodourless, with at first a sweetish taste, that afterwards becomes acrid and styptic. It produces violent sneezing, and is soluble in water, which it makes froth up. The seeds are sometimes found in large quantities mixed with rye, and will give rise to poisoning, which is chiefly seen in the horse, cow, pig, and poultry. Both acute and chronic poisoning may be seen, depending on the quantity taken ; the latter is the form that usually attacks the pig, as this animal can vomit. The active principle is a local irritant, giving rise to violent inflam- mation of the intestines. It is absorbed slowly, causing paralysis of the voluntary muscles and reflex nervous action. According to Cornevin the poisonous dose per kilogramme of live weight is : — Field Fennel and Tares. 183 Calf ... ... ... 2'50 grammes. Pig i-o6 Dog o-go Fowl 2-50 ,, Symptoms, Acute. — There is salivation, yawning, colic, and a greyish- coloured, foetid diarrhoea. The respirations and pulse are rapid, the latter small and nearly imperceptible ; the temperature rises, and there are muscular tremors. Paraplegia and incoordinate movements of the limbs supervene, the respiration and circulation gets weaker, and the temperature at this stage falls below normal, death taking place from heart failure. Chronic. — Beyond general and progressive weakness with chronic diarrhoea there is nothing distinctive. Treatment. — Is entirely symptomatic, the gastro-enteritis must be treated, and the general paralysis counteracted with stimulants ; good grooming and wisping are recommended. Analysis. — It may be necessary to examine contaminated flour, which will contain a number of brown pellicles. When these are treated with a boihng solution of chloride of lime and mounted in glycerine, they appear as dark brown cells with an irregular dentated edge, studded over with small black points, and a light centre sur- rounded by a darker coloured belt (Cornevin). The starch has peculiarities, being only i to 2 ^ in diameter, where- as wheat starch is i| to 3^ fi. The granules are very resistant to the action of potash, and do not readily give a blue colour with iodine, but with sulphuric acid turn a brownish-green, which changes to blue, violet and red. Tares. Tares comprise a variety of plants belonging to the natural order Grmninaca, genus Lolium, such as the L. perenne and L. italicum, which are harmless, and others, L. temulentiim or enivrante and L. linicola, which are poisonous. Only the seeds of the L. enivrante are toxic, and they frequently get mixed up with other forage. The 184 Veterinary Toxicology. seeds are enveloped in two glpmes, the lower one of which is fur- nished with a long pointed awn, which distinguishes it from the L. peyenne (Cornevin, " Traite des plantes veneneuses "). The starch grains are small, 4 to 8 ^n, whereas those of rye are 25 to 45 ij., and more globular, but they turn blue equally readily with iodine. According to MM. Baillet and Filhol, the poisonous properties of the L. enivranie are due to two substances, one a yellow-coloured one, which is found in the oil that is extracted by ether from the starch, and the other is contained in the flower and extracted in a watery solution after treatment with ether. In the human being 30 grammes is a poisonous dose. Cornevin gives the quantity per kilogramme of live weight as 7 grammes for the horse and 18 for the dog; cattle and poultry appear to be immune (Clabaud and Baillet). Symptoms. — At first there is dulness, depression, and muscular tremors that become more and more violent, and develop into tetanic spasms of different groups of muscles. The animal lies down, the membranes are infected, and the respirations and circulation quickened. The first are laboured and painful, the pulse small and thready, and the temperature falls. This stage is followed by one of paralysis and coma that ends in death, which in the dog is preceded by convulsions. A case is mentioned, by Cornevin where death took place thirty hours after eating two kilogrammes of tare seeds. Post Mortem. — -The lesions consist of congestion of the nerve centres, stomach and intestines ; the blood is of a dark, black colour. i Treatment usually is useless, emetics should be given with stimu- lants, such as coffee, alcohol and ammonia. Cantharides. The Cantharides, or Spanish flies, belongs to the order Coleoptera and the family Trachelides. They are of a metallic-green colour, and are found in most parts of Southern Europe. They are collected during May and June, and as they were originally imported from Spain Cantharides. 185 the vernacular name of Spanish Fly arose. They have powerful blistering properties, and a strong, penetrating, disagreeable smell. The active principle is cantharidine, a substance in the form of small mica-like flakes, colourless, odourless, and with an acrid, irritant taste. It is volatile, insoluble in water, but slightly soluble in alcohol and ether, and freely so in chloroform. The ordinary powdered can- tharides contains about 4 per cent, cantharidine. The flies may be accidently eaten by animals browsing on the trees; also the use of the fly in a blistering ointment may give rise to poisoning ; when taken by the mouth it causes violent inflammation. The active principle is easily absorbed into the circulation, when the cantharidine particularly shows its effects on the urino-genital system, being eliminated by the kidneys and causing violent acute nephritis. Cantharidine also acts on the nervous system, first causing excitement, followed by depression, coma and death. Toxic Doses: — Horse and ox ... ... ... 20 to 30 grammes. Sheep 5 Dog 0-50 to 2 Rabbit ... ... ... ... 0-05 „ According to Dragendorff", fowls, turkeys and frogs are refractory, but he mentions the case of a cat being poisoned from eating a fowl that had been fed on cantharides and in whose flesh a quantity of cantharidine had been detected. Symptoms. — When the poison has been taken by the mouth there is violent gastro-enteritis, complicated with stomatitis and acute pharyngitis, salivation, dysphagia, nausea, vomiting, colic, tenesmus and blood-stained diarrhoea. The general effiscts of the poison are seen very early, there is dysuria, the quantity voided being scanty, blood- stained and albuminous, with painful erection in the male and abortion in the pregnant female. Usually there is great sexual excite- ment and injection of the generative organs, quickening of the respirations and circulation and elevation of the temperature. Later on there is coma, the animal is depressed, respiration is difficult and laboured, the temperature falls, cold sweats break out, and the animal N i86 Veterinary Toxicology. dies from failure of respiration. In some cases death is preceded' by general convulsions. If poisoning takes place from absorption the urino-genital symptoms are the most marked. Treatment. — Symptoms must be treated, mucilage and opium being given to overcome the gastro-enteritis and nephritis ; oils should be avoided, as they dissolve the cantharidine. Post-mortem Appearances. — When taken by the mouth there is intense gastro-enteritis, which may be superficial and diffused or deep and circumscribed, and there are almost invariably patches of ecchymosis, vesicles and ulcers. In certain cases there is irritation of the mouth, pharynx and oesophagus. There is almost invariably parenchymatous inflammation of the kidney, and the mucous membrane of the bladder and ureters are also involved. Chemical Analysis. — Vomited matter and the contents of the stomach and intestines may contain portions of the fly, which are easily recognised. An analysis which, according to Dragendorflf, can be made three months after death, can be carried out on the vomited matter, contents of the intestines and stomach, excrement, urine, liver, and kidneys. Dragendorff recommends the following method : To the suspected material is added an 8 per cent, solution of caustic potash and boiled till it forms a clear, homogeneous fluid. It is then treated with chloroform to remove foreign matters, and to the residue four or five times its volume of alcohol and a small quantity of sulphuric acid are added. The whole is again boiled and filtered while hot, allowed to cool, and again filtered. The alcohol is driven off by distillation and the residue again treated with chloroform, which is evaporated, and what remains will be a strong vesicant. The crystals of cantharidine are in- soluble in water and alcohol, but soluble in chloroform, potash, and soda. A solution in soda, when evaporated and treated with water, gives a red precipitate with salts of cobalt; white with acetate of potash, and yellow with chloride of palladium. The vesicant action of the residue can be tested on the ear of a rabbit or dog, or one's own forearm. Ergot and Ergotism. 187 Ergot of Rye (Ergotism). Ergot is a diseased condition of grain caused by a mould {Claviceps purpurea) which develops between the glumes of the grain, under the influence of heat and damp, into a black, fleshy mass. Various grains are attacked by ergot — rye, wheat, and maize — also grasses, but it is more frequently found in rye. A small sticky mass, which is a filament of mycelium, is found at the summit of the ovary when blooming, and which spreads over the grain. The ergot is a curved cylindrical body, from ^ to i| inches long, of a purple colour externally, and white variegated with purple inside, compact in texture, and with a nauseous, sickly smell. If the ergot is placed in damp soil at the time the rye flowers, a number of sharp spines will grow from it, which are the true form of the Claviceps purpurea, and which form spores. The active principle is removed by water, and the extract is Bonjean's ergotine. It contains several ill-defined, active principles, amongst others, ergotinine. Poisoning takes place from ergot in the food, especially ih the herbivora. Cases are most common in wet seasons, and at the time the rye is flowering. The abuse of ergot as a medicine will also cause accidents. It is a local irritant, and gives rise to gastro-enteritis. After absorption it acts on the nervous system and the muscular fibres of the vessels of the uterus. The exact nature of its action has not been precisely determined. If small doses are taken for any length of time it will cause chronic poisoning. The toxic dose is given by Kaufmann as : — Horses and Cattle 3 to 4 kilogrammes. Dogs ... ... ... ... 30 grammes. % Symptoms. — There is acute gastro-enteritis, which gives rise to symptoms much resembling those of rinderpest, viz., nausea, saliva- tion, vomiting, colic, and diarrhoea. In pregnant animals there is abortion and often invertion of the uterus. The eye has a fixed, i88 Veterinary Toxicology. staring look, the pupil is dilated, and there is vertigo, loss of conscious- ness and paralysis. During the course of the attack there are muscular tremors, that may increase almost to tetanic spasms with temporary paralysis of the hind quarters. The pulse is small, and at first quick, but afterwards gets slow, and the heart contractions are spasmodic (Verheyen). Chronic cases are characterised by necrosis of the extremities, especially the ears, tail, and lower joints of the limbs, which become a blue colour, mummify, and fall off. In certain cases, however, there is moist gangrene, which causes death from septicaemia. In fowls the comb shrivels up and becomes a violet colour, and in some cases the same is seen in the beak, claws; and sides of the abdomen. Post Mortem. — The lesions are those of gastro-enteritis. The viscera are flaccid and reflexed, the muscles semi-gelatinous and the blood fluid. In chronic ergotism there is dry gangrene of the extremities of the limbs. Treatment. — Purgatives and emetics in acute cases, ammonia and alcoholic stimulants, with antispasmodics, opium, chloral, and valerian. Altered and Damaged Food. Poisoning can take place from ordinary food which has undergone bertain alterations, generally due either to moulds or micro-organisms which elaborate certain poisonous principles. The common moulds that cause alteration in the food are : — (i) Rust, due to the Puccinia graminis, which forms lines of yellow, red, or black spots on the leaves and stalks of plants. (2) Smttt, caused by the Ustilaginea, of which there are several sorts : Ustilago cavbo of barley, wheat, oats ; Ustilago maydis of maize ; ^indTilletia caries, that causes hunt in wheat. The affected grains have a smell of herrings, which is communicated to the flour. (3) Moulds attack all sorts of food, but chiefly those that have an acid reaction, and are chiefly Penicillhm glaucum of mouldy bread ; Aspergillus glaucus of fruit, and which grows on walls and pieces of Altered and Damaged Food. 189 wood, in the form of greenish-yellow tufts ; Aspergillus niger, of a dark brown ; Aspergillus fumigatus, of a bluish-grey ; Aspergillus flavus, Sec, and the Rhysopus nigricans of bread. (4) Peronosporos, the most important of which is the P. infestans, that causes potato disease. As a rule these fungi are only found on foods of vegetable origin. Animal food is subject to alterations from microbes, some of which are present in the living organism, others only develop in the food- stuff, but both give rise to a series of active principles that have poisonous properties, and which are known as toxins. Some of these toxins are termed toxalhumins, and are found in certain plants and in snake-poison. The majority of toxins are formed by anaerobic organisms, and are met with in putrefaction ; they are classified as ptomaines, amongst which the most important are : — (i) Cadaverine, which was isolated by Brieger from decomposing bodies. It is only slightly poisonous, causing salivation and flow of tears. (2) Mydaleine, also a product of putrefaction ; it gives rise to febrile symptoms, stimulates the excretions, causes progressive paralysis, and death from heart failure. (3) Nervine and choline, which are produced in the process of putrefaction, at the expense of the lecithin in the brain, nerves, and blood corpuscles. Nervine is a powerful poison, ten milligrammes having, according to Mosselman, killed a cat. It causes salivation and excretion of tears, with quickening of the heart-beats and respirations, followed by collapse, convulsions, and death. Choline is twenty times less poisonous. (4) Muscarine is found in certain fungi and toadstools, and by Brieger in fish in the early stages of decomposition. It causes death from heart failure. (5) Methylgadinine is found in decomposing horseflesh. It causes stoppage of the heart during the diastole. (6) Parvoline also has been extracted from putrid horseflesh by Gautier. There are a number of other alkaloids, but their action is most 190 Veterinary Toxicology. imperfectly understood. Numerous ones are elaborated by the living cells, and are found in the excretions, and are the cause of auto- intoxication. They receive the generic name of leucomaines. Etiologv. — Cases of poisoning of this nature in the herbivora are caused by animals eating plants attacked with rust or smut, especially when the food is mouldy, such as potatoes, beetroots, turnips, or damaged grain. In the carnivora poisoning arises from microbic alterations in flesh foods that have been provided from diseased animals or decomposing meat. Fowls suffer from this cause. In some cases poisoning takes place from fermentation of the contents of the stomach and intestines (stercorasmia). The effects of eating altered or damaged food vary greatly with the animal, the quantity taken, and what it has been accustomed to eat, as, for instance,' dogs, who eat decomposed food without any ill results, where the same will kill pigs and fowls. Usually there are digestive troubles of varying degrees, running on into severe gastro-enteritis, with marked effects on the nerves and kidneys. Symptoms.— The usual symptoms are loss of appetite, salivation, abdominal pains, tympanitis, and constipation, followed by profuse foetid diarrhoea, often tinged with blood, polyuria, vertigo, rigors, muscular spasms, and paralysis of the tongue and pharynx, with amaurosis. There is generally a certain amount of fever, the pulse is quick, small and irregular, and the respirations laboured and painful. In the carnivora there is acute gastric enteritis, with vomiting, profuse blood-stained diarrhoea, high fever, intense thirst, great depres- sion, and death in a few hours. In the human being there is paralysis of the muscles of the eye (ptosis), the pharynx, and intestines. Treatment. — The intestines must be emptied. Saline purgatives are indicated for ruminants, and emetics for the carnivora. Calomel, which is both a purgative and antiseptic, is especially valuable ; stimulants, such as coffee, alcohol and camphor, also are useful. Post Mortem. — There are no very characteristic lesions, usually they consist of extensive gastro-enteritis, with haemorrhage, the con- • tents of the stomach consisting of partly digested food mixed with blood, and being exceedingly foetid. Altered and Damaged Food. 191 There is also nephritis, congestion of the brain and spinal cord, and, if the case is of any standing, degenerative processes have set in. The body after death rapidly decomposes. Frohner mentions a case of several horses being poisoned by mouldy hay in which the only lesion that could be found was slight discolouration of the muscles of the heart. Chemical analysis is not satisfactory, as certain principles, notably leucomaines, can be extracted from the normal tissues, urine, liver, &c. Animal alkaloids give many similar reactions to those of vegetable origin, and for this reason errors are likely to occur. There are many other substances that give rise to poisoning in the domestic animals, but they are exceedingly rare, and many so little understood as to be not worth mentioning in a small work of this nature, and they have been omitted as they belong more to the domains of hygiene or general pathology. CATALOGUE OF Williatn R. Jenkins Co/s Works Concerning HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE, Etc. 1906—1907 (*) Designates New Books. (t) Designates Recent Publications. ANDERSON. "Vice in the Horse" and other papers on Horses and Riding. By E. L. Anderson. Size, 6x9, cloth. Illustrated 1 75 ARMSTEAD. " The Artistic Anatomy of the Horse." A brief description of the various Anatomical Struc- tures which may be distinguished during Life through the Skin. By Hugh W. Armstead, M.D., F.E.O.S. With illustrations from drawings by the author. Cloth oblong, 10 x 12^ 3 75 BACH. "How to Judge a Horse." A concise treatise as to its Qualities and Soundness ; Including Bits and Bitting, Saddles and Saddling, Stable Drainage, Driv- ing One Horse, a Pair, Pour-ln-hand, or Tandem, etc. By Capt. F. W. Bach. Size, 5 x 7J, olo. , fully Ulus . 1 00 BANHAM. (')" Anatomical and Physiological Model of the Cow." Halt life size. Composed of superposed plates, colored to nature, showing internal organs, muscles, skeleton, etc., mounted on strong boards, with explanatory text. Size of Model opened, 10 ft. X 3 ft., closed 3 ft. x li f t 12 lO — ''Anatomical and Physiological Model of the Horse." Half life size. By George A. Banham, F.K.C.V.S. Size of Model 38 x 41 in 12 00 — " Tables of Veterinary Posology and Therapeutics," with weights, measures, etc. By Geo. A. Banham, P.K.C.V.S. New edition. Cloth, size 4x5 1-2, 192 pages 1 00 BAUCHER. "Method of Horsemanship." Including the Breaking and Training of Horses. By P. Baucher 1 00 BELL. (*)"The Veterinarian's Call Book (Perpetual)." By Boscoe K. Bell, D.V.S., editor of the American Veterinary Review. Revised every year. A visiting list, that can be commenced at any time and used until full, c<)ntaining much useful informa- tion tor the student and the busy practitioner. Among contents are items concerning : Veterinary Drugs; Poisons; Solubility of Drugs; Composition of Milk, Bile, Blood, Gastric Juice, Urine, Saliva; Respi- ration ; Dentition ; Temperature, etc.; etc. Bound in flexible leather, with flap and pocket 1 25 BITTING. "Cadlot's Exercises in Equine Surgery." See "Cadiot." BBADLBY. "Outlines of Veterinary Anatomy." By O. Charnock Bradley, Member of the Royal Col- lege of Veterinary Surgeons ; Professor of Anatomy in the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh. The author presents the most important facts of veterinary anatomy in as condensed a form as possible, consistent with lucidity. 12mo. Complete in three parts. Pabt I.: TU Limbs (cloth) 125 Part II. : The Trunk (paper) 1 25 Past III. : The Head and Nech (paper) 1 25 The Set cOMPiETB 3 26 CADIOT. " Exercises in Equine SurgrerT." By P. J. Cadiot. Translated by Prof. A. W. Bitting, D.V.M. Edited by Prof. A . Llautard, M.D.V.M. Size, 6 x 9%. cloth, illustrated 2 50 — "Roaring: in Horses." Its Pathology and Treatment. This work represents the latest development in oper- ative methods for the alleviation of roaring. Each step is most clearly defined by excellent full-page illustrations. By P. J. Cadiot, Professor at the Veterinary School, Alfort. Translated by Thos. J. Watt Dollar, M.E.C.V.S., etc. Cloth, size 5 1-4x71-8, 77 pages, illustrated 75 — "Studies in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery." By P. J. Cadiot. Translated, edited, and supplemented with 49 new articles and 31 illustrations by Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 7 x 9 3-4, 619 pages, 94 black and white illustrations 5 25 —(•)"! Treatise on Surgical Therapeutics of tlie Domestic Animals." By P. J. Cadiot and J. Almy. Translated by Prof. A. Liautard,'M,D.,V.M. I. General Surgery. — Means of restraint of animals, general aneesthesia, local aneethesia, surgical anti- sepsis and asepsis, hematosis, cauterization, firing, II DLseases Common to all Tissues. — Inflammation, ahsppsp, gangrene, ulcers, fistula, foreign bodies, Irauraatio lesions, complications of traumatic les- ions, granulations, cicatrices, mycosis, virulent (iiseases, tumors. CADIOT (Continued) III. Diseases Special to all Tissues and Affections of the Extremi ies. — Diseases of skin and cellular tis- t-us, of serous bursae, of muscles, of tendons, of tendinous synovial sacs, of aponeurosis, of arteries, of veins, of lymphatics, of nerves, of bones, of articulations. Cloth, size 6x9, 580 pages, 118 illustrations 4 50 CHAPMAy. "Manual of the Pathological Treatment of Lameness in the Horse," treated solely by mechanical means. By George T. Chapman. Cloth, size G X 9, 124 pages with portrait 2 00 CUATJVEAU. "The ComparatiTe Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals. By A. Chauveau. Kevised b\ G. Fleming, F.R.C.V.S. 8vo, cloth, 585 illus..6 25 CLARKE. "Chart of the Feet and Teeth of Fossil Horses." By W. H. Clarke. Card, size 9 1-2 x 12. . 25 — "Horses' Teeth." Fourth edition, re-revised, with second appendix. Cloth, size 51-4x7 1-2, 322 pp., illus. .2 60 CLEAVELAND. "Pronouncing Medical Lexicon." Pocket edition. By C H. Cleveland, M.D. Cloth, size 31-4x4 1-2, 302 pages 75 CLEMENT. "Veterinary Post Mortem Examina- tions." By A. W. Clement, V.S. The absence in the Euglish language of any guide in making autopsies upon the lower animals, induced Dr. Clement to write this book, trusting that it would prove of prac- tical value to the profession. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, 64 pages, illustrated 75 CO URTENA F. (f) " Manual of the Practice of Veterinary Medicine." By Edward Courtenay, V. S. Kevised by Frederick T. G. Hobday, F.K.C.V.S. Second edition. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 573 pages 2 75 COX. " Horses : In Accident and Disease." The sketches introduced embrace various attitudes which have been observed, such as in choking; the disorders and accidents occurring to the stomach and intestines ; affection of the brain ; and some special forms of lame- ness, etc. By J. Eoalfe Cox, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 X 9, 28 full page illustrations 1 50 DALRTMPLE. (f)" Veterinary Obstetrics." A compen- dium for the use of advanced students and Practi- tioners. By W. H. Dalrymple, M. K. C. V. S., principal of the Department of Veterinary Science in the Louisiana State University and A. & M. College; Veterinarian to the Louisiana State Bureau of As;riculture, and Agricultural Experiment Stations, ploth, si^e 6x9 1-t, 162 pages, 51 illustrations. . .2 5Q DALZIEL. " Breaking and Training Dogs." Part I, by Pathfinder. Part II, by Hugh Dalziel. Cloth, illustrated j 2 60 — " The Collie." By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, Hlustrated 40 — "The Diseases of Dogs." Causes, symptoms and treatment. By Hugh Dalziel. Cloth, illustrated 1 00 — "Diseases of Horses." Paper 40 — " The Pox Terrier." By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, 40 ; clo.l 00 — "The Greyhound." Cloth, lUus 1 OO — " The St. Bernard." Cloth, illustrated 1 00 DANA. "Tables In ComparatiTe Physiology." By Prof. C. L. Dana, M.D. Chart, 17 x 17 26 DAJfCJE. "Veterinary Tablet." By A. A. Dance. Chart, 17 X 24, mounted on linen, folded in a cloth case for the pocket, size 3 3-4 x 6 1-2. Shows at a glance the synopsis of the diseases of horses, cattle and dogs ; with their cause, symptoms and cure 75 DE BRTJIN. (*)"BoTine Obstetrics." By M. G. De Bruin Instructor o£ Obstetrics at the State Veterinary School in Utrecht. Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, formerly Professor of Veterinary Science at Clemson A. & M. College, and Veterinarian to the South Carolina Experiment Station. Cloth, size 6x9, 382 pages, 77 illustrations 5 00 Synopsis of the Kssential Features of tlie Work 1. Authorized translation. 2. The only obstetrical work which is up to date. 3. Written by Europe's leading authority on the subject. i. Written by a man who has practiced the art a lifetime. 5. Written by a man who, on account of his eminence as bovine practitioner and teacher of obstetrics, was selected by Prof. Dr. FrObner and Prof. Dr. Bayer (Berlin and Vienna), to discuss bovine obstetrics both practically and scientifically. 6. The only wort containing a thorough differential dJac:- nosis of ante and post partuTU diseases. 7. The only work doing justice to modern obstetrical surgery and therapeutics. 8. Written by a man whose practical suggestions revolu- tionized the teaching of veterinary obstetrics even in the great schools of Europe. 9. The only work dealing fuUy with the now no longer obscure contagious and infectious diseases of calves. 10. Absolutely original and no compilation. 11. The only work dealing fully with the difflcult problem of teaching obstetrics in the colleges. 13. The only work where the practical part is not over- shadowed by theory. ... A veterinarian,- particularly if his location brings him in contact with obstetrical practice, who makes any pretence toward being scientific and in possession of modern knowledge upon this subject, will not be without this excellent werk, as it is really a very valuable treatise.— Pr'o/. iJoscoe R. Bell, in the American Veteriiuiry Review. In translatirg into English Professor De Bruin's excellent text- book on Bovine Obstetrics, Dr. Wyman has laid British and American veterinary surgeons and students under a debt of gratitude. The works represents the happy medium between the booklets which are adapted for cramming purposes by the student, and the ponderous tomes which, although useful to the teacher, are not exactly suited to the requirements of theeveryday practitioner . . . We can strongly ~ recommend the work to veterinary students and practitioners.— The Jownal of Comparative Pathology amd Therapeutics, DOLLAJR. f*i" Diseases of Cattle, Sheep. Goats and Swine." By G. Moussu and Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.K.C.V.S. Size 6x9 1-2, liio pages, 329 illustrations i»n the text and 4 full page plates 8 75 — (t)"A Hand-booli of Horse-Slioelng," with introductory chapters on the anatomy and physiology of the horse's toot. By Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.E.CV.S., with the collaboration of Albert Wheatley, F.K.C.V.S. Cloth, siae 6x8 1-2, 433 pa^es, 416 illustrations . .4 75 — (t) "Operative Tedinique." Volume 1 of "The Practice of Veterinary Surgery." Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 10, 264 pages, 272 illustrations 3 75 — " General Surgery." Volume 2 of "The Practice of Veter- inary Surgery." In preparation. — (t)" Regional Veterinary Surgery." Volume 3 of "The Practice of Veterinary Surgery." By Drs. Jno. A. W. Dollar and H. Moller. Cloth, size 6 1-2 x 10 853 and xvi pages, 315 illustrations 6 25 — "Cadiot's Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery," See " UaSiot." — " Cadiot's Koaring in Horses." See " Cadiot." DUN. "Veterinary Medicines, their Actions and Uses." By Finlay Dun, V.S., late lectuier on Materia Medica and Dietetics at the Edinburgh Veterinary College, and Examiner in Chemistry to the Koyal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Edited by James Macqueen, F.K.C.V.S. Tenth revised English edition. Cloth, size 6x9 r 3 75 DWYER. ''On Seats and Saddles." Bits and Bitting, Draught and Harness and the Prevention and Cure of Bestiveness in Horses. By Francis Dwyer. Cloth, size 6x7, 304 pages, gilt, illustrated 1 50 FLEMING. " The Contagious Diseases of Animals." Their influence on the wealth and health of nations and how they are to be combated. Paper, size 5x7 1-2, 30 pages 25 — "Human and Animal Variolse." A Study in Comparative Pathology. Paper, size 5 1-2x8 1-2, 61 pages ... 25 — "Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals." By L. G. Neumann. Translated by Dr. Fleming. See " Neumann." — "Operative Veterinary Surgery." Vol. I, by Dr. Geo. Fleming, M.B.C.V.S. This valuable work, one of the most practical treatises yet issued on the subject in the English language, is devoted to the common opera- tions of Veterinary Surgery; and the concise desorip- fJions and directions of the text are Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 285 and xviii pages, 343 illustrations 2 75 (•)Vol. II, edited and passed through the press by W. Oweq Williams, F.K.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4. 430 and xxxvii pages, 344 illustrations 3 25 FLEMING (continued) — " Roaring in Horses." By Dr. George Fleming, F.KC.V.S. Its history, nature, causes, prevention and treatment. Cloth, size 5 1-2x8 3-4, 160 pages, 21 engravings, 1 coloi ed plate 1 50 — "Veterinary Obstetrics." Including the Accidents and Dis- eases Incident to Pregnancy, Parturition, and the Early Age In Domesticated Animals. By Geo. Fleming, F.R.O.V.S. Cloth, size 6x8 3-4, 758 pages, illus.6 25 GOTTHIEL, (*)"A Manual of General Histology," By Wm. S. Gotthell, M.D., Professor of Pathology In the American Veterinary College, New York; etc., etc. Histology is the basis ol the physician's art, aB Anatomy is the foundation of the surgeon's science. Only by knowing the processes of life can we under- stand the changes of disease and the action of remedies ; as the architect must know his building materials, so must the practitioner of medicine know the intimate structure of the body. To present this knowledge in an accessible and simple form has been the author's task. Second edition revised. Cloth, size 5 1-2 x 8, 152 pages, 68 Illustrations. . . 1 00 QRESSWELL. " Tlie Bovine Prescriber." For the use of Veterinarians and Veterinary Students. Second edition revised and enlarged, by James B. and Albert Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size, 5x7 1-2, 102 pages 75 — "Tlie Equine Hos(>itai Prescriber." For the use of Veter- inary Prftctitloners and Students. Third edition re- vised and enlarged, by Drs. James B. and Albert Gresswell, M.K.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, 165 pages 75 — "Diseases and Disorders of tlie Horse." A Treatise on Equine Medicine and Surgery, being a oontrlbution|to the science of comparative pathology. By Albert, Jas. B. and Geo. Gresswell. Cloth, size 5 3-4 x 8 3-4, 227 pages, illustrated 1 75 — Manual of "Tlie Tlieory and Practice of Equine Medicine." By James B. Gresswell, F.K.G.V.S., and Albert Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Second edition revised. Cloth, sizes 1-1x7 1-2, 539 pages 2 75 — (tJ "Veterinary Fharmacopseia and Manual of Comparative Therapy." By George and Charles Gresswell, with descriptions and physiological actions of medicines, by Albert Gresswell Second edition revised and enlarged. Cloth, 6x8 3-4, 457 pages 3 SO HASSLOCH. " A Compend of Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics." By A. 0. Hassloch, V.S., Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics, and Professor of Veterinary Dentistry at the New York College of Veterinary Sunjeons and School of Compa- rative Medicine, N. Y. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 225 pages , 160 BEATLEY. '^ The Stock Owner's Kuide.'* A handy Medi- cal Treatise for every man who owns an ox or cow. By George S. Heatley, M.K.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 1-4x8, 172 pages 1 25 MILJJ. (f)"The Diseases of the Cat." By J. Woodroffe Hill, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 1-4x7 1-2, 123 pages, illustrated 1 25 Written, from the experience of many years' prac- tice and close pathological research into the maladies to which our domesticated feline friends are liable — a subject which it must be admitted has not found the prominence ia veterinary literature to which it is undoubtedly entitled. — "The Management and Diseases of the Dog." By J. Woodroffe Hill, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, extra fully illustrated .- 2 (X) aiNEBAUVH. "Veterinary Dental Surgery." By T. D. Hinebauch, M.S.V.S. For the use of Students, Prac- titioners and Stockmen. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 8, 256 pages, illustrated 2 OU HO ARE. "X Manual of Veterinary Therapeutics and Pharmacology." By B. Wallis Hoare, F.K.C.V.S. Cloth, sizes 1-4x7 1-4, 568 pages 2 75 HOBDAY. "Canine and Feline Surgery." By Frederick T. G. Hobday, F.K.C.V.S. Cloth, 5 3-4x8 3-4, 152 76 illustrations 2 00 — (t)"The Castration of Cryptorchid Horses and the Oyariotomy of Troublesome Mares." By Frederick T. G. Hobday, F.E.C.V.S. Cloth, size 53-4x 8 3-4, U 6 pages, 34 Illustrations 1 76 HUNTING, (fl The Art of Horse-shoeing. A manual for Horseshoers. By William Hunting, F.E.C.V.S., ex-President of the Royal College of Veterinary Sur- geons. One of the most.up-to-date, concise books of its kind in the English language. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4. 126 pages, 96 illustrations 1 00 JENKINS. (t> "Model of the Cow " and "Model of the Horse." See " Banham." KEATING. "A. New Unabridged Pronouncing Diction- ary of Medicine." By John M. Keating, M.D., LL.D., Henry Hamilton and others. A voluminous and exhaustive hand-book of Medical and scientific terminology with Phonetic Pronunciation, Accentu- ation, Etymology, etc. With an appendix containing important tables of Bacilli, Micrococci. Leucomaines, Ptomaines ; Drugs and Materials used in Antiseptic Surgery; Poisons and their antidotes; Weights and Measures; Thermometer Scales; Kew Officinal and XJnofflcinal Drugs, etc., etc. Cloth, 818 pages . . .5 00 KOBERT. "Practical Toxicology for Physicians and Students " By Professor Dr. Kudolph Kobert, Medical Director of Dr. Brehmer's Sanitarium for Pulmonary Diseases at Goerbersdorf in Silesia (Prus- sia), late Director of the Pharmacological Institute, Dorpat, Kussia. Translated and edited by L. H. Friedburg, Ph.D. Authorized Edition. Practical knowledge by means of tables which occupy little space, but show at a glance similarities and differ- ences between poisons of the same group. Also rules for the Spelling and Pronunciation of ChemicalTerms, as adopted by the Amarlnan Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. Cloth, 6 1-2 x 10, 201 pp. .2 60 KOCH. "Etiology of Tuberculosis." By Dr. R. Koch. Translated by T. Saure. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 97 pages 1 00 LAMBERT. "The tterm Theory of Disease." Bearing upon the health and welfare of man and the domesticated animals. By James Lambert, F.E.C.V.S. Paper, size 5 1-4x8 1-4, 26 pages. Illustrated 25 LAW. "Farmers' Teterinary Adyiser." A Guide to the Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Domestic Animals. By Prof. James Law. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, illustrated 3 00 LIAUTARD. (f)" Animal Castration." A concise and practical Treatise on the Castration of the Domestic Animals. The only work on the subject in the English language. By Alexander Liautard, M.D.,V.S. Having a fine portrait of the author. Tenth edition revised and enlarged. Cloth, size 6 1-4x7 1-2, 165 pages, 45 illustrations 2 00 . . . The moBt complete and comprehensive work on the subject in English veterinary literature.— American Agri- cvZturist. — "Cadiot's Exercises in Equine Surgery." Translated by Prof. Bitting and edited by Dr. Liautard. See " CacHot." — "A Treatise on Surgical Therapentirs of the Domestic Animals." By Prof. Dr. P. J. Cadiot and J. Almy. Translated by Prof. Liautard. See " Cadiot." — " How to Tell the Age of the Domestic Animal." By Dr. A. Liautard, M.D., V.S. Standard work upon this subject, concise, helpful and containing many illustrations. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, 35 pages, 42 illustrations 50 — "Lameness of Horses and Diseases of the Locomotory Apparatus." By A. Liautard, M.D.,V.S. This work is the result of Dr. Liautard's many years of experi- ence. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 314 pages 2 60 LIAUTABD (continued). — (•)" Manual of Operatiye Veterinary Surgery " By A. Liiautard, M.D., V.M. Engaged for years In the work of teaching this special department of veterinary medicine, and having abundant opportunities of realizing the diffijulties which the student who earnestly strives to peifect himself in his calling is obliged to encounter, the author formed the deter- mination to facilitate his acquisition of knowledge, and began the accumulation of material by the com- pilation of data and arrangement of memorandum, with the recorded notes of his own experience, the fruit of a long and extended practice and a careful study of the various authorities who have illustrated and organized veterinary literature. 19U6 edition, with complete index. Cloth, size 6 1-4 x 9, xxx and 803 pages, 563 illustrations 5 00 — "Pelierin's Median Neurotomy in the Treatment of Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock." Translated by Dr. A. Llautard. See " Pellerin." — "Vade Mecum of Equine Anatomy." By A. Llautard, M.D.V.S. For the use of advanced students and veterinary surgeons. Third edition. Cloth, size 5x7 l-'2, 30 pages and 10 full page illustrations of the arteries 2 00 — Zundel's " The Horse's Foot and Its Diseases." See •• Zundel." LONG. "Book of the Pig." Its selection. Breeding, Feeding andManagement. Cloth 4.00 LOWE. (t)" Breeding Racehorses by the Figure System." Compiled by the late C. Bruce Lowe. Edited by William Allison, " The Special Commis- sioner," London Sportsman, Hon. Secretary Sporting League, and Manager of the International Horse Agency and Exchange. With numerous fine illustra- tions of celebrated horses. Cloth, size 8 x 10, 262 pages • 7 50 LUDLOW. "Science in the Stable"; or How a Horse can be Kept in Perfect Health and be Used Without Shoes, in Harness or under the Saddle. With the Keason Why, Second Edition. By Jacob K. Ludlow, M.D. Late Staff Surgeon, U. S. Army. Paper, size 4 1-2x5 3-4, 166 pages 50 LUPTON. "Horses: Sound and Unsound," with Law relating to Sales and Warranty. By J. Irvine Lupton, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 7 1-2, 217 pages, 28 illustrations 1 25 UcBJRIDE. "Anatomical Outlines of the Horse." By J. A. McBride, M K O.V.S. Second edition revised and enlarged. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-4, illus .... 2 50 M'PADTEAN. (t) " Anatomy of the Horse." Second edition completely revised. A Dissection Guide. By John M'Fadyean, M.B., B.So., F.E.S.E. Cloth, size 6 X 8 3 4, 388 pages, illustrated 8 50 This book is Intended for Veterinary students, and offers to them In its 48 full-page colored plates, 54 illustrations and excellent text, a valuable and practical aid in the study of Veterinary Anatomy, especially in the dissecting room. — " ComparatiTe Anatomy of tbe Domesticated Animals." By J. M'Fadyean. Profusely illustrated, and to be issued in two parts. Part I— Osteology, ready. Size 5 1-2x8 1-2, 166 pages, 132 illustrations. Paper, 2 50; cloth 2 75 (Part II in preparation.) MAGNEB. "Standard Horse and Stock Book." By D. Magner. Comprising over 1,000 pages, illustrated with 1756 engravings. Leather binding .6 (0 MILLS. "How to Keep a Dog in the City." By Wesley Mills, M.D., D.V.8. It tells how to choose, manage, house, feed, educate the pup, how to keep him clean and teach him cleanliness. Paper, size 5x7 1-2, 40 pages 26 MOLLER — DOLLAR. (t)" Regional Veterinary Surgery." See " Dollar." MOHLEB. " Handbook of Meat Inspection." By Robert Ostertag, M.D. Translated by Earley Vernon Wilcox, A.M., Ph.D. With an introduction by John B. Mohler, V.M.D., A M. See " Ostertag." MOSSELMAH-LIENAZrX. "Manual of Veterinary Microbiology." By Professors Mosselman and Lienaux, Nat. Veterinary College, Cureghem, Belgium. Translated and edited by E. K. Dinwiddle, Professor of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Arkansas State University. Cloth, size 5 12x8, 342 pages, illustrated , 2 DO MOTTSSU. (•)" Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Swine." See " DoOar." NEUMANN. (*)"A Treatise on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals." A work to which the students of human or veterinary medi- cine, the sanitarian, agriculturist or breeder or rearer of animals, may refer for full information regarding the external and Internal Parasites — ^vegetable and animal — which attack various species of Domestic Animals. A Treatise by L. G. Neumann, Professor at the National Veterinary School of Toulouse. Translated and edited by Geo. Fleming, C.B., LL.D., P.R.C.V.S. Second edition, revised and edited by James Macqueen, F.R.C.V.S., Professor at the Royal Veterinary College, London. Cloth, size 6 3 4 x 10, xvi + 698 pages, 365 lllustratlone 6 76 NOCAUD. " The Animal Tuberculoses, and their Belation to Human Tuberculosis-" By Ed. Nocard, Prof, of the Alfort Veterinary College. Translated by H. Scurfield, M.D. Ed., Ph. Camb. Cloth, 5-x 7 1-2, 143 pages.. 1 00 Perhaps the chief ..interest to doctors of human medicine in Professor Nocard's book lies in the demonstration of the small part played by heredity, and the great part played by contagion in the propa- gation of bovine tuberculosis. It seems not unreason- able to suppose that the same is the case tor human tuberculosis, and that, if the children of tuberculous parents were protected from infection by cohabitation or Ingestion, the importance of heredity as a cauie of the disease, or even of the predisposition to it, would dwindle away into Insignificance. OSTEBTAG. (*)" Handbook of Meat Inspection." By Robert Ostertag, M.D. Authorized Translation by Earley Vernon Wilcox, A.M., Ph.D. With an intro- duction by John R. Mohler, V.M.D., A.M. The work is exhaustive and authorative and has at once become the standard authority upon the subject Second edition, revised. Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 9 3-4, 920 pages, 260 illustrations and 1 colored plate 7 50 P All LIN. (*) " A Treatise on Epizootic Lymphangitis." By Capt. W. A. Pallin, P.R.C.V.S. In this work the author has endeavored to combine his own experience with that of other writers and so attempts to give a clear and complete account of a subject about which there is little at present in English veterinary litera- ture. Cloth, size 5 3-4x8 1-2, 90 pages, with 17 fine full page illustrations^ 1 25 PEGLER. "The Book of the Goat." Third edition re- written and enlarged. Cloth, 223 pages, lllus 1 75 PELLEBIW. "Median Neurotomy in the Treatment of Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock." By C. Pellerin, late repetitor of Clinic and Surgery to the Alfort Veterinary School. Translated, with Addi- tional Facts Relating to It, by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D., V.M. Having rendered good results when performed by himself, the author believes the operation, which consists in dividing the cubito-plantar nerve and in excising a portion of the peripherical end, the means of improving the conditions, and consequently the values of many apparently doomed animals. Agricul- ture in particular wlU be benefited. The work is divided into two parts. The first covers the study of Median Neurotomy itself ; the second, the exact relations of the facts as observed by the author. Boards, 6x9 1-2, 61 pages, illustrated. .1 00 PETERS. " A. Tuberculous Herd— Test with Tuber- cnlin." By Austin Peters, M. K. C. V. S., Chief Inspector of Cattle for the New York State Board of Health during the winter of 1892-93. Pamphlet 25 REYNOLDS. "An Essaj on the Breeding and Manage- ment of Draught Horses." By R. b. Reynolds, M.K.C. V.S. Cloth, size 6 1-2x8 3-4, 104 pages. .1 4U ROBERGE. " The Foot of the Horse," or Lameness and all Diseases of the Feet traced to an Unbalanced Foot Bone, prevented or cured by balancing the toot. By David Roberge. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 308 pages, illustrated 5 00 SESSION'S. (*)" Cattle Tuberculosis," a Practical Guide to the Agriculturist and Inspector. By Harold Sessions, F.R.C. V.S., etc. Second edition. Size 5x7 1-4, vi -|- 120 pages 1 00 The object ot the author has been to write the text in such a manner that the subject can be understood by those who have to deal particularly with it, yet who, perhaps, have not had the necessary training to appreciate technical phraseology. SEWELL. "The Examination of Horses as to Sound- ness and Selection as to Purchase." By Edward Sewell, M.R.C.V.S. Paper, size 51-2x8 1-2, 86 pages, illustrated with 8 plates in color 1 60 It is a great advantage to the business man to know something of the elements of law, and nobody ought either to buy or own a horse who does not know something about the animal. That something this book gives, and gives in a thoroughly excellent way — Our Animal Friends . SMITH. " A Manual of Teterinary Physiology." By Col. F. Smith, CM.S., F.R.aV.S., F.I.C., author of " A Manual of Veterinary Hygiene." Throughout this manual the object has been to con- dense the information as much as possible. The broad facts of the sciences are stated so as to render them of use to the student and practitioner. In this second edition — rewritten — the whole of the Nervous System has been revised, a new chapter dealing with the Development of the Ovum has been added together with many additional facts and illustrations. About one hundred additional pages are given. Second edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth, size 6x8 3-4, 673 pages, 102 illustrations 3 78 — {*)" Manual of Veterinary Hygiene." Third edition revised. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, xx + 1036 pages, with 255 illustrations 4 75 Recognizing the rapid advance and extended field of the subject since the previous issue, the author has entirely re-written the work and enlarged its scope, whieh is brought thoroughly up to date. Con- tains over 500 more pages than the second edition. STBANGEWAT. (+)"Teterinary Anatomy." Edited by I. Vaughan, F.L.S., M.K.C.V.S. New edition revised. Cloth, size 6 1-4x9 1-2, 625 pages, 224 lUus 5 00 SUSSDOBF. " Six Large Colored Wall Diagrams." By Prof. Sussdorf, M.JD. (of GSttingeii). Text translated by Prof. W. Owen Williams, of the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh. Size, 44 inches by 30 inches. 1. — Horse. 4.— Ox. 2.- Mare. 5.— Boar and Sow. S.^Cow. 6.— Dog and Bitch. The above are printed in eight or nine colors. Showing the position of the viscera in the large cavities of the body^ Price, unmounted 1 75 each " mounted on linen, with roller 3 50 " THOMPSON, (t)" Elementary lectures on Teterinary Science." For agricultural students, farmers and stock keepers. By Henry Thompson, M.E.C.V.S., lecturer on Veterinary Science at the Aspatria Agri- cultural College, England. It is complete yet concise and an up-to-date book. Cloth, 397 pp., 51 illus..3 75 VAN MATEH. "a Text Book of Veterinary Oph- thalmology." By George G. Van Mater, M.D., D.V.S., Professor of Ophthalmology in the American Veterinary College ; Oculist and Aurist to St. Martha's Sanitarium and Dispensary; Consulting Eye and Ear Surgeon to the Twenty-sixth Ward Dispensary ; Eye and Ear Surgeon, Brooklyn Eastern District Dispen- sary, etc. Illustrated by one chromo lithograph plate and 71 engravings. Cloth, 6x9 1-4, 151 pages. ..3 00 . . . We intend to adopt this valuable work as a text book.— E. J. Creely, D.V.S., Dean of the San Francisco Veterinary College. VETERINARY DIAGRAMS in Tabular Form. Size, 28J in. x 22 inches. Price per set of five 4 00 Mounted and folded in case 7 PO Mounted on roller and varnished 10 00 No. 1. "The External Form and Elementary Ana- tomy of the Horse." Eight colored illustrations — 1. External regions; 2. Skeleton ; 3. Muscles (Superior Layer) ; 4. Muscles (Deep Layer) ; 5. Respiratory Ap- paratus ; 6. Digestive Apparatus ; 7. Circulatory Ap- paratus ; 8. Nerve Apparatus ; with letter-press descrip- tion 1 25 Mounted on roller and 'varnished 2 25 No. 2. " The Age of Domestic Animals." Forty-two figures illustrating the structure of the teeth, indicat- ing the Age of the Horse, Ox, Sheep, and Dog, with full description 75 Mounted on roller and varnished 2 00 VKTEEINARY DIAGRAMS (continued). No. 3. "The Unsoundness and Defects of the Horse.'' Fifty figures illustrating— 1. The Detects ol Confor- mation ; 2. Defects of Position ; 3. Infirmities or Signs of Disease ; 4. Unsoundnesses ; 5. Defects of the Foot ; with full description 75 Mounted on roller and varnished 2 00 No. 4. "The Shoeing of the Horse, Male and Ox." Fifty figures descriptive of the Anatomy and Physio- logy of the Foot and of Horse-shoeing. 75 Mounted on roller and varnished 2 00 No. 5. "The Elementary Anatomy, Points, and But« Cher's Joints of the Ox." Ten colored illustrations — 1. Skeleton; 2. Nervous System; 3. Digestive System (Right Side) ; 4. Respiratory System ; 6. Points of a Fat Ox ; 6. Muscular System ; 7. Vascular System ; 8. Digestive System (Left Side) ; 9. Butcher's Sections of a Calf ; 10. Butcher's Sections of an Ox ; with full doscriptlon 1 25 Mounted on roller and varnished 2 25 WALLEY. (fV A Practical Guide to Meat Inspection." By Thomas Walley, M-R-C.V.S., late principal of the Edinburgh Roy.il (Dick) Veterinary College; Pro- fessor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, etc. Fourth Edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged by Stewart Stockman, M.R.C.V.S., Professor of Pathology, Lecturer on Hygiene and Meat Inspection at Dick Veterinary College, Edinburgh. Cloth, size 5 1-2x8 1-4, with 45 colored illus., 295 pages 3 00 An experience of over 30 years in his profession and a long official connection (some sixteen years) with Edinburgh Abattoirs have enabled the author to gather a large store of information on the subject, which he has embodied in his book. While Dr. Stockman is indeed indebted to the old for much useful Information, this up-to- date work will hardly be recognized as the old " Walley's Meat Inspection." WILCOX. (*)" Handbook of Meat Inspection." By Robert Ostertag, M.D. See " Ostertag." fFlLLIAMS. "Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine." Author's edition, entirely revised and illustrated with numerous plain and colored plates. Bv W. Williams, M.B.O.V.S. Cloth, size 5 3-4x8 3-4, 86S pages 7 50 — " Principles and Practice of Teterlnary Surgery." Author's edition, entirely revised and illustrated with numerous plain and colored plates. By W. Williams, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 61-2x9 1-4, 756 pages 7 SO THE MOST COMPLETE, PROGRESSIVE A SCIENTIFIC BOOK ON THE SUBJECT IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (•) WINSLO W. "Veterinary Materia Medica and Tlierapen- tics." By Kenelm Winslow. B.A.S., M.D.V., M.D., (Harv.) ; formerly Assistant Professor of Therapeutics in the Veterinary School of Harvard University; Fellow of tiie Massachusetts Medical Society ; Surgeon to the Newton Hospital, etc. Fourth Edition, Revised Cloth, size 6 1-4x9 1-4, x + 804 pages ... 6 00 Iq the preparation of the fourth revised edition of this work, very considerable revisioD was made necessary in orderthat it conform to the changes brought about by publication of therevlsed United States Pnarmaoopceia in 1905. To what extent revision was required will be realized when it is Itnown that there have been 123 additions, 106 changes in the streneth of preparations and 139 changes in the ofScial title of drugs in the new Pharmacopeia. Thus the doses ol many preparations have suffered the most radical change, and some of the old friends have new names. All Extraota Fluida have been changed. The offloal names of many salts are altered, with corresponding changes in the Latin terminations. In the revision of the General Index it was also made apronounoingvocabulary of drugs and terms of pharmacology, which will be appreciated the moment attention is directed to tbe matter. Notwithstunding the short time which has elapsed since the last edition of this book, a number of additions have been made to keep it abreast of the times. Since the work has become the recognized authority in Veterinary Materia IVIedica and Therapeutics, and is the standard text-book on the subject in tbe veterinary colleges of the United States, the author and r ublisher feel it their duty to con- stantly revise its pages in order to hold the book up to that standard which it has hitherto attained. WYMAN. (•)"BoTine Obsteti-ics." By M. G. De Bruin, Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V.,V.S. See also " De Bruin." — (•)" Catechism of the Principles of Veterinary Surgery." Bv W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V.,V.S. Cloth, size 6x9, 321 pages 3 50 Concerning Ihis neiv work attention is called to the following points: 1.— It discusses the subject upon the basis of veterinary investigations. a.— It does away with works on human pathology, histology, etc. 3.— It explains each question thoroughly both from a scientific as well as a practical point of view. i, — It ia wrlten by one knowing the needs of the student. 6. — It deals exhaustively with a chapter on tumors, heretofore utterly neglected in vetermary pathology. 6.— The only work in English specializing the subject. 7.— The only work thoroughly takiog Into consideration American as well as European Investigations. 8,_0fEering practical hints which have not appeared in print, the f egult of large city and country practice. WYMAN (Continued) — it/' The Clinical Diagnosis of Lameness in the Horse." By W. E. A. Wyman, D.V.B., formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, Clemson A. & M. CJoUege, and Veterinarian to the South Caroliaa Experiment Station. Oiotb, size 6x9 1-2, 182 pp., 32 lUus. . . .2 50 — (f)"Tibio.peroneal Neurectomy for the Relief of Sparin Lameness." By W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V., V.S. Boards, size 6 x 9, 30 pages, illustrated 5 Anyone wanting to perform this operation should procure this little treatise ; he will find it of considerahle help. — The Vetertna/ry JoumaZ. ZUNDEL,. "The Horse's Foot and Its Diseases." By A. Zundel, Principal Veterinarian of Alsace Lorraine. Translated by Dr. A. Liautard, V.S. Cloth, size 5x7 3-4, 248 pages, illustrated 2 00 ZTJILL, "Typhoid Feyer; or Contag^ions Influenza in the Horse." By Prof. W. L. Zuill, M.D.,D.V.S. Pamphlet, size 6x9 1-4, 29 pages 25 Any book sent •prepaid for the price WILLIAM R. JENKINS CO. 851 and 853 Sixth Avenue, NEW YORK. i