CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE DATE DUE ry in, — ■ J .. -r^ . , ,1,^, i\CR..»--« -"m-'-Tt ir*, ^" . -.- .' ^ - '^'' m — Mlltf#>^ •• D^gJI Iff^ 1 t is GAYUORD PRINTEDIN U.S.A. ^ Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029524844 Cornell University Library Z696 .R52 Classification theorectical „ anjf ...iRIjS'.'Sf.iE oiin 3 1924 029 524 844 '^ ^ LASSIFICATION THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL I. The Order of the Sciences II. The Classification of Books Together with an Appendix containing an Essay towards a Bibliographical History of Systems of Classificatibn ERNEST CUSHING RICHARDSON Librarian of Princeton University THE NEW YORK STATE LIBRARY SCHOOL ASSOCIA TJON ALUMNI LECTURES 1900-1901 NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1 901 K e, '^h^f: Copyright, 1901, BY Ernest Gushing Richardson. PREFACE. A WORD of explanation is due to the mem- bers of the Alumni Association regarding these lectures. The invitation to deliver them was a double one; on the one hand from a representative ofthe school who wished some- thing on the philosophical order, which should be a contribution to the theory of library sci- ence, and on the other hand from a represen- tative of the alumni who wished something very practical. The lectures are the result of an attempt to meet both wishes even at the risk of falling between two stools. There is a perhaps small, but very earnest, number of librarians at the present day who are extremely anxious that the rising gen- eration of librarians should be thoroughly grounded in the habit of searching the his- torical and philosophical basis of their art to the very bottom. They believe that the real progress of things in years to come depends precisely on that thing, that there is no dan- ger of any neglect of the most thorough study of practical method in every aspect, but that there is danger that the habit of scientific thought will be neglected. They be- lieve as cordially as any that the scholar with- out business ability and training is as much out of place in a library as he would be in Wall Street, but they believe also and with equal conviction that the best banker without literary and scholarly attainjnent is a pitiable spectacle as a librarian. This view is perhaps held as concretely at the Albany Library School as anywhere, al- though the bibliographical and even palaeo- graphical courses at Pratt Institute and else- where are strong symptoms of the same feel- ing. At the Albany school with its nearly fifty students, every one college trained, if anywhere, something of the most scholarly possible work can be, and is, attempted with success. It was felt that here, if anywhere, the attempt might be made to present to stu- dents of library science the view that the most highly philosophical treatment that can be given to its problems has important bearing on progress in the most practical details of the art. It is by no means intended to claim that these particular lectures represent adequate philosophical knowledge or that their conclu- sions are in any sense final. They are simply the thinking of this one lecturer along this line. If there is in them any contribution, however small, so much the better. The point vu of the lectures, however, was not so much to reach results as to incite others to scholarly work. If the lectures fail to reach this end, whether through being too scholastic or for any other reason, it will be a matter of regret to the lecturer, but it will be his fault, not the fault of the principle. Of these lectures it may perhaps be said with some degree of reason that a pure dis- cussion of the order of the sciences seems to belong rather to the college course itself than to a library school course. As a matter of fact, however, the student in college does not get this — at least does not get it in that in- tensely practical way in which it comes to those whose life work will be the interpreta- tion of a system, or perhaps helping in the evolution of a new system. As regards the matter in itself considered, one may sustain the thesis that it is as nec- essary for a thoroughly first class librarian to know the philosophical order and divisions of the sciences as it is for a bridge-builder to know Mechanics. Those librarians therefore who say that they "do not see the use" of the study of incunabula, palaeography, the laws (rather than the rules) of classification, the history of libraries, ^thics and social condi- tions as governing and governed by the pro- duction and distribution of books, the theory VIU of literature, ^c, etc., have an undoubted right to their point of view, but that point of view is not the one calculated to produce a true librarian. There are those who seem to think that anything scholarly leads to unpracticality be- cause many of the men represented to be most learned are unpractical. But are there none unpractical among the ignorant? Learning which is not practical is not scholarly but scholastic. Of learning which is practical there cannot be too much in any trade. Other things being equal — heredity, personality and common sense — the more "learned" a libra- rian is the better he will buy, the better or- ganize his treasury, secretaryship, shelf and delivery and all the other departments, the better too will his books be cataloged, clas- sified and used. Since the lectures were delivered two ob- servations have been made which require no- tice here. Mr. E. M. Fairchild, of the Albany Educational Church Board, has, apropos of the question of the natural order, called attention to the fact that the new educators, not only in colleges but in secondary schools, are coming to arrange their lines of teaching according to the "natural" order of the sci- ences. It follows that if the system of clas- sification in vogue in any library is at variance in any way with the ord«r in use in the schools the librarian must be all the more in- timate with the scientific order to the end that he may harmonize, so far as possible, with his library classification and may guide pupils who are in the habit of thinking in another order. The use, therefore, which the library student will find for a somewhat intimate familiarity with the relations of the sciences, theoretically considered, will not be limited by the use in making or altering a classifica- tion or even, what is its chief practical use, in classifying into it, but will extend to all sorts of reference work, from that of helping the special student down to that of helping the primary school child — or his teacher. The second observation which calls for no- tice in this preface is a remark that "coming from Princeton campus'' the lectures may, in some mysterious way, be calculated to cast an "odium theologicum" somewhere. The inten- tion of the lecture was distinctly to stop with the merest reference to theology, and it was supposed that even this reference had been sufficiently guarded in speaking of it as the "theory known as Christianity," etc. How- ever, in the fear that there may still lurk something explosive in the handling of so dangerous a subject, even in small quanti- ties, and thereby unjust responsibility be cast on the Princeton Theological Seminary, whose professors the lecturer is honored to know, but with whom he has no official con- nection whatever, or even odium, theological, philosophical or otherwise, be cast on the University with which he is connected, I has- ten to say that nobody connected with Prince- ton save the lecturer himself is responsible for these views or has even heard that he has them. Whether the possible odium is because the views are too orthodox or because they are too heterodox, informant saith not. It should perhaps be noted that usage, which seemed fluctuating as to "ions" or ''corpuscles" when these lectures were writ- ten, now seems to have settled on "corpus- cles" for fractional atoms. Orthographic usage is somewhat influenced by the preferences of the Library Journal, where these lectures were first published in part. Ernest Gushing Richardson. Princeton University Library, I March zo, 1901. ) CLASSIFICATION CONTENTS Preface v Table of contents xi Introduction. 1. The nature of classification. . i 2. Kinds of classification 8 3. Laws or principles of classi- fication II Lecture L The order of the sciences. L Divisions and vmity 17 IL The order of the sciences the order of things 18 in. Organic unity 22 IV. Things past and things pres- ent 24 V. Ideas as things 26 VI. The ordering of ideas 27 VII. An hypothetical order 29 VIII. Cosmic history 33 IX. The order of complexity 39 X. The order stated 43 xu Lecture II. The classification of books. I. Book classification an art... 46 II. Book classification and card classification Si III. The objects and importance of book classification 53 IV. The kinds of book classifica- tion 60 V. Likeness between theoretical classification and book clas- sification 67 VI. Differences between theoreti- cal classification and book classification 69 I. Making the schedules.. 69 (a) Modification by cir- cumstances 70 (b) Variation arisi n g from the nature of books 72 (c) Differences arising from intended use. 74 (i) Adjustment to build- ing 74 XIU Lecture II. — Continued. (2) The princi- pl e s of s u b d ivi- sion 76 (3) The ques- tion of d eg r ee and p r o- portion in s u b d ivi- sion 77 2. Making a notation 80 3. Classification of the card catalogue 83 4. The classification o f books on the shelves. . 83 5. The putting of the books in their classes 85 VII. Criteria of a practical book classification 86 VIII. Conclusion 87 Appendix. Systems of classification. I. Method 91 XI Appendix. — Continued. II. Classification of classifica- tions 93 III. Literature referred to 94 IV. Theoretical systems lOO V. Practical systems IS3 VI. Systems of current biblio- graphical periodicals 232 VII. Partial systems of classifica- tion 234 VIII. Systems of alphabetical clas- sification 23s Index 237 ♦* INTRODUCTION. THE NATURE, KINDS AND LAWS OF CLASSIFICA- TION. First by way of introduction, a definition of terms relating to the nature, the kinds and I the underlying principles or laws of classifi- k cation. t :. THE NATURE OF CLASSIFICATION. Classification is in its simplest statement the putting together of like things, or more fully described, it is the arranging of things ac- cording to likeness and unlikeness. It may also be expressed as the sorting and grouping of things. It is convenient sometimes, to speak, of "likeness and unlikeness'" but really in classification it is "likeness" which rules while "unlikeness" is merely what is left over when likeness has been defined. The "put- ting together of like things" is therefore the fullest and most exact form of the definition. So simple an act as the putting away of a handful of change in one's purse contains the gist of a process through which every thing and every thought in the universe has come into being — the paper money is- put in one compartment, the coin in another and then perhaps the coin is subdivided again by put- ting the gold, silver, nickcj, or copper eacii in a separate compartment If the money is to be counted, it will probably be laid on a table, in groups of paper, gold, silver, etc., these groups arranged according to value into one and two cent pieces copper; three and five nickel; ten, twenty-five, fifty and one dollar silver; and so on with gold and paper. Into each group will be put all the pieces of like material and like value. The money in this act is fully classified, its pieces have all been put together according to likeness, first ac- cording to material and then according to . value. This is a mechanical example of what actually goes on in every process of classifica- tion whether of ideas or things. It represents also the real order of arrangement of things in the universe — a series of groups and groups of groups arranged according to de- gree of likeness from the simplest to the most complex. What this process leads to will be discussed under the order of the sciences, but the process is the same all along the line. The object at which classification aims is in every case order or system and its result is called a system. It starts facing a disorder- 3 ly mass, and aims to reduce this to an orderly whole. If this is classification what then is a thing ? A thing as subject for classification is what- ever is; that is to say whatever has separate existence. Whether its substance is matter or motion or spirit is indifferent. If it is, it may be classified, and if it can be classified it must be that it is. That is the whole of it. Identity, sameness, and thing-ness are one and the same thing. The characteristic of a thing is that it is itself. It is a and it is not b. It is discrete, separate and in short sub- ject to definition. Ideas are therefore the subjects of classifi- cation just as much as anything else not only because they have a material as well as a spiritual substance but because they are in- dividual separate things existing in a certain place at a certain time in a certain definable nature. Things therefore as the subject of classifi- cation include the things in man and the things outside. The things outside include in turn the things which make man (nature and environment) and the things which man makes or art. Things therefore include na- ture, ideas and art. Of these man has to do only with ideas and art. The things of na- 4 ture are already classified, but this classifica- tion according to nature may be rearranged by man and this is art, whether it is plowing, or breeding, the making of houses, paintings or books, or yet the reorganization of a man's ideas in education. Ideas themselves are therefore of two sorts, corresponding with the two kinds of outer things, nature and art. One kind is facing nature and the other is facing art, but the operation with either sort is one of classifica- tion. Classification of ideas on the one hand facing nature is knowledge, and when carried to perfection is called science. The classifi- cation of ideas on the other hand into a group which never yet has had any likeness in the outer world, but may have, and is in- tended to have, is art. The true classification of the ideas of things that have been, in short the classification of the sciences, is simply the order of nature paralleled. The classifica- tion into new ideas or art is by this same token not an imitation of nature and is end- less in possible variety. It must be remembered in this connec- tion that from the standpoint of the indi- vidual, i. e., the standpoint of knowledge, everything is an outside thing to a man. save his own ideas (and perhaps even the major part of his own ideas.) Everybody's ideas s save his own and all art, even his own if represented in outer things, is "'nature.'' His business is first to get within himself exact ideas of these things and second to classify these exact ideas into a series which shall it- self be an exact idea of the order of outer things. As a race and as an individual man gets his ideas helter skelter. When he starts to think they are a disorderly mass, a chaos of ideas which he must reduce to order by classification. The final goal of his effort is exact ideas of everything that is, arranged ac- cording to the real order of things in the universe; the idea, in short, of the whole of things, a whole which includes ideas and art as well as nature. The process to that end is classification or the putting together ac- cording to likeness. What then again is likeness? Likeness, as the ground of the putting to- gether of things in classification is, in brief terms, interchangeability — the state in which some portion or element of any two things is such that it can be taken from one and put in the other and vice versa without changing the real character of each. A homely exam- ple of this is the Waltham watch. Take two machine-made watches of the better type, they are so nearly alike in all their details that any part of one may be exchanged for the like 6 part of the other, or vice versa, and both watches will still go as before. They are alike in all essential parts. Likeness is to be distinguished from iden- tity or sameness on the one hand and from similarity or resemblance on the other. Note therefore in the case of the watch that the pieces exchanged are not "the same" or "iden- tical," but "like" pieces, and note also that a variation of the most trifling kind might stop both watches. The pieces must on the one hand do more than resemble or be similar. They must be alike. They must on the other hand be less than the "same" piece, otherwise only one watch could be kept going at a time. Likeness therefore is neither identity nor mere resemblance. Likeness thus on the one hand is less than identity or sameness. One might possibly call identity "absolute likeness," »'. e., likeness in every conceivable respect including the posi- tion of each of its smallest parts in space, but this is forcing language. In this state it is the same substance. Absolute likeness, or likeness complete in every respect, including position in space is not to be distinguished from thingness itself, and is better called iden- tity, or sameness. Likeness might perhaps be described as identity in kind but not in substance. Like 7 things are of the same kind, but not the same substance, and here is where a mistake is oftenest made. We say loosely that two gold pieces are made from the same substance. They are not; they are made of like sub- stances or the same kind of substance, but every molecule of gold is a separate thing by itself and perhaps even every atom and every ion of it. Like things are not the same but equal, and perhaps the fundamental law of the determination of likeness might be de- scribed as the law that things equal to the same things are equal to one another. Like- ness is therefore less than identity. Likeness on the other hand is more than resemblance or similarity. These latter may be well described as partial likeness. Things are more or less alike according to the amount which they have in common, i. e. the amount which can be taken from the one and put in the other without material disturbance. It is a mere question of subtraction or better of algebraic substitution. The difference there- fore between likeness and resemblance is the difference between exactly alike, very much alike and more or less alike. We mean thus ordinarily by likeness or exact likeness, such degree of likeness that no test or experiment which we can apply will reveal any condition under which one cannot 8 be substituted for the other. We do not ex- haust likeness even in this since even the minutest atom, which can be substituted for any other atom of the same kind in every known chemical compound is supposed to re- semble its other atoms not as shot does shot, but as two grains of sand, each with its own individualities. 2. KINDS OF CLASSIFICATION. Classification being the putting of things together according to likeness, there may be as many kinds of classification as there are kinds of likeness. Likeness may be in respect of mass or weight, it may be likeness of form or shape (». e., all circles, crosses, etc., together), like- ness of color (black and white marbles or children in a school), likeness in size (e. g., grenadier regiments), in hardness (your lead pencils), in brittleness (table ware), in elas- ticity (golf balls), in conductivity (insula- tors). It may be in transparency, specific gravity, radiating power or what not. The likeness may be one of position in space (geographical), or position in time (chronological), or of origin (genetic), or of power (dynamic). The series in likeness which is formed may 9 be in respect of quality (better or worse), quantity (more or less), extent or duration (longer or shorter), position (near or far). In every case a series is formed by taking from many things what is common to each and letting the more like follow the less like or vice versa. Where the likeness is one which is essential, which resides in the very character of the thing itself, the classification is called natural or logical classification; and this is, in fact, a classification according to the total amount of likeness. Classification according to some single mark of likeness is partial classification, while arrangment according to some acci- dental feature is artificial classification — the most familiar example of this being the al- phabetical classification. Partial and artificial are often not distinguished. The commonest kinds of classification are: (i.) The Logical ClassHication, or classifi- cation according to degree of likeness from most complex to the simplest. This is to be regarded as forming one face of what is known as Natural Classification and of which evolution is the opposite face. Each regards all elements of real likeness, but the logical leads the series along the path of the real order of things back from the most complex to the simplest, from the now back to the beginning of things, whereas evolution leadi it forward over the same ground. (2.) Geometrical ClassiUcation is classi- fication according to the order of position in space. It is founded on the fact that every atom of the universe at a given instant of time has a definite geometrical position with reference to every other atom. Its common- est form is the geographical, which arranges together all men, horses, cats, dogs, trees, etc., in given geometrical position on the earth's surface. (3.) Chronological ClassiUcation, or clas- sification according to position in time, is founded on the fact that at every successive instant of time every atom in the universe has a changed position with reference to every other atom. It groups together all things ex- tant at a given time, e. g., all men born on a certain day. Its commonest example is a table of dates. (4.) Genetic Classification is the grouping according to likeness of origin and is seen every day in family history. (S.) Historical Classification combines the chronological, the geographical and the gene- tic ideas and arranges, (i) according to posi- tion in space, (2) according to order in time, (3) according to the order of genesis. This carried to its highest power results in: (6.) Evolutionary ClassiAcation or classifi- cation according to the order of likeness from the simplest to the most complex. This is as has been said the complement of logical classification and both are faces of the one "natural" order. To these familiar general forms should per- haps be added : (7.) Dynamic Classification, or classifica- tion according to the order of power. (8.) Alphabetical Classification, or classi- fication according to the letters of names — one of the commonest of artificial classifica- tions. And (9.) Mathematical Classification, or classi- fication according to the order of numerical symbols — the prince of artificial classifica- tions and servant of all the natural classifica- tions. 3. LAWS OR PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. A law is simply the way in which things are in the habit of acting. It may be defined as the like action of like things under like circumstances. Any given law is simply the historical fact that certain things under cer- tain circumstances act in a certain way. The idea of law is that things having always acted in this way may be expected to act in this way in the future, although there is no guarantee of this, because some other "law" may come in to modify. A law is distinguished from an hypothesis or a theory simply by the number of times that a given thing has been known to hap- pen. If like things under like circumstances are seen to act in like fashion two or more times, we affirm an hypothesis. Care is then taken to note exactly, when it happens again, whether things and circumstances are exactly alike and whether the resulting action is still like those before noticed. When experiments have been carried to every conceivable extent, it becomes a law. The shades of meaning be- tween hypothesis, theory, law and principle are such that one cannot quarrel much with the interchange of bordering ones although one must try and stop short of the inter- change of hypothesis and law and principle. Among the chief principles or laws which have to be taken into account in classification are, (i.) The law of likeness. Likeness is the universal principle of the order of things. Things are either already put together accord- ing to likeness in nature or they are put to- gether by man in his mind or in outer mater- ial. Things arranged according to likeness without the aid of man are nature. Ideas ar- ranged according to likeness are knowledge. 13 Outer things arranged by man according to likeness are art. In every case the true like- ness is the one which determines order. In nature or outer things unmodified by n:an this principle of likeness reigns in math- ematics in the law that things like the same thing are like one another, in physics according to the law that like masses attract in like manner. The most familiar example of this is a pair of scales where if the masses in each pan are equal they are equally at- tracted by the earth. If they are unlike in mass, the amount which constitutes likeness balances, but the remainder of mass is also attracted and having no counterpoise ap- proaches the earth. The law reigns again in nature in the mag- netic and electric laws that like quantities attract (or repel) equally. It reigns again in the law of chemical affinity according to which like atoms attract more strongly than unlike and the more complex a molecule the more unstable it is. The principle of likeness in living things takes the form of the law of genesis, or that like begets like, and the complementary law of homology that real likeness among things indicates common ancestry. Among ideas likeness is the foundation of all thought and every variation of the act of 14 thought can be summed up according to Bain into likeness, unlikeness and retentive- ness, or according to Spencer into likeness, unlikeness and integration. Likeness is so the essence of all human thought, that liter- ally there is no smallest act of the human mind which cannot be analyzed into just this operation of distinguishing like and unlike and either holding to or rejecting. Likeness in particular is the foundation of that sys- tematic thought carried to its ultimate which we call logic. And what is true of science is also true of art, that every artistic impression is mere- ly a classification of presentations of likeness and unlikeness. What we see in a landscape can be resolved into terms of contrast of light and shade. Indeed the law of likeness carries itself into the active personality as well, for here it is that character resolves itself simply into choice, the classification of things into like and dislike and the integration of the like. Action itself is choice, or the classification according to like and unlike. In the field of Sociology, enlarging from the sphere of individual character to the na- ture of men as a whole, it may be said that all social relations, economic and political, are founded according to the latest opinion 15 upon the fact of likeness, or, if you choose, the consciousness of likeness, the "'con- sciousness of kind," as Mr. Giddings says. Likeness is therefore characteristic of all things and its law may be expressed as the law that all things in the universe are or- ganized according to their likeness. Many if not most laws are so to speak sub-laws of this and among those especially interesting in our task are: (a) The law that things like the same things are like each other, (b) The law that like draws like, (c) The law that like begets like, and (d) The law that true like- ness points to a common ancestry. (2.) The second general principle useful for our task is the historical law that the pro- gress of things in space and time is also in general a genetic progress in complexity. (3.) The law of evolution adds to the law of history the observation that the law of historical progress from the simple to the complex holds good of all things which tend toward continued existence. In the general use of the word it is a complex including the ideas, (i) of logical progress in com- plexity, (2) progress in space and time cor- responding with progress in complexity so that the order of complexity is also the order of appearance in time, (3) the genesis of the more from the less complex, (4) growth in i6 complexity the condition of life, and (s) de- generation which is the complement to evolu- tion proper and adds the fact that wherever things are not growing in complexity they are proceeding toward dissolution. The net result of the law is the doctrine that in the long run those things which are constantly grow- ing in complexity continue to have existence while others perish. These laws or principles are as you see simply a sort of resume of what went before as they are the foundation of what is to fol- low. LECTURE I. THE ORDER OF THE SCIENCES. I. DIVISIONS AND UNITY. The order of the sciences involves two things, first, divisions, groups or classes; sec- ond, unity or order. The end is a whole, the process is a defining of classes and the binding of these classes together into a whole. Each function of the process is a putting to- gether according to likeness. The division of the sciences and the putting of them together, are alike classification. The end in view is an organic whole in which there is a place for everjrthing and everything in its place. This organic whole of sciences is science. It is a whole of parts, a one from many, and the or- der of the sciences is a description of the relative place which each part holds in the organism. It is to be remembered all the time through this discussion that sciences are not separate things, but only divisions in the sense that a man's hands, feet, eyes, etc., are parts of a whole. Every man is a unity. A distinction between hand and wrist is practical and use- i8 ful, but who shall say just where hand stops and wrist begins? So to of science and the "branches of knowledge." Who shall say where the trunk stops and the branches be- gin? The phrase, "Classification of the Sciences," seems to point rather towards a division into groups, the "Order of the Sciences" toward a united whole without, however, losing the idea of its being a whole of parts. It is for this reason that "Order" instead of "Classifi- cation" has been chosen as caption for this lecture, for it is likeness which rules, not unlikeness, unity not variety, and classes are sure soon to overstep one another's boun- daries and get out of perspective unless a final unity is held constantly in view. The real problem is one of unity, for the rough groups which every one can pick out at a glance only adjust themselves within their own boun- daries and to one another in their adjustment to the whole. n. THE ORDER OF THE SCIENCES THE ORDER OF THINGS. The first thing to be remembered in trying to get at the divisions and unity of the sci- ences, whether one in prosecution of the task is facing toward divisions or toward unity, is 19 the fact that the order of sciences is the order of things. The science itself is nothing apart from the things or facts with which it deals. To define a science one must define the group of facts with which it deals. When a line has been drawn around any group of facts then the science is simply the analysis and classification of those facts, the placing them in their true order within the boundary. What IS true of any one science is true also of the whole of the sciences. It depends di- rectly on the whole of things. The bottom fact thus from which attention must never be diverted in this search is the fact that the order of the sciences is simply a counterpart of the order of things. It is hardly too much to say that the chief drawback to progress in the conception of the whole of things has been this very confusion between the inner realm of ideas and the outer realm of things. Men have somehow looked on their own ideas as the place where the order of things was to be discovered, and many systems of classification, such, e. g., as that of Bacon, have been founded on subjec- tive laws. It is, of course, within the mind's sphere of ideas that a man must work. He does not deal with the things themselves di- rectly so much as with little brain maps (brain drawings or brain models, so to speak) of the things themselves. Yet at the same time it is true that these very brain maps themselves have no meaning or value save as they are true and complete images of the outer reali- ty. It is the outer universe which is the start- ing point and fixed factor of all the search for order. As the inner idea corresponds with the real fact or truth or not, it is worthy or worthless. If perchance any man's ideas were ever per- fectly true and complete then the problem of order would be simple enough and could be performed wholly within the cloister of his own mind. It would then be nothing more nor less than putting together a picture puzzle or "assembling" the parts of a locomotive, and there is in fact a theory of "innate ideas" which supposes just this, that every man is born into the world with just such a stock of ideas or intuitions, perfect in quality and quantity. As a matter of fact, however, no one will deny that a man's ideas, whether in- born or not (and the Librarian thinks that there are inborn ideas), and whether they are true-born or not (and the Librarian thinks that they are not true-born), are cer- tainly not true by the time the man gets to the reflective age. So far from being true that the problem is simply that of assembling the finished parts of a locomotive, it is more like arranging the battered and twisted frag- ments of a locomotive after a wreck. The only way that it can be done at all is by com- paring with the original model, hammering and forging twisted ideas and supplying lost ones. But men forget this. They try to put the whole together out of their distorted and defective ideas as they are instead of compar- ing them often and strictly with the outer world. If the attention is kept strictly on things as they are, the ideas of things will classify themselves including the ideas of things as a whole, but there is no escape from the method. Every man who starts to set up his fragmentary ideas into a working whole must then compare often with his model, the outer whole. If, on the contrary, a man shuts him- self up within the circle of ideas that he has already gotten, as he has gotten them, he simply goes round in a circle, stumbling over the same contradictions because the ideas are no more and have still the same deformities. The starting point therefore of all progress toward getting a clear conception of the order of the sciences is the axiom: The order of sciences is the order of things. The history of the establishment of this idea belongs rather to Philosophy than to our present task. The School of Experience no doubt paved the way; but it was the posi- tivist Comte who gave the greatest recent modern impetus, and Spencer and others of his school who have done much to bring it into clear-cut statement and something as well to confuse the issue. III. ORGANIC UNITY. Starting with this the way is cleared of its greatest obstacle, but the order is by no means yet reached. The matter is in fact hardly less puzzling than before. The point of at- tention has been changed from the mass of ideas to the objective world of things; but we have not yet the answer even to question whether there is a universal order of things at all, or if there is of what nature this order may be. So puzzling is the question that there have been those, of course, who have denied that there was any such thing as an order to things at all. Besides these skeptics there have also been many (and they include a large school of idealists) who have held that the only order that there is among things is an order of ideas; that there is no actual counterpart to that order in external things if indeed there be any external things at all. They say that there may be an order to the universe within the mind — the microcosm, but that there is none to the outside world. 23 In spite of all the baffling contradictions however there is such perfection of order in minor groups of things that the more one seeks the more he finds growing in him such a sense, strong though elusive, that there is, if it could only be grasped, some kind of rela- tion for pretty nearly everything that is, that he returns to the common habit of mankind of taking it for granted that there is such a thing as order, and this order one such that it may be found out; that the whole of things is in short a Cosmos, not a Chaos. At all ages of the world, it has in fact been gener- ally held as true that there is some such order. What the nature of this order is has been variously expressed, but there is a curi- ous harmony between the most ancient and the most modern views in calling it "living" or "organic." This idea that this whole is a "living thing." familiar to us in Plato's Timaeus, is contained in the most primitive myth of the "world tree" and in the most modern philosophies as well. Indeed, if we may believe Herr Lotze, human thought never does rest, and never can rest until it reaches a place where "the whole content of reality is conceived under some principle of organic unity.'' (Ormond, Found, of Knowl., p. 98) e. g., conceived of as a tree or animal rather than as a molecule, a cryst-al or a system of planets. 24 Most men therefore agree that there is a "unity," but to find in what this unity con- sisted, and especially what Plato means by calling it "living,"' and the moderns by call- ing it "organic," has puzzled librarians and philosophers alike. Endless attempts have been made from every point of view to solve the riddle, and although these differences on the whole are hardly so remarkable as the resemblances, yet the solutions are practic- ally as various as the attempts. IV. THINGS PAST AND THINGS PRESENT. The greatest clearing of the lines came in with the development of the idea or law of Evolution. Thanks to this idea we have now a clear view of a second great fact which can- not be kept too clearly in mind in our pres- ent task, to wit: the fact that the whole of things includes not only things present, but things past. The ignorance or neglect of this fact has, like the neglect of the outer world, led to the greatest possible confusion in the past and leads constantly to confusion still, when the conception is at all slighted. The common if not exclusive popular idea of a whole of things has been a great mole- cule or crystal or system of planetary sys- tems. However true this may be of things 25 that now are, it does not include things that have been. There is no place in such a sys- tem for plants and animals which have no living specimens, no place for Julius Caesar, and so on. The mechanical universe is in short not a whole of things past and present, but only of things present, whereas the, real universe had Julius Caesar in it, and what is more the historian and the librarian have to take concrete account of the fact, one to lo- cate the actual point in history when and where he was, the other to represent that point in a system so that a book about him can be put in a class. The idea that things have a history is not a new one. Applied to man, at least, the idea is familiar enough, but applied to every- thing in the universe, from suns down to the smallest molecule, the idea only finally came to light with the doctrine of evolution. Now it seems curious that we did not realize that not only does every atom in the universe de- pend on its position at a given instant of time on the position of every other atom, but that it depends on its own position at every previous instant of time, and that these posi- tions were dependent in turn on the positions of all others at that instant and they on it, and so on every position of every atom at every instant being dependent on every other. 26 Every animal, every plant, every molecule at least, possibly every atom even, has thus its history, and every one has affected every other or has been affected by every other or both throughout one organic whole from the time when the first vortex entered the world fluid until to-day. V. IDEAS AS THINGS. Still a third thing which helps to clearness in our task and the neglect of which has caused confusion, is the fact that ideas are real things, calling for a place in the order of things. Every man's idea, whatever may be the substance underlying it, whether mat- ter or force, has a definite place in space and time, and is at least accompanied by a definite molecular form. These ideas are located some in the minds of living men, real things now existing each in its own definite place. Some were located in the minds of men now dead. We have fossils of these ideas now in books, statues and pictures, just as the sci- entist has his fossil animals. The idea it- self is in this case a thing of the past, but it may Be reconstructed from books just as the long extinct animal from its fossil re- mains. The true book, the true picture, the true statue, is not the one of paper and ink 27 or canvas or marble, but the living thing in the mind of the living artist, and we must distinguish these living ideas both from things past and things to come. In every in- dividual man there are these ideas, some rep- resenting things that have been, some put together out of ideas that have been to form things that may be — ideas of nature and new ideas, which are themselves art and created also into material outer things are known as Art. These three things therefore are to be kept clearly in mind, (i) that the order of the sciences is the order of things, (2) that things include the past as well as the pres- ent, (3) that things past or present include ideas as well as nature or art. VI. THE ORDERING OF IDEAS. With a clear idea of these three things we are ready to apply the fundamental ideas which have been worked out for us and have been defined in the introduction, and among them particularly the ideas (i) that all our science is a search for likeness, (2) that the order of things is the order of their com- plexity, (3) that things which are growing more complex are tending towards life, and conversely. 28 The situation now before us is this: we stand face to face with a chaos of our ideas, one vast jumble of ideas of houses, stones, books, trees, -other men's ideas, plants and what not, piled up hap-hazard and stored hap- hazard. The problem of every man who reaches thinking age is just this, to reduce such a body of ideas to order so that he may have a connected view of everything that is, so far as his ideas go, and incidentally to en- large the ideas themselves as far as possible so as to get as nearly as possible a just idea of the whole of things. This idea of ideas, this idea of the whole, which includes all other ideas organized into one idea should be an exact counterpart of that other whole which includes all things organized into one thing — in short, it should be an inner cosmos "mirroring" (as Haeckel would say) the outer cosmos. In attempting now to make a cosmos out of an inner chaos of ideas by applying our prin- ciples to the conditions, we understand of course thoroughly that in our task of ar- ranging in continuous series according to likeness from the simplest to the most com- plex we are arranging not things themselves but our ideas of things. We understand equally well, however, on the other hand, that we can make no possible progress towards 29 this real arrangement of ideas unless our units, our ideas of each thing are exactly like the reality, and unless the groupings of these ideas is also like the real grouping of things in the universe. The first step is therefore to make each unit idea exactly cor- respond with the reality. Then comes the putting together of the ideas by likeness, or their classification. VII. AN HYPOTHETICAL ORDER. Looking now at our heap of confused ideas (like a basket of various colored skeins of silk), there are certain things which are easy enough to notice. Men have heretofore long had a rough idea that things may be divided into "nature and the supernatural," and that nature includes "the vegetable, animal and mineral kingdoms." To-day we group nature into lifeless and living — plant and animal, but the general idea of vegetable, animal and mineral is not changed nor the fact that we then have a large class of alleged phenomena : God, the angels, fairies, miracles, etc., left over, the science of which, for convenience at least, we may call Theology. Even the order which we call "'evolutionary'' has long been recognized to a degree in a vague idea that 30 the plant was "higher" than the mineral, ani- mal than the plant, and God than man. But however near the truth the older sys- tems may have come in their vague way, it is only with the growth of the new science that infinite puzzling contradictions have been done away with and clear lines definitely es- tablished. Of course even now we must be far from the absolute goal, but this much at least it is safe to say, that, thanks to modern science and its laws, every one may now get if not a perfect idea of the whole, at least a clearer one than was ever possible before save perhaps to a few seers like Plato and Moses. Briefly expressed (and this you may call Hypothesis), the clearest groups of things are the lifeless, the living, the human and the superhuman, and their corresponding sciences are Hylology (or the mathematical -physical sciences). Biology, Anthropology and The- ology. This, too, is their order. It is the or- der of their appearance in time. It is the logical order, the order of complexity and the order of power. Those even who classify the idea of a personal God under morbid psy- chology cannot refuse to consider a "cosmol- ogy" or science of the whole, a science more complex than that of any of its parts and of these few many like to call this wholeness itself God. Theist and Pantheist alike 31 therefore will call the science of the super- human Theology, though the strict naturalist may prefer to call this most complex of sciences cosmology. So this tentative order of Hylology, Biology, Anthropology and The- ology may well stand. It is said that the sciences themselves have grown up in this order, but we cannot go into this now. At first sight it seems curious to speak of the superhuman as a climax in the order of complexity, but regarded as the material of a science it does at least include everything pre- ceding plus angels, God, and, if there be such things, fairies, etc. Again, it seems more curious still to speak of the superhuman as historically later in time; but the theory of Christian theology (as well as of the Vedic) is that God did not "enter into time" or become flesh; that is, did not take organic part in his universe until after and through man. Regarding The- ology as a science, therefore, we have the au- thority of the same religious theory for say- ing that there is no science of God save that whose subject-matter is the Incarnate God. I therefore repeat that the order of things is lifeless, living, human and superhuman, th(- order of sciences Hylology, Biology, An- thropology and Theology. This, of course, is only the barest outline, but it gives classes to 32 hold everything and a reasonable order. It offers at least an epitome of wholeness such as the Baconian system, for example, does not do. When it comes to applying to detailed sub- divisions, the principles of "likeness"' and of "growth in complexity," etc., which have just been applied to the broad general divisions, while we may not get everything clear, we shall clear up many of the old puzzles which have most troubled the classifiers (and libra- rians perhaps most of all for their task of classification, dealing, as it does, with con- crete things is more imperative than the clas- sification of ideas). Thus, e. g., History, Art, Literature and Technology, as well as The- ology, emerge from their Mohamet-coifin posi- tion as not-sciences into solid earth as sci- ences, and the vexatious subjective distinction of "abstract and concrete" science "pure and applied" vanish. This matter is pretty abstract to be dis- cussed with any clearness, especially in non- technical terms, within the limits of a single lecture, yet we will try to get some notion of it — some "tail-feathers" of the idea, as a cer- tain distinguished professor of Theology might say. 33 VIII. COSMIC HISTORY. It will simplify the matter if we begin by trying to trace the objective history of the whole of things in space and time from the beginning until to-day from the simplest to tht most complex, as well as the present state of our knowledge will allow. If we can thus get a general view of this connected histori- cal whole of which the material universe of to-day is the front rank of the advancing march of an army of atoms through time, the front wave of a stream reaching back to its scurce, we can then divide and name the sec- tions at pleasure. Suppose in the beginning then only little things in a world fluid, all alike, or a single little thing only. It is immaterial to us whether these little things are vortex rings or hard particles, so that they be exactly or substantially alike, so alike at least that no distinction can be made in them by the hu- man mind. This was once the conception that we had of atoms. Now we suppose that atoms may be redivided into ions. Suppose this to be true, and we have then to begin with, first, a world fluid, second, loose ions in a world fluid uniting here and there in groups of greater or less number, more or less 34 densely, to form atoms of various degrees of complexity. The point about each atom now is that it is itself a "discrete" thing, which "moves as a whole, so that its parts, if it has any, do not part company" under ordinary conditions. I: has a separate individual being which is not simple but a complex of ions. This complex is, however, so firm that under ordinary con- ditions of substance its ions do not part com- pany, though it is conceivable that there might be conditions of heat, electricity and light under which they would do so. The world fluid filled with these ions in various degrees of density short of the atomic stage may be supposed to be what we call ether (and all this applies quite as well to what is known as the condensation theory as it does to the atomic), unless indeed we are to sup- pose that in the ether the ion stage has been already passed and the atomic begun. The nature both of ion and of atom is somewhat recondite but this much at least seems clear that the atom is no longer to be looked on as simple and indivisible but as a complex of ions. The next stage of world history or evolu- tion is when these ion-complexes, or atoms, themselves unite with one another in various degrees of complexity to form again a series 35 of things each of which "moves about as a whole" and is not broken under any ordinary conditions. These independent groups are called molecules. Here we begin to walk on firmer ground. We know that we have some seventy different kinds of atoms. These atoms are united, some with like atoms to form the elements, some with unlike atoms to form still more complex molecules all the way up to the very high degree of complexity of the carbon compounds and their topmost branch protoplasm. It is not said that these cannot be resolved into their elements by suf- ficient heat or made more solid by cold (probably they can), but that under ordinary conditions they keep their thing-ness, their separate individual identity. It is to be re- membered, too, all the time that from the be- ginning we are dealing with things which however much alike they may be, are at least each separate in space, and that this is true even if their boundaries are the same; for in this case they may simply interpermeate as whole molecules of sugar in water, or broken up into parts as in the case of salt in water. Now all the time that the nearer things are forming more and more complex groups of atoms or molecules the process of grouping is going on, not in one part only, but in all parts of the world fluid, groups of atoms 36 formed into molecules are again formed into new groups or masses, and these wholes are themselves separate individuals in space, yet not unrelated to all other masses, and in some cases, at least, in the universe, united into groups of masses themselves separate in- dividual things, to wit, planetary systems. Some of these masses are, we understand, wholly of one kind of atom, say hydrogen vapors. Others, like the sun, contain nearly every element or every kind of group of like atoms. Others, like the earth, contain both elementary and complex molecules, although so far as human knowledge goes, this earth alone contains complex molecules. What- ever the fact may be, so far as our knowledge of the fact is concerned, i. e., so far as science is concerned, the earth is the only place in the universe where complex molecules are gathered. It is therefore, so far as the classi- fication of science is concerned, the most complex of all molecular aggregates in the universe. Glancing back over matters, we have, up to this point, ions, groups of ions = atoms; groups of atoms = molecules; gtroups of mole- cule9=planetary systems, and each of these has left behind it in each case many individ- uals not organized into a system. This same process now continues among 37 complex molecules, certain members of one kind of which alone, i. e., protoplasm, become organized themselves into independent groups which we call cells. These cells are again in turn of various degrees of complexity, veg- etable, animal, etc., up to the human. In the human cells alone is the mass of the most complex cells, the idea-cells (?) organized again into a new independent molecular unity, a logical idea of ideas, a human personality. Among these new molecules again, to wit, these human personalities or men, there is again a tendency towards union into individ- ual nucleated groups called societies, separate things in space. These include voluntary so- cieties, families, nations, churches, etc., per- haps the best example being so far as ap- pearance is concerned and so far as relates to things that now are, the Roman Catholic Church. According to the theory known as Chris- tianity, the true organism of human person- alities is a certain definite if unlimited num- ber of persons organized into a group whose nucleus is the historic Christ. These form a new independent organism which "moves about by itself" and leaves behind many per- sons not. organized into it. Its own individual particles can only be disintegrated when they have broken from the organism of this new 38 molecule or cell. This new organism is known as the (Invisible) Church, and is supposed to have a real existence dating from a given point in space and time (that is the historic Christ), at which time, however, the human cells previously formed were taken into the organism. This organism is to be regarded as a thing now existing as a real entity. Whether this be so or not, the visible church at least is such a real society, and is one of the things which must be taken into account, analyzed and classified under any theory of science. Whether the matter falls under the science of Theology or that of Anthropology may be hard to decide, but then all border lines in classification are hard to distinguish. There is no real cleavage. Whether again this is the end or not; whether in the future there is to be any group of such groups distributed anywhere in space and forming a society of societies throughout the universe is only a speculation, and sounds somewhat fantastic, even as spec- ulation, and yet it seems to be the logical re- sult of the evolutionary process if it is to continue. It is to be remembered that all this devel- opment of complexity has been a develop- ment in time as well as development in space and a development in complexity of 39 nature. Each more complex has followed the less complex in its appearance in time. We have now arrived at the "now." We have a mass of more or less highly organized things, groups, atoms, molecules, planetary systems, cells, men, societies of men. They are the things with which we deal in science, and this order of their history is the general order of their sciences. IX. THE ORDER OF COMPLEXITY. In order now to get further divisions than those mentioned at first and to give them names we trace the history backward and forward and mark the lines of its branches from point to point. The simplest thing that we can think of is a single ion in a world fluid at a single instant of time, but even with this the science of Mathematics has begun, for simple discrete- ness makes two things, and Arithmetic, the science of number, has had its birth. There may be any number more ions in the world fluid at a single instant of time, and Mathe- matics be advanced to a most complex stage, but Physics does not come in until the idea of time is added. Given, however, one ion at two successive instants of time and we have the idea of motion in the passing of this ion 40 from one point in the world fluid to another and with the idea of motion the science of Physics is born. Chemistry does not come in until things have reached the molecule stage. It does however apply even to the simplest one atom molecule and to molecules of like atoms, as well as to compound molecules of the utmost degree of complexity. It has its beginning thus in the first molecules, whereas Astronomy only takes its beginning with the union of two molecules in a mass. Biology again does not exist even in the most complex carbon molecule, but only comes in when molecules are organized into a nucleated cell, although it belongs to the very simplest single cell as truly as to the most complex ani- mal. Anthropology again, as distinguished from Zoology, only comes in with the organ- ization of ideas, but it does exist in the most rudimentary organism of classified ideas. It is open to some question whether a man does organize ideas except as a consequence of so- cial activity, and whether the Anthropology itself is not Sociology, and indeed Comte does put Sociology at this stage instead of Anthro- pology. Nevertheless every individual man does have a classified body of ideas, such as no ani- mal has, and is what may be called an organic consciousness in a sense in which the animal is not. It therefore seems better to mark off 41 this stage, as Anthropology including (i) the science of organized ideas in their exact cor- respondence with outward things, or knowl- edge (epistemology), and (2) Aesthetics, the science of the construction of new ideas, or creation, (3) Ethics, the science of perfection both in inward correspondence with reality and in the construction of new ideas, whether within or without, and if without whether in reality or in symbol. If psychology is ad- mitted here and not relegated to biology it is practically identical with anthropology, or may be regarded as the physiology, as epis- temology and aesthetics are the morphology of human personality. It is by the further analysis of man as a creator that we arrive best at the fourth di- vision of Anthropology or Sociology. The science of aesthetics includes as its sub- ject-matter new ideas in various stages of em- bodiment. First they are formed in a man's own molecular brainstuff, afterwards in out- ward reality. With human creations in out- ward reality the series begins over again, life- less, living, human (superhuman?). A man's art ideas include (l) ideas embodied in life- less things, tools, houses, clothing, etc., the mechanical arts generally, (2) ideas embodied in living things, to wit, agricul- ture, animal-culture, fishing, hunting, breed- 42 ing, etc., (3) ideas embodied in the minds of other men. The instruments to this final embodiment are what we call the fine arts — music, gesture, painting, sculpture, words, following again a series from simplest to most complex, the crown and climax being the embodiment in another personality of one's own body of ideas, the creation there- fore in another of one's own organized ideas as a whole, the binding idea being one's own idea of the whole. If this could be done per- fectly in its entirety a man's own whole per- sonality would be embodied in another, yet notice that the two persons though exactly alike would yet be two different (if perhaps somewhat monotonous) persons. This art of embodying one's own ideas in another we call education. Now by this production of likeness of idea in one another, through art, and especially that form of art which we call language, the possibility of Sociology comes in, and so far asi ideas have been made alike there society exists. Where this likeness is society is, and unity in such a society is specially promoted by having some central person or central book or some central idea such as Liberty to or- ganize ideas about — to furnish a common ground of likeness — a likeness which runs through everything. 43 Theology only comes in in this series when the organization of ideas in the man has a superhuman center. We have now gotten be- yond our limit, but may suggest that Theol- ogy includes (i) Cosmology, or the idea of things below the human personality as being centered in a divine person. (2) Christology or humanity in its individual nature centered in a person. (3) Ecdesiology or the society of personalities centered in a divine person united by "likeness" to him, and (4) Theology or the science of all things living, lifeless, hu- man and superhuman centered in a person. The applications of our various laws to cur- rent conceptions- in these matters is obvious. X. THE ORDER STATED. We have therefore (i) Mathematics, the science of number and of relative position in space at a single instant of time; .(2) Physics, the science of motion or change of position, up to and including the organization of like ions into like and unlike atoms; (3) Chem- istry, the science of organized atom.s or mole- cules; (4) Astronomy, the science of organ- ized masses; (s) Biology, the science of life or of the cell; (6) Anthropology, the science of the human, including (6a) epistemology, .(Cb) aesthetics, (6c) ethics ; (7) Sociology, the 44 science of human groups; (8) Theology, the science of the superhuman or of all things, lifeless and living, organized in a single cen- ter; (a) Cosmology, (b) Christology, (c) Ecclesiology, (d) Theology proper. Following is the graphic statement: Hylology : Mathematics. Physics. Chemistry. Astronomy. Geology. Biology : Botany. Zoology. Physical anthropology (?). Anthropology : Psychology (Human). Epistemology. Aesthetics. Useful arts. Fine arts. Language and literature. Ethics (?). Sociology (incl. "History"). Theology : Cosmology. Christology. Ecclesiology. Theology proper. 45 This, of course, is not to be regarded as final in any sense, but as an hypothesis on which we may climb to a better. It certainly includes some elements of clearness not pos- sible until recent years. LECTURE II. THE CLASSIFICATION OF BOOKS. I. BOOK CLASSIFICATION AN AKT. The aim of this paper has been described as practical. By this is meant that it aims chiefly to suggest certain adjustments or adaptations of the strictly logical order which are made necessary in the matter of book classification by the fact that we are deaUng not with ideas but with concrete things. This need of adjusting theoretical classifi- cation to practical conditions is not pecuUar to the classification of books, but is charac- teristic of the treatment of all complex con- crete things. It is sometimes said that the classification of books differs radically from classification as used in science in that many books are made up in such way as to cover a great variety of subjects, e. g., periodicals, books of essays, etc. It is true that books are complex, but for that matter so are things in the universe ; the crust of the earth, for ex- ample, is made up not merely of seventy dif- ferent elements, but of seventy times seventy combinations of these elements massed in 47 every imaginable sort of form. A book coidd hardly be more complex as to subject than a lump of rock may be as to elements. The classification of books is like classification of specimens in a museum. Each is an art. Neither is theoretically exact. If we at- tempt to rearrange things strictly according to likeness with scientific exactness, we have to vaporize them so that the elements may be brought together. This is precisely what the chemist does, and what he does with molecules we can do pretty well with ideas so long as they remain in that more or less volatile condition where we call them "thoughts." We cannot, however, do this so well where the ideas have been crystallized into books. Even among ideas vaporizing them so as to re-crystallize according to their real likeness is a painful task and few enough men have mental heat or enthusiasm sufficient to do it very often or very perfectly. They prefer to let their ideas stay in the orig- inal mixed masses in which they first cooled, and in the order in which they then happened to be. This is what is generally though false- ly called conservatism when applied to thoughts. It is in reality intellectual petri- fication. Books on the other hand are real petrifications, or rather planets in an ad- vanced stage of evolution, where the mass 48 of ideas has passed out of the fluid into a solid unchanging state. They do not there- fore, however, differ "radically" from other complex masses in the matter of their clas- sification. All masses alike, whether books or stones, are conditioned in the attempt to ar- range them in space according to their like- ness by the fact of their complexity and need to be adjusted accordingly. But this does not, however, make the theoretical order of less value; on the contrary, this ideal order is in the end the only one which can serve as a real basis without ending in a chaos of self contradictions. The librarian can no more afford to ignore the question of the real sci- entific order in arranging his books than the professor of mineralogy in arranging his specimens. It is identically the same thing. I wish I could say that the average librarian had the same scientific attitude towards his problem that the average professor of min- eralogy does towards his. The fact is that the practical modifications which complex con- crete, things call for in their actual classifica- tion in space are similar for all masses. The classification of books is, however, in some re- spects the best example of this — so much so, in fact, that if there were a philosopher here present I would commend to him the study of book classification as being as valuable to 49 him as I have urged that theoretical clas- sification is important to you. The main fact about the classification of books is in brief the fact that it is an art not science. The classification or order of things is nature and is not a human creation. The classification or order of ideas follows the order of this classification of things and is science. The classification of books, on the other hand, is an art — a human creation for a human end. The order of sciences is its backbone, but in the adjustment of books in this order there are many practicacl accommo- dations to be made, determined by not merely complexity of material but by the end in view. This classification of books deals, as we have said, with concrete objects, not with ideasi; its end, too, is not a scientific law, but a rule; not the discovery of how things are done, but the formulation of a decree as to how they shall be done. The end of ends in scientific study is, properly, a scientific law suited to produce in a man the exact knowl- edge of what is, the end of ends in the rules of art is to produce in concrete substance something which never yet has been, suited to a certain purpose. If you say that in this statement the analogy with other complex things falls through, I say that it is of no so great importance if it does come to an end at this point, and yet the fact is that the min- eralogist who arranges his specimens with strict reference to illustrating the real order of things does face nearly the same artistic problem. Suppose, e. g., a vein of gold em- bedded in quartz. In a metallurgical collec- tion it could be arranged according to its metal, in a collection illustrating, e. g., the strength of materials, it might be arranged as quartz. This is the chief book classification problem in a nutshell — the arranging of com- plex material with a view to its practical end. The main factor is the end sought. The ad- justment of material depends on this end. In describing this paper as practical, there- fore, it is intended to imply not a systematic technical treatise, but only the treatment of the practical modifications of the theoretical order called for by the fact that we are here treating complex material with reference to a practical end. No attempt will be made here to give a survey of the history of clas- sification, or a history of that discussion of its individual points and problems of which our American library history is full, nor yet in any sense will the attempt be made to give detailed description of technique. This is the ordinary commonplace of library school routine. You are doubtless referred in your SI classes to Kephart's bibliography in the World's Fair papers, to the introductions of the Dewey and Cutter systems as well as to the pages of the library periodicals, and in par- ticular to the index to the Library journal, not to mention the treatises of Maire and Graesel and the like. When these papers are printed they will have something of the na- ture of a historical sketch with outlines of various systems both theoretical and practi- cal; but for the brief treatment of this lec- ture the historical and technical must be largely disclaimed. Even what I have called the practical aim of this paper is therefore in a way theoretical, but it is the theory of an art, not the theory of a science. In short, it is method, and, as has been said, its aim is to distinguish the difference between book classification and theoretical classification. n. BOOK CXASSIFICATION AND CARD CLASSIFI- CATION. The first step in this process of differentia- tion is evidently to explain what it is here intended to include under book classification. In speaking of the classification of books here then, it will be understood that both the clas- sification of the material books on the shelves and the analytical classification of the con- 52 tents of these books in catalogs and bibliogra- phies will be included. Although there are some differences between the two kinds which will, from point to point, be noted, the prin- ciples and practical difficulties of these two forms of book classification are substantially the same. The chief difference lies in the fact that the card classification can be carried nearer to scientific completeness than that of books on the shelves, for it is not conditioned by the paper and binding, and the analysis can therefore be carried further. The libra- rian who analyzes his books in this way ap- proaches nearer to the chemist who vaporizes his material and yet he never reaches his point. He is rather like a mineralogist who is so situated that he cannot apply the blow pipe and must get as pure a lump of ore as may be by breaking. It is only the author who uses the contents of books to make new books, breaking up the very ideas in the alembic of his own mind, who is the scientist of books. He alone makes the book-atoms free to take their affinities. Nevertheless as has been said, the difference between shelf-classification and analytical card-classification is considera- ble in this respect and is like the difference between big rough lumps of mixed ores and smaller purer specimens which can be ar- ranged with greater exactness. 53 But whatever differences there may be be- tween these kinds they are alike as to (i) the object that they have in view and (2) the different ways in which the classification can be carried out. III. THE OBJECTS AND IMPORTANCE OF BOOK CLASSIFICATION. If we come down to the real fact why we put books or cards together according to sub- jects in a library, we find that it is to get to- gether those books or cards which will be most used together. The object is a practical one just as the object of the library itself is a practical one. Libraries are not gotten to- gether as a museum to exhibit what we have called the fossils of knowledge. It is a ma- chine got together to instill that knowledge into men's minds. The books are collected for use. They are administered for use. They are arranged for use; and it is use which is the motive of classification. The putting of the most used books to- gether saves in the first place actual labor on the part of users and librarian in assem- bling any given mass of material for use. No catalog can take its place. It is sometimes said that the bibliography or catalog serves as well or better, but suppose the user or 54 librarian does get bibliographical references to all the things that he wants in a classified catalog. The work then has only begfun. Somebody must either go from one point to another and examine the different books where they stand on the shelves, or else some one must go to each point and bring to- gether in a class temporarily the things want- ed. In an unclassified library the books are thus classified over again every time a man wants to use them. It is a labor saving de- vice to assemble them in classes once for all instead. It is sometimes objected to this that no classification actually does get all the ma- terial that a man wants together, and that a man wants to use it from various points of view at different times. This is entirely true, but what of it? It is aside from the point. One might just as well refuse to pick up pound nuggets in gold mining, if he should have the good luck to find them, on the ground that there were still gold dust to be gotten by panning. Any roughed out group of books is a positive and great gain to economy in bib- liographical search and promotes economy in the actual use by bringing the books together in space and thus saving innumerable steps on the part of the man who goes to the shelves to consult them. The actual advan- tage to science which comes from having 55 books closely classified, through this economy of labor in the work of research must be, even in our present hardly fully developed usage, hundreds of years annually to the highest of all skilled labor — that of the highly trained expert scholar. When you put it down as a cold concrete fact that good classification in any group may save in a few years the research-work of a man for a cen- tury it begins to be a very practical matter. The saving of actual dollars in administration {for a given eMctency) must figure out as equally great. I believe the statement will stand the most careful examination, that in a large scholarly library, doubling the en- tire delivery and reference force would not give the efficiency to an unclassified library of even a barely tolerable classification. A prime advantage of having most used books in classes together, therefore, is the fact that the rough bulk of material so gathered to- gether saves a vast amount of bibliographi- cal work and a vast amount of work in actual gathering together and use of material. A second and great advantage of having the most uted books together in the classes in which thty are used together, is that they furnish in this way an incentive to the user to get a full view of his material. This is a matter of the utmost value. Men are natur- 56 ally lazy. They are too little inclined any- way to exhaust material, and when you add to this also the fact that the scientific man is generally also extremely ignorant of books, you open a vast field of profit in a method of setting out before a man so that he can get at it with the least trouble a large amount of his material. In looking over much material, too, he is pretty sure also to be tempted by references to look up other material (such a., articles in proceedings of academies) not grouped in the class — at least he is more likely to than if his only resource was chasing up bibliographical references apart from the books. Men not librarians are almost in- variably surprised to find how much material has been written on their subject. It very often happens that they find that work on which they have been wasting much time has already been done by some one else, and it is of the utmost importance that they should discover this at the earliest date in order that they may turn their attention as soon as possible to more profitable channels. This end is greatly promoted by the simple fact of having the material grouped together so that men can glance over it and get their eye on what has really been done. On the other hand, as a guide especially to men in looking over the field to see beforehand what fields 57 are still comparatively unworked, this classi- fication of books becomes of still greater im- portance to the progress of knowledge. And what is true of trained scientific re- search I take is still more true of popular work — on the one hand, there is a great economy to the librarian who has to help in school work, essay work, club work, etc., in his task of hunting up references, and on the other hand, where there is access to shelves especially, there is the greatest educational advantage in the actual incentive to the reader to read or at least, what is of almost greater importance, browse through books in order to pick out certain things. The "average reader" will hardly study even a classed cat- alog, and is utterly at sea with an alphabeti- cal list or an unclassified library. If, how- ever, he can look over the shelves in a classi- fied library he is surprised to find how much there is that is interesting, he learns to get facts that he wants more readily, and in the end saves much time for himself and for the librarian, while at the same time he gets far better cultivation in the same time than he could possibly have thought of getting in an unclassified library. And besides this economy of time and labor there is a third advantage in classifica- tion, by no means to be despised, in the fact 58 of the psychological or mnemonic training of those who, through seeing books arranged in certain classes, get in the habit of running over these categories in their tninds and as- sociating their own ideas in these classes. Men are bound to make up such pigeon holes for themselves, otherwise there is no thought at all — they must make up for themselves some sort of schedules in which to associate their ideas together. The nearer these sched- ules approximate the real order of things, of course, the better it is, the more retentive the memory, the more intense the developed power of attention, but they must have the schedules, and any well thought out system of classes is better than the rubbish heap of odd boxes which serves most men in lieu of pigeon holes. The object of classification is thus economy and increased efficiency in the use of books., "Use" is the watchword of book-classifica- tion as "truth" or "true order" is of theoreti- cal classification. Any variation whatever from the scientific order is permissible if so be it promote this end of use — the motive of the whole process is "getting together the books most used together." But just here is a snag on which many have split, including the whole school of the go-as-you-please librarians who consider it 59 very practical to make every petty little ad- justment to temporary needs that they hap- pen to think of when they think of it. It is also one which we must keep in mind in say- ing what we do most earnestly say, that any well-worked-out system is better than no sys- tem. The fact is that while it is true that any system is better than no system and even the artificial schedules of mnemonic subjects are a vast improvement over the common go- as-you-please schedule which every one makes up for himself, nevertheless it is true that the nearer classification gets, as a rule, to the real order of things, the more fully it serves the purpose of getting together the books that will be most used together, and especially of getting the ideas together which belong to- gether. Thus those nearest right serve the purpose of use best. The nearer, too, the classification is to the real order of things the longer it will serve men's needs before breaking down. Men will surely cling for sound reason to a familiar and well estab- lished order just as long as they can and will not lightly give it up for a new one, but there must come a time for every system when, as of late in botany, the system long clung to must be given up because the new one has been clearly established as the real order. 6o Passing now to: IV. THE KINDS OF BOOK CLASSIFICATION. We have already spoken in the first lecture of the theoretical kinds of classification. The kinds of book classification are the same but they have more concrete applications, com- binations and variations. It will be worth while to note some of those which are more familiar in ordinary use. You have seen in use, e. g., (a) the natural or logical classiUca- tion — books arranged in series according to degree of likeness, the ordinary form to which we refer in the use of the word. You have seen that classification arranged forward in an evolutionary form from simple to com- plex and also backward in the strictly logical form from the complex to the simple. You have seen the Baconian and the inverted Ba- conian. You have seen also (b) the purely artificial alphabetical system where books are arranged strictly by author throughout the library as used to be the case in the New York State Library under an earlier administration. I am not sure that I have ever seen (c) a strictly alphabetical subject arrangement, but we have often seen large subdivisions of a system arranged chiefly alphabetically by sub- jects. In fact almost all classifications have 6i . this element in it, as they usually reach sooner or later the point of arranging in the order of the "person biographed" and here it becomes a strict alphabetical classification by subjects. In the same way again (d) the strictly chronological by periods throughout a whole library may not be exclusively applied any- where, but it enters into almost all classifica- tion and is a legitimate principle in its place. This principle like all others is sometimes car- ried to excess, but it is hard to think of a sys- tem where at certain points the recognition of dates and periods is not a practical advantage. (e) This is still more true of geographical classHication which is still a favorite notion with many as a semi-universal principle. While this again may not be absolutely in use as an exclusive first principle, in many libra- ries there is a strong tendency to urge it as at least one of a few primary principles and to arrange, for example, things under Europe, History, Geology, Mining, Agriculture, etc., rather than under Geology, Agriculture, etc., with geographical subdivisions. As a subor- dinate principle it is of course in use in sub- stantially every practical library system. (f) The primary division of all books by size into three classes, folios and over, quar- tos, octavos and under, is one of the common- est of the older classifications, and even to-day 62 we are obliged, for reasons of space, to ob- serve it in a sense, though, as a principle of classification, it has practically gone out, and in libraries the principle of the "dummy" has taken its place. Another artificial principle of arrangement which we have met is (g) the arrangement by color. This is ordinarily an ex post facto principle, and the colors are applied to the classes rather than the classes made an induc- tion from the color. In this form it is common enough, e. g., green books may be books on Greece, red books on France, etc. One can imagine a man arranging books in a private library on the strict principle of color for the sake of artistic effect, but I have never actual- ly quite met it, although I fancy almost every- body makes some concession to harmony of color in a library with colored bindings not otherwise classified. This classification by color differs somewhat from the principle of (h) classification ac- cording to binding. There are said to be known instances in which the principle of placing the best bindings nearest the door in a comprehensive series from the best bound to the worst was the actual ruling principle of the classification — and a most excellent prin- ciple it was in a library which, like one of these that I knew, was perhaps more suited to be looked at than looked into. 63 You have of course heard also of the theo- logical library where the ruling principle was .(i) orthodoxy, the separation of the sound from the unsound — the sheep from the goats. What a chance by the way for the application here of the "mnemonic binding" — say white, sheep; and black, goat; or blue, orthodoxy; and yellow, heterodoxy. This indeed is one of the earliest classifications of Christian the- ology. The ante-Nicene fathers divided their books into those "received" and "not received" or else "orthodox" and "heretical." (j) The form principle of classification is also sometimes practically a universal first principle. It is used in fact in all systems where, e. g., all encyclopaedias are picked out from the other books in their subjects and it becomes a prime principle in the case of those libraries which put together all encyclopaedias including such as those of Medicine, Politi- cal Economy and the special sciences in a de- partment of encyclopaedias. The same thing is true in the matter of periodicals. An example of what may be called (k) classiAcation by literary value is the putting together of select books in a reading room. Another possible distinction is (1) classifica- tion according to interest. This usually has the utilitarian purpose of saving steps, but is illustrated by the putting out on special 64 shelves of the latest books and the putting of fiction and biography and in general the most used books nearest the delivery desk. The principle of (m) linguistic classiAcation is also much used. In the popular library this is liable to be a fundamental principle, books being arranged first of all according to lan- guage throughout, etc. This principle always comes in, too, at the point where we separate an author's works into editions and transla- tions, (n) The classification which is chrono- logical by books may arrange either in the order of their publication or of their acces- sion to the library. This list of kinds of book classifications in actual use might be extended still further — (o) breadth of book sometimes governs loca- tion, as in the case of oblong folios, (p) thickness even, in the case of broadsides and pamphlets generally. There is hardly a char- acteristic imaginable which may not modify the grouping on shelves at least: (q) weight (as in the case of inscriptions), (r) fragility (as in the case of papyri), (s) financial value (in the case of rare books), etc., etc.. All these principles are not only in use but are legitimately in use, for it is the useful pur- pose which determines, and if in any case the most useful service which classification can perform for its users is, say, to separate 6s the orthodox and unorthodox, then this be- comes legitimately the prime principle, and after it but only after it the logical, historical, etc., principles may come in. It is clear there- fore that the kind of classification to be used — judged by its leading principle — de- pends on the kind of use to which it is to be put. This gives us a clue in the case of the spe- cial libraries, but what of the general libra- ries? What is the prime principle for them, and is there any order of subordination in the application of the secondary principles? With so many principles in actual use as dominat- ing principles is there any way of deciding when doctors disagree? I say yes. When doctors disagree we let some principle decide. In this case, as the first lecture tried to show, the fundamental law is the law of likeness. The order which dominates is the one which takes into account the greatest number of points of likeness, and in the use of subordi- nate principles the order of sequence in use de- pends on the same law. The true order, ac- cording to total points of likeness as here in- terpreted (whether interpretation it just or not each must judge for himself) is as follows : (i) The logical order or order of likeness of con- tents following the order of real things from the complex to the simple. This, which is the 66 inverted evolutionary order, is on the whole better practically as well than the evolutionary or the order from the simple to the complex, because the most complex books containing the greatest variety of subjects should precede instead of follow their inclusive subdivisions in the book classification. Nevertheless in subordinate parts the evolutionary (or, what is identical the "historical") order is often the more useful. (2) The geographical or- der or classification according to the posi- tion of things in space includes all kinds of things, though each at only a single instant of time. (3) Chronological classification by subjects indicates the position of only a single thing in space though showing it at different instants of time. This exhausts the "'natural" order. (4) The alphabetical now follows, taking up an artificial series at the point where the natural stops. It may be alphabeti- cal by subjects or alphabetical by authors. (5) To this should be added, and ordinarily only after we have gotten past the alphabeti- cal by subjects and the alphabetical by au- thors, a second artificial form, the linguistic. (6) Finally we have the chronological by books (not subjects), or the arrangement by dates or dates of first edition, of the works of any individual author in his particular language. This should only come in as a rule after others have been exhausted. 67 This I take to be the true sequence of prin- ciples as applied to a classification for any general library: Logical, geographical, chron- ological by subjects, alphabetical, linguistic, chronological by books: e. g., History (logi- cal or natural) ; France (geographical) ; the Revolution (chronological) ; Carlyle (alpha- betical) ; French translation (linguistic) ; 1865 (chronological by books). Note that by chronological is here meant not the chrono- logical by accession, which is a very common usage at this stage, but chronological by date of publication, which is a very different thing. The accession sequence only comes in where there are two books of the same date and hardly deserves to be called a "'principle." We have here thus no less than six distinct principles of classification all legitimately used in one system and all in use in most approved , systems. V. UKENESS BETWEEN THEORETICAL CLASSIFI- CATION AND BOOK CLASSIFICATION. Having defined thus the object and kinds of book classification we return again to the prime object of the paper, which is to call attention to the differences between theoreti- cal and practical classification and the ad- justments of the former necessary in the lat- ter. We must not forget, however, that the 68 two things are essentially the same, and that the principles which guide in forming as well as the actual sequence of the theoretical order are to be regarded as the normal which hold except as they have to be modified by prac- tical conditions. Attention was called in the introduction to the first lecture to the meaning and laws as well as to the kinds of classification, univer- sally considered. The same considerations as to the real nature of the act and the laws which govern the process hold in the forma- tion and application of a practical book clas- sification. Among these the chief thing to be kept in mind is the fact that the arrange- ment of your books as a whole and in detail is a discrimination of likeness and an arrang- ing of the books according to likeness or un- likeness from the most complex to the sim- plest. There is no definition that was there given or law there defined which does not hold equally well for your book classification as principles, however much the application of them may consist of exceptions, and the quintessence of the whole is the law of like- ness itself — especially the law of sequence from the like to the like-and-unlike, or vice versa. The principle of likeness and of se- quence through the more to the less alike governs the whole process of practical clas- 69 sification ; the order of the classes in the mak- ing of schedules; the preparing of notation, the plan of arranging the books on the shelves or the cards in their cases, and the actual practice of assigning of books to their places. It may be said therefore that theoretical and practical classification are absolutely alike in their principles, however radically they may differ in their application to concrete things. VI. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THEORETICAL CLAS- SIFICATION AND BOOK CLASSIFICATION. These differences may be roughly summed up as differences which come to light in mak- ing the schedules, in making a notation, in arranging cards, in locating books on shelves, in the practical work of assigning books to their classes. Under each of these classes variations arise, chiefly from the nature of the material and circumstances and the intended use. I. Making the schedules. The basis of the schedules for book classi- fication is of course the order and divisions of the sciences. It has already been said that in general the closer a classification can get to the true order of the sciences and the closer it can keep to it the better the system will be and the longer it will last. True as this is, it is nevertheless also true that there 70 are many adjustments of the pure order of the sciences useful and even necessary in making the classes in book classification, and that the too wooden insistence on having the schedules follow the order of the sciences will often miss the real spirit of classification and result in putting books where a delicate common sense would not put them. In short, the common sense adaptation is often at bot- tom the more scientific. (A). ModiAcation by circumstances. If you wish this expressed in technical terms I should say "variations arising from environment" For most librarians the making of a classi- fication is merely a selection of one already made. They make their schedules thus whole- sale. An important question in the selection of such a ready made system of classification for any individual library is the question whether that system is actually much used. After all that I have said about conservatism and the petrifaction of ideas, I shall not be misunderstood in saying that the first prin- ciple in the construction (or choice) of a classification is a true conservatism. The very fact that a large number of people do think already in certain schedules, that large amounts of actual material have already been arranged in these schedules, is in itself a rea- 71 son for wise conservatism. This, you will note carefully, is especially true when the general spirit of the prevailing classification is not directly contradictory to the natural order. The great gain to librarians trained in one set of schedules or to users similarly trained, in being able, in passing from one library to another, to use the same system is obvious. In cases therefore where the main classes do not overlap and contradict one another and especially when the variations are merely matters of geographical order or personal taste, the giving up of a practical sys- tem actually in use for one ideally better is to be deprecated, except when the new is so markedly better that it is likely to command general use. For this reason the Dewey Deci- mal Qassification, from the very fact of its wide use, will probably endure long after some of the systems now rising, which have more pretension to follow the true order of the sciences are dead (though having said this much it should be said also that the ten- acity of the Dewey Qassification is due even more to a certain versatility and hospitality towards adjustments within its limits). It is for this reason, too, together with the other very important circumstance that they are more fully worked out than others, that li- brarians generally, even those who like the 72 writer have a special system better adapted as they think to their own libraries, always advise other librarians to "take Dewey or Cutter" rather than their own. What is true of a general system is true also of its parts, and one must take into account in any attempt to make a system, e. g., the conventional di- visions of Economics or Philosophy and the Hagenbachian divisions of Theology. The fact that men are in the habit of looking for things under certain heads is quite reason enough for a strict conservatism when there is question of changing to some other order. (B). Variation arising from the nature of books. The order of things and the corresponding order of sciences follow naturally in their statement the order of progress from the simple to the complex, from the like to the like and unlike, from the less various, there- fore, to the more various, from the less to the more inclusive. The classification of books on the other hand does not in the first instance follow the historical order or order of complexity, but the inverse evolutionary order, the more to the less inclusive, the unlike to the like. It follows thus rather the order in which the human mind proceeds in tracing out the order of 7i things than the natural order of things it- self. If we were following the order from the less to the more inclusive we would place, say, first tieatises on individual animals, then treatises on a class of animals, then treatises on all animals, then on all living things, then on all things living and lifeless. This would be most awkward in practical classification, where we are accustomed to the idea that the whole should precede the parts. The awk- wardness comes perhaps partly as the result of habit. Certainly it would look queer enough (although the matter is not wholly unprecedented) to put encyclopaedias, essays and periodicals at the end rather than at the beginning of each class. It seems like stand- ing a tree on its branches. But the reason for the queernes.s lies fundamentally in the fact of the composite character of books like en- cyclopaedias which makes them ''more com- plex" than any part and puts them logically after rather than before. In an inverted evo- lutionary order, however, this comes out right. While therefore it is of no very great prac- tical importance in this matter whether we write backwards or forwards provided we get all the letters in their proper order, and while either method or a mixed method is proved to be practical in use, nevertheless at present writing I Incline to prefer an order of The- 74 ology, Anthropology, Biology, Hylology, rath- er than Hylology, Biology, Anthropology, and Theology, but in this I do not feel very dog- matic. (C). Differences arising from intended use. Again, the practical classification of books is conditioned by the kind of use which is to be made of the books. The kind of classifi- cation, e. g., which is needed in a free public library is not necessarily the same in its details as that which is suited to a universi- ty library, although the general outline may be the same. The chief differences regard (i) the adjustment to building, (2) the prin- ciples of subdivision, (3) the question of de- gree and proportion in subdivision. (i). Adjustment to building. The general order in which the main classes are to be placed with reference to one another in a library may not be so much determined by their natural relation as by the shape of the library building and by the rule that the most used books are to be placed nearest the , delivery desk. Most public libraries keep fic- tion nearest the door. One famous library already mentioned and not wholly without its counterpart in others, classified its books so that the best bound ones should come 75 nearest the door. This was correct. This being the chief use, the books were placed where they would be most used. According to the law of use books should be arranged from the most to the least used. In a refer- ence library, therefore, where the reading room is at the top of the building, as will be the case in the New York Public Library, there most used classes should be nearest the top, and where, as is generally the case, the reading room is at the bottom, there they should be nearest the bottom. In case it hap- pens to be a stack after Mr. Winsor's favorite scheme, exemplified in the Cambridge Public Library, where delivery desk is at the middle of three floors, then most used classes should be on the middle floor. In all circulating libra- ries the most used classes should be nearest the door. In an agricultural college, therefore, Agriculture should be nearest the desk, and in medical, theological, engineering, etc., schools, the same law would prevail. In the Massachusetts Historical Society Library, Massachusetts history, and in the New Jersey Historical Society Library, New Jersey his- tory would be nearest the desk. As a matter of actual practice, something like this is actual- ly done even when the notation follows a dif- ferent order. It is regarded as a small mat- ter whether main divisions follow the nota- 76 tion order or not. It is this practice by the way which tends to remove the chief practi- cal objection to the D. C. by allowing the 400s and the 8oos to be put side by side. (2). The principles of subdivision. This question of the 400s and 8oos in the D. C. is a good illustration of a possible modification of the scientific order by the law of putting together the books most used to- gether. In some libraries "Language" and "Literature" are main classes and books are arranged under each in the order of lan- guages. In other libraries "Language and literature" is one class divided by languages and then under each language again divided into "Philology and literature." This latter rather than the D. C. method is usually pre- ferred in a college library according to the law of the most used, since a "department" generally is linguistic and the same professor handles both language and literature. This is typical of all branches in a college library where the department generally rules — and departments (strange as it may seem) by no means strictly follow the real order and di- visions of the sciences. In each case, which- ever order is finally pitched on, the ground of choice is, rightly, less the "real order" than the order in which the books are used to- gether. n (3). The question of degree and proportion in subdivision. This question is in brief the burning ques- tion of close or broad classification; or at least the question which once was burning — the question in other words whether classifi- cation distinctions shall be carried beyond the limit even of the minutest subdivision of the sciences or shall be limited to the most gen- eral schedules. The controlling law in the matter is the principle of usefulness and the general rule is "the greater the number of different books the closer the classification." So long as there is only a shelf-full or tiyo, a class subdivision is of little importance; when there are a hundred or two shelf-fulls it becomes a matter of great importance. It follows therefore that every library feels this need of minute classification in its specialties and can be satisfied with broad classes in the rest. Thus the Halle Library devotes about one-third of all its schedules to a very minute subdivision of Lavfr. In the same way we at Princeton wish to use three times as many prime schedules for New Jersey history as .we do for the history of any other state, and fifty times as many for the United States as for Holland. The library of a zoological museum really needs to follow the scientific subdivisions of animal classes to the very 78 farthest sub-class, but it may arrange such botanical works as it happens to have in a very few classes. The proportion in sub- division therefore depends on the kind of books that the use of the library calls for. That this proportion would be, in a general classification, a pretty hard thing to judge, is witnessed by Dr. Wire's complaint against the Decimal Classification, that it gives lOo places each to Philosophy and Theology where they should be joined in onel There are still, probably, as many books on the- ology in existence as on all the other sciences put together, and for a universal system surely one-tenth of the schedules is none too many. The question of degree of subdivision is really included in what has been said. No general scheme of classification has ever been carried out in all its parts to the minuteness with which these parts have been carried out in special libraries. I doubt if 100,000 sched- ules would do this. As a rule the best gen- eral systems carry to about 10,000 places, and the question over which dispute has raged so violently may fairly be said to reduce itself to a question, between 100, 1000 and 10,000. I hope that we are now agreed on close classification, but for fear that we may not all be fully persuaded, a word or two more on the matter. The practical use of the 79 broad classification is simply to help a man who wants a specific book and has access to the books to go somewhat more quickly to that specific book in a broad class by begin- ning the alphabetical arrangement by authors earlier. But this help would be a greater one still if the whole library were arranged alpha- betically, and this I take to be the inevitable logical end of a refusal to carry close classi- fication to a somewhat extreme degree of minuteness. As a matter of logic, too, if the broad classifier is consistent he must not even arrange by authors under one of his broad classes (for that is making alphabetical classes) but must leave helter skelter. In real- ity the broad classifier is as close as the closest and differs merely in insisting that the logical subdivision according to likeness shall be abandoned for an artificial division according to name, size, color, or what not, at an earlier stage than his "close" adversary. For my own part I see no good scientific reason, and in- deed no practical reason why, even for a small number of books, it is not better to have the most minute logical subdivision, pro- viding there is a good index to the classifica- tion and an author index to books. All the books of a given subject are together just the same in the close as in the broad, and at least in the cases where you are after the more 8o specific subject you make a great gain through getting the greater bulk of material together at once, whereas on the other hand, if you are referring to a specific book, the reference from catlog to this book is just as specific, and there is no loss. The rule of this matter seems to me to be to carry classification to the last degree of real natural likeness, and as much farther in the various artificial forms as the special conditions of the library re- quire, but the "broad classifier" will, if he thinks it more useful, properly increase or diminish the natural subdivisions according to the special needs of his library. 2. Making a notation. A notation is simply a shorthand series of names for classes. There are three methods which may be distinguished among attempts at a representation of the whole of things: (i) The systematic encyclopaedia, which at- tempts to give a description of all things in a form more or less full of detail as the case may be, from a complete treatise down to the barest definition. (2) The "system of classi- fication" with which we librarians are familiar, which gives the same outline, but defines each class by a single word only or a phrase at most. (3) The "notation" which is really a condensed word for each class, but which 8i nevertheless may and should convey a repre- sentation not merely of the division, but also of the sequence, and not only of the artificial sequence, but of the logical sequence, so far as it can be expressed. In preparing a notation therefore the logical and mnemonic element is of prime importance. This element may exist either with the alpha- betical or with the decimal or with the mixed system of notation. It cannot so well exist with the consecutive whole number and does not exist at all in the notation which is mne- monic in the sense of beginning with the first letters of the name of the class — the system which is, I believe, in use in the Sorbonne, and in some American libraries, and which has been accepted by Mr. Langton and M. Maire. It is not a part of the plan of this lecture to go into the discussion of the various com- binations which serve as notations, except to say that the idea of a notation seems to be one distinctly numerical, and that every prac- tical system sooner or later does make use of both letters and figures. It is only a question of at which end or where in the middle the letters shall go, and whether the figures shall be decimal (». e., logical) or consecutive, Roman or Arabic. As a matter of personal opinion, I hold that a classification should be 82 strictly logical throughout in one series with decimal notation, but that where portions of the library must be differentiated into separ- ately located collections of Reference, Kept books, Mss., etc., this should be so done by the prefixing of letters. Theoretically, how- ever, one may hold himself free to introduce his new symbol at any point whatever in his number. It is a matter of practical judg- ment as to whether points shall be introduced aftnr three figures or four figures, or whether the decimal series shall be broken up after certain distance or not, e. g., by introducing the initial letter with the author number, as in the Cutter table, or keeping the decimal still with authors, as we do. However that may be, the strictly logical notation must be broken at times by the need of separating certain classes of books from their logical or- der and indicating this difference in the nota- tion. The choice of notation again is limited by the ability of the users, and what will pass well in a learned library may not do so well in a popular one. Theoretically therefore one may use Roman, Italic, Greek, Hebrew and what not letters, Roman and Ari;bic numerals all together, and there are systems which at- tempt nearly all, but practically the simpler a system is the better. 83 3. The classiAcation of the card catalog. The practical adjustments required for use are less in card classification than in the ac- tual location of books on shelves, simply be- cause the list of the contents of books can be broken up on cards while the books them- selves cannot. It comes therefore near to being the science of which book classification is the art. Books are in card catalogs re- solved into their elements in some sort as molecules into their atoms by the chemist. This breaking up is, however, only relative and partial — no one, e. g., analyzes an ency- clopsedia in the general catalogs or wants to. The catalog would get altogether too cum- bersome. Moreover, the breaking up must still leave unbroken sections, and is rather the breaking of rocks into fragments than re- solving them chemically into their elements, as has been already suggested. The varia- tions are at bottom, therefore, the same as in book location, though less marked. 4 The classification of books on the shelves. The actual putting together of books in groups on the shelves is conditioned practic- ally in the first place by the heterogeneous character of many books, such as encyclo- paedias, essays, periodicals, etc. There are 84 those who on a small scale go so far as to at- tempt to break up their periodicals and to classify the individual articles, but this scheme cannot be carried very far. Books must, as a rule, be handled as a whole just as the phys- iographer handles his conglomerate mass, not as the chemist who resolves his into the indi- vidual atoms. A second practical conditioning of the classi- fication of books on the shelves is the matter of size. I have gone so far as to stand up the Paris Polyglot beside the little Stevens edi- tion, but the most fanatical advocate of com- plete sequence on the shelves would not dare put some elephant folios that you have seen next to the Pickering classics. There must be a limit somewhere. This does not neces- sarily affect the schedules. It need not even affect the notation, although it generally does so. The user must simply know that he must go to two or three series of books instead of one series in order to completely exhaust the material of his subject, and the modem sys- tem of "dummies" even saves him much of the need of this, and he need only examine one series in nine cases out of ten, if he is tolerably familiar with the bibliography of his subject. At the very best, however, the size does limit the actual putting of all books to- gether in their "natural" order. 8s This same thing is true where books of special value, or books considered unsuitable for general reading on account of immorality or (in special libraries) unorthodoxy, have to be locked up behind the scenes. The the- oretical order is practically disturbed. S. The putting of the books in their classes. By this is meant the actual work of classi- fication on the part of the classifier. Even at this stage, after the schedules, the nota- tion and all the rules for location have been well settled, the need of adjustment of the theoretical to practical use continues. If, for example, a university has a Department of Economics and no Department of Agriculture, why, then, should a book on agricultural prices be placed the whole distance of the li- brary away from Economics under Agricul- ture, instead of under Agricultural produc- tion in Economics? Yet in a university with an agricultural department it might be much more important under Agriculture than un- der Production. In the same way a book on railways in all their aspects in a technologi- cal school might belong under Engineering, and in a business college under Business, and in an arts college under Economics. It is just such common sense adjustments as this which test the mettle of the classifier, 86 and it is the fact of this need which makes the really good classifier so rare. If it were possible to niake classification in such way that a mechanical application would provide for all cases it would be an- other matter. As it is, the variety is endless and the thing to be remembered is that the controlling law for all variation is the law of use. Add to this the fact that the prevailing' law of all normal classification is likeness, and you are (theoretically) pretty well equipped for your work. By this law of likeness is meant chiefly that law of systematic progression from the like to the like, and unlike which we have called progress in complexity. The whole art of classifying in a nutshell lies in the ability to discriminate the like from the unlike, the less from the more inclusive. It is intended to suggest that the fact that classification is by nature a putting together of like things makes this idea of "likeness" the prevailing idaa to be kept in mind in every aspect of the process. VII. CRITERIA OF A PRACTICAL BOOK CLASSIFI- CATION. What, then, are the criteria of a good classi- fication for books? 87 1. It should follow as nearly as possible the order of things. A properly classified library is perhaps the nearest thing that there is to a microcosm. A human mind which knew all things might be more perfect in this re- gard, but in reality no one can or does keep the whole of things in mind as a library does. It must therefore follow the order of com- plexity or of history, or, if you please, of evolution. 2. It should be carried out in minute de- tail. 3. It should be provided with a notation which will allow for indefinite subdivision, using mixed symbols, but with a predominant decimal base. 4. It should be provided with a detailed and specific index. 5. The value of such a system is increased in direct ratio to the generalness ofi its use. How do existing systems answer these re- quirements? The Halle system is dispropor- tionate and its notation entirely too complex ; but it is in some respects the most logical of leading systems. The system of Bonazzi is too brief and broad, and its notation is not satisfactory. Rowell's University of Califor- nia system is also too brief, and its notation cumbersome for interpolation. But it is sen- 88 sible in its order and division. Practically speaking, the Decimal Classification and the Expansive Classification are the only ones of considerable extent which can be counted finished, and the E. C. is still a little short of that. In the matter of criteria of use, complete indexing and general practicality, the D. C. is of course without rival. It is somewhat out of proportion at certain points, but perhaps not seriously so. Its gen- eral order, though in many classes admirable, is less satisfactory logically on the whole than either the E. C. or the Halle' system. The E. C. is sensible, logical, applies a predomi- nant alphabetical notation with great success, is well indexed up to the sixth expansion and is coming to be a good deal used. The final expansion, so far as it has gotten, is a monu- ment of patience and adequate scholarship, and demonstrates, as it has never been shown before in any system, that the alphabetical base is a truly logical and very flexible base. As classification itself is the highest function of the librarian's work, calling into play every faculty and every attainment of knowl- edge — the acme of bibliothecal work — so these two systems of classification mark the high water line of American library science and are the climax of its achievement. 89 Vin. CONCLUSION. Do you ask what then is left of the the- oretical order after all these modifications? That is the question which we used to ask of our Latin grammars. Is the "rule" any- thing but a hook on which to hang the excep- tions? To this question I answer that the theoretical order is yet the rule, however many exceptions there may be. It is the guide, master, and familiar in every act and thought. It is the norm by which every ap- plication is tested, every variation judged. It is in short the soul of that complex body, often curiously modified by its attempt to ad- just to environment and sometimes sadly twisted and deformed by unfortunate acci- dents, which we call practical classification. Please remember that I am speaking not so much now of that theoretical order which I myself have worked out in these lectures, and which may or may not be a contribution to the matter, as of the theory which underlies the Dewey and the Cutter system with which you have most to do. Every system has its theory of order, and with whatever system you have to do, whether anything that is now or something which you or some one else shall make, the more thoroughly you understand and the more steadily you keep in mind the 90 theory which underlies, the better you will be able to make those little adjustments which you inevitably must make of any system and the more easily and satisfactorily you will be able to put the books into the classes of that system. APPENDIX. SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. I. METHOD. This appendix is to be regarded as illustra- tive of the lectures rather than as a mono- graph. It aims to furnish a bibliographical guide for the student of classification, es- pecially for the library school student, and its method looks chiefly to the exhausting of the most accessible sources in such way that the student may feel that he has references to information on all the most generally recog- nized systems, rather than the information itself. Brief outlines are, however, given of a few systems and longer ones of a very few systems significant practically at the present time, and there is rather a large amount of matter which may be called original in that it is not contained in any of the usual sources and has not before been incorporated in the literary "tradition" of the history of classifica- tion. While, therefore, the matter has not been carried to a final degree of scientific precision, it is what may be called a "rough" or "trial" bibliographical history of classifi- 92 cation. The chief "roughness" lies in the fact that many references, taken from second- ary sources, are unverified, as it seemed more important for the purpose to get the material together and in shape for use than to at- tempt an accuracy which would require a long postponem'ent of publication. A good deal of the matter, however, is actually from the orig- inal or has been verified by the original, and this applies to almost every one of the sig- nificant systems. Th* plan has been to include all systems recognized in the histories of classification without much regard to their value, but, in the supplementary matter, to introduce only those which for one reason or another are of some historical significance. The list could, of course, have been greatly increased by the introduction of mere variations or in- significant schemes, and some of more or less importance may have been omitted by inad- vertence, but in general if omitted the sys- tem may be counted obscure or unimportant. In the bibliographical references some spe- cial pains has been taken to indicate at least one place where the outline of the system may be found. In dating the systems the date of first pub- lication is the basis, but in the case of libra- ries where the system has been long in use 93 before the first memorandum of publication (British Museum) date of first use is given. Owing to the fact that the form of classifica- tion often changes in various editions it is necessary to remember that the outline when given is not always either the earliest or latest form. II. CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIFICATIONS. Systems of classification, or as they used generally to be called "bibliographical sys- tems/' are chiefly of five kinds: (i) The phil- osophical, or scientific — those concerned ab- stractly with the order of the sciences or the order of things; (2) the pedagogic, or those constructed with reference to courses of education; (3) the encyclopaedic, closely resembling in aim the pedagogic, but intended to include some material as well as outline; (4) the bibliographic, or those suited to the arrangement of titles of books in a bibliogra- phy; and finally (5) the systems for classi- fying books on the shelves of a library, which, if you need a technical name, may be called "bibliothetic." The first three may be re- garded as coming under the heading of the theoretical, in that their authors are free to arrange the subjects at will according to their ideas. The two latter belong to practical 94 classification, in that they deal with masses which are already concretely formed and they must therefore be adjusted according to the nature of this material. The classification of titles or the bibliographic is more flexible than the "bibliothetic" in that it does not have to take account, in the location of titles, of size, shape, material, etc., as in the case of library classification. III. LITERATURE REFERRED TO. It is usually a matter of surprise to the new student of classification to find how many systems have been proposed and especially how many times their history has been writ- ten, more or less fully. Following is a list of those sketches chiefly used in this appen- dix as being the most comprehensive and ac- cessible to the student. AcHARD, C. F. Cours elementaire de biblio- graphie. Marseille, 1806-7. 2 v., 8°. [Not seen recently. Quotations made from Petz- holdt.] American Library Association. Reports on classification of Lamed, 1882; Lane, 1885; Bliss, 1889; Nelson, 1894; Wire, 1898; in the Proceedings as published in the Libra- ry journal for the respective years. Bain, Alexander. Classification of the sci- 9S ences. In his: Logic. N. Y. (1886) 627- 639 (Appendix A.) [A considerable num- ber of philosophical systems with good criti- cal discussions.] BrowNj J. D. Manual of library classification and shelf arrangement. Lgnd., 1898. 12°. [Valuable as bringing up_ to date and intro- duces some new-old systems but does not treat old exhaustively.] Cave, Alfred. An introduction to theology. Edin., 1896. 8°. pp. 68-80: Place of the- ology in the classification of the sciences. [A few well handled theoretical systems.] Clarke, Adam. Bibliographical systems. In his : Bibliographical miscellany. Lond., 2 (1806) 198-218. [Few but detailed.] Clarke, Archibald. Some old treatises on libraries and librarian's work. In : The Li- brary 10 (1898) 327-9; 385-95. [Few.] Classification Schemes. In : The Library g (1897) 203-6; 10 (1898) 97-100; 162-3. [Several of standard systems in outline.] CoLLAN, K. Om bibliografiska Systemer och Bibliotheksmethoder. 1861. 8°. "A sort of extract" in Neuer Anzeiger (1862) 360-4. [This extract in the source quoted in this appendix. Original not seen.] Petzholdt (1866) 21 (full title and memor- andum of systems included.) 96 CoNSTANTiN, L. A. BibUotheconomie. Paris, 1839. 8°, also 1840; tr. German 1840, also 1842; tr. Spanish 1864. [Ed. quoted is the German 1842 refs. as given by Petzholdt.] Denis, F. et alt. Nouveau manuel de biblio- graphie universelle. Paris, 1857. 8°. v. I, pp. x.-xvi. [Reprints from the Neuer Anzeiger. Not seen.] Edwards, Edward. Memoirs of libraries. Lond., 1859. V. 2, pp. 761-831, with two folding tables. Classification systems. [Ad- mirable full and useful survey.] Faucheux. In: Bulletin du bibliophile, iv. 13 (1841) 565-73. [French only according to Petzholdt. Not seen.] FiSKE, John. Outlines of cosmic philosophy. / V. \ Bost., 1875. 8°. pp. 188-233, Or- ganization of the sciences. [Comte and Spencer.] Flint, Robert. Classification of the sciences. In: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 401-35; 7 (1886) 483-536. [Admirable and thorough criti- cal survey of a large number of philosophi- cal systems. With Shields, best source for theoretical systems.] Fumagalli, Giuseppe. Sistemi di collo- cazione praticati nelle diverse biblioteche italiane e straniere. In his: Delia collo- cazione dei libri nelle Publiche Biblioteche. Firenze (1890) 91-153. [Excellent. Many 97 suggestive outlines and specially interesting as dealing somewhat with notations. Ad- mirable method and proportion. Makes the best supplement to Petzholdt.] Compare also his Cataloghi di Biblioteche, 1887, I, 33-76. Gar, Tommaso. Rassegna di sistemi biblio- grrafici in ordine cronologico. In his : Let- ture di Bibliolog^a. Torino (1868) 257- 281. [A considerable number but not many full outlines.] Graesel, Arnim. Grundzuge der Bibliotheks- lehre. Lpz., 1890. 12°. pp. 152-5, 384-8. [Excellent. Very brief and compact enu- meration of perhaps thirty or forty systems, including a few partial systems which do not come within the scope of this appen- dix.] HoRNE, Thomas Hartwell. General treatises on libraries and systems for classifying books. In his : Introduction to the study of Bibliography. Lond., 2 (1814), 554-563. [Seldom gives outlines.] HoTTlNGER, Joh. Hen. Bibliothecarius qua- dripartitus. .Tiguri, 1664. 8°. pp. 79-88, [Topothesia libraria sive] methodus dispo- nendae et distribuendae bibliothecae in locos communes, etc. [Of considerable value for older systems.] Kephart, Horace. Classification, in: U. S. Commissioner of Education. Report for 1892-3, Ch. IX. Papers prepared for the world's library congress, pp. 861-897. Legipontius, Oliv. De adornanda et ornanda bibliotheca. Norimb., 1747. sm. 4°. pp. 44-51, De rei librariae dispositione. [Of considerable value for older systems.] Lyons, P. A. Encyclopaedia. In: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 190-204. [Admirable survey of encyclopaedia systems.] Maire, Albert. Des systSmes bibliographiques. In his : Manuel pratique du bibliothecaire. Par. (1896) 181-248. [Largely supplemen- tary to older surveys. Many new systems and many of these in fairly full outline.] MiRA, Giuseppe. Diversi sistemi bibliografici tenuti dai signori Araeilhon, Camus, Achard. Peignot, Debure, Barbier, Brunet, etc. In his : Manuale teorico-pratico di bibliografia. Palermo, 2 (1862) 121-140. [Fair but with Fumagalli, easily dispensed with.] Ottino, Giuseppe. Sistema bibliografia. In his: Bibliografia. Milano (1892) 119-147. [A few select only.] Pearson, Karl. The grammar of science. Lond., 1900. 8°. pp. 504-532, The classi- fication of the sciences, [Bacon, Comte, Spencer. ] Peignot, G. Systeme bibliographique. In his: Dictionnaire raisonne de bibliologie. 99 Paris, 2 (1802) 2CX)-28i. [Good descrip- tions with frequent rather full outlines.] PetzholdTj Julius. Bibliographische systeme. In his: Bibliotheca bibliographica. Leip- zig, (1866) 20-65. [113 systems with full titles and outlines. The best general sur- vey to his date and still the best for th« period before 1866.] Petzholdt, Julius. Chronologische Uebersicht von bibliographischen Systemen. Separatab- druck aus dem Neuen Anzeiger fur Biblio- graphic und Bibliothekswissenschaft. Dres- den, i860. Rogers^ Walter Thomas. Bibliographical sys- tems. In his: Manual of bibliography. Lend., (1891) 129-148. [Plagiarized bodi- ly from Ottino.] RouvEYKE, Edouard. De la classification sys- tematique des livres. In his : Connaissances necessaires a un Bibliophile. Par., 2 (1882) 1-66. [Few but some very full outlines.] Shields, Charles W. Philosophia ultima, or science of the sciences, v. 2. N. Y., i88g. 8°. pp. 52-79. [With Flint the best source for theoretical systems.] Of these Petzholdt (113 titles) is best as far as he goes ; and among the more modern Fumagalli, Maire, and Brown are of primary value for book systems, Shields and Flint for theoretical systems. 100 This list by no means exhausts the number of sources even of those which the author has now at hand (e.g. Michael Denis, Greenwood's Public libraries, various articles on Encyclopaedia, etc.), but, so far as he can judge, there is little new material in other sources. IV. THEORETICAL SYSTEMS. It may not be too far fetched to say that the history of theoretical classification began with the division of knowledge into the knowledge of good and the knowledge of evil, in which case Eve's tree would rival the famous tree of Porphyry, and the origin of all evil would apparently be traced to the effort to convert theoretical into practical classifica- tion. However this may be, the art of classifica- tion came in with the very first exercise of human thought. Whether Adam's naming of the animals (which was in the strict sense an act of practical classification) was his- torical or not, it is almost certain, from the nature of human thought, that the very first act of man as distinguished from his act as ape (if he was one) was one of classification. This act of classification made the ape a man. Before it he was ape, after it man. Human thought, as distinguished from animal thought, lOI seems to lie in just this power of binding things together in a group according to their likeness and unlikeness and keeping clearly discriminated on these lines. If by history, however, we mean what is alone history in the modern sense — a genetic relationship in which the influence of former on later systems can be traced — then the his- tory of theoretical classification only begins with Aristotle or perhaps Plato, but from this point on may be traced with some definiteness. B.C. 428-347. System of Plato. Plato. Republic bks. 3 and 7. Cicero. Academicorum lib. i, 5, ed. Mul- ler. Lips., 1889, p. 10 ("i, Life and morals, 2, Nature and 3, Discussion.") Sextus Em- piricus. Adv. Math, i, 7, 15 ed. Bekker (Berl., 1842, 193-4) Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 405-9; Shields, Philos. Ult. 2 (1889) 5S- Flint rejects the division usually attributed to Plato of "dialectics, physics and ethics'' and finds the only authority for it in the tes- timony of Sextus Empiricus who says (p. 193) that Plato was probably the father of those who divide into Physics, ethics and logic "since he discoursed concerning many physical and ethical and not a few logical subjects." Flint overlooks the fact that Ci- cero recognizes almost precisely these di- visions, but may nevertheless well be right in thinking that Plato did not use them since Diogenes Laertius says that Zeno was the first to use them. Flint gives a survey of Plato's "systematic distributions of knowl edge'' which abridged runs as follows: Visi- ble world including things and images of things, intelligible world including conceptions (Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, Harmon- ics, Ideas, dialectic.) It might be quite as just to represent this system, as given in the Plato Republic Books. 3 and 7 as follows: Useful arts. Music, Gymnastics, Mathematics, Dialectics. B.C. 384-322. System of Aristotle. Aristotle. Metaphysics 5.1.2; 5.1.4; 7 (8).i; 10.7.2; 10.7.4. Ethics 6.3-8. Politics 5 (or 8) 3 (or 2.3.) Cave. Introduction p. 70 ; Flint, in : Presb. R. 6 (1885) 409-13; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 55-56 (outline.) Aristotle divides [Met. 10.7.2 ed. Christ Lips. 1895, P- 232 (1064 a 16-17) also 5.12 ed. Christ, p. 125 (1025 b 25)] into practical productive (poietic) and theoretical. The theoretical or speculative again he divides [Met. 5.1.4 and 10.7.4. (ed. Christ 1026 a 18- 103 19 ; 1064 b 2)] into Mathematics, Physics (or Natural Philosophy) and Theology (or Metaphysics.) If one may, as has been done, classify the five intellectual virtues (as Ethics 6.3-8) as Theoretic = Wisdom =z Science and intui- tion, Practical = Prudence and Productive = Art we have the following outline of Aris- totle's system. Practical or Ethics; Economics. Politics. Law. Politics proper. Productive or Creative Art. Theoretical : Mathematics. Physics. Theology (or Metaphysics.) To this should be added the fact that in his Politics (s or 8.3-ed. Christ, p. 166) treat- ing of the teaching of children, Aristotle gives the curriculum as Grammar, gymnastics, music and "according to some" "graphics." B.C. 366-264. System of Zeno. Zeno of Citium. On Reason. Diogenes Laertius. De vitis philos. 7:33. (Tauchnitz, Lips., 1833) 18-19. 104 Flint, in : Presb. R. 6 (1855) 413-IS ; Shields, Philos. Ult. 2 (1889) 56. Logic, Physics (Natural philosophy) Eth- ics. Zeno was the first to make this division, according to Diogenes Laertius, and was fol- lowed by Chrysippus, Apollodorus, Syllus En- dromus, Diogenes the Babylonian, Posidorus, although some, with Diogenes of Ptolemais, put Ethics first, with Apollodorus put Ethics second or with Panaetius and Posidonius be- gin with Natural philosophy. To this list the name of Philo at least should be added among those who put Ethics first, and Plutarch with those who arrange as Physics, Ethics, Logic. B.C. 347-339. System of Speusippus. Diogenes Laertius. De vitis philosophorum. cf. Themistii Paraphrases Aristotelis, ed. Spengel (Lips. Teub. 1866) 92 1. 15. According to Diogenes Laertius on the au- thority of Diodorus, Speusippus was the first man to maintain the connection of the several sciences with one another. He was therefore if this be true the father of scientific classi- fication. His system was probably the pre- vailing Dialectics, ethics and physics carried out quite minutely into subdivisions. But cf. Plato Rep. Bk. 7 on the "intercommunion" and "Natural relationship" of studies which dispute this, and also cf. Aristotle who has more claim to the title of paternity. B.C. 339-314. System of Xenocrates. Sextus Empiricus. Adv. math. 1.7. 147 ed. Bekker. Ber., 1842, p. 223. The sensible, the intellectual and the con- jectural. B.C. 263. System of Cleanthes. Diogenes Laertius. De vitis philosoph. 7.33 (Lips. Tauchnitz 1833) 19. Six divisions : Dialectics, Rhetoric, Ethics, Politics, Physics, Theology. He seems to have been followed by Zeno of Tarsus and others. B.C. 116-27. System of Varro. LiBia novem disciplinarum cf. Ritschl, Fr. De M. Terentii Varronis disciplinarum libris commentarius. Opuscula 3 (1877) 3S2-402 esp. 371. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 .(1885) 415 (The seven liberal arts, medicine and architecture) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultimo 2 (1889) 56. Grammar, Dialectics, Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, Astrology, Music, Medicine, Ar- chitecture. io6 B.C. 2S-A.D. 39. System of Philo. Philo Judeaus. De congressu quaerendae eruditionis gratiae. Opera 3 (Lips. 1828) 70-108 passim. The encyclical studies are hand maids to Philosophy and include Grammar (reading, writing, literature and history). Geometry, Astronomy, Music, Rhetoric, Logic, Dialectic 23-79. System of Pliny. C. Plini Secundi Naturalis historiae libri xxxvii, ed. Sillig, I (Hamb. 1851) i-ioo. Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 191 (out- line.) Pliny's order follows the line of : The Uni- verse (Astronomy), The Earth (Geography), Man, Animals, Plants, Agriculture and hor- ticulture. Medicine, Metallurgy, Art. 35-95- System of Quintilian. QuiNTiLiANUS. Inst. 11.18.1, ed. Bonnell (Lips. 1882) 98-9. Q. divides into Theoretical, Practical and Productive (or poietic.) BEFORE 305. System of Porphyry. PoEPHYRius. Introduction to the Categories of Aristotle. 107 Jevons, W. S. Principles of Science (N. Y., 187s) 381-6 (tabular outline) ; Bain, Logic (t886) 716-7. ("Body, animated body, ani- mal, rational animal, man.") This became the "tree" or "ladder" of Por- phyry or the "Ramean tree" given with varia- tions by many mediaeval writers; e. g., Nice- phorus, Aquinas, Roger Bacon, etc. Roger Bacon's form of representation of the order of substance may be taken as prac- tically identical with Porphyrys's ladder and is a most interesting suggestion of the mod- ern evolutionary order. It may be represented as follows: Substance, Spiritual. Corporal. Celestial. Terrestrial. Elementary. Mixed. Lifeless. Living. Vegetable. Animal. Irrational. Rational. Man. io8 354-430. System of Augustin. AuGUSTiNus, Aur. De Ordine II 12- ed. Migne. Patrol, lat 32 (1865) 1011-13; also Retractiones, do. 591 (Grammar, Music, Dialectic, Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, Philosophy) ; also De doct. christ. do. 3 :57- 66 ("quas liberales vocant.") Schaff, Ph. Theol. propaedeutic. N. Y., 1894, p. 7; also Hist, of Church 4:611-. BEFORE 439. System of Capella. Capella, Martinus. Satyricon [or De septem artibus] , ed. Kopp. Frf .a.M. 1836. 4° ; ed. Eyssenhardt. Lips. 1866. 12° Lyons, in : Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 191 ; Flint, in : Presb. R. 6 (1885) 415; Shields, Phil- osophia Ultima 2 (1889) 56-7; Teuffel, Hist. Rom. Lit. 2 (Lond., 1892) 446-9. Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, Music. He also men- tions, but counts out from among the liberal arts "medicine and architectonics." ABOUT 550. System of Cassiodorus. Cassiodorus. De artibus et disciplinis liber- alium litterarum. In: Opera ed. Migne 3 (1865) 1150-1218. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 415-6 (Trivi- log urn and quadriviutn, known also as Logica and Mathematica and correspond to Logic and Physics of the Stoics) ; Shields, Philos. Ult. 2 (1889) 57. Arts: Grammar. Rhetoric. Dialectics. Mathematics : Arithmetic. Music. Geometry. Astronomy. This is the famous "trivium" and "quad- rivimn" of Mediaeval education. 636. System of Isidore of Seville. IsiDORUS HisPALENSis. Orig^nes sive Etymol. Lib. I. Cap. IL, ed. Migne, Patrol, lat. 82 (1878) 74- Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 191 (out- line); Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 416 (Men. same as Cassiodorus) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 57 (mention.) "Seven liberal arts." I, Grammar ; 2, Rhe- toric; 3, Dialectic; 4, Arithmetic; 5, Music; 6, Geometry ; 7, Astronomy. no 673-735- System of Bede. Bede. Opera didascalia. Ed. Migne, Patrol. lat. 9(5 (1862) 123-606. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 416 (Men. same as Cassiodorus) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 57 (mention.) Besides works on orthography, metrics, etc., Bede's work On the nature of things treats of the formation of the world and its nature, of the elements and then of what may be called astronomy, meteorology, oceanology, geology, geography and in this order. This is fol- lowed by various works on times and seasons, including what may be called a history of the world in six "ages." 736-804. System of Alcuin. Alcuinus. De grammatica. Ed. Migne Patrol, lat. loi (1863) 854. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 416 (Men same as Cassiodorus) ; Shields, Philoso- phia Ultima 2 (1889) 57. Grammar, Rhetoric (dialectic). Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, Astrology. ABOUT 844. System of Hrabanus Maurus. Hrabanus Maurus. De universo. Ed Migne Patrol, lat. iii (1864) 1-614. Hrabanus Maurus. De clericorum inst. Liber III., ed. Migne Patrol, lat. 107 (1864) 378-40S. (Science of Holy Scripture; Seven Liberal arts (form of Cassiodorus) Philosophy.) Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 191-2. God, Man, The animals [The heavens]. The seasons. The waters. The earth. Public build- ings. Philosophy, Language, Minerals, Weights and measures, Agriculture, War and naval arts. Sports, Fine arts and costume, Domestic economy. 1071-8. System of Psellus. PsELLUs, Michael Constantine. Didascalia. In: Fabricius. Bibl. graeca S (1712) app. 2 pp. 69-186. Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 .(1878) 192. P's order may roughly be described as God ; The mind and soul. The body. The virtues. The elements. Astronomy, Meteorology, The earth, The waters. Agriculture. FL. 1 120. System of Hugo de S. Victore. Hugo de S. Victore. Eruditionis didascalicae Ed. Migne Patrol, lat. 176 (1880) 739-838 especially 751. Theoretical or speculative: Theology. Mathematics. Arithmetic. Music. Geometry. Astronomy. Physics. Practical or Ethics. Mechanical. Logical. Subdivisions are Worth studying. ABOUT 1200-1300. Scholastic System. Shields. Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 58 (outline.) The system of Albertus Magnus (ab. 1200- 1280) Duns Scotus (ab. 1263-1308) and ThomiS Aquinas (ab. 1225-1274) is synthet- ized by Shields as: Theology, Ethics, Meta- physics, Mathematics, Physics; Quadrivium, Music, Astronomy, Arithmetic, Geometry; Trivium, Rhetoric, Dialectic, Grammar. 1221-1274. System of St. Bonaventure. BoNAVENTUBA, S. Joh. De reductione artium ad theologiam, in: Opera, v. 6 (Romae 1596) 1-4. Flint, in : Presb. R. 6 (1885) 416-7 {Natural: Physics, Mathematics, Metaphysics; Ra- tional: Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric; Moral: "3 Ethics, Economics, Politics.) Shields, Philos. Uit. 2 (1889) 57. 1240. System of Vincent of Beauvois. ViNCENTius Bellovacensis. Speculum quad- ruplex. Argent 1473-6 and often. Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 192 (out- line); Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 417; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 58 (mention.) Naturale, Doctrinale, Historiale, Morale. 1260-1267. System of Latini. Latini, Brunetto. Li livres du Tresor. Par- is, 1863. 4°. Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 192-3. 1266. System of Roger Bacon. Bacon, Roger. Opus majus, ed. J. H. Bridges. Oxf., 1897. 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R, 6 (1885) 417; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 58 (mention.) The order of the Opus Majus compared with the plan of the Scriptum principale seems to yield the following order: Philology, Mathematics, Physics (incl. Optics, Astrono- my, Barology, Alchemy, Agriculture, Medi- cine, Experimental science). Ethics (incl. Re- 8 114 lations to God, Civic morality, Personal mor- ality, the Christian religion.) Elsewhere B. gives an ingenious graphic representation of what is substantially Por- phyry's ladder. 1297. System of Dante. Dante Alighieri. II Convito 2.14-16. Opere minori, ed. Fraticelli. v. 3 (Fir., 1893) 151-67. Flint, in: Presb' R. 6 (1885) 417 (detailed ace.) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 57. 1360. System of Glanville. Glanvilla, Bartholomeus de. De proprieta- tibus rerum. Printed [Lugd., 1480] and often. Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 193 (out- line.) 1362. System of Berchorius. BerchoriuSj Petrus. Opera omnia, Mogunt., 1609. 3 v. f°, etc. Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 193 ("plan of Glanville.") 1491. System of Poliziano. PoLiziANO, Angelo. Panepistemon. Florent., 1491- 4°- IIS Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 .(1885) 417-8 (de- tailed ace.) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 58 (mention.) 1496. System of Reisch. Reisch, Gregor. Margarita philosophica. Heidelberg, 1496, etc. Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 193. 1501. System of Valla. VallAj Georgius. (Placentinus) De expe- tendis et fugiendis rebus. Venetiis, 1501. 2V. i". Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 193 (out- line.) 1506. System of Maffei. Maffei, Raphael. (Volaterranus) Commen- tarii Urbani. Roma, 1506. f°. Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 193 (out- line.) 1540. System of Vanegas. VanegaSj Alexio. Primera parte de las dif- ferencias de libros que ay en el universe. . . . Valladolid, 1583. 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 22 (full title and out- line.) 1548. System of Gesner. Gesner, Conrad. Pandectarum sive parti- tionum universalium libri xxi. Tiguri, ii6 1548 [Bibl. Univ. II. i.-xix.] Partitiones Theol. 1549 [Bibl. Univ. III. xxi.] Edwards 2 (1859) 762-3, Table I. no. I. (outline) ; Hettinger (1664) 82-4 (outline) ; Petzholdt (1866) 22 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 258 (outline) ; Rouveyre 2 (1882) 11-13; Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 435 (mention); Ottino (1892) 121; Maire (1896) 183 (title) ; Brown (1898) 40 (outline.) IS.S3- System of Nisolio. NlzoLio, Mario. De veris principiis et vera . ratione philosophandi contra pseudophiloso- phos. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 418 ("some originality" "extreme nominalist." Detailed ace.) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 58 (mention.) BEFORE 1560. System of TaschkSprisade. Haji Khalfa. Lexicon bibliog. I. (1835) 31-41 (cf. previous pages for H. K.'s dis- cussion of sub.) ; Petzholdt (1866) 21- (full title and outline.) 1587. System of de Savigny. Savigny, Christofle de. Tableau . . . de tous les arts. Paris, 1619. 37 p. f° Edwards 2 (1859) 764-5 (outline) ; Petz- 117 holdt (1866) 23 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 258 (full title) ; Maire (1896) 183 (3 lines.) 1605. System of Bacon. Bacon, Francis. Partitio Universalis doc- trinae humanae, De dign. et aug. Scientia- rum, lib. 2, in: Works, ed. Montagu 8 (Lond., 1828) 87 sq. Edwards 2 (1859) 765-7, Table i no. 2; Petzholdt (1866) 23 (full title and outline; also mentions 15 editions) ; Gar (1868) 258- 9 (7 lines only); Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (i88s) 421-s; Bain, Logic (1886) 627-8; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 61-3 (outline); Cave, Introduction (1896) 71-2; The Library 9 (1897) 203 (outline) ; Brown (1898) 29 (outline.) Outline. [L] History (Memory) : Natural History. Generations (Physics, Physical Geography, Species, etc.). Praetergenerations (Monsters) : Arts. Civil History: Ecclesiastical. Literary. Civil history proper. ii8 {II.] Poetry (Imagination) : Narrative. Dramatic. Parabolical. [III.] Science or Philosophy (Reason) : Philosophy. Divine Philosophy ( = Natural Theology.) Natural Philosophy. Speculative. Physic. Metaphysic. Operative. Mechanic. Mag^c. Human Philosophy (= Anthro- pology.) Philosophy of Humanity. Human physiology (or Phy- sical anthropology.) Human psychology. Logic. Ethics. Civil philosophy ( = modem Sociology.) Society (Social relations.) Commerce (Economics.) Government (Politics.) Theology (Revealed religion.) 119 i6i5- System of Zara. Zara, Antonio. Anatomia ingeniorum et sci- entiarum. Venetiis, 1615. 4°. Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 193 (out- line.) 1620. System of Alsted. Alsted, Johann Heinrich. Encyclopaedia sep- tem tomis distincta. Herbon. Nassov., 1630. 7v. f°. Lyons, in: Enc. Brit. 8 (1878) 193-4 (out line); Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 .(1885) 425-6 ("rigidly methodical" detailed ace.) 1638. System of Campanella. Campanella, Thomas. Philos. rationalis . . . grammatica, dialectica, rhetorica, poetica, historiographia, etc. Par., 1638. 4°. also, De reformat sci. Ven., 1633. 4°, etc., etc. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 418-20; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 58. 1644. System of Descartes. Descartes, Rene. Les principes de U phil- osophic. Oenvres, ed. Cousin. V. 3. Par- is, 1824. 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 420-21 ("near- ly same as that ... by Sylvain Regis, Clauberg, Geulinx — viz. . . . Logic, Meta 120 physics, Physics, Ethics") ; Shields, Philo- sophia Ultima 2 (1889) 71. 1649. System of Fichet. FiCHET, Alexander. Arcana studiorum om- nium methodus. Lipsiae, 1710. f°. Petzholdt (1866) 25-6 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 259. 1650. System of Hobbes. HoBBES^ Thomas. Leviathan. Lond., 1651. f°. Molesworth 3 (1839) 71-3. "Of the several subjects of knowledge" [table.] Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 428-30 ("deep- er and truer insight . . . than Bacon." De- tailed outline) ; Shields, Philosophia Ul- tima 2 (1889) 68. 1657. System of Comenius. CoMENius, Joh. Am. Opera didactica omnia. Amst., 1657. 4 V. Laurie, S S. John Amos Comenius. Lond., 1&81. 8°. 2 ed., 1884. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 426-7 (out- line) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 60 (mention, "religious.") 1678. System of Anonymous — Elint. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 430 (outline.^ 121 i688. System of Locke. Locke, John. Essay concerning human un- derstanding. Lond., 1741. 8°. Bk. 4, Ch. 21. "Of the division of the sciences;" ed. Fraser 2 (Oxf., 1894) 460-3. Petzholdt (1866) 28 (full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 260; Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 430-1 ["inferior to Bacon and Hobbes"]; Brown (1898) 30 (outline.) BEFORE 1699. System of Weizel. WeizeLj Erhard. Idea totius encyclopsediae, etc. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 427-8. 1725. System of Vico. Vico, Giambattista. Oeuvres. Paris, 1835 I p. 222, II. p. 22-3. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 432-3. 1726. System of Wolff. Wolff, Christian. [Commentatio de Deo, etc., 1726?. Cosmologia generalis, I73i?> etc.] Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 433-4 (detailed ace.) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 63. 122 1728. System of Chambers. Chambers, E. Cyclopaedia. Dub., 1740. f°. V. I, p. 3-8. Clarke 2 (1806) 206-7 (with folding sheet) ; Petzholdt (i866) 31 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 262 (men.) 1748. System of Girard. [GiRARD, Gabr. Abbe.] Diderot. Encyclo- pedic. V. 2 (Par., 1751) f°, 161-5. (Given from ms. full outline.) Peignot 2 (1802) 233-4; Achard 2 (1806-7) 282-6; Edwards 2 (1859) 778-9, Table i, no. 4; Petzholdt (1866) 34 (full title and out- line.) 1750. System of Sulzer. SuLZER, Johann Georg. Kurzer Begriflf aller Wissenschaften 2 aufl. Frf. or Lpz., 1759. 8°. Flint, in: Presb. 6 (1885) 435 (mention.) 1751. System of d'Alemhert. D'Alembert. Ouvres l (Par., 1821) 99-109. also in Oeuvr. philos. 1805 ; also in Diderot and D'Alembert i (Paris, 1751) 47-53 and folding table. Edwards 2 (1859) 76-8, Table i, no. 2 123 ("Modification of Bacon," outline given both in text and table) ; Petzholdt (l866) 42 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 263; Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 425 note; Bain, Logic (N. Y., 1886) 628; Shields, Philo- sophia Ultima 2 (1889) 61-2; Brown (1898") 29 (outline.) 1760. System of De Montlinot. MoNTLiNOT^ Leclerc de. In : Journal Encyclo- pedique, Sept., 1760. Edwards 2 (1859) 784-5 ("fantastically symmetrical.") 1767. System of BieleHeld. BiELEFiELD, Jak. Fr. Erste Grundlinien d. allgem. Gelehrsamheit. Breslau, 1767. 3 V. 8°. 1775- System of Busch. BuscH, I. G. Encyklopadie der histor. philos u. math, wissenschaften. Hamb., 1775. 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 435 (mention.) 1775 (1787 ?). System of Reimarus. Reimarus, Herm. Sam.(?) Encyclopadie. Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 435 (mention.) 1778. System of Schmid. ScHMiD, Christian Heinrich. Abriss der gel- ehrsamkeit fur encyclopadische vorlesungen. 124 Ber., 1783. 8°. also in Gothaischen maga- zin, 1778. 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 35 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 264. 1781. System of Kant. Kant^ Immanuel. Critik der reinen Ver- nunft. Riga, 1781, 8° ; ed. Hartenstein. V. 3. Lpz., 1867, 8° ; tr. Max MuUer. Lond., 1881, 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 483-5 (outline and crit.) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 63-4. 1782. System of Kliigel. Klugel, Georg Simon. Encykl. Uebersicht d. kenntnisse u. Wissenschaften. Neubran- denb., 1790, 8° ; cf. also his Encyklopadie. Berl., 1782-4, 8° ; 2 ed. 1792-1816. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 485 (mention.) 1783. System of Meinecke. Meinecke, J. H. Friedrich. Synopsis erudi- tionis universae. Quedlinburgi, 1788, 8° ; also 1783-5- Petzholdt (1866) 35 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 264 (men.); Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 435 (mention.) 125 1790. System of Buhle. BuHLE^ Johann Gottlieb. Grundziige einer allgemeinen encyklopadie. Lemgo, 1790, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 3S-6 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 264 (men.); Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 435 (mention.) 1790. System of Roth. Roth, [Jh. Frd.?] System menschlicher (?) Kentnisse (??). Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 485 (men- tion.) 1792. System of Eschenhurg. EscHENBURG, Johann Joachim. Lehrbuch der wissenschaftskunde ; ed. 3 enl. Berlin, 1809 ; also 1792 and 1800. Petzholdt (1866) 36 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 264 (men.) 1794. System of von Berg. Berg, von. Versuch fiber d. zusammenhaug aller theile der gelehrsamkeit. Frankf., 1794, 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 485 (mention.) 1796. System of Krug. Rrug, Wilhelm Trangott. Versuch einer sys- tematischen enzyklopadie der wissenschaf- ten. Lpz. and Jena, 17^^-7. 126 Petzholdt (1866) 37 (full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 264 (men.); Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 485 (outline) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 61 (mention, "political.") 1798. System of Regnault-Warin and others. Regnault-Warin, J. B. J. I. P. and others. Tableau d I'entendement humain . . . In- troduction aux etudes encyclopediques. Paris, 1798, 8°. Edwards 2 (1859) 768, Table i, no. II. 3. (modification of Bacon.) 1799. System of Meusel. Meusel, Johann Georg. Leitfaden zur ges- chichte der gelehrsamkeit I. (Lpz., 1799) 196-216. Constantine 2 (1842) 195; Petzholdt (1866) 39 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 264 (men.) 1802. System of Thiebaut. Thiebaut, Arsenne. Exposition du tableau philosophique des connaissances humaines. Par., 1802, 8°. Peignot 2 (1802) 248-56 (very detailed) ; Clarke 2 (1806) 198-206 (detailed) ; Petz- holdt (1866) 41 (full title and outline); Gar (1868) 265. 127 l8o2. System of Butenschoen. Peignot 2 (1802) 212-18; Achard i (1806- 7) 246-52; Edwards 2 (1859) Table i, no. 5; Petzholdt (1866) 40 (outline); Gar (1868) 264 (men.) 1803. System of Schelling. ScHELLlNGj Friedrich Wilh. Jos. v. Vorles- ungen ii. d. methode d. acad. studium. Tiib., 1803, 8°; also 1813; 1830, etc. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 485-6 ("in no sense a classification of the sciences.") System der gesammten Philosophic, 1804; first pub. in: Werke, Stuttgart 6 (i860) 131-6. This is a full detailed tabular statement much more to the point than that quoted by Flint and in every sense a classification of the sciences. 1804. System of Oken. OkeNj Lorenz. Uebersicht d. grundrisses d. systems der naturphilosophie. Frkf. a. M , 1804, 8° ; also various other similar works. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 486 (mention, "so original as to be altogether unintelli- gible.") 1806. System of Hefter. Hefter, Karl Chr. Philosoph. darstellung al- ler wissenschaften. Lpz., 1806, 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 486 (mention.) 128 i8o6. System of T'opfer. ToPFER, Henr. Aug. Encyklop. generalkarte aller wissenschaften. Grimma, 1806, f°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 486 (mention.) 1807. System of Ortloff. Ortloff, Jh. Andr. "Systematic distribution of the sciences" perhaps his : Ueb. geschichte d. wissenschaften u. kiinste. Coburg, 1807, 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 486 (mention.) 1809. System of Burdach. BuRDACH, Karl Fr. Der organismus menschl. wissenschaft u. kunst. Lpz., 1809, 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 486 (mention.) 1809. System of Kraus. Kraus, Christian Jacob. Encyklopadische ansichten einiger zweige der gelehrsam- keit. . Konigsberg, 1809, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 43-4 (full title and out- line.) 1810. System of Simon. SiMONj [Joh. ? Fried.?] Tabular survey of the sciences (cf. Flint.) Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 486 (mention.) 129 i8io. System of Schmid. ScHMiD, Carl Christian Erhard. Allgemeine encyklopadie und methodologie der wissen- schaften. Jena, 1810, 4°. Petzholdt (1866) 44 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 268. 1815. System of Destutt de Tracy. Tracy, Destutt de, A. L. C. Cours d'ldeolo- gie. Paris, 1801-15, 5 v. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 490; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 63. 1815. System of Stewart. Stewart, Dugald. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Supplement. Preface to the first disserta- tion, V. I (1815) 1-17. Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 62-3. 1816. System of Bentham. Benth AM, Jeremy. Chrestomathia. London, 1816-17, 2 pt, 8°, Works ed. Bowring 8 (Lond., 1843) 63-128. Edwards 2 (1859) 791-2, Table i, no. vii. ; Petzholdt (1866) 46 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 268; Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1866) 490-2 (outline ''reminds ... of . . . Hobbes ... but less vigor . . . and 130 more . . . pedantry") ; Shields, Philoso- phia Ultima 2 (1889) 60 (mention, "Utili- tarian.") 1816. System of Jasche. Jaesche, Gottlieb Benjamin. Einleitung zu einer architectonik u. systemat. Universal encyklopadie d. wissenschaften. Dorpat, 1816, 4° ; Grundlinien, etc., 1818, 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 487 (mention.) 1816. System of Hasse. Hasse, Fr. Chr. A. Encyklopadische tafeln. Lpz., 1816-20, 12°. Petzholdt (1866) 46-7 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 269. 1817. System of Coleridge. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Encyclopaedia metropolitana ; or, Universal dictionary of knowledge . . . Lond., 1817-45, 4° ; Intro- duction. (Lond., 184s, etc.,) p. x., also p. 44- Edwards 2 (1859) 792, Table i, no. viii. ; Petzholdt (1866) 47 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 268; Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 490-2 ("Coleridge . . . com- plained that under editorial revision his work was . . . "so bedeviled that I am ashamed to own it'") ; Bain, Logic (N. Y., 1886) 628-9; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 131 ( 1889) 64-5 (outline) ; Cave, Introduction (1896) 72; The Library 9 (1897) 204; Brown (1898) 31 .(outline.) Outline. I. Div. Pure Sciences : [l.] Formal Sciences. Grammar. Logic, Rhetoric. Mathematics. Metaphysics. [2.] Real Sciences: Morals. Law. Theology. IL Div. Mixed and Applied Sciences : [i.] Mixed. Mechanics. Hydrostatics. Pneumatics. Optics. Astronomy. [2.] Applied. I. Experimental Philosophy, n. Fine Arts. III. Useful Arts. IV. Natural History. V. Application of Natural History. III. Div. Biographical and Historical. IV. Div. Miscellaneous and Lexicographi- cal. 132 i8i7- System of Hegel. Hegel, Geo. W. F. Encyklopadie d. philos. wissenschaften. Ed. Henning 6 (Berl., 1843) 27-8 et passim. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 487-90 ("what- ever be the faults for the first time . . something like what a science of the sciences ought to be") ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 66-7. 1817. System of Janelli. Janelli, Cataldo. Cenni sulla natura e ne- cessity della scienza delle cose e della storie umane, 1817. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 493 (outline, "no intrinsic merit.") 1819. System of Gruber. Gruber, J. G. Ueber encyclopadisches stu- dium. In : Ersch u. Gruber ; Encyclop. I, 2 (Lpz., 1819) Hi. p. Petzholdt (1866) 48 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 269; Boccardo. Nuova enc. ital. 20 (1886) 262-4 (very full out- line.) 1819. System of Rudiger. RuDiGER, C. A. Uebersicht der wissenschaft- lichen erkenntniss. Freyberg, 1819. Petzholdt (1866) 48-9 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 269. 133 iSip. System of Schopenhauer. ScHOPENHAUERj Arthur. Die welt als wille und vorstellung. Lpz., 1819, 8° ; 2 ed., 1844, 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 509-10 (de- tailed outline, "deserves to be noted only as an ingenious curiosity") ; Shields, Philo- sophia Ultima 2 (1889) 64. 1820. System of Longo. LoNGO, Agatino [various works mentioned in appendix of Di Giovanni's Storia della Filosofia in Sicilia ace. to Flint.] Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 493 (mention.) 1822. System of Comte. CoMTE, Aguste. Systeme de philosophie posi- tive I (1830) 57-115; also Positive polity, Eng. tr. I (1854) 355-68; iv. 161-8, 549, 597, etc. Bain, Logic (N. Y., 1886) 629-30; Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 496-501 ("He claimed but had no right whatever to claim that he originated the classification which he adopt- ed. If that classification possess any merits they must be ascribed to Dr. Burdin who conceived it and to Saint Simon who first received and published it.") Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 72-6 (outline and excellent resume of criticisms 134 by Whewell, Huxley, Spencer, Fiske, Lewes, Bain, Littre, Mill) ; Cave, Introduc- tion (1896) 72-5. Form of 1830. Mathematics. Astronomy. Physics. Chemistry. Physiology. Social Physics. Form of 1851. Natural Philosophy. Cosmology. Mathematics. Astronomy. Physics. Chemistry. Biology. Social Philosophy. This much abused system to which its ene- mies grudge any pretention to originality or merit has nevertheless been almost the chief stimulus to progress in classification during this century. 1827. System of Arnott. Arnott, Neil. Elements of Physics. Lond., 1827. Bain, Logic (N. Y., 1886) 629. 135 Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 495-6 ("all phenomena physical, chemical, vital, men- tal") ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 69. 1828. System of Ferrarese. Ferrarese, Luigi. Saggio di una nuova clas- sificazione della scienze. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 493-4; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 60-61 (men- tion, "ethical.") 1828. System of Ventura. Ventura, Giovachino. De methodo philo- sophandi. Rome. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 493; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 61 (mention, "ecclesiastical.") 1829. System of Pamphilis. Pamphilis, Giacinto de. Geneografia dello scibile. 2 ed. 1869. cf. Longo. Osservazione sulla G. del sig. Pamphilis, in: Giorn. di sci. per la Sic. v. 35- Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 494-S; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 61 (mention, "aesthetical.") 1830. System of Rosmini. RosMlNi, Antonio. SuU' origine delle idee tr. Lond., v. 3 (1884) 351-65. On the first 136 division of the sciences [Pure (or formal) Logic, Applied.] Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 504-6; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) (outline); Davidson, Thomas, Philos. syst. of R. (Lond., 1882) introd. p. civ. [gives tabular outline.] 1834. System of Amphe. Ampere, Andre Marie. Essai sur la philoso- phic des sciences, 1834-43, 8°. Lubbock (1838) app. p. ix. ; Edwards 2 (1859) 797-8, Table i, no. ix.; Petzholdt (1866) SI (full title and outline); Gar (1868) 271; Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 501-4; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 71-2 (outline.) 1836-7. System of Hamilton. Hamilton, Sir Wiliam. Lectures on meta- physics, I vii. I (Edin., 1875) 111-120. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 516-8; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 69. 1838. System of Lubbock. Lubbock, J. W. Remarks on the classifica- tion of the different branches of human knowledge. Lond., 1838, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 54 (full title and out- 137 line) ; Gar (1868) 272; Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 509 ("hardly any value," out- line. ) 1839. System of Lowe. Lowe, Maximilian Leopold. Grundriss der allgemeinen hodegetik . . . Dresden, 1839, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 54 (full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 272. 1840. System of Whewell. Whewell, William. Philosophy of the in- ductive sciences. Lond., 1840, 2 v., 8° ; 3d ed. greatly altered, 1858, 2 v., 8° ; Novum organon renovatum, B 2, ch. 9. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 506-9 (de- tailed outline) ; Shields, Philosophia Ulti- ma 2 (1889) 65-6 (outline.) 1840. System of Gioberti. GioBERTi, Vincenzo. Introduzione alio studio della filosofia. Brusselle, 1840, 8°, v. 3, c. 5. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 506; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 67. 1842. System of Kirchner. KiRCHNER, C. Hodegetik; oder, Wegweiser zur universitat fiir studierende. . . . Lpz., i8S2, 8°. 138 Petzholdt (1866) 56-7 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 273. 1843. System of Proudhon. Proudhon, Pierre Joseph. De la creation de I'ordre dans I'humanite. Ed. 2. Paris, 1849, 12°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 504. 1844. System of Arnold. Arnold, August. Wissenschaftskunde ; oder, Encyclopadie und methodologie der wissen- schaften. Konigsberg, i. d. N. 1844, 8° Petzholdt (1866) 57 (full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 273. 1844. System of Voigt. VoiCT, Bernh. Fr. Wissenschafts-uebersicht. Weimar, 1844, 4°. Petzholdt (1866) 57 (full title and out- line.) 1846. System of Lindsay. Lindsay, A. W. C. Progression by antagon- ism. Lond., 1846, 8° Edwards 2 (1859) 804-5, Table i, no. x.; Petzholdt (1866) 57-8 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 273-4 (outline) ; Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 509; Shields, Philo- sophia Ultima 2 (1889) 63 (mention) ; Brown (1898) 31 (outline.) 139 1847- System of Albert. Albert, M. J. F. M. Recherches sur les principes fondamentaux de la Classification Bibliographique. Paris, 1847, 8°. Edwards 2 (1859) 798-800, Table i, no. xii. ; Petzholdt (1866) 57-8 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 274 (outline.) 1847. System of Richter. RiCHTER, Franz J. Wissenschaftskunde. Wien, 1847, 12°. Petzholdt (1866) 59 (full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 274 (outline.) 1847. System of Ramsay. Ramsay, Sir George. A classification of the sciences in six tables. Lond., 1847, 4°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 509 ("alto- gether of an external and unphilosophical kind.") 1850. System of Dove. Dove, Patrick Edward. Theory of human progression. Lond., 1850, 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 510-14 ("an order of ever increasing complexity") ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 69. 140 i8si. System of Cournot. CouRNOT, Ant. Augustin. Essai sur les fon- dements de nos connaissances. Paris, 1851, 8°, V. 2, ch. 20-22. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 514-15; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 72. 1856. System of Wilson. Wilson, Dr. W. D. Treatise on Logic. 1856, 341-46. Edwards 2 (1859) 808-10, Table i, no. xiii. ; Petzholdt (1866) 62 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 278; Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 515-6 (outline); Shields, Philo- sophia Ultima 2 (1889) 61 (mention, "aesthetical") ; Brown (1898) 31 (outline.) 1856. System of HeUferich. Helfferich, Adolf. Organismus der wissen- schaft. Lpz., 1856, 8°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 516 (mention, "ha-iy and confused.") J858. System of Hill. Hill, Pres't Thomas. Liberal education. Camb., Mass., 1858. Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 61 (mention, "pedagogical.") 141 i8s9- System of Renouvier. Renouvier, Charles. Traite de psychologic rationnelle ch. ii, in his : Essais de critique generale (Paris, 1854-64, 8°.) Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 518-20; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 78. 1859. System of Schmitz. ScHMiTZ, Bernh. Encyclopadie des philo- logischen studiums der neueren sprachen. Greifswald, 1859, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 64 (full title and outline) : Gar (1868) 279. 1861. System of Predari. Predari, Francesco. Enciclopedia nazionalc ... I (Milano, 1861) 1-96. Petzhold (1866) 64 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 279. 1863. System of Di Giovanni. Di Giovanni, Vine. Principii di filosofia prima, v. I, lez. 3. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 520 (outline) ; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 67 (mention.) 1863. System of Peccenini. Peccenini, Melchiore. Nuovo albero enci- clopedico. Napoli, 1863. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (i386) 520; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 63. 142 1864. System of Spencer. Spencer, Herbert. The classification of the sciences. Lond., 1864, 8° Compare also the ed. in essays 2 (N. Y., 1899) 74-117, esp. p. 78 and the folding tables. Bain, Logic (N. Y., 1886) 630-9. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 521-6; Shields, Philosophi.T Ultima 2 (1889) 76 (outline); Cave, Introduction (1896) 75-6 (Fiske's form) ; Pearson, Grammar of science (1900) S10-13. Outline. Abstract Science. Logic and Mathematics. Abstract-Concrete Science. Mechanics, Physics. Concrete Science. Astronomy, Geology, Biology, Psychology, Sociology, etc. Whatever may be the judgment as to its finality, this system is probably the most im- portant modern system both as regards its nature and influence. It was first published as a sort of polemic against the system of 143 Comte. In the above table the three divisioin are not exactly correlative, but the abstract- concrete and concrete form a group over against the abstract. The sub-classes, too, are by no means correlative as they appear in this. It is impossible to give anything like a complete view of the system without repro- ducing the elaborate folding tables. 1868. System of Zeller. Zeller, Ed. Ueber die aufgabe der Philo- sophie und ihre stellung zu den iibrigen wissenschaften. Heidelb., 1868. Also in : Vortrage 2 Samnil., 1877. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 526 ("touches on . . . but does not directly treat.") 1869. System of Harms. Harms, F. Philosophische einleitung, in: Karsten, Gustav. Allgemeine Encyklo- paedie der Physik. v. i, Lpz., 1869, 8°. (only physical sciences.) Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 526-7. 1870. System of Bain. Bain, Alexander. Logic, deductive and in- ductive. N. Y., Appleton, 1886, 12°, pp. 25-30- Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 527 ("best part of it derived from Comte. Were it not 144 for . . . practical sciences . . . would . . . be an improvement on Comte's and much superior to Spencer's.") Bain divides into abstract, concrete and practical. 1870. System of Cantoni. Cantoni, Carlo. Corso elementare di Filo- sofia I. Milano, 1870, 16°. Flint, in: Presb. R. 7 (1886) 527-8; Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 69-70. 1870. System of Valdarini. Valdarini. Principio intendimento e stori Economics, History, etc.) [II.] Philosophy. ; | 1. Doctrine of knowledge. 2. Doctrine of fundamentals ("prin- cipien"?) The above outline is only an abstract of what is carried out in detail in the essay. The admirable and suggestive essay is pre- ceded by a critical account of the history of classification which is on the critical side (not the bibliographical, however) unequalled, at least in any of the sources consulted for this work. 148 i8g6. System of Cave. Cave, Alfred. Introduction to Theology. Edinb., Clark, 1896, 8° ; pp. 79-80. Outline. I. Mathematics. (i) Arithmetic and Algebra. (2) Geometry. II. Physics. III. Chemistry. IV. Astronomy. (i) Sidereal. (2) Planetary. V. Biology. VI. Geology. VII. Pneumatology. (i) Psychologj-. (2) Logic. (3) Ethics. (4; .S^sthetics. (S) Philology. VIII. Sociology. IX. Theology. 1896. System of Stadler. Stadleb, August. Zur klassification der wis- senschaften, in: Archiv f. Syst. Philos. 2 (1896) 1-37, w. folding table. 149 Outline. A. Knowledge. (A) Doctrine of phenomena. a. Natural science. (a) Doctrine of bodies. I. Cosmology. 2. Astronomy. 3. Science of the earth. 4. Mineralogy. 5. Biology. (b) Psychology. I. Subjective. 2. Objective. 3. Comparative. b. Mathematics. a. Geometry. b. Arithmetic. c. Kinetic. (B) Doctrine of ideas. a. Teleology. (a) Pure teleology. (b) Applied teleology. I. Eudaemonistic pedagogy. 2. Doctrine of "Goods." (i) Economics (material goods). (2) ^Esthetics (spiritual goods). ISO b. Ethics. (a) Pure ethics. (b) Ethical pedagogy. B. Theory of knowledge. (A) Formal logic. (B) Material logic. Subdivisions given as applying to some or all classes under Natural science are as fol- lows: I. Morphology. II. Chemistry. III. Histology. IV. Physics. V. History. This is the most suggestive of recent sys- tems — that of Wundt possibly excepted. The lettering of notation is not exactly that of Stadler, but is changed to avoid use of Greek and German letters. 1898. System of Goblot. GoBLOT, Edmund. Essai sur la classification des sciences. Paris, Alcan, 1898, 296 p., 8°. Polybiblon Pt. Litt., 1898, 399-402 (outline.) 1898. System of Naville. Naville, Adrien. Le principe general de la classification des sciences. In : Arch, f. syst. Philos. iv. (1898) 364-81. Class, ace. to the possible (Theorematique) the real (Histoire) and the good (Canon- ique.) igoo. System of Pearson. Pearson, Karl. The grammar of science. 2 ed. Lond., 1900, 8°, pp. 514-527- Outline. A. Abstract Science. Logic, orthology, methodology (qualita- tive.) Arithmetic, algebra, calculus, etc., (quan- titative.) Geometry, trigonometry, etc., (Relations of space.) Kinematics, etc., (Relations of time.) B. Concrete Science. Precise physical sciences. Physics of the ether (light, heat, elec- tricity, magnetism, etc.) Atomic physics. Molecular physics. Molar physics. C. Concrete Science. Organic Phenomena. Geography and natural history (old sense). (Space.) History (including evolution of species.) Biology. Morphology, etc., (Form and structure. ) Embryology, etc., (Growth, etc.) 152 Physiology. Psychology. Theory of instinct, etc. Psychics. Sociology. 1901. System of These Lectures. Hylology : Mathematics. Physics. Chemistry. Astronomy. Geology. Biology : Botany. Zoology. Physical anthropology ( ?) Anthropology : Psychology (Human). Epistemology. Aesthetics. Useful arts. Fine arts. Language and literature. Ethics (?) Sociology (incl. "History"). Theology : Cosmology. Christology. Ecclesiology. Theology proper. 153 V. PRACTICAL SYSTEMS. Systems of book classification are in gen- eral distinguished from theoretical systems not merely by their object but by the fact that they are provided with a notation. It is true that the purely theoretical systems are also often provided with what might be called a notation whose purpose is to indicate the logical subordination of classes. But nota- tion in general, whether logical or artificial, is an important and essential characteristic of book classification, and for this reason is touched on from time to time in the follow- ing sketch, although without any attempt at exhausting a matter with which this work is not directly concerned. There is a strong presumption that the practice of classifying books in libraries ex- tends back nearly to the accepted date for the deluge. It is probable that the Egyptian and Hebrew (and for that matter the Vedic and Confucian as well) temple libraries were clas- sified at a very early date, as the distribution of the Thoth literature and the arrangement of the books in the Hebrew canon seem to indicate, even if the present form of the latter as some contend is not older than 200 B.C. That Assyrian and Babylonian libraries were classified is certain, and we know that 154 in at least one instance the books of poetry were located together on the north side of the library, and in another instance we have a classed catalog, giving 25 tablets, of which 14 contained a knowledge of the earth and 11 a knowledge of the heavens, subdivision 3 of this second class being Works on the planet Venus, 4 On the planets in general, s and 6 On the moon, and 8 On the comets (cf. North Brit. Rev. 51 (1870) 168). There are many other similar suggestions of early classification and doubtless better ex- amples than those given, but the proper his- tory of book classification only begins with that of the Alexandrian library as expounded, if not invented, by Callimachus. There is a curious possibility that this system, too, may be traced to Aristotle, and that he may be found to be the father of book classification as well as of theoretical systems, for Strabo. not only says that he was the first collector of books of whom we have knowledge, but that he taught the kings of Egjrpt ("suntaxin") "li- brary economy" ! — at least this seems much more literal and probable than Falconer's translation "suggested to the kings of Egypt the formation of a library"! (Strabo 13, 1:54.) The historical tradition, however, begins with Callimachus. iSS B.C. 260-240. System of CalUmachus .{Library of Alexandria, Egypt.) Catalogue of the Alexandrian Library in 120 books (or classes?). The work is lost, but fragments and references from Athen- aeus, Diogenes Laertius, Suidas, Dionysius Halicarnassus, and others are collected in: Wachsmuth, C. Die pinakographische thatig- keit des Kallimachos. Philologus 16 (i860) 653-66. The outline of classification seems, so far as one caij pick it out, to have been as fol- lows: Poets. Lawmakers. Philosophers. Historians. Rhetoricians (Orators.) Miscellaneous writers. We have also many hints of subdivisions such as Epic, Comic, Tragic, Dithyrambic, under poetry, also Birds, Fishes, Geometry, Medicine, Cheesecakes, Feasts, etc. The subdivisions seem to have been, in some cases at least, chronological by periods, and in the short miscellaneous subjects at least probably alphabetical by authors, since Athenaeus mentioning four writers on the subject of Cheesecakes (Class 6) gives them IS6 :n alphabetical order. The description in- cluded author, title or first words of work and number of lines and apparently also date and place. If it is true, as has been alleged, that Callimachus used the catchwords of a title or first word of work to indicate the place of the book, this was a true "Abbre- viation notation." 812. The Mediaeval Libraries. In the mediaeval period the monastic libra- ries generally {e.g-., Staffelsee 812, Reichenau 822, Friaul 837, Lorsch (loth cent., etc., etc.,) arranged their Bibles and commentaries first and then the works of the Fathers. Some- times the service books come before and sometimes after, and secular books also formed a separate class. 831. System of the Monastic Library of St. Requier. D'AcHERY, Spicilegium, iv., 115-188; Becker, Gustav. Catal. Bibl. ant. (Bonnae, 1885) 24-9; Edwards 2 (1859) Table 2, no. i. Subdivisions differ slightly from those given by Edwards, e.g. Divinity includes nos. I-I9S and is divided into Bible and Commen- taries, Fathers (alphabetically), Canonics, etc. IS7 I347. System of the Monastic Library of St. Emmeram at Ratisbon. ScHMELLER. Ucber Biichercataloge des xv. und fruherer Jahrhunderte. In: Serapeum 2 (1841) 16-18. Edwards 2 (1859) Table 2, no. ii. ; Collan; Petzholdt (1866) 21 (full title and out- line.) 1451. System of the Aldersbach Monastic Library. ScHMELLER. In: Serapeum 2 (1841) 260; Becker, Catal. bibl. ant. (1885) 289; Gk)tt- lieb, p. 325. Classified into Magna, Mediocria, and Man- iialia. 1498. System of Manutius. Manutius, Aldus. Libri Graeci impressi. Edwards 2 (1859) 761, Table 2, no. iii. (gives 5 classes); Rouveyre 2 (1882) 10; Ottino (1892) 120 (outline) ; Maire (1896,) 182 (outline) ; Brown (1898) 40 (outline.) 1504. System of Syon Monastery. Bateson, Mary, ed. Catalogue of the library of Syon Monastery, Isleworth. Cam- bridge, 1898, 8°. IS8 A, Grammar and classics ; B, Medicine and astrology; C, Philosophy; D, Commentaries on the sentences; E, Bibles and Concord- ances; F-I, Commentaries; K, History; L, Dictionaries ; M, Lives of saints ; N, Fathers ; O, Devotional tracts; P-S, Sermons; T, Canon law; V, Civil law. Not divided ac- cordmg to size, but subject only. 1546. System of Estienne. Stephanus, Henricus. Index librorum qui officina ejusdem H. S. hactenus prodierunt. Par., 1560, 8°. Edwards 2 (1859) 762 (gives 14 classes), Table 2, no. iv. ; Rouveyre 2 (1882) 11; Ottino (1892) 120-21 (outline) ; Maire (1896) 182. 1560. System of TreUer. Trefler^ Florian. Methodus exhibens . . . quorumlibet librorum, ordinationera . . . Augustae, 1560, 8°. Edwards 2 ( 1859) 763-4 (gives 17 classes) ; Petzholdt (1866) 22-3 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 258 (full title.) 1583. System of La Croix du Maine. La Croix du Maine. BibliothSques fran- Soises. Paris, 1684; also ed. de Juvigny. Paris, 1772-3. 6 v., 4°, IL v. 2, p. 25 sq. 159 Maire (1896) 183 (full title) 193-5 (out- line, 107 classes.) 1597. System of Maunsell. Maunsell, Andrew. Catal. of English print- ed books. Lond., 1597. Brown (1898) 41. 1631. System of Araoz. Araoz, Francisco de. De bene disponenda Bibliotheca . . . Matriti, 1631, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 23-4 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 259 (2 lines.) 1631. System of Rhode (^University of Padua.) Hoffmann. (Ein) bibliothekswissenschaft - liches Gutachten, abgegeben zu Padua im jahre 1631 . . Hamburg, 1856, 4° ; also in : Gratulationsschrift 1856, p. 47-64, and in: Serapeum 17 (1856) Intelligenzbl., no. 2-S, and in: Neuer Anz. 1856, p. 71-8. Edwards 2 (1859) p. 769-71, Table 2, no. vi. (model of Naude) ; Petzholdt (1866) 24 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 259 (full title.) 1635. System of Clemens. Clemens, Claudius. Musei sive Bibliothecae . instructio, etc., libri. iv. Lugduni, 163s, 4°. i6o Peignot 2 (1802) 220-80; Home 2 (1814) 556; Edwards 2 (1859) 796, Table 2, no. vii.; Mira 2 (1862) 134-5; Petzholdt (1866) 2S (full title and outline) ; Maire (1896) 183; 195-6 (outline); Clarke, in: Library 10 (1898) 327-9; 385-7 (outline.) 1635. System of Arias Montanus. Arias Montanus. Regiae Bibliothecae S. Lavrentii Escorialis descriptio . . . Lug- duni, 1635, 4°. Peignot 2 (1802) 203-4; Achard i (1806-7) 216-8; Petzholdt (1866) 24 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 259 (full title.) 1643. System of Naude. Naud^, Gabriel. Bibliotheca Cordesianae catalogus . Parisiis, 1643, 4°. Naud£, Gabriel. Dissertatio de instruenda Bibliotheca (Schmidt, De Bibliothecis. Helmst, 1703, 4°, p. 122, 123.) Naui>£, Gabriel. Advis pour dresser une bi- bliotheque. Par., 1627, 8°. Hottinger (1664) 80-1 (outline) ; Legipon- tius (1747) 42; Peignot 2 (1802) 246; Home 2 (1814) 561-2; Constantin 2 ed. (1842) 158; Edwards 2 (1859) 771, Table 2, no. v.; Mira 2 (1862) 135; Petzholdt (1866) 25 (full title and outline); Gar (i«68) 259: Maire (1896) 183; Clarke, in: Library 10 (1898) 387-90 (outline.) i6i 1646. System of Jacob. Jacob, R. P. Lud. Bibliographia Gallica uni- versalis, 1646. Elenchus materiarum bib- liographiae parisinae. Parisiis, 1647, 4°. Home 2 (1814) ss8; Maire (1896) 183; 196-7 (outline.) 1658. System of London. London, William. Catalogue of the most vendible books, etc. Lond., 1658. Brown (1898) 42. BEFORE 1664. System of Mabunus. Mabunus, Johannes. Hottinger (1664) 80 (Three classes: Mora- lia, Theoretica, Ascetica) ; Legipontius (1747) 47- BEFORE 1664. System of Frisius. Fkisius, Jacobus. Hottinger (1664) 81-2 (outline.) 1664. System of Hottinger. Hottinger, Johann Heinrich. Bibliothecarius quadripartitus. Tiguri, 1664, 4°, p. 84-88. Petzholdt (1866) 26 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 259 (2 lines.) 1669. System of Fabri. Fabri, Honoratus. Euphyander. Lugd., 1669, 12°. Legipontius (1747) 47 (outline.) 1 62 i66g. System of Lomeier. LoMEiER^ Johann. De bibliothecis liber sin- gularis. . . . Helmstadii, 1705, 4°; also Zutphaniae, 1669, 8°; Amst., 1669, 8° ?; 2 ed. Ultraj., 1680, 8°. Home 2 (1814) 560; Petzholdt (1866) 26 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 259. 1678. System of Gamier. GarnieEj Jean. Systema Bibliothecae Col- legii Parisiensis Societats Jesu. Parisiis . . . 1678. . . . Francofurti, 1728, 4°; also in: Serapeum 11 (1850) Intelligenzbl. 103- 10, 113, 121-26, 129-33, 137-40. Home 2 (1814) SS7-8; Constantin (1842) 154; Edwards 2 (1859) 774-6, Table 2, no. viii. (461 subdivisions. Main ones given here); Mira 2 (1862) 135-6; Petzholdt (1866) 26-7 (full title and outline); Gar (1868) 259; Maire (1896) 183; Brown (1898) 42 (outline.) 1679. System of Bouilleaud. BouiLLEAUD. Bibliotheca Thuana. Paris, 1679, 8° ; Hamburg, 1679, 8° ; also in : Sera- peum, Jahrg. 13 (1852) ; Intelligenzbl. 105- 9, 1 13-17, 121-26, 129-33, 137-41. 145-49, 153-56. i63 Legipontius (1747) 49; Edwards 2 (1859) 773-4, etc., Table 2, no. ix. ("usual French system") ; Petzholdt (1866) 27 (full title and outline); Gar (1868) 259-60; Maire (1896) 183. 1683. System of Baillet. Baillet, Adrien. Jugemens des savans sur les principaux ouvrages des auteurs . . . Amst, 1725, 4° ; first Par., 1685-6, 12° ; 1722- .30, 4°. Peignot 2 (1802) 204-7; Achard i (1806-7) 218-19; Petzholdt (1866) 27-8 (full title and outline); Gar (1868"' 260. 1683. System of Ott. Ott^ Johann Heinrich. Neujahrsblatt hrsg. von der Stadtbibliothek in Ziirich. [Zurich, 1845,] 4°, p. 79, "Series Repositorium . . . bibl. Tigurinorum a 1683'' ; also in Sera- peum (1849) Intelligenzb!., p. 93-4. Petzholdt (1866) 27 (full title and outline.") 1688. System of Morhof. MoRHOF, Daniel Georg. Polyhistor. liter- arius, philosophicus et practicus. . . . Lu- becae, 1747, 4° ; also Lubec, 1688, 4° ; 1695, 4° ; 1708, 4° ; 1714-1732. Petzholdt (1866) 28-9 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 260 (full title.) i64 1697. System of Rostgaard. RosTGAARD, Frederic. Projet d'une nouvelle methode pour dresser le catalogue d'une bibliotheque . . . Francofurti, 1728, 4°. Petzholdt (1866) 29 (full title and out- line) ; Gar, (1868) 260. 1705. System of Gabriel Martin. Martin, Gabr. Bibliotheca Bultelliana, etc., 8°. Paris, 1711, 12°; .(also the catals. of Dufay, Hoym, de Rothelin and Bellanger.) Diderot et D'Alembert. Encyclopedie, v. 2, (Paris, 1851,) art. Catalogue p. 760-L ("best and most generally adopted at date"; outline given.) Peignot 2 (1802) 236-7; Achard 2 (1806-7) 107; Edwards 2 (1859) 781-2, Table 2, no. ix.7 ("Modification of Bouilleaud") ; Petz- holdt (1866) 29-30 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 260-1; Rouveyre2 (1882) 14-15. 1709. System of Marchand. Marchand, Prosper. Catalogus librorum bibliothecae loachimi Faultrier. Paris, 1709, 8°. Peignot 2 (1802) 235-6; Achard 2 (1806-7) 10-16; Edwards 2 (1859) 777, Table i, no. iii. ; Petzholdt (1866) 30 full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 261. I6S 1709. System of Bontanini. FoNTANiNi, Justus. Dispositio catalog! Bib- liothecae Josephi Renati . . . Romae, 1709, 4°; also 1711, f°, p. 583-720; also Franco- furti, 1728, p. 145-88. Edwards 2 (1859) 777-8 (17 classes given, 1828 in all; alphabetical arr. in general); Petzholdt (1866) 30 (full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 261. 1 718. System of Leibnitz. Leibnitz, G. W. Idea bibliothecae publicae secundum classes scientiarum ordinandae, in : Otium Hanoveranum, etc. Leipz., 1718, 8°, p. 128-38; also in Opera omnia. Gen- evae, 1768, 4°, v. 5, p. 209-14. Home 2 (1814) 559; Edwards 2 (1859) 776-7, Table 2, no. x. (10 main classes) ; Petzholdt (1866) 30-1 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 261-2; Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (1885) 431-2 (outline) ; Shields, Phil- osophia Ultima 2 (1889) 60 (mention "aca- demic") 1723. System of Middleton. MiDDLETON, Conyers. Bibliothecae Cantabrig- iensis ordinandae methodus qaedam . . . Cantabrigiae, 1723, 4° ; also in : Misc. works, 1755, 8°; 1752-7, 4°, V. 3, P- 475-502; also i66 in: Serapeum ii .(1850) Intelligenzbl. p. 81-83, 89-91. Edwards 2 (1859) 779-81, Table 2, no. xi; Petzholdt (1866) 31 .(full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 262. 1736. System of Cocchi. CoccHi, Antonio. (Biblioteca Magliabechiana now part cf the B. Nazionale at Florence.) Fumagalli (1890) 93-4 (Forty classes by subjects, each divided again by size and books arranged alphabetically by author in each class outline.) 1742. System of Frohesius. Frobesius, Jo. Nicolaus. Bibliotheca Meibo- miana. Helmaestadi, 1742, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 31-2 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (186S) 262 (full title.) 1746. System of Formey. FoRMEY, Samuel. Conseils pour former une bibliotheque peu nombreuse, mais choisie . . . Ber., 1756, 8° ; (also 1746, I7S0, I7S4, 1764, I77S-) Home 2 (1814) 557; Petzholdt (1866) 32 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 262. 1747. System of BeccelU. Beccelli, Julius Caesar. De bibliotheca insti- tuenda ac ordinanda liber. Veronae, 1747. 1 67 Petzholdt (1866) 32 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 262 (men.) 1747. System of Legipontius. Legipontius, Oliver. Dissertationes philolog- ico-bibliographicae . . . Norimbergae, 1747 4°, p. 51-65; also in Spanish, 1759, 8°. Home (1814) 559-60 ; Petzholdt (1866) 32-3 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 262 (full title.) 1747. System of Crucemannusf. Legipontius (1747) 46-7 (outline.) 1747. System of the Wolfenhuttel Library. Legipontius (1747) 47 (outline.) 1748. System of Francke. Francke, J. M. Catalogi Bibliothecae Bu- navianae specimen. Lipsiae, 1748, 4°. Petzholdt (1866) 33-4 (full title and out- line) ; Gar .(1868) 263. 1760. System of Casiri. Casiei, Michael. Bibliotheca Arabico-His- pana Escurialensis. Matriti, 1760-70, f°. Peignot 2 (1802) 220; Petzholdt (1866) 34 (full title and outline) ; Mira 2 (1862) 136; Gar (1868) 263 (men.) i68 1763. System of De Bure. De Bxjee, Guillaume. Catalogue des livres de la Bibliotheque de feu . . . le Due de la Valliere. Par., 1783, 8°, v. I, p. xxxv-lx. De Bure, Guillaume, Bibliographie Instruc- tive. Par., 1763, 8°, p. xv-lxvi. Peignot 2 (1802) 237-44; Clarke 2 (1806) 162-197; Achard 2 (1806-7) 107-161; Ed- wards 2 (1859) 781-2, Table 2, no. ix. (Mod- ification of Bouilleaud) ; Mira 2 .(1862) 150- 59 (detailed) ; Petzholdt .(1866) 34-5 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 263. 1773- System of Cels. Cels, Jacques Martin, and Lottin, A. M. Coup d'oeil eclaire d'une grand bibliotheque a I'usage de tout possesseur de livres, 1773. Clarke, in: The Library 10 .(1898) 390, 391, 394-S (outline, adaptation of Bouilleaud's.) 1774. System of Denis. Denis, Mich. Einleitung in die biichkunde, 1777-8 ; Ed. 2. Wien, 1795-96, 4°. Denis, M'ch. Grundriss d. Bibliographie. Wien, 1774, 8°. Peignot 2 (1802) 232-3; Achard i (1806-7) 281-2; Edwards 2 .(1859) 789-go (gives 7 main classes); Mira 2 (1862) 137-8; Petz- holdt (1866) 35 (full title and outline); Gar (i868) 263-4. i6g 1793- System of Schuts-Huf eland and Ersch. [SchOtz-Hufeland] & Ersch. Allegemeines repertorium der literatur fiir die jahr 1785 bis 1790 (-1800?) Jena, 1793-94. Ersch, Johann Samuel. Handbuch der deutsclien literatur. Lpz., 1812-14, 2 v., 8°. Peignot 2 (1802) ; Achard 2 (1806-7) 42- 98; Constantin 2 ed. (1842) 195; Edwards 2 (1859) p. 789, Table 2, no. xii. (1200 classes, of which E. gives 16 principal, "translated at length in Achard") ; Petz- holdt (1866) 36-7 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 264 (men.); Grasel (1890) 152-3 (outline.) This system is honored by Grasel as "be- yond a doubt one of the best," with first place and most attention, and he recommends it to the librarian as in many respects a model. Its notation is certainly not a model, for it seems liable to run to I. 2. B. b. a. aa. aa. bbb. hbh. bbbb-Art of war — the italics here repre- senting the corresponding Greek letters. 1798. System of Camus. Camus, A. G. Observations sur la distribu- tion et le classement des livres d'une bib- liotheque. Par., 1798. In: Memoires Je ITnstitut . . . Litterature. v. i (1798) 643- 66, 675-6. 170 Peignot2 (1802) 218-20; Achard I (1806-7) 252-80; Home 2 (1814) S5S-6; Edwards 2 (1859) 786; Mira 2 (1862) 139-40; Petz- holdt (1866) 37-8 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1866) 264 (men.) 1799. System of Ameilhon. Ameilhon. Projet sur quelques changeraens ... a nos catalogues de bibliotheques. In : Memoires de I'lnstitut National Litterature et Beaux Arts 2 (Paris, 1799, 4°,) 477-92. Peignot 2 (1802) 202-3; Achard i (1806-7) 197-216; Home 2 (1814) 554-5; Edwards 2 (1859) 785-6, Table 2, no. xiii. ; Mira 2 (1862) 139; Petzholdt (1866) 38-9 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 264 (men.) 1800. System of Coste. Peignot 2 (1802) 230-2; Achard i (1806-7) 280-1; Petzholdt (1866) 39 (outline from Peignot) ; Gar (1868) 264 (men.) 1800. System of Daunou. Daunou, p. CI. Fr. Memoire sur la classifi- cation des livres d'une grande bibliotheque ... In: Bulletin du bibliophile 4 (1840- 41) 402-10; also, abbreviated. Paris, 1841. Constantin (1842) 188-90; Edwards 2 (1859) 787-8 (gives 33 classes in 8) ; Petz- holdt (1866) 39 (full title and outline); Gar (1868) 264-s (6 lines.) 171 i8oi. System of Laire. Peignot 2 (.1802) 234-s; Achard 2 (1806-7) 98-100; Edwards 2 (1859) 768-9; Petzholdt (1866) 39-40 (outline from Peignot); Gar (1868) 264 (men.) 1801. System of Parent. Parent^ aine. Essai sur la bibliographie. Par., 1801, 8°. Peignot 2 (1802) 246-7; Achard 2 (1806-7) 9-12; Home 2 (1814) 561-2; Edwards 2 (1859) 788, Table 2, no. xiv.; Petzholdt (1866) 40 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 26s (men.) ; Maire (1896) 197 (out- line.) 1802. System of Ferrario. FerraeiOj Giulio. Progetto per un catalogo bibliografico. Milano, 1802, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 40-1 (full title and out- line) ; Gar .(1868) 265. 1802. System of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Rapport de M. Leopold Delisle, administra- teur general de la Bibliotheque nationale a M. le Ministre de I'lnstruction publique, 3 juin, 1885. (Bulletin des bibliotheques et des archives 4 (1885) 23 sq. Peignot 2 (1802) 208-13 (outline) ; Rou- 172 veyre 2 (1882) 63-66 (outline) ; Fumagalli (1890) 99-101 (outline); Maire (1896) 223 (outline.) Thirty main classes indicated by letters, the extra ones being D=, E*, O', O', P^ Vm, Y^ Minute subdivisions. Order on shelves (i) Main classes ; (2) Accession periods : period I arr. ace. to old catalogue. 1802. System of Massol. Peignot 2 (1802) 244-6; Achard 2 (1806-7) 6-9; Petzholdt (1866) 40 (outline from Peignot) ; Gar (1868) 264 (men.) 1802. System of Peignot. PeignoTj G. Dictionnaire raisonne de biblio- logie 2 (Paris, 1802) 256-80. Ciarke 2 (1806) 208-18; Achard 2 (1806-7) 12-42; Home 2 (1814) 562-3; Edwards 2 (1859) 768-9; Mira 2 (1862) 140-5 (de- tailed) ; Petzholdt (1866) 41 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 265. 1803. System of Barbier. Barbier, a. a. Quelques idees sur les di- visions du catalogue de la bibliotheque du Conseil d'etat. Paris, 1803, f° ; also in : Bul- letin du bibliophile 7 (1845) 119-21; also in : Leipziger allgemeinen press-zeitung 2 (1841) sp. S3-SS. 201-7. 1/3 Achard i (1806-7) 219; Home 2 (1814) SS6; Constantin (1842) 161-80; Edwards 2 (1859) 796, Table 2, no. ix. (arrangement of Bouilleaud) ; Mira 2 (1862) 59-79 (de- tailed) ; Petzholdt (1866) 41-2 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 265. 1806. System of v. Demidoff. Demidoff, Paul de. Catalogue systematique des livres . . . v. i. Moscou, 1806, 4°. Petzholdt (1866) 42 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 265-6 (outline.) 1807. System of Achard. AcHAED^ C. F. Cours elementaire de biblio- graphie 2 (1807) 161-243. Mira 2 (1862) 145-50 (detailed.) Edwards 2 (1859) 796, Table 2, no. ix. 2 (modification of Bouillaud) ; Petzholdt (1866) 42-3 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 266 (outline.) 1808. System of Olenin. OleniNj E. a. Essai sur un nouvel ordre bibliographique pour la Bibliotheque Im- periale de St. Petersburg ... St. Peters- burg, 1808, 4°. (Reprinted in the first Re- port on British Museum, 1835, App., 457.) Edwards 2 (1859) 790, Table 2, no. xv. ; Petzholdt (1866) 43 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 266 (outline.) 1/4 iSog. System of Girault. GiRAULT, CI. Xav. . Systems de bibliographie. . . . Dijon, 1809, 8°. Achard 2 (1806-7) 73-8s; Edwards 2 (1859) 790-1, Table I, no. vi. ; Petzholdt (1866) 43 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 266 (outline.) 1810. System of Brunei. Brunet, Gustav. Manuel du libraire et de I'amateur de livres. Paris, 1860-1865, 6 v., 8°; V. 6, col. xxvii. 4 ed. 5 (Paris, 1844, 8°) 1-798; I ed., 1810. Constantin (1842) 180-3; Edwards 2 (1859) 796, Table 2, no. ix. i (modification of Bouilleaud) ; Mira 2 (1862) 79-202 (de- tailed) ; Petzholdt (1866) 44 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 266-7 (outline) ; Rouveyre (1882) 21-40 (very detailed) ; Ottino (1892) 123-238; Maire (1896) 186 (contains a long series of special criticisms by Prieur) ; Maire (1896) 198-208 (de- tailed outline) ; Brown (1898) 43 (outline) ; The Library 10 (1898) 162-3 (outline.) Outline. Theology. Jurisprudence. Sciences and arts. Belles-lettres. I7S History (including literary history and bibliography.) More than eleven hundred subdivisions are given in the table to the Sth edition (1864.) Founded as this system was on a very large number of actual titles, it has many elements of practicality. This practicality combined with its accessibility and the fact that the titles were actually classified have combined to make this the most used of all biblio- graphical systems, up to very recent times at least. 1812. System of the Bibliographie de la France. Bibliographie de la France. Tableau bib- liographique des ouvrages en tous genres qui ont paru en France . . . Par., 1812, sq. Constantin (1842) 183-S; Petzholdt (1866) 44-5 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 267-8. This is not the same as the system of the present periodical of this name whose outline is given by Maire. 1814. First System of Home. HoRNE, Thomas Hartwell. An introduction to the study of Bibliography. Lond., 1814, p. 373-402. Petzholdt (1866) 45 (Wl title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 268. 176 i8i9- System of Fortia d'Urban. FoRTiA d'Urban, Agricole. Nouveau sis- teme de bibliographie alfabetique . . . ed. 2. Par., 1822, 12". Constantin (1842) 186-7; Petzholdt (1866) 47-8 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 269; Maire (1896) 197-8 (outline.) 1819. System of Schrettinger. ScHRETTiNGER, Martin. Versuch eines voU- standigen lehrbuchs der bibliothekswissen- schaft . . . Mun., 1829, 8°. Constantin (1842) 196; Petzholdt (1866) 49 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 269; Clarke, in: The Library 10 (1898) 391-2. 1 82 1. System of Thun. ThuNj Johann Paul. Neues biichverzeich- niss. Lpz., 1843-48, 8°. Constantin (1842) 195-6; Petzholdt (1866) 49-50 (full title and outline); Gar (18^ ^ 269-70 (outline.) 1825. Second System of Home. HoRNE, Thomas Hartwell. Catalogue of the library of Queen's College, Cambridge . . . Camb. (Eng.,) 1827, 2 v., 8°; also in: Out- lines for the classification of a library. Lond., 1825, 4° (100 copies.) Edwards 2 (1859) 793-6, Table 2, no. ix. 3 177 (modification of Bouillaud) ; Petzholdt (1866) so (full title and outline) ; Brown (i8q8) 43-4 (outline.) 1826. System of Reuss. Reuss, Ferdinand Friedrich. Ordo Biblio- thecae Universitatis Caesareae Mosquensis. Mosquae, 1826, 4°. Petzholdt (1866) 50-51 (full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 270; Flint, in: Presb. R. 6 (188s) 435 (mention.) 1826. System of Pipitone. PipiTONE^ Stefano. Discorso ossia Progetto di un nuovo piano di classificazione. Paler- mo, 1826, 100 p., 8°. Gar (1868) 270 (full title and outline.) 1827. System of Mortillaro. MoRTiLLAROj Vincenzo. Studio bibliografico. Palermo, 1827, 8° ; also 1832, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 51 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 270. 1828. System of the Tableau compare des productions bibliographiques. Tableau compare des productions biblio- graphiques. Quoted in: Bailly. Notices sur les bibliotheques. Paris, 1828, 8'". Edwards 2 (1859) 796, Table 2, no. ix. 4 (modification of Bouilleaud.) 178 i834- Pifst System of Namur. Namur, p. Manuel du bibliothecaire . . . Bruxelles, 1834, ?°. Petzholdt (1866) Si-2 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 271 (oiitline.) 1835. System of Thienemann. Thienemann, T. G. Verzeichniss eines an- sehnlichen theils der bibliothek zu Rochlitz. . . Lpz., 1835. Repr. in: Serapeum, 8 (1847) Intelligenzblatt 155-158, 161-166. Edwards 2 (1859) Table 2, no. xiv., "too fine spun for common use''; Petzholdt (i866) 52-3 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 271-2. 1835. System of Friedrich. FriedricHj Joh. Cph. Kritische erorterungn. zum iibereinstimmenden ordnen und ver- zeichnen ijffentlicher bibliotheken. Lpz., 1835, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 52 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1863) 271. 1835. System of the London Institution. Thomson, R., Bragley, E. W., and Maltby, William. Catalogue of the library of the London Institution systematically classed. Lend., 1835. Brown (1898) 44. 179 1836. System of the British Museum. Garnett, R. On the system of classifying books on the shelves followed at the British Museum. Lib. J. 2 (1877) 194-200 [descrip- tive outline] same art. Trans, of Confer- ence of Librarians. Lond., 1877, 108-114, 188-193- Harris, G. W. The British Museum system of press-numbering. In : Library Journal, 12 (1887) 331-4- Fumagalli (1890) 107-8; The Library 9 (1897) 20s (10 class outline) ; Brown (1898) 45-8 (outline.) L, Theology; II., Jurisprudence; III., Nat- ural history and Medicine; IV., Archaeology and arts; V., Philosophy; VI., History; VII., Geography; VIII., Biography; IX., Belles Lettres; X., Philology. 1837. System of Aime-Martin. Aime-Martin, L. Plan d'une bibliotheque universelle . . . Bruxelles, 1837, 12°. Petzholdt (1866) S3 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1866) 272. 1838. System of Levot. Levot, Prosper Jean. Catalogue general des livres composant les Bibliotheques du De- partement de la Marine et des Colonies. Par., 1838-43. 5 v., 8°. i8o Petzholdt (1866) 53-4 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 272. 1838. System of Bliedener. [Bliedener, Alexander.] Kayser. VoUstan- diges Biicher Lexicon, Sachregister. Leip- zig, 1838. Petzholdt (1866) S3 (full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 272; Maire (1896) 214 (outline.) li. 1839. System of tluquardt. MuQU.VRDT, C. Bibliographie de la Belgique ou catalogue general de I'imprimerie et de la librairie Beiges . . Bruxelles, 1838, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 54 (full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 272. 1839. Second System of Nainur. Namur, a. Catalogue de la bibliotheque de I'Athenee Royal Grand-Ducal de Luxem- bourg . Luxembourg, 1855, 8°. Namur, A. Projet I'un nouveau systemc des connaissances humaines. Bruxelles, 1839, 8° Petzholdt (1866) S4-S (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 272 (men.) 1839. System of Preusker. (Lib'y of Gros- .senhain.) Preusker, Karl. Wissenschaftliches System einer Aufstellung statlicher Biirger- u. an- i8i dere bibliotheken, in: Serape-um .(1850) In- telligenz-Blatt, p. 97-101 ; also separately Miessen, 1850, 8°. Preusker, Karl. (Die) stadt-bibliothek in Grossenhain, etc. Grossenhain, 1836, 3 Aufl., 1841 ; 4 aufl., 1847, 8° ; 1853, 8°. Edwards 2 (1859) Table 2, no. xvii. ; Petz- holdt (1866) 55 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 272. 1840. System of Lehmann and Petersen. Lehmann, J. G. C, and Petersen, C. Ansich- ten und baurisse der neuen gebaude fUr Hamburgs offentliche bildungsanstalten, kurz besschrieben und in verbindung mit dem plan fiir die kiinftige Aufstellung der Stadt- bibliothek herausgegeben. Hamburg, 1840; also in: Serapeum 8 (1847) Intelligenzbl. 169-73, 177-83, 18S-91, 9 (1848) ; Intelli- genzbl. 1-7, 9-12, 17-22, •:'5-29, 33-40, 41-48, 49-55, 57-63, 65-71, 73-74. Petzholdt (1866) 55-6 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 272-3; Fumagalli (1890) III (F. gives 18 classes (A-S). A has 48 subdivisions, G 195, etc.) 1841. System of Rossi. Rossi, Francesco. Cenni storici e descrittivi intorno all' I. R. biblioteca di Brera. Mi- lano, 1841, 8", p. 23-71. l82 Petzholdt (1866) 56 (full title and outline) ; Gar .(1868) 273. 1841. System of Park. Park^ Roswell. Pantology or a systematic survey of human knowledge. 1841, 8° ; 3 ed. 1843, 8°. Shields, Philosophia Ultima 2 (1889) 61 ("bibliographical.") 1842. System of Merlin. Merlin, R. Catalogue de !a bibliotheque de Sylvestre de Sacy. Par., 1842-47, 3 v., 8°, V. 3, xx-xxiv. Merlin, R. Classification of works into cat- alogues. In : Norton's Literary Register, 1854, p. 81-4. Edwards 2 ( 1859) p. 801-4, Table i, no. xi. ; Petzholdt (1866) S7 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 273. Outline. I. Philosophy. II. Theological sciences. III. Cosmological sciences. 1. Mathematical science. 2. Physical science. 3. Astronomical science. 4. Geological science. 5. Mineralogical science. 6. Phytological science. i83 7. Zoological science. 8. Anthropological science. Individual man. Physical. Moral. Society. Social or Political sciences. Historical sciences. This extremely interesting classification is "based upon the logical classification of the sciences." Merlin advocated classifying by "the objects" "arranged in the organic scale of being . . . according to the chronological order of creation, that is to say arising from the most simple to the most perfect." Sub- stitute complex for perfect, and here we have the modern evolutionary conception in its plainest form applied to books. It is amusing at this day to note that Edwards, criticising the system of Merlin, in 1859 calls evolution "that theory — graceful but unsound — which had so many charms in its early stages" a philosophical blunder. "What sort of a science of palaeontology,'' he asks, "should we now possess had all who cultivated it insisted on working it out under the supremacy of that theory." It is a matter of extreme interest to American libraries that at that famous con- vention of 1853, from which most that is prac- tical m modern library method sprang, the l84 first library plea for an evolutionary system of classification for books was presented. We have seen "what sort of a science of palaeon- tology" the application of this theory has pro- duced, and it seems clear that if M. Merlin had been more successful as a promoter, and the same theory had been as rigidly applied to library classification as it was to palaeon- tology, we should have been much farther advanced in the matter at the present day. 1843. System of Munich Royal Library. Laubmann, Georg von. Plan und classifica- tion s-normativ der K. Hof- und Staats- bibliothek zu Munchen. Nebst einem An- hang iiber die aufstellung u. beschreibung der biicher. (Ms. sent Fumagalli.) Fumagalli (1890) 120-2. 12 main classes (given) with 182 subdivisions. Each class is arranged in three sizes, then in general alphabetical Latin abbreviation notation, e.g., "Num, rec." Recent Numismatics. The Volg. eloq. of Dante, tr. Trissino 1868 is: "P. o. ital. 8°, 341 gnd." 1844- 1848. System of Ilari. Ilari, Lorenzo. (La) Biblioteca pubblica di Siena . . . Siena, 1844-48, 7 v. in 8, 4°. Gar .(186S) 273 (title and outline.) i8s 1847. System of PauUn Paris. Paris, Paulin. De la bibliotheque royale. Par., 1847, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) s8-9 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 274. 1849. System of the Commercial Lib., Hamburg. Hoffman. Die Commerz-Bibliothek in Ham- burg. Hamb., 1849, p. 24, 8°. Edwards 2 (1859) Table 2, no. xvi. 1850. System of Cardile. Cardile, Giuseppe. Studii fondamentali della scienza bibliografica. Palermo, 1850, 8°. Gar (186S) 274 (s lines.) 1850. System of Narbone. Nakbone, Alessia. Bibliografia Sicola sistem- atica, o apparato metodico alia storia letter- aria della Sicilia. Palermo, 1850-55, 4 v. ; also in: Rivista di scienze (Palermo) no. 22-4. Gar (1868) 274-5 (title.) 1852. System of Schleiermacher. Schleiermacher, a. a. E. Bibliographisches system der gesammten wissenschaftens- kunde mit «iner anleitung zum ordnen von biblioteken. Braunschweig, 1847; also 1852, i86 8° ; also in : Petzholdt. Neuer anzeiger (1853) p. 30-32, 205-208. Edwards 2 (1859) 806-8, Table 2, no. xviii. ; Petzholdt (1866) 59 (full title and outline) : Gar (1868) 275; Grasel (1890) 153 (out- line); Fumagalli (1890) 113-4; Brown (1898) 48 (outline.) Contains 12,915 classes in 25 main classes. Fum. gives 25 classes (A-Z). 1853. System of the Leipziger "Messkatalog." Messkatalog. Lpz., 1853, sq. 8°. Petzholdt (1866) S9-6o (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 275 (outline.) 1853. System of Walckenaer. Walckenaer, Baron. Catalogue des livres de [sa] bibliotheque. Par., 1853, 8°; also in: Serapeum (1854) Intelligenzbl. 41-44, 49- 52, S7-6o. Petzholdt (1866) 60-1 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 275. 1853. System of Wiener. WiENERj Hermann. Catalogue de la biblio- theque cantonale Vandoise. Lausanne, 1856, 8°; also in: Serapeum 19 (1858) In- telligenzbl. 89-93, 97-101, 105-109, 113-117. Petzholdt (1866) 60-1 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 276. i87 1854. System of Palermo. Palermo, Francesco. Classazione dei libri a stampa dell' I. e R. Palatina in corrispon- denza di un nuovo ordinamento dello scibi'.e umano. Firenze, 1854, 4°. Petzholdt (1866) 61 (full title and out- line); Gar (i868) 276-7 (full outline); Fumagalli (1890) 94-5. 22 main classes with minute subdivisions (392 under History.) Fum. gives the 22 main classes. 1855. System of Pilz. [PiLZ, Oscar.] Wissenschaftskunde. In: Rottner, Albert. Lehrbuch der contorwis- senschaft. Ed. 2. Lpz., 1861, 4°, p. 287- 334- Petzholdt (1866) 6l (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 277. 1855. System of Lebas. Maire (1890) 224-9 (outline) ; Libr'y Jour. 22 (1897) 253. A French classification and notation (outline.) System used in the Sorbonne and in the Superior Normal School of Paris. Its es- sence is the abbreviation notation, i.e. T = Theology, TC= Councils, TP= Polemic, etc. i8s5- System of the Palermo Communal Library. Indice topografico ed alfabetico della biblio- teca del Comune di Palermo. Palermo, 1855, V. I, p. X., 8°. Mira 2 (1862) 203-8. 1856. System of Tiele. [TiLLE.] Catalogue van de bibliotheek der stad Amsterdam. Amst., 1856-58, 4 pt., 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 61-2 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 277 (outline.) 1856. System of Trbmel. Tromel, Paul Allg€meine bibliographie ; monatliches verzeichniss. Lpz., 1856, 8° (still in use in same periodical.) Petzholdt (1866) 62 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 277 (outline.) 1856. System of Merleker. MEifLEKER, Karl Friedrich. Musologie Lpz., 1857, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 62-3 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 278. 1837. System of Vincent. Vincent, Benj. The classified catalogue of the library of the Royal Institution. Lond., 1857. Brown (1898) 49-50 (outline.) i89 1859. System of Edivards. Edwards, Edward. Memoirs of libraries. Lend., 1859, 8°, V. 2, p. 814-831: Outline of proposed scheme of classification for a town library. Petzholdt (1866) 63-4 (full title and out- line) ; Gar (1868) 278-9 (outline) ; The Library 9 (1897) 204 (outline) ; Brown (1898) 50-54 (outline.) I., Theology; II., Philosophy; III., His- tory; IV., Politics and Commerce; V., Sci- ences and arts; VI., Literature and Poly- graphy. About five hundred classes given. Extreme notation "Class V., Div. i, S c, ii. (2)" ^Organic Chemistry. 1859. System of Eyre. Eyre, Samuel. Book classing systematized. Lond., 1843, f°. Edwards 2 (1859) 805-6 (23 classes in 4 given) ; Petzholdt (1866) 63 (full title and outline) ; Gar (1868) 278. 1859. System of Trilbner. Trubner, Nicolas, comp. and ed. Biblio- graphical guide to Amer. literature . . . Lond., 1859, 8°. Petzholdt (1866) 64 (full title and out- line); Gar (1868) 279; Brown (1898) 50 (outline.) igo 1861. System of Mira. MiRA, Giuseppe. Manuale teorico-pratico di bibliografia. Palermo, 1861-62, 2 v., 2-227-9 (Elaborate series of folding tables.) Gar (1868) 279-80. 1862. System of Wuttig. WuTTiG, G. Universal-bibliographie. Lpz., 1862. Petzholdt (1866) 65 (full title and out- line.) 1863. System of Starrabba. Starrabba, Raffaele, baron. Progetto di clas- sificazione di una biblioteca. Palermo, 1863, 8° Gar (1866) 280 (rather full outline.) 1863. System of Seizinger. Seizinger, G. Theorie und praxis der biblio- thekwissenschaft . . . Dresden, 1863, 8°. 52-175, and on Notation 175-85. Gar (1868) 279. S. gives 32 main classes with full and de- tailed subdivisions, and gives under each class explicit description of what is included. An unusual and admirable method. 1865. System of Gar. Gar, Tommaso. Letture di bibliologia. To- rino, 1868, 8°. Table opposite p. 188. igi 1865. System of Lesley. BruneTj Gustav. In : Chronique du Journal gen. de I'lmpr. 2 ser. 9 (Paris, 1865.) Gar (1868) 280-1 (good outline.) 1866. System of Petzholdt. Petzholdt, J. [System of the library at Dresden.] In: Bibliotheca Bibliographica. Lpz., 1866, 8°, p. 62 (under System von Tromel.) 1869. System of Techener. TecheneRj Joseph Leon. Repertoire univer- sel de bibliographie. Paris, 1869, 8°. Rouveyre 2 (1882) 50-58 (very detailed.) 1870. System of the Athens National Li- brary. SteffenhageNj E. Die neue ordnung und katalogisirung der Athener Nationalbiblio- thek, in: Neuer Anzeiger (1868) no. 704; (1869) no. 762; (1870) no. 821; (1874) no. 451- Grasel (1890) 386 and 388. Alphabetical system. 1870. System of IV. T. Harris. Harris, W. T. Catalogue of the St. Louis Public School Library. St. Louis, 1870, 8°, p. 3-16. 192 Harsis^ VVm. T. Book classification. In: Jour. Spec. Philos. 4 (1870) 114-9. Public Libraries in the U. S. i (Wash., 1876) 660-2 (outline.) The Library 9 (1897) 205 (outline) ; Crun- den, Frederick M. Classification and cata- loguing. Library i (1900) 295-8; Brown (1898) 63-5 (outline.) 1870. System of Manasia. ManasiAj Calogero. Classificazione della biblioteca comniunale di Caltanisetta. Cal- tanisetta, 1870. Fumagalli (1890) 98-9 (gives 6 classes.) Strict subject arr., no distinction of size. 1871. System of Battezzati. Battezzati, Natale. Nuovo sistema di cata- logo bibliografico generate [referred to by Dewey ed. 1876, not seen. System proposed in the Bibliografia Italiana, nov. 30, 1871, is substantially that of Brunet] 1 87 1. System of Fijrstemann. FoRSTEMANN, E. W. Mittheilungen aus der verwaltung der Konigl. Oeffentlichen Bi- bliothek zu Dresden in den jahren 1866-1870, 1871-187S, 1876-1880. Dresden, 1871, 1876. 1881. 193 Ebert, F. A. Geschichte und beschreibung der Dresdner Bibliothek, p. 89, fif. Forstemann, Systematische, alphabetische, chronoligische anordnung, in: Centralblatt fiir Bibliothekswesen, i (1884) 293-303. Fumagalli (1890) 114-5. 283 classes, Notations — the abbreviated Latin name (classes arranged for the most part methodically, but some alphabetically and chronologically.) 1876. System of the Madrid National Library. Breve noticia de la Biblioteca Nacional. Madrid, 1876. Fumagalli (1890) 125-6. 1876. System of Dewey. Dewey, Melvil. Decimal classification and relativ index for libraries, clippings, notes, etc. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged. Boston Library Bureau, iSgi, p. 593. 8°. Earlier editions: ist, 1876; 2d, 1885; 3d, 1888; repr. 1894. Dewey, Melvil. Abridged decimal classifi- cation and relativ index for libraries, clip- pings, notes, etc. Bost., 1 1894,] 8°. U. S. Bureau of Ed. Catalog of the "A. L. A." Library. Washington, 1893, 8°, p. 39 (outline loo classes. The most accessible 13 194 illustration of the system, here applied to Sooo select volumes.) Translations : Italian, by Mondino, Palermo, 189s; by Benedetti, Firenze, 1897; French, Bruxelles, 1895, (1000 schedules); do. 1897 (tables generales abr.) and do. i8gg (of the nature of a new edition by the Institut in- ternat.) ; Spanish, by Castillo, Salamanca, 1897 ; German, by Junker, Wien, 1897. It is impossible to attempt here anything like a bibliography of the immense literature of the Dewey system. References and discus- sions may be found passim in all the library periodicals — German, French and Italian as well as British and American. Following are only a few out of very many articles. For other literature consult Kephart in the World's Congress Papers, and especially the publications of the Institut international de bibliographic. Dewey, M^lvil. A decimal classification and subject index. In: U. S. Bureau of Ed., Public Libraries of the U. S., etc. (Wash., 1876) 623-48. Grasel (1890) 154-5, 387; Fumagalli (1890) 126-128, etc. (gives 10 di- visions and full discussion) ; Maire (i8g6) 218-9 (outline) ; Brown .(1898) 67-71 (out- line) ; The Library 7 (1895) 341; 8 (1896) 335-50 (Jast); 8 (1896) 379-8o; 8 (1896) 482-90 (Lyster) ; 9 (1897) 329-39 (Lyster) ; 195 9 (i897) 340-45 (Jast); 9 (1897) 346-9 (Peddie); 10 (1898) 97-9 (outline). Li- brary Journal 3 (1878) 231 (Dewey) ; 4 (1879) 117-20; 191-4 (Dewey); 4 (1879) 149-52 (Lindsay); 7 (1882) 127-8 (Lar- ned); 10 (1885) 258 (Lane); 11 (1886) 37-43 (Perkins and Schwartz); 11 (1886) 100-104 I, Dewey) ; 23 (1898) 18-22 (Wire) ; 24 (1899) IS4 (Dewey). Outline. 000 General Works. 010 Bibliography. 020 Library Economy. 030 General Cyclopedias. 040 General Collections. 050 General Periodicals. 060 General Societies. 070 Newspapers. 080 Special Libraries. Polygraphy. ogo Book Rarities, ipo. Philosophy. no Metaphysics. 120 Special Metaphysical Topics. 130 Mind and Body. 140 Philosophical Systems. 150 Mental Faculties. Psychologj'. 160. Logic. 170 Ethics. 180 Ancient Philosophers. 190 Modern Philosophers. 196 200 Religion, 210 Natural Theology. 220 Bible. 230 Doctrinal Theol. Dogmatics. 240 Devotional and Practical. 250 Homiletic. Pastoral. Parochial. 260 Church. Institutions. Work. 270 Religiotis History. 280 Christian Churches and Sects. 290 Non-Christian Religioas. 300 Sociology. 310 Statistics. 320 Political Science. 330 Political Economy. 340 Law. 350 Administration. 360 Associations and Institutions. 370 Education. 380 Commerce and Communication. 390 Customs. Costumes. Folk-lore. 400 Philology. 41D Comparative. 420 English. 430 German. 440 French. 450 Italian. 460 Spanish. 470 Latin. 480 Greek. 490 Minor Languages. 197 500 Natural Sciences. SID Mathematics. 520 Astronomy. 530 Physics. 540 Chemistry. 550 Geology. 560 Paleontology. 570 Biology. 580 Botany. 590 Zoology. 600 Useful Arts. 610 Medicine. 620 Engineering. 630 Agriculture. 640 Domestic Economy. 650 Communication and Commelce 660 Chemical Technology. 670 Manufactures. 680 Mechanic Trades. 690 Building. 700 Fine Arts. 710 Landscape Gardening. 720 Agriculture. 730 Sculpture. 740 Drawing. Design. Decoration. 750 Painting. 760 Engraving. 770 Photography. 780 Music. 790 Amusements. 8oo Literature. 8io American. 820 English. 830 German. 840 French. 850 Italian. 860 Spanish. 870 Latin. 880 Greelc. 890 Minor Languages. goo History. 910 Geography and Description. 920 Biography. 930 Ancient History. 940 Modern. Europe. 950 Asia. 960 Africa. 970 North America. 980 South America. 990 Oceanica and Polar Regions. The system contains in its various sum- maries 10, 100, 1000 and, roughly speaking, 10,000 divisions. In the notation, however, the main subject stops with the use of three figures, the decimal point is then introduced and further divisions are of irregular minute- ness of subdivision, and are regarded as be- ginning a new series of classes. This system begun in 1873, first published in 1876, published in fourth edition in 1891 199 and reprinted, and now perhaps shortly to be published again in new edition, has probably had more vogue than any other bibliograph- ical system ever published save possibly that of Brunet. Taken as a whole and regarding the substantially unchanging form and nota- tion, among the multitude of derived systems with minor variations, it is undoubtedly true that no system ever invented has been applied to as many libraries .(probably at the present day several thousand) as this. In many li- braries considerable changes have been made, but in the majority it remains practically un- changed. It is now being adopted very gen- erally on the continent of Europe by book- sellers even as well as libraries, and is of late, through its adoption by the Brussels Iristitut, having a very zealous propaganda by its con- verts, especially in France and Italy. Many of the most noteworthy partial classifications of the present day are avowedly founded on and are enlargements of this system. The sys- tem itself is supposed to be in some way aj adaptation of Bacon, but the relation is hardly to be discovered and it really should be counted as independent. The reasons for its deserved popularity are to be found: (i) in an intelligent and consistent application of the decimal notation (not new with Dewey, but first by him vigorously and consistently ap- plied) ; (2) in the grasp of mnemonic possi- bilities of this situation; (3) in the practical, intelligent and often up to date management of the remoter subdivisions of the, in some places, somewhat artificial, larger sub-classes; (4) in the fully printed schedules with their "relativ index,'' which more than anything else is the cause of the practicality of this system and its wide adoption. In other words, its popularity has been due to intelligent prac- tical usefulness. Random Examples of the Dewey Notation. 974.4 Ad I Adams, C. F. Massachusetts. 624 Ad I Adams, Henry. Structural iron- work. 29s A 3 Avesta. Zend-Avesta ; tr. Dar- mesteter. 1898. 372.2 H19 Hauschmann. Kindergarten sys- tem. 1879. System of Schwartz. Schwartz, J. A mnemonic system of classi- fication; Lib. J. 4 .(1879) 1-7. Schwartz, J. A new classification and no- tation. In: Lib. J. 7 (1882) 148-66. Library Journal 4 (1879) 92 (Schwartz) 7 (1882) ; 251 (Bliss) ; 272 (Schwartz) ; 10 (i88s) 25-7, 77-8, 149-S0, 174-5, 371-S (Schwartz); 257 (Lane); 11 (1886) 8-9 (Cutter and Lane) ; 9 (Schwartz) ; Grasel (1890) 387; Fumagalli (1890) 131-2; Brown (1898) 65-6 (outline.) Kephert, Horace. Classification. In .(World's Library Congress Papers) U. S. Education Rep., 1892-3, p. 874. This gives a new and presumably final form of Schwartz System, as follows: 0, Fiction; i. Biography; 2, History and geography; 3, Po- litical and Social science; 4,- Philosophy and theology; S, Natural science; 6, Useful and fine arts; 7, Language and literature; 8, For- eign literature (in other languages than Eng- lish) ; 9, Polygraphy. 1879. System of Cutter. Cutter, C. A. Expansive classification. Bos- ton, C. A. Cutter, 1891-3, 160 p., 8°. (Six expansions. The seventh, very minute, is published in part and is very near comple- tion.) Cutter, C. A. Classification on the shelves with some account of the new scheme pre- pared for the Boston Athenaeum. Lib. J. 4 (1879) 234-43. U. S. Bureau of Ed. Catalog of the "A. L. A." Library. Washington, 1893, 8°, p. 147 (outline of about no c'asses. The best illustration of the system as it is applied here, complete to 5000 volumes.) 202 Cutter, C. A. The Expansive Classification. In: Trans. Internat. Library Congress. Land. (Lond., 1898) 84-8. Cutter's Expansive Classification. The Li- brary 10 (1898) 98, 286 (outline.) Cutter, Charles A. Suitability of the Ex- pansive Classification to college and ref- ence libraries. In: Lib. Journal 24 (1899) 41-49- As in the case of the Dewey system, the lit- erature of the Cutter system is already for- midable and is increasing. Following are n few references: Lib. Jour. 10 (1885) 55-6; 14 (1889) 242-4 (Bliss) ; 17 (1892) 228 (Kephart) ; 23 (1898) 18-22 (Wire); 24 (1896) c. 154-6; Fumagalli (1890) 129-31 ; The Library Q (1897) 205-6; Brown (1898) 73-7 (Out- line.) Compare also literature in Kephart's World's Congress paper. Outline of Fifth Expansion (revised to 1901). A General works, covering several classes. Includes: Ad Dictionaries, Ae Encyclo- paedias, Ai Indexes. Am Museums (General), An Notes and Queries, Ap Periodicals (General), Aq Quotations, Allusions, etc., Ar Reference books. As Societies (General.) B Philosophy; Br Religion. 203 Includes: Ba-Bf National philosophies and systems of philosophy; Bg Metaphys- ics, Ontology, Bh Logic, Bi Psychology, Bra Moral philosophy, Br Religion; gen- eral works on religion and the Supernat- ural, Bs Natural theology, Bt Religions, Bii Superstitions,Folk-lore, Bz Local religions. C Christianity and Judaism. Includes: Ca Judaism, Cb Bible, Cc Christianity. D Ecclesiastical history. Includes: Dd Church history of coun- tries, Dg Catholic Church, Dj Reformation, Dk Protestants. E Biography. F History. Includes: Universal, Ancient, Medieval, Modern; Single countries (local list), Fc Chronology, Fd Philosophy of history, Fe History of civilization and culture, Ff An- tiquities, manners and customs, Fi Inscrip- tions, Fn Numismatics, Fs Chivalry, Ft Knightly orders, Fv Heraldry, Fw Peer- ages, Nobility. G Geography and Travels. Includes: Ge Mathematical geography, Gs Surveys, of all sorts, Gz Maps. H Social sciences. Includes: Hb Statistics, He Economics, Political economy. 204 I Demotics, Sociology. Includes: lb Ciime, Criminal classes, Ig Charity, the Poor, Ih Providence, Ik Edu- cation. J Civics, Government, Political science. Includes: Jx Law of nature and of na- tions, Jy International law. K Legislation, etc. Includes: Ka Law, Kw Woman, Kx Children, Kz Societies .not otherwise pro • vided for. L Sciences and Arts together. Includes: La Sciences (Natural), Lb Mathematics, Lh Physics or Natural phil- osophy, Lo Chemistry, Lr Astronomy. M Natural history. Includes : Mb Microscopy, Mc Geology, Md Minfiralogy and Lithology, Me Crys- tallography, Mg Physiography, physical geography, Mp Palaeontology, Mu Biology. N Botany. O Zoology. Pw Anthropology and Ethnology. Includes : Pwa Geological man, Px Eth- nology (primitive and historic man), Py Ethnography (races of men). Q Medicine. R Useful Arts; Technology. Includes: Ra Exhibitions, Rb Patents, Re Metric arts. Weights and measures, 20S Rd Mining, Re Metallurgy, Rf Agricul- ture, Rj Animal culture, Rq Chemical tech- nology, Rt Electric arts, Ry Domestic economy, Rz Food and cookery. S Constructive arts (Engineering and Build- ing). S Engineering. Includes: Sg Building, Sj Sanitary en- gineering, SI Hydraulic engineering, St Arts of transportation and communication, Su Roads, Highways, Streets, Sv Rail- roads. T Manufactures and Handicrafts. U Art of war. Includes: Un Nautical arts, Uu Ships, Shipbuilding, etc., Uv Lighthouses, Uw Life-saving service, Ux Shipwrecks, Uy Fire extinction, Fires. V Recreative arts. Sports, Games, Festivals. Includes: Vr Jugglery, Ventriloquism, Natural magic, Vs Gymnastics, Physical education, Vt Theatre, Vv Music. W Art. Includes : We Landscape gardening, Wf Architecture, Wj Sculpture, Wk Carving and Turning, Wl Arts of design, graphic arts, Wm Drawing, Wp Painting, Wq En- graving, Wr Photography, Ws Decorative arts. Ornament, Wt Mosaic, Wu Needle- work and textile decoration, Wv Costume 206 and its sJjuncts, Ww Furniture, Wx Jew- elry, Silver and Gold-smithing, Wy Metal work, Wz Bric-a-brac. X Philology. Includes : Xd Language in general, Xy English language. Y English and American literature. Includes : Yf Fiction, Yj Juvenile litera- ture. Yd Literature in general. Z Book arts. Includes : Za .A.uthorship, Rhetoric, Zd Writing, Zh Printing, Zk Binding, Zl Pub- lishing ?nd Bookselling, Zn Private libra- ries, Zp Public libraries, Zu Bibliography, Zw Subject bibliography, Zx Selection and methods of reading, Zy Literary history, Zz Natiojial bibliography. Although not published very fully until 1891, some account of the system was pub- lished as early as 1879, and the fifth expansion was finished in 1882. In 1891-3 it was published fully in six ex- pansions, and the seventh, v/hich will contain about 10,000 subdivisions, is now nearing completion. It is distinguished as being the most logical and modern in its nomenclature of the recent systems. It applies a consistent alphabetical notation in a manner which is an advance on all such attempts previously made. It is coming into use in a good many Ameri- 207 can libraries, and when the final expansion is finished and provided with an index will uv doubtedly be more used still. The painstak- ing intelligence of subdivision and the full de- scription of exact meaning of what is in- tended to be included under the subdivision are of the highest order, both of scholarship and method. The author's unsparing indus- try and unwearied enthusiasm for his scien- tific aim and the welfare of libraries have produced a really scientific .(though of course not perfect or final) work cf high value, the appreciation of which on the part of others is all the more cordial because of the modesty and unaflfected altruism of its author. The proper understanding of the substantial excellences of this system really requires a presentation of Cutter's admirable "Local list," now used with many other systems as well, and the "Cutter author number," now used with most systems, but the limits of the method chosen for this appendix forbid. Random Examples of the Cutter Notation. F844.Adi Adams, C. F. Massachusetts. SE.Adi Adams, Henry. Structural iron- work. BZEP.A3 Avesta. Zend-Avesta; tr. Dar- mesteter. 1898. IU.H19 Hauschmann. Kindergarten sys- tem. 208 1880. System of Allibone. Allibone, S. Aug. A critical dictionary of English literature and British and Ameri- can authors. Philadelphia, 1880, 3 v., 8°. Maire (1896) 217 (gives outline of names in index.) This, as quoted by Maire, is not properly a system — or rather it is merely the alpha- betical subject system. Allibone does, how- ever, in introd. adopt from Putnam's World's progress the classification "Imagina- tion, Fact, Speculative and Scientific." 1880. System of Lorem. LoRENZ. Catalogue general de la librairie frangaise. Tableau systematique ou re- sume des rubriques de la table des matieres. V. 8 (Paris, 1880) 673-84. Maire (1896) 210-11 (outline.) 1 88 1. System of Perkins. Perkins, Fred. C. San Francisco Catalogu- ing for public libraries. A manual of ths system used in the San Francisco Free Pub- lic Library. San Francisco, 1884, p. 40. Perkins, Fred. B. A rational classification of literature for shelving and cataloguing books in .\ library. Revised edition. San Francisco, 1882. S7+4 p. 8°. 209 Dewey, Melvil. Mr. Perkins' classification. Lib. Jour. 7 (1882) 60-2. Fumagalli (1890) 135 (5572, in 69, in 8 classes. 8 given by F.) ; Brown (1898) 77-9 (outline.) For other references see Kephart, p. 895. 1881. System of the Italian Chamber of Deputies. La biblioteca della Camera dei Deputati nel dicembre dell'anno 1881. Notizie pubblicate per cura della commis- sione della Biblioteca. Roma, 1881. Fumagalli (1890) 99 ("A few large class- es.") 1882. System of the Berlin Royal Library. Uebersicht cer systematischen ordnung der Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin, Juli, 1882. Fumagalli (1890) 111-2. 177 main classes. 1882. System of Smith. Smith, Lloyd P. The classification of books. In: Lib. J. 7 (1882) 172-174. Smith, Lloyd P. On the classification of books. A paper read before the American Library Association, May, 1882. Bost., 1882, 70 p. 8°. Fumagalli (1890) 134-S; Brown (1898) 79- 80 (outline.) 14 A, Religion; E, Jurisprudence; I, Sciences and Arts; O, Belles-Lettres ; U, History; Y, Bibliography and the history of literature. 1883. System of Edmonds. Edmands, John. New system of classification, etc. Phila., 1883, 29 p. 8°. Lib. Jour. 4 (1879) 38-40, 42-4, 56. Brown (1898) 82. 1883. System of Steffenhagen. Steffenhagen, Emil. Ueber normalhohen fur biichergeschosse. Eine bibliothektech- nische erorterung, mit einem anhange, ent- haltend den aufstellungsplan der Kieler Universitats-Bibliothek. Kiel, 1885. Steffenhagen, E. Ordnungsprincipien der Universitats-Bibliothek Kiel. Fiir den dienstlichen gebrauch zusammengestellt. Als manuskript gedruckt. Burg, 1885. Steffenhagen, E. Die neue aufstellung der Universitats-Bibliothek zu Kiel. Eine denk- schrift zur orientirung. Als manuskript vervielfaltigt. Kiel, 1883. Steffenhagen, E. Standorts-Tabelle iiber die neue aufstellung der Universitats-Bi- bliothek zu Kiel. Kiel, 1884. Fumagalli (1890) 1 19-120. "Scrupulously systematic." 25 main classes given by Fumagalli, 124 sub-classes. Three- form series. 211 1883. System of the Austro-Hungarian Libraries. GrassaueRj Ferdinand. Handb. f. oesterr . . . Bibliotheken. Wien, 1883, p. 133, 196. Fumagalli (1890) 123-4. Rules call for two main principles : .(a) logi- cal by subjects, (b) with the object of "hav- ing the library preserve a pleasing exterior appearance.'' 1883. System of the Public Libraries of France. Robert^ Ulysse. Recueil de lois, decrets, or- donances, arretes, circlaires, etc., concer- nant les bibliotheques publiques, commu- nales, universitaires, scolaires et populaires. Paris, 1883, p. 121. Fumagalli (1890) 102-3. Three sizes, accessions order, folios and over 1-9999, quartos, etc., 10000-29,999, oc- tavos and under 30,000 sq. 1884. System of the Mazarin Library. Rapport de M. Alfred Franklin, adminis- trateur de la bibliotheque Mazarine, etc., in: Bulletin des Bibl. (1884) 25. Fumagalli (1890) 101-2 (Classification by subjects long given up. Now strictly (i) by three sizes; (2) order of accession in each.) 1884. Paris Arsenal Library. Rapport de M. Edouard Thierry, conserva- teur-administrateur de la bibliotheque de r Arsenal, etc., in: Bulletin des Bibl. (1884) 172. Fumagalli (1890) 102. Originally classed, overcrowded, then by order of accession. 1885. System of the St. Genevieve Library. Rapport de M. Lavoix, administrateur de la bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve, etc., in: Bulletin des Bibl. (1885) 136. Fumagalli (i8go) 102 (outline. 28 classes much the same as those of Bib. Nat. Since 187s arranged in each class in the order of accession.) Maire (1896) 230-31. 1885. System of the Heidelberg Univ. Lib. Zangemeister, Karl. System des Real-Kata- logs der Universitats-Bibliothek Heidelberg. Heidelberg, 1885. Fumagalli (1890) 118-19 (outline.) System with 17 main classes (given by Fumagalli). Dates from 1825 but minutely subdivided (history, e.g. 227 subdivisions) by Z. 1885. System of Brownbill. BR0WNBn.L, John. Science and art: a theory of library classification. In : Lib. Chron. 3 (1886) 133-136. 213 I., Theology; II., Moral sciences (incl. Language, Philosophy, Sociology, History) ; III., Physical sciences; IV., Literature; V., Painting; VI., Music; cf. outline, p. 136. 1885. System of Ogle. Ogle, J. J. Outline of a new scheme of clas- sification applicable to books. In : Lib. Chron. 2 (1885) 161-166. A, Word knowledge; B, Religious knowl- edge; C, Social knowledge; D, Mind knowl- edge ; E, Art knowledge (Literary) ; F, Art knowledge (Non-Literary) ; G, Nature knowl- edge (Non-Biological) ; H, Nature knowledge (Biological); J, Industrial knowledge; K, General knowledge. 1886. System of the Cologne Public Library. Reysser (Adolph.) Die Stadtbibliothek in Koln. Ihre organization und verwaltung, Beitrage zu ihrer geschichte. Koln, 1886. (Veroffentlichungen der Stadtbibliothek in Koln, I Heft.) Fumagalli (1890) 112 (gives 14 classes (A-O). There are 311 sub-classes. Under each subdivision strict accessions order with- out regard to size.) 1886. System of the Sion College Library. MiLMAN, W. H. Order of the classification of Sion College Library, London. Lond., 214 R. Clay & Sons, 1886, 54 p. ; also in : Lib. Chron. 3 .(1886) 183 (outline.) Dewey Classification at Sion College. The Library 8 (1896) 350-375 (outline.) Brown (1898) 71-3 (outline.) The system is a nominal Dewey much ad- justed. 1886. System of the Frankfurt City Library. Systematische eintheilung der Stadtbiblio- thek zur Frankfurt am Main, 1886. Fumagalli (1890) 115-6 (250 main classes in 14 main classes (given by Fum.) Ab- breviation notation.) 1888. System of the "Bibliotheque Cardinal." Catalogue methodique et raisonne. Paris, 1888, 8°. Maire (1896) 248 (outline.) 1888. System of Bodleian Library. The Bodleian Library in 1882-7. A report from the Librarian (Edward B. Nicholson) published by permission of the Curators Oxford, Dec, 1888. Fumagalli (1890) 108-10. 1888. System of Luigi Frati {Bibl. Muni- cipale^ Bologna). Frati, Luigi. Opere della bibliografia bolo- gnese che si conservano nella biblioteca mu- 2IS nicipale di Bologna classificaie. Bologna, 1888, V. 2. Fumagalli (1890) 97-8. The published vol. contains class 6 of the Bologna Municipal Library. It has 59 sub- classes, which are in turn greatly subdivided. The remaining 5 main classes, (i) Sacra, (2) Storica, (3) Letteraria, (4) Scientifica, (S) Artistica, have 227 subdivisions. The notation seems to refer to a fixed location, and is made up of first an Arabic numeral, then a letter, then a Roman numeral, and finally another Arabic numeral (thus, 2 a iv. 3). 1888. System of Hartwig. [HartwiGj Otto.] Schema des realkatalogo der Koniglichen Universitatsbibliotek zu Halle a. S. Leipzig, 1888, p. 350, 8°. (Beihefte zum Centralblatt fiir Bibliotheks- wesen III.) Fumagalli (1890) 116-17; Grasel (1890) 153 (outline) ; Brown (1898) 57-9 (outline.) A, Book sciences and General works; B, Universal Philology and Oriental languages; C, Classical Philology ; D, Modern Philology ; E, Fine Arts; F, Philosophy; G, Pedagogy; H, Culture history and universal Science of Religion; I, Theology; K, Jurisprudence; L, Political science; M, Auxiliary historical 2l6 sciences; N, History; O, Geography; P, Gren- eral works of Natural Science and Mathe- matical sciences; Q, Physics and Meteorol- ogy; R, Chemistry; S, Natural sciences; T, Agriculture, Forestry, Technology; U, Med- icine. This Hartwig or Halle system is noteworthy for the excellent logic of its subdivisions, although, as a universal system, the minute subdivision of law is disproportionate. The notation is very intricate, and one would think almost impracticable for libraries. 1889. System of Fletcher. Fletcher, W. I. Public libraries in Amer- ica. Bost., 1894, 12° ; Library classification, Bost., 1894, 32 p. 8°. Fletcher, W. I. Library classification the- ory and practice III. In: Lib. J. 14 (1889) 113-16 (full outline.) The Library 6 (1894) 157 (Rev. of "Li- brary Classification," 1894, outline.) The Li- brary 9 (1897) 206 (outline.) Library Jour- nal 14 (1889) 244-5 (Bliss) ; Brown. (1898) 80-82 (outline.) Fiction; Juvenile; 1-13. English and American literature; 15-75. History; 81-2. Biography; 85-120. Voyages and Travels; 125-172. Science; 179-240. Useful arts; 245- 277. Fine arts; 279-350. Political and So- 217 cial; 352-416. Philosophy and Religion; 421- 456. Language and literature; 461-8. Refer ence books. This is of mediam expansion, and is in- tended to be very simple and untechnical. It is not intended to come in competition with the more thorough and scientific systems. 1889. System of Ihe Strassburg University Library. Fumagalli (1890) 122 (Direct communica- tion.) 12 main classes (given by Fumagalli), about 600 subdivisions. Example of nota- tion "Eb, xlii., Italienisch" -{- form and no. 1889. System for the Public Libraries of France. .(2) Bulletin des bibliothgques (1889) 1 13-183. Fumagalli (1890) 104-6. 22 classes, A-V, each divided into four sizes; each series either (i) by the order of Brunei, or (2) alphabetically, or (3) in the case of history, chronologically. Fum. thinks this author is rather doctrinaire than practical, but gives the brief outline. 1890. System of Delisle. Delisle, Leopold. Instructions elementaires et techniques pour la mise et le maintien en 2l8 ordre des livres d'une bibliothSque. Lille, 1890, 8°, p. 7, sq. Maire (1S96) 220 3 (outline.) 1890. System of Grassauer {Vienna Univer- sity Library^. Fumagalli (1890) 123 (Direct information.) 99 main classes. 1890. System of the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg. Fumagalli (1890) 125. (18 main classes. "In the individual classes the books are ar- ranged with sole regard to the size of the volumes.") 1890. System of the Swedish Public Libraries. SvERiGES offentliga bibliotek Stockholm. Up- sala. Lund. Goteborg. Aocessions-Katalog no. 4 par Dahlgren. Stockholm, 1890, 8°. Maire (1896) 220 (outline.) i8go. System of Bonassi. BoNAzzi, G. Schema di catalogo systematico per le biblioteche. Parma, 1890, no p. 8°. Bliss, R. Bonazzi's scheme for a classed catalogue. Lib. J. 16 (1891) 5-8; 19 (1894) c 69 (outline) ; Brown (1898) 59 (outline.) 219 Outline. A, General works ; B, Ethnic religions, myth- ology, etc.; C, Christian religion; D, Juris- prudence; E, Sociology; F, Philology; G. Literature; H, Philosophy; I, Science, phys ical and mathematical; K, Chemistry; L, Natural science; M, Medicine; N, Surgery; O, Pharmacy; P, Veterinary science; Q, Agriculture; R, Industry and manufactures, S, Fine arts; T, Music; U, Recreative arts, sport, theatre; V, Geography; W, Voyages and travels; X, Archaeology; Y, Biography; Z, History. 1891. System of Sonnenschein. SoNNENSCHEiN. The best books. 2d ed. Lend., 1891, 4° ; also A reader's guide. Suppl. to the Best books. Lond., 1895, 4°. Maire (1896) 218 (outline) ; Brown (i8g8) 54-7 (outline). A, Theology; B, Mythol- ogy and Folklore; C, Philosophy; D, So- ciety ; E, Geography, Ethnology, Travel and Topography; F, History; G, Archaeology; H, Science and Medicine; I, Arts and Trades; K, Literature and Philology. Eleven main classes, 122 sub-classes and 1221 divisions, each of" which is usually split up into from two to a dozen or more sub- jects variously arranged. It is the best ex- ample of modern bibliographical (as dis- tinguished from bibliothecal) classification. 220 1891. System of G. W. Harris. Harris, G. W. The classification of the Cor- nell University Library. Lib. Jour. 16 (1891) 138-9. Lib. Jour. 19 (1894) c 69 (Nelson. Out- line) ; Kephart. Classification (1895) 872 (outline.) 1891. System of Teubner. Teubner. Verlags-Katalog, 1824-91, 8°. Maire (1896) 216-7 (outline.) 1892. System of Ottino. OiTiNO, Giuseppi. Manuale di bibliografia. Milano, 1892, 16°, p. 138-9. 1894. Syxtem of Rowell. RowELL, J. C. Classification of books in the library. Berkeley, Cal., 1894, 49 p. 8°. (Univ. of Cal. Lib. bulletin no. 12.) Kephart. Classification (1895) 880 (out- line); Cutter, C. A., in: Lib. J. 20 (1895) 214-5- Outline. A Bibliography. B Dictionaries. C Periodicals. i-iS Philosophy. 16-51 Religion. 52 Biography. 54 Geography. 54-255 Geography and history. 256-287 Politics; administration. 289-296 Law. 300 Social science. 315-332 Economics. 333 Science. 337-356 Mathematics. 357-371 Astronomy. 372 Physics; mechanics. 401 Civil engineering. 425 Natural history. 431 Geology. 440 Paleontology. 442 Botany. 461 Zoology. 480 Medicine. 506 Industrial arts. 507 Agriculture. 523 Chemistry. 536 Chemical technology. 554 Mining. 580 Manufactures. 590 Building arts. 600 Architecture. 610 Domestic economy. 613 Recreation. 617 Business. 623 Art of war. 640 Esthetics. Fine arts. 999 Languages and literature. One of the best combinations of the scien- tific and practical in medium expansion among modern systems. The notation is, however, the rather discredited integral system. 1894. System of Quinn-Brown. QuiNN, J. H., & Brown, J. B. Classification of books for libr.iries in which readers are allowed access to the shelves. The Library 7 (189s) 75-82. Wire, Geo. E., in: Lib. J. 23 .(1898) c 19 (outline) ; Brown (1898) 59-61 (outline.) 1895. System of the Vienna Royal Library. WiEN, K. K. Hofbibliothek. Instructionen fiir die Katalogs Arbeiten. i Heft. 1895. Wire, Geo. E., in: Lib. J. 23 (i8g8) c 19 ("6 p. and full subject index.") 1896. System of the French Institute. Bibliotheque de ITnstitut. Maire (1896) 229-30 (outline.) 1896. System of French Lycees. Bibliotheques des Lycees (Proposed.) Maire (1896) 246-8 (outline.) 223 1896. System of the Paris Museum of Nat- ural History. Bibliotheque du Museum d'histoire Naturelle. Maire (1896) 231-3 (outline.) 1896. System of the Paris Free Libraries Bibliotheques populaires de Paris .(Proposed system.) Maire (1896) 245-6 (outline.) 1896. System of the Pans City Library. Bibliotheque de la ville de Paris (Musee Cas- navalet.) Maire (1896) 235-44 (outline.) 1896. System of the Paris Municipal Library. Bibliotheque administrative de la ville de Paris (Hotel de Ville.) Maire (1S96) 233-4 (outline.) 1898. System of Brown. Brown, James D. Manual of Library classi- fication and shelf arrangement. Lond , 1898, 12°, p. 97-160. Brown's adjustable classification, 1896, 641. (Reprint from Manual.) Wire, G. E. Review of (Brown's) Manual of Classification. In: Lib. J. 24 (1899) 12: (outline.) 224 A, Science; B, Useful arts; C, Fine arts and Recreative arts; D, Social science; E, Philosophy and Religion; F, History and Geography; G, Biography and Correspond- ence; H, Language and literature; J, Poe- try and the Drama; K, Prose fiction; L, Misc. This system is quite different from and not to be confused with the Quinn-Brown system of 1894. It is of the medium expansion and practical order, and belongs say between the systems of Rowell and Fletcher rather than with Dewey and Cutter. It is said to have some vogue m England. The book as a whole is the best short monograph on library classi- fication. 1898. System of Dieserud. Dir.SERtJD, J. Suggestions towards an im- proved decimal classification. In : Lib. J. 23 (1898) 607-9 (outline.) 1901. System of the Princeton University Library. Location of books in the Library of Prince- ton University. Princeton, N. J., 1901, 12°. Outline. 0000-0999. GENERAL WORKS. 0000 Miscellaneous. 0100 Book sciences general. Writing. 225 0200 Printing. 0300 Publishing and New book trade. 0400 Old book trade. Auction trade. 0500 Library science. 0600 History of libraries : Ancient and tnlediseval, American, European. 0700 History of libraries: Asiatic, African, Australian, etc. Reading. Valua- tion and criticism. Best books. Universal bibliographies. 0800 Public documents. ogoo General periodicals. Proceedings. News- papers. Collections. Essays. Sources and history of learning. Encyclopedias. Quotations and ana. IOOO-I999. HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 1000 General geography, history, genealogy and biography. American history. 1 100 American history, local, Alabama — New York. 1200 American history, local. New York — Wyoming. American heraldry, genealogy and biography. Canada and Newfoundland. 1300 Latin America: Mexico, Central Ameri- ca, West Indies, South America. Atlantic Ocean and islands. 1400 Europe, general. British Islands. 1500 Western and Central Europe. 15 226 i6oo Northern and Eastern Europe. Medi- terranean. 1700 Asia. 1800 Africa. Indian Ocean. 1900 Australasia. Melanesia. Pacific Ocean. Polar regions. 2000-2999. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 2000 General. Artificial, primitive and inde- pendent languages. 2100 Dravidian, Malayo-Polynesian and Ha- mitic languages. 2200 General Orientalia. Semitic languages. 2300 Indo-European languages. 2400 New Indian. Avestan. Persian. Ar- menian. 2500 Classical languages; general. Greek authors, general, and Achilles Tatius to Aristoteles. 2600 Greek authors: Aristoxenus — Longus. 2700 Greek authors: Lucianus — Zosimus. Modern Greek and Albanian litera- ture. 2800 Latin authors, general, and Accius — Pervigilium Veneris. 2900 Latin authors: Petronius — Vitruvius. Modern Latin writers. Literary his- tory. Mjrthology. History. Geog- raphy. Chronology. Metrology. Antiquities. Biography. 227 3000-3999- MODERN LANGUAGES AND LITERA- TURE 3000 General. Slavonic. Celtic. 3100 Romance. 3200 French. 3300 Teutonic. 3400 German. 3500 Anglo-Saxon. English, general. 3600 English, single authors : A'Becket — Cross. 3700 Cross — ^James. 3800 James — Price. 3900 Prime — Zangwill. 4000-4999. ARTS. 4000 Oratory. 4100 Theater. 4200 Games, sports and pastimes. 4300 Music, general, and History of Music in America — Germany. 4400 History of Music: Holland — Polar. Musical texts. 4500 Graphic arts. 4600 National art history. Prehistoric art. Ancient art. 4700 Greek and Roman, Christian, Byzan- tine, Mediaeval and Romanesque art. 4800 Gothic, Mohammedan, XIV-XVIII century art. 4900 Modern art. 228 SO0O-S999- THEOLOGY. 5000 General. Comparative, Primitive, Chi- nese, Indo-European, Egyptian, Jew- ish and Mohammedan religions. Natural theology and philosophical religions. Sioo Biblical philology, general. Texts and translations. 5200 Commentaries and literature of spe- cial books. 5300 Biblical geography, history, biography, theoiogy, philosophy, science and an- tiquities. 5400 Church history, general. Missions, gen- eral. 5500 National church history and biography. 5600 Denominational history. 5700 Systematic theology, general. Apolo- getics. Polemics. Irenics. Dog- matics. 5800 Christian ethics. Experiential theolo- gy. Devotional theology. Ascetics. Sgoo Practical theology. Polity. Law. Min- isterial theology. Liturgies. Homi- letics. Catechetics. Polemics. Evangelistics. 6000-6999. PHILOSOPHY AND EDtJCATION. 6000 Philosophy, general and metaphysical, ancient, modern — British. 229 6ioo British— Belgian. 6200 Scandinavian — . Reality. Knowledge (including Epistemology and Logic.) .Esthetics. 6300 Ethics. 6400 Psychology. 6500 Education, general. 6600 History of education : ancient, mediaeval, modern, American; Alabama — New York. 6700 New York — Atlantic islands. 6800 European. 6gco Asiatic, African, etc. 7000-7999. SOCIOLOGY. 7000 Sociology, general. Relationships. As- sociations. Customs and classes. Crime, charities and correction. 7100 Economics, general. Production and consumption. Land and improve- ments. Labor. Capital. 7200 Population. Property. Exchange. Credit and banking. Circulation and transportation (commerce). 730c Distribution, general. Rent. Labor and wages. Capital. Insurance. 7400 Public finance. Socialism. 7500 Politics. 7600 Jurisprudence, general. Roman law. American, general. 230 7700 Local law, America: Alabama — North Carolina. 7800 North Dakota — Wyoming. Other lo- cal to Great Britain. 7900 France — Polar regions. 8000-8999. NATURAL SCIENCES. 8000 General : museums. Scientific travels, general. 8100 Mathematics. 8200 Physics. 8300 Chemistry. 8400 Astronomy. 8500 Physical Geog^raphy. Meteorology. Min- eralogy. Geology. Palaeontology. 8600 Biology, general. Evolution. General fauna and flora. 8700 Botany. 8800 Zoology. 8900 Anthropology. Hygiene. Medicine. 9000-9999. TECHNOLOGY. 9000 General. Exhibitions. History. Pat- encs and inventions. Applied math- ematics and physics. Metrology. Navigation. Geodesy and surveying, 9100 Building, general. Materials. Build- ings. Tunnels. Bridges, roads anof books, 61^ 64. Church, the, 37-8. Classification, alphabetical, 11, 235; an hypothetical, 29; and the library building, 74 sq. ; artificial, 9; bibliographic, 93; bibliothetic, 93; chronological, 10; classification of, 93; dynamic, 11; encyclopaedic, 93; evolutionary, 11; genetic, 10; geometrical, 10; historical, 10; kinds of, 8 sq., 60 sq.; laws or principles of, 11; literature of, 94 sq.; logical, 9; mathematical, 11; nature of, i; "order" vs., 18; partial, 9, 234; pedagogic, 93; philosophical, 93! practical, 46, si> '33 sq.; systems of, 91-236; the- oretical, 51, 100 sq. See also Book-classification and Card-classification. Classifying, 85. Cleanthes, System of, 105. 240 Clemens, System of, 159-60. Close classification, •]•] sq. CoccHi, System of, 166. Coi-EKiDGE, System of, 130-31. Cologne Public Lxbraky, System of, 213. Color classification of books, 62. CoMENius, System of, 120. CoMTE, System of, 133-4. Conservatism in classifying, 70-2, Conservatism and intellectual petrifaction, 47. CoNTi, System of, 143. Corleo, System of, 146. Cosmic history^ 33. Cosmology, 30, 31, 43. Coste, SYSTE^[ OF, 170. CouBNOT, System of, 140. Crucemannus, System of, 167, Cutter, System of, 201-7. Cutter, system of (E. C. or expansive classification), 88, 235- D'Alembert, System of, 122-3. Dante, System of, 114. Daunou, System of, 170. D. C. = Dewey (or Decimal) classification. De Bure, System of, 168. Decimal classification. See Dewey decimal classifi- cation. Delisle, System of, 217-8. De:iidoff, v.. System of, 173. Denis, System of, 168. Descaktes, System of, 119-20. Destutt de Tracy, System of, 129, Dewey, System of, 193-200. Dewey Decimal Classification (D. C. or Decimal Classification), 71, 76, 88. Dictionary catalogue, 235. DiESEiiuD, System of, 224. Di Gjovanni, System of, 141. Dove, System of, 139. Earth, the, 36. E. C. = Expansive (or Cutter) Classification. Ecclesiology, 43. Economy of book classification, 53-7. Edmands, System of, 210. 241 Kducation, 42. Edwards, System of, 189. Epistemology, 41. Erdmank, System of, 145-6. Ersch, System of. See Schiitz-Hufelund and Erssh. ESCHENEURG. SYSTEM OF, 125. EsTiENNE, System of, :58. Ether, 34. Etbics, 41. Evolution, law of, 15. Evolutionary order, 72-4. Expansive classification. See Cutter, system of. Eyre, System of, 189. Fabri, System of, 161. Ferrarese, System of, 135. Ferrario, System of, 171. FiCHET, System of, 120. Financial-value classification of books, 64. FisKE. System of, 145. Fletcher, System of, 216-7. Foerstermann, System of, 192-3. FoNTANiNi, System of, 163. Form-classification of books, 63. FoRMEY, System of, 166. Fohtia d'Urban, System of, 176. Fragility of books in classification, 64. Francke, Sy.stem of, 167. Frankfort City Library, System of, 214. Frati, System of, 214-s. French Institute, System of, 222. French Lyc4es, System of, 222. Friedrich, System of, 178. Frisitjs, System of, 161. Frobesids, System of, 166. Gar, System of, 190. Gaknier, Sy.stem of, 162. Genesis, law of, 13. Geograohical book classification, 61. Gesner, System of, 115-6. GioBERTi, System of, 137. GiRARD, System of, 122. Girault, System of, 174. Glanville, System of, 114. GoBLOT, System of, 150. 16 242 Orassauer (Vienna University Library), System OF, 2X8. Cruder, System of, 132. Halle system, 87. Hamburg Coi:mercial Library, System of, 185. Hamilton, System of, 136. Harms, System of, 143. Harris, G. W., System of, 220. Harris, W. T., System of, 191-2. Hartwig, System of, 215-6. Hasse, System of, 130. Hebrew canon, 153. Hefter, System of, 127. Hegel, System of, 132. Heidelberg University Library, System of, 212. Helfferich, System of, 140. Hill, System of, 140. Hinrichs* Verzeichniss, 233. History, law of, 15. HoBBES, System of, 120. Homology, 13. HoRNE, First system of, 175, Horne, Second system of, 176-7. HoTTiNGER, System of, 161. Hrabanus Maurus, System of, iio-ii. Hugo de S. Victore, System of, 111-12. Hylology, 30, 31. Ideas, order of, 27-9; idea-cells, 37; as fhings, 3, 26 sq. ; and outer things, 19-22. Identity more than likeness, 6. Ilari, System of, 184. Imperial Library of St. Petersburg, System of, 218. Interest-classification of books, 63. Ions (or corpuscles), 33-4' Isidore of Seville, System of, 109. Italian Chamber of Deputies, System of, 709. Jacob, System of, i6r. Jaesche, System of, 130. Jannelli, System of, 132. Jones' index, 236. Kant, System of, 124. Kirchner, System of, 137-8. Kluegel, System of, 124. 243 Knowledge, 41. Knowledge and likeness, 13-14. Kraus, System of, 128. Krltg, System of, 125-6. Labanca, System of, 145. La Croix du Maine, System of, 158-9. Latre, System of, 171. Latini, System of, 113. Law, definition of, 11. Lebas^ System of, 187. Legipontixjs, System of, 167. Lehmanm und Petersen, System of, 181. Leibnitz, System of, 165. Leipziger "Messkatalog," System of, 186, Lesley, System of, 191. Levot, System of, 179-80. Likeness, 5; law of, 12-15, 65i 86. Lindsay, System of, 138. Linguistic classification of books, 64. Literary-value classification of books, 63. Literature of classification, 94 sq. Locke, System of, 121. Loewe, System of, 137. Logical book classification, 60. Lomeier, System of, 162. London, System of, 161. London Institution, System of, 178. LoNGO, System of, 133. LoRENZ, System of, 208. Lt-BBOCK, System of, 136-7. Mabu*vtjs, System of, 161. Madrid Nationai Library, System of, 193. Maffei, System of, 115. Manasia, System of, 192. Mantjtius, Systfm of, 157. Marchand, System of, 164. Martin, Gabr., System of, 164. Massol, System of, 172. Mathematics, 39. Maunsell, System of, 159. Mazarin Library, System of, 211. Mediaev^\l libraries. System of, 156, Meinecke, System of, 124. Merleker, System of, 188, 244 Merlin, System of, 182-4. Meusel, Systet« of, 126. Microcosm, 28. Mtddleton, System of, 165-6. MiRA, System of, 190. Molecules, 35. MONTI.INOT, DE, SySTEM OF, I23. MoRHOF, System of, 163. MORTILLARO, SySTEM OF, 177. Motion, 39. MuNECH Royal Library, System of, 184. MuQUARDT, System of, 180. Namur, First system of, 178. Namur, Second system of, 180. Narbone, System of, 185. Natural book classification, 60. Nature and environment, 3, 5, 12. Naud6, System of, 160. Naville, System of, 150-1. Nederlandsche bibliographie, 233. NizoLio, System of, 116. Notation, nature of a, 80 sq. Ogle, System of, 213. Oken, System of, 127, Olenin, System of, 173. Order of the sciences stated, 43-4; graphic state- ment, 44. Order vs. Classification, 18. Orthodoxy in book classification, 63. Ortloff, System of, 128. Ott, System of, 163. Ottino, System of, 220. Palermo, System of, 187. Palermo Communal Library, System of, 188. Pampitilis, System of, 135. Parent, System of, 171. Paris Arsenal Library, System of, 212. Paris City Library, System of, 223. Paris Free Libraries, System of, 223. Paris Municipal Library, System of, 223. Paris Museum of Natural History, System of, 223. Paris, Paulin, System of, 185. Park, System of, 182. Pcabody Institute catalogue, 236. 245 Pearson, System of, 151-2. Peccfnini, System of, 141. Peignot, System of, 172. Perkins, System of, 208-9. Personality, human, 37. Petzholdt, System of, 191. Peybetti, System of, 144-5. PniLo, System of, 106. Physics, 39. PiLz, System of, 187. Pipitone, System of, 177. Planetary systems, 36. Plato, System of, ioi. Pliny, System of, 106. poliziano, syr.tem of, ii4-15. Polybiblion, 233, Poole's Index, 236. Porphyry, System of, 106-7. Predaki, System of, 141. Preusker, System of, 180-81. Princeton University Library, System of, 224-32. Protoplasm, 37. Proudhon, System of, 138. PsELLUs, System of. hi. Public Libraries of France, First system for, 211, Public Libraries of France, Second system for, 217. Publishers' Circular, 233. Publishers' Weekly, 234. Quinn-Brown, System of, 222. Quintilian, System of, 106. Rams.\y, System of, 139. Regnault-Warin, and others. System of, 126. Reimarus, System of, 123. Reinwald's Bulletin Mensuel, 234. Reisch, System of, 115. Renouvier, System of, 141. Research, economy in, 55-57. Resemblance less than likeness, 7. Reuse, System or, 177- Review of Reviews Index, 236. Revue bibliographiquc Beige, 234. Rhode, System of, 159. Ribot, System of, 144. 246 RicuARDSON, System of, 152. RtchteRj, System of, 139. RosMiNi, System of, 135-36- Rossi, System of, 181-2. ROSTGAARD, SySTEM OF, 1 64. Roth, System of, 125. Rowell, system of, 87. RowELL, System of, 220-22. Royal Society, 234, 236. RuEDiGER, System of, 132. St. Emmeram at Ratisbon, Monastic library of, System of, 157. St. Genevieve Library, System of, 212. St, Requier, Monastic library of. System of, 156. Sameness more than likeness, 6. Savigny, de. System of, 116-7. ScHELLiNG, System of, 127. Schleiermacher, System of, 185-6. ScHMiD, C. C. E., System of, izg. ScHMiD, C. H., System of, 123-4. ScHMiTZ, System of, 141. Scholastic System, 112. Schopenhauer, System of, 133. Schrettinger, System of, 176. Schuetz-Hufeland UNO Ersch, System of, 169. Schwartz, System of, 200-1. Sciences, order of, 17 sq. ; divisions and unity of, 17; the order of things, 18. Seizinger, System of, 190. Shields, System of, 146, Similarity less than likeness, 7. Simon, System of, 128. SiON College, System of, 213-4. Size classification of books, 61. Smith, Lloyd P., System of, 209-10. Societies, 37. Society and likeness, 14. Sociology, 40. SONNENSCHEIN, SySTEM OF, 219. Spencer, System of, 142-3. Speusippus, System of, 104. Stadler, System of, 148-50. Stanley, System of, 146. 3tarrabba, System of^ 190. 247 Steffenhagen, System of, 210. Stewart, System op, 129. Stxassbubg University Library, System of, 217. Subdivisions, principles of, 76; degree and propor- tion in, 77 sq. SuLZER, System of, 122. Swedish Public Library, System of, 218. Syon Monastery, System of, 157-8. Tableau compare des productions bibliographiques, Systfm of, 177. Taschkoeprisade, System of, 116. Techener, System of, 191. Temple libraries, 153. Teiibner, System of, 220. Theology, 30, 31, 43. Theology as a science, 31. Theoretical classification vs. book classification, 67 sq.; 89. Thickness of books in classification, 64. TnrfiBAUT, System of, 126. Thienemann, System of, 178. Thing, a, definition of, 2. Thompson, System of, 147. Thoth literature, 153. Thun, System of, 176. Tiele, System of, 188. Time, idea of, 39. Toepfer, System of, 128. Trfflee, System of, 158. Troemel, System of, 188. Truebner, System of, 189. Unity of things organic, 22. Universe, history of, 33. Universe includes past things, 24. Universe, mechanical, 25; organic, 22. Valdarini, System of, 144- Valla, System of, iis. Vanegas, System of, 115. Varro, System of, 105. Ventura, System of, I35- Vermorel, system of, 234. Vico, System of, 121. Vienna Royal Library, System of, 222. Vincent of Beauvais, System of, 113. 248 ViNTENT. Benj.^ System op, i88. VoiGT, System of, 138. Vortex atoms, 33. Wai-ckenaer, System of, 1S6. Weight-classification of books, 64. Weizel, System of, 121. Whewell, System of, 137. Wiener, System of, 186. Wilson, System of, 140. Wolfen buettel. System of, 167. Wolff, System of, 121. WuNDT, System of, 147. Wuttig, System of, igo. Xenocrates, System of, 105. Zara, System of, 119. Zeller, System of, 143. Zeno, System of, 103. Zoology, 40. Zurich index, 234, 236. i