^ i Vk^ ^vr^ / /«^ A" /"l^ A -j^ '^ .,.:.4 ■ THE CALDWELL COLLECTION THE GIFT OF THE FAMILY OF GEORGE CHAPMAN CALDWELL TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY \(rhose senior Professor he -was from J 868 to J 903. ^ Cornell University B Library The original of tiiis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924084839194 LECTUEES AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, PROFESSOR SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, TALE COLLEGE, CONNECTICUT. LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. BY PEOFESSOR SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, OP TALE COLLEGE, CONNECTICUT. LECTURE I. THE COMPOSITION AND STEUCTUEE OF THE PLANT. The objects of agriculture are the production of certain plants and certain animals which are employed to feed and clothe the human race. The first object in all cases is the production of plants. Nature has made the most extensive provision for the spontaneous growth of an immense variety of vegetation; but, except in rare cases, man is obliged to employ art to provide himself with the kinds and quantities of vegetable produce which his necessities or luxuries demand. In this defect, or rather neglect of nature, agriculture has its origin. The art of agriculture consists in certain practices and operations which have grown out of an observation and imitation of the best efforts of nature, or have been hit upon accidentally. We distinguish here between agri-cwZiwre, or the culture (Improve- ment) of the field, and farming, which may be anything but the imita- tion of nature, which often is the grossest violation of her plain precepts. The science of agriculture is the rational theory and exposition of the successful art. Nothing is more evident than that agricultural art impedes its own growth by holding aloof from science. In many respects the Egyptians, the Romans, and the Chinese, had, centuries ago, as perfect an agri- cultural practice as we now possess; but this fact so demonstrates the extreme slowness with which an empirical art progresses, that incal- culable advantage must be anticipated from yoking it with the rapidly- developing sciences. In fact, the history of the last fifty years has proved the benefits of this union; and no farmer who by the help of science has mastered but one of the old difiiculties of his art that for all time have been tormenting the thoughtful with doubt and misleading everyone into a wasteful expenditure of labor or material,would willingly return to the days of pure empiricism. On the other hand, those who at- tempt to unfold the laws of productionfrom considerations founded mere- ly in the pure sciences, without regard to, or knowledge of, the truths of practice, are sure to go astray and bring discredit on their efforts. Agriculture, i. e. field culture, not husbandry or farm management in the widest sense, is a natural science, and is based principally upon physics, chemistry, and physiology. By physics (natural philosophy) is meant the science of matter con- sidered in relation to those forces which act among masses, or among LECTURES ON particles, atoms,) in such a manner as not to alter their essential characters. The forces of cohesion, gravitation, heat, light, electricity, and magnetism, are physical forces. A thousand fragments of iron, for example, may he made to cohere together or gravitate to the earth, may he changed in temperature, illuminated, electrified or magnetized, with- out any permanent change in that assemblage of properties which constitutes this metal. Chemistry is the science of chemical force of affinity, which causes two or more bodies to unite with the production of a compound pos- sessing essentially new characters. Thus, a hard lump of quicklime when brought in contact with water greedily absorbs it, with the pro- duction of great heat, and falls to powder. In slacking^ it has combined chemically with water. Physiology is the science of the processes of life, which require, in addition to the chemical and most of the physical forces, the co-Opera- tion and superintendence of the vital principle. The first inquiries in the natural science of agriculture are : What is the plant? Out of what materials, and undel- what conditions is it formed ? The plant is the result of an organism, the germ, which under certain influences begins an independent life, and grows by con- structively adding to itself or assimilating surrounding matter. The simplest plant is a single ceM, a microscopic vesicle of globular shape, which, after expanding to a certain size, usually produces another similar cell division either by lateral growth Qr by its own. In the chemist's laboratory it is constantly happening that, in the clearest solutions of salts, like the sulphates of soda and magnesia, a flocculent mould, sometimes red, sometimes' green, most often white, is formed, which, under the microscope, is seen to b)e a vege- tation consisting of single cells. The yeast plant (fig. 1) is nothing more '^'E- 1- than a collection of such cells now existing singly, now connected in one line or variously branched. The cell is the type of all vege- tation. The most complex plant, a stalk of cane or an oak, is nothing more than an aggregation of myriads of such cells, very variously modi- fied indeed in shape and function, but still all referable to this simple typical form. In the same manner that the yeast plant enlarges by budding or splitting into new cells, so do all other plants increase in mass; and thus growth is simply the formation of new cells. So far as the studies of the vegetable physiologist enable us to judge, all .vegetable cells consist, at least in the early stages of their existence, of an external, thin,'but continuous (imperforate) membrane, the cell-wall, consisting of a substance called ceUulos, and an interior lining membrane of slimy or half liquid character, variously called the protoplasm, \]xq formative layer, or the jorimodial utricle, (flg. 2.) AGRICDI/rUEAIi CHEMISTRT. 1 At one or several places, the formative layer is thickened to the so-called nucleus, {a fig. 2) the point from which growth and transformations proceed. Within the cell thus constructed exists a liquid, the cell-contents, from which, in course «- of time, solid cell contents of various character are found to develope. In a chemical sense, not less than in a structural, the single globu- lar cell is the type of all vegetation. The outer wall of the cell is formed of that material which is itself the most abundant product of vegetable life, and which rep- resents an important group of bodies, that are familiar to all, as large ingredients of our daily food. The table which here follows gives the names and the chemical formulse of what we may term the cellulose group or the vegetal CARBO-HYDRATES. H„ H„ 0. 0„ o„ 0, Cellulose Starch Inulin Dextrin Guto Cane sugar > Fruit sugar Grape sugar Cellulose is the body already alluded to as constituting the material of the outer coating of the cells. It often accumulates in some parts of the plant by the thickening of the cell walls, thus forming the greater share ofthe wood(fig.4)oftreesandshrubs. Linen,hemp,(Bfig.3) and cotton (Afig. 3)are nearly or quite piire cfellulose. It exists largely in the stones or shells of fruits and nuts. The so-called vege- table ivory is chiefly a very compact form of cellulose. In general, this proximate organic element is the frame-work of the plant, and the material that 'gives toughness and solidity to its parts. Cellulose is characterized by its great indifference to most ordinary solvents. Water, alcohol, &c., do not dissolve it, and the stronger rea- gents of the chemist rarely take it up without occasioning essential changes in its constitution.* With strong nitric' acid it yields nitro-cel- ^According to Pelouze, cellulose is dissolved by strong hydrochloric acid, and separates again in part (part is converted into sugar) on dilution. Schweitzer has recently made the LECTUEES ON rig. 5. lulose or gun cotton. By the continued action of oxydizing agents it is converted into that series of brown bodies known under the name of Humus, or finally into oxalic and carbonic acid. Next to cellulose, starch (fig. 5) is the most abundant vegetable body. It usually occurs as micro- ^ f scopic grains, which for many spe- , cies of plants possess a character- istic form and size, being some- times angular as in maize,but most often oval or spherical as in the other grains, the potato, j v ' -\kJ^ n " I Oxyd 01 manganese m.n^ V^ Acids ' Carbonic COj Sulphuric SO3 Phosphoric PO5 Silicic Si O3 Radical Chlorine CI. These matters taken together form but a small part of the plant — usually from one to five per cent, of its weight — yet they are indis- pensable to its development, as is evident from their constant presence, and as has been likewise proved by the most careful and extended synthetic experiments. Without the co-operation of all these earthy and saline matters it is impossible for plants of the higher orders to develop themselves. The Prince Salm Horstmar, of Brunswick, has made the function of the mineral food of the plant the subject of a most extended and laborious investigation. In experiments with the oat he found that when silica was absent from the soil, everything else being supplied, the plant remained smooth, pale, dwarfed, and prostrate. Without lime the plant died in the second leaf. Without potash or soda it reached a height of but three inches. Without magnesia it was very weak and prostrate. Without phosphoric acid it remained very weak, but erect and of normal figure, bearing fruit. Without sulphuric acid it was still weaker; was erect and of normal figure, but without fruit. Without iron it was very pale, weak, and disproportioned. WilVvout manganese it did not attain perfect development, and bore but few Sowers. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 15 Other experiments proved that cJilorine is essential to the growth of wheat. Wiegmann and PolstorfF found that when seeds of cress [Lepidium sativum) were sown in minced platinum wire, contained in a platinum crucible, and moistened with distilled water, the experiment being conducted under a glass shade, out of reach of dust, they germinated and grew naturally during twenty-six days, when, having reached a height of three inches, they began to turn yellow and to die down. On burning the plants thus produced, their ash was found to weigh exactly as much as was obtained from a number of seeds equal to that sown. Prince Salm Horstmar found that oats grown with addition of fixed mineral matters (ash ingredients) only, gave four times the mass of vegetable matter that was obtained when these were withheld. The plant, as we have seen, is an assemblage of cells, which are situated in more or less close contact with each other. The plants that consist of but a few cells, like yeast, simply lie or float in the m'edium in which they are naturallj^ found. Agricultural plants, how- ever, and the higher orders generally, possess roots, whose functions are performed underground, and stems, leaves, and flowers, that exist in the air. The yeast plant finds its food in the fermenting solution, and the cells have a power of absorbing their nutriment out of this solution. Marine plants wholly immersed in the ocean abstract their food from the sea water. The higher land plants derive the materials from which their cells are multiplied, partly from the soil, by their roots, and partly from the atmosphere, hj their foliage. In the living plant, then, there is provision for the access of liquids into the cells from without, and for the transmission of the same from one end of the plant to the other, or in any direction; for if we plant a seed in pure sand mingled with ashes and duly watered, we shall find in a few weeks that a plant has resulted containing in every por- tion of it carbon, hj'drogen and nitrogen, which could only have been derived from the atmosphere, and also saline and earthy matters, which must have been imbibed from the ashes and carried upward to the points of its branches and leaves. The young cell, though its wall reveals no perforation to the most powerful magnifier, is porous; and though the older cells, which form the cuticle of a somewhat developed plant, are often impermeable to water and air, from the fact that they are indurated or glazed by the formation of a corky or waxy coating, yet the young cells that are continually forming at the extremities of the advancing rootlets, and those of the still fresh leaves, are highly porous, and no more oppose resistance to the passage of water or of air than does a sieve. We have only to immerse the roots of a vigorous plant in a solution colored with some harmless pigment, and in a short time we can trace its diffusion throughout the plant. If liquids thus easily permeate these tissues, there is every reason to suppose that the}' may admit the vastly more subtle particles of a gas; and of this we have abundant experimental evidence, as will be set forth bye and bye. 16. LECTURES ON LECTURE 11. THE ATMOSPHERE AND WATER IN THEIR RELATIONS TO VEGETABLE LIFE. In the former lecture we have seen that the plant is a collection of cells, and the residence of an organizing up-building agency — the vital principle. We have seen that the cells are composed of, or occupied with, carbo-hydrates, albuminoids, fats, and salts. The structure of the plant admits the-entrance of gases and liquids, and their diffusion throughout its mass. We are now prepared to inquire what are the materials employed by the plant in its development — what is the food of vegetation? A seed sown in a moist sand may grow into a perfect plant, and produce a hundred new seeds, each as large and complete as the first, although the sand, the water, and the air, which only can have nourished the plant, contain no traces of cellulose or starch, of al- bumen or oil. These proximate elements of vegetation are then obviously con- structed by the plant out of other forms or combinations of matter belonging to the mineral world, and to be sought in the atmosphere, in water, and in the soil. Of the entire mass of the plant, but a small portion is derived from the soil, ninety -five to ninety-nine per cent, of it coming originally from the atmosphere. The general composition of the pure and dry atmosphere, according to the most reliable data is, by weight, as follows : (To the names of the ingredients are appended their chemical symbols.) Oxygen, 23. 18 Nitrogen, N - 76. 82 ' 100.00 Besides the above ingredients, whose proportion is very constant, there occur in it the following siibstances in more variable quantity: Water, (as vapor,) HO, average 1 -hundredth. Carbonic acid, CO2, average 6 ten-thousandths. Ammonia, NH3, average 23 billionths. Nitric acid, NOJ Carburetted hydrogen, CH ? Nitrous oxyd NO ? Let us now inquire with reference to each of these substances, how is it related to the nourishment of the plant ? A number of ex- ceedingly ingenious experiments have been instituted from time to time for the purpose of throwing light on this subject, and we are thus fortunately able to present it in a quite satisfactory manner. As to oxygen, we have no evidence that it directly feeds the plant, or is assimilated, so as to increase the mase of its organic matter. On the contrary, plants Avhen growing exhale oxygen, separating it from the carbon and hydrogen of their proper food. The Dresence of oxygen in the atmosphere is, however, in manv AGEICULTUKAL CHEMISTRY. 17 ways, essential to the perfection of the plant; for in its absence seeds cannot germinate, flowers cannot yield fruit, and fruits cannot ripen. In germination the larger bulk of the seed, the cotyledons, by the absorption of oxygen, are disorganized and converted into structure- less and soluble bodies, which become the food of the smaller part of the seed, the embryo, and by its vital operations are again organized as the young plant. In the process of flowering, matters stored in organized form in other parts of the plant are transported to the blossom to serve for its rapid development. [The flower itself cannot absorb food from without; and in the transformation of the already elaborated food from the stem and leaves of the plant into the new forms required by the flowers, oxygen plays an essential part. The reawakening of life in the tree at spring time, and the ripening of fruits, are accompanied with changes of a similar character, and from them result many oxydized products. Vegetable physiologists have furnished microscopic evidence that similar alternations of the orga- nizing and disorganizing processes take place in the individual cells, so that we are warranted in assuming that oxygen (whether that of the free atmosphere or that evolved in the cells themselves is in- different) plays an important and unceasing part in the development of vegetation. Nitrogen in the free state also appears to be incapable of direct assimilation. Within a few years the subject has been studied by various investigators, but with contradictory results. Ville, of Paris, in 1853, published a volume describing his experiments, which led to the conclusion already arrived at by Priestley, in 1779, viz: that nitrogen is assimilated. Other investigators, however, by means of trials carried out under conditions less complicated and more adapted to yield reliable evidence, have uniformly been conducted to the opposite view. Especially to Boussingault do we owe a most careful investigation of this question. His plan of experi- Fig. 9. ment was simply to cause plants to grow in circumstances where, • every other condition of develop- ment being supplied, the only source of nitrogen at their command, be- sides that contained in the seed it- self, should be the free nitrogen of the atmosphere. For this purpose he prepared a soil consisting of pumice stone and the ashes of clover, freed by heat and acid from all compounds of nitrogen. This soil he placed at the bottom of a large glass globe, (see figure 9,) of 15 to iiO gallons capacity. Seeds of cress or of other plants were deposited in'^il^^V/S the soil, and pure water supplied to " ' <^i. them. After germination, a small glass vessel (D) filled with carbonic acid (to supply carbon) was secured ]8 LECTUKES OK air-tight to the mouth of the large globe, and, the apparatus being disposed in a suitably lighted place, was left to itself until the plants began to turn yellow and show signs of decay. Then they wer^ re- moved, separated from the soil, and, by chemical analysis, the amount of nitrogen in them was ascertained. It was found in every instance (the experiment being several times repeated) that the nitrogen in the plants thus raised was no more than that contained in the seed from which they had grown. Our ingenious countryman. Dr. Evan Pugh, now president of the Farmers' College of Pennsylvania, whilp resi- dent in England a few years since, made an elaborate investigation of this subject, with results confirming those of Boussingault. So far from the external free nitrogen being assimilated, it appears, especially from the researches of Dr. Draper, of New York, that plants constantly evolve this substance in the gaseous form; al- though, according to the investigations of Unger and Knop, made more recently, and with more exact methods, the nitrogen found by various observers in the exhaled air of plants comes only from the atmospheric air absorbed by them. It thus appears that the two gases which, together, make up ninety-nine per cent, or more of the atmosphere, do not constitute in any way the direct food of vegetation. It is, in fact, in the small quantity of- other and somewhat variable ingredients that we must look for the atmospheric nutriment of the vegetable kingdom. Water in the vaporized form we find never absent from the air, and it is especially abundant in the warm period of the year when vegetation is active. Its presence is made evident by its deposition in the states of dew, fog, rain, and snow, when the temperature of the atmosphere is reduced. It has been universally taught that the watery vapor which is thus in perpetual contact with the leaves of plants is readily and largely absorbed by them. According to Unger and Duchartre, however, it is never imbibed by foliage in even the slightest degree. On the contrary, under all circumstances there occurs a constant loss of water by evaporation from the leaves, which does not wholly cease even when they are confined in an atmosphere saturated with moisture. Duchartre admits that liqiud water in contact with the leaves is slightly absorbed; but it would appear that the root is the organ of absorption for water, and that the soil must perform the function of supplying this indispensable body to the plant. It has long beeU known that water is absorbed by the roots in large quantity, and exhaled through the leaves into the atmosphere. The well-known trials of Hales prove this. He found, in one in- stance, that a single cabbage exhaled 25 ounces of water in 24 hours. We owe to Mr. Lawes, of Rothamstead, England, a series of experi- ments on the transpiration of water through wheat, barley, beans, peas, and clover, continued throughout nearly the whole period of the growth of these plants. The result was, that for every grain of solid matter added to the mass of the plant 150 to 270 grains of water passed through it. From these, and especially from very recent in- vestigations of Knop and Sachs, it is seen that the transpiration is AGEICULTUEAI, CHEMISTRY. 19 very variable, as might be anticipated. It takes place most rapidly in a dry, warm air, but is not absolutely checked when the atmosphere is saturated with moisture. Transpiration is remarkably diminished by the presence of many soluble salts, and of the alkalies, in the water of the soil; while free acids increase its rapidity and amount. As is well known, water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen; although we have no direct evidence, the inference is fully warranted that a portion of the water which enters the plant by the roots is arrested in its upward path, to become itself a part of the tissues. It is either held in the form of hygroscopic moisture, or is united chemically to carbon; or, finall}^, it is decomposed, its hydrogen being- retained, and its oxygen eliminated wholly or in part. In fact, we must regard water as the chief source of the hydrogen which is a com- ponent of almost every vegetable principle. Garhonic acid is a compound of carbon and oxygen. It exists in immense quantities in solid combination with lime in the various mar- bles, limestones and marls, and in chalk. Separated from these bodies by pouring on them sulphuric or nitric acid, it may be collected as a gas, which, unrecognizable by the other senses, is agreeably sour to the taste; is two and a half times heavier than common air, and con- siderably soluble in water. This gas is never absent from the air, and although it occurs there in relatively small quantity, its absolute amount is so great that, taking the atmosphere up to its entire height, we have no less than seven tons of carbonic acid over every acre of surface. A plant confined in an atmosphere free from this gas cannot enlarge itself.* Some plants will live and grow in a confined space, as for example, sealed up in a bottle ; but in this case the carbonic acid con- sumed by the growing parts of the plant is supplied by the decay of the lower leaves. Priestly and Saussure long ago furnished experimental evidence that carbonic acid is absorbed by growing plants, and Boussingault has described the following illustration of the rapidity with which the gas is imbibed by the foliage of vegetation. Into one of the orifices in a three-necked glass globe he introduced the branch of a living vine bearing twenty leaves ; with another opening he connected an apparatus by means of which a slow current of air, containing a small, accurately known proportion of carbonic acid could be passed into the globe. This air after streaming over the vine leaves, escaped by the third neck into an arrangement for collecting and weighing the car- bonic acid that remained in it. The experiment being set in process in the sun-light, it was found that the enclosed foliage removed from the current of air three-fourths of the carbonic acid it at first con- tained. The absorption of the gas in question hy the leaves is found to take place only under the influence of the light of the sun, or of the accom- panying chemical rays. Through the roots, carbonic acid, when held in solution of water, may be absorbed at all times. * Unless, indeed, as is probable, carburetied hydrogen may, to a small extent, be an actual source of carbon to plants, a point not yet satisfactorily determined. 20 LECTURES ON It is, however, only in the sun-light, and with many plants (accord- ing to the recent researches of Corenwinder) only in direct sun-light that carbonic acid or, more properly, carbon is assimilated. We have already alluded to the fact that oxygen is exhaled by the plant. This oxygen comes from the decomposition of carbonic acid (and water) in the interior of the plant. The vegetable cell aided by the sun has the power of separating the elements of this compound with the great- est ease, and it retains the carbon to add to its structure while the oxygen escapes entirely or in part into the general atmosphere. As already mentioned, however, oxygen itself, under certain circum- stances, more particularly at certain stages of vegetable development, is absorbed; and as a consequence of this and at just the same time, carbonic acid is evolved. This separation of carbonic acid may be observed in all young plants (still depending upon the disorganization of the parent seed) when situated in the shade; and some plants exhale it at all periods of their growth when not exposed to direct sun-light. All plants exhale carbonic acid during the night or in the entire absence of sun-light; but the amount of this gas that is absorbed and decomposed by day vastly exceeds that evolved by night. In fact, one hour or half hour of direct sunshine enables it to absorb and de- compose more than has escaped from it in a whole night. Carbonic acid gas is unquestionably the chief source of the carbon of agricultiiral plants. Some writers, with Liebig, consider it to be practically the , exclusive means of supplying this element. Others, after Saussure and Mulder, regard the slightly soluble compounds re- resulting from the decay of vegetable matter (humus) in the soil, as capable of directly supplying a portion of carbon to a new generation of plants. While there is perhaps no satisfactory evidence that humus is entirely excluded from immediately nourishing vegetation, it is plain from considerations founded in the growth of forests and prairie grasses that the atmosphere, and indeed carbonic acid is now entitled to rank as the great storehouse of carbon for this purpose, as once, before humus existed, it must have been the exclusive source of this element. From what has been already remarked with regard to the compo- sition of the vegetable carbo-hydrates, it is seen that a certain general theoretical view of their formation in the plant may be at once gath- ered from the facts now set forth. In order to form the members of the cellulose group,, it is only needful that the carbon retained by the cells from the carbonic acid which they decompose so readily, should enter into union with a due amount of the water that perpetually streams upward through them. By the elimination of a portion of oxygen from the water itself, we have remaining the elements that form the fats and fixed oils. To yield the vegetable acids and the pectose group, it suffices that a portion of oxygen be retained or be reabsorbed. These considerations are purely hypothetical, yet, although the real processes of decomposition and organization are in many cases vastly more complex, they possess great interest in a survey of the economy of vegetation. For the elaboration of the albuminoids, a source of nitrogen must be present to the plant. This essential element is Supplied, so far as the AGEICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 21 atmosphere is concerned, almost entirely in the form of ammonia. This substance, familiar under the common name of hartshorn or spirits of hartshorn, is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, and is charac- terized by its alkaline or basic properties, having a caustic burning taste and uniting with avidity to acids, forming a large class of salts. In the atmosphere, in presence of an excess of carbonic acid, it cannot occur in the free state, but always exists as bicarbonate of ammonia, the same form in which it usually constitutes ' ' salt of harts- horn" or "smelling salts." Bicarbonate of ammonia may not only occur in the solid state as a white powder, but also readily assumes the condition of a gas, as is evident from the volatile pungency of smelling salts. It is readily dissolved to a very great extent by water ; but as readily evaporates from solution again, leaving the water almost entirely free from it. For this reason its amount in the atmosphere is so variable and so small, it being removed by every shower of rain or deposition of dew and again restored by warmth and wind, or such causes as favor vaporization. In fact it is not by examining the air itself that we gain any ade- quate idea of the amount of ammonia it may furnish to vegetation. We must rather look to the atmospheric waters, to dews, rains, and fogs, in order to estimate this matter rightly. In rain water (the entire fall) the quantity of ammonia is also quite variable, ranging in the country from 4 to 19 parts in t^ millions; while in the rain falling in cities a 10 times larger amount has been observed. — (Boussingault, Bineau, and Way.) In the first portions of rain or in slight showers, as well as in fog and dew, the proportion of ammonia is considerably larger. Thus, in the first 10th of a slow falling rain, Boussingault found 66 parts in 10 million of water; in dew, he found 62, and in fog 72, and in one extraordinary instance 497 parts of ammonia in 10 million of water. Way has determined the entire amount of ammonia contained in the rain water that fell during the years 1855 and 1856 at Rotham- stead, 20 miles from Linden. He found that the water which fell on an acre of surface contained in 1855, 7.11 pounds, and in 1856, 9.53 pounds of ammonia. The evidence that ammonia is capable of absorption and assimila- tion by the plant is as various as it is conclusive. Numerous field ex- periments made with artificial ammonia-compounds, as well as the fact that all animal manures in the very process of decay, whereby they appear first to acquire their full activity, yield this body in abundance — practically establish the point; nor are there wanting more precise investigations. Ville especially, also Ohlebodarow, have shown that the addition of ammonia to the ordinarj' atmosphere, as well as watering with its dilute solution greatly increases the mass of vegetation produced, and makes the same much richer in albuminoids. Ville has intro- duced the use of ammonia into conservatories with quite striking effect, diffusing into the air of the green-house from two to four 10- thousandths of its weight of carbonate of ammonia by placing a lump of this salt upon the steam pipes that supply the space with heat. 22 LECTtJEES ON Nitric acid, the well-known compound of nitrogen and oxygen, oc- curs in the atmosphere in very minute quantity, usually in the form of nitrate of ammonia. This body being incapable of existing in vapor, and readily soluble in water, is brought to the earth in dews and rains. Its quantity is even more minute than that of ammonia. The most trustworthy estimations are those of Way, who found in the waters that fell upon an acre at Eothamstead, in 1855, 2.98 pounds, and in that of 1856, 2.80 pounds of nitric acid, or about one part of nitric acid to two million parts of water. In the soil, nitric acid often occurs in considerable quantity, (the result of chemical processes which we shall presently notice.) Here it exists in combination with various bases, usually as nitrates of lime, soda, and potash. The fertility of soils in which nitrates accumu- late, and the remarkable effects of their application as fertilizers, are evidence that nitric acid feeds vegetation. It is again to Boussingault that we owe the more careful study of its effects. Among other experiments he made the following : Two seeds of Selianthus argophyllus were planted in each of three pots, the soil of which, consisting of a mixture of brick-dust and sand, as well as the pots them- selves, had been thoroughly freed from all nitrogenous com- pounds by ignition and washing with distilled water. To the soil of the pot A, fig. 10, nothing was added save the two seeds, and distilled water, with which all the plants were watered from time to time. With the soil of pot (iig.l 2)were incorporated small quantities of phosphate of lime, of ashes of clover and . bicarbonate of potash, in or- der that the plants growing in it might have an abundant supply of all the mineral mat- ters they needed. Finally, the soil of pot B, fig. 11, received the same mineral matters as pot C, and in addition, a small quantity of nitric acid as ni- trate of potash. The seeds were sown on the 5th of July, and on the 30th September, the plants had the relative size and appearance seen in the figures, re- d uced to one-sixth of the natural dimensions. AGHICULTUEAL CHEMISTRY. 2.5 This striking experiment demonstrates that nitric acid directly serves to_ supply nitrogen to plants. In fact, it appears to equal ammonia in its assimilability. Liebig was formerly of the opinion that ammonia was the only form in which vegetation could be supplied Avith nitrogen, and that nitric acid was not appropriated by the plant until after it had become con- verted into ammonia in the soil. We know that under the influence of certain bodies having strong afSnities for oxygen, nitric acid is transformed into ammonia, hydrogen displacing oxygen. This change was supposed to occur in the soil by virtue of the action of the car- bonaceous matters (humus) there present. Now, while this may actually happen under certain circumstances, it is well ascertained that the soil and natural waters more generally contain nitrates than salts of ammonia, and the actual conversion of ammonia into nitrates in the soil has been experimentally traced. The presence of nitrous oxyd in the atmosphere is not as yet directly proved, from want of a proper method of detecting it when forming but a small proportion of a gaseous mixture; but Knop has shown the probability qf its occurrence there, and has proved that it may serve as a source of nitrogen to plants. What may be its significance in the actual nourishment of vegetation remains to be determined. The important questions now arise, what are the sources of the water, carbonic acid, ammonia, and nitric acid, that exist in the atmos- phere ? are these minute quantities liable to exhaustion ? are they sufficient to supply vegetation with carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen ? The time was — so the reasonings of geology convince us — when the soil, having scarcely cooled down from a state of fusion by fire, could contain no carbon, or at least no nitrogen, in a form capable of feeding plants. Consequently, at this period all the nitrogen, and by far the larger share of the carbon, destined to aid the growth of plants must have existed m the air; and although processes subsequently came into operation whereby portions of these substances were incorporated with the soil, the final result of natural operations is to restore them in great part to the atmosphere. The effect of oxygen, as manifested in the processes of decay, cmn- hustion, and animal nutrition, is to bring down the vegetable organism ■ to the inorganic level — to convert the carbo-hydrates, the albuminoids and other proximate principles of vegetation, into carbonic acid, water, ammonia, and nitric acid, the very materials out of which, under the influence of the vital principle, they were constructed. These three varieties of chemical disorganization, which were par- allel with the vital up -building of vegetation, deserve a somewhat extended notice. Decay is a general term expressing the wasting or destruction of organic bodies under the influence of warmth, oxygen, and water. The carbo-hydrates, when perfectly pure and dry, may be preserved indefinitely without undergoing any change. This we know in the case of cellulose, (cotton, paper,) sugar, starch, &c. In presence of a certain amount of water, and exposed to the air at a warm tempera- ture, they undergo change; which, in case of cellulose, is very slow, 24 LECTURES ON in sugar is more rapid. The oils in the pure state, as well as the organic acids, are extremely slow in alteration. The albuminoids, also, when dry may be kept at ordinary temperatures for an indefinite time with no symptoms of change. If, however, they be exposed to warm air in the moist state, they speedily undergo the process of putrefaction; they decay with great rapidity, and with the production of volatile bodies having a most intense and noisome odor. The albuminoids are highly complex in their chemical composition'; their atoms are, so to speak, delicately poised, and in a condition of unstable equilibrium, and, for this reason, liable to easy disturbance by any external agency. Hence, they at once break up into Several less complex and more stable compounds when heat and oxygen act upon them with the intervention of water. Not only so, but in their fall they entangle the carbo-hydrates, the oils, the acids, and in fact all the organic constituents of the plant. In this way the soluble albuminoids act as ferments. Sugar dissolved in water is slow to change, until a decaying albuminoid, furnished by yeast, be added, when it is rapidly transformed into alcohol or acetic acid and carbonic acid. Butter, if carefully made, keeps sweet a long, time ; but if the casein of the milk be not thoroughly removed, it speedily becomes rancid, when air and warmth act upon it. It is possible that the carbo-hydrates, if they could be absolutely separated and protected from matter containing nitrogen, would be found capable of perpetual preservation, even in contact with water, for in the presence of a minute quantity of some metallic salt, or other body that makes insoluble (inactive) compounds with the albuminoids, they do remain unaffected for long periods. Thus wood, which, though chiefly consisting of cellulose or other non-nitrogenous bodies, is not free from albumin, when exposed to the weather — i. e., to oxygen, water, and warmth — undergoes that form of slow decay known as mouldering or humifaction, the immediate visible result of which is vegetable mould or humus. If, however, the wood be first saturated with corrosive sublimate (kyanized) or blue vitrei, it resists decay for a long time. As it happens naturally, with very few exceptions, the organic matter of vegetation, or of animals that have subsisted upon and been formed from vegetation, falling upon the surface of the earth or ■ buried a little way beneath it, find just the conditions of decay; and their nitrogenized ingredients yielding first to the sway of oxygen, involve with them the whole organism, so that nothing but their mineral matters, which are already oxyds, escape the destruction. The process of decay, thus sketched in outline, includes, however, • numberless intermediate stages. Thus wood in its decay yields a large series of bodies which have the collective name of humus, but are distinguished into several groups, as the humic acids, ulmic acids, and geio acids, the latter comprising crenic and apocrenic acids. These bodies all differ from wood, out of which they originated, b)y containing much less hydrogen and oxygen compared to carbon. We can, in fact, trace the gradual removal of these elements up to a certain point, after which other products arise from the simple oxydation of those first AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 25 formed. The fact that hydrogen is more susceptible of oxydation than carbon, to a certain extent explains the production of these bodies. In the decay of sugar under the action of ferments there appears in an analogous manner a series of intermediate bodies, which differ in character according to the circumstances under Avhich the fermen- tation is conducted. The intermediate products of the decay of vegetable matters, wood, &c., accumulate in large masses, especially where submersion in water cuts off the free access of oxygen and keeps the temperature reduced. In this way the peat of swamps and bogs is formed, and the immense coal beds now buried in the rock strata of the earth are doubtless nothing but the peat of a former geological epoch altered in its character by further chemical agencies. The final products of complete decay are universally the same, whatever may be the intervening stages. The carbon of organic bodies is oxydized to carbonic acid. The hydrogen is mainly converted into water. Nitrogen unites more or less luith hydrogen^ forming am- monia; in part, hoivever, it escapes in the free state. Sulphur and phos- phorus are converted into sulphuric and phosphoric acids. The fixed mineral matters remain. Combustion, or burning, is likewise a process of oxydation. It differs from decay in the rapidity with which it occurs, and in the different intermediate products that result; but otherwise it is the same, its final issues being identical with those of decay. Combus- tion maj'-, in fact, be called a quick decay, as decay has been termed by Liebig, a slow burning — eremecausis. It is easy to illustrate, by simple experiments, the formation of water, carbonic acid, and am- monia in the burning of organic substances. When burning non-nitrogenous bodies, as the wax and cotton of a lighted taper, are looked upon, under ordinary circumstances, we gain the impression, indeed, that they themselves waste away, but we perceive no result of the fire except light and heat. If, how- ever, an inverted dry glass bottle be lowered over the flame, and held so for a time, a mist presently gathers on its interior walls, and after a little drops of a liquid may be collected which are pure ivater. The bottle still being kept in the same position, we shortly see the flame becoming smaller, and its light dimmer, making it evident that something in the air which feeds the flame is being exhausted from the limited space that surrounds it. If, now, the bottle be renaoved, and have a little clear lime-water agitated in it, there will at once be formed a copious precipitate, as the chemist technically designates it, of carbonate of lime, the. lime-water having served to make the in- visible carbonic acid that resulted from the union of atmospheric- oxygen with the carbon of the wax, evident to the sense of sight. During the combustion of a nitrogenous bodj^, in addition to water and carbonic acid, we may detect ammonia. Thus, if the smoke of a cigar be puffed against moist turmeric paper, (paper saturated with the yellow coloring principle of the turmeric or curcuma root, which is tui-ned brown by alkalies,) the change of color at once shows the presence of ammonia. This i)ody is always found in the soot of chimneys, where 26 LECTURES ON wood is burned. It is collected, too, in great quanties in the gas- works of large cities, being formed from the nitrogen of the bitumin- ous coal which is distilled and imperfectly burned in the gas retorts. The common name, spirits of hartshorn, originated in the fact of the preparation of this substance from the horn of deer, (hart.) When combustion goes on with full access of oxygen a good deal of nitrogen escapes in the free state, the hydrogen it might unite with to form ammonia being chiefly appropriated by the more active oxygen. In proportion as the burning proceeds with a limited sup- ply of oxygen, and at a lower temperature, more ammonia is proba- bly formed. In presence of a fixed alkali, as potash, soda, or lime, all the nitrogen of organic bodies may be converted into ammonia; and it is by an ingenious use of this fact that the chemist is enabled to determine with the greatest ease and accuracy the proportions of nitrogen which organic bodies contain. As in decay, so in combustion, it easily happens that numerous in- termediate products occur, especially when the supply of oxygen is deficient. The oil, tar, smoke, and soot of ordinary fires are ex- amples. All these substances, however, by access of more oxygen at the proper temperature, may be fully consumed into the same final products as mentioned under decay. The mineral matters of organic bodies remain in this process as ashes. The third means of restoring to the gaseous state the elements so- lidified by vegetation is found in the results of the animal functions, viz: in nutrition and respiration. The non-nitrogenous food of animals, consisting always of the vege- table carbo-hydrates, oils, &c., or of certain products of their trans- formation, are chiefly burned in the body by the oxygen that the lungs inhale, and the carbonic acid and water thus fotmed are thrown out of the system with the exhaled air. If one breathes through a tube into a glass bottle, the deposition of moisture proves the existence of water in the expired air; and by forcing the breath through lime-water the formation of the white precipitate of carbo- nate of lime reveals the presence of carbonic acid. The lungs and the skin, which also constantly throw off the same substances by perspiration, are the agencies whereby the gaseous products of the oxydation of the food are restored to the atmosphere. The kidneys and lower intestines remove a portion of the waste; the former in the liquid, the latter in the solid form. A small part of the nitrogen, of which animals require constant supplies in their nutriment, is exhaled as ammonia from the lungs and skin; but as the caustic characters possessed bj'' this body, even when in combi- nation with carbonic acid, would not be compatible with its copious separation in the gaseous form, we must look to the liquid or solid dejections for the excretion of nitrogen. In animals we find that the kidneys dispose of this element. In th^ blood of man and quadru- peds there may be detected a substance which the kidneys collect and discharge from the body in large quantities through the, urine. This substance, from its occurrence, is termed urea. When pure, it is a colorless or white body that may be procured in beautiful crys- AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, 27 tals, and has a not unpleasant saline taste. In a state of purity its solution in water may be kept indefinitely without change; but in presence of a ferment, (an oxydizing albuminoid,) with which it is always naturally associated, it speedily undergoes decomposition; and by simply involving a certain amount of water in its change falls into the same substances which we have so often referred to as among the termini of vegetable and animal disorganization, viz : carbonic acid and ammonia. The following scheme illustrates this change : ^G^ One atom urea = C^ N^ H^ 0^ Two atoms water zn H ^2 ^ ,, Sum = C,N,H,0, Jiqual to — Two atoms carbonic acid •, = Cj 0, Two atoms ammonia =. N„ H 2 6 Sum = C, N, H^, Besides urea there occurs in the urine of man, and in large quan- tity in that of herbivorous animals, a body containing nitrogen which bears the name Jiippuric acid. In the urine of carnivorous animals, and especially in the solid urine of birds and reptiles, is found unc acid. Both these substances readily undergo conversion into carbo- nate of ammionia. In the solid excrement of animals are found other bodies contain- ing nitrogen, which by decay shortly restore the same to the atmos- phere. The processes we have thus briefly noticed do not, as already inti- mated, /idly and immediately change the organized matter of vegeta- bles and animals back again into the substances which, according to our present knowledge, are to be regarded as the food of the plant- In the immense coal beds of former epochs and in the vast deposits of peat and sunken drift-wood that are now accumulating in marshes ^nd river deltas, an enormous quantity of carbon and of nitrogen too, is, so far as the historical age is concerned, permanently set aside from the great circulation of matter. What is of more agricultural importance, a large amount of nitro- gen escapes in the free state into the atmosphere, and thus becomes lost to the stores of nutriment for plants. But there are other re- sources provided in nature's economy to maintain the requisite equi- librium. The numerous volcanoes from which the smoke of central fires is perpetually escaping, pour daily into the atmosphere vast volumes of carbonic acid and not a little ammonia. In many regions, not in the usual sense volcanic, the earth is full of fissures that give forth un- ceasing streams of these gases. In the district of the Eifel, on the west- ern shore of the Rhine, it has been estimated that 100,000 tons of carbonic acid are annually thrown into the atmosphere. But the principal means of resupplying carbonic acid and ammonia consists in the combustion of the coal and peat that represent the 28 LECTURES ON vegetation of former times, or, indeed, of pre-Adamite epochs. It it is calculated that the carbonic acid yearly produced by the consump- tion of bituminous and anthracite coals in Great Britain amounts to fifty millions of tons, a quantity capable of supplying carbon to seven- eighths of all the cultivated crops of that country. The deficit of nitrogen-compounds is made up in part by electrical discharges in the atmosphere. Cavendish was the first to notice that the electric spark causes nitrogen and oxygen, in a state of mixture, to combine into nitric acid. In accordance with this observation, it is found that the rain which falls during thunder storms contains more nitric acid than at other times. Although in our latitude the amount of plant food thus formed may be very trifling, it is possibly other- wise in tropical regions, where, according to the testimony of trav- ellers, the rumbling of thunder may be heard at any hour of the day during a considerable portion of the year. The conversion of free nitrogen into ammonia is not known to take place in the atmosphere, nor are we certain that it is accomplished in the soil. It has, indeed, been asserted by Hermann and Mulder that, during the decay of wood, hydrogen is evolved, which, at the mo- ment of liberation, unites itself to nitrogen with the production of ammonia, but the experiments on which this assumption was based do not now appear to be worthy of confidence. In the soil, however, there does occur a constant formation of nitric acid, especially where lime or other alkaline bodies are present that may combine with it. It appears, indeed, that the greater share of this nitric acid results from the oxydation of the nitrogen of organic debris, but it is probable that the free atmospheric nitrogen is, to some extent, involved. When electrical discharges are made to pass through the air or through pure oxygen gas, the latter shortly acquires entirely new properties. The most remarkable change it undergoes consists in its obtaining a powerful aiid peculiar odor, the same which is so often perceived near where lightning has struck. The oxygen, thus modi- fied, is found to be capable of much more rapid and intense action upon other bodies than is exerted by ordinary oxygen. It at once oxydizes ammonia to nitric acid and water, and also, in presence of an alkali or lime, unites direct with free nitrogen producing a nitrate. Oxygen thus altered, and intensified in its affinities, is termed ozone or active oxygen, and not only is it produced by electricity, but like- wise by certain processes of oxydation. When phosphorus slowly oxydizes in the air, when the oils of turpentine and bitter almonds are. exposed to the atmosphere for a time, the same ozonization oc- curs. Schoenbein, to whose assiduous researches we owe these highly interesting facts, is of the opinion that all instances of nitrification are due to the action of ozone. Although we are not as yet able to make a probable estimate of the amount of free nitrogen that is thus oxydized in any given time, or to form any notion of the quantitative importance of the effects of this agent, we have the satisfaction of standing on a threshold which promises us an entrance into the full AGRICDLTURAL CHEMISTRY. 29 understanding of the processes by which the element nitrogen is made assimilable to vegetation. * Within a few years numerous investigations relative to this subject have been made. Luca has observed that when air (freed from am- monia) is passed through a solution of potash, nitrate of potash is formed, in case the air has been in previous contact Avith the foliage of plants, but not otherwise; thus indicating that the oxygen is ozon- ized by the oxydations going on in or about living vegetation (espe- cially when ethereal oils are exhaled ?) and, according to Pless and Pierre, ozone is also produced in the decay of the organic matters of the soil. If, as thus appears probable, it is the case that the very existence of living plants, and certain later stages of their destruction by decay, are means of recombining nitrogen to an extent equal to or ■slightly greater than that to which this element is placed beyond the reach 'of vegetable assimilation in the earlier steps of organic decom- position, we see that the vegetable germ carries with it, so far as this element is concerned, the possibility of an almost unlimited, reproduc- tion or expansion. Allusion has already been made to the possibility of the occurrence of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere, but we have as yet no positive evidence of the fact. Having thus shown the origin of the compounds out of which, for the most part, the plant organizes itself, and explained, so far as the present state of science allows, how the supplies that are continually being consumed are as continually maintained, we now come properly to consider the question. Are the atmospheric stores sufficient for the purposes of vegetation ? To this inquiry Ave must undoubtedly reply, that v-^hile the quantity of carbonic acid absolutely contained in the atmosphere is so large as to feed an abundant vegetation, it being experimentally shown that some plants are able to grow well with none other than the ordinary atmospheric supplies, it appears that a concentration of this substance in the vicinitj^ of the absorbing organs not only develops, but is essen- tial to the intense growth which characterizes agricultural production. Liebig and others have instanced forests and prairies as proving th& sufficiency of the atmosphere in this respect, for, say they, under the- occupancy of trees and grasses the soil is constantly enriched in car- bon drawn from the atmosphere by these plants and annually deposited/ upon the soil as fallen foliage. In our view, however, the fact that a. forest does, not come into its most vigorous growth before the soil ha» been covered with decaying leaves, proves that the general atmoa- phere is insufficient, not indeed in the amount, but in the rapidity of its provision, and that an atmosphere more highly charged than usual with the products of vegetable decay, near or in the soil, is essential to the full supply of carbonic acid. The same doctrine must obtain with reference to the other forms of plant-food. It is, in fact, needful that the soil become a medium for the condensation and more speedy transmission into the plant of the originally purely atmospheric sup- plies. We shall recur to this subject in subsequent pages. 4 30 LECTURES ON Fig. 13. Closing here our study of the atmosphere considered as a source of the food of plants, we still need to remark somewhat upon the physi- cal properties of gases in relation to vegetable life; so far, at least, as may give some idea of the means by which they gain access into the plant. "Whenever two or more gases are brought into contact in a confined space, they instantly begin to intermingle, and continue so to do until, in a short time, they are each equally diffused throughout the room they occupy or pass into a condition of osmotic equilibrium. If two vessels, one filled with carbonic acid, the other with hydrogen, be con- nected by a tube no wider than a straw, and be placed so' that the heavy carbonic acid is below the fifteen times lighter hy- drogen, we shall find after the lapse of a few hours that the two bodies are in a state of uniform mix- ture. On closer study of this phenomenon it has been discovered that gases diffuse with a rapidity proportioned to their lightness. Hence, by inter- posing a porous membrane between two gases of unequal density, the lighter passing more rapidly into the (^enser than the latter into the former, the space on one side of the membrane is overfilled while the other side is partially emptied of gas. This fact is taken advantage of for the visible illus- tration of the fact of gaseous diffusion. In the accompanying figure 13 is represented a long glass tube b widened above into a funnel, and having cemented upon this an inverted cylindrical cup of unglazed porcelain a. The funnel rests in a round aperture made in the horizontal arm of the support while the tube below dips beneath the surface of some water contained in the wine glass. The porous cup, funnel, and tube being occupied with common air, a glass bell c is filled with hydrogen gas and placed over the cup as shown in the figure. In- stantly bubbles begin to escape rapidly from the bottom of the tube through the water of the wine ^' glass, thus demonstrating that hydrogen passes into the cup faster than air can escape outward through its pores. If the bell be removed, the cup is at once bathed again externally in common air, the light hydrogen floating instantly upward, and now the water begins to rise in the tube in consequence of the return to the outer atmosphere of the hydrogen which before had diffused into the cup. It is the perpetual action of this diffusive, or, as it is scientifically termed, osmotic tendency, which maintains the atmosphere in a state of such uniform mixture that accurate analyses of it give for oxygen and nitrogen almost identical figures, at aU times of the day, at all seasons, all altitudes, and all situations, except near the central sur- face of large bodies of still water. Here the fact that oxygen is more largely absorbed by water than nitrogen diminishes by a minute amount the usual proportion of the former gas. AGEICULTUKAL CHEMISTEY. 31 If into a limited volume of several gases be placed a body in the solid or liquid form, which is capable of uniting with chemically, or otherwise destroying the gaseous condition of one of the gases, it will at once absorb those particles of this gas which lie in its immediate vicinity and thus disturb the osmotic equilibrium of the remaining mixture. This /equilibrium is at once restored by diffusion of a por- tion of the unabsorbed gas into the space that has been deprived of it and thus the absorption and the diflusion keep pace with each other tmtil all the absorbable air is removed from the gaseous mixture and condensed or fixed in the absorbent. In this manner a portion of the atmosphere enclosed in a large glass vessel may be perfectly freed from watery vapor and carbonic acid by a small fragment of caustic potash. A piece of phosphorus will in a few hours absorb all its oxygen, and an ignited mass of the rare metal titanium will remove its nitrogen. A few words will now suffice to apply these facts to the absorption of the nutritive gases by vegetation. The cells of plants are permeable to gases, as is especially manifest from what has been stated regarding the separation or evaporation of gaseous water from leaves. They too, or some portions of their con- tents, absorb or condense carbonic acid and ammonia in a similar way, or at least with the same effect as potash absorbs carbonic acid. As fast as these bodies are removed from the atmosphere surrounding or occupying ,the cells, so fast they are re-supplied by diffusion from without ; so that although the quantities of gaseous plant-food con- tained in the air are, relatively considered, very small, they are by this grand natural law made to flow in continuous streams toward every growing vegetable cell. LECTURE m. THE SOIL AS RELATED TO AGEICULTUKAL PKODUCTIOK. No agricultural plant flourishes naturally except its roots are sit- uated in a soil. The soil is that upon which the farmer spends his labor; the atmosphere, the weather, he cannot control. His art enables him, however, so to 'modify and adapt the soil that all the deficiencies of the atmosphere or the vicissitudes of climate cannot deprive him of a reward for his exertions. The soil has a fwo-fold function. In the first instance, it forms the appropriate support and home of the plant, 'is its birthplace, the station where it runs through all the stages of its development, and the protection beneath which its roots or seeds survive the desolation of winter to gladden every spring-time with renewed growth. In the second place, it is the exclusive source of an indispensable part of th« food of all agricultural plants, and the medium through which another larger share of their nutriment is accumulated and presented to them.. In nature we observe a vast variety of soils, which often differ as much in their fertility as they do in their appearance. We find large 32 LECTURES ON tracts of country covered with barren, drifting sands, on whose arid bosom only a foAV stunted pines or shrivelled grasses find nourish- ment. Again there occur in the highlands of Scotland, Bavaria, Prussia, and other temperate countries, enormous stretches of moor- land, bearing a nearly useless growth of heath or moss. In Southern Eussia occurs a vast tract, two hundred millions of acres in extent, of the tschornosem, or black earth, which is remarkable for its extra- ordinary and persistent fertility. The prairies of our own west, the bottom lands of the Scioto and other rivers of Ohio, are other ex- amples of peculiar soils; while on every farm, almost, may be found numerous gradations from clay to sand, from vegetable mould to gravel — ^gradations in color, consistence, composition, and produc- tiveness. Some consideration of the origin of soils is adapted to assist in understanding the reasons of their fertility. Geological studies give us reasons to believe that what is now soil was once, in chief part, solid rock. We find in nearly all soils fragments of rock, recogniza- ble as such by the eye, and by help of the microscope it is often easy to perceive that those portions of the soil which are impalpable to the feel are only minuter grains of the same rock. We have space for only the merest general outline of what was probably the original condition of the earth, and of the successive changes that have wrought it to its present state. During the lapse of the uncounted ages that have been forming our globe, jocks have been ground to soil, and soil has been recemented into rock, and to- day the same transformations are slowly and silently proceeding. When the earth first cooled down from the primal heat, it had no soil, in the proper sense of that word, but was a mass of crystalline granitic rocks and volcanic scoria, incapable of supporting vegeta- tion. When the vapors condensed upon its surface, began that strife between fire and water which, under the mild forms we call weather, has never since ceased. Rains then began to fall upon the mountain wrinkles produced by the contraction of the cooling crust. Streams flowed downward into the valleys, cracking the still hot rock, whirling- fragments along in their courses until they settled as gravel, sand, or finer powder to the bottom of some quiet sea, or were dissolved in boiling wells. In later epochs vegetation began to flourish; then, after slow centuries had passed, animal life was set in process; each department of organized existence, in its own way, adding to the list of changes. Prom the first the atmospheric oxygen was omnipresent, and carbonic acid too, began to act upon the rocks; 'and as the result of the solvent, decomposing, breaking-up, and commingling course of operations, thus carried on through long periods of continual action, we have the soil in its present characters and aspects. The mechanical force of running water has been among the most effective agencies in the pulverization of rocks. During what is termed the diluvial or drift period, a current of water passed from north to south over the northern portion , of this continent, wearing down the rocks, and bearing with it an enormous mass of solid matters, which now remain as then deposited, constituting gravelly hills, and AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 33 soils -which are filled with pebbles or boulders, that were then rounded and polished in their transit from distant nothern latitudes. Since the opening of the human epoch, lesser local floods in the waters of rivers have made numberless so-called alluvial deposits (river bottoms and deltas) in like manner. Changes of temperature, especially the alternate freezing and thaw- ing of water, exercise great influence in the pulverization of rocks. Water, as is well known, expands with great force in the act of freez- ing, and by insinuating itself while liquid into the fine cleavage rifts of rocks, and there congealing, breaks asunder the particles. The dense limestone of the Jura formation, as found in polished nodules in the soil near Munich, in Bavaria, if moistened with water and ex- posed to frost a single night is so disintegrated that, as the ice melts, it yields a water tuibid with the loosened atoms of rock. Oxygen exerts a perpetual disintegrating effect, by uniting with the protoxyd of iron, which occurs in nearly all rocks, setting free the acids and bases before in combination with it, and yielding peroxyd of iron. Sulphid (sulphuret) of iron is an exceedingly abundant ingredient of rocks, and, under the influence of oxygen, is readily converted into soluble sulphate of iron — a product which, in turn, reacts upon other constituents of rocks to dissolve or alter them. Carbonic acid, especially in conjunction with water, dissolves or com- bines with the alkalies and earths existing in rocks, and thus destro5's their integrity and causes them to crumble away to soil. The composition and chemical characters of soils depend upon the kind of rock or rocks from which they originate. A glance at the nature of these will therefore be of service to us. As to chemical ingredients, we find that the most abundant and widely diffused are precisely those which are found in the ash of plants. They mostly occur in certain definite combinations, and form the minerals, quartz, feldspar, hornblende, augite, mica, serpentine, kaolin, zeolite, carbo- nate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and numerous others of less im- portance. The composition of specimens of these minerals is given in the annexed table. They occur, however, in very numerous varie- ties, and vary greatly in the kind as well as proportions of their in- gredients.* It is seen from the table that many of them contain nearly all the inorganic ingredients of plants. <* This fact may appear to stand iu contradiction to the statement above made that these minerals are dtfinUe combinations. In the infancy of mineralogy great perplexity arose from the numberless varieties of minerals that were found — varieties that agreed together in cer- tain characteristics, but widely differed in others. In 1830, Mitscherlich, a Prussian phi- losopher, discovered that a number of the elementary bodies are capable of replacing each other in combination, from the fact of their natural crystalline form being identical; they being, as he termed it, isomorphom, or of like shape. Thus, magnesia, lime, protoxyd of iron, and protoxyd of manganese; potash, soda; silica, and alumina may replace each other in such a way as to greatly affect the composition without altering the constitution of a mineral. Of the mineral hornblende, for example, there are known a great number of varieties ; some pure white in color, containing, in addition to silica, magnesia and lime ; others pale green, a small portion of magnesia being replaced by protoxyd of iron ; others black, containing alumina in place of a portion of silica, and with oxides of iron and man- ganese in large proportion. All these minerals, however, admit of one expression of their constitution, for the amount of oxygen in the bases, no matter what they are, or what their proportions, bears a constant relation to the oxygen of the silica (and alumina) they con- tain, the ratio being 4 : 9. 3i LECTURES ON I 8 o I i 'fe^ S o u 1 S S g s g d '■■ : = S : ^. 1 15 0> O GO §■ a -^ i ^ s V 03 S g S3 5 § R 3 = =" - : ^ 1 - ai ■s GO S g S 3 ci i-H O 00 g 3 S rH O W 2 1 S R g 5 s "■ a s CO •a 1 a o ^ S n ^ ff» M OJ pi o ffl is g s 5 S in tn n o OS Feldspar. S- 2 in oo s" 1 o in lo w o ^ I- 0> O CD « >-< O ire o a o c J c9 1 1^ 1 c c4 ■a c 1 1 o -a a 04 ! s cfl B <*, o ■s o s 1 AGRICDLTUEAL CHEMISTEY. 35 These minerals, while they make up the chief bulk of rocks or of the soil, are always associated with minute quantities of other com- pounds, such as phosphates, chlorids, sulphates, or bodies yielding sulphates, &c., upon which the geologist scarcely bestows attention, which are, however, for the scientific agriculturist of great moment. In consequence of this wise provision and of the beneficent inter- mingling of the fragments of rock from widely distant regions, during the drift period and by alluvial agencies, it has resulted that,* almost everywhere, there exist in the soil all those mineral bodies which are found in plants. Some one has been, indeed, so impressed with the universality of the distribution of each elementary form of matter as to offer the opinion that all the sixty simple bodies which constitute the globe might be found in every handful of soil or cup of water existing on its surface did we but possess sufficiently delicate tests. It sometimes happens, indeed, that where a soil is in place, i. e., has not been transported, but lies covering the rock from which it has been formed, it is very poor and supports only a sparse vegeta- tion, or, perhaps, is totally naked and destitute of all organic life. But these instances are comparatively rare, and their infertility is more often due to want of water, or some external cause, than to the absolute deficiency of those ingredients which are needful in a pro- ductive soil. It often happens that a close connexion exists between the rock and the overlying soil; as often, however, the one serves as no indi- cation to the value of the other. The mechanical analysis of any soil separates it into portions of different fineness. A coarse sieve removes gravel, consisting of the larger fragments of rock ; a finer one, coarse sand; by washing with water, fine sand is left, while the turbid washings deposit after a time a quantitv of impalpable matter which may consist in part of the exceedingly fine particles of rock, and in part of clay, or it may be entirely formed of the latter. In most inferior soils the gravel and sand, when abundant, are an- gular fragments of quartz, feldspar, hornblende, augite, and mica, or of rocks consisting of these minerals. It is only these harder and less easily decomposable minerals that can resist the pulverizing agencies through which a large share of our soils have passed. In the more fertile soils, formed from secondary limestones and slates, the fragments of these stratified rocks occur as flattened pebbles and rounded grains. The fine portion of the soil bears, either in quantity or composition, the most direct relation to its fertility. It is this which is capable of yielding to the growing plant the food it requires. The coarser parts of the soil are a vast store of materials in reserve for the distant fu- ture, since, by their slow disintegration, they themselves gradually become so comminuted as to serve the wants of vegetation. Clay, which is almost invariably a chief part of the impalpable matter of the soil, has been marked by us as a mineral, and its general composition indicated in the table (p. 150.) It is a product of the action of water and carbonic acid upon such minerals as feldspar, mica, hornblende, and augite. Under the influence of these agents, 36 LECTUEES ON the silicates of alumina, and potash, lime, &c., yield carbonates of potash, lime, &c., which dissolve and wash away, while a silicate of alumina and water, mingled with free silica, and mechanically retain- ing more or less of the other substances remains, and this is clay. When formed from feldspar alone it is often pure white in color, and bears the name kaolin. This, the purest form of clay, is the material which constitutes the basis of porcelain. In mines, excavated througli feldspathic rocks, nothing is more common than to find masses of the whitest kaolin in the fissures or cavities, which give a down- ward passage to the percolating water. The clay of ordinary soils, is, however, a material greatly admixed with other substances, and therefore exceedingly different and variable in its composition, and all the better adapted by this for its agricultural applications. Many soils contain much carbonate of lime in an impalpable form, having been, derived chiefly from the mechanical wearing down of lime rocks, as marble and chalk — from the shells of mollusks or coral branches, or, finally, being clays that have originated by the chemi- cal decomposition of feldspathic rocks Containing much lime. Organic matter, especially the debris of former vegetation, is almost never absent from the impalpable portion of the soil, existing there in some of the many forms assumed by the Protean humus. From consideration of the relative proportions of the principal me- chanical ingredients has chiefly arisen the customary classification and nomenclature of soils. Silicious sand (grains of quartz, feldspar, &c.) and clay make up the chief proportion of many soils. The mixture of the two forms a loam which may be sandy (light) or clayey (heavy.) A further division is into loamy sand and loamy clay. When, in ad- dition to these, lime is present the soil is said to be a marl, either sandy, clayey, loamy, &c., according to the relative quantities of the ingredients. Soils containing organic matter to the amount of 5 to 10 ppr cent, are termed vegetable moulds; if this ingredient exceeds 10 percent., which rarely occurs, except in wet situations, we have a peaty soil. If coarse rounded fragments of rock be present in large quantity the soil is gravelly. Where much oxyd of iron exists, as evinced by a red or yellow color, the soil is ocliery. The epithets peaty, gravelly, ochery, come then, in many cases, to further modify the designations of sands, clays, marls, and moulds. Other divisions are current among practical men, as, for example, surface and sub-soil, active and inert soil, tilth, and hard pan. These terms mostly explain themselves. When, at the depth of four inches to one foot or more, the soil assumes a different color and texture, these distinctions have meaning. The surface soil, active soil, or tilth, is the portion that is wrought by the instruments of tillage — that which is moistened by the rains, warmed by the sun, permeated by the atmosphere, in which the plant extends its roots, gathers its soil food, and which, by the decay of the subterranean organs of vegetation, acquires a content of humus. Where the soil originally had the same characters to a great depth, it often becomes modified -down to a certain point, by the agencies just enumerated, in such a AGRICDLTUEAL CHEMISTRY. 37 manner that the eye at once makes the distinction into surface-soil and sub -soil. In many soils, however, such distinctions are entirely ar- bitrary, the earth changing its appearance gradually or even remain- ing uniform to a considerable depth. Again, the surface soil may have a greater downward extent than the active soil, or the tilth may extend into the sub-soil. Hard-pan is the appropriate name of a dense, almost impenetra- ble, crust or stratum of ochery clay or compacted gravel, often under- lying a fairly fruitful soil. It is the soil reverting to rock. The parti- cles once_ disjointed are being cemented together again by the solu- tions of lime, iron or alkali-silicates that descend from the surface soil. Such a stratum often separates the surface soil from a deep gravel bed, and peat swamps thus exist in basins formed on the most porous soils by a thin layer of moor-bed-pan. With these general notions regarding the origin and characters of soils, we may proceed to a somewhat extended notice of the pro- perties of the soil as influencing fertility. These divide themselves into physical characters — those which externally affect the i growth of the plant; and chemical characters — those which provide it with food. Among the physical characters* we first notice the state of division in which the soil is found. On the surface of a block of granite only a few lichens and mosses can exist; crush the block to a coarse powder and a more abundant vegetation can be supported on it; if it is reduced to a very fine dust and duly watered, even the cereal grains will grow and perfect fruit on it. Thus two soils may have the same chemical composition, and yet one be almost inexhaustibly fertile, and the other almost hope- lessly barren. There are sandy soils in the Eastern States, which, without manure, yield only the most meagre crops of vye or buck- wheat; and there are sandy soils in Ohio, which, without manure, yield on an average 80 bushels of Indian corn per acre, and have yielded this for twenty to fifty years in unbroken succession. Ac- cording to David A. Wells, (American Journal of Science, July, 1852,) these two kinds of soil yield very similar, practically identical, results on chemical analysis, so far as their inorganic ingredients are concerned. What is the cause of the difference of fertility ? Our present knowledge can point to no other explanation than is furnished by the different fineness of the particles. The barren sandy soils consist in great part of coarse grains, while the Ohio soil is an ex- ceedingly fine powder. It is true, as a general rule, that all fertile soils contain a large proportion of very fine or impalpable matter. How the extreme division of the particles of the soil is connected with its fertility is not difficult to understand. The food of the plant must enter it in a state of solution, or if undissolved, the particles must be smaller ^- lu treating of the physical characters of the soil, the writer employs an essay on this subject, contributed by him to vol. XVI of the Transactions of the N. T. State Agricul- tural Society. 38 LECTURES ON than we can discover with the best optical aids, because the pores of the roots of plants are not discernible by any microscope. The mineral matters of the soil must be dissolved or diffused in water. The rapidity of their solution is in direct proportion to the extent of their surface. The finer the particles, the more abundantly will the plant be supplied with its necessary nourishment. In the Scioto valley soils the water which is transpired by the crops comes in con- tact with such an extent of surface that it is able to dissolve the soil- ingredients in as large quantity and as rapidly as the crop requires. In the coarse-grained soils this is not the case. Soluble matters (manures) must be applied to them by the farmer, or his crops refuse to yield handsomely. It is furthermore obvious, that, other things being equal, the finer the particles of the soil the more space the growing roots have in which to expand themselves, and the more numerously are they able to present their absorbent surfaces to the supplies which the soil contains. It will presently appear that other very important properties of the soil are more or less related to its state of mechanical division. The soil has, secondly, a power of withdrawing from the air vapor of water and condensing the same in its pores. It is, in other words, hygroscopic. This property of a soil is of the utmost agricultural importance, because, 1st, it is connected with the permanent moisture which is necessary to vegetable existence, and, 2d, since the absorption of water- vapor determines the absorption of other vapors and gases. In the following table from Schiibler we have the results of a series of experiments carried out by that philosopher for the pur- pose of determining the absorptive power of different kinds of earths and soils. The column of figures gives in thousandths the quantity of moisture absorbed by the previously dried soil, under the same circumstances, in twenty-four hours : Quartz sand, coarse G-ypsum 1 Lime sand 3 Plough land 23 Clay soil, (60 per cent, clay) "... 28 Slaty marl , 33 Loam 35 Pine carbonate of lime 35 Heavy clay soil, (80 per cent, clay) 41 Garden mould, (7 per cent, humus) 52 Pure clay 49 Carbonate of magnesia, (fine powder) 82 Humus 120 An obvious practical result follows from the facts expressed in the above table, viz : that sandy soils which have little attractive force for watery vapor, and are therefore dry and arid, may be meliorated in this respect by admixture with clay, or better with humus, as AGEICULTUKAL CHEMISTRY, 39 is done by green manuring. The table gives us proof that gypsum does not exert any beneficial action in consequence of directly attract- ing moisture. Humus, or decaying vegetable matter, it will be seen, surpasses every other ingredient of the soil in absorbing moisture. This is doubtless in some degree connected with its extraordinary porosity or amount of surface. How the extent of surface alone may act is made evident by comparing the absorbent power of carbonate of lime in the two states of sand and of an impalpable powder. The latter it is seen, absorbed twelve times as much vapor of water as the former. Carbonate of magnesia stands next to humus, and it is worthy of note that it is a very light and fine powder. Finally, it is a matter of observation that ' ' silica and lime in the form of coarse sand make the soil in which they predominate so dry and hot that vegetation perishes from want of moisture; when, however, they occur as fine dust, they form too wet a soil, in which plants perish from the' opposite cause." — [Hamm's Landwirthschaft.) In the fact that soils have a physical absorbing power for the vapor of water, we have an illustration of a general principle, viz : That the surfaces of liquid and solid matter attract the particles of other hinds of matter. In the same way that water is absorbed, oxygen gas is con- densed, especially in certain highly porous bodies. Platinum, copper, lead, and iron, when in the state of fine sponge, exert a remarkable condensing power on oxygen, and it is probable that thereby this element is ozonized. Platinum sponge exhibits the characters of a body charged with ozone, and it is to be anticipated that investiga- tion will shortly demonstrate the occurrence of gaseous condensa- tions in the soil, the effect of which is to produce chemical changes of the most important character. It is not unlikely that the organic matters of the soil, which possess the extremest porosity may thereby acquire their power of ozonizing the oxygen which combines so readily with them, and thus accomplish the formation of nitric acid from atmospheric nitrogen. Of exceeding influence on the fertility of the soil is, thirdly, its permeability to liquid loater. A soil is permeable to water when it allows that liquid to soak into or run through it. To be permeable is of eourse to be porous. On the size of the pores depends its degree of permeability. Coarse sands, and soils which have/ezt? but large pores or interspaces, allow water to run through them readily — water percolates them. When, instead of running through, the water is largely absorbed and held by the soil, the latter is said to possess great capillary poiuer; such a soil has many and minute pores. The cause of capillarity is the same surface attraction which has been already mentioned. When a narrow vial is partly filled with water, it will be seen that the liquid adheres to its sides, and if it be not more than one-half inch in diameter, the surface of the liquid will be curved or concave. In a very narrow tube the liquid will rise to a considerable height. In these cases the surface attraction of the glass for the water neu- tralizes or overcomes the weight of (earth' s attraction for) the latter. The pores of a sponge raise and hold water in them, in the same 40 LECTURES ON way that these narrow (capillary*) tubes support it. When a body has pores so fine (surfaces so near each other) that their surface attrac- tion is greater than the gravitating tendency of water, then the body will suck up and hold water — will exhibit capillarity; a lump of salt or sugar, a lamp -wick, are familiar examples. When the pores of a body are so large (the surfaces so distant) that they cannot fill them- selves or keep themselves full, the body allows the water to run through or to percolate. Sand is most easily permeable to water, and to a higher degree the coarser its particles. Clay, on the other hand, is the least pene- trable, and the less so the purer and more plastic it is. When a soil is too cokrsely porous it is said to be leachy or hungry. The rains that fall upon it quickly soak through, and it shortly becomes dry. On such a soil,, the manures that may be ap- plied in the spring are to some degree washed down below the reach of vegetation, and in the droughts of summer plants suffer and perish from want of moisture. When the texture of a soil is too fine, its pores too small, as happens in a heavy clay, the rains penetrate it too slowly; they flow off the surface, if the latter be inchned, or remain as pools for days and even weeks in the hollows. In a soil of proper texture the rains neither soak off into 'the under earth nor stagnate on the surface, but the soil always (except in excessive wet or drought) maintains the moistness which is salutary to most of our cultivated plants. The part which the capillarity of the soil plays in the nutrition of the plant deserves a moment's notice. If a wick be put into a lamp containing oil, the oil, by capillary action, gradually permeates its whole length, that which is above as well as that below the surface of the liquid. When the lamp is set burning, the oil at the flame is consumed, and as each particle disap- pears its place is supplied by a new one, until the lamp is empty or the flame extinquished. Something quite analogous occurs in the soil, by which the plant (corresponding to the flame in our illustration) is fed. The soil is at once lamp and wick, and the water of the soil represents the oil. Let evaporation of water from the surface of the soil or of the plant take place of the combustion of the oil from a wick and the matter stands thus: Let us suppose dew or rain to have saturated the ground with moisture for some depth. On recurrence of a dry atmosphere with sunshine and wind, the surface of the soil rapidly dries; but as each particle of water escapes (by evaporation) into the atmosphere, its place is supplied (by capillarity) from the stores below. The ascending water brings along with it the soluble matters of the soil, and thus the roots of plants are situated in a stream of their appropriate food. The movement proceeds iji this way so long as the surface is dryer than the deeper soil. When, by rain or otherwise, the surface is saturated, it is like letting a thin stream of oil run upon the apex of the lamp- ** From capillus the Latin word for hair, because as fine as hair; (but a hair is no tube, as is often supposed.) AGRICULTUKAL CHEMISTRY. 41 wick — no more evaporation into the air can occur, and consequently there is no longer any ascent of water; on the contrary, the water, by its own weight, penetrates the soil, and if the underlying ground he not saturated with moisture, as can happen where the subterranean fountains yield a meagre supply, then capillarity will aid gravity in its downward distribution. The most rational conclusion from all the facts at our command is that all the mineral matters, as well as a portion of the organic bodies, which feed the plant, are carried into it by water. So long as evapora- tion goes on from the surface of the soil, so long there is a constant upward flow of saline matters. Those portions which do not enter vegetation accumulate on or near the surface of the ground; when a rain falls, they are washed down again to a certain depth, and thus are kept constantly changing their place with the water, which is the vehicle of their distribution. In regions where rain falls periodically or not at all, this upward flow of the soil-water often causes an accumu- lation of salts on the surface of the ground. Thus in Bengal many soils which in the wet season produce the most luxuriant crops, during the rainless portion of the year become covered with white crusts of saltpetre. Doubtless the beds of nitrate of soda that are found in Peru have accumulated in the same manner. So in our western caves the earth sheltered from rains is saturated with salts — epsom salts, glauber salts, and saltpetre, or mixtures of these. Often the rich soil of gardens is slightly incrusted in this manner in our summer weather; but the saline matters are carried into the soil with the next rain. It is easy to see how, in a good soil, capillarity thus acts in keeping the roots of plants constantly immersed in a stream of water or moist- ure that is now ascending, now descending, but never at rest, and how the food of the plant is thus made to circulate around the organs fitted for absorbing it. The same causes that maintain this perpetual supply of water and food to the plant are also efficacious in constantly prepai-ing new sup- plies of food. As before explained, the materials of the soil are always undergoing decomposition, whereby the silica, lime, phosphoric acid, potash, &c., of the insoluble fragments of rock, become soluble in water and accessible to the plant. Water charged with carbonic acid and oxygen, is the chief agent in these chemical changes. The more extensive and rapid the circulation of water in the soil, the more matters will be rendered soluble in a given time, and, other things being equal, the less will the soil be dependent on manures to keep up its fertility. No matter how favorable the structure of the soil may be to the circulation of water in it, no continuous upward movement can take place without evaporation. The ease and rapidity of evaporation, while mainly depending on the condition of the atmosphere and on the sun's heat, are to a certain degree influenced by the soil itself. We have already seen that the soil possesses a power of absorbing watery vapor from the atmosphere, a power which is related both to 42 LECTUEES ON the kind of material that forms the soil and to its state of division. This absorptive power opposes evaporation. Again, different soils manifest widely different capacities for imbibing liquid water— capa- cities mainly connected with their porosity. Obviously too, the quantity of liquid in a given volume of soil affects not only the rapidity, but also the duration of evaporation. The following tables by Schiibler illustrate the peculiarities of dif- ferent soils in these respects. The first column gives the fer cents of water absorbed by the completely dry soil. In these experiments the soils were thoroughly wet with water, the excess allowed to drip off, and the increase of weight determined. In the second column are given the per cents of water that evaporated during the space of one hour from the saturated soil spread over a given surface : Quartz sand 25 88.4 Gypsum 27 71.7 Lime sand 29 75.9 Slaty mari • ■ 34 68.0 Clay soil, (sixty per oent. clay,) 40 52.0 Loam • 51 45.7 Plough land 52 32.0 Heavy clay, (eighty per cent, clay,) 61 34.9 Pure gray clay 70 31.9 Pine carbonate of lime 85 28.0 Garden mould 89 24.3 Humus 181 25.5 Pine carbonate of magnesia 256 10.8 It is obvious that these two columns express nearly the same thing in different ways. The amount of water retained increases from quartz sand to magnesia. The rapidity of drying in the air, diminishes in the same direction. The want of retentive power for water in the case of coarse sand is undeniably one of the chief reasons of its unfruitfulness. The best soils possess a medium retentive power. In them, therefore, are best united the conditions for the regular distribution of the soil- water under all circumstances. In them this process is not hindered too much either by wet or dry weather. The retaining power of humus is seen to be more than double that of clay. This result might appear at first sight to be in contradiction to ordinary observations, for we are accustomed to see water standing on the surface of clay but not on humus. It must be borne in mind that clay, from its imperviousness, holds water like a vessel, the water remaining apparent; but humus retains it invisibly, its action being nearly like that of a sponge. One chief cause of the value of a layer of humus on the surface of the soil doubtless consists in this great retaining power for water, and the success that has attended the practice of green manuring, as a means of renovating almost worthless shifting sands, is in a great degree to be attributed to this cause. The advantages of mulching are explained in the same way. AGRICULTUEAL CHEMISTRY. 43 The relations of the soil to heat are of the utmost importance in affecting its fertility. The distribution of plants in general, is deter- mined by differences of mean temperature, hi the same climate and locality, however, we find the farmer distinguishing between cold and warm soils. The temperature of the soil varies to a certain depth with that of the air; yet its changes occur more slowly, are confined to a narrower range of temperature, and diminish downward in rapidity and amount, until at a certain depth a point is reached where the temperature is invariable. In summer the temperature of the soil i« higher in day time than that of the air; at night the temperature of the surface rapidly falls, especially when the sky is clear. In temperate climates, at a depth of three feet, the temperature remains unchanged from day to night; at a depth of 20 feet the an- nual temperature varies but a degree or two; at 75 feet below the surface, the thermometer remains perfectly stationary. In the vaults of the Paris Observatory, 80 feet deep, the temperature is 50° Fah- renheit. In tropical regions the point of nearly unvarying tempera- ture is reached at a depth of one foot. The mean annual temperature of the soil is the same as, or in higher latitudes a degree above, that of the air. The nature and position of the soil must considerably influence its temperature. The sources of that heat which is found in the soil are two, viz : first, an internal one, the chemical process of oxydation or decay; second, an external one, the rays of the sun. ' The heat evolved by the decay of organic matters is not inconsid- erable in porous soils containing much vegetable remains; but this decay cannot proceed rapidly until the external temperature has reached a point favorable to vegetation, and therefore this source of heat probably has no appreciable effect one way or the other on the welfare of the plant. The warmth of the soil, so far as it favors ve- getable .growth, appears then to depend exclusively on the heat of the sun. The earth has within itself a source of heat, which maintains its interior at a high temperature; but ivhich escapes so rapidly from the surface that the soil would be constantly frozen but for the external supply of heat from the sun. The direct rays of the sun are the immediate cause of the warmth of the earth's surface. The temperature of the soil near the surface changes progressively with the season; but at a certain depth the loss from the interior and the gain from the sun compensate each other, and, as has been previously mentioned, the temperature remains unchanged throughout the year. During a summer day the heat of the sun reaches the earth directly, and it is absorbed by the soil and the solid objects on its surface, and also by the air and water. But these different bodies. and also the different kinds of soil, have very different ability to ab- sorb or become warmed by the sun's heat. Air and water are almost incapable of being warmed by heat applied above them. Through 44 LECTURES ON the air especially, heat radiates without being scarcely absorbed. The soil and solid bodies become warmed according to their individ- ual capacity, and from "them the air receives the heat which warms it. From the moist surface of the soil goes on a rapid evaporation, which renders latent* a large amount of heat, so that the tempera- ture of the soil is not rapidly but gradually elevated. The ascent of water from the sub -soil to supply the place of that evaporated goes on as before described. The liquid water of the soil has combined with (rendered latent) a vast amount of heat therefrom, and passed as gaseous water (vapor) into the air. "When the sun declines, the process diminishes in intensity, and when it sets, the reverse takes place. The heat that had accumulated on the surface of the earth radiates into the cooler atmosphere and planetary space, the temperature of the surface rapidly diminishes, and the air itself becomes cooler by convection, t As the cooling goes on, the vapor suspended in the at- mosphere begins to condense upon cool objects, while its latent heat becoming free hinders the too sudden reduction of temperature. The condensed water collects in drops — it is dew; or in the colder seasons it crystallizes as hoar-frost. The special nature of the surface of the soil is closely connected with the maintenance of a uniform temperature, with the prevention * When a piece of ice is placed in a vessel whose temperature is increasing, hy means of a, lamp, at the rate of one degree of the thermometer every minute, it will be found that the temperature of the ice rises until it attains 32°. When this point is reached, it be- gins to melt, but does not suddenly become fluid : the melting goes on very gradually. A thermometer placed in the water remains constantly at 32° so long as a fragment of ice is present. The moment the ice disappears, the temperature begins to rise again, at the rate of one degree per minute. Tlie time during which the temperature of the ice and water remains at 32° is 140 minutes. During each of these minutes one degree of heat enters the mixture, but is not indicated by the thermometer — the mercury remains stationary; 140° of heat have thus passed into the ice and become hidden, latent; at the same time the solid ice has become liquid water. The difference, then, between ice and water consists in the heat that is latent in the latter. If we now proceed with the above experi- ment, allowing the heat to increase with the same rapidity, we find that the temperature of the water rises constantly for 180 minutes. The thermometer then indicates a temper- ature of 212, (324-180,) and the water boils. Proceeding with the experiment, the water evaporates away, but the thermometer continues stationary so long as any liquid remains. After the lapse of 972 minutes, it is completely evaporated. Water in becoming steam renders, therefore, still another portion, 972°, of heat latent. The heat latent in steam is indispensable to the existence of the latter. If this heat be removed by bringing the steam into a cold space, water is reproduced. If, by means of pressure or cold, steam be condensed, the heat originally latent in it becomes sensible, free, and capable of affecting the thermometer. If, also, water be converted into ice, as much heat is evolved and made sensible as was absorbed and made latent. It is seen thus that the processes of liquefac- tion and vaporization are cooling processes; for the heat rendered latent by them must he derived from surrounding objects, and thus these become cooled. On the contrary, solidi- fication, freezing, and vapor-condensation are warming processes, sincu in them large quan- tities of heat cease to be latent and are made sensible, thus warming surrounding bodies. f Though liquids and gases are almost perfect non-conductors of heat, yet it can difi'use through them rapidly, if advantage be taken of the fact that by heating ithey expand and therefore become specifically lighter. If heat be applied to the upper surface of liquids or gases, they remain for a long time nearly unaffected; if it be applied beneath them, the lower layers of particles become heated and rise, their place is supplied by others, and so currents upward and downward are established, whereby the heat is rapidly and uniformly distrib- uted. This process of convection can rarely have any influence in the soil. What we have stated concerning it shows, however, in what way the atmosphere may constantly act in removing heat from the surface of the soil. AGEICULTUEAL CHEMISTRY. 45 or of too great heat by day and cold by night, and with the watering „. vegetation by means of dew. It is, however, in many cases only for a little space after seed-time that the soil is greatly concerned in these processes. So soon as it becomes covered with vegetation the character of the latter determines to a certain degree the nature of the atmospheric changes. In case of many crops the soil is but par- tially covered, and its peculiarities are then of direct influence on the vegetation it bears. Among these qualities the following may be noticed : 1. The color of the soil. — It is usually stated that black or dark co- lored soils are sooner warmed by the sun's rays than those of lighter color, and remain constantly of a higher temperature so long as the sun acts on them. An elevation of several degrees in the tempera- ture of a light colored soil may be caused by strewing its surface with peat, charcoal powder, or vegetable mould. To this influence may be partly ascribed the following facts. Lampadius was able to ripen melons even in the coolest summers in Priberg, Saxony, by strewing a coating of coal dust an inch deep over the surface of the soil. In Belgium and on the Ehine, it is found that the grape matures best when the soil is covered with fragments of black clay slate. Girar- din found in a series of experiments on the cultivation of potatoes, that the time of their ripening varied eight to fourteen days, accord- ing to the color of the soil. He found on August 25th, in a very dark humus soil, twenty-six varieties ripe; in sandy soil, twenty; in clay, nineteen; and in white lime soil, only sixteen. It is not difficult to assign other causes that will account in part for the results here men- tioned; and although it has been observed that dark soils range from three to eight degrees higher in temperature than contiguous soils having a lighter color, it is not to color so much as to other qualities that the soil owes its peculiar temperature, as is proved by the recent observations of Malaguti and Durocher. They found that the tem- perature of a garden soil, just below the surface, was on the average 6° Fahrenheit higher than that of the air, but that this higher tem- perature diminished at a greater depth. A thermometer buried four inches indicated a mean temperature only 3° above that of the atmos- phere. Besides the garden earth, just mentioned, which had a dark gray color, and was a mixture of sand and gravel containing but little, clay, with about five per cent, humus, the thermometric characters of the following soils were observed, viz: a grayish-white quartz, sand; a grayish-brown granite sand; a fine light-gray clay (pipe clay;) a yellow sandy clay; and, finally, four lime soils of difi'erent physical qualities. It was found that when the exposure was alike, the dark-gray granite sand became the warmest, and next to this the grayish-white quartz sand. The latter, notwithstanding its lighter color, often ac- quired a higher temperature when at a depth of four inches than the former, a fact to be ascribed to its better conducting power. The black soils never became so warm as the two just mentioned, demon- strating that color does not influence the absorption of heat so much as other qualities. After the black soils, the others came in the fol- 5 46 LECTUEES ON lowing order: Garden soil; yellow -sandy clay; pipe clay; lime soils having crystalline grains; and, lastly, a pulverulent chalk soil. To show what different degrees of warmth soils may acquire, under the same circumstances, the following maximum temperatures may be adduced : At noon of a July day, when the temperature of the air was 90°, a thermometer placed at a depth of a little more than one inch, gave these results : In quartz sand 126° In crystalline lime soil 115° In garden soil 114° In yellow sandy clay 100° In pipe clay 94° In chalk soil 87° Here we observe a difference of nearly 40° in the temperature of the coarse quartz and the chalk soil. The experimenters do not men- tion the influence of water in affecting these results; they do not state the degree of dryness of these soils. It will be seen, however, that the warmest soils are those that retain least water, and doubtless something of the slowness with which the fine soils increase in warmth is connected with the fact that they retain much water, which, in evaporating, appropriates and renders latent a large quantity of heat. The chalk soil is seen to be the coolest of all, its temperature in "these observations being three degrees lower than that of the atmos- phere at noon day. In hot climates this coolness is sometimes of great advantage as appears to happen in Spain, near Cadiz, where the Sherry vineyards flourish. ' ' The Don said the Sherry wine district was very small, not more than twelve miles square. The sherry grape grew only on certain low chalky hills where the earth being light- colored, is not so much burnt; did not chap and split so much by the sun as darker and heavier soils do. A mile beyond these hills the grape deteriorates." — (Dickens' Househdd Words, November 13, 1858.) In explanation of these observations we must recall to mind the fact that all bodies are capable of absorbing and radiating as well as reflecting heat. These properties, although never disassociated from color, are not necessarily dependent upon it. They chiefly depend upon the character of the surface of bodies. Smooth polished sur- faces absorb and radiate heat least readily ; they reflect it most per- fectly. Radiation and absorption are opposed to each other, and the power of any body to radiate is precisely equal to its faculty of absorb- ing heat. It must be understood, however, that bodies may differ in their power of absorbing or radiating heat of different degrees of intensity. Lampblack absorbs and radiates heat of all intensities in the same degree. White lead absorbs heat of low intensity (such as radiates from a vessel filled vnth boiling water) as fully as lampblack, but of the intense heat of a lamp it absorbs only about one-half as much. Snow seems to resemble white-lead in this respect. If a black cloth or black paper be spread on the surface of snow, upon which the sun si shining, it will melt much faster under the cloth than elsewhere, and this too if the cloth be not in contact with, but suspended above AGEICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 47 the snow. In our latitude every one has had opportunity to observe that snow thaws most rapidly when covered by or lying on black earth. The reason is that snow absorbs heat of low intensity with greatest facility. The heat of the sun is converted from a high to a low intensity by being absorbed and then radiated by the black mate- rial. But it is not color that determines this diflference of absorptive power, for indigo and Prussian blue, though of nearly the same color, have very different absorptive powers. So far, however, as our observations extend, it appears that usually, dark colored soils absorb heat most rapidly, and that the sun' s rays have least effect on light colored'soils. 2. The degree of moisture present is of great influence on the tem- perature of the soil. AH soils when thoroughly wet seem to be nearly alike in their power of absorbing and retaining warmth. The vast quantity of heat needful to gratify the demand of the vapor that is constantly forming, explains this. From this cause the difference in temperature between dry and wet soil may often amount from 10° to 18°. According to the observation of Dickinson, made at Abbot's Hill, Hertfordshire, England, and continued through eight years, 90 per cent, of the water falling between April 1st and October Ist, evapo- rates from the surface of the soil, only 10 per cent, finding its way into drains laid three and four feet deep. The total quantity of water that fell during this time, amounted to about 2,900,000 lbs. per acre; of this more than 2,600,000 evaporated from the surface. It has been calculated that to evaporate artificially this enormous mass of water, more than seventy-five tons of coal must be consumed. Thorough draining, by loosening the soil and causing a rapid re- moval from below of the surplus water, has a most decided influence, especially in spring time, in warming the soil and bringing it into a suitable condition for the support of vegetation. It is plain then that even if we knew with accuracy what are the physical characters of a surface soil, and if we were able to estimate correctly the influence of these characters on its fertility, still we must investigate those circumstances which affect its wetness or dryness, whether they be an impervious sub-soil, or springs coming to the sur- face, or the amount and frequency of rain-falls, taken in connexion with other meteorological causes. We cannot decide that a clay is too wet or a sand too dry, until we know its situation and the climate it is subjected to. The great deserts of the globe do not owe their barrenness to neces- sary poverty of soil, but to meteorological influences — to the continued prevalence of parching winds, and the absence of mountains to con- dense the atmospheric water and establish a system of rivers and streams. This is not the place to enter into a discussion of the causes that may determine or modify climate, but to illustrate the effect that may be produced by means within human control, it may be stated that previous to the year 1821, the French district Provence was a fertile and well-watered region. In 1822, the olive trees which were largely cultivated there were injured by frost, and the inhabitants began to cut them up root and branch. This amounted to clearing off a forest, 48 LECTDRES ON and in consequence the streams dried up, and the productiveness of the country was seriously diminished. 3. The angle at which the sun's rays strike a soil is of great influence on its temperature. The more this approaches a right angle the greater the heating effect. In the latitude of England the sun's heat acts most powerfully on surfaces having a southern exposure, and which are inclined at an angle of 25° and 30°. The best vineyards of the Rhine and Neckar are also on hill-sides, so situated. In Lap- land and Spitzbergen the southern side of hills are often seen covered with vegetation, while lasting or even perpetual snow lies on their northern inclinations. » 4. The influence of a wall or other reflecting surface upon the warmth of a soil lying to the south of it, was observed in the case of garden soil by Malaguti and Durocher. The highest temperature indicated by a thermometer placed in this soil at a distance of six inches from the wall, during a series of observations lasting seven days, (April, 1852,) was 32° Fahrenheit higher at the surface, and 18° higher at a depth of four inches than in the same soil on the north side of the wall. The average temperature of the former during this time was 8° higher than that of the latter. In the Rhine district grape vines are kept low and as near the soil as possible, so that the heat of the sun be reflected back upon them from the ground, and the ripening is then carried through the nights by the heat radiated from the earth. — (Journal' Highland and Agricid- tural Society, July 1858, p. 347.) 5. 'Malaguti and Durocher also studied the effect of a sod on the temperature of the soil. They observed that it hindered the warm- ing of the soil, and indeed to about the same extent as a layer of earth of three inches depth. Thus a ttermometer four inches deep in green- sward acquires the same temperature as one seven inches deep in the same soil not grassed. It is to be remembered that the soils that warm most quickly, also cool correspondingly fast, and thus are subjected to the most exten- sive and rapid changes of temperature. The greensward which warms slowly, retains its warmth most tenaciously, and the sands that become hottest at noon-day, are coldest at midnight. Of no little practical importance is the shrinking of soils on drying. — This shrinking is of course offset by an increase of bulk when the soil becomes wet. In variable weather we have therefore constant changes of volume occurring. Soils rich in humus experience these changes to the greatest degree. The surfaces of moors often rise and fall with the wet or dry season, through a space of several inches. In ordinary light soils containing but little humus no change of bulk is evident. Otherwise, it is in clay soils that shrinking is most per- ceptible; since these soils only dry superficially they do not appear to settle much, but become full of cracks and rifts. Heavy clays may lose one-tenth or more of their volume on drying, and since at the same time they harden about the rootlets which are imbedded in them it is plain that these indispensable organs of the plant must thereby e ruptured during the protracted dry weather. Sand, on the other AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 49 hand, does not change its bulk by wetting or drying, and when present to a considerable extent in the soil, its particles being interposed be- tween those of the clay, prevent the adhesion of the latter, so that, although a sandy loam shrinks not inconsiderably on drying, yet the lines of separation are vastly more numerous and less wide than in purer clays. Such a soil does not "cake," but remains friable and powdery. Marly soils (containing carbonate of lime) are especially prone to fall to a fine powder during drying, since the carbonate of lime, which like sand, shrinks very little, is itself in a state of extreme division, and therefore more effectually separates the clayey particles. The unequal shrinking of these two intimately mixed ingredients accom- plishes a perfect pulverization of such soils. Professor Wolff, of the Academy of Agriculture, at Hohenheim, Wirtemberg, states that on the cold heavy soils of Upper Lusatia, in Germany, the application of lime has been attended with excellent results, and he thinks that the larger share of the benefit is to be accounted for by the improve- ment in the texture of those soils which follows liming. The car- bonate of lime is considerably soluble in water charged with carbonic acid, as is the water of a soil containing vegetable matter, and this agency of distribution in connection with the mechanical operations of tillage, must in a short time effect an intimate mixture of the lime with the whole soil. A tenacious clay is thus by a heavy liming made to approach the condition of a friable marl. We may give a moment's notice to the cohesiveness of the soil. — A soil is said to be heavy or light, not as it weighs more or less, but as it is easy or difficult to work. The state of dryness has great infiu- ence on this quality. Sand, lime, and humus have very little cohesion when dry, but considerable when wet. Soils in which they pre- dominate are usually easy to work. But clay has entirely different characters, and upon them almost exclusively depends the tenacity of a soil. Dry clay, when powdered, has hardly more consist- ence than sand, but when thoroughly moistened its particles adhere together to a soft and plastic, but tenacious mass; and in drying away, at a certain point it becomes very hard, and requires a good deal of force to penetrate it. In this condition it offers great resist- ance to the instruments used in tillage, and when thrown up by the plough it forms lumps which require repeated harrowings to break them down. Since the cohesiveness of the soil depends so greatly upon the quantity of water contained in it, it follows that thorough draining, combined with deep tillage, whereby sooner or later the stiffest clays become readily permeable to water, must have the best effects in making such soils easy to work. The English practice of burning clays speedily accomplishes^ the same purpose. When clay is burned and then crushed the particles no longer adhere tenaciously together on moistening, and the mass does not acquire again the unctuous plasticity peculiar to unburned clay. . . Mixing sand with clay, or incorporating vegetable matter with it, 60 LECTURES ON serves to separate the particles from each other, and thus remedies too great cohesiveness. When water freezes its volume increases, as is well known. The alternate freezing and thawing of the water which impregnates the soil during the colder part of the year plays thus an important part in overcoming its cohesion. The effect is mostly apparent in the spring, immediately after "the frost leaves the ground," but is ueually not durable, the soil recovering its former consistence by the operations of tillage. Fall-ploughing of stiff soils has been recom- mended, in order to expose them to the disintegrating effects of frost. In turning now to the chemical characters of the soil, we have first to notice its composition. It being understood that the soil is the exclusive source of mineral food to the plant, we of course expect to find all the ingredients of the ash of plants in every soil that is able to piaintain vegetation. Great differences however, are found to exist in the proportions, and especially in the condition as regards soliibility of these matters, as seen from the following analyses: 1st. Analysis of a productive wheat soil (clay) from Renfrewshire, Scotland, by Dr. Anderson : Soluble in water — Silica 0.0221 Lime 0.0475 Chlorid of calcium 0.0205 Chlorid of magnesium 0.0061 Chlorid of potassium 0.0003 Chlorid of sodium 0.0015 • Sulphuric acid 0.0309 Organic matter 0. 2084 0.3373 Solvhh in add — Silica 0. 0838 Alumina 1.6104 Peroxyd of iron 3.4676 Lime- 1.0771 Magnesia 0. 1262 Potash 0.0469 Soda 0.0920 Sulphuric acid 0.0039 Phosphoric acid 0.0749 6.5828 Insoluble in adds — Silica 74.4890 Alumina 7. 2540 Peroxyd of iron 1.4167 Lime 0.3150 Magnesia 0.4043 83.8790 AGEICULTUEAL CHEMISTRY. 51 Organic matter — Insoluble organic matter 6.1209 Humic acid 0.8924 Apocrenic acid 0. 1280 Orenic acid 0.0128 Water 2.0930 9.2471 99.9462 Amount of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in 100 parts of Boil — Carbon 3.1400 Oxygen 3.5060 Nitrogen 0. 1428 Hydrogen 0.4200 2d. Analysis, by tbe writer, of sterile soil from the tipper Palati- nate, Bavaria — Water 0.535 Organic matter 1.850 Silica 0.016 Oxyd of iron and alumina 1.640 Lime 0.096 Magnesia trace. Carbonic acid trace. Phosphoric acid trace. Chlorine .' trace. Alkalies none. Quartz and insoluble silicates 95.863 100.000 In fertile soils there is always to be found a quantity of fixed min- eral as well as organic matters that are soluble in pure water. In the wheat soil this quantity amounted to but three parts in 1,000, and in this Dr. Anderson found no phosphoric acid and no oxyd of iron, although all the other mineral ingredients of plants were present. In the sterile soil nothing weighable, when, as was the case, but a small sample was operated on, could be separated by water alone, but as even this soil supported some vegetation — the whortleberry and various grasses as well as lichens, all the minerals foimd in vegeta- tion might have been detected by exhausting a sufficiently large quantity. In the fertile soil is found a larger amount of matters solu- ble in acid, in the above instance six and a half _per cent.; and here the analyst had no difSculty in finding all the mineral food of vegeta- tion. In the sterile soil but littlemore than four per cent, of matters were dissolved by acids, and in this phosphoric acid and alkalies were not present in appreciable quantity. Finally, the larger share of the soil in both cases resists the solvent action of acids nearly altogether. 52 LECTUEES ON The portion soluble in water represents the presently available stock of plant food in the soil. As already intimated, plants receive their nutriment either as gas or as liquid. The fixed mineral matters of the soil are taken up by the plant from solution in water. If we examine the soil with sufBcient care, we do not fail to find everything in it in a soluble state that is needed by vegetation. Quite recently, Grouven and Stockhardt have given renewed proof of this statement. Below is a tabular view of the matters found by these chemists in three soils — one poor, the others very productive : Grouven. Stockhardt. 1,000 parts of Boil yielded to water. Poor sandy soil, from Bickendorf. Eicli garden soil, from Heidelberg. Very rich clover soil, from St. Martin, Tyrol. Carbonic acid................. 0. 0920 0. 1992 0. 0152 0. 0007 trace. 0. 0104 0. 0078 0. 0840 0.0062 0. 0050 0. 0357 i 0. 1010 0.110 0.384 0.009 0.015 0.014 0.'234 0.016 0.069 0.046 0.306 Silica - - 0.110 STilDhuric acid ...... ...^ 0.055 0.012 0.021 Oxvd of iron ......-.--_....... i p. 052 Alumina - . .... Lime .- ..................... 0.182 0.020 Potash -.-....-- i... 0.181 Soda 0.083 Organic matter containing nitric acid and ammonia. ........ .1 0.530 0.160 0.529 1.156 1,356 That portion which comes into solution only by the use of strong acids represents the reserve forces of the soil. Here we find stores of plant food, which, under natural agencies, require many years to become fully available to vegetation; but which are, nevertheless, constantly, though very slowly, contributing to the fertility of the soil. The least soluble matters, again, do not wholly escape slow alteration and partial solution, and, as analyses show, often contain alkalies, lime, &c. As to the solubility of the food of the plant in water, it may be remarked that while the analyses quoted sufficiently demonstrate the general fact, science enables us to comprehend, to some extent, the detail of the processes which bring about this result. The chemist is in the habit of considering certain bodies, viz: silica, oxide of iron, and phosphate of iron or phosphoric acid in presence of oxide of iron, as absolutely insoluble, and under most circumstances they are so, in pure water, when alone. But in presence of other bodies, especially when the mixture is so complicated as in the soil, they manifest a very different action. Many bodies which do not yield to the solvent action of pure water are very perceptibily taken up by car- AGEICULTUEAL CHEMISTRY, 53 bonated water, (i. e., water saturated with carbonic acid.) Thus, to use a well-known instance, carbonate of lime is as good as insoluble in pure water, but in carbonated water it dissolves quite readily. Salts of ammonia dissolve phosphate of lime to a very appreciable extent, as has long been known, and as Liebig has recently shown by quantitative trials. Silica is not absent from natural waters, although the conditions of its solution are not well understood. The chemist has succeeded in preparing strong solutions of silica in pure water, artificially, and the so-called infusoria of all fresh water streams, which sometimes have accumulated to form beds of many miles in ex- tent and many feet in depth, are but the silicious skeletons of micro- scopic vegetable organisms that collected their silica from the clearest and purest water. Phosphate of iron is soluble, or at least yields its phosphoric acid, under the conjoint action of carbonate or silicate of lime and carbonated water. Sulphate of baryta, even, is decomposed in the soil, and yields its sulphuric acid to a growing pl^nt. Allusion has already been made to the importance of those matters which, originally belonging to the atmosphere, have become a portion of the soil. Pulverized rocks do not constitute a good soil until they have be- come weathered — i. e., chemically decomposed, so as to contain a portion of soluble matters, and also acquire a certain content of car- bon and nitrogen. It happens that these two effects are conjointly brought about. The neighborhood of a volcano affords opportunity for tracing the formation of a fertile soil in a manner analogous to, or identical with what occured over all the land before the human epoch. The lava that lies on the slopes or fills the con- tiguous valleys, once melted rock, remains after cooling, almost bare for years. Then lichens begin to cover its surface. These succeed each other for generations, slowly increasing in number and size, hastening by their decay the disintegration of the rock, and causing the accumulation of humus and nitrates. So the weath- ering of the rock, the use and enrichment of the sparse soil, goes on, perhaps, for centuries before the earth is deep and fertile enough to produce low shrubs. After another similar period a forest is formed, with a soil rich in all that is needed for agriculture, being stored with the fixed minerals that have been detached or solved from the original lava, and having gathered during these ages mate- rials from the atmosphere to make up the complement of fertility. We often see railroad cuttings through beds of gravel or clay which perfectly resemble the adjacent productive soil, but which remain for years perfectly naked and barren, and only after a long period of time assume a state of tolerable fertility. The humus of the fertile soil, as already stated, does not, perhaps, act to much extent in directly feeding vegetation, although we have no positive evidence against the assumption that it is thus useful in some degree. It does, however, in many indirect ways contribute to the welfare of the plant. Its influence on the physical characters of the soil, its mediating agency in maintaining the proper consistency, moisture, and warmth of the earth, has been already noticed. The 54 LECTURES ON carbonic acid resulting from its ceaseless oxydation is of vast import- ance, both as a supply of this form of plant food, in more abundant measure than the atmosphere alone could yield, and as the most pow- erful means of maintaining the requisite store of solved saline and earthy food in the soil. The general statement that humus, or, in other words, condensed atmo- spheric plant food, is needful in the soil, requires some qualification. It is not essential to all, even, of the so-called higher orders of plants, or, indeed, to all agricultural plants. The cactus has its home on the most naked arid sands. Pines and firs flourish in soil equally destitute of humus. Buckwheat commonly grows on light, poor soils; and it is asserted that in Peru and Chili, maize prospers in soils free from humus, if started by a little guano, and afterward supplied with water. "We may, however, safely assert, that in temperate climates, for the usual course of crops, a soil to be productive, in a practicaj. sense, must either contain originally, or have added to it, nitrogen and carbon in assimilable form. Natural growth, in soil, destitute of atmospheric ingredients, either of those plants just mentioned, whose proper habitat is such a soil, or of the grains and common agricul- tural plants, is, other things being equal, invariably too slow for the purposes of agriculture. Not, indeed, for all purposes of agricul- ture, for in what is called agriculture many very inferior crops are annually reaped; but for the general purposes of a culture which seeks to be in a high degree remunerative, the telluric elements are insufficient. _ The same holds true of the atmospheric as of the earthy ingre- dients of soil in respect of varying quantity and difi'erent assimila- bUity. In the poorest sand, analysis reveals the presence of nitrogen, often one hundred times as much as is needed by the largest grain crop ; while in good soil the quantity of this element may amount to from one to two thousandths of the entire weight. Of this nitrogen, a portion exists as ammonia, another as nitric acid, but another and far larger share of it, is in a form that is insoluble in water and una- vailable to the plant. In a rich garden soil that had been cultivated for many years, Boussingault found in 100 parts — Nitrogen 0.261 Ammonia 0. 0022 Containing nitrogen 0. 00181 Nitric acid 0. 00034 Containing nitrogen 0. 00009 By actual trial with this soil, the same distinguished experimenter found that only the small amount of nitrogen existing as ammonia and nitric acid was of present use to vegetation; the remainder, 96-100 of the whole, being for the time quite inert. The inert nitrogen appears to exist chiefly in the humus of the soil, in a form analogous to that assumed by the same element in bituminous or anthracite coal. It is, however, most probable not utterly unassimilable; but, as the carbon and hydrogen which are combined with it oxydize, it appears in the form of nitric acid. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 55 especially in presence of lime or alkalies, or perhaps under other conditions as ammonia. As to the amount of assimilable matters needful to constitute a fertile soil, we have hardly any just notion, nor, indeed, can we easily form one. If we assume what is as yet not altogether warranted, the right of distinguishing between the assimilable and non-assimilable parts of the soil by the solvent action of carbonated water, we still en- counter the variable influence of physical characters as affecting the distribution of the plant-food, and above all, there stands in our way the capital fact that as the growth of the plant is progressive, so are its wants, and likewise those solving mediating agencies which supply its food. So that we cannot, by observations made at any one mo- ment, determine the value of ingredients which extend their action over a considerable period of time. The same soil may vary exceedingly at different times in its con- tent of soluble matters, as analysis has proved. In the garden soil above alluded to the content of nitric acid given is that found in June; but Boussingault informs us that in the following September the same earth contained near thirty times as much of this ingredient. There is doubtless a rigorous reciprocal relation between the quantities of soluble (assimilable) matters in the soil and the mass of soil needed to feed a plant during the vegetative period. The greater the proportion of soluble matters, the less volume of earth is neeeded to sustain a given crop. In practice it is found that each kind of plant requires a certain and pretty large quantity of soil for its development. The farmer has his rules as to the space which shall intervene between individual plants of wheat, of potatoes, of maize, &c. ; and in regions widely distant from each other these rules, adopted as the best result of experience, are more or less unlike, varying with climate, soil, and other circumstances. It is found, also, that on a given soil nearly the same crop is obtained, whether the plants be closer to, or farther from each other, within certain limits. In case of fewer plants, each one is more vigorous, and gives a larger return; while in the other instance, the smaller individual yield is made up by the greater number of plants. Boussingault, to whose numerous and admirable researches the student of scientific agriculture must constantly make reference, found by actual measurement that, according to the rules of garden culture as practiced near Strasburg, a dwarf bean had at its disposition 65 pounds of soil; a potatoe plant, (hill?) 190 pounds; a tobacco plant, 480 pounds; and a hop plant, 3,000 pounds. In respect to chemical composition, we may assert that the absence of several, or even of one essential form of plant-food, must stamp a soil with utter infertility, no matter how abundant its other ingre- dients may be. It is equally true that the absence of one ingredient in assimilable condition must constitute a soil barren and worthless. We may likewise lay down the proposition that the deficiency, up to to a certain point, of one or several substances in available form, renders a soil infertile. On the other hand we cannot, with any M LECTUEES ON hope of success, undertake to show what is this certain point or define the limits which, over-passed, make the soil unproductive. It not unfrequently happens that the presence of noxious com- pounds greatly injures an otherwise excellent soil. Soluble salts of iron and alumina, especially the sulphates of these bases, are, so far as we now know, the principal causes of this kind of mischief. Some soils are formed from rocks that contain numerous grains and larger masses of iron pyrites or sulphid of iron, which, exposed to the weather, oxydize to sulphate of iron (copperas) and the solution of this salt in a certain stage of concentration destroys the vegetable tissues, and thereby renders the soil in which it exists unfavorable to growth. In a specimen of peat from Brooklyn, Conn. , the writer found a not inconsiderable quantity of sulphate of iron, and likewise sulphate of alumina. Both these salts have a powerful decomposing effect on the rootlets of plants. The importance which attaches to the proper availability or solu- bility of the nutriment in the soil leads at once to the inquiry, may not the soluble matters be washed out and lost by rains, or may they not accumulate in too great quantity ? There are certain influences external to the soil, which, acting re- ciprocally, tend to maintain in it a nearly constant content of soluble matter. On the one hand the disintegration of the soil, the decay of vegetation, rain, and dew, are perpetually enriching ; while vegetable growth, springs, and streams, (rain that has passed through the mould,) and evaporation, are as continually wasting the soil. Since the mass of soil is so great, and the most rapid and exhausting of these pro- cesses operate so slowly, their effect is in general to leave the soil in possession of the requisite small amount of soluble matters, and only in exceptional cases can positive excess or deficiency occur. In the soil itself we find, however, a remarkable property which enables it to convert excess of soluble matters into an appropriate quantity, and at the same time to store up this excess against what might otherwise be a period of want. The soil has, in fact, a power of regulating its supplies to vegetation, in a manner that was not dreamed of but a decade since. The fact has been already alluded to, in treating of the physical characters of the soil, that it has a power of absorbing vapor of water, and in general other gaseous bodies — a power shared by the soil to more or less extent with all porous bodies. Besides this purely physical quality, we find the soil to possess another absorptive capacity, which, though not independent of phy- sical conditions, appears to be chemical in its nature, that is, depends upon the presence of certain hinds or combinations of matter. Without this chemical absorption the other quality would be of little avail in directly nutrifying the plant, because water alone is capable of nullifying the latter, and at the same time performing any office that it might appear to exercise in a much more effectual man- ner. Ammonia has long been known to be taken up by the soil, and to be retcdned in it. Previous to the year 1850 it was supposed that this gas underwent absorption by surface condensation, exerted by AGRICULTUKAL CHEMISTRY. 57 the more porous ingredients of the soil, namely, humus, oxyd of iron and alumina; an agency which is exhibited most strikingly in case of ammonia by charcoal, which, when freshly ignited, may absorb as much as ninety times its bulk of this gas. The ammonia thus con- densed is, however, easily removed. Water or exposure to moist air at once displaces it, for it is only the absolutely dry charcoal that absorbs ammonia. Common moist charcoal has no appreciable faculty of this kind, its pores being already fully occupied, having satisfied their absorptive power on vapor of water and the ingredients of the atmosphere. Liebig, reasoning from these facts, asserted in his ' ' Chemistry applied to Agriculture and Physiology," that "the ammonia absorbed by clay or ferruginous oxyds is separated by every shower of rain and conveyed in solution to the soil." The chemical absorption consists in the fixation and retention in the soil of volatile or dissolved matters, by their entering into com- paratively insoluble combinations. This fixation is not, however, absolute, as we shall presently see. Thompson and Way of England, in 1850, (see Journal Eoyal Agri- cultural Society of England for that year,) first began to develope the interesting facts which relate to this subject. Since the date of their investigations Liebig, Voelcker, Henneberg & Stohmann, Bichhorn, and Brustlein, have occupied themselves with its study. The main facts are, briefly stated, as follows: Free ammonia and lime, and their carbonates, are absorbed and chemically retained by the organic acids, (humic, crenic, &c.,) the ammonia in a non-volatile, but to some extent soluble form. Am- monia is also absorbed by oxyd of iron and alumina, and held in a non- volatile and very slightly soluble state. Salts of ammonia, namely, sulphate hydrochlorate and nitrate, are at once decomposed by the soil when their dilute solutions are agitated with or filtered through it; the ammonia being retained, the acid re- maining in solution united to lime. The same salts of potash are likewise decomposed as above; the potash being retained, the acids uniting with lime. Salts of lime, in general, are not absorbed, especially when added alone to ■ the soil, or when the soil is rich in lime ; but in several of Voelcker' s experiments the liquor from a dung-heap containing a con- siderable quantity of sulphate of lime lost this ingredient nearly or entirely by filtration through a sandy soil, and at the same time the amount of carbonate of lime in the solution was diminished. Salts of soda and magnesia are also retained, though usually in a less degree. When solutions of phosphates and silicates of the alkalies are em- ployed in these experiments, we find that the acids are also retained; and from the trials of Voelcker already referred to, we have evidence- that sulphuric and hydrochloric acids are also liable to absorption.. In no instance has a fixation of nitric acid been observed. According to Brustlein's late researches, the retention of the bases when employed in saline combinations cannot occur except in presence of carbonate of lime. This view is, however, erroneous. 58 LECTURES ON "Way, after studying separately as far as possible the effect of each ingredient of the soil withont arriving at any satisfactory conclusion as to the seat of this peculiar absorptive power, as a last resort inves- tigated the relations of the silicates to saline solutions. Silicates con- taining but one base he found ineffectual, and next had recourse to compound silicates. He experimented then with feldspar, but found that it was without action on solutions of ammonia salts, and henCe concluded that the powder of granitic rocks is not the agent of these decompositions. His next step was a more successful one. Heattempted to imitate the compound silicates that may occur in the soil as products of the weathering of rocks, such as most probably exist in all soils to a greater or less degree. He artificially prepared silicates of alumina with potash, soda, lime, and ammonia, respectively; and these he found to possess the property of suffering decomposition in saline solutions, with the mutual replacement (fixation) of isomorphous bases. But it was reserved for Eichhorn, in 1858, to set forth in a true light the action of the double alumina-silicates. This experimenter, in cognizance of the fact that Way's artificial silicates contained water as an essential ingredient, was led to make trials with natural compounds of a similar character. He selected for this purpose the zeolites, chaba- zite, and natrolite, whose composition is given among those minerals from which soils originate in the table on page 150. The chabazite he employed was essentially a silicate of alumina, lime, and water. The fine powder of this mineral being agitated and digested for some days with hydroehlorates (chlorids*) of potash, soda, dilute solutions of ammonia, lime, &c., fixed in the solid and nearly insoluble form a portion of the basic ingredient of these salts, while the acid was found in the solution combined with a quantity of lime equivalent to the absorbed base. In one experiment the powdered chabazite was digested for ten days with a dilute solution containing' a known amount of pure common salt. The mineral was then found to have a composition, compared with that it originally possessed, as follows : CompoEition of Chabazite. Silica Alumina Lime Potash Soda Water 99-75 100.37 Comparing the two statements, we see that nearly one-half the lime of the original mineral is replaced by soda. A loss of water also has occurred. The solution separated from the mineral contained nothing but soda, lime, and chlorine, and the latter in precisely its original quantity. Before digesUon After digestion in solution of common salt. in aolution of common salt. 47-44 48-31 20-69 21-04 10-37 6-65 0-65 0-64 0-42 5-40 20.18 18-38 <» In chemistry the l^drochlorate of an oxyd signifies the same as the chloride of a mdal; thus hydrochlorate of soda and chlorid or chloride of sodium mean the same thing. AGRICULTUEAIi CHEMISTRY. 59 By acting on chabazite with dilute chlorid of ammonium for ten days the mineral was altered, and contained 3 -33 per cent, of ammonia. Digested twenty-one days, the mineral yielded 6-94 per cent, of ammonia, and also had lost water. Eichhorn found that the artificial soda-chabazite re-exchanged soda for lime when digested in a solution of chlorid of calcium; in solution of chlorid of potassium both soda and lime were separated from it and replaced by potash. So, the ammonia-chabazite in solution of chlorid of calcium exchanged ammonia for lime, and in solutions of chlorids of potassium and sodium both ammonia and lime passed into the liquid. The ammonia-chabazite in solution of sulphate of magnesia lost ammonia but not lime, though doubtless the latter base would have been found in the liquid had the digestion been continued longer. It thus appears that in the case of chabazite all the protoxyd bases may mutually replace each other, time being the only element of differences in the exchanges. In experimenting on natrolite, however, Eichhorn found that it was not affected by solution of chlorid of calcium, owing perhaps to some peculiarity in the constitution of this mineral, its soda being probably more firmly combined than that of chabazite. These valuable researches, though serving but as an introduction to the study of a highly-complicated subject, present so close an analogy to what is observed in case of the soil, no matter whether it be fertile or barren, clay or sand, that we are fully warranted in assuming the presence in all soils of hydrous double silicates which determine the absorption and retention of potash, ammonia, &c., from solutions of their salts. As regards the fixation of the acids, we know that oxyd of iron and alumina, as well as lime and magnesia under certain conditions, form insoluble phosphates and silicates; we are also acquainted with an insoluble chlorine compound, viz: chloro-phosphate of lime, which occurs abundantly as the mineral apatite, while sulphuric acid forms insoluble combinations with excess of peroxyd of iron anda lumina. We know, however, no insoluble compounds of nitric acid with any of the bases found in the soil, excepting oxyd of iron and alumina, and these require a high temperature for their formation. The fixation of the bases in the circumstances described, both in the soil and with hydrated aluminous silicates, is influenced by a variety of conditions, physical and chemical. The only points which further require notice are: 1st. That an ordinary soil is capable of fixing a vastly larger quantity of ammonia, potash, or phosphoric acid — the three generally most rare, and therefore most precious forms of plant food — than is ever likely to be brought into the soil either by natural or artificial means. 2d. That the soil never completely removes any of these bodies from even the most dilute solution. 3d. The soil which has saturated itself from a solution of these bodies restores them again slowly to pure water or to a weaker solution. "Way, Eussell, and Liebig, from a partial apprehension of the nature of this absorption, drew the premature inference that land plants do not receive their food from solutions, but themselves attack and solve 60 LECTURES ON the soil. In the light of the facts we have set forth, this view is not for a moment admissible. In seeking the means by which the dissolved matters of the soil find entrance into the plant, we must have recourse to the same agency which accounts for the imbibition of its gaseous food. Differ- ent liquids or solutions of different solids in the same liquid, if capable of mixture at all, exhibit the osmotic or diffusive tendency, which has been considered in case of gases. If a tall vessel be partly filled with salt and then completely with water, the salt as it dissolves forms a solution much heavier than pure water, which therefore tends to remain unmixed at the bottom of the vessel. In fact it is easy to add the water so carefully that at first no salt shall be perceptible by taste or otherwise near the surface. In time, however, although every possible means of mechanical admixture be perfectly avoided, the salt will diffuse into the pure water until every portion of the liquid be uniform in composition. Diffusion will take place equally well through porous membranes, provided they are capable of being wetted by (have surface attraction for) at least one of the liquids. The apparatus shown in figure 14 is one commonly employed to illustrate the fact of liquid diffusion. The tube a is fastened to the neck of a bladder filled with brine, solution of sugar, or other dense liquid, and the latter is immersed in the water of the large vessel. Immediately water passes inwardly to the brine (endosmose) and salt passes outwardly to the water (exosmose.) The endosmose being more rapid than the exosmose, the brine shortly rises in the tube to a considerable height. The rapidity and even the direction of the osmo'^e is greatly dependant on the nature of the membrane. Alcohol and water diffuse into each other without difficulty when brought into direct contact; if we separate them by a bladder we find that water will rapidly pass into the alcohol, but the reverse flow will take place with great slowness, for the reason that alcohol cannot wet the surface of this membrane. On the other hand india-rubber is readily moistened by alcohol but not by water; and if a thin sheet of this substance be interposed between these liquids, it will be seen that alcohol passes the membrane into the water much more rapidly than water tra- verses in the opposite direction. Schacbt has made observations on the cell-mem- .brane of the Cauhrpa prolifera, a plant presenting ! single cells of sufficient size for such purposes, and found that it admitted of all the phenomena of diffusion exactly as manifested by other membranes. The rootlets of a plant being immersed in the water (or moisture) of the soil, act towards it -as the bladder filled with brine in our AGEICULTDKAL CHEMISTET. 61 figure. The liquids of the root-cells being of different composition from the soil-water, and the cell-membranes admitting (having surface attraction for) the soil-water, the latter with its contents penetrates the cells, so long as difference of composition or want of equilibrium in the surface attractions^ either of the membrane for the liquid, or of the dissolved matters for the solvent, exist. The diffusion goes on from cell to cell in the same manner throughout the whole plant, as long as any cause produces iuequality in the mutual surface attractions of any two of its ingredients, whether solid or liquid. Since perpetual changes are progressing in every part of the grow- ing vegetable organism, we have no difficulty in finding the causes which keep up diffusion in or into the plant. Let us suppose that in any cell there exists at the moment a liquid containing in solution all the food of vegetation. If now carbonic acid and water unite to form dextrin, and this solidifies in the shape of starch or cellulose, there is formed in this cell a vacuum which disturbs the osmotic equilibrium of the whole plant, and determines a movement towards this cell of carbonic acid from the leaf cells and of water from the root cells to restore the same. An atom of lime coming in contact with newly formed oxalic acid' combines with it to form an insoluble salt; the lime thus removed from solution is at once replaced from an adjacent cell; this again supplies itself from another in the direction of the soil, until the extremity of a rootlet is reached, and here an atom passes in from the soil water, this again to be replaced from the surrounding stores. The vast amount of water that is removed by evaporation (the attraction of dry air for water) from the foliage of vegetation is in the same manner supplied from the soil, and it traverses in its upward way all the cells of the plant. The supply of saline matters is however partially or wholly independent of this ascending current of water, for it must be very greatly checked in circumstances where the atmosphere is saturated with moisture, as in a conservatory or Wardian case, although here growth goes on with the greatest vigor. It thus appears that whenever any chemical or physical change occurs in the plant, we have the origin of a disturbance which may set in motion the juices of the cells, the water, and dissolved matters of the soil, and the gases of the atmosphere. In this manner our cultivated plants are able to gather their food from solutions like the water of springs and wells, or the aqueous extract of soils, which are so dilute that but one part of potash or phosphoric acid is present in one or even twenty thousand parts of water. So, too, we may find in plants, substances which it is im- possible to detect in the soil, and it is not a little interesting that iodine, a substance largely employed in medicine and photography, is almost entirely procured from the ashes of sea-weeds, although it has never yet been detected with certainty in sea-water, even by the use of methods that would enable the chemist to find it, did it. form but one part in a million. 6 62 LECTURES ON LECTURE lY. IMPEOTEMENT OP THE .SOIL BY TILLAGE, DRAINAGE, AMENDMENTS, AND FBETILIZERS. Having attempted to define at length the reasons of fertility in the soil, we may appropriately recapitulate this part of our subject in order to set in a clearer light the means of improvement. 1. A fertile soil must contain all the mineral matters (ash) of the plant. 2. It must include a certain store of atmospheric ingredients, viz : organic matters or their equivalents — ammonia or nitrates — in short, some store of nitrogen, and usually of carbon. 3. It must contain these matters in an available or assimilable form, i. e., in a certain degree of solubility in water, thus yielding them to vegetation as rapidly as required. 4. The soil must be free from noxious substances, 5. Must possess favorable physical characters, be neither too porous nor compact, neither too wet nor too dry; must afford a congenial home and lodgment for the plant. It is comparatively rare that these conditions are perfectly fulfilled in nature, or if they exist in any given place at a certain time they sufi'er disturbance after a longer or shorter period. Hence the ancient and wide spread art of cultivation- or improving the soil. Hence, too, the immense practical importance of a scientific, i. e., accurate and complete understanding of the conditions of fertility and of the means of communicating or restoring them. The method of improvement, like the characters of the soil, fall naturally into the two classes, mechanical or physioH, and chemical. The first class of improvement comprehends tillage, drainage, and mixture. In the second class is included whatever contributes to the nourish- ing qualities of the soil, either by direct addition of the food of plaints, or of agents that collect, solve, or otherwise prepare this food, as manures and amendments. This division, though warranted for convenience of study, has no practical existence, for the chemical and physical phenomena of nature are always so intimately associated that their rigorous sepa- ration is, in most cases, impossible. Jn a very fertile soil it is only needful to deposit the seed in favor- able circumstances as regards temperature and weather, and in due time the harvest is ready. In such a soil there is a sufficient store of plant food, and all the external conditions of rapid vegetable growth. In the poorer soil, in most soils, in fact, there is some want to be supplied, some improvement to be attempted. The first step in meliorating the soil, the one almost universally indispensable even in fertile soils, as a preparation for the seed and young plant — the step always first made in practice and the one in general first required by enlightened theory, is tillage. AGEICULTUEAL. CHEMISTEY. 63 The operations of tillage, viz: spading, ploughing, harrowing, &c., have the mechanical eflect to break up and admix the earth. They convert the surface compacted by rain and sun into a loose and friable mould suitable for the deposition of the seed and for the enlargement of the roots of the young plant. Beyond this, these operations, really, though but to a slight extent, mechanically lessen the size and increase the number of the earthy particles. It is chiefly the loosening of the earth and the consequent better admission of water and air, which facilitate the disintegrating effect of these atmospheric agents, whereby, as already explained, the rock fragments are decomposed and dissolved with perpetual increase of the stores of assimilable food. Tillage likewise assists, in the same manner, in converting any poisonous matters into innocuous or even salubrious forms. Soluble salts of protoxyd of iron, which might accumulate in the deeper soil, are, by exposure to oxygen, changed into insoluble and harmless com- binations. Exposure of the soil by tillage to the atmosphere also has the effect to increase the absorption of ammonia, and to hasten the process of nitrification. * Finally, the circulation of water and the consequent distribution of plant food, the removal of excessive moisture after rains, and the absorption of water vapor after droughts, as well as the regulation of the tempei'ature of the soil, are promoted to a most advantageous degree. In that stage of agricultural which first follows upon pastoral or migratory husbandry, the simplest modes of cultivation are the only ones practiced ; the amount of tillage is small, just sufficient to prepare wayftbr the seed, and it is accomplished by the rudest implements. With the progress of the arts, ploughing, harrowing, &c., are em- ployed to a greater extent. The implements used in these operations are improved in construction, and adapted to all varieties and situa- tions of soil, so that they may be worked at a greater depth and more frequently, as well as at a reduced cost. A matter of great importance in tillage is to secure a proper depth of soil. It is obvious that, other things being equal, the deeper the soil the more space the roots of crops have in which to extend them- selves, and the more food lies at their disposal. By deep culture new farms are discovered beneath the old, and it is possible to realize the apparent absurdity of "more land to the acre." Deep culture is one of the most efficacious means of counteracting drought, as we shall notice presently in discussing drainage. Deep tillage is not, however, always practiced. The grain fields of Germany, even in the most carefully tilled provinces, as Saxony, are to this day mostly ploiighed with rude wooden tools often not unlike those figured in classical dictionaries as in vogue among the ancients, which merely score up the soil to the depth of two, three, or rarely four inches. In our country, which surpasses every other in the real merit of its agricultural implements, and where the means of deep tilth are in the hands of evejy farmer, tillage is notwithstanding 64 LECTURES ON shallow in the main, and our agricultural journals are often occupied with discussions as to the advantage or disadvantage of deep culture. There are, 'indeed, some instances in which deep ploughing is in- jurious, either permanently, or as most generally happens for a short period. In the latter case the temporary injury most often turns out to be a lasting benefit. . Where a thin surface soil of fair quality rests upon a gravel or other leachy stratum, too deep ploughing may, so to speak, knock the bottom out of the soil, i. e., by breaking through into the open sub- soil, may injure the retentive capacity of the upper soil for water and manures. In case the sub-soil is of a "cold" ochery, noxious char- acter, the bringing it to the surface may occasion detriment for the time. The plough is the instrument most extensively employed for tillage, and the one to which recourse must be had whenever large fields are to be broken up. In ordinary ploughing the soil is inverted, and ac- cording to its texture more or less pulverized and mellowed to a depth of from three to six inches. Trench ploughing consists in a similar in- versing of the soil to a considerably greater depth, as far as one foot or more, and is practiced to advantage where the soil is good to this depth, especially with the view of bringing up manures which are sup- posed to descend and accumulate below. Sub-soil ploughing is intended merely to break up and loosen the lower soil without bringing it to the surface. The sub-soil plough is merely a narrow share or wedge that follows the furrow of the common plough, and disturbs the ordinary plough bed to the depth of several inches. Its employment is expen- sive and less in vogue than it was a few years ago. It is mainly useful where the sub-soil is with difficulty penetrable to water. ^ In garden culture, or even in field culture in certain countries, as in parts of Italy where labor is cheap, spading and forking are em- ployed instead of ploughing, and with great advantages in heavy soils, because the tread of beasts of draught is entirely avoided, and the soil is much more throughly pulverized, intermixed and loosened up. After ploughing and if need be cross-ploughing, the harrow, scarifier or cultivator, some form of toothed implement, is drawn over the field 'to accomplish a suflSciently perfect comminution and levelling of the surface for the seed-bed. On heavy clays which, especially in wet weather, are thrown up by the plough in tenacious lumps that further harden in the wind and sun, the clod crusher, a system of toothed disks revolving at a little distance from each other on a com- mon center, at right angles to the line of draught is employed. On very light soils the roller is used to make the earth more com- pact, especially above the seed. In late years a countless number of modifications and not a few i^nprovements in the implements and methods of tillage have been suggested, and to a greater or less degree employed, in practical agri- culture; but it is not the place here to enter further into details. In certain localities, tillage may completely and profitably replace all other means of improving the soiL It is obvious that with each harvest there is removed from the soil AGEICOLTUKAL CHEMISTET. 65 a quantity of potash, lime, phosphoric acid, and other fixed mineral matters, and likewise more or less ammonia and nitric acid. With every crop the field yields, its own stores of fertility are drawn upon, and, in fact, lessened, and after a certain number of crops are gath- ered, the available food of most soils is so far diminished that the succeeding crcfps fail of full development; in other words, the soil is exhausted. By exhaustion in a practical sense is meant, be it noticed, no absolute removal of plant food, but such a relative diminution as causes the harvests to fall below a medium or standard yield. It is the business of culture to replace this spent material, to restore the capacity of the soil, to keep it up year after year to a remunera- tive degree of productiveness. Jethro Tull, a distinguished Englishman, M'ho worked and wrote in the last century, was led to adopt the theory — not at all improbable, viewed from the scientific stand -point of his day — that the impalpably fine particles of earth are the real food of vegetation, and accordingly he sought to fit the soil for a more rapid and perfect nutrition by pulverizing it. He introduced the horse-hoe, or cultivator, into English husbandry, and actually succeeded, by the diligent use of his improved implements, and by a peculiar mode of occupying his field, in obviating the necessity of any manures and in raising successive crops on the same field uninterruptedly for twelve years. He failed, however, in maintaining this system for a longer time, having adopted one fatal rule, "never plough below the staple." It is but just to the memory of this eminent agricultural philosopher to explain why he adhered to a notion to us so absurd. Tull was aware of the im- portant part played by the atmosphere in the nutrition of plants. The use of stirring and pulverizing the soil was to enable the parti- cles of earth to attract from the atmosphere "the nitre or acid spirit of the air," which, in his view, further dissolves and prepares the soil to support vegetation. He had no chemistry to teach him that the indispensable mineral matters- of the soil exist in it in such minute quantity, and are therefore liable to exhaustion. He had no analytical data to reveal the difference between the chemical statics of the vineyard — from the sagacious observation of which his theory originated — and the wheat field, which more largely robs the soil of alkalies and phosphates, and so he found it reasonable to use only that portion of the soil — the staple or usual tilth — to which the atmos- phere has obvious access. The system of Tull has, however, been revived, and, with the modi- fications suggested by modern science, has been eminentlj'^ successful in the hand of its ingenious advocate, the Rev. S. Smith, of Lois Weedon, Northamptonshire, England. Mr. Smith has produced large wheat crops continuously on the same soil for a series of years by simply laying off his fields in strips five feet wide, and growing his crops in drills, with frequent and deep hoeing, on alternate strips in successive years. The tillage of the vacant strip this year prepares it to sustain a crop next year — enables the solution and absorption of food enough to feed a full crop. By this plan of culture Mr. Smith raised the yield of his wheat B6 LECTUEES ON grounds from 16 bushels to an average (for ten years) of 34 bushels per acre. Although he asserts that he has never known this plan — •which differs from TuU' s chiefly in the deptli of tillage — to fail where carried out according to his directions, it is easy to see that not every soil will admit of its successful application, even independently of considerations of cost. This method demands for its success that the soil be so deep and so readily decomposable that the plant may find its needful supplies in one-half the accustomed superficies, and there- fore must possess physical properties that, under the treatment, are in the highest degree feivorable to vegetation. On large holdings the maintenance of such an amount of assimilable food as constitutes the soil fertile, is often profitably accomplished by the ancient practice of summer-fallow, which is the same thing for a whole farm as the vacant strips in the Lois Weedon system are for the wheat fields. A field is left void of crops, and is repeatedly ploughed and harrowed during the whole of one summer, generally re- ceiving the seed of some winter grain in the autumn. The fallow is thus an extra period of rest for the soil — enables it to accumulate within itself a store of fertility against' future harvests, and is often attended with collateral advantages that alone are sufficient to war- rant its employment, viz., the destruction of weeds, insects, and the improvement of the texture of the soil. In many situations these processes of tillage are so laborious or in- effectual that recourse must be had to other operations to change radically the characters of the soil. Heavy clays, especially in a moist climate, are very difficult of tillage from their peculiar physical qualities. In spring time they become so exceedingly tenacious and compacted by the rains, that they dry with extreme slowness. While wet they resist any attempt at pulverization, because if ploughed in that condition the plastic up- turned masses harden in drying to intractable clods. It hence results that heavy clays need to be tilled -when they have arrived at a certain stage of dryness; and then the operation of ploughing is exceedingly laborious, while the full preparation of the seed-bed is brought late into the season. As clay soils dry, the surface is baked into a crust which impedes the circulation of water, and which, shrinking and cracking apart in innumerable places, ruptures the rootlets of plants. Is is especially difficult to induce a deep tilth in such soils, so that during protracted drought the crops suffer greatly on them,. When clays are not continuous in depth, but rest upon a gravelly and open sub-soil; or when, by art, underground channels are pro- vided for the removal of surplus water, these impediments to tillage and to profitable culture are greatly lessened or entirely removed. Many soils of lighter character, and in wet climates, sandy soils even, are remarkably benefited by artificial provision for the removal of surplus or bottom water. It is but a few years since the introduction into general practice of a system of drainage intended to effect this purpose took place in Great Britain, James Smith, of Deanston, Scotland, led by an in- ductive study of the' evils, and the true means to be employed in the AGRICULTUEiLL CHEMISTEY. 67 improvement of cold soils, devised what, under the name of Thorough Drainage, has become one of the most useful appliances in cultiva- tion. Thorough drainage consists essentially in constructing underground channels, sufficient in number and size, for the removal of surplus water down to a certain depth. A clay field, for example, has a system of parallel ditches dug in it, three or four feet in depth, and sixteen to thirty feet apart. These have such an inclination, and so connect with cross or main ditches, as to give the water that may collect in them a ready discharge. The bottoms of the ditches are then filled with small stones to the depth of about one foot, or have carefully laid in them a pipe of baked clay, (djain tile,) one to three inches in diameter, and are thereupon filled up with earth. These channels at once discharge the water of rains and melting snows when the soil is sufficiently porous; and if at first, as happens with clays, the soil is too retentive to allow the ready removal of water, this evil mends itself in a year or two. We know that a mass of clay exposed to the air in dry weather gradually dries off superficially, and ap- pears full of minute fissures or larger rifts. In time it becomes entirely friable; and if water be poured on it the liquid, for the most part, rapidly filters through. It is only by a prolonged immersion in water that the dried clay absorbs so much of it as to become tenacious and plastic again. The under drains are the effectual means of drying out the clay soil to such a point that excess of water fiows off without hindrance, and they are no less effectual in preventing the recurrence of a too retentive state. The fact that we are in possession of extended treatises on drain- age, renders it unnecessary to do more here than to allude to some of the more striking results of this system which have been observed in practice, and to indicate their scientific explanation. One of the most important effects of thorough drainage consists in tempering the extremes of moisture and dryness, of heat and cold, so that a drained soil is dryer in the wet seasons and moister in the dry seasons — is warmer in cold weather, and cooler in hot weather, than an undrained soil. The result of the rapid removal of surplus water on the soil is such as enables it to be tilled from two to four weeks earlier in the spring than might otherwise happen, a gain which, in cold climates or back- ward spring-times, is often the saving of a crop. The vast mass of water that is thus removed without evaporation corresponds to a large increase in the amount of heat which may accumulate in the soil, an increase that is not only perceived in the rapid growth of vegetation after the ground is prepared for seed,_but also is manifest in the earlier melting of snows. The official inquiries of the Royal College of Rural Economy of Prussia show that the snow in that country thaws away on the average one week earlier on drained than on contiguous undrained land. It is said that Smith, of Deanston, was led to his study of drainage by an observation made on ridged fields. Prom time immemorial it has been a custom in some countries, especially in those overrun by 68 LECTUEES ON Roman civilization, to ridge up the fields by the plough, thus bringing the soil into beds of a rod or thereabouts in width, which are several inches higher in the centre than at the edges. It was observed that in time of dry weather the plants stationed upon the centre of the ridges fared best, while those at the borders were liable to suffer, although it might be supposed they occupied the most favorable position, so far as access to the subterranean moisture is concerned. On a moment's reflection, it is obvious that the deeper the "staple" or penetrable friable soil is, the greater space will be occupied by the rootlets of plants, and the larger will be the supplies of capillary moisture; so that if the soil under the influence of protracted drought becomes surface-dry to .the depth of one inch or two inches, less in- jury will accrue to the crop whose roots are diffused through a deep soil than to one stationed in a shallow tilth. The fact seen in the ridged fields is far more plainly exhibited on comparing drained and undrained lands. In fact, drainage is recognized, among practical farmers, as the best protection against drought. Not only does it regulate the use of the water which falls upon the fields as rain, but by exposing an immense amount of absorbent surface to the atmos- phere, which freely permeates the drained soil, large quantities of water are collected and condensed from the vapor of the air. It has been recently observed at Hinxworth, England, that the flow of water from drains sometimes increases considerably when the baro- meter falls, although no rain-fall has occurred. The various chemical advantages that have been akeady attributed to tillage, viz: aeration of the soil, solution and preparation of plants food, oxydation of unwholesome matters, are evidently to be antici- pated from drainage in an eminent degree. In wet climates it is found to be the best preparation for effectual tillage, and where the condition of the soil requires it, the. indispensable pre-requisite to profitable husbandry. The tenacious and intractable characters of clay soils are also effec- tually overcome by the operation of heat — by burning the clay. A heat of redness expels the combined water of clay, and destroys for- ever its tenacity. A part of the soil is converted into something like brick-dust, and the admixture of a small proportion of this is suffi- cient to amend the heaviest soils. The same burning likewise makes soluble the alkalies, and, in fact, nearly all the fixed mineral matters of the clay, thus rendering it more fertile by increasing its power of feeding vegetation. It often happens that contiguous soils are greatly improved by mixing together. A few loads of clay remedy the too great porosity of a sand, and vice versa. The physical characters of the soil being set to rights, the next point is to feed the plant. So soon as crops fall below a certain unre- munerative rate of yield, which, in most soils, happens in a few years, other means of improvement, viz: manures, are called into requisition. "We have already spoken of tillage as a substitute for manure; but the word manure originally included tillage, coming from the French AGEICULTUEAL CHEMISTET. 69 matuBuvrer, (main ouvrer, ) or La,tiQ manus operor, signifying to work with the hands, a sense in which it was employed by Milton. The term manure is now used in a general way to signify any substance added to the soil to make it more productive. Substances added in large quantity often act chiefly by qualifying the physical properties of the soil, and are then appropriately termed Amendments. Matters which operate in the main by feeding vegeta- tion are more properly Fertilizers. These again may nourish directly, by supplying at once to the growing plant one or all the nutrient in- gredients it requires; or indirectly, by making soluble the stores of the soil, or otherwise disposing them to assume assimilable forms, or by absorbing matters from the atmosphere. Most manures combine these various offices to a greater or less degree. While the J popular name of those materials that are successfully employed as manures is legion, the chemist, by his analysis, recog- nizes in them all only the same dozen kinds of matter which consti- tute plants and soils. The use of manures has been known from the earliest times, and there has been no lack of attempts to explain their effects; but it is only after the sciences of chemistry and vegetable physiology had entered upon the modern development that it was possible to begin understanding their mode of action. So difficult is the subject that we are as yet by no means advanced to its full comprehension, which requires a complete knowledge of the relations of each nutritive element and compound with the plant, with the soil, and with the atmosphere. During all the centuries in which agricultural experience, with reference to the operation of manures, has accumulated, we find that the opinions of practical farmers have been almost endlessly at variance; and as these conflicting opinions have faithfully reflected the facts and phenomena which have presented themselves to agri- culturists, we are prepared to find that at the present day there is a constant recurrence of endlessly differing results in the use and estimate of manures. We find in our current agricultural journals abundant examples of crops being benefited by application of nearly every one of the ash ingredients of the plant, as well as by ammonia and nitrates, or bodies yielding these; and, on the other hand, re- peated instances of their failure. A scientific consideration of these results enables us to explain much that is obscure, and reconcile much that is conflicting, by taking into the account differences of soil, climate, and crop; and by a careful study of the circumstances which alter cases to such a great degree, it will be possible, in time, to unfold ever}'- mystery and elucidate every variety of effect. The space at command here does not allow any detail with refer- ence to the action of manures, except as may illustrate some of the general principles which alone can serve to initiate us into the method of their operation. 70 LECTURES ON These general principles are the following: 1. Plants require various hinds of fixed mdneral matters, and derive the same exclusively from the soil. The only exceptions to this statement are, perhaps, to be found m case of chlorine and sodium, which appear to be carried inland from the sea in the direction of prevailing winds, both in the spray and dissolved in the vapor that ascends from the ocean. 2. Some plants which, in the natural state, derive a large portion of the volatile elements of their structure — viz: carbon, Jiydrogen, oxygen, and. nitrogen — from the air, must he supplied with much more of these matters from the soil, in agricultural production. As already remarked, the increased supply of these matters by the soil is requisite only to insure that rapid and abundant growth which constitutes agricultural production. The very fact of an artificially increased supply of food to plants, in connexion with the care otherwise provided by cultivation, in a few generations enlarges their capacity for assimilating nutriment, g.reatly increases the mass of vegetable matter that can develop on a given surface, and, in consequence, makes a fertile soil necessary for exhib- iting the capabilities of the crop. Many of our agricultural plants are ■the result of high cultivation, including, as one of its most efEcient factors, a fertile^ and, in most cases, artificially fertilized soil. The wretched weeds from which our numerous varieties of turnip, ruta- baga, kohl rabi, cauliflower, broccoK, and cabbage have been derived, are hardly recognizable as the originals of so man;^ useful plants, and these, as well as the wild egilops of southern Europe, from which the wheat grain appears to have come, are no less inferior to the cul- tivated plants, in appearance and value, than is the soil required for their natural development, to that demanded in their agricultural pro- duction. 3. Different plants require different proportions of these substances for their luxuriant growth. 4. Different plants, require different absolute quantities of food to ma- ture a full crop. These propositions are illustrated by the accompanying table, which represents, in average figures, the weight, in pounds, of total produce, and of the chief ingredients, removed annually from an acre of good land, in case of several of the more commonly cultivated crops. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 71 2 -r-H a 13 1 1 a, g 1 1 1 a i a o Wheat- Grain 1,840 4,600 34 14 32 207 15 8 10 39 5 11 145 Straw Total 6,440 48 239 23 49 16 145i Eye- 1,470 3,500 28 12 25 140 12 4 9 27 4 9 93 Straw Total 4,970 40 165 16 36 13 93} Beans — Seeds .......... . 1,840 2,700 76 33 60 138 20 14 27 34 8 50 i 13i Total 4,540 109 198 34 61 58 14 Beets- 36,800 9,200 88 26 353 173 22 11 158 69 40 28 20 Tops 12 Total 46,000 114 526 33 227 68 32 6,000 130 390 25 105 121 21 4,000 53 246 13 58 62 78 This table shows, that, other things being supposed equal, a supply of nitrogen sufficient for a full rye crop would answer but for one- third of a clover or beet crop; the phosphoric acid sufficient for a meadow is but little more than half enough for a wheat field, and only one-third as much as a crop of beans requires. It appears that the potash which would fully nourish a crop of wheat is nearly enough for grass or beans; while for clover twice, and for beets four-and-a- half times as much is needful. A clover crop demands almost ten times as much lime and magnesia as suffices for rye, and a wheat crop must have more than ten times as much silica as serves the growth of an equal yield of beans. The erroneous conclusions which a hasty deduction might bring out of the foregoing instructive table are checked by the fact ex- pressed in the next proposition, viz : 5. Different plants, from peculiarities in their structure, draw differ- ently on the same stores of nutriment. There are some plants which flourish on the poorest soils, being adapted to resist the extremes of drought, and accumulate their food 72 LECTUEES ON under what are, for nearly all agricultural plants, tlie most unfavor- able conditions. Rye, for example, will grow well where wheat is utterly unprofitable. Buckwheat yields a fair crop on exceedingly poor soils; and the lupine is so extraordinary in this respect that by its help the farmer may cover the most desolate blowing sands with a luxuriant vegetation. On the other hand, some crops are easily spoiled by overfeeding. Thus wheat, and the slender-stemmed grains generally, are unremu- nerative on the newlj"- broken up prairies of our west, while maize flourishes even on the richest soils, being in practical language "a rank feeder." It is plain that, other things being equal, a plant with long-branch- ing numerous roots does not require so rich a soil as one with these organs short and few, because it has a greater mass of earth at its disposal out of which to collect its food. Again, those plants which expose to the air a large leaf surface should, other things being equal, flourish better than the sparsely- leaved plants in a soil poor in atmospheric elements. A plant which is of slow, regular, and protracted groA^h may, in the same manner, organize more vegetable matter on a given soil during a summer than one which quickly runs through all the stages of its life, and therefore requires more rapid supplies of food — de- mands more in a given time. In general, also, those crops which produce seed require a better soil for their continuous production than such as yield only foliage. 6. Different soils abound or are deficient, to a greater or less degree, in one or more needful ingredients in assimilable form. With the original differences of soils are to be likewise classed the changes in condition which tillage and cropping are perpetually inducing. By the continued removal of crops the soil suffers a dimi- nution of its resources, and often some one or a few of the nutritive elements are soon brought to a minimum, while the others still remain in quantity sufficient for hundreds of harvests. According to the original composition of the soil, the failing ingredient may be potash in one case, sulphuric acid in another, lime in another; and applica- tion of these substances, respectively, may then form the most profit- able manuring. 7. It appears from experience that iJie ingredients which are rarest in the soil — which are ther^ore most liable to exhaustion, and most needful to be replaced — are, in general, phosphoric add, assimilable nitrogen, (be it in the form of ammonia or nitric acid,) and potash. The substances just named are therefore important ingredients in all those manures by whose continued and exclusive use the soil is kept fertile, and constitute the chief part of such fertilizers as bring up exhausted lands to immediate and remarkable, though it be tem- porary, productiveness. The above is intended as a very general statement, the truth of which, as such, is not invalidated by the numerous and important exceptions which occur. In examining the question of the direct action of manures, we have first to notice the value of deductions from the composition of a sub- AGRICULTDEAL CHEMISTRT. 73 stance as to its fertilizing effect. Can we, by the study of the com- position of a crop, decide what manure is most likely to benefit it ? or can we determine, from the composition of a manure, what crop it is best adapted for ? The answer to these questions is, in many cases, No I In laying down the general principles which are to be regarded in a rational theory of manuring, we have had frequent occasion to make the truth of a proposition depend upon "other things being equal." Now it happens, unfortunately for the sim- plicity of our science, that "other things" are often in the highest degree unequal and unlike, so that we must busy ourselves with the slow work of induction from facts mostly yet to be extricated by toil- some experiment from their present cynfusion, rather than incumber theory and disgust practice by generalizing deductions that cannot fail to be premature and erroneous. There are many cases in which the effect of a fertilizer can be immediately connected with its com- position. It not unfrequently happens that pasture lands from which the only matters agriculturally removed are the ingredients of cheese, after long use, deteriorate, refuse to nourish dairy animals, and be- come nearly worthless. The use of bones or phosphatic manures restores such fields to perfect pasturage; and the explanation afforded by chemistry — viz: that all the phosphate of lime put in the milk as a provision for the formation of the bones of a young animal is permanently alienated from the soil in the exports of cheese, so thajb exhaustion of this substance is caused, unless phosphates be ap- plied — is entirely satisfactory. The leguminous plants, though the richest in nitrogen of all our crops, do not by any means require nitrogenous mantire to the extent demanded 'by wheat, which removes from the soil but one-half as much, or less, of this substance. The difference here is obviously due to the fact that the leguminous plants have deeper roots, more foliage, and a longer period of growth. Leguminous plants are rich in lime and sulphur, and hence are often remarkably grateful for applications of gypsum. Fruit and shade trees yield an ash largely consisting of carbonate of lime, and their growth, especially on meager sandy soils, is often wonderfully enhanced by the accident of some oyster shells or old mortar being thrown on the ground over their roots. The grasses and grains contain a large amount of silica in their stems and leaves; but the artificial use of soluble silicates of potash and soda has rarely been attended with more benefit than that of the corresponding chlorids, and for the reason that silica is so universally distributed. Mr. Lawes, of England, found that on his farm wheat might be grown for a dozen years or more in succession on the same field, and give an average crop of 17 bushels per acre, without manure; while a contiguous field, planted in turnips, in three years came to yield scarcely anything. Mr. Lawes then found that, by the use of nitro- genous manures, the wheat crop was at once doubled, while the turnip crop was hardly affected; and, on the other hand, a mixture of sulphate and soluble phosphate of lime (super-phosphate of lime) 74 LECTimES ON had little influence on the wheat crop, but at once raised the turnip field to a considerable degree of productiveness. These facts, borne out by the quite general result of practice, indicate the conclusion which some eminent authorities have unhesitatingly adopted, that soluble phosphate of lime exercises a specific action on the turnip, indepen- dent of the actual need of this plant for phosphates. There are, however, such grounds for doubting this doctrine that, until further investigations give us more complete data for judgment, a decision must be suspended. Sorje recently described experiments of Mr. Lawes on the effect of fertilizers upon meadows are very interesting. He found that when a manure consisting of phosphates and sulphates of lime, potash, soda, and magnesia was applied to grass land, the development of clover was at once astonishingly increased; while, when nitrogenous manures were used, either alone or in addition to the above mixture, the true grasses maintained the mastery. The attempt made not long since to manure, plants with mixtures representing what is taken off the field by a crop, turned out unsatis- factorily, as the facts we have instanced make evident such a scheme must; and we are led every day more and more to seek explanations of the anomalous efi'ects of manures in their indirect action. The most familiar instance of indirect action is that of gypsum or sulphate of lime. In contact with carbonate of ammonia, with so much water as to make the mixture wet, an interchange of ingredients takes place, so that sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime are formed; and Liebig accounted in part for the beneficial operation of gypsum by assuming that it thus "fixed" the volatile carbonate of ammonia of rains and dews, and held it in the soil for the use of vegetation. On the other hand, Boussingault showed that when the mixture of sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime, from being wet, dries so far that it is only moist, like the soil is ordinarily, the reverse decom- position ensues, and the ammonia once fixed, is unfixed. "While we can conceive of circumstances in which both these properties come into play, beneficially or otherwise, it must be remembered that the more late discovered absorbent power of the soil sets these effects of gypsum quite out of the account in nearly all cases. Humus, which, in the form of peat or swamp muck, or as resulting from the decay of litter and the carbonacious ingredients of the ex- crements of cattle, is a most common and useful manure, doubtless accomplishes more by indirect than by immediate action. It is the most energetic absorbent of ammonia, as carbonate (according to Brustlein, not of other salts) is the source of carbonic acid in the soil, thus, by its presence, setting in operation the endless train of changes whose result is the solution of mineral matters, and by its hygroscopic character it assists to maintain the proper physical con- dition of the soil. Lime, which is one of the greatest renovators in use in agriculture, is, in a similar manner, of more indirect than immediate effect. Its influence is especially manifest in fluxing the insoluble stores of plant- AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 75 food, and compelling the soil to yield its ingredients to the support of vegetation. Ammonia, when acting on the soil as carbonate, (coming from the decomposition of urea, uric acid, and other nitrogenous bodies,) is not inferior to lime in its solvent effects. Gypsum, common salt, carbonate of lime, nitrates of potash and soda, and in fact all the saline compounds which are incorporated with the soil in manures, may exert important physiological effects on the plant in addition to their mere nutritive function. We have already intimated that the transpiration of water through the plant is very remarkably hindered when lime, potash, or the salts just named are present in the absorbed liquid. This fact, observed for the first time by Mr. Lawes, in 1850, and recently brought again more strikingly into notice by Dr. Sachs, of Tharand, Saxony, appears to be of great importance in the theory of manures. Dr. Sachs experimented on various plants, viz: beans, squashes, tobacco, and maize, and observed their transpiration in weak solutions (mostly containing one per cent.) of nitre, common salt, gypsum, (one-fifth per cent, solution) and sulphate of ammonia. He also experimented with maize in a mixed solution of phosphate and silicate of potash, sulphates of lime and magnesia, and common salt, and likewise ob- served the effect of free nitric acid and free potash on the squash plant. The young plants were either germinated in, the soil, then re- moved from it and set with their rootlets in the solution, or else were kept in the soil and watered with the solution. The glass vessel containing the plant and solution was closed above around the stem of the plant by glass plates and cement, so that no loss of water could occur except throtigh the plant itself, and this loss was ascertained by daily weighings. The result was that all the solutions mentioned, except that of free nitric acid, quite uniformly retarded transpiration to a degree varying from 10 to 90 per cent., while the free acid ac- celerated the transpiration in a corresponding manner. As the processes of elaboration — the chemical and structural me- tamorphoses going on within the cells of the plant require time for their performance, we can easily perceive that a too rapid upward current of liquid, by diluting the juices, might measurably interfere with the assimilation of the food, and that the presence of a body may be no less useful by its regulating influence on the circulation of the water than by contributing an ingredient necessary for the forma- tion of the substance of the plant itself. It is also obvious that if a substance added to the soil retard the transpiration of water through vegetation, a given store of hygro- scopic moisture in the soil will serve the needs of vegetation longer — will reach further into time of drought than it otherwise could. Dr. Sachs found that gypsum exerted the greatest effect in preventing loss of water, and this observation gives a scientific ground of evi- dence to the opinion long maintained among farmers, but rejected by men of science, (and very properly, as no cause could be discovered for such an effect, and the effect is not capable of measurement in 76 LECTUEES ON field culture, ) that gypsum has the influence of a body that attracts moisture. The facts brought to light by the researches of Way, Bichhorn, and Voelcker, already described, indicate another general mode by which fertilizers, especially soluble saline bodies, may operate indi- rectly. The investigations referred to, show that the bases (and acids ?) may replace each other in insoluble or slightly soluble combi- nations, i. e., soluble lime may displace insoluble potash, making this soluble and becoming insoluble itself. Soda may, in the same manner, displace lime or potash, or ammonia, the rule being that the body in excess goes into combination and expels those before combined. We observe here a tendency to bring all the bases into what we may designate as an equilibrium of solution. This principle appears adapted more than any other yet discovered to generalize the phenomena of indirect action, and enables us to forsee and explain them. Proofs are not wanting of the actual operation of this principle in the soil. Wolff (Naturgesetzlichen Grundlagen des Ackerbaues, 3d ed., p. 148,) found in fact that the ashes of the straw of buckwheat grown with a large supply of common salt, compared with the ashes of the same part of that plant grown on the same soil minus this addition, con- tained less chlorid of sodium but much more chlorid of potassium, there having occurred an exchange of bases in the soil. Closely connected in many points with these phenomena of dis- placement, yet in many respects different and peculiar, are the sol- vent effects of saline bodies, alkalies, and carbonic acid in dilute watery solution, to which allusion has been so frequently made in the foregoing pages. We refer to this subject once more in this place in order to give the results of some actual trials as to the disintegrat- ing effect of these substances on soils and rocks. Dietrich, to whom we owe these investigations, found that from a diluvial loamy soil con- taining humus, the amount of matters rendered soluble by a dilute solution of carbonate of ammonia (containing one per cent, of the salt) was twice as great as that set free by water saturated with carbonic acid, and of the alkalies, potash and soda, four times as much were dissolved by the former as by the latter liquid. Solution of sulphate of ammonia dissolved six times as much as carbonated water. The action of carbonated water and carbonate of ammonia extended chiefly to the alkalies. Sulphate of ammonia, while equally effective in their solution, likewise dissolved a large amount of lime and mag- nesia as sulphates. Caustic lime (one per cent.) in most cases pro- duced a remarkable increase of volume in the earths submitted to its action; the loam just mentioned became nearly three times as bulky as it was at first, a decomposition of the silicates having taken place. Carbonate of lime, in solution in carbonated water, had the most vigorous action in eliminating the alkalies. Even gypsum, (sulphate of lime,) in moist contact with powdered basaltic rock, sets free a considerable amount of alkalies in a few days. Ammonia salts exert a strong action on insoluble silicates, the ammonia and silica being partially set free, the other acids and bases remaining in soluble com- binations. AGEICULTURAL CHEMISTET. 71 The most abundant, most generally employed, and most permanently useful manures are the excrements and waste of animals. These matters are, in fact, the residue, more or less concentrated, that remains from the oxydation of vegetables which have served as food. By the vital processes, the hydrogen and carbon of the vegetable nutrient principles are chiefly consumed to the gaseous form, while a portion_ of these, together with nearly all the nitrogen and all the fixed mineral matters, are separated from the animal in the liquid or solid shape, either immediately prepared, or under the agencies of warmth and moisture speedily assuming a suitable condition for nourishing a new vegetation. The excrements of domestic animals, containing, as they do, all the ingredients of plants, and those in greatest relative amount which vegetation is obliged to seek for in the soil, constitute the most gen- erally and durably efficient manure in countries like our own, where cattle are largely depended upon as means of supplying food. The dejections of man are a more concentrated and more powerful fertilizer, and though less adapted for maintaining the fertility of large farms tilled by a few hands, because they are not associated with matters that amend and modify the physical characters of the soil, are a main reliance in countries like China, where the dense population subsists almost exclusively on vegetable food, and under any circumstances are an invaluable adjunct to the resources of the farmer. Human excreta should never be suffered to waste so long as the soil is capable of stimulation to higher productiveness. Certain animal manures, viz., those very rich in nitrogen, though usually exhibiting great energy of action, are liable to abuse, and often ultimately impoverish the farmer. Peruvian guano, the excrement of piscivorous sea-fowl, yielding sixteen per cent, of ammonia by the decomposition of its uric acid, and the flesh, blood, hair, and wool of animals are manures of this character. Nitrogen is their principal active ingredient; it passes into ammonia or nitric acid, excites a quick growth of vegetation by furnishing abundance of material for cell development, and at the same time rapidly solves the fixed minerals of the soil. The latter, being as rapidly removed by the vigorous vegetation, soon fall into a state of relative deficiency, especially on the poor soils where these applications exhibit their effects most strikingly; and unless restored by some other manure, the absence of them produces the phenomenon of exhaustion. It is an objection, indeed, commonly raised against manures con- taining but one or a few nutritive ingredients, that they exhaust the soil. Obviously it is the crops, or what is taken off the soil, that exhaust it; and if a manure assists a crop to rob a field, the abetting farmer cannot rightfully complain, so long as the price of the produce goes into his pocket, although, to be sure, there are various ways of exhausting land, some of which are vastly more profitable than others. The great practical lessons taught by experience and confirmed by science, relative to the use of manures, are, save all refuse which contains any of the elements of vegetation ; apply abundantly the mixed ingredients of the dung and compost heaps. As concerns commercial 7" 72 LECTURES. and saline manures, such as guano, salt, plaster, lime, &c., experiment with tJiem repeatedly arid accurately on the small scale, so as to learn what the crops say about their value. Where phosphates have been heavily applied, it is probable that ammonia or nitrogenous manures, or per- haps lime or potash, may next exert the most beneficial action, and vice versa. Be sure of enough, not only as regards the quantities, but also the kinds of matters applied. But our subject requires treatment which only a volume can give space for. The recent progress of knowledge, thanks to the scientific farmers and agricultural philosophers of England, Germany, and France, demands a series of chapters on manures that are as yet unwritten, but, when rightly produced, will be alike novel, interesting, and useful to the true American farmer, who cultivates with equal assiduity the "soil and the mind." TRANSACTIONS OF THE CON^ISJ^ECTICUT State Agricultural Society, FOR THE YEu^R, 1859, "WITH REPORT OF THE AM^Jkl MEETING, FOR 1860. PnBLISHD BY ORDER OF TE EXECHTIffl ' COMMITTEE. HENRY A. DYEE, COR. SEC. (office of the society, post office building, HARTFORD.) HAETFORD: PRESS OF WILLIAMS, WILEY AXD TURNER, Park Printing OfHoe, 15S Asylxim St., 1860. INDEX. Conn. State Agricultural Society, Officers, .... 7-8 Act of Incorporation, • - 9 Constitution, - - 10 Keport of Executive Committee, 11-22 " Treasurer, - - 23-24 Annual Meeting, - - 25-30 Report of Prof. S. W. Johnson, Chemist to the Society, - 31-67 {Specific Index to Chemists Report.) EXAMINATION OF COMMEECIAL FERTILIZERS. American^ Guano, ....... 32 Phoenix " 35 Fish " 35 Sombrero "....... 36 Rhode's Superphosphate of Lime, - - - - 40 Coe's " " .... 40 Mapes' " " .... 41 The- to CO o CJI J—" cn -I to CO o CO CI I— 1 CD o to CO bO o 00 -J- o - ^ CO CO CO oo )— ' OS CO =^ b3 I—' CO to CO -J C?l 05 CD 1— ' ~3 is CO 1— ' OS. >-• o to to C3T CO . 00 ^ OS to 5 CO oo 00 CO o bO to CD o to 00 to OS o rf^ to to CO u_i CJi -a- 00 OS oo o I—' o o to to I—" CD CO CD CJI o OS bO cn bO -I CO o en s OS to to o cn OS OS o to CO )_J o -T to CO 00 00 00 to o - -T o CJt cn to o J— 1 CD bO fcO CD CO bO bO t-l cn O O to ft) O cp a O 38 This guano is sold at $30 per ton, and as tke price of the best samples nearly reaches this figure when, calculated with the valua- tion of phosphoric acid at 4 cents per pound, I was led to hope that we were warranted in estimating- the price of this- sub- ' stance at 4 instead of 4^- cents per pound, as.hasbeenprcYiously done. The analyses however show that this guano is liable to contain a not inconsiderable amount (8 percent) of moisture, and thus the percentage of phosphoric acid is somewhat reduced. It is seen that the ground samples are not quite so rich in phos- phoric acid as the unbroken lumps. This is due to two causes, ist. There is unavoidably introduced into the cargo a certain amount of fine soil and othej; worthless 'matters during the loading of. the vessel. 2d. The guano is. impregnated with salt water, and the chlorids of sodium, calcium and magnesium, thus intro- duced into it, rapidly absorb moisture from tha air when the guano is ground, especially if the weather be damp. I have found that these ground samples when put into perfectly dry at- mosphere, at ordinary temperature, lose six to seven percent, of moisture in twenty-four hours, and recover it again in an equal time if exposed to moist air. The_ analyses III, VII and VIII, show that the maximum amount of moisture is :7 to 8 percent. It is seen then tliat the Sombrero guano has withstood the most severe tests, and may be relied upon, especially since the-import- ers use gr6at care to select a pure material, and: to reject the worthless or inferior rocks which occur with the native deposits. The old notion that a good manure must have a smell is still entertained, even among very, intelligent farmers.; I have had the pleasure of giving my testimony personally against this prej udice, to some of them in reference to this guano, and it may not be useless here to- repeat that ."not all which stinks is good for manure, and not all which is good for manure stinks!" Asa^ foetida is no fertilizer, and plaster or lime, which everybody knows to be good manures, are almost entirely deptitute of odor. So this guano is a powerful fertilizer when used where there is need of it ; though it has no more smell than sand. It has been questioned whether these rock phosphates really possess the fertilizing value which is deduced from their contents of phos- phoric acid. Experience has proved that the crystalized, or the 39 more compact massive varieties of phosphorite (native phosphate of lime,) are very inefficient, or in some cases quite inert when used in coarse powder. This fact is due to their density and want of porosity, inconsequence of which they are very slowly soluble. If these phosphates are acted upon by sulphuric acid, they yield a supei^phosphate which is as beneficial as any, and the only question of the activity of this Sombrero guano lies in its solubility, or what amounts to the same thing, its fineness. The rock as before said, is for the most part extremely porous, and easily ground to powder when once reduced to small frag- ments. It is furthermore somewhat dissolved by pure water, and, in fact, to a greater extent than bone ash, this being due to its containing the intermediate or neutral phosphate of lime. From these considerations, I should not hesitate to believe that this guano would prove a sufBiciently active phosphatic fertililzer, when used alone, in soils not altogether too dry or deficient in vegetable matter. In a gravelly or coarse sandy soil, that has insufiicient reten- tive power for moisture, it would probably fail to exert any ap- parent effect in a dry season. This however, would be the fault of the soil and not of the guano. The use of it in con- j unction with muck composts, or green crops turned under, must be serviceable on such soils. The recommendation of the importers to apply it with Peru- vian guano, or other ammonia- yielding fertilizer, is one that will be found advantageous. • Since writing the above, a report by Molon to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, has come to hand, in which are given the results of the use in various parts of France, of more than 2500 tons of a rock phosphate, inferior to the Sombrero guano here reported on in percentage of phosphoric acid, but of much great- er hardness. The results were almost uniformly favorable, but they show that in order to acquire the most advantage from these phosphates, the following points must be attended to : "1. The_;?neZ2/- ground phosphate alone suffices in clayey, slaty, granitic and gravelly soils which are rich in organic matters. 2. In the soils above named when poor in organic matters, es- 40 pecially when they have been long under cultivation, or have had lime applied to them, the pulverized phosphate should be mixed with fermentible animal manures. 3. "In lime and especially in chalk soils, the phosphates must be converted into super-phosphate, with addition of organic mat- ers." We have hardly any lime soils in Connecticut ; but the super-phosphate will be most perceptibly useful on our "clayey, slaty, granitic and gravelly soils," which are mostly poor in or- ganic matters, though if we supply organic matters, the finely- ground phosphate may be expected to prove useftil here as it has in France. BHODES' StrPEH-PHOSPHATE OF LIME. A specimen of Ehodes' super-phosphate of lime, made at Bal- timore, and sent me by Mr. Weld, from the stock of Gr. M. Way & Co., Hartford, gave the following percentages : ' Water expeUed at 212° .. _^. > - 22.25 22.34 . Matters volatile at red heat, _ - 20.17 20.d0 Sand and insoluble matters, - - 1.82 2.5T Lime, -- - ■ - -. - - - 14.90 15.85 Phosphoric acid, soluhle in water, - . - - 13.78 13.85 " " insoluble in water, ' - - .64 .67 Messrs. Ehddes & Co., expressly state in their circular that their super-phosphate contains no ammonia, and accordingly this substance was not sought for. This sample agrees very closely in composition with the one analyzed by me two years ago, and is the only real super-phos- phate that has come into my hands since I have made analyses for the State Society. - The calculated value is |35, the selUhg price $45 per ton. . coe's super-phosphate. A sample of Coe's super-phosphate from Messrs. Backus & Barstow,-l»rorwich, was .analyzed with,- results as follows: ANALYSIS or coe's SUPER-PHOSPHATE. "Water, -. 18.10 18.27 Organic and volatile matters, - - - - . - . . ,23.20, 23.67 . , Lime, - - - . - . 22.63 22.66 - Soluble phosphoric acid, - ' - - - - ■ 3.34 3.37 Insoluble "-".._ . . i2.95 13.74 Actual ammonia, . . . _ . ,23 .23 Potential " - '- ;■_ - ' =_ . 4.O8 4.05 .Sand and "insoluble matters,. - '.,._.-■ 3.37 3.25 " Calculatisd yalue, -' ■ ^ - -'' ■ - $32.40 This is better than the sample analyzed last year, and closely 41 approackes the average composition of this brand of super-phos- phate. We observe that there is less phosphates and more am- monia than in the former analyses. The amount of soluble phosphoric acid is still quite small. MAPES' SUPER-PHOSPHATE OF LIME. Of all the many fraudulent and poor manures that have been from time to time imposed upon our farmers during the last four years, there is none so deserving of complete exposure, and sharp re- buke, as that series of trashy mixtures known as "Mapes' super- phosphates of lime." It is indeed true that worse manures have been offered for sale in this State ; but none have ever had employed such an amount of persistent bragging and humbuggery to bolster them up, as has been employed by these. Seven or eight years ago " Mapes' improved super-phosphate," was almost the only manure of the kind on sale in our northern markets. Then it was of good quality, and contained soluble phosphoric acid 10.65 percent; insoluble phosphoric acid 10.17 percent ; ammonia (actual and potential) 2.78 percent, and had a value (calculated on present prices) of $41 per ton. It was sold at $50 per ton. This manure was the prototype of the fol- lowing formidable series, viz : Mapes' nitrogenized super-phosphate of lime, " No. 1 superphoshate of lime, " Super-phosphate of lime, " cotton and tobacco super-phos. of lime, " potash super-phosphate of lime. In my first annual report (page 28, 2d ed.) may be found analyses of the "nitrogenized," made on samples collected in the Connecticut markets, in the years 1856 and 1857. The calcu- lated value of this manure was $21 in case of the samples an- alyzed in 1856, and $14.50 and $12.50 respectively for the speci- mens examined in 1857. In my firgt report these manures were noticed in these words : "It is clear that this is a brand not to be depended upon, and the material that has come into Connecticut the past year (1857) is hardly worth a long transportation." I now communicate analyses of four samples, made the present year, and it wiU be seen that no improvement has taken place : 6 PER BAG. PEE TON $4 00 $50 00 3 60 45 00 3 20 40 00 3 20 40 00 2 80 34 00 42 12^ 1 2 ffl H CO t3 ■*V TO O * g'. ft.; S'^g. 2. • • • * r* ® o ":•:-:: scr? jn • • - • * • • el- s : : : : i ^ : P . . . T • . , • cj •**::: .' ,- «+ • --»- • -t ,' • • , . . .' . . • » g-: - to h- t-i I-' 00 W CO ^ to h-" CO >-' 03 as CJ1 rf^ O CO to CD -Ti>3 01.00 CO CO CU en 00 o o ^ ^ bo W -» O W -J 00 pa JO" JO <9; ^ I-j Oi H-'"bo w O O OJ -J

-01 puB no;}oo ptirio3 091 'no-'J ns^Pii •jedns . -j;.. /o^ . ,S3 ~ I a ■01 pnpod 09T WWjJiej^i ii^Smjyo' ei^qdsoqd'-jsa -nspszTxreSoiiin |SSdBj{:,j if ai- "a ; ■ " TiBO g^taBB ^anin JO -saqd-jad^ -nep9zin^0i}in ,B9dBj^„ I 9 48 I have not been able to get samples of all the kinds above specifed, but those whose composition is here given, •will serve to characterize the manufacture. Tha agents for Mapes' super-phosphates are furnished not only with the article in bulk, or in b$gs of 160 pounds each ; but also with one pound samples put up in cans, which they are instructed tofur'nish gratuitously to any who are desirous of trying the manure. It was of course interesting to learn how closely these trial samples correspond with the material which purchasers receive, and in case of the ":nitrogenized super-phosphate" both classes of samples have been examined. The result is highly in- structive, and shows that a small specimen, one pound in the can, worth at the rate of $22 per ton, is used as a bait to make the farmer swallow the 160 pound bags, the contents of which have the extraordinary value of $13 per ton. Another remarkable feature to be noticed in the above analy- ses, is that the three specimens taken from. 160 pound bags, and bearing ^different names, are, so, far as their valuable ingredients are cohcemed,'the same thing. The "cotton and tobacco," the "No. 1," and the " nitrogenized," letting the cans alone, are equally :;good, or I should rather say, equally bad. This fact proves that'nothihg is meant by the difference of names except to confound the purchaser, and Imake him ima^ne that among this great variety of rfeStilizers^ some one must be adapted to his field and crops. ' '^-"- -"- It is a well esta;blished fact that the tobacco crop removes a large amount of potash from the fields, and accordingly"this sub- stance was looked for in the. cotton ^nd" tobacco super-phoshate, but it was Dot to be found. ' ;, : Another point to notice is^ that these mixtures, the calcidated value of which is from one-quarter to one-third of what is de- manded for them j. are now gold under the analyses and recom- mendations that were procured years ago, on what was really at that time the best super-phosphate in the-eountry. — — Whoever proposes to invest money -in a super-phosphate, should take notice,^ that the can sample excepted, neither one of these three kinds Jhat have been examined, contained any weigh- 44 able.qoantity: of soluble phospkoric acid, and hence the seller is doubly liable to the charge of obtaining money on false pretences. THE '.' BBOGRESSION OE PRIMABIES" OE " ULTIMATES." "ifiUlioT)^ of dollars are wasted every year hy pursuing false- theories." — Prof. J. J. Mapes. The same prolific and luminous genius to whom the Ameri- can public is indebted for the invention of tHese five superphos- phates, is also the inventor of a new doctrine dating back only a few 'years, to the effect. that there is a progressive increase, in the value of the ingredients of a fertilizer, in proportion to the number of times it becomes a part of an animal or plant, and:, that therefore, a naineral phosphate for example, is comparative- ly worthless as a manure, considered beside a phosphate that is derived from the boiies qf an animal. In the, newspap,er reports of the proceedings of the :Farmers' Club.of the American Institute, New York City, may be found the author's- own statements of his doctrine, and from these sources they are copied. The New York f^mes has the follow-; ^"s^ ','/,., " ':- ._,;', / - ',' Professor; Mapes had noticed recently Or theory broached as to fertile sandy lands which demand notice,; viz : That lichens grow on solid rocks, and when that, iock is coarsely granulated, plants of a higher order grow, even .the wheat, corn, &c., that when the coarse soil is finely zpulverized like the sandy soil of Miami Valley, Ohio, it yields heavy crops of grain and com for years without manure. Nowhere is a fallacy, for it is not to the mechanical fineness of the soil that the fertility is at all due, but to tho^e infinitely numerous fine particles of organic matter necessarily contained in it — those portions of former organ- ized, bodies in which matter has become adapted to vegetable life in a way that all the power of chemical analyses cannot im- itate— that wonderful process of adaptation wmch, is perfectly seen in its effects and hidden in its causes— -so that while an ounce of phosphate of lime (for instance) is excellent food for plants, a whole ton of 'it as rock, which has never been used by organ- ism, is perfectly useless." , Also the following from the New York Tribune : "All mineral substances, whether carbonate of lime, phos- phate of dime, sulphate of lime, potash, soday salt, or other con- stituents of .plants are valuable in proportion to the source from 45 whence they are derived. The higher the organization of ani- mal or plant, the more valuable the miueral obtained. The mineral phosphatic rock, which gives by analysis the same re- sults as calcined bones, is worthless for manure, and a quantity of carbonate of lime from the pure limestone given to a field equal to two pefcent of the 'so;l would render it barren, while forty per cent of the same mineral exactly, according to analysis, is extremely fertile. The cause is, one has never undergone any change since its deposit, and the other has passed through a long course of organized /life." "In jSTew Jersey we get a good many ashes that. are not leached, and these contain lime that is far niore valuable than that ' from limestone. The principal- value of leached ashes is the- phosphateof lime, and that can be obtained from other sources much -cheaper.. The potash of ashes from a burnt hay stack is more valuable than potash foupd in, any mineral that contains potash. So are the ashes of any tree containing potash, worth more than potash, ;lime or soda, in a mineral condition. The higher the' organism frdm which we derive plant food, the more valuable it is. The blood of man is of far more value than the hloo^ of a lower prd§r_pf animals. Now. the top of Bunker Hili MpnUfnent is composed pf the. iugredients. that in a decom- pbsed'state would grow cabbage, "'yet who "would think of trying to grow a crop on the top of that monument ? You must look at plants a9 the crystalization of the ingredients of which they are :composed. Millions of dollars are wasted every year by pursuing false theories. ■ Now it is a fact that the ashes of a rose- bush are worth a hundred-times more than the ashes of an oak to grow roses. They are all ready to 'assimilate into a new growth of rpse-wood. The potash of ashes from a fire that has been much burned," in an air-tight stove, for in- stance, are far more valuable than the ashes of a log-heap. The lime of shells is more valuable than that from rocks, for imme- diate effect,- for the simple reason that it comes from organized life, ; and previous to that it had existed perhaps thousands of years in plants and other animal life." " And in an interesting degree explanatory, the Professor " ad- vahced tbe views previously set foyth at the Club, as to the dif- ferent degrees of jefinernent . or progression. The potash in a soil made by decomposed felspar is much less Tefined and valua- ble to plants than t^, potash in unleacbed wood ashes. The carbonate of lime-in : the- bpdy of a man is much more sublimated than that in the chalk cliffs of Dover, or the marble of Westchester County. Now; these Tiltiihate-ljarticles- become refined, every time they pass froifi tfne kingdom to aaot&ef. This ohange goes on cofitinuhlly in thfi manure-heap. The con- tact of masses of fermentesciMe filattef devdopes a tendency to decompose. And as the salts'^' and organic portions of that ma- jioire-heap are much more valuable for plants than the coarser duplicates which exist in the wild paj?ts of the mineral world, the farmer shduld strive to-; keep theh*!ap?so as to- save every grain of fertilizer." ^. ,-; ^^z . ::;- The usually received theory is,- tiiat: the ingredients of the- fcod of a plant are of use on account of their peeuMar and unchange- able pTopertieg; are-of use because they may themselves supply parts of thevegetable^structure. In; aplant perfectly developed, we invariably ;fiud' a certain^-(within narrow limits invariable) weight of carbon, nitrogen, liae^'phpsphoric add,, potashf&c; and it has been supposed to "be proved by experiment, that^if the weight or quantity as we call it, of all or any of thesKiieces- sary ingredients be; deficient, the weight of the plant itself will be correspondingly small. Obviously it is iiapqi^ble to makes house weighing: a "thousand tons out of nine hundred tons of brick,: mortar,: lumber and nails, and: it-has/beeaheldcthat^the universally received law of the:unchangeabie -weight of matter," necessitates tlie conclusion thatieO'ilbs. of wheat always- contains 60 lbs. of its ingredients. It has been: bdieved, furthermore: that matter fertilizes: the soil,: or whatis: the same thiiig, feeda'the plant; not because. it comes from somewhere, but because, it en- ters the plant. In making' soap or- glass, potash is potash and; lime is lime.- In making matches it is "found that they-"go off-" just as readily whether the phosphorus comes from rock phos- phate or bone-phosphate. : ^''^i - ' :V . :_: u, : _c Never, until Prof Mapes announced the new dactoime, was: it suspected that the dements of matter-wBre'endowed with: change?\ able properties. -But with allthe eoufidenceof aseer, our das- tinguished fellow-countryman announces thatthe basis on wMch the science of centuries: reposes, is rotten, and we are oracularly warned of the " millions; of . dollars that ate wasted every year by pursuing" false theories." .- ; - '' ' On looking at the evidences against this -doctrine of Progress sion we find it abundant and incontrovertible. We find 47 tHat the roQk-phospliate of Estramadura gave Dr. Dau- beny and Sir H. Verney, as good turnip and mangel-'vyurzel crops as bones, either burned or unburned. (Jonrnal Eoyal Ag'l Soe. of England, vol. vi. pp.L329 to 338). The mineral phos- phates from Norway, from Amberg in Bavaria, from Hurdstpwn New Jersey, and feona; many other localities, have been employed as fertilizers, and as successfully as phosphates from any other source. The evidence in favor of Mapes' doctrine is not to be found.. His assertions quoted above, are opposed to. all experience as -vrell as to aU science. They rest solely on the authority of ^ Prof. . Mapes. They are in fact simply ridiculous, "We have only; to carry out this principle far enough to show in the most convincing manner its utter absurdity, for by a yastly great num- ber of "progressions" the point will be finally arrived at, when a grain of "progressed" phosphate shall equal a ton of mineral phosphate. . . : , ; The only use that this vagary of the "progression of ulti- mates" or " progression .of primaries" can serve, appears to he, to account for the great value of Mapes' superphosphates I Here we see its importance ; but we shall be. slow; to. believe that the few percent of .really valuable fertilizing matters they contain, is so -£ax ^progressed, as to be already worth three or four, times as ra^uch: as the. same . ingredients _of other manures, or that the in- soluble3phosfdiates of these manures are as good, and hence de- serving as good a name as soluble or real super-phosphate. Do the niaterials (primaries^ uUimates) out of which these ;manures are inade "progress", with such rapidity, that a manure which in 1852,- contained; twenty-one percent of phosphoric acid, could produce an equal effect in 1857, though containing but thirteen percent, and in 1859, only requires to contain eight percent? Absurd as the doctrine of progression of ultimates in the ab- stract is,;it8k>gical,'ap.plicationsare^ if possible,!; more so, and will notfind.currency:m Connecticut we maybe sure. , It would be a: waste of words to refute: so .contemptible a piece of. quackery .as.this, were. ;not.;iinfortunately^. many enquiring farmers constantly imposed upon by the tinseled clap-trap of un- scrupulous pretenders. ;, .. i;,_^,; ;. . , 48 Home-made Super-phosphate. The questioa has often arisen among our farmers — cannot a good superphosphate of lime be made at home, cheaper than it can be purchased in the Agricultural stores, and as to my knowl- edge, some have answered this question affirmatively, to their great satisfaction, I propose here to set forth the method and ex- pense of such a manufacture, so as to facilitate this important home enterprise. The materials that are now accessible in this State, as the phos- phatic basis of a super -phosphate are — ^refuse bone-black and the phosphatic guanos. The former is to be had in New Y'ork city, and often at very cheap rates, but the price is fluctuating, and the quantity limited, so that as far as I know, this material is not to be relied upon as a steady source of phosphates. Of the phos- phatic guanos, the Sombrei'o naturally claims our attention, be- cause it is now imported directly into our Slate, and has very uniformly a high percentage of phosphoric acid. In experiment- ing on the preparation of a super-phosphate from this guano, I took Sombrero guana 2000 parts, costing reckoned as pounds, - - $30 Oil of vitriol 500 " " " " 15* Water 250 " and proceeded in the following manner : the oil of vitriol was mixed with water, and the mixture still hot was poured upon one-half oi the guano, whereby a thick pasty mass was obtained This was allowed to stand some hours, and then the other half of the guano was added ; in this way a mixture was obtained so dry as to admit of handling without difficulty. After forty-eight hours it weighed 2690 parts, and contained 523 parts insoluble phos- phoric acid, and 137 parts of soluble phosphoric acid, at a cost of $45 for the materials exclusive of labor. To make one ton, or to make 100 pounds of this super-phos- phate, we require, respectively 1480 lbs., or 74 pounds of Som- brero guano, and 370 pounds or 18 1-2 pounds of oil-of- vitriol. In one ton or in 100 pounds of the product, we have" 410 pounds or 20 J pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, 100 pounds or 5 lbs. of soluble phosphoric acid, and 806 lbs. or 41 lbs. of hy- *The highest price per carboy. 49 drated sulphate of lime (unburned plaster), or tke equivalent thereof of sulphuric acid. The actual cost of the materials for a ton of this super-phos- phate is $83.30, and the calculated value (based on soluble and insoluble phosphoric acid alone) is $31.04 per ton. There is here, it will be seen, a much less discrepancy between the cost and the calculated value, than in case of any commercial super- phosphate, and if we set off the 800 pounds of unburped plaster, whjch our product contains — worth, say $3— against the cost of preparation, we have a decidely cheaper material than can be bought at present in this State. The above trial was made with the sample No. Ill, sent me by Mr. Weld, from the store of Backus & Barstow, Hartford. I have made a similar experiment on the ground sample No. VII p. 37. The same quantities of guano, acid and water were employed, viz : Sombrero guano, - '- - ,. 2000 parts, Oil of Vitriol, - - 500 " Water, - - . 250 " As analyzed, the resulting mixture weighed 2655 parts, and it was found to contain considerably more soluble phosphoric acid, viz : seven and a half percent, with sixteen percent of insolu- ble phosphoric acid, while its caciilated value was $34.20, or precisely equal to the cost of the materials. The reason of the difference between this and and the former experiment lies in the fact that the guano first employed, con- tained more carbonate of lime than that last used. Now when we add oil of vitriol to the guano, any carbonate of lime it con- tains must first be decomposed before the action extends to the phosphates. To explain more fully, eivery pound of combined carbonic acid, thus uses up its equivalent or 2.4 pounds of oil-of- vitriol.* In the first guano, the quantity of carbonic acid was not ascer- tained, but in the last sample it was found to be 4.4 percent- "We have then in the 2000 parts of guano used, 88 parts of carbonic acid, and to neutralize this 211 parts of pil-of- vitriol are required, leaving but 289 "parts of the latter for acting on the phosphates. Further, it has been proved «xperimenta,lly that where no- thing interferes, one pound of oil of vitriol of ordinary strength, *Ordinary oil of vitriol contains twenty-five per cent water. , 7 iliakes soluble 0.8 pound of phosphoric acid. In 2000 parts of this Sombrero guano, our 289 parts of oil-of- vitriol should ac- cordingly produce 231 parts of soluble phosphoric acid, there are however but 199 parts in the soluble condition, (seven and a half percent of 2655) and accordingly 32 parts of phosphoric acid have, escaped liberation, and 40 parts of oil-of- vitriol have failed to exert a solvent action. The reaisoii why all the oil-of- vitriol does not make its equivalenii of phospbric acid solu- ble, lies in the impossibility of effecting complete contact be- tween it and the phosphate. The sulphate of lime (plaster) formed, is a bulky, porous body, and absorbs, sponge fashion, a portibn of the oil of vitriol. I have still another experiment to describe, in which the quan- tity of oil- of- vitriol was increased one-half. The quantitie's ta- ken were as follows : Sombrero guano 2009 parts, costing reckoned as pounds, - $30.00 - Oilof vitriol 750:. "■ '"_,::. " " 22.50 - Water 250 , " The guano was the same as in the last tria,l,'aud the mixture was operated in a similar raanher. The resulting super-phos- phate weighed 288,4 pa,rts, and contained 336 parts of insoluble phosphoric acid, and 294 parts of soluble phosphoric acid, at a cost of $52.50 for the materials. To make one ton or to make 100 pounds of this super-phos- phate, we require 1380 pounds or 69 poiinds of Sombrero guano, and 520 pounds or 26 pounds of oil-of- vitriol ; while 160 pounds or 8 pounds of water are taken up, and 60 pounds or 3 pounds of carbonio acid are expelled. In one ton or in 100 lbs; of the product, we have 200 pounds or 10 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, 250 pounds or 12 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, and 840 pounds "or 42 pounds of hydrated sulphate of lime, (unbumed plaster) or the equivalent thereof of siilphuriq acid. The actual cost of the materials for k ton of this super-phos- phate is f 36.40, and the calculated value of the product is $35.80. ,' ' It thus appears that the first mixture is not less eCbnomioal than the latter, when judged by its yield of soluble jihosphoric acid ; for although oije half as much more oil-of- vitriol was used, there ife 51 no real gain, since the action of the oil-of-vitriol on the phos- phates does not increase in precise proportion as its quantity is increased, on account of the greater hindrances to intimate mix- ture and perfect contact which arise from the larger production of sulphate of lime. I find too, that, independently of this consideration, that there are practical difficulties in the way of using so large a quantity of oil-of-vitriol, as 750 pounds to the ton of guano, (37 1-2 pounds to the 100 pounds -of guano.) When this latter quantity is used the mixture is at first quite fluid, and would require to be mixed in tight vessels, and after standing some time it hardens to lumps, from the seiling of the plaster formed in its preparation. if however, we use the proportions mentioned in the first trial, neither of these difficulties are experienced. Directions for making Super-phosphate. So far as I can judge from experiments on so small a scale as mine have necessarily been, the practical process for making su- per-phosphate from Sombrero guano is as follows : The best proportions of the materials are those employed in my first two trials,' and as it is important to work on small quan- tities, we may mix at once 125 lbs. or one bap: Sombrero guano. 32 " or two gallons -and one ciuartiOfoil-pf-vitrioL 16 " , '-' " , of water. The oil-of-viiriol may be weighed out, or if this be not con- venient, it is measured ojit in a common three gallon earthen pickle jar, which is converted into a measure by first filling into it two gallons and one quart of water, and making a deep scratch on the inside at the surface of. the water. The oil-of-vitriol and the water being measured ofi", are now to be mixed. This done by pouring the acid in a slow stream into the water with constant stirring (neve?- pour the water upon the aqid,), In this operation earthen vessels are best, but a tight wooden vessel may also be employed. The mixture becomes very hot, and blackens wood. Care should be taken to avoid spilling thei acid on the clothes or flesh. It is better to transfer it by a ladle madei of stout sheet lead of earthen- ware, than to pour it. 52 The, diluted acid being ready, it is tobe used.wMle still hot. Half the contents (roughly meausured) of a bag of Sombrero guano. is placed in a, heap on, a wide board, or better, i-n a tray of plank with a rim a few inches high,; and the acid is ladled upon it, and at the same time intermixed with help of a suitable wood- en stirrer. In this way a pasty mass is obtained, and with a little care, this one-half the guano will absorb the whole of the aeid. After the mixture is completed, the^ remainder of the .guano is sprinkled in, with thorough stirring, and in a short time the mass may be thrown out thinly upon- a floor, and after standing a day or so it will be a finished superphosphate, dry and fine, and ready for broadcast or drill sowing. " On the large scale my detail of method and results .may doubt- less be varied somewhat ; but I trust any one can use these di- rections easily and successfully. It may be found better to mix smaller quantities than I have given. A few trials will establish the right method, and it is to be desired that any one who may experiment in this manner should make public an account of his experience for the general good. On tlie tLses of Super-phosphate. The experience of British agriculture has shown that this ma- nure produces the best effect in general upon root-crops, espe- cially upon turnips, ruta-bagas and carrots. Instances are known, as in the celebrated field experiments of Laiwes and Gilbert, in which a soil that alone could produce turnips no larger tha;n but- ternuts, would by simply manuring with super-phosphate, yield good crops, and this, year after year. As the result of this experience, super-phosphate is now al- most always employed for manuring the turnip crop in Great Britain. It is in many cases also, an excellent application to grain crops, but for them is usually employed in connection with ammonia-yielcling fertilizers. Applied to meadows alone, ,it has been observed in some in- stances to bring in red clover, but if used with ammonia-yielding manures, the true grasses entirely displace the clover in time. Applied to old pastures it is a sure remedy for bone sickness in the cattle grazing on them. ■ On all leguminous plants, peas, beans,- lucerne, etc., it has generally a marked effect. ■68 The above statements refer to a super-phosphate properly so called, containing no ammonia. When nitrogenous (ammonia- yielding) matters are incorporated with the super-phosphate, i|s benefits are in most cases enhanced. This can be done by mix- ing it with any nitrogenous fertihzer, as Peruvian guano, fish guano, cotton seed cake or castor pummace, and the farmer will do well to compare its action alone, and in connexion with some of these manures, on his various soils and crops. How Applied. Super-phosphate may be either drilled in with the seed in case of root crops, or sown broadcast as a top-dressing for grains and meadows. In either instance in order to effect a good distribu- tion, it is best to mix it thoroughly with 4 to 5 times its weight of fine muck, hard coal ashes, or dry sifted earth before applica- tion, and the best time to apply it is just before a rain. As to the quantity that may be employed, British farmers re- commend 500 pounds per acre on most root crops, or half that amount, if ten to twelve tons of stable manure be applied at the same time. For potatoes, 700 pounds will not be too much, while 400 pounds are sufScient for peas and beans. To give an idea of the extent to which this manufacture is carried on, in England, may be added the statement recently made by a German Agriculturist, who says that one-half of all the enormous quantity of oil-of-vitriol now made in that coun- try, is applied to the soil in the shape of super-phosphates. . SUPEE-PHOSPHATE VS. BONE PHOSPHATE. The question has been raised of late — is there any ultimate profit in the use of a super-phosphate? In other words is money better spent for a little highly soluble super-phosphate, which is of speedy but not permanent use, or for a larger quan- tity of the slower acting bone-phosphate ? Dr. Cameron, of Dublin, has published some experiments on this point which are quite decisive, and I quote them for the benefit of the consumers of phosphatic manures. Dr. G. ex- presses his opinion that well ground and steamed, or even fer- mented bones, would be found cheaper weight for weight, than 54 commarcial super-phosphate of lime, if the results of three or four years be considered. Dr. Cameron's experimen-ts^wer&made with ' turnips, on a light, well-drained loam of medium fertility, and extended over a space of three years. He used three ma- nures, viz : Ichaboe guano, super-phosphate of lime, and ground bonea,- that would pass a sieve of forty holes per square inch. The manures contairied : ; . ;, ., GUANO. SUP'PHOS. .BONES. •_ Soluble phosphate of litne, - 16.22 Bone phosphate of lime, - 34.51 11.33 iSAI Sulphate of lune, t- •-' _ • : '. ; Ammonia, - 8.28 3.28 5.55 The amount and cost of the applications for the first and second years, were as follows : "^ • Guano, .-' : - -' ;6' -ewt!-, costing £3 sterling. Siiper-phosphate, - - - -._..-- '7-^,.. ", " 3 " Bones, '"-y -""'- -" ' ti ~"' ' -" 3 " For the thiM year hJilf the above quantities were employed. The first year the yield was somewhat greatest "where the su- per-phosphate was' applied. The second year" the result was slightly in favor of the bones, and more' decidedly so the last season. The total yieldper acre fox the three years, was as follows : Guano,. , -,.., ,,- - -^ - „ 'Super-phosphate,'- - -" ""- " - -. ..-Bones, ;..-!• ' - - - -*£ia..-;.: Some of our farmers would do^well to make careful compara- tive trials :of this, sort, and mi^ht not the State Society apj)ropri- ately offer premiums for experiments in testing important points likethis? ., ... ; .; -. :.■■.:...;-.;.,;; ; .;.; B.0JJ'E;D1JST. . V A specimen of this fertilizer from the store oif Wmv'B. John- son, of New Haven, has been examined. 61 J percent of it passed a seive of eighteen holes to the linear inch; thus eviden- cing a good state of mechanical division,con^pared to what is usually sold as " diist." By analysis the following figures were obtained : \ ... _,., ANALYSIS OP BONE-BUST. "W'ater, " ''-' . - ■ - ^ - :.:.... iQtganip (animal) matters,' •..■:- Sand, - - - 'Lime, - ';-•'- . - t.i'.: i. .. Phosphoric acid, ...... Carbonic add, with a little magnesia, soda and iron. Ammonia cori'Sspondiilg to the animal matters, : TONS, CWT. QE8. . 53 16 2 53 1 1 -- 56 12 3 6.90 7.07 29.65 29.52 6.31 6.20 59.41 29.29 15.90 16.04 1L83 11.8& 100.00 100.00 3.63 3.46 66 This article is made from boiled bones, and contains tbe usual percentages of its ingredients, pbosphoric and carbonic acids ex- cepted ; the former of which is five percent lower, and the latter correspondingly higher than in the other samples which have come under examination. This sample was furnished by - Chauncey Goodyear, Esq., of Hamden, and by him estimated to cost $20 per ton. It is sold by the bushel. The calculated value is $24.20 per ton. FERMEKTED BONES. The inquiry having lately come up, if there is any method known of bringing whole bones into a pulverized condition, otherwise than by grinding or treatment with oil-of-vitriol, I take opportunity to communicate to the State Society, the pro- cess of reducing them into a convenient form by fermentation. This process has been, practiced in JEngland for ten years or more, having been brought before the public there by Mr. Pusey, for many years the editor of the Journal, of the Eoyal Agricul- tural Society, of Engl^jad; but it, appears not to have become very widely known in this country. The process depends upon the fact that bones consist to the amount of one- third their weight, of cartilage, or animal matter, which under the influence of warmth and moisture, readily de- composes, (ferments or decays), and loses its texture, so that the boiies fall to dust. From the closeness and solidity of the bony structure, decay is excited and maintained with- some difficulty. A single bone or a heap of bones, never decays ialone, but dries and hardens on exposure. If, however, bones in quantity be" brought in- to close contact with some easily fermentable moist substance, but little time elapses before a rapid decay sets in. So too, if fresh crushed bones are mixed with sand, soU, or any powdery matter that fills up the spaces between the frag- ments of bone, and makes the heap compact, and then are mois- tened with pure water, the same result takes place in warm weather, though more ^Iqwly,. The practical process may be as follows : The bones, if whole should, be broken up 9s.,Sax as. cpnyeriiftiitby a sledge-hammer. 56 and made into alternate layers' witli gand, loam, saw dust, leacted ashes, coal ashes, or swamp muck, using, just enough of any. of these materials to fill compactly the cavities among the bones, but hardly mof e. Begin with a thick layer of earth or muck, and as the pile is raised, pour on stale urine or dung-heap liquor enough to moisten the whole mass thoroughly, and finally, cover a foot thick with soil or muck. In warm weather the decomposition goes on at once, and in from two to six or more weeks the bones will have nearly or en- tirely disappeared. If the fermentation should spend itself without reducing the bones sufficiently, the heap may be overhauled and built up again, moistening with liquid manure, and covering as before. By thrusting a pole or bar into the heap, the progress of de- composition may be traced, from the heat and odor evolved. Should the heap become heated to the surface, so that ammo- nia escapes, as may be judged by the smell, it may be covered still more thickly with earth or muck. The larger the heap, the finer the bones, and the more stale urine or dung liquor they have been made to absorb, the more rapid and complete will be the disintegration. In these heaps, horse dung or other rapidly fermenting manure may replace the ashes, etc., but earth or muck should be used to cover the heap; This bone compost contains the phosphates of lime in a finely divided state, and the nitrogen of the cartilage which has mostly passed into ammonia or nitrates, is retained perfectly by the ab- sorbent earth or muck. When carefully prepared, this manure is adapted to be de- livered from a drill machine with seeds, and according to the tes- timony of English farmers, fully replaces in nearly every case, the super-phosphate made by the help of oil-of-vitriol. CASTOR PUMMAOE. A sample of castor pummace sent, by Mr. Weld, and taken from the stock of Messrs. Beach & Co., Hartford, has been an- alyzed, with the subjoined results : 57 Moisture, .,,- - 9.05 8.95 Organic matters, - - 83.55 83.h1 (Yielding ammonia, - 4.90 4.90) Sand, - - . 1.00 liio lime, - 1.18 1.09 Phosphoric acid. - . 1.97 1.99 This sample corresponds ver yclosely in composition with the one sent me by the manufacturers, Messrs. Baker, Labourette & Co., N. Y., and reported on last year. The calculated value is $15.50. The selling price is $16.00. This appears to be an admirable material for composting with muck, and doubtless the best results would follow the use of such a compost, especially if a good share of some phosphatic manure as bone-dust or Sombrero guano, were incorporated with the mixture. From practical men we indeed hear yarious reports as to the efS.cacy of the castor pummace, but there is no doubt that it will be uniformly useful if used with judgment. In my report for last year were given some rules to be ob- served in its application which are here reproduced : Some caution must be exercised in the use of this class of manures, because their action is so powerful that in very heavy doses they may over-force the crop, or even destroy the seed when put in contact with it at the time of planting. It has been asserted that the content of oil of the oil-cakes hinders the germ- ination of seeds, by preventing access of water to them. I am inclined to believe however, that their detrimental action is due to their readiness of decomposition, whereby the seed is caused to rot. In fact there are only a few instances on record of their occasioning this sort of injury, and in these they appear to have been applied in very large quantity. We can estimate the proper allowance per acre of castor pummace, by comparing its per cent of ammonia withf that of guano. It contains just about one- third as much of this ingredient, and accordingly we may safely use three times as much of it. We know that 600 pounds of guano per acre is a very large manuring, and 200 or 300 pounds is usually the most profitable, in the long run. These quantities correspond to 1800, 600 and 900 lbs. respectively of castor pummace. I find that the largest doses of rape cake, (a manure of almost identical composition, rather inferior in amount 58 of ammonia perhaps) given in English and Saxon husbandry, are 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre, while 600 to 800 pounds are the customary applications. More is needed on heavy than on light soils. It is frequently urged as an objection to manures of this sort that they exhaust the soU, It is however always_^the crops that are removed, and never the manure applied, which exhausts the soil. The eocclmive and eontinued use of this or any similar fertilizer will be followed by exhaustion.; but by judiciously al- ternating or combining it with mineral manures, as wood ashes leached or unleached, New Jersey green-sand, superphosphate of lime, or phosphatie guano, it, may be used with safety and ad- vantage. I learn that ground cantor pummace is now on sale in some of our agricultural stores. This must be greatly superior to the merely crushed article, as it, admits of much easier and more complete distribution. NIGHT-SOIL. In my first annual report, under the subject of Poudrette, al- lusion was made to the value of night soil as a fertilizer. It is truly a matter of wonder that so little use and so much detri- ment are experienced from this material among the most civil- zed nations. Nobody among us is ignorant of its " strength" or its " virtues," as we term its fertilizing powers, and yet our ideas of its merit and the means of economizing it are so vague, that next to no use is made of it in this country., ; As soon as, we have settled in our minds that the value of a manure, both commercially and agriculturally considered, de- pends upon its content of certain ingredients, whose individual action, has been r traced out and estimated with a fair share of accuracy, we are left without excuse if we neglect to apply this knowledge to these matters that lie at our doors. The majority of our farmers utterly ignore night-soil in their agricultural practice. On the other hand, those who employ it are liable to over estimate its worth. Let us then endeavor to, get a true notion pf its value, of the causes which (ieteriorate it, and ascertain how it may be preserved and applied. 59 In tte first place, we understand that night soil consists of the mixed solid and liquid dejections of the human animal. In case of the adult, there daily passes away a quantity of materials cor- responding to the amount of food which is consumed. A full grown person scarcely changes weight during a period of many years ; plainly then, as much must be separated from the body as is put into it. A considerable share of the food is removed from the animal in the shape of carbonic aoid gas and water, another goes off in the perspiration, another in the fecal discharge, and another in the urine. Now the valuable fertilizing matters are nitrogen in the form of ammonia (actual or potential,) and the fixed mineral matters (salts) especially phosphaUs and sulphates of lime, magnesia and potash. • While the larger portion of the carbon and hydrogen of the food is consumed in the body by the process of respiration, into gaseous carbonic acid and vapor of water, and as such is breath- ed off into the atmosphere, nine-tenths of all the nitrogen of the food, and' all the fixed mineral matters, (phosphates^ &c)., are separated in the night soil, one-tenth only of the nitrogen escapes from the body through the lungs and skin as volatile (gaseous) carbonate of ammonia. From these facts which have been determined experimentally by men of science, it is plain, that, by carefully economizing the solid and liqoid excrements of man, all the fixed mineral mat- ters, and nine-tenths of the ammonia which have been expend- ed (as ingredients, of the soil or of manures) in once producing his food, are again placed in the hands of the cultivator, as ma- nures and may serve him again to grow another supply of simi- lar food. It is also true ihat what may thus be saved and appKed to the soil, from the food required to support one or a hundred men for a given time, say one year, will, added to the native resources of a fair soil, more than reproduce the amount of food consumed. The origin of night-soil gives us thus at once a key to it ma- nurial effects. It is in fact hunian food converted into manure, with little or no loss of the matters important in a fertilizer. It is obvious then that its value naay vary greatly as the food varies 60 from which it is formed. "When the food is rich and abundant, the night soil will have the same qualities, and where the food is poor the excrement will correspond. It is said to be a fact that in Paris the contents of the vaults of the first class hotels and restaurants bring a much larger price from the manure deal- ers than is paid for the night-soi! of work-houses and hospitals. From the general fact however, that, especially in this country, the human animal is better fed than any other, it follows- that human excrement is richer and more fertilizing than any other. It of course contains every ingredient of the. food, and every ingredient required in a manure. In the fresh state the' average general composition of human faeces and urine is as follows : FiECES. UEINE. Water, 79. per cent. 95.6 percent. Organic matters, 18. " 8.2 " Ash, ... 3. « 1.2 " 100.0 100.0 When the water is fcdly expelled there is found in the dry substances according to Way : F^CES. DRINB. Organic Matters, - 88.52 percent 67.54 percent Insoluble silicioua matter, 1.48 (( 0.09 ' Oxyd of iron, - 0.54 " 0.05 Lime, 1.72 (( 0.61 Magnesia, 1.55 11 0.47 Phosphoric acid, 4.2'7 a 4.66 Sulphuric acid, . . 0.24 u 0.46 Potash, 1.19 ii 1.83 Soda, 0.31 11 Chlorid of Potassium, 11 5.41 Chlorid of Sodium, - 0.18 (1 18.88 100.00 100.00 Nitrogen in the organ; c matters. 5.59 19.34 These analyses give of course only the composition of these matters as found in one particular case, but from them we may form a sufficiently accurate idea of the character and proportion of the fertilizing ingredients generally contained in them. In the following table is given, (chiefly after Lawes, Journal Society of Arts, vol 3, p. 270,) the avertige quantities of liquid and solid excreta, and their chief ingredients, voided, during 24 61 hours by persons of various ages and both sexes. These ave- rages are obtained from pretty nearly ajl the data now in the possession of the physiologist, and while illustrating the differen- ces caused by circumstance, they give a very just idea of the average amounts of fertilizing matters daily contributed to agriculture by each well fed human being. AVERAGE AMOUNT OF HUMAN EXCEIMENTS AND THEIR CONSTITUENTS (iN OUNCES AND HUNDREDTHS) VOIDED IN 24 HOURS. INGKBDIBKTS. e t— ' en l' I—" CI o O 1 i o B en o a CD AVERAGE OF ALL THE FOREGOING OB- SERVATIONS. AVERAGE OF CITY POPULATION OF BOTH SEXES AND ALL AGES PER HEAD. FRESH EXCREMENTS. Faeces 8.89 21.24 25.13 0.84 0.13 1.67 0.10 0.34 0.44 0.06 0.17 0.23 0.06 0.08 0.14 5.98 55.18 61.16 1.33 1.58 2.91 0.16 0.62 0.78 0.05 0.48 0.53 0.12 0.19 0.31 6.20 42.05 48.25 1.16 2.26 3.42 0.23 0.34 0.57 0.09 0.38 0.47 0.14 0.14 14.18 14.18 0.18 0.18 1.24 36.66 37.90 0.33 1.38 1.71 0.05 0.32 0.37 0.03 0.29 0.32 4.32 33.86 38.18 0.91 1.49 2.40 0.13 0.40 0.53 0.06 0.30 0.36 0.09 0.14 0.23 3 00 32.00 Total 35 00 ' DRY SUBSTANCES. Fsecea Urine Total 2.01 MINERAL MATTERS. Faeces Urine Total 0.45 NITROGEN. Urine Total 0.35 PHOSPHATES. Faeces XJrine Total 0.20 In the right hand column are given the averages for a mixed population, (the city of London) and these are employed in our subsequent calculations. Kwe multiply these figures by 365, we obtain the following 62 statement as the average quantity of dry night soil, and of its chief fertilizing ingredients, supplied by each inhabitant yearly : POUNDS AKD TBNTiaS. Organic matter, . 36.0 Phosphoric acid, 2.3 Lime, alkalies and other mineral matters, . .7.7 46.0 Potential ammonia in organic matter, . . 9.7 The estimate of Nesbit, employed in my first annual report, re- ferred to the male adult, and was considerably too high for the average of population, though doubtless the one here given is rather low for a people so well fed as ours. The commercial value of the night-soil of each person, calcu- lated from ammonia and phosphoric acid alone, amounts indeed, to but $1.50 annually ; but this method of valuation, as has been insisted on in my 1st Eeport, is not by any means applicable to this kind of fertilizers. James Smith, of Deanston, the illustrious originator of the present system of " Thorough Drainage," is said to have assert- ed that the waste of one man for a year, suffices to manure half an acre of land, and in Flanders we are told that the manure from such a source is valued at 9.00 per annum. We shall err on the safe side if we assume the agricultural value of the exuviae of each inhabitant to be $5.00 per year. It is easy then to understand that on an ordinary sized farm, which supports a family of five to ten persons, an annual loss of ma- terial may occur to the amount of from $25 to $50. But the real loss is not merely the value of the fertilizer itself; to this we must add the profit which might be made from the crop grown by the help of the manure. I fuUy believe that the night-soil produced annually by a fami- ly of 10 adults, may be made to yield here, as it certainly does in Flanders, a clear profit of $100. This is certainly no unimportant item in aigricultural practice, and our best farmers are bestowing' upon it the regard it de- serves. If we have once persuaded ourselves that this is a source of profit, we are in position to be benefitted by knowing how it can 63 best be made available. We find by studying the practice of tbose nations whicb employ nigbt-soil, advantageously, tbat a cer- tain amount of care is necessary in order to get the good of it. Chemistry informs us that nothing is easier than the almost total loss of this fertilizer. When urine and faeces are mixed togeth- er at a summer temperature, they almost immediately begin to decompose; the ammonia-yielding substances they contain, at once yield ammonia which passes off into the air, and their sul- phates are dissipated as sulphuretted hydrogen. This process goes on with great rapidity, and only requires a few days to com- plete itself. Thus the waste of nearly all the 'ammonia, the most costly in- gredient, is inevitable, if night-soU be left to itself a few days in warm weather. Again, if, as usually happens, the night-soil is allowed to fall into a vault or on the surface of the groimd, the urine soaks off into the soil, and carries with it, not only its own content of val- uable matters, but also to a greater or less degree, washes out the faeces, and exhausts their soluble ingredients. A glance at the table, page 62, shows that the urine is by far the best part of the night-soil, being more in quantity and of rich- er composition than the fteces. It thus happens that the contents of necessaries left to them- selves, as is the case ninety -nine times out of a hundred, are liable to, nay, must undergo great loss of fertilizing matters. Where, as is often practiced, other slops, dish-water, &c., are poured into the privy, the waste is still greater. As a result of these deteriorating processes, the night-soil, as found in necessa- ries, is greatly inferior in quantity, and vastly so in quality, to the original urine and faeces. This is evident from'the analyses of the poudrettes which are manufactured from it. During the present year, I have had opportunity to examine a specimen of night-soil taken from a large quantity collected in the village of New Canaan, and fairly representing the average quality of this substance as thus found at the beginning of win- ter in ordinary privies. I am indebted to Edwin Hoyt, Esq., of 64 New Canaan for this sample. It gave on analysis, as taken from the heap : "Water,* - - - 66.74 percent. Organic matters, f Sand and insoluble matters (coal ashes). Lime, - ■ - - Soluble phosphoric acid, Insoluble " " . Common salt and chlorid of potassium, Alumina and oxyd of iron, - 17.68 8.59 2.27 .87 .51 .65 2.69 100.00 , 53.16 percent 25.83 6.82 2.61 1.53 1.96 8.09 In the dry state we have Organic matter, f Insoluble matters, Lime, Soluble phosphoric acid. Insoluble " " Alkali-chlorida, \ - Iron and alumina, 100.00 Compare these figures with those on page 60, representing the composition of dry faeces and urine. We see, in fact, that the ammonia is but half as much as in the dry matter of fseces, and one-seventh as much as in that of urine. Phosphoric acid indeed is present in about the same percentage, but the waste of ammonia and of alkalies (24 percent of alkali- chlorids exist in the dry matter of urine) proves that 100 parts of the dry night-soil coming from the necessary, are but the resi- due of 500 to 1000 parts of the dry matter of fresh night soil that has been fermented and leached. The night-soil collected then in villages and cities, may (as in this case) undergo a loss of 80 to 90 percent in quantity, and a large additional deterioration in quality. This fact thus demon- strated by analytical figures that cannot be called in question, explains why many practical men place so Httle value on this fer- tilizer, because when left to itself, and only removed from the vaults once a year, it amounts to little more than a noisome slop, chiefly made up in fact, as well as in appearance, of papers, cobs and sticks. ♦Here must be included a quantity of carbonic acid and sulphuretted Hydrogen, set free by oxalic acid, employed to fix the ammonia during evaporation to dryness. fContaining potential animonia 87 percent. :j: Yielding potential ammonia, 2.61 percent. 65 The above figures also prove that those whose ideas of the value of night-soil are formed from the analyses of the fresh ar- ticle, are wofully deceived when they supply the refuse of city privies to their field. Now let us study the best methods of saving this material, so precious when new, so liable to become nearly worthless when left to itself. We want something to mix with night-soil that shall complete- ly absorb the liquid, for the urine is the best part of it, and com- pletely retain tue ammonia that shortly forms by its fermenta- tion. We want something that is cheap, and requires no great knowledge or skill in its management. So far as I can form an opinion, peat or swamp-muck is the best thing for our purpose. There is scarcely a farmer in the State that cannot get it cheaply. How to use it, is the next question. The well dried and pul- verized, i. e. not over-coarse peat is simply put in the privy, so that the night soil shall fall upon it, and from time to time, (daily in warm weather,) be intermingled and covered with it. The privy itself, which Ought to be by the way, for other rea- sons, a spacious, comfortable and well kept place, should not be put over a vault or big well, but the earth-floor which catches the night-soil should be level or but slightly lower in the rear than the ground. A good space, as well in length and breadth- as in height, is needful to admit the requisite — somewhat large^ — quantity of peat. To afibrd this room, and at the same time to shelter the com- post, a shed or lean-to, might be profitably attached to the rear of narrow privies. A cart-load or several, according to the amount of night-soil to be manufactured, is deposited at once as we begin the manurial year, in the privy, and an abundant sup ply is kept close at hand, and constantly, or as the weather de- mands, as much should be added as the urine will saturate. The solid matters should be, while fresh (once a day in warm weath- er) well mixed in with the muck, so that the hoe may be hauled through any part of the mass and come out clean. This done, there can be no loss of any account by evaporation. The mix- ture only needs to be kept sheltered in order to prevent any by 9 washing. As -tlie mass accumulates, it may be removed — a cleanly, decent job — and applied directly to the garden, or better piled up with more muck into a compost heap, a heap which shall receive all the chamber and kitchen refuse, all bones, vegetable tops, and the dead stalks and litter from the garden. If stable dung and litter is capable of making twice its bulk of peat into good manure, there is no reason why night-soil may not " sweeten," and bring into good condition ten times its bulk of the same or any other waste vegetable matters. If the heap at any time show too much heat, or smell in any suspicious de- gree, give it an extra cover of muck, or drench it well with soap-suds or even welb water. Wet, cold and compactness resist fermentation. It wont do to attempt getting the "virtue" out urine by straining or filtering it through soil or muck, because, if th-e urine be fresh it wiH Tun through nearly as good as it went in, if otherwise, the salts will be but poorly retained at the best. This programme makes indeed a good deal of work, muck is to be hauled, a shed to be built, and somebody must fork over the stuff every day ; but it will pay, there is no doubt of that. The work will not be offensive, the compost will be rich, the privy itself will be a place not to be abhorred. The following interesting extract from Liebig's "Letters on Modern Agriculture," will serve to show in what estimation night- soil is held among the Chinese, a nation whose remarkable agri- culture — which feeds a denser population than exists in any other country — depends for its success on the use of the material we have just been considering. "It is quite impossible for us in Europe to form an adequate conception of the great care which is bestowed in China upon the collection of human excrements. In the eyes of the Chinese, these constitute the true sustenance of the soil, (so Davis, For- tune, Hedde, and others tell us), and it is principally to this most energetic agent that they ascribe the activity and fertility of the earth. "The Chinesfe, whose house is still, what it most probably has ever been, a tent, only that it is built of stone and wood, knows nothing of privies as we have them in our country ; but, in theu- stead, there are found in the principal and most comfortable part 67 of his dwelling, earthenware tubs or cisterns, most carefully con- structed of stone and lime ; and the notion of utility so com- pletely prevails over the sense of smell, that, as Fortune tells us (" The Tea Districts of China and India," vol. I, p. 221), " what in every civilized town of Europe, would be regarded as a most intolerable nuisance, is there looked upon by all classes, rich and poor, with the utmost complacency, and," he continues, "noth- ing would cause greater surprise to a Chinese than to complain of the stench arising from these receptacles." The Chinese do not disinfect this manure, but they are perfectly aware that it loses part of its fertilizing power by the action of the air ; and they therefore take great care to guard against evaporation. " Except the trade in grain, and in articles of food generally, there is none so extensively carried on in China, as that in human excrements. Long clumsy boats, which traverse the street-canals, collect these matters every day, and distribute them over the country. Every Coolie who has brought his produce to market in the morning, carries home at night two pails full of this manure on a bamboo pole. " The estimation in which it is held, is so great, that every- body knows the amount of excrements voided per man in a day, month, or year ; and a Chinese would regard as a gross breach of manners, the departure from his house of a guest, who neglects to let him have that advantage to which he deems himself justly entitled in return for his hospitality." ADDRESS OF HON. ALVAN P. HYDE. Delivered befoeb the Connecticut State Ageicultitral Society, Oct. 14th, 1859. At 11 o'clock tlie Hon. Alvan P. Hyde, of Tolland, delivered to a numerous audience tlie following address : — Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Society, — The present con- dition and future prospects of Connecticut Agriculture, is a sub- ject which has long demanded, and for the past few years, has to a considerable extent engaged the serious attention of thinking men in all parts of our State. To unite and concentrate the efforts of the friends of agricultural improvement, was the main object which led to the formation of this Society. It was hoped that a central organization, acting in harmony with the auxiliary local societies, by bringing together men of kindred minds from the different counties, who were earnestly engaged in the same enter- prise — ^thus furnishing an opportunity for a free interchange of opinions and facts, and a comparison of results — would tend to produce uniformity in our efforts ; would stimulate and encourage those already interested, while it would awaken a spirit of em- ulation and inquiry among our citizens generally. That these hopes were not in vain, that the time and money which have been devoted to this object have not been mis-spent — the Exhibition of this year fully pfoves. When we remember that this is but the Sixth Annual Exhibition of our Society — that it has received little encouragement in the way of pecuniary assistance at the 70 hands of our State Legislature, andthat whatever has been done, has been accomplished solely by the energy and public spirit o the of&cers and members of this Society — well may we be proud of the success that has crowned our efforts. But the evidence of the good effects which have resulted from the organization of agricultural societies amongst us, is not con- fined to the quality and variety of the articles exhibited on thesq grounds. It is to be found in almost every section of our State, in the evident improvement of farms, faim-buildings and fences — in increased crops — in the character and quality of the stock that is raised — as well as in the productions of the garden and prchard. "Within the last few years, there , has been a visible change for the better in Connecticut husbandry, and this is due in a great measure, to the increased interest which has been awakened in the minds of our citizens through the operation of these societies. I trust that this first step which our State has taken, is to be fol- lowed by a rapid progress in the same direction. There is no Stat© in our Union, whose agricultural interests re- quire to be fostered and encouraged more than our own, for m none have they been, more sadly neglected. That the system of cultivation pursued by our fathers in New England was vicious — I mean by reason of its effects upon the present generation — is universally admitted. Yet they adopted it, not from any want of intelligence, or because they did not understand their own im- mediate interests, and they persisted in it not from any lack of enterprise. The results they accomplish in other fields of labor forbid that we should accuse them of either ignorance or folly, its adoption was the natural consequence of the situation in which they were placed. They found here a vast territory, made rich and fertile by nature, ready for their occupation. To produce plentiful crops it needed no fertilizing — all that was required was to plough the ground, sow the grain, and reap the harvest. To accomplish this, there was little demand for energy or enter- prise and it required but little labor or skill, and but a slight in- vestment of capital to produce food sufficient for their wants. They found it more profitable to remove to other lands, than to attempt to renew the fertility of their old fields, when their Strength had once been exhausted by crops. To them, land was 71 the cheapest of all property, as it is to-day, in some portions of our country — so cheap that its fertility scarce adds to its marketa- ble value. * While agriculture thus naturally became in the estimation of our fathers a matter of secondary importance, all the other wants of the inhabitants of this country — the necessaries, the comforts, the luxuries which civilized society requires, were either to be supplied here by their enterprise and skill, or transported from distant countries. In these departments of industry there was an immediate, urgent, pressing demand for the exercise of all their intelligence, energies and capital, and that too with the promise that success should be most liberally rewarded. Hence it is that in New England, especially, manufactures and com- merce have ever been the favorite pursuits of our people, and have also been the most remunerative. In these. New England for- tunes have been made, and in these chiefly, New England capital has been employed. With her innumerable streams of pure and never failing water, less affected by freshets or drouth than in any other portion of our country, furnishing a cheap and constant motive power for mills and manufactories in almost every valley, and with her extensive sea-board containing numerous and safe harbors, easy of access, both by seaandland. New England posses- ses natural facilities for engaging in manufacturing and commer- cial pursuits unequalled in any part of the globe. And if we bear in mind the fact that the investment of capital and the ap- plication of labor are always controlled by the prospect of a pro- fitable return, we can hardly be surprised that our fathers devoted their constant and unceasing efforts to the development and im- provement of these natural and peculiar advantages to the neglect of their agricultural interests. Under these circumstances the system of cultivation they adopt- ed was that of depletion, impoverishment and abandonment. Connecticut is one of our oldest States, and like most of the old States was early subjected to this exhausting process. A large proportion of the surfaice of our State has been thus treated. And oftentimes the fathers and more frequently their sons, who have chosen to follow the occupation of their fathers, have left the old worn-out fields — turned their backs on the old homestead, and 72 emigrated to other States, where the latfd was richer, and had not been cursed by a vicious system of cultivation. These sons of Connecticut are now 'scattered through every State from our Eastern border to Minnesota. While the causes which produced this state of things continued to operate, as they have continued until a very recent period, it would have been idle for us to antici- pate that capital could be diverted to any considerable extent from the channels in which it was employed to be applied to the improvement of our land — and until within a few years past, no serious effort was made to stop this growing evil, for no abso- lute necessity required it. The decrease in our own productions, as well as the increased ' demand occasioned by our increase of population, were readily supplied from the abundant crops of these new agricultural States, and at a reasonable cost. So long as sufficient food could be furnished us at a moderate expense, there- was no necessity that other branches of industry should languish or their progress be materially retarded. Nor have they done so. From 1840 to 1850 our population increased about 20 percent, thoagh our agricultural productions materially decreased daring the same period. Our next census will doubtless^ show that our increase in population during the past ten years has been equal to that of the ten years immediately preceding, though I trust it will also show that we have to some extent, at least, in- creased our means of supporting them. Connecticut is rich and prosperous to-day compared with our sister States. The atten- tion of our citizens has been directed to other pursuits to the neglect of this, the most important of all, and their energy and enterprise have made us rich and prosperous, as we are in spite of this neglect. But it must be evident to all, that oux progress would have been much more rapid and satisfactory to ourselves, had the money which has been sent abroad for the purchase of food for our own use, been paid out to the farmers of our own State, and by them been expended in improving their farms. I believe that during the last twenty-five years, money enough has been paid to other States, by citizens of Connecticut, for this purpose alone, which if it had been expended in the improvement of our own land, not only would have enabled us at the present time to produce enough for the support of all our inhabitants, but also leave a large 73 surplus for exportatioa ; and yet, the soil of our State is so poor- ly cultivated, notwithstanding the improvements that have been made during the past few years, that if we were to be deprived of the supplies of food we are constantly receiving from other States, a famine would prevaiil throughout our borders. For several years it has been apparent that we could not al- ways depend upon these new States, and that we must increase the production of food at home, or cease to grow in wealth and population. Every year the sources of our supplies are being removed farther and farther from us. To the original cost paid to the. producer, we are obliged to add the expense of transport- ation to our doors. Already the price of certain articles of daily consumption has been seriously enhanced, and I can see no good reason why all others must not soon follow in their wake. Heretofore the Western farmer has been able to obtain his land for a nominal sum, and of such extraordinary fertility, that large crops could be raised with little outlay of capital or labor. New inventions in agricultural implements and machinery, facilitating the planting, reaping and threshing of grain, have enabled one man to perform the work which before required the labor of many. Under these circumstances he could afford to sell his products so low that the Eastern farmer (30uld not hope to com- pete with him. Having no home market, he has been ready to sell at , whatever price he could get. Competing lines of railroads, steamboats and canals, established by Eastern capital, have been willing to transport his products to an Eastern market at rates ruinons to themselves. These causes combined have supplied us with our grain at such moderate prices, that we have seemed to forget that there was any necessity of our attempting to raise our own, or any danger that it would not always last. But it cannot last. The limits of this fertile territory have already been reached, and it is being rapidly filled by the ceaseless tide of emigrants, from the East, and the old world, who are there establishing their homes. The barren hiUs and plains beyond the Mississippi, dam up this tide and turn it back upon itself -Not only are our Eastern cities, towns and villages rapidly growing— thus increasing the demand by the increased consumption— -but manufacturing villages, large 10 74 towns, and populous cities, are daily springing up through our Western States,: which will soon furnish them with a market at their own doors. In addition to this, the same system of farm- ing that our fathers practiced here, is now being employed in the West on a gigantic scale. If the present system is continued, their steam plows, reaping and threshing naachines, must exhaust their soil with a rapidity that will speedily reduce it to a level with that of many of our oldest States. And it doubtless wUl be continued till the Western farmer shall be able to sell his pro- duce at a price that will remunerate him for the additional ex- pense he must incur in restoring to his fields that fertility of which he is now annually depriving them. Witli their lands advancing in price, though decreasing in intrinsic value, coupled with the necessity of enriching them with fertilizers, a bushel of grain in Illinois must soon represent a larger outlay, both of capital and labor, than it has heretofore done. With a diminishing produc- tion and an increased home demand, it will command a price proportionate to the cost of its production. The- day must soon come, when, if we continue to rely, as now, upon the West for our supplies, the prices of provisions will be enhanced to such an extent as will be ruinous to our manufacturers, as well as to all other branches of business in which we are now engaged. Upon whom then can we rely for our future supplies ? I an- swer, upon you^farmers of Connecticut, and upon you alone. If Connecticut is to maintain her present position of prosperity, it is absolutely necessary that the work of agricultural improve- ment, which has been commenced, shall be pressed forward un- til Connecticut agriculturists shall stand as high as Connecticut manufactures now stand. Our capitalists, merchants, and manu- facturers — all classes of society, are immediately and directly in- terested in this result, and are bound, as they value their own personal prosperity, to furnish all the aid in their power, and to countenance and encourage every measure which will tend to hasten our progress in this direction. Aside from the fact that it will eventually become a matter of necessity that our State shall raise a sufficient quantity of those products congenial to our soil and climate to. supply the wants of our own inhabitants, there are other considerations which reij- 75 der it important that as a State we should offer every encourage- ment to this branch of industry. It is far better for us as a com- munity that our population should be scattered over our whole territory, and a reasonable proportion be engaged in tilling the soil, than that they should be congregated in cities and large villages, and our country-towns be comparatively deserted. Al- though man is a social being, it by no means follows that the crowded work-shop, or the thronged street is best calculated for his mental, moral, or physical development. Complete^hysical development is oftenest found in the green fields and pure air of the country. When deprived of these, men physically degenerate. The mental and physical character of the inhabitants of our cities would rapidly deteriorate, were it not that they are strengthened and invigorated by the constant recruits they are drawing from the country. There is ever flowing from the country to the city, a steady stream of young men, who, dazzled by visions of future wealth and honor, forsake the honest callings ofi. their fathers for the trials, struggles, and temptations of a city life. There is also a counter-current flowing back again, though less in extent, and consisting in a good measure of men who, enfeebled by con- finement or overtaken by a premature old age, seek in the quiet seclusion and pure atmosphere of the country, that health and happiness they have failed to find in the city. So too, men degenerate morally when congregated in large bodies, for there, vice and crime find countenance and encourage- ment. Human depravity, like many kinds of disease is exceed- ingly contagious. The seeds of moral disease planted in us by JSTature need but a polluted moral atmosphere to cause them to spring into active life. The gambling-saloons, brothels arid other dens of infamy, with which our cities and large villages abound, are the running-sores where this festering depravity breaks out, contaminating and polluting all who approach them. It is true that bad men are to be found in the country as well as in the city ; but, isolated as they are, without the encouragement or protection of those who sympathize with them, and with the fin- ger of scorn pointed at them in the comnranity in which they live, their example serves rather as a warning than a temptation to others. Mr. President, — The work in which you and the other friends 76 of this Society are engaged — the attempt to raise Connecticut husbandry to its proper levelj and to fully develope the capacity of our soU to reward labor — ^is one which it will, require much time and effort to accomplish. The seed you hai;^ sown has just begun to sprout, and must be cherished and; nourished with exceeding care, if we would reap a hardest of success in the fu- ture. Farmers are proverbially slow to change, and are peculiar- ly jealous of all attempts at innovation. They are too apt to look upon their xjccupation as a mere art, handed, down to them from their fathers in its perfeption, and in which there is nothing to be learned except the mere manual, skill to perform its labor. What we are most in need of is, a better agricultural education — an education which shall enable us not merely to understand mechanical rules and established practices, but the reasons upon which those rules, and practices are founded. Labor is the chief source of national a&d, individual wealth, and the more intelligence we can infuse into it, the greater will be the returns it will ma,ke. Science has contributed greatly to the improvement of every art and;br3,nch of industry which ad- ministers to the wants of, man, and there is no art which for its prosperity and success, is more indebted, to science tha,n that of agriculture — and none which more earnestly demands its assist- ance in the future. Farming must be reduced to a regular sys- tem, so that like law, medicine and mechanics, it may be studied by those who would engage in it, both practically and theoretically. It must be interwoven with our system of education, and taught as distinct branch of study in our schools. No good reason can be given why the same course should not be pursued by one who desires to excel as a farmer, as is pursued by the lawyer, physi-, cian, or mechanic. Why, before he undertakes the management of a farm, with its complicated duties and interests, should he not become thoroughly acquainted withj the principles of his profess- ion, and with those natural laws upon whose operations his success wholly depends ? I, by no means, intend to disparage the im- portance of practical knowledge and personal experience in an art so practical as this. Without these, the knowledges acquired in schools would be of little use. Yet a knowledge of the constit- uent parts of the soils he wishes to cultivate, of their combin- 77 ations, and tlie elements of fertility they may lack, of the chem- ical composition of the plants he wishes to raise, of their habits and the food they require, with the same personal experience, must give its possessor a great advantage over those less informed — not only in guarding agaiast failure in the ordinary operations of the farm, but especially in enablmg him to devise and adopt new and improved modes of culture. That knowledge is power, is as true here as it is every where. Nor is it in schools alone that the education requisite to success can be acquired. Our country abounds in agricultural treatises and periodicals, placing within the reach of every farmer the means of acquainting himself with everything which science has taught. So, too, the. operations of a Society like this are of the highest importance as a means of disseminating valuable inform- ation, by exhibiting the practical results of different systems of cultivation, new varieties of seeds and plants, and the various kinds of stock and horses that are daily being introduced. This is eminently a practical age, as well as an age of pro- gress. The duty which men of learning and science owe to so- ciety to reduce their knowledge to practical rules, so that they may be grasped and used by their fellow men — is fully felt and acknowledged. It is now a conceded fact that there is no law of nature, which, when once discovered and understood, cannot be made of practical use to mankind. Men of science may pursue their investigations in the seclusion o'f their own laboratories while searching out some new and hidden law of nature, but they receive little credit till they also show how it may be made available in promoting the welfare of their fellow men. When this is done, we pronounce them benefactors of our race. And to-day that curious provision of nature which causes the seed to sprout, and the plant to grow — the laws that govern the growth and nourishment of plants and animals — the wants and fitness of different kinds of soil for the prodtiction of different kinds of grain, and the composition and relative value of differ- ent kinds of manure are receiving the constant, and might almost say, the undivided attention of some of most learned and skillful chemists. As they publish their discoveries to the world, the 78' value of their suggestions are being tested by practical farmers, who here exhibit to us the results of their experiments, so that all may see and know their value, and follow such as are worth following. I know^it is sometimes clainied that book farming as it is called, does not always pay— that those who adopt it and attempt to conduct their farming upon scientific principles have a propensi- ty to try new experiments, and oftentimes with serious loss to themselves. That this is frequently so, I do not doubt, nor would I have it otherwise. Most of the improvements that have been introduced in the useful arts during the last century, have been the result of experiments — and if no experiment was ever tried till we were sure of a favorable result, our progress would be slow indeed. It seems to be a law established by our Creator, that all human progress shall be gained at the expense of indi- vidual sacrifices. It has long been truly said that "the blood of the martyrs^ is the seed of the church" — and we know, that in all ages the tree of liberty has been most bountifully watered by the blood of patriots. This same law holds true ia relation to our progress in the peaceful arts and sciences. The history of the past is replete with Instances where the promulgation of the discovery of some new law of nature has brought its author to poverty and disgrace, and sometimes even has subjected him to personal danger and and imprisonment — where inventors have died in poverty and neglect, while their inventions have added greatly to the wealth and prosperity of those who have succeed- ed them. But agricultural experiments generally require little outlay of capital and seldom entail a ruiuous loss. They are more easily and readily made than any other art, — even when they are a failure, our labor is not wholly logt. Human knowledge is the result of the lessons taught by human experience, and oftentimes the lessons taught by our failures are of more value than those to be learned from our successes. Those men possessed-of wealth and education, who are devoting their money, time and energies to this work, merit all honor and praise at our hands. They are attempting to elevate and im- prove that art which is the mother of all other callings and pro- 79 fessions — the oae upon which they all rest aad depend for exis- ence — the one which, as it is the the oldest of all human employ- ments, is the most honorable of them all. One of the brightest auguries of our future success is to be found in the fact that the jealousies of our farmers are gradually fading away before the light of science. They are beginning to appreciate the value of the information to be acquired in our scientific schools that are being established among us. They are awakening to a sense of the dignity and importance of their calling, and are more ready to receive and act upon any suggestion that promises to improve their condition or render their business more profitable or more honorable. It is only by directing all our enterprise and intelligence active- ly and earnestly to this work with the advantage of all the helps which science and experience can furnish us, that we can reno- vate the agricultural interests of our State. Our hills are steep, and rough, and rocky, and much of the best of their soil has been washed into the valleys, and the riches of which they have been robbed, for the most part, there lie unused and unproduc- tive in the swales, and swamps, and marshes with which our State abounds. We must restore' to our hillsides the elements of fer- tility of which they have been deprived, while these swales, and swamps and marshes are to be reclaimed and made the best of all lands by thorough underdraining and careful tillage. In this way, these waste places may be made to produce abundant crops of the best of English grasses, and the rocks upon our hills will be fringed with rich pasturage and surrounded by luxuriant fields of grain. It is true this wUl require us to invest capital liberally upon our land in addition to the first cost of the land itself; but does not every other kind of business demand our whole time and atten- tion, and the continual investment of capital, to make it profit- able ? The manufacturer is daily expending his income in re- plenishing his gtock of raw material, in supplying the place of his worn-out machinery with new, and in adding to his establish- ment every new invention and improvement calculated to in- crease the quantity or improve the quality of his productions ; 80 otherwise his career would soon end in bankruptcy and ruin. The capital of a farmer invested in his farm is of two kinds, — his land and its fertility. Fertility is his floating working capi- tal, and bears the same relation to his land as the goo'ds of the merchant do to the store that contains them, or the machinery of the manufacturer to his mill. The manufacturer who should refuse to repair or replace his machinery, as it becomes old and worn out, would soon find his mill would not pay for running, and the merchant who should neglect to replenish his stock of goods, would soon find his store with/its empty shelves not worth the tending; and a man who would so conduct himself, would be regarded as one who needed the care and supervision of a conservator. Yet there are many menj even now, who yearly and systematical- ly convert everything they can spare from their farifis into money, and return no part of it in the shape of fertilizers. Such men are robbing their business of its active working-capital, and their land soon becomes like the mill with its machinery worn out, or like the store with its empty shelves. The bushes encroach on the fields ; the fences fall to decay ; the buildings are suffered to get out of repair ; and the sons and daughters are but too glad to turn their backs on so unpromising a spot. I verily believe that if our farmers would as freely invest capi- tal in improving their farms, and would direct as much care and attention to their management as is done by our other citizens in the management of their business; they would, taking one year with another, receive better interest on their invest- ments than is obtained by either our merchants or manufacturers ; that the man who has an hundred acres of land from which he can now glean but a bare sustenance, would get a far better re- turn for his capital and his labor if he would sell one-half, and carefully invest the proceeds in enriching and improving the remainder. Let us clear up, new fence, and fertilize the old fields ; intro- duce stock of which we may be proud for their beauty, as well as their value, repair the buildings, and surround them with shade trees ; fill the garden and orchard with fruit, and the yard with flowers ; make the farm more attractive as well as productive : — 81 in a word, make tlie old homestead -what it ought to be : a home in fact ; a place around whicli the affections of the family will cluster, a place to be admired and not to be despised ; and we will hear less of emigrating to other States ; and there will be fewer vacant seats around the family board at our Thanksgiving gath- erings. The man who pursues this course, not only has his cap- ital invested in his business, but he is beyond the reach of all commercial convulsions, and has no need to fear a financial cri- sis. He has his money invested in a bank which will honor all his drafts; if he properly presents them at seed-time they will be duly accepted, and at the harvest fully paid. He is acquiring an inheritance for his children far better than any money or any stock he can leave them. Though we are now compelled to struggle with a hard and re- luctant soil, our location is not without its advantages. We are blessed with pure air, pure water, and a healthy climate. Along the streams in our valleys are clustered manufacturing villages which furnish us with the best of a home market at our very doors. It is through our manufacturers alone that we are able to draw wealth from other States to our own, for there is scarce anything else than their productions which we send abroad to sell. They are causing a constant golden stream to flow in upon us, which is compelled almost as constantly to flow out again to purchase the food they need. If our agriculturists will do what they ought , and most easily can do, and what I hope they soon will do — raise from our own soil enough to supply this home demand — ^then this outward drain will immediately cease, and this gold- en current wUl be turned into the pockets of our own citizens, adding rapidly to the wealth and prosperity of our State. As a means calculated to exert a powerful influence in excit- ing an interest upon this subject in the minds of our people, and in hastening the accomplishment of this desirable result, this so- ciety deserves the active and earnest co-operation, not merely of our farmers, but of all classes of society. I trust the time will soon arrive when the annual meetings of this Society shall be looked upon by every citizen as the great holiday of our State — as a time once in every year, when the inhabitants of all our towns shall lay aside the implements of their daily labor, and 11 82 leaving behind as unworthy the place and the occasion, all sectarian feeling, all party spirit, and all local jealousies, here assemble on common ground i;© celebrate -the triumphs- of our citizens in the peaceful arts — the victories Connecticut skill and energy have achieved on Connecticut soil — to celebrate the agricultural inde- pendence of our State. REPORTS OF JUDGES AND ivcmU tui Wxmmm%, AT THE STATE FAIR IN l^EW HAYEIN^, 1859. CLA.SS I. Cattle. COMMITTEE NO. 1.— SHORT HORNS. Bulls, three years old and upwards. Thomas Cowles, of Farmington, " Prince of Orange," first premium, $30 A. H. Beach, Merwinsville, "Belvidere," second premium, 10 T. A. Mead, Greenwich, third premium, 8 Two Years old and under. A. H. Beach, MerwihsvUle, "Dulse of Ashgrove," first premium, 15 Linus Birdsey, Merideu, " Sachem," second premium, 10 Calves. p. B. Tyler, West Haven, first premium, 2 A. H. Beach, Merwinsville, " Mayduke," second premium 1 Cows, three years old and upwards. A. H. Beach, Merwinsville, " Belle 2d," first premium, 20 Thos. Cowles, Farmington, " Moss Rose," second premium, 10 A. H. Beach, Merwinsville, "Myrtle 2d," third premium, 8 84 Heifers, two years old. Thos. Cowles, Farmington, " Beauty," flrat premium, $15 A. H. Beach, Merwinsville, " Belle 4tli,'' second premium, 10 Yearling Heifers. A. H. Beacli, Merwinsville, "Bessie BeEe," first premium, 10 John Giles, Woodstock, " Buby,'' second premium, 8 Thos. Cowles, Farmington, "Pride of the Meadow 3d," third premium, 3 JOHN BISSELL, JOHN STEDMAN, )■ Committee. B. SUMNEE, NO. 2.— DEVON BULLS. The undersigned, the Committee of Judges on Devon Bulls, having attended to that duty, respectfully report that all the classes of that stock submitted to their inspection exhibited great merit, and that the improved condition of the young animals presented, gave evidence of a careful attention to the requirements necessary for pure and judicious breeding. The undersigned also decree the following awards : Three Years old and upwards. Lewis A. Thrall, Torrington, Bull " Hero," first premium, $20 Linsley Brothers A Co, West Meriden, Bull " Hiawatha,'' second premium, ... 10 B. H. Andrews, Waterbury, Bull " Hannibal," third premium, 8 James A. BHl, Lyme, BuU "Nero," discretionary, 8 David Beecher, Huntington, Bull 3 years, discretionary, 5 Two years old. D. W. Grant, Bloomfield, Bull " Charter Oak," first premium 15 Stanley Griswold, Torringford, BuU "Bobolink," second premium, 10 James J. "Webb, Hamden, Bull " Albert," third premium, 3 One year old. N. B. Smith, "Woodbury, first premium, 10 Levi Coe, Middletown, second premium, 8 Stanley Griswold, Torringford, Bull "Nero," third premium, 3 Bull Calves. John Tillotson, Farmington, Calf "Champion," first premium, 3 S. & L. Hurlbut, "Winchester, Calf " Prince," second premium, 2 JOHN G-ILES, ) p, LEVI COE, [ Committee. 85 NO. 3.— DEVON COWS. Your Committee beg leave to report that after a patient and diligent examination of the forty-six animals presented for their judgment, they have awarded as follows : Three years old and upwards. S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Cow " Lovely," first premium, $20 B. H. Andrews, Waterbury, Cow " Gipsy Maid," second premium, 10 Stephen Atwood, "Watertown, Cow " Daisy," third premium 8 Two years old. James A. Bill, Lyme, Heifer " Taney," first premium, 16 S. &L. Hurlbut, "Winchester, Heifer "Horn," second premium, 10 John Tillotson, Farmington, Heifer "Nellie," third premium, 3 One year old. S. & L. Hurlbut, "Winchester, Heifer " Kate," first premium, 10 Hezekiah TiUotson, Farmington, Heifer " Eosette," second premium, 8 Stanley Griswold, Torringford, " Hetty 2d.," third premium, 3 Heifer Calves. Stanley Griswold, Torringford, first premium, 3 Joseph M. Munson, "Watertown, Calf " Kate," second premium, 2 Your Committee feel that too much was required of them to discrimi- nate where so many animals were so deserving and worthy, not one in- ferior animal being presented. No animal was offered that the owner may not well take pride aiid pleasure in. All of which is respectfully submitted. JOHN F. BEARD, ) BIRDSIE B. PLUMB, } Committee. J. T. NETTLETON, ) NO. 4.— HBKEFOEDS, AYESHIEES & ALDEENEYS. ALDEENEYS. Donald G. Mitchell, New Haven, Aldemey Bull, 3 years old, first premium, . . $15 Dr. E. Bently, Norwich, BuU " Rampant," 1 year old, first premium, 8 John Giles, "Woodstock, Cow " Buttercup," 5 years old, first premium, 15 Dr. B. Bently, Norwich, Heifer " Lactania," first premium, 10 Dr. E. Bently, Norwich, Bull CalfJ first premium, 3 H. J. Burghardt, "West Stockbridge, Mass., Ayrshire Bull, 2 years old, disc. prem. 10 WM. H. PUTNAM, ) "WM. BILLINGS, f Committee. "WM. BBRKELE, ) A fine show of Imported Ayrshire stock was made by Mr. Chas. F. Pond of Hartford, for exhibition only. NO. 5.— GRADE SHOUT HORN COWS. Three years old and upwards. A. Hamilton, "West Hartford, first premium $15 B. C. Lake, New Haven, second premium, 10 Two years old. B. C. Lake, New Haven, first premium, 10 Orrin Todd, North Haven, ) , . ,• -o j ( 4, [■ second premium divided, J . Timothy Fowler, Union. ) ( 4 Otie year old. M. H. Griffin, Middletown, first premium 8 Wm. A. Woloott, Lakeville, second premium 5 Heifer Calves. B. C. Lake, New Haven, 3 Discretionary. Henry Mather, Hamden, Herd of 18 Cows, 5 THOMAS COWLES, Chairman. \ NO. 6.— GRADE DEVON COWS. Three years old and upwards. Lauren Tyrrell, 'Woodbury, first premium, $20 James A. Bill, Lyme, second premium, 12 Stanley Griswold, Torringford, discretionary, 6 JL H. Griffin, Middletown, discretionary, 5 B. C. Lake, New Haven, discretionary, 5 Two years old. Howard Kellogg, New Hartford, first premium, 15 Levi Ooe, Middletown, second premium 10 James A. Bill, Lyme, discretionary, 3 Nelson Tyler, "West Haven, discretionary, 3 Solomon Tyrrell, Westville, discretionary, 2 One year old. Levi Coe, Middletown, first premium, '. , k 12 C. B. Smith, "WolcottviUe .,..., 8 87 Heifer Calves. James A. Bill, Lyme, first premium, §5 Stanley Grlswold, TorriDgford, discretionary, 2 Discretionary for Bull. Howard ZeUogg, New Hartford, 5 EU Goodrich, Branford, Bull Cal^ 3 JOHN C. AMBLER, THOMAS GATES, \- Committee. DAVID BEECHER, NO. 7.— NATIVES. Cows, three years old and upwards. ylleiu-y Mather, Hamden, first premium, $15 A. S. C. Cook, Westville, second premium, 10 Calvin S. Barnes, Salisbury, third premium, 5 James A. Bill, Lyme, discretionary 5 Two years old. Charles W. Blakesley, New Haven, second premium, 5 Heifers, one year old. Orrin Todd, North Haven, first premium, 8 David Cook, New Haven, second premium, 4 Heifer Calves. Justus Peck, Bethany, first premium, 3 Bulls, three years old and upwards. Justus Peck, Bethany, first premium, 15 One year old. Wm. M. Hart, Madison, first premium, 8 Bull Calves. James A. Bill, Lyme, first premium 3 ASA HUBBARD, ) CHAS. T. CHATFIELD, \ Committee. S. G. TIBBALLS, ) NO. 8.— WOEKING OXEN. Six years old and over. John Barnard, Hartford, first premium, $15 Middlesex Quarry Co. Portland, second premium, 10 " " " " third premium, 8 Eichard W. Griswold, Torringford 4th best pair, 1 years, fourth premium, 4 -LEWIS A. THEALLJ 0. HICKOX, ^Committee. S. MEAD, ) NO. 9.— WOEKING OXEN. Five years old. Middlesex Quarry Co., Portland, first premium, $15 Horace Hart, New Britain, second premium 10 IT. B. Smith, Woodbury, third premium 8 Augustus Hamilton, "West Hartford, fourth premium, ^ GEO. OSBORNE, ) THOS. MEAD, t Committee. DANIEL WILLARD, ) NO. 10.— WOEKING OXEN. Four years old. — Devon Grade. Alexander Hamilton, West Hartford, first premium, $12 Stephen Atwood, Watertown, second premium, 10 Eichard W. Griswold, Torringford, third premium, 8 John Carter, Litchfield, fourth premium, 5 N. B. Smith, Woodbury, fiith premium, 4 Lauren Tyrrell, Woodbury, sixth premium,., 3 JOHN HUBBARD, ) JOSIAH HAMMOND, \ Committee. JOSEPH H. .PORTER, ) NO. 11.— WOEKING OXEN. Four years old. J. C. Luce, Newington, first premium, $15 Scovill L. Atwood, Plymouth, second premium, 10 Benj. Webster & Son, Litchfield, third premium 8 David Beeoher, Huntington, fourth premium, r 5 JOHN BARNARD, ) H. TUCKER, i Committee, f C. H. MASON, ) 89 NO. 12.— STEEES, DEVON GEADE. Three years old. Your Committee have attended to the duties assigned them, and re- port as follows, viz : There were exhibited for premiums, seven pairs of three years old Steers, which were all of very fine quality, and were all well worthy of premiums, but as your committee were confined to but three premiums, they award to Levi Coe, Middletown, first premium, $10 Benj. Webster & son, Litchfield, second premium, 5 John T. Phelps, Bloomfield, third premium, 3 Two Years old. James J. Webb, Hamden, first premium, 5 James A. Bill, Lyme, second premium 4 James A. Bill, Lyme, third premium 3 One year old. Levi Coe, Middletown, first premium, 5 James A. BUI, Lyme, second premium, 3 DAVID BEECHEK, ) HORACE HART, [-Committee. AUGUSTUS BALDWIN, ) NO. 13.— STEEES. Three years old. P. W. Russell, Portland, first premium, $10 E. H. Hyde, 2d, Stafford, second premium, 5 Edward Shepard, Portland, third premium, 3 Two years old. E. C. Phelps, Bloomfield, first premium, 5 Chas. W. Blakesley, New Haven, second premium, 3 Jared Gorham, Hamden, Twin Calves, first premium, 3 Justus Peck, Bethany, second premium, 2 J. N. BISSELL, ) JOHN G. STEVENS, \ Committee. EDWIN PALMER, ) 12 90 NO. 14.— MILC5 COWS. No cow offered has had any statement respecting her, that compares in any degree with the requirements of competitors. Therefore no state- ment has been made on which your committee could base their action in making awards. We cannot award I But are agreed in the high , merits of the animals entered, and should the finances of the Society admit, it is thought best to recommend a medium premium, say not to exceed $8.00, to that entered by James Fellows, New Ilaven. E; C. ALLEN, B. K. HALL, )-GonimJttee. C. E. PLUMB, NO. 15.— FAT CATTLE. Middlesex Quarry Co., Portland, best pair Fat Oxen, first premium, $15 Thomas A. Mead, Greenwich, 2d " " " " second premium, 10 Thomas A. Mead, Greenwich, Best Ox, first premium, 8 Thomas A. Mead, Greenwich, 2d " " second premium 5 Emory Morse, Wallingford, Best Fat Cow, first premium, 8 James A. Bill, Lyme, 2d " " second premium, 5 E. WOODRUFF, E. H., ) A. BARNES, [• Committee. W. H. HICKOX, ) OL^SS II. Horses and Mules. NO. 16.— STALLIONS AND MAEES OF ALL WORK. Over seven years. John Hemenway, Suffield, "Imperial Black Hawk," first premium $20 George K. Peck, Falls Tillage, "Toung Zenith," second premium, 15 James S. Cole, Easton, " BiUy Mambrino," third premium, , 8 Mares with Foal al, foot. Wm. J. Ives, Meriden, mare " Fanny Ellsler," first premium, 15 John Brown, Stafford, second premium, . , , 10 Sidney Hurd, 'Woodbury, third premium, 8 D. F. GULLIVER, ) "W. T. BARBOUR, \ Committee. P. F. BARNUM, ) 91 The Sub-Committee of the Executive Committee award to T. G. -^ycrigg, of Newark, New Jersey, discretionary premium for stallion "Governor Wright," fhorough-bred, 1 years old, $20. NO. 17.— STALLIONS AND MAEES. -FVue years and under seven years. Jarvis Joslyn, New Haven, "Flying Cloud," first premium, §20 George B. Bates, New Haven, second premium 15 John Atwater, 'WaUingford, "Hiawatha," third premium, 8 Mares with Foal at fool. Samuel B. Parmelee, WaUingford, first and only premium, no competition, .... 16 JAMES 'D. FRAKY, S. C. BABCOCK. ^Committee. L. W. GOE, NO. 18.— STALLIONS AND MAKES. Four years old. F. "W. Russell, Portland, Stallion, " Clarion," first premium $20 M. H. GrifiSn, Middletown, Stallion " Gov. Seymour,'' second premium, 16 Lyman A. Work, Hartford, Stallion " Green Mountain Boy," third premium, . . 8 J. M. Munson, "Watertown, mare with foal at foot, " Giflford Maid," first prem. . . 15 PHILEMON HOADLEY, J. M. HUBBARD, S- Committee. N. B. PHELPS, NO. 19.— STALLIONS AND MAEES. Three years old. STAIiMONS. Chas. Parker, Meriden, "Alexander," first premium, $15 J. H. Bennett, "Washinton, " Naugatuck," second premium, 10 Wm. Pettibone, Meriden, " Pathfinder," third premium, 8 MARES. Wm. L. Bradley, West Meriden, " Lola Montez," first premium 12 Henry Hickox, Woodbridge, "Fanny Fern," second premium 8 S. C. BABCOCK, ) W. H. NYE, V Committee. JAMES D. FRARY, ) 92 NO. 20.— STALLIONS AND MAEES. TWO XSJ) ONE YEAKS OLD. Stallions two years old. Henry J. Peck, Morris, "Plying Dutchman," first premium, $10 Wm. Hale, West Meriden, " Black Hawk," second premium 5 Mares two yews old. Samuel Clark, Meriden, " Meriden Maid," first preiruum, , , 8 M. H.' Griffin, Middletown, " Dolly," second premium, 5 Stallions one year old. John Tale, Meriden, first premium, 5 Wm. L. Bradley, West Meriden, " Leviathan," second premium, i Chas. N. Jones, Wallingford, StaUiou " Tippo," 2 years, discretionary premium, . 4 Mares one year old. B. Trumbull Jones, Wallingford, first premium, 5 P. B. Buckingham, Seymour, second premium, 3 JAMES A. WEBB, ) PHILEMON HOADLEY, } Committee. GEORGE OSBORNE, ) NO. 21.— MATCHED HOESES FOE OAEEIAGE AND EOAD. Wm. N. Wait, New Haven, (16 hands,)first premium, $15 Wm. J. Benton, " " " second premium, 10 Isaac Nichols, Naugatuck, (15 hands,) first premium, 15 F. W. Russell, Portland, " second premium, 10 Jerome Holcomb, Canaan, discretionary premium, 5 The show of Horses in this class was very poor, no man could look upon them with any degree of pride. JEDIAH WILCOX, ) P. D. CROSBY, ^Committee. GEORGE GILBERT, ) NO. 22.— MATCHED OE FANCY MATCHED HOESES, FOE LIGHT WOEK. J. Wilcox, Meriden, first premium, $15 D. Phillips, Hartford, second premium, 10 D. C. Hill, New Haven, third premium, 8 93 Gr. Gilbert, New Haven, discretionary premium $10 T. G. Aycrigg, Passaic, N. J., discretionary premium 10 L. W. COB, ) R. N. AUGUR, f Committee. W. J. IVES, ) NO. 23.— MATCHED DRAFT HORSES. J. 'Wilcox A Co., West Meriden, 9 years, first premium §8 J. W. Hine, New Haven, " Bill," 12 years, second premium 5 J. G. Hine, New Haven, 4 years, third premium 3 Adams Express Co., 4 horses, discretionary premium, 10 ISAAC THOMPSON, ^ PHILEMON HOADLEY, I ^ T. C. CANF^ELD, ^Committee. R. N. AUGUR, J NO. 24.— GELDINGS AND MARES FOR FAMILY USE. Five years old and under eleven. The Committee on this class respectfully report that in their judgment, all of the Horses entered in this class are entitled to drawback, as per regulation for the best twenty-five horses. Your Committee make the following selection for the award of premiums : W. H. Brown, "Waterbury, first premium, |;15 J. Joslyn, New Haven, second premium, 10 Wm. Smith, Stafford, discretionary premium, 10 E,H.Hyde, 2d " '" " 5 J. F. ORCVTT, W. T. BARBER, !- Committee. L. W. COE, NO. 25.— GELDINGS AND MARES FOR FAMILY USE. Eleven years old and over. James D. Frary, West Meriden, " Trouble," 18 years, first premium, $10 ' Wm. L. Bradley, West Meriden, " Lady Washington," 18 years, second prem. . 8 John L. Lyon, New Haven, "Lilly," 11 years, third premium, 5 J. W. KNAPP, A. PEARL, }■ Committee. 0. J. MARTIN, 94 NO. 26.— GELDINGS AND MAEES FOE FAMILY USE. FOUK, THREE, AND TWO YEAES OLD. ' Four years old. Isaac Bartlett, New Haven, "Grey Bird," first premium $10 M. H. Grriffin, Middletown, " Farmer's Boy," second premium, . , 8 P. D. Crosby, Danbury, discretionary premium, 5 Seth S. Logan, Washington, discretionary premium, 3 Three years old. H. W. Skinner, first premium, .3 S. L. Bristol, New Haven, second premium, 5 Two years old. Charles Gabril, Middletown, first premium, 8 JOHN A. HEMENWAY, ) P. B. CLOSE, \ Committee. L. B. BBOWN, ) NO. 27.— EOADSTEES. Jarvis Joslyn, New Haven, "Granger Horse," first premium, $15 Wm. J. Ives, Meriden, second premium, 10 W. M. Hungerford, WoIoottviUe, third premium 8 Albert W. Knapp, Fairfield, fourth premium 5 Benjamin Gilbert, Eidgefield, discretionary premimn,. ; 6 A Richmond, Brooklyn, discretionary premium, ..-...'.. 5 JOHN A. HEMENWAY, ) A. D. BBIGGS, \ Committee. B. K. BISHOP, ) ' NO. 28.— MULES. P. B. Tyler, West Haven, best pair, first premium, $io E. B. Bishop, New Haven, second premium, 5 P. B. Barnard, West Haven, best Jack, first premiimi, 3 JAMES A. WEBB, ) ISAAC THOMPSON, [ Committee. PHILEMON HOADLEY, ) 95 CLA.SS III. Sheep, Swine and Poultry. NO. 29.— LONG WOOLED SHEEP. Geo. C. Hitchcock, New Preston, best Buck 3 years old, first premium $8 Geo. C. Hitchcock, New Preston, 2d " " " " second premium, 5 Geo. C. Hitchcock, New Preston, best " 2 " " first premium, 5 Geo. C. Hitchcock, New Preston, 2d " " 2 " " second premium, .... 3 Geo. C. Hitchcock, New Preston, Ewes, 3 " " first premium 8 Geo. C.Hitchcock, New Preston, 2d best " " " second premium 5 Geo. C. Hitchcock, New Preston, Beat five lambs, first premium, 5 Geo. C. Hitchcock, New Preston, Ewes 1 year old, first premium, 5 Geo. C. Hitchcock, New Preston, " " " second premium, 3 DAVID LUCAS, [ p .,, RALPH I. SCOVILLE, \ ^o™™'"ee. NO. 30.— MIDDLE WOOLED SHEEP. Bucks, three years old and over. T. S. Gold, "West Cornwall, first premium, $8 T. S. Gold, " " second premium, 6 Bucks, one year old and under three. AJonzo Whiting, Torrington, first premium, 5 C. B. Smith, Wolcottville, second premium, 3 Ewes, three years old and over. T. S. Gold, "West Cornwall, first premium, 8 James A. BUI, Lyme, second premium, 5 Five Ewes, one year and under three. T. S. Gold, West Cornwall, first premium, 5 C. B. Smith, WolcottviUe, second premium, 3 Five Larahs. Bevil P. Smith, Woodbridge, first premium, 5 Discretionary Premiums. James A. Bill, Lyme, Buck, 3 years old, 3 T. S. Gold, West Cornwall, 5 Lambs, 3 ANSON FOWLEE, ) CYRUS CATLIN, ^Committee. SAMUEL 0. HATCH, ) 06 NO. 31.— MEEINO SHEEP. Alonzo Whiting, Torrington, Merino Buck, first premium, $8 James A. Bill, Lyme, 2d best " " second premium, 6 Alonzo Whiting, Torrington, Five Ewes, first premium, 8 James A. Bill, Lyme, 2d hest " " second premium, 5 Alonzo Whiting, Torrington, Five Lambs, first premium, 5 EDW. BENTLY, ) E. J. ATWOOD, ^Committee. A. B. COE, ) NO. 32.— SAXONS AND ALL GEADES SHEEP. C. B. Smith, WoleottviUe, Best Saxon Buck, first premium $8 James A. BUI, Lyme, 2d " " " second premium, 5 C. B. Smith, WoleottviUe, Best Five Saxon Ewes, first premium, 8 TrumanMinor, Woodbury, 2d " " " second premium, 5 Truman Minor, Woodbury, Best pen, five Lambs, 5 0. B. Smith, WoleottviUe, Best Kve grade Ewes, 8 James A. BiU, Lyme, 2d " " " " 5 James A. Bill, Lyme, Best pen Five Ewe grade Lambs, 5 The Committee recommend to P. B. Tyler, "West Haven, for one pair black African Sheep, discretionary premium of two dollars. CHARLES HUBBARD, ) WILLIAM S. HULL, [ Committee. M. H. BISHOP, ) NO. 33.— FAT SHEEP, Geo. C. Hitchcock, New Preston, Best Long Wooled, first premium, $8 Geo. 0. Hitchcock, " 2d " " " second premium, 6 Geo. 0. Hitchcock, " Best Middle Wooled, first premium,. , 8 T. S. Gold, West CornwaU, 2d " " " second premium, 5 Geo. C. Hitchcock, New Preston, Best grade, first premium 8 B. Bright, Tliompsonville, 2d " " second premium 5 A. B. SHERWOOD, ) C. H. BENNETT, V Committee. E. WOODRUFF, ) NO. 34.— SUFFOLKS, SWINE. Wm. L. Bradley, West Meriden, Best Boar, first premium, $3 David Cook, New Haven, 2d " " second premium, 4 Wra. L. Bradley, West Meriden, Best Sow, first pretnium, 6 Daniel Cooke, New Haven, 2d " " second premium 4 ANDREW BARNES, ) C. A. LINSLEY, [ Committee. K. DOWNES, ) 97 NO. 35.— SWINE OF OTHER BREEDS. Samuel Davis, New Haven, For Best boar one year old and over, first prem. . . $6 Sam'l W. Fellowes, " 2d. " " " " " second prem. 4 James A. Bill, Lyme, For Best Sow, first premium, /6 Geo. "W. Brookett, North Haven, 2d Best Sow, second premium, 4 Kneeland Downes, Bethany, Best Sow and Pigs, not over ten weeks old, first premium, 8 Joaiah P. Isbell, Milford, 2d Best Sow and Pigs, not over ten weeks old, sec- ond premium, 5 HENRY BILL, ) r^ W. KBURTIS, [Committee. NO. 36.— POULTRY. Whitney Elliott, North Haven, "White Dorkings, first premiupi, $2 Jabez F. Potter, Hamden, Grey " second premium, 2 Enos Bassett, Hamden, Black Spanish, first premium, 2 Jabez F. Potter, Hamden, " " second premium, 1 Enos Bassett, Hamden, White Polands, first premium, 2 Enos Bassett, Hamden, Black Polands, first premium, 2 Augustus Bagley, New Haven, Golden Polands, first premium, 2 Enos Bassett, Hamden, " " second premium, 1 EnosBaasett, Hamden, Jersey Blues, first premium, 2 J. P. IsbeU, Milford, " " second premium, 1 James Harrison, New Haven, Game Fowls, first premium, 2 James Harrison, New Haven, " " second premium, 1 J. P. Isbell, Milford, Buff Shanghae, first premium, 2 John F. Welles, Wethersfield, White Shanghae, first premium 2 John F. Welles, Wethersfield, Grey " first premium 2 Henry Mather, Hamden, " " second premium, 1 . Biios Bassett Hamden, Bolton Greys, first premium, 2 J. P. Isbell, Milford, " " second premium, 1 J. P. Isbell, Milford, Dominique '• first premium, 2 G. P. Bates, New Haven, African Bantams, first premium, 2 E. W. Stiles, New Haven, " " second premium 1 Wm. R. Chapman, New Haven, Bantams, first premium, 2 John H. Graniss, New Haven, " second premium, 1 Wm. Cooper, New Haven, Native Fowls, first premium, 2 Samuel Davis, Town Farm, New Haven, Native Fowls, second premium, .... 1 Samuel Davis, Town Farm, New Haven, Best pair Turkies, first premium, ... 2 F. W. Cowles, Buckland, Best pair Wild Turkies, first premium, 2 Bethuel Brockett, North Haven, Best Ducks, first premium, 2 Geo. P. Bates, New Haven, 2d " " second premium, 1 Bethuel Brocket, North Haven, " Geese, first premium 2 Charles N. Beecher, Woodbridge, 2d Best Geese, second premium, 1 13 98 EethuelBrookett, North Haven, Guitiea Pbwls, first premium-, $2 Enos Bassett, Hamden, greatest variety of Pigeons, first premium, . . , 2 JabezI'.Potter, Hamden, 2d " " " ;: second premium, ........ . 1 Enos Bassett, Hamden, best exliibitjon poultry owned by one person, first pwm. 6 J. P. Isbell, Miiford, 2d " " ". " " ' " sec. prem. 4 Wm. P. Gorfion, New Haven, best exhibition common rabbits, first premium, . . 2 H. A. Mix, Kew Haven, 2d " " "' " second premium, . 1 Discretionary. John Giles, "Woodstock, 1 trio SUver Pheasants, premium 2 E. D. Dickerman, Mt. Carmel, 1 pair Geese, premium, 1 W. H. Farnham, "Westville, one Coop Bantams, premium, ; 1 John H. Granniss, New Haven, 1 pair California Quails, premium, 50c Thomas Horsfall, New Haven, Bantam Fowls, premium, $1 J. H. Hoke, New Haven, 1 pair Birds, premium, . , 50c E. W. Stiles, New Haven, 1 Coop Bantams, premium,.. 50c Chester Robinson, North Haven, 1 pair grey Shanghaes i $1 WM. H. PRENTICE, Committee. Tools, Machinery, &c. NO. 37.— PLOWING MATCH. Alexander HamUtou, West Hartford, with Ruggles, Nourse & Mason Plow, first premium, ,. $12 Loren Carpenter, Meriden, with Buggies, Nourse & Mason Plow, second prem. 10 Samuel Coombs, Westville, common plow, third premium, 8 T. L. Hart, West Cornwall, with Nours^'.s Eagle plow, No, 13^, 4th premium, . 5 Boys under 18 years of age. William Hubbard, (lY yrs,) Guilford, with Dutch Plow, first premium, 8 L. D. Grant, (16 yrs,) Bloomfield, with Prouty & Mears' Plow, second premium, 5 James E. Hubbard, (14 yrs,) Discretionary, 2 Michigan Phw. Thomas Cowles, Farmington, first premium 12 Edward Shepherd, No. 19, Ed. Bradley's plow, second premium 8 Samuel Woloott, under 18 years, discretionary premium, . . . ' 3 ASA HUBBARD, H. TUCKER, }• Committee. CHAS. osaooD, 99 NO. 38.— FAEM IMPLEMENTS. The Committee on Farm Implements, having attended to the duties assigned them, report that there were brought to their notice, four- teen Mowers and Reapers. The Committee had no means of testing their merits, but are well aware that each has its advocates, and all of them are highly appreciated by the ]?'arming community, and must soon come into general use. They have, however, awarded to John P. Adriance, of New York, the prize of a Gold Medal, for the improved Buckeye Mower. H. P. Judson, BetUem, for Bow-Keys for Ox yokes, §1 Marvin Smith, New Haven, for Apple Parer, 1 Elbert E. White, Stamford, 'Whitoomb's Horse Rake, 3 Loren Carpenter, Meriden, Ox Yoke, 2 D. B. Jackson, Bethlem, device for Drawing Water 2 Alexander Hamilton, West Hartford, Ox Cart, 2 Taylor & Pardin, Hightstown, N. J., machine for digging and gathering Pota- toes ^ 2 T. B. Rogers, Wethersfield, Corn Husker, 1 T. B. Rogers, Wethersfield, Seed Drill, 1 Whitmore, Bachelor & Co., Chioopee Falls, Feed Cutter, 2 H. W. & 0. C. Stetson, Hartford, Hog Troi^gh, 1 Amasa Warren, Westport, Hand Cultivator 1 Leander A. Burr, Haddam, Smith'sPateutButter Worker and Churn, 1 FRBDERICK BUELL, WILLIAM BASSETT, J- Committee. STEPHEN HOYT, NO. 39.— AGEICULTUEAL AND HOETICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS. Robert B. Bradley & Co., New Haven, for best coUeGtion, Silver Medal. Wm. B. Johnson & Co., New Haven, second " " Silver MedaL Wm. B. Johnson & Co., New Haven, for best assortment of Plows, . Silver Medal. D. W. Shares, Hamden, for best Digging Machine, Gold Medal. T. S. Gold, West CornwaU, for best Rook Hook, , Diploma. Ralph I. Scoville, West Cornwall, best Broadcast Sowing Machine,. . Silver Medal. Recommended. H. Tucker, Ternon, for Hall's Patent Stump Machine, Diploma. John B. Knapp, Stamford, for best Fire Brick and Dram Pipe, do. T. B. Rogers, Wethersfield, for best Drill Seed Planter, do. T. B. Rogers, Wethersfield, for best Corn Husker, .- do. SAMUEL G. BLACKMAN, ) SAMUEL G. TIBBALS, [-Committee. ENOS HOPKINS, \ 100 NO. 40.— TOOLS,: MACHINERY, &c. Joseph Franklin, 'Sew Haven, Sterling's Gas Regulator, Diploma. Milo Peck, New Haven, Model Drop Press, Model Atmospheric Drop Hammer, • do- New London Horse NaU Co., New London, Horse Shop Nails do. Lincoln & Douglass, New Haven, Patent R. R. Car Trucks , do. George ChurohUl, Hai-tford, Patent Belt Clasp, ' do. Sampson, Tibbals & Co., Troj, N. T., Hay and Cattle Scales, do. Frank Douglass, Hebron, Carriage Jack do. Many of tlie articles entered, the Committee were unable to find, of those found, in many instances' there was no one present to designate the advantages claimed in the articles exhibited. In regard to .the Sewing Machines, they feel they ought not to express an opinion of preference from the impossibility of deciding upon their comparative merits upon the slight examination possible at the time. EICHARD HINE, B. T. BUTLER, > ^ J. D. CAiTDEE, )- Committee. J. P. BtJNCE, NO. 41.— BUTTER. Committee on Butter respectfully beg leave to report that they have attended to the duties of their appointment, and would state that they had presented for their inspection and examination no less tlian forty dif- ferent samples (with very few exceptions) of the most splendid and beautiful June and Fall butter, that it was evertheir privilege to taste, and for neatness and the good order in which it was put up, was particularly deserving of attention, and met the hearty approbation and approval of your Committee, showing to them that these numerous specimens of butter must have come from the delicate hands of the most neat and tidy of Connecticut wives and daughters, of whom your committee have no hesitation in expressing the opinion, that they cannot be surpassed in any other State. And your Committee most fully believe, that in this opinion, they will be sustained, by all who have witnessed the numerous fair countenances and sparkling eyes of the Connecticut ladies that have graced the Fair grounds on this oc- casion. Your Committee regretted as they looked over these so much to be admired specimens, so delicious to. the taste, that- they had not 101 a premium at their disposal to confer for every one of them, but as there were but eight premiums to bestow, four for June, and four for Fall butter, they were obliged to make selections, and in doing this they are by no means sure that they have done justice, other tastes might have come to different results, but we hope we shall have the credit of acting impartially without bias in coming to our conclusions, we will only say we have done the best we could, and the best could not do any better we award therefore to A. & T. Jerome, Bloomfield, Fall Butter, first premium,. . ; $10 Sylvester.BroDSon, Mlddlebury, Fall Butter, seoorni premium, 8 David Whittlesey, New Preston, " " third premium, 5 Ashbel Landon, Lakerille, " " fourth premium, 3 J. F. MoNlel, Sahsbury, June Butter, first premium, 10 John Ford, Stratford, " " second premium, 8 Lauren Tyrrell, 'Woodbury, " " third premium, 5 W. A; Wolcott, Lakeville, " " fourth premium, 3 Discretionary. Mrs. Henry Sanford, Bethany, Fall Butter 2 Mrs. B. A. Phelps, Colebrook, June and Fall Butter, 2 Mrs. Chas. G-. Atwater, Hamden, jNine and Pall Butter, 3 Mrs. "Wm. H. Putnam, Brooklyn, Fall Butter, 2 Mrs. S. G. Benham, Hamden, June and Fall Butter, 2 PELEG C. CHILD, Chairman of Committee. The two tubs of Butter presented by E. A. Phelps, were manufactured in Colebrook, Litchfield Co., churned from the milk. The Dairy consists^ of twelve Cows, the churning is performed every day. The churn used is a large dasher-churn holding some 40 to 50 gallons, which with a thermometer, combines all the advantages of any churn now in use. The butter when taken from the churn, is washed in pure spring water, which process perfectly expresses the milk, while it does away with the necessity of working the butter too much, the great fault of most butter makers. No ingredient is used except ^-ure rock salt to give it flavor, or for its preservation. The tubs used are made of white hemlock, a kind of timber devoid of all flavor, and perfectly sweet. The tubs are soaked some three weeks in a strong brine before packing. "When filled they are set away in a common cellar, and the butter is marketed in November and December to private families. No cheese is made from the dairy, and no difierence is made in the price throughout the season. I have eaten butter of this manufacture, 102 two years old, sweet and good. The churning is performed from 12 to 14 hours after milking. The hand is never allowed to come in con- tact with the hutter. E. A. Phelps. P. S. — I know of no other dairy in the State, where butter is made by the same process. I strain the milk in tin pans, about half full, and let it stand until the cream is fully ripe, arid churn it the usual way, and then take out the butter and work it as dry as I can, and then salt it, and let it stand about two days, and then work it well, and let it stand a day or two more and work it, and thenlay it down, placing salt between t|]e layers, coyer it with salt, placing a cloth on the top and keep it in a cool cellar. Lauken Tybeell. Lakeville, Conn. To the Committe of the Conn. State AgricultwaJ, Society on Butter : This Butter was made from a dairy of five cows. Co\Vs feed, old pasture, stabled and soiled night and morning with grass, or corn fodder. Milk kept in temperature varying from fifty five to sixty degrees. Churned at sixty degrees. Milk skimmed before souring, cream churned every other day while still sweet. Salted at the first > working with three- quarters of an ounce of salt to the pound. Butter worked three times, being careful not to work it at any one time enough to make it oUy. Mrs. AsHBEL Landon. NO. 42.— CHEESE. T. L. Hart, West CprnwaU, best 50 lbs, first premium. $8 W. H. Putnam, Brooklyn, " "' second premium,!. .'.. .'. ! '. 5 J. F. McNiel, Salisbury, " " third premium 3 T. L. Hart, West Cornwall, best 100 lbs, new cheese, first premium, . ^ 8 J. F. McKeil, Salisbury, " " " " " second premium, 5 Wm. H. Putnam, Brooklyn, " " " , " third premium 3 T. L. Hart, "W^est Cornwall, best 50 lbs. English Dairy, 1 year old, first prem. . . 8 J. F. McNiel, Salisbury, " 50 " " 1 year old, second prem. 5 T.L. Hart, West Cornwall, "100 " " new, first preni 8 Levi Cook & Son, Colebrook, 100 " " second premium 5 J. F. McNIel, Salisbury, 100 " " third premium, 3 103 Discretionary. David Whittlesey, New Preston, 100 lbs, new cheese |3 CALEB MIX, ) GEO. H. PENNIMAN, [ Committee. E. WOODRUFF, ) To the Committee of the Conn. State Ag'l Society on Dairy Products: The accompanying lot of Cheese is of the same kind known in our markets as " English Dairy." Our manner of making it is as foUows : The morning milk is strained into a tub, and rennet added, sufficient to coagulate to a curd, also prepared annatto to make a rich color. The milk should stand three-fourths of an hour, then the curd must be sarefully broken, after which it should stand and settle. The whole must be then dipped into a strainer placed in a box, elevated so as to allow ;he -whey to pass off, place a weight upon the curd to accelerate the Jraining process. After draining six hours, the curd should be sus- pended over a sink till the next morning, when it is cut with a machine nto small cubes, and moderately heated with water till the curd will not leparate by being pressed with the fingers. It should then be aUowed o drain as dry as possible, and salted in the proportion of one teacupfull >f salt to ten pounds of curd. It is left until nearly cold, for if placed a the hoop warm the cheese will have a strong taste. After being iressed six hours, it is taken out and turned into a close fitting cap, re- laced in the press where it remains till the next day, making forty-eight ours of pressing. The cheese should be oiled every day for two months, 'he same process is pursued with the nights' milk. Levi Cooke & Son. As to the process of manufacturing the cheese offered for exhibition, have nothing new to communicate save what I have already commu- cated in former statements which have been published in the Transac- Dns of the Society, to which reference may be had. Among the most important things to be observed in the manufacture cheese is the saving and preparation of the rennet ; if this be not refully attended to, no amount of care or good management afterward 11 make a good and pleasant cheese. To preserve the rennet, it must all times be kept from dampness, or its strength -will be lost by evapo- ;ion. In preparing for immediate use, the addition of lemon juice 11 very much aid in preserving it, and also in coagulating the milk. 104 It is also very necessary that care should be taken to break the curd evenly, or it will not be equally scalded, and the consequence will be a leaky cheese. T. L. Hart, West Cornwall. NO. 4S.— ittONEY. J. Phelps Davis, Middletown, first premium, $5 Stephen Topliff, Oxford, second premium, 3 J. S. Partridge, Albion, New Tork, discretionary premium, 3 Beeswax. Smith Beach, Cornwall, first premium, 2 Bayberry Tallow. Miss Eliza J. Smith, Bethany, .' 2 R. C. Otis, Kenosha, Wis., Honey, • ■ • E.C.Otis, " " Langstrolh's movable cone Bee Hive, . E.C. Otis, " " " BeeHat, R.C.Otis, " " " Samples Honey Box, R. C. Otis, " " " Observatory Hive, E. B. CHAMBEELAIN, ) WM. H. PUTNAM, V Committee. W. W. STONE, ) Gold " Medal NO. 44.— GEAIN AND SEEDS. Wm. Parmeloe, New Haven, Winter Wheat, first premium, $3 H. E. Brooks, Cheshire, " " second premium, 2 Chas. N. Beeehor, Woodbridge, Spring " first premium, 3 Wm. A. Woloott, Lakeville, " " second premium, 2 J. S. Lindsley,' Northford, Barley, first premium, 3 Daniel 0. Augur, Woodbridge, second premium, < 2 Wm. W. Fowler, Guilford, Oats, first premium, 3 H. N. Warner, North Haven, " second premium, 2 Whitbey Elliot, " " Rye, first premium, 3 Sackett G. Benhara, Hamden, " second premium, 2 Hayden F. Todd, North Haven, Buckwheat, first premium, 3 Whitney BUiot, " " " second premium, 2 Ashbel Landon, Lakeville, Timothy Seed, first premium, .^. . 3 Truman Minor, Woodbury, Clover Seed, first premium, 5 105 Wm. H. Woodin, Hamden, Beans, first premium, *2 D. 0. Augur, "Woodbridge, " second premium, 1 Sheldon A. Hotchkisa, Hops, first premium, 1 Sam'l Davis, Town Farm, New Haven, Corn, first premium 3 S. G. Bonham, Hamden, Corn, second premium 2 Discretionary. The Committee recommend a discretionary premium to each of the following persons for Corn : Jared Atwater, Hamden, $1 Wm. H. Buell, Clinton 1 Josiah Pease, New Milford, , 1 The Committee recommend discretionary premiums of $1.00 to each of the follovsring persons : R. P. Stillman, North Haven, Champion of England Peas, $1 R. F. Stillman, " " Early North Haven, 1 D. C. Augur, Woodbridge, nine varieties beans 1 W. H. Putnam, Brooklyn, bushel Kilm Oats 1 Mrs. Eliza Smith, Bethany, " " " 1 W. B. JOHNSON, ) SACKETT G. BENHAM, V Committee. JOHN H. SHERWOOD, ) NO. 45.— VEGETABLES. Charles Andley, New Haven, Best 6 stalks of Celery, first premium, $2 Samuel Davis, New Haven, 2 do. 6 " " second premium, 1 George Atwater, Hamden, Best one-half bushel Turnips, first premium, 2 Ashbel Landon, LakevHle, 2d do. " " " second premium, 1 P. Buckley, Hartford, Best one-half bushel Carrots first premium, 2 A. Bagley, New Haven, 2d do. " " second premium 1 Charles L. Chaplain, New Haven, Best 6 Pumpkins, first premium, 2 Wm. S Bronson, New Haven, 2d do. 6 " second premium, 1 P. Buckley, Hartford, Best one-half bushel Beets, first premium, 2 Wm. F. Morgan, Woodbridge, 2d do. " " second premium 1 P. Buckley, Hartford, Best one-half bushel Parsnips, first premium, 2 New Haven, 2d do. " ' " A. Holford, second premium, 1 Daniel 0. Auger, Woodbridge, Best one-half bushel Onions, first premium, ... 2 Vinus Wooding, Hamden, 2d do. " " " second premium, . . 1 Henry Pember, Newington, Best 2 bunches Onions, first premium, 2 Nelson Tyler, West Haven, Best 6 Cabbages, first premium, 2 Waiiam Miles, New Haven, 2d do. 6 " second premium, 1 S. Mead, New Haven, Best one-half bushel Tomatoes, first premium, 2 A. Bagley, New Haven, 2d do. " " second premium 1 14 106 p. Buddey, Hartford, Best 6 Winter Squashes, first premium, $2 A. Holford, New Haven, 2d do. " " scecond premium, 1 Hayden F. Todd, North Haven, Best one-half bushel Potatoes, first premium, . 2 Wm. H. "Woodin, Hamden, Best one-half bushel Potatoes, second premium, ... 1 Wm. F. Morgan, Woodbridge, Best 24 ears Sweet Com, first premium, 2 W. A. 'Woloott, LakeviUe, 2d do. 24 " " " second premium, 1 George Atwater, Hamden, Best one-half bushel Lima Beans, first premium,.. . 2 A. Holford, New Haven, 2d do. " " " second premium, . . 1 A. Veitoh, New Haven, Best and largest collection Vegetables, first premium, . 10 P. Buckley, Hartford, 2d " " " second premium, 8 Samuel Davis, New Haven, 3d " " " third premium,.. 5 Discretionary. A. Holford, New Haven, for collection Vegetables, $3 Orrin Todd, North Haven, for YeUow Pumpkins, Wm. Parmelee, New Haven, Beets P. Buckley, Hartford, large Squashes, Benj. H. Jackson, New Haven, large Squashes, Jared Gorham, Hamden, Potatoes, Wm. B. Baldwin, New Haven, Potatoes, Lauren Tyrrell, Woodbury, " WUliam Cooper, Hamden, " Michael Donegan, New Haven, Kohl-rabi B. B. Clark, New Haven, 1 case Diosoorea Batatas, B. B. Clark, New Haven, Chinese Pine Melons S. Mead, New Haven, sample Egg plants, A. Bagley, New Haven, " " Miss M. Gilbert, WestvUle, Chinese Tam, Horace Atwater, Hamden, sample. peppers A variety of potatoes called Strawberry Potatoes, were exhibited, but not entered, which seemed worthy of a favorable notice from the committee, all of which is respectfully submitted. SOLOMAN MEAD. PETEE ASHTON, ' \ Committee A. H. JEEOMB, NO. 46.— FLOUE AND BEBAD. Bridgeport Mills, Bridgeport," best bbl. Flour made in Connscticut, Silver Medal. H. Baldwin, Washington, best Rye flour ' $1 Linsley, Va;n Zant and Carlisle, New Haven, best Buckwheat Flour, 1 Fairfield Co. Mills, Bridgeport, best Indian Meal, 1 Mrs. A. Wolcott, LakevUle, best Wheat Bread, 3 James A. Bill, Lyme, 2d " " '^ 2 Henry Sanford, Bethany, 3d " " " \ 1 C. S. Barnes," Salisbury, best Eye Bread, 3 107 James Augur, Bethany, 2d do. " |2 W. A. Wolcott, LakeviUe, 3d do. " : 1 Ashbel Landon, Lakeville, best Brown Bread 3 David Whittleaey, New Preston, 2d best Brown Bread, 2 Wm. H. Putnam, Brooklyn, 3d " " " 1 M. W. COMSTOCK, ) J. W. HINB, V Committee. HENRY HAMMOND, ) CLA.SS VI. KO. 47.— HOUSEHOLD MAFUFACTUEES. Sag or other Carpets. Mrs. Wilford, Branford, first premium $8 Mrs. Tibbals, Durham, second premium, 5 Mrs. Philo Hurd, Watertown, third premium, 3 Discretionary. Mrs. J. F. Phelps, Biaomfleld, 2 Mrs. David Whittlesey, New Preston, 2 Mrs. Mary A. Pomeroy, New Haven, 1 David Whittlesey, New Preston, Braided Hearth Rug, first premium, 2 John Ford, Stratford, Worsted Hearth Rug, second premium, 1 Mrs. Henry Hickox, Woodbridge, one superior Woolen Blanket, first prem. ... 3 John Ford, Stratford, one pair Woolen Blankets, second premium, 2 Mrs. Milan Hart, New Haven, discretionary, 3 Mrs. Joseph A. Rogers, Hamden, Woolen Flannel, first premium, 3 Smith Beach, Cornwall, white Woolen Flannel, second premium, 2 Smith Beach, " plaid " " discretionary premium, 1 Mrs. Greorge Hayes, "Vy^arren, Quilted Counterpane, first premium, 3 John Ford, Stratford, " " second premium, 2 Miss Georgiana Treadway, Knitted Counterpane, first premium, 3 Miss Nellie Hubbell, Bridgeport, second premium, 2 Miss Sallie B. Mansfield, North Haven, discretionary 1 Mrs. N. S. Richardson, New Haven, best Comfortable, premium, 2 Mrs. B. Morton, Fair Haven, Bed Quilt, first premium, 3 Mrs. Sarah E. Creighton, Meriden, second premium, 2 Miss Rodetta Armstrong, Fair Haven, Silk Bed Quilt, premium, 2 Truman Minor, Woodbury, Woolen Tarn Mittens, premium, 2 Smith Dayton, New Haven, Fringe Mittens, Woolen Gloves, premium, 2 Henry Sanford, Bethany, best Knit Woolen Stockings, first premium, 2 Mrs. Charles G. Atwater, Hamden, second premium, 1 108 Hannah Booth, Stratford, Silk Stockings, premium .'. $2 Mrs. Haraiah Cooper, New Haven, ELnit Woolen Half Hose, premium, 2 Smith Beach, Bethany, Knit Cotton Half Hose, premium 2 Mrs. L. H. Sigoumey, Hartford, 6 pair Silk Hose, premium, 2 Mrs. Philo Hurd, Middletown, best 10 yards linen, premium, 3 Samuel C. Buddington, Huntington, b^st pound Linen Thread, premium, 2 Samuel 0. Buddington, Huntington, best Linen Kersey, first premium, 3 Mrs. Philo Hurd, Watertown ,' 2d " " second premium, 2 Discretionary; Miss Grace M. Lines, New Haven, Worked Skirt, 2 SaUy R. H. Smith, between 3 and 4 years of age. Pillow Case, 2 John Farnham, Huntington, Pillow Cases and Skirt, 2 Miss. H. S. Peck, two sets Feather Furs, made by Prudence, aged 5 yrs. .10 mos. 2 E. S. Read, 2 Bed quilts, by a lady 87 years old 3 Committee of Ladies by E. H. BISHOP. NO. 48.— NEEDLE, SHELL, WAX AND FANCY WOEK- Miss Adelaide Hall, New Haven, Embroidered Chair, premium $3 Madame Clara French, New Haven, Fire Screen, first premium, 3 Miss Adelaide Hall, New Haven, " second premium 2 Mrs. Juha L. Gardner, New Haven, Worsted Embroidery, first premium, 6 Mrs. Chas. Bradley, New Haven, second premium 3 Mrs. Dennis Umberfield, New Haven, Embroidered Suspenders, premium 1 Mrs. Dennis Umberfield, New Haven, Crotchet " premium, . w . 1 Mrs. Henry G. Smith, Westville, Worsted Embroidery, premium, 1 Madame Clara French, New Haven, Embroidered Test, premium, 1 Harriet Horn, New Haven, Embroidered Handkerchiefs, premium, 2 A. A. Wilcox, " Silk Embroidery, premium, 1 Mrs. L. R. Woodbridgg, Stonington, Embroidered Cushion, premiiun, 1 Henry Plumb, New Haven, Embroidery, Laces &c., .Dip. recommended. Miss Susan Perkius, New Haven, Worsted Work, premium, $2 Francis Bulkley, " Pin Cushion, premium, 1 Anna Hotohkiss, " Worsted Picture, premium, 1 M. J. Goodrich, Middletown, several Embroidered Articles, 3 S. C. Allen, Stratford, Worsted Work, premium, 1 Fijank Douglass, Hebron, Embroidery, premium, 1 Miss Lizzie A. Buel, New Haven, Slippers, premium, 1 Mrs. Geo. Bradley, Hamden, Lamp Mat, premium, ^ 1 Mrs. H. Gilbert, Westville, Collar, premium, 1 Rodella Armstrong, Fair HavCn, Counterpane, premium, 3 Miss H. Gilbert, Westville, Silk Coverhd, premium, 1 Mjss H. Gilbert, Westville, Wax Flowers, " 2 109 Alexander Demnan, New Haven, Card box, $1 DexterAlden, ." , Needlevork, 3 Mrs. S. G. Pitman, " Shell "Work, 3 Nellie Whiting, " Cone Frames and Basket, premium, 3 Adeline Kempshaw, Branford, Bedquilt, premium, 3 Harriett Hood, New Haven, Shawl, premium, 3 Mary A. T. Armstrong, Mt. Carmel, Worsted Shawl, premium, 2 Mrs. 0. Hine, Plymouth, Cone Frame, premium 2 Mrs. Charlotte Canfield, Leather Frame, premium, 3 Miss Augusta Braddook, Essex, Wax Flowers, premium, 3 Miss Charlotte KeUam, New Haven, Hair Work, premium, 1 Miss Nettie C. Norton, Goshen, Handkerchiefs, premium, 3 Miss Willis Smith, New Haven, Shell Frames, premium, 1 Miss C. B. Brooks, " Feather Flowers,, premium 3 Miss Rosa Frioke, Bridgeport, Moss Stand, premium, 3 Mrs. JohusHughes, East Haven, Shell Frames, premium 3 F. W. Pierpont, Fair Haven, " premium, 2 F. W. Pierpont, Fair Haven, Basket Shells, premium, 1 Miss Lizzie A. Buel, New Haven, Autumn Leaves, premium, 1 WM. B.. PARDEE, ) MES. WM. B. PARDEE, [ Committee. MRS. GEO. ENGLISH, ) CL^SS VII. Textile Fabrics. NO. 49.— TEXTILE GOODS. J. M. Crofut t Co., New Haven, For Cloaks and Shawls, and Dresses for Children, made on Sewing Machine, : Diploma. Norfolk Hosiery Company, Norfolk, For one-half dozen all wool Shirts, . . Gold Medal. JOHN T. ANDREW, ) E. S. MUNSON, f Committee. R. S. STILLMAN, ) NO. 50.— SILVER WAEE, CUTLERY AND FIRE ARMS. Paul Eoessler, New Haven, 1 Case Optical Instruments, and Mathematical Instruments, Microscopes, Opera Glasses, Steel Spectacles and Bye Glasses Silver Medal. Northfield Knife Co., Northfleld, Pocket Cutlery, do. Samuel J. Hoggson, New Haven, Samples Dies, Stamps and Stencils, . . . Diploma. 110 Roberts & Sperry, New Hayen, Silver, Electro and Crystal Plating, Silver Medal. P. A. Moore, New Haven, Exposed Clock, do. United Knife Co., Litchfield, 1 Cage Pocket Cutlery, do. C. Cowles & Co., New Haven, Plated^Ware and Carriage Trimmings, do. Bliss & Goodyear, " Revolved Pistols, Diploma. Henry Terrington, Norwich, American Rifle, do. J. W. Munson, Bridgeport, Powder Flasks and Shot Pouches, do.' Charles Snow, Brooklyn, Gold Pens, do. Rose & Chadwick, Hartford, Sharp's Patent Breech Loading Repeating Pistol, . . . ; do. Hinman & Pardee, New Haven, card of Scissors, Shear and Knife Shar- peners, .' do. A. G. Shaver, New Haven, Shavers Patent Eraser Silver Medal. Palmer & Co., New York, Artificial Limbs, do. T. J. Stafford, New Haven, Automatic Pistols do. JOHN T. ANDREW, ) p„^„:h„„ E. S. MUNSON, '[Committee. NO. 51.— HOUSE TEIMMINGS, &c. Jepson &, Rawliug, New Haven, 1 case Piles and Becut Files Silver Medal. Wm. A. Clark, " Patent Extension Bitts, Diploma. "Wm. P. Smith, " Sample Silver Plated Harness Trimmings, . do. Coe & Snifiin, Stamford, Sample of Skates, do. P. H. Smith, PlainviUe, Window Sash Spring Balance, do. Marshall Granniss, "Waterbury, Patent Carpet Fastener, do. Gridley & Co., New Haven, Patent Gimblet Pointed Screws, Wrought Iron Capped Picture Nails, Piano Pins, Saw Screws, do. R. F. STILLMAN, ) 4 JOHN T. ANDREW, [ Committee. E. S. MUNSON, ) NO. 52.— BEASS WOEK AND STOVES. Chas. "Winship, New Haven, Best Cooking Range Diploma. Lyman Treadway & Co., New Haven, Best House Furnace, do. Lyman Treadway & Co., " " Cooking Stove "Bay State,". do. Chas Wluship, " " " " "Good Samari- tan," Silver Medal. Chas. Winship, New Haven, Parlor Stove, do. Lyman Treadway & Co., New Haven, Laundry Stove for coal, Diploma. "W. T. Cannon & Co., New Haven, Bath Tub and Shower Bath, do. Lyman Treadway & Co., New Haven, Coffee Roaster, do. Ill Lymau Treadway & Co., New Haven, Contineutal Coffee Pot, Diploma. Charles Cowles & Co., " Stove Ornaments do. Thomas Bruton, New York, Screw Top Can and Jars, do. Thomas Bruton, " Self-ventilating Cake Box, do. Samuel G. Blaokman, Davis Improved Carpet Sweeper, do. JAS. T. PRATT, } ISAAC BACKUS, ^Committee. S. D. CASE, ) NO. 53.— LBATHEE, ETC. Bristol & Hall, New Haven, best collection Boots and Shoes, first premium, . . $5 J. 'W. Munson, Bridgeport, Cane Umbrella, Gold Medal. J. "W. Munson, " Miscellaneous Rubber Goods, Diploma. Phineas S. Bradley, Woodbury, Calf Skins, do. Collins & Co., New Haven, Leather Trunks, do. "Wm. Jas. Hamersley, Hartford, Patent Spring Stirrups do. M. Beers & Son, Cornwall, Gloves and Mittens, do. M. Beers & Son, Cornwall, Buckskin, do. E. W. Maraton, New York, Patent Draft Hames, do. J. W. Munson, Bridgeport, Whip Sockets and Martingal Rings do. JOHN H. GOODWIN, ) ^ JOS. MBRRIMAN, [ Committee. NO. 54.— WOODEN WAEE, ETC. WiUis Dickerman, Westville, best lot Wooden Pails, first premium, $2 X H. Armstead & Co., New Haven, best Barrels, first premium, 3 WiUis Dickerman, Westville, " second premium 2 Willis Dickerman, " beat Butter Firkins, first premium 3 Isaac S. Dickerman, New Haven, " second premium, 2 Charles Webster, " beat Baaketa, first premiiun, 2 6eorg« L. Cooke & Co., " " second premium, 1 George B. Leete, New Haven, best Willow Ware, fia'st premium, .... 2 Cooper & Case, Best handles for Carpenter's tools, first premium 2 Mark Ball, New Haven, " " " second premium, 1 STEPHEN HOYT, ) ^ T. L. HAET, \ Committee. NO. 55.— HATS AND TAILOES WOEK. Mrs. M. J. Hurlburt, New Haven, 5 Velvet Hata, premium, $5 Mrs. M. J. Hurlburt, " variety of other Hats, ^. . . 3 112 Miss Julia F. Wilbur, Norwich, Bonnet, premium, $3 CoUins & Co., New Haven, Ladies Dress Furs, 5 Collins & Co., " Hats and Caps, .' 5 Norman Hope, " " second premium 3 W. B. JOHNSON, ) GEO. "W. WOODING, [ Committee. GHAS W. SHELTON, ) NO. 56.— PAPEE. B. Booth, New Haven, best sample 'Writing Paper, Diploma. D. BAKNES, ) J. N. STICKNEY, V Committee. GEO. H. GOODWIN, ) NO. 57.— CABINET WARE. Samuel H. Boyer, New Haven, 1 Black Walnut Hat Stand, Diploma. D. N. Hotohkiss, New Haven, 1 Hat and Umbrella Stand, do. Metallic Furniture Company, Norwich, Chairs and Tables do. Miss F. S. Collins, New Haven, Picture Table, do. W. W. EOBERTS, ) R. DAVISON, f Committee. J. P. AVERY, ) NO. 58.— CARRIAGES. KUlam & Co., New Haven, best Coach, Diploma. Killam & Co., " best 6 seated Brett, do. W. & C. Diokerman, " best Family Carriage, do. Messrs. Gr. & D. Cook & Co., New Haven for assortment of Carriages, . Gfold Medal. Messrs. Gr. & D. Cook & Co., " best Top Buggy, Diploma. Messrs. G. & D. Cook & Co., " best Open " do. Messrs. &. & D. Cook & Co., " best Pleasure Wagon, do. Messrs. G. & D. Cook & Co., " best Sleigh, do. Messrs. G. & D.Cook & Co., " best Chaise, do. Stephen B. Gilbert, " best Business Sulky, do. J. F. Cooper, New Haven, best Trotting Sulky and Skeleton Wagon, . . do. S. H. Bishop, " Shifting Pole and Wagon Seats, do. J. D. Sarven, " Carriage Wheels, do. Chas. Beers, " Patent Holder Hooks and pr Footman Holders, do. Geo. T. Newhall, " BabyCarriage, do. Ealph Smith and Hicks Sumner, also exhibited 2 fine Baby Wagons, ... do. 113 Geo. T. Newhall, New Haven, beat sample Carriage Bows, Diploma. Geo. T. iSTewhall, " " Hubs and Spokes, do. Geo. T. Newhall, " " Body Stuff in rough do. C. Cowles & Co., " " Cards of Plated Trimmings,. do. Ira Dikeman, " Good portable Top, Dikeman's Patent, . . do. Henry A. Mather, "Waterbury, Best Silver Ornaments and Rosettes, ... do. Henry A. Mather, Waterbury, Best "Whip Socket, do. J. H. & G. Weed, New Haven, Best case of Harness Mountings, do. Smith Bros., North Haven, Best Shaft poles and Carriage parts, do. Work's Odometer Band Co., Hartford, Best Sample Odometer do. Samuel Dudley, New Haven, Best Fancy Stitching, do. G.P.Kimball, " Finest large assortment of. Carriage Wheels, and Hubs, do. Geo. T. Newhall, New Haven, Laurence Buggy, do. E. TOMLINSON, ) N. ALVORD, }• Committee. NELSON ALVORD, JR., ) NO. 59.— MUSICAL mSTRUMENTS. Pish, Barrett & Randall, Woodbridge, one Organ Harmonium, Diploma.^ ROBBINS BATTBLL, R. K. WEHNER, ]■ Committee. GUSTAVE J. STCECKLE, NO. 60.— FINE ARTS. Wales Hotchkiss, New Haven, Portrait, Silver Medal. Miss Fannie Sherman, " 3 Crayon Drawings, Diploma. Miss Harriet Hood, " 4 Oil Paintings, do. Punderson & Cuissand, " Lithograph Engravings, do. Bryant, Stratton & Packard, 18 Cooper Ins., N. T., samples of Writing, . do. Williams & WUey, Hartford, specimens of Printing in Colors, do. T. J. Stafford, New Haven, Letter Press Printing, do. M. HUDSON, Chairman. NO. 60.— (A) MISCELLANEOUS. Chai-les Winship, New Haven, Refrigerators, Diploma. L. Woodin, " Tift's Patent Clothes Dryer, ,. . . do. Parmelee & Leavenworth, New Haven, Improved Spool for Store use, . . do. 15 114 Ramsdel & leishman, New Haven, Plaster Ornaments for buildings, . . . Diploma. H. J. Stevens, " Case of Dentistry, ; Silver Medal. George Gardner, " 1 .Case Wigs and Curls, Diploma. Miss Mary Clark, Westville, specimens of Iron Ore from mines at Salisbury, do. New Haven Stearn Saw Mills Co., One Patent Ply Trap, do. John N. Bmiuell, Unionville, Culvers Patent Sectional Folding Clothes Horse, do. "Wm. N. Wheeler, New Haven, for number of Coned Articles, do. S. Moore, New Haven, Extension Gas Fixture, premium $2 Joseph Pudge, New Haven, specimen Cut and Ground Glass Diploma . S. A. BaUey, New London, Patent Washing and Wringuig Machine do. George Darrow, New Haven, Duck Boat, '. do. Smith & Ensign, " ' specimen of Lasts, do. H. K. Sears, Hartford, Iron Bridge do. Charles P. Hartwig, New Haven, Model Ship $3 J. R. H. Priest, N. T., Blbrey's Patent India Rubber Paint, and one pair Shears, Silver Medal. Moses Gilbert, Jr., New Britain, Model Ship, premium, $ Charles Webster, New Haven, Miniature Clipper Ship 2 C. W. Marston, New York, Boot Jacks, premium 2 H. Beebe, New Haven, India Rubber Mounted and Portfolio Slates, 2 Wadhams ManTg Co., Woleottville, Papier Mache Waiters, Daguerreotype Cases, Stair Rods Silver Medal. C. A. Duryea, N. T., Morrell'a Patent Clothes Dryer, Diploma. Anthony G. Davis, Watertown, Patent Parasol, Parasolette and Umbrella Handles Gold Medal. EZRA DEAN, ) J. K. SHEPHERD, [• Committee. AUSTIN A. SPAULDING, ) NO. 60.— (B.) MISCELLANEOUS. J. H Smith, New Haven, Spaldings Liquid Glue, Silver Medal. Thos. A. Read, " Friction Matches, Diploma. George Gardner, " Samples Hair Perfumery, do. G. W. Davis, " Inflammatory Extirpator, do. 'Orrin 0. Burdick, " North's New Haven Water-proof Leather pre- server (Jo. Bennedict & Bartlett, Philadelphia, Grecian Caoutchouc Oil Paste for Boots and Shoes, National Blue for Washing, Silver Medal. Wm. Goodrich, New Haven, Sachem Bitters and Wigwam Tonic, Diploma. Mrs. A. C. Chamberlain, New Haven, sample Soft Soap do. Wm. B. Billings, New York, Union Light and Gas Burning Lamp, . Silver Medal. C. W. Marston, N. Y., Leather preservative, Diploma. Geo. Buck, Hartford, samples of Indelible Ink and Flavoring Extracts, . do. 115 H. 0. Snow, Brooklyn, Conn., samples of Vegetable Oil, Diploma. H. 0. S»ow, " " " Olino Oil, do. H. H. Snow, New Haven, Confectionery, premimn $2 J. K. SHEPHERD, ) EZRA DEAN, )■ Committee. AUSTIN SPAULDING, ) CL^SS VIII. Horticultural. NO. 61.— PEARS. Chas. Dickerman, New Haven, Best 12 varieties, first premium, 6 specimens each $8 Samuel Peck, New Haven, best 8 varieties, 6 specimens each, second prem. . . 5 E. Newbury, Brooklyn, 2d do. second premium, 3 P. D. Stillman, 6 varieties, 6 specimens each, first premium 3 Chaa. Dickerman, New Haven, 1 doz. Beurre Superfine, premium, 8 David H. Carr, New Haven, 1 doz. Duchess d'Angouleme, premium, 2 John A. Taintor, Hartford, 1 doz. Winter Nehs, premium, 1 Chas. Dickerman, New Haven, best and largest collection of accurately named and approved varieties, 135 varieties, 8 Chas. Beers, New Haven, 37 varieties, premium, 5 And ttey recommend a gratuity to Wm. A. 'Wolcott, LakeviEe, 1 Eli Ives, New Haven 1 Andrew Holford, " 1 Smith Dayton, " 1 Peter H. Ashton, Middletown, 1 All of which is respectfully submitted. In behalf of the Committee. E. NEWBUBY, Chairman. JNO. I. HOWE. NO. 62.— APPLES. Peter H. Ashton, Middletown, 12 varieties, one-half bu. each, first premium,. . $8 Edmund D. Bradley, 12 varieties, one-half bu. each, second premium, 5 L. A. Dickerman, Hamden, 12 do. " " third premium, 3 Paphro Steele & Son, Hartford, 24 varieties, 12 specimens each, first premium, 5 L. A. Dickerman, Hamden, 24 " 12 " " second prem, . 3 David Whittlesey, Ne:w Preston, 24. " 12 " thirdpremium, 2 116 p. K. Fay, Middletown, best bushel Apples, first premium, $2 L. H. Todd, Mt. Carmel, Hamden, second premium, 1 Peter H. Ashton, Middletown, 2d best collection of Apples 6 Kneeland Downes, Bethany, 3d " " " 5 J. M. GiUette, Burlington, 4th" " " 2 T. C. AUSTIN, ) p, BISSELL, }^°"^™**"'- NO. 63.— PEACHES, GRAPES, &c. Chaa. Dickerman, New Haven, Plums, first premium $3 Henry A. "Warner, " Quinces, first premium, 3 Harmon Humiston, Hamden, " second premium, 2 Grapes, open culture. James Craig, New Haven, best collection, . '. 5 Charles Beers, " Isabella grapes, first premium, 3 Charles Augur, WhitneyviUe, " " second premium, 2 S. D. & L. B. Case, Canton, Catawba " first premium, «. . . . 3 Ashbel Landon, Lakeville, " " second premium, 2 Chas. Augur, 'Whitneyville, Diana " first premium 3 Chas. Andley, gardener to Misses Gerry of New Haven, Diana grapes, 2d. prem. 2 Chas. Dickerman, New Haven, Eebecca, first premium, 3 Rev. Joseph Eldridge, Norfolk, 6 clusters grapes, one variety, first premium, . 3 Rev. Joseph Eldridge, Norfolk, White Muscat of Alexandiia, first premium, . . 1 Grapes under glass. T. S. Gold, West Cornwall, best colleotion, 10 A. Veitch, gardener to James FeUowes, New Haven, second premium, 6 Watermelons. Chas. N. Beecher, Woodbridge, first premium, 2 Andrew Holford, New Haven, second premium, ] Andrew Holford, " Nutmeg Melons, first premium, 2 Cranberries. B. H. Stevens, Essex, first premium, 3 Harmon Humiston, Hamden, second premium, 2 Discretionary. , Peter H. Ashton, Middletown, collection grapes, 3 Eli Ives, New Haven, Black Missouri " 3 Wm. S. Porter, " Isabella " 1 Geo. W. Brockett, North Haven, Isabella " 1 117 Chas. Augur, WhitneyviUe, Concord Grapes §2 C. B. 'Whittlesey, New Haven, Quinces, 1 S. T. Beach, Seymour, " 1 Samuel Davis, Town Farm, N. H., Watermelons, 1 Horace Chase, Fair Haven, Citrons 1 T. H. TOTTEN, ) „ H. A. GEANT, } Committee. NO. 64.— SPECIAL FEUIT PEEMIUMS. Chas. Dickerman, New Haven, largest and best collection of Fruit, . . Gold Medal. F. H. Ashton, Middletown, second host coUectiou of Fruit Silver Medal. Smith & Hanchett, Syracuse, ' N. T., special premium, $10 John Osborn, Mt. Carmel, best collection of Preserves, first premium, 5 Daniel Whittlesey, New Preston, for collection of Preserved Fruit, sec. prem. . 3 Daniel Whittlesey, " for Jar Pickles, special premium, l Charles Andley, gardener to Misses Gerry, New Haven, best collection Pickles, 2 Vinus Woodin, Hamden, case of Preserved Peaches,_special premium, 1 MISS HUDSON, MES. BIEGE, 0. F. WINGHESTEE, j. Committee. D. S. DEWEY, A. W. BIEGE, NO. 65.— FLOWBES. Miss Cornelia Robinson, New Haven, best Mantel Bouquet $5 Mrs. Chas. Bradley, , " " 2 John MUla, gardener to C. M. Ingersoll, N. H., best Table Bouquet, first prem. 5 Mrs. Enos Blakeslee, Plymouth, Table Bouquet, second premium 3 Miss Mary G. Wells, Wethersfield, Table Bouquet, third premium, 2 Robert Veitch, New Haven, best pair Hand Bouquets, first premium, 2 Henry Fox, Hartford, 2d do. second premium, 2 Samuel D. Woodbridge, best bouquet of Wild Flowers, first premium, 3 Henry Fox, Hartford, 2d do. " " .second premium 2 A. Veitch, gardener to Jas. Fellowes, New Haven, best collection Cut Roses, first premium 3 Robert Veitch, New Haven, best exhibition Dahlias, first premium, 3 James Craig, New Haven, 2d do. " " second premium, 2 Robert Veitch, New Haven, best exhibition of 20 greenhouse plants, first prem. . 8 Robert Veitch, " " " 12 " " sec. prem..' 5 Discretionary. D. S. Dewey, Hartford, for Seedling rose " Col. Dewey," 2 118 A. Yeitoh, New Haven, collection of Native Mowers, $1 David Whittlesey, New Preston, for Basket of Native Flowers, 1 Samuel D. Canfield, Woodbridge, for out Flowers 1 M. 0. WELD, ) HENRY MANSFIELD, [ Committee. JOHN F. WEBER, ) NO. 66.— NATIVE WINE. Wine from Grapes. S. D. & L. B. Case, Canton, vintage of 1853 and '59, first premium, $8 Ashbel Landon, LakevUle, White Catawba, second premium, 5 Charles Bradley, New Haven, Native Grape, vint. 1858, third premium, 3 Geo. B. Twichell, Bethany, Currant Wine, first premium, 3 Jas. MoCleve, Portland, " " second premium, 2 Geo. B. Twichell, Bethany, Blackberry Wine, third premium 1 Wm. Goodrich, New Haven, Old Sachem Bitters or Wigwam Tonic, dis. prem. 5 Cider Vinegar. Wm. A. Wolcott, Lakeville, first Premium 2 Stephen Wheeler, New Haven, second premium, 1 DAVID CLARK, ) JUDSON CANFIELD, [ Committee. M. HUDSON, ) CL^SS IX. Field Crops, Farms and Reclaimed Lands. NO. 67.— FIELD CEOPS. At the session of the Executive Committee held in Hartford Jan. 10, 1860, the reports on Field Crops were read and awards made as fol- lows : Mk. David H. Sherwood of Southport, reports one fourth of an acre of onions cultivated on a loamj soil, over a hardpan, which had been un- der the same crop the previous year, for two years before that under car- rots. There have been twenty loads of manure to the acre from barn- yard and stable applied each of the three years previous; the same amount was applied to the present crop, fifty bushels being estimated as 119 a load. The land was, plowed once the first week in April, raked smooth, and the seed, the variety being the Red Globe, after being sunk in water to separate the poor seed which will rise to the top, was sowed at the rate of four pounds to the acre by a machine, the rows be- ing one foot apart. The crop was hoed between the rows four times, and weeded enough to keep clean. The seed was sown the first week in April as soon as the ground was dry enough to work. The crop was harvested the last of August and first of September, as soon as the crops became dead, and the yield was one hundred and thirty bushels, valued at fifty cents *he bushel. The expenses of the crop were as follows : A man with team two days $6.00 Work of one man four days 4.00 Work of boy eight days .' 6.00 Total amonnt of labor $16.00 Yalue of crop $65.00 Net profit of crop $49.00 To Mr. Sherwood was awarded the first premium of. $4.00 Mr. David H. Sherwood of Southport reports one acre and sixty- six rods of Long Orange Carrots, upon a soil mostly a light loam on a hardpan subsoil, a portion of the land incUnes to clay, and is rather heavy, but is now under drained. One acre of the ground was in mead- ow in 1856 and 1857, and in corn in 1858. The 66 rods was in grass in 1856, in corn in 1857, and in carrots and Euta Bagas in 1858. One acre had received no manure for some years until the winter of 1857-8, fifty sheep were then out on it a part of the time. The corn was ma- nured with guano in the hill and ashes on the hill. The sixty-six rods had about six cords of well rotted manure from the stable in 1858. The present crop received about one hundred bushels of night soil, four cords of composted horse manure, and six cords of manure from the hog-pen, composed principally of sea- weed. The land was plowed once the first week in May. By plowing early a crop of weeds is started which is then killed by the use of the cultivator. Aftejr the ground is raked it is marked out and the seed dropped by hand in rows eighteen inches apart, two pounds of seed are used to the acre, this gives a close set to the plants, which allows the rows to be seen sooner, when thinning only the strong plants are left, and those eight inches apart in the row. The seed is sown dry (when saving the seed only the large heads are saved,) firom the 15th to the last day of May, generally the last sowing is as good as the first. 120 The crop was hoed three times and twice weeded by hand. Harvest- ed from the 5th to the 25th of November. The crop was as follows from one fourth of an acre 8V20 pounds, or 218 bushels. In all I had 45.136 pounds or 1.136 bushels. I have sold 14 tons at an average price $15.- IV per ton. Total value of the crop $342.45. Total value of manure, -work and interest $109.00 Net profit of crop $233.36 To Mr. Sherwood was awarded the first premium of. $8.00 Me. Wl J. Pettee of Lakeville, reports one quarter acre of Carrots on a clayey loam which had been under potatoes and tobacco for the last three years, the tobacco was slightly manured- with housed barn-yard manure. The present crop had thirty loads of the same kind of manure. The ground was plowed over the last week in May, and sowed with YeEow Orange Carrot in drills fourteen inches apart, using three pounds of seed to the acre without any preparation. The crop was cultivated by hand, weeding and thinning twice, and twice hoed by hand, planted the first week in June and harvested the 1st week in November. The crop was one hundred and seventy bushels ascertained by weighing, and was sold at 25 cents per bushel. The labor expended was $12.50. To Mr. Pettee waa awarded the second premium of. $3.00 NO. 68.— FARMS AND RECLAIMED LANDS. Owing to the late day at which the premium list was issued, a major- ity of the entries under this head came too late for judicious examina- tion by the judges. The Executive Committee therefore deemed it in- expedient to make any awards, and the Chairman of the Board of Judges was directed to return reports to the competitors. REPORTS ON PEAT, MUCK, AND COMMERCIAL MANURES, MADE TO THE In 1857-8. By SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, CHEMIST TO THE SOCIETY, AND Professor of Analytical and Agricultural Chemistry in Yale College. HAETFOED: PEESS OF WILLIAMS & WILEY, Park Printing Office, 162 Asylum St. 1859. SEPORT or PROFESSOE S. W. JOHNSON, CHEMIST TO THE SOCIETY. Henry A. Dyer, Corresponding Secretary of the Connecticut State Agri- cultural Society. * Dear Sir : — Herewith I have the honor to present mj First Annual Report as Chemist to the Society. It comprehends the analytical re- sults I have obtained on the following fertilizers, viz : Four Peruvian Guanos. Two Pacific Ocean Guanos. One Ichaboe Guano. One Baker's Island Guano. Twenty Superphosphates. Five Columbian Guanos. Four Poudrettes. One Cotton Seed Cake. Five Miscellaneous. Making a total of forty-three samples. Of these, the majority have been analysed twice, in order to avoid any possibility of injuring unjustly the interests of manufacturers or deal- ers. Twenty -nine of them have been examined during the present year. The other fourteen analyses are from my investigations of 1856, and have been included here for the reason that they serve to illustrate the changes that have taken place in the value of several kinds of fertilizers, or otherwise complete the report. In some instances where it facilitates the study or appreciation of the results, I have devoted some space to elucidating the chemistry and general bearings of my subject; and for this purpose have quoted more or less from my articles on fertihzers, which have appeared in The Homestead during the last two years. The investigation of peat which I begun at your instance, has been prosecuted as far as possible, but is yet so incomplete, for reasons that wiQ be more fully entered i»to in the Eeport itself, that I desire to re- sume the subject, before making a final Eeport, if such be the pleasure of the Society. I have therefore given only the most important general results that have been arrived at in reference to this subject. As the Connecticut State Agricultural Society has for its object to develop not only the agricultural, but all the industrial resources of our State, I have alluded to the successful employment of peat in the manu- facture of various useful products employed in the arts, and to its uses as a cheap and efficient fuel. I have deemed it due to the Society as well as to myself to describe the methods I have employed in my analyses. This is done in an ap- pendix, and is of co»rse not intended for the general reader, but will enable men of science to judge of the reUability of the results I have laid before the Society. I have at the conclusion of my report alluded to some other important subjects of investigation which might be undertaken with advantage. Before entering into the account of my analyses of manures I must state, what you can testify to, that since my appointment a year since as chemist to the Society, it has been difficult to find in all our markets any positive impositions upon the farmers in the way of fertilizers. Accord- ingly the eclat of showing up glaring humbugs is not a distinguishing feature of my labors during the last year. I trust however that the comparative freedom of our State from fraudulent manures is a sufficient recompense for the fund which the Society has appropriated to my in- vestigations. Finally, I have prefaced my Eeport with some general considerations relative to the nature, uses and abuses of manures, which I hope will be of service in guiding to their judicious application. SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, New Haven, Ct., January 12, 1858. ESSAYS ON MAIURES 1857. CONTENTS, FOR ESSAYS IN 1857. , PAGtE INTEODUCTOEY. — GENERAL CSSSmERATIOXS ON ManTJEES, - - 7 1. "What are manures ? - ij 2. How manures act, . . f I. As direct nutriment, ' 7 II. As sblvents or absorbents, 17 III. Tliey may improve the physical characters of the soil, 8 3. Exhaustion and renovation of the soil, 8 4. Comparative agricultural value of manure;?, 8 5. What manures are most generally useful 7 10 6. Uses of special or partial manures, 10 7. Comparative commercial value of manures, 11 8. Valuation of manures — substances to be regarded as commercially im- portant, 11 9. Mechanical condition of manures, 11 10. Chemical condition of manures — actual and potential anunonia — solu- ble and insoluble phosphoric acid, 11 1 1 . Prices of the important ingredients of commercial fertilizers, 13 I. Insoluble phosphoric acid, 13 n. Soluble phosphoric acid, - 13 III. Actual ammonia, - - 13 IV. Potential ammonia, - 14 V. Potash, - - - 14 12. Potash may be usually neglected in valuing a manure, 14 13. Computing the approximate money value of concentrated fertilizers, 15 14. Estimating the value of cheap manures, 16 BXAMDTATION OF COMltEEOIAL MASUEES. — GUANO. - 16 1. Peruvian Guano, - 16 2. Pacific Ocean Guano, - . - 18 3. Ichaboe Guano, 19 5. Baker's Island or American Guano, - - - 20 U. CONTENTS. Page Superphosphates, 21 Chemistry of the Phosphates of Lime, ' 21 Bone-Phosphate, 23 Neutral-Phosphate, - 23 Superphosphate, 24 Standard of composition of commercial superphosphates, 26 Mape's Superphosphate, 28 Deburg's " - 29 Coo's " ' - - 29 Coe & Go's. " 31 Lloyd's " - 31 Rhodes' " . . .' 32 Other " ... 33 Columbian or Book Guano, , . . . 33 Poudrette, - - 38 Liebig Manufacturing Go's., • - - - 44 Lodi Go's., - 44 Deburg's Bone Meal, - - 46 Ivory Dust and Turnings, - ■ - - 47 Beef Scraps, - - 4'J Cotton-seed Cake — its agricultural value, - - -it Peat and Muck — Prehminary Notice, 52 Appendix — Methods of Analysis, ■ - • ■ ■ "57 mXRODUCTORY. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON MANURES. 1. What are manures? Manures are substances wliicli are incorporated with the soil for the purpose of supplying some deficiency in the latter. How- ever numerous and different may be the materials which assist the growth of plants, judging them by their origin, external characters and names, chemistry has in late years demonstrated that they all consist of only about a dozen forms of matter, which will be specified below. 2. How manures act. Manures may act in three distinct ways. I. They may enter the plant as direct nutriment. Carbonic acid, water, ammonia or nitric acid, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, silica, oxyd of iron, chlorine, lime, magnesia, potash and soda, are the elements of vegetable nutrition — the essential plant-food. In a fertile soil all these materials are accessible to the plant. If one of them be absent, the soil is barren ; if a substance that contains the missing body be applied to the soil, it makes the latter fertile. II. Manures may act partly as solvents, or ahsorbeyits, and thus indirectly supply food to the plant, e. g., hme, gypsum, salts of ammonia, &c. Soils are infertile not only from the absence or deficiency of some one or more of the above-named forms of plant-food, but also for other reasons. The food of the plant must be soluble in water, so as thus to be transmitted into the plant as rapidly as needed. Soils are often unproductive becaiise the stores of plant- food they contain are locked up in insoluble forms. Lime, gua- no, the products of the decay of vegetable matters, often fertilize a field merely by their solvent action on the soil. Gypsum acts as an absorber or fixer of ammonia. 8 III. Manures improve the physical character of the soil, i. e., make it warmer, lighter, or heavier, more or less retentive of moisture, &c. Such are some manures that are often applied in large quantity, as lime, marl and muck. ■A soil is often barren, not because it has no supplies of nutri- ment for the plant, neither for the reason that those supplies are insoluble ; but because the soil itself is so wet or dry, so tenacious and impenetrable, or so light and , shifting, that vegetation fails to find the physical conditions of its growth and perfection. Almost all our ordinary fertihzers exercise to a greater or less degree all these effects. Thus lime, on a clay soil, may, 1st., mechanically destroy the coherence and tenacity of the clay, and give it the friability of a loam ; 2d., chemically decompose the clay, making potash, soda, ammonia, &c., soluble, and,' 3d, be directly absorbed and appropriated by the plant. 3. Exhaustion of the soil hy cropping, and reiwvation hy weath- ering. Under cultivation there is removed from the soil by each crop, a greater or less quantity of plant-food. The stores of nutri- ment in the soil thus continually become smaller and smaller. By the action of the atmosphere (weathering,) assisted by pul- verization of the soil (tillage,) the insoluble matters of the soil are gradually made soluble and available to vegetation. There is thus constantly going on in the soil an exhausting, and as constantly, a renovating process. In most soils under ordinary cultivation, the exhaustion, or removal of plant-food, proceeds more rapidly than the supply by weathering. Such soils therefore tend to become unproductive. In a few cases, the solution of the materials of the soil itself goes on so rapidly that there is always present in them an excess of all the matters re- quisite to nourish vegetation. These soils are inexhaustible. To assist in maintaining the first class of soils in a state of productiveness, manures are employed. 4. Comparative agricultural value of different fertilizers. It is obvious from the foregoing considerations that manures are required to exercise very different functions in different ca- ses, according to the character of the soil, as determined by its origin and by its previous treatment. The soil itself is constant- 9 ly changing under culture, so that what is useful on my neigh- bor's soil that has been tilled and cropped for twenty years, may be quite valueless on mine which is just reclaimed from the for- est. What benefits my soil this year, may be of no perceptible advantage next year. In how far manure is needed for the special purpose of sup- plying the soil with food for vegetation, it is often dif&cult to decide. If a new and good soil is repeatedly cropped until it ceases to yield remunerative returns, it may be that addition of some one substance, lime, or potash, or sulphuric acid, will restore its fertility. It more often happens that several bodies are defi- cient; but what is deficient can only be certainly learned by actual trial. In any special case that substance is most valuable as a manure, (in so far as the direct nutrition of the plant is con- cerned,) which is most deficient in the soil in accessible form. As regards the indirect action of manures, in virtue of their absorbent or solvent powers, and as regards their effects in me- liorating the texture and other physical characters of the soil, practical men have established certain rules, founded on extend- ed experience, which it is not needful to recapitulate here. Thus much is certain : that one fertilizing agent has no abso- lute and invariable superiority over another, for all are equally indispensable. The superiority that any one manure may be reputed to possess, depends upon circumstances. Circumstances are exceedingly various and continually changing. The reputa- tion and local value of manures is equally various and changing. Jn some regions, as in certain districts of Pennsylvania, lime is considered the best manure. In numerous localities, plaster (sulphuric acid and lime,) is chiefly depended upon. In some districts, superphosphate of lime ; in others, Peruvian guano is almost exclusively used. Among the substances essential to vegetation, there are some which almost never fail from the soil. Thus, oxyd of iron and silica are present in every soil. Lime and sulphuric acid may often be wanting. Potash and soda are not unfrequently defi- cient. Available ammonia and phosphoric acid are likewise often liable to exhaustion. Ammonia and phosphoric acid, which possess the highest 10 commercial value among fertilizers, have been considered by some wbose opinions are of weight in the agricultural world, to possess also a decidedly greater agricultural value tban otber manures. It is asserted that in the growth of certain crops, and in fact those crops which best remunerate the farmer, these sub- stances are most rapidly exhausted from the soil. Now it is un- doudtedly true that on the soils of certain districts, and in certain courses of cropping, the application of ammoniacal and phos- phatic manures produces the most striking results ; yet it is by no means proved, or even probable, that on the whole, all soils and all systems of cropping included, these bodies are oftener lacking, or oftener and more permanently useful, than some of the other fertilizing substances. 5. What manures are most often and most generally useful f While we can not accord to any simple manure, or to any single ingredient of a manure, a universal fertilizing superiority, it is true that some manures are more useful than others, on ac- count of their compound nature. The more ingredients a ma- nure can supply to vegetation the more useful it' is. Stable manure is the universal and best fertilizer, because it contains everything which can feed the plant. Swamp muck, straw, and vegetable refuse generally, are of similar character. FertiHzers, like lime, plaster, salt, &c., which contain but a few ingredients, can not in general be depended upon for continuously maintain- ing the fertility of the soil. 6. Uses of special or partial manures. Special manures, i. e., manures which contain some one or few ingredients, are of use, very rarely as the farmer's chief reliance, but often as adjuncts to stable manure. Soveral special ma- nures may often be so combined as to make an effectual substi- , tute for stable manure. In high-farming, and in market garden- ing, and generally where circumstances admit of raising the most exhausting crops without fallow, laying down to grass or rotation of any sort, special manures are most advantageously employed. In ordinary mixed farming they are useful in assist- ing to reclaim or improve poor lands ; but in the best practice they play as yet a very subordinate part, unless peculiar circumstan- ces make them extraordinarily cheap. 11 7. Comparative commercial value of manures. The commercial value of a manure is measured by its price, and may be quite independent of its real agricultural value, tbougb it usually depends considerably on its reputed agricultural value. The scarcity of a substance, the cost of preparation and trans- portation, the demand for it on account of other than agricultur- al uses — all these considerations of course influence its price. It is commercially worth what the dealer can get for it, so much per bushel or ton. 8. Yaluation of m,anures. — What substances are to he regarded as commercially important in costly manures. In any fertilizer which is sold as high or higher than half a cent a pound, there are but three ingredients that deserve to be taken account of in estimating its value. These are ammonia, phosphoric acid, and potash. Every thing else that has a ferti- lizing value may be more cheaply obtained under its proper name. If the farmer needs sulphuric acid he purchases gypsum ; if he needs soda, common salt supplies him. Every thing but these three substances may be procured so cheaply, that the far- mer is cheated if he pays ten dollars per ton for a manure, unless it contains or yields one or all of these three substances in con- siderable proportion. 9. Mechanical condition of manures. Nothing is so important to the rapid and economical action of a manure as its existing in a finely pulverized or divided state. All costly fertilisers ought to exist chiefly as fine, nearly im- palpable powders, and the coarser portions, if any, should be capable of passing through a sieve of say eight or ten holes to the linear inch. The same immediate benefits are derived from two bushels of bones rendered impalpably fine by treatment with oil-of-vitriol, ten bushels of bone-dust, and one hundred bushels of whole bones. Fineness facilitates distribution, and economizes capital. 10. Chemical condition of manures — State of solubility, &c. — Am- monia, potential and actual — Phosp>horic acid, soluble and insoluble. The solubility of a manure is a serious question to be consid- ered in its valuation. We are accustomed to speak of ammonia as existing in two states, viz : actual and potential. ' By actual 12 ammonia, we mean ready-formed ammonia ; by potential ammo- nia, that wliieli will result by decomposition or decay — "that which exists in possibility, not in act." Now the former is al- most invariably soluble with ease in water, and is thus readily and immediately available to plants ; while the latter must first become "actual" by decay, before it can assist in supportiug vegetation. In Peruvian guano, we have about half of the ammonia ready formed, and easily soluble in water, the remainder exists in the form of uric acid, which yields ammonia by decay in the soil, but may require weeks or months to complete the change. In leather shavings or woolen rags the ammonia is all potential, and as these bodies decay slowly, they are of less value than guano as sources of ammonia. Oil-cake, (linseed and cotton-seed,) con- tains much potential ammonia, and in a form that very speedily yields actual ammonia. We do not know with what precise results the process of the decay of ammonia-yielding bodies is accomplished in the soil. Out of the soil such bodies do not 'give quite all their nitrogen in the form of ammonia : a portion escapes in the uncombined state, and thus becomes unavailable. Phosphoric acid may occur in two different states of solubili- ty ; one readily soluble, the other slowly and slightly soluble in water. The former we specify as soluble, the latter as insoluble phosphoric acid. In Peruvian guano we find 3.5 per cent, of soluble phosphoric acid, existing there as phosphates of ammo- nia and potash. The remaining 10 to 12 per cent, is insoluble, being combined with lime and magnesia. In most other ma- nures, genuine superphosphates excepted, the phosphoric acid is insoluble. Among those phosphates which are here ranked as insoluble, there exist great differences in their availability, resulting from their mechanical condition. The ashes of bones, and the porous rock-guano when iinely ground, exert immediate effect on crops, while the dense, glassy, or crystalhzed phosphorite of Hurds- town, IST. J., and the fossil bones (so-called coprolites of England,) are almost or quite inert unless subjected to treatment with oil- of-vitriol, ^ee page 31.) 13 11. The reasonable price of phosphoric acid, ammonia, and pot- ash. I. Insoluble phosphoric acid. There are several substances now in market whicli, as fertilizers, are valuable exclusively on ac- count of tlieir content of phosphoric acid ; which, moreover, are at present the cheapest sources of this substance that possess the degree of fineness proper to an active fertilizer. These substan- ces are the phosphatic guanos, (Columbian and American gua- no,) and the refuse bone-black of the sugar refineries. From them we can easily calculate the present lowest commercial value of phosphoric acid. If we divide the price per ton of Colum- bian guano, $35, by the number of pounds of phosphoric acid in a ton, which, at 40 per cent., amounts to 800 pounds, then we have the price of one pound as nearly 4^ cents. Eefuse bone-black may be had for $30 per ton ; it usually contains 32 per cent, of phosphoric acid. The same division as above gives us 4-| cents as the cost of phosphoric acid per pound. In this report I shall adopt the average of these figures, viz : 4r|- cents, as the reasonable price of insoluble phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid is much cheaper in cruehed bones ; but this material is not in a suitable state of division to serve as the basis of a fair estimate. II. Sol-ubh phosphoric acid. This is nearly always the result of a manufacturing process. Professor Way, chemist to the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, estimates its worth at 10|- cents per pound. Dr. Voelcker, of the Eoyal Agricultural College of England, and Dr. Stoeckhardt, the distinguished Sax- on Agricultural Chemist, reckon it at 12^ cents per pound. They have deduced these prices from that of the best commer- cial superphosphates. In this report the price will also be as- sumed at Vl\ cents. This, I believe, is considerably more than it is really worth, but is probably the lowest rate at which it can now be purchased. III. Actual ammonia. The cheapest commercial source of this body is Peruvian guano. Although it contains several per cents of potential ammonia, yet the latter is so readily converted into actual ammonia, that the whole effect of the manure is pro- duced in one season, and therefore we may justly consider the whole as of equal value with actual ammonia. 14 Good Peruvian guano contains : 2 per cent., or 40 pounds per ton of potash. 3 " " " 60 " " " soluble phosphoric acid. 12 " " " 240 " " " insoluble " " and yields 16 " " " 320 " " " ammonia. If we add together the values of the potash, (see next page,) and of the phosphoric acid, soluble and insoluble, and subtract the same from the price of guano we shall arrive at the worth of the ammonia — as follows : 40x4=$1.60; 60xl2i=$7.50; and240x4|=$10.80; total $19.90. $65.00 — $19.90=$45.10 the value of 320 pounds of ammonia. $45.10-=-320=14 cents nearly, the value of one pound. This price, 14 cents per pound, will be employed in this report. IV. Potential ammonia. The value of this varies so greatly, being, for example, as uric acid in guano, not inferior to actual ammonia, while in woolen rags it is not worth more than one- half as much, that we can' fix no uniform price, but must de- cide what it shall be,'in each special case, separately. V. Potash. The value of potash is difficult to estimate, be- cause it may vary exceedingly according to circumstances. Wood ashes are its chief sources ; these are poor or rich in potash ac- cording to the kind of tree that yields them, and the soil on which it has grown. It may vary from five to twenty per cent. Stoeckhardt, who estimates the value of ammonia at twenty cents, makes potash worth four cents per pound. The price of potashes can not serve as a guide, for they are never used for agricultural purposes. Four cents is certainly high enough for this country if it is correct for Germany. 12. Potash may be usually neglected. Most concentrated manures contain very little or no potash. In guano it rarely exceeds three per cent. Super-phosphate of lime can contain none of consequence. Potash can not be econ- omically added to manufactured manures, bacause nearly pure potash, or even the raw material from which it is extracted, viz. : wood-ashes, has a higher commercial value for technical than for agricultural purposes. Besides, potash is not generally deficient in soils, and therefore farmers do not wish to pay for it as an in- 15 gredient of costly manures. It is only when a manure is pro- fessedly sold as containing mucli potash, that this ingredient deserves to be taken account of in its valuation. 13. Computing the money-valiie of concentrated manures. In what immediately precedes, is contained the data for calcu- lating approximatively the price that can be afforded for a high- priced manure, if we have before us the results of a reliable an- alysis. The actual calculation is very easy, and has been illus- trated already in deducing the value of ammonia from Peruvian guano. "We give here a resume of the prices adopted in this report, viz. : Potash, per pound, .... 4 cents. Insoluble phospohoric acid, per pound, - • 4^ " Soluble " " " 12i " Actual, and some forms of potential ammonia, 14 " As a further example of the calculation, here may follow the de ■ tails of the valuation of a superphosphate of lime. Analysis gave the following percentages : Actual ammonia, 2.39, say 2.4 Potential "... - 1.06, " 1.0 Soluble phosphoric acid, - - - 2.56, " 2.6 Insoluble u u , . 22.98, " 28.0 Multiplying the per centage of each ingredient by its estimated price, and adding together the products thus obtained, gives the value of one hundred pounds ; this taken twenty times, gives us the worth of a ton of two thousand pounds. In the case before us, the quantity of potential ammonia is so small that we may reckon it with the actual ammonia without materially influencing the result. Thus, 2.4 + 1.0=3.4 ; 3.4 x 14 = .48, value of ammonia in 100 lbs. 2.6 X 12^= .33, value of soluble phos. acid in 100 pounds. 23 X .04i-=$1.08, value of insol. phosphoric acid in 100 lbs. $1.84, total value of 100 lbs. 20 ,80, value of one ton. 16 It is not claimed that this method of valuation is more than rough and approximate. Usually the price demanded is more than that obtained by calculation. In case of the superphosphate just mentioned, the selling price is $45. There is no doubt that it ought to be better for that money. The farmer must decide for himself whether he can get the same fertilizing materials more cheaply. If he can not, he may purchase such a super- phosphate. For comparing the worth of different fertilizers this method of computation is of great value, as will be seen further on, where will be found tables giving the Calculated values of all the high-priced manures that have come into my hands offic- ially, during the last two years. It is but just to mention here, that this method of estimating the value of fertilizers was first proposed nine years ago by Dr. J. A. Stoeckhabdt, Professor of Agricultural Chemistry in the Eoyal Academy of Agriculture and Forestry, at Tharand, near Dresden, in Saxony,%nd has been adopted in principle by the chemists of the agricultural societies in Great Britain. The estimates I made in 1856 were much lower than those now given. The price of manures has advanced since that time, (Peruvian guanos ten dollars per ton,) and the prices I then pro- posed for phosphoric acid were too small. AH the estimated values in this report are founded on the prices just given. 14. Estimation of the value of cheap manures. The method of valuation above described is not applicable to cheap manures, which contain but httle ammonia or phosphoric acid. Their value often depends more upon the mechanical and chemical condition of their ingredients, than upon the quantity of any one. The few manufactured manures of this sort, may best be compared with some similar fertilizer of standard com- mercial value, viz. : stable manure, leached ashes, &c. Under the head Poudrette, examples will be given. EXAMINATION OF COMMERCIAL MANUEES. GUANO. 1. Peruvian Guano. — The manner in which the importation 17 and sale of this standard fertilizer has been hitherto conducted, is such as to afford a suf&cient guarantee of its genuineness. But four samples have been analyzed. All were good, as shown by the following results : ANALYSES OF PERUVIAN GUANO. rvT 59.46 16.32 I II III 66.32 65.18 12.63 52.27 12.70 51.46 [ 68.00 68.70 5.82 8.93 5.95 9.08 16.03 15.98 17.86 18.85 4.69 10.05 3.64 10.50 15.19 14.08 1.69 1.52 2.45 2.66 21 28 31.69 "Water, ) Organic Matter, ) Ammonia potential " actual, Phosphoric acid, soluble in water, '• " insoluble " Sand &o., insohible in acids, Phospliate of lime equivalent ) to total phosphoric acid, j ^' I. came from the store of Wm. Kellogg, Hartford, 1856. II. " " " Wm. B. Johnson, New Haven, 1857. III. " " " Backus & Barstow, Norwich, 1857. IV. " " " C. Leonard, Norwalk, 1857. A Peruvian guano is genuine and good, -vjhen it contains 15 percent of ammonia, and the same amount of phosphoric acid. The iirst analyses were made more complete than is necessary forjudging of the quality of this manure. It is suf&cient, as in the last two analyses, to ascertain the amount of loss, (water and organic matter,) by burning, and the amount of ammonia. I believe the fact that guano may rapidly depreciate in quality by keeping, is not sufliciently thought of In a note by Dr. Krocker, in a recent German Agricultural paper, it is stated that the loss in guano may amount to one-fifth or even one-fourth of the whole ammonia originally present, during a single winter, especially when access of moist air is allowed. If guano is kept dry and away from the air the loss is trifling. The ammonia of a genuine guano, although to a considerable extent " existing in possibility not in act," passes so readily into actual ammonia that it must be reckoned as siich. The phosphoric acid also, in a Peruvian guano, is all in a readily soluble state, and it is not fair to make so great a distinction between the portions soluble and insoluble in water, as would be right in case of a manure which has been reduced to powder by mechanical means. 18 2. Pacific Ocean Guano. ANALYSES. ■Water, Organic matter, Ammonia potential, " actual, Phosphoric acid, soluble In water, " acid, insoluble in water Sand, &o., 'insoluble in acid, Phosphate of lime equivalent to total phosphoric acid, average, Dealer's price per ton, Calculated value per ton -36.24 36.10 .16 .68 1.96 1.84 2.27 2.77 23.63 20.91 2.75 2.10 53.76 $50.00 $34.00 II. 21.70 32.35 .71 23.27 .51 21.44 32.33 .58 24.60 .57 51,86 $30.00 I. From a sample sent by the importers to a dealer in Hart- ford, 1856. II. From a sample sent by the dealers in New York to the agricultural store of Wm. B. Johnson, taken from the bags by this gentleman in my presence. The sample 1. when sent into this State was advertised as nearly if not quite equal to Peruvian guano. In support of this statement the following certificate was given : "I have an- alyzed a sample of guano for "WUlet & Co., and find it to con- the following , Phosphate of lime. Carbonate " Urate of Ammonia, ) Phosphate " &c., V Carbonate " ) Chloride of Sodium " Potassium, Sulphate of Soda, &c., Undecomposed organic matter, feathers, &c., Silicous matter. Water and loss, 42.48 2.26 20.54 14.46 3.26 5.10 12.00 100.00 James Chilton, M. D., Chemist." New York, October 4th, 1854. The above analysis has a very elaborate appearance, but does not instruct us as to the value ^of the sample analyzed by Dr. 19 Chilton. In fact, it is eminently adapted to deceive ; it gives the impression that the substance in question contains 20.5 per cent, of ammonia salts, yet without actually asserting that it contains even 1 per cent, of ammonia. Calculation shows that so far from beiag " nearly if not quite equal to Peruvian guano," it is not worth so much by $31 per ton, and that $16 was charged for it above its real value. The second sample, analyzed last summer, is still poorer. In calculating its value, I have admitted it to contain the same amount of soluble phosphoric acid that was found in I. This ingredient was not determined and is probably less than thus admitted. 3. Icliahoe Guano. I quote the analysis and history of this manure from my investigations made in 1856, in order to show what sort of impositions have vanished from the State of Con- necticut since a chemical scrutiny has been exercised over our fertilizers. Ten years ago a very good guano was obtained from the Ichaboe islands, containing 7 per cent, of ammonia, and 15 per cent, of phosphoric acid; worth therefore now, about $35 per ton. In 1851 the deposits were exhausted. In 1856 it was announced that there was a new arrival of this superior guano, and it was offered in New York at $40 per ton. An authentic sample was procured at the store of the agent, A. Longett, in New York City, and subjected to analysis. It had a very unpromising appearance, and contained some feathers, together with much coarse sand and gravel. Several pounds were rubbed in a mortar to break down any soft lumps, and then were shaken on a sieve of sixteen holes to the linear inch. 89.1 per cent, passed the sieve. 9.4 " coarse sand and gravel. 1.5 " feathers remained. 100.0 This fine portion was analyzed as usual. The results were calculated on the whole, including the 9.4 per cent, of sand and gravel, under the item "sand and insoluble matters," and the feathers under "organic matter." To the potential ammonia 2 17.43 18.52 1.37 1.41 1.53 1.51 6.97 7.64 65.72 63.87 20 found in the fine guano, was added 0.2 per cent, as tlie greatest amount that could be yielded by the feathers. Analysis of Ichahoe Ouano. Water and organic matter, Ammonia potential, " actual, .... Phosphoric acid, .... Sand and matter insoluble in acid, Phosphate of lime equivalent to total phosphoric acid, average, .... 15.82 Dealer's price, • $40. Calculated value, $15. This is the only manure I have examined that contained 65 per cent, of sand and gravel. 4. Balcer's Island or Aynerican Guano.- — The specimen of this guano furnished me by Mr. Secretary Dyer, is of excellent mechanical condition, and gave results essentially agreeing with those of Dr. Higgins and Dr. Gale, viz: Water, organic and vegetable matters, . 11.97 11.70 Insoluble matters, sand, . . . .10 .17 Phosphoric acid, .... 38.16 38.63 Ammonia, . . . . . .68 Phosphate of lime equivalent to phos. acid, 83.86 Calculated value, $34.50 It thus appears that the above is an excellent quality of phos- phatic guano. So finely divided is the phosphate of lime that it must be dissolved with suificient rapidity, in any moderately retentive soil, and if it can be had at $35 per ton, I should not hesitate to use it in preference to any superphosphate or other phosphatic manure now in our market. It can not, however, produce the remarkable effects of Peruvian guano, or of other ammoniacal manures, whose efficacy depends greatly on their ammonia.* * Analyses made during the present year demonstrate that what is now sold in this State as American Guano, is a very inferior article containing but 7.9 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and chiefly consisting of sulphate of lime. S. -w. J., 1859. 21 SUPERPHOSPHATES. The manufacture of manures bearing the general designation of Superphosphate of Lime, first begun in this cotmtry about five years ago, and has rapidly extended. As was to be expected, they have proved highly useful in very numerous instances, and when well prepared are to be looked to as the best means of supplying phosphoric acid to crops. There is, however, no oth- er fertilizer which so easily admits of adulteration or fraud, as this, and none whose real value is so difficult to determine. Simple inspection or any other means short of a thorough and costly analysis, furnishes not the slightest clue to its genuineness and excellence. There is so much confusion with regard to the different phos- phates of lime, arising mainly from the great variety of names that have been applied to them, that perhaps it will be a service to many of the readers of this report, to set forth the chemistry of this subject in a few words. For this purpose I copy from my published articles. Cheviistry of the Phosphates of Lime. The reader will please bear in mind, that phosphate of lime is in chemical language a salt : which means — in a chemical sense be it remembered — a compound of two classes of bodies, the one called acids, the other bases. These bodies follow the universal natural laws of covibination in definite proportions, and the numbers expressing these propor- tions, are termed equivalents. We can best illustrate this with a body like sulphate of lime, (plaster of Paris, gypsum,) which is a salt consisting of but one acid, and one base, and but one equivalent of each. The acid is sulphuric acid, its equivalent is 40 The base is lime, its equivalent is 28 The salt is sulphate of lime, its equivalent is 68 The above becomes intelligible when it is considered that in every specimen of pure gypsum that has ever been examined, the lime and sulphuric acid are present in exactly the propor- 22 tions indicated by the numbers 40 and 28, and it has been proved a hundred times, that when lime and sulphuric acid are brought together in such circumstances that they can unite, they always do unite in the above proportions. This is what is meant by the law of definite proportions. The word equivalent simply means that 28 parts by weight, grains, pounds, &c., of lime, are equal to, or go as far, in making a salt, as 40 grains, pounds, &c., of sulphuric acid. Unlike sulphuric acid, (one equivalent of which usually com- bines with but one equivalent of a base,) one equivalent of phos- phoric acid usually unites with three equivalents of base ; and these three equivalents may be all of one base, or two of one base and one of another, or, finally, may be all of different ba- ses. "What is most remarkable is, that water may act as a base ; but it is not customary to allow the water to figure in the name of the compound ; and in this way, the three phosphates that contain lime and water as the basic ingredients, are all called phosphates of lime. They are distinguished from each other by a variety of prefixes, unfortunately numerous, and none of which are strictly in accordance with the general principles that regu- late chemical name-making. The constitution of these three phosphates of lime may be represented as follows : The first is phosplioric acid (72), lime (28), lime (28), lime (28). Tlie second is phosphoric acid (72), lime (28), lime (28), water (9.) The third is phosphoric acid (72), lime (28), water (9), water (9.) The equivalents are given with each ingredient, and by adding them together we find the equivalent of each phosphate. The 1st, 72 of acid, and 84 of base, is 156. The 2d, 72 " " and 65 " " is 137. The 3d, 72 " " and 4G " " is 118. What is the use of these equivalents ? may be asked. In 156 parts (ozs. or lbs.) of the 1st are 75 parts, (ozs. or lbs.) of phos- phoric acid: in 137 parts of the 2d, and in 118 parts of the 3d, is the same quantity. A simple operation of "rule of three," will reduce these quantities to percents, and thus we may more readily compare their composition. 23 Percent composition of the phospliates of lime. 12 3 Phosphorio acid, - 46.15 52.55 61.02 Lime, - 53.85 40.88 23.73 Water, - - - 6.57 15.25 100.00 100.00 100.00 Witli regard to the names of these phosphates, I have already hinted that much confusion exists. To No. 1 have been applied the names, neutral, basic, ordi- nary, tri-, and bone-phosphate. To No. 2, bi-, di-, and neutral phosphate. To No. 3, mono-, bi-, acid, and superphosphate. No. 1, we may designate as bone-phosphate of lime, because it is the chief earthy ingredient of bones, or at any rate it remains when bones are burned, and constitutes the larger share of bone- ashes. It is almost absolutely insoluble in pure water; but dis- solves perceptibly in water containing in solution salts of am- monia, or common salt, or carbonic acid. It is also the principal ingredient of the so-called mineral phosphates, — of Apatite, that occurs abundantly in the iron mines of northern New York, of the Supyrchroite of Crown Point, and the Phosphorite of Estra- madura in Spain, and of Hurdstown, New Jersey. In the fossil bones, the so-called Coprolites of certain districts in England, and in the phosphatic nodules of the silurian rocks of Canada, a va- riable quantity of bone-phosphate of lime is contained. The phosphoric acid of all the genuine guanos exists mostly in com- bination with lime as bone-phosphate. No. 2, most commonly called the neutral phospliaie of liine, deserves notice as occurring mixed with bone phosphate in the Columbian guano, and in the similar phosphatic guanos recently imported by the Philadelphia Gruano Company. It will be no- ticed farther on. The agricultural value of phosphoric acid, and of the phos- phates of lime is sufficiently understood. To them, bones main- ly owe their efiB.cacy as a fertilizer. It is well known that, al- though bones are highly useful when apphed to the soil in a coarsely-broken state, they are far more valuable if reduced to small fragments, or better still, if ground to dust. This is be- 24 cause nothing can enter the plant in a solid form. All that a crop absorbs through its roots must be dissolved in the water of the soil. The bone-phosphate of lime is only slightly soluble in water, and is of course very slowly presented to the plant. The more finely it is divided or pulverized, the more surface it expo- ses to the action of water and the more rapidly it dissolves. By grinding it is only possible to reduce bones to a gritty dust, fine perhaps to the unaided eye, but still coarse, when seen under the microscope. Chemistry furnishes a cheap means of extending the division to an astonishing degree, and enables us to make bone-manure perfect both in its mechanical and chemical quali- ties. This brings us to No. 3, or superphosphate of lime, which is the characteristic ingredient of the genuine commercial article known by that name, in which, however, it is largely mixed with other substances. Its peculiarity is, ready solubility in water. It may be prepared from either No. 1, or No., 2, by adding to these phosphoric acid, or by removing lime, in pres- ence of water. In practice lime is removed. If to 156 parts (one equivalent) of bone phosphate of lime, we add 80 parts (two equivalents) of sulphuric acid,* with suf- ficient water to admit of an intimate and perfect mixture, then the 80 parts of sulphuric acid take 56 parts (two equivalents) of lime and form sulphate of lime, while the phosphoric acid re- tains 28 parts (one equivalent) of lime, and 18 parts (two equiv- alents) of water replace the lime removed by the sulphuric acid, so that there results 136 parts of sulphate of lime, and 118 parts of superphosphate. The manufacture of good superphosphate of lime, consists es- sentially in subjecting some form of bone-phosphate of lime — it may be fresh or burned bones, mineral-phosphates or phos- phatic guanos — to the action of sulphuric acid. The product of such treatment contains sulphate of lime, superphosphate of lime, and still a greater or less share of undecomposed bone-phosphate, together with some free snlphuric acid, because the materials can not be brought into such thorough contact as to ensure com- plete action. * Oil of Vitriol is a compound of about 75 per cent, of sulphuric acid, with 25 per cent, of water. 25 The reader can easily perform a simple experiment that ilkis- trates the change which superphosphate of lime, or any soluble phosphate, always undergoes when brought into the soil. Stir a spoonful of superphosphate in a tumbler of water ; let it settle and then pour off the clear liquid into another tumbler, (if no superphosphate is at hand, use instead of the liquid just men- tioned, strong vinegar in which some bits of bones have stood for a few days.) Now stir a few lumps of salaeratus or soda, in water, and pour it gradually into the first liquid. Immediately a white cloud, or 'precipitate^ as the chemist calls it, is formed ■,. at the same time the liquid will foam like soda water, from the escape of carbonic acid gas. This white cloud is precipitated hone-phosphate of lime, and does not essentially differ from the original bone-phosphate, except that it is inconceivably finer than can be obtained by any me- chanical means. The particles of the finest bone-dust will not average smaller than one hundredth of an inch, while those of this precipitated phosphate are not more than one twenty-thou- andth of an inch in diameter.* Since the particles of the precipitated phosphate are so very much smaller than those of the finest bone-dust, we can under- stand that their action as a manure would be correspondingly more rapid. In fact, the application of superphosphate to the soil, is always speedily followed by the formation of this precipitated phosphate ; the iron, lime, potash, &c., of the soil, having the same efiect as that produced by the salaeratus or soda in the above experiments. The advantage of dissolving, or rather acting upon bones with sulphuric acid, is then, not to furnish the plant with a new food; but to present an old dish in a new shape, more readily accessi- ble to the plant. In addition to the advantage of sub-division thus presented, another not less important is secured ; viz : dis- tribution. This may be illustrated as follows : If one part of a quantity of superphosphate be mixed with chalk, lime, or ashes before use, while another portion is directly applied, in both ca- ses precipitated phosphate will be furnished to the soil. The * Pbop. O&den N". Kood, of the Troy University, has had the kindness to meas- ure them under the microscope at my request. 26 sub-division will be equal, but tbe disirihution will be unlike. In tbe first case, the ready-formed phosphate is very imperfectly mixed with the soil, by the mechanical operations of tillage. In the latter instance, if the superphosphate be scattered on the surface, it is unaffected until a rain falls upon it. Then the su- perphosphate dissolves, and trickles or soaks down into the soil, meeting here with a particle of lime or potash, and depositing a particle of bone-phosphate, traveling on a little way, and de- positing another, and so filling the whole soil to a certain , depth with the precious fertilizer. It seems then that it is important not only that the super- phosphate be made, but that it remain such, until strewn on the soil. I would suggest that the simplest, and for agricultural pur- poses, the most accurate way of designating the phosphates of lime, and all other phosphates, is to divide them into two classes, soluble and insoluble, and always to base calculations on the phos- pJioric acid they contain, because it, and not lime or water, is the valuable ingredient of them all. Accordingly, in all my an- alyses, I have invariably stated separately the amount of phos- phoric acid soluble in water and the quantity insoluble in that vehicle of vegetable nutriment. For the sake of comparison with the common standards, the quantity of bone phosphate equivalent or corresponding to the phosphoric acid, has'been included in the analytical tables. The amount of bone phosphate of lime is obtained by multiplying the phosphoric acid by 13 and dividing the product by 6. T^Hiat ought to be accepted as the standard of composition in a com- mercial superphosphate ? The answer to this question is : as good an article as can be manufactured on the large scale. There are two classes of good superphosphates. One is repre- sented by the following analysis made by me in 1852, on what then was Mapes' improved superphosphate : Ammonia, - - 2.78 Soluble phosphoric acid, - - 10.65 Insoluble " " - 10.17 27 Here we have 21 per cent, of phosphoric acid, one-half of which is soluble in water. The proportion of soluble phosphoric acid is sufiiciently large for a quick and energetic action, while the still insoluble phosphoric acid renders its effect more lasting. The 8 per cent, of ammonia is a constituent which makes the manure more generally useful than it would be otherwise. Such a manure is worth as follows : Ammonia 3 per cent x 14 =$0.-12 x20= $8.40 Soluble phos. acid, 11" " xl2i= 1.37^x20=$27.50 Insoluble " 10 " " x 4^- 0.45 x20= $9.00 Total value, $44.90 This sample is the only one of its class that has hitherto fallen into my hands. The other kind is, strictly speaking, a superphosphate, con- taining but little insoluble phosphoric acid, and no ammonia. It is precisely what it is called, and is intended to be an adjunct to other fertilizers. The following statement of composition and worth — the average of four best English samples, according to Prof. Way's analyses — gives an idea of this manure : Soluble phosphoric acid, 13.23, worth per ton, $33.20 Insoluble " " 3.07, " " $2.80 Total value, $36.00 The only specimen of such a superphosphate that I have analyzed, is that made by B. M. Ehodes & Co., of Baltimore, Maryland. Besides these two classes of superphosphates, there is another, which indeed includes many good manures, but they hardly de- serve to be called superphosphates, as they contain but two or three per cent, of soluble phosphoric acid. They are, however, called superphosphates, but we cannot admit that they are any thing better than second-rate articles. In stating the composition and value of the superphosphates I have examined, I shall class together those coming from the same manufacturer, or otherwise such as most nearly agree in com- position. This plan will enable us to trace the improvement or 28 deterioration in the manufacture, when numerous samples have been examined, and, otherwise, will facilitate comparison. Napes' Superphosphate — Newark, New Jersey. The best superphosphate that has ever come under my exam- ination, was the one that is first given in the table below. The sample analyzed in 1856 had but half the value of the first ; and in 1857 the three specimens analyzed are worth but one-third as much. It is clear that this is a brand not to be depended upon, and the material that has come into Connecticut the past year is hardly worth a long transportation. Mapes' Improved. Mapes' Nitrogenized. I. II. in. IV. v. 1852. 185T. 1856. 1857. 1857. Water, Organic and vol. matter, 4.64 22.96 t.go 15.04 \ 43.24 42.12 41.68 11.15 18.65 21.61 26.29 Sand and matters ) iasol. in acids. ) 1.48 13.90 6.20 6.57 7.76 16.91 4.18 Lime, 28.08 23.55 Sulphuric acid, 2.38 Carbonic acid, none 6.54 none 7.52 Phos. acid soluble. 10.65 none 1.12 1.07 0.58 none none " insoluble, 10.11 13.56-13.20 9.18 9.11 10.12. 10,19-9.60 9.85 Ammonia actual, ) " potential, C 2.78 1.16 1.54 2.11 1.48' 2.16; 1-2.28 1.16 Phos. lime equiva- i lent to phos. acid, ) 45.11 28.99 av. 22.44 21.43 21.34 Calculated value, $44. $15 J21. 1 $14.50 $12.50 I. Furnished by Edwin Hoyt, Esq., New Canaan, Ct. II. Erom store of Backus & Barstow, Norwich, Ct. III. From a Hartford dealer. IV. From store of Backus & Barstow, Norwich, Ct., from many bags. V. From C. Leonard's store, Norwalk, Ct. Mechanical state mostly good. average 29 Deburg's Superphosphate — Williamsburg, Brooklyn, L. I. The sample analyzed in 1856 was of a very fair quality. The last year it is seen, however, that there is a serious falling off. Deburg's I. 1852. Superphosphate. IT. III. 1856. 1857. Water, organic and volatile matters, Sand, and matters insoluble in acids, Phosphoric acid soluble in water, " " insoluble " Ammonia actual, " potential, Phos. of lime equivalent to phos. acid, Calculated value, 27.65 26.24 8.45 8.80 5.96 14.37 15.78 \ 1.38 av. 45.56 $32. 24.57 21.23 6.89 7.37 2.56 2.46 22.98 22.53 2.39 2.25 1.06 1.24 54.74 $36.25 25.20 .51 17.61 \ 1.44 39.26 $21.50 I. From the agricultural store. New Haven, Ct. II. From the factory — taken from a heap in my presence. III. From Messrs Backus & Barstow, Norwich — sample made up by taking a spoonful from each bag of a large lot. Mechanical condition, good. Cob's /S'z^perp/iospAate— Middletown, Ct. This fertilizer, manufactured in Connecticut, has been sub- jected to pretty severe scrutiny, and has maintained a good de- gree of uniformity in composition. The variations are perhaps not greater than are necessarily incidental to the manufacture. 30 W f=-i ai O Ph W Ph 02 a: o CO M Oi ir- tH Cd ty' o M cs O CO 1— 1 > 00 o J:- CO o o CO CO r-( r- rH l-H /■■.; o iO OS co cq rH t, M M *=^. #■ O CO OS oo cJi 00 l-H Jt- 00 rH CO (M CD rH ■ in t- « CO ,. CO no rH co i-H ^-.-^ ^ o co 00 CO, CD CD 00 CO CD CO 00 CO CO CO l-H r-< r-{ CO ^ CO in rH OS oslt- O IQ no ^ XT' CO CO CO J:- V rH rH hH ^ HH CD lO CO rH 05 iri CO o CO OS rH cq CO rH O CO rH ira CO no cq CD CO CD CO S5 cq O OS CO* CO o Os' tr- io 00 ira a .e p _d S I . "3 fl 5, s fi I R »- ;:^ s c<-j •3 d 3 31 I., II., III., IV. From the agricultural stores of New Haven and Hartford. Y. From store of Backus and Barstow, Norwicli, Ct. VI. and VII. From Henry Hull, Esq., Naugatuck, Ct. Mechanical condition uniformly good. Coe & Comipany's Superphosphate — Boston, Mass. This manure, furnished by Henry Hull, Esq., of Naugatuck, Ct., is of a grayish white color, and is in good mechanical con- dition. Its analysis resulted as follows : Water, organic and volatile matters, - 26.70 26.19 Sand and insoluble matter, - - - 7.15 6.79 Soluble phosphoric acid, - - - none Insoluble " " . . 19.98 20.27 Potential ammonia, - - - 3.06 Phosphate of lime equivalent to phos. acid, av., 43.59 Calculated value, $26.50. This manure is wrongly named.* It is a good bone-manure at $30 per ton. Lloyd's Superphosphate — Providence, E. I. This fertilizer I believe enjoys a good reputation as compared with other similar manures. Its texture is fine. It is apparently made from unburned bones. Its composition is as follows : Water, organic and volatile matters Sand and insoluble " - Lime, .... Sulphuric acid, Soluble phosphoric acid. Insoluble « « Potential ammonia. Phosphate of lime, eqiiivalent to phos. acid, av.. Calculated value, $31. The proportion of soluble phosphoric acid is considerably above the average. 'The total amount is however small. * I have since learnec} that this sample was mis-labelled. Messrs. Coe & Co., sell it as " Steamed Bone." s. Tv. j. 42.15 42.48 7.00 5.20 20.61 19.50 11.80 5.53) 11.41 j 15.50 2.48 2.55 35.14 32 Rhodes^ Superphosphate — Baltimore, Md. In my address before the State Agricultural Society a year ago, I made mention of Ehodes' superphospliate to illustra,te a common fault in the analysis of commercial manures, viz : cal- culating or inferring a result from insufficient grounds, instead of actually deciding tjie matter experimentally. An analysis of this manure was quoted from the proprietor's circular, where- in the total amount of phosphoric acid is estimated, and from the quantity of sulphuric acid present is inferred the proportion of soluble phosphoric acid. I stated that doubtless a fuller anal- ysis would demonstrate that the amount of the soluble phos- phoric acid was considerably smaller than represented. The sample with which I have been furnished by Mr. Dyer gave the following results in three analyses : "Water, organic and Tolatile matters, Insoluble matters, sand, &c., Lime, Soluble phospliorio acid, Insoluble " " Total " " . Potential ammonia, Phosphate of lime equivalent to phosphoric acid, Calculated value, $32.25. The variation in the analytical results is due to the dif&culty of averaging the manure. "When rubbed in a mortar it becomes slightly pasty and can not be very thoroughly intermixed. The mechanical condition of this superphosphate is unexcep- tionable. In a new edition of their circular, Messrs. Ehodes & Co. pub- lish analyses and report made by Drs. Higgins and Bickell, ac- cording to which this superphosphate contained, in four samples respectively, the following amounts of phosphoric acid : 12 3 4 5 Soluble phosphoric acid, - 14.32 IG.Ol 17.73 17.56 11.60 Insoluble " " . none. 1.49 none. 1.22 3.87 Total, - - - . 14.32 17.49 17.73 18.78 15.47 4 Is the statement made in their circular which I read last year before this Society. 5 Is the average result of my own ac- 27.60 27.73 Average. 26.60 27.31 3.22 2.47 10.05 5.24 20.13 20.25 20.19 12.13 11.65 11.03 11.60 3.91 3.77 3.94 3.87 16.04 15.42 14.97 15.47 .24 .24 .24 38.80 83 tual determinations. It is seen tliat the statement in my address is confirmed, in case of tlie sample I analyzed. At the same time, the difference is not seriously great. In the analyses of Messrs. Higgins and Bickell, several per cent of soda are given. I have not taken the trouble to estimate this ingredient, which has no significance in case of an expen- sive fertilizer. Other Superphosphates. iluck's bone super- phosphiite, VnlHngford, Ct. Hartford, Ct. I. 11. 1857. 1857. 48.30 48.05 51.59 51.46 S.98 8.78 .60 .98 20.53 20.36 10.67 rn] i^-«« i 14.25 14.17 7.35 6.92 2.50 2.54 21.34 30.79 $34.50 S3I.00 "Water, organic and volatile matters, Sand and insoluble " Lime, Sulphuric acid, Soluble phospliorio acid, Insoluble " " Potential Ammonia, Phosphate of lime, equivalent to phosphoric acid. Calculated value, I. This was furnished me by Mr. Parmelee of New Haven. It contains much potential ammonia in the form of gelatine, but the material is so poorly pulverized, consisting of coarsely-crush- ed bones, that its action must be slow. A large reduction must therefore be made from the calculated price. II. Is in good form. The sample furnished was small, so that I was unable to determine the soluble phosphoric acid. COLUMBIAN OR ROCK GUANO. This substance, which has also been called a native superphos- phate of lime, is reported to come from certain islands in the Caribbean Sea. It occurs in hard stony masses, which vary much in structure, color and composition. The rock that is richest in phosphoric acid is concretionary in structure. Externally its color is gray or white, internally brown or black. This rock, though quite tough under the hammer, may be readily reduced to a fine powder, having a yellowish or brownish-gray color, and in this form it now appears in the market. It has been supposed 34 that this guano is formed from the excrements of gulls, pelicans, and cormorants, which are the sole inhabitants of the islands where it is found. These islands are a hundred or more in num- ber, and it is said that the guano exists there in enormous quan- tities. The rock guano consists essentially of phosphates, but is more or less intermixed with other mineral matters. It con- tains but a trifling amount of ammonia, or of ammonia-yielding substances. The composition is seen from the following table : 30 « tr Er* ~~3 ■ 3.P g' ::d p p. s- s= D m ti P R P^ SS <^ •-i n p o ii? ^ o o lo o tn CO o CO ^ f Kl CO H CO O o o f a ?f- o CD )f^ t-J p Jf». J-* _ ^ ^ Or Ci pa tf^'t-i W to to 00 CO bl -' O CO o o to o o ^ M H- to en 36 I. and II., ground guano, sent to editors of Homestead, by the proprietors of the guano. HI., unground guano, sent to editors of Homestead, by the proprietors of the guano. TV., from a gentleman — a purchaser — near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. v., from the store of C. Leonard, Norwalk. The above five analyses were made under my direction. VI., VII., VIII. and IX., are quoted from a paper by Wm. F. Taylor, of Philadelphia, in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, March, 1857. The specimens were rock-samples, furnished by Dr. D. Luther, President of the Phil- adelphia Guano Company. X., ground commercial sample ; analysis by Drs. Higgins & Bickell. Richness in phosphoric acid. — This, the only important ingre- dient, ranges in the majority of the above analyses at about forty per cent. In analyses V., IV., and VIIL, it falls 5, 6, and 8 per cent, lower. In case of IX., we have but 20 per cent, of phosphoric acid. Analysis VIIL and IX., were made on a material quite different in external appearance from the rock fur- nishing the other samples. The Philadelphia Guano Company sent me specimens of these inferior kinds a year or more ago. They appear to be, and actually are, largely inter];nixed with sand, though when pulverised they can scarcely be distinguished by the eye from the best sorts. I had begun analyses of the specimens put into my possession, but their cotapletioii' was ren- dered unnecessary by the appearance of Mr. Taylor's extended investigation. They contain httle or no lime, and the phosphoric acid is combined with oxyd of iron or alumina. The lest qualities of Columbian guano form the richest knoivn source of large quantities of phosphoric acid, if, indeed, there are large quantities of the best quality. But the above analyses show that even the commercial article found in the agricultural stores, varies considerably in value, while some of the rock sam- ples are worth but half as much as the best qualities ; and, there- fore, bone-black, or bone-ash, is equal in this respect to the average of the best samples hitherto aftalyzed. 37 Solubility of the phosphoric axid. — The circulars of tlie Philadel- pliia Guano Company give an analysis of this guano, by Dr. Chilton of JSTew York, according to which it contains 13.14 per cent, of soliijble phosphate of lime. J. C. Booth reports therein, that Columbian guano contains 6.05 per cent, of free phosphoric acid, or 32.27 per cent, of soluhle phosphate of lime. Dr. David Stewart, chemist to the State Agricultural Society of Maryland, in an analysis he furnishes, makes it to contain 5.23 per cent, of soluble phosphoric acid. Dr. A. A. Hayes of Boston, in his an- alyses, states that it contains 11.4 per cent, of phosphoric acid more than is requisite to form bone-phosphate of lime. He says it is in fact a Idnd of natural li-phosphate of lim,e. J. C. Booth, in analyzing another sample, found 9.6 per cent, of free phosphoric acid. On the strength of these statements, the Columbian guano has been called a native superphosphate of lime. It is easy to un- derstand how some of the gentlemen above-named have com- mitted the inadvertency of asserting that the substance in ques- tion contains free phosphoric acid, or superphosphate of lime. The error is more to be attributed to the looseness of language than to any other cause. The fact is, that some of these specimens of Columbian guano contain, in addition to the ordinary honephosphate of lime, the composition of which is — ■ phosphoric acid, lime, lime, lime — more or less of the generally called neutral phosphate, which is — phosphoric acid, lime, lime, water. There is in it, however, no superphosphate of lime, which is — phosphoric acifl, lime, water, water.** This neutral phosphate is slightly soluble in water, and is slowly decomposed by boiling water. Thus, in analyses I., II., VI. and VII., about 0.8 per cent, of phosporic acid was dissolved ; and ia III., by long continued washing with hot water, 2.67 per cent was made soluble. This neutral phosphate is decomposed by carbonic acid, and hence is doubtless readily available to vegetation. * See that part of this report relative to supei'phosphate of lime. 88 As concerns tlie value of those varieties whicli consist chiefly of phosphates of iron, and alumina, V., VIII. and IX., I am un- able to state whether or not they are capable of readily yielding their phosphoric acid to vegetation. As artificially prepared, these phosphates are totally insoluble in pure water, and are not easily decomposable. In fact, nearly all the knowledge we have of these compounds, leads to the idea that they are unadapted to feed the growing plant. Some writers have not hesitated to de- clare them quite valueless for agricultural purposes. The only satisfactory evidence, however, must be brought from direct trials with them in the soil, for bodies are soluble there, which ordinarily are accepted as the types of insolubihty. The Peince Salm Horstmae, of Germany, who has devoted much time and means, to studies having a direct bearing on agri- culture, found, indeed, that phosphate of iron is actually assimi- lated by vegetation ; but we do not yet know whether it may be appropriated with such ease as to adapt it for a fertihzer. I had hoped to institute some experiments with a view to de- termine this point, but have not found the opportunity.* POUDEETTE. Since chemistry has explained in such a beautiful manner the action of manures, and made evident what enormous quantities of fertilizing material are daily lost to agriculture, the question of economizing the effete matters which accumulate in large towns, has excited deep interest. The subject is not merely one of agricultural importance, but has extensive bearings upon the health of densely populated countries. Those substances which most easily pass into putre- faction, and then become in the highest degree disagreeable and dangerous to the inhabitants of cities, possess, as fertilizers, the greatest value to the farmer. Not many years since it was common to find large cities filled with filth, which had accumulated during generations, with no other means of removal than the natural agencies of decay, or * Investigations that have recently come to my knowledge, prove that the phos- phates of iron and alumina are available as food to plants. S. W. J., 1859. 39 rains might furnisti. Not a few of tlie fearful plagues that in former centuries have ravaged the capitals of the old world, trace their origin most unequivocally, to the disgusting negligence in these matters, then prevalent. It is therefore fortunate for a people, when the refuse of the town, instead of poisoning the atmosphere and generating terri- ble pestilences, can be transported to the fields of the country, and under the wonderful transmutations of agriculture be con- verted into healthful food. Numerous eflforts have been made with a view to produce a good manure from the night-soil of cities, but so far as I can learn, with very limited success, if the quahty of the product hitherto brought into market is a proper criterion for judgment. Practice and science concur in attributing to human excre- ments, very high fertilizing properties. It is well-known that the richness of manure depends upon the richness of the food that supports the animal producing the manure. It is equally well- known that, on the whole, no animal is so well fed as man. Notwithstanding these facts the manures that have been pre- pared from night-soil, and brought into commerce under the names Poiidrette, Ta-Feu, &c., are not remarkable for their value. It is true that good manures are made, but they are by no means so concentrated as reasonably to command a high price, or war- rant much outlay for their transportation. Some of the causes that conspire to this result, become evident from the following considerations : The night-soU as usually collected has already lost the chief part of its original value. Unless special arrangements are made to prevent the escape of urine from the vaults of privies, the greater part of it soaks away directly into the adjoining ground and is lost. Now the value of the urine voided by an adult man during one year, for example, is much greater than that of the corresponding solid excrements. It contains, according to Stoeckhardt, (Chem. Field Lectures, page 72) : Double the quantity of phosphoric acid. Four times as much nitrogen. Six times as much alkalies. Not only is the urine itself lost to a considerable degree, but 40 in the usual construction of privies it falls upon tlie solid excre- ments and washes away a considerable share of their soluble and active matters, so that the contents of a vault, even though quite fresh, are of very inferior value. Again, the vaults are only emptied at considerable intervals, between which, especially in warm weather, a rapid putrefaction of their contents takes place, by which a good share of the nitrogen that remains after the urine has leached out the mass, escapes into the air in the shape of ammonia compounds, and is lost. After the night-soil has passed these two stages of deteri- oration, it is usually no longer suitable for the preparation of a concentrated manure, even supposing it free from foreign mat- ters. But again, considerable quantities of worthless matter, coal- ashes, &c., find their way into the vaults, which are, indeed, often an omnium gatherwm for all sorts of refuse. Often the slops of the kitchen run into them, and the rains flow through them on their way to the deeper earth, washing in sand and dirt, and washing out the valuable ingredients. From these facts, it is seen that the raw material used in mak- ing poudrette and tafeu, must be of variable, and for the most part, of inferior value. The process of manufacturing ought to consist merely in con- verting the night-soil into a shape convenient for transportation, and if possible concentrating the valuable ingredients. The manure is made of the hest quality by treating the night-soil with sulphuric acid and then rapidly drying by artificial heat. The acid prevents the loss of ammonia, while the drying removes the worthless water, and brings the mass into a suitable state for handling. The manure is manufactured most cheaply hy mixing it with some drying or absorbent material, as peat, or swamp muck, or the charcoal of the same, and drying by expo- sure to the air. The first method is expensive and raises the cost of the product far above its value, unless the raw material is of unusually good quality. The second process dilutes the night-soil with matters which are indeed very useful, but must be sold very cheaply. According to Nesbit's careful calculation, fresh human excre- 41 ments, solid and liquid together, wL.en dried completely, yield a material having the following per centage composition in round numbers : Ammonia, (a considerable share not actual but potential,) - - - 20 Other organic matters, - 62 Phosphoric acid, - - - - 3 Other inorganic matters, - - - - 25 100 The value of this, estimated by the prices adopted in the pres- ent report, is $60, and it therefore approaches Peruvian guano in commercial worth. How effectually the causes I have enumerated deteriorate the value of night-soil before it is converted into a portable manure, is seen by the following analyses : 42 m| §■35 8 a-s I « 5 S 2 ^ '' E3 cj M M J3 a t- 5 Sis . tS*^ C5 o fo « ic cq fo O 13 CO m Cf3 CO J:- 6§ p o .9 !^ is ^ E-i U (O o a h- ( o S S g t>- fo jn m cij "^ c^ 00 "^ (M O u O i:- CO Cq ffj r-H 2 --H ' "-H I g 43 WO ^ |gV , g' ^ p a (3 s Is 00 en "2 g CI O Cq CO r—l ai.s = t- ^ © ta bo-" L • of ■5 "O ■2 ^ S M o ^;3 ^ 45 '3 0*0 rt! ^P-iCQP-iOQO The analyses I.-V. are quoted from foreign, jonmals. Anal- yses VI.-IX. were made in tlie Yale Laboratory. I. represents the composition of a mixture of two parts of turf- coal, with one part of night soil, and shows how poor an article is procured when it is known what is the process of making. It will be seen that although no dirt or sand was mixed with the night soil, yet the amount of fertilizing matter is very small. The further details of the original analysis show that besides the ingredients stated above, there was but 5.3 per cent, of valuable matter in the poudrette, and this was mostly sulphate of lime. II. and III. are analyses of poudrette made in France, the country where this manufacture originated, and from whose lan- guage the name is derived. There is every reason to suppose that these specimens were prepared in the best manner ; blood and butchers' offal were employed in the latter. TV. and V. show the composition of a poudrette made at Dres- den in Saxony, the addition to which of some sulphate of am- monia, is claimed by Dr. Abe^idroth, the chemist who superin- tends its manufacture, to entitle it to the name of a guano. It does not differ materially in value from the French poudrette. I have before me a pamphlet setting forth the principles that, it is professed, guide the production of this manure, and have full faith that the business is managed as well as can be. The price of the article is about $1.00 per cwt. Dr. Mueller, chemist to the Agricultural Experiment Station at Chemnitz, in Saxony, the author of one of the above analyses, remarks concerning it, as follows : " In an experimental trial made last year (1855) at the Chemnitz Agricultural Experiment Station, with the pur- pose of testing the effect of various manures, the same amount of money heing invested in each application, it resulted that the Saxon guano had the least effect of all. This led me to make the accompanying analysis. A glance at the figures is enough, without any actual trial, to show that no great effect can be ex- pected from such a manure. From the quantity of valuable mat- ters present, six cwt. of this might be considered equivalent to one cwt. of Peruvian guano ; but when the form is taken into account — nearly one-half of the ammonia being inert, and the phosphoric acid existing as almost insoluble phosphate of iron — 44 its value must be estimated lower. The other ingredients are of less importance, and, at any rate, may be procured more cheaply from other sources." VI. represents the composition of a poudrette manufactured by the so-called Liebig Manufacturing Co., at East Hartford, Ct. It does not claim to be a concentrated fertilizer, its price being but $1.50 per barrel when sold in quantity. It is not just then to estimate its value from the ammonia and phosphoric acid alone, for the cheaper a manure is, the more must its less valuable in- gredients figure in estimating its worth. These have not been separately estimated, for the reason that no calculation of any permanent value, could be founded on one analysis of a material that is so likely to vary in these ingre- dients, especially where it is sold by bulk. This being a kind of manure that is applied in large quantity, and the ingredients being in proportions more nearly approaching the demands of the growing plant, than is the case with concentrated fertilizers) whose true function is to make up special deficiencies in the soil, we must appeal to practice for precise information as to its worth. Again, it has but a local value, for being bulky, it can not re- pay much expense in transportation, and therefore should not be judged by the general principles that commend or condemn a superphosphate or guano ; but by the particular wants of the soil in the neighborhood where it is sold, and the local circum- stances that there affect the price of other cheap fertilizers. VII., VIII. and IX. are analyses of the Lodi Go's. Poudrette, prepared from the night soil of Kew York city. , The extrava- gant and persistent claims that have been set up in favor of this manure, led to a complete investigation of its merits. To insure a fair examination, general analyses were made on three sam- ples, and one of them was submitted to a full and minute analy- sis. The samples differed much in their degree of dryness. VII. fresh from New York, was quite moist, almost wet. VIII. was moist, but still powdery. IX. was dry to the feel. In all these commercial poudrettes we observe a very large proportion of valueless water and sand, viz : 60 to 75 per cent. The quantity of organic matters average's at about 20 per cent. This yields but 1.2 per cent of ammonia. There remains 45 but 4.5 per cent, of otlier fertilizing substances. The analyses, X.-XIII. enable us to compare these poudrettes witii common stable or yard manure. Analysis X. represents the composition of di-ied yard manure. Fresh yard manure contains from 65 to 75 per cent, of water, so that we must take but one- third to one- fourth of the numbers there given. We see then that the lest of these poudrettes does not exceed dried yard rnanure in value, or is ivorth hut three to four times as much as its weight of common yard manure, if we judge alone from chemical composition. But the question of manurial value is by no means a purely chemical one. As already insisted upon, the ybrm as well as the kind and quality of matter, must be duly considered. In a con- centrated fertilizer the assumption that the ingredients are in a state to be readily available to the plant, is the indispensable basis of calculations founded on composition. In discussing the value of cheap manures, this matter "becomes of paramount im- portance. In these respects the Liebig Manufacturing Go's. Pou- drette is unexceptionable. It is free from coarse refuse, and hav- ing undergone fermentation, it would seem able to produce an immediate and rapid effect. It can be applied with seeds by a drill, does not impregnate the soil with the germs of noxious weeds, and has other obvious advantages over barn-yard or sta- ble manure. From a chemical point of view we may assume it to be worth as much as three times its weight of stable manure. Farmers must decide for themselves whether it is economical for their use. For some it will not be ; for many others who com- mand city prices for their produce, and are obliged to transport all their manure some miles, it can hardly fail to be highly val- uable. Its modest price is certainly in its favor, and I am cred- ibly informed that it is in good repute among those who have used it. The Lodi Go's. Poudrette can not be recommended. The or- ganic matter of the East Hartford Poudrette is a fermented peat or muck, is highly divided and absorbent of moisture and am- monia. The Lodi poudrette contains nearly as much organic matter, but it mostly consists of sticks and the dust of hard coal. In fact all manner of city refuse, old nails, apple-seeds, &c., &o., are found in it. It is coarse and lumpy in texture. Its selling 46 price is $1.50 per bbl. of about 200 lbs. So long as the farmer can procure 400 lbs. of good stable manure for $1.50, so long it is cheaper than this poudrette. In this connection the question occurs — can not the night soil of cities be profitably secured for agricultural purposes without losing any of its original value. Undoubtedly it can be, and it is a subject worthy of the most careful consideration of the par- ties concerned in such an undertaking, viz : those on whose pre- mises it is inevitably produced, those who may find profitable employment in making it portable, and finally, those who are in perpetual need of just such a material for increasing the yield of their farms. Nesbit has estimated the total amount of dry matter annually excreted by an adult, well but not highly fed, at 90 lbs., con- taining 16.85 lbs. of ammonia, and 2.75 of phosphoric acid, the former at 14 cents per lb.=*$2.36; the latter at 4^ cts.=12 cts. Both amount to $2.48. If this estimate be correct, a city of 30,000 inhabitants, like ISTew Haven, furnisbes yearly $75,000 worth of the most valuable fertilizing material, which now is not only lost, but is a nuisance. Could a little prejudice be overcome, undoubtedly the whole of this might be economized in a most profitable manner. The raw material, if collected fresh, is rich enough to warrant the outlay of considerable money in prepar- ing it for use. deburg's bone meal. This substance sent me by Messrs. Backus & Barstow, of Norwich, had the appearance of hone-ash or the residue' of burnt bones, and proved to be such on analysis. Water, - - - 3.04 Organic and volatile matters, mostly charcoal, 2.07 Sand and insoluble matters, - - - * 11.19 Lime, 42.17 Phosphoric acid, 34.06—36.42 Carbonic " 1.23 Magnesia, sulphuric acid, with undetermined matters, 4.88 100.00 47 Bone Meal is a term that has long been in use in England, to signify finely ground bones, and it is a departure from good usage to apply tbe name to bone-ash. This is a good phosphatic fertilizer, and comes very near in composition to the averao-e samples of Columbian guano. The calculated value is $31.75. IVORY DUST AND TUENINGS. The examination of these substances from the comb factory at Meriden, has led to the following analytical results : Dust. Turnings. Water - - 11.20 10.92 Organic matter, 83.70 37.94 Lime, 27.09 25.80 Phosphoric acid, - 23.22 22.11 Ammonia yielded by organic matter, 6.00 6.46 The above is nearly the composition of the bones of domestic animals, and it is obvious that this material must be a valuable fertilizer, though the quantity that can be procured is small. BEEF SCRAPS. This material is a residue of the soap-boiling processes. It occurs in the form of cakes, which having been very strongly pressed, are so hard as to withstand any attempts at pulveriza- tion. In composition it is almost pure muscular fibre or cellular tissue. It contains 97.42 per cent, of organic matter, and yields 13 per cent, of ammonia on decay. It must be exceedingly val- uable to manufacturers as a source of ammonia, but from its hardness can not be directly useful, except it is reduced by some solvent, or is softened by soaking with water. I understand it now commands a good price from the manufacturers of super- phosphates. ON THE COMPOSITION AND AGRICULTURAL VALUE OF COTTON- SEED CAKE. Eecently a process has been patented for removing the hulls from cotton-seed, so that this material may be expressed for its oil. This new industry is now prosecuted in Providence, E. I., and so enormous are the quantities of cotton-seed that hitherto have been nearly useless refuse, which may thus be profitably 48 economized, that this manufacture will doubtless be a permanent and extended one. The important agricultural uses to which the cake remaining after the expresssion of flax, rape and other oily seeds, have been applied, makes it important to study what are the properties of the cotton-seed cake. I have examined specimens from the Providence mills, and find that its composi- tion is not inferior to that of the best flax-seed cake, and in some points its agricultural value surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake of which I have knowledge ; as will appear from the following statement of its composition compared with that of linseed cake. "Water, on Albuminous bodies, Mucilaginous and saccliarine matters, . . . Fibre, Ash, Nitrogen, Phosphoric acid in ash Sand I. II. in. IT. T. G,82 11.19 9.23 16.94 16.47 9.08 12.96 UAl 48.82 25.16 28.28 10.69 12. 74 ■ 34.22 40.11 11.76 48.93 9.00 27.16 7.80 8.96 5.G4 6.21 5.04 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 7.05 7.75 3.95 4.47 2.36 2.45 .94 1.32 No. I. is the cake from Providence. No. II. gives some of the results of an analysis made by Dr. C. T. Jackson, on cake prepared by himself from hulled cotton- seed. (Patent Office Eeport for 1855, agricultural part.) No. III., analysis of Dr. Anderson on cotton-cake, made at Edinburgh, Scotland. No. IV., average composition of eight samples of American linseed cake. (Journal of Highland and Ag. See. of Scotland, July, 1855, p. 51.) No. v.. Meadow Hay, Saxony, Dr. Wolff. The two points of interest before us are, the nutritive and ma- nurial value of this cake. With reference to both, chemistry and practical results agree in their conclusions. The great value of linseed cake, as aji adjunct to hay for fat cattle and milch cows, has long been recognized ; and is undeniably traceable in the main, to three ingredients of the seeds of the oil-yielding 49 plants. The value of food depends upon tlie quantity of mat- ters it contains wliicli may be appropriated by the animal which consumes the food. Now, it is proved that the fat of animals is derivable from the starch, gum and sugar, and more directly and easily from the oil of the food. These four substances, are, then, the fat-formers. The muscles, nerves and tendons of animals, the fibrine of their blood, and the ciird of their milk, are almost identical in composition, and strongly similar in many of their properties, with matters found in all vegetables, but chiefly in such as form the most concentrated food. These blood- (and mus- cle-) formers are characterized by containing about 15-J- per cent. of nitrogen ; and hence are called nitrogenous substance-'^. Since albumin (white of egg) is the type of these bodies, they are also often designated as the albuminous bodies. The bony frame-work of the animal owes its solidit}- to 2^hos- phate of lime, and this substance must be furnished by the food. A perfect food must supply the animal with these three classes of bodies, and in proper proportions. What proportions are the proper ones, we have at present no means of knowing with ac- curacy. The ordinary kinds of food for cattle, contain a large quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter, which is more or less indigestible, but which is indispensable to the welfare of the herbivorous animals, as their digestive organs are adapted to a bulky and rough food. (See analysis V.) The addition of a small quantity of a food rich in oil and albuminous substances, to the ordinary kinds of feed, has been found highly advanta- geous in practice. Neither hay alone, nor concentrated food alone, gives the best results. A certain combination of the two presents the most advantages. , For fattening animals, and for increasing the yield and quality of milk, linseed cake has long been held in high estimation. This is to be expected from its composition. The muscle of flesh and the curd of milk are increased in quantity, because the albuminous substances of the linseed constitute an abundant and ready source of them ; the fat of the animal and the butter of the milk are increased by the presence in the food of so much oil and mucilaginous matters. A year or two since, Mr. M'Lagan of Scotland, reported in the 50 Journal of the Highland Society, some trials on the value, as food, of linseed cake, cotton-seed cake, and bean meal. Analy- sis III. represents the composition of the cotton cake ; IV. that of the linseed cake. The bean meal has 25 per cent, of albumi- nous matters, but 1-J- per cent of oil, and correspondingly more of the bodies that have the same nutrient function as the muci- laginous and saccharine matters. Six animals of nearly equal size and quality were fed during three months in Winter, with all the turnips and straw they would eat, and in addition, two of them received daily, four pounds of linseed cake, two, four pounds of cotton-seed cake, and two, four pounds of bean meal. The animals thrived as well on the cotton-seed cake as on the other kinds of food — as shown by their appearance, and by their weight when slaughtered. When linseed cake is fed in too large quantity it purges the animal. The quality of beef is excellent when the daily dose of oil-cake does not exceed six pounds for an animal of 700 pounds. Cases are on record when more than this quantity has spoiled the beef, giving it a taste like tallow. Probably like results would follow excessive feeding with cot- ton-seed cake. In the best cotton districts of India, the cotton- seed bears a high value as food for fat cattle. I know of no ex- periments with it on milch cows, but it is to be expected that here also it will have the same effects as linseed cake. A Bavarian farmer has recently announced that heifers fed for three months before calving with a little linseed cake in ad- dition to their other fodder, acquire a larger development of the milk vessels, and yield more milk afterward, than similar ani- mals fed as usual. If this be a fact, cotton-seed cake must have an equally good effect. Some of those who have used cotton-seed cake have found diificulty in inducing cattle to eat it. By giving it at first in small doses, mixed with other palatable food, they soon learn to eat it with relish. On comparing the analyses II. and I., with the average com- position of 'linseed cake, IV., it will be seen that the cotton-seed cake is much richer in oil and albuminous matters than the lin- seed cake. A correspondingly less quantity will therefore be 51 required. Three pounds of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent to four of linseed cake of average quality. The value of the article in question as a manure, is obviously very considerable. The dung of cattle, etc., fed upon it, will be greatly richer both in nitrogen and phosphates, than that of an- imals fed on hay alone. Where stock is kept, probably the best manner of using this cake as a fertilizer, is to feed it to the cat- tle, and carefully apply the manure they furnish. In this way, whatever is not economized as fat or flesh, will be available as manure. In England and on the continent of Europe, linseed-and rape- cake have been used directly as a dressing for the soil, and with results fully equal to what is indicated by their composition. These kinds of cake decompose readily, and their effect is usu- ally finished in one season. 500 or 600 pounds per acre is con- sidered a good application ; more is liable to be injurious. It is found that when applied with the seed, these kinds of cake pre- vent germination to a considerable degree ; but if applied a week or so previous to sowing, this detriment is not encountered. The cotton-seed is often employed in the Southern States, with good effects, as a manure for Indian corn, &c. I do not know whether like rape and linseed cake, it destroys the seed. Eor manuring purposes it is about one-third richer than linseed cake. Its effects are mostly due to the nitrogen it contains, and there- fore are similar to those of guano. It is best used in conjunc- tion with other fertilizers. I should judge that a mixture of 400 pounds of this cotton-seed cake with 50 bushels of leached wood-ashes per acre, would make an excellent application for most crops. It is highly important that the cake be uniformly distributed, and thoroughly intermixed with the soil. This cotton-seed cake is doubtless an excellent material for composts, owing to its ready decomposability. Its commercial value as a manure, if calculated from the prices adopted in this Eeport, is $21.60. The market price is $25.00. Therefore, next to Peruvian guano, this is a substance which, if its composition proves uniform, is most nearly worth what it costs. Note. In making the analyses which are included in this 4 52 Eeport, I liave been greatly assisted by tlie following gentlemen, students in the Yale Analytical Laboratory, viz : Messrs. A. D. Willson, A. P. Rockwell, M. Watson, and G. F. Barker. I am especially indebted also to my skillful professional assistants, Messrs. Henry M. Seely and Edward BL. Twining, wlio have each made numerous analyses. PEAT AND MUCK — PEELIMINAEY NOTICE. The investigation of the Peats and Mucks sent in to me from various parts of the State, last summer, has been prosecuted as far as has been possible. Seventeen specimens have been sub- mitted to analysis, and in them have been made the following determinations, viz: Water. Organic matter. Ash. Portion soluble in water. " insoluble in water. " soluble in carbonate of soda. " insoluble in " " " Total nitrogen or potential ammonia. In two cases, complete analyses of the ash have been carried oiit. In all of them, the ash has been more or less analyzed, where the quantity of it has allowed. This labor has occupied my able assistant, Edward H. Twi- ning, nearly the whole of four months. Some of the analytical processes consumed a great deal of time, and the consequence is, that now, when I must present my report, many interesting points remain uninvestigated. I therefore prefer not to enter into the details of the results already obtained, but to reserve this most important subject for further and more extended stud- ies, if such be the pleasure of the Society. The analytical re- sults as far as finished, serve to indicate the direction in which new researches may be undertaken with most promise of use- ^ fulness. I may mention in brief, some of the more important facts that have transpired in this research. Very great differences exist 53 between different specimens. Some are but slightly advanced in the peaty decomposition, and yield but a few per cent, of matter soluble in alkalies ; others consist almost entirely of sol- uble peaty substance, the so-called humic, ulmic and geic acids. An important question, yet very undecided, so far as my knowl- edge extends, is, how do these differences stand connected with the readiness of decomposition which is essential to the fertili- zing applications of peat ? This is a branch of inquiry that deserves to be studied experimentally, both in the laboratory and on the farm. Hereafter I shall attempt to offer some sug- gestions for a practical study of this subject, which may lead to a better knowledge of the best methods of composting, &c. Some of the peats examined, have dissolved in water to the ex- tent of only three-fourths of a per cent. Others have yielded to water, five, six, and one as much as twelve per cent., viz : five per cent, of mineral, and seven per cent, of vegetable mat- ter. The precise nature of the matters thus dissolved has not been accurately studied in any one case. It is shown, however, that the character of the portion soluble in water varies very widely ; for example, in the specimen yielding twelve per cent., it is chiefly compounds of the peaty acids with oxyd of iron, that are extracted by water. In other cases much lime and little iron is dissolved. These particulars deserve the most minute study, because the matters soluble in water are those which are immediately serviceable to vegetation. Very likely some of these peats may be at first injurious from the quantities of solu- ble salts of iron they contain. That part of the investigation relating to the estimation of nitrogen, has furnished the most interesting results. No speci- men of peat that I have examined, though all have been merely air-dried, and contain from ten to thirty per cent, of water, has yielded less than one per cent, of potential ammonia, while the average yield is two per cent., and one specimen gave three and one-half per cent., which is one-fifth as much as is found in the best Peruvian guano. Mr. Daniel Buck, of Poquonock, has long employed peat as fuel, and some time ago brought to the notice of Messrs. Dyer and Weld the fact that the peat he employs, exhales a strong 54 odor of ammonia wHen burning. This observation has been made in my laboratory with other samples. In the two specimens of peat-ashes, one furnished by Mr. Buck, and coming from the peat just mentioned, the other by Mr. Stanwood, of Colebrook, were found, besides large quanti- ties of carbonate of lime, considerable sulphate of hme and magnesia, also nearly one per cent, of phosphoric acid and the same amount of alkalies. The gentlemen who have furnished these peats, namely: Messrs. T. S. Gold, Nathan Hart, Titus L. Hart of West Corn- wall, Lewis M. Norton of Goshen, Messrs. Pond and Miles of Milford, Messrs. Eussell Peck of Berlin, B. F. Northrop of Gris- wold, J. H. Stanwood of Colebrook, S. Loveland of North Granby, Daniel Buck of Poquonock, Adams White, Philip Scarborough, Perrin Scarborough, and the Messrs. Dyer of Brooklyn, have commimicated to me a large amount of valuable imformation respecting the character and value of the deposits, which would be most appropriately embodied in a future report, should I be permitted to complete this investigation. Practical men have already abundantly proved that many peats are of exceeding agricultural value. This is no discovery of mine, or of those who have already subjected these substan- ces to a chemical examination. Mr. Daniel Buck of Poquonock, has used his peat without any preparation, as a top-dressing on grass, and has experienced the most decided results from its use in this simple manner. He estimates his raw peat as equal to cow-dung in fertilizing value. What may be expected from a thorough chemical investiga- tion of these deposits is this : We shall be able to decide which are valuable, and which are indifferent for fertilizing purposes. We shall excite throughout the State and the whole country, in fact, an interest in these deposits, that will lead to their extended and systematic use. We shall thus acquire a full practical knowledge of their merits, and of the best methods for convert- ing them into grain and flesh and milk. Unquestionably, the greatest service we can render to our farming interests is to develop our internal resources. The im- portation of foreign fertilizers is enriching foreign merchants, 55 and withdrawing cash, from the pockets of our farmers. Their use is extremely liable to run to excess, and makes our agricul- ture unsteady and improvident. We need, not only to live and make money from our soils, but to constantly improve the soil, and thus extend our agricultural capital. The enlightened econ- omy of the enormous masses of muck and peat which Connecti- cut contains, which probably exceed in extent those of any other State, can not fail to exercise the most beneficent influence on our material prosperity. We shall thus at once fertilize those fields that are already arable, and reclaim from waste a large area of land that is now all but useless. I doubt not that the 'peat beds of our State are destined to be of immense value for other than merely agricultural purposes. As fuel, they have already been employed to some extent. In Europe a vast deal of ingenuity has been bestowed upon the means of preparing peat-fuel, so as to adapt it to transportation and advantageous use. In Bristol of this State, the Copper Company have for some time employed a furnace in connection with their steam engine, which receives the peat as it comes drip- ping wet from the swamp, and consumes it with the greatest economy, even the water it contains being made to contribute to its heating effect. In Germany, a method has been invented for converting the porous, bulky, and friable peat, into dense hard cakes, or bricks, which contain little of the coarse impurities of the peat, and may be transported without loss or pulverization, and burn with a great degree of freedom. All this is accomplished withoiit any pressure, by simply diffusing the peat in water, allowing the latter to settle, and drying the deposit. Again, in Ireland and Germany, peat is consumed in large quantities in an entirely new industry, which has originated and grown to a good deal of vigor within the last five to six years. The peat is distilled, either over a free fire, or by over-heated steam, and a large number of useful products are thus obtained, quite analogous to those now prepared to some extent in this country from bituminous coals. As an example of the kind and quantity of these products, the following statement may be adduced : 56 Erom a turf or peat excavated in Hanover, Germany, and worked in tlie air-dry state, were obtained : 2 per cent, of a clear, colorless, light-turf-oil or photogene. 2 " " dark, heavy " 1^ " " asphalt. 35 " " peat coal or coke. 15 " " illuminating gas. 1 " " paraffin. 4 " " kreosote. 40 " " water containing 1 — 3 per cent, ammonia. These products are all susceptible of useful applications for purposes of illumination, lubrication, heating, preservation of wood, manufacture of lamp-black, varnish, and even of per- fumery. If I should be authorized to continue my labors, I shall com- municate to the Society a full account of all these various tech- nical applications of peat, in so far as they promise to be of ser- vice to the industrial interests of this State. I have taken measures to provide myself with means of in- formation on all these topics, as furnished by the scientific and technical journals and publications of Great Britain, Germany and France. I also wish to examine personally, the more im- portant of our peat-beds, so as to be able to compare their phys- ical with their chemical characters, and thus to establish rules by which practical men may be guided in the economy of the different varieties. 57 APPENDIX. — Methods of Analysis. The general metliod of analysis for guanos, superphosphates, &c., whose commercial value lies almost exclusively in ammo- nia and phosphoric acid, is as follows : 1. Of the well averaged and pulverized sample, a quantit}' of 2 grams is weighed off and dried at a temperature of 212 deg. until it ceases to lose weight ; the loss is water. If loss of am- monia is feared, a known quantity of oxalic acid is added before drying. 2. The dried residue of 1, is gradually heated to low redness in a porcelain cup, and maintained at such a heat, until all organic matter is burned off. The loss is organic and volatile matter. Usually the substance is directly heated to redness without sep- arately -estimating the water. 3. The residue of 2, is pulverized if need be, and digested for some time with moderately concentrated hydrochloric acid. The diluted solution is filtered off and washed, the residue' weighed as sand and insoluble matters. 4. The solution 3, is brought to the bulk of three or four liquid ounces, mixed with rather more than its volume of strong alcohol and enough sulphuric acid to unite with all the lime which is thereby completely separated as sulphate. The liquid is filtered off, the sulphate of lime is washed with dilute alcohol, dried and weighed ; 'from it is calculated the amount of lime. 5. The solution 4, is evaporated until the alcohol is removed, then without filtration, to it is added an excess of a liquid made by dissolving in 2 quarts of water, 30 grams of sulphate of mag- nesia, 41 grams of chlorid of ammonium, 37^ grams of tartaric acid, and 40 grams of carbonate of ammonia, (see W. Mayer, in Liebig's Annalen, Vol. 101, p. 168,) and finally excess of am- monia. After five to six hours, the precipitate of ammonia- phosphate of magnesia, usually mixed with some brown organic matters, is collected in a filter and washed three or four times with ammonia water ; it is then dissolved from the filter by d ilute hydrochloric acid, and again thrown down by ammonia, 58 after addition of a little tartaric acid. It is now pure, and is finally waslied and weighed as usual for the estimation of phos- phoric acid. 6. 1 gram of the manure is burned in the usual way, with soda lime. The resulting ammonia is collected in 20 cubic cen- timeters of a fifth-solution of oxalic acid, (12.6 grams of pure oxalic acid to a liter of water,) and estimated by titrition with a dilute potash solution. 7. The soluble phosphoric acid of a manure is estimated by washing 2 grams of it with several ounces of water and treating the solution as in 4 and 5. 8. To determine actual ammonia, one or two grams are mixed in a flask, with a pint of water ; a piece of caustic potash is added, and three-fourths of the water slowly distilled off through a Liebig's condenser into a standard oxalic acid. The ammonia is then estimated by titrition. In complete ash-analysis of manures, or in examining' organic bodies, e. g., cotton-seed cake, the usual and approved methods are employed. REPORT OF PROFESSOR S. W. JOHNSOX, CHEMIST TO THE SOCIETY. For 1858. Henry A. Dyer, Corresponding Secretary of the Connecticut State Agricultural Society, Deae Sir : — My Second Annual Eeport is chiefly occupied with the results of the Investigation of Peat and Muck, begun at your instance in 1857. In order to make my analyses and inquiries of the greatest practical benefit to our farmers, I have prepared a systematic and brief, though pretty complete account of the nature and uses of Peat and Muck, in so far as they concern Agriculture, the careful study of which, I hope, will enable any one to employ the abundant contents of our swamps with economy and advantage. I had intended to give here an account of the other technical applica- tions of peat ; but since it appears that they are as yet very undeveloped and not likely to be of much immediate importance in this country, I have concluded to leave them unnoticed for the present. The Commercial Fertilizers that I have examined, with two excep- tions have proved to be of good quality, while some of them are new and possess much interest. SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, New Haven, Ct., January 12, 1859. ESSAYS ON MANURES 1858 CONTENTS, FOR ESSAYS IN 1858. PAGE Peat axd Muck.— Essay on their Natdre akd Agricultukal Uses. 61 1. What is Peat? . qi 2. Conditions of its formation, 61 3. Different liinds, 62 4. Chemical composition, 64 a. Organic or combustible part, 64 i. Mineral part — Ashes, 66 c. Nitrogen or potential ammonia, 66 5. Characters that adapt Peat for agricultural use, 61 A. Physical or amending characters, QI I. Absorbent power for water, as liquid and vapor, 68 II. " " " ammonia, 69 in. Influence in modifying decay, 11 TV. Influence in disintegrating the soil, 12 T. Influence on the temperature of soils. 13 B. Fertilizing characters, T4 I. Fertilizing effects of the organic matters, including nitrogen, li 1st. Organic matters as direct food to plants, 74 2d. Organic matters as indirect food to plants, 75 3d. Peculiarities in the decay of Peat, 1 1 II. Fertilizing effects of ths ashes of Peat, 78 III. Comparison of Peat with stable manure, SO 6. Characters of Peat that are detrimental, or that need correction, S2 1st. Possible bad effects on heavy soils, 82 2d. Nosious ingredients, • 83 a. Vitriol Peats, 83 6. Acidity, 84 c. Resinous matters, 85 3d. Deficient ingredients, 85 7. Preparation of Peat for agricultural use, 85 a. Excavation, - 85 6. Exposure, or seasoning, 86 c. Composting with stable manure, 87 " " night soil, 89 " " guano, 89 ' " flsh, and other animal matters, 90 " '■ potash-lye and soda-ash, 91 " " wood-ashes, marl, lime, salt and lime mixture, &c., 91 8. Plan followed in the analysis of Peat, 95 JVbfe.— Dr. E. A. Fisheb's description of the process of analysis, 97 9. The value of analyses and of practical information, - • 97 Circular of inquiry, , . - . - . 99 11. CONTENTS. 10. Results of analyses, and answers to circular :- No. 1, from lewis M. Norton, Goshsn, No. 2, " " " Ct. 9, 10, No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 11, No. 12, No. 13, No. 14. No. 15. No. 16. No. 17. •No. 18. No. 19. No. 20. No. 21. No. 22. No. 23. No. 24. No. 25. No. 26. No. 21. No. 28. No. 29. No. 30. No. 31. No. 32. Messrs. Pond & Miles, Milford, Samuel Camp, PlainviUe, Russell U. Peck, Berlin Rev. B. F. Northrop, Griswold, John H. Stanwood, Colebrook, N. Hart, Jr., West Cornwall, A. L. Loveland, North G-ranby, Daniel Buck, Jr., Poquonock, K 11 11 Philip Scarborough, Brooklyn, Adams white, " Paris Dyer, " Perrin Scarborough, " Geo K. Virgin, CoUiasville, Solomon Mead, New Haven, Edwin Hoyt, New Canaan, A. M. Haling, Rockville, 11 Albert Day, Brooklyn, Chauncey Goodyear, N. Haven, Rev. "Wm. Clift, Stoniugton, Henry Keeler, South Salem, N. Y. John Adams, Salisbury, Ct. No. 33. Appendix — Salt marsh mud from Rev. "Wra. Clift, Stoniugton, No. 34. Shell marl from John Adams, SaUsbury, Ct, No. 35. Marsh mud from Solomon Mead, New Haven, Ct., Tabulated Analyses, - Commercial Fertilizers — Scale or Prices. Fish manure, Quinnipiae Company's, Green-sand marl, of New Jersey, "Animalized phosphate of lime," Guanos. — Peruvian guano. Elide guano. Superphosphates of lime. — Pike&Co's: Coe & Co's: Greene & Preston's: Coe'i Castor pummace, Bone dust and bone meal, Page 101 101 102 104 105 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 118 120 122 123 124 126 126 12t 129 130 131 132 137 13Y 139 141 144 145 148 149 152 153 153 155 159 159 161 165 166 167 i, 168 169 112 PEAT AND MUCK. ESSAY ON THEIR NATURE AND AGRICULTURAL USES. 1. What is Peat? By the general term Peat we understand the vegetable soil of salt-marshes, beaver-meadows, bogs and swamps. It consists of vegetable matters resulting from the decay of many generations of aquatic or marsh plants, as mosses, sedges, coarse grasses, and a great variety of shrubby plants, mixed with more or less mineral substances, partly derived from these plants, and partly washed in from the surrounding lands. 2. The conditions under which Peat is forw-ed. ' The production of Peat from fallen and decaying plants, de- pends upon the presence of so much water as to cover or satu- rate the vegetable matters, and thereby hinder the full access of air. Saturation with water also has the effect to maintain the decaying matters at a low temperature, and by these two causes in combination, the process of decay is made to proceed with great slowness, and the final products of such slow decay, are compounds that themselves resist decay, and hence they accu- mulate. In JSTqw England there appears to be nothing like the exten- sive moors that abound in Ireland, Scotland, the north of Eng- land, North Grermany, Holland, and the elevated plains of Bavaria, which are mostly level or gently sloping tracts of coun- try covered with peat or turf to a depth often of 20 feet. In this country it is only in low places, where streams become obstructed and form swamps, or in bays and inlets on salt water, where the ebb and flow of the tide keeps the soil constantly wet, that our peat-beds occur. 62 In tlie countries above named the weather is more uniform than here, especially are the summers cooler, and rain falls are more frequent. Such is the greater humidity of the atmosphere that some species of mosses, — the so-called sphagnwnis, — which have a wonderful avidity for moisture, (hence used for packing plants which require to be kept moist on journeys,) are able to keep fresh and in growth during the entire summer. These mosses decay below and throw out new vegetation above, and thus produce a bog wherever the earth is springy. It is in this way that in those countries, the moors and peat-bogs actually grow, increasing in depth and area, from year to year, and raise themselves above the level of the surrounding country. There the reclamation of a moor is usually an expensive ope- ration, for which not only much draining, but actual cutting out and burning of the compact peat is necessary. The warmth of our summers and the dryness of our atmos- phere prevent the accumulation of peat above the highest level of the standing water of our marshes, and so soon as the marshes are well drained, the peat ceases to form, and in most cases the swamp may be easily converted into good meadow land. Springy hill-sides, which in cooler, moister climates would be- come moors, here dry up in summer to such an extent that no peat can be formed upon them. 3. The different kinds of Peat Very great differences in the characters of the deposits in our peat beds are observable. These differences are partly of color, some peats being gray, others red, others again black, the majority when dry possess a brown-red or snuff color. They also vary remarkably in weight and consistency. Some are compact, destitute of fibres or other traces of the vegetation from which they have been derived, and on drying shrink greatly and yield tough dense masses which burn readily, and are employed as fuel. Others again are light and porous, and remain so on dry- ing ; these contain much intermixed vegetable matter that is but little advanced in the peaty decomposition. Some peats are almost entirely free from mineral matters, and on burning leave but a few per cent, of ash, others contain considerable quantities 63 of lime or iron, ia chemical combination, or of sand and clay that have been washed in from the hills adjoining the swamps. The peat of some swamps is mostly derived from mosses, that of others from grasses, some contain much decayed wood and leaves, Others again are free from these. In the same swamp we usually observe more or less of all these differences. We find the surface peat is light and fall of partly decayed vegetation, while below the deposits are more compact. We commonly can trace distinct strata or layers of peat, which are often very unlike each other in appearance and quality, and in some cases the light and compact layers alter- nate so that the former are found below the latter. The light and porous kinds of peat appear in general to be formed in shallow swamps or on the surface of bogs, where there is considerable access of air to the decaying matters, while the compacter peats are found at a depth, and seem to have been formed beneath the low-water mark, in more complete exclusion of the atmosphere. The nature of the vegetation that flourishes in a bog, no doubt has some effect on the character of the peat. The peats chiefly derived from mosses that have grown in the full sunlight, have a red color, especially in their upper layers, while those produced principally from grasses are often grayish in appearance, or are full of silvery fibres — the skeletons of the blades of grasses and sedges. The accidental admixtures of soil often greatly affect the ap- pearance and value of a peat, but on the whole it would appear that its quality is most influenced by the nature and degree of decomposition it has been subjected to. The term muck is chiefly used among us to designate what is more correctly called peat. In proper usage, muck is a general term for manure of any sort, and if applied to peat should be qualified as swamp-muck. Some intelligent farmers call the surface layers of their swamps, which are loose and light in texture, swamp-mxich^ and to the bottom layers, which are more compact and often serviceable as fuel, they apply the term peat. This distinction is not very definite, but is convenient in many cases, and will be employed 64 in this Eeport as far as practicable ; although according to usage it is often necessary to use the words peat and muck synony- mously. 4. The Chemical Composition of Peat. Pure peat is derived from the decay of woody-fibre, which constitutes the organic basis of nearly all plants, and is essen- tially the same thing whether found in true wood or ia grasses and mosses. Like the vegetation from which it is formed, it is for the most part combustible, and if free from accidental admixtures of earthy matters, leaves but a few per cent, of ash when burned. (a) The organic or combustible part of peat varies exceedingly in composition. It is in fact an indefinite mixture of several or perhaps of many bodies whose precise nature is little known. These bodies have received the collective names humus and geine. In order to understand the general characters of Humus, as we shall designate the organic matters of peat, it is necessary to remind ourselves of the nature of the processes of decay, by which it is produced. In a chemical sense, decay is strongly similar to combustion or burning. It is in fact a burning at low temperatures, a com- bustion going on so slowly that there is no accumulation of heat, and no exhibition of light. To go back one step further, both these processes are cases of oxydation. A piece of wood whether consumed in the fire, or allowed to decay in the soil, is finally brought to the same result. Its organic portion is dissipated in the form of invisible gases, its mineral matters remain behind as ashes or earth. It is the vital principle of the atmosphere — oxygen gas, which is consumed in these changes, and which if it be supplied in sufficient quantity, burns, i. e., unites with the carbon and the hydrogen of the wood, and conyerts them into carbonic acid and water. When wood instead of being burned with full access of air is heated in close vessels or in coal-pits, with imperfett supply of oxygen, then its most easily combustible parts — those portions which give flame — are burnt off, and charcoal is left — a substance that burns without flame. 65 When wood or vegetable matters generally, instead of being permitted to moulder away in tbe free atmosphere, with just enough moisture and sufficient warmth to promote complete decay, are kfept under water and thus nearly shut off from the action of oxygen,* a similar burning out of the more combusti- ble (oxydable) matters of the wood takes place, and peat results, a substance, which like charcoal, burns without or with little flame, is highly indestructible, and is richer in carbon than the wood from which it was formed. In the formation of peat this removal of the more combustible parts of the wood cannot go on nearly to the degree it does in the preparation of charcoal, on account of the lower tempera- ture, and the far smaller supply of air. With the changes in temperature, and with the variable access of air, are connected the differences in the nature and relative quantity of the ingre- dients of peat. The larger share of the organic matters that may be separated from peat, possesses acid characters. If peat be agitated, or better, boiled a short time with water, it is partly dissolved. The quantity taken up by water varies from 1 to 17 per cent., and of this a variable portion is organic acids. The extract or solution in water has generally an amber or pale brown color, like the water of swamps or of forest streams, and the acids it contains are two in number, and have received the names crenic and apocrenic acids. In the water extract these acids are in general partly uncom- bined and partly united to various bases, as lime, magnesia, oxyd of iron and alumina. The great mass of the peat remaining after the treatment with water, consists of one or several acids which are soluble in solu- tions of an alkali, and may thus be removed from the remaining ingredients. To exhibit these acids, the so-called humic acids, — we boil the peat with a solution of carbonate of soda ; a dark brown liquid is shortly obtained which contains the humic acids united with soda. If now, any strong acid as sulphuric acid, is added in excess to the solution of humate of soda, the soda is taken by the sul- * Not entirely, for water dissolves a certain quantity of oxygen which supports the respiration of fishes. 66 pburic acid, and the humic acids are separated, and subside as a black or brown sediment. In most peats, after tlie extraction with water and carbonate of soda, there still remains a black residue which is ' insoluble in alkalies and has been termed humine. This substance is usually- mixed with more or less undecomposed vegetable matter or fibre, from which we know no means of separating it. It is not an acid, else it would combine with alkalies. Its composition, how- ever, does not differ much from that of the humic acids just men- tioned. Besides the bodies above named, a small amount of resinous matters exists in some, perhaps in all peats ; occasionally too, a bituminous or pitchy matter has been found in them, but these substances are doubtless of no agricultural significance whatever. Such is a concise sketch of the organic or combustible ingre- dients of peat, and it is of sufficient fullness and accuracy for our present purpose.* (b) The mineral part of peat which remains as ashes when the organic matters are burned away is variable in quantity and composition. Usually a quantity of sand or soil is found in it, and not unfrequently constitutes its larger portion. Some peats leave on burning much carbonate of lime, the ash of others again is mostly oxyd of iron ; silicic, sulphuric and phosphoric acids, magnesia, potash, soda, alumina and chlorine, also occur in small quantities in the ash of all peats. In some rare instances peats are found which are so impreg- nated with soluble sulphates of iron and alumina as to yield these salts to water in large quantity, and sulphate of iron (green vitriol,) has actually been manufactured from such peats, which have in consequence been characterized as vitriol peats. (c) The nitrogen or potential ammonia of peats is an important ingredient, which is never absent, though its quantity varies from 1 to 5 per cent. * The varieties of humic and ulmic acids, of humine and ulmine, described by Mulder and Herrmann are not noticed liere, for the reasons that these chemists dis- agree as to their properties and existence, and they are of no agricultural impor- tance. 67 5. After this general statement of the composition of peat,' we may proceed to notice : The characters that adapt it for agri- cultural uses. These characters are conveniently discussed under two heads, viz: {A.) Those which render it useful in improving the texture and other physical characters of the soil, and indirectly contri- bute to the nourishment of crops, — characters which constitute it an amendment to use the language of French agricultural writers ; and, (B.) Those which make it a direct fertilizer. {A.) Considered as an amendment, the value of peat depends upon I. lis remarhxhle power of ahsorhing and retaining water, both as a liquid and as vapor : II. Its power of absorbing ammonia : III. Its action in modifying the decay of organic {animal and vegetable) bodies: IV. Its effect in promoting the disintegration and solution of mineral matters, {the stony matters of the soil) : and V. Its influence on the temperature of the soil. The agricultural importance of these properties of peat is best illustrated by considering the faults of a certain class of soils. Throughout Connecticut are found abundant examples of light, leachy, hungry soils, which consist of coarse sand or fine gravel ; are surface-dry in a few hours after the heaviest rains, and in the summer drouths, are as dry as an ash-heap to a depth of several or many feet. These soils are easy to work, are ready for the plow early in the spring, and if well manured give moderate crops in wet sea- sons. In a dry summer, however, they yield poorly, and at the best they require constant and very heavy manuring to keep them in heart. Crops fail on these soils from two causes, viz. : want of moisture and want of food. Cultivated plants demand as an indispensa- ble condition of their growth and perfection, to be kept within certain limits of wetness. Buckwheat will flourish best on dry soils, while cranberries and rice grow in swamps. The crops that are most profitable to us, wheat, oats, etc., require a medium degree of moisture, and in all cases it is desirable that the soil be equally protected from excess of water and from drouth. Soils must be thus situated either naturally, or as the result of improvement, before any steadUy good results can be obtained in their cultivation. In wet seasons these light soils are tolerably productive if well manured. It is then plain that if we could add anything to them which would retain the moisture of dews and rains in spite of the summer-heats, our crops would be uniformly fair, provided the supply of manure be kept up. But why is it that light soils need more manure than loamy or heavy lands ? We answer — ^because, in the first place, the rains which quickly descend through the open soil, wash down out of the reach of vegetation the soluble fertilizing matters, and in the second place, from the porosity of the soil the air has too great access, so that the vegetable and animal matters of manures decay too rapidly, their volatile portions, ammonia and carbonic acid, escape into the atmosphere, and are in measure lost to the crops. From these combined causes we find that a heavy dress- ing of well- rotted stable manure almost, if not quite entirely, disappears from such soils in one season, so that another year the field requires a renewed application ; while on loamy soils the same amount of manure would have lasted several years, and produced each year a better effect. We want then to amend light soils by incorporating with them something that prevents the rains from leaching through them too rapidly, and, that at the same time, renders them less open to the air, or absorbs and retains for the use of crops the volatile products of the decay of manures. Now for these purposes vegetable matter of some sort, is the best and almost the only amendment that can be economically employed. In many cases a good peat or muck is the best form of this material, that lies at the farmer's command. I. Its absorbent power for liquid water is well known to every farmer who has thrown it up in a pile to season for use. It holds the water like a sponge, and after exposure for a whole summer is still distinctly moist to the feel. 69 Its absorbent power for vapor of water is so great that more tlian once it lias happened in Germany, that barns or close sheds filled with dried peat, such as is used for fuel, have been burst by the swelling of the peat in damp weather, occasioned by the absorp- tion of moisture from the air. This power is further shown by the fact that when peat has been kept all summer long in a dry room, thinly spread out to the air, and has become like dry snuff to the feel, it still contains 10, 20, 80, and in some of the speci- mens I have examined, even 40 per cent, of water. To dry a peat thoroughly, it requires to be exposed for some time to the temperature of boiling water. It is thus plain that no summer heats can dry up a soil which has had a good dressing of this materia], for on the one hand, it soaks up and holds the rains that fall upon it, and on the other, it absorbs the vapor of water out of the atmosphere whenever it is moist, as at night and in cloudy weather. II. Absorbent power for ammonia. All soils that deserve to be called fertUe, have the property of absorbing and retaining ammonia and the volatile matters which escape from fermenting manures, but light and coarse soils may be deficient in this power. Here again in respect to its absorp- tive power for ammonia, peat comes to our aid. We may easily show by direct experiment that peat absorbs and combines with ammonia. I took for example a weighed quantity of the peat No. 29 from the New Haven Beaver Pond, the specimen furnished me by Chauncey Goodyear Esq., and poured upon it a known quan- tity of dilute solution of ammonia, and agitated the two together for 48 hours. I then distilled off at a boiling heat the unab- sorbed ammonia and determined its quantity. This amount subtracted from that of the ammonia originally employed, gave the quantity of ammonia absorbed and retained by the peat at the temperature of boiling water. The peat retained ammonia to the amount of .95 of one per rent. I made another trial with carbonate of ammonia, adding ex- cess of solution of this salt to a quantity of peat, and exposing it to the heat of boiling water, until no smell of ammonia was 70 perceptible. The entire ammonia in the peat was then deter- mined, and it was found that the dry peat which originally gave 2.4 per cent, of ammonia (potential,) now gave 3.7 per cent. The absorbed quantity was thus 1.3 per cent. This last experiment most nearly represents the true power of absorption, because in fermenting manures ammonia mostly oc- curs in the form of carbonate, and this is more largely retained than free ammonia, on account of its power of decomposing the humate of lime, forming with it carbonate of lime and humate of ammonia. The absorbent power of peat for ammonia is beautifully shown by the analyses of three specimens sent me by Edwin Hoyt, Esq., of New Canaan. The first of these (No. 22,) is the swamp muck he employs. It contains in the dry state but .58 per cent, of ammonia (potential.) The second sample (No. 23,) is the same muck that has lain under the flooring of the horse stables, and has been in this way partially saturated with urine. It con- tains 1.15 per cent, of ammonia. The third sample is, finally, the same muck composted with white-fish. It contains 1.31 per cent, of ammonia. The quantities of ammonia thus absorbed, both in the labora- tory and field experiments is small — from .7 to 1.3 per cent. The absorption is without doubt almost entirely due to the or- ganic matter of the peats, and in all the specimens on which these trials were made, the per centage of inorganic matter is large. The results therefore become a better expression of the power of peat in general to absorb ammonia, if we reckon them on the organic matter alone. Calculated in this way, the organic matter of the Beaver Pond peat (which constitutes but 68 per cent, of the dry peat) absorbs 1.4 per cent, of free ammonia and 1.9 per cent, of ammonia out of the carbonate of ammonia. In the same manner we find that the organic matter of Hoyt's muck has absorbed 2.35 per cent, of ammonia. We observe that the peat which is, naturally, richest in am- monia, absorbs less, relatively, than that which is poor in this substance. When we consider how small an ingredient of most manures ammonia is, viz. : less than one per cent, in case of stable ma- 71 nure, and how little of it in the shape of guano for instance is usually applied to crops — not more than 40 to 60 lbs. to the acre. (The usual dressings with guano are from 250 to 400 lbs! per acre, and ammonia averages but 15 per cent, of the guano) we at once perceive that an absorptive power of two or even one per cent, is adequate for every agricultural purpose. III. The infixience of peat in modifying the decay of organic matters deserves notice. Peat itself in its native bed or more properly the water which impregnates it and is charged with its soluble principles has a remarkable anti-septic or preservative power. Many instances are on record of the bodies of animals being found in a quite fresh and well-preserved state in peat bogs, but when peat is removed from the swamp, and so far dried as to be convenient for agricultural use, it does not appear to exert this preservative quality to the same degree or even in the same kind. Buried in a peat bog or immersed in peat water, animal mat- ters are absolutely prevented from decay, or decay only with extreme slowness ; but if covered with peat that is no longer quite saturated with water, their decay is indeed checked in rapidity, and the noisome odors evolved from putrifying animal substances are not perceived, still decay does go on, and in warm weather, no very long time is needed to complete the process. The effect of peat in modifying decay is analogous to that of charcoal, and is probably connected with its extreme porosity. If a piece of flesh be exposed to the air during summer weather it shortly putrifies and acquires an intolerable odor. If it be now repeatedly rubbed with charcoal dust, and kept in it for some time, the taint which only resides on the surface, may be com- pletely removed, and the sweetness of the meat restored, or if the fresh meat be surrounded with a layer of charcoal powder of a certain thickness, it will pass the hottest weather without man- ifesting the usual odor of putrefying bodies. It does however waste away, and in time, completely disap- pears. It decays, but does not putrefy, it exhales, not the dis- gusting gases which reveal the neighborhood of carrion, but the pungent odor of hartshorn. The gases which escape are the , 72 same that would result if the flesh were perfectly burnt up in a full supply of air, viz. : vapor of water, carbonic acid and avi- monia. K we a,ttend carefully to the nature of decay thus modified by charcoal dust, we find that it is complete, rapid but regular, and unaccompanied by unhealthful or disagreeable exhalations. Peat has all the effects of charcoal with this advantage, that it permanently retains the ammonia formed in decay, which con- trary to the generally received opinion charcoal does not. From its absorptive power for water, it maintains a lower temperature under the sun's heat than dry charcoal or a light soil, and this circumstance protracts and regulates the process of decay in a highly beneficial manner, so that if a muck-dressed soil receive an application of stable manure, fish, or guano, — in the first place, the ammonia and other volatile matters cannot be formed so rapidly as in the undressed soil, because the soil is moister and decay is thereby-hindered, — and in the second place, when formed they cannot escape from the soil, but are fixed in it by the peculiar absorptive power of the vegetable acids of muck. These properties of peat will be again recurred to, when we come to discuss its uses in composting. IV. Peat promotes the disintegration of the soil. Every soil is a storehouse of food for crops ; but the stores it contains are only partly available for immediate use. In fact, by far the larger share is locked up, as it were, in insoluble com- binations, and by a very slow and gradual change does it become accessible to the plant. This change is chiefly brought about by the united action of water and carbonic acid gas, or rather of ' water holding this gas in solution. Nearly all the rocks and minerals out of which fertile soUs are formed, — which therefore contain those inorganic matters that are essential to vegetable growth, — ^though very slowly acted on by pure water, are decom- posed and dissolved to a much greater extent, to an extent, indeed, commensurate with the wants of vegetation, by water charged with carbonic acid gas. The only abundant source ofcarhonic add in ike soil, is decaying vegetable matter. 73 Hungry, leacTiy soils, from their deficiency of vegetable mat- ter and of moisture do not adequately yield their own native re- sources to the support of crops, because the conditions for con- verting their fixed into floating capital are wanting. Such soils dressed with peat or green manured, at once acquire the power of retaining water, and keep that water overcharged with car- bonic acid, thus not only the extraneous manures which the farmer applies are fully economized ; but the soil? becomes more productive from its own stores of fertility which now begin to be unlocked and available. It is probable, nay almost certain, that the acids of p«5at, ex- ert a powerful decomposing, and ultimately solvent effect on the minerals of the soil ; but on this point we have no precise in- formation, and must therefore be content merely to allude to the probability, which is sustained by the fact that the acids crenic, apocrenic and humic, though often partly uncombined, are never wholly so, but usually occur united in part to various bases, viz. : lime, magnesia, ammonia, potash, alumina and oxyd of iron. V. The influence of peat on the temperature of light soils dressed with it may often be of considerable practical importance. A light dry soil is subject to great variations of temperature, and rapidly follows the changes of the atmosphere from cold to hot, and from hot to cold. In the summer noon a sandy soil becomes so warm as to be hardly endurable to the feel, and again it is on such soils that the earliest frosts take effect. If a soil thus sub- ject to extremes of temperature have a dressing of peat, it will on the one hand not become so warm in the hot day, and on the other hand it will not cool so rapidly, nor so much in the night ; its temperature will be rendered more uniform, and on the whole more conducive to the welfare of vegetation. This regulative effect on temperature is partly due to the stores of water held by peat. In a hot day this water is constantly evaporating, and this, as all know is a cooling process. At night the peat absorbs vapor of water from the aii', and condenses it withia its pores, this condensation is again accompanied wifli the evolution of heat. 74 It appears to be a general, tliough not invariable fact that dark colored soils, other things being equal, are constantly the warmest, or at any rate maintain the temperature most favorable to vegetation. It has been repeatedly observed that on light- colored soils plants mature more rapidly if the soil be thinly covered with a coating of some black substance. Thus Lampa- dius. Professor in the School of Mines at Friberg a town situat- ed in a mountainous part of Saxony, found that he could ripen melons, even in the coolest summers, by strewing a coating of coal-dust an inch deep over the surface of the soil. In some of the vineyards of the Rhine, the powder of a black slate is em- j)loyed to hasten the ripening of the grape. Girardin, an eminent French agriculturist in a series of ex- periments on the cultivation of potatoes found that the time of their ripening varied eight to fourteen days, according to the character of the soil. He found, on the 25th of August, in a very dark soil made so by the presence of much humus or de- .caying vegetable matter, twenty-six varieties ripe; in sandy soil but twenty, in clay nineteen, and in a white lime soil only sixteen. It cannot be doubted then, that the effect of dressing a light sandy or gravelly soil with peat, or otherwise enriching it in veg- etable matter, is to render it warmer, in the sense in which that word is usually applied to soils. The upward range of the ther- mometer may not be increased, but the uniform warmth so salu- tary to our most valued crops is thereby secured. {B.) The ingredients and qualities of peat which make it a direct fertilizer next come under discussion. We shall notice: I. The organic matters, including nitrogen or ammonia. II. The inorganic or mineral ingredients ; and III. Institute a comparison hetiveen peat and stable manure. In division I. we have to consider : 1st. The organic matters as direct food to plants. Twenty years ago, when Chemistry and Vegetable- Physiology began to be applied to Agriculture, the opinion was firmly held among scientific men, that the organic parts of humus — by which we understand decayed vegetable matter, such as is found to a greater or less extent in all good soils, and abounds in many 75 fertile ones, such as constitutes the leaf-mould of forests, such as is produced in the fermenting of stable manure, and that forms the principal part of swamp-muck and peat, — are the true nourish- ment of vegetation, at any rate of the higher orders of plants, those which supply food to man and to domestic animals. In 1840, Liebig, in his celebrated and admirable treatise on the " Applications of Chemistry to Agriculture and Physiology," gave as his opinion that these organic bodies do not nourish vegetation except by the products of their decay. He asserted that they cannot enter the plant directly, but that the water, carbonic acid and ammonia resulting from their decay, are the substances actually imbibed by plants, and from these alone is built up the organic or combustible part of vegetation. To this day there is a division of opinion among scientific men on this subject, some adopting the views of Liebig, others adhering essentially to the old doctrines. Many experiments and trials have been made with a view to settling this question, but such are the difficulties of a direct solution that scarcely definite results either way have been obtained. On the one hand, Liebig and those who adopt his doctrines, have demonstrated that these organic matters are not at all es- sential to the growth of agricultural plants, and have shown that they can constitute but a small part of the actual food of vegetaiion taken in the aggregate. On the other hand, there is no satisfactory evidence that the soluble organic matters of the soil and of peat, are not actually appropriated by, and, so far as they go, are not directly service- able as food to plants. Be this as it may, practice has abundantly demonstrated the value of humus as an ingredient of the soil, and if not directly, yet indirectly, it furnishes the material out of which plants build up their parts. 2d. The organic matters of peat as indirect food to plants. Very nearly one-half by weight of our common crops when per- fectly dry, consists of carbon. The substance which supplies this element to plants is the gas, carbonic acid. Plants derive this gas mostly from the atmosphere absorbing it by means of their leaves. But the free atmosphere, at only a little space 76 above ttie soil, contains but l-25,000tli of its bulk of this gas, whereas plants flourish in air containing a larger quantity, and in fact their other wants being supplied, they grow better as the quantity is increased to l-12th the bulk of the air. These con- siderations make sufficiently obvious how important it is that the soil have in itself a constant and abundant source of carbonic acid gas. As before said, organic matter in a state of decay, is the single material which the farmer can incorporate with his soil in order to make it a supply of this most indispensable form of plant-food. The nitrogen of crops, an ingredient that characterizes those vegetable substances which have the highest value as food for man, is naturally supplied to plants in the form of ammonia, and we are sufficiently aware of the great fertilizing value of this substance and of its commercial worth, in the shape of guano, &c., &c., for agricultural piu'poses, a worth depending upon the fact of its comparative scarcity. It has long been known that peat contains a considerable quantity of nitrogen, and the average amount in the 33 speci- mens I have submitted to analysis, including peats and swamp mucks of all grades of quality, is equivalent to If per cent, of ammonia on the air-dried substance, or more than twice as much as exists in the best stable or yard manure. In several peats the amount is as high as 3 per cent, and in one case 3-^ per cent, were found. There is a difference of opinion among chemists as to the state in which this nitrogen exists in peat and humus. Some assume it to be ammonia held in a peculiar state of combination with the humic and other acids, so that the ordinary means fail to separate it, and this is the most commonly received view. Cer- tain it is that we cannot get much actual ammonia from a peat by a treatment which will displace this body perfectly from a guano or other ordinary manure. In two trials but about 1 per cent, was obtained. In order then to estimate the availability of the nitrogen of peat, we must fall back on general principles, and practical ex- perience. We know from the exact demonstrations of chemical science 77 that when organic bodies decay their elements enter into new and more stable combinations and that their nitrogen appears in the form of ammonia. If bodies very rich in nitrogen un- dergo a rapid putrefactive decay, a portion of the nitrogen sepa- rates as such and escapes combination, it is probable however that highly porous substances containing but a few per cent, of nitrogen, yield all or nearly all their nitrogen in the shape of ammonia, or, what has the same agricultural significance, in that of nitric acid. The conclusion then is entirely warranted that the nitrogen of peat becomes almost completely available, as the peat decays in the soil. This conclusion is supported by the fact attested by practical men, that certain varieties of swamp-muck are equal to stable manure in their fertilizing effects, although inferior to the latter in respect to the quantity of substances usually held to be active fertilizers which they contain, ammonia (nitrogen) alone excepted. 3d. The decay of peat itself offers some peculiarities that are worthy of notice in this connection. It is more gradual and regular in decay than the vegetable matters of stable dung, or than that furnished by turning under sod or green crops. It is thus a more steady and lasting benefit, especially in light soils, out of which ordinary vegetable manures disappear too rapidly. The decay of peat appears to proceed through a regular series of steps. In the soil, especially in contact with soluble alkaline bodies as ammonia and lime, there is a progressive conversion of the insoluble or less soluble into soluble compounds. Thus the inert matters that resist the immediate solvent power of alka- lies, absorb oxygen from the air and form the humic acid soluble in alkalies ; the humic acids also undergo an analogous change, and pass into crenic acid, and this body is converted into apo- crenic acid. The two latter are soluble in water, and, in the porous soil, they are rapidly brought to the end- result of decay, viz. : water, carbonic acid and ammonia. Great differences must be observed, however, in the rapidity with which these changes take place. Doubtless they go on most slowly in case of the black compact peats, and perhaps many of the lighter and more porous samples of swamp-muck I 78 have examined would decay nearly as fast as unaltered vegetable matter. It might appear from the above statement that the effect of exposing peat to the air as is done when it is incorporated with the soil, would be to increase relatively the amount of soluble organic matters ; but the fact is, that they are actually dimin- ished and so because the oxydation and consequent removal of these soluble matters (crenic and apocrenic acids) proceed more rapidly than they can be produced from the less soluble humic acid of the peat. II. With regard to the inorganic matters of peat considered as food to plants, it is obvious that leaving out of the account for the present, some exceptional cases, they are useful as far as they go. In the ashes of peats, we almost always find small quanties of sulphate of lime, magnesia and phosphoric acid. Potash and soda too, are often present though never to any considerable amount. Carbonate and sulphate of lime are large ingredients of the ashes of about one-half the peats I have examined. The ashes of the other half are largely mixed with sand and soil, but in most cases also contain considerable sulphate and often carbonate of lime and magnesia. In. one swamp-muck, No. 4, from Messrs. Pond and Miles, Milford, there was found but two per cent, of ash, at least one half of which was sand, and the remainder sulphate of lime, (gypsum). In other samples 20, 30, 50 and even 60 per cent, remained after burning off the organic matter. In these cases the ash is chiefly sand. The amount of ash found in those peats which were most free from sand ranges from 4 to 9 per cent. Probably the average per centage of true ash, viz. : that derived from the organic matters themselves not including sand and acci- dental ingredients, is not far from 5 per cent. I regret that time has not allowed me to make more complete examinations of the ashes of all the peats that have come under analysis. What I have been able to do is with two exceptions simply to ascertain the presence, and in a rough way the com- parative abundance of lime, magnesia, iron, sulphuric and car- bonic acids. I am not entirely satisfied with the accuracy of 79 the inferences wWcli I have been obliged to draw from tbe neces- sarily superficial asb-examinations. But to carry out full quan- titative analyses of the ashes of 34 peats and mucks, is an im- mense amount of labor, and could not be hoped to prove prac- tically remunerative ; because it must be with the analyses of peats as it is with that of soils, they may be useful to establish a general fact, but cannot be relied upon implicitly in individual cases unless they are strongly marked and peculiar. I give here a statement of the composition of the ash of two peats, the only ones I have had time to examine fully. They doubtless' give a fair idea of the inorganic ingredients of the majority of the peats submitted to trial, sand not being taken into account. Analysis of Peat ashes. I. II. Potash, .69 '.80 Soda, - .58 Lime, - 40.52 35.59 Magnesia, 6.06 4.92 Oxyd of iron and alumina, - 5.17 9.08 Phosphoric acid, - .50 .77 Sulphuric acid, 5.52 10.41 Chlorine, .15 .43 Soluble silica, 8.23 1.40 Carbonic acid. 19.60 22.28 Sand and charcoal, - 12.11 15.04 • 99.13 100.74 I. was furnished me by Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock, and comes from a peat, (No. 12,) which he employs as fuel. For the elaborate analysis I am indebted to Mr. Geo. F. Barker of Charleston, Mass., a graduate of the Yale Scientific School. II. (from peat No. 9,) was sent me by Mr. J. H. Stanwood of Colebrook. Mr. 0. C. Sparrow of Colchester, Ct., a graduate of the Yale Scientific School, executed the analysis. 80 The fertilizing constituents of both these ashes consist almost entirely of carbonate and sulphate of lime, and carbonate of magnesia. Phosphoric acid and potash are present, but in small quantity. Nevertheless, as will be shown presently, the ingre- dients of these ashes must be considered as largely contributing to the fertilizing effect of the peats from which they were derived. In a few instances, there is an almost entire want of useful ash ingredients, for example, in Virgin's mucks, Nos. 18, 19 and 20 ; and Hoyt's muck, No. 22. In these samples, besides sand and oxyd of iron, there are only very minute quantities of lime and magnesia to be found. III. Comparison of Peat with Stable Manure. The fertilizing value of peat is best understood by comparing it with some standard manure. Stable manure is obviously that fertilizer whose effects are most universally observed and ap- preciated, and by setting analyses of the two side by side, we may see at a glance, what are the excellencies and what the de- ficiencies of peat. In order rightly to estimate the worth of those ingredients which occur in but small per centage in peat, we must remember that it like stable manure, may be, and usually should be applied in large doses, so that in fact the smallest ingredients come upon an acre in considerable quantity. In making our comparison we will take the analysis of Peat No. 12, (Mr. Buck's,) and one executed by Dr. Voelcker of the Eoyal Agricultural College of England, on weU-fermented farm yard manure of best quality, from the mixed dung of horses, cows and sheep. The peat is understood to be simply air dried, yet perhaps dryer than it would become if dug and left heaped over one summer ; while the yard manure is moist from the heap, and of the usual average dryness. 81 No. I, is the complete analysis of Peat ; ISTo- II, of well rotted stable manure : I. II. Water expelled at 212 deg. 18.050 75.420 &3 ' Soluble in dilute solution of carbonate of 1 soda — soluble geine. 27.190 a- ^6.530 ^ Insoluble in solution of carbonate of o soda, 48.840 Potash, ..... .041 .491 Soda, - - . - .035 .080 Lime, ..... 2.431 1.990 Magnesia, .364 .138 Oxyd of iron and alumina, - .310 .673 Phosphoric acid. - .030 .450 Sulphuric acid, .... .331 .121 Chlorine, - .009 .018 Soluble silica, .... .494 1.678 Carbonic acid, .... - 1.175 1.401 Sand and charcoal, .700 1.010 100.000 100.000 Potential ammonia, .... 2.920 .735 Matters soluble in water. - 1.800 5.180 In studying the above analyses we observe 1st, that this peat contains j'lwe times as much organic, matter, and four times as much potential ammonia as the yard-manure. 2d. It contains more lime, magnesia and sulphuric acid than yard-manure. 8d. It is deficient in potash and phosphoric acid. We see thus that peat and yard-manure are excellently adapted to go together ; each supplies the deficiencies of the other. We see also from this that peat requires ike addition of phos- phates, (in the shape of bone-dust, or phosphatic guano,) and of potash, (as unleached wood ashes,) in order to Tnake it precisely equal in composition to stable manure. But there are some other questions to be discussed, for two manures may reveal to the chemist the same composition and yet be very unlike in their fertilizing effects, because their con- ditions are unlike, because they differ in their degrees of solu- bility or availability. Now, as before insisted upon, it is true in general, that peat is 82 much more slo"w of decomposition than yard-manure, and this fact which is an advantage in an amendment is a disadvantage in a fertilizer. Though there may be some peats, or rather mucks, which are energetic and rapid in their action, it seems that the most of them need to be applied in larger quantities than stable manure in order to produce equal fertilizing effects. Another matter that may be noticed here is the apparent con- tradiction between Chemistry, which says that peat is not equal to stable manure as a fertilizer, and practice, which in many cases af3S.rms that it is equal to our standard manure. In the first place, the chemical conclusion is a general one and does not apply to individual peats, which in a few instances may be superior to yard-manure. If I mistake not, the practical judgment also is, that in general yard-manure is the best. To go to the individual cases, 2d, a peat in which ammonia exists, to 3 or 4 times the amount found in stable or yard manure, may for a few seasons produce better results than the latter, merely on account of the presence of this one ingredient, it may in fact, for the soil and crop to which it is applied, he a better fertilizer than yard manure, because the substance ammo- nia is most needed in that soil, and yet for the generality of soils, or in the long run, it may prove to be an inferior fertilizer. Again, 3d, the melioration of the physical qualities of a soil, the amendment of its dryness and excessive porosity, by means of peat may be more effective for agricultural purposes, than the application of tenfold as much fertilizing, i. e. plant-feeding ma- terials ; in the same way that the mere draining of an over- moist soil often makes it more productive than do the heaviest manurings. 6. On the characters of Peat that are detrimental, or that may sometimes need correction before it is agriculturally useful. 1st. Bad effects on heavy soils. We have laid much stress on the amending qualities of peat, when applied to dry and leachy soils, which by its use are ren- dered more" retentive of moisture and manure. Now these prop- erties which it would seem are just adapted to renovate very light land, under certain circumstances may become disadvan- tageous on heavier soils. On clays no application is needed to 83 retain moisture. They are already too wet as a general tliina-. Unless a soil be open, some varieties of muck, (the denser peat- like kinds) are too slow in decay, and therefore do not yield up their stores of plant-food with sufficient rapidity. Put into the soU it lasts much longer than stubble, or green crops plowed in, or than long manure. If buried too deeply, or put into a heavy soil, especially if in large quantity, it does not decay, but remains wet, and tends to niake a bog of the field itself. In soils that are rather heavy, it is therefore best to compost the muck with some rapidly fermenting manure. We thus get a compound which is quicker than muck, and slower than stable manure, etc., and is therefore better adapted to the wants of the soil than either of these would be alone. Here it will be seen that much depends on the character of the muck itself. If light, spongy, brown or gray in color, and easily dried, it may be used alone with advantage on loamy soils, whereas if dense, black, and coherent like some of the Irish peats, a block of which when dry, will make a voyage across the Atlantic in the boiler of a steamship without losing its form — it would most likely be a poor amendment on a soil which has much tendency to become compact, and therefore does not read- ily free itself from excess of water. A clay soU if tlioroicgh-drained and deeply plowed^ may be won- derfully improved by even a heavy dressing of muck, as then, the water being let off, the muck can exert no detrimental action, but operates as effectually to loosen a too heavy soil as in case of sand it makes an over-porous soil compact or retentive. A clay may be made friable if well drained by incorporating with it any substance as lime, sand, long manure or muck which interposing itself between, the clayey particles, prevents their adhering to- gether. 2d. Noxious ingredients. (a) Vitriol peat. Occasionally a peat is met with which is injurious if applied in the fresh state to crops, from its containing some substance which exerts a poisonous action on vegetation. So far as I can decide from my inquiries, the only detrimental ino-redient that occurs in peat is sulphate of protoxyd of iron, 84 the same body that is popularly known under the names cop- peras and green- vitriol. This body is usually formed from sul- phuret of iron, which is thus indirectly noxious. I have found this substance ready-formed in large quantity in but one of the peats that I have examined, viz. : that sent me by Mr. Perrin Scarborough* of Brooklyn, Ct, (No. 17.) This remarkable peat dissolves in water to the extent of 15 per cent., and this soluble portion although containing some organic matter and sulphate of lime, consists in great part of green-vitriol. Grreen- vitriol in minute doses is not hurtful, but rather bene- ficial to vegetation, but in larger quantity it is fatally destruc- 'ftive. In the salt marsh mud sent me by the Eev. "W"m. Clift of Ston- ington, (ISTo. 33,) there is likewise sulphate of protoxyd of iron ia considerable quantity. This noxious substance likewise occurs in small amount in swamp muck (No. 22,) from E. Hoyt, Esq.,' New Canaan, and in hard-Iy appreciable quantity in several others. In a'-sample of the peat from the farm of Albert Day, Esq., Brooklyn, which is reputed detrimental, I have not been able to find any traces of this substance. Besides green-vitriol, it is possible that certain organic salts of protoxyd of iron, may be deleterious, but there is not much evi- dence to support this idea. (b) The acidity of Peats. Many writers have asserted that peat and muck possess a hurtful "acidity" which must be cor- rected before they can be usefully employed. It is indeed a fact that peat consists largely of acids, but, except perhaps in the vit- riol peats, (those containing copperas,) they are so insoluble, or if soluble, are so quickly modified by the absorption of oxygen, that they do not exhibit any " acidity " that can be deleterious to vegetation. It is advised to neutralize this supposed acidity by lime or some other alkali before using peat as a fertilizer or amend- ment, and there is great use in such mixtures of peat with alka- line matters, as we shall presently notice under the head of com- * Erroneouslj said to be from Mr. Philip Scarborough, in an article in the Borne- ' Vol. 3, p. 540. 85 posts, but I know of no single fact, wMcli warrants the idea that the organic matters of any peat have any acidity that is hurtful to vegetation. (c) Resinous matters are mentioned hy various writers as in- jurious ingredients of peat, but I find no evidence that this no- tion is well-founded. The peat or mtick formed from the decay of resinous wood and leaves does not appear to be injurious, and the amount of resin in peat is exceedingly small. 3d. Deficient Ingredients. This topic has been alluded to already, and we need only mention here that potash and phos- phoric acid are in general the bodies which must be added to peat to make a durably efficient fertilizer. Sometimes, too, lime is wanting. To supply these ingredients ; for potash, unleached wood ashes or New Jersey Green Sand may be employed ; for phosphoric acid, bone-dust or phosphatic guano ; for lime, marl or leached ashes. 7. The Preparation of Peat for Agricultural Use. (a) Excavation. As to the time and manner of getting out peat, the circumstances of each case must determine. I only venture here to offer a few hints on this subject, which belongs so exclusively to the farm. The month of August is generally the appropriate time for throwing up peat, as then the swamps are usually most free from water, and most accessible to men and teams ; but peat is often dug to best advantage in the winter, not only on account of the cheapness of labor, and from there being less hurry with other matters on the farm at that season ; but also because the freezing and thawing of the peat that is thrown out, must probably aid to disintegxate it and prepare it for use. A correspondent of the Homestead, signing himself " Commen- tator," has given directions for getting out peat that are well worth the attention of farmers. He says : " The composting of muck and peat, with our stable and barn- yard manures, is surely destined to become one of the most im- portant items in farm management throughout all the older States at least. One of the difficulties which lie in the way, is the first removal of the muck from its low and generally watery bed ; to facilitate this, in many locations, it is less expensive to 86 dry it before carting, by beginning an excavation at the border of the marsh in Autumn, sufficiently wide for a cart path, throw- ing the muck out upon the surface on each side, and on a floor of boards or planks, to prevent it from absorbing moisture from the wet ground beneath ; this broad ditch to be carried a suffi- cient length and depth to obtain the requisite quantity of muck. Thus thrown out, the two piles are now in a convenient form to be covered with boai'ds, which if properly done and kept cov- ered till the succeeding Autumn, the muck will be found to be dry and light, and in some cases may be carted away on the surface, or it may be best to let it remain a few months longer until the bottom of the ditch has become sufficiently frozen to bear a team, it can then be more easily loaded upon a sled or sleigh, and drawn to the yards and bam. In other localities, and where large quantities are wanted, and it lies deep, a sort of wooden railroad and inclined plane can be constructed by means of a plank track for the wheels of the cart to run upon, the team walking between these planks, and if the vehicle is in- clined to 'run off the track,' it may usually be prevented by scantlings, say four inches thick, nailed upon one of the tracks on each side of the place where the wheel should fun ; two or more teams and carts may now be employed, returning into the excavation outside of this track. As the work progresses the track can be extended at both ends, and by continuing or in- creasing the inclination at the upper end a large and Jiigh pile may be made, and if kept dry will answer for years for compost- ing, and can be easily drawn to the barn at any time." (b) Exposure or seasoning of peat. In most cases the chief or only use of exposing the thrown up peat to the action of the air and weather during several months or a whole year, is to rid it of the great amount of water which adheres to it, and thus to reduce its bulk and weight previous to cartage. The general effect of exposure as proved further on by my analyses, is to reduce the amount of matter soluble in water, and cause peats to approach in this respect a fertile soil, so that in- stead of containing 2.4 or even 6 per cent, of substances soluble in water, as at first, they are brought to contain but one-half .these amounts or even less. This change, however, goes on so 87 rapidly after peat is mingled with tlie soil, tliat previous exposure is rarely necessary, and most peats may be used perfectly fresh. When a peat contains sulphate of iron, or, if such a case be possible, soluble organic salts of iron, to an injurious extent, these may be converted into other insoluble and innocuous bodies, by a sufficient exposure to the air. Sulphate of protoxyd of iron is thus changed into sulphate of peroxyd of iron, which is said to exert no hurtful effect on vegetation, while the soluble organic bodies of peat are oxydized and either converted into carbonic acid gas, carbonate of ammonia and water, or else made insoluble. It is not probable, however, that merely throwing up a vitriol peat into heaps and exposing it thus imperfectly to the atmos- phere, is sufficient to correct its bad qualities. Such peats need the addition of some alkaline body, as ammonia, lime, or pot- ash to render them salutary fertilizers. (c) And this hrings us to the subject of composting with much or peat, which appears to be the best means of taking full advan- tage of all the good qualities of muck, and of obviating or neu- tralizing the ill results that might follow the use of some raw mucks, either from a peculiarity in their composition, (soluble organic compounds of iron, sulphate of protoxyd of iron,) or from too great indestructibility. The chemical changes (oxydation of iron and organic acids,) which prepare the inert or even hurtful ingredients of peat to minister to the support of vegetation, take place most rapidly in presence of an alkaline body. The alkali may be ammonia coming from the decomposition of animal matters, or lime, potash or soda. A great variety of matters may of course be employed for making or mixing with muck composts, but there are only a few which allow of extensive and economical use, and our no- tice will be confined to these. < First of all, the composting of muck with stable manure de- serves attention. Its advantages may be summed up in two statements. 1st. It is an easy and perfect method of composting all ma- nures, even those kinds most liable to loss by fermentation, as horse-dung; and, 88 2d. It develops the inert fertilizing qualities of the muck itself. Without attempting any explanation of the changes under- gone by a muck and manure compost, further than to say that the fermentation which begins in the manure extends to and in- volves the muck, reducing the whole to nearly, if not exactly, the condition of well-rotted dung, and that in this process the muck effectually prevents the loss of ammonia, — I may appro- priately give the practical experience of farmers who have proved in the most conclusive manner how profitable it is to devote a good deal of time and care to the preparation of this kind of compost. Preparation of Composts. To a given quantity of stable manure, two or three times as much weathered or seasoned muck by bulk may be used. The manure may either be removed from the stables, and daily mixed with the appropriate amount of muck, by shoveling the two together, at the heap, out of doors ; or as some excellent farmers prefer, a trench, water tight, four inches deep and twenty inches wide, is constructed in the stable floor, immediately behind the cattle, and every morning a bushel-basketful of muck is put be- hind each animal. In this way the urine is perfectly absorbed by the muck, while the warmth of the freshly voided excre- ments so facilitates the fermentative process, that, according to Mr. F. Holbrook, of Brattleboro, Vt., who I believe first employed and described this method, much more muck can thus he well prepared for use in the Spring, than by any of the ordinary modes of composting. When the dung and muck are removed from the stable, they should be well intermixed, and as fast as the compost is prepared, it should be put into a compact heap, and covered with a layer of muck several inches thick. It will then hardly require any shelter if used in the Spring. On the farm of Mr. Pond, of Milford, Conn., I have seen a large pile of this compost, and have witnessed its effect as ap- plied by that gentleman to a field of sixteen acres of fine grav- elly or coarse sandy soil, which, from having a light color and excessive porositj'-, had become dark, unctuous, and retentive ,pf moisture, so that during the drouth of 1856, the crops on this field were good and continued to flourish, while on the con- tiguous land they were dried up and nearly ruined. By reference to the Transactions of the Connecticut State Agri- cultural Society for 1857, it will be seen in the very interesting report of the committee on farms and reclaimed lands, that on the farms which received the high premiums, and the most hon- orable mention, composts of muck and stable manure are largely employed. Messrs. Stephen Hoyt & Sons of New Canaan, Mr. Samuel Prentice of Greenville, Mr. Philip Scarborough of Brooklyn, and Mr. Elisha Dickerman of Orange, near New Haven, have used this compost with the most decided advantage, and doubt- less all these gentlemen would concur in the opinion of many other excellent farmers, viz. : That a well made compost of two loads of TTiuck and one of stable manure is equal to three loads of the manure itself. This opinion is so well substantiated that we need not hesitate to pronounce it a fact, and if a fact, it is one which deserves to be painted in bold letters on every barn-door in Connecticut. In the vicinity of cities, muck is often composted to great ad- vantage with night soil. The Liebig Manufacturing Company's Poudrette, manufactured at East Hartford, (for analysis of which see my 1st Annual Eeport, pp. 41 and 43,) is a carefully made preparation, of which these two matters are the chief ingredients. In the neighborhood of New Haven large quantities of this kind of compost are annually made, and the manufacture might be vastly extended with the utmost advantage to all parties con- cerned. Every farmer who can, would find it profitable, and not only so but pleasant and healthful, to compost the privy and sink waste of his premises with muck. The outlay of a few dollars would provide such conveniences as are needful to ac- complish this with ease, and instead of being afiiicted with a nuisance, yielding an intolerable quantity of miasmatic smell and a few shovelfuls of effete waste, he might convert his necessary into an odorless convenience, and make enough poudrette to fer- tilize a large garden to the highest degree. (See Mr. Edwin Hoyt's account of its use for this purpose.) Gfuano, so serviceable in its first applications to light soils. 90 may be composted witli muck to the greatest advantage. Guano is an excellent material for bringing muck into good condition, and on tbe other hand the muck most effectually preYents any waste of the costly guano, and at the same time, by furnishing the soil with its own ingredients, to a greater or less^degree, pre- vents the exhaustion that often follows the use of guano alone. The quantity of muck should be pretty large compared to that of the guano, — a bushel of guano will compost six, eight, or probably ten of muck. Both should be quite fine, and should be well mixed, the mixture should be moistened and kept cov- ered with a layer of muck of several inches of thickness. This sort of compost would probably be sufficiently fermented in a week or two of warm weather, and should be made and kept under cover. If no more than five or six parts of muck to one of gTiano are employed, the compost, according to the experience of Simon Brown, Esq., of the Boston Cultivator, (Patent Office Eeport for 1856,) will prove injurious if placed in the hill in contact with seed, but may be applied broadcast without danger. The White fish or Menhaden, so abundantly caught along our Sound coast during the summer months, or any variety of fish may be composted with muck, so as to make a powerful manure, with complete avoidance of the excessively disagreeable stench which is produced when these fish are put directly on the land. Messrs. Stephen Hoyt & Sons of New Canaan, Conn., make this compost on a large scale. They have employed 220,000 fish in one season, and use ten or twelve loads of muck to one of fish. A layer of muck one foot or more in thickness is spread upon the ground, and covered with a layer of fish, on this is put an- other layer of muck and another of fish, and so on till the pile is several feet high, finishing with a good layer of mu.ck. In the Summer when this work is usually attended to, the fermentation begins at once, so that no delay must be allowed after the fish are taken, in mixing the compost, and in a short time the operation is complete ; the fish disappear, bones excep- ted, and by shoveling over, a uniform mass is obtained, almost free from odor, and retaining perfectly all the manurial value of the fish. Lands well manured with this compost will keep in 91 heart and improve, while, as is well known to our coast farmers, the use of fish alone is ruinous, in the end, on light soil. For further particulars of the composts made by the Messrs. Hoyt, see analysis further on. It is obvious that any other easily decomposing animal mat- ters, as slaughter-house offal, soap-boiler's scraps, glue waste, etc., etc., may be composted in a similar manner, and that all these substances may be made together into one compost. In case of the composts with guano, yard manure and other animal matters, ammonia is the alkali which promotes these changes, and it would appear that this substance, on some ac- counts, excels all others in its efficacy, but the other alkaline bodies, ■potash and lime^ are scarcely less active in this respect, and being at the same time, of themselves useful fertilizers, they may be employed with double advantage in preparing muck composts. Potash-lye and soda-ash have been recommended for compost- ing with muck ; but, although they are no doubt highly effica- cious, they are quite too costly for extended use. The other alkaline materials that may be cheaply employed, and are recommended, are wood-ashes leached and vmleached, ashes of peat, marl, (consisting of carbonate of lime,) quick lime, gas lime, and what is called '■'■salt and lime mixture." With regard to the proportions to be used, no definite rules can be laid down ; but we may safely follow those who have had experience in the matter. Thus, to a cord of muck, which is about 100 bushels, may be added of unleached wood ashes twelve bushels, or of leached wood ashes twenty bushels, or of peat ashes twenty bushels, or of marl or gas lime twenty bush- els. Ten bushels of quick lime, slaked with water or salt-brine previous to use, is enough for a cord of muck. Instead of using the above mentioned- substances singly, any or all of them may be employed together. The muck should be as fine and free from lumps as possible, and must be intimately mixed with the other ingredients by shoveling over. The ma^s is then thrown up into a compact heap which may be four feet high. When the heap is formed, it is good to pour on as much water as the mass will absorb, (this 92 may be omitted if the muck is already quite moist,) and finally the whole is covered over with a few inches of pure muck, so as to retain moisture and heat. If the heap is put up in the Spring, it may stand undisturbed for one or two months, when it is well to shovel it over and add water if it has become dry. It should then be built up again, covered with fresh muck, and allowed to stand as before until thoroughly decomposed. The time re- quired for this purpose varies with the kind of muck, and the quality of the other material used. The weather and thorough- ness of intermixture of the ingredients also materially affect, the rapidity of decomposition. In all cases five or six months of summer weather is a sufficient time to fit these composts for ap- plication to the soil. The use of "salt and lime mixture" is strongly recommended by so many writers, that a few more words may be devoted to its consideration. In Dr. Dana's Muck Manual, and in Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry, it is stated that common salt is decomposed by quick lime, with the production of carbonate of soda. Now although this change may occur in the soil or in presence of the organic matters of peat, yet there is no proof that it does take place, and all the prohabilities are opposed to such a change, so that from theo- retical grounds, there is no advantage to be anticipated from a mixture of salt and lime over the unmixed lime, as far as the action on peat or muck is concerned. But the extraordinary usefulness of the salt and lime mixture for composting has been so extensively and vigorously main- tained, that many will be inclined to despise the chemistry that doubts its benefits. Therefore without entering into a chemical discussion of its merits, we will be content here, to assert, that, if useful, its use- fulness is not as yet 'explained, or the explanations given are en^ tirely unsatisfactory. That it is useful is testified to by good farmers as follows. Says Mr. F. Holbrook of Vermont, (quoted from Patent Office Eeport for 1856, page 193.) "I had a heap of seventy-five half cords of muck mixed with lime in the proportion of a half cord of muck to a bushel of lime. The muck was drawn to the field 93 ■when wanted in August., A bushel of salt to six bushels of lime was dissolved in water enough to slake the lime down to a fine dry powder, the lime being slaked no faster than wanted, and spread immediately while warm, over the layers of muck, which were about six inches thick ; then a coating of lime and so on, until the heap reached the height of five feet, a convenient width, and length enough to embrace the whole quantity of the muck. In about three weeks a powerful decomposition was apparent, and the heap was nicely overhauled, nothing more being done to it till it was loaded the next Spring for spreading. The compost was spread on the plowed surface of a dry sandy loam at the rate of about fifteen cords to the acre and harrowed in. The land was planted with corn, and the crop was more than sixty bushels to the acre." Other writers assert that they " have decomposed with this mixture spent tan, saw dust, corn stalks, swamp muck, leaves from the woods, indeed every variety of inert substance, and in much shorter time than it could he done hy any other means'* It deserves to be ascertained by direct comparative experiment, whether the lime slaked with a solution of salt, does really act with more power and rapidity than if slaked with water alone. If the "salt and lime mixture" possesses peculiar virtues, it is important to be known, and of not less consequence is it to de- termine that its' reputation is fictitious. There appears to be no doubt that the soluble and more active (caustic) forms of alkaline bodies exert powerful decomposing and solvent action on muck. It is asserted too that the insolu- ble and less active matters of this kind, also have an efPect though a less complete and rapid one. Thus, carbonate of lime in the various forms of marl, leached ashes and peat ashes, (for in all these it is the chief and most "alkaline" ingredient,) are recom- mended to compost with muck. But we are not. informed what, is the character of the changes they produce in muck or peat. From our chemical knowledge we should almost decide that in general they can have no material effect, and yet it is very unsafe to judge in these things without actual and precise practical knowledge. * Working Farmer, Vol. III. page 280. 94 The admixture of any earthy matter with peat will facilitate its decomposition in so far as it promotes the separation of the particles of the peat from each other, and the consequent access of air. This benefit may well amount to something when we add to peat one-fifth of its bulk of marl or leached ashes, but the question comes up : Do these insoluble mild alkalies exert any direct action ? Would not as much soil of any kind be equally efficacious by promoting to an equal degree the contact of oxygen from the atmosphere? It is possible that the carbonate of lime in presence of water and carbonic acid, whereby it becomes soluble to a slight extent, may act to liberate some ammonia from the soluble portions of the peat, and this ammonia may react on the remainder of the peat to pro"duce the same effects as it does in the case of a com- post made with animal matters. But speculations on this point though easily made, are of no value, except to suggest practical trials. It often happens that opinions entertained by practical men, not only by farmers, but by mechanics and artisans as well, are founded on so unreliable a basis, are supported by trials so destitute of precision, that their accuracy may well be doubted, and from all the accounts I have met with it does not seem to be well established that composts made with carbonate of lime, are better than the muck and carbonate used separately. This, it is plain, is another question worthy of investigation. If there is any advantage in composting muck with carbonate of lime, then nature has in some localities furnished admirable facilities for making this kind of fertilizer : thus in Salisbury, Ct., on the farm of John Adam, Esq., occurs a peat swamp, at the bottom of which, after excavating through four feet of peat, a layer of shell-marl, containing a large percentage of carbo- nate of lime, is found, which it is believed may be obtained in large quantities, (see analysis No. 34, in appendix.) Such deposits are by no means uncommon, and whoever can demonstrate by a series of carefully conducted experiments, whether this marl is most economically applied to the soil directly or in compost with muck, will confer no small favor on Agricul- ture. 95 It must not be forgotten that we have already insisted upon using leached wood ashes and carbonate of lime in conjunciion with peat, in order to supply the deficiencies of the latter ; and in the agricultural papers are numerous accounts of the efficacy of such mixtures, but whether these bodies exert any good effect upon the peat itself, so that it is needful in general to take the trouble to make a compost, is it seems to me, a question not yet settled. In the case of vitriol peats, however, carbonate of lime is the cheapest and most appropriate means of destroying the noxious sulphate of protoxyd of iron, and correcting their dele- terious quahty. When carbonate of lime is brought in contact with sulphate of protoxyd of iron, the two bodies mutually decompose, with formation of sulphate of lime (gypsum) and carbonate of protoxyd of iron. The latter substance absorbs oxygen from the air with the utmost avidity, and passes into the peroxyd of iron, which is entirely inert. 8. I now proceed to discuss the plan employed in the analysis of the Peats which I have examined. The specimens came to me in all stages of dryness. Some freshly dug and wet, others after a long exposure so that they were air-dry ; some that were sent in the moist state, became dry before being subjected to examination ; others were prepared for analysis while still moist. A sufficient quantity of each specimen was carefully pulver- ized, intermixed and put into a stoppered bottle and thus pre- served for experiment. The first point in the examination was to make a general an- alysis, viz. : to ascertain the amount of water, and the propor- tions of vegetable matter and of ash. In the special analysis, it was sought to obtain some nearer insight into the condition of the organic matter. For this jDur- pose I deemed it best to employ the usual method of treating with an alkali and determining the quantity soluble therein, which corresponds to the humic (and ulmic) acid, and accordingly this operation has been carried out with no inconsiderable trouble. Unfortunately we do not now know whether these humic acids are possessed of any special fertilizing or other properties, which can confer interest on the knowledge of their quantity, nor can 96 we ever learn their significance, if indeed they possess any, with- out numerous experiments directed immediately to this point. The only value, then, of these determinations, is that they give us some idea of the degree to which the peaty decomposition is advanced. In the earlier analyses 1 to 17 inclusive, the treatment with carbonate of soda was not carried far enough to dissolve the whole of the soluble organic acids. It was merely attempted to make comparative determinations by treating all alike for the same time, and with the same quantity of alkali. I have little doubt that in some cases not more than one-half of the portion really soluble in carbonate of soda is given as such. In the later analyses, 18 to 33, however, the treatment was continued until complete separation of the soluble organic acids was ef- fected. In no instance was any special examination of these soluble acids undertaken, since in the present state of our knowledge, this labor could hardly be expected to yield any new results of agricultural importance. By acting on a peat for a long time with a hot solution of car- bonate of soda, there is taken up not merely a quantity of organic matter, but inorganic matters likewise enter solution. Silica, oxyd of iron and alumina are thus dissolved. In this process too, sulphate of lime is converted into carbonate of lime, but not dissolved. The total amount of these soluble inorganic matters has been determined with approximate accuracy in analyses 18 to 88. It was deemed of the highest importance to study the quan- tity and character of the bodies which pure water is able to dis- solve from peats. In the watery extract of a peat we may ex- pect to find those substances which make it directly useful as a fertilizer, and also those which, like sulphate of iron, are noxious to vegetation. The general character of the matters soluble in water has been indicated already, and the analyses themselves give the special details. With regard to the entire ash, and the amount of nitrogen, it is unnecessary here to remark upon the importance of investi- gating them, or to add to what has been written in the preceding .97 pages. The details of the process used in the analysis of peat are given in the accompanying note* by my friend, Dr. Eobert A. Fisher, to whose skillful assistance I am largely indebted for the analytical data of this Eeport, especially for the analyses 18 to 33. I must also express my obligations to Mr. Edward H. Twi- ' ning, assistant in the Yale Analytical Laboratory, for the analy- ses 1 to 17, executed by him in 1857. 9. On the Use of Peat Analyses, and on the Value of Practical Information. When I began this investigation, it was known that some peats or mucks were highly useful, while others had proved de- trimental, certain reasons too were known why they were good or bad in their effects, and in agricultural writings existed a great deal of statement that was partly true but more or less * Note on the Process or Analysis. — The following is the general method employed in the analysis of peats and mucks : To prepare a sample for analysis, half a pound, more or less, of the substance to be e.Yamined, is pulverized and passed through a wire sieve of 24 meshes to the inch. It is then thoroughly mixed and bottled for use. I. 2 grams of the above are dried (in a tared porcelain capsule,) at the temper- ature of 212 degrees, until they no longer decrease in weight. The loss sustained represents the amount of water, (according to Marsillt Aunales des Mines, 1857, XII., 404, peat loses carbon if dried at a temperature higher than 212 degrees.) II. The capsule containing the residue from I. is slowly heated to incipient red- ness, and maintained at that temperature until the organic matter is entirely con- sumed. The loss gives the total amount of organic, the residue the total amount of inorganic matter. Note. — In peats containing sulphate of the protoxide of iron, the loss that oc- curs during ignition is partly due to the escape of sulphuric acid, which is set free by the decomposition of the above mentioned salt of iron. But the quantity is usually so small in comparison with the organic matter that it may be disregarded. The same may be said of the combined water in the clay that is mixed with some mucks, which is only expelled at a high temperature. III. 3 grams of the sample are digested for half an hour, with 200 cubic cen- timeters (66.6 times their weight,) of boihng water, then remove from the sand bath, and at the end of twenty-four hours, the clear liquid is decanted. This operation is twice repeated upon the residue ; the three solutions are mixed, filtered, concen- trated, and finally evaporated to dryness (in a tared platinum capsule,) over a water bath. The residue, which must be dried at 212 degrees, until it ceases to lose weight, gives the total amount solulik in water. The dried residue is then heated to low redness, and maintained at that temperature until the organic matter is burned off. The loss represents the amount of organic matter soluble in water, the ash gives the quantity of sohxble inorganic matter. IV. 1 gram is digested for two hours, at a temperature just below the boiling point, with 100 cubic centimeters of a solution containing 5 per cent, crystallized carbonate of soda. It is then removed from the sand bath and allowed to settle. "When the supernatant liquid has become perfectly transparent, it is carefully de- canted. This operation is repeated until all the organic matter soluble in this men- struum is removed ; which is accomplished as soon as the carbonate of soda solution comes off colorless. The residue, which is to be washed with boiling water until the washings no longer affect test papers, is thrown upon a tared filter, and dried tinctured witli uncertain speculation. It was to ham whether other than the then Jcnoivn causes of the excellence or worthlessness of peats existed, and to test the correctness of the current opinions, that this investigation luas undertaken. By a comparative study of the characters of numerous specimens from all parts of Connecticut, it was hoped to arrive at some definite and reliable general con- clusions as to their value — to ascertain the range of their excel- lence, and to establish safe rules for their use. I believe that this work has been satisfactorily accomplished. Besides these general results it was forseen that this investigation would assist in deciding a question much discussed of late, viz. : the ability of chemical analysis to pronounce upon the precise value of any particular specimen. I had at the outset no great faith that the chemist could tell by his analyses, if this peat be good or that bad, or how much better one is than another. Now that 33 peats have been ex- amined, I believe we are able in most cases to decide by analysis, with great probability, whether any specimen is useful or hurt- ful, and if the former, whether it has a high or low degree of excellence ; and yet, as will be seen further on, there are great difficulties in defining the precise limits where the good peats at 212 degrees. It is the iotal a/mount of organic and inorganic matter insoluble in carbonate of soda. The loss that it suffers upon ignition, indicates the amount of organic matter, the ash gives the inorganic matter. Note. — The time required to insure perfect settling after digesting ■n'ith carbonate of soda solution, varies, witli different peats, from 24 hours to several days. With proper care, the results obtained are very satisfactory. Two analyses of ITo. 6, executed at different times, gave total insoluble in carbonate of soda. 1st analysis 23.20 per cent. ; 2d analysis 2.S.45 per cent; "which residues yielded respectively 14.30 and 14.15 per cent, of ash. V. Tlie quantity of organic matter insoluble in water but soluble in sohition of carbonate of soda, is ascertained by deducting the joint weight of the amounts sol- uble in water, and insoluble in carbonate of soda, from the total amount of organic matter present. The inorganic matter insoluble in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda, is determined by deducting the joint weiglit of the amounts of.inorganic mat- ter .soluble in water, and insoluble in carbonate of soda, from tlie total inorganic matter. VI. The amount of nitrogen is estimated by the combustion of 1 gram with soda-lime in an iron tube, collection of the ammonia in a standard fifth solution (12.6 grams to the liter,) of oxalic acid, and determination of tlie residual free acid by an equivalent solution of caustic potash. This method in slcilful hands uniformly gives such correct and corresponding results that it was deemed unnecessary to make duplicate analyses. In one case, however. Dr. Fisher executed a second analysis which confirmed the numbers ob- tained by Mr. Twining a year before. s. w. j. pass into the bad. It is not to be expected that the analysis of a peat or muck will ever suffice to fix its manurial value, as the analysis of a guano or superphosphate shows the worth of these fertilizers. From the nature of the case, the muck analyses ad- mit only a much looser and more general interpretation. Whatever may be the merits of analyses of peat and muck, it is certain that their value is to be only brought out in all per- fection by the knowledge derived from actual trial on the farm. However far we may pursue our researches into the conditions of vegetable production, there will always remain unsettled points, and facts will be observed in practice which science can only imperfectly explain. Hence practice wiU always be" in advance of science in certain particulars, and must be invariably appealed to before any doctrine can be really established. If peat were now for the first time discovered and brought to the chemist, he could not, after the most minute analysis, positively assert its usefulness, although he might find such strong probabilities that its action would be highly fertilizing, as to warrant immediate and careful trial. It is only when experience on the farm has proved its benefit, that he acquires satisfactory data for his de- cisions. The chemist who will serve agriculture in the details of its operations, must not merely proceed from his science out, towards practice ; but he must often, and not less often, go in the other direction, for in the field there exist conditions which can only be studied there, as they are wanting in the laboratory and in the study. These considerations induced me to address a Circular to the parties who had sent in specimens, asking information on those points which appeared likely to be of general service, and would subserve the end of this inquiry. The circular was as follows, one slight amendation excepted : QUEEIES. 1. What is the length and breadth, and the number of acres in the swamp or marsh ? 2. What is the average, and the greatest depth of the muck or peat? 100 3. Is it drained or not, and if so, to wliat depth and how long has it been dry ? 4. Is it a salt or fresh water marsh ? 5. Are the upper portions or layers dry during the summer ? If so, how long, and to what depth ? 6. Have any crops been produced on the drained or dry por- tions? If so, what and how large crops ? And what manures have proved useful on them ? 7. "What is the soil imderlying, and at the edges of the swamp ? 8. Does the swamp receive much wash from surrounding hills ? If so, of what kinds of soil are they ? 9. Has the swamp (if fresh water,) both inlet and outlet ? Is the water hard or soft ? How large are the streams ? Are they subject to heavy freshets in Spring and Autumn ? Do they dry up in Summer ? 10. If several samples are sent, are they from one place ? 11. At the place where the sample or samples were taken, is there much variation in the quality or appearance of the muck at different depths ? If so, specify these differences, and give the thickness of each layer ? 12. What kind of trees or vegetation grows on the muck, and what kinds of timber or branches are found in it? Observe particularly if there be indications of much pine or other resin- ous timtier, 13. Has the muck been employed fresh from the swamp, without any lengthened exposure to the weather, as a dressing for grass or other crops, and with what results ? 14. Has the long dug and exposed muck been applied to crops without other manures, and with what results compared to good stable manure ? 15. Has the muck been composted or used as an absorbent ? If so, with what materials, and to what advantage ? 16. If composted, describe the manner of composting, giving the quantities employed. 17. K several mucks are sent, which do you consider best from actual experience ? 101* 18. Has the peat been used for fuel ? If so, what is its qual- ity for such use ? 19. Please communicate any other interesting facts with re- gard to the occurrence or uses of the muck or peat, which you may know. 10. Results of analyses and answers to the Circular. Here follow the details of each analysis, accompanied by the information obligingly furnished by the gentlemen who sent in the mucks and peats." I have in some cases re-arranged, con- densed, or otherwise edited the original answers as appeared necessary. Brief comments are appended to some of the analyses, but it would swell the Eeport to an unwarrantable degree, to extend these remarks as might be wished, in each individual case. No. 1. — Peat from Lewis M. Norton, Goshen. Came in form of dry, tough, heavy cakes, of a dark chocolate color. With exception of a few grass roots was well decomposed. Analysis. Organic matter, *soluble in carbonate of soda, 17.63 insoluble in " " " 34.79 Total, 52.42 f Inorganic matter, - - - - 35.21 Water, 12.37 100.00 Soluble in water, 1.54 per cent. Nitrogen, 1.28=:ammonia, 1.63 " For answer to circular see No. 3. No. 2. — Peat from Lewis M. Norton, Goshen. Like No. 1, but heavier. * The proportions of organic matter in analyses 1-17 are not strictly correct. f Ash chiefly sand, contained but little carbonate of lime. 402 Analysis, Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 60.02 insoluble in " 11.65 Total, 71.67 *Inorganic matter, . - - - 8.00 Water, - - - - - 20.33 100.00 Nitrogen, 1.85=2.24 ammonia. For answer to Circular see No. 3. No. 3. — Swamp muck from Lewis M. Norton, Gosben. Came in dry, very ligbt coherent cakes, consisting largely of the flat- tened stems of swamp plants. Color ligbt brown. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 50.60 " insoluble in " " 29.75 Total, 80.35 f Inorganic matter, .... 4.52 Water, 15.13 100.00 Soluble in water, 2.51 Nitrogen 1.90=2.31 ammonia. Answers to cibculae respecting Nos. 1, 2 and 3. 1, The swamp contains about 50 acres, was formerly a pond. Nearly all around it, at the height of about 6 feet above the pres- ent surface may be seen the ancient high water mark. 2. The greatest depth excavated is 10-11 feet. The greatest depth observed is 32 feet. -3. Six years ago it was undrained,. but is now drained to the depth of 3-4 feet. 4. The water is fresh. 5. The upper portions are dry enough for cultivation in sum- mer and barely hard enough for plowing and taking off crops. * The ash contains 37 per cent, of carbonate of lime, f Ash contains 33 per cent, of carbonate of lime. 103 6. Trials have been made in raising corn, potatoes, buckwheat and grass. These experiments are comparatively recent, and the crops not very large, and in regard to com and potatoes it seems necessary that some manure be put in the hill. Carrots have done weU ; pumpkins have done well. Decomposed ma- nures only have been used. Potato tops grow large — the same of corn — but the tract being somewhat lower than the surround- ing country is subject to early frosts. 7. Sand, and in some places clay (pure and good), granite boulders are found at the edges on digging. 8. There are no high hills in the vicinity, and no wash. 9. The swamp has two or three inlets, and one outlet at the south-west. Soft water. Streams ordinarily small, but subject to freshets or high water always with a large fall of rain. The streams are rarely if ever quite dry. 10-11. The three samples are from nearly the same place No. 1 is from the margin of the swamp ; is mixed with sand and clay, and lies on the hottom — on which there is a bed of sand and clay, say 3-4 feet from the surface. It forms a stratum of 6-10 inches in depth, is quite distinct from all above it, and is un- doubtedly of the earliest formation. Some three years ago speci- mens very similar were taken out at a depth of 10 feet and 5-6 rods from the margin ; I suppose that all below is of this kind. No. 2 is from the surface after removing the upper 3^ inches. It evidently has been somewhat decomposed by the action of the atmosphere — say 8 to 10 inches deep. No. 3 is found between 1 and 2, though it should be stated that there is but little so light and poor as this sample. 12. The roots of large trees, spruce or pine, are found, but not near the outside. These roots, so far as observed, are about 18 inches below the surface. No trunks of trees but many small alders are found at about the same depth in a vertical position. These are all cut easily through with the shovel. I found one piece of alder, of the thickness of a man's wrist, lying horizontally at the depth of 8 feet. The bark in appearance resembled that of an alder just cut. (In a later statement Mr. Norton remarks) : As above described, and as since observed, the roots of many trees appear. They all seem to be of nearly the same depth 104 below tlie surface (about 18 inches,) with good peat above and all around them. Some roots and trunks even of red ash are found near the outside. But at a reraoye of some 2 or 3 rods from the outside none such appear. Those of red ash are much rot- ten and seldom require the use of an axe. But farther in the swamp the roots only are found, and these are all of the resinous kind. We have had occasion to dig out many of these — strong (solid as new some of them,) and highly resinous. The indica- tions are that these trees were say 1 to 2 feet in diameter — but unlike the ash, these trees never fell down. They must have de- cayed standing, as nothing appears to indicate the remains of a fallen tree. 13. It has not been considered as of much value when used fresh from the swamp. 14^ There have been no careful experiments in its use after long exposure. 15. In compost, as an absorbent it has been extensively used, and with marked success, thrown into hog pens or put in barn- yards. 16. Method of composting : 2 parts muck with 1 part stable manure in a large heap — done in the Spring before the fermen- tation of the manure and not stirred — carried upon the land the next Spring. 17. We have mostly used the grassy or surface muck — some- times other — all good. 18. I have used peat for fuel (no wood of any consequence,) for some 4 or 5 years. No one else here has employed it. It is cut or dug with an instrument such as is used in Ireland. It answers for domestic purposes well, hut it must he dry and kepi dry. Ashes many and valuable only as manure — as they seem to contain no potash. In my kitchen stove I have a grate, and the ashes descend to a close brick vault below. Carry out a load at once — very convenient — ^peat cheaper than wood. Lewis M. Norton. No. 4. — Swamp muck from Messrs. Pond & Miles, Milford. Coherent but very light and porous in texture, full of roots and stems. Color chocolate brown— surface peat. 105 Analysts. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 65.15 " " insoluble in " " " 11.95 Total, 77.10 *Inorganic matter, - . . . 3.23 Water, 19.67 100.00 Soluble in water, 1.63 Nitrogen, 1.20=1.46 ammonia. For answer to circular see No. 5. No. 5. — Swamp muck from Messrs. Pond & Miles, Milford. Very light and loose in texture. Color, brownisb red. When dry easily separates into thin layers. Taken from a depth of 3 feet. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in water, - - 2.62 " soluble in carbonate of soda, 65.13 " insoluble in " " " 16.65 Total, 84.40 Inorganic matter soluble in water, - - 80 Insoluble in water, - - - 1.20 fTotal, 2.00 Water, ...... 13.6O 100.00 Nitrogen, 0.95=1.15 ammonia. ANSWERS TO CIECULAR. L The swamp contains 3^ of an acre. 2. The depth is 10 feet. 8. It is not drained. 4. The water is fresh. 5. It is dry for three or four months in summer, to the depth of 3f feet. 6. No crops have been raised on it. * Mostly saud and oxyd of iron with small quantities of carbonate and sulphat e of lime. f The ash is white, and besides sand, contains little else than sulphate of Ume. 106 7. The neigliboring and underlying soil is sand and coarse gravel. 8. It receives much wash from sandy hills and the highways which pass near it. 9. The swamp has neither inlet noT outlet. The water has a dark mahogany color. 10 and 11. Two samples were sent, taken from one to three feet from the surface. The surface peat (No. 4) is of a darkish brown for a depth of two feet. Below it is of a lighter color, (Ko. 5.) 12. Small maples, black alders and bilberry bushes ; pine and white birch trees grow in the swamp. The last named predominates. Trunks of trees 3 feet in diameter have been found at a depth of several feet in the muck. 13. The fresh muck has never been applied to crops, but where it has bpen thrown out, vegetation in the shape of weeds has been rank on the top of the piles. 15. The weathered muck has not been used alone on crops. 15. The muck has. been composted to good advantage with horse, hog and cow manure. 16. In comporting the materials have been put together in layers, one part manure to about three of muck. 17. I consider the surface peat to be the best. 18. It has not been used for fuel. 19. I find it a great benefit to my land. Wm. J. Pond. No. 6. — Peat from Samuel Camp, Plainville. Dry hard lumps, very black and uniform in appearance. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda. 43.20 " insoluble " " " " 8.90 Total, 52.10 *Inorganic matter. 29.20 Water, - - - . - 18.70 100.00 * The ash besides a large amount of sand, contains much carbonate and sulphate of lime and some oxyd of iron. 107 Soluble in water, 2.50. Nitrogen, 2.10=2.55 ammonia. ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR. 1. Length of marsh 1^ miles, -width from 25 to 50 rods. 2. Depth from 2 to 4 feet. 3. A small part has been drained 7 years to the depth of 4 feet. 4. It is a fresh water marsh. 5. The marsh is dry to the depth of one foot for 3 or 4 months ; the portion drained is dry to the bottom at all times. 6. The drained portion was sown with herdsgrass and has lain in grass, the herdsgrass has run out and swamp grass has come in, except where a kind of clay or earth, a sample of which I sent you, was thrown upon the surface and there is found a good quality of English grass, no other dressing has been given. The average yield is IJ tons per acre. 7. The underlying soil is generally gravel and clay ; around the marsh are occasional beds of the before-mentioned clay. 8. It receives the wash of the mountain that extends through Farmington. 9. It has both inlet and outlet, a living stream of soft water sufficient to drive small mills, and subject to heavy freshets. 12. Oak prevails in the deposit ; elm and maple were grow- ing on the marsh when cleared. ' 13. When used fresh from the marsh but little advantage is derived from it, when long exposed and dried considerable ad- vantage ; but much the greatest by composting with some kind of manure, and the clay before mentioned, which is found in and. about the marsh, does well used in that way. 14. This muck is worth for manure half as much as yard manure ; when composted it is equal to yard manure. It makes a very good soil when used alone on sand. 15. I find it an excellent absorbent, and sometimes pump from a cistern in my yard the liquid it contains, and pour it upon piles of muck, which makes it a good fertilizer. I have used it with either yard manure, lime, ashes, guano or clay, with about equal success. 108 16. To 1 load of muck, 1 of clay, or i yard manure, or 2 bushels of lime, or 4 bushels of ashes. The clay, lime and ashes may be mixed, but the yard manure must be placed in layers so as to cause fermentation. 18. It burns freely, making a very hot fire. 19. The above described deposit is principally on one main Stream, but there are spurs running toward the mountain where little streams come in that yield the best quality of muck by about one-third ; from these I generally dig my supplies. This muck deposit is on the east side of the great plain lying parallel with the Farmington mountain. On the northwest there is a deposit brought down by the Pequabuc, covering perhaps a thousand acres, very little of it is drained but that which is is very productive. Samuel Camp. No. 7.— Peat from Eussell U. Peck, Berlin. Color chocolate brown. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 88.49 insoluble in " " " 30.51 Total, 69.00 *Inorganic matter, » . . - 13.59 Water, ..... 17.41 100.00 Soluble in water, 2.61 Nitrogen, 1.62=ammonia, 1.97 AI^'SWERS TO CIRCULAE. 1. The swamp is about 60 rods long and 40 broad. It con- tains about 5 acres. 2. The muck is 10 feet deep one rod from the edge ; at two rods from the edge it is over 15 feet deep. The greatest or aver- age depth is unknown. 3. Two years ago it was partially drained to the depth of two feet. * Ash besides much sand, contains a large amount of carbonate and sulphate of lime and oxyd of iron. 109 4. The water is frest. 5. The surface is dry to the depth of one foot. 6. No crop has been grown on it except coarse grass. 7. The underlying and adjoining soil is clay and full of rock. 8. A large amount of water from the adjacent high wood- land runs into the swamp. The soil of the hills is a reddish loam. 9. It has both inlet and outlet, and is also fed at the edges by springs of cold soft water. It is flooded by heavy rains and dries up in summer." 10. The sample sent," was taken two' feet below the surface. 11. At a depth of 4 feet, the muck has more the appearance of leaves and wood ; but after long exposure to the weather it turns black and resembles the upper layer. 12. No trees now grow in the swamp. The vegetation con- sists of coarse grasses and brakes. The logs and branches found deep in the muck mostly appear to be red ash — none of them are pines. 13. The muck has been used fresh on corn and meadow with good effect. 14. The long exposed muck has been used and is equal to one-half as much barn-yard manure. 15. It has been composted with stable manure, with night- soil, and hen-dung. The compost of the two latter has had wonderful effect upon tobacco. 16. The composts with night-soil and hen-dung have been made under cover, using one part of manure to ten of muck. Other manures have been mixed with their own bulk of muck in the field. 18. It has not been used as fuel. E. U. Peck. 110 No. 8.— Swamp muck from Eev. B. F. Nbrtlirop, Griswold. The dried masses were light, coherent but easily crushed, were of a grayish brown color, and much fine white sand was per- ceptible in them. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 42.30 insoluble in " " 10.15 Total, 52.45 *Inorganic matter, ... - 34.70 Water, . - - - 12.85 100.00 Soluble in water, 1.64. Nitrogen 1.31=1.60 ammonia. ANSWERS TO CIRCULAB. 1. The swamp is nearly a triangle with irregular sides, containing about 1 acre, 3^ rods. ■ 2. As to depth, the estimated average is 4| feet. Greatest depth dug, 6 feet, from the dip of the sides, greatest estimated depth 16 feet. A similar muck bed in an adjoining lot has been penetrated to that depth. 3. It has been drained for 4 years to a depth of two feet. 4. The water is fresh. 5. Perfectly dry at the depth of two feet all summer. 6. It has grown no crop but grass, which has been improving in quality since I drained it. N"o manures have been tried. 7. As the ditch approached the shallow part of the bed, at the depth of 6 feet, a substratum resembling very fine clay, and of a very light color, was thirown out. The edges are a gravelly loam. 8. The muck bed receives no wash from hills. 9. A stream of soft water runs through the deposit, it comes from a large spring, and runs about a quarter of a mile before it * Tlie ash is almost entirely wlaite quartz sand, with some sulphate of lime. Ill enters my lot. In ordinary seasons it will fill a 4 incli pipe. Heavy rains make a little torrent of it. But the surrounding hills are covered with grass and granitic rocks, so there is little wash. The stream never dries. It is turned on to the upland in summer. 10. Only one sample was sent. 11. For two feet in depth there is no deviation in quality or appearance of the muck. Below that depth, and consequently below the water line — the muck assumes a brownish tinge, and appears as if the decomposition was not perfected, though on ex- posure to frost, I can discover but little difference. 12. The only vegetation is grass. Oak logs several inches through have been dug up, at depths varying from two to four feet. Hickory nuts with the shucks on have been found at the depth of three feet. No indications of resinous substances have been found. Maples and elms grow thriftily at one angle of the bog, where no effort has been made to eradicate them. 13 and 14. The muck has not been used as a manure. 15. It has been composted with horse-dung, and in some instances, ashes, in small quantities. I have raised excellent crops of corn and oats, much to the wonder of my neighbors, who knew I had the manure of only one horse. I purchased a few loads of poor manure last Spring, which together with what my horse made, was composted with muck and a few bushels of ashes, making about 8 or 10 cords. This was spread on 120 rods of ground, and ploughed in. The lot was planted with corn, (Ehode Island Premium.) The product was 99 measured bushels of ears, which is considered a large yield for this section. 16. In composting, the muck and manure have been spread in alternate layers, three of the muck to one of manure. 19. But little if any use was made of the muck by former owners. The impression seemed to be that it would injure the land. When I first began to use it, I found many who were utterly skeptical as to its value as a manure. B. F. NOETHEOP. 112^ No. 9.— Peat from J. H; Stanwood, ColebrooK. Game in hard lumps of a chocolate color. Well decomposed. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 49.65 " insoluble in II 11 <( 7.40 Total, 57.05 *Inorganic matter, - - 4.57 Water, - 88.38 100.00 Soluble in water, 1.83. Nitrogen, 1.23=1.50 ammonia. ANSWEBS TO CIECULAR. 1. The swamp is about If miles in length, and may be likened in form to a pair of spectacles. The widest portions are about eighty rods in width, and it contains in all about one hun- dred and fifty acres. 2. The depth in the southern portion is probably not more than four or five feet on the average ; while in the northern portion, from which the sample was taken, the depth is so great that it cannot be ascertained by any means which I have at hand. A pole has been pushed down sixteen feet without touching bottom, at the distance of four or five rods from the margin. 3. The swamp has been for the most part drained. 4. The water is fresh, 5. The depth of drainage is from one to three feet, and the portion from which the sample was taken has been but partially drained until within the past four years. 6. The upper portions are usually dry during the summer to the depth of two or three feet. 7. Excellent crops of potatoes, carrots, turnips, oats and grass have been produced on some of the drained portions. The only manures used have been ashes and stable manure. Could * The ash prepared by me contains besides sand, much sulphate of lime, but no carbonate of Ume. The ash sent by Mr. Stanwood, the full analysis of which is given on another page was obviously obtained from a peat found in another part of the swamp. 113 discover no effect from the ashes. Prefer horse manure to any other. 8. The soil underlying and at the edges of the swamp is white sand mixed with stones of various sizes. 9. The meadow is surrounded with hills, and must undoubt- edly receive considerable wash from them. Their soil is a sandy loam, rough and rocky in its natural state. 10. The swamp has both inlet and outlet. The water is soft. Shahaugan Brook, which flows through it, is from two to three rods in width, and is subject to heavy freshets Spring and Autumn, but these are of short duration. 11. Only one sample sent. 12. The quality of the muck at the place where the sample was taken is quite uniform to the depth of four or five feet. Below that is peat to depth unknown. 13. The original growth of timber was ash, maple and pine, with some hemlock. Many of the roots and stumps of pine still remain in a good state of preservation. Black alder and sweet elder, together with the red raspberry, are found among the undergrowth. 14. The muck has been used to some extent as a top-dress- ing for grass and other crops with satisfactory results, although no particular benefit was noticeable during the first year. After that the effects might be seen for a number of years. 15. I know of no experiments having been made with a view of testing its value after having been long dug, as com- pared with stable manure. 16. Composting has not, I believe, been practiced to much extent. Whenever it has been done, stable manure and ashes have been the materials used. Experiments made by myself have confirmed me in the opinion that a compost of equal parts muck and stable manure is equal to the same quality of stable manure. I found a compost made of two bushels of unleached ashes to twenty-five of muck superior to stable manure as a top- dressing for grass on a warm, dry soil. We however use it mostly as an absorbent, the acidity is corrected by the exposure it re- ceives, and much fertilizing matter is saved that would other- wise be lost. 114 ■ 17. My method of composting is as follows : I draw my muck to the barn-yard placing tlie loads as near together as I can tip them from the cart. Upon this I spread whatever ma- nure or ashes I have at haj^d, and mix with the cattle's feet and heap up with a scraper. I have also my stahles arranged under one of my bams, so that the muck is mixed with the manure in a trench behind the cattle. 19. The peat has been used merely to test its value as fuel, and has proved a superior article, but so long as plenty of wood can be had for little more than the labor of getting it, few will be willing to substitute peat in its stead. John H. Stanwood. Oolebrook, Nov. 13th, 1858. No. 10. , Peat from N. Hart, Jr., West Cornwall. Hard dry lumps of a darls brown, almost black color. Analysis. Organic matter, soluble in carbonate of soda, 55.11 " " Insoluble in carbonate of soda, 10.29 Total 65.40 *Inorganic matter, - - - 14.89 Water, .... 19.71 100.00 fSoluble in water, 6.20. Nitrogen, 2.10=2.55 ammonia. ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR. 1. The swamp is 100 rods long by 20 wide, contains 12J acres. 2. Average depth 10 feet. Greatest depth 15 to 20 feet. 3. It is drained with a ditch four feet deep around the out- side, and one 80 rods long through the middle north and south, and one east and west at the upper end of the middle. 4. It is a fresh water swamp. It has been dry 13 years. 5. It is dry enough the year through to go all over it with a team and loaded cart. 6. We have raised medium crops of corn, potatoes and * The ash besides sand contains very much carbonate and sulphate of lime. f In the soluble portion are no salts of iron. 115 pumpkins. Five acres of it is in upland grasses, and has cut three tons per acre. Have manured by spreading the ashes produced in burning the bogs, in the fall, and with stable manure the next spring, and with upland soil from old headlands. 7. Clay and sand form the adjacent underlying soil. 8. The swamp receives no wash from hills. 9. A small stream of soft water runs through the swamp, which is sometimes dry in summer, and is never high enough to flood the swamp. 11. The surface deposit to a depth of 18 inches is made up of fine decomposed vegetable matter. Below this it is more like peat and coarse vegetable matter. 12. The trees in the swamp are black ash, white maple, and recently, willow. We often find the trunks of hemlock trees of various sizes, some, 18 inches in diameter, several feet below the surface. 13 and 14. The muck has never been used as a manure. 15. We formerly composted it with stable manure, and with ashes, biit have remodeled our stables, and now use it as an ab- sorbent and to increase the bulk of manure to double its original quantity, and consider it more valuable than the same quantity of stable manure. 16. Have composted in the yard by putting a layer of muck on the ground a foot thick, and then a layer of manure (by wheeling the cleanings of the stables every morning) of about f the quantity of the muck, and so on until the pile is comple- ted. This should be turned some days before using. I have mixed 25 bushels of ashes with the same number of loads of muck, and applied it to f of an acre. The result was far beyond that obtained by applying 300 lbs. best guano to the same piece. 18. Have not given it a fair trial as to its burning quahties. 19. In the, use of muck we proceed as follows: Soon after haying we throw up enough for a year's use, or several hundred loads. In the fall the summer's accumulation in hog pens and barn cellars is spread upon the mowing grounds, and a liberal supply of muck carted in and spread in the bottoms of the eel- 116 lars ready for the season for stabling cattle. When this is well saturated with the drippings of the stables a new supply is added. The accumulation of the winter is usually applied to the land for the corn crop, except the finer portion which is used to top-dress meadow land. A new supply is then drawn in for the swine to work up. This is added to from time to time, and as the swine are fed on whey, they will convert a large quantity into valuable manure for top-dressing mowing land. So successful has been the use of it, that we could hardly carry on our farming operations without it. K Hart, Jr. No. 11. Swamp-muck from A. L. Loveland, North Granby. This muck is black, and dried to very hard lumps, in which grains of quartz and mica sand are seen. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 88.27 " insoluble in " " 2.89 Total, 41.16 * Inorganic matter, .... 47.24 Water, ' - - - - - 11.60 100.00 Soluble in water, 0.75 per cent. Nitrogen 1.00=1.22 ammonia. ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR. 1. The place from which the specimen sent was taken, is a swale extending over a somewhat broken surface of more than half a mile in length, though the width, on an average, is not more than 15 rods. 2. The greatest depth will not exceed six feet. Wherever the swale is broken, the separation is covered with timber, the land is quite stony, and the descent is such that the brook which passes through it runs quite rapidly. * The ash ia cliiofly sand, with a littfe sulphate of lime. 117 3. None of these lands (nor scarcely any in the town,) are drained, thougli nothing could return a better profit. 4. It is a fresh water marsh. 5. It is constantly wet from springs, and difficult to cross at any season. A yearling steer once sunk and perished in the muck. On some portions the surface is tough with grass roots, and will roll beneath one's step like the waves upon a lake. Springs of water are underneath, and the mud is very soft. 6. No crops have ever been taken from these lands, except perhaps some coarse grass on limited portions. Alders and ma- ples are cut off once in twelve years or so. No manures are ever put on, and the vast riches of such lands have been hid- den until recent agitation of the subject has brought them to light. 7. The base of this muck is mostly a hard-pan mixed with stone. The borders have a deep, loamy soil on which apple- orchards flourish. The white birch takes root in it whenever it is plowed for grain, until vast fields are covered with them. They grow rapidly, and when matured are cut and the ground cleared for potatoes and grain. 8. There is not much wash from the hills, but where there is any, the soil is a light loam, overlying gravel and sand mixed with much stone. 9. The swale has no inlet but abundant outlet. Springs of clear cold water well up mostly from the borders in never-fail- ing quantity. These disappear sluggishly over a large surface till they reach a rapid descent, when they take the form of a brook and circle round opposing elevations of land till they reach the larger mill streams in the valleys below. They are never dry, and are but slightly affected by storms. 10-11. The sample sent was from one place, which will fairly represent most deposits in this township, as there is little varia- tion in quality. 12. The vegetation consists of alders, maples, willows, grape vines, flags and a tall, coarse grass. It is pretty free from fallen trees. No pines grow on these lands. 13, 14 and 15. The muck has never been used for any pur- pose. It will be used next season for the first time. 118 19. In the adjoining town of Granville, Mass., similar swales, stretching along the base of hard-timbered hills, have been ditched and converted into mowings worth one hundred dollars per acre. Sand from the hills has been spread on them, and the best grasses flourish. The material dug from the ditches has been carted into barn-yards, and makes excellent manure. These lands are the very cream of the farms where they have been cleared up. There is no tough compact peat on such lands to work ; the material is a rich fine muck or mould. As I have said, there is a great extent of such lands, but the farmers have never dreamed of their worth. They will now begin to clear and ditch them, as most of them can be easily drained. A. L. LOVELAND. No. 12. Peat from Daniel Buck, Jr., Poquonock, came as dry, quite coherent, brick-shaped cakes, well decomposed. Color a rich chocolate brown. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 27.19 " insoluble in " " 48.84 Total, 76.03 * Inorganic matter, - - . - 5.92 Water, 18.05 100.00 Soluble in water, 2.94 per cent. Nitrogen, 2.40=2.92 ammonia. For answer to Circular see No. 13. No. 13. Swamp muck from Daniel Buck, Jr., Poquonock. This muck forms the light loose surface layers of the peat No. 12, which it resembles in color. * Ash is chiefly carbonate and sulphate of lime, and magnesia. 119 Analysis. Organic matter, soluble in carbonate of soda, 33.66 " insoluble in " " " 40.51 Total, 74.17 ^Inorganic matter, - - - 8.63 Water, ---.-. 17.20 100.00 Soluble in -water, 1.80 per cent. Nitrogen, 2.40=2.92 ammonia. ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR. 1. The swamp contains about 15 acres. 2. Its depth, at the upper end is about 3 feet; in the center 80 feet. 3. It was drained in 1851 to an average depth of 5 feet. 4. It is a fresh water marsh. 5. It is dry during the siunmer, say two feet in depth. 6. It has grown potatoes, carrots, corn and cabbages. Can- not state amount per acre. Stable manure and ashes from burn- ing bogs have been applied to it, but no special manures. 7. Sand is the underlying and adjacent soil. 8. The swamp receives no wash from hills, 9. It has no inlet ; an outlet has been made by draining. It is fed by springs of soft water which suffer no freshets, and are never dry. 10. The sample is from one place, and is of average quality. 11. It does not occur in layers, but in masses, though there is found occasionally a layer of what is called " Stone Peat." 12. The trees were cut off in '49 and '60 — oak, hackmatack, white pines. 13. The muck has been applied fresh with good results; the grass is not as tall but thicker and finer and of a darker green in the Spring, than when barn-yard manure is spread on in the Spring. * Ash is like that of No. 12, carbonate and sulphate of lime. By comparing this with the preceding, it is seen that exposure to the air increases the amount of matters soluble in alkalies, but diminishes the portion soluble in water. 120 14. Experiments witli the weathered muck have not been made in such a way as to give comparison. 15 and 16. The muck is composted with stable manure in proportion of 8 loads of muck and 4 of manure ; but it is prin- cipally carted into the barn-yard and pig-styes. The 8 loads of muck and 4 of manure when properly forked over, are equal to 12 loads barn-yard manure on sandy soil. 17. Muck is the upper crust of swamps, that is, the peat that has been exposed to action of frost and rain, of say 15 inches depth, under that is the peat. 19. As fuel it is equal to soft wood — makes as pleasant a fire to sit by as Oannel coal or hickory wood. Daniel Buck, Jr. No. 14. Swamp muck from Philip Scarborough, Brooklyn. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 51.45 " insoluble " " " " 25.00 Total, 76.45 ■"'Inorganic matter, - . . . 7.67 Water, ..... 15.88 100.00 Soluble in water, 1.43. Nitrogen, 1.20=1.46 ammonia. ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR. 1. The swamj) contains about one hundred acres. 2. No bottom has been found at a depth of 12 feet. It is probably miich deeper. 3. It is drained to about the depth of 2 feet, and has been so beyond my memory. 4. The water is fresh. 5. It is dry throughout the season to the depth of 1 foot. 6. It has once grown potatoes with all appearance of a good crop till they were destroyed by a flood. * Ash is mostly sulphate of lime, with a little carbonate and some sand. 121 7. The soil at the edges of the swamp is a yellow mould. 8. It receives much wash (yellow loam) from the adjacent hill. 9. A small brook runs through the swamp which is never quite dry, and is subject to heavy freshets. 10. The one sample sent is from the upper end of the swamp. 11. The muck is of uniform quality — very open and porous, so far as has, been observed. _. 12. The only trees in the swamp are maples. 13 and 14. The muck has been dry, and carted in the fall, spread and plowed in in the spring to great advantage for corn crops. I estimate its value at about one-third that of stable-ma- nure. 15 and 16. One load of muck to one of stable-cellar manure makes a compost equal to two loads of clear manure. In prepar- ing the compost I begin with a layer of muck of 10 inches depth. Upon this the manure is spread, and the whole is cov- ered with muck to the depth of one foot. In this way there is no loss either by volatilization or leaching. 18. It burns well when dry, with smell of sulphur. (Signed) Philip Scaeboeotjgh. In a communication in the Somestead^ Mr. Scarborough says : "When of the age of twelve years, my father and self, in the fall of the year, carted out of a pond hole upwards of 100 loads of muck, which lay during the winter in load heaps, and was spread in the spring, plowed in and planted with corn, and I have never seen so great a growth of corn since, — at that time, which was about fifty-eight years ago, it was a very common practice to hoe corn in August, and being the plow boy, I remember that when on the horse, the tassels were as high as wj head, but the grain was lacking at harvesting, the yield being probably not over forty bushels to the acre ; it ought to have gone to one hundred in proportion to the stalks. I have never used the peat in any form when it was decom- posed, but ample returns have been made; on corn, oats, rye, and grass, it has added one-third to the yield." 122 N 0. 15.— Swamp muck from Adams Wliite, Brooklyn. Wten dry formed hard chocolate brown lumps. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, " insoluble in " " Total, *Inorganic matter, "Water, .... 54.88 23.14 77.52 9.03 13.45 100.00 f Soluble in water, 5.90. Nitrogen 2.89=3.54 ammonia. ANSWERS TO CIECULAE. 1. The deposit extends over one acre of surface. 2. The depth is from one to 5 feet — average 2i feet. 3. It is undrained. 4. The water is fresh. 5. The surface is dry for two or three months in summer to the depth of 1 to 1^ feet. 6. No crops have been grown on it. 7. The soil adjoining'and beneath is very hard — ^partly clay. 8. The swamp receives little wash. 9. There is now no inlet or outlet except an old ditch nearly filled up, which takes off a small portion of the surface water. In winter there is some overflow from rains and snows. 11. There is little variation in the quality of the muck, ex- cept that it is rather firmer in texture at or near the bottom. 12. The only vegetation on it is coarse grasses and briers. 13 and 14. No use has been made of the unmixed muck. 15. The muck has been composted with stable manure from cattle, horses and hogs, and also with horn-shavings and bone- turnings. 16. In composting, 20 loads are drawn on to upland in Sep- tember and thrown up in a long pile. Early in the Spring 20 loads of stable manure are laid along side, and covered with the * Contains some sand and much sulphate, with a little carbonate of lime, f This water solution contains no salts of iron. 123 muck. As soon as it has heated moderately, the whole is forked over and well mixed. This compost has been used for com (with plaster in the hill,) on dry sandy soil to great advantage. I consider the compost worth more per cord than the barn-yard manure. A compost of 500 lbs. of horn-shavings to 10 loads of muck and 10 bushels of unleached ashes, made the best ma- nure I ever used ; stable or yard manure used beside it did not produce more than half as much. I have used the compost principally for a corn crop — always with success — also for pota- toes. It is not so good for that crop. For small grain it makes too much straw, and the grain seed is not so heavy. 18. It is a poor fuel. Adams White. Eemarks. — This muck, containing 3^ per cent, of potential ammonia, besides much salts of hme, is of excellent quality as a fertilizer. It is largely soluble in water, (6 per cent.) but no injurious iron compounds are found in the solution. It is to be regretted, that, as Mr. White informs me, he cannot any more excavate it economically, on account of the obstructed drainage. No. 16. — Swamp muck from Paris Dyer, Brooklyn. Grayish black lumps much admixed with soil and easily crushed. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in carbonate of soda, 18.86 " insoluble in " " " 5.02 Total, 23.88 *Inorganic matter, - - - - 67.77 Water, .... 8.35 100.00 Soluble in water, 2.63. Nitrogen, 1.03=1.26 ammonia. No answer to the circular was received from Mr. Dyer. Though so largely mixed with soil, the muck yields a good per- centage of nitrogen and would make a very good absorbent. * The ash is mostly sand and soi], and contains but traces of sulphate of lime. 124 No. 17. — Swamp muck from Perrin Scarborough, Brooklyn. Color chocolate brown. Analysis. Organic matter *soluble in water, 9.17 " Insol. in water, but sol. in carb. soda, 35.10 " Insoluble in water and carb. soda, 16.83 Total, 60.10 f Inorganic matter, soluble in water, 5.96 " Insoluble in water, but sol. in carb. soda, 4.22 " Insoluble in water and carbonate soda, 15.60 X Total, 25.78 Water, 14.12 100.00 Nitrogen, 0.86=1.05 ammonia. ANSWER TO CIRCULAR. 1. The meadow (bog) is about 40 rods long by 12 rods wide. 2. The muck is 2^ to 3 feet deep. 3. It is partly drained by a small stream running along one side of the marsh, and also by a ditch dug ten years ago, to the depth of 3 feet, and extending one-half the length of the marsh. 4. It is a fresh water marsh. 5. The parts adjoining the ditch are rather dry for two or three months in summer. 6. The only yield from the marsh has been one-half ton of poor bog hay per acre. 7. The adjoining and underlying soil is hard, and is made up of gravel stone and some clay. 8. There is no wash fr6m the adjacent lands. * This determination is not accurate, but includes some sulpliuric acid expelled from sulphate of iron by the heat used in burning off the organic matter. , f Consists mostly of sulphate of protoxyd of iron, (green vitriol) with much sul- phate of Ume, and a little sulphate of alumina and common salt. % The ash, chiefly ozyd of iron, contains also much sand, as well as the ingredi- ents under f. 125 9. The stream (of soft water) is not subject to any consider- able fresbets. 11. At the place where I took the sample, the surface muck to the depth of about 12 inches has a dark color, and then for about two feet, is of a reddish appearance and more compact, being made up of decayed vegetable matter and some decayed limbs of trees. When thrown up to the weather and dried, it is as light as a cork. • Some portions of it when thrown out to the weather for a short time, will be covered with a thin white crust that has the taste of alum or saltpetre. 12. No trees are now growing in the marsh. The branches found in the lower mtick I should think were pine. 13. 14 and 15. About the only trial I have made was as fol- lows: Seventy-five loads were dug, and left exposed to the weather for one year. I then mixed it with stable manure in the proportion of five loads of muck to one of manure, and applied in the hill to com, at the rate of about twenty-five loads to the acre. The result was not what I expected, although I had a fair crop. After two years but little effect could be seen. 18. It has not been used as fuel. " PEBBte Scarborough. Eemarks. — As already mentioned, this is the best charac- terized vitriol-muck of any that I have examined. Mr. Scar- borough says above of this mack, that '•'■some portions of it when thrown out to the weather became covered with a thin white crust that has the taste of alum or saltpetre." Doubtless the sample sent for analysis is one of this kind, and therefore represents the worst quality. The "thin white crust" is the sulphates of iron and alumina, and the presence of these matters in the lower muck accounts for the poor growth of grass, and for the indifferent results of the trial on corn. The use of the/res/i much, if it contained nearly so much sol- uble iron compounds as given in the above analysis, would prob- ably be destructive to all crops. The use of lime and ashes, or long weathering, would correct these bad qualities; and so would composting with stable manure, if the latter were used in sufficient quantity ; but the analysis makes it fully evident that this is a material to be used with caution. 126 No. 18.— Swamp muck from Geo. K. Virgin, CoUinsville. Very dry and light, full of fine (grass) roots, whicli make it re- tain when dry the form in which it was cut out. Color light brownish gray. " Exposed since last winter." From the grass roots this is evidently the surface muck. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in water, - - 2.21 " insoluble in water but soluble in carbonate of soda, (treated four times,) - 20.57 " insoluble in water and carbonate of soda, - - 8.25 Total, 31.03 Inorganic matter *soluble in water, - 0.32 " Insoluble in water but soluble in carb. soda, (treated four times), 9.41 " insol. in water and carb. soda, 8.05 fTotal, 57.78 Water, - ' 11.19 Nitrogen, 0.64=0.78 ammonia. 100.00 No. 19. — -Swamp muck from Geo. K. Virgin, CoUinsville. Quite moist, crumbly; contains much micaceous sand. Color chocolate brown. " Taken four feet below the surface." Analysis. Organic matter soluble in water, - - 1.12 " insoluble in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda, (treated three times,) - - 9.19 " insoluble in water and carbon- ate of soda, - - 5.10 * Portion soluble in water consists chiefly of sulphate of lime and salts of iron ; the'latter in the larger proportion. f The ash consists mostly of sand, yields to acida much iron, a minute quantity of sulphate of Mme, some magnesia, and a trace of phosphoric acid. It contains no carbonate of lime. [See No. 20.] 127 Total, . 15.41 * Inorganic matter, soluble in water, 0.28 II insoluble in water, but sol- uble in carbonate of soda, (treated three times,) 1.08 11 insoluble in water and carbon- ate of soda. 48.65 t Total, 50.01 Water, - 84.58 100.00 Nitrogen, 0.34=0.41 ammonia. ISTo. 20. — Swamp muck from Geo. K. Virgin, CoUinsville. Very moist, well decomposed — not lumpy or coberent. Color black. The label was defaced by decay, but the specimen was probably taken at a depth intermediate between Nos. 18 and 19. Analysis. Organic matter, soluble in water, - 0.72 " insoluble in water but soluble in carbonate of soda, (treated four times,) 9.31 " insoluble in water and carbon- ate of soda, - 3.65 Total, - - - - 13.68 X Inorganic matter, soluble in water, 0.25 " insoluble in water but sol- uble in carbonate of soda, (treated four times,) 0.76 " insoluble in water and car- bonate of soda, 28.20 * Portion soluble In water consists principally of sulphate of lime and salts of iron. f Ash is mostly sand, with a little sulphate of lime and considerable oxyd of iron, soluble in acids. Phosphoric acid and magnesia in traces. [See No. 20. \ Portion soluble in water consists of sulphate of lime with small quantity of salts of Iron. 128 * Total, .... 29.21 Water, - - - 57.11 100.00 Nitrogen, 0.28=0.34 ammonia. ANSWERS TO CIECULAB. 1. 'The swamp contains 5 acres. 2. The greatest depth is 10 feet. The average depth 4 feet. 8. It is undrained. 4. The water is fresh. 5. Parts of the swamp are surface-dry in summer. 6. No crops have been raised on it. 7. On one side of the swamp the soil is a sandy loam, and the other side gravel. 8. It does not receive much wash from the surrounding lands. 9. A small stream fed by springs flows from the swamp. 10. The three samples were taken from one place. 11. Little difference in the quality of the muck at various depths is observed. 12. The swamp is occupied by maple, oak and hemlock, with some pine and cedar trees. 13. 14, 15 and 16. The only trial of this muck was made with a few loads that had been exposed to the frost one winter. It was applied to a piece of sandy, poor land, and the effects of it were astonishing. It has not been used as fuel. GrEO. K. Virgin. Eemarks. — On reference to the table it will be seen that when these three mucks of Mr. Virgin are reduced to the same state of dryness, they agree quite closely in composition. As their content of ammonia when dry is only about 8-10 per cent, and the amount of soluble matters is likewise small, it is obvious that the "astonishing" results observed from its use must be chiefly ascribed to its physical characters — to its effect in correcting the texture and dryness of the " sandy poor soil." * Ash almost entirely sand and oxyd of iron, with traces of sulphate of lime and phosphoric acid. 129 No. 21. Salt-marsli muck, Solomon Mead, New Haven. Ligtt and porous, coherent from grass roots. Color, greyish brown. Had been long dug and exposed to air. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in water, 3.30 " " insoluble in water but sol. in carb. soda, (treated 6 times,) 40.52 " " insoluble in water and carb. soda, 8.20 Total, 52.02 Inorganic matter, *soluble in water, 2.60 " " insoluble in water, but sol. in carb. soda, (treated 6 times,) 10.02 " " insol. in water and carb. soda, 23.90 t Total, 36.52 Water, 11.46 Nitrogen, 1.51=:1.84 ammonia. 100.00 ANSWERS TO CIRCULAR. 1. The marsh is 3 miles long and 80 rods wide. Its contents are estimated at 480 acres. 2. The average depth is 10 feet ; greatest depth 15 to 20 feet. 3. The marsh is partially drained, but cannot be made dry on account of the setting back of tide-water. 4. It is one-half salt, and one-half fresh water marsh. The sample was taken from the fresh water part. 5. The surface of the muck is usually dry in summer to the depth of one to two feet. 6. A few crops of potatoes have been grown on it with good results ; but grass is the chief product. Guano and yard manure have been applied. 7 and 8. The marsh receives wash from a considerable ex- tent of territory, the soil being a sand or sandy loam. * Portion soluble in water contains lime and soda in moderate quantity, still more sulphuric acid and chlorine. No iron. f Ash mostly sand, with much osyd of iron, some salt and sulphate of lime traces of magnesia and phosphoric acid. Exposure has obviouslj' rendered oxyd of iron insoluble. 130 9. It has botli inlet and outlet in a stream of soft water two rods wide that runs through, it, and is subject to freshets, but does not dry up in summer. 11. But little variation in the quality of the muck is observed in digging down. 12. Beside bog-meadow grass, there flourish willow, elm, and soft maple trees. But few branches are found in the muck, of what kind it is difficult to determine. 13. The muck has been employed fresh dug for potatoes, &c., with very favorable results. 14. The long dug muck has been applied to crops with less favorable results, as far as the present crop is concerned, than those furnished by good stable manure. 15. It has been extensively composted with ashes, bones, lime, white fish, yard manures, sty and slaughter-yard materials, plaster, guano, night soil, &c., &c., with great advantage. 16. In preparing composts, the pile is commenced by a layer of muck say one foot deep, then a layer of yard manure say 8 inches deep is laid on, and so alternately to the top. For com- posts with night soil, I use three or four times its biilk of muck ; with guano or ashes the proportion of muck is still increased. 18. It has not been used to any extent as fuel. S. Mead. No. 22. Swamp muck from Edwin Hoyt, ISTew Canaan, light and loose in texture, not coherent, much intermixed with soil. Color, light brownish grey. Analysis. Organic matter, soluble in water, - - 2.84 " insoluble in water but soluble in carbonate of soda, (treated three times,) 13.42 " insoluble in water and carbonate of soda, - - - 7.55 Total, .... 23.81 131 Inorganic matter *soluble in water, - - 2.72 " insoluble in water but soluble in carbonate of soda, (treat- ed three times, - 19.88 " insol. in water and carb, soda, 46.80 t Total, - - - - 68.90 Water, .... 729 Nitrogen, 0.45=0.54 ammonia. For answer to Circular see No. 24. 100.00 No. 23. Swamp muck (No. 22,) saturated witb horse urine, having been put under the stalls. Edwin Hoyt, New Canaan. Color darker than No. 22. Analysis. Organic matter, soluble in water, - - 2.34 " insoluble in water but soluble in carbonate of soda, (treated three times,) - - 13.49 " insol. in water and carb. soda, 8.05 Total, - - . . 23.88 X Inorganic matter, soluble in water, - 1.54 " insol. in water but sol. in carb. soda, (treated three times,) 12.42 " insol. in water and carb. soda, 56.20 § Total, .... 'jQiQ Water, .... 5_9g Nitrogen 0.90=1.09 ammonia. For answer to circular see No. 24. 100.00 * Portion soluble in water consists almost entirely of sulphate of iron, and per- haps organic salts of the same base. No Ume. f Mostly sand and SOU. In the acid solution were found much iron, a little sul- phuric acid lime and magnesia, and traces of phosphoric acid. \ Portion soluble in water contains large quantities of lime, sulphuric acid, cUo- rine and carbonic acid, but only a slight trace of iron. It thus appears that the iron existing in the peat (No. 22) in the soluble form, is rendered insoluble by composting. § Ash, as No. 22, but containing larger quantities of sulphuric and phosphoric acids, of lime and magnesia. 9 132 No. 24. Swamp muck No. 22 composted -witli "wliite fisli. Edwin Hoyt, New Canaan. Color darker than No. 23. No evidence of the fish except a few bones. Analysis. Organic matter, soluble in water, - 1.15 " Insoluble in water but soluble in carbonate of soda, (treated three times,) - - 17.29 ' ' Insoluble in water and carbon- ate of soda, - ■ 8.00 Total, .... 26.44 * Inorganic matter, soluble in water, - 1.67 " insol. in water but sol. in carb. soda, (treated three times,) 14.18 " insol. in water and carb. soda, 51.10 t Total, - . - - 66.90 "Water, .... 6.66 100.00 Nitrogen, 1.01=1.22 ammonia. ANSWERS TO CIECULAE. 1. The swamp is nearly square, and contains about 10 acres. 2. The average depth of muck is about 5 feet. The greatest depth is 12 feet or more, although we do not take it out below 8 feet. 3. It was drained four years ago to the depth of 5 feet. 4. It is a fresh water marsh. 5. The upper portions are always dry to the level of the outlet, except as wetted by rains. 6. Fpur acres were thoroughly underdrained fouf years ago, and planted with com and potatoes. The yield of potatoes was exceedingly fine. The crop of corn was good — ^more than an average yield. The tillage not being as complete as we desired * Portion soluble in water consists principally of sulphate of lime, with only traces of iron. In this case, as in No. 23, the soluble salts of iron contained in the peat are, by composting rendered insoluble. f Ash as Nos. 22 and 23, but sulphuric and phosphoric acids, lime and magnesia, present in still larger quantities. 133 for seeding, it was planted witla corn tlie second season. The yield was good — full sixty bushels per acre. The third season it was seeded with oats, which grew very rapidly and promised a large crop, but just as they began to fill, about one-third of them lodged. That portion which stood up filled well, and yielded at the rate of fifty bushels per acre. This, the fourth season, the piece was in grass, the crop was more than average, yet would have been larger had not the young grass all been killed under that portion of the field where the oats fell. No manure has been used on the swamp. 7. The surrounding soil is gravel, with a mixture of clay. The bed of the swamp after the muck is removed, presents a very stony surface like that of the neighboring uplands. 8. The swamp receives but little wash from the adjoining hills. 9. A small stream flows through it that is liable to freshets,, but never dries up. 11. There are some variations in its appearance at different depths. The first two feet it is very black and crumbly, and is made up of very fine particles, I suppose on account of its being plowed and exposed to frost and weather. For the next three or four feet it has a reddish cast and considerable odor. This layer appears to contain more vegetable matter. At this depth we sometimes find logs as large as a man's body, and have traced out whole trees, which at first are as easily cut through with the spade as any part of the muck, but after exposure, they become quite hard. This layer we consider the most valuable, and is such as I sent you. See No. 22. Below a depth of 6 feet it has a lighter color, and contains less vegetable matter. At a depth of 8 fe^t clay predominates, and it is not worth carting out upon our soils. 12. The swamp was once covered with maple, elm, and red- ash trees. But for a number of years one-half has been in meadow and the other half is covered with bogs. Near the main ditch the bogs are rapidly dying out and may be easily kicked to pieces, which I attribute to the draining. 13. It has not been used fresh from the swamp, as we con- 184 sider this manner of application very wasteful. We have al- ways composted it except in one instance, which is given below. 14. The long dug and exposed muck has been once experi- mented on &s follows : Four years ago, this Autumn, (1858,) we drew a large quantity of it upon a field designed for corn the following season. A portion of this muck was composted with horse-dung, (about 5 of muck to 1 of dung,) the pile heat- ed and fermented well and was turned once before using. The remainder of the muck was left untouched until about the mid- dle of May. At this time the muck and compost were each spread and plowed in on separate portions of the field at the rate of 40 loads per acre. The result was very marked, and was distinguishable as far as the field could be seen. The corn where the stable compost was applied showed a decided gain over the other parts of the field after it was two weeks old, and kept ahead throughout the season. The yield by the compost was nearly double that of the clear muck. I do not think the yield was much increased by the application of muck alone. The oat crop following the corn, was also much the best where the stable compost was applied to the other ; so also the grass. 15. The muck has been much employed by us as an absorb- ent. Our horse stables are constructed with a movable floor and pit beneath which holds 20 loads of muck of 25 bushels per load. Spring and fall this pit is filled with fresh muck which receives all the urine of the horses, and being occasionally worked over and mixed furnishes us annually with 40 loads of the most valuable manure. See No. 23. Our stables are sprinkled with muck every morning at the rate of one bushel per stall, and the smell of ammonia, &c., so of- fensive in most stables, is never perceived in ours. Not t)nly are the stables kept sweet, but the ammonia is saved by this pro- cedure. Our privies are also deodorized by the use of muck, which is sprinkled over the surface of the pit once a week, and from them alone we thus prepare annually enough "poudrette" to manure our corn in the hill. The wagons we use in drawing fish in the summer shortly become very offensive from the blood . oil, &c., which adheres to them ; but a slight sprinkling of muck renders them perfectly inodorous in a short space of time. 135 16. Very mucli of our muck is composted witli yard manure. Our proportions are one load of manure to three of muck. I tHnk as much muck should be used as can be made to heat properly. The quantity varies of course with the kind of ma- nure employed. We use muck largely in our barn-yards, and after it becomes thoroughly saturated and intermixed with the droppings of the stock, it is piled up to ferment, and the yard is covered again with fresh muck. We are convinced that the oftener a compost pile of yard manure and muck is worked over after fermenting, the better. We work it over and add to it a little more muck and other material, and the air being thus allowed to penetrate it, a new fermentation or heating takes place, rendering it more decomposable and valuable. During the present season, (1858,) we have composted about 200,000 white fish with about 700 loads (17,500 bushels,) of muck. We vary the proportions somewhat according to the crop the compost is intended for. For rye we apply 20 to 25 loads per acre of a compost made with 4,500 fish, (one load) and with this manuring, no matter how poor the soil, the rye will be as large as a man can cradle. Much of ours we have to reap. For oats we use less fish, as this crop is apt to lodge. For com, one part fish to ten or twelve muck is about right, while for grass or any top-dressing, the proportion of fish may be in- creased. We find it is best to mix the fish in the summer and not use the compost until the next spring and summer. Yet we are obliged to use in Sept. for our winter rye a great deal of the compost made in July. We usually compost the first arrivals of fish in June for our winter grain ; after this pile has stood three or four weeks it is worked over thoroughly. In this space of time the fish become pretty well decomposed, though they still preserve their form and smell outrageously. As the pile is worked over, a sprinkling of muck or plaster is given to re- tain any escaping ammonia. At the time of use in September the fish have completely disappeared, bones and fins excepted. The effect on the muck is to blacken it and make it more loose and crumbly. As to the results of the use of this compost, we 136 find tliem in tbe highest degree satisfactory. "We have raised 30 to 35 bushels of Tye per acre on land that without it could have yielded 6 or 8 bushels at the utmost. This year we have corn that will give 60 to 70 bushels per acre, that otherwise would yield but 20 to 25 bushels. It makes large potatoes, excellent turnips and carrots. 18. It is not suitable for fuel. 19. I will add one other fact relative to its absorbent power. We collect the (human) urine in barrels conveniently disposed about our premises. One of these having become full and very offensive, I proposed to filter it through muck. Another barrel was accordingly filled with the latter and the putrid urine poured upon it. Although the stench of the urine was so in- tense that it was hardly possible to proceed with the operation, it was all filtered through the muck, and came ont perfectly clear, odorless, and with no more taste than pure water would acquire by running through the much. Edwin Hoyt. Ebmarks. — When we compare the quality of the muck em- ployed by the Messrs. Hoyt, as shown by the analysis, with the great results they have made it yield in their favor, we have a fine illustration of the merits of muck as an absorbent and amendment. The muck is of poor quality, containing in the dry state but twenty-six per cent of organic matter and one-half of one per cent of potential ammonia, and being in the fresh state consider- ably charged with salts of iron. But the composts with horse- urine and with fish are admirable fertilizers, as proved by anal- ysis, and especially by the crops grown with their aid. In the composts we find all the iron insoluble, and as stated p. 131, the percentages of ammonia doubled. The Messrs. Hoyt would have found it impossible to economize their manure in any other way to nearly the extent they are enabled to do by the use of muck, which, though it must be hauled up a long steep hill, at great expense, is of incalculable advantage to their farm. It must not be forgotten, however, that the success of the Messrs. Hoyt is due not only to the use of muck, but also to the enter- prise which they expend in laying hold of every form of fertil- 137 izing material witMn. their reach, and to their systematic employ- ment of thorough drainage, deep tillage and all other scientific improvements. No. 25. Swamp muck from A. M. Haling, Eockville, fresh dug. Color snuff-brown, with a little white fiber. Analysis. Organic matter soluble in water, - - 3.43 " insol. in water but sol. in carb. soda, (treated eight times,) - 52.15 " insol. in water and carb. soda, 8.65 Total, - .... 64.2^ Inorganic matter *soluble in water, - - 0.35 " insol. in water but sol. in carb. soda, (treated eight times,) 0.16 insol. in water and carb. soda, 4.90 -' Ci r-i r-H rH C^' i-< Ci (M* nH CO i-H .-5 II II II II II II N II II II II II II II II II II comoomocif-'cooC'Ooociooco C-lQOO^(MmF-ncorHomocoir3iJ3M cq o" i£5 Oi m' 00 t-^ cn \D ^ r- t- JC- Jt- CM C5 ift IC \n in o r-( in o m CS -^ i-H o ^ cq CO fn m rn rri lO CM m m in (-1 r-) m Q Insoluble in carbonate of soda . M< o CO on O O i:- o cq CO o lO CO in CO CO i—t CM i-H CO 1— I •^ Tt< CM CM r-i fO C-T o lO irs o C7) O irt ^ r- C5 CD id CD CD j^ Soluble in carbonate of soda, lO m cn CM m lO m r— CO ^ -^ OO CO rH •X) U3 o CO -cj^ CO T^ Th in CO CM CO m iC3 rH -^ Ij- ^ a J 6:- .a ^ o oT a .2 g lit" .9fp CO C3 O O '^ « T3t3 P-( ~ O tH o aPH o 5 -j m [> ^ 2 § St. f O - - - bo 3 o S of -a a o (-• o .B- S » -9 — to 'C ir j3 ^ =« "^ a mP4MHi*zi:f<»nr5eoir-ir-mococo>-io (Mi-(J:-COOOa3i-HTt(OOOOTt! 1 ■u 1 « m H rS ■< H C3 tu ^ § 1 m ? M « n fc 'i=^ !^ 03 f^ |xi t^ o !?; ^ o S a< CQ .?^ o (1| '? o w <-> i-i e '9 ^ Percentage of potential ammonia calculated on the organ, matter. O(Mt-a>C00imvONOC0rt--icrjfOrHTjir-JrH Matter soluble in water. la iO«ir-coi:-QOi^inir3Qoeoooo>r)Oi r-i cq ci t-^ I-t Inorganic matter. Total. ooiO'^NCDr-.-iTHooeot-ooiO'^o TjIrH CrjrH-^rHr-Iin rH i-lIr-CO pi i o Total. OOiOCOOO-^COasCjDCflt-COO-HOCDO COas050SOJ«5QO»00000'^ClC330SCJ(M£- InBol. in carb. of soda. OiOiOxOOS^i-r-ti-ICfSTllOCOOJr-iOOO '^^CO^F-l.-iaSr-lr-trH CD-rJICOCq Bol. in carbonate of soda. 0»OOrHCT)COCDODm05COeOMr-Cffl.-l(M (Mr-COQOXr-ia-^TjIJr-aSTttCO'^OOC^CO fe: ■a - a S 3 ® d I- = ^^ ^l^'gl-rf'^^ go- I ii I i^sii:^!^- Is. -I rH«m'^»0CDl:i000SOr--ir-(rH»-4 158 ■aj I s !/2 S M ?^ as s w >. 1-1 ,1. fq '13 B ■S s p6 f^ •fi3 r-1 S 6 Percentiigo of potential am- inoniii calculated on tho organic matter. ir5OTji « 0= = y = ^ = = = = -" ^ -° I - ■" t- o B Bw o J 3 a "a _- - § 6= = S, _gt5 t; S S t; i; 6 taw <1 - O rH ei CO rHrHcqcqcqcqwNwwNcqeofOcoeo COMMERCIAL FERTILIZEES. SCALE OF PEICES. The valuation of the chief ingredients of commercial fertilizers remains as in my First Report, and is as follows : Potash, 4 cts. per lb. Insoluble phosphoric acid, 4^^ " Soluble " " 12^ " Ammonia, 14 " THE QTJINNIPIAC COMPANY'S FISH MANURE. In March, 1858, I was consulted by the Quinnipiac Company of Wallingford, Conn., with reference to a fish manure which they manufacture, and obtained their consent to publish the re- sult of the analyses that were made. Nothing is more obvious than that the true interests of the manufacturer and of the farmer are identical, and equally promoted as well by an exposure of what is worthless, as by commendation of what is useful. The Quinnipiac Company employed me to analyze their fish manure in order to ascertain definitely for themselves, how it compares with standard fertilizers, and are willing that I should pronounce public judgment on it according to its merits. The quality and price of the fish manure is such that it de- serves to be commended to our farmers ; especially since, as I am credibly informed, the Company bears a high reputation, which is a guaranty that they will continue to manufacture an article as good as they have submitted for analysis. 9.67 9.63 67.78 65.68 2.05 1.96 3.76 8.38 3.41 '.81 .38 8.36 8.23 $32.00 per ton. $31.40 per ton. 160 Analysis. Water, - - Organic (animal) matter, - Sand, Lime, . . . - Soluble pliosplioric acid, Insoluble " " - Ammonia yielded by animal matter - Calculated value, Manufacturer's price, This manure is not so rich either in phosphoric acid or in ammonia as the best qualities of fish manure ; but it is never- theless entitled to a high rank among concentrated fertilizers. It yields fully one-half as much ammonia as the best Peruvian guano, and nearly all the phosphoric acid it contains is in a form soluble in water. The calculated value is estimated from the prices adopted in my First Annual Keport. The manure is sold by measure. The Company inform me that it weighs 35 pounds, and is sold at 55 cents, per struck bushel. From these figures the price per ton, as given above, is reckoned. The mechanical condition is very good. In employing this manure it must be borne in mind that, like Peruvian guano, it is capable of supplying only a part of the wants of vegetation, so that the use of some phosphatic manure and of leached ashes, muck or stable manure, with it, will be better economy in most cases than depending on it alone. The manufacturers recommend to apply it to Indian com, for ' example, either broadcast at the rate of 20 to 40 bushels pe*r acre or 3 bushels in the hill. It is doubtless generally the best plan to manure the plant rather than the soil, i. e., if a crop grows in hills or drills, to manure in the hill or drill ; if the crop is sown broadcast, manure in the same manner. If I understand rightly, a much larger application in the hill than three bushels per acre, is likely to prove detrimental. It is to be hoped that this successful attempt to manufacture a substitute for Peruvian guano in our own State, will meet 161 with sucii encouragement as to make fisli manure a staple fertili- zer. With the stimulus of abundant patronage, this kind of manure can be prepared of better quality and furnished at a less price ; while if judiciously used, it cannot fail to improve our lands permanently, at the same time that it yields better yearly crops. ■ THE GEEEN SAND MARL OF NEW JERSEY. In the Spring of 1868 I was informed that the "New Jersey Fertilizer Company " intended shipping to this State some car- goes of this material, and although I am not aware that their intention has been carried out as yet, there is apparently no rea- son why the Green Sand Marl may not become an article of commerce between Connecticut and New Jersey, and I therefore communicate to the public such account of its nature and use as I have been able to collect. The Green Sand Marl is a peculiar geological deposit, met with in various parts of this and other countries, but most largely developed in the State of New Jersey, where it occupies or un- derlies an area of 900 square miles. This tract extends from Sandy Hook south westwardly to Salem, on the Delaware Eiver, a distance of ninety miles, and is six to fourteen miles in breadth. It is only in a few localilies, however, that it is found on the sur- face of the earth ; it being overlaid with soil throughout the great share of this vast district. It has long been known that this marl, as it is called, is exceedingly useful as a fertilizer when applied upon the contiguous lands. The discovery is said to have been made by accident, and the effects were so striking, that in those parts of New Jersey, where it is easily accessible, it is now one of the chief reliances of the farmer. The deposit of green sand marl has a variable thickness, and is by no means uniform in appearance. It often has a fine green color. This color is due to the green sand which is its charac- teristic ingredient. Often, and indeed generally, the color of the marl is greenish-gray or brown, from an admixture of clay and other substances. The green sand itself occurs in the form of grains like gunpowder. These grains are brown externally, if they have been exposed to the air, owing to the higher oxyda- tion (or rusting,) of the protoxyd of iron contaiaed in them ; 162 ' but if wasTied or broken, their proper green color is always man- ifested. This color enables us to distinguish the green sand from all other sands by the eye alone. The green sand has a nearly uniform composition, and hence is considered a distinct mineral, and for the sake of distinction is called Glauconiie (which means "sea-green stone,") by the mineralogists. In virtue of its composition and easy decomposability, green sand is an excellent fertilizer. Its average composition in 100 "parts is: SUica, 49.5 Alumina, ----- 7.3 Protoxyd of Iron, . - - - 22.8 Potash, ... - - 11.5 Water, 7.9 Lime, - - -5 Magnesia, - - - trace. On account of its finely divided state, when freely exposed to the air and water of the soil it gradually decomposes, and its potash, silica and protoxyd of iron become soluble, or at any rate available to vegetation. The protoxj'-d of iron which is useful in small quantity, but detrimental if largely present in the soil, is prevented from accumulating to excess by the fact that it rapidly absorbs oxygen from the air, and passes into peroxyd (iron rust.) The peroxyd of iron and alumina together with the silica, are important means of increasing the power of the soil to absorb and retain manures. Many sandy and light soils are deficient in potash, and hence the green sand is useful when applied to them. It has indeed been supposed that this fertilizer owes its efficiency chiefly to its large content of potash. The other ingredients that we have mentioned are, however, useful to a greater or less degree. Not only the green sand itself, but likewise the other matters which, with it, make up the marl, must be taken account of in considering its fertilizing value. The admixtures of clay, quartz sand, etc., are quite variable, ranging in quantity from 10 to 60 per cent, of the whole ; thus more or less reducing the amount of manurial matters, and at the same time either improving or 163 injuring tlie general composition by tHeir own accidental ingre- dients. The clay mixed with or overlying the green sand, in many localities contains quantities of a shining yellow mineral called iron pyrites or "fool's gold," which consists of iron and sulphur, and by exposure to the atmosphere is converted into sulphate of iron, (conimon copperas or green vitriol.) From this source the marl is sometimes so impregnated with sulphate of iron as to be destructive to vegetation when applied fresh from the pits. This difficulty is not, however, general, so far as I can learn, and in all cases is obviated by exposing the marl for a year or so to the weather, and by composting it with lime or with stable manure. By these means the iron is changed from the protoxyd to the peroxyd, which latter is harmless under all circumstances. In some localities the marl is mixed with a large proportion of fragments of shells, and thus contains considerable carbonate and a small amount of phosphate of lime. Sulphate of lime or plaster, is also an occasional ingredient. The following analyses copied from Professor Cook's Eeport on the Geology of New Jersey, clearly show the nature and ex- tent of the variations in composition, to which the marl as em- ployed for agricultural purposes is subject. Analyses* 1 2 3 4 5 6 Protoxyd of iron, 8.3 16.8 21.3 14.9 Alumina, 6.1 6.6 8.0 Lime, 2.4 12.5 1.0 Magnesia, .4 2.6 2.0 Potash, 2.5 4.9 7.1 7.1 4.3 3.7 Soluble silica, - 20.2 81.2 45.9 Insoluble silica and sand, 49.9 5.6 4.0 Sulphuric acid. .9 .6 .4 Phosphoric acid, 1.4 1.1 1.3 .2 2.6 6.9 Carbonic, " .2 9.3 Water, 7.1 8.9 8.1 Soluble in water, - 1.9 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.9 4.7 * In copying the analyses, the decimals of the percentages have been abridged from two figures to one. 11 164 Potash it is seen ranges from 2^ to 7 per cent. The average is about 4^ per cent. One of the specimens is half sand and in- soluble matters. No. 2 contains 12|^ per cent, of lime, and 9 per cent, of carbonic acid, or 21 per cent, of carbonate of lime. Phos- phoric acid is almost wanting in No. 4 ; but in No. 6 exists to the amount of 7 per cent. The usual quantity of phosphoric acid however, does not exceed 1 to 2 per cent. Prom the composition of the green sand marl we might know that it is a good manure without any actual trials ; but the expe- rience of the New Jersey farmers during many years has so fully demonstrated its value, that the question arises — ^may it not be procured and transported so cheaply as to admit of profitable use in this State? The following quotation from Professor Cook's Eeport may serve to assist us in answering this question. " The absolute worth of the marl to farmers it is difficult to estimate. The region of country in which it is found has been almost made by it. Before its use the soil was exhausted, and much of the land had so lessened in value that its price was but little, if any more than that of government lands at the West ; while now, by the use of the marl, these worn out soils have been brought to more than native fertility, and the value of the land increased from fifty to a hundred fold. In these districts as a general fact, the marl has been obtained at little more than the cost of digging and hauling but a short distance. There are instances however, in which large districts of worn out land have foeen entirely renovated by the use of these substances, though situated from five to fifteen miles from the marl beds, and when, if a fair allowance is made for labor, the cost per bushel could not have been less than from twelve to sixteen cents. Instances are, known when it has been thought remunerative at twenty- fivci cents' per bushel." The New Jersey Fertilizer Company deliver the marl on board vessels at their wharf at Portland Heights, N. J., for seven cents per bushel. The bushel when first raised weighs 100 lbs. ; when dry 80 lbs. I doubt not that the average qualities of this marl are better bushel for bushel, than leached ashes. The best kinds are much superior, and in the inferior sorts there is much more weight 6f valuable'fertilizing matters than in an equal bulk of 165 leaclied ashes ; but tlais advantage has its offset in the superior fineness, and consequent greater activity of the leached ashes. If then the expenses of transportation are small, as they are when large quantities are shipped, there is no reason why our farmers, who are located near tide water, may not use this fertil- izer to great advantage, especially if they can have a good arti- cle guaranteed them. The marl is especially useful for potatoes and root crops, but on poor soils is good for any crop. It is applied at the rate of one to two hundred bushels per acre. "animalized phosphate of lime." A specimen of the so-called " Animalized Phosphate of Lime," made by Hartley & Co., of Plymouth, Conn., received from Mr. Dyer, was analyzed with the following results, per cent. : Water, ..... 6.18 Sand and silica, .... 8.12 Organic and volatile matter. 8.61 Hydrated sulphate of lime, (unburned plaster,) 55.50 Carbonate of lime, - 13.03 Magnesia, ..... 1.77 Oxyd of iron, alumina and phosphoric acid, - 1.76 Carbonic acid (combined with alkalies,) 1.08 Alkalies, chlorine and loss, 4.00 100.00 Ammonia yielded by organic matter, - - 0.33 0.85 The analysis is not fully carried out, separate determinations of the quantity of phosphoric acid and of potash not having been made. The phosphoric acid cannot amount to more than 1^ per cent., the potash not more than 8 per cent. These quan- tities are of small account in a high-priced fertilizer. To finish the analysis in these particulars would serve no important use. I find by a simple calculation that a manure equal, and indeed superior to the above, in composition and value, weight for weit^ht, may be made after the following recipe : 60 pounds of ground plaster. 37 " hard wood ashes (unleacked.) 3 " Peruvian guano. 166 Sucli a mixture can be manufactured at a profit for $10 per per ton, and if I do not greatly mistake, most farmers can get the ingredients for $5 to $7 per ton. This article claims to be " made from the bones, blood and flesh of animals, digested in acid liquors, and dessicated with various saline fertilizers, in such a manner that all the valuable gases and salts are retained in a dry powder." It is seen that the quantity of " various saline fertilizers," is so large compared with the "bones, blood and flesh of animals," that the result is comparatively worthless commercially speaking. When we con- sider that 75 to 80 per cent, of a dead animal is water, it is easy to understand that it requires careful manufacturing to make a concentrated manure from the carcasses of horses, &c. It is usual to employ oil-of-vitriol to decompose and deodorize animal matters in preparing manures. This is very well, but if a large quantity of cheap materials are afterward mixed up with the product, the value of the whole becomes so reduced, that the expense of manufacturing is a dead loss to the farmer, who in the end pays for it, in case the manure finds a market. If the sample furnished me represents the average quality of this manure, it may be confidently asserted that those who pay for it $50 per ton, (the manufacturers price,) wiU lose the better share of their money. PEEUVIAJSr GUANO. From the store of Wm. Kellogg, Hartford. Water, .... 17,22 17.41 Organic matter, - - - . 49.44 49.60 Total ammonia, - - . 16.32 16.38 Phosphoric acid, soluble in water, - - 2.32 2.32 " " insoluble in water, - . 11.03 10.81 Sand, ..... 190 2.07 Calculated value, $61.20. The above figures show that this fertilizer maintains its uni- formity and excellence of composition to a remarkable degree. The soluble phosphoric acid, it should be remembered, is equal in quantity to the,average amount of this ingredient in our com- 167 mercial superphosphates, aud is accompanied with two to three per cent, of potash, which, though of trifling commercial value by the side of ammonia, is nevertheless of great manurial worth on the light soils where guano is most often applied. ELIDE GUANO. This is an article that purports to come from the coast of Cal- ifornia. It is a genuine guano, similar though inferior to Peru- vian. It is afforded at two-thirds the price of Peruvian, and an analysLs is of much interest as showing its real commercial value. It appears from the analyses of other chemists that this guano is quite variable in composition, at least so far as the quantity of moisture is concerned. I give some of the results of Dr. Stew- art, chemist to the Maryland Agricultural Society, and of Dr. Deck, of New York, by way of comparison. I shoxild say with regard to its texture, that at first sight it is rather unpromising, containing some genuine stones and ,a good many hard lumps that are difficult to crush unless they are dried. A mechanical analysis gave per cent. : Fine-portion passing a sieve of 20 holes per inch, 74 Lumps easily reduced after drying, - 22 Pebbles, ...... 4. 100.00 When dried, however, the whole is as easily crushed as Peru- vian guano, the pebbles of course excepted. The analysis of the whole, rejecting the pebbles only, is given under I. Under 11. are figures from Dr. Stewart's, and under III. from Dr. Deck's analysis. I. Water, - - 27.34 27.60 Organic and volatile matter, 39.20 38.75 (Yielding ammonia,) (10.00) (10.06) Phos. acid soluble in water, 5.07 5.31 " " insol. in water, 6.46 6.25 Sulphuric acid, - 4.94 Lime, - - - 9.67 9.36 Potash and a little soda, 5.52 Sand and insoluble matters, 2.50 2.52 Calculated value, $46.60, or including fBie potash $50. II. III. 18.90 22.64 43.30 43.53 (9.39) (11.46) ILOO 9.60 4.70 3.24 168 The high percentage of soluble phosphoric acid depends upon the presence of potash and soda. It must be borne in mind that this manure is considerably- variable in composition, and is so moist that it may easily dete- riorate by keeping. The specimen I have analyzed is considerably cheaper than Peruvian guano. It remains to be seen, however, whether oth- er cargoes or other lots are equal to this, before the reputation of the Elide guano can be estabhshed. SUPERPHOSPHATES OF LIME. But four specimens of this manure have been analyzed this year. Two of these, I. and II., were from the store of Messrs. Backus and Barstow, Norwich ; the others, III. and IV., from Wm. Kellogg, Hartford. I. 11. III. IV. Pike & Co. Coe & Co. Greene & Coe's. av. 10 b'gs. av. 25 b'gs. Preston. Water, organic & vol. matters, 38.50 38.50 36.55 36.15 32.96—32.28 40.85—41.25 Sand, 28.85 28.80 2.70 2.80 2.45— 2.80 6.05— 5.95 Soluble phosphoric acid, 1.98 2.22 2.85 2.92 2.28— 2.43 2.62— 1.70 Insoluble, 2.29 2.08 18.13 17.78 19.12—17.64 15.76—16.30 Aramoaia, 2.44 2.45 3.14 3.11 1.39— 1.39 2.97— 2.74 Calculated value, $14.00 $32.00 $26.31 $37.81 f ton I. Is seen to be a very inferior article ; more than one-quarter of it (28 per cent) is sand! This fact indicates that it is most probably some manufacturing refuse. The calculated value will give the farmer an idea how much he can afford to pay for it ; but manures so largely mixed with sand, cannot be carefully prepared ; and as other samples may contain much more sand, it is best not to buy this manure at all unless on an analysis. II. III. and IV. are all fair samples of " superphosphates," as that word is now used, though none of them contain appreciably more soluble phosphoric add than Peruvian guano. It seems, as yet, impossible to find a real superphosphate (yielding 10-15 per cent, of soluble phosphoric acid) in the Connecticut market. The above analyses do not accord very closely in some partic- ulars. This is due to the fact that the samples were too moist 169 to allow of intimate mixture. The slight differences are, how- ever, of no importance in estimating the value of these articles. All these specimens were in good mechanical condition. The first sample of Coe's superphosphate is of the same quality which it has hitherto possessed. The analyses of it read almost pre- cisely like those made last year ; but there is some falling off in the other sample TV., in which the percentages of sand and water are both somewhat larger, and all the active ingredients are accordingly reduced in proportion. The difference in value between IL and IV. amounts to |>4.20 per ton. Green & Preston's is still inferior to TV. chiefly from contain- ing less ammonia. CASTOK PUMMACE. Messrs. Baker, Latourette & Co., 142 "Water St., New York City, manufacturers of linseed and castor oils, have recently un- dertaken the new enterprise of importing the castor bean from India, and expressing the oil from it in New York. The cake or pummace remaining from this operation, has been found to possess valuable fertilizing properties, and is already employed as a manure in England. I have been employed to analyze the castor pummace, and it has turned out so satisfiictorily, that in my opinion it will be doing the members of the State Society a service, to communicate the results, and do so herewith, having obtained permission of the manufacturers. Analysis. Water, ..... 9.24 Oil, - - ... 18.02 Woody fibre and mucilage, - 38.29 Nitrogenous bodies (albumen, etc.,) - 28.31 Ash, - .... 6.14 100.00 170 In the ash were found — Sand, 0.75 Lime, ... - 0.36 Phosphoric acid, - ... 2.04 Alkalies with a little magnesia, sulphuric and carb. acids, 2.09 6.14 The amount of nitrogen in the nitrogenous bodies was found to be 4.82 per cent., corresponding to 5.48 per cent, of potential ammonia. On account of the purgative effect of the castor oil, the pum- mace cannot be employed as food for cattle, and its whole agri- cultural value must consist in its fertilizing applications. Its worth commercially considered, lies exclusively* in its content of phosphoric acid and ammonia. Its calculated value, using the prices adopted in my first annual report, viz., four and a half cents per pound for insoluble phosphoric acid, and four- teen cents per pound for ammonia, is $17.20 per ton (2000 lbs.) The manufacturers inform me that hitherto they have sent the castor pummace to England, where it commands a price of £4 10s. sterling per ton (the English ton of 2240 pounds I suppose.) They now intend bringing it into the home market, and there seeixis no reason why we cannot use it to as good advantage as English farmers can, if it is afforded at a fair price.f The pummace is not -hard like linseed-cake, but easily crum- bles to pieces, and is sufficiently fine to be convenient in appli- cation. It belongs to what are usually termed the stimulating manures, and is rapid in action, usually spending itself in one season. It may be applied directly to the soil and harrowed in, or used in the preparation of composts. I should judge it would be found exceedingly servicable in composting muck, etc. Some caution must be exercised in the use of this class of ■ . * The opinion has been entertained that oil is a fertilizer ; but numerous careful trials made in England and elsewhere have proved that pure oil is quite inert, and only such impure oils as contain nitrogenous animal matters produce any percepti- ble effects. f I see by the advertisements of Messrs. Baker & Co., that they sell castor pum- mace at from $12 to $16 per ton, according to the quality. It is a cheap manure. 171 manures, because their action is so powerful ttat in very heavy doses they may overforce the crop, or even destroy the seed when put in contact with it at the time of planting. It has been asserted that the content of oil of the oil-cakes hinders the germ- ination of seeds, by preventing access of water to them. I am inclined to believe however, that their detrimental action is due to their readiness of decomposition, whereby the seed is caused to rot. In fact there are only a few instances on record of their occasioning this sort of injury, and in these they appear to have been applied in very large quantity. We can estimate the proper allowance per acre of castor pummace, by comparing its per cent, of ammonia with that of guano. It contains just about one-third as much of this ingredient, and accordingly we may safely use three times as much of it. We know that 600 pounds of guano per acre is a very large manuring, and 200 or 300 pounds is usually the most profitable in the long run. These quantities correspond to 1800, 600 and 900 respectively of cas- tor pummace. I find that the largest doses of rape cake, (a manure of almost identical composition, rather inferior in amount of ammonia perhaps) given in English and Saxon husbandry, are 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre, while 600 to 800 pounds are the customary applications. More is needed on heavy than on light soils. It is frequently urged as an objection to manures of this sort that they exhaust the soil. It is however always the crops that are removed, and never the manure apphed, which exhausts the soil. The exclusive and continued use of this or any simi- lar fertilizer will be followed by exhaustion ; but by judiciously alternating or combining it with mineral manures, as wood ashes leached or unleached, New Jersey green-sand, superphosphate of lime, or phosphatic guano, it may be used with safety and advantage. 172 BONE DUST AND BONE-MEAL. These articles from the store of Wm. Kellogg, Hartford, have been analyzed with results as follows : Bone Dust. Bone Meal. Water, 8.75 8.40 10.25 9.10 Organic naatter, 27.25 27.27 26.02 27.55 Sand, - 5.37 5.80 .10 .30 Earthy phosphates, 45.32 45.32 57.39 57.13 Carbonate of lime as loss. 13.31 13.71 6.24 5.92 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Potential ammonia, 2.98 3.00 4.25' 4.28 Of the bone -dust a more extended analysis was made, in which the amount of phosphoric acid was determined with more accuracy than in the above analyses. It was undertaken on account of the high percentage of carbonate of lime indicated, but not satisfactorily proved to be present by the first examina- tions. It confirms them as the following results show : Bone Dust. Water, ...... 8.75 Organic matter, - - - 27.25 Sand, -...-.. 5.37 Lime, ...... 29.37 Oxyd of iron, ... - - .52 Magnesia, - - ... 1.16 Phosphoric acid, - - . - - - 21.56 Carbonic acid (as loss,) - - - 6.02 100.00 The bone meal is of the kind used for feeding, and is a very finely-divided white and pure article, consisting apparently of turnings of bone, and is well adapted for its purpose. The bone dust is obviously ground from bones that have been boiled or steamed to extract their fat, and have also parted with 173 a portion of cartilage (animal tissue,) as is evident from the small percentage of potential ammonia. In the collection of the bones, no great care has been taken to remove adhering dirt and sand, for we find more than five per cent, of this impurity. There is also thirteen and a half per cent, of carbonate of lime, which is more by five or six per cent, than is usually found in steamed or boiled bones. When we compare the composition of the dust with that of the meal, the latter representing pure bone, we find that there is a difference of twelve per cent, of phosphates (nearly six per cent, of phos- phoric acid,) and one and a quarter per cent, of potential ammo- nia. Doubtless there has been no intentional adulteration prac- tised on this bone dust ; but it is not quite so pure as it ought to be. The sample is hardly so fine as to deserve the name of dust, as it contains a good share of unground fragments. Few of these, however, would not pass a sieve with eight holes to the linear inch, and it is therefore in a good form for use. A few words with regard to the use of bone meal for feeding. When employed for this purpose, bone meal is intended to sup- ply, especially to milch cows, the lack of phosphates in the food. It appears pretty well established that the soil of many pasture lands may become so exhausted of phosphoric acid, that the herbage does not yield to cows, enough of this ingredient for the proper nutriment of their bony system, and at the same time supply the large demand for phosphates made by the milk secre- ting organs. Cows thus poorly fed, turn instinctively to the proper remedy, and neglect no opportunity to gnaw upon any old bones they may be able to find. The results of continued feeding on such poor pastures, are a loss of health on the part of the cows, especially manifested in a weakening or softening of the bones — the lone disease, that is not now uncommon in our older dairy districts. It is found, if we may rely on the expe- rience of our best farmers, that this evil "can be partially reme- died by directly feeding finely ground bone meal to the cows." Other phosphates have been found to answer the same purpose, and doubtless the cheapest materials for this purpose are some of the " rock guanos " now common in our markets. The true remedy for bone disease, however, consists not in dosing the an- 174 imal, but in so improving the soil tliat it shall produce a perfect food. A liberal application of some phosphatic manure is the obvious resort in extreme oases where the soil is absolutely de- ficient in phosphoric acid ; but in my opinion there are few soils in New England (always excepting mere sand barrens) that do not originally contain enough of all the mineral food of plants, to yield perfectly nutritious fodder for an indefinitely long period, without the necessity for outlay in commercial or concentrated fertilizers, if they are brought into the proper physical condi- tions and manured with all the dung and urine that can be pro- duced on them. ON THE SOURCES AND SUPPLY OF NITEOGEN TO CEOPS. LEOTTJEE DELITEEED EEFOEE THE Connecticut State Board of Agriculture, AT NEW HAVEN, JANUARY 8th, 1867, BT PEOF. S. W. JO^KNSOl^, TALE COLLEGE. In giving an account of the Eecent Investigations concern- ing the sources and supply of Nitrogen to crops, it will be necessary to go back to first principles, in order to prepare ourselves for a complete understanding of the matter. Allow me therefore to make a brief review of the subject of Nitro- gen as related to Agriculture. In the first place let us enquire what part Nitrogen per- forms in the sustenance of the animal, and how it thereby contributes to the comfort and support of mankind. Nitro- 2 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. gen is demonstrated to be indispensable to the very existence of man and every other animal. Those ingredients of the food which the animal converts into its -working tissues contain invariably about 15 per cent, of Nitrogen. This element ex- ists to the same amount in muscles, in tendons, in the nerves, and other essential parts of the animal body that are of or- ganic origin. More than tliis, the animal itself has no power to construct a solitary atom of the material out of which it makes its own muscles and tendons. It finds this material ready made in plants, which are primarily the food of all ani- mals. It is the function of the plant to do this work for the animal. In the animal we find fibrin solid, in the muscles and liquid in the blood, we find albumin in the blood, in the egg or embryo and in all the liquids of the body that are not ex- cretions, we find casein in milk, the perfect food of the young. In plants principles exist that are strikingly similar to those just enumerated ; we have the gluten of wheat which is essen- tially a mixture of vegetable fibrin and vegetable casein, we find vegetable albumin in the juices of plants, and in the seeds of the oat, of maize, of the bean, pea, &c., vegetable casein is a large ingredient. None of these albuminoid bodies, as they may be termed, exist in the soil or in the air. The plant organizes from the sub- stances which it feeds upon — substances that are derived from the earth and the atmosphere— vegetable fibrine, vegetable albu- min, and vegetable casein. The animal feeds upon plants and moulds over these vegetable principles into the fibrine, al- bumin, and casein of its muscle and other tissues, of its blood, milk and other secretions. These nitrogenous ingredients of our bodies are as essential to our life and power as the iron and brass of a steam engine are necessary to its construction and working. Unless we derived the material containing Nitrogen from the plant, we should not be able to repair the constant waste of our bodies. The plant itself cannot exist unless supplied with the substances from which it can organize albumin, fibrine and casein. If we should remove Nitrogen from our soil and at- PROFESSOR JOHNSON'S LECTURE. 3 mospliere we should do away with all organic life, for the germs of all living things are largely constructed from the nitrogenous matters we have mentioned, and without albu- minoids there is no growth in plant or in animal. Now the question arises, whence does the plant acquire this essential nitrogen ? In the atmosphere that surrounds us, Nitrogen is the chief ingredient. It forms in fact, four fifths of the weight of the air, a quantity by no means trifling. It is estimated that the atmosphere contains no less than 4,389,000,000,000 tonS of this substance. We see thus that there is no deficiency of this element in the air. But this nitrogen has no direct or immediate effect upon animal life. It is of no active use in respiration. Every time we breathe, four-fifths of the air we inhale is this gas which contributes in no way whatever to the vital processes or to the well-being of the animal. The nitrogen of the air is simply mixed there with other gases, but is not chemically united to anything. It is what we call Free Nitrogen. Let us inquire what are its relations to the vegetable king- dom. The plant, as we well know, grows chiefly at the ex- pense of the air. Of every load of hay we put into the barn, 80 per cent, is derived from ihe atmosphere, of every bushel of grain 84 per cent, is furnished by the air alone. In hay there is 8 per cent, of albuminoids or flesh forming materials, in grain there is 9-13 per cent, of these substances. But although the air is an immense and unfailing reservoir of nitrogen ; the latter is for the most part of no more direct use to plants than it is to animals. The chief solid ingredient of plants is carbon. It is this which remains in a comparatively pure state when plants are heated out of contact of air, as in the making of charcoal. Carbon which forms nearly half the weight of all dry vegeta- ble matter, is, or may be, derived by the plant exclusively from the air. Common air con tain s..^3W-of its bulk of car- - bonic acid gas, a compound of carbon. This is sucked in by the leaves of vegetation and its quantity, though relatively 4 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE been proved to be amply sufficient for the demands of the most vigorous grovfth. The question naturally arises, can a plant take up Nitrogen from the immense volume of this gas floating about it in the atmosphere ? This question has been investigated by a num- ber of intelligent experimenters, who have come to the con- clusion from several long series of trials, that the free nitrogen of the air has no effect upon the plant. There is in fact no absorption, no fixation of Nitrogen when in the free state. I have here a diagram illustrating one of the methods em- ployed in these experiments. [See figure, next page.] It is to a distinguished Parmer and Philosopher, to the Prenchman Boussingault, whose name is destined to be forever illustrious for his devotion of a long life and ample fortune to the study of agricultural science and the advancement of agricultural practice, that we are mainly indebted for the solution of this problem. Boussingault settled the question of the assimilation of free nitrogen in the following manner. The plant is developed from a seed, and if the seed be planted where the future plant shall receive no supply of nitrogen except from the surround- ing air, and if we iiuow the amount of Nitrogen in the seed with which we commenced the experiment and find that there is no further increase of it in the plant, obviously there is no absorption or assimilation of this element. But if we find that the crop contains more nitrogen than the seed, then the reverse of this proposition must be true, assimilation of the nitrogen of the air must occur. Boussingault took some pumice-stone and by treatment with fire and acids freed it from nitrogen. In order to supply every thing else which the plant needed, he mixed this with soine ashes which furnished the necessary mineral matter. He sowed in this prepared soil, which was placed at the bottom of a large glass globe of 20 gallons capacity, see figure, a number of seeds, the weight of which was known. He moistened this with abso- lutely pure water, so that nowhere in the apparatus was there any nitrogen, save the free nitrogen of the air and the nitro- gen of the seeds. He furnished carbon by attaching a second PROFESSOR Johnson's lecture. narrow-necked globe to the first, which was filled with carbonic acid gas. By cementing the two globes together, all communica- tion with the external air was then cut off and the apparatus was placed in a garden with full exposure to sunshine, where it re- mained for several months during spring and sum- I mer. The seeds sprouted and the plants grew to a IP considerable height; when they had obtained their fullest deyelopmeiit i. e. when they obviously grew only at their own expense — the lower leaves ■withering away by the absorption of their juices for the nourishment of new foliage above — the experiment was ter- minated by disjoining the globes, removing the plants and soil, and ascertaining by chemical analysis how miich nitrogen the crop contained. Previous analyses of seeds similar to those planted showed what quantity of nitrogen was in them. It was found in a large number of distinct trials that the nitrogen of the crop was equal to that of the seed, and it was accordingly demonstrated' that the free nitrogen of the air is not available as such, to agricultural plants. Let us now look further into the sources which may sup- ply nitrogen to the plant and see what other materials ^re at its disposal. In the air we find small quantities of ammonia and o^ nitric acid. Ammonia is a compound of Nitrogen and Hydro- gen. Nitric acid is composed of Nitrogen and Oxygen. These exist in the air in relatively very minute quantities. There is but one part of ammonia in fifty million parts of air while nitric acid is commonly present in even less proportion. These quantities are so minute as to produce scarcely an ap- preciable effect upon a plant which is small enough to be 6 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. weighed with accuracy. In fact, a plant weighing but a few ounces grows as well and acquires as much nitrogen when confined in a few gallons of air as when stationed in the free atmosphere, provided it be sheltered from rain and dew. It certainly gathers some ammonia and nitric acid from tl^e air but the quantity is too small to be estimated. When water is precipitated from the atmosphere in the forms of rain, dew or fog, the ammonia and nitric acid of a large volume of air are gathered into a small bulk of the liquid and therefore the atmospheric waters contain a notably larger proportion of these substances than the air itself. Ammonia amount to about 15 parts in ten millions of country rain. In city rains there may be ten times this quantity. Of Nitric acid there are three parts in ten millions of rain, snow and dew. Sometimes the proportion is larger, sometimes smaller. The figures in the subjoined table give an idea of the amounts of these substances which come down annually upon a given surface. In the years 1855-56, Mr. Lawes, a distinguished English experimenter, collected upon a rain guage having an area of i„\ „ of an acre, all the rains, dews and snows that could be gathered at his residence, Rothamstead, about 20 miles north of London. The waters for each month were separately an- alyzed by Prof. Way, Chemist to the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, and the total quantities of ammonia and nitric acid found are given below, calculated for an acre of surface. Last year, 1866, Dr. Bretschneider published the results of a similar investigation made in Silesia, which are also stated below. The table gives likewise the quantities of nitrogen contained in both the ammonia and nitric acid. AMOUNTS OF NITRIC ACID, AMMONIA, AND NITROGEN, BROUGHT DOWN UPON AN ACKE BY RAIN &C., AT Nitric Acid, Rothamstead 1855 lbs. 3 'l856 lbs. 2.8 Ida-Marienhuette , 1866 lbs. 3.7 Ammonia, 7.1 9.5 11. Nitrogen of the above, 6.5 8.3 11. PROFESSOR JOHNSON'S LECTURE. J Now let us enquire what is the effect of these substances upon vegetable life. We all talk about ammonia as a ferti- lizer, and the fact that it is so, has been abundantly confirmed by direct experiment. If you take pure ammonia, dilute it largely, and water plants with the solution, (taking care to make it very dilute,) good results will be invariably manifes- ted. If you take the carbonate of ammonia — the salt of hartshorn of the smelling bottle— and put a piece as large as a chestnut upon the hot air pipes of a greenhouse, you will see that the salt disappears, and as it passes off into the air of the greenhouse, it is absorbed by the plants and influences their growth in a marked manner. Two compounds of ammonia that are produced on a large scale by manufacture are considerably employed in Europe and to some extent in this country as fertilizers. These are the sulphate and muriate of ammonia. In this country we are not much acquainted with the value of nitric acid or nitrates as fertilizers. In England saltpetre or nitrate of potash has been extensively employed as a man- ure, and now the cheaper nitrate of soda is consumed there in immense quantities for this purpose. In the following table are given the proportions per cent of nitrogen in ammonia and nitric acid and in their compounds which are employed in agriculture. per cent, of Nitrogen. Ammonia, dry. - - . . . §2.4 Nitric acid, " - - . . 25.9 Sulphate of Ammonia, - . . 21.2 Muriate of Ammonia (Sal ammoniac), - 26.1 Nitrate of Potash (Saltpeter), - - 13.8 Nitrate of Soda (Soda saltpeter or Chili saltpeter), 16.4 That these compounds of nitrogen produce excellent effects upon crops is shown in a multitude of cases by the records of British Agriculture. In one trial Mr. Pusey, President of the Royal Agricultural Society of England obtained an in- crease of 7 bushels of barley per acre by an application of 42 lbs. of nitrate of soda. 112 lbs. of nitrate of soda per acre is 8 BOARD OP AGRICULTUEE. an ordinary dressing in Great Britain. This quantity gave Mr. Bishop of Metlwen Castle, 2 tons 3 cwt. of hay per acre, against 1 ton li cwt. on the undressed land. Mr. Newman of Surrey, obtained with the same amount, 60 bushels of oats, on a field, the undressed portion of which yielded but 40 bushels. Boussingault has described a long series of experiments which exhibit the effect of nitric acid upon vegetation, in a most striking and instructive manner. Among others he made the following : Two seeds of a dwarf sunflower, the Helian- thus argophyllus, were planted in each of three pots, the soil of which, consisting of a mixture of brick-dust and sand, as well as the pots themselves, had been thoroughly freed from all nitrogenous com- pounds by ignition and washing with distilled water. To the soil of the pot A, see figure, nothing was added save the two seeds, and dis- tilled water, with which all the plants were watered from time to time. With the soil of pot C were incorpo- rated small quantities of phosphate of lime, of ashes of clover and bicarbonate of potash, in order that the plants growing in it might have an abundant supply of all the mineral matters PROFESSOR Johnson's lecture. 9 they needed. Finally, the soil of pot D received the same mineral matters as pot C, and in addition, a small quantity of nitric acid as nitrate of potash. The seeds were sown on the 5th of July, and on the 30th of September the plants had the relative size and appearance seen in the figures, which are reduced to one-eighth of the natural dimensions. The results are certainly remarkable : in the second pot B, was produced by the aid of 20 grains of nitrate of potash, a crop weighing 198 times as much as the seed from which it grew. The plants were quite equal to those grown in the rich soil of a garden. D represents a leaf from a garden plant raised from the same seed, and figured here for the purpose of comparison. In the first pot A, the plants weighed but 3/^ times, and in the third, C, 4-i^ times as much as the seed. It is plain that the soil of pot D contained every element requisite for the support of a vigorous vegetation. The con- trast of results demonstrates further that nitric acid is a good and of itself a sufficient source of nitrogen. The largest quantity of nitrogen brought down from the atmosphere annually, in the forms of ammonia and nitric acid, in the experiments of Lawes, Way and Bretschneider, just given, was 11 lbs. This corresponds to 85 lbs. of nitrate of potash, which of itself is an important manuring. It is not enough, however, for ordinary crops, as is shown by the great effects of further applications. We must therefore look lastly to the soil itself, which not only receives nearly uniform sup- plies of assimilable nitrogen from the atmosphere, but has its own peculiar stores of nitrogen which, though never entirely wanting, vary in quantity to a great degree. But a dozen years ago it was generally believed that the ammonia of the soil is the natural and proper food of plants as regards a supply of nitrogen. It had indeed long been known that nitrates aid the growth of plants, but Liebig taught that it was probable that nitrates are converted into ammonia in the soil, and, in any case, the main source of nitrogen for vegetation was ammonia. Late investigations demonstrate that, in general, the soil contains a proportion of ammonia no larger than exists in the atmosphere itself, and 10 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. indicate with much certainty tliat nitrates are the chief de- pendence of tlie plant for nitrogenous food. Nitrates of lime, potash, soda, &c., are formed in the soil, abundantly under certain conditions. They are freely soluble in water, and hence are washed oat of the soil by rain, and passing into drains, springs and rivers, are carried off into the ocean in immense quantities. Thus, according to Boussin- gault's calculations, based on his analyses, the Rhine daily re- moves from the soils drained by its tributaries, a quantity of nitric acid equivalent to 220 tons -of saltpeter. The Seine daily pours nitrates corresponding to 270 tons of saltpeter into the Atlantic, and the Nile no less than 1100 tons into the Mediterranean. It has long been known that nitrification, i. e. the formation of nitrates, is a process that rapidly proceeds under some cir- cumstances in the soil, indeed the niter of commerce is en- tirely derived from accumulations that take place in the earth's surface in rainless regions, or during dry weather, or lastly, in sheltered situations. Boussingault first made an accurate study of the extent and rapidity of this process. In the year 1857 he experimented on a specimen of garden soil, which was kept fallow in a heap under shelter, with frequent slight waterings, so that neither gain nor loss of nitrogen compounds could occur, except through chemical change. Analysis made at various inter- vals, gave its content of nitric acid, which, calculated in lbs. avoirdupois, for the area of one acre to the depth of 12 inches, were as follows : — libs, of nitric acid per acre, to deptti of one foot. 5th August ...... 54 17th August 120 2d Sept. 340 17th Sept 408 2d Oct. 395 In this case, nitrification proceeded very rapidly in the hot August weather, and was not checked until the middle of September, and then, probably, on account of the cold. We have positive data to the effect that the nitrogen of the PROFESSOR JOHNSONS' LECTURE. 11 soil, like that of the atmosphere, is for the most part unavail- able, directly, to vegetation. Boussingault, in experiments upon his garden soil already mentioned, found that when it was employed in small quan- tity, a pint or so, it was scarcely more capable of supporting vegetation than the most barren sand entirely destitute of nitrogen. A number of his trials were made with pots hold- ing 2000 grains of garden soil, which contained six grains of nitrogen. In this qiiantity of soil tlie crops, in eight experi- ments with lupins, beans, maize and hemp, amounted when dried to but 3 to 5 times (in one case 8 times, and on the average 4 times,) the weight of the seed. In 38 similar ex- periments with sand destitute of nitrogen, a crop was ob- tained, weighing on the average 3 times (in one case 6 times) as much as the seed. In the three experiments already described, p. ^7', the ad- dition to a totally barren soil of three grains of nitrogen (20 grains of nitrate of potash,) made a crop weighing 198 times as much as the seed. It is plain, then, that the garden soil, in the quantity of 2000 grains, failed to produce a good yield, because it could not furnish enough nitrogen to the plants. But, as we said, it contained no less than six grains of nitro- gen, or twice as much as was employed in producing the large sunflower of pot D, p. 3i7. .Our only explanation of these remarkable facts is to be found in the conclusion that, of the abundant nitrogen of the garden soil, but very little existed in a condition available to plants. It must have been for the most part unassimilable and inert, as is the free nitro- gen of the atmosphere. The analysis of the soil, as made at the beginning of the experiments, shows, in fact, that but a trifling proportion of nitrogen was present as ammonia and nitric acid. The soil contained in 100 parts : — Total nitrogen 0.26100 Ammonia 0.00220 Nitric acid 0.00084 Calculated in lbs. per acre to the depth of 14 inches, we have, in round numbers : — 12 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. Nitrogen, 11500 lbs. Ammonia, 90 " Nitric acid equal to 780 " of nitrate of potash. Of tlie total nitrogen, but tL_ part occurred in the forms of ammonia and nitric acid. This proportion is abundant for field culture. 780 lbs. of nitrate of potash applied as a ma- nuring would satisfy the largest demands of agricultural prac- tice. The soil which was fertile in the garden was.barren in pots, because the quantity of it at the disposal of a single plant was far too small to supply it with nitrogen. Boussin- gault found by actual measurement, that, according to the rules of garden culture practised in his neighborhood, a dwarf bean had at its disposition 65 lbs. of soil, a potato plant 198 lbs., a tobacco plant 480 lbs., and a hop plant 3000 lbs. It could not be expected then that 4 oz. of soil would have much effect on a plant in furnishing it with nitrogen, when but j\^ of its nitrogen was available. Boussingault deems it highly probable that in this garden soil, and in soils generally which have not been recently manured, ammonia and nitric acid are the exclusive feeders of vegetation with nitrogen. Such a view is not indeed abso- lutely demonstrated, but the experiments alluded to render it in the highest degree probable. The large share of the nitrogen in the soil is certainly proved to be indrt. It exists there in a condition similar to that in which it occurs in peat and in bituminous coal. Peat often contains two or even three per cent, of nitrogen, but this has, in general, very little effect on vegetation, unless the peat has been acted upon by some vigorous chemical agent so that its nitrogen is made to assume a new form. In leather shavings we have an example of a fertilizer exceedingly rich in nitrogen, but acting very slowly as compared with nitrate of soda. When stable manure ferments, or alters by keeping, its nitrogen passes to a great extent into this inert condition, and in fields heavily manured year after year with animal manures, like the garden soil Boussingault operated on, nitro- gen accumulates in a form that is of no use directly to plants. This inert nitrogen may, however, be modified by chemical PROFESSOE JOHNSON'S LECTUEE. 13 action and made capable of feeding vegetation. Tliere is going on perpetually in nature a succession of changes where- by the free gaseous nitrogen of tlie atmosphere and the inert nitrogen of the soil are passing into the compounds ammonia and nitric acid, while on the other hand ammonia and nitric acid suffer decomposition or alteration, and gaseous nitrogen or inert compounds of this element are formed from them. These opposite processes counterbalance each other on the whole, and preserve equilibrium between the air and the soil. But they do not proceed uniformly on all parts of the earth's surface, nor even on fields that lie contiguous to each other. It may happen that in one soil nitrogen is withdrawn from circulation and rendered for the time useless, and on another it is restored to its function of supporting vegetation. It is circumstances that determine what occurs in any given case. These circumstances* it is important to understand, for the ability to control them in many cases may prove of great pe- cuniary advantage to the farmer. The late researches of Bretschneider in Silesia are adapted to instruct, us upon some of these points. Bretschneider's experiments were made for the purpose of estimating how much ammonia, nitric acid, and nitrogen exist or are formed in the soil, either fallow or occupied with various crops during the period of growth. For this purpose he measured off in the field four plots of ground, each, one square rod* in area, and separated from the others by paths a yard wide. The soil of one plot was dug out to the depth of 12 inches, sifted, and after a board frame 12 inches deep had been fitted to the sides of the excavation, the sifted earth was filled in again. This and another — not sifted — plot were planted to sugar beets, another was sown to vetches, and the fourth to oats. At the end of April, six accurate and concordant analyses were made of the soil. Afterwards, at five different periods, a cubic foot of soil was taken from each plot, and from the spaces between that bore no vegetation, for determining the amounts of nitric acid, ammonia, and total nitrogen. The * Measures are Prussian. 14 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. results of this analytical work are given in the following tables, being calculated in pounds for the area of an acre, and to the depth of 12 inches (English measures) : TABLE L AMOUNT OF AMMONIA. Beet plot, Bifted SOU. Beet plot. Vetch plot. Oat plot. Vacant plot. End of April, 59 59 59 59 69 12th June, 15 48 41 32 28 30th June, 12 41 24 40 32- 22d July, 9 29 39 22 29 13th August, 8 15 16 11 43 9th September, 16 TABLE IL 16 7 23 AMOTJNT OF NITKIC ACID. End of April, 56 56 56 56 56 12th June, 281 270 102 28 106 30th June, 328 442 15 93 318 2 2d July, 116 89 58 43 13th August, 53 6 71 14 81 " 9 th September, 12 TABLE IIL TOTAL NITROGEN Ot' AMMONIA AND NITRIC ACID. End of April, 63 63 63 63 63 12th June, 84 109 60" 33 50 30th June, 95 148 23 57 108 2 2d July, 37 47 31 18 35 13th August, 21 14 31 13 56 9th September, 13 TABLE 16 IV. 6 19 TOTAL NITROGEN OF THE SOIL. End of April, 4652 4652 4652 4652 4652 12th June, 4861 5209 5606 6140 4720 30th June, 4667 5744 5688 5514 4482 22d July, 5398 5485 4724 4924 13th August, 5467 6316 6316 626o 4412 9th September, 5164 4656 6522 5004 4294 PROFESSOR Johnson's lecture. 15 From the first Table we gather that the quantity of am- monia, which was considerable in the spring, diminished, es- pecially in a porous (sifted) soil until September. In the compact earth of the uncultivated path, its diminution was less rapid and less complete. The amount of nitric acid (ni- trates,) on the other hand increased, though not alike in any two cases. It attained its maximum in the hot weather of June, and thence fell off until, at the close of the experiments, it was completely wanting save in a single instance. The figures in the second Table do not represent the abso- lute quantities of nitric acid that existed in the soil through- out the period of experiment, but only those amounts that remained at the time of taking the samples. What the vege- tation took up from the planted plots, what was washed out of the surface soil by rains,* or otherwise "removed by chemi- cal change, does not come into the reckoning. Those plots, the surface soil of which was most occupied by active roots, would naturally lose the most nitrates by the agency of vegetation ; hence, not unlikely, the vetch and oat plots contained so little in June. The results upon the beet and vacant ground plots, demonstrate that in that month a rapid formation of nitrates took place. It is not, perhaps, impossible that nitrification also proceeded vigorously in the loose soils in July and August, but was not revealed by the analysis, either because the vegetation took it up or heavy rains washed it out from the surface soil. In the brief accoui t of these experiments at hand, no information is furnished on these points. Knop has shown that moisture is essential to nitrification, so that it is possible a period of dry weather coming on shortly before the soil was analyzed in July, August and September, had an influence on the results. We observe further that the nE^ture of the crops influenced the accumulation of nitrates, whether simply because of the different amount of absorbent rootlets produced by them and unequally developed at the given period, as is most probable, or for other reasons, we cannot decide. * Nitrates may be easily and completely removed from the soil by water, where- as ammonia is chemicaUy retained by good soils. 16 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. From the third Table may be gathered some idea of the total quantity of nitrogen that was present in the soil in a form available to crops. Assuming that ammonia and nitric acid chiefly, if not exclusively, supply vegetation with nitro- gen, it is seen that the greatest quantity of available nitrogen ascertained to be present at any time in the soil, was 148 lbs. per acre, taken to the depth of one foot. This, as regards nitrogen, corresponds to tlie following dressings : — lbs. per acre. Saltpeter (nitrate of potash) - - - 1068 Chili saltpeter (nitrate of soda) - - 898 Sulphate of ammonia - . . . 909 Peruvian guano (14 per cent of nitrogen 1057 The experience of British farmers, among whom all the sub- stances above mentioned have been employed, being that 2 to 3 cwt. of any one of them make a large, and 5 cwt. a very large application per acre ; it is plain that in the surface soil of Bretsclineider's trials there was formed during the growing season a large manuring of nitrates in addition to what was actually consumed by the crops. Table IV confirms what Boussingault has taught as to the vast stores of nitrogen which may exist in the soil. The amount here is more than two tons per acre. "We observe further that in none of the cultivated plots did this amount at any time fall below this figure ; on the other hand, in most cases it was considerably increased during the period of ex- periment. In the uncultivated plot, however, the total nitro- gen fell off somewhat. This difference may have been due to the root fibrils that, in spite of the utmost care, unavoidably i-emain in a soil from which growing vegetation is removed. The regular and great increase of total nitrogen in the vetch plot was certainly due in part to the abundance of leaves that fell from the plants, and covered the surface of the soil. But this nitrogen, as well as that of the standing crops, must have come from the atmosphere, since the soil exhibited no diminution in its content of this element. We must conclude from the facts before us that ammonia, as naturally supplied, is of very trifling importance to vegeta- 17 tion, and that, consequently, nitrates are the chief natural means of providing nitrogen for crops. It is of the first importance then, to know the conditions of their formation. These we will briefly recount so far as known : — 1. There must be a source of nitrogen. This may be either ammonia, the free nitrogen of the air, or lastly the inert nitro- gen of organic matters and of the soil. 2. As nitric acid is a compound of nitrogen with oxygen, the nitrogen must be in circumstances that admit of its com- bination with oxygen. Above all, the presence of the free oxygen of the air is indispensable, and the soil must be porous so as to admit of aeration. 3. W. Knop has demonstrated that the soil must be moist. In a soil that is dry, as well as in one saturated with water, nitrification cannot go on. 4. A certain temperature is requisite, the limits of which are not indeed ascertained, but it is well known that nitrates are formed most rapidly and abundantly in tropical climates, and in hot weather. 5. Nitrification does not proceed in the soil except in pre- sence of decaying (oxidizing) organic matter. In nearly 40 experiments by Boussingault, on the growth of plants in soils destitute of organic matter, there was no appreciable gain of nitrogen, while in his trials with garden soil, as well as in Bretschneider's investigations in the field, nitrogen accumu- lated either in the soil or in both soil and crop. So far as we can frame a theory of nitrification, it is as follows : — In many processes of oxidation by free oxygen gas, as it occurs in the atmosphere, a portion of the oxygen is con- verted into a modified form, having extraordinary chemical activity. If, for example, phosphorus, which is employed in making friction matches, be exposed to moist air in a warm room, it unites rapidly with oxygen, while, in a short time, a gaseous body is produced which has a peculiar unpleasant odor, and which is capable of oxidizing free nitrogen to nitric acid. This substance is called ozone, and Schoeubein, its 2 18 BOARD OP AGBICULTUEE. discoverer, prepared a considerable quantity of nitrate of pot- ash by simply causing moist, warm air to stream over phos- phorus, and then through potash lye for a time. The same conversion of oxygen into ozone is accomplished by electrical discharges, and the formation of nitric acid in the air is un- doubtedly due in part to the electrical ozonization of oxygen and its subsequent action on nitrogen. It has been supposed that other oxidations are attended with development of ozone, and it is highly probable that when' organic (vegetable or animal) matters decay or oxidize in the soil, ozone is gener- ated which is not recognizable to the chemist, because it ex- pends itself in the conversion of nitrogen into nitric acid. This is the only supposition which serves to explain the ne- cessity that organic matters be present in the soil for the pro- duction of nitrates. If this hypothesis be correct, as it is ex- tremely probable, nitrification is a process which accompanies oxidation, and its intensity is heightened by moisture, by presence of organic matters and by elevated temperatures, because these conditions are essential to rapid oxidation. It is in this way that the free nitrogen of the air becomes at once part of a compound adapted to nourish plants, and an ingredient of the soil. With the oxidation of the organic matters of the soil a part of their nitrogen is converted into nitric acid, when the oxy- gen is present in sufficient abundance. But to bring the great stores of inert nitrogen that exist in most cultivated soils into immediate use, requires the intervention of another chemical agent. Lime, it has been asserted, has served to reclaim more land than all other applications together. Its action is complex, but one of its most general effects is doubtless to bring inert nitrogen into an active condition. Any alkali or substance exerting the action of an alkali operates in the same manner. The vigor of the action depends upon the • solubility and amount of the material employed. As before remarked. Peat (swamp-muck) contains oftentimes a considerable proportion of nitrogen which in general is quite inert unless subjected to the influence of certain chemical agents. In the summer of PROFESSOR Johnson's lecture. 19 1862, the speaker carried out a series of experiments for tlie purpose of learning ho-w to make this nitrogen available to vegetation. These experiments were first published in a treatise on " Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and Fuel," in 1866. They are reproduced here as illustrating in a practi cal way the action of alkalies on inert nitrogen. A quantity of peat that had been weathering for some time on the " Beaver Meadow" near New Haven, was allowed to become perfectly air-dry, and was then brought to a fine uni- form powder by rubbing through a sieve. The peat thus prepared contained 13.5 per cent, of moisture and 3.4 per cent, of nitrogen. Twelve quart flower-pots, new from the warehouse, were filled as described below ; the trials being made in duplicate : Pots 1 and 2 contained each 270 grams* of peat. Pots 8 and 4 contained each 270 grams of peat, mixed with 10 grams of ashes of young grass. Pots 5 and 6 contained each 270 grams of peat, 10 grams of ashes and 10 grams of carbonate of lime. Pots 7 and 8 contained each 270 grams of peat, 10 grams of ashes and 10 grams of slaked (hydrate of) lime. Pots 9 and 10 contained each 270 grams of peat, 10 grams of ashes and 5 grams of lime slaked with strong *H4»e of com- mon salt. Pots 11 and 12 contained each 270 grams of peat, 10 grams of ashes and 3 grams of the best Peruvian guano. In each instance the materials were thoroughly mixed to- gether, and so much water was added as served to wet them thoroughly. Five kernels of dwarf maize (pop corn) were planted in each pot, the weight of each planting being care- fully ascertained. The pots were disposed in a glazed case within a cold grapery, by the kindness of Joseph B. Sheffield, Esq., and were watered when needful with pure water. The seeds sprouted duly and developed for the most part into healthy plants. The plants differed remai'kably in the vigor and extent of * 1 gram=14.5 grains. 20 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. their growth and thus served as tests of the feeding power of the soils or media in which they were situated. The guanoed pots enabled making a comparison with a well known fertilizer. The plants were all allowed to grow for several months and until those best developed had apparently exhausted the food at their disposal and vegetated, not at the expense of the soil or mixture in which their roots were stationed, but at the cost of their own lower leaves as was indicated by the wither- ing away of the latter. The plants were then cut at the sur- face of the soil and the crops, after drying in the air were weighed with the subjoined results. VEGETATION ESPERIMENTS IN PEAT COMPOSTS. Medium of growth. Weight of crops in grams. ComparatiTe weight of cropa, the sum ofl and 2 taken as unity. Batio of weight or crops to weight of seeds, the latter as- sumed OS unity. g > Peat alone, . [ Peat and ashes of grass, „ > Peat, ashes and carbonate of lime 1 > Peat, ashes and slacked lime, . „ > Peat, ashes, slacked lime and salt , „ > Peat, ashes, and Peruvian guano 1.61 ) 2.59 S 14.19 i 18.25 ) 18.19 1 20.25 j 21.49 ) 20.73 ) 23.08 / 23.34 ) 26.79 / 26.99 J 4.20 32.44 38.44 42.22 46.42 53.78 9 10 11 13 2} 20J 25J 284 30i 354 The above results are very instructive. Exp's 1 and 2 de- monstrate that peat alone is deficient in plant food. In both pots but 4.2 grams of crop were produced, a quantity only two and a half times greater than that of the seeds, which weighed 1.59 grams. The plants were pale in color, slender and attained a height of but about 6 inches. Exp's 3 and 4 make evident what are some of the deficien- cies of the peat. A supply of mineral matters, such as are contained in all plants, being made by the addition of ashes, consisting chiefly of phosphates, carbonates and sul- phates of lime, magnesia and potash, a crop is realized nearly PEOPESSOE JOHNSON'S LECTUEE. 21 eight times greater than in the previous cases ; the yield being 32.44 grams, or 20^ times the weight of the seed. The quan- tity of ashes added, viz : 10 grams, was capable of supplying every mineral element greatly in excess of the wants of any plant that could be produced in a quart of soil. The plants in pots 3 and 4 were much stouter than those in 1 and 2, and had a healthy color. In the experiments 5 to 10 inclusive, is shown the influence of alkaline matters in solving and making available to the plant, the inert nitrogen of the soil. Exp's 5 and 6 make evi- dent that carbonate of lime, though feebly alkaline and slight- ly soluble, exerts a marked influence in this respect. The ashes employed contained more lime than could be appro- priated by the plants and the eifect of the carbonate of lime in these trials can not be explainSd save by its action on the nitrogen of the peat, which the former experiments indicate to be in an inert state. Under the influence of the carbonate of lime, the crop is raised from 32.44 to 38.44 grams or from 20i to 25i times the weight of the seed. In exp's 7 and 8, a more soluble and active agent was em- ployed. The caustic (^slacked) lime increased the crop from 38.44 to 42.22 grams or from 25^ to 28^ times the weight of the seed. That its effect was not' greater is due to the fact that the slacked lime could only act as such for a short time, for it rapidly absorbs carbonic acid from the air and is there- by converted into carbonate. In exp's 9 and 10, a mixture of lime and salt was employed. This mixture is equivalent to an application of carbonate of soda which is more soluble and therefore more active than the lime. It brings up the yield to 46.42 grams or to 30 J times the weight of the seed. The eflicacy of these applications is only to be properly appreciated by comparing them with some well-known ferti- lizer. In exp's 11 and 12 this comparison is furnished. Peruvian guano, applied in a large dose, gave a crop but 35J times the weight of the seed, although it must have left an excess of nearly every element of plant food in the soil. The last experiments also conclusively demonstrate that in S2 BOARD OP AGEICULT0BE. previous trials it was a limited supply of nitrogen which limited the crops, because active nitrogen is the only ingre- dient furnished by the guano which was not present in ample quantity, in all but the first two experiments. The mode in which lime or alkalies act upon the inert nitrogen of peat or of the soil is to some extent understood. When peat, the soil, and inert nitrogenous matters that may be employed as fertilizers, as hair, wool, horn, leather-scraps, are heated with lime or other alkali, ammonia is copiously developed. The same transformation occurs slowly at ordin- ary summer temperatures. Boussingault gives the results of some experiments on this point, the details of which we need not repeat, but which demonstrate that ammonia is thus form- ed in soils containing organic matters. The action of lime, carbonate of lime or other alkaline fei^ tilizer is, accordingly, to convert inert nitrogen into ammonia. Thus ammonia is either directly absorbed by vegetation or oxidized into nitrates and appropriated by plants in that form". It has long been known that . certain crops are especially aided in their growth by nitrogenous fertilizers while others are comparatively indifferent to them. Thus the cereal grains and grasses are most frequently benefited by applications of Peruvian guano, dung of animals, fish, flesh and blood man- ures, or other matters rich in nitrogen. On the other hand, clover and turnips flourish best, as a rule, when treated with phosphates and alkaline substances, and are not manured with animal fertilizers so economically as the cereals. It has, in fact, become a rule of practice in some of the best farming districts of England, where systematic rotation of crops is followed, to apply nitrogenous manures to the cereals and phosphates to turnips. Again, it is a fact, that whereas nitro- genous manures are often necessary to produce a good wheat crop, in which, at 30 bu. of grain and 2600 lbs. of straw, there is contained 45 lbs. of nitrogen, a crop of clover may be produced without nitrogenous manure, in which would be taken from the field twice or thrice the above amount of nitrogen, although the period of growth of the two crops is about the same. These facts admit of another expression PROPBSSOB JOHNSON'S LECTURE. 23 viz. : clover though containing two or three times more nitrogen and requiring correspondingly larger supplies of nitrates and ammonia than wheat, is able to supply itself much more easily than the latter crop. In parts of the Gennesee wheat region, it is the custom to alternate clover with wheat, because the decay of the clover stubble and roots admirably prepares the ground for the last named crop. The same preparation might be had by the more expensive process of dressing with a highly nitrogenous manure, and it is scarcely to be doubted that it is the nitrogen gathered by the clover which insures the wheat crop that follows. It thus appears that the plant itself causes the formation in its neighborhood of assimilable compounds of nitrogen, and that some plants excel others in their power of accomplishing this important result. Late investigations suggest the means of accounting for these facts. It has long been known that in a numbei; of in- stances in which oxygen is liberated from its combinations at ordinary temperatures, a portion of it appears in the active form of ozone. When water is resolved into its constituent gases oxygen and hydrogen, by galvanism, the oxygen is mixed with ozone. The same is true in the galvanic decompo- sition of carbonic acid. So also when permanganate of potash (employed for cholera disinfection) or binoxide of barium yield up oxygen in the free state, by acting upon them with sulphuric acid, ozone is simultaneously developed. The leaves of plants are throwing off into the atmosphere, during all the time they are exposed to sunlight, free oxygen gas. All the oxygen which is removed from the air by the breathing of animals, by the burning of fuel, by the rusting of metals, and by the decay (slow combustion) of dead organic matter is replaced by the foliage of living vegetation. The formation of free oxygen is thus a process which takes place on an immense scale and one which ceases in the northern hemisphere on the approach of our winter, only to begin in the southern zones where at that time the summer opens. Its cessation in our longitude when the sun goes down, is simultaneous with its awakening on the opposite side of the globe where at that time the sun rises. 24 BOARD OP AGEICULTURE. For a number of years it has been regarded as probable that ozone is generated in the act of decomposition which takes place in green foliage under the solar influence, and that the oxygen restored to the air by the decomposition of carbonic acid in the plant, contains an admixture of ozone. During the last year, extended series of observations by Dau- beny and Kosmann appear to demonstrate that such is the fact. It is plain that those crops which produce the largest mass of foliage develope the most ozone during their growth. By the action of this ozone the nitrogen that bathes the leaves is converted into nitric acid which in its turn is absorbed by the plant. The foliage of clover, cut green and of root crops, maintains its activity until the time the crop is gathered ; the supply of nitrates thus keeps pace with the wants of the plant. In case of grain crops, the functions of the foliage decline as the seed begins to develope and the plant's means of providing itself with assimilable nitrogen fail, although the need for it still exists. Furthermore, the clover cut for hay, leaves be- behind much more roots and stubble per acre than grain crops, and the clover stubble is twice as rich in nitrogen as the stubble of ripened grain. This is a result of the fact that the clover is cut when in active growth, while the grain is har- vested after the roots, stems and leaves have been exhausted of their own juices to meet the demands of the seed. Whatever may be the value of our explanations, the fact is not to be denied that the soil is enriched in nitrogen by the culture of large leaved plants which are harvested while in active growth and leave a considerable proportion of roots, leaves or stubble, on the field. On the other hand, the field is impoverished in nitrogen when grain crops are raised upon it. A few words will suffice for the application of the facts and principles that have been set forth. The considerations that have been presented to your notice argue strongly for the view that the aeration of the soij. by drainage and tillage, the judicious succession of crops, and the properly combined or alternated employment of organic fertilizers like peat or swamp muck, straw, &c., and of alkaline applications as lime and shell marl, may suffice to supply the soil with abundance of PROFESSOR JOHNSON'S LECTURE. 25 available nitrogen without th,e necessity of having recourse to imported fertilizers. In fact, experience has a thousand times demonstrated the correctness of this view. The scien- tific studies which we have detailed are not needful to estab- lish its truth, but first lead us to comprehend its truth and give us the immense advantage always to be derived from great principles of which we have a clear conception and in which we are able«to put implicit faith. AT TDEIll FALL aiEETmG, OCTOBER 1860| DR. EVAN PUGH » iTOfpI flf i\t iiixmu' |ts|! S#0l 0f lennsslfeanis. o»i«> PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY. CARLISLE: PaiNTKD AT THE HEEALD OFTICB, #18 6 0. WHAT SCIENCE HAS DONE AND MAY DO FOR AGRICULTURE. Mr. Chairman and GtEntlemen : It was not without serious misgivings as to whether I would be able to bring anything interesting before this audience, in tho form of a lecture, that I consented to appear before you upon the present occasion. An American audience, and most particularly an American audience during the season of our quadrennial con- test for the Presidential chair, is seldom satisfied with any effort upon the rostrum which does not partake of the enthusiastic eloquence, which characterizes the political discourses of the times. European cynics, who sneer at our attempt at popular government, are in the habit of saying that the " Americans be- come crazy once in four years." My reply to this taunt upon the other side of the Atlantic was, that " it was better to have these periodical fits of insanity than to be afieoted with the chronic state of this disease which characterizes the political state ' of Europe. Here at home, however, I might remark that what- ever term we may apply to that excited state of the American mind, which precedes a Presidential election, it certainly cannot be denied that it is not the best time possible to get a candid hearing upon a subject foreign to politics, even though that sub- ject be as important as the one which has called this meeting of your Society together. Upon occasions like this, the orator may add interest to his subject by well arranged interpolations into his remarks, of something drawn from the political spirit of the times, or he may flatter them with highly wrought pictures of the bright side of their character, and please them as farmers, by dwelling on the high state of advancement to which they have brought their noble avocation. But, gentlemen, I am not here to spice my remarks by political inllrpolations, nor to seek the favorable opinions of farmers by flattering them, with how mush they know and how much they have done. I am here rather to dwell upon how much they have yet to learn, and how much they should do that has not heen done. The suhject to which I wish to call your attention is that of The bearing of Science on Agriculture. If there ia any one thirg which characterizes the spirit of the present age more than another, it is the daring audacity with which it seizes upon all ideas and opinions originating in the past and present, and subjects them to certain recognized methods of investigation. Where physical laws or facts of the material WorHare concerned, the material observed and the phenomena at- tending it, classified according to certain principles, constitute science; and science thus resulting in the classification of observ- ed facts and phenomena, affords certain laws, by which certain results can "a priori" be determined and new facts be developed. The active spirit of inquiry of the present age, has allowed few facts in regard to anything Jong to remain isolated. No sooner is any phenemonon observed, than a score of investigators take it up to see if it does not bear some kind of tangible relations to some other object already observed, or some new object that may be discovered. The idea of an isolated fact, or a phenomenon unexplained, is as abhorrent to the mental activity of the present age, as was the idea of a vacuum supposed to be to nature, by the Florence philosophers of the days of Gallileo. Whereever facts are to be observed, there science has made her way to clas- sify and examine them. No branch of human industry presents more facts than docs that of Agriculture. In none are the facts BO varied, and in none do they invol^^ more profound principles, and in none will they require for their developemQnt more patient thouo-ht, close observation, and -accurate experiment. Science has already entered upon her mission here; and although she has accomplished much, yet she has left much more still to be done. And here let me call your attention to what science has already done for Agriculture. In dofng this, it would carry us too far from our subject to dwell upon what she has done in an indirect manner — what she has done for all the several branches of indus- try from which Agriculture has derived so much of her prosperity — and which has contributed in so high a degree to the happiness of the farmer. Is tliere any fanner present who thinks he has derived no benefit from science ? Why science has had to do with almost every comfort which he enjoys in life. Science has bleached the linen that covers his back — it has colored the coat that keeps him warm— it has made the buttons he carries upon his clothes — it has tanned the leather that protects his feet — it has manuffictured the soaps that cleanse his body — it has made the bed upon which he sleeps — it has given rise to extensive branches of industry, which consume his produce and afford him the luxuries and comforts of life in return. It has given him the steam engine and the electric telegraph ; and if it has not given him the printing press, it has given him the paper upon which he writes, and the ink with which he writes ; he eats his breakfast upon a plate that science has moulded for him from the coarse clay; he cuts his bread with a knife that science has pre- pared for his use from the dirty ores ; he lights his fire to keep him warm and cook his food, with a match that science has taught him how to make; and the very teeth with which he mas- ticates his food, may have been made under the dictates of sci- ence, with all the beauty of the original, and with much more durability than they possessed. From the nauseating water of the ocean, the sulphur of some worthless ores of iron, the lime- stone of our rooks, and the sand of our sea shore, science has taken materials, and taught the art of making glass from them. But for this knowledge, hundreds of people of the present day had been living in habitations with greased paper over the win- dow-sash, instead of the pure transparent silicate ofj soda and lime, which now admits light to their dwellings. Indeed, if all that science has ever doneTor them, were taken away, they could not even be spared the greased paper; but like the Esquimaux savages, would be living in huts, lighted by a hole, that eould only be closed with an opaque plug. It would require an age to tell what science has done for the present age ; what it has done for it materially, morally and religiously. Hoarded gold and silver may be lost, moral lessons may be forgotten by an age, and reli- gious instruction may be superceded by outward forms and cere- monies, from which every trace of its spiritual essence has been banished; but the progress of science impresses results upon the destiny of humanity which are immortal : its teachings become part and parcel of our being, and cannot be lost. Do not misun- derstand me as saying that scientific progress is of a higher character than moral and religious advancement. It only stands in such relation to these as does the engine upon the railroad to the human freight which it hurls along the iron track. Had it pleased the Divine Author of our being to afford to Christianity in the 4th century the auxiliary of modern science, Christendom would never have had the dark ages incorporated into its history. Knowledge would never have been looked up in secluded monasteries and cloisters, while ignorance prevailed beyond their walls. Had the strong arm of modern science been but wielded in favor of the civilized nations of Southern Europe, the hordes of barbarians that ravaged the fair plains of classic Italy and Greece had melted away, like the icy glaciers that move down from the mountains over which they passed, before the rays of a summer's sun. Where would have been left the hordes of Atilla, had the eighty-two pounders and the rifled can- non of modern warfare, and the infernal machines of scientific construction been brought to bear upon the followers of the " Scourge of God ?" If you would know what science has done for mankind, read the fate of those nations which in modern times have not drawn strength from its teachings to aid them in their conflicts with those nations that have done so. Read the history of the red man — go ask the millions of sub- jects that England rules in India — go count the thousands that fell beneath the British bomb-shells at the bombardment of Can- ton, and you will see the power which science confers upon man. The world will never cease to look back with astonishment upon the great mathematician and philosopher of Syracuse, who, from the walls of that city, by his own arm, repelled the repeated at- tacks of Eome ; and yet the destructive machines of Archimedes were harmless play-things when compared with the mighty en- gines of war which have been developed by modern science. An hour's bombardment of the Malnkoff tower presented more fright- ful examples of destructive power, than an age of the defence of Syracuse could have done. Archimedes boasted that he could have moved the world if his king would but give him a fulcrum forhis lever. Modern science has done it without a falcnun, and 6 has discovered the laws upon which the motion is dependent And great as these physical results are, which have contributed so much to man's material prosperity, they are trifling compared with the moral and intelleoiual influence they have exerted upon our race. The varied phenomena of nature, which once over- awed and terrified the ignorant man, science has taught him to behold with pleasing reverence. Darkening eclipses, burning comets, blazing meteora,bursting volcanoes,and flashing lightnings, that once betokened dire calamity to an aflS'righted race, now, through the oracle of modern science, speak volumes to man of the beauty and order that reign in this universe, and of the wisdom and mercy of its Divine Architect. Our school boys now delight in knowledge that the wisest philosophers of ancient Greece and Kome could not attain to. The immortal Plioy lost his life vainly trying to solve that which may now be taught to our most elementary classes in school; and it is said that the great Aristotle, after fifteen years tuition under the immortal Plato, and a life's time devoted to profound study, at last com- mitted suicide because he could not understand principles that are now familiar to every student in our higher schools. — Socrates, with all his wisdom, Plato, with all Lis profundity, and Aristotle, with all his learning, could not have passed a reasona- ble examination in the scientific classes of our modern academies. And as man becomes acquainted with the material world, his thoughts are enlarged, his conceptions become clear, and his whole nature is elevated by the more intimate knowledge which his study of the works of the Divine Architect affords him of Deity. And if science has done all this, where is the man so ungrateful, as not to acknowledge his indebtedness to her ? But I am not here to pour encomiums upon science, confident of her magnitude amongst the causes that have made the present age what it is : she needs none. Confident that when the highest pinacle shall have been completed upon the tempi of human progress, the history of her efforts will be written upon every stone from foundation to highest point, science now rests satis- fied with the present, and hopeful of the future. But I am here to tell you what science has done, more espe- cially for Agriculture. I might ask you to point to the farmer for whom science has done nothing. Did I feel disposed to draw upon your sense of the ludicrous, I might portray to your imagi- nation an ideal farmer, for whom science had done nothing — a follower of your noble avocation who had been bereft of all the advantages that science had conferred upon him, he would be a most forlorn and ludicrous figure, I assure you. The well-pecke 1 chicken which, in an unequal contest with its crowing rival, has lost half of its feathers, and is running before its victorious adversary for a place wherein to hide its head, would be a dignified personage, compared with a farmer who has been stript of all the blessings which science had conferred upon him. And yet, men sometimes frown upon science, and wish to be considered as pureli/ "practical men." ^hy the only purely practical men we have in this sense, are the uncultivated savages of the woods! The Esquimaux of Greenland is such a practical man. But the cases to which reference has been made, are those of blessings conferred by science upon all men in common with the farmer. We must notice what science has done, is doing, and may do, more especially for Agriculture. It must be admitted, that Ag- riculture has not derived as much special benefit from science as it should have done; it has not derived as much from it as other departments of industry, although it is capable of conferring far greater benefits upon Agriculture than upon these. While science has taught the iron-master how to work over old slags that were formerly considered worthless; while it has enabled the refiner of precious metals to get small quantities of gold from silver that formerly was of no value, because it could not be ex- tracted at a, paying price; while thousands of valuable materials that once were of no value at all, are now being gathered up and manufactured under the dictates of science into articles of luxury and comfort, and giving rise to new industrial occupa- tions. While the mariner upon the high seas has been taught by science to avoid adverse winds and boisterous storms ; while, in- deed, almost every other occupation has drawn great special advantages from scientific teachings. Agriculture, in our country, is jogging. along, unaided by science, at the old rate of our fore- fathers of half a crop, one-fourth of a crop, or no crop at all to the acre. The advantage it has derived from science has been forced upon it, rather than coming as the result of its own invi- tations. We have been retrograding rather than progressing in 8 that which constitutes the fundamental basis of all agricultural theory and practice. I mean the rotation of crops, and the main- tenance of comant fertility in the soil. What progress we have been making, has been rather in our means of exhausting our soils, than in those of returning to them that which will maintain them in a constant state of fertility. In the aibsence of reliable agricultural statistics, it is not possible to state the exact rate of retrogradation in the amount of produce per acre, which charac- terizes our present mode of farming, but it has been admitted by as high an authority as our great political economist Caret, that the annual produce of our fields is becoming less; and my own observation has taught me, that in those parts of our country which have been longest settled, the land is the most exhausted; and in some parts of our old counties, which were not originally endowed with a large share of those elements, of which continual cropping exhausts the land, (for instance, on the metamorphio and older Paleozoic rocks of Chester and Lancaster counties,) the present system of farming has almost come to a stand still, in consequence of the exhausted condition of the soil. The land is worn out, new land must be worked while it is " resting." It is well for us that we haye new land. The time will come when the land must find rest by letting the people starve. Before that time comes, let us hope that science will be appreciated and her teachings heeded, and that the farmer will learn to restore tha exhausted materials that he annually takes from his land in grain and meat, by affording that land its proper supply of artificial manures, which will bring back the exhausted materials. At least we may hope that our farmers shall have made as much pro- gress in this direction as have our English cousins upon the other side of the Atlantic. Our American system has not advanced much beyond the old plan of stable manure and lime; and so far as the material external to the land is concerned, the only manure it receives is lime. As the man who wished to live economically, used to eat an apple for breakfast, to drink water to swell it for dinner, and for sound sleeping to go to bed with an empty sto- mach; so the farmer has hoped to lime the land for one crop, to let it work for the next, and to get a third on the strength of the first two; and thus go on indefinitely, hoping that this lime will supply the land with some eight or ten different substances, not an atom of one of which it containa or brings to the soil. If properly farmed, land needs no rest : you might as well talk of a Bteam engine wanting rest when it wanted fuel. The land wants artificial manure 1 Guano or Super Phosphate. It is true that much guano has recently been introduced into this country. Thousands of bushels of wheat have been raised that would not hav-e been raised but for this article. Land that was not capable of producing four bushels of wheat to the acre has been made to produce fifteen or twenty bushels, by the aid of this manure. But the subject has been regulated by no fixed principle. No general means of ascertaining its value has been adopted, and no adequate precaution has been taken to ensure the purchaser against the greatest frauds ; and were no frauds committed, no means have been adopted of ascertaining when it should be applied, and when it should not. From first to last, the whole traffic in guano has been so mized up with quackery, fraud and ignorance, that such consequencos have followed from its uses as to either leave the farmer disgusted with it altogether, or utterly bewildered as to the nature of its workings and its va- lue as a manure. Some years ago, in Chester county, I had seme farming to do myself, and attempted to use artificial manures, but found it impossible to do so, ia consequence of the frauds perpetrated in their sale. One that I bought at the rate of 830 00 per ton, turned out to be a mixture of leached ashes, common loam, and a little gypsum. When an esperimental agricultural chemist in England, about two years ago, an " American fish guano," that had been shipped to that country, for sale, was brought to me for examination, and it was found to be worth about as much as good garden loam. And quite recently, at the Farm School, I analyzed a manure, of which a large quantity was offered for sale in Philadelphia, at $S0 00 per ton, it proved to be not' worth §5 00 per ton. My friend. Professor Voelckler, of the Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester, England, and also chemist to the Eoyal Agricultural Society of Great Britain, remarked to me in conversing upon the subject, that " he had examined several of the American artificial manures, and that they were the most infamous cheats Jie had ever seen — that the 10 worthlessness of the manure was only equalled by the audacity with which its good qualities were blazoned forth by advertise- ments — that the shameful recommendations of these, given by certain chemists, (whose names I was sorry to hear mentioned in the connection,) could only be accounted for on the supposition of a most criminal ignorance of the subject they attempted to pass an opinion upon, or by an equally criminal co-partnership with the manufacturers in the division of the proceeds of the sales." You must not understand me as saying that I know that all our artificial manures, that are in the market, are worthless, or are sold at too high rates. I have not yet had time to give them such an examination as would enable me to pass an opinion upon them; but I would call your attention to the fact that the whole business of the manufacture and sale needs a thorough investigation. It is to the interest alike of the farmer and the honest scientific manufacturer that this be done, in order that the former need not be cheated, and the latter may not be obliged to enter the mar- kets upon simply equal advantages with quacks. Nothing but an appeal to science can protect the farmer here, and until the sale of these substances is brought upon the fair basis of a well- regulated system of establishing quality and price, the farmer never will be safe in purchasing, and the use of manufactured manure cannot become general. x\t present we must remark, so far as agricultural practice has derived benefit from these artificial manures, and from guano, it owes the advantage gained to sci- ence. So far as it has been cheated by these, it is indebted to its ignorance of science. Such is a little of the experience of this country in regard to the advantages of science to Agricul- ture. In order to see more clearly, not only what science may do, but what she has already done, we may go to England. England is a preeminently practical country. She always en- deavors to get back her full twenty shillings for every pound that she expends. Yet England expends millions of dollars annually for artificial manures. Professor Anderson, consulting chemist to the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland, in a lecture delivered before that body recently, gave the following estimate as to the amount expended by the farmers of Great Britain for artificial manures : " It is not possible to do this with absolute Bocuraoy, but an approximation can be made which oanno't be far 11 from the truth. I find, on referring to the Board of Trade re- turns for 1858, that the value of guano imported and retained for home consumption, amounted to £3,857,424. This sum, how- ever, appears to be qhove the average of 1859, which was much below this, but on the whole, it appears that we will consume every year somewhere about £2,500.000 in value of guano. Every year there is imported nearly 26,000 tons of nitrate of soda, and making a liberal allowance for the quantity consumed for other purposes, we will say that 18,000 tons are consumed for agricul- tural purposes, which will make an annual value of £225,000. Of bones, there are imported every year 84,000 tons, besides a quantity collected in this country. Of these, 80,000 tons are employed for agricultural purposes, one-half as bones, the other half as super phosphate. We find that the value of 40,000 tons of bones, at £6 a ton, is £240,000, and that the value of 40,000 tons of super phosphate, at £7 a ton, is £280,000. The con- Bumptioaof caprolites annually cannot be estimated correctly, but I understand it is about 50,000 tons, which yield 75,000 tons of super phosphate. This, at £5 per ton, makes £375,000. The value of the consumption of sulphate of ammonia, is £150,000 a year, and allowing for other articles, the sum of £100,000 we have for the total in this country the sum of £4,010,000." That is, Great Britain and Ireland, with a superficial area of 116,700 miles sq. an area less than three times this State, consumes annually about $20,000,000 wroth of artificial manures, an amount equal in value to one twenty-eighth the entire taxable property in Pennsylvania. And this is done in a country which is not exporting the produce of its soil to other countries in corn and wheat; on the contrary, is importing l-8th of the grain it con- sumes. We, here in America, with a territorial area of more than thirty times that of Great Britain, have not even developed any reliable plan for dealing in artificial manures, much less in using them in such enormous quantities. But it is by no means on all parts of the cultivated land of Great Britain, that this en- ormous capital in artificial manures is invested. Ireland has not.yet received her share of it. And in England there is still to be found the old conservative farmers, who will not yield to modern innovation, and who thus afford all over the island in- teresting antiquarian gpeeimena of what English farming was, in 12 some respects, when tte agricultural produce of tlie country was scarcely talf as great at it now is. The almost total absence of agricultural statistics in this coun- try, forbids a fair comparison of what we are doing here, witb what Great Britain has done. But we may learn something by looking for one moment more closely at the statistics furnished by Great Britain. In an able paper presented by C. W. Hoskyns, Esq., to th& Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, and published in xvi. vol. pp. 554-606 of the Society's Journal, he informs us frorc datai collected for this purpose, that in 1854, in England, Scotland and Ireland, the following amounts of land were cultivated for raising the kinds of grain indicated : Summary op Crops raiseD' in Great Britain and- Ireland in 1854. Crops grown. England. Scotland. Ireland. Wheat, 3,807,846 168,216 411,284 Barley, 2,667,776 207,507 it Oats, 1,302,782 932,994 2,045,298 Beana, 1 698,188 37,702 Peas, 6,119 Turnips, 2,207,200 433,915 418,947 Eye, 73,731 3,809, 287,154* Vetches, 218,551 13,442 Mangold, 177,263 1,946 Carrots, 12,638 1,218 Potatoes, 192,287 143,032 989,66a Cabbages,, 97,334 1,395 Flax, 10,186 6,670 151,403 Hops, 18,976 ' u Osiers, 1,079 « Bigg or Ber&, a 18,118 Turnip seed. " 1,429 Meadow, Clover, Lu- cerne, &c.. 2,889,316 1,427,790 1,257,864 Bare Fallow, 895,969 26,128 ? Total under tillage. 15,271,122 3,431,430 5,501,6ia Other farm land, &o.. - 3,437,430 Permanent pasture, 8,874,940 1,207,101 i 7 Irrigated Meadow, 1,292,329 Sheep Walks, Woods, Walks, unim 2,224,862 1 6,530,843 proved, &e., j 6,298,128 6,947,481 7,731,000 * Including, also, Bere, Barley, Beana and Peas. 13 The foregoing, with some other items, make for Eniiltiml, 37,324,915 acres; for Scotland, 20,047,402 acres; and for Ire- land, 20,399,60^ acres; but as the permanent pasture, irrigated meadows, &c., would not receive the artificial manure applied, the latter must be referred to the " Total under Tillage," and the above figures give for the total cultivated land in Great Britain and Ireland almost 25,000,000 acres, and when we reflect that the principal part of the artificial manures we have considered, goes upon this tilled land, we have nearly one dollar per acre expended for artificial manures annually upon evrey acre of tilled ground in the British Islands. But we must look a little closer, and see the character of the crops raised, and we will find a much higher amount of manure used upon that land which really needs it. The sum total of acres upon which our great exhaust- ing cereal crops, wheat, barley, and oats are raised, is. For England, about 9,700,000 acres. Scotland, " 1,300,000 acres. . Ireland, " 2,400,000 acres. Total, 11,400,000 acres. Which will give an average of $2 00 per acre expended in artificial manures for every acre of cereal produce grown upon the land. Were an equal amount expended upon our American acres for 10 years, it would revolutionize the entire agricultural character of the country. But this merely shows how much money the English farmer expends for artificial manures, and leaves us to rely upon his good judgment as to whether it is advisable to do so or not. But if we look a little further, we will see some of the results of the system under consideration. Let us contrast it with the old sys- tem of farming in the same country; such a contrast will show us that all the immense turnip culture is a clear gain afforded by science to the English farmer. The 2,207,200 acres of turnips in England, 433,915 " " " Scotland, 418,947 " " " Ireland, Making a total of 3,060 062 acres producing from 8 to 15 dollars per acre — making an aggregate of over $20,000,000 for Great u Britain. All this immense crop has been the result of the mo- dern system of farming by the use of artificial manures. The turnips are raised upon land at such time as it was formerly al- lowed to lay idle. The old system of farming consisted of what was called the three course system, viz : 1st Oats sown in the spring, and cut off at harvest. 2d. Wheat (or Rye) after Oats, and cut next year. 3d. Fallow, until next spring, or over the next year. (^Morton — Article Agriculture, P. 766.) In some parts of England, where grass could be grown to ad- vantage, two or three grain crops would be taken from the land, and then it would be left to grow grass for three or four years, or until it failed to yield grass without resowing. But this three course system, which gave two crops, and these poor ones, in three years, has been replaced by a four course system, viz : 1st. Wheat sown in the autumn and cut next harvest. 2d. Turnips — nest June following with ashes and super-phos- phate. 3d. Barley — next spring clover sown with it on the ground, and 4th. Clover — next year. I cannot do better than to quote from Morton's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, page 765 — Article " Crops." He says : '' Here in Norfolk, the four course system had its origin, and here it is practiced in the best style. But this county, which was the first to break through the system of cropping as long as the ground would yield grain, is now beginning to amend its own improve- ments. The ease with which artificial, and other manures, can now be procured, and the readiness with which they may be ap- plied to the land, at any period of the rotation, hag taught tho enterprising farmers of this county, that the matter for their con- sideration, in fixing on a course of crops, is simply which, with a given out-lay, will produce the largest return, and at the same time most enrich the land; instead of the four course, the follow- ing is adopted by some first-rate farmers : (1st.) Clover, trefoil or peas. (2d.) Wheat. (3d.) Oats. (4th.) Turnips. (5th.) Wheat or Barley. Every crop is manured for, either by direct application or by sheep feeding, and on a large farm, where this system has supplanted the four course system, the average pro- duce of corn has increased, in tea years, between ;J3 anJ 40 per cent. The extent of land in this farai, upon whii^h wheat is grown, having during that period increased until now it has b;;- come one-third greater than it was then. The 4 course is con- ducted thus : The Clover hay, after being mown, is dunged ; a rapid growth of after-math is produced, which is plowed under to enrich the ground for wheat. In spring, the young wheat re- ceives a dressing of 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda, and 2 cwt. of com- mon salt mixed, and sown by hand in two applications, at an in- terval of three weeks, beginning in March and ending in April. When the wheat is removed, the ground is plowed and sown with rye, which is eaten off in spring, and followed by the turnip crop. Dung, guano, and super-phosphate are applied to turnips, the greater portion of which are consumed in the ground by sheep, which are also cake-fed. The land is thus prepared for barley, which is sown out with red clover, and with trefoil and white clover alternately. No rye grass is sown with the clover, as it is reckoned injurious to the following wheat crop. Many of the best Norfolk farmers do not hoe their wheat crops, as hoeing has been found to increase the proportion of tail in inferior corn. The wheat fields are rolled in the spring, with advantage to the crop." These remarks relate to one of the finest agricultural districts in England. It is impossible for the lover of rural scenery, who has any taste for Agriculture, to pass through this county with- out being enraptured with the beauty, regularity, and the order of the fields, and the enormous crops that are waving upon their surface before harvest. The county is noted for its consumption of super-phosphate||of lime. This artificial manure is most es- pecially advantageous to the turnip crop, and is hence generally put upon the land immediately before that crop is grown upon it. It would be utterly impracticable to find a market for the millions of bushels of turnips that are thus raised upon land that once lay fallow. But they are fed to stock; more particularly to sheep. These animals thrive well on them during the autumn and winter ; and in going through the county at this time of the year, the foreigner is struck with the immense flocks of sheep ho sees upon almost every farm, hurdled in the middle of the field, with a turnip cutter near, and perchance a slowly moving peasant tarning the crank thereof, while the pieces of the cut-up bulbs 16 are falling into a basket, and the sheep are looking through the hurdles, at the anticipated meal, with more intelligence than he ex- hibits in preparing it for them. The sheep thus eat up the turnip crop, and then their wool is sent to the manufacturer, and their flesh to the markets, while their manure left upon the land upon which they were hurdled, (the hurdles having been moved over the field as the turnips were consumed) serves as nutriment for the next crop. And thus while the increase of population has been going on at a rapid rate, such has been the improvement in modern modes of culture, that the Island is now almost as com- petent to supply its agricultural wants, as it was at the beginning of the present century. All classes who have anything to do with Agriculture, are better off now than ever before. The la- borer receives better wages than his ancestors, and all the neces- saries of life upon which he is so dependent, are very much cheaper than at the beginning of the present century. He lives in circumstances of luxury compared with those in which his grand- father lived. The farmer is better off now than before, notwith- standing the abolition of the "Corn Laws," which it was supposed would be ruinons to the agricultural interests of England. There is scarcely a farm in England becomes vacant by the death or expulsion of a tenant, but before a week the landlord has nu- merous applicants to fill the vacancy, even though he be a despot with his tenantry, so very desirable is the position of the far- mer, and in that country; old as -it is, with its prices brought down by competition as they are, and its ports open to foreign importations by a system of free trade, the land owner can make more in rent out of his land, in proportion to what he could make out of the stocks of his country, than could the capitalist in this country in a parallel effort. Within the last fifty years the pop- ulation has doubled, the consumption of agricultural produce has doubled — and yet the price has fallen from 84s. in the beginning of the century, to as low as 56s. in 1850, per quarter of a ton — (8 bushels.) In the decade following the year 1800, the average annual produce of wheat was 8,152,138 ; in the corresponding term after 1840, it was 15,142,058.. In America, of course, we would find a vastly greater proportional increase, but this is the result of an increase in our number of cultivated acres, an increase in acres greater than an increase of crop. But, in England, 17 the increase is due mainly to the increase in the amonnt the farmer has been able to produce from the acres, and in addition to this great increase of wheat and other crops, is the increased turnip crop, to which reference has been made, that was almost unknown twenty years ago. It has been estimated by a reliable source, that "throughout Great Britain the same land which at the beginning of the century supported 4000 people, now sup- ports 6000, and they live much better than did their 4000 an- cestors." — (Journal Royal Agricultural Society, xvi, 576. During the last twenty years, in Great Britain, a vast amount of land, which was formerly considered altogether irredeemable for agricultural purposes, has been drained, and is now producing excellent crops. Bogs and marshes that once were impassible for the pools and streamlets that covered their surface, are now quite as dry as the finest soils of Cumberland Valley, and much more productive than the latter. It is estimated that in Scotland alone, nearly $50,000,000 have been expended during the last thirty years in draining, and this immense capital could not hava been expended, had not the farmer been able to purchase artifi- cial manures to bring up the land when drained to a maximum degree of fertility. It would never pay to expend from $25 to $35 per acre to drain land, if upon that land he could only raise the mere pittance of 10 to 15 bushels of wheat to an acre. He must have 40 to 50 bushels to the acre, and to do this he must have artificial manures, and I am quoting the words of the late edi- tor of the Dublin Farmer's Gazette, when I say in regard to Scot- land : " There is scarcely a farmer to be found without chemical manures, in some shape or other, and, taking the extent of arable land into consideration, there is probably more guano used in Scotland than in any other country, and in many instances, the expense for artificial manures alone is equal to J or even J tha entire rent of the land." And the result of this farming is that unhealthy peat bogs and morasses have been converted into fruitful fields, yielding 20 ot 30, 40 or 50 bushels to the acre of v/heat. The average yield of wheat produce in England is about thirty bushels, but the aver- age is lowered by many farmers and landlords, who have not awakened up from the antiquated systems of farming of their fathers. In nearly all the farms that I visited, the average pro- 18 duce was over thirty-four bushels, and often large fields averaged over fifty bushels to the acre. Were wo disposed to follow up the improvement which ■ the modern system has introduced in Ireland, we would see results still more marked than in England and Scotland. Not that we would find a better Agriculture, but that it has arisen from a more degraded level. It is hardly possible to imagine a more deplorable state of agricultural practice than that which was gen- erally followed prior to the great calamity which has been attribut- ed to the potato rot in 1846, but which in reality must overtake any country in which a system of Agriculture so miserable is followed, as that which characterized Ireland, previous to the one in question. The land was farmed by farmers who were too poor to improve it. All the manure, that could be found, was put upon it, and a crop of potatoes was taken ofi'; after this, if possible, another crop of potatoes, and two or three crops of oats, until the land was utterly incapable of producing any more. Then it was allowed to lay idle for two or three years, after which it was put through the same exhausting process as before ; but this ruinous process is in part being abandoned in Ireland, and in its stead the modern system, which allows capital, enterprise and energy to be brought to bear upon it, and to-day Ireland is in a condition beyond the power of any disaster ia the potato crop, to inflict any such injury upon her as that of 1846, ^ We may next consider briefly some of the means by which these changes were brought about. We will notice some very obvious relations which exist between the growing intelligence of the agricultural community and these results. Agricultural Institutions for the Dissemination of Agricultural Knowledge. England, Scotland and Ireland have had, and still have, their AjricuUural Societies, Ajricultural Schools, and Agricultural GoUfges. The subject of Agricultural Science and Agricultural Education and Agricultural Improvement, has been discussed over the entire l-ngth and breadth of the land. Their societies have held exhibitions, compared with which, the finest ever held in this country are insignificant. They have offered prices for ezoellence in manures, in crops, in implements, in stock, in es- 19 says, in experiments, in everything that relates to agricultural interest, compared with which our most liberal offers are trifles. One of their first duties has been to solicit the aid of competent scientific men in carrying out their researches. Chemists, Bota- nists, Entomologists and Geologists have been in their employ, and at the present moment all their leading Agricultural Socie- ties have prominent chemists, whose services are permanently engaged to look after the interests of Agriculture. The Scotch, at first, took the lead in agricultural improvement, and the spirit of their progress was embodied in the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland. This society is as old as the present Union of these United States. The first meeting was held in 1783. It commenced by offering premiums for excellence in agricultural productions and agricultural practice. As far back as 1813, it was offering prizes as high as ®100 and $200. This society has more recently, in connection with the improvement in live stock, established a Veterinary School at Edinburgh, which educates a number of young men annually in this department. It also has a museum ot agricultural models, machines, imple- ments, &o., for which rewards have been paid. Immediately fol- lowing this society, and indeed growing out of it, to correspond with the advanced state of knowledge of the times, but yet inde- pendent of it, was the first Agricultural Chemistry Association. Says the author of the Dublin Farmer's Ga::etie : "It was for- tunate for the science of Agriculture in Scotland, a large propor- tion of her farmers were alive to the fact that the boundary line of practice could only be extended by the expansion and genera- lyzing of the truths of chemistry, and its cognate sciences; and nothing can more clearly manifest the wide-spread desire for a union between the details of practice and the suggestions of sci- ence, than the fact that, in one market place and in the course of one day, sixi^ farmers were found readi/ and willing to subscribe for a period of five years, to obtain the services of an analytical chemist. The merit of suggesting and advocating the establish- ment of this association, is undoubtedly due to Mr. John Finnie, farmer, Swar.dton, Slid Lothiaj; and it is highly honorable to the farmers of Scotland, that one of themselves had the liberal spirit and intelligence to perceive the important results that would ne- cessarily flow, both directly and indirectly, from calling in the 20 aid of chemical science to assist the operations of practical Agri- culture, and equally creditable is it to the Lothian farmers, and others, that so many of them came forward, so heartily and lib- erally, to support Mr. Finnie's scheme. This gentleman had been long impressed with a conviction that some effectual check should'be given to the vast amount of adulteration practiced in the manufacture of artificial manures at home, and also in those natural substances, such as guano, bones and nitrates, brought from abroad; and he arrived at the just conclusion, that chemistry alone could remedy the evil, and hence occurred the idea of ob- taining, for the farmers of Scotland, the services of an analytical chemist. Mr. Finnic further saw that the appointment of such an individual would tend materially to enlighten the^farmers in two important points of farm practice — first, as to the best mode of managing and applying home-made manure ; and secondly, as regards the relative feeding properties of difi'erent substances generally given to live stock. On the 21st of July, 1842, Mr. Finnic addressed a letter to the late Sir Charles Gordon, then Secretary of the Highland Society, containing a request that he would lay it before the Board of Directors for their consideration. This letter embodied the draft of a scheme for the appointment of an analytical chemist, by the Highland Society, to be paid from a subscription fund, altogether distinct from its ordinary revenue. This fund -was intended to provide a salary for the chemical officer, of such an amount, as would enable him to make analyses for farmers, at a charge sufficiently low to induce them to avail themselves of his services, and at the sam,e time so high as to prevent them /rom occupying his time entirely in examining and reporting upon substances sent more from idle curiosity than practical utility. In answer to this letter, Mr. Finnie only suc- ceeded in obtaining a bare letter of approval, to the effect, ' That the object of the association is highly deserving of the approba- tion of the Society, and the best wishes of its Directors for its success.' On receiving this intimation, Mr. Finnie abandoned all hopes of the Highland Societytaking the initiative in the ap- pointment of an agricultural chemist, but determined not to let thfl matter drop, he resolved to make an appeal to the agricultu- ral community at large, and thus raise a subscription for the maintenance of a chemist, altogether independent of the High- 21 land Society. He, therefore, drew up a prospectus, and In the course of one market day, in Edinburgh, ho had the satisfaction of obtaining the adherence of sixty farmers (as just noticed,) to his scheme, all of whom put down their names to the subscription list. Encouraged by this hearty support from his brother far- mers, he forthwith applied to David Milne Home, Esq., Milne Garden, and Andrew Coverley, Esq., Advocate, Edinburgh, both of whom entered warmly into the proposal, and promised their co-operation, a promise which they afterwards fulfilled most ef- fectually. The printed prospectus for the establishment of the ' Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland,' containing an earnest appeal, both to land-owners and land-occupiers, was then launched, and as the Highland Society held its annual meeting that year in the month of August, Mr. Finnic embraced the ex- cellent opportunity thus afforded, of calling a meeting of the principal supporters and friends of the association, and thus of bringing the objects of it more fully before the public. In addi- tion to this means of publicity, he addressed a circular letter to every landlord and tenant in Scotland, explaining the objects of the association, so that none might be ignorant of what was going on. In July, 1843, the association was fully constituted, with Andrew Coverley, Esq., as an honorary Secretary, and an effective staff of influential noblemen and gentlemen as an acting commit- tee of management, and having a subscription list of £900 per annum, each subscriber guaranteeing the sum put down against his name for five years. The committee then advertised for a chemical officer, in the most widely-circulated Scotch newspapers, and also in several London papers, that were known to be read abroad. The result was, that applications were received from ten individuals, all distinguished for their scientific attainments, and of whom two were foreigners. On carefully comparing and con- sidering the merits of these candidates, the appointment fell on Professor Johnston, of Durham, who having notified his ac- ceptance, thereafter entered upon his duties, with a salary of £500 per annum, and a moderate scale of charges for executing analyses. The association carried on its operations during the five years of Prof. Johnston's engagement, in a steady, useful, and satisfactory manner, by which time the Highland Society saw the importance of having a chemical department in connection 2i with itself; and upon the assurance that the Directors •would ap. point a chemist, and afford to tenants and farmers the same op- portunities of obtaining; analyses as before, the Agricultural Chi- mistri/ Assoeiation of Scotland was dissolved ; and thus honorably terminated an experiment nobly conceived, and spiritedly con- ducted. Dr. Thomas Ander.son, the present chemical officer of the Highland Society, was then appointed by the Directors, whole labors, and those of his predecessors, have been and continue to be, annually embodied in the Transactions of the Highland Soci- ety."— [Mirioji's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Yol. IL,p. 813.] The Koyal Agricultural Society of England was organized in 1828, and the first year its funds, from the subscription of mem- bers, amounted to $25,000, and the present annua! income and expenditure of the Society is about double this sura. Early in the existence of the Society, its members followed the example ot their Scottish neighbors, in consulting chemists upon the several parts of Agriculture in relation to which chemical science had a beiring, and in 1848, the services of J. T. Way, Esq., were permanently engaged as chemist to the Society, and means were afforded him of making investigations upon the several subjects connected with Agriculture. He first devoted his attention to a subject that needs attention more thnn almost any other in this country at the present mo- ment. I allude to that of artificial manures. In giving the an- alysis of some worthless manures, that he there found in the market, he says : [Journal Roi/al Agricultural Society, X. 620.] " In spite of all that has been said or written on the subject, farmers persist in purchasing from dealers of whom they know little or nothing, manures of which they know even less." He then gives the analysis of several manures, which were about as valuable as — sand — manures containing less nitrogen than ordi- nary bituminous coal, and only a trace of phosphoric acid. The following are specimens : 1st. An "Animal Guano," sold at $25 00 per ton, was worth about as much as sand or mould. 2d. A " Yurhshire Manure," sold at S20 00 per ton— also wotthless. > §d. A " Leidi Manure" — sold in large quantities, was as wtirthless as the fotegoiag. 23 4th. A " Tillage for Turnips" — was in reality natting btjl red clay ! "No wonder," says the chemist, "that no beneficial results attended the use of such manures ;" and he goes on to express the opinion that tliousands of pounds (£) are thus annually ex- pended for such worthless trash." Were wo to follow up the subject, we would find, in the expu]si«n of these trashy manures from the market, and in the introduction of good ones in their stead, a real advantage to prac- tical Agriculture, derived from science; a clear gain of thousands of dollars annually. But chemical science has not only aflfbrded aid to the farmer, in pointing out the adulterations, frauds, and impositions of the ignorant, practiced in the sale of nutriment for plants. It has also performed a similar service in regard to the nutriment of ani- mals. It has detected poisons and adulterations in cattle foods and has exposed the charlatanry of those who would sell "patent cattle foods" with extraordinary fattening qualities. When I visited the Cirencester Agricultural College about a year ago, Prof. Vcelcker had just discovered the cause of a rape* cake's having killed a number of cattle, to which it was fed — a cause which, but for chemical science, must have ever remained concealed. He had dozens of specimens of worthless manures and cakes that had been brought into the market for sale; and while at Eothamsted I had an excellent opportunity of seeing some, experiments instituted by Mr. Lawes, for the purpose of ascertaining the value of some of the celebrated " cattle foods," that are sold at enormous prices, for keeping and fattening cat- tle in the country, and they were found most decisively to j>oi- sess none of the great qualities ascribed to them But it is useless to illustrate further by example principles so obvious, as those, expressing the relation between the agricultu- ral interest and agricultural science. Agricultural Education. But the greatest work with which science has been associated, is that oi Agricultural Education. It is to this source that we are to look for its greatest worth, and its richest rewards : until the work of educating the agriculturist, in il\« principles of hit 24 arts, shall have been in some measure accomplished, practical Agriculture cannot reap the henefits of agricultural science, for the obvious reason, that science cannot be understood or applied without scientific education ; science cannot he reduced in popular lectures to the understanding of persons who have not studied it. When it becomes so popular as to he understood hy a pro- miscuous audience, who have never been trained in the class- room by the study of its abstractions, it loses that scientific es- sence from which it derives its value, and is therefore no longer science, but simply, to use an English expression, it is so much worthless " clap trap." We must commence with the student, and conduct him through a thorough course of agricultural in- struction, in our schools, if we would have farmers who would really understand the scientific principles involved in farming, and until they do understand its teachings, they never will have con- fidence to follow them. The present generation is waking up in earnest to this great truth ; but here, as in the other departments to which I have alluded, we are behind our slow-moving neigh- bors on the other side of the Atlantic, we have made some lauda- ble attempts, but have failed in nearly all of them, and have not succeeded entirely in any of them. But before we consider the subject of Agricultural Education in this country, I would briefly allude to the state of this question in Europe. AaRICtlLTURAL EDUCATION IN EuROPE. In Great Britain and Ireland, that spirit of agricultural im- provement, to which I have alluded, as developing the agricultural resources of the kingdom, did not neglect the subject of Agri- cultural Education, and almost identical with the time of organ- izing the Koyal Agricultural Society, and appointing a chemist to look after its interests and drive the worthless manures from the market, The Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester was founded in the southern part of England. After various degrees of success, and passing through one crisis after another, which seemed to threaten its very existence — after having at one time been under the management of a man qualified to take charge of its literary and educational department, but who was ignorant of praotioal Agriculture, and %i another time under the charge of & 25 man who understood agricultural practice, but who was unable to do justice to the educational department— after attempting a good many experiments which proved unsuccessful — after com- mencing with a low tuition fee, and requiring the students to perform manual labor, and then abandoning the whole plan of manual labor, except at the option of the student, — In fine, after changing almost all the original plans, and under an entirely new board of managers, and new organization of its professors, and the experience of some years teaching, the Koyal Agricultural Col- lege at Cirencester, at the present moment, has attained a firm footing in England, and is now in a flourishing condition. The history of its mistakes, its successes, its fortunes, and the perse- verance of its friends, is something from which we, upon this side of the Atlantic, can learn much. When I visited it, about a year ago, and informed its Professors that I was about to enter upon duties similar to theirs on this side of the Atlantic, they told me not to get discouraged, to not expect an agricultural com- munity to awake up at once to the importance of an agricultural education; that they had learned, by years of experience, and a struggle that nearly cost the life of their Institution, that such an effort only could succeed by dint of hard labor and continual perseverence. When I visited it, the College had about eighty students and eight professors and teachers; every thing about the building exhibited a degree of completeness, that I would like to see imitated in this country. The College is 3 stories high, 190 feet front, and two long wings extending back, embrace dining- hall, laboratory, museum, lecture-room, study-rooms, and dormi- tories ; the out-buildings were no less complete, and the farm of 450 acres, though of a poor soil naturally, was fast being brought intiS a state of fertility. The farm and botanical gardens embrace numerous experimental plots, where students could see the ef- fects of different kinds of manures on different crops, and the influence of cultivation upon natural and cultivated plants. The Professor of Chemistry, who was also chemist of the Royal Agri- cultural Society, had three assistants in the Laboratory, making analyses of different products, (manures, salts, cattle food, &c.,) which also enabled the students to learn something of the frauds of the manure-trade, and the means of detecting them, at the same time that it was protecting the agricultural community from 26 tBe blunders of the ignorant, or the dishdnesty of vicious dealers. There are several smaller agricultural schools in England, in ad- dition to agricultural chairs in several of the higher institutions of learning throughout the country. Ieeland has, at Glasnevin, near Dublin, an agricultural institution, of lower grade than that at Cirencester, but no less flourishing, in its particular sphere, than the latter. In addition to all the requisite buildings for ' study, and the purpose of storing grain and breeding cattle, there were two farms, the larger one containing 145 acres, and the smaller one 23 acres, and on these two a different system of ro- tation of crops is carried out, to enable the student to familiarize himself with a course adapted to small or large farms. But the work of Agricultural Education has not been left to the local ef- forts of one school alone j all over the country, subordinate agri- cultural schools have been established. A recent report of Dr. Kirkpatrick, to whose hospitality I was indebted for seeing the Grlasnevin School (at the head of which he stands,) about two years ago, states that there are under the management of the Grovernment Commission, 20 agricultural schools, with about 700 students, and each school with a model farm of from 3 to 126 acres attached ; there are also of model farm schools, under local man- agement, about an equal number, with an equal number of stu- dents, and'acj-es for them to work. There are also 49 ordinary agricultural schools, with about 1100 students, and each school with a small farm attached, on which the boys learn to work; and for still another class, there are 78 work-house agricultural schools, with farmSj^having 2000 students. So very different is the state of society in Ireland from anything we have in this country, that it is difficult to co-ordinate these small agricultural schools with anything we have, or need have in this country, but these figures show that Ireland has over 150 agricultural schools of all grades, and a number of students in them that counts by thousands. The results of these schools have been the extension of knowledge, a vast improvement of agricultural practice, and a decided change for the better in the moral tone of the entire community. Crime has been diminished and poverty dispensed with, and a state of things brought about which must prevent a repetition of that dire calamity which spread the death-shroud of starvation over this ill fated island a few years ago. If we cross the channel, we 27 find on the continent no less activity on the subject of Agricul- tural Education, than that which all these details indicate as characterizing Ireland. We can only now take a glance at the agricultural schools of Germany and France. Aqrictiltural Education in Gekmant. Germany, the land of learning — of science — of arts — of pro- found study — and thorough students — with her half a hundred" Universities, well filled with students, under the tuition of the ablest professors in the world. Germany has been first and fore- most on the subject of Agricultural Education. It is impossible to do justice in the brief time which I now can devote to this subject, to a question of the magnitude of the Agricultural Insti- tutions of Germany. We can only glance over them, and allow a few statistics to speak for themselves. I. Agbioulttieai Societies.— -These exist, as jn this coun- try, among the friends of agricultural improvement: they are of a popular rather than of an educational character, and have for one great object to enlisf the attention of the lower classes, the peas- antry (a very ignorant class, and dreadfully bound to old time ctistomsj) and uneducated farmers, in moaern agricultural im- provement. II. Elementary Agricultural Schools. — There are many grades of these, from those which aim at teaching village vag- rants a few simple no{W)ns in regard to some branches of agri- cultural practice or industry, at the same time learning something of the ordinary elementary branches of study, to those in which a regular course of agricultural instruction, in connection with a general school course, embracing the elements of agricultural science, is taught. In these, the students are all from the lower classes of society; classes corresponding to which we have no class in this country, as there exist no such, generally recognized, dis- tinctions in society here as there. The students of these schools do not aspire to become educated in any extended or liberal sense. To use the language of a German friend, who had thought much upon the subject: "Their parents being ignorant, their an- e'estors in many instances being^. slaves, and having no family pride to elevate their aspirations, and no high ideal of excellence or of high intellectual attainments in their immediate ancestors, 28 for their imitation, they "go to school as peasants, feeling their parents were such, and they need be nothing else; and hence it is almost impossible to raise them above their low intellectual condition." They all perform manual labor, but there is a list- lessness about them when at work or study, which is not char- acteristic of the students of the higher schools. III. Higher Agricultueal Schools. — In th^se a thorough scientific course of instruction ia pursued. The student is some- times a graduate of a University, who, after plodding through the Greek, Latin and Mathematics of the Gymnasium, and having heard the 3 or 4 years course of lectures in the University, goes to the Agricultural School to spend a year or two in learning the more immediate applications of the science to Agriculture; or he may have come from some of the excellent Polytechnic schools or academies of the country, in order to finish the course, that was to fit him for the duties of the farmer's life. These students are such as generally expect to superintend their own farms, or those of other people, or of the State. They come from the higher grades of society, and in general character, more nearly approxi- mate to the character of our American students. Manual labor is optional with theln, although they all must see how all kinds of labor are performed. The reason of this will be obvious from the fact, that the class to which they belong, superintends labor rather than performs it, and labor is so , abundant and so cheap, that in no instance could it be consideftd remunerative when performed by students ; hence it could not lessen, but rather in- crease, the cost of tuition. IV. Agricultural Chairs in Connection with the Uni- versities. — These consist of a Professor of Agriculture, who is appointed in the University, and who takes the student, after the latter has learned, in his regular course, what general science his time and inclination may have allowed him, and teaches him the special applications of the several sciences he has studied to Agri- culture. The instruction here is of a high order, though not generally as profound as in the older and more fully established branches of the University course ; and there is danger of a stu- dent having his attention too much divided by the subject of the University course, to concentrate his attention upon Agricul- ture. 29 V. Agricultural Institutions in Connection with the University. — These afford taeilities for the student to take an agricultural course, independent of the University, or he may be attending the lectures of the latter, while a member of the Ap;ri- cultural Institution; or on the other hand, the regular student of the University, may, while attending the course in the latter, enjoy the advantages of an agricultural course in connection with the Agricultural Institution. In connection with all the several kinds of institutions, to which reference has been made, there is a greater or less amount of land for the purposes of labor, of illus- tration, of experiment, &c., &c. VI. Agricultural Investigation Stations. — I wish you all to get a clear idea of what these are. Germany is aland of scienti- fic investigation. The great intellectual power of her sons, placed under the surveillance of a relentless despotism, which shackela the political press, and forbids the discussion of all subjects bear- ing upon the government of the country, has sought objects for its exercise and development, in the investigation of the laws of the material world. She has cradled the natural sciences in their infancy, and done more than any other country in bringing them up to that mature age, which enables them to stand as an omnipo- tent power amongst the elements of human progress, at the present moment. The clear intellectual perceptions of her philosophers, were first to discover the importance of science to Agriculture, and first to attempt a scientific system of agricultural theory and practice. The son of a Darmstadt dyer, whose attention was directed to the coloring matters of his father's avocation, became interested in chemistjy, and after exhausting the library of his native town in search of chemical experiments, and then attempting to follow up his investigations with a neighboring apothecary, at last wan- dered off to Paris, and studied under the chemists of that city, and returned home to accept of a professorship in a German University, in his 21st year. The young man Liebig, (for it was he,) was not thus admitted at so early an age to so high a position in the land of Universities, without being regarded with jealousy by the other professors in Giessen; but as great merit discards jealousy, and overrides its infiuence, so Leibig soon found himself a master-spirit amongst those who controlled the 30 affairs of the University, and with liberal means at his disposal, entered upon a course of teaching and investigation, which has -entitled him to the honored name of being the father of Organic Chemistry, and the first to collect together all the facts of agri- cultural science, and develop new facts so as to attempt the con- struction of an agricultural system, out of the discussion of which almost all our knowledge of agricultural science has grown. But for the full development of agricultural science, a vast number of experiments were necessary, both in the field and in the laboratory, in different circumstances of soil, season, climate, plant, manure, &c. Before agricultural science could be brought into the school; it must be developed in the laboratory and field, and for this pur- pose these Agricultural Investigation Stations were instituted. They simply consist of a chemical laboratory, with all its necessary appliances, for agricultural chemical investigation, as for analyz- ing soils, manures, vegetable products, &c., in connection with sufficient land for field experiment, and stalls for feeding cattle, &c. Their object is to ascertain the influence of the several ele- ments of vegetable nutrition upon plants, when used alone, or in various combinations ; also, to investigate questions in vegetable and animal physiology, that have a direct individual bearing upon Agriculture. I should have remarked, in speaking of Agricul- tural Education in England, that the most complete, and at the same time the most liberally sustained . agricultural investigation station in the world, is that in which I worked myself 2} years in England, and which is sustained at" an annual expense of from, 6 to 8000 dollars, by J. B. Lawes, Esq., at Eothemsted, about 20 miles north of London. The importance of these investigation stations can hardly be over estimated, as it is to them that we are to look for the solution of many puzzling questions that occur in agricultural practice, and without the solution of which we are unable to teach agricultural science, as it should be taught, in our schools; and the great fact, that while our General Government, and several State Governments, have been spending hundreds of thousands of dollars in other scientific researches, hardly a dollar has been expended in this kind of agricultural investigation, shows how little ^farmers look after their own interests in the distribution of our public fuands. Not to dwell longer on this subject, I shall close by giving you some statistics in regard to the Agricukural Education of Germany. 31 Commancing with Prussia, we find the following High Schools : Eldena, with 1000 acres of land, and a 2 year course of in- struction. Proskau, with 2000 acres " " Poppelsdorf. — Farm for experiment, &o., excellent collection for illustration in science applied to Agriculture. Moeglin, 1200 acres, ha^a 2 year course. Regenwalde, 1000 acres. " " Waldau, just opened in 1858. Neustadt, with farm — 2 year course. And an Agricultural Chair in Berlin. All these schools are well supplied with all the means of agri- cultural study and practice. \ LowEE Agriculttjral Chairs. — Prussia has 22 lower Agri- cultural Schools ; 32 other schools more or less associated with Agriculture, or for the purpose of meadow culture, flax raising, weaving and dairy farming, in addition to a number of other model schools, all over the kingdom for the purpose of advancing interests associated with Agriculture. 2. Austria. — In this monarchy, we find eleven Agricultural Chairs in the Universities, and higher colleges and academies; and of Higher Agricultural Schools, it has the Hungarian — Altenhurg Agricultural Academy, founded in 1850. , Prague, " ", Hungarian Chemnitz, " " and the erection of several other High Agricultural Schools is under contemplation. In addition to this, Austria has 11 Lower Agricultural Schools. 3. Bavaria has an important Agricultural College, the High Central Agricultural School, at Weyhenstephan, near Munich, in addition to an Agricultural Chair in the University at Mu- nich, and 12 other Agricultural Schools in the kingdom. 4. Saxony. — This little kingdom has one of the best Agri- cultural Schools in the world, at Tharandt, near Dresden. This is a school of the highest order. Another good school at Chem- nitz, another at Lutzschena, near Leipsic, in addition to several smaller schopls. 32 5. The Smaller States. — Of the smaller States, Hanover has two Agricultural Schools. Wurtemburg has 4, including HoHENHEiM, one of the best in Europe. Baden has 4. Hes- se has 2. Hesse Cassel has 1. Hesse Homburg 1. Nassau 1. Oldenburg 1. Brunswick 1. Mecklenburg 1. — HoLSTEiN and Lauenburg 4. Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 1. Saxe-Altenburg 1, and about a dozen other little Kingdoms, States, &o., not much larger than a good sized farm, have each one or more Agricultural Schools, making a total for Germany ' of about 20 Chairs in her Universities and Academies, and 12 schools of high order for agricultural instruction, in which a thorough course of agricultural theory and practice may be followed. It would require more time to do justice to the schools and colleges that I visited, than I have allowed for all that I intend saying to-day. They number from 50 to 200 stu- dents each, and amongst their materials for study, is included every thing that relates to Agriculture, either in a scientific or practical point of view, embracing in the theoretical department, scientific collections in all the sciences, and most particularly those- that relate to Agriculture, including the art and science of veter- inary, and in the practical part, tuition in the duties of the farm, embracing an arrangement for feeding, brewing and dis- tilling, for brick-making, sugar-making from the sugar-beet for dairy work, raising of improved breeds of stock, and an ex- perimental department for the purpose of developing agricultural science, by investigation upon the growth of crops and the nutri- tion of animals. In some instances, there are extensive shops for the manufacture of agricultural implements and machines, in connection with these schools, at which not only can the students see difierent agricultural implements and machines made, but the surrounding country can be supplied with the best articles that are kept anywhere. Agricultural Education or France. If we leave Germany and cDme to the south of the Ehine, we will find that France is wide awake as to the importance of Ag- ricultural Education, Agricultural Improvement, and Agricultural Science. Though, like Germany, she is far behind England in the richness of her soil, and the produce of her acres, yet she has made great progress, and is now doing much. In no country in 33 the world are all the internal affairs so systematically organized as in France. The size of her bushel, the area of her acre, the fength of her yard, the weight of her pound, and the value of her dollar, are all model specimens of these most essential auxiliaries of human progress. She has three celebrated Agricultural Schools of high order, viz : 1st. Imperial Aqkicultural School of Grignon, near Paris, with eleven Professors and Directors I visited this school in August of last year, just after having made the tour of the principal German Agricultural Schools. It compares well with the latter, though it is not equal to many of them. There is a large farm in connection with the college, and it has all the out- houses for the purposes of dairy feeding, raising stock, &o. 2d. Imperial Agricultural School op Grand Jouan, and 3d. The Imperial Agricultural School op La Saulsaie. In addition to these three High Schools, there are in the several departments of the Empire, 51 small farm schools, as they are called, at which practical farming, with a little of its theory, is taught to the peasant population. There are also three celebrated Veterinary Colleges in France, viz : that of Alfort, near Paris ; that of Lyons, and that of Toulous ; and in addition to these, there are several courses of lectures given annually at Paris and the principal towns of the Empire, by some of the ablest men in the country, on various subjects connected with Agriculture. EussiA. — Had we time to go to half-civilized Russia, we would find that she, too, had her Agricultural Schools and Col- leges. In fine, Europe has her Agricultural Chairs in her higher institutions of learning by dozens, she has her higher Agricultu- ral Schools by scores, and her lower schools by hundreds. " Proud Old England," Energetic Scotland, Rising Ireland, Extended Russia, Decaying Austria, Little Denmark and Despo- tic France — all Europe, from the Mediterranean to the Baltic, and ike Baltic to the Urals, is alive to the subject of Agricultural Education, and what science has done, is doing, and is capable of doing for Agriculture ! And we may now come back and ask ourselves what Republican America, what this great agricultural nation, with her millions of broad acres, has done and is doing 54 for Agricultural Education and Agricultural Science, and whaS Science has done for her ? Where are her Agricultural Schools? Where her Agricultural Colleges ? Where are her Agricultural Investigations, which are to help the scientific men of the old world, to develop the great principles of Agricultural Science, that must one day be to the farmer what the theory of navigation is to|tlje mariner, or the principles of surveying to the man who measures land ? Where are our Agricultural Chemists to point out the frauds and mistakes of our artificial manure manufacturers, &c. ? Where are our Agricultural Bureaus to collect agricultu- ral statistics, and enable us to know just what the country is doing and what it is not? We ask and wait! and Echo answers. Where? Michigan's Agricultural College failed, almost before it had an existence. The New York Agricultural College, at Ovid, is struggling into existence, through grinding poverty. Maryland is going on, but not upon a plan adapted to the ediication of the sons of hard-working northern freemen, who wish their sons to be brought up to the habits of manual labor that they were; and Pennsylvania has come to a stand-still, for want of funds in' erecting her Agricultural College, before the building is half completed — and wc do not possess, from one end of our great country to the other, a single investigating station, at which the innumerable questions suggested by agricultural practice, are be- ing solved. Now, gentlemen, let me ask you, why this should be so ? Why should Europe be expending her thousands and her millions in agricultural colleges and agricultural investiga- tions ; in the manufacture of agricultural artificial manures; in collecting agricultural statistics, and in seeking to take advantage of the teachings of science, while this great Eepublic, Young, Strong, Wealthy, Enlightened, and Free, has done almost nothing in these several directions ? It is not because we cannot afibrd it — for no nation is richer than ours. It is not because Political excitement consumes our time, for no nation has less to fear from dangers without or from really dangerous commotions within, than ours has, for with all due deference to our nervous political friends, I would confidently assert that our government is just as strong now as it ever was. It is not because we are naturally addicted to the obsolete customs of antiquity — ^because as a peo- ple we are characterized by our disregard for thafwhioh is old, S5 ■and our constant desire for that which is new. We have no antiquity to be wedded to; we live only in the present; we have no past. It is not because we , are an ignorant people, and do not appreciate science and education, for no country in the world has been more liberal in its expenditure for popular education than ours, and no people have grasped with more eagerness at the results of science, in other departments, than have our own coun- trymen. The history of the telegraph, the steam engine, the combustion of fuel, and quite recently the excitement in regard ■to Goal oil in our own State, and scores of other things will prove this. It is not because we have suffered for want of scientific instruction in agricultural practice, that we have not availed our- selves of it, because, no where is there more quackery to expose, and more frauds practiced, and the deplorable results of more ignorance imposed upon the agricultural community, than in this country. It is not because this subject has not been before our legislative bodies, for, and I am sorry to be obliged to own it, a son of Pennsylvania vetoed the first Agricultural College bill that seriously came before our National Legislature. I saw the re- cord of that veto, when a student in the German University on the other side of the Atlantic. I saw it with shame and with sorrow; with shame, that our Chief Executive did not appreciate the claims of Agricultural Education, and with sorrow, that our country would lose the blessings that the bill would have con- ferred upon the millions of our citizens in the present and in the future, who now cultivate, and will cultivate, our soil. * Then if none of these causes afford a reason for our not having done more, we may again ask, " Why h<^ve toe not done it ?" I will at present leave the question, gentlemen, for you to consider, feeling confident that so far as it lies within your power, each and every one of you will labor for such a condition of things in our country, as will make its answer unnecessary. But I have already trespassed too much upon your time. In conclusion, I will as briefly as possible call your attention to a number of things that ought to be done in this country. 1st. Agricultural Schools and Colleges. — "We want Agricul- tural Schools established in our country, at which agricultural principles can be taught, in connection with agricultural practice- These schools must be of a high order, Thei/ must be capable of 36 affording the student all the knowledge that science can afford in relation to all the operations of Agriculture. They must stand in"t]ie same relation to Agriculture that our highest Military Academies stand to the art and SGience of war, or that the Poly- technic Schools of Europe stand to the practical duties of En- gineering. Their professors should be a higher class of men in relatioB to what they have to teach, than those need be who teach the older and more fully developed sciences. Not only must they teach, but they must be capable of collecting together the mate- rial they are to teach. They must analyze it, and digest it, and sift out the few valuable facts and principles that are known, from the mass of worthless suggestions and theories, amongst which they are found, and bring these before the student. They should be men who are capable of extending the domain of Agricultural Science, in whatever particular department of it they may be called to labor. It is not necessary that a teacher of mathe- matics and the older sciences, should be capable of extending human knowledge, in any of the departments in which he teaches. He'may be an excellent teacher, and yet incapable of attaining to the limits of what is known, much less to penetrate the veil of nature's hidden resources, that have never been opened up to man. But not so with your teacher of Agricultural Science. Not only must he know all that is known, but he must stand upon the out- posts of science, and gather new jewels from her unexplored limits. He must be the investigator as well as the teacher, — the investigator, that he may build up his undeveloped science, and thus know what he teaches. Again, it is more advanced Agri- cultural Schools, corresponding to our Colleges, and not Elemen- tary Schools, corresponding to our Common Schools, that is first wanted. An Elementary Agricultural School, without a higher Agricultural School, from whence to get its fundamental ideas, would be but a trashy affair. ' It would bring contempt upon the whole subject of agricultural instruction. It would be attempt- ing to teach what was not yet known, without any power to extend our knowledge. Such schools would be like a clock without any pendulum, a watch without any balance-\jrheel — they would soon go down ! Farmer's High School or Pennsylvania. — I may be ex- pected to say something in regard to our Farm School in Centre 37 county, with which I am associated. My time forbids my saying as much as I would like. I must, however, say, that if this In- stitution is sustained as it should he ; if its buildings are com- pleted upon the original plan, and it receives a reasonable support I have not the slightest doubt that it could be made the best Ag- ricultural Institution in the world. This is not merely a "spread eagle declaration," characteristic of American oratory, (and ori- ginating in the ignorance of the speaker,) as a somewhat similar expression of mine was supposed to be by an American agricul- tural editor, some time ago I have visited all the Agricultural Schools of importance in Europe, have examined their system of instruction, and contemplated with them their prospects, and am prepared to say, that if we cannot institute a more complete and thorough theoretical and practical course of instruction at the " Farm, School" than any of them embrace, we will not have done justice to our subject. We can surpass them, because we possess much better faculties for developing such institutions than they possess. We can have a higher order of students than they can have. Our schools can be patronized by, and dignified by the patronage of, a more influential class of people than theirs are. Our students will have more ambition and higher aspirations than ' theirs have. Our efforts will not be paralyzed by the blighting influence of arjgtocratic castes a3 theirs are. Our attempts at uniting agricultural labor with agricultural study will not be crip- pled by the degradation and cheapness of labor, as theirs have been. Indeed, the entire character of our institutions ; the fun- damental ideas of our people in regard to the dignity of labor; our general mixing and intermingling of all classes of society, and the growing intelligence of our people, together with the fact, that this is the greatest agricultural community on the face of the earth — all enable us to build up the best Agricultural Schools in the world, and we must do it ! We must do it in Pennsylva- nia! and I think, gentlemen, that we will do it. On the other hand, if our Farm School does not receive aid to finish its build- ings, it must stop, and the money expended on it will become a dead loss. But of this, no one who has any State pride, could think for one moment. H^ 2d. State Chemists. — We must have State Chemists. Not honorary officers, who may, if they choose, spend a fortune out 38 of their own pockets, looking after the agricultural interest, or let the agricultural interest look after itself, according as they are, or are not, willing to make great sacrifices without reward. We must have State Professorships, with salaries, such as will induce competent men to accept them ; and they must he sup- plied with means to carry out the several duties of investigation connected with their office. These professorships could most economically be filled by persons connected with our Agricultural College. The example set us by the English and Scotch Agri- cultural Societies, to which I have referred, is an excellent one for imitation in this respect. 3d. Agricultural Scientific Investigation Stations. — We want Stations for the purpose of conducting experiments, in order to develop the principles of agricultural practice, which must be taught in our schools and followed in our fields, and for the pur- pose of investigating such questions of agricultural practice as may present themselves for solution. Such a Station should em- brace a farm for experiments in the growth of crops, a chemical laboratory for examining them, and stalls, stables, &c., adapted to feeding animals, with a view of estimating the value of different kinds of food for cattle. It would also be well to connect this with an Agricultural College, and the chair of State Chemist, to which I have just referred, although in Europe these Stations are often isolated from both of them. •♦• 4th. Agricultural Statistics. — We want an organized system, by which Agricultural Statistics can be collected, for the purpose of showing the state of our Agriculture every year. It is an im- mense source of wealth to any nation to Jcnow just how wealthy she is. Half the consequences of poverty may be avoided by knowing the extent of poverty. In France, where the stability ' of government and protection from bloody revolutions is often dependent upon the ability of the rulers to stop the mouths of a hungry populace, these truths are acted upon. A few weeks after harvest, the government knows how much agricultural produce is in the country. It knows what will be wanted by the people, and if there is not sufficient for them, measures are taken in due time, while the prices are reasoili^e, to secure a proper quantity for consumption. It is impossible to calculate the advantages to the farmer of being able to know, at an early date, just how muck 39 grain is in the country, how many cattle for sale, &c. ko. He might, in advance, calculate the price of agricultural products, and not be holding on for a higher price, to be disappointed at last by its falling. But I have not time to enlarge on this sub- ject. And lastly, we want "A National Agricultural Bureau," that should represent the agricultural interest in the National Legislature, and serve as a kind of union between all the isolated agricultural interests of the country ; to be in communication with all the State Associa- tions, Agricultural Schools and Colleges, Investigation Stations, State Agricultural Chemists, Collectors of Statistics, &c. &o., to which reference has just been made. It should afford, as far as possible, a connection with similar institutions in Europe, that agricultural science and agricultural progress throughout the world might be encouraged and advanced by the united eflForts of all civilized nations in urging it forward, with all the means that the united science and experience and intelligence of the entire world.could bring to bear upon the subject. In conclusion, gen- tlemen, allow me to hope that you will think upon these propo- sitions : they involve questions of far more importance to your interests as farmers, than do a vast number of political questions, to which your attention is much more devoted. Eefleot upon them, and urge their consideration of your representatives and legislators in the Legislative Halls of our State and National Capital. I regret that I have not been able more fully to do justice to this subject, as your patience in standing up here and Itstening as you have done, has merited an abler effort, but I shall always remember this my first visit to this part of your beautiful valley, with grateful feeling for your attention in listening to a subject which, to me, appears to have been too much neglected upon oc- casions of this kind. Reprinted from the Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society. ON A NEW METHOD FOR THE QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OP NITRIC ACID. By Dr. E. Pugh. In a paper read before the Chemical Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Leeds for 1858, the author gave the chemical principles involved in a new method for the determination of nitric acid, together with some results illustrating the accuracy of the same. The object of the present paper is to give some details of manipulation, a knowledge of which is essential to the successful use of the method, as also to indicate some collateral points involved in cases of nitric acid determinations that are likely to occur. The difficulties of estimating small quantities of nitric acid by any of the known methods, were sufficient to make it desirable that some better methods should be known. The great reducing power of the subchloride of tin suggested the idea of using it to deoxidise nitric acid ; and the very exact method of August Streng {Pogg, Ann. xcii, 57) of estimating the amount of tin oxidised, and hence the amount of nitric acid reduced, seemed to offer the necessary conditions of success. § 1. Streng's method consists in ascertaining how much of a solution of bichromate of potash, of known strength, is necessary to convert a given amount of protochloride of tin, in chlorhydric 2 PUGH, ON A NEW METHOD FOR THE acid solution, into perchloride ; the point of complete cUoridation being known by the deep blue colour produced, by the liberation of iodine from iodide of potassium, in presence of starch, by the first drop of bichromate solution above that necessary to raise the protochloride to perchloride. § 2. This method is recommended by the ease with which the reagents are obtained in a state for use, and by the absence of any tendency on the part of the bichromate solution to change on keeping, and most particularly by the characteristic action that marks the point of complete oxidation. § 3. An attempt to reduce nitric acid in open vessels gave no constant results ; nor was the experiment more successful when conducted in vessels from which the air had been exhausted by repeated pumpings, and subsequent influx of carbonic acid. This corresponded with the results of Dr. Mohr, who, in 1855, says, in his Lehrhuch der Titrirmethode, p. 218, that he found an amount of oxidation corresponding to more than three atoms of oxygen for each atom of nitric acid present, from which he erroneously concluded that protoxide of nitiogen, or even nitrogen gas, was evolved in the process. § 4. In a great number of experiments, in which the time of boiling under carbonic acid gas varied from 30 minutes to 6 hours, and in which almost all possible proportions of nitric acid, chlo- rhydric acid, and protochloride of tin were used, no conditions could be found that would give constant results. The amount of oxidation obtained varied from 3 to 6 atoms of oxygen for every atom of nitric acid present ; and ten hours boiling was not suffi- cient to raise the oxidation above 7 atoms. And what was re- markable, it was possible to get an amount of oxidation from 3 or 4 millegrammes of nitric acid, corresponding to 4 or 5 atoms of oxygen, while with '060 grms. of nitric acid, the proportional amount of oxidation was very little higher. This would seem to indicate, either that on long boiling the nitric acid acquires a passive state, with regard to the proto- chloride of tin, or that there is a more or less stable interme- diary compound formed during the reaction, beyond which the oxidation cannot be carried without a higher temperature. § 5. An examination of the carbonic acid over the fluid after the reaction, showed the absence of nitrogen and protoxide of nitrogen. The fluid, on the contrary, was found to contain am- monia, which corresponded in quantity with the amount of tin QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OF NITEIC ACID. 3 subchloride oxidised, and hence suggested an explanation of the reaction by the formula : NO5 + 8 (SnCl + HCl) = NH3 + SSnCl^ + 3H0 § 6. On raising the temperature in a closed vessel to 140° for half an hour, the oxidation effected was equal to that of 8 atoms of oxygen for each atom of nitric acid present ; and at a tempera- ture of 170°, the reaction with -060 grms. of nitric acid was com- pleted in 10 minutes ; it being, indeed, only necessary to raise the temperature to this point in an oil-bath, and then remove the lamp, and allow the reaction to take place during the few minutes the temperature of the bath was rapidly falling. These reactions suggested the following process : § 7. To make an aqueous solution of bichromate of potash of such strength, that a. times the unit of weight of salt wiil be contained in h. times the unit of volume of the solution. Then the unit of volume of the solution will contain - units of weight b of the salt. A.nd take, of a solution of protochloride of tin with great excess of chlorhydric acid, a quantity sufiS.cient to reduce at least one- fourth more nitric acid than is supposed to be present in the substance to be examined. Then ascertain the number n of units of volume of the bichro- mate solution required to chloridate this quantity. Digest a like quantity in a sealed tube with the nitric acid to be determined, in au oil-bath at 170° for 10 minutes, and then ascertain the number n of units of volume of the bichromate solution required to complete the chloridation. Then ^ (n—n') = the number of units of weight of the b bichromate solution required to oxidate an amount of proto- chloride of tin equal to that oxidated by the nitric acid acted upon. And from the formulae : NOg -H 8 (SnCl + HCl) =NH3 + SSnCl^ + 5H0 and KCaCrOj + 3SrCl + 4HC1 = Cvf>^ + 3SnCl -1- 3H0 + KCl we get the equivalent value of nitric acid and bichromate of potash expressed by NO5 = f KO, aCrOg 4 PUGH, ON A NEW METHOD FOB THE That is, one unit of weight of bichromate of potash corresponds to a number of units of weight of nitric acid equal to _ ~ ^V KG, 2CrO, / f (KG, 2Cr03) ^V KG, 2Cr03 consequently, if x equal the quantity of nitric acid present, we have "13775 x ^ (ra— w') = a;. § 8. This result is obtained without paying any regard to the atomic weight of tin ; indeed, the absolute quantity of tin used need not be known. It is also much better to pay no regard to the atomic weight of chromic acid in fixing the strength, - of the solution, since whatever value r- ™ay have, the co- efficient 6 of {n—ri) can always be reduced to a single number of 4, or at most 5 digits; and the labour of repeating a single multipli- cation for each determination is of less importance than that of getting the solutions of an exact strength to correspond with the atomic weights as is usually recommended. Besides, it is of more importance in all volumetric analyses that the strength of the solutions be properly adapted to the size of the burette and the pipettes used, so that the maximum error of reading off the amount of solution required shall be inappreci- able, than that they should be chosen with a view to facilitate the calculation of the result. And the latitude of this choice is too limited when confined to a multiple of so large a number as 10, as must be the case when simplicity of calculation is sought by such means. § 9 We may now pass to the subject of the' preparation of the reagents used. The bichromate of the shops may be used, after recrystaUisation and drying. The subchloride of tin may be prepared by hanging a piece of block tin or tin foil with a platinum wire, in a flask containing concentrated chlorhydric acid. The wire should pass a few times round the tin, in order, by multiplicity of contact, to promote the electro-chemical action, without which the tin dissolves very slowly. A drop of bichloride of platinum has also been recommended to hasten the dissolution, but the precipitated platinum in the solu- tion stops up the pipettes, and is therefore, objectionable. When so much of the tin has dissolved, that it requires about 3 units of volume of the bichromate solution to oxidate 1 volume QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OF NITRIC ACID. 5 of itj the remaining tin may be removed by the platinum wire, and the solution retained in a well-stoppered bottle for use. If the chlorhydric acid used contained either nitric acid or chlorine, as the purest article of the shops always does, it will have been destroyed by the tin. A weak solution of iodide of potassium, free from iodate of potash, must be used. As only 3 or 4 drops of a weak solution are used, the presence of traces of iodic acid is immaterial. The starch paste or mucilage should be so thin that it can readily be drawn into a small pipette. A few milligrammes of starch added to half a pint of boiling water will answer. § 10. Supposing the unit of volume to be the cubic centimetre, the unit of weight the gramme, and the diameter of the burette to be such that the maximum error of reading is less than •jL of this unit, as was the case in my own experiments, then for ordinary determinations, 40 grms. of the bichromate solution may have so much water added to it, that the whole shall amount to 1000 cubic centimetres. Then ?- = _i2_ = -040 grms. b 1000 And "040 -I- "13775 = -00551 grms. = NO5 corresponding to l.cc. of bichromate solution. Hence = '000375 grms. = maximum error in reading the burette. And -00551 {n—n') = whole nitric acid in a determination. Manipulation. § 11. If no other substance capable of oxidating the tin solution be present in the aqueous extract of the substance to be examined for nitric acid, that extract is evaporated in a small capsule with excess of base (potash, soda, or lime) to as small a volume as possible. A 6 or 8 c. c. pipette is then filled with the tin solution, and emptied into a small tube with narrow neck and fannel shaped top. (See Fig. 1.) The concentrated nitrate is brought into the same tube by means of a 1 c. c. pipette. The capsule is washed, and the wash- ings brought into the tube in like manner. If desirable, the concentrated nitrate can be very accurately divided into two equal parts with this smaU pipette, and brought into two separate tubes for duplicate analysis. 6 PDGH, ON A NEW METHOD FOE THE When ready for closing, the tube should contain — 6 to 8 c. c. subchloride of tin. 10 to 15 c. c. of nitrate and washings. 2 to 3 c. c. air below the point of closing.* This air, if allowed to remain, gives up its oxygen to the tin. It must be removed ; this is effected by dropping a few small pieces of marble as large as a pin-head into the solution, and clos- ing the tube after the evolution of carbonic acid gas has ceased. The tube thus prepared is placed in an oil-bath, for which a small porcelain dish, holding half a pint of oil will answer, and the temperature is raised by a common spirit-lamp. A ther- mometer protected in a glass tube has its bulb placed in the oil to mark the temperature, which, to avoid danger of explosion, is read off through a small telescope. It should here be remarked, however, that in nearly 100 trials only three explosions took place, and these were owing to the tubes being too ftdl of fluid, so that on expanding by heat, the fluid filled the tube, and burst it by the expansive force of water rather than that of steam. In 15 minutes the temperature may be brought to 170°, and after resting 5 minutes at this point, the reaction is completed. § 12. When sufficiently cooled down, a drop of fluid, which mostly adheres to the apex of the tube, must be chased away by a gentle heat from a lamp, and then "the apex is broken off, and the contents brought into a small beaker ; a little starch mucilage and a few drops of iodide of potassium are added, and then the requisite quantity of bichromate is brought in from the burette. We thus get the value (» — «') which, multiplied by "13627-7- b gives the amount of nitric acid present. § 13. The contents of the beaker may be treated with potash to alkaline reaction and then distUled till three-fourths of the fluid have gone over. The distillate may be caught in a titrated acid solution, and the quantity of ammonia formed estimated, from which the nitric acid present may be calculated ; or the contents * These tubes are easily made from glass tubing of the size of the largest or- dinary combustion tubing {\ in. diameter). The end B is closed, and then, about 5 to 6 inches up the tube it is drawn out as at A, care being taken that the glass does not become too thin at this point ; then, after the introduction of the marble to drire out the air, this neck is heated and drawn out almost to capillary fineness ; and the instant the marble is dissolved, the tube is closed. QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OF NITRIC ACID. 7 of the tube may oe distilled with potash at once, and the nitric acid thus determined. This method has the advantage that small quantities of other substances capable of oxidising the subchloride, cannot, if present, affect the result. On the other hand, the acids used must be free from ammonia, as also must the solvent of the tin (§9) be free from nitric acid. And further, when very small quantities of nitric acid are operated upon (as when the whole does not exceed -002 grms.) it is not possible to determine ammonia with that extreme exactness which the above method affords in the determination of nitric acid. § 14. Organic matters capable of oxidising the tin-solution must be removed by boiling the nitrate with permanganate of potash, and then removing the excess of permanganate by carbonate of lead.* Sulphuric acid was found to yield sulphurous acid, but sulphate of baryta did not do so. This acid must, therefore, either be removed, or saturated with chloride of barium. § 15. Or no regard need be paid to these oxidising substances ; the whole may be heated as above (§ 11), and the products treated as in § 13. § 16. Mohr found that the oxidating value of the bichromate solution varied for different quantities of water containing equal quantities of tin ; but he found that if all the air had previously been expelled from the water, no such result was obtained. These observations of Mohr are easily confirmed; but a little care will enable the operator to use so nearly the same quantity of solution each time, that the differences due to the cause just noticed will be inappreciable in ordinary determinations ; but for very small quantities of nitric acid, the air must be removed. § 17. Before finding that a high temperature was essential to give constant results, and finding it impossible to complete the decomposition of the nitrate by the subchloride of tin, and knowing that such decomposition is effected by subchloride of iron, and that the perchloride of iron is reduced by the protochloride of * Recent researches of Cloez and Guignet {Compt. rend, xlvii, 710, 1868), show that a number of nitrogeneous substances (ammonia, aniline, quinine, cin- chonine, the cyanides, and sulpho-cyanides, urea and gelatine, as also several bodies in which hydrogen is replaced by hyponitric acid) give nitric acid with perman- ganate of potash. These substances may be got rid of by boiling with potash, — by distilling with sulphuric acid, — by destroying them with bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid, and then destroying the excess of chromic acid with subchloride of tin, and distilling with excess of sulphuric acid, or by boiling with peroxide of manganese. My own experiments showed, that with meal from cereal and legu- minous grains, either fresh or partly decomposed in a soil, no nitrate was formed by permanganate of potash. 8 PUGH, ON A NEW METHOD, &C. tin, an idea was suggested that the iron might be made a means of conveying the oxygen from the nitric acid to the tin, thus — NO5 + 6FeCl + 3HC1 = NO^ + SFeaClg + 3H0 FejCla + 2SnCl = 2reCl + Sn^Cls and aCrOg + SSn^Cla + 3HC1 = Cr^Oa + eSnClj + 3H0 aCrOg + 3SnCl + 3HC1 .= CraOg + 3SnCl2 + 3HO from which a relation between the oxidating power of nitric acid and chromic acid may be obtained. But this method did not give satisfactory results when the iron and nitric acid acted on each other alone,, and the tin-solution was afterwards made to act on the products thus formed, and the tertiary products thus obtained were treated with the bichromate solution j nor did it when the tin and iron were acted on both at the same time. Although the subchloride of iron alone had no power to prevent the hberation of iodine from iodide of potassium, yet, when mixed with the subchloride of tin, this latter substance required more chromate to oxidate it than when alone, thus indicating a property in the iron subchloride to exhibit reducing forces in connection with the tin, which alone were not manifested. A nitrate, when ignited in a glass tube with protochloride of tin in a current of hydrogen, was found to yield ammonia ; but not in sufficient quantity to indicate the possibility of obtaining a method founded upon the reaction. Nitrate of potash added to a concentrated hot aqueous solution of potash and subchloride of tin in crystals added to the mass, and the whole ignited, gave copious ammoniacal fumes; and several quantitative trials by this method seemed to indicate that if suitable vessels could be obtained for igniting the mixture, a good method for commercial purposes, where great accuracy was not required, might be obtained. But for accuracy of result, the above method with sealed tubes will give results equal to those of any other department of volu- metric analysis. For those who do not like to use sealed tubes, small glass stoppered bottles may be used, the stoppers being bound in by a small copper wire passing over them and around the neck of the bottle. In conclusion, I must express -my obligation to J. B. Lawes, Esq., for his kindness in allovnng me the use of the Rothamsted laboratory, and its apparatus and reagents, for these experiments. SOME OBSERVATIONS • ON THE MOTIONS OP CERTAIN WINDING PLANTS. bt wm. h. brewer, Professor of Chemistry in Washington College, Pa. [from the AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XXVII, MARCH, 1859.] ON THE MOTIONS OF WINDING PLANTS. It has long been recognized as a general law, that green plants during tlicir grovvtli grow towards tlie liglit, but all the botanical works that liave come under my observation, which Fpenk of winding plants and tendrils in this connection, speak of them as forming, practically, an exception to tliis law, that is, ihat they turn towards some "-dark" or "opaque" object. Thiitthey do turn towards a solid support hns long been observed, the fact is undisputed, and the cause of this motion, instinctive as it were, towards some solid around which they may twine lias al- ways been given, directly or inferentially as the absence of light, or more properly the opacity or non-luminous character of the support. I have been unable to find any account of experi- ments on this property of certain plants or of certain organs of plants further than merely to show the fact, that it exists. During the summer of 1855 I made some observations on the growth of a hop vine {Humulus) to ascertain more precisely the relations between the rate of growth at different hours of the day, and the temperature, clearness and other atmos])heiic con- ditions. To effect this the vine was measured at stated hours several times each day, and the better to do this it was not allowed to wind around, but v.-as trained up one side of a smootli pole. Incidental to the desired observations, it wns noticsd that during the heat of tlie day, although the plant sometimes grew several inches, it grew towards the light with only a very slight tendency to wind around the pole, while during the night, (jron cold days, while the rate of growth was slower it wouhl assume the spiral and cling closely to the support. On one occasion, when a number of plants were only from one to two feet high, a sli'dit fall of snow took ])lace which remained a day or more, and in a few hours, all the plants which had sprung up from the ground and remained perfectly erect until this time, inclined at a high angle towards a lattice which was artificially heated. It was also found that they would climb a transparent glass tube almost or quite as readily as an opaque stick. These and similar observations at other times suggested to me that the cause of the motion towards a support was not owing to any influence of light, or its absence, but rather to heat, and to elucidate this subject a series of experiments were made at Ovid, N. Y., during the last summer. These consisted in the main of presenting a warm and a cold support to some winding plant, and then observing if it mani- fested any preference. The plants experimented on were the 203 W. H. Brewer on the Motions of Winding Plants. common Lima bean {Phaseolus lunalus L.) and the common morn- ing glory, (Convoluulus purpureus 1j.) The general plan was to keep the plants in a closed room during the day and early part of the evening, where the air could be kept at a rather high and nearly constant temperature, and then remove them for the night into another room where the temperature was several degrees lower than the first, where the warm and cold supports were presented to them. This room was also closed and darkened that neither currents of air nor morning light should interfere with the accuracy of the experiments. For the supports tin tubes were u.sed, of the a ' shape given in the figure, having a funnel a, ^^ at the top, and an elbow h, at the bottom, form- ^-^ ing an obtuse angle. These were about an inch ill diameter, similar in size and shape, and the vertical part painted black. These could be kept cool by filling with cold water, and if de- sired by placing ice in the funnel a, and could be warmeci and kept at any desired tempera- ture higher tiian the air, by a small spirit lamp placed under the end c. 'For the use of glass and other materials, an elbow of tin was em- ployed, and then the straight tubes fitted with a cork. To test the effect of colors, tin tubes were painted of various colors, and in some cases colored paper was pasted around them. White, black, red, pink, green, blue, and yel- low, were tried. When in use the tubes were held in a nearly vertical position, about five inches apart, one filled with well-water a few degrees colder than the surrounding air, the other filled with warm water and kept heated to any desired tem- perature by a spirit lamp, generally from 5° to 12° Fahr., above the temperature of the air in the room. The plant was placed at the beginning of the experiment so as to be midway between the two tubes, not exactly ])arallel with them, but crossing their plane at a low angle. It w;is allowed to remain without dfsturb- ance from 9 p. m. until 7 A. M., and its position, the temperature of the air and the water in the tubes and other conditions accu- rately noted at the beginning and close of each experiment. Many preliminary experiments were made to devise means to avoid the various causes of interference, and to test and per- fect tlie apparatus, and they so far succeeded that I consider the results given as reliable. Afl:er these, a series of fifty-two experiments were carefully made, of which nineteen were with Convolvulus, and twenty -three with Phaseolus. These gave in thirty-six cases results confirmatory, that is, the vines turned to W. H. Brewer on the Motions of Winding Plants. 204 or towards the warmed tube, in fourteen cases they showed no especial preference, and in only two cases did they tarn to tlie cold tube. In these fifty-two experiments, the right tube was heated twenty-five times, and the results were nineteen confirma- tory and six indifferent ; the left tube twenty-seven times, and the results seventeen confirmatory, eight indifferent and two con- tradictory, (that is, turned to the cold tube). In both of these latter cases the nights were exceedingly hot (one was 84° F.) and the experiments were in a room in which the sun had shown a part of the day and the walls had become heated, so tliat on closing the room the temperature rose during the night several degrees ; the heat radiated from the walls doubtless effected the resnlts. During the cooler nights, or Avhen the temperature was below 65° F., the results were most marked, and generally in the morning the point of the vine, left the evening before midway between the two tubes, would be found not only moved towards the heated tube but would be closely twining around it, the point of growth lying closely against the surliace. The right and left tubes were in turn heated on alternate nights and also they were made to exchange places occa.=iionally. As both of the plants experimented on wind to the left, (the right according to Bischof) it will be readily seen that it makes much difference which tube is heated, when the plant is placed in the position relative to them which I have described, in the form the spirals will assume. Thus, let a and b be the sections of the two tubes, and c the ^ extremity of the plant c d, at the beginning "' of the experiment. Then if a be heated (the one I have assumed as the left tube in the description) the plant will gradually assume .. „ the position of the dotted line m m, by sim- (V)'i ply turning to the left. If however, the right ..b^' tube, b, be heated, the plant will take the direction of the dotted line « n, by first rising vertical and then passing behind and around the tube. The room in which all the experiments (with the tubes) were conducted had but one window, opening west, which at night was carefully closed and darkened. In half an hour, sometimes in a few minutes, after the light had been admitted in the morning, the growing point of the vine would slightly relax the hold with which it would press against the support, and then during the day its growth Avould be towards the light. During this period, the tendency to grow in the direction of the light was vastly greater towards the •warmed tube ; in fact, the Phaseolus seemed to be entirely insen- eible to the latter during this time, and the Convolvulus nearly so. \N r 205 W. H. Brewer on the Motions of Winding Plants. I found that the Phaseolas, if grown in a room in which the temperature was liigh and near]y constant, not falling more than 3° or 4° F. during the night, would wind about a support in such very long loose spirals that it could not retain its position, but would slide down from time to time, and this same plant, when allowed tiie influence of cooler nights, would then wind in shorter spirals and cling with its accustomed tenacity to the smooth stick wd)ich served as a support. Furthermore, I found tbat by placing a plant in such a position that the sun could shine on its growing extremity, but not on its support^ and changing it occasionally to keep up the conditions, turning it so that its tendency to grow towards tlie light was in opposition to that of its winding, and then keeping it at night at nearly the same tem- perature that it had during the day, I could entice it entirely away from the support until a length of several feet of the vine was pendant and unsupported. These indicate the same fact sustained by the experiments with the tubes, viz., that plants wind best when the support is warmer than the air. This condition is fulfilled in nature at night, as the solid absorbs the sun's rays by day and cools more slowly than the surrounding air by night. I am aware that such plants will wind in nature around cold supports, such as growing plants of other species, but I doubt if their first direction towards them, before the contact is more than accidental. There appears to be much difference in the force with which different species of winding plants assume the spiral. The Con- volvulus seemed much more sensitive to the influence of heat than the Phaseolus, before it was in contact with anything, and much more independent of it afterward, for when once in contact with a support it could not be induced to again leave it, and would follow a piece of twine or slender rod apparently as read- ily as a more solid material. Many experim.ents seemed to in- dicate that contact with the support modifies the force with which plants assume the spiral, that in fact, although the fibres of the plant are somewhat spiral about its axis before contact, after- wards, these spirals are shorter, and only then will the whole plant assume a spiral form as if to enclose something in its turns. This was beautifully shown by introducing the end of a vine into a thill glass tube at night; the fibres of the plant would as- sume a shorter spiral and sometimes the plant itself would wind around on the inner surface of the tube in the sarne form and direction as if it had enclosed some cylinder in its turns, while ])lants not so treated would remain nearly straight and their fibres less spiral. The expeiiments with tubes of various colors gave no results materially different from the others. W. H. Brewer on the Motions of Winding Plants. 206 These experiments were more striking than was anticipated, but were prosecuted under difficulties which prevented their be- ing completed. They are intended as the preliminaries to more extended and complete investigations in the same direction, to be continued at some future time, embracing the interesting question, whether tendrils are influenced by the same causes and follow the same law, also some things relating to the direction of winding plants, the length of their spirals compared with their diameter, the di- rection of the spiral growth of various trees, &c. Some obser- vations have already been made on all of these subjects except that of tendrils. The experiments performed, indicate, I think, 1st. That during the day winding plants like others grow towards the light. 2d. That they possess the property of turning towards some solid support. 3d. That this is more manifest by night than by day, and the most so on cool nights following hot days. 4th. That this is not controlled by any influence of light or its absence, exerted by the suj)port. 5th. That heat is the controlling cause, and that such plants will only turn (unless it be accidentally) towards a support, tiie temperature of which is higher than that of the surrounding air. 6th. That the color and material of the support exert no in- fluence further than that they influence the radiation and absorp- tion of heat ; and 7th. That when such plants are in actual contact with some support, the tendency to wind spirally around it is much greater than they manifested in order to reach it. CONTRIBUTION MANUFACTURE REFmiNG OF CAKE-SUGAR. Gh.. A. Groessmann, Ph. D. Syracuse, New Yorfc. NEW YORK: HOLMAN, BOOK AND JOB PKINTEE, CORNER OF CENTRE AND WHITE STREETS. 1864. CONTRIBUTION MANUFACTURE DEFINING OF CAl^E-SUGAE. Mr. Kessler has lately communicated, in a letter to Charles Barreswil,* observations concerning the application of caustic magnesia for the defecation of the raw juice of the beet. The results obtained proved so very satisfactory, that he is in favor of the use of caustic magnesia, instead of caustic lime, which at present is almost universally applied for that purpose. As these statements can not fail to attract the attention of the manufac- turers of raw sugar, as well as of sugar refiners, I have thought that a further publication of observations of the same or similar import would prove acceptable to the parties interested. The fresh juice of the real sugar-cane, obtained by pressure of powerful iron rollers, contains in solution sufficient of such nitrogenous matters as would produce, not only a rapid trans- formation of the entire amount of cane-sugar into grape-sugar (glucose), but also the subsequent destruction of the latter by **'Eepert de.Chim. Appliques." By Mr. Charles Barreswil. Paris, 7th of July, 1863. p. 252, fermentation. The tropical climate of the countries, where the sugar-cane is most successfully raised, tends in a high degree to these disastrous results. Any means, therefore, which would ef- fectually and at the same time most rapidly deprive these com- pounds of their obnoxious influence, should in these localities deserve particular attention in preference to all others. Their removal by coagulation and precipitation, and not their destruc- tion while still in their original solution, has been, for obvious reasons, the main aim of a successful defecation. Several acids, various basic oxyds, and some of their compounds, have been known for a long time to precipitate more or less thoroughly a series of indifferent organic compounds similar to those which accompany the cane-sugar in the cane-juice, and quite a number of them have been actually recommended at different times for the manufacturing of the sugar more advantageously. Some oxyds, and their soluble compounds probably best adapted to the producing of this effect, have been rejected, on account of the danger arising from a possibility of neglect in removing poison- ous compounds.* Baryta, it seems, has suffered the same fate for the same reason. f Caustic lime, which meets everywhere with favor, has retained its reputation thus far, probably not less on account of its superior action, than on account of its cheapness, and the harmlessness of its compounds. While a general prefer- ence has thus been conceded to the latter, there were always some reasons why the manufacturer of sugar felt disposed to listen to new propositions, and try new experiments, which might obviate the inconveniences arising from the use of caustic lime, or to substitute in its stead some compound, more liable to expense, it is true, but more open to beneficial results. The steadily increasing price of bone-black is one of the main causes which urges manufacturers and refiners to improve their methods, and to lend a more willing ear to new suggestions. The more costly caustic magnesia, if proved efficient, might, even on that account, expect at present a fairer chance of intro- duction than it would have claimed at an earlier period in the de- velopment of the manufacturing, as well as the refining, of sugar. * Lieljg & Kopp's Jahresbei-ioht, 1847-48, p. 1106 ; and 1849, p. 704; and 1850, p. 68. Patent Office Report, 1849-60, p. 463. t Lepfay & Dubrunfaut. Liebig & Kopp's Jahresberioht, 1863, p. 763. '' Bepert de Chim, Appliqu4e," ii. , p. 169. Caustic lime is highly soluble in a solution of cane-sugar, a peculiarity which may be the real source of the objections some- times raised against its application for the defecation. I favor the opinion, that the main disadvantages which may result from its use are due less to its inefficiency, compared with other means hitherto proposed for that purpose, than to the variablecharacterof cane-juice itself ; for the kind of cane, season, soil, etc., mark their influence upon the latter, not to speak of the unreliable quality of caustic lime, rather too commonly employed. In taking this view of the question, I believe I by no means deny or under- rate the fact that those circumstances which cause the change- ableness of the cane-juice, etc., have been the source of many vexations, and that they require, in order to be successfully counteracted, the most careful attention on the part of a well-in- formed superintendent. Considering the waste of cane-sugar, in consequence of an in- efBcient removal of the ferment-creating compounds of the cane- juice, the most serious feature in the manufacture of sugar within the tropical climes, I can not but believe the unavoidable darker color, which even a careful application of caustic lime necessarily produces, the less of the two evils dreaded. Speaking of an un- avoidable darker color as a natural consequence of the use of caustic lime, it seems advisable to explain my meaning of that statement. Caustic lime, although considered a very efficient means of rendering most of the obnoxious compounds of the cane- juice insoluble near or at the boiling point, does not remove them entirely at that temperature, as experience plainly shows. Such an effect requires a continued boiling of the slightly alkaline liquid. The usual manner in which the defecation of the cane- juice is carried on absolutely excludes, as we are aware, such a proceeding; and as heat alone does not destroy rapidly enough the fermenting compounds, a certain degree of an alkaline re- action in the defecated juice must prove to be the best protection of the cane-sugar, since it secures the subsequent destruction of the compounds in question. While thus a slight excess of caustic lime secures a good result, as regards the quantity of cane-sugar finally obtainable, it causes, on account of that desirable effect, quite a considerable increase of color in the cane-juice, and in the syrups, during the process of the manufacture. The danger of neglect in the use of difierent methods merits serious attention, when commenting on the means to be taken in order to have satisfactory results. However, this danger ought not to influence too exclusively the final conclusion as to the means, since, to make a fair comparison between them, we must suppose equal care in the execution of the processes. To ascertain the proper quality of lime necessary to procure an increased percentage of cane-sugar as a compensation for the pecuniary disadvantages, resulting from a darker color in the clarified juice, will doubtless be considered a much easier task, by sugar masters in the tropical climates, than to obtain a satisfactory percentage of the better qualities of raw sugar from an imperfectly defecated cane-juice. Before I had witnessed* the rapidity and the extent of the decomposition of cane-sugar during the manufacture of the raw sugar, I felt somewhat inclined to believe that the good results which I had observed in many instances in the refining of the latter, by the application of caustic magnesia, might find a further illustration in the defecation of cane-juice. Yet my own personal observations, while in Cuba, have altered my opinion ; and I am now strongly inclined to believe that the "exclusive" use of caustic magnesia in the warmer climate, for defecation, would be both an expensive and dangerous experiment, at least, so long as the present system of manufacturing is ad- hered to in its main features. In regard to countries of a more moderate clime, I do not assume to express any opinion, for my experience does not entitle me to question any of the results reported by Mr. Kessler. My doubts of the efficacy of caustic magnesia for the purpose above mentioned, in said localities, are. also strengthened by the results of a series of experiments,, which I made several years ago.f Those experiments were made partly for the purpose of confirming my views with respect to- certain statements in our chemical literature, partly also for the- purpose of comparing the effects of caustic lime and caustia magnesia under certain corresponding circumstances. I here briefly state the results, as far as they bear upon the subject in question, for the purpose of enabling parties interested to form their own opinion as to the consequences, arid to supply any * Those observations date from the winter of 1860 to 1861, while visiting the island of Cuba. ■j-Thepe experiments were made in 1857, when I was engaged in studying the efficacy of caustic magnesia for refining purposes. 6 deficiency, if such is their wish. I proposed to myself the follow- ing questions : 1. What influence has caustic lime upon cane-sugar and upon grape-sugar ? 2. Does atmospheric air or pure oxygen gas influence the effect of caustic lime upon the two kinds of sugar in question ? 3. Does ferment, dissolved in a solution of cane-sugar, retain its peculiar influence upon the various kinds of sugar after having been subjected to a boiling heat ? 4. What influence has carbonate of lime under the circum- stances stated in the previous question ? 5. How does ferment act upon cane-sugar in the presence of either caustic lime or caustic magnesia ? The remarkable solubility of caustic lime in a solution of cane- sugar has been the subject of a series of investigations, the result of which* tend in a great part to establish the following facts : Caustic lime, under different circumstances, forms different combinations with cane-sugar. More concentrated solutions of the latter dissolve larger quantities of the former, and the com- binations formed in some instances are more soluble at common temperature than at their boiling point ; for heated, they form, by a certain concentration while insoluble, compounds in the form of precipitates. When engaged in repeating the former mentioned experiments, I became convinced that cane-sugar is not changed by caustic lime, and that it may be separated again completely, and remain unchanged. Grape-sugar, heated with caustic lime, is easily de- stroyed, and forms, according to temperature, more or less of a resin— like hHminHi substance ■■■■H^ of carbonic acid and of formylic acid.f Access of air does not alter materially, in either case, the effects mentioned ; for cane-sugar does not suffer at all, and grape-sugar seems only to produce the volatile acids in a larger proportion. The effectSjOf pure oxygen gas upon both kinds of sugar in the presence of Dasic oxyd, for instance, caustic lime (or caustic ba- ryta), differ much in intensity. The experiments which elicited this fact were thus made : At common temperature, and over * " Compter Rendua." xxxii. , pp. 333-469. Peligot, Salieiran, Peloaze, etc. t Compare Cheralier and Cottereau, Peligot, etc. ; Berzelius' Jahresbericht tor 1846. mercury, I filled two long-necked glass flasks, one partly with a solution of grape-sugar, the other partly with n solution of cane- sugar (both solutions containing an equal amount of caustic baryta dissolved), and partly with oxygen gas. The solutions rested in both cases upon a broad sheet of mercury. I substitut- •ed caustic baryta for caustic lime for this reason, that it would enable me to produce, as far as possible in both cases, colorless solutions with an equal percentage of the basic oxyd. The so- lution of cane-sugar remained for weeks almost unchanged. The •corresponding solution of grape-sugar absorbed rapidly the ox- ygen gas, with hai-dly any change in color. The absorption in either case was favored bj' a repeated shaking, and took place at common temperature. The final results in the latter case con- sisted of a slightly yellowish solution, which contained formylate of baryta and an excess of caustic baryta, while some carbonate of baryta was separated. It required a considerable time to de- stroy the last trace of color. V. G. B«sanez,* has lately pub- lished some interesting observations on the efifect of ozone upon various organic compounds. He obtained with grape-sugar such results as I myself obtained with oxygen gas. The quantity of oxygen gas originally brought in contact with the solution in question was repeatedly renewed, and in every case almost entirely absorbed ; whether this contained ozone, and in what quantity, I can not state, for I made no test for the purpose of •ascertaining it. To ascertain the effect of ferment f upon cane-sugar after boil- ing, I proceeded as follows : I added a large q\iantity of ferment to a solution of cane-sugar of 16°-11° Baum^, at 18°-19° Cel- sius. Then I raised very rapidly the temperature of the mixture to its boiling point (102° Cels.) and kept it boiling nearly one hour, after which time I carefully separated, by filtration, the so- lution from the insoluble parts. Trommer's grape-sugar test proved that the solution contained a considerable quantity of the latter. Subsequently, I divided the solution into equal parts, and put each part into a glass flask of sufficient size. One part, which I will call No. 1, was left unaltered ; to the other I added * " Annalen der Chem. a Pharm. ," Wbliler, Liebig, and Kopp. 1863. No. for February, p. 211. f On account of the similarity of efifects of the ferments from the juice of sugar-cane and those from malt, I -was induced to select common, fresh brewer's yeast for my experiments. This fer- ment was once washed before being used, it proved in that state very active. several ounces of carbonate of lime (pulv. chalk). I closed both flasks with corks, containing properly shaped glass tubes, for passing the gas probably evolved in a solution of caustic lime. Both corks, were sealed, to render them perfectly tight, and I kept the farther ends of the tubes almost constantly under lime- water. Both experiments were carried on at 20°-22° Gels, dur- ing the same duration of time. Their final results were ascer- tained on the same day. The solution in No. 1 began within a few days to ferment briskly ; a small quantity of mould was formed upon the surface of the liquid. The evolution of carbonic acid gas became more and more lively ; during the succeeding days the mould disappeared gradually from the surface. After being kept three or four weeks, no further apparent change could be observed ; the bottom of the flask was found to be covered with a thin layer of dirty white sediment. This sediment con- tained a considerable quantity of tricalcic phosphate. Heated by itself, it smelled like burned glue ; and mixed with an excess of hydrated caustic lime, it evolved abundantly ammonia gas. I separated the sediment from the liquid by filtration, and subject- ed the latter to a process of distillation, increasing, finally, the temperature for some time to 125°-130° Cels. Thus I obtained 105 grms. of an alcoholic distillate, equal to 15° Kichter, at 18° Gels., containing a quantity of free acetic acid equal to 0.3965 grms. of acetate of soda. The remaining non-volatile, syrup-like mass was brown, having an acid reaction, tasted sweet, and was easily again brought, by increased ferment, to a rapid fermenta- tion. It contained no cane-sugar, no mannite, no lactic acid, and consisted, in its entire mass, of a concentrated solution of grape- sugar, with traces of acetic acid. Whether any succinic acid had been produced, as G. Schmidt * and Pasteur J have observed among the results of an alcoholic fermentation, I have not taken pains to observe, for it presented no particular interest to the main question with respect to the object I had in view. The solution No. 2, containing the carbonate of lime, indicated apparently little change during the first two or three days ; and then became partly covered with a filmy mould, and evolved large quantities of carbonic acid, even after two weeks' keeping. The evolution of this gas kept on in No. 2 three weeks longer than » " Annal. of LiobfgandWbMcr." 1863. April No., p. 126. in No. 1. The carbonate of lime, which, during the first weeks, was partly kept in suspension within the liquid, and thus only loosely covered the bottom of the flask, settled afterward in a compact mass. As soon as no further changes were apparent I separated the liquid part by filtration, leaving upon the filter the excess of carbonate of lime employed and the crystallized part of the new compounds formed during the period of fermentation. The filtrate subjected to distillation (like No. 1) gave an alcoholic liquid of 110 grms., equal to 1 Eichter at 16 Gels., containing free acetic acid, equal to 0.6190 grms. of acetate of soda. The remaining non-volatile residue of the filtrate formed, after cooling, a solid crystalline mass, consisting of acetate of lime, with a small quantity of lactate of lime. The compounds of lime left upon the filter, as mentioned previously, were carbonate of lime (excess taken) and lactate of lime. All the sugar was changed into alcohol, acetic acid, and lactic acid, equal to 16. '1 9 grms. of acetate of lime, and 19.5 grms. of lactate of lime. Two differ- ent processes had here been going on, to a certain extent, simul- taneously; the rapid evolution of carbonic acid was chiefly due to the carbonic acid of the carbonate of lime, while the free acetic acid, in spite of an excess of chalk, may partly be owing to the presence of alcohol. In the presence of carbonate of lime, a total destruction of the grape-sugar had, consequently, taken place. These two experiments illustrated strikingly the serious changes which, in the course of the manufacture of cane-sugar, may result from an imperfect removal of fermentation favoring compounds in consequence of the ineJBSciency of a boiling heat to arrest their influence. The worst feature of these fatal consequences is, un- doubtedly, the change of cane-sugar, namely, its^'ansformation into grape-sugar, which goes on very rapidly, and that from the fact of its not being suspected by a superintendenQacquainted with the nature of cane-sugar, and measures for checking these serious influences not usually being resorted to till too late, if at all. A quantity of the same ferment as used for the experiments just described, caused, after being dried at 60°-80° Cels., no alcoholic fermentation. Kept at 20° Gels., it soon evolved a putrid odor ; yet it gave rise, although slowly, to fermentation, evea after ten days. Equal weights of caustic lime and fresh ferment added successively, and in the sder^Jbove mentioned, to a solution of 10 cane-sugar, had no effect upon the latter. After being kept at 20°-22° Gels, for several days, the cane-sugar could be separated unaltered. I repeated all these experiments, substituting, in every case, caustic magnesia for caustic lime, and found that the differ- ence between those oxyds of alkaline earths manifested itself mere- ly by a different intensity of action. In some instances, it appeared to me that their effect corresponded with their degree of solubili- ty in sugar solutions. Thus, for instance, a sufScient amount of caustic magnesia prevents, if thoroughly mixed, the putrid odor of the ferment ; yet, in cases where equal quantities of caustic lime and caustic magnesia had been applied, the former had always entirely destroyed the fermenting power of the original ferment, while caustic magnesia only partially produced the same effect. Caustic magnesia destroyed far less rapidly the grape-sugar, it retarded fermentation to a considerable degree, precipitated largely nitrogenous matters, yet acted slowly in their final decomposition. All these qualities render caustic magnesia far better fitted, as it appears to me, for the refining of raw sugar than for the defecation of raw juice, at least in the tropical climes. The very property of the caustic magnesia •which causes its insuflSciency for defecation in these localities are, in my opinion, its best recommendation for refining pur- poses. The results stated tend to establish the fact, that caustic lime must be considered the most efficient of the two basic oxyds ; particularly so, if we adhere to the supposition that the change of cane-sugar, and its consequent waste by fermentation, are the most serious features in the manufacture of cane-sugar from sugar-cane. An examination of the Cuba molados, resulting from the defecations carried out by different qroiities of caustic lime, has confirmed me in this opinion. The large percentage of molasses in general made in the plantations, as well as the differ- ence in the relative percentage of the various qualities of sugar, even by pursuing the same system of manufacture with an equal- ly complete set of apparatus, seems to speak in favor of my views of the stated question. Numerous investigations on colonial molade and molasses, for instance, W. Stein's,* furnish not less abundant facts, proving the large degree of waste of *DingIer's "Poljteoli. Journal," xlii. p. 391, 11 cane-sugar by its transformation into grape-sugar, for the latter can, under the best circumstances, only benefit the molasses at the expense of the cane-sugar. When I have argued thus far against an unconditional and ex- clusive substitution of caustic magnesia for caustic lime in the tropical climes, I probably need not say that I always had in view a judicious application of the lime, assisted at the same time by a careful management of all the various processes con- nected with the manufacture of raw sugar. An excess, as well as a deficiency, of caustic lime is accompanied with serious results ; yet, if I had to choose, I would always be in favor of an excess, within a certain limit, rather than of the least deficiency. For, as far as the slight excess of caustic lime is concerned, a serious depreciation of the sugar obtainable may be prevented by chang- ing the subsequent treatment of the defecated cane-juice, or the syrups; while, in the latter case, quality and quantity will suffer beyond hope. After a careful study of the present methods of manufacturing sugar by improved apparatus, as I had an oppor- tunity of witnessing on a certain class of plantations in Cuba, I arrived at the conclusion, that, probably, with little expense for apparatus, labor, etc., some of the disadvantages arising from the use of caustic lime for the purpose of defecation might be successfully removed, and thus its superior energetic action in the preservation of the cane-sugar advantageously secured. My proposition is, in short, to apply a sufficient amount of caustic lime, so as to secure a slight alkaline reaction in the juice, pass- ing for the first time from the (coarse) bone-black filter. Then to concentrate the once filtered juice, if possible, under exclusion of air, by well-regulated heat, discharging the syrup, after it has reached 25°-26° Baumd, into a serpentine or a suitable copper pan, and to add, in a well-divided stream, a suflScient amount of a diluted solution of super-phosphate of lime, to neutralize the free caustic lime. Immediately after this object is accomplished, I would raise the mixture rapidly to its boiling point, remove the unavoidable slight excess of acid phosphate by an excess of caustic magnesia, and keep it boiling before filtering in presence of the latter for ten to fifteen minutes. The excess of caustic lime will thus be precipitated, a further serious increase of color avoid- ed, for caustic magnesia is only slightly soluble in a solution of sugar, and the original color of the syrup will be rather improved, 12 Large quantities also of impurities of differfiat character will be rendered insoluble, no soluble compounds of any practical con- sequence added, and still the so highly desirable slightly alkaline reaction (of less serious consequences) during the progress of the succeeding operations will be restored. One or two sets of common leaf or bag filters, such as are commonlj' used in sugar refineries, are sufficient to filter rapidly a solution of 15,000 to 20,000 lbs. of sugar. The effects of caustic magnesia for similar purposes in manu- facture are so well and favorably known, that the proposition to introduce it as an auxiliary means for defecation, and par- ticularly as a most efficient means for the refining of raw sugar, can not appear strange. I consider caustic magnesia, in conse- quence of my own experience during my occupation as a prac- tical sugar refiner, a very excellent means for the clarification of the raw sugar, and of the syrups for purging. Its scarcity for such technical purposes, as those commented on, appears to be a principal cause of its high price. Raw material for the manu- facture of magnesia, as Mr. Kessler very judiciously remarks, abounds in almost every country. Nothing, in fact, remains to be done, but to create a demand. ON A NEW PROCESS ORGANIC ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS SUBSTANCES CONTAINING CHLORINE. By C. M. WARREN. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES : JANTJABT 31, 1866. 83 tallography, where the forms are essentially geometrical, we are told that " natural crystals are always more or less distorted or imperfect," and that " the science of crystallography could never have been devel- oped from observation alone";* i. e. without recourse to ideal concep- tions. An assertion, like that of Lord Brougham, that there is in the cell of the bee "perfect agreement" between theory and observation, in view of the analogies of nature, is far more likely to be wrong than right ; and his assertion in the case before us is certainly wrong. Much error would have been avoided, if those who have discussed the structure of the bee's cell had adopted the plan followed by Mr. Darwin, and studied the habits of the cell-making insects comparatively, begin- ning with the cells of the humble-bee, following with those of the wasps and hornets, then with those of the Mexican bees (Melipona), and, final- ly, with those of the common hive-bee. In this way, while they would have found that there is a constant approach to the perfect form, they would at the same time have been prepared for the fact, that even in the cell of the hive-bee perfection is not reached. The isolated study of anything in natural history is a fruitful source of error. Since bees give so much variety to the forms of their cells, and can adapt them to peculiar circumstances, some of which do not occur in nature, as, for example, in Ruber's experiment with the glass surface, which last they so persistently avoided, and in view of the fact, too, that in meeting a given emergency they do not always adopt the same method, one is driven to the conclusion that the instinct of one and the same species either is not uniform in its action and is quite adaptive in its quality, or to admit, with Reaumer, that bees work with a certain degree of intelligence. Vl-ve bnndred and glxty-flrat Meeting. January 31, 1866. — Statute Meeting. The President in the chair. The Corresponding Secretary read letters from Prof. Tayler Lewis, Mr. L. M. Kutherfurd, Dr. J. W. Draper, Mr. G. W. Hill, and M. Chasles, in acknowledgment of their election into the Academy. The President read a letter from Mr. Eichard Greenough, presenting to the Academy a bust of Sir Charles Lyell. * Professor Cooke, Religion and Chemistry, p. 287. 84 PROCBBDINflS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY In acknowledgment of this gift, it was voted, That the thank^ of the Academy be presented to Mr. Greenough for his very valuable and acceptable present. The report of the Rumford Committee, referred to this meeting, was taken up, and, in accordance with its recommen- dation, it was voted, That the Rumford Committee may re- ceive from Mr. 0. N. Rood the results of his investigations on " Photometry," instead of those on " the Physical Relations of the Iodized Plate to Light," for which an appropriation from the Rumford fund was made at the meeting of Septem- ber, 1863. The following gentlemen were elected members of the Academy : — Hon. Erastus B. Bigelow, of Boston, to be Resident Fellow in Class III., Section 3. ' Mr. Henry Mitchell, ■ of Lynn, to be Resident Fellow, in Class I., Section 2. Rev. Barnas Sears, President of Brown University, to be Associate Fellow, in Class III., Section 2. Prof. Asahel C. Kendripk, of Rochester, N. Y., to be Asso- ciate Fellow, in Class III., Section 2. Mr. Arthur Cayley, of London, to be Foreign Honorary Member, in Class I., Section 1, in place of the late Sir Wil- liam Rowan Hamilton. M. Delauney, of Paris, to be Foreign Honorary Member, in Class I., Section 1, in place of the late Sir J. "W. Lubbock. Dr. Joseph Dalton Hooker to be Foreign Honorary Member, in Class II., Section 2, in place of the late Sir William Jack- son Hooker. Mr. C. M. Warren presented the following communica- tion : — On a New Process of Organic Elementary Analysis for Sub- stances containing Chlorine. By C. M. Warren. Organic bodies containing chlorine — and probably those also, that contain bromine and iodine — may be analyzed by a process analogous OF ARTS AM) SCIENCB3 : JANtJABY 31, 1866. 85 to that which I have already described for substances containing sul- phur.* As in that process, so also in this, the substance is burnt in a stream of oxygen gas, in the manner described in my first paper, on Organic Elementary Analysis.f Similarly, also, as in the analysis of sulphur compounds, the chlo- rine is absorbed and retained during the combustion, by a suitable sub- stance placed in the anterior end of the combustion tube ; this substance being subsequently removed, and the chlorine determined therefrom in the usual manner. The carbon and hydrogen, in either process, are determined from the same portion of the substance as the sulphur or chlorine, in a manner similar in other respects to that described for simple hydrocarbons. J In pursuing this research some difficulty was experienced, as was anticipated, in finding a substance which would absorb and retain the whole of the chlorine, under conditions that would at the same time insure that every trace of the carbonic acid and water should pass through unabsorbed. The search for this substance was confined to the oxides of the heavy metals, as these alone, from their strong affinity for chlorine, and weak affinity for carbonic acid, seemed to give encouragement of success. The difficulty, however, in finding such a substance was chiefly due to the circumstance that most of the chlorides of these metals are either too volatile, or begin to suffer decomposition at too low a temperature ; it being requisite that the absorbing substance, and the newly formed chloride of the same, should bear to be heated sufficiently to prevent both condensation of water and absorption of carbonic acid, and at the same time avoid a temperature high enough to occasion any apprecia- ble decomposition of the chlorid. This question of temperature became, therefore, a prominent one in the investigation, as evidently the success of the process must depend, in a great degree, on the proper management of the temperature of the absorbing substance, within such limits as might be found to give satisfactory results. Hence, my first step was to devise means to se- * Proceedings of the American Academy, March, 1865; American Journal of Science and Arts, 1866, XLI. 40. t Proceedings of the American Academy, 1864, p. 251 ; American Journal of Science and Arts, 1864, XXXVIII. 387. t Loc. cit. 86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY cure the necessary control of the temperature of that part of the combustion tube which should contain this substance. For this purpose was constructed a sheet-iron air-bath or chamber, A, Fig. 1, provided with two holes — one in each side — to receive Kg. 1- ^. the combustion tube, and a tubulure in the top for a thermometer. One end of the air-bath is made to rest on the combustion furnace, and the other, which projects a few inches from the front of the furnace to make room for a lamp, is supported by a leg resting upon the table. The bulb , of the thermometer is placed in a central position, in the in- terior of the bath, close by the side of the combustion tube. The temperature of the air-bath, and consequently of the substance contained in the combustion tube within, is easily regulated by means of a Bunsen's burner placed under the front end of the bath, as shown in Fig. 1. With the exception of the air-bath, the apparatus employed is the same as that used in the analysis of substances containing sul- phur, a full description of which is given in the papers above referred to. The substance that I have found best adapted to absorb the chlorine, for substances easily combustible, is brown oxide of copper, prepared by precipitation with potassa and ignition over a gas flame. Difficultly combustible substances, like chloroform, are not complete- ly burnt in oxygen in contact with asbestos alone, but require the pres- ence of a body having affinity for chlorine ; otherwise there is formed a liquid body, difficultly volatile, — probably a chloride of carbon, — which condenses i» the vacant part of the tube, from b to c, Fig. 2, OF ARTS AND SCIENCES : JANUARY 31, 1866. 87 and which cannot be entirely burnt off and save the analysis. In such cases the absorbing substance is mixed with the asbestos occupy- ing the back part of the tube, where the combustion takes place. It is evident that oxide of copper would not answer for this purpose, as at so high a temperature dichloride of copper would be formed, which, being insoluble in dilute acids, would interfere with the determination of the chlorine. Oxide of zinc has been found to give good results with such substances. The preparation of the combustion tube, and the arrangement of the mixture of asbestos and the absorbing substance, is the same — except in the case last mentioned — as in the analysis of substances containing sulphur, as shown in Fig. 2, viz. the space between a and h, about 10 inches in length, is Fig. 2. packed with pure asbes- tos ; between h and c, — a space of about two inches, — being left vacant, a plug of asbestos is placed at c ; the space between c and rf, 4 to 5 inches in length, is filled with an intimate mixture of asbestos and brown oxide of copper ; and, finally, a plug of asbestos is placed at d. After the combustion, the chloride, together with the excess of oxide, is extracted from the asbestos by means of dilute nitric acid. To facilitate the removal of what may ad- here to the sides of the tube, the apparatus shown in Fig. 3 will be found serviceable, as in the analysis of sulphur compounds. I. Experiments with Oxide of Lead and with Oxide of Copper, placed in the anterior end of the combustion tube, as absorbents of Chlorine in the analysis of substances diffictdtly combustible. The substance selected for analysis, as a test of the process for that class of bodies which are difficultly combustible, containing but a small percentage of hydrogen, was commercial chloro- form. The preparation employed was first subjected to redistillation. 88 PROCEBDINaS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Its boiling-point was found to agree essentially with that assigned to pure chloroform in Gerhardt's Traite de Ghimie. When the usual tests were applied, no impurity could be detected. Mxperiment 1. — A mixture of oxide of lead and asbestos was placed in the anterior end of the combustion tube, between c and d, Fig. 2, as previously described. As chloride of lead was supposed to bear a pretty high temperature, without volatilization or decomposition, the use of the air-bath was omitted in this experiment, and the oxide gen- tly heated with a small flame from the combustion furnace. The com- bustion had not proceeded far, when it became apparent, from deposi- tion of minute drops of liquid on the sides of the vacant part of the tube, — from h to c. Fig. 2, — that the combustion of the chloroform was incomplete, although no doubt could exist as to the presence of an excess of oxygen. This deposit of liquid, which, as already stated, was supposed to be a chloride of carbon, was found to be dif- ficultly volatile, suffering partial decomposition, and leaving on the tube a brown deposit, which was not entirely removed by ignition in a stream of oxygen. The high temperature employed to burn off this deposit occasioned excessive heating of t\& posterior end of the mix- ture of lead oxide and asbestos ; and this may have been the cause, to some extent, of the excess in the determinations of carbon and hydro- gen, although subsequent analyses indicate that the sample of chloro- form under examination contained a larger percentage of these ele- ments — • particularly of the latter — than belongs to pure chloroform. This experiment gave 11.47 per cent of carbon, and 1.87 per cent of hydrogen. Theory gives 10.07 per cent of carbon, and 0.85 per cent of hydrogen. The mixture of asbestos and oxide and chloride of lead was removed from the tube, and treated in the usual manner with a solution of bicarbonate of soda to obtain a soluble chloride. This op- eration was found extremely tedious. Even after treatment for more than two weeks, with occasional fresh portions of the bicarbonate and frequent agitation, the decomposition of the lead chloride was still found to be incomplete, and the operation was abandoned. As this is given in the text-books as a good process for the separation of chlorine from chloride of lead,* I am led to presume that in this case the excess of heat employed gave rise to the formation of an oxychloride, which is, doubtless, more slowly acted upon by the bicarbonate. This single * H. EosB, Chimie Analytique, new French edition, p. 801. OP ARTS AND SCIENCES : JANUARY 31, 1866. 89 experiment does not, therefore, prove that oxide of lead may not be employed in this process with good results, when used for easily com- bustible substances, and excessive heat is avoided. But it will, un- questionably, be found preferable to use a substance which will give direoily a soluble chloride. Experiment 2. — This experiment was conducted as the last, with only this difference, viz. that oxide of copper was substituted for the oxide of lead. No better results, however, were obtained. The reappearance of the difficultly volatile liquid in the vacant part of the tube, while there was assurance of there being no deficiency in the supply of oxygen, served to confirm the impression gained by the pre- ceding experiment, — that chloroform could not be completely burnt in oxygen alone, but that a substance having affinity for chlorine would have to be mixed with the asbestos, at the point where the combustion takes place. II. Experiments with Oxide of Zinc, mixed with the asbestos in the posterior part of the combustion tube, as absorbent of Chlorine in the analysis of substances difficultly combustible. As already indicated, the chief object of this set of experiments was to determine whether the presence, at the point where combustion takes place, of an oxide capable of combining with the chlorine would have the effect to prevent the formation of the difficultly volatile liquid above mentioned, and thus remedy that defect in the process. Experiment 1. — In this experiment, three grammes of oxide of zinc were intimately mixed in a mortar with the quantity of asbestos neces- sary to fill the space between a and b, Fig. 2, and that part of the tube then packed with this mixture in the usual manner. A similar mix- ture composed of asbestos and only one gramme of oxide of zinc was placed between'c and d. The space between b and c was still left va- cant in order to be able to observe the effect. On account of the vol- atihty of the chloride of zinc, it was deemed advisable to retain the use of the air-bath to control the temperature of the anterior portion of the combustion tube, which, in this experiment, was not allowed to exceed 160° C. The result was, as anticipated, that no such conden- sation of liquid between b and c occurred. In order to gain from this experiment some idea of the degree of volatUity of chloride of zinc under such circumstances, the two columns of asbestos were treated for VOL. VII. 12 90 PROCBBDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY chlorine, separately. The solution obtained from the anterior column was found to contain but a trace of chlorine, giving only a milkiness with nitrate of silver ; showing that the chloride of zinc does not travel far through a column of asbestos from the point where the flame plays directly on the tube. Results of the Analysis. — 0.2067 gramme of chloroform gave 0.0798 of carbonic acid, 0.0276 of water, and 0.7372 of chloride of silver. Pound. 10.5273 1.4514 88.0455 Carbon c, .Hydrogen H Chlorine CI3 Calculated. 12 10.0671 1 0.8473 106.2 89.0856 100. 100.0242 Experiment 2. — In this experiment, the whole length of the com- bustion tube from a to d was packed with a mixture of asbestos and four grammes of oxide of zinc. The temperature of the anterior end of the combustion tube was regulated, as in the previous experiment, by means of the air-bath. Results of the Analysis. — 0.1339 gramme of chloroform gave 0.0506 of carbonic acid, 0.0156 of ^ater, and 0.4768 of chloride of silver. Calculated. Pound. 10.3062 1.2733 87.9014 100. 99,4809 These two analyses, agreeing as they do so closely, indicate that the chloroform analyzed contained larger percentages of carbon and hy- drogen, — especially of the latter, — and a correspondingly smaller percentage of chlorine than the theoretical quantities ; occasioned probably, by the presence of some impurity. This view is supported by calculations made on the assumption that the excess might have arisen from volatilization of chloride of zinc, or from incomplete absorption of the chlorine ; which would make the chloroform contain from two to six per cent more than the theoretical quantity of chlorine. These re- sults are regarded, therefore, as satisfactorily establishing the utility of this process in the analysis of chloroform. But the analysis of this Carbon Q 12 10.0671 Hydrogen H 1 0.8473 Chlorine Cla 106.2 89.0856 OF ARTS AND SCIENCES : JANUARY 31, 1866. 91 body, containing as it does eighty-nine per cent of chlorine, and only eighty-five hundredths of one per cent of hydrogen, must be considered as an extreme case, and does not prove the process a good one for other classes of substances. The next step, therefore, was to determine whether the process would be equally efficient in the analysis of substances rich in hydrogen, the combustion of which would give rise to the formation of a large quan- tity of hydrochloric acid. The substance selected for analysis, to settle this question, was chloride of amyl. III. &periments with, Oxide of Zinc, as an absorbent of Chlorine in the analysis of substances rich in Hydrogen. In these experiments, the oxide of zinc was employed in the same manner as above described for the analysis of chloroform. The chloride of amyl, which was the subject of analysis, was prepared in the usual manner. Its boiling-point was 102°, 8 corrected. The following results of two analyses with oxide of zinc indicate that this oxide combined with and retained some of the carbonic acid. This, result was not anticipated, as in the analysis of chloroform the determination of carbon was uniformly slightly in excess.* The Results of these two analyses are as follows : — 1. — 0.1922 gramme of chloride of amyl gave 0.3513 of carbonic acid, 0.1854 of water, and 0.2528 of chloride of silver. * Since the above was written, I have observed, on reviewing my notes, — not only of experiments with oxide of zinc, but also with oxide of copper, — that in ev- ery analysis in which I made note of carbonization, or blackening of the asbestos in the combustion tube, — which may sometimes occur from too rapid distillation of the substance, or, what amounts to the same thing, a deficiency in the supply of oxygen, — there was a loss in the determination of the carbon, and generally, also, in that of the chlorine ; while the hydrogen would agree pretty nearly with the theo- retical quantity. I am, therefore, at the present writing, inclined to suspect that the carbonization may have had some connection with the deficiency in the carbon determinations in these instances, although the blackening would readily and com- pletely disappear so soon as a sufliciency of oxygen was supplied. This momenta- ry blackening of the asbestos occurred in both of the analyses of chloride of amyl with oxide of zinc, but, as already intimated, was not regarded at the time of serious consequence, as similar phenomena in the analysis of hydrocarbons by my process were generally attended with good results. It may, therefore, remain an open question, whether the oxide of zinc may not serve a good purpose in the analysis of substances of the class now under consideration. 92 PKOCBBDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Calculated. Found. Carbon C^ 60 56.3910 49.85 Hydrogen Hu 31 10.3383 10.72 Chlorine CI 35.4 33.2707 32.47 100. 93.04 2. — 0.1657 gramme of chloride of amyl gave 0.3314 of carbonic acid and 0.1608 of water. Calculated. Found. Carbon Cjo 60 56.3910 54.56 Hydrogen Hu 11 10.3383 10.74 Chlorine CI 35.4 33.2707 IV. Experiments with Oxide of Copper, as absorbent of Chlorine in the analysis of substances rich in Hydrogen. In these experiments, for the reason previously stated, the oxide of copper could only be placed in the anterior end of the combustion tube, where it might be maintained at a tolerably low temperature. After . two or three experiments, — which were but partially successful, — it became apparent that the range of temperature within which oxide, of copper could be made serviceable to absorb the chlorine was probably rather limited. It was observed, for example, that at 150° to 160° even brown oxide of copper, which had been but gently ignited, would fail to absorb nearly all of the chlorine, and consequently the determination of the carbon, and sometimes that of the hydrogen, would be in excess. In . one experiment, in which the oxide of copper was kept at about 153° C, its appearance had suffered no change, and it was found to contain only 8.29 per cent of chlorine, or only about one quarter of the theoretical quantity. When a sufficiently high temperature is employed, on the contrary, the posterior end of the column of oxide of copper and asbes- tos has the appearance of being entirely changed into yellow chloride of copper, the rest of the column remaining, for the most part, of its original dark color. In another experiment, with the oxide of copper kept at a tempera- ture of about 160°, only about fourteen per cent of chlorine was obtained. In both of these experiments the carbon determination was consid- erably in excess, and in one of them the hydrogen also. The oxide of copper employed had been strongly ignited. OF AEffS AND SCIBNCBS : JANUARY 31, 1866. 93 Before proceeding further with these somewhat random experiments, it was deemed advisable to determine the temperature at which chloride of copper begins to give off chlorine, in order to know how far it would be safe to raise the temperature of the air-bath in conducting an analysis. By making use of the air-bath to regulate the tempera- ture of the chloride of copper, this determination was easily made. During the heating of the chloride, a current of air from the air-gasom- eter was admitted through the tube in which it was contained. Observations. — At 243°, not a perceptible trace of chlorine was given off. After the lapse of fifteen minutes, at 250°, the nitrate of silver, into which the gas was conducted, was observed to be slightly milky ; this may, therefore, be taken as about the temperature at which chloride of copper begins to suffer decomposition. At 267°, a solution of nitrate of silver was instantly precipitated. Thinking that perhaps the small quantity of chlorine evolved under these circumstances might be taken up again and retained if oxide of copper were present, and possibly, also, that in that case a higher tem- perature might be safely employed, — to make the conditions of the experiment conform in this particular to those which exist in an analy- sis, all but one inch of the chloride of copper was removed from the tube, and in its place was put a mixture of asbestos and oxide of cop- per, occupying a space of four inches in length, forward of the chloride. The experiment was then repeated. Prolonged heating in a current of air, and afterwards in oxygen, during which the thermometer rose to 350°, produced no reaction with nitrate of silver. From this it ap- pears that the chlorine, which is given off below this temperature from chloride of copper, when this is mixed with oxide of copper, is absorbed and retained by the latter ; hence, that so high a temperature as 350° may be safely employed for the air-bath in conducting an analysis by this process. Analysis 1. — In this analysis the oxide of copper employed was prepared in the ordinary way and strongly ignited. The space in the tube occupied by the mixture of asbestos and oxide of copper was five inches in length, and contained just five grammes of the oxide. Dur- ing the experiment, the temperature of the air-bath was maintained at about 350°. At the close of the combustion there was no appearance of chloride of copper, except in the first half-inch at the back end of the column of the mixture of oxide of copper and asbestos ; showing that the temperature employed was favorable for rapid and complete absorp- tion of the chlorine. 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY Results of the Analysis. — 0.1682 gramme of chloride of amyl gave 0.3486 of carbonic acid, 0.1633 of water, and 0.2233 of chloride of silver. Calculated. Found. Carbon C,„ 'io "56.3910 56.522 Hydrogen Hy 11 10.3383 10.761 Chlorine CI 35.4 33.2707 82.773 100. _ 100.056 Analysis 2. — The oxide of copper employed was of the same prep- aration as that used in Analysis 1. The space occupied by the mixture of asbestos and oxide of copper was only 3^ inches in length, but con- tained the same quantity, viz. 5 grammes of the oxide of copper, as used in the previous analysis. The temperature of the air-bath ranged from 250° to 253°. At the close of the combustion, it was. found that all but f inch at the forward end of the column of mixed asbestos and oxide of copper had the appearance of containing chloride of copper. By comparison with the corresponding observation in Analysis 1, it will be seen that the appearance of the chloride extends over more than five ^ times the space in this analysis ««k in the former, showing that with strongly ignited oxide of copper a temperature higher than 250°, even as high as 350°, is more fg,vorable for the absorption of the chlorine. The following results of the analysis, however, are equally accurate with those of the preceding analysis. 0.1669 gramme of chloride of amyl gave 0.3457 of carbonic acid, 0.1612 of water, 0.2213 of chloride of silver. Calculated. Found. Carbon Cio 60 56.3910 56.489 Hydrogen Hu 11 10.3383 10.785 Chlorine CI 35.4 33.2707 32.732 100. 100.006 Analysis 3. — Under the impression that an oxide of copper which had been less strongly ignited might be effectual to absorb the chlorine at a lower temperature, I employed in this and the two following analyses a preparation of brown oxide of copper, obtained by precipi- tation with potash and ignition ov-er an ordinary gas flame. In this analysis the temperature of the air-bath ranged from 150° to 158°. The space occupied by the asbestos mixture was four inches in length OF AKTS AND SCIENCES : JANUARY 31, 1866. 95 and contained three grammes of the oxide. Although the results of the analysis indicate that the temperature of the air-bath was too low, they also show, by comparison with the results obtained in operating with strongly ignited oxide at about the same temperature of the air- bath (see p. 92), that the brown oxide is decidedly preferable in re- spect to the temperature required. This was also shown by the ap- pearance of the oxide after combustion, — the newly formed chloride being confined, in the case of the brown oxide, to a much shorter space. Results of the Analysis. — 0.1640 gramme of chloride of amyl gave 0.3504 of carbonic acid, 0.1562 of water, and 0.1884 of chloride of silver. Calculated. Found. Carbon Qy, 60 56.3910 58.268 Hydrogen Hu 11 10.3383 10.5^82 Chlorine CI 35.4 33.2707 28.360 100. 97.210 Analysis 4. — Used the same preparation of oxide of copper as in Analysis 3, viz. the brown oxide. Temperature of the air-bath reached 170°. Slight carbonization occurred just at the close of the combus- tion, from extending the heat backward too soon, under a wrong impres- sion that the substance was all burnt. Were it not for this circum- stance, it is believed that this would have been a good analysis, although the temperature of the air-bath was kept so low. That a higher tem- perature of the bath is desirable, however, is shown by the fact that the chloride of copper appeared diflFused over a space of 2J inches. The length of the column of mixed asbestos and oxide of copper was only four inches in this experiment, containing hut one gramme of the oxide. Results of the Analysis. — 0.1568 gramme of chloride of amyl gave 0.3195 of carbonic acid, and 0.1522 of water. Calculated. Found. " ' 55.574 10.784 Carbon ClO 60 56.3910 Hydrogen Hu 11 10.3383 Chlorine CI 35.4 33.2707 Analysis 5. — The oxide of copper employed was of the same prep- aration as that of Analyses 3 and 4. The temperature of the air-bath, however, was considerably higher, ranging from 240° to 247°. The Carbon Cio 60 56.3910 Hydrogen Hu 11 10.3383 Chlorine CI 35.4 33.2707 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY mixture of asbestos and oxide of copper occupied a space of five Indies in length, but contained only two grammes of the oxide. At the close of the combustion there was no appearance of chloride of copper, except at the back end of the column, a space | of an inch in length. EesuUs of the Analysis. — 0.1&31 gramme of chloride of amyl gave 0.3383 of carbonic acid, 0.1557 of water, and 0.2157 of chloride of silver. Calculated. Found. 56.542 10.607 32.649 100. 99.798 It can iardly have escaped observation, that the quantity of oxide of copper or oxide of zinc required to absorb the chlorine by tliis process is extremely small, in consequence of its being uniformly diffused through a large mass of asbestos ; hence it is obvious that but little of a solvent is needed to extract the chloride. In this respect the new process bears a striking contrast to the old one, which involves the use of a large quantity of lime, necessitating a corresponding quantity of acid, and introducing disagreeable manipulation, which tend to in- crease the Uability to error. I have not yet tried the process recently described by Carius,* as the difficulty which I had found in obtaining tubes that would bear the pressure incident to his process for the determination of sulphur gave no encouragement of better success in the use of his process for the determination of chlorine, which is performed in a similar manner, although more complicated. The advantage which my process affords, of being able to determine the three elements carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine at a single combus- tion, without the introduction of any difficult or hazardous manipula- tion, induces the belief that it will be found preferable to any other that has been devised. * Annalen der Chimie und Pharmacie. ON A NEW PROCESS FOR THE DETERIINATION OF SULPHUR IN OEGANIC COMPOUNDS, BY COMBUSTION WITH OXYGEN GAS AND PEROXIDE OF LEAD. By C. M. warren. In my former communication " On a Process of Organic Elementary Analysis by Combustion in a Stream of Oxygen Gas," * I treated ex- clusively of the determination of carbon and hydrogen in volatile liquid hydrocarbons, — my experiments up to that time having been confined to the analysis of substances of this class. It was my intention, how- ever, to have applied the process before this to other classes of bodies, and especially to have tested its applicability, with suitable modifica- tions, for the analysis of organic substances containing other elements. Other work with which I was then occupied, and to which this pro- cess was only incidental, as already stated in the paper referred to, has prevented me from extending the research beyond the requirements of my other investigations. Having recently had occasion to determine sulphur in some volatile liquid compounds, for which neither of the processes now in use seemed satisfactorily adapted, I was naturally led to make an effort to utilize my safety-tube and the stream of oxygen in this species of analysis also. But the fact that sulphur is usually, at least, but partially converted into sulphuric acid by combustion in oxygen gas, seemed at first to present a difficulty not to be easily overcome. It soon occurred to me, however, that the well-known reaction between sulphurous acid and peroxide of lead, by which the former is completely converted into sulphuric acid, might probably serve to remove this objection. Furthermore, that by placing the peroxide of lead within the combustion-tube in the manner which I shall presently describe, and by maintaining the peroxide of lead at a temperature sufficient to prevent condensation of water within the combustion-tube,' the carbon, hydrogen, and sulphur might all be * Proceedings of the American Academy, 1864, p. 251. determined from the same portion of substance. This result has been accomplished.* Referring to my former paper above mentioned for details regarding the? construction and use of the apparatus employed, I need here de- scribe only such modifications as have been found expedient to adapt the process to this special purpose. The combustion-tube being packed with pure asbestos between the points a and b, Fig. I., Mg. i. and the space — about two inches in length — between 6 and c left va- cant, a plug of pure as- '^^-I'W """"""'^ -^"- 'j j-'.gra^ bestos is placed at c, and the space between c and d, about three or four inches in length, then filled with a mixture of pure asbestos and peroxide of lead, and finally a plug of asbestos is placed at d. As the sulphuric acid formed is to be absorbed * Cai-ius (ADnalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, 1860, CXVI. 28) has observed that when substances rich in sulphur are burnt with oxide of copper — a tube con- taining peroxide of lead being placed between the chloride of calcium tube and the potash bulbs in the usual manner — the determination of carbon is too high. And on the other hand he found that, with substances rich in carbon the determination of the carbon was too low. In the latter case the peroxide of lead was supposed to absorb and retain carbonic acid ; and in the former, sulphurous acid was found to pass unabsorbed through the peroxide of lead. The incomplete absorption of the sulphurous acid may be reasonably accounted for on the supposition that a channel was formed, by handling or jarring, along the top of the peroxide of lead, which indeed would be very likely to occur in using, by itself, so heavy a powder. Through such a channel sulphurous acid might pass, in so small proportion, without coming in contact with the peroxide of lead. It will be seen that the liability to the formation of a channel is obviated in my pro- cess by mixing the peroxide of lead with a large proportion of asbestos. The asbestos serves also to increase the porosity of the mass, and in this manner also to lessen the chances of escape of sulphurous acid without coming in contact with the peroxide. I may here add that, in making the combustion with oxygen in presence of asbestos, the quantity of sulphurous acid which reaches the peroxide of lead is by no means very large. In a preliminary experiment in which carbonate of soda was employed instead of peroxide of lead, (the substance burnt being bi- sulphide of carbon,) the carbonate of soda was found to contain within about 9 per cent of the equivalent quantjty of sulphur; and a portion of the deficiency it is not unlikely may have been taken up by the impure asbestos that was employed in this instance. Concerning the other source of error in the determination of carbon which Carius mentions, it will suffice to remark that, in my process, the peroxide of lead is kept at so high a temperature that the absorption of carbonic acid appears to be prevented. by, and finally determined from, the peroxide of lead, — in order to ob- viate the necessity of treating the whole of the asbestos in the tube to obtain the sulphuric acid, which would be troublesome, and at the same time preserve the asbestos packing in the posterior part of the tube in a fit condition for future use, — it is important that the asbestos plug at c should be packed closely enough to prevent any particles of the perox- ide of lead from passing back of this plug. As already stated, the object of mixing asbestos with the peroxide of lead is to prevent the formation of a channel along the top. In this manner but a short column of the mixture of asbestos and peroxide of lead will suffice to secure complete conversion of the sulphurous acid. The combustion is conducted precisely as for the determination of car- bon and hydrogen alone, except that the portion of the tube which con- tains the peroxide of lead is maintained at a gentle heat, sufficient to prevent condensation of water in that part of the tube and at the cork, but avoiding a temperature which would decompose the peroxide of lead. As usual, the water formed is absorbed in a chloride of cal- cium tube, and the carbonic acid in Liebig's potash bulbs with a inulder tube attached. After the close of the combustion, when the tube shall have sufficiently cooled it is carefully removed from the furnace, the mixture of peroxide of lead and asbestos cautiously drawn out into a beaker glass, by means of a bent iron wire, and the tube then inverted within another tube, e e, closed at one end, as shown in Fig. II. The mixture of peroxide of lead and asbestos contained in the beaker glass is now treated with a strong solution of bi-carbonate of soda, and left to stand for about twenty -four hours, with frequent shaking.* Solution of bi-carbonate of soda is also poured into the tube e e until the level of the liquid shall have reached a point, /, on the combustion-tube, a little above that which was occupied by the plug c, and this is also left to stand as the other. After the lapse of suffi- cient time for the reaction to be completed, the solution is filtered from the asbestos mix- ture, including also.the solution in the tube e e, Tig. n. * H. Rose, Chimie Analytique, new French edition, p. 662. and not omitting to carefully rinse out the anterior portion of the com- bustion-tube. The asbestos mixture upon the filter is then thoroughly washed, the filtrate concentrated by evaporation, and the sulphuric acid precipitated with chloride of barium. The following results of analyses of bi-sulphide of carbon indicate the degree of accuracy afforded by this process. The preparation employed was commercial bi-sulphide of carbon, which was first subjected to re-distillation. Analysis 1. 0.1414 gramme of bi-sulphide of carbon gave 0.0806 of carbonic acid, and 0.8592 of sulphate of baryta. Calculated. Found. Carbon, C 6 15;79 15.61 Sulphur, S2 32 84.21 83.70 100.00 99.31 Analysis 2. 0.274 gramme of the same substance gave 0.158 of carbonic acid, and 1.6768 of sulphate of baryta. Calculated. Found. '.Carbon, C 6 16.79 15.73 Sulphur, Sa 32 84.21 84.05 100.00 99.78 Analysis 3. In this analysis, in which I was prevented from deter- mining the carbon, 0.1537 of bi-sulphide of carbon gave 0.9461 of sul- phate of baryta, corresponding to 84.5 per cent of sulphur. The mixture of asbestos and peroxide of lead employed was of that which had already been used in the preceding analyses, and may possi- bly have contained a trace of undecomposed sulphate of lead, as the per cent of sulphur found in this case is 0.3 per cent above, while in the preceding analyses it was a fraction below the theoretical quantity. Trusting, however, that the results already obtained will be deemed suf- ficient to show the method to be a good one, I have not thought it ad- visable at this time to further repeat the analysis of this substance. I may here state that I have already applied the process in the analysis of bodies containing hydrogen, and have obtained satisfactory results which will soon be published. The important advantage thus gained of being able to determine the difierent elements from the same portion of substance, considering klso the simplicity of the process, can hardly fail, I think, to secure for this the preference over the older methods. ON THE Phosphatic Guano Islands of the Pacific. [FBOM the AmBHIOAN JoUKNii OF SOIBNCB AND AeTS, VOL. XXXIV, SEPT. 1862.] ON THE PHOSPHATIC GUANO ISLANDS PACIFIC OCEAN* J. D- HAGUE, During a few years past the attention of scientific men and of agriculturists has been called to some varieties of Phosphatic Guano found on several small islands of the tropical Pacific and imported to this country and to Europe under the name of " American Guano." The principal ingredient of these guanos is the phosphate of lime, with which is combined in the various sorts more or less phosphate of magnesia, sulphate of lime, organic matter and water. They generally contain traces of ammonia with a small percentage of soluble salts, but these, which, without doubt, formed an important part of the guano as it originally existed, have now almost entirely disappeared in consequence of the va- rious changes to which the deposits have been subjected. * Much of the chemical investigation of which the results are given in this paper I made In the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College, the facilities of -which were kindly afforded me by my friends, Profs. Brush and Johnson, to whom I am happy to express my thanks for this favor, and for their valuable assistance in the prosecu- tion of my work. Also to my brother, Mr, Arnold Hague, one of their students, my acknowledgments are due for analytical aid. j. d. h. /. D. Hague on the Ouano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 9 The first samples of these guanos were taken from Jarvis' and Baker's Islands in 1855 and sent to the United States for exam- ination, the results of which led in 1858 to the occupation and working of the deposits. The importance and value of these having once become evident, the Pacific, within a few degrees north and south of the equator, was carefully explored and many other islands were visited, on a few of which beds of gu- ano of some extent were discovered. In the following paper I propose to describe some of these. I shall have reference chiefly to Baker's, Howland's and Jarvis' Islands, on each of which I resided several months for the pur- pose of studying the character and formation of their deposits. I also spent some months in exploring this region of the Pacific and visiting many other islands, having a small vessel employed especially for that object. In this service, altogether, I was en- gaged more than two years, from 1859 to 1861 inclusive, in the employ of William H. Webb, Esq., of New York, by whosa courtesy I am permitted to publish these results. These islands are all of coral formation. They are situated near the equator and between the meridians of about 155° and 180° longitude west from Greenwich. They are without fresh water and almost entirely destitute of vegetation, and are the resort of countless thousands of birds whose accumulated ordure and dead bodies have formed extensive deposits. BaJcer's Island. — This island possesses the most important of these deposits. It is situated in lat. 0° 13' north and long. 176° 22' west from Greenwich. Excepting Howland's Island, forty miles distant, it is very remote from any other land. It presents the usual features of an ordinary coral island. It is surrounded by a fringing reef, which is from 200 to 400 feet wide and slightiy elevated above the sea level at low tide. It is about one mile long and two-thirds of a mile wide, trending east and west. The surface is nearly level, the highest point of which is twenty-two feet above the level of the sea, showing some evi- dences of elevation.* * The accompanying engravme; exhibits a section of the western (lee) beach ■which was cut through for a railway. LL is the level of the reef of which the seaward end P is the shore platform or plateau covered at high tides by five and a half feet of water. From the shore to the edge of the guano deposit G, is from 300 to 400 feet. The perpendicular height from LL to the summit of the eand beach, SS, is twenty-two feet, and the depth of the excavation opposite this highest point is ten feet, the drawing being a little out of proportion. The dotted line, ab, represents an old beach formation which the cut exposed. It consists of large and small coral fragments and shells beneath which the sand lies in compact strata. This formation was evidently once the surface of the island, and Am. Joub. Sci.— Second Series, Vol. XXXIT, No. 101.— Sept., 1868. 29 4 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. Above the crown of the beach there is a sandy ridge which encircles the guano deposit. This marginal ridge is about one hundred feet wide on the lee side of the island, and is there com- posed of fine sand and small fragments of corals and shells mixed ■with considerable guano ; on the eastern or windward side it is much wider and formed of coarser fragments of corals and shells ■which, in their arrangement, present the appearance of successive beach formations. This margin is partially covered with a rank growth of long, coarse grass, portulacca, mesembryanthemum, and a few other species of plants. Encircled by this ridge lies the guano deposit occupying the centre and the greater part of the island. The surface of this deposit is nearly even, but the hard coral bottom which forms its bed has a gradual slope from the borders towards the centre, or, perhaps more properly, from northwest to southeast, giving the guano a variable depth from six inches at the edges to sev- eral feet at the deepest part. None of the grass that grows abundantly on the margin is found on the guano, but there are one or two species of portulacca occurring in certain parts, (par- ticularly where the guano is shallowest and driest), and to this is owing the presence of the fine roots and fibres in some of the guano. The entire deposit presents considerable uniformity in charac- ter. Excepting some isolated spots of little extent there is no outer crust, and the guano of the surface differs but little, if any, from that below. There is, however, some variety in the ap- pearance of the guanos of the deep and shallow parts of the de- posit. On the northern side it is from six to twelve inches deep ; is generally quite dry, and is a dark brown pulverulent substance of rather coarse grain or texture, containing many thread-lilse roots and fibres and whitish particles, among which Prof. Liebig observed scattered crystals of the phosphate of magnesia and ammonia* It is closely though not hard packed, and is readily may be traced from a to J, where the guano rests upon it. Above it lies a sandy ridge, SS, a comparatively new beach accumulation rather indistinctly stratified. The highest point of ab is fifteen feet above LL, which altitude, in accordance with the commonly accepted theory that the sea-made coral land does does not exceed ten feet in height, would, of itself, be an evidence of elevation and, consequently, to account for the present height of twenty-two feet, it would bo necessary to suppose a subsequent subsidence in order to allow SS to accumulate, and finally another elevation of tlie whole to its present position. It must be observed, however, that the sandy ridge, SS, only prevails at this altitude on the southwestern shore, and probably violent westerly gales and heavy seas have had much to do with its forma- tion. My own observations favor the opinion that the sea-made coral land may reach a greater altitude than ten or twelve feet. During the prevalence of high surf at Jarvis Island I have known seas to wash up the beach with body and force BufBcient to carry away plank and spars that were lyi°g on the crown of the beach eighteen feet above the level of the reef. ■» Liebig'a Report on Baker and Jarvis Guanos, Aug. 'Tth, 1860. /. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 5 removed by shovels without the aid of picks, la this part of the deposit the portulacca flourishes most. The guano on the southern side is of reddish color, of finer texture, much damper, and of less specific gravity than that just described. There is much less vegetation in this part of the deposit, and the guano here contains scarce any roots or fibres. Chemically these varieties do not differ very much. Usually the darker sort contains less water and more organic (vegetable) matter, from which it probably derives its color. Analyses of these two sorts are given beyond. Much light may be thrown on the formation of these deposits by the analysis, (I) which follows, showing the composition of recently deposited guano. The sample itself does not represent any considerable part of the existing deposit, but was taken from a locality where large numbers of birds are still accustomed to congregate. It is the dung of the Pelicanus Aquilus, com- monly called the Frigate Bird, which of all the birds frequenting the island is the only one whose recent evacuations are of such a consistency that they may conveniently be collected. They contain a large proportion of solid matter, while the evacuations of nearly all the other birds are very thin and watery. It is found in their favorite roosting places, and shows the character of guano before it has long been subjected to the influence of the weather. It is a light and dry substance, consisting of friable grains or fine powder, of a brown color, smelling strongly of ammonia. Of the three following analyses No. I is this freshly deposited guano ; No. II is of the light colored guano from the deeper part of the deposit, and No. Ill of the dark guano from the shallow part. '■ I. 11. in. Moisture expelled at 212° Fahr., 10-40 292 182 Loss by ignition, S6'88 8'32 850 Insol. in HCI, (unconsumed by ignition) '78 Lime, 22-41 42-74 42-34 Magnesia 1-46 2 54 276 Sulphuric acid 2-36 130 124 Phosphoric acid 21-27 3970 40 14 Carbonic acid, chlorine and alkalies, undet.,. . 4-44 248 321 lOU-00 100-00 100-00 Sol. in water remaining after ignition 3 63 No. I contained 3-82 per cent of actual ammonia and all con- tain traces of iron. I also obtained in sample 1. a strong reaction for uric acid. This sample (No. I) resembles Peruvian guano in many re- spects, and leads to the conclusion that the difference between that and the American guano is mainly owing to circumstances of climate. In some parts of the deeper deposit a light scale or crust has formed over the surface, which is generally very thin though occasionally hard pieces are found varying from half an inch to 6 /. D. Hague on the Chiano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. an inch in thickness. The thin scale is met with particularly ■where there is, or has been, any moisture, and, after showers, where pools of water have been standing for some time, such a crust appears on drying. There seems to have been a similar process in the formation of the thicker crust, for it is found only occasionally in places of which the dampness and general appear- ance indicate that water may have assisted at its formation. The tiiinner pieces are found not only on the surface, but in certain localities form strata at various depths, usually about an inch apart, with intermediate layers of guano. These strata Beem to have been formed at intervals during the accumulation of the guano deposit each one at some time having itself formed the surface and now marking a period in its age. Each of the localities where these strata occur, although on opposite sides of the deposit are at the edges and immediately adjoining the marginal ridge already described and from their proximity to the shore it seems possible that these may have been subjected to occasional, floods by high seas washing over the crown of the beach. The following is an analysis of a thick and hard piece of crust found on the surface : — Loss by ignition (water and little organic matter) 11 'TSOO Lime 40'93 Magnesia -74 Phosphoric acid 40-47 Sulphuric acid 5'66 liOSS and undetermined -46 100-00 The small amount of magnesia and the excess of sulphuric acid are points worthy of notice. This crust is formed on Baker's Island only to a limited extent, but its existence there and character are interesting when com- pared with the Jar vis Island deposits, the better part of which is all crust and in which, as Johnson and Leibig have observed, much of the phosphoric acid is combined as the neutral phos- phate of lime. The same is true of this crust of Baker's Island. Before referring to the climate, birds etc. of this island, I will first give some description of Howland's and Jarvis' Islands. Howland's Island. — About forty miles in a north northwest direction from Baker's, is situated Howland's Island in lat. 0° 51' north and 176° 82' west from Greenwich. It is about a mile and a half long by a half mile wide, containing, above the crown of the beach, an area of some 400 acres. The highest point is seven- teen feet above the reef and ten or twelve feet above the level of the high tide. It trends N.N.W. and S.S.B. The general features of the island resemble those of Baker's. Its surface, at least on the western side, is somewhat depressed and much of it is covered by a growth of purslane, grass and other vegetation /. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 1 like that on Baker's Island, but considerably more abundant. Near the centre of the island there are one or two thickets of leaf- less trees or brushwood, standing eight or ten feet high and oc- cupying an area of several acres. The tops of these trees, in which the birds roost, are apparently quite dead but the lower parts near the roots, show signs of life after every rain. The windward side of the island is formed by a succession of ridges composed of coral debris with some sand and shells, running parallel to the eastern beach, each one of which may, at earlier stages of the island's growth, have successively formed the weath- er shore. Occasionally among these ridges a sandy bed is met with in which some little guano is mixed. On the lee side there is also a sandy margin of considerable width. Bits of pumice and pieces of driftwood are scattered all over the island's surface. The main deposit of guano occupies the middle part of the isl- and and stretches, with some interruptions of intervening sand, nearly from the north to the south end. Its surface is even and in many places covered by a thick growth of purslane whose thread-like roots abound in the guano where it grows. The de- posit rests on a hard coral bottom and varies in depth from six inches to four feet. The fact, already observed at Baker's, that vegetation flourishes most where the guano is shallow is also quite apparent here and the consequent characteristic difference between the guano of the deep and shallow parts is distinctly marked. The first variety, from the deeper part, is a fine pul- verulent substance of reddish brown color, usually a little damp in its native bed and almost quite free from roots or fibers. The latter is of rather coarser texture, quite black and containing many delicate roots and fibers and much vegetable matter. The following analyses exhibit their comparative quality. No. 1 is of the deep part. No. 2 of the shallow part of the deposit. No. 1. No. 2. Moisture at 212° Fahr 1-83 4-12 Loss by ignition 8'65 22 '63 Insol. in HCl (unconsumed organic) matter 1-95 2 '00 Lime 42- S6-90 Magnesia 265 1 24 Sulphuric acid 1-33 -58 Phosphoric acid 39-65 30-80 Carb. acid, chlorine and alkalies undeterm'd, 1-94 1-67 100-00 100-00 It will be seen that the main difference in these samples is in the volatile matters present. Discarding the water and the or- ganic matter, comparative analyses of the ash would vary but little. Some interesting pseudomorphs occur buried in the guano of this island. Coral fragments of various species were found that had long been covered up under the deposit and in some of which the carbonic acid had been almost entirely replaced by phos- phoric acid. In such I have found seventy per cent phosphate 8 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. of lime. In many others the change was only partial and, on breaking some of these, in the centre was usually found a nucleus or coT-e of coral still retaining its original hardness and composi- tion, while the external parts had been changed from carbonate to phosphate which, though soft and friable, still preserved the structure and appearance of the coral. Jarvis' Island. — Jarvis' Island is situated in lat. 0° 22' south and long. 159° 58' west from Greenwich. It is nearly two miles long by one mile wide, trending east and west, and containing about 1000 acres. Like Baker's and Howland's it has the gen- eral features of a coral island, but it differs from them essentially in the fact that it once contained a lagoon which has gradually been filled up with sand and detritus, while the whole island has undergone some elevation. It therefore presents a basin-like form, the surface being depressed from the outer edge towards the centre. It is encircled by a fringing reef, or shore platform, about 800 feet wide; from this a gradually sloping beach re- cedes, the crown of which is from eighteen to twenty-eight feet high, forming a ridge or border, of varying width, which sur- rounds the island like a wall, from the inshore edge of which the surface of the island is gently depressed. Within this depression there are other ridges, parallel to the outer one, and old beach lines and water marks, the remaining traces of the waters of the lagoon, marking its gradual decrease and final disappearance. This flat depressed surface in the centre of the island is about seven or eight feet above the level of the sea. It bears but little vegetation, consisting of long, coarse grass, mesembryanthemum, and portulacca, and that is near the outer edges of the island where the surface is formed of coral sand mixed with more or less guano. In the central and lower parts the surface is com- posed of the sulphate of lime, and it is on this foundation that the principal deposit of guano rests. This feature of Jarvis' Island is an important one to consider in studying the difference between the guano found on it and that on Baker's Island, for it readily explains the presence, in much of the Jarvis Guano, of the great excess of sulphate of lime, remarked by all who have investigated it, while the unequal mechanical mixture of the guano with the underlying sulphate accounts for the lack of uni- formity in different samples. In examining the foundation of the guano deposit on Baker's or Howland's Islands, by sinking a shaft vertically, the hard conglomerate reef rock is found directly underlying the guano. Eesting on this foundation the guano has undergone only such changes as the climate has produced. On Jarvis' Island, how- ever, after sinking through the guano, one first meets with a stratum of sulphate of lime (sometimes compact and crystalline, sometimes soft and amorphous) frequently two feet thick, beneath J. D, Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 9 which are successive strata of coral sand and shells deposited one above the other in the gradual process by which the lagoon was filled up.* Of the origin of this sulphate of lime there can hardly be any doubt. As the lagoon was nearly filled up, while, by the grad- ual elevation of the island, the communication between the outer ocean and the inner lake was constantly becoming less easy, large quantities of sea water must have been evaporated in the basin. By this means deposits would be formed containing common salt, gypsum and other salts found in the waters of the ocean. From these the more soluble parts would gradually be washed out again by the occasional rains, leaving the less solu- ble sulphate of lime as we find it here. Some additional light is thrown on this matter by the different parts of the surface, which, though nearly flat, shows some slight variety of level. The higher parts, particularly around the outer edges, are composed chiefly of coral sand, either mixed with or underlying guano. Nearer the centre is a large tract, rather more depressed, forming a shallow basin in which the bulk of the sea water must have been evaporated, and whose surface (now partly covered with guano) is a bed of sulphate of lime, while, further, there is a still lower point, the least elevated of the whole, where the lagoon waters were, without doubt, most recently concentrated. This latter locality is a crescent shaped bed, about 600 feet long by 200 or 800 feet wide, having a sur- face very slightly depressed from the outer edge towards the middle. Around the borders are incrustations of crystallized gypsum and common salt, ripple marks and similar evidences of the gradually disappearing lake. The whole is composed of a crystalline deposit of sulphate of lime, which, around the borders, as already observed, is mixed with some common salt, while near the centre, where rain water sometimes collects after a heavy shower, the salt is almost entirely washed out, leaving the gyp- sum by itself It is closely, but not hard, packed, and is still very wet. By digging 18 or 24 inches down, salt water may generally be found. These facts help us to understand the varying conditions in which we now find the guano beds, since the most important part, and that from which the importations have thus far come, rests on a bed of sulphate of lime, of an earlier but similar origin to that just described above: a part rests on a coral formation, while still another part, covering a large tract, has been by the action of water mixed with coral mud. The first named deposit, lying on the sulphate of lime bed, has a peculiar character. It is covered by, or consists of, a hard * These horizontal strata were penetrated to a depth of about twenty feet. Tliey were composed chiefly of fine and coarse sand with an occasional stratum of corsJ fragments and shells. 10 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. crust that is from one-fourth of an inch to an inch and a half in thickness, beneath which lies a stratum of guano varying in depth from one inch to a foot. In many places where the guano was originally shallow the whole is taken np and formed into the hard crust which then lies immediately on the sulphate. This crust, when pure, is snow-white, with an appearance some- what resembling porcelain, but is usually colored more or less by organic matter. Generally it is very hard, and strongly co- hesive, though sometimes friable, and it lies unevenly on the surface in rough fragments that are warped and curved by the heat of the sun. It consists chiefly of phosphoric acid and lime, but, owing to the variable amount of sulphate of lime with which it is mechanically mixed, there is a lack of uniformity in differ- ent samples. Hence the percentage of phosphoric acid varies* from over 50 per cent to less than 30 per cent. The phosphoric acid and lime, moreover, are not combined in constant proportions, some existing as bone phosphate, the greater part, doubtless, in most specimens, as the neutral phos- phate, and, possibly, a part as the superphosphate. The following is an analysis of a piece of pure crust. The sample, in question, was a snow-white fragment, containing scarcely any organic matter. Moisture at 212° Fahr -12 Loss by ignition, (combined water with little organic matter), 962 Lime, 38-32 Sulphuric acid 1-63 Phosphoric acid 60 04 Undetermined and loss, , ■t^ lOU-00 This presents a somewhat remarkable character. It appears to be a nearly pure di-phosphate of lime. After allowing to the sulphuric acid the requisite amount of lime, there remains enough of the latter to form ninety per cent of the salt 2CaO, HO, PO5 leaving an excess of about three per cent of phos- phoric acid, which would suggest the possibility that a part of the phosphoric acid and lime may be combined as CaO, 2H0, POj. So small an amount of sulphuric acid is also noticeable in a specimen of Jarvis guano which usually contains a large per- centage of that acid, but in this case it is owing to the purity of the crust and the absence of mechanically mixed sulphate of lime. Samples of Jarvis guano have been examined by many chem- ists, but their results are not always uniform, because, as I have already explained, their samples were mixtures of this crust and the underlying guano or gypsum. A number of analyses, made for commercial purposes by Prof Johnson of JSTew Haven, I find published in a guano pamphlet, issued by Mr. Webb as a trade circular. Prof Liebig has also published a very complete analy- /. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean, 1 1 sis of Jarvis guatio in his "Eeport on the Guanos of Baker's and Jarvis' Islands, Aug. 7th, 1860." The following presents some of the results obtained by these two chemists : Liebig. Johnson. - . Average of four samples. •L-ime , , . . 34-839 34-79 Phosphoric acid, 17-601 1848 Sulphuric acid, ,,.. 27021 20-7o In Johnson's samples nearly the whole of the phosphoric acid is combined with the lime as 2CaO, HO, PO5, while Liebig finds for the above, 3CaO, PO5 17-397 per cent. 2CaO, HO, PO5 16026 " The formation of the neutral phosphate in this guano I think may be considered as a result of the action of sea water to which this part of the deposit has been subjected. It will be remem- bered that in describing the Baker's Island deposit I gave an analysis of a piece of crust found there, in which the phosphoric acid was likewise partly combined as the neutral salt. In that crust was also noticed a much larger percentage of sulphuric acid than is found in the guano from which it was formed ; and, further, it was observed that on Baker's Island this crust only occurs in places of which the appearance and position indicate that water (probably from high seas washing over the crown of the beach) assisted at its formation. It seems to me probable, under these circumstances, that sulphates resulting from the evaporation of the sea water have been decomposed, and that the sulphuric acid has united with the lime of the bone phos' phate, causing the formation of the di-phosphate of lime. That this process may have been carried on to a much greater extent at Jarvis' Island, where much of the deposit has evidently long been acted upon by sea water, seems to me beyond a doubt- A singular feature is presented by this crust in the formation of so-called 'hummocks,' an idea of which may be better obtained from the accompanying cuts than from words. These 'hummocks' vary in diameter from one to ten inches and in height from half an inch to six or seven inches. The exterior is composed of the hard, phosphatic crust, while within each one, without exception^ there is a central mass of soft, amorphous and nearly pure hy- drated sulphate of lime. When one of these is cut through ver- Am. Jouk. Soi,— Seookd Series, Vol. XXXIV, No- 101.— Sepit., 1863. 30 12 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. tically the section shows a series of concentric layers above and around this central mass. The exterior is almost pure phosphate, and, proceeding from the outside towards the centre, each suc- cessive layer has less phosphate and more sulphate until the central mass is reached, which is almost pure sulphate. It is worthy of note that this hydrated sulphate of lime, which inva- riably fills the centre of a " hummock," is amorphous and ex- ceedingly fine and soft, even when the underlying gypsum is crystalline. These hummocks are scattered over certain parts of the deposits and occur in close proximity to each other. In these places the deposit is invariably damp, and, usually, be- neath each one may be found, mixed with the underlying sul- phate, a black, earthy and damp substance containing much phosphate and some carbonate of lime. This black substance was, probably, coral mud, in which, as in the coral pseudomorphs of Rowland's, the carbonic acid has been expelled and replaced by phosphoric acid, and this affords the only explanation that I can offer for this remarkable formation, namely, that in the chemical interchange that must have taken place between the soluble salts washed down from the guano on the surface, the sulphate of lime and the coral mud, there may have been an ex- cess of carbonic acid liberated from the latter and replaced by phosphoric acid. The surface guano was probably wet and in a plastic state like thick mud, and the ascending carbonic acid, finding no other means of escape, and exerting an upward force, produced these hammocks, which have since become dry and hard. In those parts of the crusted deposit where there are no " hum- mocks " the surface is usually a little higher and the deposit be- low drier than where the hummocks occur, and this would fur- nish a reason for their absence, since the hummocks could hardly be formed, as above explained, if the surface, for want of moist- ure, were not sufficiently plastic and yielding. Thus this guano has not only been deprived of its ammoniacal salts, uric acid, etc., as have the deposits of Baker's and How- land's, but by its immediate contact with the gypsum has under- gone further chemical and physical changes. Probably, too, the direct action of sea water has effected much by bringing together and mixing the guano with the bed on which it lay, and, by oc- casional inundations, exposing the whole alternately to the ac- tion of water and to the intense heat of the sun.* " Thus it has been baked into a thick and hard crust whose chemical compo- sition differs materially from the guano in its usual form. * MoKean's and Phrenix Islands, described below, are likewise old lagoons not yet elevated so high aa Jarvis's. Their basins are sometimes flooded at high tides by several inches of water. Thus we may suppose that Jarvis, in an earlier stage of the process of elevation, was subjected to occasional floods, keeping in mind the fact before mentioned, that by digging now in the lower parts of the island salt wa- ter may be found at no great distance tielow the sm-face. J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 13 I have said that there was beneath the crust a stratum of gu- ano of variable depth. Frequently it is wanting altogether, the whole being taken up in the crust and lying in immediate con- tact with the bed of gypsum. Where there is such a layer of guano it is variable in composition, being mixed with more or less sulphate of lime. It generally contains from sixty to seventy per cent phosphate of lime. I come now to speak of that part of the Jarvis deposit which rests on a coral foundation. This is of limited extent, but is of great interest because of its similarity to the Baker guano. It is about two feet deep ; is a dry powder of dark brown color, of rather lighter shade than the Baker guano, owing to the pres- ence of less vegetable matter. It contains very little coral sund mixed with it. The following is an analysis : Moisture at 212° Fahr 602 Loss by ignition 845 Lime, 4217 Magnesia, 102 Sulphuric acid, 3U6 Pliosplioric acid, 34'01 Carbimio acid -81 Insol. residue, (organic matter uncousumed by ignition) 'eu Clilonne, alkalies, iron, etc. 4-86 100 00 It is important to observe that while the greater part of the Jarvis guano, as already described, differs materially from the Baker, tliis portion of the Jarvis deposit has almost the same chemical and physical characteristics as the Baker or Howland guano. Resting like that on a coral foundation, it has been ex- posed only to like influences, while the Jarvis crusted deposit, above described, owes its peculiar character to its contact with the gypsum on which it lies and to the action of the sea water. This gypsum or sulphate of lime is usually soft and amor- phous, sometimes crystalline, and, at a depth of eighteen inches or two feet, occurs in hard, compact, crystalline beds. It is of a light snuff color, and where it underlies guano, is mixed with considerable phosphate of lime, which has been washed down from the surface. Similar deposits of sulphate of lime occur on many other elevated lagoon-islands of the Pacific, some of which I shall allude to below. I have also seen gypsum, of similar character and appearance, which occurs in " pockets " or small depressions in the now elevated portions of the coral reef at Oahu, Sandwich Islands, and doubtless due to the same source, the evaporation of sea water. Unfortunately for the commercial interests of the Jarvis guano, the earlier cargoes (the first one or two) that were brought thence were selected without the aid of chemical analysis, and those in charge mistaking the gypsum for guano, seat home cargoes, the 14 /. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean, greater part of which was far from being worth the expeJise of transportation. The repetition of this error was promptly guarded against by sending a chemist to the island, but it re- quired a longer time for the reputation of the article in the mar- ket to recover from the ill effects of such a mistake. Climate. — The climate of these three islands is similar and very equable. The trade winds are almost constant, and blow in the summer from east by south to southeast, and, in the win- ter, from east by north to northeast. From October to February, inclusive, on Baker's, I did not observe a point of southing in the wind, while during the summer months there are long periods during which the wind is invariably from south of east. Calms are rare, especially those of long duration. Westerly winds have seldom been observed, except, occasionally, as light puflf's on quiet, calm days. On one or two occasions only, in the winter, at Ba- ker's, have any westerly winds of much force been recorded. The sky is clear and cloudless. The temperature is exceed- ingly even, ranging from 76° at sunrise to 88° Fahrenheit at the hottest part of the day in the shade. In the sun at noon it stands between 95° and 100°. Rain falls in light showers not infrequently. Heavy showers are rare and rainy days are unknown in my experience there. During four winter months at Baker's Island, from October 1, 1859, to February 15, 1860, rain fell twenty-three times, gener- ally occurring in light showers or squalls, at intervals of a week or thereabouts, and a general coincidence between the times of occurrence of these showers and the changes of the moon from phase to phase has been observed, but this regularity is not so great, neither at this or other seasons, but that weeks have passed without a drop of rain. During these four months the least of these showers, measured by conical rain ga-uge, amounted to y/^^ of an inch on a level, and the greatest on December 19, 1859, was yVoV of one inch. From December 14, 1859, to December 20, 1859, inclusive, there fell yVo of one inch. The total amount of the four months' rain ■was 1-840 inches, of which yW fell in December. Although the amount of rain falling in the summer months is much less than that which falls in winter, there are, nevertheless, days in summer on which showers have fallen as heavy as any in the year. Rain falls most frequently in the night and just before day- break; sometimes by day, especially if the sky has long been overcast, a rain cloud passes over the island, but I have often observed the remarkable phenomenon of a rain squall approach- ing the island, and just before reaching it, separating into two parts, one of which passed by on the north, the other on the south side, the cloud having been cleft by the column of heated air rising from the white coral sands. /. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 1 5 The position of these islands near the equator and their re- snoteness from any high land make them favorable places for studying the meteorology of this region. The equatorial cur- rent is a matter of great interest. It has a general direction of west southwest, and runs with a great velocity, sometimes ex- ceeding two knots per hour, and, at times, suddenly changing and running quite as rapidly to the eastward. During the winter months there are days when the swell is very heavy, and the surf breaks violently on the reefs, but in summer there is little or no surf, and especially on the lee side of the island, the water is very smooth. These periods in the winter occur usually at intervals of a few days and prevail dur- ing two or three and sometimes more days. In this connection I may allude to the shifting sands at Baker's, which, as I ob- served there, change their place twice in the year. The western shore of the island trends nearly northeast and southwest; the southern shore east by north. At their junction there is a spit of sand extending out towards the southwest. During the sum- mer the ocean swell, like the wind, comes from the southeast, to the force of which the south side of the island is exposed, while the western side is protected. In consequence the sands of the beach that have been accumulating during the summer on the south side are all washed around the southwest point, and are heaped up on the western side, forming a plateau along the beach two or three hundred feet wide, nearly covering the shore platform, and eight or ten feet deep. With October and November comes the winter swell from northeast, which sweeps along the western shore and from the force of which the south side is in its turn pro- tected. Then the sand begins to travel from the western to the southern side, and after a month or two nothing remains of the great sand plateau but a narrow strip, while on the south side the beach has been extended 200 or 300 feet. This lasts until February or March when the operation is repeated. Birds, etc. — From fifteen to twenty varieties of birds may be distinguished among those frequenting the island of which the principal are Gannets and Boobies, Frigate Birds, Tropic Birds, Tern, Noddies, Petrels, and some game birds as the Curlew, Snipe and Plover. Of terns there are several varieties. The most numerously represented is what I believe to be the Sterna Hirundo. These frequent the island twice in the year for the purpose of breeding. They rest on the ground, making no nests but selecting tufts of grass, where such may be found, under which to lay their eggs. I have seen acres of ground thus thickly covered by these birds, whose numbers might be told by millions. Between the breeding seasons they diminish consid- erably in numbers, though they never entirely desert the island. They are expert fishers and venture far out to sea in quest of prey. The Noddies (Sterna stolida) are also very numerous. 16 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. They are black birds, somewhat larger than pigeons, with much longer wings. They are very simple and stupid. They burrow holes in the guano in whicli they live and raise their young, generally inhabiting that part of the deposit which is shallowest and driest. Their numbers seem to be about the same through- out the year. The Gannet and Booby, two closely allied species, (of the genus Sula), are represented by two or three varieties. They are large birds and great devourers of fish which they take very expertly, not only catching those that leap out of water but diving beneath the surface for them. They are very awk- ward and unwieldy on land, and may be easily overtaken and captured if indeed they attempt to escape at all on the approach of man. They rest on the trees wherever there is opportunity, but on these islands they collect in great groups on the ground ■where they lay their eggs and raise their young. One variety, nbt very numerous, has the habit of building up a pile of twigs and sticks, twenty or thirty inches in height, particularly on Howland's where more material of that sort is at hand, on which they make their nest. When frightened these birds disgorge the contents of their stomachs, the capacity of which is some- times very astonishing. They are gross feeders, and I have often seen one disgorge three or four large flying fish fifteen or eighteen inches in length. The Frigate Bird (Tachypetes Aquilus) I have already al- luded to. It is a large rapacious bird, the tyrant of the feath- ered community. It . lives almost entirely by piracy, forcing other birds to contribute to its support. These frigate birds hover over the island constantly, lying in wait for fishing birds returning from sea to whom they give chase, and the pursued bird only escapes by disgorging its prey, which the pursuer very adroitly catches in the air. They also prey upon flying fish and others that leap from sea to sea, but never dive for fish and rarely even approach the water. The above are the kinds of birds most numerously represented and to which we owe the existing deposits. When tiie islands were first occupied they were very numerous but have since been perceptibly decreasing. Besides these are the Tropic Birds which are found in con- siderable numbers on Howland's Island, but seldom on Jarvis' or Baker's. They prefer the former because there are large blocks or fragments of beach rock, scattered over the island's surface, under which they burrow out nests for themselves. A service is sometimes required of this bird which may, perhaps, be worthy of notice. A setting bird was taken from her nest and carried to sea by a vessel just leaving the island. On the second day, at sea, a rag, on which was written a message, was attached to the bird's feet, who returned to the nest, bringing with it the intelligence from the departed vessel. This experi- /. D. Hague on the Guano Islands in the Pacific Ocean. 17 ment succeeded so well that, subsequently, these birds were carried from Howland's to Baker's Island, (forty miles distant), and, on being liberated there, one after the other, as occasion de- manded, brought back messages, proving themselves useful in the absence of other means of communication. There are several varieties of tern, those described above, however, being the only kinds that are found in very considera- ble numbers. The game birds, snipe, plover and curlew, frequent the islands in the fall and winter, but I never found any evi- dence of their breeding there. They do not leave the island in quest of prey but may be seen at low tide picking up their food on the reef which is then almost dry. Some of the social habits of these birds are worthy of remark. Thegannets and boobies usually crowd together in a very ex- clusive manner ; the frigate birds likewise keep themselves dis- tinct from other kinds; the tern appropriate to themselves a certain portion of the island ; each family collects in its accus- tomed roosting place but all in peace and harmony. Tiie feud between the fishing birds and their oppressors, the frigate birds, is only active in the air ; if the gannet or booby can but reach the land and plant its feet on the ground the pursuer gives up the chase immediately. Beside the birds there were but few original inhabitants found upon the islands. Among those I observe several varieties of spiders, at least two of ants, a peculiar species of fly that at- taches itself to the larger birds, and the common house fly, which latter, however, may have been recently introduced. They as well as common red ants are exceedingly abundant. Rats were found on all these islands, especially on Howland's, where they had become astonishingly numerous. It would seem that they had been carried there long ago, as there are no traces of recent shipwreck on the island, aud had multiplied extensively. On Jarvis' Island they were much less numerous, and were probably brought by a ship that was wrecked there thirty years since. They subsist on eggs, and also, as I observed on Baker's Island, by sucking the blood of the smaller birds — the tern and noddies ; and in this connection I may observe that these smaller kinds of birds, described above, are almost entirely wanting on Howland's, and their absence, I think, may be attributed to the depredations of the rats. These rats of Howland's Island were almost as numerous as the birds. They are of very small size, being hardly larger than a large mouse, and, I think, must have degenerated from their original state in consequence of the change of climate, food and condition of life. They had com- pletelj'' overrun the island, and on its first occupation by men were a great annoyance. For many nights in succession a barrel containing a few oats caught over 100, and I have known over 18 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 3,300 to have been killed in one day by a few men employed for the purpose. A species of small lizard was also found in great numbers on Howland's Island, some specimens of which I had preserved in spirit, but the package containing them was lost on the voyage home. Bemains of former visitors. — There are some interesting traces on this (Howland's) island of former visitors or residents. Ex- cavations and mounds in the centre of the island, among the thickets of brushwood, referred to above, are evidently the work of man. The most extensive of these excavations is several hundred feet long, and about one hundred feet wide, and ten or fifteen feet deep, forming a gully or ditch, on each side of which the sand and gravel is carefully banked up and kept in its place by walls laid up of coral stone, (blocks of beach and reef rock). The trees themselves may possibly owe their existence here to the originators of these works, for the sides of this gully are covered by a growth of wood which, unless younger than the rest, would show the trees to be of more recent origin than the excavation. It is said to be of a species called by the natives of the Sand- wich Islands "Kou,"* which abounds on many islands of the Pacific. In the same vicinity there are also the remains of what ■were low, flat mounds of regular shape, formed of gravel and walled up all around, being about a foot high, and j ust such as I have observed are used by many South Sea Islanders for the foundation and floor of their houses. In another part of the island, near the western beach, some remains of a hat were found, and near by the fragments of a canoe, some pieces of bamboo .and a blue bead. Here also was found, buried under a foot of sand, a human skeleton, the greater part of which, on being ex- posed to the air, crumbled to dust, leaving only two or three bones in condition to be preserved. On the south end of the island there is a foot-path laid to cross a bed of coral debris or beach accumulations. The edges of the corals being rough, sharp and painful to the feet, the paths seems to have been laid for the convenience of passengers across this end of the island. It is several hundred feet long, made of flat, smooth stones, at convenient distances apart, for stepping from one to the other. They were evidently laid by hand, as they lie in a direction which forms nearly a right angle with the ridges made by the sea. It is probable that the originators of these works were South Sea Islanders. It sometimes happens that they are drifted off to sea by currents in their canoes, and such a party may have been thrown upon this island. No im- plements or other traces of civilized people have been found. * Not to be confounded with " Koa," a species of acacia, and quite a different tree. I have seen the Kou alluded to somewhere as a species of cordia. J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 19 It is not unlikely that the lizards which abound on the inhab- ited islands of the Pacific were brought here by these people, and the rats, possibly, came"from the same source. Other Islands. — As already observed, the discovery of these deposits of guano, the extent and value of which were at first greatly exaggerated, induced fortune-seeking parties to explore the Pacific in the hope of finding many more of similar charac- ter. Under the act of Congress of 1856, granting American pro- tection to the discoverers and occupants, under certain conditions, of such newly found deposits, nearly all the islands found on the charts within ten degrees north or south of the equator and within 150° and 180° W. were represented as possessing deposits of guano, and claimed by parties who evidently knew but little of their true condition. A list, forty-eight in number, comprising nearly all of these islands, was published in the New York Tribune, in March, 1859, and was copied and discussed by Mr. E. Behm, in his interesting and valuable article, entitled " Das Amerikanische Polynesien," printed in Petermann's Mittheilurigen, for 1859. Of these islands, a number of which I have myself examined, it is safe to assert that some, although having a place on the charts, do not really exist, while many are of very doubtful ex- istence ; in some cases two or more names are applied to the same island ; some are inhabited, others are covered with trees and vegetation, and very few have guano on them.* * The following is the list referred to. Those named in the first column are islands whose existence and position is well authenticated, and the greater part of which I have myself visited. Those in italics are either known or said to be guano islands. Those marked with an asterisk are inhabited. Some of the islands men- tioned in the second column are known certainly to exist, and are described by va- rious navigators, while others are doubtful, but I am unable to add any positive in- formation concerning any of them. The existence of those in the third column is considered as highly improbable, at least in the position commonly assigned to them. I. n. III. Arthur's Favorite, Farmer's, Sideron's, Flint, (11° 26' S., 162° 48' W.) TValker's, Sarah Anne, JBai:er's, Caroline, Danger, (6° SO' N"., JarM, Ann's, 162° 32' W.), EmdanHn, Staver's, Makin, Maiden's, Flint, (10° 32' S., Matthew's, Birnie's, 151° 05' W.) Barber's. Phoenix's, Baumann's, Enderburi/s, Eogewein's, Christmas, Gronique, Clarence,* Frieuhaven, Duke of York,* Quiro's, David's. Penrhyn's,* Low, Rierson's,* Pescado, Humphrey's,* Ganges, Danger,* (10° 0' S., Frances, 165° 56' W.), Mary Letitia's, Palmyra, Kemin's, Sydnev, America, Mary's', Prospect, Nassau. Am. Jock. Sci.— Second Semes, Vol. XXXIV, No. 101.— Sept., 1863. 31 20 /. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. The following named islands, in particular, have been sup- posed, erroneously, as regards some of them, to have guano deposits : Latitude. Longitude. ^ . ( McKean's, 3°i35' S., 174° 17' W. ■| a } Phoenix, 3° 40' S., 170° 62' W, M S ) Enderbury'a, 8° 08' S., 174° 14' "W. f^® ( Birnie's, 3° 33' S., 171° 33' W. Maiden's, 4° 15' S., 155° W. Johnston's, 16° 53' N., 169° 31' W. Christmaa, 1° 53' W., 157° 32' W. Starve, Starbuck or Hero, 5° 40' S., 155° 55' "W. Of the above those of the Phqenix group are probably the most important. McKean's Island has been occupied since 1858, and several cargoes of guano of good quality have been brought from it to this country. It is a low island, circular in form, not exceeding three-fourths of a mile in diameter. Like Jarvis, it once contained a lagoon though not elevated so high above the sea. Its surface is consequently depressed, and is so much lower than the beach that at high tides the guano deposit is sometimes covered by two feet of water. As at Jarvis, a deposit of sulphate of lime has resulted from the evaporation of sea water in the ba- sin, forming the foundation on which the guano rests ; and ow- ing, probably, to frequent inundations, the two have become so intimately mixed that the quality of much of the guano is con- siderably impaired. The better specimens contain about fifty per cent phosphate of lime mixed with much sulphate of lime. Much of the deposit is covered by a foot of coral mud, which has been spread out over the part adjacent to the beach. Phoenix's Island is likewise very small, nearly circular, and less than a half mile in diameter. The centre is considerably lower than the beach, which is about eight or ten feet high, and it is often flooded at high tides. I was unable to land on this island, and my opportunities for observation were confined to shipboard. The guano deposit cannot be very extensive though said to be of good quality. Bnderbury's Island is described as an elevated lagoon, about eighteen feet high, three miles long by two and a half broad. It is said to contain deposits of guano, as is also its neighbor, Birnie's Island, of which I am unable to give any positive in- formation, having never visited either. Maiden's is a large island, ten miles long, and said to be about forty feet high. _ I believe it is an elevated lagoon, but much of the guano deposit lies on the elevated ridge. Specimens which I have examined, though free from sulphate, were much adulter- ated by coral sand. Excepting McKean's, no cargoes have been brought from these islands just alluded to. From Johnston's Islands one or two cargoes have been brought to this country, the greater part of which proved, I believe, to be sand. These /. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 21 are described as three small islands (probably islets of one atoll) containing but little guano and that mueli mixed with coral sand. Christmas Island is a well-known lagoon thirty miles long, trending east and west, having much vegetation. Much has been said by speculators of its rich deposits, but I have good reason to believe that there is no guano, worthy of mention, on the island. Samples that I have examined were chiefly coral sand. Starbuck's, Starve or Hero Island is an elevated lagoon, and is worthy of mention because, like Jarvis', McKean's and other islands of similar structure, it contains a large deposit of gypsum. Its supposed guano I have found to consist of the hydrated sul- })hate of lime, containing about twelve per cent of phosphate of ime and colored by a little organic matter. _ So far as my observation extends, all elevated lagoons have similar deposits of gypsum. As regards the distribution of these phosphatic guano deposits I believe them, in this region of the Pacific, to be confined to latitudes very near the equator where rain is comparatively of rare occurrence. In latitudes more remote from the equator than 4° or 5° heavy rains are frequent, and this circumstance is not only directly unfavorable to the formation of guano deposits but it encourages vegetation, and when an island is covered with trees and bushes, the birds preferring to roost in them, there is no opportunity for the accumulation of guano deposits. Kew York, August, 1862. [Fbom the Amemoan Jocekal of Science and Arts, Vol. XXXI, Maech, 1861.] Contributions from tie Sheffield laboratory of Yale CoUege." I. OBSERVATIONS ON CHANCEL'S METHOD OF ESTIMATING PHOSPHORIC ACID. By henry I. MoCUEDY. The following new method for the detection and quantitative separation of phosphoric acid by means of nitrate of bismuth has been lately recommended by Chancel as of universal appli- cability. A nitric acid solution of the substance containing phosphoric acid is treated with a solution of nitrate of bismuth-f- as long as a precipitate is formed. It is then boiled, filtered and the precipitated phosphate of bismuth is washed with hot water, dried, ignited and weighed. Chlorine and sulphuric acid, if present, must first be removed by means of the nitrates of baryta and silver. Too great an amount of nitric acid must be avoided, since the phosphate of bismuth though insoluble in a moderate quantity of nitric acid, is soluble in a large excess. I have recently made some experiments on this method at the suggestion of Prof Johnson, which go to show that in the pres- ence of certain sesquioxyds it is utterly valueless. I proceeded as follows : a solution of nitrate of bismuth was prepared accord- ing to Chancel's directions, and also a solution of pure phosphate of soda. These two solutions were of such strength that one cubic centimeter of the nitrate of bismuth solution contained a * Communicated by Profa. Johnson and Brush. f Best prepared, according to Chancel's latest advice, by dissolving 68-45 gms. of the pure crystallized neutral nitrate of bismuth, BiO^ 3NO*+10aq in a quantity of nitric acid representing 68'5 gms. of anhydrous nitric acid and bringing the solution to the volume of a liter. Each cubic centimeter of this solution precipitates 1 cen- tigram of phosphoric acid. 2 [282] On Chancel's method of little more bismyth than was necessary to precipitate llie whole of the phosphoric acid in 1 c. c. of the phosphate of soda solu- tion. A strong solution of the nitrate of sesquioxyd of iron was then prepared, and to 1 c. c. of it were added successively 1 c. c. of the phosphate of soda solution and 1 c. c. of the nitrate of bismuth solution. No precipitate was formed even after boiling the rriixture. The pernitrate of iron was diluted with nine parts by volume of water, and to 1 c. c. of this dilute solution were added equal amounts of phosphate of soda and nitrate of bismuth. A rather bulky precipitate came down, but after boil- ing, the filtrate on being tested with molybdate of ammonia was found to contain phosphoric acid in large quantity. The experiment was repeated, using two, three and four, c. o. of the dilute solution of ferric nitrate to 1 c. c. each, of the solution of phosphate of soda and nitrate of bismuth with similar results — the precipitate of phosphate of bismuth diminishing and the amount of phosphoric acid in the filtrate increasing regularly as more and more of the iron salt was added. When 5 c. c. of the solution of iron were employed to 1 c. c. each, of the two other solutions, there was no precipitate whatever, the whole of the phosphate of bismuth being held in solution by the nitrate of iron. In all cases where phosphate of bismuth was precipitated in presence of nitrate of sesquioxyd of iron it carried down with it a notable quantity of iron, as manifested by the color of the precipitate, which was brownish red when a large proportion of iron existed in the solution and of a yellow tint when the amount of iron was small. A strong solution of nitrate of alumina was prepared by saturating nitric acid (of sp. gr. 1"16) with pure, freshly precipi- tated hydrate of alumina, and some experiments were made with this solution, using in each case 1 c. c. of the solution of phos- phate of soda and 1 c. c. of the solution of nitrate of bismuth, to successively increasing quantities of the nitrate of alumina. With 1 c. c. of the nitrate of alumina solution there was formed a considerable precipitate, but when the solution was filtered, and tested with molybdate of ammonia it was found still to con- tain phosphoric acid. After dissolving this precipitate in hot nitric acid and separating the bismuth by sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia indicated the presence of phosphate of alumina, show- ing that the phosphate of bismuth had carried down a portion of alumina with it. With 2 c. c of alumina there was scarcely any precipitate on boiling, and with 3 c. c. the phosphate of bis- muth was entirely prevented from separating. Experiments were made with a solution of nitrate of sesqui- oxyd of chromium and it was found that 5 c. c. of chromic estimating Phosphoric Acid. [283] 3 nitrate employed to 1 c. c, each, of the solutions of phosphate of soda and nitrate of bismuth, were sufficient to prevent the for- mation of any precipitate. The solution used was a rather strong one. Nitrate of sesquioxyd of uranium even in small quantities prevents the complete precipitation of phosphoric acid by this method, and when in large amount, dissolves the precipitate en- tirely. The phosphate of bismuth when thrown down from a solution containing uranic nitrate is contaminated with the latter. A similar series of experiments was made with the nitrates of ammonia, potassa, baryta, strontia, lime, and magnesia. The presence of these bases does not seem to interfere with the suc- cess of the method. It follows from these trials that the method proposed by Chancel, cannot be applied in the presence of sesquioxyds of iron, aluminum, chromium or uranium, since, on the one hand the nitrates of these substances when in excess, have the property of dissolving phosphate of bismuth and thus prevent- ing its precipitation, and on the other, when phosphoric acid is in excess, phosphates of these bases are thrown down in con- junction with the phosphate of bismuth. Note. — Since these experiments by Mr. McCurdy were com- pleted, we have leafned from the Comptes Rendus that Chancel has discovered the inapplicability of his original method in presence of peroxyd of iron, and proposes to overcome this dif- ficulty by reduction of the peroxyd to protoxyd. The details of the modified process are given on page 279. Chancel, how- ever, still appears to overlook the fact that his process is, and is likely to remain valueless in just those cases where a new method would be most acceptable, viz. for the estimation of phosphoric acid in presence of alumina. s. w. J. New Haven, Feb. 15, 1861. [feom the am. jonn. of science and arts, vol. xxxvii, may, 1864.] Contributions from the SheflBeld Laboratory of Yale College, VII. ON THE INDIRECT DETERMINATION OP POTASH AND SODA. BY PETER COLLIER, B.A. Assistant in the Sheffield Laboratory. The method customafily employed in estimating potash and soda, via,: by the precipitation of the former as platinchlorid of potassium and reckoning soda from the loss, though sufficiently accurate in patient and skillful hands, is yet open to many sources of error and at the best is exceedingly tedious and troublesome. The indirect method does not yet appear to possess the confi- dence of chemists, at least, it is rarely mentioned in published investigations. I have therefore, at the suggestion of Prof John- son, made a number of experiments to ascertain the limits of error in this process. The volumetric estimation of chlorine as perfected by Mohr offers by far the best basis for an indirect determination of the alkalies. It is in fact requisite in employing the usual direct method, to procure the alkalies in the condition of pure chlorids before precipitation. When the alkali chlorids are obtained free from all foreign matters, it is but the work of a few moments to ascertain their content of chlorine. The silver solution used for this purpose is best prepared by weighing off in a porcelain crucible about 4-8 grm. of clean crys- tallized nitrate of silver, fusing it at the lowest possible heat, and then ascertaining its weight accurately. After fusion it should weigh a Utile more than 4-7933 grm., the quantity, that, contained in a liter of water, gives a solution of which 1 c. c. = 345 P. 'Collier, on Indirect Determinations of Potash and Soda. •001 grm. of chlorine. The fused salt is dissolved in a little warm water, the solution brought into a liter flask and filled to the mark, observinglhe usual precautions as to temperature, &c. When thus adjusted, add to the contents of the flask, from a burette, enough water to bring the excess of nitrate of silver above 4 7933 grms. to the requisite dilution. In this way it is easy with a burette and liter flask to make a perfectly accurate standard solution, while this would be hardly possible should the operator weigh off less than 4:'7933 grm. of nitrate of silver. This solution, which may be preserved in a well corked bottle indefinitelj'', without change, is next tested by means of a solu- tion of pure chlorid of sodium or chlorid of ammonium, a quan- tity, say about 2 grams, of one of these salts being dissolved in a liter of water and 20 c. c. of the liquid taken for the compari- son. The solution being ready, the estimation of chlorine is conducted as described by Mohr, Fresenius, Sutton and others, chromatc of potash being employed to indicate the completion of the reaction. The use of Erdmann's float in a burette (which may hold 70 c. c.) graduated to fifths ensures the needful accu- racy of reading. In my determinations /^th c. c. of silver solu- tion were deducted as the excess needed to produce a visible quantity of chromate of silver. The appended table gives the results I obtained in the analy- ses of the chlorids of potassium and sodium. The salts were i perfectly pure and the quantities were weighed out in each case. [n order to test the method thoroughly I have varied the pro- portions of the mixtures from one extreme to the other. Summary of Volumetric Chlorine Delerminationt. KOItuken. NaCI taken. CI fonnd. KCl calculated. NaCI calculated. CI calculated. •02768 1st analysis. •058