maHTMBBuamr TRUBNER F S COLLECTION OF' SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS THE MALAGASY LANGUAG G.W.PARKER. ■ : . 3 Pl 5373 Qfontell HtuuersUg ffitbraty 3tljata, Sta fork Cornell University Library PL 5373.P23 Concise grammar of the Malagasy language 3 1924 026 914 600 Date Due NO. 23233 The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026914600 TRUBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., Ph.D. IV. MALAGASY. BY G. W. PARKER. TRUBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., Ph.D. I. HINDUSTANI, PERSIAN, AND ARABIC. By the late B. H. Palmer, M.A. Price 5s. II. HUNGARIAN. By I. SlNGEB. Price 4s. 6d. III. BASQUE. By W. Van Eys. IV. MALAGASY. By a. W. Pabkee. V. MODERN GREEK. By E. M. Geldabt, M.A. VI. ROUMANIAN. By E. Toeceanu. Grammars of the following are in preparation : — Albanese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyrian, Bohemian, Bulgarian, Burmese, Chinese, Cymric and Gaelic, Danish, Finnish, Hebrew, Malay, Pali, Polish, Russian, Sanskrit, Serbian, Siamese, Singhalese, Swedish, Tibetan, Turkish. London : TRUBNER & CO., Ludgate Hill. CONCISE GKAMMAB MALAGASY LANGUAGE. SY G. W. PAEKER. LONDON : TEUBNER & CO., 57 and 59, LUDGATE HTLL. 1883> i'WIV|-„-.|TY [All rights reserved.} , *«3 k c v UNIVERSITY ^ LIBRARY y LONDON • PRINTED BY GILBERT AND KIVINGTON, LIMITED, ST. JOHN'S SQUARE. PREFACE. The language spoken by the various tribes which inhabit Madagascar was essentially a spoken language, no symbols or pictures of the nature of writing having been found, until the early part of the present century; since which time the English Missionaries, by degrees, reduced it to its present alphabetic form. The characters chosen for it were those of our own English alphabet, with the exception of the five letters c, q, u, w, x, which have no corresponding sounds in Malagasy : but some, or all, of these (especially w) seem likely to be incorporated into the Malagasy language along with foreign words which require their use. With regard to the place which Malagasy occupies among languages, there can be no doubt at all that it belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian group, or that it seems to have the closest affinity to the Malay proper and the Eastern Poly- nesian; although it is still a puzzle why the Malagasy people, who are chiefly of African origin (with the exception of the Hova tribe), should use a Malay language. The use of infixes is a feature which the Malagasy language possesses in common with other languages of the Malayo-Polynesian group ; and on this subject Mr. Keane has kindly given the following valuable information : — " The infix syllable om (um, am, om) is a feature which Malagasy has in common with Khmer ( iv ) (Cambojan), Javanese, Malay, Tagala (Philippine Archi- pelago), and, no doubt, other members of the Malayo- Polynesian family. Ex. Khmer: slap, dead; samlap, to kill. Javanese : hurub, flame ; humurub, to inflame. Malay : pilih, to choose; pamilihan, choice. Tagala : basa, to read; bumasa, to make use of reading. Originally a prefix, as it still is in Samoan (ex. moto, unripe; momoto, to die young), this particle seems to have worked its way into the body of the word by a process of metathesis analogous to the transposition common to most languages (compare Anglo-Saxon thridda with third)." Briefly stated, the influence of foreigners upon the Malagasy language is as follows : — (1) The influence of the Arabs is seen in the names of the days of the week, the Hova names for the months, and in many terms connected with dress, bed, money, musical instruments, &c. (2) The influence of the English and of the Freiich is seen in many abstract scientific, theological, and archi- tectural terms, and in the names of modern weapons. Above all, the Malagasy people have gained much by the reduction of their language to the condition of a written tongue, and by the translation of the Bible into Malagasy — for which benefits they are more especially indebted to the labours of the English Missionaries. G. W. PARKER. MALAGASY GRAMMAR. Letters. — The Malagasy Alphabet contains the same letters as the English Alphabet, with the exception of e, q, u, w, and x. Vowels and Diphthongs. — These are pronounced as follows : — a as a in psalm; example, tana, (a) chamseleon. e ... a ... date; ... eny, yes. i ... ee ... weep; ... hldy, (a) lock. o ... oo ... too; ... buy, (a) river. These are the usual sounds of the four vowels. ai > a y\ avi ■■ -1.4. !- pronounced like i in miem. ei, ey ) ao ... ... ow ... now. These two sounds are the only true diphthongs. T represents the same sound as i, but is used at the ends of words, has a lighter sound, and becomes mute in certain eases ; while, in the translation of the New Testament, y is used in the body of words taken from the Greek to repre- sent the letter upsilon, : thus, synagbgy, synagogue. 0, when used as the sign of a vocative case, or in names introduced from another language (as Rajbna, John), has the sound of o in ' no.' 6 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. In writing, all Malagasy words are written in full, except when the first of two words is a noun followed by its possessive case, or a verb in the passive or relative voice followed by its agent. In speaking, each vowel must be clearly pronounced, because often a single vowel is the only means of distinction between two words dissimilar in meaning. Examples : — dlona, a person. manana, to possess. manenina, to regret. dlana, twisting. manina, to long after, manenona, to weave. An elision occurs in speaking usually when a final a, not accented, precedes a word beginning with any other vowel ; also when final o precedes a word beginning with o. Euphonic Letters. — These are h and *. Euphonic h is generally inserted (both in speaking and writing) in a derivative, when two vowels would otherwise come together, of which one would be the first letter of the root, and the other the last letter of the prefix ; thus, Viaviany (instead of mvXany), from root am/. Euphonic i is pronounced (but neither written nor printed) when i or y precedes g, h, h, ng, or nlc ; thus, mikasa, ' to intend/ is pronounced mikiasa. Apparent Diphthongs. — The double vowels eo, io, found often, are not true diphthongs, because the sound of each vowel can be distinguished, unless they are pronounced too quickly : moreover, in forming passive verbs, the accent passes on to the second vowel. Thus, leo makes passive imperative alebvy ; dio makes passive imperative dibvy. Sometimes, too, the diphthongs ai and ao are resolved into their component vowel-sounds ; thus, aidina, ' poured out •/ THE ALPHABET. 7 aorina, ' built.' In these cases the a is a prefix, the rest of the word being a root. The following combinations of vowels are less often found : ia, oa, oi (or oy), oe, aoe, and oai. Final a is changed into y when a word ending in -na, -ha, or -tra, is followed either by the article ny or by- certain proper nouns which do not admit of the article : this change softens and shortens the sound of the final syllable, and also serves to mark the genitive and ablative cases. Ex. Ny satroky ny Uhilahy, the hat of the man. •) Andriamanitry Jakoba, the God of Jacob, j Fantatry ny olona, known by the people. — Verb. The third example shows that verbs in -na, -ha, or -tra, also follow this rule. Final a is left unchanged, in order that the sense may not be doubtful, when a word ending in -na, -ha, or -tra, is not followed by another word in the genitive or in the ablative case. Ex. Fanlatra ny olona, known (are) the people, i.e. the people are known. Consonants. — The consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions : — g is always hard, as in ' gold/ j as dz, in ' adze.' s before e and i is pronounced as a soft sh (ex. mlsy pronounced imsh) ; otherwise it is always pro- nounced as s in f sun' (ex. \sa, one), a as z, in ' zone.' 8 A COXCISE MALAGASY GUAM MAR. The s and the z are never confounded in Malagasy as m the English word surprise. Bo u b le Consonants. — The following are commonly used : — dr, dz (or j), tr, and ts. These have the force of single letters, and may begin a syllable or a word. 110, mb, mp, also used often to begin words, seem to have arisen out of the fuller forms ang, amb, and amp, which still survive among other dialects than that of the Hovas : ex. Sihanaka, ambamy = Hova, mbamy {' together with, including ') . n and m are often used to close syllables : — 1% is so used before d, t, dr, dz (or j), tr, ts, g, and h. m & or p. Hence the rule : when n or in in the body of a word {not a compound) is followed by another consonant, the n or m is the closing letter of the preceding syllable. With this one exception all syllables end in a vowel. As n will combine only with d, g, Tc, and t, and m only with b or p, the only combinations of consonants allowable in the Malagasy language are the following : — dr, dz (oij). tr, ts. mb, mp. nd, ndr, ndz (or nj) ng, nk, nt, ntr, nts. Hence the following euphonic changes among consonants become necessary : f is replaced by p. h .. .. h or g. I .. .. d. 1} .. .. b. r is strengthened by d, becoming dr. s ■■ .. t, ts. z •• . . d, .. dz EUPHONIC CHANGES. 9 These euphonic changes among consonants are re- quired : — (1) In forming derivatives that take a prefix ending in n or m. (2) When n or m is inserted between two words as the sign of an indefinite possessive or ablative case. (3) In contracting words ending in -na by throwing away the final a, so shortening the word by one syllable. But no euphonic change is needed (1) when the whole syllable -na is rejected before a word beginning with m or u ; thus, manampina-maso becomes manampi-maso : or (2) when the n of possession (short for -ny) is similarly rejected before a noun beginning with m or n; thus, rano- maso, " eye- water " (i.e. tears). The final syllables -na, -ka, and -tra are contracted sometimes by rejection of the final syllable. When one of the changeable consonants follows a word so contracted, it is changed according to rule {see p. 8), as if the letter m or n closed the preceding syllable. These final syllables (if not contracted) are always sounded lightly, although they become almost mute when the accent falls on the antepenult. When followed by a consonant, the sound of final a is always kept. When a word ending in -na, -ka, or -tra, is joined with another word beginning with a vowel, the final a is replaced by an apostrophe ; thus, satrok' blona, ' some-one's hat/ From the fondness of the Malagasy for contractions, the 10 A CONCISE MALAGASY GKAMMAE. relationship of the second of two contracted words to the preceding word may be any one of these ten things : — (1) It may be a possessive case; as, aJchnim-bbrona (a/cany, vbrona), 'a bird's nest.' (2) the agent of a passive or relative verb; as, tiam-oady (tlana, vacly), ' loved by one's wife.' (3) the object of a verb ; as, rnanoso-dbho (ma- nbsotra, Idlco) , ' to smear with paint.' (4) a limiting accusative; as, tsara-fanahy (tsdra, fanahy), ' good as regards disposition.' (5) a noun in apposition; as, andrlan-drdy aman-dreny (andriana, ray, hmana, r'eny), 'the nobles (who are as) father and mother.' (6) a subject; sis^tataram-pozaitatatrayfbza), ' crabs are the things for which people cut channels.' (7) a predicate; as, ny fonbsin-db (fonbsina, lb) , ' the thing that is wrapped up is putrid.' (8) an adjective; as, zava-tsba (zavatra, sba), ' good things.' (9) a verb in the infinitive mood; as, nasai- nanab (nasalna, . nanab), ' bidden to do.' (10) an adverb ; as, mipetra-pbana (mipetraka, fbana), ' to sit about idly.' ( 11 ) ROOTS. In any language the study of the roots of the words is important, but this is more especially the case with the Malagasy language, because the derivatives, though regular, are very varied. These roots are chiefly verbs (active and passive), nouns, and adjectives ; but some of the pronouns, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections may also be considered as roots, as they have not yet been traced to simpler forms. The two classes of Malagasy roots are as follows : — Primary roots ; consisting of one, two, or three syllables ; with the accent on the first syllable. The few apparent exceptions to this rule about accentuation (as lalana, from the French la loi ; mimna, from the Arabic mizan, &c.) are explainable by a foreign derivation, or by assuming that the syllable preceding that which is accented was originally a monosyllabic primary root : ex. lalab (i. e. lao reduplicated, c play, playthings'). Secondary roots j formed from primary roots by the addition of a class of special monosyllabic prefixes, which differ from all the prefixes and affixes used in the formation of other words. These secondary roots are treated exactly like the primary roots in making verbs, &c. from them ; and their accent is always on the second syllable. Of these prefixes, kan-, son-, and tan- are treated like the active prefix man-; q.v. Besides these, we find an infixed syllable om inserted into a root of either kind immediately after the first consonant, apparently only the transposed form of a prefix mo (=ma) ; thus, tdny, tomdny. 12 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. Table of the chief varieties of these Prefixes. PREFIX. PRIMARY ROOI SECONDARY ROOT. A. An zara . anjara. B. Bo sesika bos^sika. D. Da bSboka . dabdboka. Do nendrina . donendrina. F. Fa ritsoka . faritsoka. Fo rehitra . forehltra. G. Go rdbaka . gordbaka. K. Ka razana karazana. Kan tdvo kantdvo. Ki f af a kif af a. Ko fehy kofehy. L. Lah asa lahasa. M. Mo kdko rookoko. N. Ngo rddana . ngorddana. P. Po rdtsaka . porotsaka. R. Re hetra rehetra (?). Ro abana roahana. S. Sa fidy safidy. San lava sandava (-ny). T. Ta fotsy tafotsi (-nyj. Tan la/pa tandapa. Ton liilana tongilana. Tsi lainga tsilainga. Tain gala tsingala. Y. Va hihy vahihy. Z. Za tdvo zat6vo. Reduplication of a root, whether primary or secondary, expresses the repetition, or the diminution, or the increased force, of the idea which the root in its single form expresses : hence, many roots may appear in a fourfold form. It is only the primary root which is thus doubled, for the pre- fixes and affixes remain unaltered. Some roots occur only in the reduplicate form ; as, laolao HOOTS. 13 (or lalao), 'play;' salasala, 'doubtful/ With regard to roots which end in syllables other than -lea, -na, -tra, no contraction occurs, but the root is simply reduplicated, with sometimes an n inserted, especially when the root begins with a vowel. Ex. F&tsy, white ; fbUyf&tsy, whitish. Tdro, crushed ; torotoro, crushed into pieces. Ampy, sufficient ; manampindmpy, to keep on adding. Mania, to deny ; mandanda, to deny repeatedly. Zdky, elder ; zijldnjoky, still older. Dissyllabic roots ending in -lea, -na, or -tra, may be either simply repeated or contracted ; thus, in mitanatana, ' to be open ' (as the mouth), the root is repeated, while in mitantana, ' to hold/ the root is contracted. Trisyllabic roots ending in -ka, -na, or -tra, accented on the antepenult, are contracted according to the rules for forming euphonic changes. N.B. — As trisyllabic roots seem all to end in -ha, -na, or -tra, it is probable that these terminations are only affixes to primary roots of one or two syllables, as the following facts seem to show : — (1) They are sometimes disused, especially in dialects other than the Hova ; as, iray and iraika, and ha and isalca, for ' one/ (2) They are interchangeable in certain words ; as, pbtsilca and pbtsitra. (3) Dissyllabic roots, used in a sense allied to that of the longer forms, are not rare. Thus, dissyllabic root na; trisyllabic words, marla, rialca, rlanaj tetrasyllable words, tsorlaka, Icorlana. 14 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. Rule. — In reduplicating a word, remember (1) that the prefix is never altered ; (%,) that the primary root alone is reduplicated ; and (2) that when the accent advances one syllable, owing to the addition of an affix, the first part of the word (i.e. prefix and primary root) is never altered, all changes occurring in the last part of the word. Thus : — Primary root dio, fbtotra. Ditto, with prefix . . . madlo, afototra. Do., with prefix reduplicated, madiodlo, afbtopbtotra. Do., with prefix reduplicated, with accent shifted . . madlodiouy, afbtopotbrana. Contracted adjectives and some verbs with active prefixes keep the m or n of the present or past tenses, when redu- plicated, either instead of, or in addition to, the first letter of the root. Thus : — Marina, adj. root ckrina, becomes marimarina. Manao, verb . . . tao, . . . manaonao. Or an n is inserted, especially when the root to be redu- plicated begins with a vowel. Thus : — Maneso, root eso, becomes manesoneso. Derivatives in Malagasy, which are very numerous, are formed regularly from any kind of root (single, redupli- cated, primary, or secondary) by appending to the root (1) a prefix, or (2) an affix, or (3) both prefix and affix. Thus :— root sara. root with prefix . mizara. root with affix . . zaraina. root with both . . harana. ROOTS. 15 Sometimes it is difficult to find out the root, owing 1 (1), to the loss of its first consonant; or (2), to a change in its vowel ; or (3), to a change in the consonant of its final syllable. Brief Rules for Accentuation. I. Roots, both primary and secondary, seem always to have the accent on the first syllable of the primary root, whether the root be two-syllabic or three-syllabic. N.B. — A secondary root may be regarded as a primary root plus a monosyllabic prefix, which does not alter the place of the accent. Reduplicated roots. — As only the primary root (and not a prefix) is reduplicated, the above rule still holds good in these cases, whether there be, or be not, any contraction of the reduplicated word. N.B. — Only tri-syllabic roots ending in -ha, -na, or -tra, are contracted when reduplicated, although they may some- times be reduplicated without contraction. No change of let- ters in the reduplicated word alters the place of the accent. II. Derivatives. — No prefix alters the place of an accent; but affixes always cause the accent to advance one syllable nearer to the end of the word (generally bringing the accent on to the antepenult). N.B. — A few roots (chiefly monosyllabic) do not allow the accent to shift at all ; and in a few cases the accent (apparently contrary to the above rule) goes off the root on to the first syllable of the affix (as in the word anka- toavina, from root to). But even in these cases the accent still rests on the A CONCISE MALAGASY GKAMMAE. antepenult, in accordance with the apparently invariable eule for all pure Malagasy words, that the accent must never be further from the end of a word than the ante- penult. VERBS. The Malagasy Verb has three voices, the active, the passive, and the relative ; each voice has only two moods, the indicative and the imperative ; and each mood has the three simple tenses, present, past and future. No changes are made for gender, number, or person. Of these two moods, the indicative serves for every mood, except these three, viz. the imperative, the subjunctive, and the optative, for which three the imperative itself serves. Active Voice. Table of Active Verbs. EXAMPLES. (1) Boot, primary . . . secondary . . (2) .. withtafa-. primary . . . secondary . . (3) . . "with simple ac- tive prefix. Mi, ■with primary root, Mi, with secondary root, Miha Man Maha (■4) Causative of (3) . . (5) Reciprocal of (3) . . (6) Reciprocal causative of (3) ... . (7) Causative reciprocal of (3) . . . . homana homehy (hehy) . . . tafalatsaka (latsuka) . . tafatsimbadika (mdika) MEANING. to eat. to laugh. fallen down, overturned. milatsaka (Idtsaka) mianjera (zera) . mlhatsara (ts&ra) maneso (&so) . maharo (tiro). } to fall down. . to become better. . to taunt. . to be able to protect, mampilatsaka (latsaka) to cause to fall down, mifaneso (eso) . . to taunt one another. mampifaneso (eso) . mifampiera (era) . to ask permission of one another, to cause (people) to taunt one another. VERBS. 17 Table of the chief Active Prefixes. For the signs of causality and reciprocity look up and down the Table : for the simple forms, look across it. SIMPLE. CAUSATIVE. BECIPROCAL. CAUSATIVE EECIPROCAL. BECIPROCAL CAUSATIVE. Mi- Miha- {progres- sive verbs.) Maha- {potential verbs.) Ma- Man- Mana- Manka m-amp-i- m-amp-iha- m-amp-aha- m-amp-a- m-amp-an- m-amp-ana- m-amp-anka- m-if-a m-if-an m-if-ana m-if-anka- m-ampif-an- m-ampif-ana- ui-ampif-anka- m-ifamp-i-. m-ifamp-ika-. m-ifamp-aha-. m-ifamp-a-. m-ifamp-an-. m-ifamp-ana-. m-ifamp-anka-. Notice (1) that amp is the sign of causality, and if of reciprocity ; and (2) that the eausative-reciprocal sign ampifi, and the reciprocal-causative sign ifamp, are only combinations of these two. Tafia-, prefixed to a root, gives the idea of completeness, but differs slightly from our perfect tense, in that it may be used of something altogether past ; in this respect it resembles rather the pluperfect of some languages. Pere Webber says, (1) that tafia gives the right answer to an intransitive imperative (as, Mipetraha hianab, sit down; tafiapetraJca hho, I am seated) ; and (2) that while the prefix vba implies the operation of an external agent, tafia usually implies internal agency. Sometimes, however, these two prefixes seem interchangeable. 18 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAli. Mi-, Man-, and Maha-, are the three most common active prefixes. Mi- (contracted into M- before i) forms chiefly intransi- • tive verbs, but forms also a few transitive verbs when prefixed to a primary root. Man- forms verbs of either kind, but chiefly transitive verbs. Man- and Mana- (a longer form) both seem con- tracted forms of the verb manab, 'to do, or make/ used as a prefix. Maha- (contracted into Mali- before a vowel) is a con- tracted form of the verb Mahay, ' to be able.' This is the most widely used prefix in the Malagasy language, as it ma}' be added to almost any word or phrase. Maha- is used to express (1) power to perform an action, (2) that which makes a thing what it is. N.B. — Mana- and Maha- are often confounded ; but their difference is well shown by the following example, where the same root (tsdra, ' good ') produces a verb with each of the prefixes : — Manatsara, to do some action for the improvement of a thing ; to render good ; to make good. Mahatsara, possessing the power to make a thing o-ood ; possessing some quality showing or proving its intrinsic goodness. Rules for the formation of the Verbs with the prefix 'man-.' a. If the root begins with a vowel or with the consonants d, g, j ; simply apply the prefix, and make no change. VERBS. 19 b. If the root begins with any consonant except one of these three : — The first consonant of the root is rejected \-h, s, t, tr, ts, and sometimes h, are rejected. or, The first consonant of the root is changed : — h some- times becomes g; I becomes d; r becomes dr ; z be- comes j (da). or, The first consonant of the root is rejected and the pre- fix changed (from man- to mam-) before b, v, f, or p. But sometimes v is changed into b, or b itself is kept. Before m or n, the prefix is contracted into ma-. Ma- (or M-, before vowels) is a shorter form of Man-, which forms a few transitive verbs, but a large number. of adjectives usable as verbs. Rules for the formation of the Imperative Mood of Active Verbs. (1) Affix -a, unless the word already ends in a. (2) Shift the accent one syllable forward, unless the root is a monosyllabic diphthong ; or, unless the root is two-syllabic, but with the accent on the last syllable ; or, unless the root is two-syllabic, but ending in -ka,-na, or tra-. (3) Sometimes also one or other of the following changes are necessary : — Change of a consonant preceding the final a : this occurs only in roots ending in -ha, -na, or -tra, where k becomes h or/, tr becomes t, r, or f, and n becomes m. 20 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. Insertion of a consonant ($, v, or z) before the final a : there are a few exceptions to this. Vowel-changes, usually taking 1 place among the vowels of the accented syllable, viz. i (or y) into a or e. Vowel-changes, usually taking place among the vowels of the accented syllable, viz. ai into e. The government of cases by Malagasy verbs is often puzzling, because, while many verbs govern direct accusa- tives, others require the preposition amy to be inserted between them and the cases they govern ; while others, again, have both constructions. Thus, miteny aminy, ' to speak to him ; ' miteny azy, ' to reprove him ' [i.e. to speak at him). Again, many Malagasy verbs take two accusatives, which may refer to person and thing, instrument and object, or limiting accusative and object. Passive Voice. Table of the various forms of the Passive Voice. NAME. EXAMPLE. MEANING. 1 Root passive tapaka cut off. 2. Passive in voa- vdasasa (sasa) .... washed. 3 -ina. from primary root .. zaraina (zara) .... divided. . . secondary root, tsinjaraina (zara) divided into lots. . . abstract noun . . hit saraina (tsara) made good. . . compound pre- position ampoizina (lb) .... expected. antsakaina (tsaka) fetched (of water from retaining an- of verb ( . ... , , „, f I anavaratina (ava- a well), in man- . . ) . . . ■- ratra) . . . . moved northwards. . . anka- of verb in munka- . . ankahalaina (hala) hated. VERBS. 21 NAME. EXAMPLE. MEANING. Passive retaining amp- of causa- tive verb in mamp- ampilazaina (laza) ... caused to tell or to . . ampif- of call- be told, sative-recipro- cal verb in mampif .. .. ampif andaharina . . caused to plead against 4. Passive in -ana {from roots (lahatra) one another. only) fotsiana (f&tey) . . whitened. 5. .. . . -ena vonjena (v6njy) . . saved, helped. 6. .. ..« aseho (seho) .... shown. 7. Transposed passive tinapaka (tapaka) . cut off. Root-passive means a root-word containing' a passive idea and usable as a passive verb. The difference (usually existing) between a root-passive and a passive in a-, -ana, or -ina is that the former usually calls attention to the idea contained, leaving the agent almost out of consideration, while the latter calls attention to the agent as well as to the act. The imperative mood of a root-passive (like the im- perative mood of an adjective) has usually an optative meaning : as sitrana, ' may (he) be healed.' But sitrano, the imperative passive of the verb manasitran a (from si- trana) has an imperative, not an optative, meaning. Voa (literally struck) is a root-passive used as a prefix. Often voa- and tafa- are equally suitable as prefixes, but generally tafa- implies self-agency, voa- the agency of another ; but both give almost a "pluperfect " idea. -ina is the usual ending of most passive verbs. Of these varieties of passives the only kind at all troublesome to distinguish is the passive in -ina formed from an abstract 22 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. noun ; with regard to this, remember that the abstract noun ends in ana, while the passive verb ends in ina. Example : — hatsarana (abstract noun), goodness ; hatsaraina (passive verb), made to possess goodness, made good. As regards causative verbs, the ■£ of the affix is the only visible distinction between their passive and their relative voices. Example : — passive, ampanolbina ; relative, ampa- nolbana, root solo. The passive in a- (which is very common) calls attention principally to the position or state of the object. Rule for distinguishing the use of the passive in a, from the use of the passive in -ana : — "When a verb governs two accusatives, the one of the object acted on, the other of the instrument or means with which the action is effected, the latter is made the nominative of a passive in a-, the former of a passive in -ana. Example : — manbso-tsblika azy, ' to anoint it with oil ; ' ahbsotra azy ny sbliha (the oil is here the nominative of the verb ahbsotra) ; hosbrana sblika Izy (the thing anointed is here the nominative of the verb hosbrana.) N.B. — " The non-observance of this rule may lead the foreigner into gross absurdities," says the Eev. W. E. Cousins. Passives in a-change their accent only in their im- perative mood; thus, root haro, aharo (indicative), aharby (imperative). Transposed passives are formed by prefixing ni- or no- to a root, and then transposing the n and the first letter of the root; as, tapalta, nitapaka, tinapaka. Rule. — hi forming the passives in a-, -ana, and -ina, the relatives, and the imperative mood in verbs of all verbs. 2:3 voices and classes, one or all oil the following five changes are necessary : — 1. Append the characteristic termination — -ina, -ana, or -ena, for the indicative mood passive voice ; -ana, and -ena, for the indicative mood relative voice, -o (or -y, if o is already contained in the root ) for the imperative mood of all relative verbs and of passives in a-, -ina, and -ana. -a (in a few cases -e) for the imperative of a root, and for all active imperatives. 2. Move the accent one syllable forward. Exceptions: — when the root has one syllable only ; when the root has two syllables, the second being accented ; when the root has two syllables, the second ending in -na, -ha, or -tra. 3. For roots in -na, -ha, and -tra, a change occurs in the consonant preceding the characteristic termination : k becomes h or /; tr becomes r, t, or /,• n (often) becomes m. 4. Insert s, v, or z, before the characteristic termination. 5. Alter a vowel, usually of the accented syllable ; as, i (or y) into a or e, and ai into e. ia (that is, i of the root and a of the affix) are sometimes contracted into e ; as, root vonjy, passive vonjiana contracted into vonjena. * Rule for choosing which voice (active or passive) is to be used : — When " the 'agent and his act " are most in your thoughts, choose the active voice ; when " the result of the 24 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. act " is most in your thoughts, choose the passive voice. ■J The Malagasy usually prefer the passive voice. Rule for the use of the passive voice of verbs which govern two accusatives: — Either accusative may be made the nominative of a passive verb. N.B. — When two passives exist from the same root (viz. in a- and -ina) take care to choose the right one. Eelativb Voice. The relative voice is one which is peculiar to the Malagasy language ; and, although somewhat puzzling at first, its use is very convenient. It is a blending of the two other voices, both in form and in construction ; and expresses some relationship between the agent of a verb and the object. Rule for forming the relative voice (from the active voice) : — 1 .\Omit the m of the active prefix} 2. Affix -ana, or -ena, for the indicative mood; and -o, or -y, for the imperative mood ; then treat the word (as regards changes) as if it were a passive in -ana. The government still remains that of the active verb, but the agent is ex- pressed by the suffix pronoun, as if the verb were really passive. Some relative verbs are also used for the passive voice, and their meaning must be found from the context. Also, what has been said of the twofold meaning of active verbs in maha- is equally true of relative verbs formed from them. VERBS. 25 Table of the chief characters of the subject of a Relative Verb. 1. (As in English) the nominative case of an active verb is its agent, and that of a passive verb its direct object. 2. The Nominative may have any of the following degrees of relation : — (a) Direct object considered partitively. (b) Indirect object (i.e. one which would be preceded by the preposition amy if it followed a verb, whether active or passive). (c) An adjunct of time (point, duration, or repetition). place (in, towards, or from). mode (manner, or measure). cause (cause, or occasion; reason; means, or instrument; price). Tenses of Verbs. The indicative mood alone has any tenses ; these tenses are the three simple tenses — present, past, and future. As with Malagasy adjectives, so with the tenses of Malagasy verbs, n is the sign of the past, and h of the future. >w ^~ .— S 1 feC 1—1 ft, t> > CD o o co o p S a co o r-t- CO 3 P f. CO TJ it) p p 5. e ^ 3 ^' CO CO n- a cf CD CO CO CO r-r- 3- a c-f- 3" h • cr o 09 i S' a es wi' es be vo P O 3, a! bd • — 8 2. J 5 thp gin > vvel ■ O tr*- •"* S 3" m 5 = =b ^ acj M CD 3 ,. » c <_ i • CD CD 3D 3 CO 3D ffl O i— i ° a a aq - 5" p j • • f 1 Q a o *2 -3 o 3 O co 1 CD p o S 5 r^ 3d 35 T*~ S» 3 09 35 o o > Q £5 3 3" 1 s C o'_ ST o CO o p £ CO -e so co P O 3* 'to their p e past, an ture . CD CD •-i c+- C CD P CO r the futu »& of the 0? CD o fed w •fej ■ a 3> m CD 8 a resent) h d ^ for . p 3 a- re prefix in CD P r-f- o 2 ? 3> 5 s O fen 12! CD i CD ". " I-! 8 • o r/3 oa s* a a S "X s Co ^ a* a •>>' a 1J O a cfl ►3 2 <1 fed td CO s M a nalaina nasolo 5' W GO 6< a h3 N ft* a- ^3 a O^ ca- C^ p^ d ■^ ss :> C^' s a ? p a a M VEUBS. 27 Use and force of efa. — As the Malagasy language has no exact equivalents for the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses, the nearest equivalents are got by using the auxiliary verb efa (literally; done). It may be used before any tense of any voice, and conveys the idea of more or less 'completeness/ Examples : — Efa manab, is doing, has begun to do and is still doing (incomplete present). Efa nanao, was in the act of doing (incomplete perfect) ; or, had done (completed perfect, pluperfect). Efa hanab, is just about to do, is on the point of doing (incomplete future). Compound Future Tense. — This is formed by putting ho before a past tense ; as, nanao ho nanhaty, ' he intended to come (or to have come) here/ The various uses of the Infinitive Mood. The indicative mood may be used in any voice or tense ; (1) as an adjective or as a participle, especially when a noun is left to be understood ; as, ny manana, ' the (men) ; possessing/ the possessors, i.e. the rich; ny natao, 'the (deed) done;' ny handidiana, the (instrument, &c.) for cutting. (2) It may be used where in other languages an infinitive would be required, viz. either as a noun,, usually with the article ; as, ny mangalatra, ' stealing/ or ' the thieves/ (N.B. — In such cases the meaning must be made clear by the context, or else it remains doubtful) : — or as de- pendent on another verb; as, asalho manao, c is bidden by me to do (it)/ 28 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. The dependent verb, and that on which it depends, are not necessarily of the same voice or of the same tense; but, among the many possible combinations made in this way, the following two Rules should be remembered : (1) A past can only be used as dependent on a past. (2) The future is more often used in this dependent manner than either the past or the present. An Imperative can be followed by a present or a future of any voice. The Conditional mood is expressed by the indicative mood preceded by a conditional conjunction (raha, nony,Scc). The Hortative mood is expressed either by an impe- rative passive with the suffix pronoun, as anarontsika, ' let him be reproved by us ' (i. e. let us reprove him) ; or by an indicative future preceded by ablca or andeha, as aoka, or andeha, hihlra isika, ' let us sing/ (N.B. — Of these two, ablta is never followed by any other tense than the future ; andeha, usually by the future, but sometimes by the present, as in the phrase andeha maha rano, ' go (and) fetch (some) water/) A prohibition is expressed, not by the imperative mood, as in many languages, but by the indicative mood preceded by aza. In this case the verb (in the indicative) may belong to any of the three voices. Ex. : aza miteny hianao, ' do not speak. (N.B. — As there is no exact equivalent for the verb " to be " in M alagasy, aza may be used prohibi- tively with adjectives also ; thus, aza tezitra hianao, ' do not (be) angry.') •VERBS. 29 Defective Auxiliary Verbs. Of these there are five in common use, viz., EXAMPLES, Matezo, implying practicability. Matey, implying ability or skill. Mety, implying consent, willingness, Tta, implying desire, wish. Mhy, implying existence. tsy mulitlzo manao, not able to do (because hindered). tsy mahay manao, not able to do (absence, or deficiency, of skill). tsy mety manao, not willing to do (absence of consent). tsy ta-hanao, not desirous to do (absence of wish). tsy miry, there is none (non-exist- ence). N.B. — Mhy is the nearest equivalent to our verb " to be." Table of Defective Auxiliary Verbs. TENSE. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Indicative . . mahazo . . azo . Imperative, mahazda . Indicative . . mahay . . Imperative . mahaiza . Indicative . . mety . . Imperative, meteza Indicative . . tia [to-, te-) Imperative, tiava . . Indicative . . mhy (pronounced mish) Imperative . misia ... . . hay tiana tiavti RELATIVE. ahariana. akazdy. ahaizana, ahalzo. et&zana. etezo. itiavana. itidvo. isiana. isio. (The Imperative Relative of these is seldom used.) Rule for the' contraction of tia (into te- or ta-) : — Tia is not contracted when a suffix pronoun will be affixed, even when a future tense will follow; as, tidko hatao izany, 30 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. 'I wish that to be done.' Otherwise tia is contracted into ta- before a future beginning with ha- (hamp-, hem-, &c ) ; as, ta-hanao izany aho, '1 wish to do that:' or into te- before a future beginning with hi- or ho • as, te-hilaza, ' wish to tell ;' te-hofaty, ' wish to be a dead body' {i.e. wish to die). The active and relative forms of mahazo, manao, and mety, must be followed by an active voice; but the passive forms azo and hay, take either a passive or a relative after them, not an active. The pronoun is generally affixed to the auxiliary verb ; as, azoko soratana, ' able by me to be written' (for nothing hinders). Partitive force o/misy. — iflsy often serves to show that the verb which it precedes applies only to some of the persons or things indicated by the subject. Ex. : mandainga ny blona, ' the people tell lies ' (all, or some ?) ; mlsy man- dainga ny blona, ' some of the people tell lies/ ( 31 ) NOUNS. TABLE OF NOUN-POEMS. AME. EXAMPLE. ( primary . maso \ secondary . kofehy (fihy) rdjiareha . kicuzivazy . vonbana (vino), mpamdno (vbno) fambno (vbno) . fdmonbana kalalina "\ halalinana f fuhalulina C fahalalinana ) tsi-Jinbana (mo) . . fbto-Tcemtra (fblotra, hevitra). Single root Rednp. root f P rlmar y I secondary . Verbal nonn in -ana Habitual noun of agent „ noun of manner . „ relational noun . Abstract noun in ha- „ „ in ha-ana . „ „ in faha- . „ „ in Jhha-ana Negative noun . Compound noun . . MEANING. (an) eye. cord. overbearing conduct, (a) joke. ■ murder. one who often kills, usual way of killing, usual place of killing. (lidina), depth. unbelief, principle. The verbal noun in -ana follows the same rules as the passive verbs in -ana. The habitual nouns (/ and p convey the idea of habi- tuality) are verbal in form, meaning, and government. The habitual nouns of manner, or ' modal nouns/ are so-called because they may be used to express the mode of the action indicated by the verbs from which they are derived. They are usually preceded by a qualifying adjective (as, tsara- filaza, ' good as to the way of speaking/ having a good delivery) ; and also may denote the customary instrument, agent, or object. Relative Noun. — -f prefixed to a relative verb changes it into a relative noun ; and as the meaning is still as wide 32 A CONCISE MALAGASY GUAMMAK. as before (/ only adding the idea of habit) another noun is often put before it, to limit its meaning ; as, trano-fivava- hana, ' a house for prayer.' N.B. — Do not use the habitual noun of the agent (which, always begins with mp-) for an agent not necessarily habitual. Ex.: mpamono, ' a man who often and habitually murders/ a regular assassin ; mambno, ' a man who perhaps only once murders/ The abstract nouns in ha- and faha- are really habitual modal nouns derived from verbs in maha- ; they are similar in meaning, and are seldom used without the suffix pro- noun -ny. The difference in meaning between these abstract nouns, according to Pere Webber, is as follows : — hatsara shows intrinsic goodness, worth. hatsarana shows extrinsic goodness, or goodness em- bodied in deeds, good conduct. fahatsarana shows goodness as the source or principle of good deeds. Cases of Nouns. There are no declensions in the Malagasy language, so that where the case of a noun is not left to be found out from the context, one or other of the following case- indications are necessary : — For an accusative case, its position immediately after or close to its verb. For an accusative case, the particle any (which precedes all proper names and some pronouns). NOUNS. 33 For a possessive or an ablative case : — {a) When the noun is made definite by the article ny, the governing word (whether noun or verb) takes the suffixed pronoun -ny (or n') ; as, tranon' ny sahalza, ' house of the friend '. Or, if the governing word end in -na, -ha, or tra, ■the final -a is changed into -y ; as, fantatry ny blona, 'known by the people'. (b) When the noun is not made definite by the article, either m or n (regardable as contracted forms of the suffix pronoun -ny) is inserted; as, halam-bahbaJea, 'hated by (the) people'; or, if the governing word end in -na, -lea, or -tra, a contraction occurs with some euphonic change among the consonants. [See Euphonic changes among con- sonants.] For a vocative case : — the omission of the article ; as, Bainay izay any an-danitra, ' Our Father who (art) in heaven '; or, the use of ry {ray, or rdy) before the vocative case, or b after it. Special uses of the Nominative and Accusative Cases. The nominative is often used absolutely, at the begin- ning of a sentence, where we might say ' as to ' or ' in reference to'. The accusative, besides indicating the object, may be (adverbial) used as an adverb of time or of place ; (instru- mental) used of an instrument, as namely sabatra anao ley, 'he struck you (with) a sword'; (limiting) used to limit the meaning of an adjective or a verb (which verb may be in any of the three voices). This last is a very common use of the accusative case. c 34 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. ADJECTIVES. TABLE OF ADJECTIVE FORMS. NAME. EXAMPLE. MEANING. ( primary .... tsara good. ° | secondary . . sahirana (hirana) .. perplexed. Reduplicated ( primary tsaratsara tolerably good, goodish. root (. secondary . . . sahirankirana (hi- rana) slightly perplexed. Adjective inma-jtmcontracted, maditra (ditra) . . . obstinate. Ditto, contracted . . ma&zatra (dzatra). . sinewy, tough. (a combining with the fol- lowing o or i to form a diph- thong). Adjective in m-, before a or e marina (arina) level, true. Ditto, before ha- or he- mafy (hafy) hard. Reduplicated adjective in ma- or in m- madiodio (dio) rather clean. Negative adjective tsi-marina (arina)... not level, untrue. Adjective with limiting ac- cusative tsara-bika good as regards shape. Antithetic compound adjec- tive keli-malaza little (but) famous. The scarcity of true adjectives in the Malagasy language is supplied in various ways, viz. by the free use of verbs as adjectives or participles, as already said ; by the use of words which are verbal in form but practically adjectives ; as, vavana (root vhva), talkative, literally 'mouthed '. N.B. — In English we have the very same form, 'mouthed', 'mouthing', both from ' mouth'. By the use of nouns for our adjectives of material ; as, trano hazo, 'a house (of) wood', i.e. a wooden house. By the use of the auxiliary verb azo for our adjectives in -able and -ible; as, azo hanina, 'able (to be) eaten' i.e. eatable. V1:K1JH _ 7 id^--- 35 &s&A K Comparison of Adjectives. Reduplication of an adjective nearly always lessens its meaning ; as, fbtsy, ' white ' ; fbtsifbtsy, ' whitish '. But repetition of an adjective, with the insertion of dia in the interval, always intensifies its meaning ; as, fbtsy diet fbtsy, ' very white '. No changes are made in the form of an adjective to show the degrees of comparison. A comparative degree is known by nbho, Itba nbho, ItoJcba nbho, or lavitra nbho, following the adjective ; a superlative degree, by amy or indrinda amy. Or, by the omission of nbho or amy, any of these forms may be used absolutely, the compared object being supplied mentally ; as, tsaratsara kokba lo, ' that is better ' (than some other). Or the simplest form of the adjective may be used as a superlative, no (the emphatic and discriminative particle) being put after it ; as, iza no tsara ? ' which (is the) good (one) ? ' i.e. which is the best ? Another idiom is what the Rev. W. E. Cousins calls " the conditional superlative ", a term which is best ex- plained by the following examples : — (a) From Fable XII. : mafy kba raha mafy, 'hard, if (there be anything) hard'. (Adjective.) (b) From Luke xxii. 15 : Nanlry koa raha naniry Aho, ' desired, if I desired '; or, as our Authorized Version says, With desire have I desired. (Verb.) SG A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. Table of Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives. A. DEGREE. Positive .... Comparative Superlative.. Comparative . , Superlative . EXAMPLE. MEANING. tsara . . good. f tsara kokda ) . ( tsaratsara kokoa j . better. ( tsara indrindra } . ( tsara dia tsara ) . • best. tsara ndho . better than. C tsara kokda ndho . 1 tsaratsara kda (or kokda) ndho \ a li^le better than. tsara lavitra ndho . . far better than. tsara amy ny — rehetra. best of all. tsara indrindra amy ny . . very best of all. Tenses of Adjectives. The Kule for forming the tenses of adjectives is as follows : — Adjectives in ma- uncontracted, make na- in the past, and ha- in the future.* All other adjectives make no change for the past, but take ho for the future. Tabular view of the Tenses of Adjectives. Adj. PKESENT. in ma- uncontracted. maditra (ditra). . . . PAST. , naditra PUTUEE. . . haditra. Adj. in ma- contracted. i «madzatra (ozatra). . \ mainty (inty) ma6zatra . . mainty hd madzatra. „ mainty. 1 f marina (arina) i merika (erika) . marina merika ,; marina. ,, merika. * Jililahelo, although an adjective in ma- contracted, is an exception to this rule, because its past is nahalielo, and its future hcUakelo. Again, in some parts of Madagascar, contracted adjectives in ma- make their past in na-, and their future in ha-. ADJECTIVES. 37 On looking at these five adjectives it will be noticed that the first of them alone has the accent on the second syllable ; hence we may deduce the following Rule, to help us to know the class to which any adjective beginning with m- may belong : — If the accent is on the second syllable, it belongs to the first class, and begins with ma- uncontracted. If the accent is on the first syllable, ma- either has its a suppressed (as in marina), or its a forms a diphthong with the i or o of the root-word of trie adjective (as in mainty). Imperative and Optative Moods of Adjectives. Any adjective can be made imperative or optative by following the rules given for active verbs or those for root-passives ; and either the meaning of the adjective, or else the context, will determine whether a command or a wish is intended to be expressed. As, mazoto, ' diligent ' ; mazotoa, ' be diligent ' : falngana, ' quick ' ; fainghna, ' be quick/ Construction of Adjectives. The following adjectives, and some others, have a quasi- transitive sense, and govern a direct accusative as their complement ; as, feno azy ny trano, ' the house is full of them '. In English we require a preposition in such cases, in Malagasy no preposition. 38 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. adala, 'foolish about'. akalky, ' near to '. antonona, 'fit for ',' suited to'. arrvpy, ' enough for '. betsaka, 'having much of, ' abounding in '. be, ' having many of ', ' abounding in '. dlboka, j (fulloPi feno, ) gaga, ' surprised at '. h jf™'\ 'full of. hiboka, ) hvboka (only another form of diboka). manina, ' longing after '. mhnitra, ' perfumed with '. maimbo, ' smelling offen- sively of. malahelo, 'grieved about ', 'sorrowing for'. mamo, ' intoxicated with'. mendrika, ' suitable for ', 'worthy of. sahy, 'without fear of. sasatra, 'tired of. tahaka, ' like ', ' similar to'. vbky, ' satisfied with '. vltsy, ' having few of '. Adjectives can be followed by passive or relative verbs, with a gerundial force ; as, sarotra atao, 'difficult to be done'. PRONOUNS. The Personal Pronouns. Op Personal Pronouns there are two forms, separate and inseparable (or suffixed), as shown in the following table : Singular Number. Separate forms. Inseparab le forms. PEBSON. First . . NOM. CASE. f izaho ) ' \ alio ) ACC. AND POSSESS. CASES. ally. FULL POEM. -ko CONTE. FOE -0. Second . . hianao anho. -nao -ao. Third. . . ™y azy. -ny -»', -y PHONOUNS. 39 Plural Number. -ntsika -tslka. -nay -ay. -nareo -ario. -ny -%', -y. First, inclus. isxka antslka. „ exclus. Izahay anay. Second . . hXanareo anareo. Third . . hy azy. Izaho is more emphatic than aho, and is generally used when the predicate follows, while aho usually follows its predicate. There are some exceptions to this rule, especially the verb hoy (' say, says, said '), which usually takes izaho ' say I.' Isika includes both the speaker and the person spoken to, while Izahay excludes the person addressed ; or, isllca, 'we/ (and you), izahay, 'we,' (but not you). The separate forms for the possessive case are used in two ways : — (1) as predicates ; as, ahy ny vbla, ' the money is mine'. (2) for any case, with the article prefixed (the noun being understood) ; as, into ny ando, 'being thine' (lit. the of thee). The inseparable or suffixed forms may denote — (1) A possessive case ; as, ny vplako, ' my money'. (2) An ablative case, showing the agent of a passive or a relative verb ; as, voasasaho, ' washed by me'. They are less often used with adjectives in this instrumental sense ; as, flry ny blona izay efa hendrinao ? ' How many are the people who have become wise through you ' ? (3) An indirect objective case, after verbs, adjectives, prepositions, &c. In these cases the suffixed pronoun is 40 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. attached to the preposition amy ; as, miseho amiko, ' to appear to me '. (4) Rarely a dative case ; as, maminay, ' sweet to us '. As there is no reflexive pronoun in Malagasy, tena (body) is used for self; as, namono tena izy, ' he killed himself. The Rule for attaching the suffix pronouns to any word is as follows : — (1) For words not ending in -na, -ha, or -tra ; attach the full form of the suffixed pronoun, without contraction. (2) For words ending in -na, -Tea, or -tra; if the accent is on the antepenult, take one or other of the contracted forms of the suffixed pronouns, and either throw away or shorten their last syllable. If the accent is on the penult, either the full or the contracted forms may be used ; as, tratro and tratrako, ' my chest '; — except in the case of passive and relative verbs and relative nouns in -ana, when only the contracted forms of these pro- nouns may be used; as, sasana, ' washed ', sasako, ' washed by me \ Examples of the modes of attachment of suffixed Pronouns. 1. To words not ending in -na, -ha, or -tra. NOUN. VERB. PREPOSITION. V6Ia, money. Azo, got. Amy, to, at, &c. f vdlako, my money. azoko, got by me. amiko, to me. g 1 ) vdlanao, thy money. azonao, „ „ thee, aminao, to thee. izJJTolany, his (or her) azony, „ „ him, aminy, to him (her, or (^ money. (her, or it). it). /■"Ydlanay, our money. azonay, ,, ,, ns. aminay, to us. u \ T61antsika, our money. azontBika ,, ,, us. amintsika, to us. g Jvdlanareo, your money, azonareo, ,, „ you. aminareo, to you, (^vdlany, their money. &zony, „ „ them, aminy, to them. PRONOUNS. 41 2. To words ending in -na, -ha, or -tra. (N.B. — Only- nouns are here given as examples, but verbs are treated in exactly the same way.) Harona, a basket. Satroka, a hat or, hats. fharoko, my basket, ci 1 haronao, thy basket, ol Jharony, his (or her) ( basket. ("haronay, our basket. h ) harontsika, our basket. 5 ] haronareo, your basket. jharony, their basket. satroko, my bat. satrokao, thy hat. satrony, hiB (or her) hat. satrokay, our hats, satrotsika, our hats, satrokareo, your hata. satrony, their hats. Hevitra, a thought, hevitro, my thought, hevitrao, thy thought, heviny, his (or her) thought, hevitray, our thought, hevitsika, our thought. hevitrareo,your thought, heviny, their thought. Demonstrative Pronouns. These are very numerous, the choice of one rather than another being regulated by the distance, real or imaginary, of the object pointed out. By the insertion of re, they become plural ; while by inserting za another class of these pronouns is formed, expressing the unseen, remembered, or conceived, as opposed to what is seen and actually pointed out. Comparative Table of the chief Demonstrative Pronouns and analogous Adverbs of Place. DEMONSTEATIVE PE0N0TJNS. (Ob, ■ect seen •) Singular Plural. Ity, this. irety, ltd (obsolete), »j ireto, lo, that. irio, Itsy, j) iretsy, Iny, )» ireny, Jrba, yt ir&rba, Iry, » irery, these. those. (Object unseen) Singular or Plural. izdiy. izato. izao. izatsy. ixany. izaroa. izary. 42 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. ADVEEBS OF PLACE. {Object seen.) (Object '; unseen.) Mj,, here. atj, here. Eto, 3i ato, j? Eo, there. ao, there. Etsy, >» atsy, >• Eny, >> any, >> Eroa, j» arda, >» Ery, )» ary, j» All demonstrative pronouns are used both before and after the word or phrase they qualify ; as, lo hazo lo, ' that tree '. This use of them is very convenient, especially with a long phrase, as all the connected words are thereby bound together. Interrogative Pronouns. These, which are few in number, are as follows : — iza, zbvy ' who,' ' which ' ? Inona, ' what ' ? an'iza, an-jovy, ' whose ' 1 an'inona (used of places only), ' where ', ' what ' ? The indefinite interrogatives are made by doubling these, and inserting na between ; as, na iza na iza, ' who- soever '. The Relative Pronoun. There is only one relative pronoun, izay, which cannot be declined, and is used for any case of either number. NUMERALS. 43 £ .^ ■" . _ There are made by prefixing fcln- to the Multi- °5 g : li § plioatives, and are seldom used in the higher num- m s» *• |§ ' ts -S bers. They are treated as nouns, take the suffix ■§.»■« . -g -g o- pronoun -»y (in which respect they resemble the " I ,s o ' 35 sS Fractionate), and may be followed by a possessive S a 1*9 case- ^ ■«i'S'- g __ I £ .S 23 -s © o d H g>tq f I °S o a|^^ o «C j S ^* -a -£ -s ^ J3 -1 * 3 ,s s -g -?-p'g^«a-s,-ss,S5§o 2 " > g> _g Or from the Ordinals by prefixing am-, changing m "5^* : o3 "o'9 ./ m t° P> and then affixing -ny. H So'rl :- §'"i^^ They are generally followed by a suffixed pronoun W'E^ islaiiia ora possessive case : and the numerator of a frac- q ^ js o.. •§■§'§'§' *' on * B ex P resB ed, as in English, by a Cardinal ; as, c §* .1-iJJ rda Anipahatehny, 'two-thirds of it'. H ' nrs * '• The remainder of the Ordinals are merely the &" 1 a cfll a " Cardinals with /aha- prefixed to them, as in the case of *■< o tg rfS . fahiralka. 3 -5^. s s ,i i* a o w O HOS to-morrow. Jiahampitso, J Androtrlny androtrizay, at that day (past). 54 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. Rehefa, relief efa, presently. Raha afaka atsy Kb atsy hdkba, after a time, (i.e. some days). JZahatrizay, hereafter (indefinite future). Falviny, formerly. Fdhizdny, fdhizay, at that time, — (faha- is so used with many words to express past time). Hdtrizay, since the time of. Eatrizalhatrizay, from of old, from eternity (in- definite past). Ankehitrlny, ankehitrlo, ■» _,,.,., > now, at the present time. lzao, amm izao, J Vdo falngana (or Tialngana), quite recently. Mandrltra ny andro, -\ m i>7 - 7 J- all day long. 1 onto to andro, j Mandrakarlva (mdndraka, until ; hariva, even- ing), continually Matetika, often. Indrdindray [i.e. indrdy, once repeated], sometimes. Isan-dndro, daily, every day, ) san ^ ls . s ,° ' used with Isam-bblana, monthly, every month, i m anv words Tsy — intsbny, no longer, — not any more. Amin' izay (present), \ ™ . , . ^ , JN > thereupon, upon that. J amm izay (past), ) r Miarakaminizay (midraka amm' izay) at that mo- ment, immediately (present), nidraka tdmin' izay, at that moment, immediately, (past). Sahddy, already, so early. Eahateo, already, beforehand. F. The chief adverbs of manner and degree are the following : — Fatratra, earnestly. Tsimbrambra, easily. Tsikelikely, little by little. TsipbtipotiJca, piecemeal, in small quantities, bit by bit. Loatra, too, exceedingly. Kba, too, also. Kbsa, on the contrary, on the other hand. Aza, ) ■> > even. Avy, J Avy, apiece, each, individually (as, nomena sikajy avy izy, ' they were given sixpence each ') . c, v 7 >7 r almost, all but (used of some- baiky, or saika, I , Falky, or valka,\ ^ ^arly, but not quite, respectively, individually, wholly. Samy precedes, and avokba follows, the quali- fied word ; as, samy marina (or, marina avokba) Izy rehetra, ' they are all (indi- vidually) true'. Hakltro, to the heels. The prefix ha- (short for hdtra, ' up to ') is so used with the name of almost any part of the body. Samy, Avokba, PREPOSITIONS. There are only a few prepositions in the Malagasy language, their place being supplied by a large number of prepositional phrases or compound prepositions : these are formed by prefixing a-, am-, an- 3 or i- to nouns. 56 TABLE OF THE CHIEF PREPOSITIONS, WITH THEIE MEANINGS AND GOVERNMENT. PREPOSITION. Amy . . MEANING. to, for, from, in, by, with, at or on (of time), &c. Tandrify Any . . • belonging to. Akaiky . • near to. Afa-tsy (qfa- ha, tsy) • except. Ambaralia ) f f until. Mandraka Araha . according to, after. (This is the root of the verb ma- naraha, ' to follow/) Hatra . • from, to (to- wards, up to, as far as). Ho, ho any • for, to. Mho . • on account of, because. opposite to. GOVERNMENT. The meaning of amy is so variable, and it has to serve for so many of our English prepositions, that it practically has no special meaning of its own, but merely points out the indirect object or the adjunct to a verb. Most of the prepositions, whether simple or compound, are followed by the suffix pronouns ; as, dmiko, an- ilako. S&tra is (1) generally joined with amy ; as, hatr&tny ny andre/ana k& hatrdmy ny atsincLnana, from east to west ; or (2) with adverbs of place: as ; hatreto, thus far, hitherto ; or (3) is merely followed by a noun with ny or izay before it ; as, h&try ny omdly, since yesterday ; h&tr' izay nainako, since my birth. Ambdraka and mdndraka are generally contracted and joined with habitual modal nouns, or with ad- jectives or phrases preceded by fdjia- ; as, ambara- (or mdndra-) pheriko (root verina), until my return ; mdndra-pdhafdtiny, until his death. They are rarely followed by a relative ; 'as, mdndra-panai- vando dzy, until your doing it. Akaiky takes either a suffixed pro- noun or the separate form in the accusative case ; as, akaiky an&o (or akaikindo), near you. Niho and afa-tsy govern only o nominative case. Si takes after it the pronoun dzy ; as, hi a:y, for him, or, to be his.. Otherwise it requires any; as, hi any ny tenany, for himself, Sd dzy, also means ( of its own accord' ; as, maniry hi dzy ny baza, ' the tree grows of its own accord '; miseho hi dzy, ' visible of itself '. ADJECTIVES. 57 The following are the chief prepositional phrases or compound prepositions made by prefixing a-, am-, an-, or i- to nouns : — Afovbana (fb and vba? or, fb reduplicated?), in the heart of, in the midst of. Aldha (Ibha), ahead, before. Aorlana, behind. Amorona (mdrona), on the edge of, on the brink (or, margin) of. Atsvmo, south of. Atsinanana, (tsinana ?), east of. Avbyratra (varatra ?), north of. (am-) Ambany (vany?), beneath, below, under. Ambbny (vony ?), above, upon. Ambody (vody), at the rump (or, tail) of, at the bottom of. Ambhdika (vadika), on the other side of (i.e. as of a thing turned upside down) . Ampovoany (fo and voa? or, fb reduplicated?), in the middle of. Amplta (ita), on the other side of, across (a river). Anatrehana (atrika), in the presence of. Anaty (aty), inside of, within, among. ff /2/( ^ Ion the other side of. Andany (Lany), J An-dbha (loha), on the head of, on, at the head of. Andre/ana, west of. 58 A CONCISE MALAGASY GEAMMAK. Anhlanelana (elanelana, from eld), in the intervals between, between. Ankla (lla), at the side of, beside. Anklla (hila), on the side of. Anhbatra (hbatra), beyond, further than. Ankavla (havla) , at the left hand of. Ankavanana (havdnana, from havana), at the right hand of. Antenatena {tend), in the body (or, substance) of. Antam/pona (tdmpona), on the top (or, summit) of. a-) Ifbtotra (fbtotrd), at the root of. Imdso (jnaso), in the eyes (or, sight) of. Ivela, (veld) outside of. Ivbho (vbJio), at the back of, behind. The want of prepositions is also supplied in the following ways : — 1. By certain verbs, some implying motion to or from (as avy, miala, &c), others not implying any motion (as mdnodidina) . 2. By certain active verbs, which contain a prepo- sitional force and govern a direct accusative, where in English they would need a preposition; as, mandalnga azy, ' to tell a lie to him''; milaza azy, ' to tell about him/ (but milaza aminy, ' to tell to him'). 3. The relative voice of a verb often contains a pre- CONJUNCTIONS. 59 positional force ; as, nitondrany rano aho, ' I was the person (in respect) to whom he brought water'. 4. Many Malagasy verbs govern two accusatives, which in English would require a preposition before one of them ; as, manosotra sblika azy, ' to smear it with oil'. t 5. "By" before the agent of a passive or relative verb, and "Of" before a possessive case. — For the different ways of expressing these two pre- positions, see "Indications of Cases". CONJUNCTIONS. The chief conjunctions, divided into classes, are as follows : — 1 . Copulative : ary, sy, amana, amin', and ; sady, hba, also ; sady — no, both — and; dm, even ; mhamy (mba, amy), together with, including; ambany, and, including. 2. Disjunctive : na, or ; na — na, whether — or, either — or; sa, fa, or ? Ary is used at the beginning of sentences, or for the sake of variety in enumerations with sy. Amana couples nouns which usually go in pairs ; as, ray amam-dreny,' father and mother '; vblana aman-hmtana, 'moon and stars'; sady adds a supplementary adjective, verb, or even sentence containing an additional statement. Sa and fa- 60 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. are used in asking alternative questions only ; as, handeha va izy, sa (or, fa) tsia ? ' will they go, or not'? 3. Adversative : fa, but ; nefa, kandrefa, anefa, ha- nefa, yet ; kanjo, however, but, nevertheless ; saingy (or, sangy), but (only sometimes) ; kanjo implies the reverse of one's expectation ; saingy sometimes means but; as, saiky nahavUa izany izy, saingy tsy mbbla vita, ' be was merely able to finish that, but it is not yet done '. 4. Conditional : raha, nbny (with present or future), if; nbny tsy, had it not been for, but for, (lite- rally, ' if not'', like the Latin nisi.) 5. Causal : fa, for, because (reason) ; na dia — aza, although (concession) ; satria, because (cause) ; saingy, since, seeing that. 6. Declarative : fa, nd, that. Fa is used after verbs of telling, believing, hoping, 8fc, to introduce the noun-sentence or statement, like our English conjunction that. No is used to express the reason, in the following way : gaga aho no tsy tonga izy, ' I am surprised that he has not come'. 7. Inferential: dia, dry, then, therefore. In this sense ary is never placed at the beginning of a sentence. Thus, andeha ary isika, ' let us there- fore go '; but ary andeha isika, ' and we go \ CONJUNCTIONS. 61 8. Final (result or consequence), ha, hba, and so, so as; dla, then ; sao, andrao, lest ; ha sometimes ' yet', ' and yet' (adversative) ; as, malaza hb lahy, ha tsy mandry an-efitra, 'famed as a (brave) man, yet not lying (i.e. afraid to lie) in the desert'. 9. Temporal : raha, rehefa, forty, nbny, when ; dleny, whilst, while; dla, then (of time, signifying pro- gression of events). Rehefa (raha efa) means when in the sense of after; as, rehefa vita izany, ' when that was finished '. Fbny refers to the past; as, fbny tsy mhbla ary ny tany, ' when the earth was not yet created'. Nbny implies -a succession of events. Dleny implies something passing away ; as, dleny mhbla tanbra hlanao, ' while you are still young'. There are three peculiarities noticeable with regard to Malagasy conjunctions : viz. — 1. They are often in couples ; as, ary dla ; fa satrla. 2. The same word often has to serve for several conjunctions ; as, fa, for, but, that ; dla, even, therefore, then (of time). 3. They generally do not couple the same cases of pronouns ; as, miteny aminao sy Izahay Izy, ' he speaks to you and us (lit. we)'. 62 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. INTERJECTIONS. Table of the chief Interjections. EMOTION EXPRESSED. Surprise . Denial Desire Exclamation or calling Sorrow Regret :] INTEEJECTION8. ( endray, endre, Mre, bdre, (pro- \ ( nounced oh-dray) hay, hanky ) f isy (pron. ishy), eisy, aoe, sana- 7 \ tria (forbid that) . . ) ante, inga ka, endra, anga » e, d (pronounced oh !), ry, ray, rey inay, mjay . ah ! oh 1 ( may-! oh that-! I would that-! eh ! ho ! ha ! " oh that-! would that-! Note. — With regard to the interjection sanatrla forbid that — !), perhaps it had the following mode of origin : — ' Sanatry ' is the name of a plant used medicinally by the Malagasy ; it is also the name given to an earthen pot when it has been daubed with streaks of coloured earth or paint in accordance with the directions of the ' diviner ' or ' incantation-worker'. When so prepared, the pot is carried to the place where the disease to be removed is said by the * diviner ' to have had its origin ; the pot is believed to attract the disease to itself, and is consequently left there, the person who leaves it exclaiming ' Sanatrla,' May it (i.e., the disease) be sanatry ! In this custom of the Malagasy (whatever its origin) there is the same idea of vicarious suffering which is so familiar to readers of the Bible, in connection with the scape- goat, 4"C of the Mosaic Dispensation. interjections. 63 General Rules for the arrangement op words in a sentence. 1. As regards the predicate, its usual place is at the beginning of a simple sentence, before the subject. But it may follow the subject, (a) indicated only by the sense ; (&) indicated more closely by dla before it ; or (c) indicated by no before it, when it applies exclusively to the subject. 2. As regards the object of an active verb, it immediately follows its verb ; as, nananatra azy mafy oho, ' I reproved him sharply'. Unless (as is the case sometimes) an adverb closely connected with the verb intervene ; as, aza mamaly sarotra azy hianao, ' do not answer him roughly'. 3. With a passive verb, the adverb and the object (if there be one), together with all connected words unless too long, come near the verb, the subject following last, at the end of the sentence ; as, natolotro azy omaly riy vbla, ' I gave them the money yesterday', or, the money was given to them by me yesterday ; nanariko mafy teo imason- d/ra\ny Izy mirahalahy, I reproved the brothers (or, the brothers were reproved by me) sharply in the presence of their father'. N .B. — When desired, the subject can be put into a more prominent place, in accordance with exceptions (a), (b), and (c) to Rule 1. above. 4. A qualifying adjective follows its noun ; as, lehilahy tsar a, ' a good man'. 64 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. 5. A possessive case follows its noun (whether ny precedes it or not). See Rules for Indications of Case. The excep- tion to Rules (4) and (5) is when a word closely connected with the qualified noun intervenes ; as, ny tanana ankava- nan-dRalambo, c the right hand of Ralambo'; ny vahba- dRanavalona rehetra, ' all the subjects of Ranavalona'. 6. In the case of a passive or a relative verb and its agent, the agent always comes next to its verb ; as, nbvonbin' ny jlolahy izy, ' he was killed by the highwaymen/ Even in the case of compound verbs (as, mamindra-fb, from indra and fb), when the passive or the relative con- struction is used, the agent, and all words closely connected with it, must come next to the verb, the noun (in this case, fo) being separated -from its verb ; as, (Active) namindra- fb taminao ny tbmpon-trbsa, ' the creditor showed mercy to you'. (Relative) namindran' ny tbrnpon-trbsa fb hianao, 'you were shown mercy by the creditor'. Shoet Specimen of Analysis. Ka bhabblana kely no hataoko lib entiko handa ny hanaovanao ahy andriambaventy . Translation. — And so I will make a little parable (lit. a little parable shall be made by me), to be used by me in refusing (lit. to refuse) your making me a judge. Grammatical Notes. Ka, final conjunction, 'and so J . Ohabblana, compound noun, from bhatra, 'measure', ( figure ', and vblana, ' word ', meaning a figure of speech, INTERJECTIONS. 65 parable, proverb. It is a contraction for bhatra-volana, -na being rejected and v changed into b ; here it is the nomina- tive case to hatao. The root vblana (a word) is used by the Hovas only in the phrase tsy miteny tsy mwdlana, ' to be silent ', 'speechless'; but one or two of the other tribes still use mivbland as synonymous with miteny. dha-teny is used as a synonym of bhabblana. Khly, adjective, qualifying dhabolana. It means little ; its past tense is the same as the present, but its future is hb Ichly. No, discriminative particle. Its force here is, " I will answer you, not by a simple denial, but by making a parable". Hataoho, passive verb in a- (future tense), from root tao, which is seen in the noun tao-zavatra, 'manufactures '• -ho is the suffixed pronoun, first person singular, denoting the agent of the passive verb hatao. Hb entiko, passive verb in -ina, root unknown ; a verbal noun in -ana (entana, luggage, a load) also exists. Entina makes past nentina, like passives in -ina ; but future, ho entina, like root-passives. E6 entina is here dependent upon hatao, one future passive following another. Entina literally ' borne, carried '; but often translated by 'used', as in enti-manao, ' used in making '. Handa, active verb in man-, from root la, I being changed into d for the sake of euphony (future tense) ; it means to deny, refuse, and is here used as an infinitive dependent on hb entiko, a future active following a future passive. Ny, definite article, here used to turn the phrase ny hanaovanao ahy andriambaventy into a noun. 66 A CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR. Hanaovanao, relative verb from active verb nianao, root too ; here used of the act, taken in connection with all its circumstances; -nao, suffixed pronoun, second person singu- lar, showing the agent of the relative verb hanaovana. Ally, separate form of personal pronoun, first person singular, objective case. Andnambaventy , compound noun, composed of the noun andrlana, ' a noble', and the adjective vaventy, ' substantial, large '. It means ' a judge ': its root is verity, ' substance', the prefix va- being either a substitute for the usual adjec- tival prefix ma- (maventy is used among some of the tribes other than the Hova), or a monosyllabic prefix. Both ahy and andnambaventy are accusative eases governed by the relative verb hanaovana. The relative follows the govern- ment of the active construction, which would be tnanao ahy andnambaventy. APPENDIX TO THE "CONCISE MALAGASY GRAMMAR." [To face p.m. ENGLISH. I. HOVA. II. ANTAN- kArana. in. bAra. IV. BETSILEO. V. BETSIMI- sAraka. VI. bezAnozAno. VII. • . sAkalAva. * Till. sihAnaka. IX. TAIMORO. X. taisAka. XI. TANALA (and IKONGO). XII. TAHOST. XIII. TEZO {Matikoro). XTT. P Personal Pbomouns. I izaho, alio izaho, alio izabo, aho aho, afiaho aho-mbe izaho, aho i'aho, aho Thou He, she, it, they We (exclusive of person spoken to) hianao izy > izahay ( i (pronounced*) < as thefi.nl e in > (.'eren') ) ahay haiiao asika aby aiiay afiiio izy Izehey aiiao izy zahay hianao-mbe Izy-mbe Izahay-mbe hianao izy Izahay hafiao, rdky f Iy (pronounced ) { ' e-e '), anay ) lahay, ahay drako We (inclusive of person spoken to) > isika asika antsiana slka isika-mbe isika itslaSa .] You hianareo kafiareo anareo anareo hianareo-mbe hianareo haSareo, anareo CoifJUKCTIOHB. When, if raha | la laha j antsinika 4 Even dia l dia dia, lia dia Prepositions. Above ambdny amb6ny' ambdny aiiambo antety ambdny Below ambany ambany ambany ambany anketraka ambany Nouns. Father ray rey ray, baba ray - Papa dada, ikaky ada baba aba Saba lada, daday lada, baba daday aba ( dada, baba, ) I ikaky j ira dada, baba Mother reny nendry i'endry endry niny reny neny reny reny, Jendry Mamma neny nendry lendry endry niny niny neny, nanja neny, I'endry niny Tobacco-plant Indian-corn ) (maize) ) f paraky } ^ (ft: Arabic?) ) katsaka lobaka paraky tsakotsako tainbako tsakitsaky tambako lobaka tsakotsako tambako tsakotsako tabaka paraky tsaky ftobaka ") i(fr.EngKsh?)$ sata sako ( tabako, ( tambako Sweet-potato vbamanga bele f dvimanga, } ^ vihazo ) manga tsimanga miknga, belena vdamanga rbokala, } < vordndro, > \ hdbokala J somanga ( vdamanga, ") ( vordndra ) begeda Rice vary vary vary vary vary vary vary b b e g§4 , 1st 'Alahamady Hatsia (-la) Hatsia Hatsia Asiha Hatsia Hatsia Hatsia 1-9 1 ill So,. 8vi> 2nd Adaoro Vdlasira Vdlasira Valasira Valasira Vdlasira Vdlasira Vdlasira 3rd 'Adizaoza Zaray Vdlapaosa Valampdsa Fdsa ? Faosa Beray 4th Asdrotany Maka Vdlamaka Asara Maka Vdlamaka Maka Maka 5th 'Alahasaty Sahiahia Hiahia Tsiahia Tsiahia Vdlampadina Hiahia Hiahia ■§1.3 6th 'Asombdla Sakamasay Sakamasay Sakamasay Sakamasay Sakamasay Sakaaay Sakamasay 3 >fu o a id S 2 « 7th 'Adimizana Vdlambita V61ambita V6lambita V6lambita Vdlambita Vdlambita Vdlambita in 8th 'Alakarabo Sakavd Asara Sakave Tsimakamaka Sakave Sakave Sakave 9th 'Alakaosy Saramantsy Asaramanara SaramantsiSa Saramantsina Saramantsy Saramantsy Pitsamaimbo Hi 10th 'Adijady Saramanitsa Asaramanitsa Saramanitra Saramauitra Asarabo Saramanitra Pitsamanitsa 11th Adalo Mianj6loka Asdtrizdnjdna Asdtry As6try A66try Zdnjd (-bo) Manjdloka ^Hl V 12th v Aloh6tsy Vatravatra Vatravatra Vatravatra Vatravatra i Vatravatra Vatravatra Vatravatra The above columns of words are extracted from " A Comparative Vocabulary of the chief Dialects of Madagascar " (in nvinuscripf), by the Author. They are enough to show that being due to causes acting over a limited region ; while strong foreign influence ^limited, however, to one tribe) is seen in the case cf the Hova names for the months. The names of the tribes are given at the top of each column, the Hova words being put first, as this is tho best known dialect. Notice that n has two distinct sounds in the are here represented respectively by n and n. all these dialects form essentially one language, the local differences Malagasy language ; viz., as n in ' an,' and as ng in < hanger,* which A CATALOGUE OE IMPORTANT WORKS, PUBLISHED BY TBijBNEK &c GO. 57 and 59 LUDGATE HILL.. ABEL.— Linguistic Essays. By Carl Abel. Contents : Language as the Expres- sion of National Modes of Thought — The Conception of Love in some Ancient and Modern Languages— The English Verbs of Command— The Discrimination of Synonyms— Philological Methods— The Connection between Dictionary and Gram- mar—The Possibility of a Common Literary Language for the Slav Nations — Coptic Intensification — The Origin of Language— The Order and Position of "Words in the Latin Sentence. Post 8vo, pp. xii. and 282, cloth. 1882. 9s. ABEL. — Slavic and Latin. Ilchester Lectures on Comparative Lexicography. Delivered at the Taylor Institution, Oxford. By Carl Abel, Ph.D. Post 8vo, pp. vi.-124, cloth. 1883. 5s. ABRAHAMS. — A Manual of Scripture History for Use in Jewish Schools and Families. By L. B. Abrahams, B.A., Principal Assistant Master, Jews' Free School. With Map and Appendices. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, pp. viii. and 152, cloth. 1883. Is. 6d. AGASSIZ.— An Essay on Classification. 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