€mm\\ ^Xnivmii^ ^ihxn^ THE GIFT OF X.ri^^U^^ t^l^>J^5^*. kli>^q..n Ij-SC^AZ. 6561 D 16.V77 H storjca Cornell University Library research 3 1924 026 367 056 olin The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://archive.org/details/cu31924026367056 HISTORICAL RESEAECH AN OUTLINE OF THEOEY AND PRACTICE BT JOHN MARTIN IINCENT PROFESSOR OF EUROPEAN HISTORY IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1911 Copyright, 1911 BY HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY Electrotyped by The Maple Press York. Pa. PREFACE As indicated by the title, this book is offered as an outhne, rather than as an encyclopedic treatment of historical investigation^ and the possible reader more constantly in mind has been the advanced student who is about to enter the field of research, either as a profession or as a serious avocation. Experience has shown that both time and facility are gained by a rapid review at the outset of the principles and scope of the science; for, although historical research is only the application of logic and common sense to the past affairs of mankind, the numerous varieties of material and their respec- tive values are not always at first obvious. It is on this account that certain of the auxiliary sciences are introduced, not with a view of providing com- plete information, but in order to exhibit the founda- tions upon which the genuine sources must rest, and with the hope that the reader will be stimulated to further inquiry. The obHgations of the author to previous writers on this subject are evident on every page, and from many friends who are not cpoted I have received valuable suggestions. To certain of my colleagues I am particularly indebted. Professors James W. Bright, Harry L. Wilson, and Edward F. Buchner, and Dr. R. V. D. Magoffin have read the matter in «« • Ul iv PREFACE. whole or in part and have given me faithful admoni- tion. Mr. Lynn R. Meekins, editor of the Baltimore Star, gave me the benefit both of his hterary taste and his professional knowledge, and Miss Mabel M. Reese, assistant in the university hbrary, rendered indispensable aid in the reading of proof. Without laying upon his friends the deficiencies of the book, the author entertains the hope that it will assist in some measure the extension of liistorical research. John Martin Vincent. Johns Hopkins University, June, 1911. CONTENTS Chapter Pagk I. The Definition of History 1 II. Classification of Historical Materials. ... 13 III. External Criticism 19 IV. Palaeography 44 V. Diplomatics 55 VI. Chronology 70 VII. The Seal of the Document 84 VIII. The Time and Origin of Sources 97 IX. Determination of Authorship 103 X. Interdependence of Sources Ill - XI. The Search for the Truth 120 XII. The Writer and His Times 133 XIII. Evaluation of Oral Tradition 142 XIV. Pictorial Sources of History 155 XV. Criticism and Interpretation of Records. . 168 XVI. Judicial Documents 185 XVII. Administrative Documents 190 XVIII. Private Documents 207 XIX. The Newspaper as a Source of History .... 215 XX. Relics 231 XXI. The Nature of Historical Evidence 248 XXII. The Constructive Process 261 XXIII. Psychological Factors in History 278 XXIV. The Presentation 288 XXV. Literary Style in History 303 XXVI. The Historical Novel 317 Bibliography 327 Index 341 HISTORICAL RESEARCH CH.VPTER I THE DEFINITION OF HISTORY When the history of the past began to be told among primitive people it is evident that no ques- tions were asked about the theories upon which it was based, nor concerning the motives which actuated the narrator. It was sufficient to know that stories of the forefathers were about to be re- lated, and antiquity lent its ears to every minstrel in turn. The curiosity of man about his predecessors doubtless started in his craving for entertainment; and the beginnings of history may be seen today in the Bedouin story-teller surrounded by his tribes- men, breathlessly intent. The contrast between this primitive history and Primitive the modern works of erudition is so vast that one is History. led at once to inquire how came the world to hold its present conceptions. As the long line of histo- rians is examined it becomes clear that history, even from the time it was first seriously written down, has passed through a variety of forms, and that the definition itself has had a history of its own. The etymology of the word is interesting, but gives no 1 2 HISTORICAL RESEARCH authority for the modern contents of the term. History is derived from loTopCa^ which means primarily a learning, or knowing by inquuy^ but every age has declared for itself to what that inquiry shall be directed and what subjects are worth know- ing as history. Usage has remained steadfast only in this, that in some way or another history has been the story of mankind. Herodotus. The first known example of extended historical composition is the work of Herodotus. He was no longer in the earliest infancy of history, for he states at the opening of the first book that he wishes not only to relate the glorious actions of the forefathers, but to give reasons for them as well. '^This is a publication of the researches of Herodo- tus of Halicarnassus, in order that the actions of men may not be effaced by time, nor the great and won- drous deeds displayed both by Greeks and barbarians deprived of renown; and among the rest, what were their grounds of strife.'^ Like others of the ancients, Herodotus combined geographical description with his accounts of states, and with many side issues and anecdotes he put together one of the most interesting as well as one of the most valuable of books. He was a capital story-teller, but in places was weak in the critical ' examination of his materials. He was not altogether credulous about the information which fell in his way, but with charming naivete provided a line of retreat for himself and his readers. ''For myself, my duty is to report all that is said, but I am not obliged to believe it all alike — a remark The DEFINITION OF HISTORY 3 i^- which may be understood to apply to my whole history." ^ Thucydides, on the other hand, presented the first Thucydides. great example of careful sifting of evidence and with a plan which is piu'posel}^ confined to the political and mihtary history of the Peloponnesian war. He took part in person diu-ing a portion of the war and after- ward visited the principal scenes of conflict, but, more than tliis, he sought carefully for information from important personages. " In the history of the war, I have followed neither the first report nor my own opinion, but rather I have given those writings which I have either seen myself or have learned of others with the greatest diligence. To find the truth caused me much trouble, for the witnesses of the various events were not agreed in their accounts, but both sides were affected by par- tisanship and failure of memory."^ In explaining the cm'rent of events Thucydides from time to time summarizes the earlier liistory of the states participating in this conflict and in so do- ing displays much acumen in distinguishing between the mythical and historical accounts of their origin. He is not always successful in his aim, but he is distinctly a truth-seeker. He attempts to be also a teacher and assumes to tell both ^' what has happened and will hereafter happen again according to human nature.''^ 1 Herodotus, Book VII, Ch. 152. 2 Thucyd., I, 22. ^ Thucyd., I, 22. 4 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Thus in the fifth century before Christ there was set before the world a high example of research and presentation, and mth it a theory of the object and content of history. Ever since that time men have been tr3dng to improve this definition, yet they have agreed in one thing: the historian must seek the ^ truth. Controversy over the definition has con- r cerned the kinds of facts wanted, and as to whether ^jthe historian should at the same time be a prophet ' and a moral teacher. Military His- Diu-ing a very long period the works which could *°^' be dignified with the name of histories concerned j^thcmsclves chiefly with statecraft, wars, battles, or diplomacy. These were the conspicuous features in a nation's life and were regarded as the only essen- tials both by the writers and by the public. There were natural reasons for this conception of history. In the term "government'' are included a great number of impoj?xant activities of man. In one form or anothep; government is continuous and pro- vides a grouruiplan upon which to show the evolution u^^f,a^2£2El2^ ^^ critical junctures the fate of nations has hung upon battles. During certain periods also monarchies have been so absolute that the welfare of the people depended on the personal wishes or even wliims of kings, consequently dynasticJiistDny^and even court i^atrigues were decidedTy^ntributary to national history in its largei;^ aspects. Modem Social "It is a discovery of modern times that there is 'story. ^^^^ jj^ ^j^^ |-£^ ^^^ development of a nation than these externals. In the first place modern nations have become more democratic. The people share THE DEFINITION OF HISTORY 5 in that government which was once more exclusively in the hands of rulers, and it is now natural to in- quire into the condition of the peoples of past ages and to trace their development to present times. More- over, it has gradually dawned upon the world that the economic condition of a nation has a great part in its politics, whatever its form of government may be. Social, intellectual, and moral conditions have to be taEenlntb consideration even in the history of politics, and much more so if a complete picture of a nation's development is to be given. Consequently, the scope of historical research is much wider and the kinds of facts wanted are more numerous than were required even in the century before this. To cite English examples. Gibbon wrote his chapters on the social conditions of the early middle ages apart from the narrative. Sharon Turner at the beginning of the nineteenth century, after giving the early political history of the Anglo-Saxons, describes their government and customs, but without showing the intimate connection of many of them with the development of law and government. Macaulay, though not the first to complain, revolted Macaulay. from the exclusively political and d3mastic history. He believed these to be essential parts of history, but that we should view also the nation. The ideal historian, he said, "considers no anecdote, no pecu- liarity of manner, no familiar saying, as too insigr^. nificant for his notice, which is not too insignificant to illustrate the operation of laws, of rehgion and of education, and to mark the progress of the human mind.'' 6 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Macaulay used his social facts too much as external literary ornament, but his doctrine led in the modern direction, the best popular exponent of which in J. R. Green. EngHsh history was John Richard Green. In the ~ preface to his Short Historx_Ql the English People, Mr. Green said: "At the risk of sacrificing much that was interest- ing and attractive in itself and which the constant usage of our historians has made familiar to English readers, I have preferred to pass lightly and briefly over the details of foreign wars and diplomacies, the personal adventures of kings and nobles, the pomp of courts, or the intrigues of favorites, and to dwell at length on the incidents of that constitutional, intellectual, and social advance in which we read the history of the nation itself. It is with this purpose that I have devoted more space to Chaucer than to ), ^ Cressy, to Caxton than to the petty strife of Yorkish . -X and Lancastrian, to the Poor Law of Elizabeth than y^''" to her victory at Cadiz, to the Methodist revival than to the escape of the Young Pretender.'^ The works of these popular writers were the surface indications of the changes which had taken place in their day. Mr. Green's most scientific researches are found in his books on the Anglo-Saxon period, the Conquest of England and the Making of England, yet his history is an example of the tendency now everywhere evident. The life of the nation in all important directions must be displayed, and con- sequently the content of the word history obtains a new and extended meaning. As already intimated, there has been no agreement THE DEFINITION OF HISTORY 7 in the wording of a definition. Mr. Freeman said/ Freeman. ** History is the science of man in his poUtical character/^ and his motto declared that ^'History is past poUtics and poHtics present history/' but /-^^^^^.^^.^'^/Le, Mi\ Freeman inchides in the word pohtics many ~u more social phenomena than is customary in every- day usage. On the other hand, writers upon socio- logical inquiry insist that political history has no value, but that social phenomena alone are of per- manent interest. The doings of the average or Epical man are wanted, for the activities of indi- viduals are mostly the accidentals of society. An analysis of these controversies will show that they are derived from difference of view as t^ th^ object of writing history. As we have noted before, the primitive object was to entertain. &:om'tThucy- ' dides onward there have been historians t whose avowed aim has been to instruct and to guide the con- duct of political life. Dionysius, following Thucy- dides, was of opinion that history is philosophy Political Hia- teaching by examples.^ MachiavelH said :^^Ee wise ^^^^^^^• men say with reason that to foresee the future it is necessary to consult the past, because the events of this world have in all times well defined relations with those of times which have preceded. Produced by men who are and always have been animated by the same passions they ought necessarily to have the same results. '' In our day Herbert Spencer com- plained that histories were ordinarily so full of biographies and accidental matter that they gave no ^ Methods of Historical Study, p. 116. ^ Ars Rhet., XI, 2. (Authorship in doubt.) 8 HISTORICAL RESEARCH help in deciding on his conduct as a citizen. Profes- sor Seeley, himself a historian, expressed the same opinion in a modified way when he said that " history while it should be scientific in its method should pur- \^ sue a practical object. That is, it should not only gratify the reader's cmosity about the past, but , mocUfy his views of the present and his forecast of ^ thefuture.^'^ Moral History. Akin to this view of the liistorian^s duty was the demand that history should point out the moral lessons of the past for the guidance of present or future generations. In all such cases the historian would be required to enter the domain of prophecy. In order to furnish such guidance the scholar would have to study the tendencies of the present, and follow the example of the weather bureau in fore- casting probabilities. In the same class is the ex- treme school of sociological students who attempt Sociological to find the ''laws of history.'' Following the method History. ^£ natm'al science, they propose that the historian shall find out the circimistances under which the events of social and political existence occur. Mod- ern statistics show that a certain number of births, a certain number of business failiu-es, and numerous other events of tliis character occur during a stated period, therefore it is but a step further to find out the necessary social conditions which always precede an agrarian revolt, a religious revival, or a period of excellence in art. Historians are greatly indebted to the advocates of these views for suggestions of new causes in history ^ J. R. Seeley, Expansion of England, Introduction. THE DEFINITION OF HISTORY 9 and new fields of research. Discussion of the sub- ject will find place in a later chapter, but we may pause long enough to point out that the materials for 5uch inquiry are insufficient to estabHsh law in the sense of ine\dtable recurrence. Statistics and obser- vations of this character were not made in earlier ages, and to estabhsh a law it must be fu^st clearly shown that the conditions in all cases are identical. Thomas Buckle's Buckle's brilhant effort to write the history of civili- '^^^^^y- zation in England was based upon the theory that man was entirely the creatiu'e of his environment, mechanically regulated according to the laws of physiology and physical geography. Even if we as- sume as proved the difficult proposition that the will of man is a neghgible quantity in history, the data ^ upon which we might base laws of recurrence of events or social phenomena are insufficient to be ex- act. In fact, we must include the influence of individ- uals and the moral nature of peoples in any estimate of history. Man is guided by social experience only in a large and general way, for identical conditions never recur, and prophecy can form no part of the duty of the historian. Moral lessons may be drawn from the- events of Providential history, or from the biographies of distinguished ^is^^^y- personages, but it does not necessarily follow that these are to be included in the historical narrative. Histories have also been written for the piu'pose of showing the designs of God in the experiences and destinies of nations, but one need not be an atheist, nor deny an overruling Providence, if he takes a more modest attitude and does not assume to know 10 HISTORICAL RESEARCH exactly the infinite designs of the Creator, or profess to be able to point out the special applications of His wisdom. In all cases where teaching a lesson is the avowed object, whether it be political, moral, or theological, there is danger that the facts in greater or less degTee will be unconsciously warped to suit the theme. Comment upon history is not history. The world needs fii\st the truth about the past. The experience of scholars agrees with the dictum of Lord Bacon when he said,^'It is the true office of history to represent the events themselves together with the counsels, and to leave the observations and con- clusions thereupon to the liberty and faculty of every man^s judgment."^ Development AVe have noted that the scope of history has the Keynote, broadened by taking more and more factors into account. Wars and statecraft are now regarded as a less important part of national life. This has come about not merely tlu'ough curiosity to find out how people lived in time past, but in the search after the explanation of national development. We find differences in the wording of definitions of history because men attempt to compress into a sentence a pliilosophy of civilization, but in all defi- nitions there is one invariable idea, that of evolu- tion. The thread upon which the story of any nation hangs is development from the past into the present. The object of historical science is to find out how these things came to be. This is classified as genetic history. AVhat was the genesis and growth of the fife and institutions of the nation ' Bacon's Advancement of Learning, 11, 1.36. THE DEFINITION OF HISTORY 11 under consideration, or what was its development during a given period, is the question to be answered. The object of research is to understand, ''forschend zu verstehen."^ At first sight this seems to be an ob\dous state- ment which might be assumed as understood, but this principle of development has not always been acted upon. In the hght of it we may discover the natiu*e of the research and the kinds of materials to be employed. Everything that contributes to the growth of a people must be considered. Wliatever is not intimately connected with that development is outside the scope of historical inquiry, showing here a guiding principle in the elimination of the unimportant matter which every investigator meets, and with which the pages of history are often en- cumbered. There is a practical reason, therefore, for the Importance of beginner to think carefully over his definition of l^^fi^ition. history; not only in order to show its value as a study and the various uses to which it may be applied^ but in order to dnect the course of research. Fre- quently, close application to a special subject makes it appear to be extremely important, or facts very interesting in themselves are discovered and the student is inclined to include them all in his narrative. The choice of a theme of inquiry and the amount of attention which it deserves should be determined by the relation of the subject to the larger development of the nation or of society. However small the topic, the treatment should have in view its contribution * Droysen, Grundriss der Historik. § 8 . 12 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ^ to the larger history of which it is a part. Formulas and definitions of liistory will be useful in so far as they keep the student steadfast to this point of view. Ranke's definition of universal history con- tains the elements which can be applied to any little portion : '' Universal History (Weltgeschichte) embraces the events of all nations, and times in their connection, in so far as these affect each other, appear one after the other, and all together form a living totahty/'^ The foregoing pages have simply indicated in out- line the tendencies which led to the modern con- ception of history, and in illustration well-known wiiters have been cited who both guided and re- flected popular interest in the subject. If the history of modern scientific research were to be written an- other chapter would be necessary. The impulse came from Germany in the early part of the nine- teenth century, and this tendency was emphasized by Leopold von Ranke and his disciples. German scholars have been ever since in the front ranks of a science which is no longer bounded by geographical limits, while Austria and France have become great centres of research. Inspiring as it is, the story of this movement will not be related here, but the principles which were revived and established by these schools will be made use of in this outline of method. ^ Ranke, Vorrede zur Weltgeschichte, VI- VIII. CHAPTER II CLASSIFICATION OF HISTORICAL MATERIALS The person who approaches the history of a given country ordinarily finds that some one not very far back has already attempted the task, and it may be that a long line of historians have preceded the modern exponents of that people. Consequently, the investigator who feels impelled to inquire further is confronted with a double duty. He must take account of what has already been written by the more serious of his predecessors, and must explore the materials out of which the history has been con- structed. His task is not concluded by an ex- amination of the documents cited by his forerunners. More is required than mere proof that the quotations are correct. The whole mass of available material must be assembled and the narrative reconstructed v/by fresh interpretation. Therefore, in order to be sure that all kinds of evidence have been marshalled, and that the testimony has been weighed with due regard to its quality, it is important that the in- vestigator have a well defined idea of the nature and extent of historical materials in general. The materials for the study of the history of society fall into two general classes: 13 14 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Classes. Distinctions. First, those which man has consciously recorded for the purpose of transmitting information. Second, rehcs of man's activity, whether written or otherwise, which have come down to us from time past without the conscious intention of im- parting connected information. There are certain other materials which may com- bine the quahties of both of these classes and which have been called " memorials. '^ In some cases the difference between memorials and transmitted his- tory is not at once apparent, but the distinction between conscious and unconscious evidence is so fundamental that the degree of relationship must be established before the material can be used. The classification of sources, therefore, is an important part of historical research. Much of the matter, to be sm-e, easily falls into place. Memoirs, biographies, and annals ob\Tiously were intended to be transmitted to the future. A battle-axe, on the other hand, is an unconscious relic of the warfare of its day. A boundary stone is a mere indicator of lines for practical use, and a gravestone containing simply a name is no more than this, but when the tombstone contains dates the liistorical record begins. Wlien the epitaph is extended into an account of the deeds and virtues of the deceased, the relic is transformed into a memorial. So when the boundary stone records in cuneiform characters the sale of a field at a time estimated to be about B. C. 1400,^ you have the rehc of a business transaction, but one which may throw great hght ' British Museum, No. 90,833. HISTORICAL MATERIALS 15 on the customs of the times or the relations of great persons of the period. A Babylonian brick is in itself an interesting object, for it illustrates the particulars of a certain ancient industry, but when a fragment contains the name of Urengur, king of Ur, about B. C. 2300, the interest intensifies; and when another specimen records not only the name of tliis king, but also an account of the building of a temple to the goddess Nina in the city of Erech, the brick has risen to the rank of an historical document/ Assur-nasir-pal, king of Assyria, B. C. 885, sheathed his palace with marble sculptured in relief, and upon this he engraved long accounts of his greatness and his conquests with the evident intention of leaving the record to posterity. Not only these architectural memorials and ornaments, but also multitudes of clay tablets containing the history of his prede- cessors were collected and written at the command of this king. Many of the sculptures and thousands of the tablets have been recovered and now adorn the British Museum, so that the intentions of the royal patron of letters have been carried out in an unexpected manner. In whatever form prepared, whether it be in Intention, stone, clay, papyrus, or paper, the intention of the producer toward the futm*e is the factor which deter- mines the general classification. As we proceed we shall find that this holds a very important relation to the criticism of the source. The c|uestion whether an object is simply a relic of the period or contains consciously transmitted information is fundamental, i/ * British Museum, Nos. 90,296, and 90,015. 16 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Newspapers. Order of portance. Im- A law is properly classified as a relic of the period in which it was enacted, and is evidence of the legal and moral perceptions of that people, but if one ex- amine a statute of the Tudor period, for example, it will be found to contain at least two distinct parts. A preamble gives the reason for the enactment, while the sections establish the law and the penalties. The preamble is the explanation or justification intended for the public, pi'esent and future, and must be judged upon its conscious intentions.^ A newspaper is likewise a complex document in which materials of various classes are included. The news items are intended to be the current history of the day. The editorials refer partly to current events and partly to political or social conduct. The advertisements are evidences of business method and social institutions intended for present infor- mation not futiu'e record. They are unconscious relics of the period. The newspaper as a whole may beTegardecl as a literary product of its time, but for historical purposes its contents must be analyzed and each part judged and made use of according to the class in which it belongs.^ If a cln'onological order were to be pursued from primitive times onward a classification of materials would begin with relics, for at fii'st these are the only evidences we have. Undoubtedly man made im- plements long before he began to wTite down his experiences^ consequently we have the common term ^ See page 171. * See page 215. HISTORICAL MATERIALS 17 *' prehistoric remains/' but in the conduct of his- torical research the first instinct leads one to inquire if there be any record of the period. In fact, when the materials are appraised it becomes apparent that the relics alone are insufficient, and history would be impossible without conscious attempts to connect its parts. The order of procedure, therefore, is to find what has been written upon the period or topic and then determine what light can be drawn from the collateral material. It is almost impossible to describe the various classes of documents and sources without entering upon criticism or interpretation of them; therefore, to avoid repetition the fuller consideration is de- ferred to later chapters. It may, however, serve a useful purpose to present a brief tabular view of historical materials in such a way as to show the grand divisions. In the one which follows the consciously transmitted informa- tion appears first in its three forms as written, oral, and artistic. This is not the order of historic pre- cedence, for if that were followed the remains of the human body would come first, for undoubtedly many a human creature passed from this earth before he was able to shape even an implement which would give token of his existence. Nor may one assume that the order of importance can be fully displayed in any table, for at a given point the conscious testi- mony may have the most value, and in another historical problem the reHcs may outweigh all other evidence. It is, nevertheless, a valuable preparatory exercise to formulate in the mind the general classi- 18 HISTORICAL RESEARCH fications of material and to place under each division all possible examples/ HISTORICAL MATERIALS. I. Consciously Transmitted Information. Written. Chronicles, annals, biographies, memoirs, diaries, genealogies, certain classes of inscrip- tions. Oral Tradition. Ballads, anecdotes, tales, saga. Artistic Productions. Historical paintings, portraits, scenic sculp- ture, coin types. II. Relics, or Unconscious Testimony. Human remains, language, institutions, prod- ucts of the hand, implements, fine arts, products of the mind, business records, literature. III. Inscriptions, Monuments, Public Docu- ments OF Certain Classes. All of these may have also qualities belonging to Class I or Class II. ^ Compare the table in Bernheim, Lehrbuch der historischen Methode, 258. (Ed. 1908.) CHAPTER III EXTERNAL CRITICISM Since the object of history is to estabhsh as nearly IS possible the true developraent of society or of some selected part, it becomes necessary for the historian irst to test the data furnished by his predecessors md to determine whether the fragments of infor- nation received are themselves true, or what measure )f probability should be ascribed to them. These ire the duties of historical criticism. Criticism, lowever, is not the chief end of historical research. rhe combination of results, the perception of the gelations of events, and the final construction of these nto narratives are the great objects of the study, yet these are of no value unless based on scientific criticism. Not until the isolated data have been proved and interpreted may the historian draw safe 3onclusions. The processes of criticism fall naturally into two Definition, parts. The &st important step is to determine ivhether the given source is at all admissible as evi- dence, or, in other words, whether the material is genuine or not. Conclusions are worthless and labor is wasted if the document is fraudulent or misjudged. [t is necessary to know at the outset whether the chronicle, charter, or rehc is in reahty what it claims bo be, or what it has been esteemed to be. It is 19 20 HISTORICAL RESEARCH important to determine where and when it originated, who was its author, and where he derived his infor- mation. The rules of procedm^e by which these facts are determined in Iiistorical research constitute External Criticism. The propriety of this definition will be more fully observed when the various materials are criticized in detail. The process has to do with those data about a document or relic which relate to forms and appearance rather than to contents. Internal Criti- The second part of the critical process weighs the cism. relation of the testimony to the truth. One must decide whether the statements made are trust- worthy and, if not absolutely certain, whether they are probable. The degree of probabihty or possi- bihty must be determined, or, if necessary, the whole cast out as worthless. This is Internal Criti- cism, and is often called Higher Criticism, since it deals with more important matter than external form.^ However, the external facts about a docu- ment are often obtained in part by a study of the contents. The date of a paper may be deter- mined sometimes by what it says or by the way it is written, hence external criticism may employ any means at its command to establish the outside data of a source. The definition explains the kind of things to be proved, not the means used to prove them. Owing to their essential importance, ^ The term Higher Criticism has in recent years received a popular meaning in connection with Bible study which ob- scures its real significance. In the minds of some, higher criticism means the rationalization of scripture and designates a class of doctrines at variance with orthodox views. This is an unfortunate use of the words, for they ought to be employed without theological significance. EXTERNAL CRITICISM 21 ^he processes of external criticism demand atten- tion first. The labors of the historical student are greatly ncreased by the fact that materials are frequently placed before him about which there is doubt as to iheir genuineness. This is not necessarily due to ^ross forgery, but may come from the absence of proper information, the lack of name or date, or bhe presence of doubtful statements which throw suspicion on the whole. The investigator of medi- Bval history is particularly liable to meet question- able material in manuscript, and the student of antiquity is obliged to test carefully what are offered as inscriptions and relics. Modern history is not exempt, but since the invention of printing the forms 3f difficulty and the process of proof are somewhat different. The necessity for the test of genuine- aess, however, remains as before. It is the further misfortune of the historian that Error, tiis material is subject not only to the variableness and idiosyncrasies of human nature in the first producer, but also to the errors and misconceptions Df every writer who has intervened. A large part of / his work consists in undoing what his predecessorg/ liave conceived. This labor is not due to the sup- position that historical writers have had a great desire to give false information because in the course of time a great many mistakes have been made. All kinds of sources from relics to chronicles have been accepted for what they were not, and it has taken a long time to correct the mistakes. Errors spring chiefly from two evils which beset 22 HISTORICAL RESEARCH all arts and sciences, ignoranee^and superficiality, and both of these lead to neglect of the rules of evidence. In a simple age where credulity is the rule we may not expect that the origin and character of documents will be carefully scrutinized. The same result occurs when a person who is inadequately prepared attempts to wi^ite the history of a period and accepts the materials he finds in the light of his imperfect knowledge. Lack of experience in the testing of documents and neglect of the laws of evidence, because the writer was not aware of the origin and nature of his materials, are fruitful sources of error. The more one knows about a subject the more will he appreciate the quality and significance of documents as they come into view. It is the experience of every investigator that he began to see things only after he had been some time at work. The evils of haste and superficiality are likely not only to mar the literary style of the historian who succumbs to them, but theu' effects are to be found at a more fundamental point. A partial or slovenly examination of the materials will perpetuate the errors of the past and engender new misconceptions for the futm^e. The day has gone by when haste will be accepted as an excuse for errors of fact or for mistakes due to inadequate use of available material. Yet all of these troubles must be an- , ticipated and the work of predecessors carefully scanned. Hypercriti- Occasionally errors are perpetuated through over- refinement of criticism. The ambition to find some- cism. EXTERNAL CRITICISM 23 thing new, or to maintain a reputation for keenness, has sometimes led to the rejection of genuine his- torical documents. This may not be a portentous evil, and probably is not so destructive as a captioy^— sk epticism which holds everj^thing under suspicion. ThTs may come from a pessimistic view of human nature, or from the prejudice of a preconceived theory which is easier to assert than to prove by careful inquiry. The personal equation has to be taken into account in critics as well as in chroniclers and historical actors. Errors of statement and conception have also been handed down for which the older writers are not fau'ly responsible. New materials have been con- tinually accumulating, the knowledge of archaeology, of diplomatics, of languages, and of all other aux- iliaries of history has been increasing from year to year. Previous judgments, therefore, must come up for re^dew. Taken with the fact that each generation demands a wider view of history, the correction of the inevitable errors of the predecessors furnishes a necessary portion of the occupation of the historical student. At this point we are con- cerned only with errors about the document. In general it may be said that it is not the object Object of Ex- of external criticism to find out and catalogue all of *f^^^^ Cnti- Gism. the mistakes that have been made about a document, but, at the same time, it may be necessary to trace ^out a long series of misapprehensions in order to get back to the true origin. The source itself when pruned of its excrescences can then be estimated at its true value. It is not necessary to be awed or over- 24 HISTORICAL RESEARCH whelmed by the prospects of errors to be met. There has been a great deal of fraud and a large amount of error encountered in the course of ages. Critics are wont to spend much time in discussing the variations and corruptions of texts while the sound material is left to take care of itself. Speaking of externals only, a vast body of undoubtedly genuine historical sources has been handed down to this generation. The value of the contents is the chief matter for discussion. The fact of transmission can be safely proved. Isaac Taylor, writing of ancient literatm-e, and possibly to comfort any who might be alarmed about the Scriptures, said in regard to textual cUfficulties: Textual Diffi- ^The actual amount and the importance of these cor- culties. ruptions of the text of ancient authors is likely to be overrated by general readers. . . . By far the greater number of all 'various readings' — perhaps nineteen out of twenty — are purely of a verbal kind, and they are such as can claim the attention of none but philolo- gists and grammarians: a few may deserve the notice of every reader of ancient literature; and a few demand the consideration of the student of history. But, taken in the mass, the light in which they should be regarded is that of their furnishing a significant and conclusive proof of the care, fidelity, and exactness with which the business of copying was ordinarily conducted."^ This commendation applies to the middle ages at whose hands we receive by transmission the litera- ture of the ancients. At the same time we are obliged to take note of a great amount of fraudulent matter ^ Taylor, Transmission of Ancient Books to Modern Times, 20. EXTERNAL CRITICISM 25 emanating from the writers of that very period itself. The presence of both good and bad is not strange, for that is also a characteristic of this modern so-called scientific age. The situation calls simply for alert- ness of mind for the distinguishing of the two. Some classes of material were more susceptible to falsifica- tion than others because the rewards of fraud were more seductive. Assuming that we have a work or document before Order of Pro- us for criticism, the order of procedure is logical and ^^^^^®- plain. If the matter in cjuestion purports to be a mediaeval manuscript the investigator appeals first to the tests of palseogTaphy. The chirography of every epoch of European history has been so care- fully studied that it is possible to identify at least the period in which a genuine manuscript originated. The standard works upon palaeography and diplo- matics explain the forms of letters used at various times and in various countries. The materials em- ployed, the form of the manuscript, the ink, the seals, the wrapper, and all other external facts have been so exhaustively classified that the expert can determine with considerable assurance the somxe of a written document. If it is a forgery, it is more than likely to contain slips in the imitation which will hardly escape detection in due time. The difficulty of discovery increases in proportion to the nearness of the forgery to the time or place of alleged origin, for the counterfeiter is then able to enter more fully into the spirit of the period.^ The invention of printing did not destroy the possibiHty of fraud in ^ See below, p. 44. 26 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Forgery. History of Croyland. manuscript, for many public and private documents remain permanently written. The increasing rarity of ancient manuscripts, on the one hand, has fur- nished temptation to fabricate them for purposes of gain, and, on the other hand, the inducements to forge legal documents are so great that the act has to be repressed by the criminal laws of every country today. The fabrication en bloc of an extensive historical work has not been common. One is more hkely to meet with shorter portions of history, memoirs, biographies, or letters which are doubtful. Further- more, a large amount of the material now known to be false does not pretend to be original handwriting, but rather copied from manuscripts said to be no longer extant. The risk of immediate discovery is much less when the writer alleges that he had access to originals now lost or destroyed. Whether the document assumes to be original or not the proof of genuineness is not limited to the palseographical data, but the textual evidence of language, of form- alities, and of statement must also be employed. A pertinent example of the forgery of local annals is found in the history of Croyland Abbey. This purports to be a clu'onicle of that monastery by a Norman abbot named Ingulphus, covering about the period 625-1089, and embellished with numerous charters and privileges. Although exception had been taken earher to certain parts, the work as a whole was accepted as authentic history up to the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Since that time the earher part of the cln-onicle has been EXTERNAL CRITICISM 27 proved to be a forgery of the thirteenth or four- teenth centmy. The method used in reaching this conclusion is interesting and instructive.^ Of this histor}^ no manuscript earHer than the sixteenth century is in existence, and no original manuscript can be proved to have existed at any time, although writers of the seventeenth centiu-y claimed to have seen an autograph, which was after- ward destroyed by fire. Consequently, no palseo- grapliic tests could be used in modern times and the external facts about the document had to be proved by study of the contents. Suspicion first laid hold of the charters quoted in the work. It was observed that Latin terms were frequently employed which came into use one or two centiu*ies later than the alleged dates of the documents. Closer analysis showed that there were attributed to the Anglo- Saxons not only words, but institutions, which are otherwise known to have been first introduced by the Normans. The writers made use of feudal terms unknown in Britain before the conquest, and these words, moreover, were placed in charters alleged to be of an early Saxon period. In most cases the documents were brought forward by the author to show the great antiquity of the property rights and privileges of the monastery, but they contained ^ Descriptio compilata per Dominum Ingulphum Abbatem monasterii Croyland, natione Anglicum, quondam Monachum Fonta. Hardy, Catalogue of Materials, II, 58-64, 128-129 (Rolls Series), London, 1865. H. T. Riley, The History and Charters of Ingulphus. Royal Archaeol. Inst, of Great Britain, Archaeol. Journal, XIX, 32- 49, 114-133, London, 1862. Dictionary of National Biography 'ingulf." 28 HISTORICAL RESEARCH expressions like miles meus, my knight; manse- rium, manor; feudum, fief; and many others which were not used at the alleged date. Anachronisms. At fost it was believed that the charters alone were spurious while the liistory could be regarded as authentic, but this view has long been abandoned, for the chronicle itself is full of anachronisms. It appears to be based on a part of the work of Ordericus Vitalis, one of the liistorians of the Norman Conquest, who visited Croyland in the early part of the twelfth century. His meagre outhne was filled out with supposititious details, and wherever he suggests a possible occurrence the writers of Ingulphus supplied it. AVhenever they strayed away from Ordericus they invented most marvelous tales, but at the same time they committed most egregious blunders in chronology. For example, to bridge over the period covering the a]:)bey's foundation, the Danish invasion, and the election of the famous abbot Turketel, 948, the \\Titers supplied a series of superannuated monks, called Sempects, who live in the house to the improb- able ages of one hundred and sixty-eight, one hundred and forty-two, one hundred and fifteen, and one hundred and twenty years respectively. Turketel himself is spoken of as the king^s chancellor and made responsible for the appointment of seven bishops on a certain day, when, in fact, the synod at which this occurred was held two years before Tm^ketel was born. Another passage states that the ''King's Justiciars'' held court at Stamford in 1075. Such an official act is not otherwise heard of for at least a hundred years after that date. A EXTERNAL CRITICISM 29 "vicarius'' or vicar of a church is mentioned equally in advance of the age when the term was customary. Many other citations might be made to multiply Object of t these misstatements and anaclironisms which show Forgery, that the wiiters built upon and borrowed much of their narrative from late chroniclers like Hemy of Huntingdon, Florence of Worcester, or Simeon of Durham. The motive of the forgery is clear. The monks desired to enforce their claims to property rights in dispute, and for that purpose prepared these alleged ancient charters, which they said were copied • from originals no longer in existence. In order to reinforce the case they prepared also tliis history in which the claims are mentioned and incorporated, but they could not put themselves back into the spirit of the earlier ages. Words and expressions which were as second nature to themselves were transplanted into Anglo-Saxon times, while dates were confused and impossibilities asserted. From the character of the document the forgery has been placed either in the fourteenth or fifteenth century. How far it succeeded in deceiving the immediate contemporaries we may not say, but for several hundred years afterward the work was accepted as a genuine product of the eleventh centm-y. Forgeries of extensive annals and diaries have appeared from time to time throughout mediaeval and modern history. The motives are chiefly two, "^literary notoriety or desire of gain. To be the finder and editor of a manuscript hitherto unknown and casting light on hitherto obscure portions of history is a coveted position. This led to frequent imitations 30 HISTORICAL RESEARCH during the epoch of the humanists, notwithstanding the fact that the same period discovered many earher frauds of venerable growth. The money value of ancient manuscripts has led to several notorious forgeries in the nineteenth century. The clever work of one Simonides, who pretended to have dis- covered in an eastern monastery most extraordinary manuscripts on Egyptian history, was accepted for a time by the liighest experts. So long as human frailty exists, perhaps, we may look for such attacks •on public credulity. The experiments will take new forms with each generation. Quite recently a printed book appeared under the title "An English- man in Paris.'' The volume purported to be the memou's of Sir William Wallace, at one time English ambassador in France. The work was so well done that considerable time elapsed before it could be proved that Sir William Wallace had left no such papers and that the memoirs were fabricated by a Reasons for Dutch newspaper man. The public reads with Success of For- g^^^^l^y the genuine memoirs of statesmen and prominent persons like Talleyrand, Metternich, or Grant. Personal history, intimate conversations, hitherto secret details are sought for about every public man, and, doubtless, so long as these are expected the forger will supply them after death. In modern times, however, the supply of documentary evidence is so voluminous that detection is certain to follow soon, and the public is obliged to get this kind of amusement from books which are avowedly historical fiction. Briefer documents, like letters, charters, decrees, the acts of courts, councils or EXTERNAL CRITICISM 31 lynods, and business contracts in general were abricated in great numbers during the middle ages. The question of genuineness will arise before the itudent in many of these 3^et. The reasons for the tstonisliing productivity of thoge centuries in base naterial will be discussed more appropriately later )n^ yet the kinds of fraud to be guarded against in locumentary sources and some of the reasons for suspicion may be briefly suggested through studies )f familiar cases. Among the most famous examples of forgery was Donation of he so-called Donation of Constantine. This docu- Constantme. nent alleged that the Emperor Constantine had p"anted to the bishops of Rome supreme authority )ver all chm*ches in the world and temporal author- ty over Italy, or the rest of the western world, [n token of this the emperor had removed his own capital to Constantinople. Various other privileges symbolical of this supremacy were granted to the papal chak at the same time, and additions appeared it intervals in later ages. Although this document oaust have been written in the eighth century the contents were never seriously contested until the ifteenth centiu^y, w^hen three scholars fell upon it at :)nce. Other centuries passed, however, before the belief was finally abandoned. Another classic forgery of this period has received Pseudo-Isido- bhe name of the Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals. This is ^^^^ Decretals, I collection of ecclesiastical regulations many of {\^hich are genuine. The first portion contains Mty canons or citations from the apostles on the government of the church; but these are followed by 32 HISTORICAL RESEARCH fifty-nine spurious letters or decisions of the popes from Clement to Malchiades. Here also appears the Donation of Constantine, but this was probably quoted in the belief that it was genuine. All to- gether there are ninety-foui' spurious documents in the collection, and the date of its composition lies somewhere between 829 and 857. In both cases the first suspicious circumstance is the late appearance of the documents. The Donation cannot be traced back of the time of Pepin, a point more than four hundred years after Constantine. The Isidorean Collection is first mentioned in a synod of 857, many centuries after the suspicious papal letters were alleged to have been written. Fm'thermore, the ninth centiu'y was a time when the ecclesiastical tendencies there contained began to be put into effect and were furthered by the appearance of these ancient citations. Both documents contributed to the power of the papacy. The Donation, however, is betrayed by the anachi^onisms in words. Officials and usages are quoted which are otherwise known to have originated much later than Constantine. Similar discrepancies appear in the Decretals, but these were overlooked in the uncritical middle ages. Since the Renaissance modern scholarship has given them up. The chm-ch itself no longer maintains the vaUdity of these documents, but bases its claims for supremacy on other grounds.^ * The Donation of Constantine. See Dollinger, Papstfabeln des Mittelalters, 1863. Fables respecting the Popes. Trans. by A. Plummer, edited by H. Smith. New York, 1872. The Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals. Text in Migne, Patrologia, EXTERNAL CRITICISM 33 In any document decided partisan bias, particu- Partisan Bias larly when this does not fit into the sources in ques- tion, is a ground for suspicion, yet in the middle ages members of the learned classes, who were at that time exclusively ecclesiastics, did not hesitate to fabricate deeds, charters, grants, and other docu- ments which confirmed them in rights of property or other privileges. The minutes of councils and diets were sometimes made to conform to the wishes of the persons benefited, or to increase the fame of an ecclesiastical foundation. Even the biographies of saints were subject to much invention and altera- tion. This was due partly to the natural exaggera- tion which follows the traditions of great and pious men, and partly to the business methods of unscrupu- lous clergy. The virtues of the patron saint of a church were frequently writ large, and if his relics were present their powers of miracle-working were usually most extraordinary^ The transportation of the saint's remains across country, the " translatio '' as it was called, was accompanied by marvelous manifestations of healing power and subversions of the usual laws of nature. Consequently, the whole body of the ''Acta Sanctorum" has fallen into dis- credit notwithstanding the grains of truth which are to be gleaned from these sources. The unfortunate desire to magnify the reputation of a sanctuary, to increase the number of pilgrims and consequently Vol. CXXX. See also McClintock and Strong. Encyclopedia, sub voce Decretals. A. Giry. Manuel de Diplomatique, 871, seq. Toussaint et Tassin. Nouveau Traits de Diplomatique, Vol. VI. 3 34 HISTORICAL RESEARCH the revenues of the place, tlirew a vast amount of spuiious material in the way of the later historian. Hence, it is safe to say that when unusual, miracu- lous, or otherwise incredible means of discovery and transmission are alleged for a manuscript or docu- ment or relic, in order to explain the late appearance of it, there is ground for suspicious inquiry. In modern times the forging of letters is confined chiefly to the classes who are willing to risk criminal prosecu- tion in order to draw money from others, or is carried on by literary schemers who profit by the gullibihty of autograph collectors.^ Epigrams. If proverbs, epigrams, or brilHant sayings were an important part of historical material one might spend a long time in enumerating the inventions and y distortions of words which have been put in the mouths of great men. A critical juncture in a hero's life seems bound to produce a witticism or a philosophical epigram^ The unities of time and place call for a brilliant thought and the demand is likely to be supplied. Men have said appropriate things at the right time, but so many have been invented for them that all have to be scrutinized. The inventions might be harmless if they were not so often put forward as explanations of character. As if in a flash of hghtning the man with his inmost ambitions is revealed in a telling phrase, but many ^ Within recent years wholesale forgeries of letters attri- buted to Robert Burns have been exposed in Scotland. The forger was a careful student of Burns and his times, but could not escape from mistakes which led to his detection. It has been said that if Burns wrote all the letters ascribed to him he must have had a pen in his hand every minute of the thirty- seven years of his life. EXTERNAL CRITICISM 35 of these fine sayings belong to the class of after- thoughts, or what the French have called ^^ Uesjp rjt d/escali^r/'^ These are the things which one might have said, but only thought of while on the way down stairs after the affair was over. Many an inspired epigram has come to mind too late, and so in liistory many afterthoughts have been added to the real events. Consequently considerable caution is in order before accepting these sa3dngs, however characteristic they appear to be, even when they have passed for truth for a long time. Ancient historians were accustomed to insert at Invented mtervals in their chapters long speeches ascribed to ^P^^^^^^- their statesmen and other acting characters. On the eve of battle the general was represented as standing before the army and addressing the ranks, or upon an important occasion in the city the states- man moved the populace with a more or less extended harangue, ostensibly reported in the words of the speaker. Machiavelli in writing of the ancients follows their example, but the impossibihty of the preservation of such stenographic reports is so apparent that no one has taken them seriously as such. Possibly the authors would have disclaimed any intention of giving a verbatim report, yet the question arises as to what shall be done with these portions of the narrative. Notwithstanding the apocryphal character of the words, the speeches have ^ The Germans translate this expression into " Treppen- witze," and an interesting collection of afterthoughts in history- is found in Hertzlet, Treppenwitze der Weltgeschichte. The author is unnecessarily iconoclastic but the cases cited are valuable for study. 36 HISTORICAL RESEARCH value as giving the opinions and comments of the writer. AVhere the modern historian, particularly of the eighteenth century, would have devoted a paragraph to moralizing, the ancient writer gave a view of the situation in the speech of a general. Where Macaulay describes the grave questions confronting AVilliam III as he was about to come to England to claim the throne, an ancient historian might have given space to a mono- logue by William himself or by one of his min- isters. A speech of this character, when not otherwdse authenticated, may be looked upon as a hterary device, rather than a malicious fraud. Its value as soiu'ce material is naught, but there remains a certain interest in observing what the early writer thought might have been said, or what the combi- nation of circumstances required. Fabricated The list of written soiu'ces subject to falsification Genealogies, j^ ^y ^^^ means exhausted in this brief review. Bi- ography has offered a tempting field for invention, and genealogy, which is in fact a condensed form of biography and family history, has led many a writer '- into the realm of fantasy and fraud. Primitive kings and potentates may be excused for thinking that their race descended from the gods, but the cleske to maintain a long line of ancestry has not yet disappeared from the world. A matter of pardonable pride has led to the perpetuation of innumerable frauds. In the feudal period the posses- / sion of property and honors depended largely on / descent, hence the temptation to fabricate was enormous. Under the old regime in France exemp- EXTERNAL CRITICISM 37 tion from taxation was a perquisite of nobility, and any number of patents were obtained by collusion and fraudulent representation of long descent. In modern days the genealogical tree is cultivated chiefly as an aid to social prestige, and many a family Hne is assumed without due respect to the facts. Indeed, tliroughout history there has been a tendency to magnify the importance of the ancestor and to claim him with confidence. There are great numbers of families with well established descent Weak Points, through long periods of time, but in many cases of undoubted validity there are at certain periods visible weaknesses in the connecting links. The person who has followed his family back to a point where the connection is in doubt is under great temptation to bridge over a difficulty by assuming a relationship because of a similarity of name or because the ascent appears to lead to noteworthy people. The weakness of many American genealo- gies lies at the point where they cross the Atlantic. The compiler with a certain degree of conscientious- ness will say that " James Roe was said to have been a son of Richard Roe, at one time sheriff of Notting- ham,^' and will then proceed to mount by another, perhaps authentic, genealogical ladder to the thirteenth century, or to William the Conqueror. Families and even professional genealogists have been too easily satisfied with connections which lack exact proof. The adoption of a family tree or the assumption of a coat of arms is no longer a serious matter to the historian in America from the docu- mentary point of view. Except as a social phe- 38 HISTORICAL RESEARCH nomenon of more or less amusing interest the subject does not afford much material. Occasionally it is important to know the time, place and origin of a conspicuous personality, and then the tracing of the genuine family connection will be in order. Interpolation. The foregoing pages have considered chiefly the forgery of whole documents or of other historical materials, but, as a matter of fact, one of the chief sources of trouble lies in the partial falsification of otherwise good papers by the insertion of words, plirases, or paragraphs. Sometimes words are added innocently by way of comment and may be judged simply on their value as ex|)lanations. As a working rule one may well adopt the definition of Bernheim that interpolation is the interjection of new matter for the piu'pose of deception,^ which makes the act a minor form of forgery to be viewed in the same moral light and under the same canons of criticism. In an original manuscript the presence of a dif- ferent hand is natiu'ally a highly suspicious circum- stance. Modern coiu-ts of law accept with difficulty additions made even by the same hand; much more cautiously will the investigator consider words written in different ink, or signs of erasure, or evi- dent attempts at imitation. At times the imitation will be so acciu^ate as to require very careful compari- son with the remainder of the context before the interpolation will be detected. The matter is rendered still more difficult by the fact that when a manuscript was copied the interpolations were often innocently incorporated in the text. The addition ^ Bernheim, Lehrbuch der historischen Methode, p. 373 (1908). EXTERNAL CRITICISM :\\) is thus apparently obliterated, but suspicion then arises from some internal e\ddence of language, or some possible distortion of sense. The order of procedure is to compare all available texts to see if they also contain the suspected clauses and to follow back to where the change begins. This rule applies sometimes to printed works where later editions vary among themselves and from the original manuscript. The language of the suspected portion should be compared with the remaining text to determine whether the grammatical connec- tion is natiu-al or not. The interpolator will at times run risks in order to give a sentence a different meaning and evidences of distortion are frequently encountered. XThe contents of all parts should also be in harmony. If a clause or paragraph conflicts with other state- ments, or is abruptly thrown into the narrative with- out reasonable connection, or if it reveals a special aim or tendency foreign to the text, there is reason to suspect an interpolation. The degree of guilt to be ascribed to the interpolator is a matter which may be difficult to decide. The chronicles and documents are replete with additions of which some were made with the clear intent to deceive. Others were incor- porated in the texts because they agreed with later events or doctrines, and still others, like the anec- dotes and the myths, because at a later day they were believed to be characteristic, or perhaps true. The external criticism of products of art has to do Forgeries in with the genuineness of the picture or statue itself, ^*- rather than with the truth of the view painted or Relics. 40 HISTORICAL RESEARCH chiselled. It belongs to archaeology to decide whether the rehef is truly Ass3a*ian; and whether the picture really emanates from Gainsborough in the eighteenth century is a matter for experts to decide. In neither case can general directions be prescribed, since the characteristics of each age are peculiar. The histor- ian may find it necessary to determine the quality of these sources for himself, and if so there is but one general rule to prescribe: he must make himself thoroughly acquainted with the artistic instincts of ^ the period, or with the peculiarities of the artists, before pronoimcing judgment. Forgeries of The products of man's hand have been imitated for pmposes of deception in innumerable cases. Every branch of arcliaeology has its peculiar trouble, for human curiosity is so insatiable that the market for antiquities increases rather than grows less, and the temptation to satisfy the public with fabricated relics is difficult to withstand. Statues, vases, coins, medallions, inscriptions, weapons, and all forms of household implements have been put forward as originals. Even human bones have been falsely certified and the grave is subjected to forgery. The remains of saints were in greater demand than the middle ages could supply and the faithful were some- times deceived with the arms or legs of less holy men or of animals. The accounts of such attempts at deception would fill volumes, furnishing a mourn- ful commentary on human character in all historic periods. Erasmus was not the first nor the last to complain of superabundant holy spears and pieces of the cross. The modern traveller in the lands of EXTERNAL CRITICISM 41 the ancients, whether it be Italy, Greece, Egypt, or Babylonia, is beset with offers of antiquities which have every appearance of genuineness, so clever ai*e the arts of imitation. The object is always pecu- niary, for the fabricators have no particular desire to be known as antiquarians. Consequently it is un- safe to purchase without extensive knowledge, for the Roman coins can easily be molded and cast, while the terra-cotta gods may turn to red clay with the touch of water. Each branch of archaeology has its own troubles, and no rules for detection will apply to all. As in the case of the bank teller who is on the lookout for counterfeits, the best preparation is the constant study of genuine specimens. Then the senses will be keen to note any variations from the regular product. In the field of anthropology some very suggestive Prehistoric principles are presented by one of the leading mem- ^^^^^s- bers of the United States Bm^eau of Ethnology. These are intended for the guidance of the student of prehistoric man, his implements and method of hfe, and are put in the form of presumptions, or hypothe- ses for further proof. When an object is found or presented for consideration the first step is to test its genuineness. This is to prevent error as well as to detect fraud, and the questions which must be an- swered have to do chiefly with the situation in which it was found and the other objects with which it was associated. First, it is a fair presumption that things found on the surface of the earth and on the bottom of waters are modern. Second, that any object found in a rock shelter 42 HISTORICAL RESEARCH above a stalactite floor is modern. Caves and rock shelters are but tilings of an hoiu* in geologic time. Thii'd, that any stone object of doubtful origin is natural. AVear^ rounding, and polishing are all possible by natural causes. Every form of cleavage is found natm'ally. Fom'th, that any unusual object found within or apparently within an unconsolidated deposit is an adventitious inclusion. Fifth, that an isolated case of association is adventitious. Many examples of the same phe- nomenon are necessary to prove that traces of man are found in a given geologic formation. Sixth, that an incongruous association is acciden- tal. A neolitliic implement found with extinct fauna is presumably exceptional. These postulates are not final and may be out- weighed by collateral evidence, but they should be very carefully considered.^ An obvious deduction is that the student himself when finding objects in situ should take precautions against his own errors by noting with exhaustive care the surroundings and associations of the relic. As we proceed it will be seen that these data are also of YitSil importance in the interpretation of the historical truth to be derived from this class of materials.^ ^ W. J. McGee. Some Principles of Evidence relating to the Antiquity of Man. American Antiquarian, XIII, 69-78. 2 On the fabrication of antiquities, see Paul Endel, Le Truquage: les contrefaQons devoil^es. Paris, 1884. Robert Munro. Archaeology and False Antiquities. Lon- don, 1895. For a modern instance in American antiquities, see N. Y. Nation, June 16, 1910. Letter from C. G. Kelsey. EXTERNAL CRITICISM 43 The testing of certain portions of historical material requires the aid of several liighly specialized branches of learning. Palaeography and diplomatics with the closely related subjects clironology and sigillography are the cliief auxiliary sciences upon which external criticism must depend. It may not be necessary for every investigator to be an expert, but he should be acquainted with the elementary processes by which historical data are clarified and established. The principles of these sciences follow here in brief outline, not as a substitute for a course of study, but for the purpose of showdng the nature of the reason- ing by which their conclusions are attained. CHAPTER IV PALEOGRAPHY For the investigation of history previous to the fifteenth centuiy a knowledge of the forms of writing employed during that part of the Cliristian era is absolutely essential. After the invention of printing palaeography is of diminishing importance, yet commands attention for several centiuies more in the field of documents and official records. The period of the Renaissance was a witness of two phenomena of gTeat intellectual interest. First, the written alphabets of Western Europe finally attained the general forms wliich now exist, and, second, litera- ture past and present was placed in the keeping of movable type, a still more inflexible medium of communication. Both in the printed and the writ- ten alphabet the changes which have since occiu'red affected non-essential features. Mediaeval Pateography consec[uently is for the most part a Writing. study of mediaeval forms of writing. Ancient history may have been recorded and documented by con- temporaries, but their works have come down to us with slight exception in the handwriting of the Chiistian centimes. Ancient inscriptions come within the domain of archaeology because of the medium through which they are transmitted. Likewise the papyi'us manuscripts of ancient Egypt and the terra- 44 PALAEOGRAPHY 45 cotta tablets of Babylon are so peculiar in their character that each has been constituted a separate branch of knowledge. Tliis has happened because of the intense specialization of archaeological pur- suits, not because the subjects are um^elated, for in the comparative study of alphabetical forms the interesting fact has been discovered that our vocal symbols are descended from Egyptian hieroglyphs; that the Greeks obtained from the Phoenicians their letters as well as theii^ weights and measures; and that, in short, the alphabets of the nations of the Mediterranean basin were all derived from a common stock of signs. The profound significance of this remote relationsliip for the interpretation of early history can be seen at a glance. Furthermore, in the study of the psychological history of vocal signs the primitive beginnings must be taken into account, yet the practical science of palaeography resolves itself into a study of Greek and Latin writing, and for Western Europe it is still fm^ther confined to the Latin and its derivative languages. Since Latin was so completely the language of learning and diplo- macy the Teutonic and English handwriting was also visibly affected by the Roman alphabet. It might be debated whether language itself were more fundamental than the writing which expressed it, for the words must be deciphered before the meaning can be discussed, but this essential impor- tance of the subject does not necessarily imply that every student of early modern history should become a palaeographer. In the division of historical labor it is given to some to establish and print the text and Materials. 46 HISTORICAL RESEARCH to others to combine and interpret, but it is impor- tant that all should understand the process by which the materials have been purged and set in order. In the last resort in difficult cases the investigator may be obhged to depend on the opinions of the experts, but he should be able to follow with understanding the argumentation by which the specialist reaches his conclusions. Writing To the historical student pateography is an auxiliary branch of knowledge for two very practical reasons. First, it assists in the primary tests of materials for proof of genuineness. On that account it is necessary to know the characteristics of writing in the various periods of its development and the peculiarities of any given time. Included in this field of study is the classification of the materials upon which wtI tings were made. For example, papyrus was used for documents well into the Merovingian period, hence a deed written on that material and alleged to be of that period will have presumption in its favor. An undated papyrus of- fered as a charter of the tenth century would at once be suspected as a forgery. The beginning of the use of paper in Western Europe has been diligently studied, being known to the Arabs in the eighth century and coming into considerable use among Christians in the eleventh. Consequently a paper document assuming to come from the fifth century would have no chance of acceptance, and its true origin would be sought in the water-marks and texture of the material. Parchment does not in itself afford a clue to dates, for its use was common PALAEOGRAPHY 47 in antiquity as well as in the middle ages, and specimens have survived from various early points in the Christian era. In fact, materials give only presumptive indication of a large period, for usages overlapped one another with gradual transitions, and the aid of handwriting and language is likely to be required to produce conviction. The handwriting itself as a means of identifica- Palaeography tion owes its usefulness to the vast amount of study ^^ ^^ Auxih- , , . „ , T- -. ary Science. devoted to it lor the past century and more. Not only the interests of philology and literature have drawn attention to chirography, but the modern study of diplomatics has also organized and classified the materials for purposes of its own. Consequently the attempt has been made to fix as nearly as possible the chronological limits within which the various stages of writing prevailed. Let it be said at once that styles of writing like styles of material do not fix the day of the month, or even the year, but they do indicate with a measiu^e of safety the large period within which a manuscript belongs. Within the larger divisions of style the peculiarities of individual writers have in many cases been identified and these have served to prove and explain unmarked manu- scripts, particularly documents. Books were usu- ally written in a studied hand wliich offered less oppor- tunities for personal identification of the writer, but on the other hand the copyist very often appended his name and year in a colophon at the end of the work. Writing, therefore, assists materially as corroborative proof of the age and authenticity of historical materials, purely through external appear- 48 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ance. Scholars have gone so far as to identify the time and wiiter by pecuharities in single letters, but the variety of practice on the part of the same writer at different times and at different stages in his own career do not generally warrant conclusions so exact. Fashions also overlap and change per- manently only by slow degrees. Yet, with all these reservations, it is perfectly apparent that chirography was subject to a development which indicates from time to time the peculiarities of periods and peoples. Evolution of The more important reason for tracing the growth ntmg. ^£ writing lies in the comprehension of the script itself. The letters used at the beginning of the Christian era were slowly transformed into the alpha- bet of today. Sometimes fashion added a detail which later might be discarded, and, again, to the hasty glance a letter came out of a period quite different from the pattern with which it entered. Close study reveals, however, a basic form upon which these changes rest, and it is impossible to understand how this came to pass without knowledge of the preceding structure. It is of course quite possible to learn by rote the hand of a given period, but such a dilettante acquaintance gives no assurance of security. On the other hand the comparative study of earlier forms is not only more scientific in method, but actually facilitates the reading of the later script, for one can see the fundamental Hues of a letter already known. In the handwriting of our friends the omissions and peculiarities often leave much to be guessed, but we make out the word, not only by the context, but because the proper forms of PALEOGRAPHY 49 letters of the alphabet are imbedded in our conscious- ness. So it is with the original forms in mediaeval penmanship when studied in historical order. It is quite impossible to give in short space a Roman Alpha- treatise on Latin palaeography, nor is it called for in ^^^^' this connection, yet a brief outline of the develop- ment of writing may serve to emphasize the impor- tance of that auxiliary to history. The foundation of Roman writing was the alphabet of capitals used in monumental inscriptions, which for obvious reasons was composed chiefly of straight lines with angular connections. Letters of this kind were easier to grave with the chisel than curves. The size of the letters was guided by two parallel lines within which in a general way all of the symbols were conj&ned and inscriptions maintained a regular and somewhat finished appearance. At the same time the needs of communication developed a less careful form of letters which were quickly made with a stylus on wax tablets, or with a pen upon papyrus or parchment. The letters of this Roman cm'sive are still based on capitals, but the rapidity of widting develops curves and enlargements which extend beyond the two line limits of the standard. Even in the more studied literary hand there came de- veloped pass usages which were due to the reed or the pen. Not only the habit of making some letters longer than others arose, but while still remaining capitals the letters took on rounded corners and changed dimensions which were easier to write. The form was called ^'unciaP' and is found in extant manuscripts Uncial. as early as the fourth century. It took precedence 4 50 HISTORICAL RESEARCH of others in the fifth and continued in common us into the eighth century^ but nevertheless remained a more or less formal hand with which writers in th coiu'se of centuries became impatient. Consequentl; the ciu'siVe habit took hold of the uncial and ; period ensued in which a mixture of what approache our "upper and lower case'' type developed, and i called by the pateographers the ^4ialf- uncial." Minuscule. The book hand and the correspondence hanc growing side by side finally developed the script ou of which there grew fm'ther the national hands o Western Europe. This is the so-called ^'minuscule' which eventually became the medium of literature both for informal and artistic purposes. The basic scheme is a limit of four parallel lines in- stead of two, • ii i\fp ■■» . Naturally when books wen made by hand the letters followed these lines witl: precision only in the finest specimens, but the founda- tion idea is there, and once knowing of its pres- ence it is easier to decipher the rough attempts tc follow it. Although we have here together the elements oi modern alphabetic forms their history is not sc simple. Each nationality presented variations witli pecuHarities differing from the others. Italy, Spain, the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, each developed customs which need to be studied. At one time the Carolingian script became so corrupt that it was forbidden by law. The very difficulties offer certain compensations, for the language oi literatm-e was for the most part Latin during the middle ages, and the general basic forms of letters PALAEOGRAPHY 51 were distinguishable in all, and at the same time peculiarities fiu*nish the material for the identifica- tion of manuscripts. Complete uniformity would have made the test of materials even more laborious. As it is, the reign of Charlemagne gave an impetus to writing which perpetuated the use of the minuscule as the principal alphabet for three centmes with comparatively httle change. Variations in script are noted at the end of centuries rather than decades, consequently the identification of unmarked manu- scripts meets with increased difficulty and the sole testimony of palaeography is not always fully convincing. Yet there is enough individuality in the various periods to give the expert clues for determination. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century Gothic, extends a period in which there developed a hand since known as Gothic. For book writing it is a breaking-down of the previous minuscule through haste and the mingling of cursive forms, with a con- stantly increasing use of abbreviations and combi- nations of letters. The writing of charters indicates the same deterioration in care, particularly in the fifteenth century. The abbreviations render the texts more than ever difficult to interpret and writ- ing takes on something of the character of a cipher code. During this period, however, the national hands enter upon distinct lines of development. From the Gothic cursive descends directly the Ger- man script of today, and from the Gothic minuscule is derived the ordinary German type. At the time of the revival of learning there was also a return to 52 HISTORICAL RESEARCH the earlier and more beautiful forms of book letters and upon the invention of printing in the middle oi the fifteenth century these revived artistic idea^ gave the examples to the fii'st makers of movable type. Aiji)reviations. It Avas stated above that abbreviations of words increased at a certain period, but abbreviations are found in all periods of Latin WTiting. Even the capital writing on the monuments contained occa- sional condensations J and the practice became com- mon so early that the Romans themselves had little hand-books for reference. A collection of abbrevia- tions ^^'as prepared for the Emperor Charlemagne, and ever since that time such aids have been neces- -u> voo (p^o) primo xni V^^ (P°) propositio u nem c. nem xv p. P9 (p9oa) poste- r ^ ^ riora XV m. V (p^°^) pr obatione x v f . p9^^an administrative and a judicial body, hence its records contain matters pertaining to both functions. The true nature of the document must be contin- ually borne in mind. The earlier records of the American colonies often contain in the same book JUDICIAL DOCUMENTS 189 curious mixtures of governmental functions, because the town meetings passed upon all public questions from the admission of citizens to the probate of their wills/ Whatever may be the connection in wliich the judicial act has been recorded, it should be separated from its surroundings for interpreta- tion. The possible inferences to be drawn from it have been indicated here only in part. ^ For examples, see Early Records of the Town of Providence. V^' CHAPTER XVII ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS Administrative documents form a class so vast in extent and so varied in character that a complete description here is out of the question. As time goes on and governments become more complex the number and variety increase. Governmental fiyxctions enlarge and submit to change, yet one characteristic of the records remains constant. They show how the positive force of the statejis exerted. How extensive these are in theory at a given time is to be found in the constitutions and organic laws, but the actual practice is found in the administrative records of nation, district, town, or parish. We find here, fu\st, the evidences of change from one period to another. The differences in the scope of government and variations in the care- Government fulness of administration are indicated by a com- parison of the documents as a whole during one epoch and another. We find that modern govern- ments are doing more things than were the medi- aeval or ancient, because commerce, education, and society in general are all more complicated, and more problems arise which states can solve better than individuals. But it would be hazardous to assert that mediaeval government was less intensive in all respects, for one finds on examination that 190 in Action. ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS 191 the paternal care of the state was in some matters more pervasive than now. The regulations of prices; the sizes and weights of goods; the pattern of dress, and many other matters were regulated with an amount of detail which would -now be called oppressive. The evidence for this is found in the ordinances of the period, reinforced by the proclamations, orders, and reports evolved in the execution of the laws. Generalizations upon the laws and conditions of a given time ought not to be made without due consideration of actual admin- istration, both executive and judicial. Among other things it is not necessary to inquire which class of official documents is the more impor- tant, for all have their place, and the importance will depend upon the line of research at the moment in hand. In modern times the larger affairs of state will be found in the records of cabinets and councils; the regular routine of administration will be recorded in the journals and reports of the various depart- ments. From these a few examples of various periods will suggest the kinds of information to be derived from administrative documents. At first thought one would hardly believe that a Notitia Digni- mere list of offices would be of much account to *^^^^- future inquirers, but, in fact, we are greatly indebted to some one under the Roman empire for a cata- logue of the provinces, theu^ subdivisions, and the designations of the governing officers. This so- called '^Notitia Dignitatum^' confirms other infor- mation about Roman provincial administration and presents a visual impression of the extent of 192 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Domesday Book. Pipe Rolls. the empire and the minute ramifications of its government. It provides a key to the boundaries of various otherwise indefinite territories, and while it does not answer all the puzzles suggested in its text, there is light afforded on certain obscure movements in imperial history. Another famihar example is the tax-collectors' manual and register of feudal obligations which William the Conqueror imposed upon his English subjects. The Domesday Book is in the first place a statistical sm^vey of England from which we may infer the extent of its cultivation and form an esti- mate of its population. We catch some of the municipalities in their primitive condition; we find some counties well advanced and others too barren to be Hsted; the names of the people show the dis- tribution of the various races and the extent to which the Norman invaders had taken possession of the soil; the terms used to describe the divisions of land in different parts of the kingdom open up dialects to the philologist and clues for institutions to the historian. A Domesday Book, however, was required only at long intervals in the middle ages, but there are other documents which reveal financial and eco- nomic conditions from year to year in England. The Pipe Rolls, for example, give the semiannual returns of the sheriffs to the royal treasury, and are complete from the second year of Henry II onward. A^Tiat might seem to be merely a collection of problems in addition and subtraction is a most valuable body of information concerning methods ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS 193 of taxation, the administration of justice, the cost of pubhc business, the forests, the sale of pubhc offices, and a host of other matters which a clii-onicler might not think it worth while to mention. There were from time to time so-called "Visita- Visitations, tions" of the counties. These were semi-official examinations of the titles of nobility and the feudal obligations, and incidentally furnish other items of information. Now and then there was a review of the property of the church like the celebrated ^' Valor Ecclesiasticus^' in the time of Henry VIII. This was carried out under a royal writ by com- missioners acting for the administrative power, and the chief purpose was to determine the taxes payable from these properties and dignitaries. The result is a conspectus of the English people on their religious side, and much more. The extent of the land owned by the church; the manner in which its income was derived; various forms of charity; the topography of the counties; the extent to which the population was provided with chmxhes; the price of land; the value of various personal services; and many other kinds of information are found in a document not primarily intended for those purposes. As an example of documents in common use in A Sheriff's the administration of government take the sheriff's ^^^*' writ as issued to the English counties during the .«=, later middle ages. Writs are instructions to the sheriff to take measures for collecting the taxes, or to summon the militia, or to see that delegates to parliament are chosen, and numerous other matters. There was in the time of Henry III, for example, * 13 194 HISTORICAL RESEARCH no statute defining the exact method of assessment and collection of the fiifteenths or thirteenths, hence our source of information hes in the writs to the sheriffs, who in 1232 were told to have the assess- ment made by four elected men and the reeve in each township. This method differs from the plan used in 1225, and also from the method applied afterward in 1237. We can see that the details of tax collecting had been left to royal authority, and that various expecUents were used, even when the form of the tax was the same. Fiu-thermore, the his- tory of the change must be sought in a series of these documents, just as the beginnings of the English parliament are to be found in the writs which tenta- tively direct that men from the counties be selected to advise the king as to how the taxes may be raised most effectively. The king himself had no statute to guide him in the method; simply the precedents of earlier wTits used for similar purposes were applied to representation in an improved parlia- ment. The writs which give us this information are not simply copies kept in a book of forms for the use of secretaries, but are actual documents sent to the sheriff of York, or the sheriff of Kent, and many others.^ Parliamentary Inferences to be drawn from these simple instru- Writs ments are numerous and many of them obvious. The extent of royal power is tested both by the expressions contained in the writ and by the variety of objects for which they are issued. The relations of classes are \dsuaUzed when one observes that lords ' Stubbs, Select Charters, 355, 360, 305, 366, 375, etc. ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS 195 and ecclesiastical dignitaries are invited by personal summons to parliament, while the ordinary members of the commons are invited in groups through an order to the sheriffs to hold an election. The existing relations between the monarch and the feudal baj'onage may be seen in the writs for the assembling of the army, and for the collection of the scutage tax wliich took the place of personal service. Similar kinds of information may be gathered from orders issued to royal officials other than sheriffs. The fact that the writ is an adminis- trative act is the key to its interpretation, and the most effective way to get the historical value is to approach it first as if it were the only document of its kind in existence. What inferences would be drawn from it if a writ, or a series of them had been recently discovered in an unexplored repository? Assuming that attitude, one may afterward look about for further information and the value of the instrument will then be better appreciated. Enough has been said about municipal documents Municipal to indicate the relation of the administrative instru- ^^^®^^- ments to the other portions of city records. In modern times the different classes have been fairly separated, but in earlier history the mixture of functions bestowed upon the same body of magis- trates is reflected in the records. This in itself is testimony of the highest value, for in the absence of written constitutions, or detailed organic law, it is positive proof of the nature of municipal power, and even when constitutions or charters are present we are enabled to see the results. The charters --■WTiiJ.-' 196 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Financial counts. Parish Records. which are found so abundantly in EngHsh history are the fundamental laws under which the munici- palities are supposed to operate, but we are much better assiu*ed, not only of the interpretation of the charter, but even of the fact that it is operating and not obsolete, when we see the current records and the instruments with which business was conducted. Ac- The financial accounts of governing bodies, whether national, municipal or parochial, are important wdtnesses to the actual activities of the group in question. In modern times these are usually preceded by laws or ordinances which pre- scribe the objects and amounts which may be spent. In such cases there is more than one way of learning the extent and duration of powers. In earlier periods, however, the list of receipts and expendi- tures is often the only key to the actual local life. The productive property of the town corporations may be found perhaps in the receipts, and incidentally the feudal powers and privileges owned or enjoyed outside the walls. The extent of municipal trading in the piu*chase and storage of grain will appear in some cases, while betw^f-n the lines one may read the consequences of these expenditures and in a measure reconstruct the civic life of the locaUty. Likewise in the records of that smaller unit, the parish, we may find evidence in the churchwardens' accounts, not elsewhere obtainable and more certain than it might have been in the hands of a conscious chronicler. The earlier parish records are simply of this financial character. The registers of births, marriages, and deaths begin in England ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS 197 under Henry VIII, through an order of Thomas Cromwell in 1538, but not many of that date have survived. These are the gold mines of the geneal- ogists, but the general historian may go back further for churchwardens' accounts and may get traces, for example, of the extent of church building before and after the Reformation. One can see many indications of the manner in which local life centered about the churches and parish houses. It may be found that the local powers of government are rather feeble; that in the time of Elizabeth these had been mostly absorbed by the justice of the peace, and supervised to the last degree by the Privy Council.^ Because of the paucity of visible local activity one may be tempted to despise the parish record, but if the examination shows by elimination where the powers of local regulation have actually gone, it has established a fact of national importance in consti- tutional history. Administrative documents are obviously relics of Inferential their time and contribute to history by indirect Testimony, information. We might look askance at a Pipe- Roll account and wonder what guarantee there would be that the sheriff told the truth. He is interested in collecting all possible fees in order to obtain his share. The courts of justice at the time were openly used as a source of royal income. The sheriff may have added a bit here and there to his expense account when royalty visited the county, or the returns from certain sources may have been ^ See Ware, Elizabethan Parish, Johns Hopkins Studies, XXVI. 198 HISTORICAL RESEARCH slightly altered in his favor; yet in this case the historical student is less concerned with the balanc- ing of figures than with the kinds of things the sheriff has to do. The accounting of the Exchequer was very thorough, and every sheriff carried home with liim a notched tally stick which must compare exactly with another left in the treasury, so that in estimating the place and value of the Pipe Roll we must consider that there was at least an attempt to have things balance. What is more to the point, the record was not kept for the benefit of historians, but to prevent future trouble with the sheriff. The best part of it is that portion in which the compiler was unconscious of possible liistorical inquiry. The study of remote documents permits a more objective appreciation than is often the case with sources nearer at hand, but the same kind of interpre- tation is due to both. We extract much from a writ of the thirteenth century, but the same kind of information is to be found in the modern document, although we may not need to depend upon it so exclusively. War De- Administration in time of war brings into use a spatches. quantity of documents which need to be regarded more or less in a class by themselves, in the same way that war is an exceptional, not a ruling condition. The dispatches directing the movements of armies are kept secret in order to blind the enemy, and do not become pubhc until the event is over. This material is of the utmost value to the historian, because he finds in it the real causes of success and failure. Here are the exact words of the order, by ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS 199 which it can be judged \Yhether it wa.s possible to execute it; the report on conditions of the forces; and innumerable matters which could have been known to only a few persons in command. From the combination of these things the investigator can account for results which even a general could not at the time foresee. At the same time there are usually documents Proclamations, uttered for the ^iew of the public at the moment, ^_. beginning with the declaration of war itself; the call to arms; the proclamations; official announcements of battles; messages of the sovereign to the legis- lature upon wliich he must depend for support; and vaiious pubhcations designed to affect people at home or the observing nations abroad. All of these fall more or less into the category of strategy. It may be thought best at times to tell the whole truth in order to arouse the people, but the chances seem to be against this plan. In giving the causes for the declaration of war each side may be relied upon to give reasons favorable to itself. Take for example the war of 1812 between England and the United States, and the messages from the two rulers. In the speech from the throne at the opening of parlia- ment, November 8, 1814, the Prince Regent said: '^ My Lords and Gentlemen : ''It is with deep regret that I am obliged to an- nounce the continuance of His Majesty's lamented indisposition. ''It would have given me great satisfaction to have been enabled to communicate to you the termination of the AVar between this country and the United States of America. 200 HISTORICAL RESEARCH '^ Although this War originated in the most unpro- voked Aggression on the part of the Government of The United States and was calculated to promote the designs of the Common Enemy of Europe against the Rights and Independence of all other Nations, I never have ceased to entertain a sincere desire to bring it to a conclusion on just and honourable terms. '^I am still engaged in Negotiations for this purpose; the success of them must, however, depend on my disposition being met with corresponding sentiments on the part of the Enemy,"* etc. The message from the President of the United States to Congress transmitting the treaty of peace and amity between the United States and His Britannic Majesty, 18th February, 1815, says: ''To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States: *'I lay before Congress Copies of the Treaty of Peace and Amity between The United States and His Britannic Majesty, which was signed by the Commis- sioners of both parties at Ghent, on the 24th of Decem- ber, 1814, and the Ratifications of which have been duly exchanged. '' While performing this act, I congratulate you and our Constituents, upon an event which is highly honorable to the Nation, and terminates, with peculiar fehcity, a Campaign signalized by the most brilliant success The late War, although reluctantly declared by Congress, had become a necessary resort, to assert the rights and independence of the Nation. It has been waged with a success which is the natural result of the wisdom of the Legislative Councils, of the Patriotism of the People, of the public spirit of the ^ British and Foreign State Papers, 1814-15, p. 1. ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS 201 Militia, and of the valor of the Military and Naval Forces of the Country. Peace, at all times a blessing, is peculiarly welcome, therefore, at a period when the causes for War have ceased to operate; when the Government has demonstrated the efficiency of its powers and defence; and when the Nation can review its conduct without regret, and without reproach."^ These are the mild types of the one-sided view. Misleading An- The boastful proclamations of a Napoleon form the iiouncements. other extreme in tliis class of documents, in which there are all degrees of half truth and prevarication. In many cases the falsity is so obvious that no one is deceived at this late day, but we are obliged to take account of the document because of its effect at the time. The motive must be considered, not in order to justify or condenm the act, but to deter- mine the consequences. The game of war extends from the field into the papers. The deception of the enemy and the encouragement of friends are both employed. It may seem best not to reveal the extent of a disaster, since it would inevitably dishearten the rest of the army, encourage the enemy to press on, and induce the foreign nations to declare in favor of the other side. In modern times it would be hkely to affect the borrowing capacity of the government and thus hinder the prosecution of the war. In short, since the papers are uttered for immediate effect, the investigator must find out what they accomplish. In attaining an end such documents have greater weight than private utterances, because they are issued by a government. Whatever may be the contents, it is ^ Messages of the Presidents, Vol. I, p. 552. 202 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Political Cam- paigns. Diplomatic Documents. likely to seem to be truth, unless the government has been utterly discredited, or visibly driven from power. However much we may rebel at the idea, the declarations of a firmly seated government go fiu'ther in effect than the complaints of an opposition. Except that the materials have no official char- acter, one might compare a bitter political campaign to a war. There is hkely to be included in it the same exaggerated statement of the devilishness of the opposition, as well as the resort to deceptive tactics, and often outright lying. The investigator does not depend on tliis literature for the narrative history of the period, but examines it for the motives which actually caused the election of the candidate, or decided the choice of policy. Diplomatic papers belong to the domain of administrative documents, since it is through this channel that the laws, treaties, and tacit policy of the state with other nations are executed. It is a kind of state business which is carried on with far less pubhcity than that of other departments. Law-making, tax-gathering, the trials of criminals, and similar functions of government are purposely carried on openly in order to insure justice in their operation. There is in them more or less of a guar- antee of the truth about the procedm-e, although not necessarily for all statements brought forward by the parties involved. In chplomatic affairs, on the other hand, it has been the policy to take the general public into confidence only after the treaty has been wTitten or the arrangements completed. The process by which this point has been reached ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS 203 may never come to the eye of the generation which hved under the treaty, but remain hidden in the archives until historians bring the matter to hght. When it is set free the correspondence may be pub- hshed in part, the government reservating the right to decide which papers it is expedient to give to the pubhc. This procedure justifies itself in many cases, because the open discussion of persons and possibilities might awaken unnecessary antagonisms, yet it frequently happens that only a part of the real result is given. The most notorious examples are the secret articles which were entered into more frequently in former centuries than of late, and which sometimes almost nullified the public docu- ment. The question of the effect of the negotiation may therefore be lost to the investigator who does not find the secret article, or who is not aware of the reservations and understandings which otherwise accompany the document. Diplomacy was so long looked upon as a kind of Diplomacy warfare in which any means might be employed to ^ Decep- \\dn that the papers emanating from that source have a reputation for deception. There is evidence enough to show that prevarication was a common thing at times, and while the historian has no mission to vindicate the hars, the condition of the govern- mental conscience is an interesting matter which can be used in estimating the period. In attempt- ing to get at the truth one should distinguish be- tween the kinds of documents and be sure that he is acquainted with the processes of diplomatic negotiation. 204 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Diplomatic Procedure. Diplomatic Reports. Ordinarily the government operates through ambassadors who are sent to the foreign country, either for a special piu*pose^ or for a period of years. The envoy has two duties, one to make known the wishes of his government and the other to report back how things are going. Placing ourselves back in the eighteenth century, for example, it is safe to say that the judicious ambassador does not com- municate to the foreign government all that he knows, but that his notes will contain only that part which will incline that power to accede to his wishes. Deception may enter at this point when the ambas- sador makes statements about the movements of his government wliich are not so, either to frighten or cajole the opponent into an agreement. In pursuing such a pohcy he may spread false informa- tion among the representatives of other nations at this court, so that their governments may be pre- vented from taking any action that would spoil his plans. In his reports to the home government the envoy will give the details of the negotiation and possibly ask for further instructions. He will tell what he knows about the machinations or the opinions of other ambassadors. It is through this channel that any false information of other governments gets carried to its destination. The ambassador will attempt also to give the state of pubhc opinion on questions hable to affect his country; he will watch the progress of laws through the legislature, and endeavor as far as possible to forewarn his govern- ment of impending evil, or call attention to advan- ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS 205 tages in sight. From the Venetian ambassadors of the sixteenth century there was a constant flow of reports which described in great detail not only the diplomatic affairs but also the public events and the manners and morals of the country to which they were accredited. The presumption in respect to these reports is in favor of the truth so far as the intentions of the author are concerned. There would be no good reason for him to deceive the home government unless one imagine the rare case of a treasonable plot in which an ambassador is involved. That it was possible to bribe an agent to influence his master to follow the wishes of the foreigner was true in certain periods, but the chances are against that view of the mass of diplomatic work. The inquiry should usually attempt to find whether the ambassador was well informed, and how far the personal capacity and opportunities of the wTiter permit him to speak with exactness. The ofl&cial papers which record a diplomatic Order of Busi- transaction are, in brief, the instructions of the home ^^^^' government; any formal papers transmitted directly from government to government; letters formal and informal between the ambassador and the court to which he is accredited; and finally the reports to the home government. The papers of an event like the Congress of Vienna are theoretically of the same character, since the ambassador is sent to a group of powers at once, instead of a single court, and the public results are embodied in the minutes of the congress and in the treaty there signed. In the natui'e of things these papers have various relations 206 HISTORICAL RESEARCH to the truth, as we have seen. Furthermore, to get the complete history of a diplomatic incident it is often necessary to go outside of diplomatic papers. The private correspondence and memoirs of states- men of the time, the records of legislative committees, and other documents of less formal character may be needed to show the true inwardness of the trans- action. These are to be judged according to the class to which they belong. The strictly diplomatic papers require the investigator to keep in mind the double role demanded of departments of foreign affairs and their ambassadors. Without necessarily resorting to deception, they have been called upon to satisfy the demands of their own nation and at the same time allay the suspicions of others. Pitfalls of Dip- In the writing of diplomatic history there has been lomatic His- ^ tendency to exaggerate the importance of small affairs. This is perhaps most conspicuous in the memoirs of those who have participated. Not every interview nor every word of even a great man is necessarily \dtal to the current of an episode. The history may easily degenerate into tittle-tattle, or into a purely pedestrian recital of connected occur- _renc_es, unless the writer has a vigorous coiicepliion of the perspective of his period, or of the principles of law and government involved in the issue. / CHAPTER XVIII PRIVATE DOCUMENTS A VAST mass of material for many reasons inter- esting to the liistorian is to be found in the trans- actions which take place between men in their private capacity. Agreements, accounts, deeds, wills, inventories, and similar documents are relics of the actual life of their time, and bear t estimp jiy to many things whktL their makers were not con- sciously recording. To a certain degree a bitemess agreement is^'a"pilblic document because the makers le'ave the record as a thii^d witness --to prove the nature of theTfansaction, but men do not ordinarily write their dee3s or their wills as contributions to the social history of their epoch. They have a cUstinct practical end in view. They desire to have their property reach a certain destination and to the comments of later investigators they are com- pletely indifferent. The conscious personality of the author is thus eliminated, although it was the word of a Uving being. We are able to treat the paper as a relic like the arrow-head, but as aj;elic more eloquent of human life. The mfereinres~i:^oH5^^awn from business trans- Inferences actions are in large part so obvious that a list of ^^^^ Business their uses need not be attempted. In a research, however, it is well to consider carefully whether the 207 208 HISTORICAL RESEARCH I document has been estimated at its full value. A deed of land on a cuneiform fragment strikes us with peculiar force because of its great antiquity. It is interesting to note the iorms Tequired by these dis- tant people to make a bargain binding, while at the same time we observe the more important fact that in this early period there was a highly developed system of private property which included lands and many other tilings. A letter of credit on a clay tablet is also a revelation of the extent and methods of early commerce. We observe that the Italians of the middle ages were not the originators of this important idea, but that the transactions of this remote period were so far-reacliing that it was not only necessary but possible to avoid the constant carrying of coin to long distances. The trained historical imagination will connect this isolated rehc with the details which are necessarily involved in an exchange of this character. The letter of credit of today performs the same function, but we are not so dependent upon it for information because we have other evidences in abundance. The familiarity of the modern paper may also obscure its real sig- nificance until curiosity is awakened by the ancient relic. Wills. Wills are the transfers of property which take effect after the death of the owner. Their impor- tance in law is very great and accounts for the abun- dance of this class of material. The attitude of society and custom toward this instrument at various times is a matter of decided interest. The highly cultivated Romans made wills freely, while the PRIVATE DOCUMENTS 209 Germans of the same period made none. Early German law and custom gave all childi'en equal rights in the father's goods and a testament was evidently not considered necessary. The evidence for the state of the law is, however, only a part of the matter to be extracted from wills. In modern times the genealogists find in them a harvest of information as to relationsliips. The testator, in order to be perfectly sure that the proper persons receive his goods, identifies them not only by name but by their relationship. He may say in effect: '^ I bequeath to my wife Martha " a To my sons George and Henry "- "To my daughter Mary, wife of John Oldham, of Coventry ^' "To my niece Martha, daughter of my deceased brother James and wife of Henry Ackley, of North- ampton — .'' Descriptions like these abound everywhere, and the material is frequently required to establish rela- tions between people of historical and political importance. Even the names of the executors give information concerning persons sought for in other connections. The property bequeathed indicates the wealth and comfort of households in that period, compared with the same or a later date. This is true of all times, but one is particularly struck with the sim- phcity of the earlier centuries, or of the colonial period in America. The solicitude with which they divided their feather-beds, linen sheets, and warming pans is amusing to this generation, while the meager 14 210 HISTORICAL RESEARCH lists of ancient furniture; dishes, pots, kettles, and- irons, and simple farming implements give one a feeling of pity which om' elders would perhaps have considered wasted sympathy. The inventories of their executors contain the money values of the items and often furnish important clues to the economic situation. Naturally these prices are most useful when taken in connection with other accounts of the same period. Deeds. Deeds of land are made and recorded for the purpose of declaring and proving whenever neces- sary the title to the propert3^ In modern times pubHc record offices are established in order that the title may be readily accessible. In earlier days more depended on the preservation of the deed itself and all great houses had their muniment rooms. Large estates and religious corporations were also accustomed to copy their papers into record books, and many of these cartularies have been preserved. For example, the cartulary of the abbey of Rievaulx in Yorkshire^ contains with the charters of foundation the deeds of property added to it from time to time, and the various privileges granted by kings, lords, and popes from the year n32 down to L5o4. Taken as a whole the cartulary reveals the extent of the possessions of this monastery and indicates whether the property was compactly situated or scattered far and wide over the kingdom. Taken in detail we gain many important points about the names of places; the forms used at the given date; indications of the boundary hnes of ' Surtees Society, Vol. LXXXIII. PRIVATE DOCUMENTS 211 village and hundred; the extent of woods and fields, by which one may find whether localities were cleared or still wild. In addition to gifts of land outright there were grants of privileges, such as pasturage of cattle, sheep, and swine, rights to cut wood or burn charcoal in the forest, to work iron, and other matters which throw light upon the practical use of the laws of property. The terms of measure- ment, bovate, carucate, aeras, perticata, tofts, crofts, etc., point to matters of great economic importance. The mediaeval monastic land books of continental Mediseval Europe are equally interesting. These so-called ^^^^ Records, "traditiones'^ are full of side-Ughts upon law and custom, apart from the actual transactions.^ It is through incidental references that we learn how new lands were taken possession of, when in the gift of a piece of land to a monastery the donor relates how he came to own it. One went with his servants into the waste and made a circuit about the place, marked the boundaries by blazing trees, and took possession by building huts and living three days on the ground. In other cases the rela- tion is not so full, but simply says that "going about he took it.'' The words ''ambitum," "captaverat,'' "circumeundo," and the like are therefore in this connection full of interesting suggestions, partic- ularly when we find that survivals of this method of establishing boundaries came down through England even into colonial America. It was for a * Examples in Lacomblet, Urkundenbuch f iir die Geschichte des Niederrheius. Dronke, Codex diplomaticus Fuldensis, 212 HISTORICAL RESEARCH long time customary in certain places for the inhabi- tants to make annual processions around the borders of the parish^ although the necessity for such forms had passed away. The name in the Latin deeds for a clearing in German-speaking regions was ^^rotum" or ''rodum^' (modern, Rodung), referring to the process of uprooting the wild trees and bushes. The name often clung to the spot long after it became cultivated, so that in the descrip- tive title of a piece of land or of a locahty one may see indications of its origin.^ The dry details of a deed may be made to render precious fruit. AVlien we find a tract of land conveyed from one person to another ''cum servientibus'' we have a more sub- stantial testimony to the presence of serfdom than a copy of the law. In the deed the institution is taken as a matter of course. Rent-RoUs. Rent-rolls, extents, agricultm'al accounts, and similar documents are evidences of the relations between proprietors and their tenants and subordi- nates. A rent-roll was for the landowner or mon- astery what the Domesday Book was to the sov- ereign. It was a statement of the amount of land or privileges leased to the persons named and the dues which were to be rendered therefor. It was an exliibit of the proprietor's possessions and of the customs of the time. It was an attested document in the sense that it Avas an open book in the manorial court to which both owner and tenant referred at the annual settlement for the facts agreed upon. One * The celebrated spot on Lake Lucerne known as Rutli derives its name from a clearing in South Cierman dialect. PRIVATE DOCUMENTS 213 has no ground for supposing that the relations were otherwise than there indicated. The place for caution is in other inferences to be drawn, for care- ful reasoning on the part of the investigator is here required. Private account-books have obtained in modern Private Ac- research a value httle dreamed of by the original count-books, makers. The study of economic history, both from the administrative and the social point of view, has found material here in great abundance. Particular topics hke the development of prices receive light from compaiisons over long periods, while the gen- eral social welfare may be closely estimated from the comparative cost of various commodities and the value of labor. The amount of this material is so great that a volume might be devoted to its con- sideration, if one were to attempt to specify the weight of each particular form. Accounts are to be found on Assyrian tablets, on mediaeval parch- ments, and in colonial ledgers. Throughout the whole series they are extremely valuable, though less so in modern times when records can be found in books and newspapers. At all times they should be used in connection with the current politics and legislation. Business is facihtated by the political situation, or the difficulties are increased by the war in progress or the tax law in force. Legislation or agreement may counteract the effect of war, as happened in various localities during the American Revolution. One might expect to find an increase of prices for a time, but a study of a country cobbler's account-book in the Berkshire hills corroborates 214 HISTORICAL RESEARCH what other information indicates, that local senti- ment, if not law, forbade any change from customary charges. The inquiry should include the contem- porary currency, the value of which as a relic is best discovered in its associations with other sources. CHAPTER XIX THE NEWSPAPER AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY The newspaper has become so familiar a part of our daily existence that we are hkely to approach it with more or less fixed ideas when searching for historical information. Probably the tendency would be to underestimate its value. We are ac- customed to the uncertainties of telegraphic news, and know full well that in the haste to give informa- tion the merest hints or conjectures are put for- ward as facts^ only to be changed or contradicted in the next issue. The partisan character of many editorial pages is so well defined that even the news may be colored by the political bias of the manage- ment. The sensationalism of the ^^ yellow jom'nal'' is an unpleasant phenomenon in modern newspaper history, and the tendency in many cases to triviality, when not to scandal, gives the thoughtful observer an unfavorable view of that whole branch of Utera- ture. Yet; notwithstanding the glaring cases of uiu-eHability^ it is not necessary to transfer the bad character of one journal to another, and the problem becomes simpler when one observes that the news- paper is composed of a variety of materials which are to be estimated according to the-elasses^4x)J^fhich theyJbeloBg^. — ^The- eanseixKis and the unconscious 215 216 HISTORICAL RESEARCH •^ testimony can be distinguished and likewise the gradations from one to the other. Object of the In any judgment of contents the critic must accept Newspaper. ^^le fact that "news^^ is the object for which the journal is primarily supposed to exist, and from which it derives its title. Under modern conditions information is gathered by a multitude of assistants who telegraph at the earhest moment to the paper, or to the news agency, the striking events of their districts. First impressions only can be expected in such haste. Names and details are Uable to dis- tortion, particularly when an event is sudden and unexpected. On the other hand, when an important convention meets, or a legislature is in session, the news gatherers are prepared in advance, and the reports of speeches and resolutions may appear in substantially truthful form. For political con- '. ventions of state or local character the newspaper may fiu^nish the only published record. For legal assemblies the investigator will be hkely to go to official documents, or to reports more deliberately prepared than those in the newspaper, for matters occurring in the last half century. The earlier journals had some advantage in depending on letters rather than the telegraph. Their news was very slow in arriving, but was hkely to be more deliberately prepared, and the responsible writer was frequently named. Press Laws. Another consideration in estimating the fulness of news is to be found in the press laws in force at the time. The rigorous supervision of newspapers under Napoleon I and the censorship in Russia NEWSPAPER AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY 217 have affected not only the expression of poHtical opinion, but the presentation of current events as well. Napoleon reduced the number of papers to a naere dozen which could be easily controlled, and used their columns to spread abroad the news as the government would like to see it. Despotic rulers have frequently forbidden all reference to specified matters, and editors have been driven to most ingenious expedients to convey the information in phrases of double meaning. In fact all the way down to the middle of the nineteenth century there have been on the continent of Europe restrictions of the press in greater or less degree, and it is im- portant for the investigator to take into account the exact limitations at the moment. Under /Complete freedom of the press the responsibility for truth hes more heavily upon the joiu*nal. In some cases the newspaper may be the re- Record of pository of a public document duly authenticated, ^^^^^^ '^^*^- as in the following example from the Boston Gazette and Country Journal of March 12, 1770: "The Inhabitants of the Town of Acton, at their annual Town Meeting on the first Monday of March, 1770, taking into consideration, the distressed circum- stances, that this Province and all North-America are involved in, by reason of the acts of Parliament imposing Duties and Taxes, upon the Inhabitants of North- America, for the sole purpose to raise a Revenue, and when the Royal Ear seems to be stopt against all our humble Prayers' and Petitions, for redress of Grievances, that this Land is involv'd in, and con- sidering the salutary Measures that the Body of Merchants and Traders in this province have come 218 HISTORICAL RESEARCH into, in order for the redress of the many troubles that we are involved in, and to support and maintain our Charter Rights, and Privileges, and to prevent our total Ruin and Destruction: Taking all these things into serious Consideration, came into the following votes. '' VOTED, That we will use our utmost Endeavours to encourage and support the Body of Merchants and Traders, in their salutary Endeavours to retrieve this Province out of its present Distresses, to whom this Town vote their Thanks for the constitutional and spirited Measures pursued by them for the good of this Province. '' VOTED, That from this Time, we will have no commercial, or social connection with those, who at this Time do refuse to contribute to the relief of this abused Country, especially, those that import British Goods, contrary to the Agreement of the Body of Merchants in Boston, or elsewhere, that we will not afford them our Custom, but treat them with the utmost Neglect, and all those who countenance them. '^ VOTED, That we will use our utmost Endeavours, to prevent the ConsumjDtion of all foreign Super- fluities, and that we will use our utmost Endeavours, to promote and encourage our own Manufactures. '' VOTED, That the Town Clerk transmit a Copy of these votes of the Town, to the Committee of Mer- chants of Inspection at Boston. '' A true Copy Attested, ^'Francis Faulkner, "Town Clerk.'' The authorized record of such a town meeting is the book of the town clerk, but in the absence of that, or for the investigation of public opinion at that moment, such an attested copy in a newspaper has the special value of showing the publicity of the [OCX i^,., cd, ..,,, "^-y ' ' ^ '■ ' ('■ ' j'-y {)fu^ I NEWSPAPER AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY 219 ^: V-L. * J ' ^ action. Where the newspaper seems to be the only- source of information on a matter of vital impor- tance we need only to recollect that the jom^nal as a whole is not a guarantor of accm^acy, but that each item of news, whether printed anonymously or not, had an individual behind it whose quahfications for tliis task should be weighed if necessary. The ephemeral unimportance of most of the news need not bUnd us to the fact that a really essential subject requires the same method of proof as a chronicle or a book. In such a case the investigator should get back of the newspaper as near as possible to persons and circumstances from which the news emanated. In estimating the editorial department one Editorials, naturally considers the personal equation. Whether controlled by an individual or by a corporation, there is some guiding hand whose policy can be \ made visible. The subjects of editorial treatment are / many and in large part have to do with the future / rather than with the past. Questions of civic im-V provement and political policy are more often / treated in a manner exhortative and prophetic y rather than historical, yet a demand for a reform is a \ testimony to existing conditions. There is also \ much comment on current events. Here is a place / where the editor can easily give a personal or party tinge to the matters of the day without wilfully prevaricating, yet this tendency is for the most part readily detected and requires only the most obvious methods of inquiry to control. The chief interest of the news and editorial Interpretation sections of a journal lies in the fact that this is the ^^ ^^^s. 220 HISTORICAL RESEARCH form in which the news on a certain date was pre- sented to the pubhc. Whatever may have been the real facts^ a certain portion of the reading world, or perhaps the whole newspaper constituency, received information in the given form. At critical junctures the importance of this is obvious. If a false rumor of invasion fills the inhabitants with panic, or drives them to destroy the government, because of supposed weakness or treason, the means by which this news was diffused and the extent of its circulation are matters for careful estimation. We notice this at once in the French Revolution or in the American Civil War, but the diffusion of news during ordinary times is also full of significance from the social and intellectual point of view. The character of the matter daily or weekly spread be- fore the people, whether it is serious or trivial, is a factor which cannot be overlooked. The sociaJr^nd poHtical opinions inculcated by the newspaper must ^ be estimated in various ways. The organ of some obscure reHgious sect, or""of"some bizarre political theory, ordinarily has a limited circulation, and in consequence a feeble influence. The newspapers of the eighteenth century were costly and for that reason did not reach a large class of people who now read their papers daily. Political The nineteenth centiu-y was conspicuous for great Leadership. political jom'nals which stood by their parties through thick and thin. No turn of events or even unfaithfulness in office could swerve them from their loyalty. It was the period of the great political editor, whose word was accepted as gospel by thou- I NEWSPAPER AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY 221 sands of party liegemen, and whose journal was an influence which must be reckoned with. To an equal extent such a paper may be said to be one of the voices of pubhc sentiment. This personage has now disappeared and the newspaper is a commercial enterprise which depends upon advertisements for its returns. The great daily is sold at about the cost of the paper and is read by an extraordinarily wide- spread constituency. The influence of the modern newspaper is due to the extent and character of its news and to the pervasiveness of editions, rather than to the opinions of its editorial staff. As a moral factor it has to meet the pressure of the counting- room and does not always resist the domination of its advertising interests. Many elements, therefore, enter into the historical Public estimate of public journals. Great caution should ^P^^^^^- be used in drawing conclusions as to the state__of gublic opinion. This is one of the most elusive proBlefflfs'Tn^history, and the newspaper may, or may not, express the sentiments of the great body of people. The jom^nal is but one factor in the estimate. Its conscious efforts to record the im- mediate past are subject to many conditions of personality and environment, both in respect to publishers and readers. The study of these circum- stances is not simply a necessary evil, but yields results of another kind of great intei'est and im- portance in themselves, namely, the social conditions of the people. The greater proportion of the ma- terial derived from the newspapers is of this order. The unconscious evidences of intellectual and social 222 HISTORICAL RESEARCH conditions are the most numerous and the most valuable. Early News- The newspaj^ers of remote times ai^e most striking papers. because of the tilings in them which seem different from the present. The weekly Gazette of London, September 9, 1658, contains the English news of the previous week. The death of Oliver Cromwell is the most important subject. The news from Paris is dated September 5. From Stockholm in- formation has been a month on the way; from Vienna since August 12; from "Hamborougf (Hambm-g) since August 22. For some reason a report from Anasterdam of July 4 is interesting enough to print in September. The transmission of news did not change greatly for a long time after this period. The London Times of October 3, 1798, contains the official account of Lord Nelson's \ictory in the battle of the Nile. This occurred August 1, 1798, and the official news "arrived at the Admiralty yesterday morning at a quarter past eleven o'clock.'' The report was brought by Captain Capel, who was detained one day by quaran- tine at Naples. Slow Commu- The official account of the battle of Copenhagen of April 2, 1801, was made public in a Gazette of April 15 and reprinted by the London Times of the sixteenth. The same paper states also that it had received Paris journals up to the 13th of April on the day before at "3 o'clock in the morning long after oui' paper had gone to press.'' This is com- paratively rapid if the time of pubHcation in Paris was hke that of the Times of November 7, 1805, nication. NEWSPAPER AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY 223 when the '^pubhcation of the news-men was finished this morning at half-past seven/' The paper of that day, however, may have been early, for it con- tained the official account of the battle of Trafalgar of October 21, 1805. In the colonies the foreign news was still slower in arriving. The Boston Evening Post of Monday, January 29, 1770, offered to the public of that city 'Hhe freshest and most important Advices Foreign and Domestick." The news from London is in the form of a letter dated October 20. New York matters are dated January 15. The current events of interest in Boston were the meetings of the citizens in Faneuil Hall January 19-23, to take action on the importation of British goods, particularly tea. The letter of Governor Hutchinson ordering the agitation to cease, and the resolutions of the meeting in reply, are reported one week after their occiu'rence. The Evening Post, consequently, cannot be regarded as exerting an inflammatory influence upon that particular event. Numerous signed letters disclaiming any connection with reported consignments of merchan- dise show how powerful was the public sentiment against importations at that moment. It was desir- able to avoid even the suspicion of handling British wares. The Boston Gazette and Country Joiu'nal of February 4, 1771, says: ^'Last Monday (January 28) Captain Griste arrived at Marblehead from Falmouth, which he left so late as the 25th of De- cember; from the Prints bro't by him, we have among other Articles, the following interesting ments. 224 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Speech of Lord C — m/' This is quoted from a London report of December 6, and meets with such approval that ''It is proposed that Pubhc Prayers in all the religious Assembhes in America, be every Lord's Day devotedly offered up to Heaven, for the Preservation of the inestimable Life of the Earl of Chatham.'' This was a quick voyage for the period, but illustrates again how much the investigator is obliged to reckon with the infrequency and irregu- larity of ships. In periods where no stated schedules of voyages existed these factors might add consider- ably to the length of time between communications. Advertise- Advertisements afford a mine of information re- specting social customs and public affairs. Not only business methods and economic questions are dis- played, but the habits and the moral conceptions of the people are brought into evidence. From the London Gazette of 1658 it is clear that the tea- habit had not yet fastened very firmly upon the English people, for the drug itself needed to be described as follows: " That Excellent, and by all Physitians approved, China Drink, called by the Chineans Toha, by other Nations Toy, alias Tee, is sold at the Sultaness Head a cophee house in Sweetings Rents by the Royal Exchange, London." The advertisements of a newly published book conform to our notions of the period received from other sources: "A Few Sighs from Hell, or the Groans of a Damned Soule," being an exposition of those words in the sixteenth of Luke concerning the Rich Man and the NEWSPAPER AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY 225 Beggar, wherein is discovered the lamentable state of the damned, their cries, their desires in their dis- tresses, with the determination of God upon them. A good warning word to sinners, both old and young, to take into consideration betimes lest they come into the same place of torment. Also a brief discourse touching the profitableness of the Holy Scriptures by that poor servant of Jesus Christ, John Bunyan,'^ In the same number may be found the remedies for the ills of this hfe: "At the Sign of the Boreas Head over against the Naked Boy at the lower end of Bread Street, are to be had the usual Medicines, prepared by the Art of Pyroteckny (According to the Doctrine of Paracelful [Paracelsus] and Helmont) by which is perfectly, safely and speedily cured, all distempers incidental to Human Nature.' ' The amount of advertising in the earlier journals is quite limited. For the eighteenth century one may take an example of business management from the Public Advertiser of London, for Thursday, November 4, 1779. The price of the paper is three- pence. On the margin of the fourth page is an embossed stamp showing that a stamp-duty of one half-penny has been paid. On the last page is a colophon containing office matters to this effect: ''London, printed by H. S. Woodfall (No. 1) the corner of Ivy Lane, Paternoster Row; where Letters to the Author (Post-paid) are received, and Advertise- ments of a moderate length are taken at Three Shillings each. Advertisements are also taken in at Lloyd's Coffee-House in Lombard Street." Advertisements of lotteries are numerous through- out this period. The respectability of such enter- 15 22G HISTORICAL RESEARCH prises is evinced in an item in the paper just quoted: "All the Shares and Chances are stamped at the Bank of England, where the original Tickets are deposited agreeable to Act of Parliament." Stage coaches. Matters relating to transportation and communi- cation may be sought in the advertisements of stage lines and posts. These items are striking when com- pared with modern conditions, and extremely valu- able in reckoning the social solidarity of the territory in question. The distance between Baltimore and Washington is forty miles and is now traversed by railway trains in forty-five minutes at least once an hour. About a century ago the daily limited express stage needed eight hours for the journey and charged ten cents a mile instead of three. The slower stage left at foiu* o'clock in the morning and promised to make connection with the steam boats lea\dng A\^ashington at fom* in the afternoon. The mail stage for Philadelphia left daily at 2 p. m. and received ten dollars for each fare.^ Pre\dously to the Revolution Baltimore and Frederick were connected at least once a week: "The subscriber begs to inform the Public that he rides POST from the town of Baltimore to the town of Frederick (once a week) from whence another Post rides to the town of Winchester, in Virginia. Those who have any commands may depend upon having their business faithfully executed. He sets off from Mr. WILLIAM ADAM'S, at the sign of the Race Horses in Baltimore, every SATURDAY at one o'clock. Absalom Bonham." ^ Baltimore Patriot and Evening Advertiser, Sept. 1, 1815. NEWSPAPER AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY 227 '' Said Bonham takes in subscriptions for the Mary- land Journal, and the Pennsylvania Chronicle, etc."^ The advertisements for state and municipal con- tracts, the notices of elections and other legal an- nouncements will give the future historian many points of practical information as to governmental activity which appear only in a general way in laws and constitutions. The business side of slavery and indentured servitude appears in realistic form. In view of later events it is a little startling to read the following in the Boston Evening Post of January 29, 1770: "TO BE SOLD, a young NEGRO MAN. En- Slavery, quire of the Printers." The servant question in Maryland in 1773 receives light from the advertisements for lost property. The following is from Prince George's County, ''near Queen Ami/' 1773: RAN away from the Subscriber, some time in December, 1772, Negro PRINCE, a tall slim fellow; has several hacks in his forehead; he was taken up at Susquehanna Lower Ferry, but made his escape, and is often seen in the neighborhood. Whoever takes up the said Negro, and secures him in gaol, so that the owner may get him again, shall have FIVE POUNDS reward, or if brought home TEN POUNDS reward, and reasonable charges paid by Richard Bennet Hall.^ FIVE POUNDS REWARD. Ran away from the subscriber, living in Shepherd's Town, some time in October last, a Mulatto Boy ^ Maryland Journal, etc., August 20, 1773. 2 Maryland Journal, etc., August 20, 1773. 228 HISTORICAL RESEARCH named Toby, about 14 years of age, and had a scar on the right side of his throat. — Had on, when he went away, an old brown jacket, tow shirt and checked trousers, which are supposed to be worn out by this time. — Whoever takes up the said Mulatto, and secures him in any gaol, so that his master may have him again, shall receive the above reward from John Clawson. N.B. — All masters of vessels are forewarned not to take him off at their peril. ^ EIGHT DOLLARS REWARD. Indentured RAN away, on the 27th of last September, from Servants. the subscriber, living in Baltimore County, near Benjamin Rogers, Esqr's mill, a Dutch convict servant woman named Rosannah Unrick, about 30 years of age, 5 feet 9 or 10 inches high; had on, and took with her, an old felt hat, a blue flowered Barcelona hand- kerchief, two check linen ditto, one check apron, one old speckled flannel bed gown, and linen for another, cut out, but not made up, and a linsey petticoat which were all too short for her, one old quilt, which had been turned and lengthened, two pairs of mens stock- ings, one pair of womens' shoes, which are too short for her, one pair of old mens' shoes, and likewise 10 yards of home-made linen. She is a leather-dresser by trade. Whoever takes up said woman, and secures her, so that her master gets her again, shall have the above reward, and reasonable charges paid, if brought home, including what the law allows, paid by Daniel Rees. N.B. — She has a scald head, has her hair cut off, and was under cure for the venereal disorder when she went away.^ ^ The Maryland Journal, etc., Dec. 18 to Dec. 30, 1773. 2 The Maryland Journal, etc., Dec. 18 to Dec. 30, 1773. NEWSPAPER AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY 229 Baltimore County, Dec. 10, 1773. EIGHT DOLLARS REWARD. RAN away from the subscriber living near Deer- Indentured Creek, near Mr. Samuel Ashmead^s mill, a convict Servants, servant man named RALPH HATELEY, about 25 years of age, 5 feet 3 or 4 inches high, has short brown hair, and a bold daring look. Had on an old blue broadcloth coat, something too long for him, serge jacket, tow trousers, old shoes and stockings, very much addicted to drinking and gaming, and it is supposed he has forged a pass. Whoever secures said servant in any of his Majesty ^s gaols, or brings him to me the subscriber, shall have the above reward, and reason- able charges, if brought home, paid by Daniel Preston.^ TEN POUNDS REWARD. RAN away, this morning, from the subscriber, living in Tawny-Town, Frederick County, Maryland, an Irish servant man named Hugh M'Kain, by trade a taylor, about five feet four inches high, small and slender, his forehead almost bald, black hair, a pale visage, a great snuffer, much given to liquor, has a mark or scar under his left nostril; had on, and took with him, a half-worn beaver hat, a light coloured half-worn Wilton coat, the hind part and the left fore part of a new green duroy jacket, a white linen and a check shirt, a brown pair of half worn cloth breeches, a green pair, a ribb'd pair, and a plain pair of grey stockings, and old shoes, with buckles. He is known all over Maryland, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and the Jerseys. Whoever takes up said servant, and secures him in any of his Majesty's gaols, so that his master may get him again, or bring him home, shall have the above reward, and reasonable charges, paid by me.^ Nov. 1, 1773. Conrad Boner. * The Maryland Journal, etc., Dec. 18 to Dec. 30, 1773. 2 The Maryland Journal, etc., Dec. 18-Dec. 30, 1773. 230 HISTORICAL RESEARCH The variety of historical material to be found in newspapers is by no means exhausted by these citations. The selections have been given in order to suggest more clearly that the jomnal must be analyzed and the materials subjected to criticism and valuation according to the classes to which they belong. In fact, the greater part of the contents of the newspaper is to be regarded in the light of relics of the period, from which the evidence is inferential rather than direct. CH.\PTER XX RELICS In the English language the word ''relic '^ attaches Definition, itself with pai'ticular affinity to material objects. Arrowheads^ bronze cliisels^ iron daggers, terra-cotta vases, and everything else that man has fashioned for use or ornament seem naturally to be relics of the period of their origin. Lett_ers, poems, minutes, deeds, account-books and the Hke require a second thought to take them out of their special class and consider them abstractly as relics. For that reason it might have been better to comment upon imple- ments first in order, and then to emphasize the signif- icance of the mute materials before proceeding to those which bear written words. The value of a law as a relic might perhaps have stood out more dis- tinctly, and the essential unity of the war club and the writ could have been repeated to advantage, but the plan of this work is to follow the ordinary process in constructing an historical narrative, which is to extract what can be had from the clu*onicler, then proceed to the documents, and afterward look for help among the material objects. This instinctive method is correct, as we have noticed before, because without the narrative there would be no connected story; yet the value of the relic need not on that account be underestimated, for there are valuable 231 232 HISTORICAL RESEARCH points to be drawn from relics also when the narra- tive is absent. Because the term ''prehistoric" is applied to periods before written accounts appeared, it is not to be assumed that the traces of man's handiwork have no historic value in themselves. Association. The significance of a relic is found in its associa- tion. Beginning with the stratum of soil in which - it was found, the grave in which it was deposited, the house of which it was an ornament, the most diligent incjuiry must be made as to its surroundings and as to other rehcs in its company. The rehc elucidates and is elucidated by its neighbors. The comparison may embrace a brief period or may cover an unlimited time, as when we examine a rude stone hammer and accept it as an example of the mechan- ical art of its day, or when we place it in a row with a series from the neolitliic age tlii^ough the bronze and iron periods down to the highly finished steel products in the infinite variety of the present. We may note the rough processes of early manufacture and weigh the economic effort expended, as one Ameri- can arch^ologist himself pounded out with another stone the groove of a stone hammer and thus ac- quired an estimate of the time which savage man requii'ed to make this simple tool. If we measure the days needed to make a stone axe and then how long it took to chop down a tree with such an ineffective instrument, we shall find some very practical rea- sons why man advanced so slowly in economic comfort. In the study of cost and effectiveness the applica- tion of association is also necessary. There must be RELICS 233 other instruments at hand with which to make comparison, and the kind of trees to be cut makes a great difference. Houses built of pine logs come easier than those of hardwood, and natural caves cost less than either. In an extended comparison of nails w^e may go from primitive thorns and pegs to the wire objects which are issued in myiiads today. The difference in economic effect is a matter almost beyond calculation, even between this day and the time of om^ colonial ancestors, when nails were made one at a time by a blacksmith, instead of by auto- matic machinery. The difficulty in arriving at a proper estimate comes from the larger number of elements which must be taken into comparison as we approach the later period. The extent of the study of associations will depend Caution in on the theme in hand. We may approach the whole Comparison, civilization of a brief period, or we may trace the . history of a single instrument. In both cases the greatest care is required in order to be sure that the circumstances jand conditions are suitable for com- paris^on.^ History does not repeat itself unless the--^ conditions are identical. We may be interested in a series of musical instruments ranging from a gourd to a grand piano. The specimens show, indeed, the development of string music, but if one piece is brought from Hondiu^as and others from Central Africa, it is not certain that the development from one stage to another was due to the same causes. The natural productions of the environment affect Effect of Nat- ^ifferently the native ingenuity of man. For ex- ".^^^ Produc- ample, a very pretty display may be made in showing 234 HISTORICAL RESEARCH the evolution of the jack-knife. If gathered from the world at large, rough stone is followed by pohshed stone, and these by bronze, ii^on, and steel. The beautiful glass knives used for sacrificial purposes in Mexico would develop only in a country where obsidian or natiu'al glass is readily found. The rough knives made of steel pieces tied to bone handles are the products of Eskimo industry in a country where the bones of water animals are the most con- venient tilings to use. Both of these examples are interesting cases of primitive ingenuity, but are not necessary in the direct line of the effective evolution of the knife. Evolution of The study of rehcs in series may be applied to every Implements, form of implement or article of ornamentation. The development of writing materials; of instruments for striking fire; of weaving apparatus; of aids to transportation, and huncbeds of other products of the human hand ma}' be followed with interest and profit. Tliis method is a contemplation of the race as a whole, or a study in comparative ethnology. Another fruitful practice is to study a single people, or a given period, through its products, in order to determine how far the various features of its civili- zation were developed at the same time. In a primitive period the relics are less abundant and the task is apparently simpler than in later ages, but the more remote the time, the more is the risk that portions of the data have perished. Consequently, when points of observation are scarce, the more rigid must be the deductions and the more severely must the imagination be kept in control. The RELICS 235 1 Lake Dwellers of Switzerland affect our curiosity deeply. The very position of their houses opens a query. Did they build out over the water for pro- tection against wild beasts or against human enemies? No answer to that question can be made, nor are there any data for a possible political or national history of the tribes who resided in this region. Only this is clear, that the borders of nearly all of the important lakes have been inhabited ever since man was in his primitive state. From the early stone age through the bronze and iron periods to historic times the evidences of man^s presence are abundant and the sequence is clearly continuous, for the relics of one age are often found beside those of the next Advanced. In the examination of the lake-dwellings for Comparison of individual contents it is often found that one settle- y^^i^tonc . Ages. ment contams only stone-age miplements and another near by is of the age of bronze. Taking the bronze period by itself, it is important to find how many different utensils, ornaments, or other relics are found together. Side by side with bronze hatchets lie reaping-hooks. Further on are the seeds of wheat, barley and oats, and with them the bones of sheep, of certain wild animals and of the domestic dog. It is obvious that the inhabitants were in part agriculturalists and in part hunters. Bronze fish-hooks with barbs show how early that method of making a hook effective was invented. Implements used in spinning and weaving are supplemented even by specimens of cloth. From the bronze pins and buckles found in the same bed 236 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Craniology. Human Re- mains. of mud we are able to estimate the artistic develop- ment of the period, and in many other ways the life of that age may be appreciated tlii'ough the scientific use of the imagination. In fact, the imagination leaps into acti^dty at once. It is needful only that the association shall be accurately observed to reconstruct a living community from these tiny fragments. The theory was formerly accepted without Cjfues- tion that Western Em'ope was settled by migrations of ^ ^Aryans'' from Asia, but the study of the relics of primitive man has changed the aspect of things. Man left no written record of his doings, but when he was cut off in the midst of his toil he left his im- plements behind and his mortal remains were affec- tionately deposited in the earth. His bones have re- mained until this day, and recent science has taken them into account. His frame has been measured, the dimensions of his skull have been formulated, and we arrive at the very interesting conclusion that the same type of man has been residing continuously in Western Europe since the age of the cave-dwellers. This does not prevent waves of early cultm^e from passing westward from the Orient, but offers serious difficulties to the theory of race migTation. The study of prehistoric craniology has therefore changed the whole character of the problem. It seems a gruesome task to pry open the tombs of the ancient Pharaohs and to rummage in the sacred relics of the royal dead, although many thou- sand years have passed since some of them were laid to rest. The results, however, ai^e of the RELICS 237 greatest scientific interest. Not only the method of burial, the utensils and ornaments deposited in the tomb, but even the human relics have tin-own light upon the history of Egypt. The racial char- acteristics of the dominant class, already indicated by the pictures, are confirmed in many cases by desiccated fragments of the men themselves. The antiquity of man is in the hands of the pre- Rules of Exca- historic archaeologists, and the principle of deter- nation, mination is association. Going backward from the ^\Titten accounts and oral traditions of ancient Troja, Schliemann began to dig in the ruins of that city. The utmost pains were taken in the excavation, every fragment was noted, its depth measured and its surroundings were described. Each change in the soil was recorded and the characteristic relics con- tained in it were carefully enumerated, so that when the bottom was reached it was found that instead of one Troy there had been seven strata of civilization upon that spot, and the age of its occupation was pushed farther than ever into the past. Each one of these strata must have required a long time in its formation and decay, although as yet no abso- lute criteria of measurement have been established. Since the days of Schliemann the methods of exca- vation have become still more exact, and in all parts of the East, particularly in the exploration of Egypt, the results have been constantly growing more interesting. By careful comparison of the relics found in position; by noting among other things the ''patina," or gloss of chemical action on the surface, which indicates relative age; by measuring 238 HISTORICAL RESEARCH the depth of the alhivial deposit of the Nile, the annual amount of which can be estimated, the fact has become clear that the Nile valley was occupied by highly civilized races thousands of years earlier than was formerly believed. Modern Inter- Xot the least Interesting reflection upon relics in est in Antiqui- gg^eral is the fact that the common things of ancient ty. life are the curiosities of the present generation. The implements^ beds, chairs, dress, and ornaments of the forefathers are collected and exhibited for study and entertainment. The remains of the Egyptians themselves are placed in cases for the passing crowd to admire. In the British Museum one may see a stone age man in his sandstone grave, replaced exactly as found, with the flint implements and pottery wliich were buried with him before the Pharaohs appeared on the scene. It is a most instructive exhibit of all the factors which must be considered when such a find is opened in situ, and at the same time it is a commentary on the spirit of the present age. Coins. Perhaps the most complete series of rehcs of the ancient world is found in coins. Where other forms of art are fragmentary, where architectiu^e is ruinous and sculptm'e survives in part, the coins are continuous and numerically abundant. Numis- matics, therefore, is an important branch of archae- ology and contributes largely to the knowledge of classical history. Appreciation of this importance is shown in the fact that Theodore Mommsen, the foremost historian of Rome, became at the same time one of the greatest authorities on its RELICS 239 coinage.^ Numerous great scholars have also de- voted their attention to Greek coins alone. The questions which arise from the study of Origin, numismatics illustrate the use of relics during periods when written material is also present in greater or less degree. First of all, the historian finds himself in the presence of rude specimens which show that the beginning of coinage could not have been far away. Who first thought of stamping pieces of metal with signs for a cumulating mecUum? The barter of pieces or bars of gold and silver, or even of ornaments of those metals, must have begun at a very early date, but the discovery of the device by wliich the piece might always be known without the trouble of weighing was an event of great im- portance. This invention has played a part in the history of civilization which must be ranked with those later conveniences, banking and exchange. The birthplace of coinage is still in controversy, although Aristotle and other early writers thought they knew. There are many good reasons for be- lieving that the electrum coins of Lydia in Asia Minor are the earliest examples, but in any case, when you have located the beginning of coinage you have un- doubtedly put your finger on the spot where com- merce was at high pressure for its time. Where commerce floiu*ishes there is likely to be a relatively high degree of civilization, and the coins may be the index of its progress from place to place. ' Mommsen, Geschichte des romischen Miinzwesens, 1 vol., 1860. The French translation is better on account of later and more abundant footnotes, 4 vols. 240 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Inferences The earliest coins are so rude in appearance that from Weight. ^^^ jg j^QcHned to wonder if they could have been of much advantage. At first they are mere pellets of metal upon which a punch mark has been struck, indicating not much more than the fact that the piece is a little different from an unpunched nugget. The marks gradually become figm-es of animals, or men, and eventually works of art, but for a long time there are many small irregularities in size and appeai'ance, with no signs of the denomination, so that it would seem hard even for the ancients to be certain of the value of the piece. Investigation, however, reveals beneath the irregularities of shape a highly developed system of weights and measures. The test of the balance upon the coins themselves conj&rms and expands the information gathered elsewhere as to the standards in common use, and while in search of light on this matter the interesting fact appears that the weights of the Grecian Archi- pelago are based upon the standards of the valley of the Euphrates. A long vista of possibihties is at once brought in line by these connections. The balance also reveals the relative value of gold and silver in the estimation of the ancients. This seems to have remained pretty steadily through Greek and Roman times about thirteen and one third to one, and most ingenious expedients were employed at times by the Greeks to provide silver coins which were exact equivalents or exact multiples of the gold coins and yet observed the ratio of the metals. Coin Types. The long series of coin types offer most interesting data concerning the civilization of ancient cities. RELICS 241 Every town of Greece had its patron deity and the emblems of that god or hero are almost certain to be found on its coins. The turtle for Aphrodite, the owl for Athena, for examples, are the most primitive representations of those gods, but later fanciful portraits occupy the chief position while the emblems continue on the reverse, or in subordinate place. Along wdth these appear symbols representing the person or authorities who issued the coin, and we have most interesting combinations of religious and secular information. The representations on the coins are both heraldic and mythological and furnish indelible e\ddence of the presence of the given worship in that city, and by comparison of a large number the extent of the popularity of certain gods or the political relations of one place with another are clearly evident. The colonists of Greece carried mth them into Italy and Sicily both the hearth fires and the religious emblems of the mother-cities, and for a time their connections can be identified by the coins. In Greece itself federations of cities occmTed at various times and the records are corroborated by the coins. In fact, the coins furnish evidence of political combinations which would be unknown but for their testimony. Since the possession of the right to strike coins Independence was considered an attribute of sovereignty, the ^^ ^^^^^^■ presence of so many varieties in Greece is an eloquent testimonial to the local independence of its cities. The writers tell us that almost every town was an autonomous state, but the situation is made decidedly impressive when we find more than fifteen hundred 16 242 HISTORICAL RESEARCH varieties of city coins. Moreover, coins have been uncovered which were struck by cities which liave disappeared entirely from the records and whose existence is known only by the specimens of money which once circulated in their precincts. All that is known about a Greek kingdom in India is derived from its surviving coins. ^ Art Value of To the arcliffiologist the emblems on the coins are Coins. extremely helpful. The attributes of the deities, the form which the worship followed in a given place, the implements of the age, the instruments for striking coins, the forms of di'ess, and numerous other matters receive light from numismatics. Occasionally an ancient building is represented and in some cases the only explanation of a missing detail is to be found on a coin. From the point of view of art the coins afford the most complete and consecutive expression of progress. Architectm^e has been destroyed, sculpture is fragmentary in amount and mutilated in condition, but the coins have been so well preserved that they afford abundant e\ddence of the art sense of the various periods. For the most part the state of art corresponds to the conditions of architectm^e and sculpture in the same period and serves to show simply another form of refinement, but we are indebted to the coin engi^avers for many additional expressions. Some of the most beautiful products of the engraver's art the world has ever seen appeared on the coins of Greece and Sicily. In modern history coins have neither the sig- ^ Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History, f'h. I. RELICS 243 nificance nor the art value of their ancient proto- types. In art the old freedom has become sub- ordinated to mechanical devices which prevent abrasion and permit the stacking of money in piles. The persistence of hand-work in the manufactiu*e of money is, however, a noteworthy phenomenon. All through the middle ages coins were struck one at a time with hammer and dies exactly as during the times of the Greeks and Romans. Not till the six- teenth centm^y was a screw press invented, and the power press did not appear until the nineteenth. The study of monetary systems gains in impor- Mediaeval tance as the centuries proceed, but the information ^^^^y- is no longer dependent on the coins themselves. The knowledge of the mediaeval situation is ampli- fied by the surviving specimens of money, but the theory of money was more and more recorded in writing as time went on. The coins indicate the variations from standard, the debasements of cur- rency, which are so often spoken of in the authors, and furnish for the most part a melancholy exhibit of the decline of art. The usefulness of this portion of these relics is, therefore, chiefly corroboratory. The distribution of coinage in the middle ages is, however, an illuminating topic of inquiry. Pieces of Roman or Arabic money are found, for example, in the excavations of Norway, and the evidence of some kind of contact with the southern peoples is conclusive. The accumulated instances of widely scattered money form a body of most important testimony concerning movements of civilization which otherwise might not have been suspected. . _ 244 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Architecture. Architecture as a relic of human thought and handiwork offers numerous important points of view for interpretation. Of these the economic bearing of materials is decidedly sigTiificant. Not only do the mud huts, palm-leaf shelters, and sun- dried brick cabins of primitive peoples indicate the natural factors which determined their modes of existence, but also in the higher grades of civiliza- tion we may see the effects of natm*al resoiu-ces and environment which have been only in part over- come. The pioneer natm'ally builds his first house either of logs or of sod, and as a whole the people of the United States and Canada, owing to the pre- vailing cheapness of wood, are dwellers in frame houses. Em'opean countries have passed beyond this stage, and the difference in economic investment between buildings of wood and buildings of brick or stone cannot be neglected in measuring the rapidity or stability of progress. The relations of arcliitectm^e and cultm^e have been affected not a little by the materials used. Starting first with available substances, the ingenuity of man has been expended in improving and decorating his habitation with materials nearest at hand until he now searches the globe for marbles or mahoganies to give the touch of beauty or of rarity. It may be questioned whether refinement of taste in per- sonal siu^rounchngs is always an evidence of moral advancement, nor are luxurious requirements in themselves an evidence of intellectual superiority. Yet, whatever judgment may be passed upon this, the presence of these tendencies is highly significant, RELK\S 245 and the amount of time and effort which a given social group will devote to the convenience and beauty of its smToundings must be taken into account in estimating the degree of its civiUzation. Not less interesting is the nature of the pubhc Public Build- buildings wliich characterize a given period. In ^^^^* ancient Greece the striking forms of architect iu*e are the temples and the theatres. In the middle ages the temple alone absorbed the attention of those who sought the highest expression in that art. In this generation the religious life is no longer found in a few great chmx'hes^ but in a multitude of smaller houses of worship, and must divide attention with hospitals and charitable institutions. Education has come forward, and its universities and libraries express the trend of public interest; while the most expansive, though not always the most beautiful, forms of arcliitecture are the seats of government. Periods have also had their distinctive ideals of The Element grandem'. The Egyptians sought to impress by of Grandeur, the very size and weight of their pyramids and colossal statues, and the beauty of their temples is overshadowed by their massive proportions. This factor is perhaps more conspicuous in Egypt than elsewhere, but every age has been infected with the same ambition. Gothic temples eventually soared to enormous proportions and the modern skyscrapers look down upon Babel. Apparently the interpre- tation of size consists in finding the forms in which a constant factor expresses itself from age to age. The study of Gothic architecture as one of the Gothic, material productions of man^s hand offers a most 246 HISTORICAL RESEARCH interesting field for the exercise of constructive his- torical interpretation. The period of its life history is so remote from the present that the student can ap- proach the subject with entire detachment. In fact, the inquker must recreate the ver}^ atmosphere which inspired tliis form of art, and he runs considerable risk in the attempt. Unlike the architecture of antiquity, the mediseval chmxhes have survived abundantly in their entirety and the subject matter of study comes down almost unimpaired. More- over, the architectm'al forms are beautiful in them- selves and reward the most exhaustive attention. The inquiry extends into infinite ramifications throughout the social web. The religious motives, the extent of participation, the long periods of building, the methods of the building trades, the seeming affectionate care in decoration, and innu- merable other questions find answers in part and suggest fm'ther interesting speculation. It is a study of intellectual as well as religious expression, because the Gothic cathedi^al is an engineering feat of constantly expanding proportions and a task wliich in its time monopohzed the attention of the public. Control of the The interpretation of relics cannot be exhausted Imagination. -^^ ^ gj^^^l^ chapter. Only a few indications have been offered as to the way in which the subject should be approached. To the imaginative person the actual rehcs of a past age are natm^ally full of suggestion and speculation. The only caution throughout the study is to keep the imagination under control, and to make sure that the interpreta- RELICS 247 tion is based on sound reasoning, not upon fantasy. Finally, one ought to observe the great advan- tage which comes to the historian who occupies a field where both written history and archaeological remains are abundant. Greece and Rome left be- hind great literatm'es with a vast amount of inscrip- tions and material rehcs, and almost every period since is illustrated by an ever increasing quantity both of records and of survivals. T CHAPTER XXI THE NATURE OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE In the description and criticism of the various kinds of historical material it has been necessary continually to be di'awing conclusions and passing judgment upon smaller groups of facts. The proc- esses of historical reasoning have been applied to particular cases which must be combined later into the general narrative. Before proceeding to this combination it will be well to formulate conclu- sions as to the nature of the operation^ and as to the relative value of historical materials. Fallibility of First, as to the fo-lUbihty of evidence. In order Evidence. ^^ avoid the pitfalls which beset the path of the investigator it has been necessary to call attention to many sources of error and many malicious distor- tions of fact. If placed together these frailties make a long and painful list. Knowing well the natural weaknesses and fallibihty of mankind under the best conditions, men are inclined at times to throw the whole thing overboard. There have always been those who declared history a pack of lies, or a V fable convenue^/' which a fond world upholds because entertaining, or because it bolsters v' up the pride of man and excuses existing institutions. Even the Psalmist said in his haste all men are Ifars, and never seemed to find leisure to take back the 248 NATURE OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE 249 statement. Indeed, it has been seriously main- tained that all liistorians are miserable offenders and there is no health in them. Attempts have been made to explain this as an inevitable phenomenon due to natural reasons. Laplace contended that a fact by being transmitted several generations lost clear- ness in the same way that the vision is obscured by the interposition of successive plates of glass. This idea originated with an English mathematician named Craig who published a book in 1699, entitled Theologice Christianoe Principia Mathematical in which he endeavored to prove that the world would come to an end when belief in Clmstianity ceased. He argued that with the passage of time the his- torical evidences of Christianity would become dimmer and dimmer, and finally when these were reduced to zero all earthly things would cease to be.^ An absurdity like this requires no answer. Even the general scepticism of the eighteenth centiu*y is no longer in vogue. The contentions of the present day do not throw doubt upon all history, but only upon particular statements, or the quarrel affects the value of the matter when proved, yet the mere recollection of Craig's theory gives opportunity to formulate oiu* notions of the nature of the science with which we have to deal. History, in the first place, is not an experimental. History a but a reasoning science only. All natural sciences ^^^^^omng of course require the use of the reasoning faculties, but they are applied to different materials. When two chemicals are placed in a test-tube one may » G. C. Lewis. Method, Ch. 7, 15. 250 ^ HISTORICAL RESEARCH observe them fume, unite, change color, and both lose theu' identity. The problem is to find the nature of the new substance thus formed, and the experi- ment may be repeated as often as it may be necessary to observe the law of change. Upon the historical page one does not find the action itself, but some- L- body^s description of it. The event has taken place and cannot be repeated for observation, consequently the first problem is to find out what made your predecessor think he was stating the truth, or by what process he arrived at the given view of the events. This is done by reasoning from one point to another till you have arrived at his position and can see what relation the writer held to other known truths and probabilities. The whole aim of historical criticism is to find out what made the witness state the case as he did. It is not •■ / a mere matter of addition and subtraction, but a reasoning process dealing with psychological phe- nomena. Hence all this examination into the mental and moral character of the writer; how his mind has been prepared by heredity and education; what were the conditions of the moral atmosphere during his period, through which the image on his mind might be modified or distorted. It is a proce- dure by which a reflected image is traced back as near as possible to the first surface on which it was cast. We seek for more than one reporter of an event, not to fortify om* judgment by the presence of mere numbers of witnesses, but in order to see if the event made the same impression upon all as upon the one. If the same image appears in two'oFthree L.*^' NATURE OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE 251 minds we have considerable assurance that there must have been an event of the kind to make an impression. In the case where equally competent witnesses give conflicting testimony it is again a psychological problem to find the reasoning of each. Conflicting reports may be simply two views of the same thing, and from the sum total of all the ,^e\idence we may obtain a composite picture of the , persons or events described. If a pictiu*e is not visible, it is equally important to prove that no such event occurred. After all is said and done, we have assurance Established that there exists a body of certain information which ^^^*^- we may call history. This confidence rests upon the reasoning powers with which man is endowed. A problem in logic once solved in the days of Aris- totle is just as much solved today as it was then. A piece of good reasoning stands firm because to repeat it is to show it to be true. The human mind is as capable as ever of adding two and two, and it is likely to remain so as long as the race exists. Con- sequently, when we examine the great body of matter which offers itself as history we find within it a long connected thread, or a framework, if you please, perhaps not altogether connected, which agTees with the laws of logic and common sense. As in other sciences, many details may in time be changed or pruned away, but a body of main facts will remain, and in the light of human reason it does not appear that these are to be lost. This is not the place to give an outline of the Axioms, proved history of the world. That part which is 252 HISTORICAL RESEARCH assured and that which is still uncertain should be revealed in the study of the authorities on the various periods. On the other hand one may con- template with profit the kinds of argument which have led to the acceptance of historical facts. For example, there have been formulated certain pos- tulates in historical criticism which may take rank as axioms. These are in part logical conclusions in psychology and in part the accumulated evi- dence of observation in the moral history of the race. These axioms do not form a connected system, but are more or less isolated truths upon which others may be based. All of them have been touched upon in one way or another in the preceding pages, but it may serve a useful piu-pose to mass them in a single fundamental group. ^ The first axiom is so well hedged about with conditions that the logic of it cannot well be escaped, yet evidence is continually presented which fulfills the stipulated requh'ements. 1. When two or more contemporary witnesses independently of each other report the same event with numerous similar details, which details do not stand in any necessary or common relationship to the event, but have only an accidental connection with it, then the reports which thus agree, in so far as they do agi*ee, must be true, provided the facts, together with the aforesaid details, are so clear that no misunderstanding is possible. 2. Every people gives to its dwelling places, its ^Rhomberg, Die Erhebung der Geschichte zum Rang einer Wissenschaft, p. 21 et seq. NATURE OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE 253 family institutions, its implements, and its acts, names belonging to its own mother-tongue. So, out of the national character of the prevailing names of each nation one must draw conclusions as to the origin of these names and institutions. 3. It is impossible for any one to conceal com- pletely the time in which he lives, or his own views and circumstances of life. 4. The intellectual development of mankind is subject to the law of gradual progi'ession. 5. For whatever thing a people has a traditional word or name, that thing is known and used by that people. AMiere it has no word or name for an object, that people does not know or use that object. The foregoing are classified as intellectual axioms. The second and fifth are the positive and negative sides of the arguments used in questions of linguistic palaeontology, and have played a great part in the history of primitive or prehistoric peoples. The origin and migration of Indo-Em'opean institutions, for example, have himg upon these principles which are psychological in their nature. The third posi- tion is an axiomatic statement of an experience which we have already encountered in studying the personality of authors. It is an assurance that the equality of evidence is bound to appear if we study it closely enough. The following are classified as moral axioms: 6. A self-discrediting or self-incriminating admis- Moral Axioms, sion on the part of a partisan but well-informed writer makes the admitted and discrediting fact certain in so far as there is no misapprehension 254: HISTORICAL RESEARCH about it. This is particularly true when the tra- ditions of its own defeats are preserved in the annals of a nation, but the application of the axiom requires great care where personal or private matters are concerned. Self-depreciation, as we have seen elsewhere, may be a conventionality, and confessions are taken with caution even in courts of law. Within a limited scope, however, this is a sound moral argument. Argument 7. The silence of all well-instructed contemporaries from Silence, concerning an event which, if it were true, would have been generally known and, in the main, rightly understood, is a proof that the account is only an invention, in so far as it cannot be assumed that the aforesaid wiiters have not purposely agi'eed to keep silence. The caution with wliich the argumentuvi ex silentio is to be used has been suffi- ciently dwelt upon. In modern newspaper life it may sometimes be found that silence is agreed upon, but ordinarily when the very difficult exceptions to the rule of silence have been overcome the absence of contemporary mention is a solid foundation for unbehef. 8. Mankind is subject to the law of gradual pro- gression in the adoption or disuse of habits, manners, and customs. Taken with the foiu*th axiom respecting intellec- tual development this postulate accounts for the long existence of religious beliefs, the survival of heathen worship in primitive Christianity, and the tenacity of superstitious practices everywhere. The processes of agriculture are extremely persistent, NATURE OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE 255 even when knowledge has advanced. Examples of long-lived institutions abound on every hand. The usefulness of the axiom lies in the fact that we may count on the persistence of custom into uncertain periods where concrete evidence fails, and may reckon upon only slight mocUfications when brief lapses of time are left without positive records. 9. A people is not at all likely to attempt without reason to deceive posterity concerning its history. This would presuppose concerted action in a way that has never yet been foimd, and goes against general experience, which indicates that people as a whole desire the truth to prevail. In this connection a few more general consider a- Legal Evi- tions as to the nature of historical evidence will be ^^^^^• in point, and j5rst of all is the comparison with courts of law. We justly look upon the higher tribunals of ci\ilized countries as the most successful instru- ments yet foimd among men for ascertaining truth and dispensing eciuity between citizens and govern- ments. A highly refined system of rules of pro- cedure has been developed in the com^se of centmies, growing out of the endeavor to secure justice for all parties. In order that no possible injustice may be done to an accused person, and in order that the trial may not be too greatly prolonged, certain classes of evidence are debarred from consideration. Juries are instructed that any shadow of doubt must weigh in favor of the accused, and although they may be morally certain of the guilt of the defen- dant they must be guided only by the evidence which the rules admit. Courts have only two 256 HISTORICAL RESEARCH courses open to them. They must decide either for or against an accusation or question in contro- versy, and they must decide at once, or the ends of justice will be defeated. Historical Evi- The liistorian, on the other hand, is not obliged to dence. decide at once, consequently he is not bound by the technical rules which serve to shorten the procedure. He may find a third explanation. He may suspend judgment while awaiting other testimony. No pris- oner at the bar nor impatient jurymen demand an im- mediate decision. The jury takes the short cut, the historian takes his time. He may consider circum- stantial e\ddence which it would be dangerous to submit to the ordinary jui*y. The moral certainty of motives and events is often quite as clear to one who understands the movements of the human mind as it is when backed by the testimony of witnesses. Moreover, the historian may state the doubts and probabilities of the question where juries must be squarely for or against. In short, where courts are guided by rules which adjust themselves to the pressing needs of society, historians [are guided by the larger principles which lie behind those rules. ^ Tliis does not mean that the historian may make free with the rules of good reasoning where the jm-yman may not, for, after the hindi'ances of technicaHty just mentioned are put aside, there are many limitations and cautions to be observed. The scrutiny of the documents, primary and second- ary, is no less rigid than that employed in a court * Lewis, Method, I, 196. Seignobos, Revue Philosophique, XXIV, 175. NATURE OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE 257 \of law. Nor may the historian make deductions j from moral experience based only on his personal (observations of mankind. He must be governed by the evidence of all men in all ages.^ Reasoning by comparison, or analogy, is sur- Analogy, rounded by pitfalls which the historian must avoid. In the absence of direct information analogies are con- stantly offering their services, and to the imaginative student they are extremely attractive. Because events once followed a certain course, one is strongly tempted to conclude that they did so on the occasion under consideration; or if a thing is true of one time or place, it is of another. It has already been seen how conclusions from relics of different regions may be unsoimd because the analogies are incomplete. Writers on institutions seem particularly liable to error from this cause. Thus, von Maurer built up his theory of the village community and the origin of city government by reasoning backward from apparent agricultm^al analogies which on later examination do not hold. Because the thi^ee-field system of cultivation was found in operation early in the middle ages, writers have said that it was con- tinuous from the time of Tacitus. With Sir Henry Maine and others the modern Russian community land ownership has played a prominent role in the determination of the mediaeval village community. The analogy fails because the conditions are so dissimilar that the example must serve at best as a suggestion for inquiry. Mi\ Freeman, in his zeal for the continuity of his- Survivals. ^ J. C. Roger, Summary of Moral Evidence, p. 8. 17 258 HISTORICAL RESEARCH tor}^, saw in the Swiss Landesgemeinde which he attended the analogy of the popular assembly of TacituS; but he overlooked the fact that for more than a thousand years this popular assembly dis- appeared and must have come to life again. The Landesgemeinde grew up in a feudal atmosphere and the first mention of it dates from the year 1294. Moreover^ when one comes to examine it as it was then, and as it is now, it is not much like the assem- bly of Tacitus after all. We are often told that the ancient Germanic community of land and local self- government found their way in a direct line of succession from the forests of Germany to the rock- ribbed shores of New England. The land system of Plymouth Colony does indeed offer a most con- venient map with which one may clarify the descrip- tions in Tacitus, but it does not necessarily follow because these institutions came over to England with the Anglo-Saxons that they remained till opportunity arrived to cross the Atlantic. There is a possible continuity, but it looks as if popular government came nearly to a halt under the Tudor and Stuart dynasties, and it may be that the local institutions which the Pilgrims and Pmitans carried to New England were born of the democratic self- government in the Pmitan chmT-h. Danger in Political history is open to similar dangers from Analogies. ^-^q use of analogy. The motives of statesmen or the causes of revolutions cannot be hghtly tossed from one point to another. Mr. James Bryce says that one of the chief uses of historical studies is to prevent one from being taken in by historical NATURE OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE 259 analogies. Put into the cold formula of philosophy, wo are warned that the cliief uses of analogy are to direct the observation to a particular fact \\'hich appears to resemble some other fact, and if the re^mblance IS perfect to inquire whether a property in one should not be found in the other. ^ One temptation incident to the analogy habit is Logic to supply facts which would be present if the com- parison were complete. This is one of the troubles wliich honest logic may bring about if the investi- gator is not on guard. Guizot says: '^Nothing falsifies history more than logic; when the human mind lights upon an idea, it draws from it all the possible consequences, makes it produce everything which it is able to produce, and then presents it in history with all this cortege. Things do not happen in this way; events are not so prompt in their deduc- tions as the human mind.''^ Tliis is, of coiu-se, a logic with the bits in its teeth. Abstract for we have seen often enough the necessity of an ^erms. orderly logical sense in the interpretation of his- torical material. A runaway logic does not stop to see if the particulars are actually present, or if the details of the analogy are perfect. Thus there is danger in reasoning from abstract terms. A pic- ture of an institution may be contained in a single word. ^'People," ''sovereignty/' '^kingship," ''leg- islatui'e,'' for examples, are concentrated words, each of which contains a vast complex of detail. In the middle ages they meant one thing, and in the * J. C. Roger, Summary of Moral Evidence, p. 12. ^ Civilization in Europe, Legon 5. 260 HISTORICAL RESEARCH eighteenth century something very different. To use these words without discriminations of time and place is to make false analogies, and to commit a sin of carelessness against which all the critics cry aloud. Although writers might presuppose some little discrimination on the part of readers, it will not do to leave much undefined. Even the passing allusion is an abbreviated analogy for which the historian should hold himself strictly accountable. Yet there is a reasoning from small things in history wliich calls for the highest gifts of the imagination and the keenest application of logic. As it is given to the zoologist to reconstruct a fossil animal from a single fragment of a bone, so the historian is called upon at times to build a racial habit from a relic, or an institution from a fragment of a law. No more exquisite pleasiu'e can be found than is in the use of the trained imagination in the reproduction of a phase of life from the accidental remnants of the past. Herein lies the usefulness as well as the intellectual reward of the investigator. CHAPTER XXII THE CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS Up to this point these pages have been dealing with fragments of history, proving the quahty and interpreting the value of materials at hand. The constructive process has, indeed, already begun, for in the interpretation of a document its connection 'with others almost necessarily comes to view. The position has now been reached where the larger con- ception of the whole field is required. After diligent search the investigator finds at his disposal a quan- tity of data, gathered, perhaps, from widely scat- tered sources. These materials are possibly self- explanatory. Wherever not clear, or where positive information fails, the reason and the scientific imagination are called upon to bridge the gaps and establish the connections. It is not only necessary to piece together the documentary evidence, but, if one is to obtain the full conception of a period, there must be taken into consideration a body of general conditions which have had influence in moulding society and in dhecting the cmTcnt of its history. The natural configiu*ation of the country in which the scene is laid; the state of social opinion governing the actions of men; the psychological conditions guiding individuals and masses; all these 261 262 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Combination of Previous Lal^ors. must be weighed iu searcliing for the hirger estimate of the epoch or country chosen. These factors have all been taken up earlier in these chapters, but were employed in a cUfferent way. In the criticism of sources it was necessary to study social conditions or peculiarities of place and period, in order to find out why the author or document received and reflected the stated impres- sions of events or situations. On the other hand, in forming historical conceptions of an age or period one must study the influence of the same elements, in a larger way perhaps, in order to see why the people or events gave such an impression, or what caused them to act in a certain manner at that '" epoch. This is the reconstruction of the past with ■ the aid of both documents and reason. The inves- tigator puts himself in the place of the original observers, but with tliis advantage, that he often has command of more materials than any one of them, and, fmihermore, that he stands outside of L^'the limitations of their age. Divisions of The fundamental process remains the same, what- ever may be the form or portion of history taken as a task, notwithstanding the fact that the number and character of the materials may differ in each case. Historical construction may follow the order of time and place, or it may be made according to theme. The fu'st is the ordinary narrative history in consecutive periods, taking either one country or another, or attempting to treat them synchrono- logically. When presented according to theme the result is constitutional history, legal history. History. THE CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS 263 economic history, the history of art, of rehgion, and other selected social phenomena. In all cases the general considerations above mentioned, the natural situation, the social and intellectual atmosphere, and all the rest must also be weighed if we wish to get a proper estimate of the development of the chosen topic. /• It is in the study of causation that one of the Trivial Causa differences between the earlier and the modern *^^^* method of historical research most conspicuously appears. Formerly it was the fashion to assign great events and great social changes to trifling causes, and the more insignificant the cause the more acute appeared the penetration of the liistorian.^ The rebuilding of Jerusalem was attributed to a dream of Darius, king of Persia, in which he was commanded to do this thing. A flock of geese on the Capitoline hill in Rome heard a noise outside the city walls and proceeded to make a great noise themselves. The garrison awoke to find the enemy at their doors, the attack was repulsed, Rome was saved, it grew to be a great city, and the world was thus profoundly moved by the cackling of a fowl. Cleopatra, in the midst of a brilliant career, ended her life with the bite of an asp. Thus Rome through a trifling cause, an insignificant reptile, w^as left unhindered in the development of its colossal power. The Greeks of Greece contended for generations with their brethren of Asia Minor over the possession of Troy. The cause of the Trojan war was said to have been ^ This theme is worked out in great detail by Mougeolle, Probl^mes de I'Histoire. 264 HISTORICAL RESEARCH a quarrel over a woman, the beautiful Helen of Troy. This was the judgment of the poets, both Homer and Vngil, but it was equally accepted as a cause by Herodotus and by Montaigne, the modern his- torian and philosopher. Voltaire makes the Reformation depend on the fact that Pope Leo X, in his desh'e to raise funds for a proposed war against the Turks, proclaimed an issue of indulgences and gave the monopoly of the sale of these pardons to the Augustinian monks. This privilege was later taken away from that order and given to the Dominicans. Hence there was a quarrel, hence the protests of the Augustinian brother Luther, hence the Reformation. Says Vol- taire, ''this little affair of the monks in one corner of Saxony produced more than a hundi'ed years of discord, of rage and misfortune in thii^ty nations.''* Thus intrigues of women and other small things were made to settle the destinies of government and societies. But this essentially literary method of producing historical effect met with protest even in the eighteenth centiuy. Montesquieu and after liim Rousseau broke away from these notions and started to find substantial reasons for social and political phenomena, so that in the wake of an increasing volume of objection rhetorical guessing of this kind has now disappeared from serious history. Physical En- At the same time the study of physical phenom- ena in relation to history is an inquiry not altogether of modern origin. As early as the sixteenth centmy Jean Bodin in his writings on political theory ^ Essais sur les Moeurs, 54, 127. vironment. THE CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS 265 recognized the influence of climate on the human race. His conclusions as to the effects were over- ckawn, not to say bizarre in some cases, but a begin- ning was made for the consideration of the natural environment of man and societies. From that time onward increasing weight has been given to eco- nomic conditions, until at present some are inclined to insist that the physical factors determine all the movements of history. However, it is not necessary to adopt a pm*ely materialistic attitude in order to be convinced that economic facts have been most pow^erful agents even in the political history of nations. This view is ordinarily accepted as a matter of course, and it then becomes simply a question as to how much weight should be attached to natural phenomena. Schools of writers divide on this point, and the separation usually begins with the primary definitions of history. Without attempting to settle the matter, one may concede that it is both a legitimate and a valuable work to study the pm^ely economic development of a people or community. One may also classify the natural factors which produce sociological laws without sub- scribing to a sociological definition of history. At the same time it remains ever the duty of the investigator to inquire with care whether one or many of the elements in the natural environment have not directed the course of his chosen political and social events. For that reason it is desirable briefly to classify these factors. The most conspicuous feature in the natm'al Climate, conditions are climate and physical geography. 266 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ^A^letller the country is mountainous or flat, whether the chmate is torrid or cold, are questions which at once arise, but the fundamental c|uery after all is not how these incUcate the geological liistory of the globe, but how they affect the business of getting a living. The science of geology eventually becomes of the greatest importance to mankind, but for history the cjuestion is how far man has mastered it, not what the real science is. Whether society has overcome, or is still subject to, the elements in the business of life is a matter of ^dtal importance. The limitations of the polar Eskimo and the inertia of the equatorial Brazilian are two extreme examples of the effects of climate, but all the way between lie illustrations of the reflex influences of the effort- cost of living upon society and civiHzation. It is one of the commonplaces of modern history that the difficulties of the temperate zones, such as the neces- sity of clotliing and proAision against cold seasons, have brought to pass the inventions of man and the development of his higher life. The topic, however, admits of closer anal3^sis and more detailed applica- tion, so that one may be justified in giving it further attention here. Classification An eminent antliroiDolomst^ has classified the cal j)'^f ^^^^ ' geogi^apliical phenomena which affect society into two great gi'oups, according as they influence man involuntarily, or affect the operations of the will. The fii'st are either physiological or psychological. Adaptations of the body to warm climate, for example, take place in races after long residence in ^ Ratzel, Anthropogeographie. THE CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS 267 the tropics and mark the difference between them and the new-comer. Grand scenery has an effect on the imagination and may have an important influence on views of hfe and conduct. Primitive peoples ai'e often moved by fear of a great natural phenomenon, and the effect can be seen in their religious conceptions. The impression of beauty appears to be reserved for more cultivated ages. A taste for mountain scenery is a modern acquire- ment, and even now the peasant who lives in the midst of it does not usually appreciate the aesthetic side of his smToundings. The mountains are likely to develop character through the other class of influences, namely, those which affect the operations of the ^dll, cultivating fortitude in danger, or powers of endiu^ance. The great natiu*al facts in the configm*ation of the Effect on earth sometimes call forth and direct the energies E^^^'syo^ of man, and again they fix limits to liis exertions. The MecUterranean sea and the ocean tempted the cm'iosity of those who dwelt on their borders and by degrees the coasts of other lands were found and explored. Out of this has grown the commerce of the world. On the other hand, high mountains have had a dividing influence upon the intercom'se of peoples. A mountain range has never been a com- pletely prohibitive barrier, because some way across it has usually been found even in primitive times; nevertheless it sets a limit to the amoimt of travel or traffic, and the results may be clearly seen. The numerous dialects of German Switzerland were doubtless fostered by the difficulties of intercourse ^ '^ Man. 268 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Effect on Character. Geography and PoHtical History. between the valleys of that country. The political independence of the city states of Greece was not caused primarily by the mountains and bays which panelled the peninsula, but the tendency to segre- gation was assisted by the natm*al hindi*ances to communication. In the same way the history of the Spanish peninsula has been affected by the elevated chains which divide the country in various directions. In a still narrower sense the climate and geography of a region may affect individuals and communities. The climates which require clothing have fostered in- genuity in suppl}dng that want, so that the develop- ment of the textile industries and manufactures of household conveniences are based on the change of seasons. It is here that we may classify the effects of natural phenomena on the human mind, the sharp- ening of perceptions, and the emichment of human knowledge. Here enters also the development of per- gonal character under the discipline of natui'e. The mountaineer meets difficulties daily and overcomes them by habit wdthout a thought. The frontier woodsman of Canada is accustomed to long joui'neys by land and water. He starts unaided in his canoe, carries his transportation on his own shoulders between streams, and covers distance with a rapidity and ease incredible to the dweller in towns. Every- where the historian must reckon with environment in estimating the condition of the class. Continuing the study of surface geography one might find numerous fines of connection between physical conditions and pofitical history. Towns rise along the shores of navigable streams because THE CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS 269 of the ease with which commerce follows those channels. Cities also are built on high places for security against attack. Perugia has occupied an isolated hilltop ever since the age of the Etruscans. Multitudes of "burgs'' indicate by name and situa- tion the cause of their location. Ancient Praeneste exercised hegemony over a group of little towns which occupied the ends of a series of ridges radi- ating like fingers from the base of the mother city. The political utilities of these natural situations are clear and interesting, but no law can be deduced from them as to the places where towns must inevi- tably have been founded. Each case must be taken by itself. The actual reason for the founda- Location of tion of many cities can be traced either in documents ^^^^^^* or by inference from the situation. The explanation of the particular case is usually sufficient for the purpose of the historian. The advent of peaceful times may divert the course of commerce from the hill-towU; or the discovery of a new route may leave a once favored seaport to decay. The relation of topography to history in such a place must be taken up with each period or each episode. Commercial routes as a rule will follow lines of least resistance, but this also is a comparative statement. More and more difficulties have been overcome as the world has advanced. Roads have been made over moun- tains and finally tunnels bored through them, so that we reach a time when a topic of research might well be named ''the modifications of geogi'aphy at the hands of man.'' Yet the cost of these changes must be reckoned with, for ship canals and mountain 270 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Geography not a Domi Factor. a Dominating Frontiers. railways are not built with ease, and the storing up of the capital and the running expenses of such enter i^riscs form a constant di'ain upon the industrial power of society. Political changes may affect the commerce of whole regions. The routes by wliich the luxm-ies of the Orient came to Southern Eiu*ope were once across Asia Minor or through the Red Sea. The use of these channels has depended upon the peoples who held control. The Roman Empire with its wide- spread protection opened doors which the Moham- medans endeavored to close. The Cliristian cru- saders forced open certain routes again, but the centers of trade were moved westward from Con- stantinople to Venice and Genoa. With the close of the middle ages the Turks gained possession of Constantinople and the ancient routes were cut off from the MecUterranean. Not only was Asia Minor deprived of the local benefits of this commerce, but a land replete with natural riches was left to waste for ages under a corrupt and tyrannical form of government. Geography, therefore, has no com- pelHng factors which control completely the actions of mankind. At most it is a modification of his conduct. Attractions in one direction, control of nature in others, have been concurrent influences in building up civilization. ^'arious political theories have at times been current as to the national rights conferred by the geographical featiu-es of a country. So-called '' nat- ural frontiers" have given cause to ambition for expansion and even war. The French nation held THE CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS 271 for a long time, and many may still hold, that the natm^al boundaries of that country are the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Rhine. The English in India have contended for particular lines as the proper frontier against Russia, but there are no inherent rights in a geographical situation. One might tliink that Spain was naturally endowed with all of the territory on the peninsula up to the Pyrenees, but the solidarity of a nation depends on other tilings. Language is a more cohesive factor than geography, but even here there is no law. Switzer- land has three official languages and no demand for separation. Canada has a French population which is as loyal to the Empire as the part which speaks EngUsh. Austria, on the other hand, is a collection of tongues w^hich do not readily harmonize but render political unity extremely difficult. So, al- though language is a strong bond of affinity there is no historical experience which would show that all who speak alike would act together in pohtical sympathy. It is true that certain configiu'ations of the land Natural are more easily defended than others. A mountain ^^^ii^^aries. chain is conspicuously capable of being made a national bulwark and for such boundaries the nations have eagerly contended. A river, on the other hand, is more convenient for communication than defence and is not a permanent dividing hue, except in primitive ages. In modern warfare a river is but a temporary strategic hindrance. Historically, how- ever, the student must take account of the national ambition for the convenient boundary, tlowever ill- 272 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Topography. Geology. founded the claim may be, it explains at certain times the poUtical action of a nation, although the desu^e may no longer exist. Topography is highly important in the conduct and study of warfare. The science of militaiy strategy is based upon an exhaustive knowledge of the configuration of the countries likely to be involved. The histories of battles are full of instances where the natiu'e of the ground has been the decisive factor in a great conflict. Swamps have baffled cavalry, or a downward slope has given impetus to victory, and so on through the hst of situations, yet on closer analysis it will be found that it is not nature which overwhelms the con- quered. It is not so much the influence of the physical features of the earth in contention with man as it is man's lack of information about the situation. Mountains, and even oceans, offer no insuperable obstacles to war, only temporary hindrances; and it is often found, as it was in the Franco-Prussian contest, that one side is better informed about the enemy's country than the enemy itself. The fu'st to seize a natural advantage \nll be likely to \\dn, but this is a contest of brains, not a war with the elements. History and civihzation have been profoundly affected by the geological conditions of the earth. As already indicated, the nature of the soil, the conditions of productivity, the presence of useful minerals, and the facility with which all of these may be utilized, are data which are of great impor- tance, not only in the study of economic theory, but THE CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS 273 also in establishing the causes of political move- ments and general national development. The time is past when it might be necessary to urge attention to economic conditions, for modern scientific research is fully alive to the importance of the subject. It is no longer confined to a few striking examples, like the agrarian wars of Rome, or the peasant revolts in England. Common every- day pohtical hfe is found to be influenced by eco- nomic reasons. One of the most important duties of ambassadors nowadays is to negotiate treaties regulating the exchange of products between coun- tries. In the minds of a certain part of the popu- lation the chief object of a navy is to provide new outlets for merchandise, on the theory that ^^ com- merce follows the flag.^' Writers have gone so far as to insist that everything is moved by economic causes. To them such a cataclysm as the Refor- mation was caused by the protest of Germany against economic exploitation by the papacy. This goes too far, for, although this factor enters into the matter, the purely economic theory fails to take account of motives which are extremely powerful. Religious sentiments, even when vitiated with ma- terial interests, are distinct, and must be reckoned with as separate psychic phenomena. The economic occupations of a people or region Effect of Eco- (have much to do with their political and social ^^^^^ ^^^^^ 'aspirations. The rock-bound coasts of New England, the rolling farms of New York, the coal and iron hills of Pennsylvania, and the expansive prairies of the West have successively influenced the course 18 274 HISTORICAL RESEARCH of American institutions. The rugged mountains of Norway afforded scant existence for an increasing population and so the Scandina\dans were chiven to look to the sea for their living. Tins developed not only a rugged race, but a particular form of family organization wliich perpetuated the inde- pendence of the indi\ddual and fostered the spirit of adventure wliich led the Northmen to the con- quest of France, England, Sicily, and even more remote parts of the world. The primitive peoples on the steppes of Asia depended on their cattle for their sustenance. Their habitations were movable tents which could easily be changed to fresh pastures. When numbers increased it was only necessary to add more cattle and more tents. The families of sons and grandsons clustered about the original tent, and by the most natural process imaginable there grew up the clan and the patriarchal form of government, American Even more particular analysis can be made in Migrations. civilized countries. For example, the course of migration in the Mississippi Valley has been care- fully traced along the different soils and forests. The hardwood and black soil regions had attractions for a certain class from other states, while the prairies were taken up by emigi^ators from another parallel. The social situation in turn was deter- mined by the origin of the inhabitants. Changes have also taken place in the pohtical attitude of the southern states, owing to economic development. Formerly the principal product in that region was cotton, and, consecjuently, the growers demanded THE CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS 275 easy trade relations with foreign countries with low tariff on imports. Since the Civil War the coal and iron industries have been developed and a strong sentiment for protection has made itself felt. This class of phenomena belongs to what the late Economic In- Thorold Rogers called the ''economic interpretation terpretation of p , . . History. of history. He drew attention very properly to matters which had not then received adequate con- sideration, citing among other factors the place of w^ool in English politics and in the life of the fourteenth century. In the preparations for Edward's war upon France heavy restrictions on the export of wool were enacted for the purpose of forcing the Flemings to take sides with the English. We have here a unique case where an export duty was actually paid by the foreign consumer, but the Flemings were absolutely dependent on the one source for wool and their political allegiance was bound up with their industrial welfare. From another point of view it is apparent that England itself was in a fairly good state of internal peace to permit the sheep industry thus to flourish. Other illustrations might be drawn to show how the investigator is compelled to consider many sides of the social situation in order to explain any one of them. Out of these data certain economic laws have been formulated and it is wise for the student of history to be acquainted with them. Peoples and communities have always lived according to some economic theory, although they may never have taken the trouble to formulate it for themselves. The latest and most scientific doctrine may not be 276 HISTORICAL RESEARCH the principle of action followed at the period under consideration, but the modern theory may explain the consequences. At the same time, as in other instances already brought forward, great care should be used in applying a hard and fast rule. Circum- stances must be alike in all cases to establish a law, or to prove that one episode is like a previous example. History does not repeat itself in that convenient fashion, but rather exhibits itself in ^xlnfinite variations. As a commentary, however, on political and social situations the economic factors cannot be left out of consideration. Economic The study of purely economic history naturally History. ^^Ijg ^^^ ^ different use of these facts from the application of the same phenomena in the explana- tion of political history. For the first the investi- gator would estimate not only the natural situation, but would take note also of any legislative regulation of economic forces. Laws prohibiting exportation, or taxing imports, or sumptuary decrees requiring the use of certain goods have all been used at various times, and show that if he so desires man can direct or influence economic evolution. The effect of the combination of man and nature in the develop- ment of wealth is economic history. The same soiu-ces of information, however, are important to the student of political or national history at large. The methods of the investigating economists are, therefore, to be recommended for valuable sugges- tion. THE CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS 277 Note. A good example is the questionnaire used by the social economists of the school of Leplay for investigating the condi- tion of the working classes. This is the so-called " budget of the family" and includes not only an inquiry into the income and expenditures of the household, but all the conditions under which the family lives. The questions suggest matters which may be of importance to more general historical research. The special definition of ''place" or geographical situation is in- teresting in view of what has already been said. Conditions Surrounding the Family. 1. Condition of the soil, of industry and of population. 2. Civil status of the family. 3. Religion and moral habits. 4. Hygiene and sanitary conditions. 5. Rank of the family. 6. Means of existence of the Family. a. Amount of property. (Furniture and clothing not included.) b. Subventions. c. Labors and industries. 7. Methods of existence of the family. a. Kinds of foods and meals. b. DwelHng, furniture and clothing. c. Recreation. 8. History of the family. a. The principal phases in its existence. b. The customs and institutions assuring the physical and moral well-being of the family. Definition of Place {Le lieu) . I. Soil and waters. a. Geographical situation of the family and of the space investigated. b. Relief and contoiu* of the soil or landscape. c. The soil. (With a view to productivity.) d. Waters. II. Subsoil. (Geology of the place.) III. Air. (Facts of Meteorology.) a. Seasons. b. Local peculiarities or atmospheric accidents. In the volumes of the journal "La Science Sociale," Paris, will be found numerous instructive studies in economic and social history applied to ancient and modern. The results are by no means definitive, but the form of inquiry is extremely suggestive and the analytical tables of contents found in the later volumes are very helpful. CHAPTER XXIII PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN HISTORY Something has already been said as to the influence of the mental atmosphere upon authors in writing liistory at given periods. The middle ages were cited to show the effect of pliilosophical ideals and popular conceptions upon the capacity for exactitude. Modern times might be quoted to in- dicate an opposite tendency, for scientific truth is so much in demand that one does not dare to be care- less. But there is another side to the psychological element in liistory. This is the use of the scientific knowledge of mental processes in explanation of the liistorical movements themselves. An understand- ing of the usual operations of the mind under given conditions will help to show the causes of both individual actions and popular movements. This information must be sought at the hands of the experts, with the warning that no so-called law can be applied to a particular historical case until all circumstances are found identical. Logic, as has been seen in other places, may be a trap for the unwary, yet when looking for the motives of a com- plex situation the scientific psychological rule may suggest the explanation. The Individu- This is not the place to insert a treatise on social psychology, however brief, yet two phases of the matter call for a moment of attention. On the one 278 al and the Mass. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN HISTORY 279 hand appear the mental processes of the indi\ddual, on the other the tendencies of the mass. Both move by the same general laws, but the psychological ■ movements of the crowd are intensified by the very fact that it is a crowd. The result is not only the sum of the individual actions, but this may be multiplied many times by the reaction of the indi- viduals upon each other. The study of these phe- nomena constitutes social psychology, a science by no means complete, but offering many valuable results. At the foundation lies the fact that man is an imitative creatui^e and is subject to suggestion, conscious or unconscious, from his fellowman, and certain laws which control this imitative process have aheady been well established. The mob is the extreme example of social excita- bility, where the mass, held together by mutual suggestion, will commit acts from which the same individuals when alone would shiink with horror. It is the imitative impulse seen in the flock of sheep which follow '^he~fifst leader through the fence, or in a panic of fear will even hurl themselves over a precipice. In less degree the well-mannered crowd will be moved to concerted action in religion or politics through the contagion of example. These laws of imitation help to account for crusades, speculative crazes like the South Sea bubble, religious revivals, financial panics, movements for political reform, and similar phenomena, good or evil, in every age of the world. In saying this one does not have to deny the influence of ideas. It is simply the explanation of the method by which tions. 280 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ideas take hold and spread among masses of man- kind. The leaders of men, the propagators of ideas, take advantage of these laws instinctively. Social Condi- Less striking but fully as powerful are the effects of custom and conventionality upon the mass of mankind. The desire to appear well in the eyes of their fellows is a fundamental motive in all classes of the human race. In fashions this approval is obtained by imitating superiors in wealth or position. The ideal person or rank to be imitated changes with the period, but the motive is active in all ages. In morals the approval of ourfeHow-beings is sought thi'ough obedience to the conventionalities which prevail in that particular social group. When the ideals are good the influence of conventionality is excellent; for the support of example is almost indis- pensable to the preservation of good habits. _^gcial opinion on the other hand may have upheld /manners and moral precepts which cannot now be defended. For instance, the practice of exposing deformed children was an accepted custom in Greek life at a time when the fine arts were showing their highest development. Stoicism under all conditions of life was as much a fashion as it was a pliilosophical doctrine in its day. Duelhng persisted as a code of honor more by the power of social opinion than » thi'ough inherent principle. As a means of setthng questions of right or veracity the personal encounter has no sense whatever, yet a century has hardly elapsed since it was impossible for a gentleman to avoid the consequences of the fashion. The behef in witchcraft persisted into the eighteenth century ion. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN HISTORY 281 with such power that even the judiciar}^ were clearly controlled by it in their estimates of evidence. Testimony showing in itself that the accused was sane and harmless was made to prove the contrary, because the judges could not rid themselves of the belief that witchcraft itself was a real thing. They were only a part of the public opinion of the time. Instances might be multiplied indefinitely to Public Opin- show the influence of social opinion, not only upon manners and institutions, but upon political history as well. (Prejudices of nationality and language affect international relations and aggravate real causes of irritation. These are largely matters of ignorance and misinformation, but their persistence and evil influences are due to the contagion of public opinion. The spread of quiet beliefs as well as of the wild rumors of invasion or panic are both subject to the laws of psychology. These must share the investigator's attention in every period he enters. At the same time the question as to what public opinion was at a given date is not an easy matter to decide. In modern political affairs the chief guide is the record of votes on party questions, but if one searches for statistical information as to how many persons actually believed in the tenets of a platform it is impossible to come anywhere near exactitude. The newspapers which urge one side or another may be counted, but no one knows how many subscribers or readers are in sympathy with the poHcy. Pam- phlets may be abundant, but no one can count the proselytes to their doctrines, except through the small portion of the public which goes to the polls. 282 HISTORICAL RESEARCH Imitation. Yet the student of history has before him the estabUshed psychological fact that a large portion of the mass accepts its opinions from others. The voice of a small but energetic ininority of any group may be the only opinion heard on that side, but there is always a great body looking for leaders. If the small body moves the rest, whether by force or by > contagion, the results are the action of the whole. Changes come slowly at best, and the older the group the more difficiJt is the task of reform. Pioneer societies have a tendency to make innova- tions because in the process of colonizing they cut themselves off in part from the traditions of their former social environment. In fitting themselves to a new situation they abandon old customs which have outlived their usefulness. There will be no wholesale destruction of old usages, for so persistent are old habits that through the home customs carried into new country the origin of the colony can be traced. Leaving out of consideration the temporary mining camp, w^iere all moral laws are likely to give way, the ordinary colony will abolish only the customs which have become useless, be- cause in the new siu-roundings their anachronism is manifest. The Heritage In the environment of a people there must be o uture. taken into account the cultiu-e of the past. This includes the social institutions which have grown up and the intellectual acquirements already attained. This is sometimes spoken of as inherited civilization, but strictly speaking there is no such thing as hered- ity in culture. A cliild is born with the capacities PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN HISTORY 283 of its parents, but must acquire for itself whatever education it attains. Biologically speaking, every generation starts at the bottom, but is immensely influenced by the environment in which it grows up. It absorbs the manners and morals of those about it and progresses according as it makes use of the knowledge of its predecessors. Consequently, as in the case of the inheritance of lands and money, the historian must take account of the use made of opportunities. Charlemagne by dint of great effort forged together the Roman Empire, but his grandsons let it go to pieces. Frederick WilHam of Prussia collected and di'illed one of the finest armies in Europe and left this with a full war-chest to his son. Frederic the Great took advantages of his resoiu*ces, expanded his territory, and made Prussia one of the chief powers of the continent. Other examples of the use of political inheritances come to mind at once, and are necessary considerations in estimating the work of every dynasty and administration. Such cases, however, are simple arithmetic compared to the study of the heritage of a complex civilization. The eighth centiu*y might be supposed to have at command all the learning of the Greeks and Romans, but only a portion of it was used and the world seemed about to lose the rest. We are obliged to inquire what authors were available, what was taught in the schools, and what conveniences of hfe were drawn from mechanical contrivances. The natui^al sciences were all born late and their most rapid gi^owth has been in modern times, conse- quently the more recent centuries offer the more 284 HISTORICAL RESEARCH complex problems. In fact, the consideration of inherited culture is a topic of modern research to which formerly not much thought was given, but it is important to know, for example, how much of the land of France had been cleared for tillage and how many lines of travel were open before the time of Charlemagne. Exact statistics are not available for that period and the question is still open to research, but the query is none the less important. What use did the Anglo-Saxons make of the culture left them by the Romans? Apparently very little, but the question ought to be asked of each generation that has followed. It is necessary occasionally to make a cross section of history to estimate its assets, spiritual and temporal, in order to show what advantages the next generation possessed and how well these were made use of. In so modern a situ- ation as the Franco-Prussian war we cannot account for the mihtary success of a Moltke without a study of the learning and economic progress of Germany during the previous quarter of a century. Not only the art of war, but the sciences in general, were being cultivated as nowhere else. Today the commercial position of Germany is due to the progressive use of all of the acquired technical knowledge of the past generations and of this. Heritage of In the matter of art we are the heirs of all the ages in a particularly striking way. The inhabitants of Paris, for instance, can see in their pubHc galleries examples of sculpture from the earliest efforts to the present day. There are represented not only the finest paintings of the Renaissance, but more of Art PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN HISTORY 285 them than the Medici could show, along with the best that succeeding centuries have produced. Paris profits by this, and stands as a world center of fine art and industry. Contrast with this the dark period in the history of Rome when the ignorant people, although smrounded with the fragments of ancient art, were unable to appreciate their beauty, or even to read the Greek inscriptions. A seated statue of Menander, although plainly inscribed with his name, was taken for a saint, and one may yet see the worn foot which was nearly kissed away by its worshippers. The law itself is an inheritance for each generation Law and Prog- and may be a hindrance or a help to progress, hence ^^^^' it is important to note who is responsible for the laws of a particular period. The Anglo-Saxons wished only the old and well-established. Alfred is called a lawgiver, but he himself was afraid to change the old customs except in a few cases, which were ob^dously outgrown. Except in times of frenzy, like the French Revolution, the principles of law are slow to change, even in modem days, in spite of the fact that men now elect law-making bodies. However, the responsibility of later generations for their own government is more evident, and it is the historian's duty to distinguish how much the nation is moved by inherited ordinances and how much of the law is due to the initiative of the living. A study of the psychologic laws under which Race not a each generation comes up removes all argument in ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^S" favor of ^^race'' as a factor in history. Taine measured civilization according to ''race, environment 286 HISTORICAL RESEARCH and time/'^ but the most that can be said for the first item is to call it race education. In reality it is ^gToup education, with which race has no connection. Men are born innocent of any previous culture of theii^ fathers, but with a variety of capacities and temperaments. By living together the peculiarities of the group became emphasized and conspicuous tln-ough the natural laws of social imitation. Relig- ion may sanction and perpetuate certain practices and moral precepts, but blood has nothing to do with the matter. It is the peculiar environment, in which imitation is assisted by parental precept and constant example. The race element has so long been discredited in connection with the history of Western Eiu-ope that it might hardly seem neces- sary to call it to mind,^ but the question comes up even yet in the study of oriental peoples. Occa- sionally one hears grave economists assert that the yellow races have not the capacity to compete with the Teutonic. This has been said at times even of the Russo-Sclavic, but in the latter case modern events have silenced the argument, and recent wars have shaken the prejudice against the Orient. In any event it is not a matter of blood, b^t of institutions. Recapitula- To recapitulate the general conditions, let us suppose the case of an investigator who has under- taken the examination of a brief period of the his- ' See Introduction to his History of English Literature. ^ ^' Of all vulgar modes of escaping from the consideration of the effect of social and moral influences on the human mind, the most vulgar is that of attributing the diversities of conduct and character to inherent natural differences." Mill, Princi- ples of Political Economy, I, 390. Buckle, Civihzation in England, I, 36-137. tion. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN HISTORY 287 tory of a single country. The larger study of man- kind is of coiu*se the eventual task of historical research, but practically each worker to be effective must take a small portion, and frequently only one phase of the period chosen. Assuming that the general cmTcnt of a national epoch is to be given, the \Yorker will from the documents assure himself of the political movements in their chronological or topical order. To give light upon these political currents and to explain the kind of life which this people exemplifies, he will include in his studies: 1. The physical geography of the territory. This will include the configiu*ation, amount of land and water, the climate, the soil and its economic produc- tivity, and the important mineral products. 2. The natiu'e of the people, which may be found in a study of national origin and existing intellectual peculiarities. 3. Culture conditions, which are revealed in the language, the habits, the state of morals, the char- acter of reHgion, in art, in the extent of commerce, and in the condition of science. 4. The existing political institutions, as seen fu-st in the fundamental constitution, which is either fixed or flexible, and second in the ordinary law, concerning which it is necessary not only to know its words but to observe how carefully it is admin- istered. \ / \l 7 CHAPTER XXIV THE PRESENTATION The study of the general causes at work in history is only one part of the collection of data. We are obhged to take account of large matters, possibly casting the eye over long vistas of time to explain a limited period; but the act is yet one of the prelimi- nary processes of construction. We may speculate on the philosophy of human life and the ultimate \^ end of all tilings, and still be busy with but a single point in the general task. The aim of it all is finally to present a connected account. It is in the natm-e of om^ mental dp^ations that the connections between things have been slowly establishing them- selves as the preparatory work has proceeded. In attempting to analyze the method we have separated processes which take place simultaneously, because it is best to consider the steps one at a time in order to see their logical value. The crowning act is to get the results of the previous study into an orderly narrative, however long the process may have been approaching completeness. In brief, a practical statement of the case is this: 1. A topic was chosen for investigation. 2. Many authors and documents have been con- sulted. 3. These have been criticized and the worthless laid aside. 288 THE PRESENTATION 289 4. From the pertinent sources hundreds of notes have been taken. 5. Small groups of related facts have been placed in order as the work progressed. 6. A study of general physical, economic and social agencies has enlarged the groups of facts and given greater coherency to the groups. 7. It is now in order to combine the parts into a treatise, or a narrative for the pubHc. Probably the scheme has been forming in the Concentratic mind during the progress of the research. A chro- nological treatment has its order prescribed in advance, and a topical arrangement will develop at least an hypothesis of results, yet in all cases it is important to stop and review the subject as a whole in order to formulate it in proper proportions. In this connection the first general duty may be summed up in the word ''concentration.^' This has a very practical appUcation at the outset, for as a rule the investigator collects more data than he needs. In the laudable desire to omit nothing of importance relating to his subject he will make note of matters which may be finally discarded. This is the method pursued in every science, and there is no other way of making sure of thorough work, but it does not necessarily follow that all of the material should be used. In historical research it is almost inevitably the case that the matter should be "boiled down." Upon the process of concentration depends the excellence of the product. At the very outset the kind of history about to be written will prescribe the classes of material to be omitted. For constitu- 19 290 HISTORICAL RESEARCH tional and legal history, for art or religious history, or for biography there will be things omitted which might appear in a general narrative. One might think such an admonition so obvious that it need not be mentioned, but it is a regrettable fact that even the special wiiter sometimes forgets the boundaries of his own topic. This can arise in the conscientious collection of data in the expectation that the matter will eventually be sifted. To avoid redundance / the point of view must be maintained steadily throughout the whole investigation. Improper Per- After the subject itself has determined in a general spective. ^^,j^y ^YiQ kinds of data that are to be set aside, the next consideration is the relative value of what is left. This is frequently spoken of as finding the ''historical perspective,'^ and is a matter not only essential to an agreeable literary st3de, but also to the truth of history. Notwithstanding the impor- tance of tliis rule, an enormous budget of grievances can be rolled up against the historians on this very point. Again and again the chapters are loaded with details about comparatively unimportant events or persons, or, what is equally perversive of truth, all parts of the period are given equally extensive treatment. The distant and minor per- sonages are brought into the foregi^ound, the pictm^e is fiat, and accordingly the narrative is out of per- spective. Herodotus often fails in this respect. While he is reciting the story of Greece he happens to think of an anecdote about some other country, and in the telhng of it he is perhaps reminded of another, and before he gets back to the current of THE PRESENTATION 291 his history again the reader may have had a trip to Babylon or Africa. The stories are very enter- taining but they do not ahvays contribute to the perspective of Greek liistory. Another sad example of lack of perspective is in Kopp's ^'Geschichte der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft/' The author was so anxious to exliibit the relations of the con- federation to the German Empire that he overloaded the narrative with discussions of imperial documents. Switzerland is almost lost sight of and the work would be more appropriately called a history of the empire. Freeman's Norman Conquest suffers from the overcrowding of details. The account is so minute that the author appears to have found it hard to omit anything he found in the chi'onicles. The list of delinquents is long indeed. Almost every doctoral dissertation in history contains much that could profitably be left out. The true perspective must be sought at any True Per- expense of selection and concentration. In the ^P^^^^^^®- fii'st place it must be remembered that the subject investigated by any one man is but a small part of the history of the world and probably only a portion of any one country. A modest conception of his own contribution will help to reduce the compass of the treatise, and, better yet, will indicate the matters to be retained. Only such evidence as will con- b" tribute to an understanding of the general develop- ment of the country, or the general history of its institutions, should be included in the presentation. Too many books have been written in which it would seem as if the subject were the only thing in 292 HISTORICAL RESEARCH the world worth attention. Argument may be necessary to prove a new theory, and all the impor- tant facts for that pm-pose should be included, but here, too, there is likely to be an overestimate of the space required for the demonstration. The litera- ture in each branch of science and in every field of history is so abundant that the new writer is in duty bound, if only for self-preservation, to consider the limits of human accj[uirement and the brevity of this life. Omissions. The most successful writers are those who know best what to leave out, yet the process of elimination is not the most agreeable. When one has worked hard to gather his facts, has spent hours and days in getting the substance of a subject, it seems cruel to be obliged to lay aside all those notes and con- dense the work of weeks into a paragraph, or boil down a page into an adverb. Infanticide is hardly less repugnant, but the weeding must be done and the only question is as to what shall be left standing. For choice we are not left in the dark, or abandoned to the mere desire to be brief. Important guide marks indicate the way. One of these points to the conscientious use of the words and expressions which concentrate in themselves the results of ages or the essence of institutions. These are often words which seem so familiar that no mistake could be made in the meaning, yet a most perilous part of the composition of history lies in the use of the terms which must necessarily be employed in a technical sense to avoid the repetition of long descriptions. Every natural science demands that care be exer- THE PRESENTATION 293 cised in the formation and application of its own terminology. Just as philosophy and theology require uniformity in terms before discussions can begin, so is it equally important that the words descriptive of institutions and situations be employed with exactitude. In the liistorical narrative the use of representative Representa- words is constant. We cannot on every occasion *^^^ Terms, stop to give a page of explanation respecting the relation of men to each other and to the land in the middle ages, but^ in the midst of a paragraph about something else, or by way of comparison, we use the word ^'feudaUsm,'' and to the intelligent reader a whole picture is there. Hosts of similar words are at command into which are condensed whole paragraphs of law, or whole books of description. We are continually saying '^ people,^' "nation,'' ''monarchy,'' ''kingdom," "church and state," "law," "republic," and the careful student knows that the words stand for one kind of institution under the Roman Empire, another kind under Charlemagne, and still another under Kaiser Wilhelm. Yet there is a notorious lack of discrimination in their use. A French king was created in the tenth century whose powers were but the moonhght shadows of those of Louis XIV, and it was many generations after the first king before one could speak with propriety of a "French people." The term "feudal" is frequently applied by way of allusion or comparison to social relations of any period without attention to the fact that feudahsm at any one time in the middle ages was a most Words. 294 HISTORICAL RESEARCH complicated affair, differing in every province and changing with every centui'y. The word ''tyrant'' has attained an odious meaning which was not attached to it by the Greeks, and the use of it in the modern sense is justifiable in its proper place, but if we apply the term ''democracy^' indiscriminately to the pohtical situation in Athens and in Switzer- land, we are gi^ang an untrue picture. Strict Use of The historical student is not often called upon to mvent new terms, since his phenomena are taken from the past and have already been named, but he is bound in the interest of exactitude and truth to use these terms with care, not only when attempt- ing to describe and discuss an institution or law, but also in making a comparison or a passing allu- sion. It is a part of good literary style to use words which mean precisely what the writer intends to say, though the same thing cannot always be said for popular conversation. It is not necessar}^ in order to be clear to repeat the same words over and over as in a geometrical proposition, nor yet should one seek for supposed synonyms when an institution or an liistorical situation is at stake. Conscience should be applied even to adjectives.^ Chronological Each historical topic can be viewed in either of two hghts, the clii'onological or the thematic, and upon the choice depends the perspective of the general arrangement. The treatment may follow simply the development of the nation or the region in years and centuries, or the various parts of the social organization may be taken up one after ' G. C. Lewis, Methods, I, ch. 4, 5. and Thematic Treatment. THE PRESENTATION " 2flr, r^^ another; yet any history which is to rise above a mere chronology, diary, or tabular view must com- bine the thematic with the chronological arrange- ment. The story of a nation is not profitably treated in a purely clironological order, for the political, constitutional, literary and social phases \d\\ each have a chfferent development. The history of England is one of the simplest for treat- ment. It has unity and continuity which makes it an admh^able subject for a coiu^se of study. After the Norman Conquest, at least, there is but one government to consider until after a long time the kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland are fused with the English center. In the modern period of expansion the matter becomes more complicated, yet in all this simpUcity the historian must have respect for the relative gravity of the parts, and give space accorcUng to the time and importance of events as they contribute to the development of the English people. The history of the United States presents another Perspective in kind of problem, as it has to do with a collection of American His- separate colonies which eventually became one fed- eration, while at the same time each state retained a certain amount of individuality. It would be most undesirable to take up the history of each state and work them all out one at a time from the beginning to the present day, for that would be simply a collection of narratives. It would not be a history of the United States, but rather a dis- united history of the states of America. Nor, on the other hand, is it possible to keep the accounts 296 HISTORICAL RESEARCH all going at an even pace year by year. Anything like a logical development of the nation would be lost in the devotion to chronology. The proper method would be to take up at fii'st the colonies in the order of their foimdation and endeavor to show the steps by which they came together, bringing forward each one from time to time as its part becomes important in the growth of the union. Later on under the national government one region is sometimes more in evidence than another at a given moment and the treatment should reflect the situation. This is the ^'dramatic arrangement/' and is simply the rule observed by the playwright who brings forward liis characters when they have something to say which contributes to the develop- ment of the plot. Between times they remain behind the scenes. Dramatic Ar- The historical student will not find his material often adapted to the technical unities of the drama, but the analogy is pertinent in determining the perspective of his narrative. This very matter of the relative importance of things requires careful preliminary study and is not without certain perils of its own. First, there is the danger of making the wrong thing the center of interest. A misguided or unconscious patriotism may bring the native country of the author into the scene as the most prominent feature. Such would be a history of the middle ages which gave Germany the principal part in the story with only incidental references to France and Italy. A plan of this kind might be allowed in a school text-book when the main object rangement. THE PRESENTATION 297 is to teach the national history, but the trouble is also found in more serious work. The territorial or state history can easily exaggerate the importance of its subject. The history of New England, justly significant as it is, has often received an undue proportion of weight in the development of American institutions because that region was the first to produce abundant writers of history. This ten- dency is rarely due to a desire to magnify one region at the expense of another, but is a subjective influ- ence requiring all the more preliminary caution. Biographers are particularly liable to distort the perspective of their works by exaggerating the importance of their chosen character. Long study of one personality seems to lead natvu*ally to that result. The biographer, being better informed than his readers, must know many more details about his subject and will undoubtedly see more fine points in his character, but at the same time he must beware lest he succumb to the subtle temptation to magnify the value of his own task. On the other hand, a fine sense of literary art or Emphasis, a natural dramatic instinct may also lead to ^empha- sis at the wrong point. This criticism would prob- ably apply to portions or passages in a work, rather than to the whole plan. In attempting to make a history interesting one meets a natural temptation to bring the account to a proper climax, or to have the cUmax apparent and clear. Sometimes an author has favorites in his period and perhaps unconsciously makes one character stand out more dramatically than another. It is easy under such 298 HISTORICAL RESEARCH circumstances to distort the true condition of things. The hterary impulses of the author may easily lead him to warp the facts just a little. In ascribing motives, in making a keen comparison or a brilliant antithesis, the real situation may be obscured. However painful the restraint may be, a respect for the truth will recjuire him to abstain at such places from unwarranted di'amatic climaxes and literary adornments. Analysis of In historical work the plan, as we have seen, is Theme. largely determined by the natm^e of the theme, but it lies with the author to make this plan apparent or not. In some cases, particularly where a new field has been opened or an old point is contro- verted, it is wiser to indicate in advance what the order of arrangement will be. This can be done mechanically in analytical tables of contents, or after the form of legal briefs, where a statement of the points to be made is placed at the opening of the paper — '^we expect to prove as follows,'' etc. Less formally the plan can be indicated in the course of the narrative itself, but repetitions of points or enumerations of arguments ought not to be too frequent, or the reader will be wearied. The scaffolding of the structure is extremely important to the investigator himself, but it is better not to leave this prominently in the sight of the public. It has been said that every Aviiter should make the indexes of his own books, because he knows best the significance of his own topics. It can also be affirmed that every investigator should make an analvtical table of contents of his work for his own THE PRESENTATION 299 benefit, so that he may be siu'e that his argument is conclusive and Ms order of presentation tlie best. In the processes of criticism and construction we Objectivity, have been considering constantly the personal equation in memoirs, statements, and documents, wdth a view to getting hold of the true accounts of events. We have seen that the individual is but a medium of transmission for whose pecuUarities allowance must be made, and that with the best of intentions oiu* somT-es still remain shghtly colored by personahty. In view of tliis condition of things, both in the natiu'e of the materials and the mental equipment of mankind, the question arises at once as to whether it is possible to write history in a purely neutral tint. Can we eliminate the historian, and if so, is it necessary or desirable? The topic has been the basis of much discussion over "objec- tivity and subjectivity^' in liistorical narrative. In the course of the controversy the terms have lost keenness in definition, particularly in German his- torical circles, but there are two ways in which history may be wi'itten that indicate the solution to our first query. First, there have been writers who avowedly gave Subjectivity. forth their own impressions of past events. They absorbed the materials, they noticed the effect on then- own minds, then presented their mental opera- tions and perhaps the emotions raised in themselves by a contemplation of bygone scenes. Carlyle's French Revolution is more or less a history of this order. Why should we not ask each historian to speak for himself and then, having struck an average 300 HISTORICAL RESEARCH between them all, give the name History to that which is apparently the average impression made upon scholarly men? The proposal hardly needs an answer. It may be interesting to know how the study of the past affects the emotions of men who devote themselves to it, but the results can hardly be accepted as history. If history is the narration of things as they really were, the subjective treat- ment is a study in moralities rather^ than realities. Scholars by this method may possibly give us a true reflection of the times about wliich they write, but the chances are that they have only added one more psychological problem to the many already encountered. Subjective historical writing is curi- ous, but it is not history. Suppression of On the other hand the \\Titer who removes him- e ^ ^"^^ self entirely from the historical narrative must sup- press all personal opinions or emotions about the persons or events to be described. To do this abso- lutely is impossible. Not until the human race has been made over on a new pattern will a purely objective account of any period be made. In the identification of sources we should be deprived of one of the most valuable clues if it were not that the characteristics of the writer are bound in some manner to appear. In spite of the gi'eatest care opinions will crop out even in the choice of adjectives, or the turning of plu^ases, or the omissions in treat- ment. The question, therefore, is not concerning the absolute suppression of the author, but whether his personality can be reduced to a neghgible quantity. THE PRESENTATION 301 Certain faults of presentation cannot well be Faulty Prepa- excused. If the distorted picture is due to lack of ^^^^^^• care in prepai^ation we are confronted with all of the difficulties wliich were encountered in the study of historical criticism. If the materials are rare and incomplete at the time of the inquiry the author cannot be blamed if at a later time the pictiu'e appears faulty, but if the critical work has been slovenly there will be errors in the conception, as well as in the formal presentation. Laziness is a sin to which historians are susceptible like other people. Short cuts are much more convenient than circuitous examinations, and it is extremely easy to draw conclusions before ascertaining that every item of data is correct, or before all conditions have been duly weighed. Outspoken prejudice and blind devotion to pre- conceived ideas are faults which everybody abhors, in theory at least. It is the more subtle influences which bring the writer into trouble. A pessimistic view of human nature may lead one to ascribe every action to sel&sh motives, or a person of high ideals may be equally at fault in assuming that his char- acters are all on the same level. There is no aver- age moral rule which mankind follows. Every episode must stand on its own moral basis, for the same men sometimes follow higher and sometimes lower motives. Assuming that we are historical students of The Historian reasonable mental endowment, that we have given ^^^ ^^ Auto- conscientious care to the collection and sifting of materials, that we are sufficiently gifted with imagi- 302 HISTORICAL RESEARCH nation, so that we can visualize the events of the past, is it necessary in the presentation of connected work to avoid all expression of feeling, or all moral deductions? An examination of the great liistorians, either ancient or modern, will show that they have not suppressed themselves. It may be truly said that it is the aim of historical science to state facts, not to give vent to feelings. Too much emotion has been encountered in political and religious con- flicts, and thereby added much to the critical diffi- culties of the investigator, but this is no reason why the historian may not comment on persons and events as they pass by. It is not necessary that the man who studies history should suppress all natm^al feelings in order to gain a sort of emotional Nnvana, whence he can contemplate all human action with indifference. An expression of patriotic joy, approval of a good action, or righteous indigna- tion at an injustice is not incompatible with his- torical science. It is possible to have feelings and yet wTite a true report of an event. It is a matter of taste in literary style. From that point of view it is advisable to use restraint. While the historian is yet to be c^Hisidered a human being, it is better for him not to display his own emotions too promi- nently, but to relate the matter so that his readers v/will be moved by the tale itself. In any attempt at moral comment he wall bear in mind that he is at the same time to hold the scales of justice with an even hand. CH.iPTER XXV LITERARY STYLE IN HISTORY Sir George Lewds remarks that history Hes under a pecuUar disadvantage in that it is in itself "amus- ing/' The statistics and observations in a natm^al science are not very interesting in their fragmentary state, however starthng the final result. In history, on the other hand, the minor incidents, owing to human ciu*iosity about the fellowman, are enter- taining in themselves. It is this peculiarity that tempts the author to put in more incidents than the true perspective admits and leads to other critical troubles already discussed. The situation di^aws out the question of literary style for history. Shall history be wxitten for the entertainment of Object of His- the public, or, whatever the object, is there a literary *°^^' form peculiar to the needs of the liistorical writer? The question comes up with every monograph as well as with every extended work, whether it ought to be written in an interesting manner, or whether the author shall put it down as he thinks he finds it and let the public take the consequences. By a certain school of investigators, not confined to any one country, it has been regarded as a sign of weak- ness to show any regard for literary form. To be artistic with them is to be unscientific, and the readers take the consequences. This conviction is 303 304 HISTORICAL RESEARCH due to the unfortunate fact that for so many ages history was regarded as but one branch of Hteratiu-e, and Hterary arts were employed to make it more palatable. The modern scientific revolt against superficial investigation went to the other extreme, and there are persons yet who look upon Gibbon and Macaulay with more or less of disdain. Perhaps the German historians as a class have less regard for st^de than others, yet the fact that the highest typos of research come from that country makes one pause before gi^ing an answer to the problem of form. Ls History an Taine says: "History is an art, it is true, but it is ^^*'^ also a science; it demands of the writer inspu^ation, but it also demands of him reflection; if it has the imagination for a hand maid, it has for its instru- ment prudent criticism and circumspect generaliza- tion. Its pictures must be as vivid as those of poetry, but its style must also be as exact, its divi- sions as well marked, its laws as well proved, its inductions as precise as those of natural history.''^ This is a definition made in the course of an essay upon an historian whose work belongs particularly in the realm of literature, and the critic shows a more modern conception of the duties of the his- torical writer than the subject of his criticism. At the same time, one can hardly conceive of a German admitting that history is an art. In fact, the role of art in the presentation of history holds a secondary place and must be distinctly set apart, for the object of history is to set forth the truth, not to produce an aesthetic effect. The object of art is to produce * Taine, Essais de Critique et d'Hiatoire, p. 3, on "Michelet." LITERARY STYLE IN HISTORY 305 a consistent whole. A piece of sculpture presents an ideal figure, or perhaps an historical personage, at a given moment in a way to produce upon the mind an effect which is complete in itself. A paint- ing depicts a scene, either imaginary or liistorical, which, like a painted sunset, stands still, a finished act. A musical work endeavors to impress upon the hearer a rounded and complete effect. The literary artist sets for himself the task of unrolling a plot, or developing a character, and endeavors to bring the complicated situations to a consistent end. These are simple standards wliich the public every day unconsciously applies to pictiu*es or to fiction. In the writing of history it is not always possible No Picture to make complete pictiu'es. However devoted to ^^^^pl^^®- art one may desire to be, the materials of history are often inconveniently defective. The course of human society is more or less prosaic, and things proceed with very brutal disregard for the dramatic proprieties. Consequently, if the aim of the writer is simply to make a good piece of literatm^e, measiu*ed by the canons of art rather than science, he will find himself very often strongly tempted to bring his facts up to fit the composition. In creative works of art the materials may be drawn from any- where, but in history they must be related as they happened. The scientific imagination will find itself fully occupied in 'supplying the missing facts which logically must have occurred, rather than in the invention of things which will best fill out an artistic plot or a moving description. On the other hand, if there is any object in his- Effect Sought, 20 306 HISTORICAL RESEARCH torical work beyond the collection of documents it must be to exert an effect upon the readers. The monogi^aph may be written for the select few and the general history for the many, but in either case the matter must be adapted to its auditory and some attention must be given to the form of presentation. It goes without saying that the historical essay, written to set forth a new discovery or propound a new view, must devote itself to the logic of its argu- ^ ments. This is best secured by the marshalling of facts, rather than by figures of speech, but it need not be forgotten that a well-ordered argument can give pleasure like a work of art. In France the standards of literary art demand above all that the essay shall be con\dncing, but it must be put together in its most logical order and with the most appropri- ate words. The reader is under no obligation to pick out an argument from a confused jumble of materials. Style Con- It may be that the readers of this book will in the forms to Per- Jmniediate future be more often engaged in short studies in liistory than in extensive general works, but in almost all brief essays there are portions which partake of the same nature as the extended narrative, hence a discussion of the larger problem is not out of place. Briefly stated, the style of the most effective historians has conformed to the age in which they lived. The stately periods and the finished phraseology of Gibbon were products of the literary art of the eighteenth century. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire remains a classic because it both conformed to, and confirmed, the literary LITERARY STYLE IN HISTORY 307 canons of a period of refined taste. It is the English of the Spectator and of Gibbon's contemporary, Hume. Perhaps we may agree with Frederic Harrison that the subject was of such paramount importance that Gibbon could do no less than relate it in a style of equal dignity and magnificence. However tliis may be, it is certain that the author had in view the cultivated portion of the English public and upheld the highest traditions of the language. There is, moreover, such a clarity of expression that the narrative is comprehensible to the simplest reader. As to his scientific accuracy, we must recognize a master mind. Since Gibbon's day much more evidence has come to light, but if one examines the latest revision of the Decline and Fall, edited by a scholar who knows the field, it will be found that very few essential views had to be changed. The amount of actual correction is aston- ishingly small. ^ In English history Hume has passed out of sight Macaulay. because of his inadequate method of investigation. No amount of fine language will take the place of careful research. Macaulay came next in succession as a popular favorite in historical reading, and he also kept up the tradition for carefulness in the use of language. His phraseology is polished, his periods well rounded, and his paragraphs complete. There is a smoothness in the work which makes his pages easy to read. In fact, it was this smoothness that ^ See Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by J. B. Bury. The modern changes are mentioned in separate footnotes. 308 HISTORICAL RESEARCH led people in the course of time to think that the contents could not have been well prepared. Find- ing various mistakes along with some perfectly obvious tendencies in personal bias, it was suspected that the beautiful style was only a cover for hasty research. This view is erroneous, for Macaulay was a prodigious worker, and brought to bear a phe- nomenal memory upon a vast amount of material. The faults lie chiefly in the partisan prejudices of the author and the tendency to make comparisons and antitheses for literary effect. Macaulay 's hold on the public was enormous and the sale of the his- tory in cheap editions continues to be very large. This is testimony to the permanent results of good work, for the period chosen was by no means the most vital in EngHsh history and furnished no dramatic unity in the story itself. Macaulay ^s avowed piu-pose of making the subject interesting was fully accomplished, yet it would be most unwise to imitate his methods. The style is too flowing for the taste of the present day and would fail of its effect. Buckle. The nineteenth century furnished numerous other writers of history whose place among English authors is definitely marked. For example, Thomas Buckle's History of CiviUzation in England is most dehghtfully presented. Buckle had not only origi- nal ideas, but very striking and entertaining ways of setting them forth. For a time his theories had a wide influence in foreign countries as well as England, and now, although untenable as a whole, his views are still stimulating in their interesting LITERARY STYLE IN HISTORY 309 garb. If Carlyle could be counted among historians Carlyle. we might take notice of the great vogue his writings obtained in his hfetime, yet his style was far removed from the classical examples, being full of short sen- tences, interjections, and exclamation points. It was the poetic glamour thrown over his subjects that gave them their popular attraction. The brevity of expression was an indication of a modern tendency. Freeman ^s contributions to English history were Freeman. not set forth in a style commensiu*ate with their significance. AATiile in no sense obscure, his chap- ters are often diffused and repetitious. Most of his writings have the faults which are liable to occur in the spoken address. The author is more or less com- bative in attitude and his papers are argumentative. In trying to make important points clear he repeats them again and again. This is the method of the advocate before the jury and results in leaving the reader with a good idea of the case, but the process is unnecessarily wearisome. It is rather unfortunate for the cause of good Froude. writing that Freeman ^s great contemporary and historical opponent should have possessed greater literary gifts than critical judgment. Froude left his mark upon a large field of English history in a style that is not only entertaining, but dignified and suitable to an important period. His narrative is in large measure reliable, but at critical points is vitiated by a perverted conception of the English Reformation. The evidence seems to have had no effect on his own mind, yet one cannot but believe Theme. 310 HISTORICAL RESEARCH that the hterary effort expended upon Froude's twelve vokimes could have been fully as effectively apphed to a scientific history of the period. There are no literary devices employed in his work that would interfere with, truth telHng, if the author had been capable of it. Style and The possibility of writing history in an interesting manner natm'ally depends somewhat upon the topic chosen. Constitutional history, for example, is not a subject which lends itself easily to graces of style. To the special student of political science the growth of constitutions and laws is fundamental and he finds interest in every aspect, but to the general culti- vated reader it remains an accpired taste. Bishop Stubl^s displayed wonderful industry and acumen in his three volumes on the English Constitution, but the work is hard to read. One wishes that the chapter on the "Thegn" were written in dialect, or that some other violent means had been taken to keep the attention. Yet the matter is not hopeless. F. AV. Maitland wrote of constitutional and legal topics in a manner graceful and entertaining. He had an advantage over Stubbs in that his constitu- tional history is a short review of a long period, wliile Stubbs enters with great detail into the first half only. It is the keen mind of Maitland that shines through his language without effort. The highest types of the earlier American histo- rians employed what may be called the eloquent style. Prescott, Motley, and Bancroft were patriots as well as literary artists, in their respective fields. Bancroft's first editions were decidedly oratorical LITERARY STYLE IN HISTORY 311 in tone, but this aspect was notably changed in the author ^s later revisions. Prescott and Motley had high conceptions of their duties both as investiga- tors and as writers of English prose. As time goes on their narratives will undergo correction by later students, but they will long remain as monuments of a hterary style. Motley in particular was gifted with descriptive powers of a liigh order, and in general there is movement and vivacity in his story of the Dutch Republic. His account of the abdication of Charles V, for example, is a model of sustained description, touching persons and ceremonies con- nected with a most important juncture in European history. His description of the marriage of William of Orange gives a personal setting and a local color to the pohtical situation which one would not antici- pate from an occasion usually pm^ely festive. It would be out of place to attempt here an Contemporary analysis of the living historical writers of today. Historians. Let it suffice to say that in general there is a change toward greater simplicity in language and far less appeal to the emotions. Attention to history on the part of the public has increased because of the wider range of human interests touched upon by modern writers. The economic and social side of Hfe adds attraction as well as importance to the pm-ely political or mihtary narrative. The modern reader has lost the taste for classical allusions and long, rounded periods, and the fact is reflected in the shorter, more direct style of the historians, as well as of other writers. A good literary style cannot be attained by a 312 HISTORICAL RESEARCH study of rules alone. Only constant familiarity with the best examples will create the intuitive sense of form, and one may reasonably ask if the historian is really obliged to give attention to these matters, and if so, how far. Modern writers in other fields conform to the literary taste of their time, but is the liistorian compelled to follow that example? In answering he is confronted with the reason for writing history. In large part that object is to pro- duce some effect on a reading public, and, on the whole, it is good policy for him to attempt first to influence his contemporaries. To do this he must speak unaffectedly in their own language. If he looks forward to the applause of posterity he will find a permanent monument in a clear, persuasive style, perfectly adapted to the object of the work. The discriminating future will approve the forms which once convinced the author's fellowmen. Standard of In doing this there is no need of debasing the ^^ ^* standards of good English. To be popular it is not necessary to write like a reporter for a sporting jour- nal. As good prose is written today as ever appeared, consequently there is also no reason to imitate slavishly the famous writers of a previous genera- tion. No matter how much we may admire the style of Gibbon, Motley, or Parkman, one must take account of the taste of the day. Suggestions about the organization of the matter and about plans of presentation may come from others, but the writer must speak his own tongue. His style is the choice of the forms most suitable to the subject as sanc- tioned by the best literary taste of the time. LITERARY STYLE IN HISTORY 313 The search for models is not confined to con- temporary historians, for the hterary workmen of other branches have much to suggest. As already noted, the writer of fiction, even in the most severely historical romance, has an advantage over the his- torian in his freedom to supply incidents and de- scriptions when real materials fail, but from the noveUst the history writer can learn much about the organization of his work, and how real facts can be most effectively stated. The novelist drama- tizes his work in part by introducing conversation, or by letting one character relate the whole tale. The historian will not imitate this method, but he can study the art of description, because this is one of the gifts of the great novelists, and one which is based upon a principle fundamentally necessary to the student of history. Good description rests on accurate observation of essentials. Not every detail is necessary in a picture. A sketch of a few lines may give a more characteristic impression than a drawing with every leaf in sight. So in words, it is an art to know what to leave out. It is by the proper use of description that events The Art of I ^ and persons are visuahzed and set in motion, and scnption. ^ it is the duty of the historian to give his matte r life. He need not take time to depict the glories of the setting sun, nor revel in the whispering brQ^zes so essential to a love story, but his characters and scenes should have color and movement, so that the reader may obtain the tr\jg^mpression. The best descriptions are the most concrete. The use of abstract terms is a necessity m certain kinds of 314 HISTORICAL RESEARCH work, but the ordinary historical narrative will be most effective when abstractions are, as far as possible, avoided. The novelist has been spending his time studying social situations, varieties of persons, natural scenery and other matters, but he has learned to see essentials. His counsel will be useful to the more prosaic historian. Brevity. Finally, the world demands brevity, if it is to give its attention. Not abruptness in language, but compression of matter into reasonable compass, is a fair requirement. The study of perspective ought to include not only the contents of the work in hand, but the relation of the subject to history at large. Most of our labors would diminish in size if tested by their relative value. Writers of monographs are with difficulty convinced that their productions could be shortened, but their efforts would usually be far more effective if cut in twain. Literary The literary habits of historical writers have no peculiarities which set them apart from other scien- tific authors. The rules of mental hygiene which apply to one will apply to the others. The indi- vidual worker has to decide for himself the time of day when he is most effective, and will adjust his work so far as possible to that end. The majority of historical investigators at present are connected with institutions of learning, and their first duties must be directed to their academic work. This often places the research at the end of the day, or in hours of fatigue, with the result that tasks are pro- longed, completion is deferred, and sometimes dis- couragement overcomes the ardent beginner. Habits. LITERARY STYLE IN HISTORY 315 One division of labor can be profitably borne in mind. Historical work consists in general of two parts, the collection of data and the construction of L^---" the results. The gathering of material does not call forth the same mental energy as the combination of ideas. One may collect statistics, compare titles, verify footnotes, or copy documents, at times when it would be unwise to attempt composition. On the other hand, constructive work, the long view of things, the final judgment upon the com*se of events, should have the best conditions of the mind and should not be hurried. As in literature in general, the work will improve Revision, with revision. History is not a subject which pours red hot from the writer 's brain. Perhaps even poetry cannot claim that honor, but the historical narrative certainly needs repeated filing for two reasons, one, because the judgment improves with reconsideration, and the other, because the form of expression should by constant study be made more and more suitable to the truth. The great historians have not spared themselves in revision. George Bancroft, for exam- ple, was not only most methodical in the collection of materials, but liis first draft would sometimes get seven revisions before the author was satisfied to send it to the printer. Even when one is so fortunate as to command his Use of Time own time it is necessary to be regular and methodical in work, and in academic surroundings still more so. It is rather depressing to observe that the monu- mental histories in the English tongue have been written by men of independent means, and who 316 HISTORICAL RESEARCH were not actively connected with universities. This is not true in Germany, where the conception of the professor is that Ms first duty Ues in research, and his academic appointments are made to suit that ideal. Yet even in America, where much more time is required for teaching and other duties, the hard-worked instructor is furnishing the funda- mental investigations upon which historical knowl- edge is advancing. In view of the large number of promising can- didates annually sent out, the product is not so great as might well be expected. The fault is not alto- gether at the door of the young professor, but in any case the long and arduous investigations demanded by historical research can be accomplished only by self-disciphne and the careful husbandry of time. CH.\PTER XXVI THE HISTORICAL NOVEL The writer of history and the writer of historical novels do not usually unite in the same person, nor do the requirements of the art necessarily assist the labors of the science, but the border-line is so often crossed that it may be in place to consider the limits of the two vocations. As we have seen, the historian frequently gets abroad into the realm of imagination, and the novehst takes pride in the historical accu- racy of his pictures. A few modern instances will illustrate the situation, which is here set forth, not with the expectation that the novelists will pay any attention to the recommendations, but to open the discussion for the historical student. In the preface to her book entitled ^^The Con- cjueror'^ Miss Gertrude Atherton relates that it had been her ^'original intention to write a biography of Alexander Hamilton in a more flexible manner than is customary,^' but after visiting the scenes of liis early life and becoming more widely acquainted with his career ''the instinct of the novelist proved too strong." Consequently she wrote a novel with Hamilton as the chief figm-e, on the principle with which we can all agi^ee that 'Hhe character is but a dramatized biogi^aphy.''' Yet the author is sure that almost every incident is founded upon estabUshed 317 318 HISTORICAL RESEARCH facts or family tradition. The rest of the episodes and descriptions are suggestive probabihties. She is captivated by the di'amatic possibihties of Ham- ilton's career. ^'Why, then, not thi'ow the graces of fiction over the sharp hard facts that historians have laboriously gathered?" With that she pro- ceeds to do so. To any one with a spark of imagination it is im- possible not to sympathize with the author in this situation. To the liistorical student it is a most interesting confession, for it is the temptation which has attacked every chi^onicler since the world began. Historians have not generally acknowledged the fact, except in the works of others, but the desire to tell a good stor}^ has been the besetting sin of that pro- fession ever since Herodotus became the father of it. The mediaeval clironicler accepted and passed for- ward ever3^thing that oral tradition had added to the '^ sharp hard facts'' of reality, and when more was needed to explain or give piquancy to the narrative his imagination did not fail him. Tlius St. Ursula got all her eleven thousand virgins, and William Tell took root in Switzerland. EmbelUshment of the plain or incomplete truth has been the cause of nearly all the trouble in the transmission of history, and the cliief business of the scholar is to ehminate the errors of his predecessors; errors not necessarily willfully committed, but largely due to the unHcensed imagination. If anyone says that historical fiction has had its day do not believe it, for the story out of the past has a perennial attraction of its own. From time THE HISTORICAL NOVEL 319 to time the reading public apparently becomes satui'ated with productions in the romantic line, and is willing to turn aside from the middle ages and the eighteenth century to some quiet period or scene where the rapiers flash no longer and the brawlers are at rest. On one occasion a publisher, anticipating this trend of feeling, went so far as to boast in capital letters that his forthcoming volume was ^^NOT HISTORICAL,'' assuming, as it were, that this statement alone, with no mention of the plan of the work, or of the number of thousand copies ordered before pubhcation, would be sufficient to sell the book. The reaction of taste may call for a season of psychological problems, or for modern society romances. There is no telling in advance what may be favorably received by the public. In the meantime the really good historical novel wiU take its place in permanent literatm^e and will be read by those who do not require of their book that it be the newest thing, still hot from the haste of its composition. Of course it is to be assumed that the fu^st object of an historical novel is to entertain. If any other benefits are to be derived they are more or less by-products of the process. It is not primarily to teach history, but to entertain by telhng a tale in the words, surroundings, and characters of the past. Any other kind is apt to meet the fate of those OUver Optic books which took their youthful heroes abroad on personally conducted educational toiu-s. At regular intervals the tutor held a lecture on the history of the country or city which they approached. 320 HISTORICAL RESEARCH These chapters were full of excellent information and were regularly skipped by the about-to-be- educated youthful readers. As a further component part of the entertainment the love story has a place in the historical novel, if long usage is a rightful warrant, for no popular plot or play has been without one since Isaac and Rebecca figured in the idyls of the patriarchs. Consequently, it is only a question of the language or costume in which this perennial drama shall appear. Without any disguise the old story unfailingly attracts, but when placed in a distant age it adds another pleasiu^e to find that men in purple togas grew hot or cold at sight of dimpled arms in snowy tunics, or that very human hearts beat hard inside the woven-wire shirts of the crusading centuries. Here is where the romance outruns the document. In the prosaic study of real ancients we see so many hieroglyphic pictures of Egyptians in angular positions and wooden attitudes that it is hard to get rid of the impression that they were a bloodless race of jumping- jacks, until some kindly novelist, hke George Ebers, clothes them in flesh and makes them breathe again. Therefore, for reasons which affect both writers and readers, one may count on finding lovers as essential featm'es in the novels of the hour and in the historical fiction of the future. Novels take a wide variety of form and plot, but they are all by nature biographical. The scenery may be continental in scope, and the historical period may be momentous to the last degree, but the story, after all, revolves about the Active history THE HISTORICAL NOVEL 321 of one or more prominent characters. Whether you call the book The Talisman, The Crisis, or The Captain, you have to deal with persons. Frequently, to give vividness to the story, the autobiographical form is used, as in Lorna Doone, where the amiable giant John Ridd presents his reminiscences. In other cases letters serve the same purpose, and novelists at times perform stupendous miracles of discovery in order to give their readers manuscripts written in the fii'st person. All of which is perfectly reasonable, since the novel is meant to entertain. Stories of people are more amusing than histories of principles, or developments of constitutional clauses. A^Tiatever moral piu'pose may be behind the novel, whether the tale be detective or socio- logical, the interest lies in the destinies of its particular dramatis personas. Again, the story has more force if it seems to be told about real persons, for we are marvelously fond of gossip about the private hfe of interesting people. In fact, life- likeness is the subtle test of literary art, and explains why historical characters are so frecjuently used in fiction. Their presence is supposed to give the air of reality to the imaginary portions of the narrative. To gain this the writer has two methods. One is to create his characters and plot entirely out of his own fancy, the other to make use of persons who have actually lived, and to bring them bodily into ' a story. A combination of both is the usual result. Granting with pleasure that there is a place and a demand for the historical novel, what are the 21 322 HISTORICAL RESEARCH limits within which historical facts and personages ought to be used? In the fii'st place, it is fair to demand that the history shall not be distorted. In fact; it is not necessary to question the intentions of most writers, for they clamorously insist upon the fidelity of their historical information. We may well question, however, whether the authors dispose their facts so as to make them tell the truth. There seems to be no reason why a fanciful plot should not be acted in the dress, scenery, and dialect of a former age, nor is there any vital objection to the description of battles, scenes at cornet and in council, or an}^ other events which may serve as a background for the destiny of the imaginary char- acters. Victor Hugo^s description of the battle of Waterloo may be noted as a single important example. Also the personal characteristics and actions of rulers and statesmen usually have an effect upon the general welfare, and this atmosphere may without sacrifice of truth be shared by the fictive characters of the novel. The description of actual men and women is a part of the scenery and conditions of the period, but the novelist is not content to stop at that point. He commonly insists that his real characters shall play in an imaginary plot. Here is where the line ought to be drawn. The introduction of prominent historical figures as speaking personages in the novel is the point where the distortion is bound to come in. The deflections from truth may be greater or less, but it is impossible to pro\dde interviews and conversations conformable to a fictive plot without THE HISTORICAL NOVEL 323 putting words in the mouths of historical characters which they never uttered, or did not speak in the given connection. Eminent examples of transgression are easy to find. Walter Scott brings Queen Ehzabeth and Leicester to the front of the stage in Kenilworth. Imaginary conversation is put into their mouths, although the sentiments expressed seem to be con- sistent. In Woodstock the adventm'es of Charles II are acted by that royal person, not only with fictive words, but with an entire change of scene from that of the true history. In the more artistic portions of Scott's work, however, the actual per- sonages appear more by description and less in dramatic form. In the Talisman King Richard I constantly plays a talking part, while the history of the third crusade is totally disarranged to suit the purposes of the writer. So it goes on from Alfred the Great to President Garfield, the authors priding themselves on what the theologians would call the "historicity'' of their work. Abraham Lincoln is made to participate in the affairs of a youth otherwise unknown to fame. This proceeds not simply by way of description, but by conversation with the hero and with others in fictitious situations in the usual Lincolnesque dialect. In the effort to make the story seem true the Freeport episode of Lincoln's sensational cam- paign is related with great circumstantiality, in fact almost identically as found in Miss Tarbell's life of Lincoln. At the same time words are put into Lincoln's mouth which are acknowledged to 324 HISTORICAL RESEARCH be fictitious, but are supposed to be characteristic. Such is the source of all myth. General Grant furnishes the title and fills a prominent role in a recent tale of love and war. His character is painted sympathetically and the descriptive matter is historically unobjectionable, but this great man is made to talk invented words to invented characters for the sake of a love story. It gives one the same feeling as when the lion- tamer brings out the patriarch of the desert and makes that venerable king of beasts jump through hoops and perform on milldng stools. In the ^^ Conqueror '' Hamilton is constantly in the fore- ground. The descriptive portions of the narrative are not only historically careful, but extremely interesting. Certain readers may skip the chapters on the theory of American finance and the founding of the national bank, but the political situation is always vividly described. Why was it necessary, then, to make Hamilton play a talking part, and thus put words in his mouth and create situations which are manifestly fictitious? His biography was already sufficiently romantic. There is, perhaps, a gift of insight which can re- create the thoughts and words which real historic characters might have said upon imaginary oc- casions, but too many novelists depend on phrases borrowed from recorded episodes, expecting that these disconnected sentiments will lend reality to an artificial plot. As an inevitable result one class of readers will always associate real personages with untrue incidents, while another class is revolted at THE HISTORICAL NOVEL 325 the transparency of the hterary dodge. This is not creative genius, but the art of the stencil plate. There is a place for the historical novehst, but if he wishes to show true inventive genius let him create, not borrow his characters. Let his Active personages be so described and so speak that they shall reflect the very image of the age in which they move. Let the passions and ambitions of the human race be depicted in the language and the garb of every century since the world began, and historians and reading world aUke will join in the applause. To reach this end true art demands that real his- torical personages and events shall form the back- ground, not the players and the plot of fiction/ ^ The substance of this chapter was first pubHshed in the Book Lover's Magazine, now extinct. APPENDIX A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH. For about two centuries writers of various nations have been steadily discussing the nature of history and the object of its study, with the consequence that the volume of literature is enormous. A part of this material is valuable for the history of changing con- ceptions of history, while a much larger portion is devoted to the division of history into periods and the suggestion of plans for its teaching and exposition. In the remaining portion of this mass are to be found the works which treat of methods of historical research. Among these the more valuable are among the more recent, and the beginner may profitably select rather than devour the whole. General Works on Method of Research. Foremost among these is the Lehrbuch der Historischen Methode, by Ernst Bernheim, 6th ed., 1908. This is a volu- minous treatment of the materials of history, the theory of criticism, the processes of construction, and the philosophy of history. The later editions have given increased space to the latter topic, but their value depends more on the increased references to newer literature. This volume is much indebted to Bernheim for general plan and method of treatment. Lang- LOis AND Seignobos, Introduction aux Etudes historiques, Paris, 1898. Translation by G. B Berry, 1898 (now out of print). Without attempting to be encyclopedic this provides a stimulating review of the theory and practice of research. Charles Seignobos, La Methode Historique appliqu^e aux Sciences Sociales, Paris, 1901. Treats of the methods to be 327 328 APPENDIX. used by the student of statistical and economic history with particular reference to the materials to be met in this field. GusTAV Wolf, Einfuhrung in das Studium der Neueren Geschichte, Berhn, 1910. An elaborate work on the materials of modern history, to be regarded as a complement to the Lehr- buch of Bernlieim. In treatment it discusses the theoretical value of the sources, while attempting at the same time to pro- vide a bibhographical handbook for the modern period, chiefly in German history. Grundriss der Geschichtswissenschaft, edited by Aloys Meister, 2 vols., 190G (in progress). An extremely brief outline of historical method is followed by practical treatises on the auxiliary sciences written by men of the highest authority The remainder of the work is given to historiographical studies in constitutional, economic, and religious history, which fulfil the promises of the subtitle as an *' introduction to the history of Germany in the middle ages and modern times." George Cornewall Lewis, A Treatise on the Methods of Observation and Reasoning in Politics, 2 vols., London, 1852. An old book but full of suggestion upon the interpretation of historical materials. E. Meyer, Zur Theorie und Methodik der Gesch'chte, Halle, 1902. Short and sane. J. G. Droysen, Grundriss der Historik, 3d ed., 1882. Trans- lated by E. B. Andrews, Outline of the Principles of History, Boston, 1893- Originally a syllabus to accompany the writer's lectures on historical method, consequently the statements are extremely compact and the philosophical dicta often obscure. Numerous authors of distinction have at various times delivered lectures in which they have set forth the value of history as a, branch of learning and the methods by which the study should be pursued. These lectures in print have diver- sified practical values, but most of them are stimulating and suggestive as far as they go Among the best may be men- tioned the following: E. A. Freeman, Methods of Historical Study, London^ 1886. J. A. Froude, Short Studies in Great Subjects, Vols. I and II, 1894. J. E. E. D ^Lord) Acton, A Lecture on the Study of History, London, 1896. "William Stubbs, Seventeen Lectures on the Study of Mediaeval and Modern History, Oxford, 1886, repr., 1887. Macaulay's views are to be found in the Edin- burgh Review, XL VII, 331-67. In the Grande Encyclopedic, Vol. XX, is an Illuminating article on La Science de I'Histoire by Charles Mortet. Shorter manuals for practical use are APPENDIX. 329 F. M. Fling, Outline of Historical Method, and F. H. Foster, Seminary Method of Original Study in the Historical Sciences. Valuable suggestions upon the principles of research are in- cluded in the introduction to Hatch, Organization of the early Christian Churches, London, 1881. Profitable comparisons will be found in G. Renard, La M6thode Scientifique de I'His- toire Littt^raire, Paris, 1900; A. D. Xenopol, Les Principes Fundamentaux de THistoire, Paris, 1899; F. Gottl, Die Grenzen der Geschichte, Leipzig, 1905; James Schouler, The Spirit of Historical Research, Papers of the American Historical Association, IV. Reprinted in his Historical Briefs, 1896; J. H. Round, Historical Research, Nineteenth Century, XLIV. Chapter I. Definition of History. Nearly every writer on the study of history offers a definition of the word. In addition to the footnotes of this chapter attention may be called to Wilhelm von Humboldt's Com- plete Works, I, p. 1; Frederick Harrison, The Meaning of History; R. Flint, History of the Philosophy of History. The materialistic school is represented by Buckle, History of Civilization in England, 2 vols.; Lacombe, De THistoire consider^e comme science, 1894. In the nature of a reply to the last is Worms, L' Organisation scientifique de I'histoire, Revue Internationale de Sociologie, September, 1894. An example of the "providential" historian is Bunsen, God in History. A brief sketch of the rise of scientific research in Germany is found in Lord Acton's German Schools of History, English Historical Review, Vol. I. The methods of Herodotus and Thucydides, as well as other Greek historians down to Polybius, are analyzed in J. B. Bury, The Ancient Greek Historians, 1909. Chapter IL Classification of Materials. The bibliography of this chapter is covered by the references given for the chapters which criticize and interpret the respec- tive classes of sources, particularly Chapters XIII-XX. Chapter III. External Criticism. Treatises and comments upon the external facts about docu- ments have been written from various points of view, but are 330 APPENDIX. especially frequent in works of philologists and palaeographers. A brief introduction of this kind applied to the Latin language, but suggestive for any field, is W. M. Lindsay's Introduction to Latin Textual Emendation, 1896. This shows the possible avenues of error in the transmission of manuscripts. More elementary is Harold W. Johnston's Latin Manuscripts, 1897, but containing useful chapters on the "Science of Criticism.'* On this topic consult also Benjamin Bacon's Genesis of Genesis, Chapter II, which is an essay in internal criticism as well. E. G. Bourne, Essays in Historical Criticism, 1901, contains interesting analyses of certain historical episodes shown to be erroneously accepted. The literature of forgery would rapidly swell the number of examples given in the text. Motives and theories are usually discussed in the recital of the cases. See Surtees Society, Vol. LVIII, Preface; E. K. Chambers, History and Motives of Literary Forgeries, Oxford, 1891; A. Lang, Contemporary Review, XLIV, p. 837, "Literary Forgeries;" M. Hewlitt, Nineteenth Century, XXIX, p. 318, ''Forged Literature." W. S. Walsh, Handybook of Literary Curiosities, Philadel- phia, 1893; H. R. Montgomery, Famous Literary Impostures, London, 1884. A. S. Osborn, Questioned Documents, is a study and analysis of doubtful materials with an outline of methods by which the facts may be discovered and shown. (La^vyers Cooperative Pubhshing Co., 1910.) Chapter IV. Paleography. E. M. Thompson, Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeog- raphy, 343 pp., 12mo, London, 1893. (International Scientific Series.) Historical development with abundant facsimiles presented in a scholarly manner yet easily appre- hended by the beginner Treats of English charter writing as far as the 17th century. Hubert Hall, Studies in English oflBcial historical documents, 8vo, 404 pp. Cambridge, University Press, 1908. Part III, pages 355-397, is devoted to palaeography but without facsimile examples. Valuable for theories presented. C. T. Martin, The Record Interpreter; a collection of abbreviations, Latin words and names used in Enghsh historical manuscripts and records, 8vo, London, 1892. Paleographical Society, Facsimiles of manuscripts and inscriptions, ed. E. A. Bond, E. M Thompson, and G. F. APPENDIX. 331 Warner. Series I and II, 1873-1894. Large folio plates giving examples of the writings of all periods of the European nations W. Arndt and M. Tangl, Schrifttafeln zur Erler- nung der Lateinischen Palseographie, Berlin, 1898-1903. 107 facsimiles quarto size showing development of Latin writing both literary and documentary. Convenient for the private library. Recueil de Fac-similes k I'usage de I'Ecole des Chartes. 4 series. 100 plates chiefly documentary H. vox Sybel and T. vox Sickel, Kaiserurkunden im Abbil- dungen. Text 1 vol. 8vo. Facsimiles 11 portfolios, 295 plates. The large size of the plates and the extent of the col- lection make this the most complete for the study of documen- tary writing. ^L Prou, Manuel de paleographie, Paris, 2d ed., 1892. B. Bretholz, Lateinische Palaeographie, in Meister's Grundriss der Geschichtswissenschaft, Band 1. Leipzig, 1906. A. Cappelli, Dizionario dei Abbreviature latine ed italiene, Milan, 1899. German translation, Lexicon Abbreviaturarum, Leipzig, 1901. The most comprehensive study of the Roman shorthand is that of Schmitz. Tables of signs and interpreta- tions are presented in more than a hundred quarto sheets. Commentarii Notarum Tironiarum, edidit Guilelmus Schmitz, 4to, Leipzig, 1893; E. Chatelain, Introduction a la lecture des notes tironiennes, Paris, 1900. Chapter V. Diplomatics. Only in recent years has the subject of English diplomatics received scientific attention. Notwithstanding the superb collection of continuous historical matter, the classification of forms and procedures has remained far behind those of France and Germany. However, a long stride toward the recovery of this lost ground has been made in the work of Hubert Hall, Studies in Enghsh Official Documents, with the supplementary volume, A Formula Book of Enghsh Historical Documents, Cambridge, 1908. For Germany a brief introduction is con- veniently found in Meister, Grundriss der Geschichtswissen- schaft, Vol. I, in which three authors have taken up separate phases of the subject. A similar plan is followed in the Urkun- denlehre by Erben, Schmitz-Kallenberg, and Redlich, in Below and Meinecke, Handbuch der mittelalterlichen und neueren Geschichte, Munich and Berlin, 1904. The standard work in which the accumulated results of the study are to be 332 APPENDIX. found is H. Bresslau, Handbuch der Urkundenlehre fiir Deutschland und Italien, Vol. I, Leipzig, 1889. Equally authoritative but based more on French practice is A. Giry, Manuel de Diplomatique, Paris, 1894. This is also valuable for its references to Anglo-Norman and English documents. F. Leist, Urkundenlehre: Katechismus der Diplomatik, Palao- graphie, Chronologie, und Sphragistik, Leipzig, new ed., 1893, a useful short compilation of the essentials of these auxiliary- sciences. The bibliography of the history of diplomatics will be found in most of the larger treatises. Chapter VL Chronology. Works of chronology which are of interest to the student of documents usually combine a historical view of the develojD- ment of systems and calendars with practical tables of dates which save the trouble of calculation. The emphasis is some- times more on one side of this problem than the other. Chiefly valuable for its table of days and reigns, particularly in English history, is the work of J. J. Bond, Handybook of rules and tables for verifying dates, London, 4th ed., 1889. L'Art de verifier LES DATES is an immense compilation begun in the eighteenth century and consisting chiefly of tables of events and estab- lished dates, pubhshed finally in forty-four volumes (1818- 44). Following the same plan in condensed form is the folio volume of Mas Latrie, Tr^sor de Chronologie d'Histoire et de Geographic pour I'etude et I'emploi des documents du moyen age, Paris, 1889. These are both described by Grotefend as unreliable and double care should be exercised in the use of the older compilers. The work of the greatest value to the user of historical documents is that of Grotefend, Zeitrechnung des deutschen Mittelalters und der Neuzeit, 2 vols., Hanover, 1891-98. The same author has written a short Taschenbuch der Zeitrechnung des deutschen Mittelalters und der Neuzeit, 2d ed., 1905, as well as an introduction to the subject in Meister, Grundriss der Geschichtswissenschaft. Chapter VII. Seals and Heraldry. The general works on diplomatics devote chapters to the seal as an important part of the document. Particularly note- worthy are Giry, Manuel de Diplomatique, Chapter IX; APPENDIX. 333 Bresslau, Handbuch der Diplomatik, Vol. I, Chapter entitled "Die Besiegelung." In Meister's Grundriss der Geschichts- wissenschaft, Th. Ilgen contributes a compact treatment of " Sphragistik, " followed by a similarly authoritative article on *'Heraldik," by Erich Gritzner. An extensive bibliography is given with the article '' Sigillography " in the Grande Encyclopedic. Heraldry has given rise to a large hterature in each of the important countries of Europe. Part of this treats of the theory of heraldry and part consists of compilation of coats of arms and descriptions for reference. Each country has its own lists of arms just as it has its own related genealogies. The artistic taste of one country differs from another, and thus the explanatory Hterature accumulates, but the underlying theory is the same for all. Consequently the theoretical chapters in an Enghsh work will give a satisfactory introduc- tion to all the rest. One of the most complete is that of Wood- ward AND Burnett, A Treatise on Heraldry, British and Foreign, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1892. An older work, but brought out in repeated new editions and described by some as the best, is Charles Boutell, English Heraldry, 6th ed., with 450 illustrations, London, 1899. A shorter treatise is W. A. Coppinger's Heraldry Simplified, Manchester, University Press, 1910. The great reference book for Germany is Sieb- macher's Wappenbuch, which first appeared in 1604 but has been repeatedly enlarged and republished until it fills 483 foUo parts. For France, D'Hozier, Armorial general de la France, 14 vols.; P. Ganz, Geschichte der Heraldischen Kunst in der Schweiz im XII und XIII Jahrhundert, 1899. Abundant illustrations. Chapters VIII-IX-X. DeterxMination of Time, Author- ship, AND Interdependence of Sources. The questions in these chapters are commonly treated to- gether in the critical editions of literary and historical writers. Consult the prefaces of the various chronicles in the Monu- menta Germanise Historica; the Chronicles and Memorials for Great Britain (Rolls Series); pubhcations of the Camden Society, the Surtees Society, and others. Writers on Biblical history and the philology of the Semitic languages discuss the origins of the Old and New Testaments, 334 APPENDIX. giving the arguments by which the time and authority of the various books are determined. The self biographer is consid- ered psychologically by Anne Robeson Burr, The Autobiog- raphy, a critical and comparative study. H. Glagau, Die Moderne Selbstbiographie als Historische Quelle, 1903, dwells particularly on the life of Madame Roland. Chapter XII. The Writer and His Times. The views of H. Taine will be found in his History of English Literature, especially in the preface of the English translation; also in his essays on Livy, on La Fontaine, and in his vari- ous writings on Art. G. Ellinger, Das Verhaltniss der offentlichen Meinung zur Wahrheit und Liige im 10, 11 und 12ten Jahrhundert, Berhn, 1884. Evidence as to the presence of a certain amount of critical spirit in the middle ages is brought forward by B. Lasch, Das Erwachen und die Entwick- lung der historischen Kritik im Mittelalter, 1887. The rela- tions of writer and public are discussed by G. H. Putnam in his Authors and their Public in Ancient Times, New York, 1894, and Books and their Makers in the Middle Ages, 2 vols., 1896-7. In addition to the works of Scherer, Geschichte der Deut- schen Literatur, Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung im XI und XII Jahrhundert, one may study with profit Schultz, Das Hofische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesinger, 2 vols., 1879. This work is descriptive of manners and customs, based chiefly on the evidence of literature, and showing both good and bad reasoning from its sources. H. O. Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, 2 vols., 1911. Chapter XIII. Evaluation of Oral Tradition. Each group of languages engendered a body of myth which has in turn called forth much WTiting, both general and mono- graphic, respecting the growth and migration of legend. Atten- tion may be called to a few authors where the theory of oral tradition is discussed. E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture. EwALD, History of Israel. Tito Vignoli, Myth and Science (International Scientific Series), 1882. Mediaeval tradition receives careful treatment by H. Gunter, Legenden Studien, 1906; H. Delahaye, Les L^gendes Hagiographiques, 1906. Interesting accounts of traditions ^vithout much discussion of APPENDIX. 335 theory in H. A. Guerber, Legends of Switzerland. A scien- tific study of the origins of the Swiss repubhc, based upon the actual documentary evidence without regard to the Tell episode, will be found in Oechsli, Anfange der Schweizerischen Eidge- nossenschaft, 1891. Also in translation, Les Origines de la Confederation Suisse. J. F. Hewitt, Primitive Traditional History, 2 vols., 1907. This is a study of the myth-making periods of India, Southern Asia, Egypt, and Europe. Mrs. T. F. Tout, The Legend of St. Ursula, in Historical Essays by Members of Owens College, Manchester, 1902. Chapter XIV. Pictorial Sources of History. Copious use of early drawings and miniatures has been made in Thomas Wright, The Homes of Other Days, 1871. Also in Birch and Jenner, Early Drawings and Illuminations: an introduction to the study of illustrated manuscripts, 1879. J. O. Westwood, Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish Manuscripts, 1868. De Bastard, Peintures et Ornaments des Manuscrits depuis le 8^ si^cle jusqu'au fin du 16^, 2 vols., Fol. Contains no descriptive text but beautiful illustrations. Discussions of the pictorial history of the Norman Conquest wiU be found in F. R. Fowke, The Bayeux Tapestry, 1898; J. C. Bruce, The Bayeux Tapestry Elucidated, 1885. Colored reproductions in Vetusta Monumenta, Vol. VI, 1819-23, by C. A. Stothard. The standard histories of art which contain illustrations, and the innumerable cheap reproductions afford opportunity to study the historic appreciation of painters and sculptors, quite apart from the technic of those professions. For Egypt, see Maspero, Manual of Egyptian Archaeology. The engravings of Jost Amman have been edited by G. HiRTH. For the purposes of this chapter see his Stande und Handwerker, and the Frauentrachtenbuch. Mathaus Merian, Topographia Helvetise, Rhaetise et Valesise, 1642. Views frequently reproduced. Most interesting and instructive is J. Zemp, Die Schweizer- ischen Bilderchroniken und ihre Architectur-Darstellungen, 1897. Numerous illustrations. Besides the works upon the general archaeology of Rome consult J. H. Pollen, A Description of the Trajan Column. 336 APPENDIX. The author points the inferential evidence of the sculptures and describes each panel in order. In addition to the reproductions of early maps in most historical geographies see mediaeval editions of Ptolemy, Geographical Sebastian Munster, Cosmographia Universalis, 1544. Practical examples of the methods used in proving the genuineness of old maps, and the use of geographical evidence in the history of discovery in E. L. Stevenson, Early Spanish Cartography of the New World, 1909. The Venezuelan Boundary question is treated in an elaborate report to the United States Government by G. L. Burr and others, 1897. Photography as an auxiliary to history in one aspect is shown by W. G. Leland, The application of Photography to archive and historical work, Report of American Historical Association, 1908, Vol. I. Chapter XIX. The Newspaper. Extensive treatment of the newspaper as a source of history is given in the respective chapter in Wolf, Einf iihrung in das Studium der Neueren Geschichte, pp. 243-324. Practical experiences are reported by William Nelson, American News- papers of the 18th Century as Sources of History, Report of American Historical Association, 1908, Vol. I. W. T. Laprade, Newspapers as n Source for the History of American Slavery, South Atlantic Quarterly, IX, pp. 230-38. Dubiel, Le Journalism et son Histoire, 1892. D. F. Wilcox, The American Newspaper: a study in social psychology, Annals American Academy, XVI, 56-92. Chapter XX. Relics. Material for the method of research in prehistoric subjects will be found in works covering special territories. A more general bibliography is connected with W. Z. Ripley, the Races of Europe, 1899. Bibliography also published separ- ately; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 1871; J. Evans, Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain, 1897; D. Wilson, Trade and Commerce in the Stone Age, Transactions Royal Society of Canada, 1889, p. 59; E. G. Sellers, Report of the Smith- sonian Institution, 1885, p. 871; C. I. Elton, Origins of EngHsh APPENDIX. 337 History, 1890; Otto Schrader, Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte, 1890. Translated by F. B. Jevons, Prehistoric A-ntiquities of the Aryan Peoples, 1890. J. Hierli, Urge- schichte der Schweiz, 1901. Archaeological explorers usually explain with care the pro- cedure in each excavation. The theory is set forth by one of the most famous archaeologists in W. F. Petrie, Methods and Aims of Archaeology. Exemplification of the value of coins in research will be found in B. V. Head, Historia Nummorum, 2nd ed. Percy Gardner, Types of Greek Coins, 1883, also in his New Chapters in Greek History, Chapter I, "The Verification of Ancient History.'* G. Macdonald, Coin Types, 1906. G. F. Hill, Historical Greek Coins, 1906. Also his Historical Roman Coins, 1909. S. Lane Poole, Coins and Medals : their place in History and Art, 1885. E. Babelon, Traits des Monnaies Grecques et Ro- maines. Vol. I, 1901, in progress. This will be the standard authority. Th. Mommsen, Geschichte des Roemischen Munz- wesens, 1860. French translation by the Due de Blacas, Hjstoire de la Monnaie Romaine, 4 vols., 1865-75. H. A. Grueber, Handbook of the Coins of Great Britain and Ireland in the British Museum, 64 plates, 1899. Chapter XXI. The Nature of Historical Evidence. H. B. George, Historical Evidence, 1909. A discussion of the value and defects of various classes of materials, with the conclusion that evidence leads to probability, rather than to absolute truth. Similar result in W. Vischer, Ueber die Grenzen des Historischen Wissens. Preussische Jahrbucher, XL VI, p. 67. James Schouler, Historical Testimony, Reports American Historical Association, 1895. Also in his Historical Briefs, 1896. Evidence from the point of view of the law is treated by J. Bentham, View of the Rationale of Evidence, in his Works, Vols. VI, VII, 1843. F. Wharton, A Treatise on the Law of Evidence in Criminal Issues, . . particularly §§376-383,522, 530, 533. J. B. Thayer, A Preliminary Treatise on Evidence at the Common Law, 1891. J. D. Lawson, Presumptive Evidence, 1885. Logic as applied to historical research is exemplified in J. S. Mill, A System of Logic; W. Wundt, Logik, Band II, 338 APPENDIX. Abtheilung 2, Capitel 3, ''Die Logik der Geschichtswissen- schaften." Chapter XXII. The Constructive Process. The natural environment as a factor in human history is accepted with various degrees of emphasis by the writers here selected. Ellen C. Semple, Influences of Geographic En- vironment, on the basis of Ratzel's System of Anthropo- Geography, 1911. Valuable both as a medium of German science and for the writer's own interpretations. AppHcation of these principles to this continent is to be found in an earlier work by this author; E. C. Seimple, American History and its Geographic Conditions, 1903. An excellent brief treatment of the general subject is the work of H. B. George, The Relations of Geography and History, 1901. See also, N. S. Shaler, Nature and Man in America. For early conceptions see Jean Bodin, Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem, 1566, with comments of R. Flint, Philosophy of History in France, p. 193; J. Strada, La Loi de I'Histoire; constitution scientifique de I'histoire, 1894. P. Lacombe, De I'Histoire consid^r^e comme science, 1894. Reviewed from opposing point of view by R. Worms, L'Or- ganisation Scientifique de I'Histoire, Revue Internationale de Sociologie, 1894. History from the economic point of view is exempUfied in J. E. T. Rogers, History of Agriculture and Prices in England, 1259-1793, 6 vols., 1866-87. From this the author drew forth his Six Centuries of Work and AVages, 2 vols., 1884-90, and later described his methods in The Economic Interpretation of History. S. N. Patten, The Development of Enghsh Thought, a study on the economic interpretation of history, 1899. Numerous theories which are not generally accepted. The effect of natural environment upon particular peoples is to be seen in the opening chapters of Curtius, History of Greece; L. Drapeyron, Traduction Topographiquede I'Histoire; Jeanne d'Arc: application de la g^ographie k I'^tude de I'histoire, both articles in Revue de Geographic, 1891. Ch. Garnier and A. Amman, L'Habitation Humaine dans ses rapports avec la g^ographie physique, Fetat poUtique et les usages locaux, 1892. Contributes also to the study of architecture as a psychological problem as in the chapter on Rehcs, above. APPENDIX. 339 Chapter XXIII. Psychological Factors in History. The inquirer must thread his way among writers upon phil- osophy, psychology, sociology, and social psychology. The latter branch of learning is still in the early stages of its evolu- tion. The topics mentioned in this chapter are treated in the books which follow: G. Tarde, The Laws of Imitation, Trans- lated from 2nd French Edition (Holt), 1903. J. M. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental Development, 1897. E. A. Ross, Social Psychology, 1908. L. F. Ward, The Psychic Factors of Civihzation, 2nd ed., 1906. G. LeBon, Psychologic des Foules, 12th ed., 1907. F. H. Giddings, Principles of Sociology, 1899. F. H. Giddings, Democracy and Empire, 1900. Chapters XXI V-XX V. Presentation and Literary Style. It is not necessary to refer here to the standard works on EngUsh Uterary composition. The style of the various his- torians is usually discussed also by their more weighty reviewers and essayists. M. Creighton, Picturesqueness in History, Cornhill Magazine, 1897, pp. 305-20. W. Sterling-Maxwell, Historical Style, in his Miscellaneous Essays and Addresses. H. Taine, Essais de Critique et de I'Histoire. F. Brunetiere, Histoire et Litt^rature, 3 vols., 1892-98. St. Beuve, Causeries de Lundi. (Consult Index Volume.) Suggestive also is G. Freytag, Technic of the Drama, Trans. E. J. MacEwan, 1895; A. Hennequin, The Art of Play- writing, 1890. E. Hennequin, La Critique Scientifique, 1888. Contains an analysis of Victor Hugo which is a valuable model of inquiry for a Uterary investigation. INDEX Abbreviations, Latin, 52; in print, 53 Abstract terms in history, 259 Account books, 213 Acta Sanctorum, 33 Acton, Mass., resolutions, 1770, 217 Address, diplomatics, 61 Administration, records of, 190-206 Advertisements, 224 St. Albans, 124 St. Albans chroniclers, 105 Alfred, king, journey to Rome, 112; not a law creator, 285 Allusions, use of, 260 Alphabet, derivation of, 45; Roman, 49 Ambrose of Evreux, 106 Analogy, the use of, 257 Anglo-Saxon Calendar, 155 Anglo-Saxon illustrators, 158 Anonymous documents, 98 Architecture interpreted, 244; public buildings, 245; grandeur, 245; Gothic, 245 Arenga, 62 Argumentum ex silentio, 254 Arnold of Brescia, 180 Art, as historical evidence, 155-167; in coins, 242; as a social herita,ge, 284; is his- tory an art ? 304 Asser, 112, 113, 115 Association of relics, 232 Assur-nasir-pal, king of Assyria, 15 Atherton, Gertrude, 317 Austria, a center of research, 12 Author, position in life, 123 Authors, intellectual qualifica- tions of, 126; flattery by, 130 Authorship, determination of, 103-110 Autobiographic form of fic- tion, 321 Axioms in historical evidence, 251 Babylonian relics, 15 Bacon, Francis, definition of history, 10 Bancroft, George, style of, 310 Basel, Tax-Ordnung, 1646, 184 Bayeux Tapestry, 156 Biography, dangers in writing, 130, 296 Black Death, effect, 175 Bodin, Jean, on influence of climate, 265 Boston Gazette and Country Journal, 1770, 217, 223 Boundaries, natural, 271 Brevity, 314 British Guiana, boundary case, 165 Bryce, J., on analogies, 258 341 342 INDEX. Buckle, T., theory of history, 9; theory of tradition, 145; style, 308 Bull, origin of term, 86 Bunyan, John, advertisement of book, 224 Burns, Robert, forged letters of, 34 note Business papers, 207 Cahiers de dol^ances, 181 Calendar, see Chronology Carolingian script, 50 Carta, 58 Cartography, see Maps Causation in history, 263 Cave-dwellers, 236 Censorship of press, 216 Chanceries, mediaeval, 56 Character of author, 131 Charlemagne, reforms writing, 51; chancery of, 56; his Latin abbreviations, 52; uses JuHan calendar, 77 Charles I, not author of Eikon, 107 Chirographum, 85 Chrismon, 60 Christian era, adoption of, 72 Chronology, 70-83; mediaeval, 71; Christian era, 72; indic- tion, 72; regnal year, 74; beginning of year, 74; year in England, 75; months, 77; holy days, 77; dating by introitus, 78; hours, 79; canonical hours, 80; Gre- gorian calendar, 81 ; French Revolutionary calendar, 82 Church and state, moral effect of conflict, 137 Churchwardens' accounts, 196 Cicero, date of De Legibus, 101 Circuit of lands, 211 Cities, history in Greek coins, 240; natural positions, 268 City councils, acts of, 182 Class position of authors, 126 Classification of historical materials, 13-18 Clearing of land, 212 Climate, influence of, 265 Coins, 238; origin, 239; weights, 240; types, 240; cities, 241; art, 242; medi- aeval, 243 Colonies, social phenomena of, 282 Combination in history, 262 Commerce, natural routes, 268 Comminatio, 65 Communication, effect of slow, 222 Concentration of data, 289; of material, 292; in tradi- tion, 146 "Conqueror, The," 317 Conscious materials of history, 14, 15 Constantine, Donation of , 31 ,32 Constructive process, 261-277 Conventionahty, mediaeval, 138; social power of, 280 Corroboration, diplomatics, 65 Court records negative, 188 Craig, Thos., on historical evidence, 249 Craniology, 236 Crime and civilization, 175 Criticism, external, 19-44; definition, 19; object, 23; higher, 20; internal, 20 INDEX. 343 Cromwell, Thomas, 130, 197 Crowd, psychology of the, 279 Croyland, forged history, 26 Culture as a social heritage, 282 Banes in England, chroniclers on, 115-118 Bavid, king, double traditions about, 145 De Legibus, date of Cicero's, 101 Deeds, 210 Description, art of, 313 Development, keynote of history, 10 Diocletian, ei'a of, 71 Dionysius, definition of his- tory, 7 Dionysius Exiguus, calendar of, 72 Diplomatic documents, 202- 206; procedure, 204; re- ports, 204; order of business, 205 Diplomatic history, pitfalls, 206 Diplomatics, 55-69 ; chan- ceries, 56; definition of docu- ments, 57 ; carta and notitia, 58; subdivisions of docu- ments, 59; protocol, 59; invocation, 60; title, ad- dress, greeting, 61 ; the text, 61; arenga, 62; pubHcation, narration, petition, 63; disposition, 64 ; sanction, corroboration, 65; final protocol, signature, 66; monogram, 67 ; witnesses, 68 Disposition, diplomatics, 64 Divisions of history, 262 Doble, C. E., on author of Eikon BasiUke, 107 Documents, definition, 57; pubHc, 169; judicial, 185; administrative, 190 - 206; private, 207-214 Domesday Book, 192 Donation of Constantine, 31, 32 Dramatic arrangement of history, 296 Droysen, J. G., on object of history, 11 DupHcation in tradition, 145 Eclipses in determination of time, 100 Economic data in law reports, 187 Economic factors in history, 264 Economic history, methods of, 276 Economic interpretation of history, 275 Economic occupations, social effects, 273 Editorials, valuation, 219 Editors, great political, 220 Eggleston, Edward, 125 Egypt, art of, 156; tombs, 236; prehistoric age, 238; in historical novels, 320 Eikon Basihke, 107 EUinger, G., on mediaeval character, 134 Embellishment of tradition, 147 Emphasis, proper and im- proper, 297 344 INDEX. England, economic history, 275 English history, perspective of, 295 Engraving, 159 Epigrams, fictitious, 34 Error, 21 Esprit d'escalier, 35 Ethel werd, chronicler, 112, 113, 116 Evening Post, Boston, 223 Evidence, nature of historical, 122, 248-260; fallibihty, 248; axioms, 251; legal compared, 255 Ewald on tradition, 143 Excavation, rules of, 237 Exceptional, danger of the, 177 Falsification, tests for, 25 Family, budget of the, 277 Fashion, power of, 280 * Fiction, history in, 317-325 Financial accounts, 196 Fines, facsimile from book of. Rich. I, 54 Flattery by authors, 130 Florence of A"\ Worcester, 112, 114, 116 Flores Historiarum, 105 Forgery of historical mate- rials, 25-43; documents, 31 in art, 39; in relics, 40 antiquities, 41 ; coins, 41 prehistoric remains, 41 seals, 91 France, a center of research, 12; natural boundaries, 270; standard of style, 306 Fraud, tests for, 25 Freeman, E. A., definition of history, 7; on survivals, 257; hterary style, 309 French Revolution, the cahiers, 181; calendar, 82; party opinion of, 128 Froissart, 126 Frontiers, 270 Froude, J. A., on the Refor- mation, 172; Hterary style, 309 Gauden, John, 108 Gazette, London, 222 Genealogies, fabricated, 36; weak points in, 37; data in wills, 209 Genetic history, 10 Geographical data, 266 Geography and political his- tory, 268 Geography, effect on energy of man, 267, 268, 270 Geology and history, 272 German script, origin, 51 Germans, law of early, 176 Germany, place in research, 12 Gibbon, Edward, view of social data, 5 ; hterary style, 306 Giraldus Cambrensis, 107 Glass painting, 159 Gothic architecture, 245 Gothic writing, 51 Gracchi, 180 Grandeur in architecture, 245 Grant, U. S., in fiction, 324 Greek character, 135 Green, J. R., methods, 6 Greeting, diplomatics, 61 Gregorian calendar, 74, 81, 83 INDEX. 345 Guizot on logic, 259 Half-uncial writing, 50 Hall, Hubert, studies on English official documents, 67, 92 Hamilton, Alex., in "The Conqueror," 317 Harrison, F., on Gibbon, 307 Henry VIII, abolition of monasteries, 171; crime in his period, 175; curious title of law, 178 Henry of Huntingdon, 112, 114, 117 Heraldry, 92; origins, 93; pri\ileges, 94; as an aid to history, 95; technicahties, 95 Herodotus, methods, 1; im- perfect perspective, 290 Histoire de la guerre sainte, 106 History, definition, 1-12; primitive, 1; sociological, 8; genetic, 10; economic, 276 Holy days as dates, 77 Hours of the day, 79 Hugo, Victor, description of Waterloo, 322 Human remains, 236 Hume, style of, 307 Hypercriticism, 22 Illustration of books, 166 Imitation a social phenome- non, 280, 282 Impartiahty, protestations of, 131 Indentured servants adver- tised, 229 Indiction, 72 Inscriptio, 61 Intellectual qualifications of authors, 126 Intention of historical docu- ment, 15 Interdependence of sources, 111-119 Interpolation, 38 Intitulatio, 61 Introitus, 78 Invocation, 60; facsimile of, 60 Itinerary of Richard I, 106 Jews, false reports about, 128 Judicial documents, 185-189 Justice of the peace, signif- icance, 188 Justinger, chronicle, 152 Kopp, lack of perspective, 291 Kyburg, seal of Count Hart- mann the Elder, 87 ; of Count Hartmann the Younger, 88 Labarum, 60 Lake dwellers, 235 Land records, mediaeval, 211 Landesgemeinde, Swiss, 258 Language as evidence of place, 110 Laplace on historical evidence, 249 Latin, use in middle ages, 45 Law, early Germanic, 176; genesis of, 180; as historical evidence, 170, 173; as a social heritage, 285 Law reports, 186 Legislatures, records, 170 346 INDEX. Leplay's studies of the family, 277 Letter of credit, ancient, 208 Liber Albus, 184 Lincoln, A., in fiction, 323 Literary habits, 314 Literature, history viewed as, 141; limitations^ 139; moral evidence in, 135 Logic, use of in history, 259 London, city records, 184 Lotteries advertised, 225 Macaulay, T. B., methods, 5; on Wm. Ill, 36; personal disUkes, 130 note; literary style, 307 McGee, W. J., on age of pre- historic relics, 41 Machiavelli, definition of his- tory, 7; on speeches in his- tory, 35 Maine, Sir H., use of analogy, 257 Maitland, F. W., style of, 310 Maps, in evidence, 163 Martin's Record Interpreter, 52 Maryland, law on profanity, 174 Mass, psychology of the, 278 Materials of history, classifica- tion, 13-15; tabular view, 17 "Matthew of Westminster," 105 Matthew Paris, 105 v. Maurer, error of, 257 Megnet, pastor, 152 Merian, M., engraver, 159 Military history, 4 MiUenium, legend of year 1000, 150 Miniatures, mediaeval, 158 Minuscule writing, 50 Mob, psychology of the, 279 Mommsen, Th., as numisma- tist, 238 Monogram, 67; facsimile of Charlemagne's, 68; Frede- ric Barbarossa, 69 Months, names of, 77 Moral atmosphere, 133, 136 Moral history, 8 Motley, style of, 310 Mountains, effect on society, 267 Miiller, J. von, and Wm. Tell, 153 Municipal records, 182 Myth, genesis of, 143 Napoleon I, restores calendar, 83; his proclamations, 201 Narration, diplomatics, 63 Natural phenomena as aids to time indication, 100 News, interpretation of, 219; in early newspapers, 222 Newspaper as source of his- tory, 16, 215-230 Nile, battle of, news, 222 Norman Conquest on Bayeux Tapestry, 156 Notitia Dignitatum, 191 Notitia, diplomatics, 58 Novel, the historical, 317-325 Numismatics, see Coins. Oath in the middle ages, 134 Objectivity, 299 Observation, capacity for, 125 INDEX. 347 OflBcial position of author, 129 Omission of unimportant data, 292 Ordinances, municipal, 184 Paintings in historical evi- dence, 155 Palaeography, mediseval his- tory of, 44; writing mate- rials, 46 ; auxiHary to history, 47; evolution of Latin writ- ing, 48; Roman alphabets, 49; uncial, 49; minuscule, 50; Gothic, 51; abbrevia^- tions, 52; shorthand, 52 Paper, invention of, 46 Papyrus, use in middle ages, 46 Parchment, 46 Parish records, 196 Partisanship cause for fraud, 33 Party aflSIiations of authors, 12 Patriotism in history, 296 Peisistratidae, tradition of, 142 Personality in evidence, 122 PersonaHty of author, 300; suppression unnecessary, 301 Perspective in history, 290 Petition, diplomatics, 63 Petitions, valuation of, 181 Philip of Briens, seal, 90 Philology as an aid to history, 99 Photography in history, 162 Physical environment, 264 Pioneer societies, 282 Pipe Rolls, 192, 197 Place, economic definition, 277 Place of origin of document, 109 Plagiarism, mediaeval, 111- 119 Plymouth Colony land system not a Germanic survival, 258 Poetry as historical evidence, 139 Political campaigns, docu- ments of, 202 Portraits, 161 Postal facihties, 226 Poverty and opinion, 127 Preamble of law, 16, 171 Prefaces, 132 Prehistoric relics, presump- tions as to age, 41; imple- ments, 232, 234; compari- son, 235 Prescott, style of, 310 Presentation of results, 288 Press, censorship of, 216; laws, 216 Procedure, judicial, 185 Proclamations, 199-202 Proem, 62 Promulgatio, 63 Protocol, 59; final, 66 Providence in history, 9 Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals, 31 Psychological factors in his- tory, 278 Public Advertiser, London, 225 Public buildings interpreted, 245 Public opinion, ascertainment of, 221, 281 Publication, diplomatics, 63 Puritan writings, 133 Quotation, identification by, 104 348 INDEX. Race not a factor in culture, 285 Ranke, L., definition of his- tory, 12 Ratzel on influence of geog- raphy, 266 Reasoning processes in history, 249 Records, administrative, 190 Records, criticism and inter- pretation, 168 Records, mixed, 188 Records of discussion, 178 Reformation, partisan ac- counts of, 129, 131 Relics, 121; definition, 231 Religion affecting history, 128 Rent-rolls, 212 Reports, legislative, 179 Representative terms, 259, 293 Revision, 315 Rhomberg, axioms in history, 252 Richard I, Itinerary of, 106 Richard, canon of Holy Trinity, 107 Rievaulx, cartulary, 210 Rivers as boundaries, 271 Robert of Reading, 106 Roger, J. C, on analogy, 259 Rogers, J. E. T., 275 Rotuh Parliamentorum, ab- breviations in, 54 Saints' lives, fraudulent, 33 Salutatio, 61 Sanction, diplomatics, 65 Samen, White Book of, 152 Saxon Chronicle, 112, 113, 115 Scenery, social effect, 267 Scherer, on mediaeval litera- ture, 133 Schiller and Wm. Tell, 153 Schilling, Diebold, chronicler, 124 Schliemann, 237 Scholasticism, 137 Schomburgk map, 165 Science, natural, methods compared, 122 Scott, Walter, disarranges history, 323 Sculpture, 160 Sealing wax, 85 Seals, documentary, 84-96 Seas, effect on society, 267 Seeley, J. R., definition of history, 8 Self-government, colonial, 258 Sepulchral monuments, 158 Serfdom in deeds, 212 Sheriffs' writs, 193; accounts, 193, 197 Sigillography, see Seals Signature, diplomatics, 66; facsimile of signature clause, Otto II, 67 Silence, argument from, 254 Simeon of Durham, 113, 114, 118 Simonides, forger of ancient documents, 30 Situation in life, author, 123 Slavery, in advertisements, 227 Smith, John, map of Va., 164 Social class of author, 126 Social history, 4 Social opinion, power of, 280 Sociological history, 8 Speeches, fictitious, 35, 140 INDEX. 349 Spencer, Herbert, definition of history, 7 Stage coaches advertised, 226 State trials, 186 Stephens, H. M., 130 note Stubbs, W., style of, 310 Style in history, 303-316 Subjectivity, 299 Supreme Courts of U. S., reports, 187 Survivals, 257 Switzerland, legendary his- tory, 151; Landesgemeinde, 258; cause of dialects, 268 Tadema, Alma, 165 Taine on history as an art, 304; on race in history, 285 Taylor, Isaac, on textual difficulties, 24 ; on quotation, 104 TeU, Wilham, legend of, 151 Terminus ante quern, 102, 107 Terminus post quem, 101 Text, diplomatics, 61 Textual difficulties, 24 Theme, analysis of, 298 Thucydides, method, 2, 7; on tradition, 142 Time and origin of sources, 97-102 Time indication by series, 100 Times, London, 222 Tiro, inventor of shorthand, 53 Title, diplomatics, 61 Topography in history, 272 Tory party, 127 Town meeting records, 217 Tradition, oral, 142-154 "Traditiones," 211 Tmjan's column, 160 Transference in tradition, 147 Transportation, early, 226 Treatment, chronological or thematic, 294 Troy, ancient, 237 Truce of God, 174 Tschudi, chronicle, 152 Turner, Sharon, history of Anglo-Saxons, 5 Uncial writing, 49 Unconscious materials of his- tory, 14, 15 United States, historical per- spective, 295 Urengur, king of Ur, 15 Urkunde, definition, 57 St. Ursula, legend of, 147 Valor Ecclesiasticus, abbrevi- ations in, 54; interpreted, 193 Valuation of historical data, 120 Venezuela boundary case, 165 Veronese, Paul, 158 Vindication not object of criticism, 130 Vinsauf, Geoffrey, 106 Virginia, petitions in archives, 182 Visitations, 193 Voltaire on the Reformation, 264 Wallace, Sir Wilham, ficti- tious memoirs, 30 War despatches, 198 War of 1812, speech of Prince Regent, 199; president's message, 200 350 INDEX. Watts, G. F., 162 Wealth and opinion, 127 Weight of coins, inferences, 240 Whig party, 127 Wills, 208 Witnesses, diplomatics, 68 Wolsey, Cardinal, 130 Words as indications of period, 99 Writing materials, mediaeval, 46 Writs, sheriffs', 193; royB,l, 194; parliamentary, 194 Year 1000, legend of, 150 Young, Arthm-, 125 Zurich, city records, 183 'illlilllllililliliHIIIIIIIIIIIIIiilllilillllllllllill! Ijillllllll llltlli