CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Gift of Professor and Mrs. Donald J. Grout Music ML 108.S781876""""' """^ of musical terms. 1924 022 261 105 ^w Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022261105 FOURTH THOUSAND. '"*M \ A DICTIONARY OF USICAL ilERMS EDITED BY J. STAINER, M.A., Mus. Doc, MAGD. COLL., OXFORD, W. A. BARRETT, Mus. BaC, S. MARY'S HALL, OXFORD. r^jfr-fc^tTrjiSs^tJ^r- LONDON : n6vello, ewer and CO., I, BERNERS STREET (W.), AND 80 & 81, QUEEN STREET, CHEAPSIDE (E.C.) PREFACE. In a work of reference of this kind it is always difficult to find any definite principle by which to include or exclude the words to be explained. On the one hand, if all words — however rare their use in music — were to be given, the bulk of the book would be inconveniently large : on the other hand, words seldom met with are from that very fact often more in need of explanation. The Editors hope, that from practical experience and knowledge, they have succeeded in collecting the chief musical terms met with in scientific, theoretical, and practical treatises, and in the more common annotated programmes and newspaper criticisms. That everj' subject should be treated in an exhaustive manner would be, of course, impossible ; but the Editors have endeavoured to give sufficiently true outlines of matters of fact to inform the amateur correctly, and intimate to the musical student the results to which his own reading will probably tend. The Editors are largely indebted to the following gentlemen who have contributed important articles, or have in other ways rendered them valuable assistance : — R. H. M. Bosanquet, Esq., M.A., Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, author of the article " Temperament." J. Bulley, Esq., M.A., of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, author of the articles " Licensing " and " Copyright." F. Champneys, Esq., M.A., M.B. (Oxon), M.R.C.P., F.L.S., " Medical Registrar of St. Bartholomew's Hospital ; late Radcliffe Travelling Fellow of the ■ University of Oxford, author of the articles "Ear," "Larynx," and "Laryngoscope;" and for his explanation of the formation of the hand given in the article " Fingering." W. Chappell, Esq., F.S.A., author of the articles "Ballad" (Old English), "Greek Music " (Ancient Systems of), and " Notation '' (Early Systems of). A. E. Donkin, Esq., M.A., F.R.A.S., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, author of the article " Acoustics." A. J. Ellis, Esq., B.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.C.P.S., F.C.P., formerly Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, author of the article " Duodene." Henry Gadsby, Esq., for his account of Sonata Form in the article " Form." Rev. T. Helmore, M.A., Chaplain-in-Ordinaiy to the Queen, author of the article " Plain Song." PREFACE. John Hullah, Esq., Government Inspector of Training Schools, for extracts from a paper read before the Musical Association on " Nomenclature." W. G. McNaught, Esq., author of the article "Tonic Sol-fa." W. H. Monk, Esq., Professor of Vocal Music, King's College, London, author of the article " Hymn Tunes." Also to — Messrs. Broadwood, for permission to publish diagrams of their pianoforte action. Messrs. Cassell, for permission to quote from Musical Articles in the " Bible Educator." Messrs. Chappell, for permission to quote from " Popular Music in the Olden Time." Messrs. Erard, for permission tp reproduce their diagrams of pianoforte action. A. J. Hipkins, Esq., for valuable information on the subject of Tuning- Forks and Pitch. W. H. Husk, Esq., for an important list of early printed music, and other assistance. Messrs. Murray, for permission to quote music from Lane's " Modern Egyptians." Sacred Harmonic Society, for offering special facilities for the use of their valuable library. Rev. J. Troutbeck, M.A., Chaplain-in-Ordinary to the Queen, for permission to reprint diagrams from Troutbeck and Dale's " Music Primer." Henry Willis, Esq., for diagrams and explanations of his Pneumatic Bellows. DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. -A BATTUTA. A. (i) The note called Proslamhanomenos in the greater perfect system of the Greeks. The letter-name of Mese, the highest note of the middle tetrachord; and of Nete, the highest note of the upper tetrachord. [Greek Music] — (2) The first note of (i) the Hypo-Dorian mode, or church-scale, commencing four notes below the Dorian ; (2) the Hyper- Phry- gian mode, or church-scale, commencing four notes above the Phrygian; (3) the Eolianmode. [Greek Music] — (3) The next note above Gamma Ut, in the Grave Hexachord of the Guidonian system, where it is A re. Also, the first note of the acute and super-acute Hexachords, in which it is a la tni re. [Notation.] — (4) The normal minor scale of modern music, so-called because it is the relative minor of C. It is sometimes also named the natural minor scale, because no sharps or flats are required in its signature. — (5) The normal sound {Ger.NormaUon), because the instruments of an orchestra tune to this note, as given by the Oboe or Organ. — (6) The key-note of the major scale, which has three sharps for its signature. — (7) The name given to a string tuned to the sound A. The A-string of a violin is its second string ; of a viola, its first string ; of a violoncello, its first string ; but on this instrument it is one octave lower in pitch than the A-string of a violin or viola ; of a Double-Bass, its third string, which is two octaves lower in pitch than the first string of a violoncello ; of a guitar, its sixth string. The string tuned highest in pitch is called the first string of an instrument; the next below it, the second ; and so on. The actual sound ^ _(8) IS in some systems represented by A (capital letter), while AA represents the note one octave below that sound, and AAA the note two octaves below it. Proceeding upwards, the note one octave above A is represented by a (italic) ; that two octaves above it by a (once underlined) ; that three octaves above it, by g (twice underlined), and so on. [Pitch.] A. {It.) At, by, in, for, to, with, towards, &c ; a prima vista, at first sight ; a battuta, lit. by the beat, in strict time ; a tempo, in time, &c. &c.; q.v. sub vocibus. A. (Fr.) For, by, on; a deux mains, for two hands, &c. ; q.v. sub vocibus. Abacus {Lat.) a/jaf {Gk.) Any square tablet ; hence, a board on which calculations were made ; hence, in music, a diagram of the notes with their names. A ballata (It.) (i) In the ballad style. Applied to any song, duet, or chorus, con- structed in the ballad or narrative form. Also to a song with a refrain in chorus, as is found in many old and modem English songs ; for example, the song of which a portion runs : " Ich have house and land in Kent, And if you love me, love rae now; Two pence half penny is my rent, Ich cannot come everich day to woo." Chorus. " Two pence half penny is his rent, He cannot come everich day to woo " — is a song, a ballata. (2) The term is also used to describe a vocal piece, that may be danced to. [Ballad.] Abbandonamente (It.) With self-aban- donment, despondingly. Abbandonarsi {It.) To abandon one- self (to the influence of the music). Abbandono, con {It.) With self-aban- donment, passionately. Abbassamento {It.) A lowering. Ab- bassamento di mano, a lowering of the hand; abbassamento di voce, a lowering of the voice. A battuta (/f.) In strict time. This term is usually employed when a break in the time of ABBELIRE ABBREVIATION. a movement has occurred, and it is desirable to resume the original pace " by the beat." Weber. , ReciU tempo a battuta. Abbelire (It.) To overload a plain melody with ornaments. Abbelitura (/f .) Ornament, embellishment. Abblasen (Ger.) To sound a trumpet call. Abbreviare (It.) To shorten. Abbreviation. A system frequently em- ployed in music, by which a portion of a technical term is made to stand for the whole. The following is a list of the abbreviations in most common use; the explanation of each term may be found on reference to the words themselves in their proper places : Accel" ;;;}^="'"^"'*° Ace. —St. Accom... LAccompani- Accomp.J "«"' - Accres Accresciamento Adg" or ad". Adagio Ad lib"!; }^^ ''•''""" Affett" ...Affettuoso Affrett" ...Affrettando A|ito":::} Agitato All» Allegro Allgtt" ...Allegretto , AU'ott... 1 .,„ ^^ All's™... J''^" ottava Al seg Al segno And"" Andantino Andts Andante Anim" Animato Arc fCoUArco, or I Arcato Arp" Arpeggio Ard» Ardito At ) A tem ... i-A tempo A temp.. J Aus . i ^y Augmenta- ° '\ tion. ( Bass (voice) B } Bassoon t Centre Bass B.C Basso continuo Brill Brillante C.B Col Basso CD Colladestra C.S CoUa sinistra Cad Cadence Cal Calando Can Cantoris Cant Canto Cantab Cello ... Cemb ... Ch Chal ... Clar ... Clar«» Clar ... Co, So. ColC. Col ott« Col Vo. Con. esp. Cor. .. Cres" .. Cresc .. C.S. .. C. 8" .. Co. 1"'» C'o .Cantabile .Violoncello .Cembalo . Choir organ .Chalameau .Clarinet .Clarinetto .Clarino Gome Sopra .Col Canto .Coir ottava .Colla voce Con espres- sione ■ Cornet or horn Crescendo .Colla Sinistra Coir ottaya .Canto primo .Come primo .Concerto D.C Dec i. Dectes ... Delic Dest Diap Dim Dim Div Dol Dolcis Dopp. ped. D.S Destra, droite, right Da Capo Decani Decrescendo Delicamente Destra Diapasons By Diminution Diminuendo. Divisi Dolce Dolcissimo .Doppio pedale Dal segno Energ Energicamente Espres::;}^=p'^^=^'^° F. or for ...Forte Fag Fagotto Falset .Falsetto Ff. or Fff... Fortissimo PI Flauto f:0rg.".".}P"'10^g^" G Gauche G. O. ...) G. Org... S-Great Organ Gt j Grand" ...Grandioso Graz" Grazioso Gr Grand Hauptw. ■) Hptw. ... > Hauptwerk H.P J Haut Hautboy H.C Haute Contra Intro Introduction Inv Inversion L Left Leg Legato Legg° Leggiero L.H Left hand Lo Loco Luo Luogo Lusing. ...Lusingando M 1 Main. ... t Manual Mano. ... J Maest" ...Maestoso Magg Maggiore Man Manuals Man*- ...} Mancando Marc Marcato C Mano Diritta M.D J Main Droite ( Manu Dextra M.G Main Gauche M M. . I Maelzel's Me- \ tronome The beat of a crotchet is e- M.M. • = 92 . M.P. qual to the pulse of the pendulum of the Metro- nome said to be Maelzel's, with the weight set at 92. ...Mezzo piano jjg f Manuscript or ■■■ X Mano Sinistra Mus.BacP^^'jfJ^"' °^ Men Meno Mez Mezzo M.V Mezzo voce Mf. or Mff.. Mezzo forte Modto. ...Moderato Mus. Doc. .Doctor of Music Ob. {Oboe, or Haut- bois Obb Obbligato Oberst. ...Oberstimme 8br-.;:}oi'---'' Oh. ped. ...Ohne pedal Org Organ 8™ :::::: }°"^^^ 8" alta ... Ottava alta 8" bas. ...Ottava bassa P Piano Ped Pedal Perd Perdendosi. P.F Piu forte Piang. Piangendo Pianiss. ...Pianissimo Pizz Pizzicato Pmo. ... -. PP. ... [-Pianissimo PPP ") PPPP "' f P'^n'ssissimo lf"» Prima l"" Primo 4'te Quartet 5'K Quintet Rail Rallentando Raddol. ...Raddolcendo Recit Recitative ^orrfnf:}K'"^°"^"'^° RH Right hand Ritar Ritardando Riten Ritenuto S Senza K. A Sign Scherz. ...Scherzando 2''» Seconda 2''o Secondo Seg. Segue Sem. ... 1 „ Semp....;Se'"P^e 7" Septet 6" Sestet Sfz Sforzando Smorz. ...Smorzando Sinf. S. Int....| S.S. ... 1 S. Sord . J Sos "I Sos' J Spir S.T Stacc Diap. I String. Sw , Sym St, Sinfonia Senza intemi- zione Senza Sordini Sostenuto Spiritoso Senza Tempo Staccato Stopped Diapa/. son Stringendo Swell organ Symphony nr. f Tenor, tutti, \ tempo, tendre T.C Tre corde Tem Tempo Tem. l" ...Tempo primo Ten Tenuto Timb Timballes Timp Timpani Tr Trillo (2) ABBREVIATURE A CAPPELLA. Trem Tremolando 3' Trio Tromb. ...Trombi Tromb. ...Tromboni T.S Tastosolo U Una U.C Unacorda Unis Unisoni V. .Voce V Volti Va Viola Vat Variation VcUo Violoncello Viv Vivace Vo. ... . Vno. ... j-Violino Viol" ... ■* V.S Volti Subito V"' 1 [■Violini V.V. There are" other abbreviations employed in manuscript or printed music, the chief of which are as follows : In time, a dash with a figure above signifies the length of the pause in bars, e.g. : 24 In notes, the trouble of writing a passage in full is saved by the use of abbreviations, e.g. : Written. Repetition phrases are thus shortened: Abbreviations, by signs, of musical graces : The Turn. ^ Sung 5 Written ^ The back Turn, ^ or t Written ^ ^"^ passing shake, Q Written f Sung Beat, ^ Written Abbreviature {It.) Abbreviations. Abbreviazione {It.) An abbreviation. Abcidiren {Ger.) (i) To use a system of solmisation. A series of exercises in which the names of the notes are used instead of words. (2) A method of instruction for sight singing. Abellare {It.) To decorate, ornament, or embellish. Abellimento {It.) A decoration, ornament, or embellishment. Abendglocke {Ger.) The Curfew, evening bell. A bene placito {It.) At pleasure. The singer or performer may alter the time, intro- duce ornaments, cadenzas, &c., according to fancy, or may use certain instruments speci- fied, or not, without detriment to the effect required. [Chamber Music] Abenteuerlich {Ger.) Strange and uncouth. The music of the new German school is so called by the unthinking. Abgestossen {Ger.) Struck off. Staccato. AbgeleiteterAkkord {Ger.) An inversion of a chord. Ab initio {Lat.) From the beginning. [Da capo.] Abkilrzungen {Ger.) Abbreviations. Abrdger {Fr.) To shorten, curtail, abridge. Abr^g^ {Fr.) Shortened. Abreissung {Ger.) A sudden pause. Abrupt cadence. An interrupted cadence. [Cadence.] Abrupt modulation. A sudden change of key for which no preparation has been made. [Modulation.] Absatz {Ger.) Cadence. [Cadence.] Abschnitt {Ger.) Section. [Phrase.] Absetzen (Ger.) ] To render music ' stac- Abstossen (Ger.) J cato.' Abub. [Ambubajae.] Abwechselnd (Ger.) Alternating, niit ab- wechselnden Manualen, alternately from the great to the choir organ. Acad6mie de Musique {Fr.) An aca- demy of music. Acaddmie Royale de Musique {Fr.) The opera house in Paris. Academie Spirituelle {Fr.) A concert or performance of sacred music. Academy of Music. A name given to an organised society of performers and teachers of music; originally applied to the Royal Academy of Music, founded 1824 in London. A cappella,or,Allacappella(/i.) (i) In the church style, vocal pieces unaccompanied, especially those of the Italian school, because the music sung in the Sistine Chapel was never accompanied by instruments. [School.] (2) Church music in a duple time (two or four minims in each bar), this being for a long period considered more ecclesiastical than triple measure. (3) A CAPRICCIO ^ACCENT. A capriccio {It.) At will, according to individual fancy. Acathistus. A hymn of praise, sung in the Greek Church in honour of the Blessed Virgin, upon the Saturday in the fifth week in Lent, by the whole congregation stand- ing. Accarezzevole (It.) (Lit. flatteringly.) Agreeable, pleasing ; used occasionally to de- scribe the anticipation of notes. Accarezzevolmente (It.) In a caress- ing style. Accelerando or accellerato (It.) Gra- dually increasing the pace. Accent (Fr.) A sign used in old French music for the Harpsichord : _o A Written Played The custom of employing a variety of orna- ments in harpsichord music, arose from the fact that the instrument was not capable of sustaining tone without the use of repeated touches. Accent. — In its ancient and widest sense, a sign placed over a syllable to indicate the elevation of the -Moice when pronouncing it. Hence, the term came to imply a raising up- wards of the voice in the scale series from the monotone or note of recitation, to a sound of higher pitch. By using various forms of accents, different elevations of the voice were obtained, until a rude sort of chant resulted. The most ancient known accents, those of the Hebrews as found in the Pentateuch, Psalms, and Book of Job, were interpreted only by tra- dition, not according to definite rule. Unfor- tunately therefore in comparing the musical rendering of them as taken down in modern notation by authors in various parts of Europe, it will be found that their original force is now quite unknown, and that the various " foliations " which are supposed to repre- sent their meaning, are the growth of many surrounding musical or other indirect in- fluences. 2. In early Greek Church music, the accents had to a great extent, a plain and definite intention, and as they were fixed and adapted to various poems by John of Damascus in the 8th century, and their use has been kept up in its purity to this day in Byzantine music, a very good insight into early forms and principles of notation can be obtained. [Greek Church music] 3. In mediaeval music the term accent was also applied to musical notation, the first two and most common of the signs being the accentus acutus, and accentus gravis. After- wards the term came to signify the system generally, and so became synonymous with neuma, under which head information as to mediaval notation will be found. [Neuma.] [Old systems of notation.'] 4. In plain song, the term accent, or accen- tus ecclesiasticus, was used to designate that system of movement of the voice, by learnmg the principles of which {modus legendt chor- aliter), a chanter could read collects, epistles, gospels, &c., from an un-noted book. Hence, , it resolved itself into a series of rules relating to the inflexions or intonations of the voice on reaching a comma, semicolon, colon, full stop, and also a note of interrogation. But perfect uniformity is not to be found in these regula- tions regarding the puncta. According to its position in the sentence, or the interval covered by the movement of the voice, accent was said to be (i) immutabilis, (2) medius, (3) gravis, (4) acutus, (5) moderatus, (6) in- terrogativus, (7) finalis. The following are examples of these different species : immutabilis. ^ i^ ■ ■ ^— --♦ - ^ - -^^ Lec-ti - o E - pi-sto-lse Sanc-ti Pau - li medius. * n ■ - ^ ^ ff -■ — ♦ ■ et o-pe-ra-tur vir-tu-tes in vo-bis: gravis. Be - ne - fi- cen-tur in Te om-nes gen-tes. acutus. ■ T Cum Spi ri tu coe - pe - ri - tis nunc, moderatus. cum fi - de - li, ex o - pe - ri - bus le - gis, interrogativus. n ■ ■ ^, " ^ an ex au di tu fi - de - i ? finalis. >- ■ * ■ n ■ ■ 1 ^ ^11 A - ni - ma me - a ad Te De us. But according to some authors, the epistle should be on monotone, except at a point of interrogation, e.g. : Lee - ti - o li bri Sa - pi - en - ti * Be - a- tus vir qui in-ventus est si - ne ma-cu-la, &c. Quis est hie et lau-da - bi - mus e - urn ? 4) ACCENT. But in some countries, the epistle is chanted with the greatest elaboration, the note above the reciting note being introduced before the full stop, and the whole of an interrogative sentence being recited on a note below the ut. But as these uses differ not only in various places, but according to the Church seasons, an exhaustive account is impossible. In chanting the gospel, an accentus medius takes place at the fourth syllable from a full stop, or thereabouts, and also the accentus interrogativus. Se- quen - ti - a Sane - ti Ev- an - ge - li - i se - cun- dum Mat - thae - um, &c. In il lo tem-po - re dix - it Si-mon Pe-tnis ad Je-sum &c. _S M ^ n M H-. -■ — quid er - go e - rit no - bis ? &c. Et vi - tam e ter nam pos - si - de - bit. In the chanting of collects, a fall from Ut to La, or from Fa to Re takes place at a punctum principale, and from Ut to Si, or Fa to Mi once only at a semipunctum. The accentus ecclesiasticus of lections and prayers must not be confused with those in- flexions which tradition assigns to other parts of the service, such as confessions, proper prefaces, and lections of the Passion ; all of which are to be found noted in authorised books. It should be remarked that the Belgian and French uses often differ much from that of the Romans, although uniformity in such things is without doubt desirable. 5. In modem music, accent is the stress which recurs at regular intervals of time. By the proper grouping of a series of accents, rhythm is produced. When music was in- dissoluble from poetry, a sign for marking accent was not needed, but it is necessary to point out in order to avoid confusion, that our word accent corresponds more to the ancient ictus than to arsis. For although the latter represented a raising of the voice, it did not necessarily occur on a long syllable, whereas it is considered a fault in modern music, if a short syllable occurs on an accented note. The position of the accent is plainly and simply indicated by upright strokes called bars [Bar], it being understood that the first note inside a bar is without exception accented. The measurement of the whole duration of the notes between these accents, is recorded at the commencement of a movement, and constitutes what is called the time-signature. In bars containing more than one group of notes, as is the case in compound times, other accents occur on the first note of each group, but they are not so strong as that falling on the first note of the first group. The latter therefore is called the primary or principal accent ; the former secondary or subordinate. Besides these normal positions of accents, there are others which can be produced at any point by the use of a sign =- or sf. An accent can also be displaced for a time from its usual seat by binding an unaccented chord to a like chord at a point of accent, and so preventing its repercussion ; or, by both com- bined. Beethoven's Sym., No. 3. pv^/^ sfJf^jL . 4- A t^. ^ J J 1 -i -i^r-i s^-r — ^ K !■. ''r f' L^ ^ J — 1— ^H !!^*h — 1 — ! — I— -^4 — The throwing of the accent on to an unac- cented part of the bar is called syncopation. A similar effect can be produced by a process the converse of the above, that is by making rests fall where an ictus is expected, e.g. : Beethoven's Sym. No. 3. 4 ^ - This intentional upsetting of our accepted notions of the expected position of accent is capable of a most remarkable and powerful effect. Heard by a musician just two centu- ries ago, its effect would probably not have been so striking, as he would have supposed the writer to have changed from triple to duple time, a constant habit in those days. Such accents are sometimes called cross, or false. (5 ACCENTUARE ACCOMPANIMENT. Accentuare {It.) To accent. Accentuation. The act of accenting, or giving to certain notes their due emphasis. Accessory stops and movements. Stops and movements acting only on the mechanism of an organ, not having pipes in connection with them, as, Couplers, Tre- molo, Signal to the blowers ; Composition pedals, &c. Acciaccatura {It.) A short appogiatura,e.g-. : lightly yet clearly to be sung, or played. Accidentals. Sharps, flats, or naturals, introduced into a piece of music, beyond those already in the signature. A cinque {It). In five parts. Accollade {Fr.) A brace, uniting several staves, as in pianoforte or organ music, or in a score. Accommodare (It.) To tune an instru- ment in agreement with another. Accompagnamento {It.)\ [Accompani- Accompagnement {Fr.) i ment.] Accompaniment ad libitum. Accom- paniment at will. That is, one which can be played or omitted without injury to the harmonic construction of a composition, c.f. obbligato. Accompaniment obbligato. [Obbligato.] Accompaniment. A separate part or parts, for voices or instruments, added to a solo or- concerted piece. Accompaniment may consist of a single simple instrument, such as a violin or flute, or a single com- pound instrument as an organ or pianoforte, a combination of selected orchestral instruments, or a whole band, or of voices in harmony. Accompaniments are those portions of a composition which are independent of the principal parts, and which are added to sup- port, or to produce such effects as would be otherwise unattainable. Accompaniment should always be subservient to the chief part, so as not to overload or obscure it, and should be so constructed, that the voice or voices or solo instruments should be made to appear to the most favourable advantage. In the earliest records we possess, it is found that some sort of accompaniment was gener- ally employe'd either to assist the voice, or mark the time or rhythm of the songs sung : of these many examples could be quoted if it were necessary. In the Bible, instances are mentioned in which singing is accompanied by musical instruments ; but of the nature of these accompaniments we can form no definite idea, beyond the fact that, from a comparative knowledge of the instruments spoken of, it is presumed that little, if any attempt was made to gain independent effects. The ancient Greek dance, and the poetiy of the tragedy, was always accompanied, at first with the lyre, afterwards with the flute. Donaldson, in his "Theatre of the Greeks," says, that the Ancient Dorian Choral soijg, the Pcean, was originally accompanied with the Harp { ancient English poetry, show that the performers were not only accustomed to accompany singing with their several instruments, but they also imply that they were able to play independent pieces. [Mediaeval musical instruments.] In some instances we jBnd that the accom- panist was distinct from the singer, for example : " In Alwyni episcopi . . . et durante pietancia in aula conventus, sex ministralli, cum quatuor citharisatoribus, faciebant minis- tralcias suas." Regis. Prior: S. Swithini Winton (c. 1374). It cannot be ascertained whether the harpers did anymore than play the same melody to which the poems were recited, or by the constant repetition of certain notes serve any other purpose but that of main- taining the pitch or rhythm. The following quotation from David Lynd- say's poem, "The Dreme," 1579, implies the performance ofa purely instrumental piece: " Thay beir ane aid stok-image throu the toun, With talbrone, trumpet, shaltne, and clarione." Whether this combination produced con- cord, or unison, it is impossible now to de- cide, for, as before stated, the loose manner with which the terms melody and harmony are employed helps to confuse, rather than to make clear all conjecture. For example : " And all above there lay a gay sautrie, On which he made on nightis melodye." Chaucer. Again, in the " Lyfe of Saint Werburge," printed by Pynson in 1521, we read: " Certayne at each course of service in the Hall Trumpettes blewe up, shalmes, and claryouns Shewynge theyr melody, with toynes musycall " and again in the same poem : "A singuler Mynstrell, all other ferre passynge Toyned his instrument in pleasaunt armony." In the two first quoted examples, that which is called melody might well be harmony, and in the third, that which is called harmony might well be melody. In nearly every list of instruments of rnin- strelsy, there are one or two pulsatile instru- ments spoken of — "Tymphans, tabours, nacaires," whose use was to mark the rhythm, sung, played, or danced to ; but where these regular instruments were wanting, the clap- ping of hands, the beating of a stick upon a shovel, or the clashing of two sticks together, or the " ancient natural instruments of our islands," as Dr. Burney calls the tongs, marrow -bones and cleavers, salt -box and rolling-pin, with the hurdy-gurdy, were em- ployed as accompaniments to rustic songs or dances. These " natural instruments" required little skill to use, beyond a correct sense of rhythm, though there are instances on record where some degree of science was brought to bear in their employment. The butchers of Clare Market, in the parish of St. Clement Danes in London, were at one time noted for their aptitude in playing tunes with marrow-bones upon cleavers of various sizes capable of sounding a scale of notes, in a manner somewhat similar to the hand-bell ringing in the North of England, but their performances were ultimately made independ- ent, and therefore could scarcely be considered as accompaniments. Addison's description of a Burlesque musician, and his cultivation of strange instruments for accompaniment, may be read with interest in reference to this subject (Spectator, No. 570.) Skelton, in his description of Riot, speaks of one, who " Counter he coulde, O Lux, upon a potte," probably meaning that while he sang the melody of the ancient hymn, " O Lux, beata Trinitas," he would beat upon the vessel he had been drinking out of, a part, in derisive imitation of the florid counterpoint sung by the monks during service. The poets and authors of the middle ages give no lucid in- formation concerning the abilities of the musicians of their, times, probably on the presumption, that because the method of their performances was well known and understood by every one, no particular de- scription was needed. All our knowledge on the subject is derived from inference, and so it is assumed that the minstrels and later musicians, previously to the i6th century, had little, if any, knowledge of harmony; or if they had, they probably left the practice of it to the Church. There is a further reason for supposing that the ancient minstrels accompanied their songs by playing the same melody which was sung, in the character of the majority of the instruments alluded to in old writings : — " Harpys, fythales, and eke rotys Lutys, ribibles, and getemes, Orguys, cytolis, monacordys .... trumpes, and trumpettes Lowde shaluys, and doncettes." The drone of the bagpipe and the funda- mental sound of the drum might suggest the formation of harmony; the character and con- struction of the earliest piece of harmony we possess, " Sumer is icum'en in" offering curious confirmation of this notion. All writers are agreed as to this being the oldest song with musical notes extant. War- ton believed it to belong to the 15th century, but Sir Frederick Madden showed it to be at least two hundred years older; and judging by the character in which it is written, and (7) ACCOMPANIMENT. other evidence, fixed its date at about the year 1250. It is among the Harleian MSS. in the British Museum. The piece is arranged as a continuous melody ; but by commencing that melody at certain indicated places, it forms a canon in the unison in four parts, with a "pes," a foot, or burden for two other parts. The first attempts at accompaniment in har- mony were arranged for the voice, in a manner that to our ears wouldbe simplybarbarous[Dia- phony], [Descant], [Fa burden]. It was only by slow degrees that it was discovered that certain instruments were capable of producing complicated sounds forming harmony, and were therefore especially valuable for accom- paniment. The chief among these instruments was the Lute, which appears to have been a favourite instrument in Chaucer's time, and to have continued in favourin one form or another, until the virginals and spinetts, being of more convenient form and less trouble to keep in or- der, completely superseded it. [Tablature.] The opportunity the virginals and spinetts gave for the employment of both hands, tended considerably towards the improvement of accompaniments, as well as developing the power of execution for solo purposes. " Consorts of viols " were at first used only " for Cantilenas and tunes for dancing," though compositions were occasionally so arranged as " to be apt for viols or voyces," and when instruments were employed with voices they generally played the same notes as the voices, a practice observed until the time of Handel. No doubt an organist ac- companying some of the services and anthems in Church, occasionally indulged- in a little license in the matter of fingering, and intro- duced flourishes and cadences according to fancy, while the choir were singing the plain vocal harmonies. A copy of a portion of Gibbons's service in F [1583-1624] found among the old music in Magdalen College, Oxford, in which such variations are written down, is still preserved. Although the MS. belongs to the middle of the 17th century, there is no doubt but that it records a con- tinuation of a custom of long standing. The character of this accompaniment maybe seen by the following quotation : Voices. ACCOMF. r regarded r ^ ' ' ' c . the low - li - ness of His A A comparison of the vocal with the organ score, here shows that the ornaments intro- duced are such as involve little, if any depar- ture from the rules of harmony, while they impart a distinct character to the accompani- ment, such a character as most of the spinett or harpsichord music of the period possessed. The peculiarity of all old key-board stringed instruments, their feebleness of tone and their lack of sustaining power, probably sug- gested to the skilful player the necessity of breaking up the accompaniments to vocal music, ornaments and graces being considered perfectly legitimate so long as they did not interfere with the essential notes of the har- mony as represented by the figured bass. But as in many cases it was doubtless deemed unwise to attempt display in the accompani- ments during the singing, therefore all exhi- bition of skill on the part of the accompanist was reserved for the ritornelli, with which songs of the 17th century abound. It was Monteverde[i568-i643]who, among other of his art-benefiting inventions, con- ceived the idea of constructing independent accompaniments for instruments, breaking ) ACCOMPANIMENT ACCORD. tip long notes into effective repetitions, and so imparting novel rh3?thnis and striking in- strumental figures. From his conception arose the Italian school of accompaniment — a school which influenced all musical teaching for more than a hundred years, and only de- cayed with the growth of a distinct style of instrumentation, the result of Italian ideas implanted in the German mind, after which the Symphony and Sonata, retaining names derived from their connection with vocal music, became independent and distinct, and accompaniment once more was lifeless and uninteresting, a mere adventitious aid. In- difference with regard to the part accompani- ment should play," marked most of the music produced for a long period, but the power of the genius of Mendelssohn aroused new thoughts and new deeds, and care as great as that involved in the production of a vocal piece was employed in accompaniments, with true artistic effect. The followers of Wagner, in imitation of him, are striving to impart a new form to accompaniment, by giving to every instrument employed, a certain amount of independent work to do — a practice at once laudable and in- genious, but neither novel nor needful. It is laudable, for the reason that it is as well to interest the performer; it is ingenious, as no common amount of thought is involved in its production; it is not novel, for it was the practice of the Italian writers, and it is not needful, as accompaniment should always be subservient to the thing accompanied. Purcell was among the first of the musicians in England who attempted to give colour to the accompaniments in the scores of his operas, but only occasionally introduced variety in the organ parts of his Anthems. The works of the musicians of the latter portion of the 17th and the commencement of the i8th centuries, show a desire to depart from the habitual rule, by giving independent melodies to the accom- panying parts, specimens of which may be traced in Blow's Amphion, and contemporary works. The scores of J. S. Bach's "Passions" and other of his compositions, contain some excellent specimens of free instrumental parts in the accompaniments, and many of Handel's obbligati foreshadow the true use of orchestral colouring, a shadow to which substance was given by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. The influence of conventionality may be observed in accompaniments from the earliest period to the present day. Because it was the practice in olden time to accompany recitative upon the " cembalo," composers rarely thought of setting down more than a figured bass to these parts of their scores, excepting when the recitative took something of the form of the " soliloquae ;" and because the " maestro di cembalo" became an obso- lete office in the orchestra, as soon as conductors considered it to he undignified to do other than direct with the baton, it was necessary that some mode of accom- panying recitative should be devised, and the figured bass was interpreted by a violon- cello and double bass. Trumpets and drums were generally employed together, as much for rhythmical, as for any other purpose ; and many other instances of the thoughtless practice of taking things for granted, and doing that which was held to ■ be correct, because it was the custom, are to be found in well-known works of the lesser lights in music, the great thinkers constantly de- spising ordinary forms, and inventing new ones, which in their turn became models for imitation, and therefore standards of con- ventionality. The bagpipe, fiddle, lute, cittern, virginals, spinett,harpsichord,pianoforte, harp, and guitar have each had their turns of favour and appre- ciation at several times. The use of the guitar for an accompani- ment became exceedingly popular during the latter part of the last century, to the in- jury of the makers of pianofortes, until Kirk- man gave away a number of cheap guitars to milliners' apprentice girls, and so made the instrument unfashionable. The portability of both harp and guitar rendered them useful for the purposes of accompaniment, more especially at a time when the pianoforte was less frequently found in dwelling-houses than it is now; but improved mechanism and tone, together with smallness of cost, have made the pianoforte the most available ac- companying instrument in private as well as in public ; and the fact that one is to be found in nearly every house has contributed greatly towards the neglect of more portable means of accompanying songs and other household music. Accompanist. The player who accom- panies. The qualities necessary to form a good accompanist are, (i) that he possess a knowledge of reading music at sight, and of harmony ; (2) that he should be acquainted with the style of the music performed ; (3) that he should know the characteristics of those performers whom he is called upon to accompany ; (4) that while playing with firm- nessand decision, he should not attempt to lead. Accoppiato (/i.) Joined or connected. Accord {Fr.) (i) The series of notes to which an instrument is tuned, e.g., Accord du Violon, hence, Accord a I'ouvert, open strings, q.v. (2) A chord. Concord, hence, D'accord, in tune. (9) ACCORD ACOUSTICS, Accord de sixte Ajoutee (Fr.) The chord of the Added Sixth. [Added Sixth.] Accordamento (It.) } . ^ . ^ Accordanza {It.) ] Agreement in tune. Accordando {It.) Tuning. Accordare {It.) To tune. Accordato {It.) Tuned. Accordatura {It.) [Accord.] Accorder (Fr.) To tune an instrument. Accordeur {Fr.) A tuner. Accordion. A simple musical instru- ment, of oblong form, invented by Damian, of Vienna, in 1829. The tone is produced by the inspiration and respiration of a pair of bellows acting upon metallic reeds or tongues. [Free reed.] The first instruments had only four buttons, or keys, each of which acted on two reeds, making the compass one octave of diatonic scale, but with a separate arrangement, by which these notes might be accompanied with a tonic and dominant harmony. At first it was used only as a toy, but the introduction of a chromatic scale made the Accordion more capable of producing a varied melody and harmony, although the awkwardness of the form was always a hindrance to its use. The German Accordion or Concertina {q.v.) of hexagonal form made the prinpiple of the accordion more acceptable. The English concertina (5.0.) and the harmonium (g.i».) are superior instruments constructed upon similar principles. Accordo {It.) Concord, agreement, har- mony. Accordoir (-Fr.) A tuning key or hammer. Accresciuto {It.) Increased. Augmented as applied to intervals. Acetabulum. An ancient instrument, originally made of earthenware, afterwards of metal, which, when struck with a rod, produced a sweet sound. [See an allusion to it in Boet. de Inst. Mus., Lib. i. cap. xi.] Achromatic. Not chromatic. Achtel {Ger.) A quaver J^. The eighth part of a semibreve. Achtelpause. A quaver rest 1- A chula {Port.) A dance similar to the Fandango, q.v. Acoustics. The- science which treats of the nature and laws of sound. 2. The sensation of sound consists in the communication of a vibratory motion to the tympanic membrane of the ear, through slight and rapid changes in the pressure of the air on its outer surface. 3. The mode of propagation of sound in air may be explained in the following manner. Suppose a small particle of fulminating silver to be exploded in free air; the air particles immediately contiguous are driven outwards in all directions by the explosion, their motion is almost instantaneously communicated to the adjacent ones, those first agitated coming at the same time to rest; the adjacent ones pass on the impulse in the same way to those at a greater distance, and so on ; thus the explosion gives rise to what may be looked on as a rapidly expanding shell of constant thickness, containing at any instant between its exterior and interior surfaces a stratum of agitated air particles each one of which per- forms a single vibration to and fro during the passage of the shell over it ; in other words the exterior and interior surfaces of the_ shell are at any time the loci of all those points at which the particles at that instant come under the influence of the impulse, and are left at rest by it respectively, so that its thickness depends both on the rapidity of their vibration and the rate at which they pass on the impulse, one to another.* Let us suppose now that immediately after the first explo- sion a second were to take place ; then, in exactly the same way there would be a second pulse propagated in all directions. If a series of explosions at regular intervals were to take place, there would be a regujar series of these expanding shells ; and if the intervals were sufficiently small, the alternate changes of pressure, due to the successive collisions of the air particles against the tym- panic membrane of an ear in the neighbour- hood of the explosions would convey to the brain a sensation of a continuous note. Ex- actly the same thing occurs if, for a series of explosions, are substituted the vibrations of an elastic body ; and it is, in general, by the latter means that all sounds, and especially musical ones, are produced. The motion of a sound wave must not be confounded with the motion of the particles which transmit the wave. In the passage of a single wave each parljicle over which it passes makes only a small excursion to and fro, the semi- length of which is called the amplitude of the vibration, the time occupied during one vibration being called its period. 4. The intensity of a sound is proportional to the square of the maximum velocity of the vibrating particles. It also approximately varies inversely as the square of the distance from the origin of the sound ; for, supposing the latter to be produced at a uniform loudness, ■the same amount of energy has to be com- municated to the particles contained within the external and internal surfaces of shells of the same thickness but of different radii. For * The word vibration must be taken in its full sense, viz. : as meaning the whole motion of the particle dur- ing the time that elapses from the instant it sets off from its original position to the instant when it next regains that position, and is ready to start again over the same path. ( 10) ACOUSTICS. example, if we take a shell of air whose in- ternal radius is one foot, one of the same thick- ness whose radius is two feet will contain four times the quantity of matter ; one whose radius is three feet, nine times the quantity, and so on. Thus the amount of matter over which a given quantity of energy has to be distributed augments as the square of the distance from the origin of sound, and therefore the aniount of energy, or, what comes to the same thing, the intensity of the sound, diminishes in the same ratio. 5. At a temperature of zero Centigrade sound rs propagated at the rate of about logo feet per second, and this speed aug- ments about two feet per second for every additional degree of temperature ; thus at 15° C. the rate of propagation would be about 1 120 feet per second. The velocity of sound in air depends on the elasticity of the air in relation to its density. It is also directly proportional to the square root of the elasticity, and inversely proportional to the square root of the density. Now for a constant temperature the elasticity varies as the density, hence in this case they neutralise one another, and the velocity of the sound is independent of the density of the air. 6. One sound differs from another not only in quantity, but also in quality and pitch.* The pitch of a sound depends on the num- ber of vibrations per second by which it is caused : the greater this number is the higher is the sound, and vice versa; thus pitch is a more or less relative term, and it is therefore necessary to have some standard to which different sounds may be referred. This standard is so chosen that the middle C of the pianoforte shall be produced by 264 vibrations per second .f 7. Knowing the velocity of sound in air we can estimate the different wave lengths corresponding to notes of different pitch in the following manner. The wave length is the distance through which the sound tra- vels while any particle over which it passes describes a complete vibration; hence, if we know the number of vibrations the par- ticle performs per second, the required wave length vdll be found by dividing the number of feet over which the sound travels per second, by that numJDer. Now, by means of an instrument invented by Cagniard de la Tour, and by him named the syren, the number of vibrations corresponding to a note * For the cause of the different qualities of sound see § 16. f That is, according to German pitch ; at present there is no definitely fixed standard in general use in England. of any given pitch can be determined very exactly. For a detailed account of this instrument and of its improvements by Helm- holtz, the reader is referred to Tyndall's Lectures on Sound, p. 64 ; but to describe it shortly it may be said in its original form to consist of two equal discs, one forming the top of a hollow fixed cylinder into which air can be driven, the other capable of revolving concentrically upon it with the smallest pos- sible amount of friction. A circle of small holes equidistant from each other is bored upon each disc and concentric with it ; those in the upper disc being inclined slantwise to its plane, those in the lower being slantwise also but in the opposite direction ; there are also arrangements both for driving a constant supply of air into the hollow cylinder, and for registering the number of revolutions the upper disc performs in a minute ; thus, when the upper disc is so turned that its holes co- incide with those of the lower, and air is forced into the cylinder, it will pass out through the perforations, and by reason of their obliquity will cause the moveable disc to revolve with a rapidity corresponding to the pressure ; and each time that the holes of the former coincide with those of thelatter a number of little puffs of air get through simultaneously, giving rise to an agitation in the surrounding atmosphere which spreads round in all directions in the way before described, and if the pressure of the air in the cylinder is sufficient, the series of impulses thus given will link themselves together, forming a continuous note. J Hence, to determine the number of vibra- tions per second, corresponding to a sound of given pitch, we have only to maintain such a pressure of air in the syren as will cause it to produce the same sound for the space of a minute, and note the number of revolutions registered in that time. Now, for every revolution of the upper disc, the same number of sound waves are propagated around as there are perforations, hence the whole number propagated in a second will be the product of the number of holes and number of revolutions per minute divided by 60 ; and this rftsult will evidently be the required number of vibrations per second caused by the given sound. To apply this to find the wave length cor- responding to the note given by the open C string of the violoncello, we should adjust the J It should be remarked that the pitch of the sound would be exactly the same if there were only one per- foration in the revolving disc, the number of holes merely serving to increase its intensity; if the number of holes in the revolving disc is less than the number in the lower one, those of the former must be situated so as all to coincide simultaneously with an equal number of the latter. (") ACOUSTICS. supply of air to the syren till it gives a note of the same pitch. Supposing the number of holes in each disc to be i8, the number of revolutions per minute would be found to be 220. Hence the number of vibrations per second of the string, and therefore of the sur- rounding particles of air, would be "°^ " =66. Supposing the temperature were i6° C the velocity of sound would be about 1122 feet per second, and the quotient obtained by dividing this number by 66 gives the wave length corresponding to that number of vi- brations per second; that is, just 17 feet ; the sound then will travel through this distance during the time the string takes to perform one complete vibration. 8. If the number of vibrations per second be increased, the pitch of the sound caused by them is raised, and vice versa, as can easily be illustrated by driving more or less air into the syren, and observing the sound it pro- duces. Dr. Wollaston has shown (Phil. Trans. 1820, p. 336) that if the number be increased, beyond a certain limit the sound becomes inaudible, although this limit is not the same for all ears, some 'persons being perfectly sensible of sounds inaudible to others. In general it is probable that no sound is heard when the number of vibrations per second exceeds 40,000 ; while on the other hand the perception of pitch appears to begin when the numher of vibrations is somewhere be- tween 8 and 32, the wave length being in the former case about 0-03 of an inch — in the latter ranging from 140 feet to 35 feet. g. Sounds are primarily divided into two classes, musical and unmusical ; the former being defined as those produced by regular or periodic vibrations, the latter by such as are irregular or non-periodic. These defini- tions require some explanation, since, by sounding together a sufficient number of notes sufficiently near in pitch, it is plain that we could produce as unmusical a sound as we pleased, although the components would be themselves due to periodic vibrations, and would be therefore musical. The answer to this is found in the fact that when two or more sets of sound waves impinge on the ear at the same instant, since each one cannot impress its own particular vibration on the tympanum contemporaneously with those of the others, the motion of the latter membrane must be in some way the sum of all the different motions which the different sets of waves would have separately caused it to follow ; and this is what in fact does happen, i.e., the vibrations due to each set combine and throw the tympanum into a complicated state of vibration, causing the sensation of the conso- nance or combination of the different sounds from which the sets of sound waves proceed. Now the unassisted ear is only able to dis- tinguish the separate notes out of a number sounded at once up to a certain point; beyond this it fails to distinguish them mdividually, and is conscious only of a confused mixture of sound? which approaches the more nearly to the character of noise the more components there are, or the nearer they lie to one another. A noise, then, may be defined as a sound so complicated that the ear is unable to resolve or analyse it into its original constituents. 10. As the character of a sound depends upon that of the vibrations by which it is caused, it is important to know of what kind the latter must be in order that they may give the sensation of a perfectly simple tone, i.e., one which the ear cannot resolve into any others. Such a vibration is perhaps best realised by comparison with that of the pen- dulum of a clock when it is swinging only a little to and fro. Under these circumstances it is performing what are called harmonic vi- brations, and when the air particles in the neighbourhood of the ear are caused by any means to vibrate according to the same law as that which the pendulum follows, and also with sufficient rapidity, a perfectly simple tone is the result. Such a tone is, however, rarely heard except when produced by means specially contrived for the purpose. If a note on the pianoforte is struck, the impact of the hammer on the string throws it into a state of vibration which, though periodic, is not really harmonic ; consequently we do not hear a perfectly simple tone, but one which is in reality a mixture of several higher simple tones with that one which corresponds to the actual length of the string. The former are, however, generally faint, and become associated by habit with the latter, appearing to form with it a single note of determinate pitch. These higher tones are the harmonics of the string, and are produced by vibrations whose numbers per second are respectively twice, three times, four times, &c., as great as those of the fundamental tone of the string (§ 13). The same may be said of the notes of all instruments, including the human voice, which are usually employed for the production of musical sounds. 11. Since the consonance of two or more such simple tones always gives a more or less musical sound, and since also the ear is always more or less capable of resolving the latter into its components, the question naturally arises whether all sounds are not, theoretically at least, resolvable into simple tones. The answer to this is contained in a celebrated theorem due to the French mathe- matician Fourier. He has shown that any periodic vibration is the result of combining together a certain numbec of simple harmonic ( 12) ACOUSTICS. vibrations whose periods are aliquot parts of that of the former; and we have conclusive reasons for supposing that, in the same way as a compound periodic vibration gives rise to a compound sound (§ 9), so the simple tones into which the ear resolves the latter are re- spectively due to the simple harmonic vibra- tions which, as the above mentioned theorem proves, make up the former.* 12. The theorem of Fourier referred to in the preceding article is of such g^eat impor- tance in all questions connected with acoustics that a few words illustrative of it may not be out of place.f If a peg is fixed into the rim of a wheel capable of revolving about a fixed centre, and at right angles to the plane of the wheel, and if the latter is caused to rotate uniformly and is looked at edgeways the peg will appear to move up and down in a straight line, its velo- city being the greatest at the middle of its course, and diminishing as it approaches each end. Under these circumstances the peg appears to perform harmonic vibrations. Now suppose a second wheel, also fur- nished with a peg in its rim, is made to revolve about the peg of the first as an axis. If the latter is at rest the peg of the second will appear, looked at as above, to perform harmonic vibrations ; but if the former is also caused to revolve these vibrations are no longer harmonic, but are the result of adding together the separate harmonic vibrations of the two pegs, in other words of superposing the harmonic vibrations which the second peg performs if the first wheel is at rest, upon those which the first peg performs when it is itself in motion. Now it is evident that by con- tinuing this process indefinitely, and by giving the wheels different radii, and different uniform velocities of rotation, the final motion of the last peg looked at sideways as before, would be an exceedingly complicated one, and that an infinite number of different vibrations could be produced by varying the number, position at starting, radii, and velocities of the wheels, though it could not be assumed without proof that every possible variety could be so pro- duced. This however is what Fourier's theorem asserts, provided that the velocities of rotation of the several wheels of the series * A periodic vibration is any movement which recurs after equal intervals or periods of time, such as that of a uniformly working punching machine, or of the ham- mer of a clock bell when it is striking, and so on. It should be observed that though all harmonic vibrations are periodic, it is by no means the case that all periodic vibratiops are harmonic. See foot note to § 2. f For a complete discussion and demonstration of the theorem, the reader is referred to the work on Acoustics by the late Professor Donkin, published in the Clarendon Press series. are in the proportion of i, 2, 3, 4, &c. J In other words, every periodic vibration is the re- sultant of a certain number of harmonic vibra- tions whose periods are one-half, one-third, one-fourth, &c., &c., that of the former. 13. A harmonic scale is formed by taking a series of notes produced by vibrations whose numbers in a given time are respectively as I, 2, 3, 4, &c. If we take as fundamental tone the open C string of the violoncello, the series of tones which with it form a harmonic scale will be as follows: — otlea--g- &c. The notes marked with an asterisk do not exactly represent the corresponding tones ; but are the nearest representatives which the modern notation supplies. All the notes of the harmonic scale can theoretically be produced by either a single string, or by a simple tube used as a trumpet. If we lightly touch the string of a violin, without causing it to come in contact with the finger board, at any one of a series of points dividing it into a number of equal parts, and excite it by means of a bow, it no longer vibrates as a whole, but separates into the number of equal vibrating segments which is the least possible consistent with that point forming one of their points of di- vision ; the latter remain stationary, or very nearly so, and are called nodes, their number being evidently just one less than that of the segments. It is plain that if the point of ap- plication of the bow be one of a series of nodes, no sound will be produced, provided, of course, the finger remains on any other of the same series, and this may serve to ex- plain why it is sometimes difficult to bring out the higher harmonics of a violin, as the bow may, unconsciously to the performer, be passing exactly over one of the corres- ponding nodes. The first harmonic, as it is called, of the open string is produced by touching it while in a state of vibration at its middle point, and thereby dividing it into two equal portions, both of which vibrate twice as fast as the whole, and accordingly give the octave. The second harmonic, or the twelfth of the fundamental, corresponds to a division of the string into three equal portions, and so on. And generally, in order to produce the M* harmonic the finger should touch the string at any one of the series of points which divide it into « equal portions. § In X The order in which the wheels are arranged with respect to their velocities is quite arbitrary. § That is supposing » to be a. prime number (i.e. having no divisors). If such is not the case, it is plain that some points of the series when touched would give harmonics of lower pitch. (13) ACOUSTICS. practice, however, the finger should always touch the string at the point of division adja- cent to either end. 14. The harmonics of a simple tube used as a trumpet are the same as those of a vibrating string, viz., the octave, twelfth, fifteenth, &c., and are produced by modifications of the breath and lips ; but there is a great difference be- tween the nature of the vibrations which produce sound, in the case of strings and pipes. In the former case the vibrations are executed at right angles to the length of the string, that is, are lateral, while in the latter they are in the direction of the pipe, or longi- tudinal, and are the vibrations of the air itself within it. 15. When an open organ pipe is sounding its fundamental tone, the particles of the column of air within it are all, more or less, in a state of vibration parallel to the length of the pipe, of which the intensity is at its maximum at the two ends, growing less and less towards the middle, where there is a node, that is, a point of no disturbance. The harmonics of an open pipe follow the same law as those of a simple trumpet, or vibrating string. The fundamental note of a stopped organ pipe is an octave below the fundamental note of an open one of the same length. When it is sounding this note there is no node, and the first harmonic is a fifth above the octave, the second a major sixth above the first, the third a diminished fifth above the second, and so on. Or, more simply, the successive tones of the harmonic scale of an open pipe are produced by vibrations which are as i, 2, 3, 4, &c., those of a stopped pipe by vibrations which are as 1, 3,. 5, 7, &c. 16. It was stated (§ 10) that the sound of a vibrating string was in general • compounded of a number of simple tones, and a well trained ear can detect a considerable number of them. If it were not for these harmonic components the tones of strings, pipes, of the human voice, or in short, of every instru- ment most generally used for the production of sound, would be flat and uninteresting like pure water. Each harmonic compo- nent is by itself a simple tone, and is due to the vibration of the corresponding seg- ment of the string superposed upon that of the whole. The same statement applies, mutatis mutandis to pipes, whether open or stopped. That the harmonics of different instruments greatly influence their several characters is observable in the .difference of the tones of a flute, and clarinet. A flute is an open pipe, a clarinet a stopped one; in the former, therefore, the harmonics follow the order of the natural numbers i, 2, 3, 4, and in the latter the order i, 3, 5, 7; — the intermediate notes being supplied by opening the lateral orifices of the instrument. 17. When two simple tones, that is (as ex.-. plained above), notes deprived of all the har- monic components which under ordinary circumstances accompany them, are sounded together very nearly in unison, there are heard what are called beats succeeding one another at regular intervals, their rapidity depend- ing inversely on the smallness of the interval between the two tones. Their origin may be explained thus : Suppose the tones to be produced by vibrations numbering 500 and 501 per second respectively, then every 500th sound wave of the former will strike on the tympanum at exactly the same instant as every 501st of the latter and will reinforce it; while at the 250th of the first the correspond- ing wave of the other will be just half a period in front of it. Now a sound wave consists of a condensed and rarified stratum of air par- ticles, and therefore the condensed portion of , one wave here coincides with the rarified por- tion of the other and neutralises it. Thus there will be an alternate reinforcement and dimi- nution of sound, every second, from the maxi- mum intensity when both waves impinge on the tympanum at the same instant to the minimum when they counteract each other as much as possible and vice versd. In the above case it was supposed that the number of vibrations of one tone were only one more per second than those of the other ; but if the difference of the numbers had been two, for instance, then in one second the first tone would have gained two vibrations on the other, and there would have been two beats ; and in general the number of beats per second is always equal to the difference between the two rates of vibrations per second. 18. In the preceding section, the cause of beats due to two simple tones of nearly the same pitch was explained, and it was seen that the number of beats per second was always equal to the difference of the numbers of vibrations per second of each tone ; so that as the interval between them increased so would the number of beats increase in a given time. Hence it is obvious that if the interval became sufficiently large, the beats would suc- ceed each other so rapidly as to become un- distinguished. For instance, in the case of the fifth whose lower and upper tones are pro- duced by vibrations numbering 264 and 396 per second respectively, the number of beats per second would be 132 and would therefore be undistinguishable — and still more so sup- posing the upper tone to have 397 or tnore vibrations per second; but, on the other hand it is a well-known fact, that if an imperfect fifth, octave, or any other tolerably simple interval is played on a violin or violoncello. (H) ACOUSTICS. the beats are most distinctly heard succeeding each other at perceptible intervals — ^whereas according to what was said above they should occur so rapidly as not to be heard at all. Two explanations of this phenomenon have been given, of which by far the most simple is due to Helmholtz — and which here follows. It appears that when the tones are simple and at a sufficiently large interval the beats should occur too rapidly to be heard, whereas when the interval is played on a violin they are easily distinguishable. The reason of this fact is that in the latter case the tones are no longer simple but compound — and the beats which are heard are not due to the fundamental tones themselves but arise from two of their harmonic components which are nearly in unison. Suppose the ratio of the interval between the fundamental tones to be — , that is, let — be the fraction, re- n n duced to its lowest terms, which is formed by putting in the numerator the number of vibra- tions per second of the upper tone, and in the denominator those of the lower. Then it is plain that the «"> harmonic component of the tone m, will be of the same pitch as the w'h harmonic component of the tone n ; for they will each have exactly mn vibrations per second. J^ow let tt be the ratio, expressed in the same way, of another interval, nearly, but not quite, equal to — ; then the «"> harmonic component of M will have Mn vibrations per second,while the jw"> component of N will have Nm. Now since -rj is nearly equal to — , the difference between Mn and Nm will be a small number; and when the two notes are sounded together the number of beats per second will be equal to that difference. For example, let — be the ratio of a fifth, M that is the fraction ^, and let -rj represent very nearly the same interval, say ff^; then the dif- ference between Mn and Nm, or 794 and 792, is 2; hence if two strings tuned apart at an inter- val represented byff|- are sounded simultane- ously there will be two beats heard per second. 19, When the vibrations of the air due to a number of different sounds which co-exist at the same time are infinitely small, they are merely superposed one on another, so that each separate sound passes through the air as if it alone were present ; and this law of superposition holds, though only approxi- mately, until the vibrations have increased up to a certain limit, beyond which it is no longer true. Vibrations which give rise to a large amount of disturbance produce secon- dary waves ; and it is to these that the phe- nomena of resultant tones are due. Thus if two notes a fifth apart, for in- stance, are forcibly sounded together, a third tone is heard an octave below the lower of the two, and this ceases to be perceptible when the loudness of the concord diminishes. In general the resultant tone of any combination of two notes is produced by a number of vi- brations per second equal to the difference of the numbers per second of the notes. This fact formerly led to the supposition that the resultant tone was produced by the beats due to the consonance, which, when they occurred with sufficient rapidity, linked themselves to- gether so as to form a continuous musical note. If this were so it is clear that the re- sultant ought to be heard when the original notes are sounded gently as well as forcibly ; and it was the failure of this condition that led Helmholtz to the re-investigation of their origin. These resultant tones have been named by him difference tones; he has also discovered the existence of resultant tones formed by the sum of the numbers of vibra- tions of the primaries. These summation tones as they are called cannot be explained on the old theory. 20. The theory of beats explains the law that the smaller the two numbers are, which express the ratio of their vibrations, the smoother is the combination of any two tones. When two simple tones are sounded together whose rates of vibration per second differ by more than 132, the beats, according to Helm- holtz, totally disappear. As the difference grows less the beats become more and more audible, the interval meanwhile growing pro- portionately dissonant, till they number 33 per second, at which point the dissonance of the interval is at its maximum. This, however, depends upon the position of the interval as regards its pitch. For it should be remembered that though the ratio of any given interval remains the same what- ever the absolute pitch of its tones may be, yet the difference of the actual numbers of their vibrations, and therefore the number of beats due to their consonance, alters with it. And vice versd, if the difference of the number of vibrations remains constant, the interval must diminish as its pitch rises. For in- stance, either of the following combinations s m :^e2= would give rise to 33 beats per second, since the numbers of vibrations of their tones per second, are 99-66, and 528-495, respec- tively. Now it is obvious that in the latter case the dissonance would be far greater than in the former. (15) ACOUSTICS ACT. The above explanation of the cause of dis- sonance is also due to Helmholtz, and com- pletely solves a question which had remained unanswered since the time of Pythagoras, al- though that philosopher made th6 important discovery that the simpler the ratio of the two parts into which a vibrating string was divided, the more perfect was the consonance of the two sounds. 21. The sound of the piano, violin, &c., is only in a small measure due to the actual vibration of the strings themselves. The latter communicate their own motion to the sound board of the piano, and to the front, back, and enclosed air of the violin. In the latter instrument communication is made to the surrounding air from that within it by means of the / holes. If a string were merely stretched between two pegs firmly fixed in a stone wall and caused to vibrate, scarcely any sound would be heard at all, owing to the mass and rigidity of the wall, which would refuse to be thrown into vibration by so small an amount of energy as that which the string would possess. On the other hand, the sound board of a piano readily answers to the vibrations imposed on it when the string is struck, and having a large surface in contact with the air, every point of which originates a system of waves, it causes a full and powerful sound. 22. The vibrations of straight rods may be either longitudinal or transversal. The former have not been generally employed for the production of musical sounds ; the latter are such as take place when a tuning fork is struck, or when a musical box or triangle is played. In the case of a curved rod the vibrations are more complicated, but there is one interesting case, namely, that in which the curved rod takes the form of a circular ring. In this case the fundamental tone is obtained by suspending it horizontally ,by four strings attached at equidistant points in the circumference, and by lightly tapping it midway between any two. If the number of vibrations then given be in per second, those of the successive harmonics are proportional to snV^ 4«V'1i3, 5«V22", &c. 23. The nature of the vibrations of a bell may be partly inferred from those of a ring, as the bell may be considered as consisting of a connected series of rings of different dia- meters all vibrating simultaneously ; thus the fundamental tone of a bell would cause it to divide itself longitudinally into four equal segments, corresponding to the four quadrants into which the suspended ring divides. The period of its vibrations could not, however, be similarly inferred. 24. The vibration of plates is not, musically speaking, a subject of much interest, as the ( only instruments which depend upon it directly for the production of their sounds, are gongs and cymbals, and the same may be said of membranes. Chladni was the first to show the positions of the lines of nodes on a plate, by clamping it horizontally in a vice, and causing it to vibrate by passing a violin bow over one edge, having previously sprinkled it with a little sand. The lines of nodes being those parts of the plate which, like the nodes of a string (§ 13), are not thrown into vibration, remain covered with the sand which collects there from the vibrating portions, and in this way very curious and interesting figures are produced. Act (Acte, Fr.; Akt, Ger.; Atto, 7^) A distinct division in the plot or design of a drama or opera, forming an incident complete in itself, but bearing reference to the general idea of the whole. Every dramatic plot natu- rally divides itself into three portions : the exposition, the development, and the conclu- sion ; and this division would seem to point to the separation of a dramatic design into three acts, but where the piece is in four, five, or more acts, it will be found on exami- nation that the tripartite division is essenti- ally the same, greater prominence or care in detail being given to one or more of the sections. Thus the exposition maybe spread over two or three acts, the development over one or two, and the conclusion or unravelling, reserved for the final act. The classical trilogies — groups of three tra- gedies — were most frequently united by a common idea, each forming a complete in- cident, connected by a bond of sympathy, sentiment, or subject with the grand design. Bartholomfi Torres Naharro, of Torre in Spain, who wrote at the commencement of the 1 6th century, is said to have been the first who suggested the division of plots into acts, or jornados, although Cervantes claims the invention for himself. It is certain that Naharro's printed dramas are not so divided. Donaldson, in speaking of the ^schylean Trilogy (the Agamemnon, Choephorce, and the Eumenides), says, that the three plays mutu- ally cohere, is plain ; and as they were actu- ally brought on the stage in sequence, they may be regarded as so many acts of one grand heroic drama. This is mentioned, in order to vindicate the practice of Shakspeare and other modern dramatists, in compressing into one drama an extensive cycle of human destinies ; because the very objection that has been made to the practice is the alleged example of the ancients to the contrary. Wagner's Nibelungen trilogy, though stated to be " new from end to end" in idea and design, bears a close affinity to the ancient Greek drama. For the subject is mythical 16) ACT MUSIC ADDED SIXTH. and "the mythical subject has a plastic unity; it is perfectly simple and easily com- prehensible, and it does not stand in need of the numberless small details, which a modern playwright is obliged to introduce to make some historical occurrence intelligible. It is divided into a few important and decisive scenes, in each of which the action arises spontaneously from out of the emotions of the actors ; which emotions, by reason of the small number of such scenes, can be presented in a most complete and exhaustive manner." In many modern operas, the di- vision of the work into acts is made, less with reference to dramatic principles, than to the requirements of the stage-manager. Act Music in Oxford. Cantatas com- posed by the Professor of music, to words written by the Professor of poetry, and per- formed at grand commemorations in the University. Act tunes. [Playhouse tunes.] Acte de Cadence {Fr.) Certain chords by means of which the final cadence is introduced. Action. The mechanism of an organ or pianoforte, or other compound instruments. Acuta. The accent attached to certain letters in the Greek system of musical no- tation, thus, M' Acuta. An organ stop. [Sharp mixture.] Acutae claves, acuta loca, acutas voces. Those keys, places, and sounds, which lie be- tween ' alamire acutum ' and ' alamire superacu- tum' of the Hexachords,that is between little a and A Acute . High as to pitch ; opposed to grave. Adagietto {It.) A diminutive of Adagio. Adagio {It.) Slowly ; also a name given to a movement written in that time. ^^°dfL^i,lto}ve^ slowly. cantabile. Very slow, and sus- tained, as if being sung. patetico. Slow and with pathos. pesante. Slow and weighty. sostenuto. Slow and sustained. Adagiosissimo(/f.) (superlative of Adagio). More than usually slow, very slow indeed. Added Sixth, Chord of the. This dissonant combination of sounds is so called because it has the appearance of a common chord of the Subdominant of the key in which it occurs, with the addition of a sixth from the bass note, e.g. : Ex. 1. The above example being in the key of C, the Subdominant of the scale is F, and a common chord of F consists of F, A, and C, to which is found added at * the sixth of the bass note : namely, D. Although as a mere name, the expression added sixth may not-be without value, it is by many authors con- sidered very doubtful whether the notes, F, A, C are really the constituents of a Sub- dominant common chord ; and the fact that the apparent fifth of this chord (C) is nearly always treated as a discord, and made to descend, is rightly cited as the cause of their doubt. This naturally leads to the second explana- tion of the chord, which is, that it is an inversion of the chord of the seventh on the super-tonic, e.g. : Ex. 2. Seventh on 1st Inversion. Supertonic. But, the system of constructing chords on every degree of the scale, though once much .adopted, is daily losing ground ; and justly, because by it, the particular progression of each component note of a chord, either has to be ignored, or else treated of with an amount of detail which is puzzling to the student, owing to the impossibility of laying down several laws as to the usual progression of stated intervals. A third explanation is, that it is a dominant chord — consisting of the fifth, seventh, ninth, and eleventh from that root, e.g. : Ex.3. The objection to this is, that the bass note of the chord (F), in nine cases out of every ten, ascends in the resolution, as seen in Ex. I. But, on the other hand, it will be found that the ninth (A), and the eleventh (C), descend properly, and it is a fact well known to careful analysts of harmony, that when several discords are heard simultane- ously, the regular resolution of part of them often completely satisfies the ear; and also, that when the root or generator of a chord is omitted, there is more license in its treat- ment. A fourth explanation has been offered : it is to the effect that the chord contains two ( 17) ADDED SIXTH AD LIBITUM. minor sevenths, namely, F and C, derived from two roots, G and D respectively: Ex.4. If both sevenths were properly resolved, consecutive fifths would ensue, therefore one • (and generally the lower one) is made to a«cend, on the principle just mentioned above. It is also urged that the lower seventh, F, is practically resolved, if the pro- gression be followed to the cadence in C. In favour of this view, it is also stated that chords built upon the dominant of a scale and its fifth are not uncommon, as for in- stance chords of the augmented sixth, &c. Whatever explanation be accepted, it is manifest that as this chord is made up of four notes, it can occur in as many positions, each note forming it being in turn placed in the bass, e.g. : ^^ ^ It is resolved generally as in the above example, but many other resolutions are occasionally met with, e.g.: \/.},J\ |JJ|'j.j'|J.J|'j-^MaMI ^ &-f-^ -M-=F=F=f^=^^Sg^ When the other poS;itions of the , chord are used, greater scope for varied resolution will be found. The chord of the Added Sixth is also to be found in the minor series of chords amongst those authors who accept, though perhaps under protest, the exigencies of the tempered scale, e.g. : From this source a vast number of resolu- tions of the chord of the Added Sixth wiU De attainable, the tracing of which m the worKS of great masters will be found as mstructive as interesting. . . „• , Additato(7«.) Fingered.havmg signs point- ing out what fingers are to be used for certam passages. [Fingering.] a ^ ^. Addition. The old name for a dot or point. _ . . Additional accompaniments. Parts not in an original score, but added by another hand. Such additions may be made lor the following reasons: i, because the author acci- dentally left his score in an incomplete state: 2, for the supposed purpose of beautifying the original, by supplying parts for instruments either unknown or imperfectly known in the author's time: 3, to enable modern performers to play such parts as were intended for in- struments now obsolete, or those of a similar tone now in use : 4, in order to compensate for the altered constitution of the orchestra, in which the number of stringed instruments, is now larger in proportion to the number of reed wind-instruments, than formerly: 5, that, when for the sake of adding to the power or volume of tone other instruments must be added, they should be of varied qualities of tone instead of a mere numerical reinforce- ment of those already used in the original.' Additional keys. Keys added to enlarge the- compass of any instrument. Addolorato {It.) In an afflicted manner, sorrowfully. A demi jeu (Fr.) With half the power of the instrument. A demi voix (Fr.) At half voice. [Mezzo voce.] /For two voices or instruments. I When the parts of two instru- I ments are written on one line A deux(Fr.) I the portion to which this term A due {It.)\ is prefixed is intended to be performed by both in unison ; the opposite term is divisi q.v. A deux temps {Fr.) In common time of two in a bar. A deux valse (Fr.) [Valse.] Adirato (It.) In an angry manner. Adiaphonon. An instrument of the Pianoforte class, not liable to get out of tune. Invented by Schuster of Vienna in 1820. Adjunct notes. Short notes, not essen- tial to the harmony, occurring on unaccented parts of a bar. [c.f. Auxiliary notes. Passing notes.] Ad libitum (^Lat.) At will, (i) In pas- sages so marked, the time may be altered at the will of the performer, ) ADORN AMENTO AIR, (2) A cadenza ad libitmn is a cadenza, the construction of which is left to the performer. (3) Accompaniments ad libitum are addi- tions to a piece, which may be performed, or not, at discretion. (4) The word is also used to indicate the point at which a cadenza may be introduced in a concerto. Adomamento (It.) An ornament, or grace. Ad placitum (Lat.) At pleasure. A free part. A part added to a strict Canon, which does not come under the laws which govern that class of composition. A due corde(/i.) On two strings. [A deux.] stromenti (7^) For two instruments. A due voci {It.) For two voices. A dur (Ger.) The key requiring three sharps to complete the major scale. The key of A major. Ad videndum (Lat.) A species of coun- terpoint, which was written down or noted, as opposed to that which was alia mente or improvised. ./Eolian harp. [Eolian.J JE,o\ian mode. [Eolian.] ^olian piano. A piano having wooden bars, instead of strings, which, when struck by the hammers, produced a tone of peculiar quality. .ffiolodicon. .Eolodion. A musical instru- ment, the sounds of which are produced by the striking of steel springs by hammers set in motion by an ordinary key-board. ^olomelodicon, called also a Choraleon; an jEolodicon having brass tubes over the metal springs, for the purpose of giving more power to the tone. .^olopantalon, a pianoforte in connection with the ^olodicon. iEquisonae voces {Lat.) Equal sounds, but not unison ; that is, such a consonant combination as, a note and its octave ; or a note and its super-octave. AEVIA. The vowels in the word Alle- luia, used in mediaeval " prick song" as an abbreviation for that word, especially in An- tiphons. ^ No-tum fe - cit Do - mi-nus, AEVIA. ■ - ■ .-^ "i ■ ■ r^ i y— - Sa - lu - ta - re Su - um. AEVIA. c.f. EVOV^. Affabile {It.) In a pleasing kindly manner. Affannato (it.) In a distressed manner. Affannosamente {It.) Restlessly. Affannoso {It.) Mournfully. Affetto, con {It.) With affection, Affettuosamente {It.) Affectionately. AfTettuoso {It.) Affectionately. ( ^ Affinity. Connection by relation. Keys of affinity. [Relative Keys.] Afflitto, or con afflizione {It.) Af- flictedly, with sadness. Affrettando (/f.U Affrettate {It.) [-Hastening the time. Affrettore (/f .) J A fofa {Port.) A dance, like the Fandango, q.v. Agevole {It.) jWith facility and light- Agevolezza {It.) j ness. Aggraver la fugue {Fr.) To augment the subject in a fugue. Agilita, con {It.) With sprightliness. Agilite {Fr.) Lightness and freedom in playing or singing. Agilmente {It.') I Cheerfully, in a lively Agilmento (7^) j" manner. Agitamento {It.) Restlessness. Agitato {It.) An agitated or restless style of playing or singing, in which the time and expression is broken and hurried. Agitazione, con. {It.) With agitation. Agnus Dei {Lat.)' [Mass.] Agoge {Gk.), aywyri. {Lat. ductus; It. con- ducimento.) The name of one of the sub- divisions of Melopceia q.v. among the Greeks. The order in which successive notes of the scale followed each other, with regard to their pitch, in a melody. It is thus defined by Aristoxenus : 'dywyi^ jikv oZv, kariv f/ did tUv kivQ (j>06yyii)v 6S0C Tov fxiXovs. There were three kinds of Agoge: ist, eiiOeia (ductus rectus), when the melody proceeded from a grave to a higher sound by single degrees, evdela fiiv KoXCiTai j( a?ro papvTriToe Etf d?ur)/ra (Aristides, Quin) ; 2nd, avaKafivTovaa (ductus revertens), when a higher sound was followed by a lower ; 3rd, TrepKpepiis (ductus circumcurrens), when a modulation was introduced in an as- cending, and afterwards, descending succes- sion of notes, by making one of the notes, which was flattened in ascending, sharp on descending ; or, vice versa, e.g. : Direct. 2. Reversed. Agoge rhythmica. The succession of me- lodic sounds viewed with regard to their accent, and rhythm. A grand choeur {Fr.) Full chorus. Ap- plied to compositions written for the full choir in opposition to the petit chceur, which origin- ally consisted of three parts only. Agr^mens {Fr.) Turns, graces, and embellishments in Harpsichord music. A-igu {Fr.) Acute, high. Air. In its modern sense, a tune, or the tune. The word air was formerly used to n AIS ALLA STRETTA. describe dance tunes, as "Court Ayres, Pavins, Corants and Sarabands," also melodies for instruments ; for before the invention of the Sonata, the music for concerts {concertos) of violins, consisted altogether of airs in three and sometimes four parts. The word air {aria), iirst used by Italian visiters in the i6th century, was, when translated into English, re- presented by the word " fancy." Lord Bacon in his essay on " Beauty," uses the word air, and perhaps unintentionally describes its cha- racter thus — "the sweetest airs in music are made by a kind of felicity, and not by rule." The. air was formerly assigned to the middle voice part or medius, corresponding to our tenor. The practice of giving the air to the soprano, or upper part, arose from the custom of the Italian theatres, where the "musico," while being supposed- to sing the air in the tenor, really sang it in the soprano range. It was afterwards adopted by the composers of instrumental music, and the habit of giving the principal melody to the highest voice or instrument has continued until now. [Ballad.] [Sonata.] [Song.] Ais {Ger.) A sharp. Akkord (Ger.) A chord, as Nonen-ahkord, chord of the ninth, &c. A la, Al, Air, Alia {It. and Fr.) Like, in, at, &c. A la meme {Fr.) In the original time. A la mi re. The name of the note a in the acute and super-acute hexachords of the Guidonian system. [Notation.] Alamoth {Heb.) This word occurs in Ps. Ixviii. 25. "First go the sharim (singers), then follow the neginim (kinnors), in the midst are alamoth (damsels playing on the timbrels)." Gesenius and others understand the word to signify treble music, " vox clara et acuta, quasi virginum." But, on the other hand, in I Chron. xv. 20 the names oimen are given as players of " nebels on alamoth." It is one of the many obscure musical terms which are met with in the Bible. It however seems to have been associated with nebels, much as the expression sheminith is with kinnors, and may therefore be supposed to refer to the pitch or method of playing on those instruments. Alarum, AU'armi {It.) A call to arms. " Alarums sounded-, and ordnance shot off" [ShaTispeare.) Originally a general shout; afterwards, a recognised signal by trumpets and drums. Alberti Bass. A bass consisting oi arpeg- gios or broken harmony, e.g. : so-called after its reputed inventor, Domenico Alberti, who died in 1739. Alcuna licenza, con {It.) With a little license ; that is, the power of altering the time at will. Aliquot tones. Overtones or harmonics. [Acoustics, § 9.] A livre ouvert {Fr.) At sight. Alia breve {It.) A direction that the notes are to be made shorter; that is, the pace taken quicker than usual. It is generally found attached to movements having four or eight minims in a bar, and is expressed in the sig- , nature by ^. The following unusual sign for alia breve is found in the signature of one of the exercises " pour le Clavecin," by J. S. Bach, as published about 1760 : In the hunting style. In the style of cham- [Time.J Alia caccia {It.) camera {It.) .ber music, cappella {It.) [A Cappella.J diritta. By direct intervals. hanacca. In the style of the hanaise, a sort of polka, or polacca polonaise. marcia. In the style of a March. Alia mente {It.) A barbarous species of counterpoint in thirds and fifths, improvised upon the plain song, called in France " Chant sur le livre," and in England " Fa burden." This peculiar harmony is said to have had its rise in the 12th century, but it is probably older, as Hucbald, who was living about the year 880, describes it, as also did Odo, Abbot of Cluny, in his Enchiridion [c. 920.] While the use of this hideous harmony was encour- aged by the church, musicians of feeling never failed to protest against it, therefore we find after Hucbald, Odo, and Franco of Cologne — Johan- nis de Muris, and others complaining of its use, and^suggesting various measures for its reform, and by degrees paving the way to the modern system of counterpoint. The decree of the Pope John XXII, dated at Avignon 1322, had some effect in checking its use, but did not entirely suppress it, as it was sung as late as the middle of the 15th century. Alia militare. {It.) In a military manner. — ■ — ■ moderno(7i.) In the modern method. Air antico {It.) In the old style. Alia polacca (7^) Like a polonaise. quinta (7f.) At the fifth. rovescio (7^.) By contrary motion. [Rovescio.] siciliana {It.) A species of melody in 4> ¥' or h having the longest note at the accented pulse. Handel's Pastoral Syrhphony is alia siciliana. Alia stretta(7f.) Bringingcloserand closer, alike as to subject and movement. (20) ALLA ZOPPA ALLEMANDE. Alia zoppa (It.) Lamely, halting, against time, syncopation. AUegramente (If.) Joyfully. Allegretto (It.) (Diminutive of allegro.) (i) Slower than allegro. (2) A movement in this time. Allegrettino (It.) (Diminutive of alle- gretto.) (i) Not so fast as allegretto. (2) A short allegretto movement. Allegro (It.) (Lit. joyful.) Quick, lively. The word is occasionally employed to describe a whole movement of a quartett, sonata, or symphony. In music it is sometimes qualified Allegro agitato {It.) Quick and in an excited manner. " assai „ [Lit.) Fast enough. A quicker motion than simple allegro. J) commodo "I or \„ An easy, graceful allegro. comodo J „ con brio „ Quickly and with spirit. I) con fuoco „ Rapidly and with fire. a con moto „ With sustained joyfulness. u con spifito „ Joyfully and with spirit. i» di bravura „ A movement full of executive difficulties intended to exhibit the capacity of the singer or player. Exceedingly quick. M di molto „ furioso „ Rapidly and with fury. :» giusto „ In quick but steady time. !) magrazi- \„ osa j Lively and with graceful motion. }) ma non presto j " Rapidly, but not too fast. »t ma non tan to J " Quickly, but not too much so. ■• ma non troppo J " Lively, but not too fast. „ moderate „ Moderately quick. ,, molto „ Very quick. n risoluto „ Lively and with firmness and decision. i» veloce „ Lively and with speed. J, vivace „ Lively and brisk. )i vivo Quick and lively. Allein (Ger.) Alone, as Sanfte Stimmen allein, soft stops only. Alleluia. Latin for Hallelujah. (Heb.) Praise ye the Lord. An invitation to praise, used in every Christian community with vary- ing regularity. St. Augustine says that the African Church used it between the feasts of Easter and Pentecost, and it is at that time that its use is more prevalent in the ritual of the Eastern and Western churches than at other seasons of the Christian year. In the Roman Catholic Church it is not employed from Septuagesima to Easter, but in the Anglican Church it is said twice at least every day throughout the whole year, the English form, "Praise ye the Lord," being substituted in the present Prayer-book for the ancient Hebrew word which was inserted in the first Prayer-book of Edward VI. The word Halle- lujah being a short, musical, and rhythmical word, is frequently used by many anthem- writers — apparently without a just understand- ing of its meaning — to eke out an idea in music ; but at other times the word has been set to music with sublime effect, as by Beethoven in his " Mount of Olives," and by Handel in his " Messiah." Carl Engel, in " The Music of the Most Ancient Nations," gives examples of melodies sung by the Copts, and the women of Syria, Arabia, and Persia, to the word. AUemande (Fr.) Alemain, Allemaigne, Almain, a dance in duple time, said to have been invented by the French in the reign of Louis XIV. as a symbolical allusion to the newly-acquired German provinces. It was re- vived and frequently performed at the theatres during the time of the First Napoleon, during whose rule it became exceedingly popular. The measure was slow, and the steps were made in a rapid sliding manner as in the modern waltz, but there was no turning, only a peculiar entwining and unloosening of the arms of the dancers in the various steps. It is said by some that the AUemande was invented in the lesser provinces of Germany or Switzerland. Scarlatti, Corelli, Bach, Handel, and other composers of the period they represent, incorporated the measure of this dance in their Suites, Sonatas, and Lessons, in which it was written in common time of four crotchets in a bar. The tradition concerning the origin of its invention, mentioned above, is very pic- turesque, but it is not founded in fact. Louis XIV. took Strasbourg by surprise in the time of peace, in the year 1681, and the treaty of Ryswick which confirmed his possession was not made until 1697. It is quite possible to believe that the fulsome flattery of his flippant court would magnify an act of rapine into a worthy victory, and that empty-headed adu- lators would find heels light enough to dance their joy at the same; but unfortunately for the story, there were Allemandes in exist- ence before the time of the illegal seizure. In England, Almaines as musical composi- tions were published in 1662, in a book called " Courtly MasquingAyres," and there were those by Lully, issued in France, bearing date 1670 ; the subjoined one, by Dumont, is even earlier, as it is to be found in " Meslanges a 2, 3, 4 et 5 parties, avec la basse continue, contenante plusiers chansons, motets. Mag- nificat, prSludes et allemandes pour I'orgue et pour les violes ; livre i""" ; Paris, Robert Ballard, 1649." It is not even possible to refer the origin of the dance to the recovery of the (21 ) ALLEMANDE^ ALTERATA. towns in the Low Countries, as Turenne did not win them until six, years after Dumont's publication. The mention of the word as a dance is to be found in earlier writings than either of the .above-mentioned, for there is a passag'e in Ben Jonson's play, " The Devil is an Ass," first acted in 1610, whiqh proves the dance to have been known in his time : " He may, perchance, in tail of a sheriff's dinner, Skip with a rhyme on the table, from New-nothing, And take his Almain-leaip into a custard, Shall make my lady mayoress and her sisters , Laugh all their hoods over their shoulders." The old Almains probably had leaping steps, as the foregoing passage, and another from George Chapman's " Alphonsus, Em- peror of Germany," would imply : " We Germans have no changes in our dances. An Almain and an Up-Spring — that is all." This play was printed in 1599. ALLEMANDE. Henri Dumont, 1610-16S4. ^^ C J_J\^ ]J^i^ ^s L::p^^4^U=d ^ ,^1^g ^££ft ^g:g ^^^^^^^^^ ^^=^-V--fnr¥=^^f=^ g^^aosv-^r^^^ ^~r — ,,^i' ^r^' i^jii AUentamento AUentato ,r.\\ Yielding, slackening Yf-I. \ the time, giving (■■'^••'J way. Air improvista {It.) Without prepara- tion, extemporaneously. Al loco {It.) {Lit. in the place.) (i) A term which is used to counter-order a previous direction to play an octave higher or lower. (2) A direction to a violinist to return from a shift to his previous position. [Shift.] Ailonger I'archet {Fr.) To prolong the stroke of the bow. Air ottava {It.) At the octave, a direc- tion to play an octave higher, or lower, than is written. AH' unisorio {It.) In unison or octaves. Alphorn. Alpine horn. A long tube of fir- wood played by the herdsmen of the Alps. It has the same natural series of sounds as a trumpet, but does not possess any means of reducing the tenth harmonic to the ordinary pitch of our scale. [Ranz des Vaches.] Al piacere {It.) At pleasure. Al rigore di tempo (7i.) | j gt.j.ttime. Al ngore del tempo {It.) ) 'By contrary motion, that is, answering an as- cending interval by one descending a like ^ distance, e.g. : Handel. Al riverso {It.) Al rovescio {It.) Answers al rovescio are found in Imitation, Fugue, and Canon. Al segno {It.) To the sign, D'al segno {It.) from the sign §. Directions that the performer must return to that portion of the piece marked with the sign Jg=, and conclude with the first double bar which follows, or go on to the word Fine, or to the pause /T\. Alt {Ger.) Alto voice, part, or instrument. Alta {It.) High or higher. As 8"« alta, an octave higher. Alterata {Lat.) A name given to those scales into which notes were introduced foreign to the old church mode's. 22 ) ALTERATIO ALTO VOICE. Alteratio [Lat.) In mediaeval music, the doubling of the value of a note. " Alteratio est proprii valoris alicujus notse duplicatio" (Tinctor). This alteratio only took place when a note was in a certain relation to those near it; e.g.y if two longs preceded a maxim "in modo majori perfecto " [Modus] the latter of them underwent alteration : and if two breves " in modo minore perfecto " preceded a long, the latter underwent alteration ; and so on. A perusal of the eight general, and four par- ticular rules which governed alteration, will cause the reader to be thankful that modern music has been relieved of such complica- tions. Alterato (It.) \ Altered, augmented (with Alter6 (■?"»'.) J reference to intervals). Alternamente (It.) "1 Alternando (It.) [■ Changing by turns. Alternativo (It.) j Altgeige (Ger.) The tenor violin, the viola. [Viola.] Altieramente (It.) Proudly, grandly, haughtily. • Altisono (It.) Sonorous, ringing. Altissimo [It.) The highest. Altista {It.) A name formerly given to an alto singer. Alto-basso (7^) An ancient Venetian stringed instrument, a Hackbret, q. v. It was formed of a square box of pine-wood, supported on legs and strung with cat- gut. The player struck the strings with a sort of bow, which was held in the left hand, the right hand being engaged in holding a sort of flute or flageolet Tvith which a melody was performed. The instrument was only used by the lower class of people, and is now obsolete. Alto clef. The C clef, placed upon the third line of the stave, in order that the notes proper to the Alto voice may be conveniently represented : The Alto clef is also used for the Tenor violin or viola. [Clef.] Alto viola (It.) The tenor instrument of the violin family, called Alto, Tenor, or Viola. {Ger.) Bratsche or Altgeige. [Viola.] Alto voice. Called also counter-tenor, when used by men, and counter-alto or con- tralto, when used by women. It is the deepest tone of voice among women and boys, to whom it may be said to be natural, and it is called the highest voice among men for lack of a better term to describe it. Properly speaking, the tenor voice is the highest man's voice, the alto or counter-tenor voice being entirely an artificial production, and (?3 simply a development of the falsetto. The register usually written for this voice lies between tenor G and treble C, As the best notes of the alto voice are within the octave from B flat, those notes are most generally employed, for the higher notes are harsh and discordant, and the lower of small musical quality, and therefore ineffective. The alto voice in man is mostly formed upon an indifferent bass voice, and there is always a break between the chest and thp head voice; this break varies between C and E ^ 3 and the careful union of the chest and head qualities of voice, and the judicious employment of the "mezza voce" are characteristic of every good alto singer. The alto voice is almost peculiar to English singers, not one of the continental nations possessing the capability of producing the quality or of appreciating it when pro- duced; the consequence is, that there is no music written for this voice by any but English composers, and the majority of writers of the present day forming their style upon the foreign model, neglect and ignore the voice, disregarding its claim to useful- ness, in places and at times, when and where female voices are unavailable. The value of the voice, its flexibility, sympathetic quality, and harmonious power, when carefully culti- vated, are well displayed in cathedral music, and glee singing: a great number of melodious compositions by the most noted English writers, depend upon the alto voice for their proper effect. Many of the songs in Handel's oratorios were assigned to this voice, which are now, in consequence of the heightened pitch at present employed, sung by females : for instance, the part of Solomon in the oratorio of that name; of Barak and Sisera in the oratorio of "Deborah;" and of Daniel in " Belshazzar;" are each given to an alto voice. As this practice is of quite recent growth, it is but reasonable to conclude that Handel intended the music of the wisest king, and that of the two brave warriors to be sung by men altos, rather than by women, for the sake of appearance, if for no more powerful reason . The fact before alluded to, of the non- recognition of the voice by foreigners, has given an advantage to English musical literature not enjoyed by any other people, in the cultivation and sole possession of the Glee and the Anthem. As many of the principal eff'ects are obtained in these two species of composition through the medium of the alto voice, if only for the sake of the performance of the many noble ) ALTRA AMBROSIAN TE DEUM. specimens of art in these two styles, the alto voice will always be cultivated in Eng- land until such time as the Glee and Anthem cease to exist. The cultivation of the Part- song has almost superseded the use of the alto voice in modern music, for the upper part in this class of composition is given to tenor voices, and the difficulty in pro- ducing the notes of the higher register so far influences the character of the music written, that many of the part-songs for male voices are of a bold, boisterous style, entirely different to that of the glee, which by reason of the peculiarity of the alto voice is of a more quiet character, depending in a great measure for its effect upon delicate and expressive singing, Many composers of eminence have completely ignored the alto voice, whether male or female, a quantity of music for Church use being written for treble, tenor, and bass, as by Cherubini and others. In quality and power of expression the female alto voice is peculiar, and unlike any other voice. Its character is grave, tender^ spi- ritual, and moving, and is admirably adapted to express emotions of dignity, grandeur, and piety. The male alto being an artificial voice, its usefulness is of limited duration, for when the singer is past fifty years of age the voice becomes harsh, reedy, nasal, and the break is painfully apparent. Altra, fern. (It.) "J Altri, pi. (It.) >Other, another, others. Altro, mas. (li.) ) Altschliissel {Ger.) Alto clef. Altviole (Ger.) [Alto Viola.] Alzamento di mano (It.) Raising the hand in conducting. Alzando (It.) Lifting up, raising, elevating. Altzeichen (Ger.) The alto clef, -^ 1 Amabile {It.) Lovely, gentle, tender. Amabilitk, con (It.) With gentleness, tenderness. Amarevole (It.) Sad, bitter. Amarezza, con (It.) With sadness. Amarissimamente (7^) ") -.j , .^^ , Amarissimo j^^.j } Very bitterly. In a mournful, sorrowful style. Amateur (Fr.) A lover of music; one who pursues the practice of any art for pure love, in distinction to one who is engaged in its employment for pay. Ambira (A/r.) A kind of drum or pulsatile instrument, made of wood, in cylindrical form, upon which a series of tongues of iron, cane, or wood are so arranged that they may be made to vibrate upon pressure. The Ambira is used by the negroes of Senegambia and Guinea. Ambitus {Lat.) {lit. circuit.) The com- pass of an ancient church tone. The word is, however, used sometimes in a more extended sense than our word compass, as it is made to signify the proper steps which lie between the extreme limits of the tone— "Toni debitus ascensus et descensus." The rules (regulae) which govern the ambitus depend upon the position oi the final of the tone, and although much elaborated in medieval treatises, their • force seems to be that the proper ambitus should (regulariter) not exceed the octave (diapason) included between the highest note of the mode above the final and the lowest below it, except " by licence" (licentialiter), These dispensations only allow the intro- duction of three notes outside the ambitus in each direction, an authentic mode being allowed a descent to the lowest note of its corresponding plagal tone ; a plagal tone being allowed to ascend to the highest note of its corresponding authentic. This fact, simple enough in itself, is cleverly put into a shape as unintelligible as possible in the following lines, framed for the supposed assistance of the student : " Undenis gradibus vult juste vadere prothus. . Per sex et quinas claves vult deuteru's ire. Octo tribus gradibus vult juste cepere tritus. Per sex quinque gradus juste capit ire tetrardus." Ambo or Ambon {Gk., ajxjioiv from avaPaivw.) A desk or pulpit. The raised platform in Eastern churches, on which the singers mounted when they sang. A canon of the Council of Laodicea (a.d. 360-370) decreed that no one should sing in the church besides the regular singers {irXrjy tuv icavoviKdv i/'aXrwi'), who ascended the ambo and sang from the parchment (ajro lifQipag). This early attempt to bring about the separate perform- ance of trained choir-singers did not obtain any favour in the Western churches of that period, and with the introduction of congre- gational song, the ambo became disused. Ambrosian Chant. The system of church- song introduced by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, in the fourth century. It formed the basis of the Gregorian system. [Plain Song.] Ambrosian Hymn. The " Te Deum" so-called, because, by some, its authorship is attributed to Bishop Ambrose. Ambrosian Te Deum. A musical set- ting of the Te Deum in plain-song, called after Bishop Ambrose because -of its antiquity and the possibility of its having been the first setting of the Hymn after the introduction of properly-regulated song into Christian wor- ship. Marbecke, who adapted it to English words, chose a simple setting, and a com- parison between his version and others will be found interesting. Meibomius (in his well- known work. Ant. Mus. Auct. Septem. 1652), published it with Greek notation, as an ex- (24) AMBUBAJ^ ANCIA. ponent of his own principles, not as a copy of any authorized edition. [Plain Song.] Ambubajae (Lat.) Companies of immoral Syrian women, who attended festivals and gatherings among the Romans as minstrels. Their instruments were called abub, or ambub, whence their name. Ambulant (Fr.) Wandering. Applied to strolling musicians. Ame (Fr.) The sound-post of a violin, or other stringed instrument of its kind. American Organ. An instrument having one or more manuals, and registers which control series of free reeds. It is, in its principles of construction, diametrically opposed to the Harmonium, for v/hereas in this, air is forced through the reeds from a bellows, — in the American Organ the action of the treadle exerts suction. When it is required to shut off a row of reeds, the putting in of the stop-handle places a thick air-tight covering of felt over the outside of the row of reeds, so that the air cannot be sucked through them, — ^the drawing of the stop, by removing this obstruction, allows the free passage of the air through the reeds. In short, in the Harmonium, air is blown from the bellows through the reeds ; in the American Organ, air is sucked through the reeds into the bellows. There are, however, other differences. The reeds of the American Organ are thinner than those of the Har- monium, and are slightly curved in shape, by which greater quickness of speech is insured. A very beautiful undulating tone is obtained by setting in motion a rotating fan, imme- diately above one of the rows of vibrators. This, by producing a variable pressure of air just outside the reeds, affects also their vibra- tion as they draw it in. The mechanism which sets the fan in motion is called the Vox Humana stop. When there is an Expression stop it gives the player some control over the pressure of suction, and thus it is the converse of the stop of the same name in the Harmonium ; but the effects which can be produced by its use are more striking in the latter instrument. The tone of American Organs is extremely melodious and sweet, but it does not travel well. For chamber music these instruments are emi- nently qualified, not only because of the character of their tone, but because they possess the enormous advantage of remaining for a longer period and under varying circum- stances — in tune. A mezza aria {It.) A compromise be- tween Air and recitative. [Aria parlante.] A mezza. voce {It.) With half the strength of the voice. (2) The quality between the chest and head voice. (3) The subdued tone of instruments. A moll {Ger.) A minor, the tonality of the relative minor to the key of C. A monocorde {Fr.) On one string. Amore, con {It.) With love, affection, tenderness, ardour. Amorevole {It.) Affectionately. Amorevolmente {It.) Tenderly. A Moresco {It.) In the Moorish style. Amorosamente (7^.) Lovingly. Amoroso {If.) In a loving style. Amor-schall. A horn of peculiar con- struction invented in the year 1760, by Kolbel, one of the musicians of the Emperor of Rus- sia. It was intended as an improvement upon the ordinary French horn, but the introduction of the cylinder and valve system led to the disuse of the Amor-schall. A duet for these instruments was composed by Cherubini, and dedicated to Lord Cowper. Amphibrachys. A foot consisting of a long between two short syllables, " ' ". [Metre.] Amphimacer. A foot consisting of a short between two long syllables, " " ". [Metre.] Amplitude of vibration. The distance from the point of rest of a particle, to either end of its journey, when a sound-wave passes over it. [Acoustics, §3.] AmpoUosamente {If.) "i In a bombastic, Ampolloso {If.) i inflated style. Ampoul6 {Fr.) Bombastic. Amusement {Fr.) A short and lively piece of music. {If.) Divertimento. Anabasis {Gk.), avajiaaiQ, a succession of ascending sounds. Anabathmi {Gk.), avafiaBfiol, the name given to certain antiphons in the Greek Church ; so called because their words were selected from the Psalms called in the Sep- tuagint loSai tSv avajjadfiav (Ps. 120- 134 in Eng. version), " Songs of degrees," the gra- dual Psalms of the Roman use. Anakampsis {Gk.), avaKa/i-^'ie, a succes- sion of descending sounds. Anakamptos. [Anakampsis.] Anakara {Gk.) The ancient kettledrum. A larger sort was used for battle purposes, and there was a smaller drum which a woman could hold with one hand and beat with the other. [Drum.] [Nacchera.] Anakarista {Gk.) A drum player. Anapaest. A foot consisting of a long pre- ceded by two short syllables, . [Metre.] Anaploke {Gr.) avairKoicfi. A combination of notes ascending the scale; opposed to KaraTrXoci), a descending series of combined sounds. Anche {Fr.) The reed in the mouth-piece of a hautboy, bassoon, &c., the name also applied to a reed in an organ. [Reed.] Ancia {It.) [Anche.] ( 25 ) ANCORA ANTECEDENT. Ancora (It.) Again, once more, encore. Ancor piu mosso {It.) Still quicker, more motion yet. Andacht (G«r.) Devotion. Andachtig (Ger.) Devotionally, devoutly. Andamento (7^) (i) An accessory idea, or episode; an accessory part, in -a Fugue. (2) In the style of an Andante. Andante (It.) Walking. In the early part of the last century, music so marked was understood to be of a grand yet cheerful style, but in the present day it implies a move- ment which is slow, graceful, distinct and peaceful. The word is sometimes used as a substantive, in speaking of that portion of a symphony or sonata so marked. The many modifications both of pace and style are ex- pressed as below : Andante afFettuoso, in an easy, pathetic style. ' Andante cantabile, in a singing style. Andante con moto, an uninterrupted andante. Andante grazioso, in:graceful motion. Andante maestoso, with majesty. Andante non troppo, moderately, but not too slow. Andante pastorale, graceful, and with pastoral simplicity. Andanteniente (It.) Easily, fluently, without interruption, in the manner of an Andante. Andantino (It.) A diminutive of Andante, unfortunately interpreted in two directly opposite ways. By some it is understood to mean, not so slow as andante; by others, rather slower than andante. This difference of opinion results from the ambiguity of an ex- pression which literally means "rather going." Andante sostenuto, moderately, and very smoothly. Andar diritto (It., Go straight on. An dare in tempo (It.) To go in time. Keep to the time. Anelantemente (It.) Ardently, eagerly, pantingly. AneHto^^ (7f.) I Shortness of breath. Anemochord. A variety of the Eolian harp, made by Jacob Schnell, in Paris, 1789. [EoHan harp.] Anemometer. [Wind-gauge.] Anesis (Gk.) &vtais, from avirt/xi, to loosen, (i) The progression from a high sound to one lower in pitch. (2) The tuning of strings to a lower pitch (cLveaig yppSiJiv.) Anfangs-ritornel (Ger.) Introductory symphony. [Symphony, § 4.] Anfangs-griinde (Ger.) Rudiments, prin- ciples, beginnings. i;;|eHqufe^|;':)^}LVox angelica.] Animosissamente Animosissimo Angenehm (Ger.) Pleasing, agreeable. Anglaise (Fr.) \ The English contra danse. Anglico (It.) J [Country dance.] Anglican Chant. [Chant.] Angore (It.) Anguish, grief, distress, passion. „ . „ Angosciamente (It.)l Sorrowfully, Angosciamento (It.) J anxiously. Angosciosissamente (ii.) With extreme sorrow. Angoscioso (It.) Anxious, painful. Anhaltende Cgdenz (Ger.) A lengthened cadence, an organ or pedal point. Anhang (Ger.) [Coda.] Anima, con (It.) • With animation, spint. Animato (It.) Lively. Animazione (It.) Liveliness, animation. Animo, con (It.) With courage, spirit, dash, and fire. Animo Corde (It.) [Anerhochord.] Animosamente (7^) Spiritedly, ener- getically. .J . C Exceedingly L,Vv,- b Ik yvvai^Hv (Philo de Vita, cont.). ihe custom of antiphonal singing seems to have been first introduced at Antioch by Diodorus and Flavian : oItol jrpwroi S^x'' SteXovi-fc tovq tCv ^aXk6vTu>v x°po^S « ^apaloxVS ^Setv rn" AaiiiSiicflv dSiSa^ay iiAigliav ical tovto ey 'AvTioxiif '^pSiTOV apKafievov itavroae. SieSpa/ie Kal KariXafie TiJQ oiKOVfiivrie Hpiiara (Theod. Hist. Eccl.). Afterwards, through the musical ability of Ambrose, the same system of psalm- singing became general in theWestern church. Although Christian authors give accounts of antiphonal singing as something new, there can be no doubt of its great antiquity. There are sufficient allusions to it in the Old Testa- ment to show that it was well known to the Jews ; and the very structure of many of the Psalms impHes its existence. In our own times, the choirs of cathedrals and churches are usually (when seated in the chancel, — not in a west gallery) divided into two sides, one called Decani, from the fact that it is on the Dean's side of the choir (south) ; the other. Cantoris, because it is placed on the Pre- centor's or Succentor's side (north). The Psalms are sung by alternate verses, from side to side, both sides joining in the Gloria Patri. In some foreign churches, the Anti- phony consists of the chanting of one verse by a single voice, the next being sung by the full choir, in response. This is not a correct system, ritualistically speaking, although, in the Church of England, in those rare places where they do not sing, the minister and congregation go through an exactly similar process. The Antiphony, which was once common in this country, between the minister and parish-clerk, who rivalled each other in the uncommon phases of meaning which their particular method of "saying" the Psalms often rendered prominent, is now happily almost obsolete. Miraculous stories of the introduction of responsive choir-singing are not wanting. Socrates, in his ecclesiastical history (Book vi. chap, viii), says : " Ignatius, third Bishop of Antioch in Syria from the Apostle Peter, who had also conversed fami- liarly with the Apostles themselves, saw a vision of angels hymning in alternate chants the Holy Trinity ; after which he introduced the mode of singing he had observed in the vision into the Antiochian Churches, whence it was transmitted by tradition to all the other churches." (3) A short sentence, generally from Holy Scripture, sung before and after the Psalms for the day, or the Canticles, selected for its appropriateness to the Church season in which it is sung. As an example, one of the Antiphons used on the fourth Sunday in Advent is here given : (30) ANTIPHONARIUM ANTISPASTUS. Ca-ni-te tu ba Si - qai -a pro-pe eat di- es Do - mi-ni : ec-ce ve - ni-et ad Sal-van-dum nos Al - le - lu (Then follows Ps. ex. to Tone I.). ' Dixit Dominus." The use of the Antiphon in this manner, has no doubt grown out of the frequent re- currence of Alleluia, and other devout excla- mations as found in the Psalms, which have ever been used in the Church as " Respon- soria." The Galilean " Liturgy," which may with probability be ascribed to the second century, commences with an Antiphon. But the word Antiphon is used in many other senses, sometimes even given to a complete set of Versicles and Responses ; thus Augustine and his followers are said to have entered Canterbury singing' as an Anthem (Antiphona) one of the Litanies. Certain of the hymns sung at the end of Compline are also called Antiphons. (4) The greater Antiphons (Antiphonse majores) are sung on the eight days pre- ceding Christmas-day, before the Magnificat. The first of them commences with the words, " O Sapientia," which is still found in the calendar of the English Prayer-book, on December i6th. It will be found interesting to compare the text of these greater Anti- phons as found in the Sarum use, and in the Vesperal now issued from Mechlin. (5) In the early Greek Church, in the services of which, hymns and canticles of all kinds were sung by two alternating choirs, the word Antiphon was specially applied to the three canticles which preceded the lesser Introit. (6) Antiphona (Lat.) An Anthem. The English word is supposed to have been corrupted from the Latin. But several other explanations, which have been brought forward from time to time, will be found sub voce. [Anthem.] Antiphonarium (Lat.) ] Antiphonaire. Anti- > [Antiphonary.] phonier (-^''•) ) Antiphonary. \ A service book of the Antiphoner. J Roman Church, which contained originally the antiphons sung in the services of the Hours, properly arranged and noted, to which, from time to time, other portions of music and words were added, such as Invitatories, Hymns, Responses, &c. The advantage, perhaps necessity, of refer- ring to ancient copies of service-books for the true restoration of plain-song, which has ever had a tendency to vary in its character by unauthorized additions, or foliations, was felt as much one thousand years ago as it is now. For we read that the good lessons in plain-chant given to the French clergy, when Pope Stephen II. was the guest of Pepin, King of France, were soon forgotten ; and that in the time of his son, Charlemagne, the church-song had become exceedingly corrupt. Charlemagne, for the purpose of remedying this, obtained the services and help of Theodore and Benoit, who carried with them from Rome a copy of the Antiphoner of Gregory, which the Pope himself (Adrian) had noted. Other accounts are to be found of these reformations of plain-chant, all of which how- ever point to the importance of the preser- vation of, and reference to, old antiphoners. And later on, in the 12th century, we find St. Bernard the Abbot making efforts to stem the tide of innovations, by publishing his tract — " De Cantu seu correctione Antipho- narii" — in which he says, " take the anti- phonary used at Rheims, and compare it with that of Beauvais, or Amiens, or Soissons, which are almost at your doors, and see if they are the same, or even like each other." ' The number of service-books seems to have rapidly increased ; for, by the constitutions of Archbishop Winchelsey (a.d. 1305) it was required that every church in the province of Canterbury should be provided with a Legend, an Antiphonary, a Grail, a Psalter, a Troper, an Ordinal, a Missal, and a Manual. In 1549, when all such books were abolished to make way for the "Booke of Common Praier," they appear to have been still more numerous : being described as " Antiphoners, Missals, Grayles, Processionals, Manuals, Legends, Pies, Portuasses, Primers in Latin or English, Couchers, Journals, and Ordinals." The Grayle, or Gradual, contained tracts, se- quences, hallelujahs, creeds, offertories, the sanctus, and the office of sprinkling with holy water. Legends, or Lectionaries, contained the Lessons, which were not in the Anti- phonary. It is unnecessary here to enter into an explanation of all these terms; suffice it to say, that the copying of choir-books was a matter of great labour, and that the iDOoks themselves were in consequence very costly. It is related by Spelman that two anti- phonaries cost the Monastery of Crabhuse, in Norfolk, twenty-six marks in the year 1424 ; and it is also related that a common Missal cost five marks — a year's income of a cleric at that time. Upon the dissolution of monasteries, valuable books of this sort were dispersed throughout the country, and, from carelessness or wanton waste, destroyed in large numbers. Antispastus. A foot, consisting of two long between two short syllables, . (31) ANTISTROPHE APPLAUSE. Antistrophe. [Strophe.] Anwachsend (Ger.) Swelling, crescendo. Aperto (/^) Open. The use of the damper-pedal in pianoforte music. Appelregal {Ger.) A reed stop in the organ now no longer made ; the pipes, which were small, had a round hollow nob at the top like an apple, whence the name. Antode(GA.) AirpSq. Responsive singing. Aoidoi {Gk.), plural of aoiSog. Minstrels, bards. (Lat.) Vates. [Bard.] A piacere r7i.)i (i)Atpleasure. Not A piacimento (It.) i strictly in time, ad libitum. (2) The introduction of a cadenza. Aplomb (Fr.) Steadiness, self-possession. A poco a poco (It.) More and more. By degrees. Applied to the increase of time or expression. A poco piu lento (It.) A little slower. A poco piu mosso (It.) Somewhat faster. Apollo-lyra. [Psaljnmelodicon.] ApoUonicon. An organ, invented in 1800 by John Henry Voller, of Hesse Darmstadt, and manufactured in London by Messrs. Flight and Robson in 1828; it consisted of about 1900 pipes, with six sets of keys, so that half a dozen performers might play simultaneously. The action was so ar- ranged, that it might be performed upon by six players in the ordinary manner, or the various effects might be elicited by the revo- lution of certain cylinders which set the wind in motion, and regulated the stops according to the character of the music played. An imitation of an orchestra, with the usual instnaments, including kettle-drums, was the object sought to be gained by the invention. Apolutikion (Gk.) awoXvnKwv. A hymn sung at the close of Vespers in certain seasons of the Greek Church. The word is probably derived from the opening sentence of the Nunc Dimittis, " vvv avoXveig tov SovXoi' aov," and signifies a hymn of dismissal. Apopemptic Song. An ancient farewell or parting hymn usually sung to a stranger about to return to his own land. Apopemtic strains were sung to the gods on certain days on which it was believed that the several deities returned to their original countries. Apotome (Gk.) 'Attoto/j.^. A major semi- tone. " Major pars toni : quse semitonium majus vulgariter dicitur" (Tinctor.) " Id quod vere semitonium nuncupatur, pars toni minor est quam dimidia. Reliqua igitur pars, quae major est, apotome nuncupatur a Grascis, a nobis vero potest vocari decisio." (Boethius De Inst. Mus., Lib. ii., cap. 29 et 30.) Appassionato (It.) With feeling, passion, or affection. Appassionamento (It.) With passion, love. Appassionatamente (It.) Passionately. Appenato (It.) With an expression of suffering, with bitterness or grief. Applause. Praise or approbation ex- pressed by clapping the hands, stamping the feet or the utterance of certain cries, as bravo, encore. In the ancient Greek theatre, Donaldson says, that "the conduct of the audience was much the same as that of the spectators in our own theatres, and they seem to have had little scruple in expressing their approbation or disapprobation, as well to the poet as to the actors. Their mode of doing this was sometimes very violent, and even in the time of Machon it was customary to pelt a bad performer with stones." Hissing, as an expression of disapproval or contempt, is of very ancient use, and it was the custom to augment the power of the hiss, by blowing through reeds and whistles, a custom not altogether unrepresented in later times, when cat-calls, introduced into an English theatre, gave Addison a subject for an amusing paper (No. 361) in the Spectator. The hollow pipe of a key serves the purpose of the ancient calamus or fistula, in modern Italy, and the frequency with which indifferent operas are received " colla chiave," proves that the spirit of old times still lives and is active. [Fiasco.] History shows us that applause was not confined to secular performances, but was allowed and even looked for in churches as well as theatres. Hone, in his " Ancient Mysteries described," quotes the following passage relative to this custom : Jerome de- sired Gregory Nazianzen to explain to him what was meant by the second Sabbath after the first, in St. Luke vi. i. Gregory answered, " I will teach you that at Church, where, when all the people shall applaud me, you will be forced to know, what you do not know; for if you only keep silence, you will be looked upon as a fool." At one time encores were not permitted in France, neither were calls allowed for the author of a piece which had given pleasure. When reforms were takingplace, opportunities were found to break through this rule, Jean Baptiste Lemoine or Moyne, in 1789, being the first composer called upon the stage in France after the performance of his opera, " Nepht6." A few years later in Italy, Paisiello was the means of removing the prohibition on the audience from applauding at all in San » Carlo, for he induced the King to set the ex- ample of the change, by applauding an aria sung by Carlo Raino, in the opera " Papirius," produced in the year 1805. It has been happily said that " II piu grand 'omaggia alia musica sta nel silenzio," and, influenced by some such principle, the better sort among a mixed audience refrain (32) APPLICATUR ARETINIAN SYLLABLES, from indiscriminate applause, encores in- tended as compliments often becoming an oppressive tax, levied by the unthinking, or those who care little for true art. The gene- ral opinion of the reasonable on this subject, is expressed in the following epigram ; — " The ' sovereign people ' rule all things, So levellers would say ; But all 'encores' in concert -rooms, The ' shilling people ' sway." [Claque.] Applicatur (Ger.) (i) The art of using the fingers freely upon a musical instru- ment of any kind, (2) shifting q.v. and re- covering the original position. Appoggiando (It.) Drawing out, length- ening, leaning upon. Appoggiato (It.) Supported. Appoggiato. notes are those notes which suspend the resolution, or that supply gaps in passages of intervals. See also passing note, sus- pension, and SYNCOPATION. Appoggiatura (It.) A note leant upon in singing or playing, applied to beats and grace notes, q.v. Apprestare (It.) To make ready, to pre- pare for playing, to set in tune. A premiere yue (Fr)) ^^ g^^^ ^.^^^ A prima vista (It.)) *= A punta d'arco (It.) With the end of the bow near the point. A punto (It.) In exact time, precise, strict, accurate. Apycni (Gk.) (airvKvoi). The notes Pros- lambanomenos (TrpoaXafipavoiitvog), nete sy- nemmenon (vr;rij awrmixeviov), and nete hyper- boleon (vriTri vTrepfioXaiwv) of the Greek system of music. The notes are so named because of their remoteness from each other (from awvKvos, not close, not dense). A quattro mani (It.) A quatre mains (Fr.) For four hands on one instrument, that is, as a duet for two performers on the pianoforte or organ. A quattro parti (It.) \A quatre seuls (Fr.) A quattro, soli (It.)j For four soloists. A quattro voci (It.) 'A quatre voix (Fr.) For four voices in harmony. Arbitrio (It.) Will, pleasure, a suo ar- bitrio, at his pleasure. Arcato (It.) With the bow, as opposed to pizzicato, plucked with the finger. CoW arco is a direction to the same effect. Arched viall. An instrument somewhat in fashion like a hurdy-gurdy, invented about A.D. 1664, and thus described by Pepys in 'his Diary, under the date October 5th, in that year : " To the Musique meeting at the Post Office, where I was once before. And thither anon came all the Gresham College, and a great deal of noble company ; and the ( 33 new instrument was brought, called the Arched Viall, where being tuned with Lute- strings, and played on with kees like an organ, a piece of parchment is always kept moving ; and the strings,- which by the kees are pressed down upon it, are grated in imi- tation of a bow, by the parchment ; and so it is intended to resemble several vyalls played on with one bow, but so basely and so harshly, that it will never do. But after three hours' stay it could not be fixed in tune ; and so they were fain to go to some other music of instru- ments." Pepys had probably no design in writing the word viall in the manner in which he has done ; but, in doing so, he has intimated a connection with ancient vielle or hurdy-gurdy, which the Arched viall somewhat resembled ; the parchment was doubtless " always kept moving" by means of a wheel. Archeggiamento (It.) (i) The same as arcato, or coll' arco. (2) The use of the bow. Archet (Fr.) Arco (It.) The bow with which stringed instruments are played. [Bow.] Archicembalo (It.) Archicembalo (Lat.) A cembalo with an enharmonic scale, supposed to have been invented about the year 1537 in Italy, described by Salinas as having each tone divided into parts, of which three were given to the greater semi-tone and two to the less, the whole octave being divided into thirty- one parts. Archlute, arciliuto (It.) Archiluth (Fr.) [Theorbo.] Arco (It.) The bow. Coll' arco, with the bow, as opposed to Pizzicato, pinched by the finger. Ardente (It.) (Fr.) Ardently, with fire. Arditezza, con (It.) With boldness, energy. Ardito (It.) Bold and energetic. Aretinian syllables. The names Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, given to the Hexachord by Guido d'Arezzo (Guido Aretinus). These syllables happen to occur in consecutive notes of the scale, in an ancient hymn to S. John Baptist. UT que -ant la - xis RE - so - na - re fi-bris, m * ' ^ ■ J p MI ra ge - sto - rum FA- mu - li tu or - um, SOL ve pol - lu - ti Sane - te Jo - an'-nes. LA - bi - i re - a - turn. From the system of over-lapping Hexa- chords, arise the compound names of notes such as E-la-mi, A-la-mi-re, &c., which are explained under Notation. ) c ARGHOOL ARIA FUGATA. Arghool. A simply constructed wind in- strument, now used in Egypt. It is made of common cane, and is played by mouth-pieces containing reeds. There are two species of arghool ; the first (Fig. i) consists of two tubes both pierced with holes, so that the performer may play in thirds and sixths ; the second (Fig. 2) consists also of two tubes, but one only is pierced with holes, the other being longer and used as a drone. The pitch of the drone can be altered by the addition of extra pieces, which are attached to the instrument, as are also the mouth-pieces, by waxed thread. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Aria {It.) An air, tune, song, or melody in rhythmical proportion, now understood to mean a movement for a single voice or instru- ment, with an accompaniment. [Air.] Aria d'abilita {It.) A song of difficult execution, requiring great skill in its proper and satisfactory performance. Aria buffa {It.) A song with some degree of humour in the words, or in the treatment of the music. Aria cantabile {It.) An air in a graceful, flowing style, capable of much musical ex- pression. Aria concertante {It.) An air in the con- cert style, that is a melody for a single voice, accompanied by instruments having obbligato or solo passages assigned to them. Aria di bravura {It.) A melody with florid, bold, and energetic passages and phra- ses for the voice. An aria di bravura is more or less an aria d'abilita. Aria fugata {It.) A song or air, in which the accompaniment is written in fugal style, or in imitation. The difficulty of expressing dramatic emotions in this species of compo- sition led to its ultimate disuse, though at one time it was greatly in favour. The sub- joined specimen, perhaps one of the most expressive of its class, is said to be the work (34) of Bononcini, usually called the rival of Handel, but it may be the production of either of the other writers concerned in the opera of Thomyris, from whence it was taken. This opera, produced' under the direction of Heidegger, at the " King's Theater, in y' Hay- market" in 1709, was a pasticcio of melodies and compositions selected from the works of Albinoni, Gasparini, Steffano, Scarlatti, and Bononcini. The opera was called English, though the singers delivered some portions in Italian, and others in English. The libretto of the opera was by no means of a high, poetical order. " Aria fugata" out of the Opera of Thomyris. blessing, why have I lost my joys, ^ u c rr;g ^EEE^^ * no rest pos- ses -sing, no rest pos - ses- sing, Grief m »: m f_J-^f^^, J^ , ARIA PARLANTE ARMONISTA. Fine. now to my eyes a flood of tears will cost, Oh . . » is &. p^i^^^ ^^^: ^ ^ ^ ^r^r — r=3 ^Bt — ^=FPp Aria pfarlante (li.) (i) Vocal music suit- able to, and designed for, a proper declamation of the words. (2) A style of song-writing invented to- wards the close of the i6th century by those Florentine dilettanti who, imbued with the spirit of Renaissance which had already revolutionized other arts, turned their atten- tion to the necessity of ridding music of cold formalities and restoring it to its proper function, which indeed it held among the Greeks, of being a just vehicle of the ever- varying emotions which poetry calls forth. Monteverde, Peri, Corsi, and Caccini, were the musicians who made the first attempts at aria parlante, several operas being composed by them individually or in combination, to words by Rinuccini, in which the aria par- lante occupied an important position. The aria parlante was not a recitative, but was sung in strict time. The latter, however, very soon grew out of the former, and assumed a separate existence in the works of Carissimi. In the preface to the first Opera printed with the music, " Le Musiche da Jacopo Peri, Nobil Fiorentino, sopra L'Euridice de Signor Ottavio Rinuccini, Rappresentate nello Spon- salizio della Christianissima Maria Medici, Regina di Francia e di Navarra. In Venetia, MDCvm," the author states that the ground- work of the imitation proposed " usassero un armonia, che avanzado quella del parlare ordinario." The character of this harmony, which was intended to be a medium between common speech and singing, will be seen in the fol- lowing Aria parlante for Pluto, in answer to Orpheus seeking Euridice : Plutone. m J_JJ_J. ^^=^^ On -de CO - tan - to ar- di re Chi ^ ff*: iwr g U. J J J :T|J J ^^^^ nan - ti al di fa - ta le, Scend' a miei iii iWr [Opera.] [Recitative.] Aria Tedesca {It.) An air in the German style — that is to say, in which the accompani- ment is inseparable from the melody. Aria aggiunte (It.) Supplementary songs introduced into a work after the first perform- ance or representation. Arietta (It.) The diminutive of aria ; a short air or melody. Ariette {Fr.) [Arietta.] Arioso {It.) In the style of an air. (i) A direction that the music to which it refers is to be performed tunefully, sweetly. (2) An intimation that recitative form has more or less been incorporated into, or perhaps' superseded by, a smooth and melodious treat- ment of the words. The Arioso is found in its perfection in the works of Mendelssohn, but examples of it are not wanting in older writers, although they are simply called recitative, e.g., "Behold and see" ("Messiah") and in Nos. 17 and 74 of Bach's Passion (St. Matthew). Aristoxenians. The followers of the musi- cal system of Aristoxenus. of. Pythagoreans. Armer la clef {Fr.) To indicate the key by the number of sharps or flats in the signature. Armoneggiare {It.) To harmonise, to sound in chords. Armenia {It.) [Harmony.] Armonista {It.) A harmonist. (35) ARMONICA ARRANGEMENT. Armonica {ItA Harmonica, Armonicon, Harmonicon. (i) The musical glasses, a series of glass cups of various sizes and thick- nesses, capable of producing the different notes of the diatonic scale by friction upon the edges. The name armonica was given to this instrument -by Benjamin Franklin, to whom also the credit of the invention is sometimes given, but the idea was. suggested by a Mr. Pickeridge, an Irish gentlema:n, and first carried out by M. Delaval, and was in use long before the name ctrmonica was given to it by Franklin. (2) An instrument now used by children, consisting of a flat oblong box, containing free reeds so arranged that when applied to the mouth, inspiration and respiration through the orifices in the side, produce different sounds of the scale, in a series. [Cheng.] [Harmonium.] Arpa (7^.) [Harp.] Arpa doppia (/i.) A double harp. [Harp.] Arpanetta or arpanella {It.) A small harp. Arpfege {Fr.) [Arpeggio.] Arpeggiando {It.) Playing arpeggio, q.v. I To strike the notes of a chord in succession in the manner of harp playing. Arpeggiatura {It.) [Arpeggio.] Arpeggio (7^.) In the style of a harp. A term applied to the notes of a chord when they are struck consecutively, instead of simul- taneously. Una corda. f ^, ^ , In pianoforte music a waved line is written beside a chord intended to be played arpeggio : m^^ i^i ^i^ Arrangement. A selection or adaptation of the parts of a composition, to fit them for performance by other voices or instruments than those originally designed. There are very few examples existing of acknowledged arrangements in the earliest musical publications ; for few ever thought of tampering with an author's compositions so far as to divert them from their original in- tentions. The adaptation of new words, although it occasionally involved a slight -alteration in the time-value of some of the notes, was a matter of small importance ; and the musician who undertook such a matter rarely gave himself the credit of having done so clever a thing as modern arrangers would have us believe such an alteration to be. Thus Nicolas Yonge, in his collection of Madrigals, " Musica Transal- pina," London 1588, leaves it to the judg- ment of the reader to infer the part he took in giving his book to the world, calling his work " Madrigales translated of four, fine, and sixe parts, chosen out of diners excellent Authors, with the first and second part of La Verginellay made by Maister Byrd, out of two Stanz's of Ariosto, and brought to Speak English with the rest. Published by N. Yonge in favour of such as take pleasure in Musick of voices." For a somewhat lengthened period arrangements were described as " brought to light," "framed," "figured," "fitted," "made proper," and " newly set forth," for example : " LessonsforConsort, madeby sundry excellent authors, and set to sixe severall instruments, Namely, the Treble Lute, Treble Violl, Base Violl, Bandora, Citterne, and the Flute. Now newly set forth by Philip Rossetor, 1609." Richard Alison, in his book " An Howres Recreation in Musicke, apt for Instruments and Voyces" (1606), describes his arrangement as "Framed for the delight of gentlemen and others which are well affected to that qualitie." A Dutch edition of Gastoldi's ballets for "5 en 6 stemmen, te singen of speelen," 1648, is "gestelt" — that is, arranged or accommo- dated — " of 3 en 4 stimnden," and this is perhaps one of the earliest instances of an alteration of an original design. Arrangements such as these could only be called into exist- ence by the desire to possess condensations of larger works. The " Modulorum Hortus ab excellentis- simae Musicse auctoribus " is described as being merely collected by R. Floridus, Rome, 1647, — "inlucem curavit edendam." A few years later arrangements are described as " transpositions." Thus, in the Mercurius Musicus for 1699, the " New teaching songs, compos'd .... With a Thorow Bass for the Harpsichord or Spinett," we have the further intimation of "The songs being T/aws- pos'd for the Flute at the end of the Book," In the " Orpheus Britannicus, a collection of all the choicest songs for One, Two, and Three Voices, composed by Mr. Henry Purcell ; together with such Symphonies for Violins or Flutes as were by him designed for any of them, and a Thorow-bass to each song, figur'd for the Organ, Harpsichord, or Theorbo Lute (1698- 1702); also, in "Suits of the most Cele- brated Lessons for Viols, collected and fitted (36) ARRANGEMENT- -ARSIS. to the Harpsichord m Spinett, by William Babell (1702) ;" and in "A choice Collection of Lessons, being excellently Sett to the Harpsichord, viz. Old Simon the King, Mote- ley's Maggot, Mortlack's Grounds, and several others (by Blow and Purcell) 1705." In " A Collection of the Newest Minuets, Rigadoons, and French dances perform'd att Court and Publick entertainments," 1716. The tunes are made " proper for the Violin, Hoboy, or Flute," and in " Six Setts of Choice Opera Songs or Arietts, with their Symphonys fitted for two Flutes. The Second Parts being com- pleat and airy as the first, not thin and heavy as Second Trebles usually are ;" in both parts their proper Variations for the Humour of the Flute (1712.) A little later in date, we find, " Song in the Opera of Flora, with the Humorous Scenes of Hob, designed by y° celebrated Mr. Grave- lot, and engrav'd by G. Bickham, junr. The Musick proper for y' Violin, German and Com- mon Flute, Harpsichord, or Spinet, with a New Base, and thoro' Base to each Song" (1737). The business of arrangement, that is to say, of altering music intended for one purpose, so that it might serve another — more or less hinted at in the preceding collections — arose with the popularity of Handel's works ; thus, copies of " favourite Choruses" out of Mr. Handel's celebrated oratorios " adapted for the Harpsichord or organ and a single voice," began to appear soon after his death. Such " arrangements" being part and parcel of the system of piracy which was most ingeniously and unblushingly carried on during the last century. A chorus arranged for a single voice ceasing of course to be a chorus ; but, as a double security, many of these pieces were made cleverly incorrect. Thus Pitt, organist of Worcester, evaded all copyright that might have existed by arranging his "Church music" from the sacred works of Handel, by a system of dove-tailing and occasional alteration of key. " The beauties of Handel, consisting of his most favourite Songs, Duets, and Trios ; ar- ranged with a separate accompaniment for the pianoforte, and figured from the MS. scores ofthe author, by Jos. Corfe"(c. 1782) is perhaps one of the earliest collections of confessedly "arranged" music. In 1795, J. W. Holder, Mus. Doc, Oxon, one of the most talented pianoforte players of his time, published an arrangement of the choruses of Handel for four hands, which were the standard pieces of their kind for many years, being frequently played by two performers on one organ also. Giambattista Cimador (1750-1810) was pro- bably the first who was employed by the publishers of London on purpose to make arrangements of large works for the piano- forte, or small bands, his arrangement of Twelve Symphonies by Mozart, as sestetts with a seventh part, ad libitum, being con- sidered at the time they were made as of more than ordinary excellence. These were undertaken by Cimador out of pure love for Mozart's woiics, and a desire to communicate that love to the musicians of his time who thought " Mozart's symphonies too arduous and difficult." About the same time J. S. C. Possin (1755- 1822), a musician of such singular modesty that he never would have his name printed with his works, arranged for Salomon the twelve symphonies of Haydn, known as the " Salomon set," for the pianoforte, in " an admirable manner;" indeed, says his bio- grapher, " they were the first adaptations of orchestra music worthy of notice." From that time to the present " adaptations, arrangements, and transcriptions," have been issued in unlimited quantities, of more or less value. Arranger (Fr.) To arrange a piece of music. [Arrangement.] Arrangiren [Ger.) To arrange a piece of music. [Arrangement.] Arsis (Gk.) aptrie (from aipm), a raising, an elevation, as opposed to thesis (OeVic, from ridmu), a depression or lowering. There are two kinds of Arsis, (i) of accent ; (2) of metre. The former of these does not perhaps call for special attention from musicians, unless it be looked upon as a subject into which their educated ear qualifies them to enter; or unless it be considered (as it undoubtedly was by the Greeks) as an esse'ntial part of the education of those who attempt to set words to music. The latter has been explained from two opposite points of view, both of which, however, are closely connected with the former, — a slight sketch of the whole sub-^ ject is therefore subjoined : (i) Though not accepted without dispute, the following facts seem generally to be admitted; first, that in speaking, the voice is constantly varying slightly in pitch, that is, is not absolutely on monotone ; next, that the component syllables of polysyllabic words are not exactly of the same duration ; lastly, that there is an emphasis on particular syllables, which is independent alike of the raising or depression of voice, and of the length of time during which any syllable is held. The elevation, or pitch of the voice is classically termed Accent (from ad and cantus, just as wpofffSla is from Trpoc and ^Sfi) ; the duration of syllables is called Quantity ; and the metrical emphasis is called Ictus. Accent is of two kinds, vocabular and I 37 ) ARSIS AS DUR. oratorical. The former is that method of pronunciation which a word receives if it stands alone in a vocabulary or dictionary ; the latter that which it receives in con- sideration of its position in a sentence, words being of course influenced by the meaning to be expressed in a sentence of -prose, or by their metrical position in verse. There can be no doubt that a nice ear and appreciation of pitch is required before accent and quantity can be distinguished from each other in modern languages. With regard to ancient languages the same difficulty does not exist, because, putting aside the question of the correctness of our pronunciation of them, quantity is governed by either known laws of syllabic structure and position, or by the actual shape of the letters. Hence, many have thought that quantity does not exist in modern languages, and all that we possess is accent (elevation of the voice) and emphasis, and that these two always coincide, and are commonly included in the one ,term accent. But as a matter of fact, the pitch of voice is in modern languages quite independent of quantity, e.g., precarious, request, &c., in which the voice is high for the short syllable, drops in pitch for the long, yet no one can doubt that there are long syllables in these words, just as much as in such o'thers, as probable, symmetry, pendant, &c. The pronunciation of English in the common conversation will give but a very slight clue to the intricacies of our language in this respect. For, in addition to the acute accent already spoken of, we certainly have a fiat accent corresponding to the Greek ^, e.g., cumbersome, where the voice drops a little below what might be termed its key-note. We have also the up-and-down slide indi- cated by the Greek circumflex, e.g., feirful, lo&thsome. But with us these are always oratorical, never vocabular. Having said thus much as to elevation and depression of the voice, it is now time to show how arsis is used as a musical term. Ac- cording to Scaliger, when the voice is raised on a syllable it is called arsis, when it returns to its original position it is called thesis. Priscian (see Foster on Accent, p. 8i, note) not only says the same thing, but gives as an example the word natura, pointing out that there is an arsis at the syllable tu, and thesis on ra. In this sense arsis is evidently the accent, or elevation of the voice, which has been already spoken of. (2) But arsis and thesis are not only applied to the elevation and depression of voice, but also to the strong and weak parts of metrical scansion. But unfortunately, scholars have used these terms in two ways. For instance, Tate says (see Donaldson, Theatre of the Greeks, p. 371), "those syllables which have the metrical ictus are said to be in arsi; those which have it not, in thesi the latter is sometimes called the debilis positio." In this he follows Bentley, who makes ictus (or percussio), elevatio, and arsis synonymous. To this other scholars object, and say truly that a syllable often is in arsi as regards metre, when it is in thesi as regards accent (elevation of voice). Also, Victorinus says distinctly that " arsis and thesis, as used by the Greeks, refer to the movement of the foot (significant pedis motum), and that the former is 'the elevation of the foot' without sound, the latter the 'lowering of the foot' to the ground, with a sound, the sounds marking the metrical ictus. To this Foster (on Accent, p. 166) agrees. With these authors, there- fore, ictus and thesis are synonymous. Hence, musicians who agree with the former of these opinions and make arsis and ictus synonymous are justified in saying that there is an arsis on the down-beat of every bar, and its up-beats are in thesi, for if thesis is debilis positio, it would be absurd to say that this occurs on the down-beat, except in some rare cases of syncopation. Those musicians, on the other hand, who believe that ictus and thesis coincide, because the thesis of the foot marked the ictus of the metre, have a perfect right to say that the down-beat of a bar is in thesi, and an up-beat in arsi. Inasmuch as the confusion among mu- sicians in using these terms has resulted from the disagreement of scholars as to their proper application, it is much to be hoped that they will be allowed to sink into disuse. The expressions, strong position and weak position of the bar, imply all that is under- stood by arsis and thesis, -withovit the risk, by their use, of calling forth absolutely con- tradictory opinions as to their meaning. Art {Ger.) Species, kind, sort, as auf polnischeArt, a sort oi polonaise, &c. Articulation, (i) In singing, the art of distinct pronunciation. (2) In instrumental music, the art of producing proper tone by a right adjustment of the fingers, or the lips. The latter application of the term is less commonly met with than the former. Artist. One who possesses in a high degree that appreciation of the beautiful and that refined temperament, which, when duly trained and educated, become active faculties, and render their owner an able and influential exponent of Art. As [Ger.) At?. Asamentata, Assamenta, or Axamenta {Lat.) The songs or hymns sung by the Salii, q.v. As dur {Ger.) The key of A flat major. (38) ASHANTEE TRUMPET AUBADE. Ashantee Trumpet. An instrument formed of the tusk of an elephant carefully hollowed. Its peculiarity consists in the fact that the embouchure is not at the end, but in the side, a short distance from it. As moll (Ger.) The key of A flat minor. Asor. [Azor.] Asosra (Heb.) Ascaules (Gk.) ascaulos. Ascaulos (Gk.) aaKOQ, a leathern [Bagpipe.] Aspiration {Fr.) (i) The sign ' for short- ening the duration of a note. [Spiccato.] [Chatzozerah.] aa-icavXris, a player on the &'•) Drumsticks. Bais^er (Fr.) To lower. Balafo. A musical instrument popular among the negroes of Senegambia. It is made of a series of graduated pieces of wood, placed over gourds, which act as resonance- boxes, is struck with hammers, and has a scale of two octaves, sometimes tuned in ac- cordance with the white notes of a pianoforte, Balalaika (Russ.) A Russian instrument, in form like a guitar, but narrower and of less depth ; it has two strings. With it the Rus- sian Moujiks accompany their popular songs. Balancement (Fn) '< Tremolo. Balcken or Balken (Ger.) The bar under the belly of a violin. (43) BALG BALLAD. Balg (Ger.) Bellows, wind-chest. Balgentreter {Ger.) The bellows-treader. In old organs the blower worked the bellows by standing on them in turns. Ballad. A song designed to suit a popu- lar audience. A varied derivation has been claimed for the term, which doubtless meant originally a dance song. Hence its connec- tion with the Medieval Latin word ballare, (fiaWo), fiaXKi^b)). As a poem, the ballad has undergone so many transmutations that it is difficult to describe it properly, many pieces to which the term is applied having little or nothing in common with the primitive form, and poems of exactly similar character being- described at one time as romances, at another ballads, at another lyric-epics. The Italians — among other writers, Dante — gave the title bal- lata to short lyrical pieces of inartistic con- struction allied to the sonnet or madrigal. It was against the French equivalent for these ballate that MoliSre wrote. The Spanish ro- mances, erroneously called ballads, belong to epic poetry. The ballad, as we now understand its meaning and application, is confined to the people of Northern Europe, the Germans, following Burger, the creator of the modern ballad, have given it an artificial character by the introduction of reflections arising out of the incidents. A ballad, properly speaking, is a simple narrative of one or more events, told without gloss, commentary, or deduction, set to a tune sufficiently rhythmical to act as one of the original purposes of a ballad, namely, a dance tune. The old ballad tunes still existing are nearly all of this character. In fact, the majority of the melodies have been recovered from having been preserved in col- lections of them made by dancing masters at various periods. The title of Ballet or Ballad — says Warton — ^was often applied to poems of considerable length, of various subjects, sometimes to prose compositions, sometimes to plays or interludes, sometimes to religious verses or discourses. Ballad (Old English). The English have ever been a ballad-loving people, and although the taste was more widely diffused among all classes in former days than now, yet there is no present sign that it will soon die away. Ballads were embodied into our earliest histories, be- cause the bards or minstrels — called Scopes in the language of the country* — ^were the earliest of our historians. The Scope was both poet and musician. He recorded deeds of ancient valour, and enlarged upon them in order to stimulate the warlike spirit of his hearers. He adopted ancient stories of adven- tures, and re-applied them to some more recent hero, in order -to give greater interest * Anglo-Saxon " Scop'' or " Sceop." in them to those who were assembled around him. In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle we have about a dozen fragments of historical ballads, but these commence only from Athel- stan's victory over the Danes. When William of Malmesbury was writing the history of King Edward, son of Alfred the Great, he said : " Thus far I have written from trust- worthy testimony — ^that which follows I have learnt more from old ballads, popular through succeeding times, than from books written expressly for the information of posterity. I have subjoined them, not to defend their veracity, but to put the reader in possession of all I know."t Again, after recounting the pride of King Edgar in having compelled subject kings to be his oarsmen, while he sat at the prow, William says : " For this he is justly blamed by history, but the other imputations which I shall mention hereafter, have rather been cast upon him by ballads." % It may be asked, "what kind of music had these ballads?" The answer will be that, although we have no existing specimen of ballad music of such early dates, yet we have hymns to Latin words, some of which have more tune in them than would be ex- pected, and that they are our only existing means of forming a judgment. It was not mere natural song with indefinable sounds, but with regulated notes upon the diatonic scale. In the year 951 the double organ at Winchester Cathedral had 400 pipes and re- quired two organists. It was intended to be heard all over Winchester, in honour of Saint Peter, to whom the Cathedral was dedicated. Wolstan, or rather Wulfstan, of Winchester, who describes it fully in his Life of Saint Swithun, was himself the author of a treatise on Harmony {De tonorum Harmonia), which was a standard book, and remained in use 200 years after it had been issued. William of Malmesbury, writing after iioo, describes this boolc as " very useful " {valde utile). It is quoted (or else some second treatise on music by the same author) as the Breviloquium Wolstani, at the end of the 13th century. We have Winchester hymns with music on four lines and spaces in the time of Ethelred II. (978 to 1016), and even the words of these hymns are not to be found in any foreign collection. They are, however, by no means solitary specimens of English hymnology of the same kind, and as they t Sequentia magis cantilenis per successiones tem- porura detritis, quam libris ad instructiones posteriorum elucubratis, didicerim." (De Gestis Regum Anglorum, Lib. 2, cap. 6.) f "Indemerito, jureque, culpant eum literas; nam ceteras infamias, quas post dicam, magis resperserunt cantilenas."- [De Gestis Regum Anglor., Lib. 2, cap. 8.) (44) BALLAD. are before the time of Guide d'Arezzo, they must be considered as proofs that the English used lines and spaces before other nations. The only difference between this most ancient English notation on lines and spaces, and that which came into use after Guide's system had been relinquished (for he em- ployed only red and yellow lines for F and C, which was incompatible with the use of four lines and spaces because C was under F), was that the English placed any letter of the scale at the signature, and in the later use of lines and spaces only F, C, or G, were so placed. We have alsp an extant Kyrie composed by St. Dunstan, which, when rendered into modern notation, will be found a favourable specimen of early music. As to secular music, we find in the Gesta Herwardi, or the Life of Here- ward, who was son of Leofric, Earl of Mercia, and the Lady ^diva (the Lady Godiva of popu- lar fable), that he seized the harp and sang " with correct musical intervals " (for that is the meaning of "per discrimina vocum"*), sometimes alone, and at other times in three parts with his companions after the manner of the Gyrwians.f These Gyrwians were the inhabitants of the fenny districts between East Anglia and Mercia, including Peter- borough (then called Medeshamstede) in the north, and the Isle of Ely in the south. This was not a district likely to be in advance of the rest of England, and yet, even here, we read of singing in three parts as customary. When Archbishop Alfric wished to trans- late the Latin word "Concentor" for his vocabulary of Latin and English words, he rendered it by " mid-singend," which seems suificiently to express singing in three parts, for there would be no middle in two or four. It might perhaps have been taken to mean " singing all together," or in " chorus," if Alfric had not also given two different trans- lations of "Chorus," J besides others for " Song," " Duet," " Tune for an instrument alone," " Harmony," " Discord,"§ &c., all which, taken together, are sufficient to prove the very early cultivation of music in England. These notices of early music may not appear, at first sight, to be immediately * It is a quotation from Virgil's " septem discrimina vocum," and one frequently employed to express the seven intervals of the diatonic scale, viz.. A, B, C, D, E, F, G. f " Multipliciter cum ea [cythara] canendo, et per discrimina vocum, nunc solitarie, et nunc tripliciter cum suis s6ciis, more Girwiorum, cantavit." (From a photographic copy of the Peterborough Manuscript.) J " Singende heap " and " Hluddra sang." § " Sang," " twegra sang," " answege sang," " gei — waere sang," and " ungeswege sang." {Vocabularies edited by T. Wright, F.S.A., p. 28, privately printed by Joseph Mayer, Esq., of Liverpool, F.S.A., &c.) (45) connected with our text of " Old English Ballads," but the arts of music and poetry were then united, all poetry being intended to be sung ; and there is so much new matter to be adduced in the history of music, especially in that of our own country, of which Dr. Burney's account is most inaccurate, that it is difficult to avoid the temptation of refer- ring to the subject. If we desire to prove that music was cultivated by the working classes as well as by those above them, we may quote the fact of the Watermen of London having made a round for three voices, in honour of Sir John Norman, Lord Mayor of London, who, in 1453, commenced the custom, which became afterwards established, of going to Westminster in his barge to be sworn into his office of Lord Mayor, instfead of riding both to and fro with a procession on horseback as before. The music of the Round || is like the chiming of bells from one church steeple to another, and might be sung by hundreds of men together to the words, " Heave and ho, rumbelow, Row the boat, Norman, row. Row to thy Leman." The idea of representing the taking charge of the City of London, as a " leman " or " loved one," was quite watermanic. The people were then fond of singing, and altogether more cheerful than after the advent of that severe puritanism which told them, in the words of Prynne, to "go about chattering like cranes, and cooing like doves for their own and others' sins."^ Solomon thought that there was a time for everything^" a time to dance, a time to sing, and a time to play ; " but these wise-acres did not. They put down the Maypoles and the dances on the village green, and thus reduced the people to drinking and to earnest politics as the only excitements left to them. The character of " Merry England "will com- pare favourably with that of " Old England" — for England had not the title of " Old " until a " New England " had been planted in America, and puritanism had become both rampant and dominant at home. " The merry, free, and frank disposition of the Old English," says Camden, "was thus described by Alfred of Beverley " (who died A.D. 1 136): " England, full of sports, a free people, delighting in jokes."** In the same II The easy music of this little Round is printed in Popular Music of the Olden Time, Vol. II. p. 783. V Prynne was parodying Hezekiah's words when he thought himself dying : " Like a crane or a swallow, so did I chatter : I did mourn as a dove : " but Hezekiah was mourning for his sickness, and not for the sins of others. " " Anglia, plena jocis, gens libera, et apta jocari." — Camden's Remaines. BALLAD. strain runs William of Malmesbury, referring to the Norfolk and Suffolk men, or East Anglians : " they are a merry, pleasant, jovial race, but apt to carry their jokes to an irrita- ting excess."* For a third testimony we may take an extreme part of England : "Merry Michael, the Cornish poet, piped this upon his oaten pipe, for Merry England," says Camden : " For money, dinners, varied drinks, no land will e'er be found Like England, famous England, where the fertile soil is crown 'd With countless flocks and herds, and where all social joys abound. " j" Wfe know from another source that there was no lack of tunes when the Normans came, for Thomas, the first Norman Archbishop of York (1070), set about collecting those which he heard from the minstrels, and wrote hymns to them. J Richard de Ledrede, a Londoner, who was Bishop of Ossory, from 1318 to 1360, did the same thing ; but carried the tunes to Ireland with him. We know the names of the ballads, because they are written in the Red Book of Ossory over his Latin hymns. Among them are " Sweetest of all, sing ! " " How should I with that old man ? " " Do, do, nightingale, sing full merry," and " Good day! my leman dear." Thus he anticipated the Rev. Rowland Hill, or whoever else may have said, that " the Devil should not have all the pretty tunes." And yet there was some danger from this appropriation of secular words, lest they might become so fixed in the memory as to crop up unexpectedly and unwittingly. Giraldus Cambrensis relates a case that should have been a warning. It is of a priest in Worcestershire, who had been listening to choral singing and dancing near the church during the night, and who, in pure forgetfulness, sang one of these popular burdens in the morning, instead of greeting the people with " Ddminus vobiscum." As to London, the first good description of the city and of its customs was written in 1 174 by Fitz-Stephen (Stephanides), the friend and biographer of Thomas Becket. He says that " in summer evenings the young people danced till dark, to the sound of the harp (or cittern), and that some of the * " Gens laeta et lepida, facetaque festivitate jocorum ad petulantiam pronior." (Gesta Reg. Anglor., Book 2, cap. 13. 1 f " Nobilis Anglia pocula, prandia donat, et sera. Terra juvabilis et sociabilis, agmine plena: Omnibus utilis, Anglia fertilis est et amoena.'' — Camden's Remaines. % " Si quis in auditu ejus arte jocularia, aliquid vocale, sonaret, statim illud in divinas laudes effigiabat." — W. Malmesbury. maidens acted as the musicians."§ Also that, on festival days, the boys of the London schools attached to the three pnncipal churches "contended with each other m verse," and wound up their contests "by recitations of epigrams, ballads, and rhymes, in which the foibles and frailties of their fellows were sarcastically exposed, without naming the individuals." At this " the audi- tors, who were prepared to enter into the jest, shook the assembly with peals of laughter." These are gayer pictures and of more content, than are common now. Examples might be continued to the extent of a volume, but one more, from Oxford in the reign of Queen Eliza- beth, will suffice. It was written by the learned Dr. John Case, whose Speculum moralium QucBstionum in universam Ethicen Aristotelis, was the first book printed at the new press at Oxford in 1585. The extract is from The Praise of Musicke, printed at Oxford by John Barnes, in the following year : " Every troublesome and laborious occupation hath musick for a solace and recreation, and hence it is that the wayfaring men solace themselves with songs, and ease the wearisomness of their journey ; considering that musicke, as a pleasant companion, is unto them instead of a waggon on the way. And hence it is that manual labourers and mechanical arti- ficers of all sorts keep such a chanting and singing in their shoppes — ^the tailor on his bulk, the shoemaker at his last, the mason at his wall, the shipboy at his oar, the tinker at his pan, and the tiler on the house-tops." Even the proverbially merry cobler has now almost ceased to sing, and tailors seek only to mend the State. A tuneless tailor, in former days, was such a rara avis as to become at once an object of suspicion. " Never trust a tailor that does not sing at his work," says Fletcher, "for his mind is of nothing but filching." The treatment of the poor was perhaps less considerate than now ; but the people having their amusements were certainly more content. The number of ballads left for entry at Stationers' Hall at the end of year 1560 was 796, and only 44 books. We have still a large number of extant ballads, such as were printed on one side of a sheet of coarse paper, to be sung about the streets and villages in the i6th and 17th centuries. Their tunes aie also to be found, being included in early collections of country dances. Ball and ballad are words derived from the same root, and when the people danced country - dances they accompanied them with song. Nearly every old ballad § " Puellarum cithara choros ducit usque imminente luna, et pede libero pulsatur tellus." (Descrip. Land., ed. T. Pegge.) (46) BALLAD. has the name of the tune printed upon it for which it was intended, and it has been owing to this combination of circumstances that so many of our national airs have been recoverable, and that words and tune could be re-fitted together in authentic forms. Mere tradition is the frailest of guides in music, for hardly do any two untaught singers sing an air alike, and they often vary the tune between one stanza and another. Captain Cox, the Coventry mason, is the first recorded collector of old printed ballads. He is mentioned by Laneham in his letter from Kenilworth in 1575. The next in order of date is the learned Selden. He lent his collection to Samuel Pepys, the arjiusing diarist, who did not return it. We are, in all probability, indebted to that circumstance for its preservation ; for Pepys left his library, in- cluding his collection of ballads and those borrowed from Selden, to Magdalene College, Cambridge, where they remain under the strictest custody, owing to the terms of the be- quest. Old Pepys took the greatest care to prevent others from indulging in his own little habit of filching. The united collections of Selden and Pepys (or of Pepys including those ballads that he borrowed from Selden) are bound in five folio volumes containing 1785 ballads, mostly with second parts. Sometimes two ballads were printed upon one page, and these would enlarge the above named number. In addition to the broadsides there are three volumes, lettered " Penny Merriments," which were also col- lected by Pepys, and which include a large number of " Garlands," that are in themselves collections of ballads, but printed in octavo or other small size, instead of "in broadside," i.e., on one side of a folio page. A second great collection of broadside ballads is that which is now called the Roxburghe Collection. John, Duke of Roxburghe, was only one of several proprietors through whose hands the collection successively passed ; but his name became especially connected with it, owing to the notoriety of the comparatively large price it produced at the sale of his library. The collection had been purchased for the Duke at the auction of Mayor Thomas Pearson's library in 1788 for £^6 14s. 6d., and was resold in 1813, with the duke's addi- tions, for £477 '15s. It was originally formed by Robert Harley, who was raised to the peerage as Earl of Oxford and Mortimer in 171 1, the same whose magnificent collection of manuscripts, known as the Harleian Col- lection, is one of the wonders of the British Museum. This collection consists of four volumes, containing 2133 pages of ballads. Sometimes one ballad takes two pages including its second part, and sometimes two ballads are printed on the same page. It was pur- chased for the British Museum at the sale of the library of the late Benjamin Heywood Bright, M.P., in 1845. Another important collection of ballads in the British Museum is that formed by Bag- ford, who was agent in purchasing for Harley, Earl of Oxford. It is bound in three volumes. There are also many minor collections in the same library, and a large number of political ballads and songs among " The King's Pamphlets." For early date there are no extant collec- tions to compare with those of Mr. Henry Huth, Mr. S. Christie- Miller, and of the Society of Antiquaries of London. These are unrivalled for rarity, but they are not of so large an extent as some others. The Bodleian Library at Oxford is particu- larly rich in ballads, and the Public Library at Cambridge particularly poor, if, indeed, it possess any collection at all. Oxford can boast of the Douce collection, which is, per- haps, next in extent to the Roxburghe and Pepys, but rather later, as to average date, than either. It contains 877 ballads bound in 4 vols., the fourth volume being later than the rest. The Bodleian also possesses Anthony Wood's famous collections, both in print and in manu- script, as well as a smaller number of printed ballads collected by Rawlinson. Wood's printed collection is of 27g,and the Rawlinson of 218 black-letter ballads, and (as a rough guide to the number of duplicates to be found in the great public libraries) it may be stated that although the Roxburghe Collection con- tains about ten times the number of the Rawlinson, yet the latter includes 130 ballads, of which no edition whatever is to be found in the Roxburghe. Yet they are generally of coeval dates. The Cheetham Library, Manchester, pos- sesses an extensive collection of ballads pre- sented by James Orchard Halliwell, F.R.S. Of other collections in private hands, it may be suificient to name first, that of the late W. Ewing, F.S.A., Scot., which, according to the printed catalogue, contains 408 ballads ; a collection at Osterley Park; and a rare col- lection formed by Mr. J. Payne Collier, and now in the possession of Frederic Ouvry, Esq., Treasurer to the Society of Antiquaries. There are, no doubt, many more collections in private hands, as well as many ballads scattered in collections of pamphlets, both in public and private libraries; but even in those already named, the number of extant English ballads dating from the reign of Henry VIII. to the year 1700 cannot be computed at less than ten thousand. It would be much larger, if ballads printed with music were taken into (47) BALLADE BALLET. account, or even if manuscripts, like the Percy folio, and Wood's collection, were included in the calculation. The tunes for some thou- sands of them have been traced, and many are printed in the " History of Popular Music of the Olden Time." " In a word," says an old virriter, " scarce a cat can look out of a gutter, but up starts a halfpenny chronicler, and presently a proper new ballad of a strange sight is indited." Ballade [Ger.) A dance, also a ballad. Ballata (It.) The melody of any song which may furnish a tune for dancing. [Ballet.] Ballatetta (It.) Diminutive of Ballata. Ballematia. 1 e ■ j ^ i Ballistia. I ^°P^^ '" dance-style. Ballet. A Madrigalian part-song with a fa la chorus. The " Ballets " or " fa las " of Giovanni Gastoldi [1532- 1598] the reputed originator of this form of vocal music, are in most cases in simple counterpoint , — note against note — but the rhythm, strongly marked and well defined, is admirably suited to the purposes of the dance which these vocal har- monies were intended to accompany. There are many examples of Ballets to be found in the writings of the Elizabethan madrigal com- posers. Ballet (Fr.) A representation in dancing and gesticulation, of some story, without words. The rise of the Ballet is almost coeval with dancing itself, for it is difficult to believe that any number of dancers could have so dis- ported themselves as to give delight to the spectators, if there had not been some definite and organised arrangement. The dances described as having been led by Miriam, David and Jephtha's daughter, the Emmeloeia, .the Pyrrhic dances, the Motions of the Mimes, Minstrels, and Joculators, and the homely dances popular among the peasantry, besides the more stately measures favoured by people of high degree, were all ballets — in which certain motions were made to the sound of music, and whose gestures and actions had meanings and intentions that were commonly understood. When these dances were trans- ferred from home circles to the stage, the gestures and actions made were such that could be readily interpreted by the lookers-on, and even when great skill was acquired by the performers in following ages, the old con- ventional signs, attitudes, and motions were retained, that all who chose might understand. The first ballets on the stage were those that were introduced into the oratorios, masques, and comedies, each being a development of portions of certain entertainments, from which they arose in common. The oratorio and the drama arose from the ancient sacred and classical plays and the mediaeval mysteries and moralities, and cir- cumstances gave importance to particular parts of those productions, so that from forming a continued or dependent whole, they became detached and separate, and made what seemed in later years distinct things of those that had a common origin. The splendour of the Court Masques, the glory of the unity of the genius of the poet, architect, painter, and musician, are matters of history. Give prominence to the music, let the poetry fade away from inanity, retain the skill and genius of the machinist and scene painter, and you have opera. Let your poet write prose, have as little music as possible, respect the scenic effects and mechanical means, and drama is the result. Dispense with poetry or words of any kind, make music subservient, but do all that can be done with scenery and machinery, and make the dramatis persona bound, caper, and gesticulate, and ballet is the product. The Ballet had its origin in the Masques, which were written for and often perfqrmed by princes and other distinguished personages. In England, Italy, and France, it- arose almost- simultaneously out of the remains of "^ the Masque. Count Aglio, at Turin, invented pieces that were at the same time pastoral, mythological, allegorical, and fantastic, in which the princes of the Court took part. In France Louis XIII. danced in a ballet, and his successor, Louis XIV., did the same in his turn, these ballets being portions of spec- tacles that were operatic, dramatic, and terpsi- chorean by turns or in combinations. Antoine de la Motte improved the ballet, and made it distinct, and independent of other means for explanation and elucidation ; he also en- couraged the introduction of female dancers, till then almost unknown in Europe, and from that time the ballet gradually sank from im- portance and consideration, and became a mere exhibition of artificial agility and natural comeliness. It is not many years since it was a very considerable item in the evening's entertainment at the opera in England, rival- ling in spectacular splendour the famous ballets of Milan, the absence of vigour and intellectual power in the operas produced being counterbalanced by the so-called glory of the ballet. But as people began to be alive to the fact that contortions, dislocations, and indecent postures were the reverse of ele- vating or instructive, and not really amusing, the patronage of the ballet as a distinct enter- tainment fell away and finally ceased alto- gether, and an attempt to revive it apart from and out of the course of the situations of an opera, during the season of 1871, met with so little encouragement that it was silently aban- doned. The ballet was once a poem and a power : kings did not scorn to exhibit trained and practised personal skill for the edification (48 BALLETTO- -BAR. of their loyal subjects, and the exaltation of the exercise in which they indulged ; but the "improvements" of De la Motte introduced an element which was at once the cause of its glory and of its shame, its culmination and contempt. [Dance.] Balletto (7^) A ballet, a dance. Ballet-master. One to whom is entrusted the direction of the motions of the ballet, and the order of the performers. Balli Inglesi (It.) English dances. Balli della Stiria (It.) Styrian dances. Balli Ungaresi (It.) Hungarian dances. Dances in the Hungarian style. Ballo (It.) A dance, a ball. Ballonchio (It.) [Passamezzo.] Ballonzare {It.) To dance wildly, reck- lessly, without rule. Band (Ger.) A part, a volume, any thing sewn together. Band. Instrumentalists collected together for the performance of music. (i) Brass Band. A coUeption of players on brass wind-instruments. (2) String Band, (a) That portion of an orchestra which consists of players on stringed-instruments of the violin family. (b) A band consisting only of instruments played with a bow. (3) Wind Band. Stromenti di fiato (It.) That portion of an orchestra which consists of players on flutes, oboes, clarinets, bas- soons,- and horns ; but not on trumpets, trom- bones, and other loud brass instruments, these being included only under the sign "tutti." (4) Wood Band. The players on the wood wind-instruments, flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons ; but not on the serpent, which is usually classifled with brass instruments. (5) Military Band. A number of musicians belonging to a regiment in the service of the King or Queen of a country. In England, those who perform upon instruments pro- vided by the officers of the corps to which they belong, the military regulations only recognising side drums, fifes, bugles, and trumpets, as necessary ; these are supple- mented by clarinets, flutes, cornets, bassoons, horns, trombones, ophicleides, bombardons, triangles, cymbals, big drums, &c., and the combination is known as a military band. The band is conducted by some one skilled in directing and arranging, who is usually a civilian, but the bandsmen over whom he presides are in every other respect the same as private soldiers. Military bands are some- times used upon the opera stage, for the purpose of gaining an increased effect. Banda (/i.) A military band. [Band § 5.] Bandora (Fr.) [Bandore.] Bandore. An English form of the ancient Greek Pandoura, having twelve strings of steel-wire. The Bandore is said to have been invented by John Rose, of London, in 1561. Banduira. A form of guitar, strung with wire instead of cat-gut. [Pandoura.] Banja or Banjo. A stringed instrument of supposed African origin, popular with the negroes of America, and one of the most im. portant musical instruments employed by troupes of fictitious negroes. The instrument consists of a handle, which, running the whole length, serves at once as finger-board, as sup- port for the hoop, over which a skin, acting as sounding board, is stretched, and also as a hold for the pegs which tighten and keep the strings in tune. The banjo is strung with five strings, so arranged that they may be stopped in the ordinary way to vary the melody or harmony, together with an octave string which is never stopped. The tuning, which may be in any key, is generally according to the following plan : Octave string. The character of banjo music is sprightly and well adapted for dancing, for which it is as often used as it is for accompanying the voice. Bar. A line drawn from the top to the bottom of the stave to denote the division of the time in a piece of music, and the place of the strong accent. Each portion comprised within two of these lines is also called a bar. In mediaeval music the bar, also called the lesser bar, to distinguish it from the greater or double bar, was often used solely for the purpose of showing the end of a line or sen- tence of the words, hence it was said "to give time for the whole choir together to draw breath " (Nievers, sur le Chant Gregorien) ; whereas the two great bars or the double bar is " the most efficacious contrivance that can be thought on to remedy all the cacophonies and contrarieties in the voices of the singers, who without them could not guess when to rest." (Ihid^ Mr. Chappell (" Popular Music of the Olden Time ") remarks that the Tunes in the " Dancing Master," printed in 1651 in only a single part, have no bars, but that the score of the moral play, " The four elements " (to which Dr. Dibdin has ascribed the date 15 10), is barred. He further adds, that so far as he has observed, all music in the ordinary notation, even for one voice or one instrument, was barred after i66q. It is probable, how- ever, that the regular barring of music had its origin in the system of Tablature, in which its efficacy as a means of pointing out the position of accent must have been generally observed. But for a considerable period after the introduction of the bar, its use in eccle- siastical music was very irregular, two, four. (49) BARBET BARITONE CLEF. six, or even eight minims being included in a bar which, by the signature, should contain only four. In modern music-printing and engraving, care is taken that the bars in the Separate lines forming a score shall stand exactly over one another. The neglect of this in early publications in score adds greatly to the difficulty of reading them. Barbet. [Barbiton.] Barbiton. An ancient Greek instrument said to have been invented by Anacreon; it was in the form of a lyre, and had seven strings. The name was applied to instru- ments of the violin class in the i6th and 17th centuries. Barcarole. A simple melody, composed in imitation of the songs of the Venetian gondoliers, many of which are of striking beauty. Apolloni Salvadore, a Venetian barber and fiddler. in 1720, is named as the com- poser of several popular tunes of this class. Bard. A name given to hereditary poets and minstrels by all the Celtic nations. In their songs and poems the bards recorded the deeds and prowess of the warriors, kings, and people, at festive and social gatherings ; and at religious assemblies they celebrated the acts and fame of the gods and heroes, accom- panying their songs with the harp and -crowd or crwth. The power, reputation, and in- fluence of the bards were very great, and the favour of kings, princes, and nobles was accorded to them. They, like the Aoidoi of ancient Greece, were the historians, poets, and chroniclers of their time; they incited their armies to courage in the hour of battle, and by their heroic strains roused the fury and yalour of the warriors. In time of peace they were ambassadors, heralds, and the deposi- taries of all historical tradition, and of much of the learning that was at that time possessed by the community. As an institution they kept longest influence in England, Scotland, and Wales. In the last-named country their privileges were fixed by King Howel Dha, A.D. 940, and a century and a half later Griffith ap Conan revised and reformed the whole system. The Eisteddvodau, as the congregations of Welsh bards are called, were held from time to time until the con- quest of Wales by Edward I., in 1284, when the bards were persecuted, and as some authors declare, were put to death. Although the power of the bards was broken, still their Eisteddvodau were encouraged by the rulers of succeeding generations, until the time of Queen Elizabeth, who was the last monarch who made any concessions to the bards of Wales. The preservation of such of their literature that has survived them is owing to several learned. societies who have made this object their peculiar study. An Eisteddfod as now understood is a curious compound o^ heterogeneous matter, for although it is held for the purpose of encouraging national art in music and poetry, its judges appear to be satisfied with the least worthy effusions com- mon to London concert-rooms, provided they are given through the medium of the Cambrian tongue. Little is known of the bards in Scotland beyond the fact that they were similar in constitution to the bards in Ireland, who, like those of Wales, were a hereditary community. The Irish bards were divided into three classes, the Filhedha, the Braithea- main, and the Senachaidhe. The first sang the sacred and heroic songs, and were employed as heralds and counsellors, the second recited and expounded the laws, and the third were the chroniclers and recorders. They were endowed with many privileges and had great influence, and their power over the minds of the people was so strong that severe measures had frequently to be resorted to, to check their sway. In England bardism took a more refined and less exciting form than that which was acceptable to those nations of more strictly Celtic origin. [Min- strels.] [Ballad.] Bardone. [Viola di Bardone.J Barem (Ger.) An organ-stop, consisting of closed flute-pipes of 8 ft. or 16 ft. pitch, of a soft character of tone. Barginet, Berginet, Bargaret, or Ber- geret. Shepherd's songs, to accompany dances. Songs relating to pastoral matters. " A bargaret in praising the daisie. For, as methought, among her notes swete, She said, ' Si douce est le Margarite.' " Chaucer. — Floure and Leafe. Baribasso. A deep bass voice. Bariolage (Fr.) A medley. A cadenza, or series of cadenzas, whose appearance forms a design upon the music paper, " a waistcoat pattern" as it is called by performers. • Baritenor. A deep tenor. Baritone. A brass instrument. [Metal Wind-instruments.] Bariton, or Baryton. [Viola di Bardone.] Bariton Clarinet. An instrument used in military bands, the tone of which is between the clarinet and bassoon. Baritone Clef. The F clef placed upon the third line of the stave. EE It is not now used, but was frequently em- ployed in vocal music of the i6th and 17th centuries. Purcell's Song, " Let the dreadful engines," was originally written in this clef, and it was also used occasionally for horn parts by Handel, Cooke, and other writers in the I 8th century. ( 50) BARITON BASSE FONDAMENTALE. Bariton {Fr. :0 The Baritone voice. Baritono {It. Bariton voice. [Barytone.] Barocco (It.) "1 Unusual, singular, eccen- Barock (Ger.) \- trie, whimsical, irregular. Baroque (Fr.) ) Applied to a composition with over-chromatic harmonies, or unrhyth- mical melodic phrasing. Barpfeife {Ger.) [Baarpyp.] Barquade {Fr.) An obsolete term for Barcarole, q.v. Barr6 {Fr.) In guitar or lute playing, the pressing of the fore-finger of the left hand across all the strings, so as to alter temporarily the pitch of the instrument, the remaining fingers being at the same time engaged in forming a chord. The first finger, therefore, performs the duties of a capotasto, q.v. Barre de luth {Fr.) The bridge of the lute. Barre de mesure (Fr.) [Bar.] Barre de rep6tition {Fr.) A double bar with points, marking a repeat. Barrel. A revolving cylinder of wood or metal. (i) Barrel-organ. An organ in which a wooden cylinder furnished with pegs or staples, when turned round, opens a series of valves to admit a current of air to a set of pipes, pro- ducing a tune either in melody or harmony. The barrels are sometimes made moveable, in order to obtain a variety in the tunes, as the capability of a single barrel is necessarily limited. Barrel organs furnished with hymn and psalm tunes, or even voluntaries, were sometimes used in places of worship, but the increased knowledge of music, even in remote places, has led to the introduction of the har- monium, which has superseded the use of barrel organs to a great extent. The tone of barrel organs is incapable of expression or variety, and has consequently been found seriously monotonous. The only advantage belonging to the instrument is its portability, and this rendersitavailableforstreetmusicians, who generally hire one at a small charge, the cost of the instrument (from £20 to £70) being beyond their means. Many of the poor hirers are cruelly used by the Padrone from whom they obtain their instruments. The barrel-organ, as a street entertainment in London, dates from about the year 1790. The stops in a barrel-organ generally consist of a stopped diapason and flute or pnncipal, to which is sometimes added a reed stop of coarse quality. The compass rarely exceeds two octaves and a half. (2) Barrel of a musical box is constructed in a manner somewhat similar to that of an organ, but is of metal, and instead of opening a series of valves, the pegs and staples set in vibration the teeth of a steel comb, which produce the sounds. [Musical box.] Barypycni(me(i.Laf.,from Gk.jiapiie deep, and TTvKvoe close), (i) Lowest strings of tetra- chords in the chromatic or enharmonic scale. (2) In ecclesiastical music, those modes which have the pycnon or semitone at the bottom of the tetrachord, e.g. : Phrygian. Hypophrygian. see mesopycni, oxypycni. Barytone voice. A voice of fuller quality than a tenor and lighter than a bass, having a compass partly included in both, namely, to This is the extreme compass, and both limits are rarely reached. This voice has only been distinguished by name, as being of a separate character, within the present century. Early writers indicate its existence by the use of its special clef. The term Barytone is unmeaning, unless it be looked upon as a corruption of Barytenor, but it is quite possible it was borrowed from the instrument Barytone or Bardone, which occu- •pied a place between the tenor and bass viols. Rousseau calls this woice Basse-chantante, or Basse -taille ; and Shield, in his " Introduction to Harmony," having used the word Barytone, thinks it necessary to explain in a foot-note that it is " a voice between a tenor and a bass." Bas-dessus {Fr.) Mezzo soprano, or second treble. Base. Old form of the word Bass. Bass. Low, as bass trombone, bass viol, bass voice, &c. Bassa ottava {It.) At the lower octave. Basse {Fr.) Bass. Basse chantante {Fr.) A barytone voice. , -r,- ' /E- \ 'l A figured bass, Basse chiffree {Fr.) r ^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^g Basse continue {Fr.) j accompanying harmonies of which are expressed by numbers. Basse contrainte {Fr). [Ground bass.] Basse contre {Fr.) A deep bass voice, capable of singing below the ordinary bass part. Basse de cremone {Fr.) The bassoon. Basse de hautbois {Fr.) Corno inglese. Basse d'harmonie {Fr.) The ophicleide. Basse de viole {Fr.) The violoncello. Basse de violon {Fr.) Double-bass. Basse double {Fr.) Large double-bass. Basse figurfee {Fr.) Figured bass. Basse fondamentale {Fr.) Root-bass or generator. [Harmony.] (51 ) BASSE RECITANTE BASSOON. Basse recitante (Fr^ [Basse chantante.] Basse taille (Fr.) The Barytone voice. Basset-horn, Corno di Bassetto {It.) A transposing instrument of the clarinet order, of a beautiful, soft, and rich quality, invented in Passau about the year 1770, and improved by Lotz of Presburg twelve years later. In form like a long clarinet, with a curved and bell-shaped metal end. The compass extends from F below Gamut to C in Altissimo With all the intermediate semitones, except the F sharp and A flat in the lower range. The music is written for it in the bass and treble clefs a fifth higher than the real sound. Mozart has written with brilliant effect for the basset-horn in his " Nozze di Figaro," in "Clemenza di Tito," and in the "Requiem." Bassetto (It.) (i) The diminutive of B9.SS0. A name sometimes given to the tenor violin. (2) A reed stop in the organ of 8 ft. or 16 ft. in length. Bass Flute. The lowest in pitch of in- struments of the flute family, now obsolete. Its compass was ^ ^ It was a flute a bee, not a flauto traverse ; that is, it was blown at the end (like a flageolet), not at a hole in its side. In order to enable the player to reach the remote holes with his fingers, a bent tube turning upwards conveyed the air from his lips to the mouthpiece of the instru- ment. Bassgeige {Ger.) Bass Fiddle, or Violon- cello. Bass Horn. English Bass Horn, Corno Basso, a kind of serpent. [Serpent.] Basslaute {Ger.) [Bass Lute.] Bass Lute. [Theorbo.] Basso {It.) A bass singer, also the double- bass, and the bass part. Basso buffo {It.) A comic singer, with a bass voice. Basso cantante {It.) [Basse chantante.] Basso concertante {It.) The principal bass, that which accompanies solos and recitatives. Basso continuo {It.) A bass part figured for the organ or pianoforte. Basso figurato (/^.) (i) Basso continuo. (2) A bass part, with running passages. Basso fondamentale {It.) The funda- mental ground bass, or root. Basson {Fr.) [Bassoon.] Basson quinte {Fr.) A bassoon, the pitch of which is five notes higher than that of the common bassoon. The part given to it must therefore be written five notes lower than the actual sounds required. Its written compass is sounding including all the intervening semitones. Its tone is more powerful, but less sympathetic, than that of the corno inglese. Basso numerato {It.) A bass, the accom- panying harmonies to which, are indicated by numbers. Bassoon. Basson {Fr.) Fagotto {It.) A reed wind-instrument of deep pitch, with a com- pass of more than three octaves from low B flat. This compass includes all the intermediate semitones, with the exception of which are as yet to be obtained only from instruments of improved construction. Some performers can produce three notes higher than the B flat, but for all common orchestral purposes they are unnecessary. The bassoon ordinarily forms the bass or deepest tone among wood wind-instruments, and is capable of excellent independent effects, among which the grotesque ought not to be forgotten, as in Beethoven's " Pastoral Symphony," and the " Clown's March," in the music to the " Mid- summer Night's Dream," by Mendelssohn. It is customary to write for the Bassoon in the Bass clef, and as the instrument is usually employed in pairs, one stave serves for the two parts. The tenor clef is often employed for the higher notes of the register of the Bassoon, sometimes in a separate stave. Some writers assert that the Bassoon is the invention of Afranio of Ferrara in 1540, and that he gave it the name Fagotto from its resemblance to a bundle or fagot of sticks (his instrument being made of several pieces laid together), but it was known long before under the name of Buisine, Buzaine^ Courtal, Bom- bard, or Wait. There is reason to believe that the Bassoon is of Eastern origin, introduced into western Europe in the twelfth century, and that it is an improvement of the drone-pipe of the Bag- pipe. The Egyptian word for a pipe of deep tone, and for the drone of the Bagpipe is, ac- cording to E.W. Lane (" Modern Egyptians"), Zummarah-bi-soan, and the manner in which the word Buzaine, Buisine, is used in mediae- val MSS., shows a possible connection with (52) BASSO OSTINATO B CANCELLATUM. this origin. The instrument was introduced into the orchestra about the commencement of the i8th century ; for a long time it was employed to strengthen the voice parts only. Handel generally makes it double the bass voice part, or treats it as a bass to the oboe ; he has, however, made excellent use of it as a solo instrument in the scene of Saul and the Witch of Endor, in his oratorio of " Saul." Basso ostinato (It.) Ground bass. Basso ripieno (It.) The bass of the full or chorus parts. Basspommer (Ger.) A deep-toned in- strument of the Oboe family, precursor of the Bassoon. Bass-Posaune (Ger.) Bass trombone. [Trombone.] Bassschlussel (Ger.) The bass clef. Bass Trumpet. An old instrument, now superseded by the trombone. Bass Tuba. A brass instrument, a species of bombardon, not capable of such rapid exe- cution as bass ophicleides, but producing a much finer quality of tone. It has the enormous compass of four octaves from with all the chromatic intervals. It is sometimes treated as a transposing instrument, in which case it is in Et> or F, and its part has to be written a minor third, or major fourth higher respectively than the actual sounds given above. Bass Viol, (i) A familiar name for the violoncello. (2) The largest and deepest in tone among a chest of viols, which had five and sometimes six strings, and a fretted finger-board. The manner of tuning the open strings varied according to the music to be played. Playford (Introduction to the Skill of Music) mentions three sorts of Bass viols " as there are three manners of ways in playing." " First, a Bass viol for consort must be one of the largest size, and the strings propor- tionable. Secondly, a Bass viol for divisions must be of a less size, and the strings accord- ing. Thirdly, a Bass viol to play Lyra-way, that is by Tablature, must be somewhat less than the two former, and strung proportion- ably." The common accordatura of the six-string instrument was as follows : Bass Voice. The lowest register of the human voice, having a compass ranging between two octaves from lower D: The whole of the bass voice should be pro- duced from the chest, and the most useful notes, and those generally written are between G and tenor C : A bass voice rarely reaches full perfection of quality or sonorousness before the possessor is thirty years of age, and a true bass voice has seldom much flexibility. Batillus. An instrument formerly em- ployed by the Armenians in their Church service to supply the place of bells, which they were forbidden to use. A board struck with a hammer. BSton {Fr.) (i) A stick used in beating time. (2) The method of a conductor is called his bdton. (3) A pause of two or more bars is also so named, e.g. a bdton of five measures or bars. Battement (Fr.) An ornament in singing, opposed to the Cadence (^Fr.) e. g. : is called a cadence, whereas the following is a battement. [Beat.] Battere, il \lt.) The down-stroke in beating time. Batterie {Fr.) A roll upon the side drum. Battery, An effect in harpsichord music, written : and played \ Battimento {It.) [Battement.] Battuta {It.) (i) In correct time. (2) A bar. Bau {Ger.) The structure of musical instruments. Bauernleyer {Ger.) [Hurdy-gurdy.] Bauerpfeife {Ger.) An organ stop of 8 ft. length of a small scale. Baxoncillo {Sp.) An organ stop like an open diapason. Bayles {Sp.) Comic dancing songs, many of which were written by Quevedo in the Spanish gipsy dialect. [Ballad.] B. C. Basso Continuo. B cancellatum (Lat.) The cancelled B. The note B t> as altered by means of a [j or J in old music. Up to the middle of the iSth century the # frequently had the force of the t] as now used. (53 ) B DUR BELLS. B duf (Ger.) The key of Bj? major. B durum (Lat.) B natural. [B quad- ratum.] Bearings. Those few notes which a tuner accurately tunes or lays down before pro- ceeding to adjust the whole compass of the instrument. Beat, (i) A short shake, or transient grace note, played or sung before the note it is desired to embellish. The beat is always a semitone lower than the ornamented note. Written. Played. (2) The portion of a bar of music occupied by the movement or supposed movement of the hand in counting time. Thus, a beat in f time is equal to three quavers ; a beat in |- time is equal to a minim. (3) The peculiar "throbbing" heard when sounds not quite identical in pitch are sounded together. [Acoustics, § 14, 15.] Bebung {Ger.) The tremolo stop in an 6rgan. Bebisation. A series of syllables recom- mended by Daniel Hitsler, a Fleming, in 1630, as a means of teaching the notes. He proposed to substitute the syllables la, be, ce, de, mi, fe, gi, for ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, already in use. Becarre {Fr.) a natural, tj. Bee (Fr.)\A mouth-piece, Hi., a beak. Becco (li.) I [Flute a bee] Becco polacco (It.) A large bag-pipe. Becken (Ger.) A cymbal. Bedon {Fr.) An obsolete term for a drum, or tambour. Begeisterung (Ger.) Spirit, excitement, enthusiasm. Begleiten (Ger.) To accompany, Begleitende Stimmen (Ger.) Accom- panying voices or parts. Begleitete Fuge (Ger.) A Fugue with free parts. [Free parts.] Begleitung (Ger.) Accompaniment. Beitone (Ger.) Aliquottones. [Harmonics.] Bell. [Bells.] Bell. The lower termination of any tubu- lar musical instrument which by the outward turning of the rim assumes the form of a bell. Fr. Pavilion, Ger. Schallstuck. Bell diapason. An organ stop consisting of open metal pipes with bell mouths. Its tone is niore reedy and powerful than that of an ordinary open diapason. Generally of 8ft. length. Bellezza (7^) Beauty of expression and tone in playing and singing. Bell Gamba. An organ-stop, the pipes of which are conical and surmounted by a bell. It was introduced by Mr. Hill, organ- builder, of'London. Its tone is remarkably sweet, not unlike that of a Stringed instru- ment, though somewhat more reedy. The pipes speak rapidly. Bellicosamente {It.) 1 Warlike, martial. Bellicoso {It.) ) Bell metronome. A metronome in which the recurrence of a set number of beats is marked by the sound of a bell. [Metronome.] Bell Open Diapason. [Bell Diapason.] Bello'ws. In the harmonium, organ, con- certina, &c., that contrivance by means of which wind is supplied to the pipes, tongues, or reeds. [Organ,] Bell Piano. [Glockenspiel.] Bells. I. Musical instruments of per- cussion, consisting of a series of metal basins or cups, the outline of which has from time to time been modified. The materials of which bells are usually made are copper and tin, the proportions varying in several countries and even among the manufacturers. The Various parts of the bells are A, the Canons; B, the Shoulder; c, the Waist; the thick part between d and e, the Sound Bow; E, the Rim or lip ; f, the Clapper. The following analyses of English and some foreign bells, will give a correct idea of the composition of the ancient bells. English Bells. Copper 8o"o Tin lo-i Zinc 5'6 Lead 4'3 Rouen Bells. Copper 72-0 Tin ,... 25-0 Zinc 1-8 Lead 1.2 Paris Bells. Copper 72-9 Tin 25-56 Iron 1-54 Swiss Hour Bells. Copper 75-0 Tin....... 25'o Mr. Denison recommends on theoretical grounds the following proportion Copper 76-5 Tin 23-5 2. The use of bells to call worshippers to- gether is supposed to be of Christian origin, but it is said that the, feast of Osiris in Egypt was announced by the ringing ol bells^ Aaron and the Jewish high priests had bells attached to their yestiU'eiits, and (54) BELLS, Plutarch says that small bells were used in the mysteries of Bacchus, and the priests of Cybele at Athens employed bells in their rites. The Greeks sounded bells in their camps, and the Romans indicated the hours of bathing and business by the tintinnabulum. It is also said, that in some places large gongs were suspended in the air, and as the wind brought them together, so was the character of the sounds made, interpreted as an unfavourable or favourable augury. Trumpets were employed among the Jews to call the faithful to worship (Exodus xx., 13 ; Numbers x., 2 ; Joel ii., 15). Plates of iron are still used in the Levant, and a plank of wood is occasionally employed for the same purpose that we use bells in some of the old Wallachian monasteries. In the East the call to prayer is made by the Mueddin of each mosque, who, having ascended the gallery of the mad'neh or minaret, chants the "hadan" or call to prayer, apparently in opposition to the Christian use of bells. [Hadan.] The introduction of bells into churches is attributed to Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, in Campania, about the year 400, but there is an epistle of that bishop still extant in which he describes his church, but makes no men- tion of either tower or bells ; indeed, it is believed that towers were not constructed until two centuries later. Yet it is not a little remarkable that the general name for bells was Nolae or Campanse, and hence the words knoll as meaning the sound of a single bell, and campanile a bell tower. Sabianus, who was Pope in 604, ordered the bells to ring the hora canonicce at the proper times during the day, and Benedict, Abbot of Wearmouth, brought his bells from Italy about the year 680. Bells were hung in towers in the East in the gth, and in Germany in the nth century. Those that were in use before are supposed to be hand bells ; several examples, as old as the 6th century, are still preserved in some parts of Europe and the United Kingdom. St. Patrick's bell, St. Ninian's bell, St. Gall's bell, and others are plates of iron rivetted together. St. Gall's bell (about 646) is still shown in the monastery of the city called by his name in Switzerland. In the 13th century larger bells were cast, but it was not until the end of the 15th century that they began to assume great proportions. St. Dunstan, in the loth century, seems to have the credit of havingestablishedthe first foundryin England, Glastonbury, Malmesbury, and other places having been furnished with bells by him. Bells were rung not only to indicate the com- mencement of certain services, but also were tolled to mark certain stages in those services. Thus we find mention made of the Saints or Sanctus bell, the Compline bell, the Judas bell, the Pardon or Ave bell, the Passing bell, the last tolled to warn all " Christen soules " to pray for the parting soul of the dying. Bells, being thus intimately connected with the services of the Church, have been supposed to possess a certain sacred character. They were founded with religious ceremonies, con- secrated, baptised, and were anointed with holy oil (see Schiller's " Lay "). St. Colomba, in the 6th century, made use of a bell whose name was " Dia Dioghaltus," or " God's ven- geance," to test the truth of assertions made, as it was believed that the wrath of God would speedily overtake any who swore falsely by it. Pious inscriptions are frequent on bells of the middle ages, and inscriptions, not always pious, are found on those of later date. Bells were often rung to allay storms, there being a special endowment belonging to Old St. Paul's, " for ringinge the hallowed belle in great tempestes and lightninges." The curfew bell, still sounded in many parts of England and Scotland', is of more ancient practice than the period usually assigned as its commence- ment, the reign of William the Norman ; and there are many social practices announced by the ringing or tolling of the church bells. 3. Change ringing, or campanology, is fre- quently practised when there are more than three bells, such changes being known by the names of bob-majors, bob triples, Norwich court bobs, grandsire bob-triples, and caters. The number of changes a set of bells is cap- able of, may be known by in-multiplying the numbers of the set. Thus, three bells may ring six changes, 123, 132, 213, 23 i, 32 i, 31 2; four bells will give 24 changes ; 5 bells, 120 changes ; 6 bells, 720 changes ; 7 bellsv 5,040 changes ; 8 bells, 40,320 changes ; 9 bells,- 362,880 changes ; 10 bells, 3,628,800 changes; 11 bells, 39,916,800 changes; 12 bells, 479,001,600 changes. To ring the changes that 12 bells are capable of, would take 91 years at two strokes per second, while a peal of 24 bells can make so many changes that it would occupy 1 17,000 billions of years to ring them all. The technical terms for the various peals, on sets of bells of different numbers, are the following : Rounds On three bells. Changes or singles , four Doubles or grandsires „ five (Bobs) Minor „ six Triples „ seven (Bobs) Major „ eight Caters „ nine (Bobs) Royal ten Cinques... , eleven (Bobs) Maximus „ twelve 4. A bell is said to be "set" when she is mouth upwards, at " hand stroke " when the " sallie" or tuft on the rope has to be pulled, (55 ) BELLS BELL FOUNDING. at "back stroke" when the ringer has to pull the end of the rope. A bell is said to be " going up "when she moves her position in the change from "treble" towards that of "tenor," and "down" when she is changing her position from that of "tenor" towards that of "treble." A bell is said to be "behind" when she is the last of the changing bells, and at "lead" when she is the first. Thus the progress from " lead " to behind is said to be " going up," and from behind to lead is called "going down." " Dodging " is moving a place back- wards out of the ordinary hunting course. A bell is said to be " hunting up" when she is pulled after the one which previously pulled after her; A bell is said to " make a place" when she strikes two blows in succession at any one place. To "lie a whole pull" is synonymous with " making a place." Two blows at " lead " and " behind " are a part of " hunting," in making these therefore a bell is not said to be " making a place." " Bob " and " singles " are words used to produce a certain series of changes by disturbing the ordinary system of " hunting." The full knowledge of the meaning of these and many other technical terms used in ringing can only be learnt in the belfry. The method of Doubles named after Stedman (1640) is, in principle, as follows : while three of the bells are ringing changes, the other two are dodging behind, but at the completion of each set of six changes one bell comes down from behind to take part in the changes, one, of course, at the same time going up behind to take part in the dodging. 5. Bells are occasionally employed as or- chestral instruments — small bells, tuned to a certain scale, being most favoured — as in Victor Masse's " Les noces de Jeannette," a whole peal of small bells being used with great effect. These, as in Mozart's " Magic Flute," are so arranged as to be played with keys, like a pianoforte. [Glockenspiel.] Auber employs a single bell in the finale to " Fra Diavolo." Rossini has introduced a bell sounding in the opening of the second act of " William Tell." Donizetti also, in the finale to " Lucia di Lammermoor," has written for a bell tuned to the same note. Meyerbeer, in his " Hu- guenots," employs a bell in S with clarinets and bassoons. In " Dinorah," in what is popularly known as the " Goat Trio," a bell with the note i *== is used. Ambroise Thomas has a series of clever harmonies for the orchestra in his opera " Hamlet," while a deep-toned bell strikes the midnight hour. Flotow, in " Martha,'^ uses a bell, as does Gounod in " Jeanne d Arc, tuned to the following note : and there are numerous other instances where bells of all grades of tone have been used with skill and effect. Bell founding. The shape and propor- tions of the intended bell having been decided upon according to a certain scale, the first part of the process of casting is commenced, by constructing an inner mould called the core, by which the form of the inside of the bell is determined. This core has a foundation of rough brickwork or iron, hollow in the centre, afterwards plastered over with loam or soft clay. A guage of wood, called a crook, made to revolve or sweep round on a central pivot by the hand of a workman, gives the clay the exact form required. This process will be at once understood'on reference to the following diagram, a is the core, b the crook, which is fastened to c, the pivot on which it revolves : The core is hardened by a fire made in its hollow, and when it is sufficiently " set," it is covered with grease and tan, over which is placed a coating of haybands and loam, of the thickness of the intended bell, and upon this the cope or outer mould is shaped. When this is dried it is removed, the thickening of haybands and loam which represented the shape of the bell to be cast, is destroyed, and the two moulds, the core and the cope, are examined and finished. The core is sometimes made on an iron foundation, instead of brickwork, in which case it can be dried in a furnace, instead of by the fire in its hollow. The cope having been care- fully adjusted over the core, the head and the staple to hold the clapper are then fitted on, (56) BELLY B QUADRO. and the whole mould is firmly imbedded in the earth, leaving only the holes at the top visible. The above diagram shows the position of mould ready for the metal, a is the core, b the cope, f the channel for the metal to run in, E the hole for the air and gases to escape during the casting, and the thick black line the section of the bell. When the metal is quite ready, the furnace-door is opened, and the molten mass rushes down a channel, pre- viously prepared, into the moulds sunk in the pits, and excepting mishaps, from insecure " bedding," the splitting of the cope, or other accidents, the bell is cast, and, when cold, is dug from the pit, the clay mould destroyed, and the bell is ready for the next process, that of tuning. The tuning is effected by means o^ a lathe and some simple machinery. If the bell requires sharpening, the diameter is lessened in proportion to its substance, if it is too sharp, the sound-bow is thinned by the same means ; but, as a rule, bells are now so accurately cast, that little if any tuning is necessary after the bell leaves the mould. It is stated in " Knight's Encyclopedia, 1854," that the German bell-founders made the vari- ous dimensions of the bell to bear certain ratios to each other. The thickest part where the hammer strikes is called the " Sound Bow." If this thickest be called one, then the diameter of the mouth equals 15, the diameter of the top or shoulder 7^, the height equals 12, and the weight of the clapper -^ of the weight of the bell. Denison recommends that the sound bow of the three or four larger bells of a peal should be of the thickness of a thirteenth of the dia- meter, and that the smaller bells may gradually increase in thickness up to the twelfth in a peal of six, the eleventh in a peal of eight, and to the tenth in a peal of ten or twelve, greater thickness impeding the freedom of the sound. The bells of the Cathedral at Exeter, one of the largest peal of bells in England, the greater number of which were cast in 1676, have the following weights, diameters, and tones ; — WEIGHT. DIAMETER. TONE. Cwt. qr. lb. Ft. in. 67 I 20 5 11} Bflat. 46 3 14 5 4i C. 38 I 16 4 11 D. 30 I 12 4 7 Eflat. 21 4 I F. 15 3 10 G. 12 2 3 4i A. 10 I 2 3 ij Bflat 9 3 20 3 c 8 3 20 2 9j ■ D. The relative diameters of a peal of eight tuneable bells should be according to the following proportion : 60, 53^, 48, 45, 40, 36, 32, 30. The relative weights being generally in the proportion, 100, 70*23, 5i'2, 42-2, 29"63, 21-6, 15-18, 12-5. Belly. The upper plate of the resonance- box. In instruments of the Violin and Guitar family the strings are stretched over the belly, and the bridge across which they pass is so placed as to set the belly, and by its means, the air contained in the resonance- box, into vibration. In instruments of the Pianoforte class, the belly is that thin plate of fir-wood which, placed behind the strings, acts as a sound-board. Instead of an upper plate of wood, the guitars of many of the less civilized nations have a stretched parch- ment. The belly thus formed answers all the purposes of resonance for which it is in- tended; the Kissar of Nubia, the Banjo of the American negroes, the Nanga or Negro Harp which shares the combined designs of a guitar and harp, may be quoted as examples. Bemes or Beemes. Saxon Trumpets or Bugles. " Of brass they broughten beemes and box, Of horn and bone, in which they blew and pouped. And therewithal they shriked and they houped ; It seemed as that the heven shulde file." Chaucer. " Nonne preestes tale." See also the " Romaunt of the Rose." B6mol {Fr.) The sign t?. Ben {It}) Well. Ben marcato, well and clearly marked. Bene {It.) Well. Used as an expression of approval during a performance. Benedictus {Lat) [Mass.] Bene placito {It.) At pleasure, ad libitum, e.g., " Bassani's Ballate corrente, Gighe, e Sarabande, a violino, e violone, overo spinetta, con il secondo violino ct bene placito " (1684). B quadro {It.) The square B or t}, that is, B durum or natural, as opposed to the ?, soft B, B molle, or rounded b which, in its slightly altered outline, is now known as a flat. That the note B was the first note altered by an accidental, accounts foi the fact (57) BEQUADRO BIS. that signs of \> and C{ are of general appli- cation. Berceuse (Fr.) A cradle song. Bergomask. Burgomask. Berga- tnasca. A lively dance in triple time, for two clumsy performers, in imitation of the dances of the country people of Bergamo, who were considered the least graceful of the Italians. " Will it please you to see our epilogue, or to hear a Bergomask dance, between two of our company ? " Shakespeare. Bes (Ger.) The note B double flat. I Besaiten (Ger.) To string an instrument, Bewegung {Ger.) Motion. Bhat. A Hindu Bard. Bianca {It.) A minim, ez). The -eohite note, as opposed to the J, or black note (nero). Bichord. Having two strings to each note. Bicinium (Lat.) A duet, from bis and catto. " Cum duo canunt, hicinium appellatur; cum multi, chorus." Bifara [Lat.) An organ-stop, with two pipes to each note, producing a tremulant effect. [Vox Angelica.] Bilancojel. An Indian flute with seven holes, played by a mouthpiece. BimmoUe (7i.) aflat,t>. [See B Quadra- tum.] Bina, or Vina. An Indian guitar, with a long finger board, and a gourd attached to each end. Seven strings or wires wound round pegs in the usual way are attached to the finger board, four on the surface, and three at the sides. There are about twenty frets, some standing up as high as an inch from the finger board; these are fastened •with wax, and the performer regulates the positions of them at his pleasure. In the performance one gourd is rested on the left shoulder, and the other on the right hip. Its scale consists of a series of small intervals lying between a note and its octave, in the bass-stave. Binary Form. The form of a movement which is founded on two principal themes or subjects. [Sonata Form.] Binary Measure. Common time. [Tonic- Sol-fa.] Bind, (i) A curved line, ' — ~, a sign which, when placed over two notes of the same name or same pitch (enharmonically changed), directs that the two are to be sus- tained as one. It is of frequent occurrence at points of Syncopation and Suspension. Syncopation. When a curved line is placed over two notes, not of the same name or pitch, it is called a Slur, and directs that they are to be played smoothly, e.g. : It is to be regretted that the 'horizontal line introduced by Sir W. S. Bennett as a Bind, so that no confusion can exist between the Bind and Slur, has not been generally adopted, e.g.: (2) A Brace {Fr., Accolade) which binds together the separate parts of a score. Binde {Ger.) [Bind.] Bindebogen (Ger.) Thebind-bow. [Bind.] Bindung {Ger.) Syncopation, suspension, so called because the notes fonning it are bound, or at least might be so written. Bindungszeichen {Ger.) A slur or bind. Birn {Ger.) That portion of a clarionet or similar instrument in which the mouth-piece is inserted, so called from its pear-like shape. Bis {Lat.) Twice, (i) A direction that the passage over which it is placed shall be twice played or sung. Its use is generally limited to short passages, marks of repeat (58) BISCHERO BOMBARDO. being written for a long repetition, placed under or over a slur, e.g. : It is (2) Again. Encore. Bischero {It.) The peg, or pin, with which the strings of an instrument are secured. Biscroma (It.)^ . . k Biscrome (Fr.)] ^ semiquaver, ^\ Bisdiapason. The interval of a double octave, or fifteenth. Bissex. A kind of guitar with twelve strings {Ger. Zwolfsaiter), invented by Van- hecke in 1770. Of the twelve strings six were over the finger-board, six below, hence the name twice-six. Its compass was three and a half octaves. Bis unca [Lat.) A semiquaver ^, or note with two hooks. Bit. A small piece of tube, generally fur- nished with two raised ears. It is used for supplementing the crook of a trumpet, cornet- a-piston, &c., so as to adapt the instrument to a slight difference of pitch. I Fantastically, won- Bizzarramente (7i.) \ derfuUy. Bizzarria {It.S < Singularity, affecta- Bizzarro (It.) j tion. ( Odd, droll. Blanche (Fr.) A minim j [Bianca.] Blanche point6e (Fr.) A dotted minim. Blasebalg (Ger.) The bellows of an organ. Saxon bles-belg, a wind-bag. Blase-instrument {Ger.) Wind in- strument. Flute, oboe, bassoon, cornet, trumpet, trombone, &c. Blase-musik {Ger.) Music for wind instruments. Blatt {Ger.) A vibrating tongue or blade. [Reed.] Blech-instrumente {Ger.) [Metal wind instruments.] B mol {Fr.) The note Bb. B moll {Ger.) The key Bl' minor. B moUe {Lat.) The note Bb. c.f. B quad- ra turn. Bobibation or Bocedisation. Solfeggi taught by Huberto Walraent at the end of the 1 6th century for scale practice, which were bo, ce, di, ga.la, mi, ni. [See Bebisation.] Bobisation or Bocedisation, in which the syllables bo, c6, di, ga, lo, ma, ni were sub- stituted for those attributed to Guido, was introduced and taught in many schools in Flanders, and so this peculiar use came to be called Belgian solmisation. Walraent's method was adopted in Italy in 1599 by Henri de la Putte, who wrote an elaborate Latin treatise in defence of it ; and a few years later Calwitz, ignoring its invention and (59 taking the credit to himself, introduced it into Germany. In Spain and France the method was proposed by Pietro de Ureno and John Lemaire, but without success. To the last- named musician the addition of the syllable Si for the leading note is attributed. Bobisa- tion was accepted by some musicians and rejected by others, and the result was a petty war, which lasted until the commencement of the 1 8th century. Hitzler, a few years later, suggested the use of the syllables la, be, ce, de, me, fe, ge — this system he called bebisa- tion or labecedation ; and Graun recommended da, me, ni, po, tu, la, ba, from which his plan was called damenisation. Bob major. Bob maximus, Bobs. [Bells.] Bocal {Fr.) The mouth-piece of the horn, serpent, trombone, &c. Bocca {It.) The mouth. Con bocca chiusa, with closed mouth, humming. Bocca ridente {It.) Smiling mouth, the position of the mouth needful for the pro- duction of pleasing tone. Bocchino (7^.) A mouth-piece of wind instruments. Bockpfeife {Ger.) Bagpipe. Bockstriller {Ger.) A goat-like tremolo upon one note, a bad shake. [Vibrato.] Boden {Ger.) [Body.] Body. The resonance box of a string instrument. That part of a wind instrument which remains after the removal of mouth- piece, crooks, and bell. Bogen {Ger.) Bow. Bogenclavier {Ger.) [Tetrachordon.] Bogenfiihrung {Ger.) The art of play- ing with a bow upon stringed instruments. Bogenstrich {Ger.) The stroke of the bow. Bolero {Sp.) A Spanish dance in triple measure with strongly-marked accent, also called Cachuca. It is accompanied with singing and castanets, and the performer assumes in the course of the dance all the various feelings supposed to be' excited by love, from the greatest shyness to the highest ecstasy. [Chica.] Bombard. Bombarde {Fr.) A reed stop on the organ, usually among the pedal regis- ters, of large scale, rich tone, and often on a heavy pressure of wind. Bombardino {It.) A small bombardo, q.v. Bombardo {It.) A mediaeval wind instru- ment, the precursor of the oboe, of which it was no doubt a large and coarse species. The word Pommer, applied to these instru- ments, was a corruption of the Italian name. The chalameau or shawm (GeT.Schalmey) was the smallest of this cla^s, the bombardone the largest. Clarinets, oboes, and bassoons, now so clearly defined, grew out of one common parentage. The clarinet has but one vibrating ) BOMBARDON BOW. reed ; the oboe and bassoon double vibrating reeds. Bombardon. A brass instrument, in tone not unlike an ophicleide. It is not capable of rapid execution. The compass is Music for it is written without transposition, although it is in F. Bombaulius, jiofifiavXioe {Gk.) A facetious name for a bag-piper. A pun on the words mikrirfie, a flute-player, and /3oft/3wXioc, a buz- zing insect, whence our word, bumble-bee ; c.f., Latin, Bombus. Bombyx {Gk.) fionjiv^. A Greek flute, perhaps so named from its supposed resem- blance to the silk-worm. It was probably a reed-instrument of powerful tone. The following illustration is given by Burney from a sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum, at Rome. Bones. Four pieces of the ribs of horses or oxen, held in the hands and struck together for the purpose of marking time, in accompa- niment to the voice or an instrument. The bones are of ancient use in England, and are alluded to by Shakespeare in the fourth act of "AMidsummer Night's Dream, "as forming one means of rustic music. And in figures designed by Inigo Jones for the Court Masques one is re- presented play ing upon knicky-knackers of bone or wood. The word knicky-knackers, by which the bones are known to the country people, may have its origin from the word " nakeres." In Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes," a payment is recorded as being made tojanino leNakerer, among the minstrels of King Edward II. The nakerer was probably the drummer; but, as the minstrels frequently indulged in burlesque music, Janino may have been the performer on that primitive orrusticinstrumentjthebones. Bon temps de la mesure {Fr.) The accented portion of the bar. Bordone {It.) [Bourdon.] [Viola di Bar- done.] Boulou. A harp used by the negroes of Senegambia and Guinea, in shape like the Oriental harp. Its strings are of fibre. Bourdon (Fr.) (i) A drone bass, a burden such as that produced by a bagpipe, or a hurdy-gurdy. [Burden.] (2) An organ stop, consisting of stopped wooden pipes, generally of 16 ft. tone. Sometimes, but rarely, the upper part is of metal. It is found on manuals as a "double" stop, and also on the pedal organ as a soft foundation- stop. It was formerly made of a large scale in England, but from a better knowledge of scientific principles organ builders are now able to produce a strong and pure body of tone from a pipe of moderate scale. As a rule, it is important that it should be free from a preponderance of harmonics or over- tones, but sometimes they are purposely produced with the fundamental note, in which case the stop is called quintaton, bec^use,the first harmonic or over-tone of a stopped pipe is its twelfth, or octave fifth. Hence a Bourdon was sometimes said to h&fifthy. Bourree [Fr.) A dance tune in common time,said by Hawkins to come from Auvergne. Other writers give Biscay as its birthplace. The earliest mention of it is probably about 1580. It is still popular with the peasants of Lower Brittany. It often forms one of the movements of the earlier Sonata. Boutade {Fr.) A dance which was sup- posed to be impromptu. Bow. An instrument of wood and horse- hair, employed to set the strings of the violin, &c., in vibration. The bow, originally curved, as its name implies, has been subject to many changes of shape from time to time, from a large curve to an almost flat form. Fig. Fig. 2. Fig. 3- Fig. 4. Fig. 5- asr* The bow shown in fig. i is that still used with the rebab of Algeria. Fig. 2 is given by Gerber from a MS. of the 8th or gth century. The bow now used for the violin is about 29 inches in length (almost straight, but with a slight curve inwards, not outwards, as in the older bows), the violoncello bow being a little shorter, fig. 5. Christopher Simpson(i676) (60) BOW BOWING. says that twenty-seven inches was the length of the bow in his time, the "sonata bow," fig. 3, according to tradition, being only twenty-four inches, the common " fiddle-stick " being still shorter. The form of the bow, which was anciently employed for all stringed instru- ments of the violin kind, known now as the " Corelli bow," fig. 4, is to a certain extent preserved in the double-bass bow as at present employed in England. Most of our stringed-instruments can be traced to an Eastern source, but as the earliest figure of the bow is found in MSS. relating to this country, it has been supposed that it is of British origin. There are many representa- tions of it in MSS. as early as the Anglo- Saxon period (see " Sandy's History of the Violin," pp. 52, 53, &c.), and later through successive generations, besides existing speci- mens of actual ancient bows, all of which par- take of the bowed character, as seen in fig. i . The curved bow was still in fashion until the death of Handel, if any trust is to be placed in contemporary pictures and drawings. The little that is known of the early bows gives the notion that they were incapable of producing anything like delicacy of tone ; and it was not until the early part of the 17th century, when violin-playing began to be cul- tivated, that we find that any attempt was made to improve either the form of the bow or the means of stretching the horse-hair, so that an even pressure might be obtained. The alteration from the bowed form is said to have been made after a suggestion by Taftini [1692-1770]. There is every reason to believe that the improvement in violin-playing due to him could only be effected by means of a better bow than the clumsy one of his time. The earliest improvement was made when a metal band, with teeth-like edges, was introduced, with the design of regulating the position and tension of the hair at or near the handle. This helped to prevent the hair assurning the cord- like form which players found to be awkward and clumsy. But it was reserved for Fran9ois Tourte [1747-1833] to devise the plan of keep- ing "the hair flat by means of a clasp." Tourte also introduced the screw and button for slackening or tightening the hair at plea- sure, and was the first to choose Brazil-wood as a material in bow-making. It was the father of Tourte who attempted the first im- provements in bow-making, but it was the son above-mentioned who introduced the most valuable inventions. The bows of the younger Tourte are almost as much sought as those of the elder Dodd [1705-1810], who lived to the great age of 105 years, but the works of the last-named are most highly valued. Panormo, Tubbs, and Chanot are counted among the chief of modern bow-makers. Bow-hand. The term is employed by violinists to describe the power and skill with which a player produces the tone of his instrument. Bowing. The art of managing the bow, so as not only to bring out the best tone the instrument is capable of, but also so to phrase the passages played that the best possible character may be imparted to the music. The importance both to a violinist, and a composer of music for the violin, of a thorough knowledge of the art of bowing, cannot be overrated. By varying the system of bowing, a simple musical sentence may be changed in its character, almost indefinitely. Formerly, very little attention was paid to this subject, the system of bowing being left very much to the discretion of the players, who only occa- sionally had such general directions as legato or staccato. There always, however, existed certain traditional rules, e.g. that the down- bow should be used at the first beat of a bar, or where any great emphasis was required (as in some cases of syncopation); also, that where no directions are given, the passage should be bowed, that is, the notes should be alternately played by an up and down bow. But it is evident that in simple music, of triple measure, these rules will clash, for, alternate bowing will lead to the recurrence of an up- bow on every alternate down-beat. Hence, even if an excellent band is playing music up to the date of, and including that by Handel, it must have often been observed that the bowing is far from being uniform. In modern music, every direction is given to the performers which is requisite for the production of abso- lute uniformity, and more than this, the various effects which are capable of production by the different systems of bowing are used as part of a composer's material. The prominent features in modern bowing are the more fre- quent antithesis between legato and staccato, and the use of at least three kinds of the latter. When notes have the ordinary dot placed above them they are bowed staccato ; when the dots are under a slur, they are played with one bow (that is by the movement of the bow in one direction) the short length of the sounds being brought about by keeping the bow always lying on the string, so that any movement of the bow which has produced a sound shall be followed by absolute silence. The third kind of staccato is produced by holding the bow as lightly as possible and allowing it almost to dance upon the string. In this manner rapid passages may be played either by one bow up or down, br by an alternate bowing, during which the movement of the bow at right angles to the string is so slight that it seems to rise and fall almost perpendicularly. A favourite division of four rapid notes is to make two (61 ) BOWING BRAWL. legato and the following two staccato. The well-known Var. II. of Beethoven's Sonata for Violin, known as the " Kreutzer," is a good illustration of this : The effect which results from moving the bow on an unaccented part of the bar is most striking and beautiful, e.g. (from the same Sonata) : and in the following (Beethoven Symphony, No. 9) : Groups of three notes are often divided into two legato and one staccato, e.g. : less often into one staccato and two legato, e.g.: ^ ^ ' * ^ * '» J J -r-^ Two notes out of eight are often made stac- cato, e.g. : The above few examples may serve to give some idea of the inexhaustible resources of the art of bowing. It will of course be under- stood that what is here said of the violin applies equally to the viola and violoncello. But, in consequence of the thickness of the strings, the double-bass is not so capable of rapid contrasts of bowing as the rest of its family. In studies and exercises it is usual now to direct a down-bow by the sign r— 1 ; and an up-bow by '^. The French terms corres- ponding to these signs are tiri (draw) ; pousse (push),, sometimes abbreviated by p and t. The quality of tone produced depends not only on the nature and quantity of pressure exer- cised by the bow upon the strings, but also upon the position of ' the point of impact. Thus, if played very close to the bridge {suV ponticello), the tone is of peculiar brightness and shrillness; as the bow is used further from the bridge, the tone passes through a stage of great purity and strength, until, at close proximity to the finger-board, it becomes soft and somewhat dull. The practised per- former chooses that part of the string capable of producing the tone best suited to the pass- age he is playing, and he draws it forth with that part of bow most suitable for the purpose. As a general rule, from the heel to about the middle of the bow, is the part naturally used ior forte or sforzando passages ; and from the middle to the point for those of a more delicate character. But actual experience is the only method of learning the intricacies and beauties of the art of bowing. Boyau (Fr.) Cat-gut strings. B natural. The name of B quadra- B quadratum B quadrum B quarre {Lai.) (Lat.) {Fr.) Brabangonne. The tum or B square was given by reason of its shape, which was originally that of a gothic B. [B cancellatum.] Belgian patriotic song first sung at the time of the revolution of 1830. The words were written by an actor named Jenneval, at that time engaged at the theatre at Brussels, the music being set by a singer named Campenhout. Upon the death of Jenneval at Berghem his mother was allowed a pension of 2400 fr. Campenhout was appointed director of the Royal Chapel. Brace, (i) A mark connecting two or more staves together. 1^ m (2) The leather slides upon the cords of a drum, used for raising or lowering the tone by tightening or loosening the head. Bransle (Fr.) Brawl. Brawl. An old round dance in which the performers joined hands in a circle. A country dance. " Then first of all he doth demonstrate plain The motions seven that are in nature found, Upward and downward, forth, and back again. To this side, and to that, and turning round ; Whereof a thousand brawls he doth compound, Which he doth teach' unto the multitude, And ever with a turn they must conclude." Sir John Davies. Orchestra, 1607. (62 ) BRATSCHE BREVE. The brawl and the bransle were the same dance. Douce gives an account of " le branle du bouquet,' from " Deux dialogues du nouveau langage Fran9ois, Italianize," Anvers, 1579, in which, kissing the whole of the ladies, by each of the gentlemen in turn, seems to have been one of the chief features in the dance. The following Braule from Delaborde's specimens (of the 15th or i6th century) shows the rhythm of this dance : i: r, J J ^^-p^^^-^^^^ ,« fs! M J J -^J J j^ .,. ^^' \ 1 =fh^^^^^^ Bratsche (Ger.) The Tenor Violin, Alto, or Viola. So called from the Viola da braccia, or viola held on the arm, as distinguished from the viola da gamba, or viola held be- tween the legs, the precursor of the violoncello. [Viola.] Brava, fem. (/i.)"| Bravi, pi. [It.) >Well, or bravely, done. Bravo, mas. {It.) ) Bravura (It.) Aria di bravura. An air, distinguished from a simple melody by the introduction of florid passages. [Air.] Break, (i) The point of junction in the quality of tenor, soprano, and alto voices, A genuine bass voice has no break. The lower range is called voce di petto, or chest voice; the upper, voce di testa, or head voice ; and the place of junction is called the break. A properly-cultivated voice should have the break so under control, that the union of the two qualities should be imperceptible. [Larynx.] (2) In the clarinet the break in the tone of the instrument occurs between B flat and B natural, ^ ^^ Hence, rapid passages containing frequent transitions from one register to the other are impossible on that instrument. In trumpets and horns, when from imperfect lipping, the note produced is other than the tone intended, such note is called a break. A similar result often occurs in imperfectly-formed or unset voices. (3) Break, in an organ stop, is the sudden alteration of the proper scale-series of the pipes by returning to those of an octave lower in pitch. A break becomes necessary in the smaller compound stops, for, when proceeding far upwards in pitch, it is found that the pipes would be so small as to be inaudible. As mixtures, s'esquialteras, and other stops of the same class, are generally formed of several ranks of high harmonics, breaks in them are frequent. The break generally takes place between C and CJ, or F and FJ; but organ - builders do not act with uniformity, either as to the position of the break, or the exact series of sounds to be produced on the return. Breast. The voice. " Trulye two degrees of men, which have the highest offices under the Kinge in all this realme, shall greatly lacke the use of singinge, preachers, and lawyers, be- cause they shall not, withoute this, be able to rule their breastes for everye purpose." — Ascham's Toxophilite. " By my troth, the fool has an excellent breast." — Shakespeare, Twelfth Night, ii., 3. " The better brest, the lesser rest, To serve the queer, now there, now heer, For time so spent, I may repent And sorrowe make." TtJSSER (Five hundred points of good husbandry, 1540). Breve. In Mediaeval music, the note equal to half the value of a long, and one quarter of the double long or maxima. Its shape was ■. " Quandocunque punctus quadratus invenitur, qui caret omni tractu brevis dicitur" (Franco, of Paris.) Breves like other notes in the early attempts at mensurable music, affected the length of other notes, and were in turn affected by other notes according to their relative position. A long " in modo perfecto " was reduced by one third or made imperfect by having a breve next to it on either side. A breve " in tempore perfecto " was made im- perfect, that is, was reduced from three to two beats, by juxtaposition with a semibreve. A breve was also subject to " alteratio " that is, being made longer when between two longs. When so altered it was called alterata or shortly altera. All these laws and many others of a like character were drawn up by writers in the fifteenth century, in the dawn of " mensurable " music. Having discovered the utility of showing the relative length of notes by their shape, authors seem to have revelled in constructing new complications. These were gradually dropped by succeeding writers, until the breve became the unit of duration, a position which it held for nearly (63 ) BRETT-GEIGE BUGLE. two centuries. The Semibreve is now our recognized unit, the Breve being a double note and of rare occurrence. But these changes have been a slow growth, not sudden altera- tions of existing opinions or practices. Brett-geige. Bret-Geige (Ger.) A pocket fiddle ; hence, Fr. pochette, Gex.Tdschengeige. It. sordino, from the small quantity of tone it is capable of producing. Eng. kit. Bridge. A piece of wood which, on in- struments having a resonance-box, performs the double duty of raising the strings above the belly, and of terminating at one end their vibrating portion. In instruments played with the bow, the bridge is arched, in order to allow the bow to impinge upon any one string without touching others. In instruments, such as the guitar and pianoforte, its upper edge runs parallel to the belly. In violins, the material and adjustment of the bridge are of great importance. Some instruments re- quire a bridge made >of coarse-grained wood, others of close-grained. It stands on two legs ; that on the right hand should rest on the belly at a short distance behind the sound, post. The legs should lie flat on the surface of the belly, in order that the vibrations of the strings should be duly transferred to the resonance-box. The tone of an instrument is largely influenced by the position of the bridge, and only great experience and nice handling can discover where it is best set up. Brillante {It. and Fr.) Brilliant, in a showy sparkling style. Brillenbasse {Ger.) " Spectacle basses," music for the drum, so called from its resem- blance to a pair of spectacles, g): ^J***p ^ Brindisi {It.) A melody in triple time of a florid character, so arranged as to exhibit the change from the chest to the head voice in rapid succession, something similar to the German jodl, q.v. The air " Libiamo" in Verdi's " La Traviata," is called a brindisi. Brio, con {li.) With spirit, vigour, and force. Brioso {It.) Joyfully, vigorously, forcibly. Brise {Fr.) [Broken chords, arpeggios.] Brisk. Lively. A term frequently used by writers of the last century before the general adoption of the term vivace. Broderies {Fr.) Ornaments with which it was the fashion in a past age to cover any simple melody ; these were generally left to the caprice of the performer, until Rossini set the fashion of writing those ornaments which he wished his music to bear. Broken cadence. An interrupted cadence. Broken chords. [Arpeggio.] Broken music. Probably music played on harps, guitars, or lutes, because the sounds of these instruments cannot be sustained at ^ h ^j See will. Shakespeare, " TroilUs and Cressida," Act iii. sc. I : " Fair prince, here is good broken music." Also " Henry V," Act. ii. sc. i ; "As you like it," Act i. sc. 2. Brontium {Gk.) Ppovre'iov. A contrivance for imitating thunder, used in the Greek theatre. Sheets of copper were laid out in the hyposcenium over which' were rolled bladders filled with pebbles. B rotundum {Lat.) B flat. B cancellatum. Brummeisen or Maultrommel {Ger.) Jew's-harp. From Maul, the mouth. [Jew's- harp.] Bruscamente {It.) Coarsely, roughly, strongly acpented. Buccina. Bucina {Lat.) A crooked horn or trumpet, tuba being the straight trumpet. It was used as a signal for changing the night-watches, hence the expressions ad pri- mam bucinam, secundam, &c., at the first and second watches. Public assemblies were also summoned by it in early Roman times. Poets and sculptors have represented Triton as blowing through a bucina, from bucinum, a shell called the sea-trumpet. Buccinator. A muscle situated in the fleshy part of the cheeks. It is so palled because, when the cheeks are filled with air, the contraction of the buccinator muscles forces it out. It derives its name from buccinare, Lat., to blow a trumpet. Buccolica {It.) "I Rustic, a la hucolique, Bucolique {Fr.) J in a rustic manner. Biichse {Ger.) The boot or foot of an organ pipe. ~ ~ ~ " An organ case. Key-board Buffet {Fr.) case. Buffa {It.) Buffo {It.) opera buffa, a fern. \ Comic. Aria buffa, I. 1 C( s. I a mas. ) a humorous melody; comic opera. In mediaeval Latin buffa meant a slap on the face, and in Italian huffare means to blow wind through the mouth ; c.f. Scotch buffie, puffed. Buffone {It.) A comic singer in the opera. Buffonescamente {It.) In a burlesque or humorous style. Bugle, (i) A hunting-horn of a straight or curved form. (2) A copper instrument of the horn quality of tone, but of less compass, furnished with keys. The tone is sweet, powerful, and distinct; it has rarely .been em- ployed in the orchestra. There are bugle horns in C, B flat, and E flat, each capable of producing its generator and 7 harmonics. The ventil-horn is an improvement upon the bugle. The word Bugle, from the Anglo- Saxon buge, to bend or curve, was anciently applied to many things of a curved shape, thus, the head of a bishop's crozier was called (64) BUONACCORDO BYSSYNGE SONGES. the bugle, and the crozier itself the bugle-rod. The handle of a kettle, basket handles, and a peculiar sort of elongated glass-bead are each called by the name bugle. Some writers de- rive the word from bowgle or bougie, a bull, on the ground that the earliest horns were bull's horns, and that the earliest representa- tions of hunting horns are in shape like bull's horn. [Metal wind instruments.] Buonaccordo {It.) A small triangular spinet for the use and amusement of chil- dren, the notes of which were made small to suit the length of their span. Buonamente [It.) Justly, truly. Buona nota {It.) Accented note. Buon gusto {It.) In good taste. Burden, (i) The chorus or refrain of a song. [Ballad.] (2) The drone of the bag- pipe. (3) The tune sung as an accompaniment lo a dance when there were no instruments. " Foot it featly here and there, And let the rest the burden bear." " Belike it hath some burden then " And clap us into Light 0' love, that goes without a burden- Do you sing it, and I'll dance it." — Shakespeare. " This sompnour bear to him a stiff bordoune Was never trompe of half so gret a soun." Chaucer. Burlando. Burlescamente, ) L ^ *J Burlesca {It.) A jest, a movement in a jocular style, c.f. scherzo. , Burletta {It.) A comic operetta, a farce interspersed with songs. Busaun. Busain. Buzain A reed- stop on the organ. Generally of 16 ft. length, and on the pedal organ. Its quality of tone is soft. It is not improbable that this word is connected with bassoon. Bussone {It.) An obsolete wind-instru- ment, c.f. bassoon. Button, (i) A small round piece of leather which, when screwed on the tapped wire of a tracker, prevents it from jumping out of place. [Organ.] (2) The keys of the first-made accordions. [Accordion.] Buxus. Buxea tibia {Lat.) A flute made of boxwood. " Tympana vos buxusque vocant Berecyntia matris Idseae."— Virg. M. ix. 6ig. Byssynge songes {early Eng.) LuUa- byes, cradle songs. (65) -CADENCE. C. (i) The note Ut in the Guidonian system and in modern French and Italian nomenclature. — (2) The letter whose original form was afterwards modified into the C clef. — (3) The first note of the Hypo-Eolian mode. The first note of the Ionian mode. — (4) The first, or key note of the modern normal scale, so called because if it be desired to write down the scale now used, C is the only note from which the series can start unless sharps or flats be added. — (5) A capital letter C signifies the note in the second space of the bass stave (TenorC). A small c signifies the note one octave above this, middle C. [Pitch.] Cabaletta [Sp.) {Lit. a little horse.) A melody in rondo form, at first sung simply, afterwards with variations, probably so called because accompaniments to cabalettas were in triplet form like the noise made by a horse cantering. Cabinet d'orgne (Fr.) Organ case. Cabinet Pianoforte. An old-fashioned upright pianoforte, about six feet in height. [Pianoforte.] Cabiscola (Lat.) A corruption of the words caput scholas. The prsecentor in a choir (Prsecentor). In Narbonne and many parts of Italy, the office of capischol was held by the Dean. Caccia (It.) Hunting, (i) Music accom- panied by horns, or in praise of field sports, is said to be alia caccia, in the hunting style. (2) Instruments used in hunting are called da caccia, as ohoe da caccia, hunting oboe, a large kind of oboe ; corno da caccia, hunting horn. Cachuca {Sp.) A Spanish dance. [Bolero.] Cacophony {Gk.) "j Harsh sounding music Cacophonie(Fr.) \ — not necessarily incor- Cacofortia {It.) J rect, but often treated as though it were, because of its unusual appeal to imperfect judgment. The word is, however, generally used in a bad sense. Cadence. (i) A vocal or instrumental shake or trill, run or division, introduced as an ending, or as a means of return to the first subject. (2) Tjh^e.end of a phrase, forrnerly called a fellj_either'in melody. or harmony. " That strain again It had a dying fah."— Shakespeare. (3) There are four principal forms of cadence in harmony, the whole, or authentic, the half, the interrupted, and the plagal cadence. When the last chord — the major or minor chord of the key note — is preceded by the major chord of the dominant, such cadence is called whole or perfect. If the last chord is the dominant and is preceded by the chord of the tonic, the cadence is called half or imperfect. When the last chord of the*'°phrase is other than the tonic chord and is preceded by that of the dominant, the cadence is said to be interrupted, false^ or deceptive. The cadence, called plagal' is'that in which the chord of the tonic is preceded by the major or minor chord of the subdominant. The whole ca- dence is used to conclude most modern music ; the half and the interrupted cadence in the progress of a harmonised melody. The plagal cadence was frequently employed as a close by the old contrapuntal writers. Whole or Perfect Cadences. Half or Imperfect Cadences. Interrupted, False or Deceptive Cadences. By some authors, cadences are divided into two kinds, perfect and imperfect ; the authentic and plagal being considered perfect ; all other cadences, imperfect. From another point of view cadences have been divided into simple ( 66 ) CADENCE IMPARFAITE CADENZA. and compound; a cadence being simple when both the penultimate and final chords which form it are plain common chords ; and com- pound when suspensions or other devices are introduced, e.g. : Simple Cadence. Compound Cadence. A series of cadences can be constructed by making any one of the relative chords (or its in- versions) precede the final tonic chord, a relative chord being a common chord which can be made up out of the notes of any given scale. The relative chords of C are therefore D minor, E minor, F major, G major, A minor, but not B major or minor, as there is no F jf in the key of C. We shall, therefore, get this series : D to c. E to c. FtoC. GtoC. AtoC. And from the relative chords of the minor scale : Eb to c. FtoC. GtoC. Ab to c. It will be observed that there is no relative chord on the second or seventh degree of the minor mode owing to the imperfection of the interval of the fifth. For further infor- mation see Stainer's "Theory of Harmony." Cadence imparfaite (Fr.) An imperfect cadence. Cadence parfaite {Fr.) A perfect cadence. Cadence perl6e {Fr.) A brilliant cadence. Cadence rompue (Fr.) A broken or in- terrupted cadence. Cadenz (Ger.) [Cadence.] Cadenza [It.) (i) A passage introduced towards the close of the first or last move- ment of a concerto, either actually extempore or of an impromptu character. (2) A running passage at the conclusion of a vocal piece. Solo performers in times past were accus- tomed to display their skill and invention in a final flourish, apparently extempore, but often the result of careful study and prepa- ration. In some cases, however, the attain- ment of the performer was the object of the display, and hence the added cadenza was often so inappropriate and incongruous, espe- cially in vocal music, that composers felt bound to write down all the ornaments or embellishments they considered their music capable of bearing. Purcell is said to have so acted with regard to many of his songs ; and it has been supposed that the runs or divisions so common in music of the i8th century were introduced as concessions to the custom of the time of ornamenting a plain melody. Every performer considered him- self at liberty to alter an air to suit his own peculiarities, and singers were estimated ac- cording to their vocal agility. An extract from a diary kept at Rome in 1697, by a young Scotch gentleman, speaking of Corelli and his playing, says : " This is his manner ' in adagios, to which he adds innumerable graces ; not crowded in confusion as some do, but gentle, easy and sliding, and suited withal to the composition of the other parts, which no man but he who has taste and knowledge of the composition, can perform." When a great master in art sets the example, followers are always found, and what is pleas- ing in a man of genius becomes the reverse when imitated. Although cadenzas were fashionable in the time of Handel, instances of fully written examples by him are rare. The conclusion of the duet, " O lovely peace," in " Judas Maccabseus," is one of the few specimens he has left. Many of the songs in his oratorios were constantly so changed by the singers by means of graces, notes, and turns, that their form was completely dis- guised. But while the custom existed there were not wanting some musicians who con- stantly protested against what they considered the ill-usage of an author's ideas, forgetting that the composer, probably knowing the bad habit of his singers, had constructed his melo- dies so that they might not suffer by the overlading of fioriture. Rubinelli the singer, on his first appearance in England, was cen- sured for enibellishing and changing his airs. On his second appearance in this country, he determined, to sing without introducing a single ornament not written, and so fickle was the taste of the time (c. 1780), that when he sang " Return, O God of Hosts," from " Sam- son," in Westminster Abbey, his hearers thought the song and his style of singing alike insipid. The omission of ornaments in a musical performance was a matter for surprise a cen- tury earlier than that just named. Richard Lygon, in his "History of Barbadoes, 1687," describes his satisfaction at hearing a min- strel sing a song, " savouring much of an- tiquity — no graces, double relishes, trillos, grupos, or piano -fortes, but plain as a pack- ( 67 ) CADENZA D'INGANNO 9A IRA. staff; his lute, too, was but of ten strings, so that the rarity of this antique piece pleased me beyond measure." Cathedral chants, services, and anthems — even psalm and hymn tunes — were writ- ten with every possible florid turn, as shown by existing examples of the Church compo- sitions of the latter part of the last century. The stor}' told of the elder Dubourg and Handel's comment upon his cadenza is well known ; and there is another anecdote illus- trating the absurdity of a misplaced cadenza, told concerning the trombone player at the first performance of Mendelssohn's " Lobge- sang." The composer met the player and asked him if he had looked at his part, as he had given him plenty of important work to do. " O yes, Herr Director, I have studied it carefully." The astonishment of Mendels- sohn may be imagined when at the rehearsal he heard the result of the careful study of the trombonist in the announcement of the initial phrase of the symphony as follows : Maestoso con moto. Mendelssohn, in his sweet manner, told the performer that he would rather have the phrase played as he had written it. Other musicians of less agreeable dispositions have sarcas- tically thanked performers for taking " so much trouble to sing or play notes that were not written ;" and it is on record that Beet- hoven repeatedly quarrelled with vocalists for not adhering to his text, and it is also well known that Rossini wrote every cadenza out in full, " for he thought it better so to do than to trust to the gaucheries of conceited voca- lists." In instrumental compositions the habit of leaving a space for the ad libitum fancies of the performer opened a door for the admis- sion of eccentricities and absurdities, which the better sort of musicians have sought from time to time to remedy, by the composition of suitable cadenzas as much as possible in accordance with the original composer's de- sign. Clementi wrote cadenzas for the whole of Mozart's concertos, and Dr. Hiller and others have done like things for other works in which spaces have been left. The cadenza has been made the vehicle for the expression of musical humour, as by Mendelssohn in the Music to " A Midsummer Night's Dream," and of quaintness in instru- mentation, as in Beethoven's No. 5 Concerto, and in other works needless to particularise. " It is usual," says Jousse in his " Dictionary of Music," " to commence a cadenza with a plain note or chord sung or held out, so that the accompanying performers may know when it has been begun ; and it is also customary to make a long shake at the end of the ca- denza, as a signal that the accompaniment is to be resumed." Cadenza d'inganno (It.) A deceptive cadence. Cadenza fioritura (It.) An ornamental cadence. Caisse (Fr.) A drum. Caisses claires (Fr.) Kettle drums ; grosse caisse (Fr.), big drum. Caisse roulante (Fr.) Side-drum, or snare-drum. Calamus. (Gk. KctXajuoe) A reed-flute. Probably a simple rustic instrument like our oaten-pipe. But some suppose it to have been similar in construction to the syrinx, or pan- pipes, and to have been synonymous with arundo. From calamus is derived the post-clas- sical calamaulos, a flute made of reed, whence calamaulis (KoKafiavXrig and (caXo/iavX^rjjc) a player on reed-pipes ; hence too, chalameau, schalmey, shawm, the precursor of the modern clarinet, one of the registers of which is still said to be of chalameau tone. Calando (It.) (Calare. To descend, de- crease.) A passage marked calando is to be sung or played with decreasing volume of tone and slackening pace. Calandrone (It.) (Calandra, a woodlark.) A small reed instrument of the shawm or clarinet character, with two holes, much used by the Italian peasantry. Calascione. [Colascione.] Calata (It.) An Italian dance in | time, of a sprightly character. Calcando (It.) Hurrying, pressing the time. Calcant (from Lat. Calcare.) Treading. The bellows-treader (balge-treter) of the old German organs. Calcanten-glocke (Ger.) Bells sounded by means of pedals. Call. A military term for the variations of certain musical notes played on a trumpet or bugle, or a special sort of beat upon the drum, each call being the signal for a definite duty. Call. A toy instrument made by winding a narrow tape round two small oblong pieces of tin, so that one fold of the tape may be set in vibration when blown through. The call is used by men who work the drama of " Punch and Judy." Ca ira (Fr.) 'That will do.' The refrain of a song popular during the revolution in France in 1793. The melody to which it was Sling was a favourite with the unhappy Queen ( 68) CALMA, CON CANON. Marie Antoinette. The song was called the " Carillon national. " Le refrain. Ah ! 9a ira, 5a ira, 9a ira, Le peuple en ce jour sans cesse repete- Ah ! 9a ira, 9a ira, 9a ira, Malgrfi les mutins, tout reussira. Calma, con {It.) With calmness. Calmata {It.) Calmed, quieted, appeased. Calore, con {It.) With heat, warmth. Caloroso (7^) Warmly, full of passionate feeling. Cambiare {It.) To turn, change, alter. Cambiata {It.) [Nota cambiata.] Camera, musica di {It.) [Chamber Music] Camminando {It.) Walking, flowing, andante. Campana {It.) A bell. [Bells.] Campanella,-o, {It.) A small bell. Campanellino (7^.). A very small bell. Campanista {It.) A bell-ringer. Campanology. The knowledge of the construction and use of bells. [Bells.] Campanetta (It.) A set of bells tuned to a scale, and played with hammers or keys. [Glockenspiel.] Canaries. A dance probably of English invention. The melody was a lively air of two phrases. Purcell introduced a Canaries tune in his opera of " Dioclesian." The following example (from Delaborde) shows the rhythm of this dance : Cancrizans. [Canon Cancrizans.] Canon {Gk. Kavwv). A rule, — a term ap-. plied to the measurement of the ratios of intervals by means of the monochord, hence the system of Pythagoras was called the canon of Pythagoras ; that of Euclid, the canon of Euclid. Hence, too, the science of calcu- lating musical intervals is called canonih. Sectio canonis {Lat.), a division of a string, or monochord, formed by a moveable bridge" or frets. Canon. Owing to the various forms which canons assume it is almost impossible to give a general definition which will be intelligible. The essence of a canon is this, that the music sung by one part shall, after a short rest, be sung by another part note for note. The simplest form is when there are only two parts, e.g. : The above is called a canon 2 in i at the octave, because two parts are singing one thing at that interval. The part which com- mences is called the subject or antecedent (guida) ; that which follows, the answer or consequent (consequenza). The above is also an infinite canon, because, anyone having such a remarkable desire as to play it for ever, could do so. The pause shows where it may be concluded. Ex. 2. The above (Ex. 2) is also 2 in i, but at the under-fifth. Ex. 3 is a canon 2 in i at the upper sixth, the upper part being the consequent. Ex. 4. Schubert. " Song of Miriam." Soprani and Alti. Dreadful sea ^_ so Bassi and Tenori. deep . . and The above example (4) shows a canon 2 in I at the octave, with a. free accompaniment. Any part of a canon which is not an ante- cedent or consequent is said to be a. free part {ad placitum). It is also _;?Mif« because there is no repeat, the canon being dropped at the close of the theme. The same desciiption will apply, to the next example (5). ) CANON. Ex.5, Clarinet. Beethoven. Symphony, No, 4.' m Ex. 6. (Transposed.) Non no - bis Do - mi - ne, non The above well-known canon by Byrde is 3 in I, because there is only one theime which all the three parts sing. Ex. 7. J. S. Bach. Mass in B minor. The above example (7) is a finite canon 4 in I. Ex. 8. Attwood. Service in F. n - am. The above example (8) shows a canon 4 in 2 because it is in four parts and there are- two themes. Enough has been given to show the exact meaning of the numerical descrip- tions of canons ; the first number giving the number of the parts in which it is composed ; the second number, the number of themes sung by them, thus 16 in 4 signifies that 16 parts have 4 subjects ; 8 in i that 8 parts sing in turn the same theme, &c. A canon by aug- mentation is when the consequent is double the length of the antecedent, e.g. : Ex. g. From Cherubini. A canon by diminution is when the conse- quent is half the value of tlie antecedent, e.g. : Ex. ID. From Cherubini. ir— — . — — ,— s m ±^ir n-rr- 1 If ^ ■ w) J"^] fr-^ fj* r - t7 1 — 1 — 1 -I i — 1 ' -| — r &C, fed M ^ ^ ^=^ ^-W- -^—r- (70) CANON CANON CANCRIZANS. Fragments of canon by augmentation and diminution are not uncommon in fugal writing, e.g.: Ex. II. Handel. A canon by triple or quadruple augmen- tation is when the three or four parts of which it is composed are each twice the time-value of its predecessor. A canon is said to be strict when the consequent follows the ante- cedent at an exact interval (say a major fifth or fourth, &c.) regardless of key tonality. The canon in Ex. 3 is not therefore strict. If it were so, the consequent must be in the key of the sixth above, which would be impossible. A canon by inversion is when the consequent follows the inverted intervals of the antece- dent, e.g. : Ex. 12. fc $ ^^ m =P ^ P ^^ :d= ^m r r ' [■ ^^=^ The above (Ex. 12) is a canon 4 in i , because there is only one antecedent. The part ap- pearing like a second antecedent being only the inversion of the first. A canon by retro- gression is when the parts forming it (generally, only one is antecedent and one consequent) sing each other's notes backwards. An ex- ample will be found under " canon cancrizans." Originally canons were a kind of musical riddle, the antecedent, and the number of parts, only being given ; and the student being required to solve the problem. Thus, Ex. I would be put forth : " Non nobis Domine " would be given thus: a 3 Voci. From this method of enunciating canons, the name is probably derived, as the reader had to discover the rule or canon on which the composition was constructed. A canon written out in full was called canone aperto, and one written in riddle -form canone chiusa. A canon at the unison becomes a round, if the antecedent has a cadence before the entry of the consequent. Thus every round is a canon at the unison, although a canon at the unison is not necessarily a round. [Round.] Some of the early writers have left canons of the greatest ingenuity. Some very good speci- mens are to be found in Hawkins. It had been well if the labour and perseverance which must have been requisite for their production could have been more profitably directed. The constant study of canon-writing is much to be deprecated, as it checks the inventive faculty, and at most only teaches the student how to force themes into cohesion. It is probable that much of the ugly and crabbed part-writing of the 17th and early part of the 1 8th century is due to the over estimation of canons. Canonical imitation with free accompaniment is, however, capable of very beautiful effects. Specimens of this style have already been given in Ex. 4 and 5, and the fine example in Mendelssohn's 95th Psalm may be studied with advantage. The highly dramatic effect of the canon in two parts, afterwards breaking into four, at the words, " And the sea was upheaved," in No. 34 of Mendelssohn's " Elijah," is so^ well-known that it need not be quoted here. Canone al sospiro {It.) A canon, the subject of which is answered at the half- beat : ^ The answer to any subject is said to be close when it enters shortly after the subject. A canon al sospiro is therefore the most close of all canons, as it is impossible to answer at less time than the beat. Canone aperto {It.) A canon written out in full. Canon cancrizans. A canon by retro- gression. A canon practically consisting of two parts in double counterpoint, that is, parts which are grammatically interchangeable, so constructed that they may read actually back- wards, hence probably the derivation of can- crizans, walking backward like a crab. The following example will be found to consist only of four bars, at the close of which, hav- ing exchanged lines, the parts proceed back- wards. A canon cancrizans may of course be accompanied by free parts : {71 ) CANONE CHIUSO CANTO A CAPPELLA. From Andr£'s " Lehrbuch der Tonkunst," 1832. The following is a canon cancrizans with a bass part per recti et retro : wTi^ r ^? r r r I rrf^-f^-p^ Productions of this class are utterly value- less as contributions to art. Canone chiuso (It.) A close canon. [Canon.] Canone infinito or perpetuo {It.) Never ending canon. Infinite canon. Canone sciolto (It.) A free canon, not strict. Caiionici. A name given to followers of the Pythagorean system of music, as opposed to Musici, the followers of the Aristoxenian system. [Pythagoreans.] Cantabile (It.) In a singing style. Cantamento (It.) The air or melody of a phrase. Cantando (It.) [Cantabile.] Cantadour (OZ^Fr.)') A street singer. Cantambancp (7^.) J A mountebank. Cantante (If.) A singer. Cantare (It.) To sing. Cantare a aria (It.) To sing with a cer- tain amount of improvisation. [Penillion singing.] Cantare a orecchio (If.) To sing by ear. Cantare di maniera (It.) j J° .^j"^^ '" ^ Cantara di manierata(7^)i ^°"^ f °J'^^- ^ ' (^ mental style. Cantata (It.) A cantata consisted origin- ally of a mixture of recitative and melody, and was given to a single voice, but the introduc- tion of choruses altered the first character of the cantata, and gave rise to some confusion in the manner of describing it. So that it has ^Tseen variously defined as " an elegant and passionate species of vocal composition for a I single voice," " a long vocal composition, the Canti carnascialesci ,^^ s , ^^^^ Canti carnivali ^ -' i text of which is Italian," " a kind of short oratorio, or opera not intended for the stage," " a short piece of vocal music of a pathetic character," " one of the Psalms or portions of Scripture set to music for voices and in- struments," according to the work the de- scriber had in his mind at the time, but a cantata is now understood as a short work in the musical form of an oratorio, but without dramatis personce. Cantatilla ,... l The diminutive of Can- Cantatina ^ '' J tata. Cantatore (It.) A male singer. Cantatrice (It.) A female singer. Cantatorium. A music book. Cantellerando (It.) Singing in a sub- dued voice, trilling. C Songs sung ' ■ the (^ carnival. Cantici (It.) Another name for the Laudes spiritu»li, or songs sung in the old Romish church in praise of God, the Blessed Virgin and Saints, and Martyrs. Canticle (i) A song or hymn in honour of God, or of some special sacred event. (2) The word is also applied to certain de- tached psalms and hymns used in the service of the Anglican Church, such as the Venite exultemus, Te Deum laudamus, Benedicite omnia opera, Benedictus, jubilate Deo, Mag- nificat, Cantate Domino, Nunc dimittis, Deus misereatur, and the verses used instead of the Venite on Easter-day. Canticum (Lat.) (i) A song. (2) A song in the Roman comedy accompanied by music and dancing. Sometimes one person sang the song while another went through the ap- propriate gesticulation. Cantilena (Lat.) (i) An oft-repeated, old song. (2) In mediaeval music, singing exer- cises, in which were introduced all the inter- vals of the scale, &c. (3) In old church-song the plain-song or canto-fermo sung in unison by one or more persons to an organ accom- paniment. (4) A ballad. Cantilenare (It.) To sing without ac- companiment. Cantilenaccia (It.) Bad singing. Cantillatio (Lat.) Declamation in a sing- ing style, applied to a method of reading the Epistles and Gospels in the church. [Ac- centus Ecclesiasticus.] Cantino (It.) The smallest string upon the violin. The E string. (Fr.) chanterelle. Cantique (Fr.) A sacred song or melody, a canticle. Canto (It.) The upper voice-part in con- certed music, so called because it has the melody or air. [Air.] Canto a cappella (It.) Sacred music; cantore di cappella, the praecentor. (72) CANTO ARMONICO CANTUS MENSURABILIS. Canto armonico (It.) A part-song. Canto cromatico {It.) A scale or song in chromatic style. Canto fermo (It.) [Cantus firmus.] Canto figurato ^(It.) Florid melody, or melody varied. [Cantus figuratus.] Canto Gregoriano {It.) Gregorian chant. CantoUano {Sp.) Plain chant. Canto piano {It.) Plain chant. Canto primo {It.) First soprano. Canto recitativo {It.) Declamatory sing- ing, recitative. Canto ripieno {It.) Additional soprano chorus-parts. [Ripieno. J Canto secondo {It.) Second soprano. Cantor. [Precentor.] Cantor choralis {Lat.) Chorus master. Cantore {It.) A general name for a singer. Cantoris {Lat.). (From the word Cantor.) The cantoris side in a cathedral choir is the side upon which the Precentor sits, usually the north side, opposite to Decani. Cantus Ambrosianus {Lat.) Ambrosian chant. [Plain-song.] Cantus coronatus. [Cantus fractus.] Cantus durus {Lat.) Music which modu- lated into a key having one or more sharps in its scale. Such keys were at one period strictly proscribed by church-musicians. Cantus ecclesiasticus {Lat.) (i) In a general sense, plain-song and other early church-melodies. (2) The method of singing as opposed to saying Lections, Collects, Gos- pels, and special offices, such as the Impro- peria, &c. See Accentus ecclesiasticus under Accent § 4, and " Passion Music." Cantus figuratus {Lat.) Florid church song, that is, in which more than one note of music was sung to a syllable. The purest system of ancient church-song prescribed only one note to each syllable. [Plain song.] Cantus firmus {Lat.) (i) The tenor or chief melody, originally sung by the tenor- voices, afterwards transferred to the treble- part, hence called Canto. (2) A fragment of plain-song, to which counterpoint has been added. (3) Any subject chosen for con- trapuntal treatment, generally a short dia- tonic passage of semibreves or other long notes. Cantus fractus (Lat.) A broken melody, a term applied to a tune which proceeded either by perfect or imperfect consonances. When accompanied by a Faburden, or Faux- bourdon, it was called Cantus coronatus. Cantus Gregorianus {Lat.) The Gre- gorian system of church-song. [Plain song.] Cantus mensurabilis {Lat.) Mensurable- song. The very name of this art explains at once its scope and the probable date of its birth. .The indissoluble association of music and poetry, or df music, poetry, and dancing, in ancient times, rendered a system of nota- tion, by which the comparative duration of sounds could be exhibited to the eye, un- necessary. If the metre of the poetry were duly appreciated, the length of the musical notes to which the poetry was set would be undoubted. If dancing accompanied the mu- sic and poetry, it would be, of course, impos- sible to sing to any other rhythm than that prescribed by the movement of the feet. As long as music of this kind was unisonous, or, at most, consisted of a series of chords, the component parts of which were of equal length, no difficulty or doubt as to the length of notes could occur. But when prose-writ- ing was set to music, and still more when, in polyphonous compositions, it was desired that a particular voice should sing two or more notes to one note of another, it became an absolute necessity that the signs used should be so formed as to direct the performer, with- out a chance of doubt, as to how long he should hold any note with reference to that held in another part. Hence, the formation of Cantus mensurabilis. As to the date of its invention, learned and reliable authors differ much in their opinion. Having been ascribed to Johannes de Muris (circ. 1330) for many centuries by writers who have been but too ready to copy from each other, asking no questions, it seems that the laurel must be taken from his brow, and that the credit is due to authors who lived — some say a few years, others two centuries at least — be- fore him. It is, however, certain that Robert de Handlo wrote on the subject before Jo- hannes de Muris, and equally certain that Robert de Handlo had the benefit of the labours of Franco. But here a new difficulty arises : not only was Franco so common a name that many learned Francos existed at the same date, but at least three of this name were musicians — Franco of Paris, Franco of Co- logne, Franco of Liege. Nor is this all — two distinct dates are attributed to the Franco who wrote on Cantus mensurabilis, which differ by about 200 years ! The reader who cares to enter deeply into this question may refer to F6tis, Kiesewetter, Hawkins, Burney, Forkel, and Coussemaker, all of whom have bestowed much thought on the subject ; having done so, he will find that he is still in ignorance. The truth is, that mensurable music, like many other highly important in- gredients of our intellectual life, was a growth, not a sudden invention. There are evidences that in the twelfth century a proportionate (73 ) CANTUS PLANUS CANZONCINA. subdivision of the length of sounds was reached after, and naturally enough, the first step was, that two sounds might be sung to one, hence the long and short, or long and breve, as they were called. The shortest note or minim found its way into use, probably, in the thirteenth century, and was in time fol- lowed by other subdivisions. Then followed the triple division of notes, a threefold division being called perfect on theological grounds ; then rapidly followed, in the 14th and 15th centuries, a compHcation of mensurable signs, which now baffles the most enthusiastic interpreter of music of that period, — the value of notes varying according to their position with regard to other notes ; or, ac- cording to the position of the tails, if up or down, or on the right or left sides ; or, as to the complete blackness or open outline (evacu- atid) of the notes ; or as to the manner in which consecutive sounds to one syllable were writ- ten in continuous lines, forming ligatures. Happily, from the i6th century a genuine taste for part-music led to an unremarked dis- use of these utterly useless conceits, a full account of which can only be found in ancient learned treatises, where any one having more taste for music than antiquities, will do well to leave them. Cantus planus {Lat.) Plain song. Cantus Romanus [Lat.) Roman chant or song, (i) The Gregorian system of music. (2) The early attempts at harmonizing a melody known as the organum. Canun or Kanoon {Turkish). An instru- ment strung with cat-gut, in form like a dulcimer, with which the women in the harems accompany their singing. The sound is brought out by means of plectra — ^thimbles made of tortoiseshell pointed with cocoa- nut wood, and worn upon the ends of the fingers. Canzona (7^.) (i) A short song, in which the music is of much more importance than the words. It is one of the ancient forms of measured melody, and when the older writers employed it, it was usually made the vehicle for the display of skill and contrivance in the treatment of the phrases in fugal imi- tation. A secondary meaning of the word, scoffing or banter, perhaps accounts for the use of a form in which a musical imitation or mocking was shown. (2) In the early, part of the last century the word was used to describe an instrumental ^composition, similar to the sonata as then known. (3) It was also understood to mean the same as allegro, " for it denotes that the movement of the part eo which it is fixed ought to be after a lively, brisk, or gay manner." CANZONA.* GinoLAMo Frescobaldi (isgi — 1640)' ^^^--^ ^ 1.1 J . T, ^r — m 7 — czr ^^ r' C^^i^^ ^==k ^^^-^^sj-^i^^-^^- ^- ^ , s. s Canzonaccia {It.) A commonplace song. Canzoncina {It.) A short poem or air. * From " II secondo libra di Toccate, Canzone versi d'Hinni Magnificat, Gagliarde, Correnti, et Altri Par- tite, di Cembalo et Organo." Rome, 1637. (74 ) CANZONET ^CARILLON. Canzonet, Canzonetta (7i.) A diminu- tive of canzona, " denoting a little short song, tune, cantata, or suonata." Originally applied to a short song in parts. Luca Marenzio, Giovanni Ferreti, and Horatio Vecchi are said to have excelled in this species of compo- sition. The title was also employed by poets to describe verses either of a trifling character or subject ; and musicians, when they set such words, repeated the poet's title without reference to the musical meaning of the word. Brossard, " Dictionnaire de Musique, 1703," speaks of two sorts of canzonets — the Neapo- litan, with two phrases, and the Sicilian, a sort of jig in ^-^ or -f time, each in rondo form. Thomas Morley (1597) describes a series of madrigals as " Canzonets, or Little Short Songs to Four Voyces ; celected out of the best and approued Italian Authors ;" and Haydn's use of the word with refer- ence to his well - known examples will be familiar. Canzoniere (It.) A lyric poem or song. Caoinan {Irish.) A funeral «ong (Keeners). Capellmeister (Ger.) Maestro di Cappella {It.) (i) The musical director of a church or chapel. A post of considerable honour, espe- cially when connected with a royal or ducal chapel. The list of eminent musicians, from Palestrina to Mendelssohn, who have held such offices is very large, and the fact that men of general musical ability have thus been necessarily brought into contact with sacred music, has probably greatly influenced the character of the compositions of the i6th, r7th, and i8th centuries. There is no post in the English Church or at our Court which exactly corresponds to that of Capellmeister, including as it does the duties — as circum- stances may require — of conductor, accom- panist, choir-trainer, and composer. The choir-master — an office lately instituted or re- vived in this country — is perhaps the nearest approach to the Capellmeister. By the com- bination, which not unfrequently took place, of the offices of " Composer to his (or her) Majesty " and " Master of the Children of the Royal Chapel," a veritable Capell meister was created. In our cathedrals the precentor and organist practically divide the duties of this post. (2) The title has sometimes been applied to a conductor of a band or an opera. Capellmeister Musik {Ger.) A term of contempt for music made and not inspired. Capiscolus (Precentor) Cabiscola. Capistrum {Lat.) A muzzle. A sort of bandage wound round the head and face of the ancient trumpeters, to protect the cheeks while playing their instruments, on account of the unusual exertion necessary for the proper production of tone. Cappella, alia (7^) In the ecclesiastical style. In duple time. [A cappella.] Capo {It.) Head, commencement. Capo, da {It.) A direction to return to the first or other indicated movement. Capo d'opera {It.) The principal song or piece in an opera. Capo tasto {It.) (Lit. head-stop.) A me- chanical arrangement by which the pitch of the whole of the strings of a guitar is raised at once. The capo tasto, or capodastro as it is sometimes called, is screwed over the strings on to the finger-board and forms a temporary nut, e.g. con capo tasto sulla 3a Poz. Capriccietto {It.) A little caprice, or fancy. Capriccio {It.) A freak, whim, fancy. A composition irregular in form. Caprice {Fr.) [Capriccio.] Capriccioso (7^.) Whimsical, humorous. Caracteres de musique {Fr.) The signs used in music. [Notation.] Caral {old Eng.) Kyrriole {Ang.-Sax.) [Carol.] Carattere (7^) Character, dignity, quality. Carezzando {It.) 1 Caressingly.singingor Carezzevole (7^) J playing with a frequent introduction of notes of anticipation or ap- pogiatura. Caricato {It.) Loaded, over displayed. Carillon. A set of bells so arranged as to be played by hand or by machinery. The word has by some authors been connected with {Fr.) clarine, a little bell, which is pro- ( 75 ) CARILLON. bably connected with (Lat.) clarisonus ; but others derive it from the word quadrille, or quadrigUo, on the ground that this dance was popular, and probably " set " to bells, in the i6th century. There can be no doubt as to the antiquity of thus using small bells. They were probably graduated in size so as to produce a diatonic scale, and were called a Tintinnabulum. Fig. Fig. z. Fig. 3- Fig. I is given by M. Coussemaker as being from a MS. probably of the gth century. Fig. 2 is from an ancient Psalter in the British Museum. Fig. 3 is from a MS. in the Royal Library of Brussels. Five seems to have been the number of bells usually employed in earliest times, but they were afterwards increased to six or seven. It is to the bell-foilnders of the Low Countries we owe the perfecting of the art of bell-found- ing and the construction of carillons, during the 15th, i6th, 17th, and i8th centuries. Pre- eminent among them stands the Van den Gheyn family, whose works are to be found in almost every Belgian belfry. Originally of Mechlin, they afterwards removed to Louvain, where Matthias Van den Gheyn (b. J721) deservedly attained the highest fame, as or- ganist, composer, carillon-maker, and caril- loneur. The brothers Von Aerscholdt, the great bell-founders, now living in Louvain, are lineal descendants of Matthias Van den Gheyn. The finest carillons, namely those at Antwerp, Mechlin, Bruges, Ghent, and Namur, consist of about forty bells, extending from huge specimens of several tons in weight up to little bells weighing only a few pounds.* * The fine chimes in Mechlin consist of 45 bells, the largest of which weighs between g and 10 tons. This rich-toned bell was cast by Aerscholdt in 1844. At Ghent there are 48 bells (44 above and the 4 heaviest in the lower storey), the largest of which was cast by Du Mery, 1744, and weighs about 5J tons. At Antwerp there are in reality two carillons — one connected to the machinery, and in use, the other disused. That in use consists of 48 bells, the largest of which weighs about 7 tons. At Bruges there are 48 bells, the largest nearly 10 tons. At Namur there are about 50 bells, the largest about 4 tons. Many of the bells in the Belgian chimes are found to be of Dutch make, and (by their inscrip- tions) have been issued from old foundries in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Zutphen, and elsewhere. ( 76 ) CARILLON CAROL. They are in most cases arranged as follows : the smaller bells are fixed to strong timbers and arranged in rows, according to size, the largest being nearest to the floor — the bells and framework thus representing the outline of a pyramid. Where there are many spe- cially large bells, these are generally placed in a lower storey, not uncommonly below the chiming machinery. To each bell is attached one or more hammers on the outer side, and a clapper in the inside. To the lever-end of the hammers thick wires are attached, which pass down to long iron rods. The lever-end of these rest on the tambour, or barrel, on which are arranged projecting staples. When the barrel is turned (which is done by ordinary clockwork) the staple forces up the end of the iron rod, the other end at the same time pull- ing down the wire and raising the hammer. When the barrel releases the iron-rod, it drops suddenly and causes the hammer to strike the bell. Some time is of course required for the raising of the larger hammers, hence the necessity of having several hammers to some of the bells, so that if a quick repetition of the sound is required, one hammer shall be ready to strike while another is being brought into position. There are, therefore, always a larger number of staples on the barrel than there are bells in the carillon. The clapper, before-mentioned as being in every bell, is held by a wire-loop, within an inch or two of the side of the bell ; this wire passes down to the clavier, or keyboard — a series of small round sticks, arranged in an order similar to that of the black and white keys of a piano- forte, but separated from each other by a sufficient distance to allow each one to be struck with the Jist without fear of that on either side of it being also struck. The clap- pers of the heaviest bells are, owing to their weight, generally attached to a pedal-board, and the carilloneur usually guards his hand with a thick glove when playing. It will be understood from this short de- scription that the mechanism by which these beautiful bells are chimed and played is of the roughest description. Vast improvements have, however, been lately made, chiefly in England ; and Messrs. Gillett and Bland have invented an ingenious piece of mechanism, by which the hammers are held up constantly, and only have to be released by the action of the barrel. This insures a regularity in the striking which cannot on the old system be attained, and does away with the necessity for multiplying hammers to a single bell. The higher octaves contain generally a com- plete chromatic scale. But the heavier bells, owing to their great cost and the large amount of room they occupy, are limited to such import- ant fundamental basses as tonic, subdomtnant, and dominant ; or, at most, to the flrst five degrees of the diatonic scale. A short "flourish" is played at the half-quarter, a slightly longer phrase at each quarter, a tune at each half hour and hour. It is to be re- gretted that we in England are but just begin- ning to appreciate the beauty of the effect produced by carillon - music. But, on the other hand, nowhere but in England can genuine change-ringing be heard, in which, the tone prdduced by the bells as they swing completely round is totally different in cha- racter from that obtained by the dead stroke of a hammer. But bells can be easily arranged so as to do the double duty of chiming and change-ringing, and it is to be hoped that they will often in future be so arranged. Carilloneur (Fr.) Bell-player. [Carillons.] Carita, con (It.) With tenderness. Carmagnole. A dance accompanied by singing, named from Carmagnola in Pied- mont. Many of the wildest excesses of the French revolution of 1792 were associated with this dance. It was afterwards applied to the bombastic reports of the French suc- cesses in battle. The song commenced with " Madame V6to avait promis," and each verse ended with the burden " Dansons la car- magnole, vive le son du canon." Carol. To sing or warble, to celebrate in song. Carol, A song of praise, applied to a species of songs sung at Christmas-tide. It originally meant a song accompanied with dancing, in which sense it is frequently used by the old poets (perhaps connected with choraula). It appears to have been danced by many performers, by taking hands, form- ing a ring, and singing as they went round. It will be readily imagined that a dance of this character would lead to a certain wildness if not rudeness of behaviour, so that the warn- ing contained in the following verse addressed to those of gentle blood who indulged in the exercise, might not be altogether unnecessary : " Fille quant ferez en karoUe Dancez gentiment par mesure Car, quant fille se desmesure Tel la voit qui la tient par folle." Bishop Taylor says that the oldest carol was that sung by the heavenly host when the birth of the Saviour was announced to the Shepherds on the plains of Bethlehem. It is probable that the practice of singing carols at Christmas-tide arose in imitation of this, as the majority of the carols declared the good tidings of great joy; and the title of Noels, nowells, or novelles, applied to carols, would seem to bear out this idea. Carol singing is of great antiquity among Christian communities, as the carol by Aure- lius Prudentius, of the 4th century, will show. (77) CAROLA CATCH. This poem contains twenty-nine stanzas, commencing : — " Quid est quod arctum circulum Sol jam recurrens deserit, ChrisWsne terris nascitur, Qui lucis auget tramitem ? " Carols were both serious and humorous in the 14th and 15th centuries. Mr. Chappell quotes a tune that might be sung to words of either character, but bearing reference to the observances of the season of Christmas. (Popular Music, i. 42.) In later times carols were written of a more sober character, and we find in 1630 the pub- ' lication of " Certaine of David's Psalmes in- tended for Christmas carols fitted to the most sollempne tunes everywhere familiarlie used, . by William Slayter, printed by Robert Yong." Upon a copy of the later edition (1642), pre- served in the British Museum, a former possessor has written the names of some of : these tunes; for example, Psalm 6, to the tune of Jane Shore, Psalm g to Bara Forster's Dreame, Psalm 43 to Crimson Velvet, Psalm 47 to Garden Greene, &c. Shakspeare alludes to the Puritan practice of adapting religious words to secular melody in his "Winter's Tale :" " There is but one puritan among them and he sings psalms to hornpipes." After, the Restoration, carols of the old kind became again popular, and from that time to the present the singing of carols at Christ- mas became steadily encouraged. Warton supposes the religious carol to have been introduced by the Puritans, but this is a mistake, as a reference to Mr. Wright's col- lection, made for the Percy Society, will show. The earliest printed collection was made by Wynkyn de Worde, 1521, but all these are of a convivial character. Many of the old carols had scraps of Latin • intermixed with English, as — " Puer nobis natus est de Maria Virgine Be glad lordynges, be the more or lesse, I bring you tydinges of gladnesse ' As Gabriel me bereth witnesse." Compare also " In dulci jubilo," in which'; Latin and German were used. Carola (It.) A dance accompanied byj singing, which grew into unenviable notoriety during the Republic of 1792 in France, c.f. carmagnole. Cartellone (It.) The prospectus of an operatic season. Carnyx (Gk.) An ancient Greek trumpet of a shrill tone, known afterwards to the Celts and Gauls, mpwi, (Gk.) c.f. cornu. Cassa-grande {It.) The big drum. Cassatio. [Suite.] Castagnette {It.) Castagnettes {Fr.) Castanuelas {Sp.) Castanets. Castanets. A musical instrument of per- cussion introduced into Spain by the Moors. The castanets were originally dried chestnut husks, from whence their name is derived, but were afterwards made of hard wood, by which means the tone was rendered more defined. The ancient KporaXov, was a species of Castanet (knicky-knackers). [Bones.] Castrato {It.) A male singer with a peculiarity of voice, produced by a natural deprivation procured in early youth for the purpose of preserving the normal tone. Catch. A species of canon or round for ■three or four. voices, in which the words are so contrived that by the union of the voices a different meaning is given by the singers catching at each other's words. Poems of a trivial character, similar in style to nursery- rhyme doggrels, were also called catches. For example, there is a poem by " the learned Clarke, Lewis Wager," printed in 1567," be- ginning : " I have a pretty titmouse Come pecking on my toe ;" and one of John Lyly's songs from " Endy- mion," 1591, is distinguished by the title of " a catch." The musical catch originated about the early part of the 17th century, the first collection of catches being made by Ravenscroft in 1609, under the title of" Pam- melia, Musicks miscellanie, or*nixed varieties of pleasant Roundelays and delightfull Catches of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 parts in one ; none so ordinarie as musicall ; none so musicall as not to be all very pleasing and acceptable." These, and others contained in later publica- tions are little else than rounds, without the humour, so called, of the catch as it was after- wards accepted. William Jackson, of Exeter, sa^ that " they are three parts obscenity and one part music. If they are not indecent, they are nothing. There is no particular ob- ject in them, but they are a species of musical false wit." Of the few catches which may be yet sung in a mixed company, " Would you know my Celia's charms ?" by S. Webbe, and "Have you read Sir John Hawkins's History?" and " Ah ! how Sophia," by Callcott, are the most favourable specimens. The words of the first are as follows : " Would you know my Celia's charms, Which now excite my fierce alarms ? I'm sure she has fortitude and truth To gain the heart of every youth. She's only thirty lovers now, The rest are gone I can't tell how ; No longer Celia ought to strive, For certainly she's fifty-five." The humour of this catch consists in the emphasis placed upon the words fortitude, thirty, and fifty-five, by which it appears to the hearers that each singer is contending in ( 78 CATENA DI TRILLI CATHEDRAL MUSIC. turn to uphold his notion of the age of the lady. In the second, the words " Burney's History " are made to sound like " burn his history," and in the third, one voice cries, " a house a fire," another, " go fetch the engines," while one apparently indifferent exclaims, " I'm but a lodger," from the following words : • Ah ! how, Sophia, could you leave Your lover, and of hope bereave, Go fetch the Indian's borrowed plume, But richer far than that you bloom. I'm but a lodger in her hfeart, Where more than me I fear have part." There were formerly a number of clubs sup- ported for the purpose of encouraging the production and performance of this species of musical trifle, only one or two of which are at present in existence, a better feeling having diverted the main object of these societies into the encouragement and execution of glees, part-songs, &c. [Round, canon.] Catena di trilli (It). A chain, or succes- sion, of short vocal or instrumental shakes. Catgut. Boyau [Fr.), Minugia {It.), Darm (Ger.) The name given to the material of which the strings of many musical instru- ments are formed ; it is made from the intestines of the sheep, and sometimes from those of the horse, but never from those of the cat. Cathedral Music. A term applied to that music which has been composed to suit the form of service used in our cathedrals since the Reformation. It includes settings of canticles and also of anthems. The first writers of this class of music were Marbecke, Tallis, Tye, and Byrd, and the works of the two last named especially illustrate the state of cathedral music at the period in which they lived, for they employed Latin and English words to the same music, so that it might be available whether the service was according to the ancient or reformed usage. The style of the earliest cathedral music was formed on the model of the Italian motets and other sacred compositions, and with the exception of a difference in the words was identical with the secular music of the period. It was feared that the Commissioners ap- pointed by the Statute 27 Henry VIII. to compile a body of ecclesiastical laws " as should in future be observed throughout the realm," taking into consideration the abuse of music in the Church, would forbid its use altogether. As the King was fond of music they deemed it politic to retain it for the service of the Church, but they implied a return to simple forms, in directing certain parts of the service to be sung by the "ministers and clarkes " in a plain, distinct, and audible manner. The rubric of the First Book of Edward VI. prescribes the saying or singing of " mattens and evensong ; " and in the minis- tration of the Communion that the clerks, shall sing in English for the office or " Introite as it is called," a psalm appointed for that day. And again it directs that the clerks shall sing one or many of the sentences therein mentioned, according to the length and shortness of the time that the people be offering. In John Marbecke's " Booke of Common Praier noted " 1550, it will be seen that the whole of the service was sung either to some general kind of recitation or intonation with small inflec- tions, to an adaptation of the ancient cantus or accentus ecclesiasticus, or to some modification of the old use by Marbecke himself. Queen Elizabeth in her injunctions concerning the clergy and laity of this realm, published in the first year of her reign, 1559, desired the " continuance of syngynge in the Churche " and " that there bee a modeste and destyncte song so used in all parts of the Common Prayers in the Churche, that the same may be as playnely understanded as if it were read without syngynge." Notwithstanding this injunction the use of singing and of organs in the Church was only maintained by a majority of one in the Lower House of Convocation, a strong objec- tion to Cathedral music existing even in that early period. After Marbecke's book, which has music in one part only, John Day (1560) published a service in four parts, adding five years later, those " offices " which had been omitted in the former collection. These, pre- served to a certain extent the prescribed or adopted " use " in those parts of the service which were always intended to be performed simply, the publication also indicated the places where a more elaborate musical setting might be allowed, and composers taking ad- vantage of the licence wrote original music forthe Venite, Te Deum, Benedictus, Jubilate, Communion Service, the Canticles used at evensong, and "such godly praiers and psalmes in the like form to the honor and praise of God," — " so they may be songe as anthems." The use of organs and singing in the Church was nevertheless a sore grievance to the Puritans ; they did not, however, object to metrical psalms, and employed them when- ever and wherever possible; but the cathedrals always objected to their introduction, as not being cathedral music properly so called ; it is within the last ten years only that hymns or psalm tunes have been sung in cathedrals as an integral part of the ordinary service. In the time of the Commonwealth metrical psalms were the only things sung in the churches, but they were also sung at other times, and it was not until the Restoration of Charles II. that Cathedral service was re- sumed, this time in a considerably altered form. The Communion Service or Mass, in' (79 1 CATHEDRAL MUSIC CAVATINA. times past held to be the most important act of worship, was placed in the back -ground, and. was, when celebrated, given without the aid of music. Church composers did not take the trouble to set those parts of the service which were never performed, and con- \ sequently there is not a single " Gloria in excelsis " produced by any cathedral writer between 1660 and 1840, other than as an anthem. When so set, it was considered allowable to omit some sentences and add others at discretion, so that it would be scarcely available for the Communion Ser- vice. The " Sanctus " was set to music, as it became the habit to sing it in the place of the Introit, a fashion not yet dead in many cathedrals. When the Communion Service was restored to its true importance about twenty-five years since, adaptations of Marbecke's arrangements were freely and properly used, until a new generation of com- posers employed their talents to supply the deficiency. At the time of the Restoration, the character of cathedral music also under- went a change. The influence of the French school may be traced in the writings of Purcell, Humphries, Blow, Wise, Weldon, and others. It is not a little strange that while most tem- porary influences can be seen in the various periods of cathedral music, there are few in- stances of any church composers copying Handel's style, and none in which it was done with success. Dr. Greene, his contemporary, has a special character of his own, Dr. Boyce has also his individuality, and the elder Hayes shows no leaning towards the great oratorio writer. Handel's oratorios, though not writ- ten for the cathedral, are often laid under con- tribution, whereas the anthems composed by him for the service of the Church are com- paratively neglected and unknown. At the latter part of the last century and the beginning of the present, cathedral music was at its weakest point; adaptations, arrange- ments, florid melodies, with paltry accompani- ments, chants of a gay and undignified style, and all music used in the service, showing the influence of a general indifference and carelessness, which, to a certain extent, still exists, though happily in no strong degree, for a more reverent feeling abounds and is nourished. Cathedral music, like every other branch of art, should increase and be pro- gressive, should take advantage of every new discovery or admitted truth in music. All styles should be fairly represented, and no one style should be considered as indicative of special doctrinal views. There are few who seriously object to a building in which successive styles are seen, but on the con- trary think that all that is good should be retained. The many who have spoken in music in past ages should have their sayings preserved when they are worthy of. being kept, but it would be folly to insist upon the retention of all that could be gathered of the works of a writer, because he has said one happy and lasting thing. It is not given to • men to be wise at all times, and the best of cathedral musicians have written unworthy stuff. Taste and good sense, free from pre- judice, will guide to a proper and useful selection, so that cathedral music for ordinary purposes may include the thoughts uttered under all influences in many ages. The small number of voices considered suf- ficient for the usual services of our cathedrals is a bar to grand effects. This has been felt by composers, who have been compelled so to arrange their music that it may produce ade- quate effects from the usual small choirs. Probably with a prophetic view of the future augmentation of the musical staff of a cathe- dral, many modern composers have so con- structed their works, that while they are not ineffective with a small body, they are nobly grand when given by increased numbers. So that there is reason to believe that in the days of the future, when cathedral choirs shall be in numbers and skill worthy of the service to which they minister, cathedral composers will be equal to the task of writing music suitable to the time and place. The grand effect pro- duced by a large body of voices in a cathedral during the performance of an oratorio upon the occasion of a festival is never without some influence in turning men's minds to higher things. Music is the handmaid of re- ligion, and there can be no reasonable objec- tion to the introduction of oratorios and other extensive sacred compositions, with all the effects that a trained choir and orchestra can produce, provided always, that such perform- ances are made an integral part of an act of worship. In the metropolis such perform- ances have been given with the most satis- factory results at stated times, and the day may not be very far distant, when they may be made of more frequent occurrence, and so, our cathedrals, by calling into requisition all musi- cal talent, inventive or executive, will become again what they once were, the nurseries and centres of musical culture and knowledge. Catlings. The smallest sized lute-strings. Cauda (Lat.) The tail of a note. Cavaletta (It.) [Cabaletta.] Cavaletto (It.) (i) A little bridge. (2) The break in the voice. Cavalquet {Fr.) A trumpet-signal to cavalry. Cavata (It.) [Cavatina.] Cavatina (it.) A melody of a more sim- ple form than the ayia. A, song without a second part and a " Da capo." The term is, (80) C.B. -CELERITA, CON. however, applied with less strictness to airs of other kinds. (See " Be thou faithful," in Mendelssohn's " St. Paul," and " Salve di- mora," in Gounod's " Faust," &c.) C.B. Abbreviation for Contra-basso. C barre (Fr.) The term for the time indi- cator. C with a dash through it. C clef. The clef showing the position of middle C, in which are written the alto, tenor, and (in old music) other parts. Soprano Clef. Mezzo-Soprano Clef. Alto Clef Tenor Clef. [Clef.] C dur (Ger.) C major. Cebell. The name of an air or theme in common time of four bar phrases, forming a subject upon which to execute " divisions " upon the lute or violin. This style of air, although frequently found in books for the violin in the 17th century, is now obsolete ; its principal feature was the alternation of grave and acute notes which formed the several strains. The following are examples : Tho. Mace, 1676. ^^^^^^^^ ^ Uj J r \ r I I ■»-* -si -J- J I- P J 1 j.a*^ w jS XrTf J rail — ■ A \&^-4-^-^ iS^ rrrC!?'i» -^^krw^'- 1 — ' '^ '1 u ^*4>ri L£ I4,£p-L r''V 'r t .. r-fr- F=^^fTP=»*^ ,-.1 -. "="=( — = — ' — -*aJ^ - r '-r-r '^r -p -^^^fX^LS-: ^^ Celere (/f.) Quick, swift. Celerita, con {Jt.) With speed, haste. Quickly. r 81 ) CELESTE CHAMBER MUSIC, Celeste (Fr.) A direction for the use of the soft pedal. Celeste, voix (Fr.) A stop on the organ or harmonium. [Vox Angelica.] Celeusma (Gk.) KtKivafia, or xiXevfia (from KcXevia, to urge on, to command). The word or sing-song of the KeXevtrrrie (fugle-man or leader), by which oarsman were encouraged to row rhythmically, and by which, to this day, sailors pull uniformly and simultaneously at a rope. Celli. .<46&. of violoncelli. Cello. ^66. of violoncello. Cembalista (li.) A pianoforte player. Cembalo. Clave - cembalo, cimbalo. A harpsichord. [Pianoforte.] Cembanella (It.) [Cennamella.] Cennamella (It.) A pipe, or flute. Cento {Lat.) [ (In Greek KtVrpiDv.) Centone (7i.) J Patch -work. A musical work made ap of extracts from an author's compo- sitions, as a cento was from an author's poems. c.f. pasticcio. Cercar la nota (It.) To feel for a note, to reach it by slurring. Cervalet or Cervelat (perhaps dim. of cervus, signifying a little stag-horn). An an- cient wind-instrument of a small size, from which, by means of a reed, tones similar in character to those of the bassoon could be produced. Ces (Ger.) C flat. Cetera (It.) A citarra or guitar. Chacona (Sp.) Ciaconna (It.) Chaconne (Fr.) A slow dance in | time, -frequently constructed ^ ^ J upon a ground bass, and sometimes formerly introduced as a move- ment of a sonata. [Chica.] It is usually stated that the chaconne is in the major mode, and that passacaille which is somewhat similar to it in rhythm is in the minor. This is not the case, as the following theme on which Bach's celebrated ciaccona for violin solo is founded, will show : ^^diJijj^iji^'iiijjij Chair organ. A name given to the Pre- stant or choir-organ, from a notion that it formed the seat of the organist, when placed behind him. Chalameau {Fr.) Stem, or straw-pipe, from the Latin calamus, a reed. The lower register of the clarinet and the basset-horn is called the chalam.eau tone, from the obsolete instrument shawm, schalmey, precursor of the oboe and clarinet. Chamber music. Kammermusik (Ger.) Musica da camera {It.) Vocal or instru- mental compositions suitable for perform- ance in a chamber, as opposed to a concert- room. The performance in private upon single instruments of any class constituted the first chamber music properly so-called. Strictly speaking, any music vocal or instrumental played in private is chamber music ; but the term is now applied not only to perform- ances upon a single instrument, with or without accompaniment, but also to any combination of different instruments, with only one player to each part — duets, trios, quartetts, &c., for voices or instruments. It is probable that the first chamber music con- structed as such was entirely vocal, and not of much earlier date than the end of the 15th or the beginning of the i6th centuries — the Scolia of the Greeks, the music of the min- strels, and of public and private musicians of later date, including among the former " the waits," " noises," and other private bands, not being of a character that could fairly be called by the title chamber music. Therefore the Madrigal will be regarded as among the first specimens of chamber music. The titles of more than one collection, for example, " Madrigali di Tavolina," " Madrigali di Camera," " Madrigali Concertati," " Madri- gali et Arie per sonare et cantare," and so forth, together with the peculiar style in which many of the early books are printed, — ^two parts on one page intended to be read by two persons seated opposite to each other at the same table — ^would show conclusively that they were intended as chamber music. The addition of instrumental accompani- ments to madrigals probably arose out of a desire to support the voices and keep them in tune, as well as to give employment to those who could play and not sing, but who were desirous of taking part in that which was going on. This practice — at first a mere conciliation to the instrumentalists — sug- gested the use of instruments alone for the purposes of concert. Thus we find attached to the early productions, instructions to the effect that they are " apt for Instrumentes and Voyces," as in Alison's "An Howres Recreation in Musicke," or as in Bonaffino's " Madrigali," that they are available " per cantar e sonar nel Clave cimbalo, Chitarrone o altro simile Instrumento," or as in the later editions of Byrd's Psalmes, Songs, and Son- nets, framed to be " fit for Voyces or Viols." Doubtless from such small beginnings the writers of the time were induced to compose " Consort lessons," " Ayres," " Fancies," "Canzone da Sonare," and the like, often written in six parts, the number of viols in a " chest." These compositions at first differed very'little in point of form and treatment from the madrigals from whence they were derived, until the demand arose for pieces of less dig- nity, in obedience to which demand we find (82) CHANGEABLE CHANT CHANT. dance tunes, "Almaines, Ayres, Corants, Sarabands, Moriscoes, Jiggs, &c.," hitherto only set for a single instrument, arranged in parts for " Viols or Violins ;" and these and other dance-tunes issued in suites made into the first sonatas, and the symmetrical shape in which each was necessarily written for the purposes of the dance gave jise to that which is known as Form. The word Sonata, at first applied to pieces for a solo instrument, as well as to those for several, became gradu- ally to be used as a term for compositions of a certain character for a single compound instrument, as the organ, harpsichord, or pianoforte. The most important era in the history of chamber music was the final quarter of the last and the first of the present centuries ; the labours of Boccherini, whose trios, quar- tetts, and quintetts are form-like, easy, and graceful, as well as those of Fiorillo, Giardini, Pugnani, and Viotti, leading to the foundation of the school in which Pleyel, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven were such apt pupils and masters. Changeable chant. A single or double chant which can be sung either in the major or minor mode without other alteration than the substitution of the minor third and sixth of the scale for those of the corresponding major, W. TUEHEE. Change of voice. [Larynx.] Change ringing. [Bells.] Changer de jeu {Fr.) To alter the stops on an organ or harmonium. Changes. The altered melodies produced by varying the sounds of a peal of bells. [Bells.] Changing notes. Passing notes or dis- cords which occur on the accented parts of a bar. Chanson (Fr.) (i) A song. (2) A national melody. (3) A part-song. Chansonnette (Fr.) A little song. Chant. A short musical composition to which the Canticles and the prose version of the Psalms are sung, either in unison or in four-part harmony. There are two kinds of chant in common use—the Anglican and the Gregorian. (i) A Gregorian chant consists of five parts; the intonation; the first reciting note or domi- nant ; the mediation ; the second reciting note or dominant ; the ending, e.g. : ^ tSi^fc^ Intonation, ist Mediation. 2nd Ending. Dominant. Dominant. The intonation is used generally to every verse of a canticle, but only to the first verse of a psalm, unless a special psalm be used on a solemn occasion, as for instance the Mise- rere (Psalm li.) during Lent. With regard to the pointing of the Prayer- book version of the Psalms, several important facts have to be considered. The undoubted object of the chants as originally used in the Roman Church was to enable, as far as pos- sible, a pure syllabic recitation of the words, so many of the words of a verse being recited on the dominants as would leave one syllable only to each note of the mediation and end- ing. As these chants were in use many centuries before the invention of cantus men*- surabilis, it is quite impossible that they were ever sung rhythmically at the close of eaich recitation. But there is a growing tendency to treat the Gregorian chants Anglican-wise, and either by accents or bars, to definitely shape out their rhythm. If any proof were wanting of this fact, it is only necessary to give the following : Ex. I. ». ^ ^ J 1 J i T ,, • J 4tli Tone. 1 J '1 ■■II (m — W si =^ =^ 6. -w — si-^ s^-^m . , J J^) — \ H &M=4 ^ —>(=i — si— ^ ■='- oH The ending of the first of these is evidently intended to be in triple measure, that of the second in duple. But to force the ending into either one of these measures is to wilfully cast aside the invaluable property it possesses of bearing an accent on any note, as the words require. A like desire for modern chant-form has led to the following differences of accent : Ex.2, a.. From Sargent's Psaltek. j'^ M Hf^-^^TJ^nJ .1 J J J From GwJM. It will be seen from the above, that in pro- (83) CHANT. portion to the adoption of strict time in the ending, the trae use of chants for syllabic treatment becomes lost. In short, "Gre- gorians," as used for the most part in England at the present time, are nothing more than ordinary chants, not, however, . having an uniform number of bars of music. Hence the same difficulties present themselves which will be explained below in the account of Anglican pointing, e.g. : Ex. 4. a. ^ w * , ■ _-i ^ at the presence | of the God of Jacob. at the presence of the | God of Ja - It is generally understood that when the number of notes exceeds the number of syl- lables, the notes not required maybe omitted, e.g.: From Sargent. theFath*er}*°'^'°"'^^™ and to the Ho-ly Ghost. This is a negative proof of the original syllabic tendency of Gregorian pointing, it being merely a corollary of the law that there should be " one syllable to one note," to say, " if only a few syllables are left, let the notes not wanted be omitted." This rule is now generally neglected ; and, even in canticles with such short verses as the Te Deum, the syllables are slurred to the superfluous notes, lest the hearers' notion of " the tune " should be disturbed. In 1843, the Rev. F. Oakeley published his Gregorian Psalter, carrying out, in its integrity, thp principle of the syllabic system, e.g. : £x. 6. y From Oakeley. and the tongue that speak - eth proud things. Notwithstanding its merits, this Psalter seems not to have been largely used, and where used has been superseded by others in which the tones have been " anglicanized " and made more palatable by the unjustifiable introduction of fixed accent and rhythm. Another danger which presents itself to the advocates of Gregorian chants is their limited number. It is out of the question that new Gregorian chants should be " expressly com- posed " for Psalters, but it is absolutely neces- sary to provide a variety of chants to avoid the monotony of over-repetition. Hence it is, (i) that endings heard on the Continent, what- ever be their modern growth or their incom- patibility with the Gregorian scale, are greedily seized and made use of in this country ; and (2) that foliations or the vicious introduction of auxiliary notes, above or below the genuine notes of the chant, are as readily welcomed by Gregorian editors, e.g. : Ex. 8 is called a form of the 5th tone. No. 9 a form of the 4th. Ex. 10 shows a foliated form of the media- tion of the I St tone. The division of the plain tones and foliated tones into ferial and fes- tival does credit to the ingenuity, but not to the historical integrity, of Psalm-pointers. The French and Belgians have ever been celebrated as clever adulterators of plain-song ; and as their manuals now form the chief text- books of English Gregorianizers, it is not difficult to prophecy a general decadence of the art of Gregorian chanting in this country. (2) An Anglican chant is of two sorts, single • and double. A single chant is in two strains, the first of three, and the second of four bars in length : Pelhau Humphreys. A double chant has the length of two single ROBIHSON. • It has been stated, and the statement is often re- peated, that the double chant was suggested by the accidental performance of two single chants in succes- sion by a nameless pupil of Hine, who was organist of Gloucester Cathedral between the years 1710 and 1730. In"Boyce's Cathedral Music," published 1760— 1778, is a double-chant by John Robinson, who was organist of Westminster Abbey from 1727 to 1762, dying at the ripe age of eighty ; and as there exists a MS. copy of the same chant in the handwriting of Dr. Turner, the father-in-law of Robinson, with the date 1706, in one of the old MS. service-books belonging to St. Paul's Cathedral, there is reason for questioning the story concerning the accepted origin of the double-chant. (84) CHANT. The two strains are also called halves; one half is sung to that part of a verse of the Prayer-book version of the Psalms on each side of the colon, whether the number of words be many or few, whether the sentence is com- plete or not ; as : When the company of the spearmen and mul-"J titudeot the mighty are scattered abroad I . , silver- among the beasts of the people, so thatfP""^"" suver. they humbly bring - - - 11-1 And when he hath scattered^ .,„. ,_ the people - - -I "'^' *= " light My tongue is the pen : rea - dy writer. The opening chord of a chant, and also the first chord after each double bar, may be sus- tained at will, to accommodate the number of syllables contained in each part of the verse. These chords are called reciting notes, those which follow are called the inflections; or, according to some, the first half of the chant is the mediation, and the second the. ca- dence. The fitting of the words to the music is called pointing. The pointing of the Psalms and Canticles is a matter concern- ing which there are diversities of opinion. The principal object to be aimed at in pointing is "the apportioning out of the emphasis of the words to be sung, after the manner that an eloquent speaker would recite them ;" but as sentences are capable of as many accents more or less sensible as there are words, the diversity of opinion on the sub- ject is not to be wondered at. The words are divided in the Prayer-book not always in the best manner as regards their complete gram- matical sense ; and as it is at present deemed unwise to adopt any plan but the one therein suggested, difference of opinion will exist until a change is made in its system of stops. The varieties of pointing arise from the desire to unite an oratorical with a musical accent ; and the many ways in which this is attempted will be best seen by the following quotations from pointed Psalters in frequent use. [The lines after each set of words indicate the place of the bar in the chant.] Psalm cxxxvii. No. i. Dr. Wesley's Psalter. For they that led us away captive required of us then a song and melody in our heaviness. No. 2. The Cathedral Psalter. For they that led us away captive required of us then a song and melody in our heaviness. No. 3. The Congregational Psalter. For they that led us away captive required of us then a song and melody in heaviness. No. 4, For they that led us away captive required of us then a song and melody in our Monk and Ouseley's Psalteb. heavi- The form of the chant has been the real cause of the difficulties of pointing. An ordinary melodic sentence consists of two, four, or eight bars, but the chant has first three, then four bars. This peculiarity does not, however, offend the ear so much as the eye, for in reciting, the rhythmical cadence is to a certain extent completed. Various theories have been put forth to ac- count for the 7-bar or twice 7-bar form of the . Anglican Chant, all writers being agreed that a 7-bar phrase is not actually presented to the ear in the process of chanting. The theorists may be divided into two classes — those who would add a bar to the commencement of the chant, that is, to the reciting note ; and those who would add a bar at the half cadence and whole cadence. The following is the method in which the former would write out Robin- son's Chant : Those who lean to the latter opinion would write it thus : ^ -G>— =£^^- - #=i^ -Ji|J- c^ ^ : ijf.bh d=^=^ — 11=^=^ [^-+H-^ r:^ I ^ 1. ofTbTUin]. Ecdt. n^j ■^ \ \ rJ i-J \ -fii-J Us» In opposition to the first view taken, it may be urged that in music the chords of cadence precede the final chord, and in Ex. i, they fall on the final accent, as is shown by doubling the bars, e.g. : Except in rare forms of dance-tunes the above rhythm would be unbearable. In favour of the second form (Ex. 2), it may be stated that in all the best pointed Psalters an accent^ a larger fount of type, or a bar, marks the close of the Recitation and commencement of the musical rhythm, and that the syllable or syllables so made prominent only occupy one bar of time. In opposition to the second (85 CHANT- form, it may be remarked that the final bar of both halves of a double chant is not in prac- tice held out for the length of two bars. One or the other of these theories may be true, and the reader is left to decide on their re- spective merits. Certain writers have assumed that the Anglican Chant is a highly tractable collection of sounds, bound by no laws of rhythm ; and acting on this notion, have attempted to unbar some modern chants. This view has led to a system of pointing by which as many words as possible are collected on the reciting note, e.g. : Praise Him in the sound of the I trum- I pet« j) &c. Praise Him upon ^ .. ^. ,, Praise Him ,„„j f„„„ ik«i«ii the well-tunedl cym-Jba'Ml „po„ the 1 loud-lcym-Jbals]! The above system (known as the " Sud- bury ") is said to be smooth, but the number of slurs involved would produce this effect, although opposed to the true principles of chanting. It has been said " that the best practical solution of the difficulty of chanting would be offered by selecting a set of the most appro- priate chants, whose melodies, within the range of all voices, would not suffer by being sung by a whole congregation, and to have every word set to a note of relative length, so as to ensure evenness of tone and accuracy of accent." Some of the early church com- posers have left examples of the Venite set to distinct music, often chant-like, so that the thing here suggested would not be so great a novelty. But it would be difficult to make such a plan general, for, leaving out of the question the additionar time such a service would occupy, none but educated choirs could perform it, and the ordinary chant is so easy that there is little if any trouble needed to teach it to unskilful choristers. The chant at present in use might be retained, and if elocu- tion is the main object of chanting, a different system of pointing might be devised, by em-- ploying the present authorised division of the verses only when convenient. Alterations might be made in a verse (i) when the sense IS incomplete in it, (2) when a verse contains two distinct subjects, (3) when the present colon interrupts the logical sequence, e.g.: (i) Psalm xvii. 8. Keep me as the apple of an eye : hide me under the shadow of thy wings, (g) from the ungodly that trouble me. (2) Psalm Ixxxix. 40. Remember Lord the rebukes that thy servants have ■ and how I do bear in my bosom the rebukes of many people; (50) wherewith thine enemies have blas- phemed thee, and slandered the footsteps of thine ^"praised be the Lord for evermore : Amen and Amen. (3) Psalm xiv. II Who shall give salvation unto Israel out of Sion ' (:) when the Lord turneth the captivity of his people, then shall Jacob rejoice, and Israel shall be glad. In some of the numerous editions- (issued between the years 1655 and 1730) of Play- ford's "Introduction to the Skill of Musick," there is an appendix containing the " order of singing the Divine Service in Cathedrals." In these it is said that "the Venite is begun by one of the choir, then sung by sides, ob- serving to make the like break or close in the middle of every verse, according as it is shorter or longer." The use or tune for each day in the week is given to the first verse of the Venite, and these tunes are such as are now called Gregorian. There are two others — " Canterbury tune " and " Imperial tune " — " proper for Choir ; to sing the Psalms, Te Deum, Benedictus, or Jubilate, to the organ or sometime without it." The manner in which the words are disposed will be seen by the following copy of the first-named of these tunes : re - joice in the strength of our sal - va - ti - on. Dr. Turner, 1706, gives the pointing of the same verse as follows : heart- i - ly re-joice in the strength of our sal - va - ti - on. It will be seen that this chant contains only five complete bars of four crotchets each. The bars in it do not indicate the place of accent, or even the best division of the chant for the purpose of pointing. The earliest printed copy of a now well-known chant by the same author, is given in the following form (from " Fifty double and single chants being the most Favourite as performed at St. Pauls, Westminster, and most of the Cathe- drals in England. London : Printed for C. and S. Thompson, at No. 75, St. Paul's Churchyard ";. (86) CHANT CHANTERRES. In the following example (from the " Har- mony of Sion ") the chant is compressed into four bars. Wepi^seThoei O Ood; ttq actenowlcdga Dhee to ba the Lord. And Dr. Boyce, in his " Cathedral Music," writes the Venite to the chant ascribed to Tallis thus : Let us heartily rejoice in the strength of our sal - va tion. The method of chanting the Psalms adopted in the present day is for each of the two di- visions of the choir to sing a verse alternately. In some places where a double chant is used the whole of the chant is sung to two verses by each side in turn. In one cathedral (Ox- ford) each side sings one half of a verse only. In consequence of this custom of the alternate chanting of the Psalms, it is supposed that wherever alternate singing is mentioned in ancient records, chanting is meant. The ob- jections entertained against chanting by the followers of Wickliffe, and in later time by those ofCalvin, were expressed in violent terms, not altogether necessary to repeat here. It is true these reformers approved of the people joining " with one voice in a plain tune, but not of tossing the Psalms from one side to the other with intermingling of organs." Less moderate in their deeds than in their words, the Puritans, when in power during the Com- monwealth, destroyed all organs and every music-book they could lay their hands upon. Metrical psalmody supplied the place of chant- ing, the Psalms were rarely if ever sung, and so, in contradistinction to Sternhold and Hop- kins, or Tate and Brady, were called the «' Reading Psalms," a practice continued as lately as the year 1873, when the Psalms for the day sung at the meeting of the Charity Children in St. Paul's Cathedral were so called. Chanting was regarded as essentially Popish, and alternate singing an abomination even among church people. It was never heard in parish churches in the last century, the ca- thedrals alone retaining the traditional use. By degrees a change was effected ; the un- clean thing was handled without any alarming effect, and even Dissenters changed their opinions upon the subject. Instead of con- demning chanting, they adopted it. Dr. Chan- ning thought it "the most purely Protestant music ;" Mr. Newman Hall considered it " a homage to the Bible, calculated to make the Word of God better known, appreciated, and loved;" others would "by no means have it banished ;" and the preface to the fourth edition of a little book called "Euphonia" '(1870), designed to familiarise Non-conform- ists with the principles of chanting, states that "the objections entertained by many to the ancient practice of chanting having been much diminished, there is now a growing feeling in favour of singing portions of the Bible in the very words of Scripture, rather than through the medium of metrical versions exclusively." This book, which is historically valuable, contains one hundred portions of Scripture pointed for chanting, together with a selection of familiar, if not good, Anglican chants ; the principle guiding the choice being liveliness of melody and general tunefulness. These facts tend to show that the usefulness of chanting is in process of general recog- nition by " all who profess and call themselves Christians ;" that it is no longer held to be the type of a peculiarity of religious opinion ; that there is a mutual interchange of means towards a spiritual end; that whereas one side does not disdain to encourage the use of metrical psalmody in its services, the other borrows chanting, defending it as " a simple but impressive mode of worship." Chants have been found convenient means of rendering hymns of irregular metre, or any hymn of which a simple musical treatment is required. Chant (Fr.) (i) Song, tune. (2) The voice part or melody. Chantant {Fr>) Singing, musical, as cafe chaniant, a musical coffee-house. Chant en ison, or chant egal (Fr.) (i) The name of a species of chant, consisting of two sounds only, which was adopted by many of the old religious orders. (2) Monotone. Chanter. A name given to the singing priest on duty. Chanter a livre ouvert (Fr.) To sing at sight. Chanterelle (Fr.) (i) The first or highest string upon instruments played with a bow. The E string of the violin, and the A of the viola and violoncello. (2) The highest string of a guitar or lute. Chanterres [Fr.) A name given to ballad /87) CHANTEUR CHEF D'ORCHESTRE. or poem singers in mediseval times, originally applied to the Proven9al Cantadours. Chanteur ,p ■>] A male singer. Chanteuse '■ *'j A female singer. Chant gregorien (Fr.) Plain song. Chant pastoral (Fr.) A shepherd's song, or melody in imitation of one. Chantries. Endowed foundations in the Romish Church, instituted for the due per- formances of requiem masses for the repose of the soul of the' founder and his family. Chantries were attached to existing parish churches, or more frequently to monastic establishments and cathedrals. At the Refor- mation the practjpe of soul-masses and the chantries became disused, and their revenues absorbed. Chant-royal (Fr.) A certain form of early French poetry set to music. Pasquier de- scribes it as a song in honour of God, the Virgin, or the saints, or any other " argument of dignity, especially if coupled with distress." The chant-royal was written in heroic stanzas, and closed with a L' envoy or stanza containing a dedication, recapitulation, or moral. Chantry priest. A chaplain or singing parson attached to a chantry. One whose duty it was to sing masses for the speedy •deliverance of the soul of a founder or bene- factor from purgatory. Chant sur le livre {Fr.) A system of •descant by which the part sung by one voice, •as written in the open book, could be accom- panied by another voice in counterpoint, more -or less free, according to the movement of the canto fermo, which was sung generally by a bass voice, the dechant being taken by a tenor or other high voice. It was necessary that the singer of the canto fermo or plain- song should render it a la rigueur, that is, should not make those slight changes of the flength of the notes which would be justifiable and usual when singing alone ; nor could he Jiold out the rests {tenere punctum) as he other- wise would, lest the dechanteur should be •upset in his calculations. The full rules of this system are. to be found in early treatises. It was called in Italy contrapunto di mente, or alia mente. Chapeau Chinois (Fr.) A set of small bells arranged in the form of a Chinese hat. Pavilion chinois. Characteristischer Ton {Ger.) The lead- ing note. {Fr.) sensible. Characters. A general name for the signs employed in music, such as brace, bind, bar, sharp, flat, natural,, clef, stave, shake, turn, beat, and the signs of words indicating time ^nd expression, e.g. «= => C (tj, &c. CharacterstUcke {Ger.) Pieces of music written with the intention of describing cer- tain impressions by means of sound. Beet- hoven's Pastoral Symphony, Mendelssohn's Reformation Symphony, and the overture and music to "A Midsummer Night's Dream," are specimens of this style of composition. Charivari {Fr.) Mock music, clatter. Chasse {Fr.) Hunting; co ta chasse, in the hunting style. Chatzozerah {Heb.) The chatzozerah is generally thought to have been a straight trumpet, with a bell or " pavilion " as it is termed. Moses received specific directions as to making them. " Make thee two trum- pets of silver ; of a whole piece shalt thou make them : that thou mayest use them for the calling of the assembly, and for the jour- neying of the camps." In Ps. xcviii. 6, the chatzozerah and shophar are brought into juxtaposition : "With chatzozerah and sound of shophar make a joyful noise before the Lord the King ;" or, as it incorrectly stands in the Prayer-book version, " With trumpets also and shawms, &c." In this passage the Sep- tuagint has it, 'Er aaXiriy^iv tXaratc, Kai favrj (raXntyy OQ Ksparivrie, " With ductile trumpets, and the sound of horn-trumpets." So, too, the Vulgate : " In tubis ductilibus et voce tubse corneas." The word mikshah, which ii applied to the description of the chatzozerah in Num. x. 2, which means "rounded" or " turned," may either apply to a complete twist in the tube of the instrument, or, what is more probable, to the rounded outline of the bell. But if the former is the real inter- pretation of the epithet, it would make it more like a trombone, and similar in form to that depicted on the Arch of Titus. But, on the other hand, the account given by Josephus points out the latter characteristic of shape. He says, " Moses invented a kind of trum- pet of silver; in length it was little less than a cubit, and it was somewhat thicker than a pipe ; its opening was oblong, so as to permit blowing on it with the mouth ; at the lower end it had the form of a bell, like a horn." It seems chiefly to have been brought into use in the Hebrew ritual, but was also occa- sionally a battle-call, and blown on other warlike occasions. Check-action. [Pianoforte.] Check-spring. . A small spring added for the assistance of. any. weakness in the return of action in the mechanism of an organ. Chef d'attaque {Fr.) The leader of an orchestra, or chorus. Chef d'ceuvre {Fr.) The master-work of any composer. ' Chef d'orchestre {Fr.) (i) The leader. (2) Conductor of an orchestra^ : ■ • . (88) CHELIDONIZING CHICA. Chelidonizing (from the Gk. xeXiSoW^w, to twitter like a swallow). ; Singing the swallow- song (xeXtSovtiT/xa), a popular song sung by Rhodian boys in the month Boedromian, on the return of the swallows, and made into an opportunity of begging. A similar song sur- vives in modern Greece. A crow was also carried about by begging boys who sang ; whence Gk. Kopiavi^m. Examples of both songs are given by Athenseus. Pamphilicus of Alex- andria, in his chapter on names, calls the men making collections for the crow, coronisice, and their songs, coronismata. .There was a similar custom in Ireland on St. Stephen's day. A number of young men carried a furze- bush on which a wren was tied, and stopping before the houses of the gentry, repeated the following lines : " The wren, the wren is the king of all birds, Was caught on St. Stephen's day in the furze. Although he's little, his family's great, Then pray, kind gentle folks, give him a treat." In England and Scotland there are many customs of a like character, as for example, "going a gooding" on St. Thomas's day; singing the Hagmena on the three days pre- ceding Christmas day ; the children's May-day march, when they carry garlands of spring- flowers and boughs, and stopping at the doors of people of the better sort, sing a long song, one verse of which runs : be dispensed with, as is the case in a har- monium. branch of May we have brought you, And at your door it stands; It is but asprout, but it's well bud-ded out, The works of our Lord's liands. Chelys. {Gk.) xeXvq, Ht. a tortoise {Lat. testudo). (i) The lyre of Mercury, supposed to have been formed by strings stretched across a tortoiseshell. (2) In the i6th and 17th centuries a bass-viol and division-viol were each called chelys. Cheng. The Chinese organ, which con- sists of a series of tubes having free reeds. It is held in the hand and blown by the mouth. The introduction of this instrument into Eu- rope led to the invention of the accordion and harmonium. Kratzenstein, an organ-builder of St. Petersburg, having become possessed of one, conceived the idea of applying the principle to organ-stops. The tone of free reeds is enforced by tubes, as in the cheng and in certain organ-stops, but the tubes can Cherubical hymn. The ter sanctus, or trisagion in the service of the Holy Commu- nion, " Holy, holy, holy," &c. Chest of viols. An expression signifying a set of instruments necessary for a " consort of viols." They were six in number, namely two trebles, two tenors, and two basses. A chest of viols, with a harpsichord or organ, with an occasional hautboy or flageolet, formed an ordinary orchestra in the early part of the 17th century. Chevalet {Fr.) The bridge of a stringed instrument. Cheville (Fr.) A peg for a violin, guitar, lute, &c. Chevroter {Fr.) To skip, quiver, to sing with uncertain tone, after the manner of goats. Alia vibrato. Chiara {It.) Clear, distinct, pure, e.g., chiara voce, clear voice ; chiara quarta, a per- fect fourth. Chiaramente {If.) Clearly, purely, dis- tinctly. Chiarezza, con {It.) With brightness, clearness. Chiarina {It.) A clarion or trumpet. Chiave (/f.) (i) Key or clef. (2) A failure. [Fiasco.] Chica. The name of a dance popular among the Spaniards and the South American settlers descended from them. It is said to have been introduced by the Moors, and to have been the origin of the Fandango, which some writers declare to be the Chica under a more decent form. It is of a similar cha- racter with the dance of the Angrismene per- formed at the festivals of Venus, and still popular among the modern Greeks. The English jig is said to be one form of the Chica. It is not a little singular that the word came into use soon after a free intercourse with Spain was opened. The words Chaconne (89) CHIESA CHORDiE ESSENTIALES. (Fr.), Ciaccona {It.), Cachuca (S/'.),Czardasch (Hungarian), describe modern modifications of the Chica. [Bolero.] [Country Dance.] Chiesa (It.) Church. Sonata di Chiesa. A sacred sonata. Chiffres {Fr.) Figures, basse chiffrSe, figured bass. Chime, (i) To play a tune on bells, either by machinery or by hand, by means of hammers, or swinging the clappers, the bell remaining unmoved. It is opposed to ring- ing in which the bells are raised, that is, swung round. (2) A carillon. Chirimia (Sp.) An oboe (from Chirimoya, a pear), the portion of the oboe in which the mouth-piece is inserted, called in German Birn, a pear. Chirogymnast. Finger-trainer. A con- trivance for strengthening the fingers, consist- ing of a cross-bar, from which are suspended rings attached to springs. The term is also applied to any apparatus designed for a like object. Chironomy. Gk. xn-povofiia. (i) Gesticu- lation by the use of the hands. (2) Directions given by movements of the hand, especially to a chorus. >In the early church of the West such a system was much in vogue ; and some have maintained that the signs of sounds, as then written, were merely pictorial represen- tations of the movement of the hand. Chiroplast. Finger-former. An instru- ment invented by Logier in 1810, to facilitate the proper method of playing the pianoforte. It consisted of a position-frame, finger-guides, and a wrist-guide. The position-frame con- sisted of two parallel rails extending from one extremity of the keys to the other, and fastened to the pianoforte. This frame served as a line upon which the finger-guides travelled ; these guides were two moveable brass frames, with five divisions for the fingers, and to each guide was attached a brass wire with a regu- lator, called the wrist-guide, by which the position of the wrist was preserved from in- clination outwards. With the instructions for the use of the chiroplast, progressive lessons on the pianoforte were given ; and in the suc- cess attending the use of the hand-guide, these lessons, which were cleverly designed, had doubtless as much to do as the machine itself, which, however, soon fell into disuse. Chitarra (It.) A guitar. Chitarra col arco (It.) A violin with sides gently curved, as in a guitar ; without corners, as in an ordinary violin. Chitarrina (7^) A small Neapolitan guitar. Chiudendo (It.) Closing, ending. The word is generally employed in connection with another, chiudendo colla prima strofe, ending with the first verse. Chiuso (It.) Close, hidden, concealed, e.g., canone chiuso, a close canon, [Canon] ; con hocca chiusa, with the mouth closed, humming. Chceur (Fr.) [Chorus.] Choir, (i) A part of the buildmg in a cathedral or collegiate chapel set apart for the performance of the ordinary daily service. The choir is generally situated at the eastern end of the building, and is frequently enclosed by a screen, upon which the organ is placed. (2) The minor canons, choral vicars, and choristers, or other singers taken collectively, are spoken of as the choir. The choral body is usually divided into two sets of voices, the one sitting on the north and the other on the south side of the chancel, and are known by the respective titles of Cantoris and Decani from their nearness to the Cantor (or Pre- centor) and to the Decanus (or Dean). In most cathedrals and collegiate chapels, the Decani side is held to be the side of honour, the best voices are placed there, and all the "verses" or soli parts, if not otherwise directed, are sung by that side, which is also considered the " first choir " (coro primo) in eight-part music. Choir-man. An adult member of a choir. Choir Organ. [Organ, §1.] Chor (Ger.) Chorus. Choir of a church or concert room. Choragus. (Lat.) (i) The leader of the chorus in the ancient Greek drama. [Chorus.] (2) The title of a musical official at Oxford University, whose duties are described in the Statutes. Choral, (i) Of, or belonging to the choir, concert, or chorus. Choral service, a service with music. (2) A hymn or psalm tune. Chorale (Ger.) [Hymn tunes.] Choraliter (Ger.) In a choral form. Choralmassig (Ger.) [Choraliter.] Choral Music. Vocal music in parts, as opposed to instrumental. Choral Service. A service of song ; a service is said to be partly choral, when only canticles, hymns, &c., are sung ; wholly choral, when in addition to these, the versicles, re- sponses, &c., are sung. Choral Vicars. [Lay Vicars.] Chor-amt (Ger.) Choral service. Cathe- dral service. Choraules (Gk. •xppavXrn from xopoe and aiXt'w.) (i) A player on the flute in the Greek Theatre. (2) One who keeps a chorus and plays in it himself. Chord. A combination of musical sounds, consonant or dissonant. [Harmony.] Chord. A string. Chorda characteristica. A chord of the 7th in which a leading note appears. Chordae essentiales {late Lat.) The tonic and its 3rd and 5th. The key-chord. (90) CHORDAULODION CHORISTER. Chordaulodion. A self-acting musical in- strument, invented by Kauffmann, of Dresden, in 1812. Chor-dienst (Ger.) [Chor-amt.] Chordometer. A gauge for measuring the thickness of strings. Chords 6toufr6s {Fr.) (i) Chords played on the pianoforte with the sordino pedal held down. (2) Chords on the harp, lute, guitar, or dulcimer, damped by placing the hand gently on the strings. Choriambus. A metrical foot consisting of two short between two long syllables. Chorister. A member of a choir whether juvenile or adult. At the present day the children of the choir of a church or cathedral, are those usually distinguished by the term, but so recently as the commencement of the present century, all who were engaged in taking part in the musical portion of the service, were called choristers. The word derived from x°P"s> by metonomy came to signify a band of singers or dancers, or any member of such a band, and hence the term is often applied to a singer in a chorus not necessarily belonging to a church, just as choir is applied to the place in which church singers sit, as also to any body of singers of sacred or secular music. For example, Les enfans de choeur, children of the choir or chorus ; Dom-chor, cathedral choir or chorus, and Coro del chiesa, church choir or chorus ; Choristers, or boy singers, called " clerks of the third form," in some .places, are attached to every cathedral in England, and receive advantages of more or less value, in exchange for their services as members of the choir. In addition to necessary instruction in music, they have an education in other matters, varying in many places according to the con- struction put upon the Statutes by the deans and chapters of the cathedrals. The interpre- tation of these Statutes has been the subject of grave dispute, as the advantages accruing to the choristers have been from time to time most shamefully ignored. In days past, the children have been shut out from the enjoy- ment of preferential privileges made con- cerning them, and their education and moral training has been so little cared for, that many a child who in early years was familiarised with the most sacred matters, has acquired for them the proverbial result of familiarity. A better state of things is now being brought into existence with a result which cannot be considered other than hopeful. In some places private instructors have been engaged to teach cathedral choristers a few matters besides music ; in others they are admitted into the chief grammar schools of the several cities. The course of instruc- tion also varies, for in some cases they are taught the simple elements of reading and writing, in others they learn as much of the higher branches of education as is possible in addition to the duties of their profession. In many instances their musical instructors impart no more than is absolutely needful for the exercise of cathedral duty, and in some music is taught scientifically as well as practi- cally, not only in connection with the immediate work in hand, but also with reference to future use. In very few instances are the boys boarded and lodged within the precincts of the cathedral, or placed under the immediate care of the cathedral authorities out of the hours devoted to duty — a matter of much regret. The organist is sometimes music- master of the choristers, sometimes the office is distinct, and is held independently of the organist. In many cathedrals a sum of money as apprentice fee is paid to a chorister on leaving the choir; this is instead of the money at one time set apart for the maintenance of the chorister as a student at the universities. For instance, in the Statutes of Stoke College, in Suffolk, founded by Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, are these words: " of which said queristers, after their breasts be changed (their voices broken) we will the most apt of wit and capacity be holpen with exhibition of forty shillings, the rest with lesser summe." In olden times, choristers were privileged to demand a fee from every newly installed officer of the church, and to levy " spur money" from all who attended the service in riding gear. In the former case the fee varied according to the position of the installed officer, and was paid without conditions being imposed in return ; in the latter, the wearer of spurs could require the youthful tax-gatherer to repeat his " gamut " perfectly ; if he hesi- tated, he lost his spur-money. The boys ot the Chapel Royal were the last to keep up the custom which has now fallen into disuse with many others equally absurd. For ex- ample : the choristers in many cathedrals and collegiate establishments were permitted to rule over their superiors for a short period once a year, generally from December 6th, the Feast of St. Nicholas (the patron saint of sailors, parish clerks, thieves, and boys) until Innocents-day, December 28th. From the aptitude acquired in these ludicrous ceremo- nies, the choristers gained such a skill in acting that they were selected to perform in the mystery plays of old time, and later to represent the masterly conceptions of such writers as Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and others. It was not alone to the choir boys attached to unimportant establishments that these matters were entrusted, but also to the children of " Powle's churche " and of the " Chapel Royale " of Her Majesty Queen ( 91 ) CHORISTER CHORUS. Elizabeth. The possession of such powers and privileges may have been exceedingly pleasing while it lasted, but the ill sorted union of the theological and the theatrical is happily dissolved, it is hoped for ever. The life of a chorister in these remote days was, however, not all bliss, as the owner of a good voice would probably find to his cost, more especially if he was not fortunate enough to belong to St. Paul's Cathedral, or the Chapel Royal, for there were officers armed with the awful warrant of the Royal Court, empowering them to roam the country, to visit all churches and cathedrals of the lesser sort in which choral singing was practised, and to select and take away all boys "with good breasts," that is to say, all with voices of more than ordinary excellence, for the service of the privileged choirs. The " placard " or warrant was often used illegally, and chil- dren were impressed for choirs other than those above mentioned. There is reason for believing that choristers so gained were in general badly used, if we may trust Thomas Tusser (1523-1580), the author of " Five hundred points of good husbandry," for he speaks of his good fortune in having been assigned to John Redford, organist of St. Paul's, in terms which prove that choristers were not so kindly used in other places. His situation at Wallingford, from whence he was impressed, he laments in the words : " O shameful time ! for every crime What toosed ears, like baited beares. What bobbed lippes, what yerkes, what nips. What hellish toies ! What robes, how bare, what colledge fare. What bread, how stale; what penny ale, Then Wallingford, how wert thou abhor'd Of silly boies." In another verse he contrasts his treatment : " But marke the chance, myself to vance. By friendships lot to Pauls I got, So found I grace a certayn space Still to remaine With Redford there, the like no where, For cunning such, and vertue much ; By whom some part, of musicke art So did I gain." On the Continent choristers are attached to many cathedrals, but their duties and educa- tion are based upon a different system to that in general use in Great Britain at the present time. Before the time of the dissolu- tion of the monasteries the position of choristers was much the same as that enjoyed abroad by them, and it was no uncommon thing to find " the children of the choir " in after life occupying stations of eminence and trust in both Church and State. The venerable Bede, St. Swithun, St. Hugh of Lincoln, William of Wykeham, William Wainfleet, Erasmus, and his friend. Dean Colet, the founder of St. Paul's School, and scores of other distm- guished men were choristers. The musicians who have gained the first knowledge of their art within the walls of a church are many, and comprise among others the names of Palestrina, Frescobaldi, Orlando di Lasso (im- pressed from Hainault into Italy as a child), Padre Martini, John Sebastian Bach, Haydn, William Byrd,Tallis, Dr. Bull, Dr. Rogers, Dr. Blow, Elias Ashmole, Henry Purcell, Dr. Croft, Pelham Humphreys, Dr. Greene, BattishiU, Dr. Burney, Attwood, and many famous living musicians whose names it is not necessary here to catalogue. Chorton {Ger.) (i) The ancient ecclesi- astical pitch in Germany. It was supposed to be higher than that employed for secular music by about a tone. The terms Kam- merton and Chorton were used to signify the difference between a high and a low pitch for the same denominated sound. (2) The melody of a hymn or psalm tune. Chorus. Chor (Ger.) Choeur (i^n) Coro(/f.) (i) A band of singers and dancers employed on certain occasions in the ancient Greek theatres, and other public places. It was the custom for the whole population of a city to meet on stated occasions, and to offer thanks- givings to the gods for any special advantages obtained, by singing hymns accompanied with dances. Donaldson derives the word from Xopoe, the name of the place where these exer- cises were performed in Sparta, and shows the connection between the civil and religious ceremonies of the ancient Greeks, saying that music and dancing were the basis of the re- ligious, political, and military organisation of the Dorian States. The choral songs were always written in the Doric dialect, and the choral dances were Dorian also. In course of time, as the fine arts became more culti- vated, the duties of the chorus as a branch of worship devolved upon a few, and ultimately upon one, who bore the whole expenses, when paid dancers were employed. This person was called the choragus and it was his business to provide the chorus in all plays, whether tragic or comic. His first duty after collecting his chorus was to find and pay a teacher (xopoSiSao-KaXoc) who instructed them in the songs and dances which they had to perform. The choragus was allowed to press . children, if their parents did not give them up of their own accord. He lodged and main- tained the chorus until the time of performance and provided them with such aliments as conduce to strengthen the voice, he had also to find masks and dresses. The honour was much coveted among the wealthy Athenians. The choragus who exhibited the best theatrical entertainment generally received a tripod as a reward of praise. (92) CHORUS. The choral dance reached its perfection in the xopoe KvKXiKog at Athens. This chorus consisted of 50 persons. The number of the chorus varied in later times according to the performance. The ^opoc rpayiKog consisting of from 12 to 15, the xopoe koiiikoq of 24, and the \op6Q auTvpiKoe of the same number as the TpayiKoc. The chorus in the time of the Attic tragedy consisted of a group of persons, male and female, who remained in the theatre as witnesses as well as spectators. When they spoke, it was to offer reflections on the scene passing before them, taking part with or against the dramatis personcs by offering advice, comfort, exhortation, or dissuasion. At times the chorus was divided and spoke antiphonally. These divisions moved accord- ing to a pre-arranged order, which movement probably originated the naming of the stanzas which were called strophe, antistrophe and epode. When not engaged in singing, the chorus grouped itself upon a platform called the Thymele, which was in the centre of the building, and from whence all measurements were made, the semicircle of the amphitheatre being described from it as its centre. Of the exact part music played, whether elaborate compositions were employed or not, little is now known. It is supposed that a simple rh3rthmical declamation analogous to chanting was used. The accompaniment of flutes in unison was made use of for the choruses. The chorus declined with the ancient tragedy, and the few attempts made by modern writers to revive the manner of the ancients, as in Schiller's " Braut von Messina" have not been successful. The well-known Antigone and CEdipus Colonseus of Mendelssohn can scarcely be regarded as a reproduction of the ancient Greek chorus, owing to the insuperable difficulty of adapting modern instrumentation to the spirit and observances of the older customs. (2) A musical instrument variously described by different writers. A bagpipe must have been signified when the word was used in the loth century, as a chorus or corus is described as " pellis simplex cum duobus cicutis." The word is supposed to be connected with cornemuse, as it is sometimes written cormusa and corusa. In the Promptorium Parvulorum, 15th century, the word is used to describe " a crowde, an instrument of musyke;" — the drone of the bagpipe and the unstoppable strings of the "crowde" bearing a sort of burden or chorus to the melody played on the other pipes or strings. Busby in his " Dic- tionary of Music," 1810, says that the word is the old Scottish name for a trumpet of loud tone. (3) A personage in some of Shakespeare's plays, who between the acts utters reflections (93 upon scenes that are past, and describes scenes to come. (4) A composition for a number of singers, with or without accompaniment, intended as the expression of the united sentiments of a multitude. A chorus may be independent and complete in itself, or may be a portion of a large work either sacred or secular. It may contain opposed sentiments interwoven, as in the Kermesse scene in Gounod's "Faust;" in Meyerbeer's "Huguenots," and "L'Etoile du Nord;" Wagner's " Tannhauser" and "Lohen- grin ;" according to the purposes of the drama. Choruses with opposed subjects are not in- frequent in oratorios, as in Handel's chorus, " Fixed in his everlasting seat," in " Samson." The union of independent themes may be traced by the student with advantage, ia the choruses of such compositions as Bach's Passion music, &c. Double, triple, or even quadruple choruses are often found in the works of the old Italian church writers, as well as in the sacred compositions of Bach, Handel, and later musicians. The choruses in the early Italian operas were devoid of dramatic character, and in fact, were often independent of the action of the opera in which they were inserted. As they contained occasional reflections on pass- ing events they were in some sort connected with the ancient Greek chorus, the stage direc- tions enjoining the dancers to accompany the singing with motions and gestures, also formed another link binding thpm to their ancient model. The invention of the operatic chorus, or rather the introduction of combined voices as a necessary part of the dramatic action is claimed by the French. Many of the lesser musical dramas, burlettas, interludes, &c., had no choruses properly speaking, a glee or some concerted piece for the principals being all that is found in them. The choruses of Lully are not very dramatic, and those of Rameau are very badly constructed, and often incorrect as to their harmony, so that the im- provements introduced by these two masters were not extended to the chorus. Among the followers of Lully, Campra (1660-1744) is the most distinguished; he treated his choruses in a more advanced manner than his model, not onlyinthe development of harmonic effects, but also by the introduction of novel rhythms. Gluck invented morceaux d'ensemble, grand indeed, when compared with the choral effects by other composers of his own and preced- ing times; Spontini added new instrumental colouring ; Cherubini employed the graces of form to clothe the musical outlines suggested by his predecessors ; Rossini did as little com- paratively for the chorus from a dramatic point of view, as Meyerbeer did much. Some of Bellini's choruses are conceived in fine dra- ) CHORUS. matic spirit ; Verdi's, though occasionally vulgar in detail, are by no means wanting in general force and appropriateness ; the faults they exhibit are due to the influence of the fetters of tradition, and a wearying use of simple tonic and dominant harmonies ; Gou- nod's are often admirable, but as the expression of the voices and opinions of a multitude, Wagner's choruses are nearest the true ideal. In many of the early English operas the chorus is an inconsiderable item. Exception must, however, be made in favour of those by Henry Purcell, whose works of this class exist, while many of the other portions of his operas have fallen out of memory. Neither Lampe, Arne, or Storace paid much attention to the development of chorus, but its improve- ment in smaller dramatic works is due to Sir He,nry Bishop. As conductor of the music at Covent Garden Theatre for many years, he produced a series of compositions of more or less value, some of which live, while the dramas and plays for which they were vsrritten have fallen completely into oblivion. His earlier choruses have the glee attached, the part for the multitude of voices being as easy as possible. It is presumed that operatic chorus singing was not in its highest state of perfection in the da}^ of Mozart or Beethoven, for neither of these composers has given the chorus much that is difficult or important in their operas — a matter of necessity perhaps, as it was hard to find a body of singers in those days, who would be so far content with the gifts they possessed as to accept an inferior position. Chorus singing was very little culti- vated in London so recently as the time when the Sacred Harmonic Society was established, for it was found necessary to invite a con- tingent of singers from the North of England fo take up a residence in the Metropolis, employment being found for them for the hours when their vocal services were not required. If it is necessary to account for the slow growth of operatic chorus, when compared with the progress made in other portions of the musical drama, a very simple reason can be found, in the fact of the difficulty attending the first performance of a variety of works when the singers have to commit the whole of their parts to memory. Straight- forward as many of Handel's choruses are, it was found necessary to make some slight alterations in the choruses of such a work as "Acis and Galatea" when given on the stage. It is not difficult to gain the most sublime effects from chorus singing when the performers have the copies before their eyes, as the performance of oratorios and similar works by large choral societies can sufficiently testify. In the Oratorio, the chorus is of the greatest importance, and the number of voices to a part is generally larger than it was in the time of Handel, though some writers ques- tion the advantage gained by multiplying the forces, as it is supposed by them that a greater number of voices does not necessarily produce a proportionate power of tone, and the difficulty of moving a large body in con- cert may involve a change of tempi, but this need not be the case with a trained body well acquainted with the works performed. It is said that " a chorus of thirty-five voices from the Pope's chapel who sang at the Coronation of Napoleon I., in the Cathedral of Notre- Dame, Paris, produced a far greater and more wonderful effect when they entered singing the Tu es Petrus, than another chorus of hundreds of voices, and eighty harps, that had been assembled and trained for the same occasion, in expectation of surpassing all that man could imagine." As the knowledge of music is more general in the present day, this ob- jection cannot with reason be entertained now, otherwise the choruses at the Handd Festivals could not be held to be the most attractive features of such gatherings. (5} The union of a number of voices for the joint performance of a composition. The whole of the male and female singers other, than the principals whether in the oratorio, drama, or at a concert. (6) The refrain or burden of a song whether sung by one or by many voices. As ioi example : {fl\ I lov'd a lass, a fair one, As fair as e'er was seen ; She was indeed a rare one, Another Sheba Queen. But fool, as then I was I thought she lov'd me too, But now, alas ! she's left me. Chorus. Falero, lero, loo. George Wither. (ij Lisette, dont Tempire S'^tend jusqu'a mon vin, J^prouve la martyre D'en demander en vain. Pour soufTrir qu'a mon age Les coups me soient compt^s, Ai-je compt^, volage, Tes infidelit€s ? Chosur. Lisette, ma Lisette, Tu m'as trompS toujours, Mais vive la grisette Je veux, Lisette, Boire a nos amours. Beeanger. {c) Lasst tanzen uns und springen, Hier, wo die Blumen stehnj Und frohe Lieder singen, Im Freien klingt es schon. Chor. Und frohe Lipder, &c. Uhland. (94) CHRISTE ELEISON CITTERN. (7) The name given to the mixture and compound stops in an organ. Christe eleison (Gk.) A portion of the kyrie in the mass. [Mass.] Christmas Carol. [Carol.] Christmas Music, (i) Cantatas, the words of which are suitable to Christmas tide. (2) Music played by waits. [Waits'.] Chroma (Gk. j(pSifia, colour or complexion). The name of one of the modifications of the Greek musical scale. The principal chroma- tic scale of the Greeks was called XP"I^"- rovaiov ; its chief characteristic is the omis- sion of the 4th and 7th. [Greek Music] Chroma duplex [Lat.) (i) A semiquaver. (2) A double sharp. Chromatic. That which includes notes not belonging to a diatonic scale. (i) A chromatic chord is that which con- tains a note or notes foreign to diatonic progression, e.g. : '^ r (2) Chromatic harmony is that which is made up of chromatic chords. (3) A chromatic interval is that which is augmented or diminished, e.g. : ^^4) Chromatic modulation is a passing into an extreme key, by means of chromatic harmony. (5) A chromatic scale is one which consists of a succession of semitones. Chromatique {Fr.) \ Chromatisch {Ger.) ' Chromatic. Chrotta. [Crowd.] Church modes. [Plain Song.] Ciaccona {It.) [Chaconne.] Cicogna {It.) The mouth piece of a wind instrument ; lit. a beak. Cicuta {Lat.) A flute or pan-pipes, made from the stalks of the hemlock plant. Cimbalo(7f.) (i) Harpsichord. {2)cimbali, cymbals. (3) A tambourine. Cimbel {Ger.) A mixture-stop in German organs. Cimbelstern {Ger.) Lit. cymbal-star. A mechanical contrivance in some German organs, consisting of star-shaped cymbals attached to a wheel which is set in motion by a pedal. Cink (Ger.)) A small reed stop on foreign Cinq (Fr.)\ organs. Cinque {It.) A fifth part in concerted music. Cinyra. An old term for a harp. Circular Canon. A canon so constructed that it closes in the key one semitone above that in which it commences. As, at each repeat, it begins, not at the original pitch, but at the pitch at which it closed, it is evident that twelve repetitions would take it through all the known keys. Circulus {Lat.) A circle. One of the time signatures of early music. It was only applied to tempus perfectum. and temptis int- perfectum, that is to the division of a breve into semibreves. When the breve v/as divi- ded into three semibreves (tempus perfectum) a complete circle was placed at the signature " quia forma rotunda perfecta est." When the breve was divided into two semibreves (tempus imperfectum) a broken circle or semicircle was used. This last sign is now corrupted into a C which is erroneously said to stand for common time. [Time.] Cis {Ger.) The note C sharp. Cis-cis {Ger.) The note C double sharp. Cis dur {Ger.) The key of C sharp major. Cis moll {Ger.) The key of C sharp minor. Cistella {Lat.) A dulcimer, lit. a little box. Cistre {Fr.) [Cittern.] Cistrum. [Sistrum.] Citara {It.) A cittern. A guitar. Cithara {Gk. KiQaon). The ancient lute. It probably differed from the lyre in having something behind the upper part of the strings, whereas the lyre-strings were open on both sides. [Guitar.] Cithara bijuga. A guitar or lute having a double neck. Some of the strings passed along the side of. the finger-board and could not therefore be stopped, and some of the higher strings were tuned in pairs in unison. Some- times it was strung with wire and played with a plectrum like a cithara ; at others, it was strung with cat-gut and played like a lute. Citharcedus. Onewho sings whilst playing the cithara, whereas a citharista only played. Citole. An instrument similar in form to the dulcimer. The name is supposed by some to be derived from cistella a little box ; by others, from cithara, a guitar. It is frequently mentioned by early poets, apparently with various meanings. WilHam Guiart (1248) says : — " Qui le roi de France a celle cree Enveloppa si de parolles Plus douces que son de citoles." Chaucer's allusion to it would imply that it was a kind of guitar :— " A citole in hir right hand had sche." Cittern. An old English name for a guitar strung with wire instead of with gut. It had eight strings tuned to four notes g, b, d, and e, or corresponding intervals. The instru- ment was at one time very popular, a cittern being part of the furniture of a barber's shop, the customers amusing themselves with it ( 95 ) CIVETTERIA, CON CLARICHORD. i while waiting. The music for the cittern was written in Tablature. There were several instruction books for the instrument issued, while it was still in use. The title of the earliest known is " The Cittharn Schoole, by Antony Holborne, Gentleman, and servant to Her Most Excellent Maiestie. Hereunto are added six short Airs, Neapolitan like to three voyces without the Instrument : done by his brother William Holborne. London, 1597." [Guitar.J Civetteria, con (It.) In a coquettish manner. Clairon (Fr.) [Clarion.] Clang, (i) Timbre (Fr.) Klang (Ger.) Quality of tone. (2) The peculiar "ringing" noise or din produced by the clash of metals, or the blast of loud wind instruments. Lat. clangor. The Gk. KXayyri is also applied to the whiz or twang caused by the discharge of an arrow, &c. Clapper. [Bells.] [Bones.] Claque (Fr.) A body of hired applause- makers, openly employed in France and some- times secretly resorted to in England. The " claque " in France is divided into several ranks; rieurs,pleureurs,chatouilleurs, bisseurs, and so forth. These officers distributed in several parts of the theatre, laugh, weep, gossip with their neighbours, cry encore, &c., under the direction of a fugle-man whose business it is to study the work produced, and after consultation with the author, the performers, and the stage manager, to direct and regulate the reception of certain portions of the entertainment. Claque-bois (Fr.) [Gigelira.] Clarabella. An organ stop consisting of open wood pipes, invented by Bishop. It is of a soft and sweet quality of tone. It is generally merged into a Stopped diapason below middle C, as the larger pipes do not produce a clear tone. It is usually of 8 ft. pitch. Clara voce (It.) A clear voice. Claribel Flute. An organ stop of similar construction to the clarabella, but generally of 4 ft. pitch. Clarichord. A stringed instrument of mediaeval times, by some writers presumed to be identical with the clavichord, the precursor of the spinet, harpsichord and pianoforte. The earliest stringed instrument with a key- board for the fingers, is said to have been invented about the year 1300, in Italy, and to have been called Clavycytherium, the cithara or harp with keys. In the Musurgia of^ Lusciniusj printed in 1536, a picture of this early instrument is given, Ijut as there is no statement that it had been drawn from an existing example, and moreover, as it appeared nearly two centuries and a half after the supposed invention, its likeness is at the least rather doubtful. Trustworthy represen- tations of keyed instruments are very rare before the latter of the above dates, and a consequent amount of 'confusion exists, as well with regard to forms as to names. In the few early English glossaries extant, no clear or lucid description of the majority of instruments in existence can be obtained, and many modern writers, misled by varied spelling, and the number of different names for the same thing, have exercised their wits in finding a variety of forms, shapes, and uses for that which was after all but of one character, and probably the same thing des- cribed variously. To speak of the older names of instruments of the kind now under consideration, the words clavichord, mono- chord, manichord, clavycymbal, cembalo, clavecin, all have the same meaning, a stringed instrument with keys played by hand. Some writers explain the words clavichord to be so called, because the strings were wrested in tune with a key {c\a.vis) ; — this description would also apply to the clarichord, called also claricols, clarigold, &c., for that was kept in tune by a wrest, as William Cornishe in his poem, " A treatise betwene Trouthe and Enformacion." 1500, tells us. He says: " The clarichorde hath a tunely kinde As the wyre is wrested hye and lowe So it tuneth to the players mynde. For as it wrested so must it nede showe. Any instrument mystuned shall hurt a trewe song, Yet blame not the clarichord the wrester doth wrong." By this it would appear that the clarichord was a kind of harp, tuned as it was required to be used, and it is somewhat singular that as the words clarichord, clarigols, clarigold, &c., are only used in ancient English writings, no form of them being found in old French or Latin, the derivation of the word from an ancient British etymon, such as clar, to grip or bend, would be applicable to the harp as an instrument whose strings were plucked or gripped, the- modern Irish word for playing on harps is cld|ieT5)l"e]v (clarediser), and the harp itselfis called cld|i')*Cd'c(clarscat), gripped or clawed string. The word ycdn might be compared with the German Saite. Dr. Rimbault, after quoting the definitions of the word clarichord given by a few of the lexicographers of the 17th century, observes that they make " no distinction between the terms clarichord and clavichord, but the one can hardly be a corruption of the other." He adds that the " words suggest a totally different etymology," and he then proposes that it might be from the French word claire, denoting a transparent tone; but in the earliest musical dictionaries clarichord is said to be (95) CLARIN CLARINETTO. " called also the Dumb spinnet, on account of the cords being covered with pieces of cloth." The Clavechord or clavecimbalo is said to signify a harpsichord. In every instance in which the word clarichord is employed before the 1 6th century it might be fairly be trans- lated harp. At the marriage of James of Scotland with the Princess Margaret, in the year 1503, "the king began before hyr to play of the clary- chordes and after of the lute. And upon the said claiychorde Sir Edward Stanley played a ballade and sange therewith." (Warton, " History of English Poetry.") It is quite possible that the similarity of the two letters V and r in ancient MSS. might have led the transcribers to mistake one for the other, and by writing clarichord or clavichord indiscrimi- nately they might innocently cause contro- versy. All modem authorities on the subject declare that the words are of separate and distinct origin. [Pianoforte.] Clarin (Ger.) A species of trumpet, a clarion, also an organ reed stop of 4 ft. pitch. Clarin-blasen, the sound of a trumpet. Some- times the word is applied to the soft tones produced on this instrument. Clarinet , "j An important wind in- Clarinette {Fr.) I strument said to have Clarinetto [It.) J been invented by John Christopher Denner, who was born in Leipsic, in 1654, but it was in reality only a modification and improvement of the more ancient shawm OT chalanteau. Most authors relate that Denner invented the instrument in 1659, at which date he was four years old ; but it was made by him after his residence in Nuremberg, in 1690. The name clarinet, or clarionet was probably attached to it on account of its pure and brilliant tone not ufalike that of the clarion or trumpet. In modem instraments of this class, the tone has been rendered far purer and sweeter than that originally produced. The difference between the tone of the hautboy and that of the clarinet, is due to the circumstance that the one has a double, and the other a single reed. The difference in the nature of the scale arises from the fact that the hautboy is conical, while the clarinet is a cylinder, the series of harmonics in the hautboy following each other in the ratio i, 2, 3, 4, &c., those of the clarinet i, 3, 5, 7, &c., hence, that whereas the first overtone of the forrher is its octave, the first overtone of the latter is its twelfth. On this fact depends the difficulty of making shakes and of playing rapid pas- sages on certain parts of the clarinet. All sudden changes from the end of the first range of twelve notes to the commencement of the second series, are difficult, some impossible. The compass of the instrument is about three octaves and a half from tenor E, including all the intermediate semitones. The clarinet being of the nature of a stopped pipe, as to its harmonics, can be played from its lowest note E up to twelve notes higher without a break by means of its keys. At this point the player has to increase the pressure of wind, and commence a new series of sounds, the transition between these two registers forming the chief difficulty in " clarinet blowing." The registers are four in number, and are as follows : I. The low includes all notes between 2. The second between 3. The third between 4. The fourth comprises all remaining notes from The first two registers are called the " chala- meau part," and when this is employed for any continued time it is written an octtve higher, with the direction " chal, or chalameau " to the player. There are three lengths of tubing employed for the clarinet, by which means the instmment may be made to sound three different scales according as the tube is short or long. The longer tube is used for the A clarinet, a medium for the B flat, and the shorter for the C. As the fingering is in each case the same in each instrument it has been found con- venient to adopt C as the normal scale, so that a piece of music apparently the same to the eye is different to the ear, according to the clarinet employed. Thus the passage written as follows : i—^n- ^rJ i rr'r f] When played upon a C clarinet would sound as it stands, upon an A clarinet would sound: iX^-^^^i=r^j \aSj' nr And upon a B flat clarinet, as : i'i^"JJJ^L^^rrrr ~=j|= It is, however, easy to make each instru- (97) CLARINETTISTA— CLEF. ment give out the same notes by employing a change in the signature, thus the passage for the A clarinet should be written : And for the B flat clarinet when they will each give the sounds as written in No. I. The kindof clarinet required is usually stated at the commencement, as clarinet in A, B flat, or C, and whenever a change is needed during the progress of a piece, the same is indicated duringa period of rest for the instrument, by the words change to A, B, or C, as the case maybe. The aavantage of a change of clarinet is that complicated scales upon one instrument become easy upon another. For instance the scale of F sharp major which is very difficult on a C clarinet, when played upon an A clarinet is fingered as A major, the real sounds produced being those of the scale of F sharp major. Similarly the scale of D flat major would become the scale of E flat major on a B flat clarinet. This accounts for the fact that the clarinet part in a full score is some- times in a flat key while the movement is in a sharp key. For example a piece in the key of E minor (one sharp) not uncommonly has a part for an A clarinet written, of course, in G minor with two flats. The favourite (because easy) keys of the clarinet are the keys of C, F, and G, B flat, E flat, A flat and D with their relative minors. Hence the skill of the composer is shown in writing for that .clarinet capable of producing the best effects in certain keys. Clarinets are usually employed in pairs, and the parts are ordinarily written on one stave. They, in Conjunction with the two bassoons similarly written, form a grand ba.sis or support for all the other wind instruments. The small E flat clarinet (playing a minor third above the notes actually written) is used in military bands. Its tone is shrill and piercing. The introduction of the clarinet as a regular instrument in the orchestra of the opera is due to J. Christian Bach, who wrote special parts for a pair of clarinets in his opera " Orione, ossia Diana vendicata," which was , produced in London in 1763. Clarinettista (It.) Clarinettiste (Fr.) A performer on the claririet. Clarinetto (It.) [Clarinet.] Clarino (It.) (i) A trumpet (2) An organ stop, eoflsisting of reed pipes, generally of 4-ft. pitch. Clausula (Lat.) A close or cadence, e.g. : clausula fitlsa, a.Mse ca.dmce; clausula findUs, a final cadence, &c. Clavecin (Fr.) (i) A harpsichord. (2) The keys by means of which the carilloHeur plays upon the bells. [Pianoforte,] Claviatur (Ger.) (i) The key board of an organ or pianoforte. (2) Fingering. Clavi-cembalum (Lai.) Clavicembalo (It.) [Pianoforte.] Clavichord. [Clarichord.J Clavicylinder, An instrument in the form of tubes or cylinders of glass, invented by Chladni. There was another instrument with the same name made of plates of glass of gradu- ated lengths, the tone of which was produced by hammers set in motion by a key-board. Clavicytherium. [Clarichord.] Claviglissando. An instrument with a key-board, invented by C. W. Le Jeune, which is intended to combine the properties of the violin and harmonium — of the violin in ob- taining a slide or portamento, and the harmo- nium in the capability of imitating the tones of various wind instruments. Clavier {Ger.)\ (i) The pianoforte. (2) A Clavier (Fr.) J row of keys on an organ. Clavierauszug (Ger.) A pianoforte score, as opposed to Partitur, a full score. Clef (Lat. clavis.) The sign placed at the commencement of a staff' or stave, showing the absolute pitch, the lines without it showing only the relative distances of sounds. When it was found that neumes could be better interpreted by the use of lines, a red and a yellow line were used, it being understood that the former bore the note F, the latter C. It is easy to see, that the fact having been once established that lines could represent notes, it would be found much easier to attach the letter itself to the commencement of the lines, than to colour the line. The coloured lines were invented by Guido, but Walter Odington (13th century) used one of the letters of the musical notes as a clef to his stave of four lines. At this period, it was not usual to employ leger lines, but if the voice ex- ceeded in compass beyond the limit of the stave, the position of the clef was altered ; a practice still retained in plain-song books. [Notation.] ■ The letters C and F were most commonly used in all ecclesiastical music up to the time of Palestrina, after which other clefs were introduced. There were five sorts of clefs in use in the i6th century, namely, the gamut T, from the Greek gamma, the F, C, g and d clefs. These were ultimately reduced to three, the gamut and the d clefs being found to be unneces- sary. The position of the defs was held to represent a certain pitch, and as it was supposed that the scale was incapable of ex- tension beyond the notes indicated by the (98) CLEF. clefs gamut and d, their places marked the .boundary of ecclesiastical compass. The other clefs might be made moveable if needed, for reasons already intimated, but whatever the number of lines above or below, the clefs, each clef represented a particular sound. Thus, the F clefs indicated F finale, the C clef, acuium, and the G clef, G superacutum, &c. Many of the musical treatises of the i6th century contain a chapter " De Clavibus sig- natis," which is interesting as showing the form of the clefs as then employed. All the writers of these tracts distinguish between the clefs proper to plain-song, and those employed for figurate or mensurable music. In the following copies of these ar- rangements of clefs, those for plain-song are on the left, and those for figurate music on the right. No. i, from ipjnck's " Practica Musica," 1556 : ^79 v\r ^Cg Signa clavium in utroque cantu. rr Et ponuntur omnes in lineali situ, quaedam tamen sunt magis fami- liares, utpote F et C, g rariuscule. r vero et dd rarissime utimur. Unde, Linea signatas sustentat scilicet omnes. Et distant inter se mutuo per diapentem. F tamen yaiifia distinguat septima quamvig. No. 2, from " Erotemata Musices Practicae," by Ambrosius Wilphlingsederus, 1563 : -^ -^ -m^ -^ In mensurali vero hoc mode. In choraU cmnta slmplicitcr prescribuntur ita. No. 3, from " Erotemata Musicae," by Lucas Lossius, 1570 : =3JS -^^ ■^^ =f= ^^ dS fcfc ^a 5^5WI ^ In cantu choral!. In cantu flgurali, ; In later times three clefs F, C and G were found sufficient for all purposes. The C clef appears upon all lines but the fifth. w i^ The first is called the Soprano, and is most, frequently found in ecclesiastical music, though it not uncommonly indicates the treble voice part in modern full scores. The second is called the Mezzo Soprano, and is assigned to second treble, and sometimes alto voices, and in music of the early part of the i8th century is often used for the tenor violin. The third is the Alto, and the fourth the Tenor clef ; the former being used for alto voices, violas, and the highest trombone, the latter by tenor voices, trombones and the upper register of the bassoon and violoncello. The F clef is placed upon the fourth line of the stave and is used for all bass voices and in- struments. When it is found upon the third line as in some old music it is called the baritone clef: * The following quotations from music books of various dates will show the forms through which the several clefs have passed. The " Compendium Musics," byLampardius,i537, is supposed to be the earliest printed book in which the G clef is used in a shape nearly similar to that now employed: J ^ In LuUy's and other French scores it is some- times placed upon the first line: In this position it was called the " French violin clef;" and in an earlier work by Christopher Demantius, " Isagoge Artis Musicse," 1656, it appears upon the third line: i In "Ayres and Dialogues for one, two, and three voyces," by Henry Lawes, 1653, the forms of the clefs are as follows : =# ->^— 1= In Christopher Simpson's " Compendium of (99) CLEF COGLI STROMENTI. Practical Musick," 1678, the clefs are in this ^hape : ^ : ! ^. S Playford's Psalms, third edition, 1697, the following are the forms : -3^ Matthew Wilkins's " Book of Psalmody," 1699: Dr. Croft's " Thirty Select Anthems," 1724: y- t Godfrey Keller's "Rules for playing athorow- bass," 1731: ^3 S Emanuel Bach's " Sechs leichte Clavier Sonaten," 1766 : ^ Malcolm, " A Treatise of Music," 1779 : m Shield's " Introduction to Harmony," 1800 ; A 1^' '^y In many modern French music books the F clef is written thus : ^ / In this a resemblance to the letter F, the ancient clef sign for this pitch, may be traced. Many writers have maintained that clefs create difficulties in the way of a " right understanding of music," and have therefore suggested their removal or the substitution of simpler signs. Thomas Salmon, 1676, proposed the use of the letter T, for the treble clef, M for the mean or C clef, and B for the bass clef. His proposal led him into a controversy with Matthew Locke, which was maintained on both sides in language not very creditable to either. Francis Delafond, in 1725, sug- gested the use of one clef only, the F, or bass clef. A century later, Miss Glover, in a pamphlet explaining her views on what she called the Tetrachordal System, proposed to abolish all clefs, a proposition which has since been carried out in the Tonic-Sol-fa method of teaching singing. The use of the treble clef for all ' purposes has also been recently advocated, but with little success. Clivus (Lat.) [Neumes.] Clocca {Med. Lat.) A bell. Irish clog, a small bell. Fr. cloche. Ger. Glocke. Cloche {Fr.) A bell. Clochettes (Fr.) Hand-bells. Clock, to. To set a bell in vibration, by attaching a rope to the clapper, and swinging it to and fro till it strikes the side of the bell which remains stationary. It is an undesi- rable practice, as many valuable bells have in this manner been cracked. Clokerre {Old Eng.) Clocherre {Old Fr.) A belfry. In low Latin, clocherium. Close harmony. Harmony produced by drawing the parts which form it closely to- gether. Close play. A direction in lute playing. The following explanation of the term is from Barley's Lute book : " Thou shalt not neede but to remoove those fingers which thou shalt Jbe forced, which manner of handling we call ■ close or covert play." It would appear to correspond to the smooth style sometimes adopted on the organ or other keyed in- struments. Clynke-bell. [Chimes.] C moll {Ger.) C minor. Coalottino. [Concertino.] Coda {It.) (p[) The tail of a note. (2) The bars occasionally added to a corltrapuntal movement after the close or finish of the canto fermo. (3) The few chords or bars attached to an infinite canon in order to render it finite ; or a few chords not in canon, added to a finite canon for the sake of ob- taining a more harmonious conclusion. (4) An adjunct to the ordinary close of a sonata, or symphony, &c., for the purpose of enforcing the JjwaZ, character of the movement. Codetta (/^) dim. of coda. A short coda. Codon {Gk. Kuguv.) (i) A small bell, such as those attached to the trappings of horses. (2) A crier's bell. (3) The bell of a trumpet (Fr. pavilion). (4) A trumpet with a bell-mouth. Cogli stromenti {It.) With the instru- ments. ( 100 ) COI COMMON OR DUPLE TIME. Coi {It.) With; e.g. coi bassi, with the basses; coi violini, with the violins. Col {It.) With; e.g-. : Col arco, with the bow. Col basso, with the bass. Col canto, with the melody. CoUa destra, with the right hand. Coll' arco, with the bow. CoUa parte, with the principal part. CoUa punta dell' arco, with the point of the bow. CoUa sinistra, with the left hand. CoUa voce, with the voice. College of Organists. A modern insti- tution established in London, for the purpose of strengthening and improving the position of organ players, granting diplomas, and of providing suitable performers for the service of the church. College youths. A London Society of bell ringers, formerly confined to members of the universities. Col legno {It.) With the wood. A direction to strike the strings of a violin with the back or wood of the bow. Collet de violon {Fr.) The neck of a violin. CoUinet {Fr.) [Flageolet.] Colophony. Colofonia {If.) Colophonium {Lat.) Colophonie {Fr.) Resin. The gum used for making the hair of bows rough, so as to set the strings freely into vibration. So called from Colophon in Greece {KoXoipaivia, and priTivri, gum.) Color {Lat.) Colour. A term variously employed in mediaeval treatises on music to represent : a repetition of a sound in part music (repititio ejusdem vocis); purity of tone (pulchritudo soni) ; a movement of the voice from the part (florificatio vocis) ; an altera- tion of rhythm by different voices (idem sonus repetitus in tempore diverso a diversis voci- bus) ; a discord purposely introduced for the sake of variety (aliquando unus eorum ponitur in discordantiam propter colorem musicse). Some have gathered from the definition — " Repetitio diverse vocis est idem sonus re- petitus in tempore diverso a diversis vocibus," that a musical canon is meant to be described'. (2) The coloured lines first used for the pur- pose of rendering neumes more intelligible. " Quamvis perfecta sit positura neumarum, caeca omnino est et nihil valet sine adjunctione literarum vel colorum " (Guido). [See Clef and Notation.] Coloratura {It.) Divisions, runs, trills, cadenzas, and other florid passages in vocal music. Coloscione or Colachon. A species of guitar, called also Bichordon or Trichordon, according as it was strung. Come {It.) As, like ; e.g. : Come prima. As at first. Come sta, as it stands. Comes {Lat.) The answer to the Dux or subject. [Fugue.] Comic opera. An opera in which the in- cidents are of a humorous description. The comic opera is of Italian origin and French development, each subject treated by musicians of other nations owing its rise either to some one or other theme already taken by French composers of comic operas, or from thp vaudevilles which preceded, and formed the pattern of, the comic operas. Boieldieu, Herold, Auber, Adam, Thomas, Offenbach, Lecocq, are the most successful representatives of the modern school of comic opera writers. [Vaudeville, Opera, &c.] Comic song. A song developing in humo- rous verse some ludicrous idea or incident set to a tune already popular, or with a melody easy to be caught up by the hearers, in order that they may be ready when called upon to join in the chorus which usually accompanies such songs. Songs of a humorous description are of high antiquity, but as their humour is generally of a bad character, specimens of this class of literature are not fitted either for general or for. particular readers. The ballads and stories which would please an audience of a past age and which have found their way into many collections of ancient songs, are scarcely respectable even for their antiquity. Comma. The small interval betwepn a major and a minor tone, that is between a tone whose ratio is 8 : 9 and one whose ratio is g : 10. The ratio of a comma is therefore 80 : 81. A Pythagorean comma is the differ- ence between the note produced by taking 7 octaves upwards and 12 fifths. Common chord. A note accompanied by its major or minor 3rd and perfect 5th. [Harmony.] In thorough bass, the figure 3, a sharp, flat or natural, as the case may be, or the ^absence of any letter, character, or figure, denotes the common chord of the bass note. When there is more than one chord on the same bass note, the common chord is figured I- • . Common'or Duple time. Time with two beats in a bar or any multiple of two beats in a bar. The beats may be of the value of any note or rest or compound of notes and rests, providing the sum required by the time sign be exactly contained in each bar. Common time is of two kinds, simple and compound. Simple common time is that which includes four beats in a bar, or any division of that number, or square of the number or its divisions. The signs used to express simple common time are the following: f , |, |, %, %, and the charac- ters (3 and (^. In these signs the upper figure denotes the quantity of notes required in the bar, and the lower figure the quality of the ( loi ) COMMODAMENTE CONCENTUS. notes, I signifying asemibreve, 2 a minim, 4 a crotchet, 8 a quaver, and so on, each figure showing the relative proportionate value to the semibreve which is now reckoned as the time-standard. The sign (q) is called the sign of alia capella time, and is usually- followed by four minims in a bar, played or sung in slow time ; the sign ( (p ) is called the sign of alia breve time, and has also four or eight minims in a bar played or sung in a shorter time, as its title implies. The use of words directing the pace in which pieces of music are intended to be taken, has created a certain amount of confusion in the use and meaning of all the time signs descriptive of form in a bar [Expression, Time]. Compound common- time is expressed by the signs J, |, ^^, such signs meaning two or four beats of three crotchets or quavers to each beat. In mediaeval music a circle O was used to indicate what was called perfect time (tempus perfectum), a portion of the circle Deing omitted C showed that the time was im- perfect, a line through the latter sign' (p meant a more rapid pace than that required when the C alone was used. When these signs were reversed they implied that the music was to be taken faster than if they were in their ordinary places. Thus the degree of rapidity would be shown by the time signs arranged as follows : o c (|; ;!) Commodamente (It.) lit. in a convenient manner. Easily, quietly. Commodo (it.) Easily, at will, without haste. Compagnia del gonfalone {It.) An ancient society of mystery or miracle play actors established at Rome, in 1264, who illustrated their dramatic performances of sacred subjects with music. They took their name from the banner (gonfalone) which they bore. Their performances are supposed by some writers to have suggested the Oratorio. Company of Musicians. One of the chartered companies of the City of London, which, like the majority of such companies, has become by time perverted from the original purpose of its foundation. The charter was granted by King Charles I., in 1636, to divers musicians under the style and title of the Marshal, Wardens, and Commonality of the Art and Science of Music, in Westminster, in the County of Middlesex. This charter was confirmed by letters patent from King Charles II. Compass. The whole range of sounds capable of being produced by a voice or instrument. Compiacevole {It.) Pleasant, agreeable, 'charminif. Complement. The interval which must be added to any other interval, so that the whole shall be equal to an octave ; e.g., the complement of a 3rd is a 6th; that of a 4th, a 5th; of a 5th, a 4th ; and so on. It will be seen that the intervals are always considered as overlapping. . Compline (from the Lat. completonum). The short evening service which completes the day-hours. Composer, (i) An author of music. One who " finds out musical tunes." (2) An in- ventor and arranger of a series of changes in bell ringing. , ' . . , . , Composition, (i) A piece of music, for voices or instruments, or a combination of both effects, constructed according to the rules of art. (2) The art of composing music, guided by scientific rules. (3) In an organ, the particular combination of sounds which form a compound stop. (4) A mechanical arrangement on the organ by which certain combinations of stops may be employed or not, at the wish of the performer, upon his opening or closing a valve, or by using a pedal which acts upon the sliders. Composizione {It.) A composition. Composizione di Tavolino {It.) Table music. Convivial compositions, c.f. Ger. Lieder-tafel. [Chamber music] Compound intervals. Intervals greater than an octave, as opposed to simple intervals which are less than an octave. Compound Stops. Organ stops having more than one rank of pipes. Compound Times. Times in which the bar is divided into two or more groups of notes, e.g., |- which consists of two groups of three notes ; f which consists of three groups of three, &c. Compound Times are classifie4 as duple or triple, according to the number of groups in each bar, not according to the number of notes in each group ; e.g., ■f is a duple time ; -I a triple time ; ^^ (four groups of three) a duple time, &c. The prin- cipal accent falls on the first note in each bar, and a subordinate accent on the first note of each group. Comus {Gk. Ktifioe). A revel, carousal, merry making with music and dancing. The revellers paraded the street crowned, carrying torches, and sang verses in praise of the gods or the victors in the games. Comus. {Gk. ko}1)x6q). a mournful song sung in alternate verses by an actor and a chorus in the Attic drama. Con {It.) With ; e.g. con amore, with affec- tion ; con moto, with spirited movement; con sordini, with the mutes on, &c. (See the words to which it is prefixed.) Concento {It.) Harmony. Concentus {Lat.) (concinno). Musical ( 102 ) CONCERT CONCERTINA. harmony. Part music ; e.g., concentus voeis Lyrceque. Consonance ; e.g., concentus tuba- rum ac cornuum, ' Concert, (i) A performance of music in which several executants are employed. Con- certs of music, to which the general public is admitted by payment, are of comparatively recent origin in the history of music. Public musical performances, more or less connected with state or religion, were anciently given from time to time, on occasions of importance. Kings, nobles, and civic officials, employed musicians in their trains, but their perfor- mances could scarcely be considered in the light of concerts. Organized bands of musi- cians who performed in the houses of the great and wealthy ; " waits " and " noises " are frequently mentioned in old records, but concerts of music in hired houses, assembly rooms of taverns, &c., apart and distinct from the " entertainment " ordinarily provided at hostelries are rare before the time of Charles II. Pepys, in his Diary, speaks of " musick meetings " and " concerts," but they were private affairs, and therefore not within the meaning of the term as now under- stood, The first public concert in England was given at Oxford, in the year 1670, the first in London two years later. After which a periodical concert was established in Ayles- bury Street, Clerkenwell, over the shop of Thomas Britton, the musical small-coalman. Before this time musicians roved from tavern to tavern, instruments in hand, waiting the pleasure of the guests "if they were wilHng to heare any musick." These bands of fiddlers played by the hour together such pop- ular tunes as were best calculated to delight audiences gathered impromptu. But from all that can be learned, their performance was not scientific ; " for the most part it was that of violins, hautboys, and trumpets, without any diversity of parts, and consequently in the unison." The advertisement of the first London con- cert is still extant, and runs as follows : — " These are to give notice, that at Mr. John Banister's house (now called the Musick School) over against the George Tavern, in White Fryers, this present Monday, will be music performed by excellent masters, begin- ning precisely at 4 of the clock in the after- noon, and every afternoon for the future, precisely at the same hour. London Gazette, Dec. 30th, 1672." From this time forward concerts of all kinds, vocal and instrumental, given not only "by excellent masters" but also by those who cannot with justice be called either " masters " or " excellent," become com- mon enough. It would, be both tedious and unnecessary to trace the history of concerts step by step, neither is it to the present pur- pose to describe in detail the several sorts of concerts which have taken place since that given " over against the George Tavern." It may not, however, be uninteresting to state that the word has been applied to the per- formance of oratorios in church as the follow- ing quotation will show : " The Oratorios for the opening of the elegant Organ now erected in the Minster, at Beverley, will be on the 20th, 21st, and 22nd of September, 1769, viz : " On Wednesday the 20th, the Sacred Oratorio of the Messiah; " On Thursday, the 21st, the Oratorio of Judas Maccabseus. " On Friday the 22nd, the Oratorio of Samson ; and that being the Anniversary of the King'g Coronation, the Performance will conclude with Mr. Handel's grand Coronation Anthem. "The first violin by Mr. Giardini. The principal voices by Mrs. Hudson, of York, Miss Radcliffe, Mr. Norris, and Mr. Matthews, both of Oxford. The remainder of the band will be numerous, and will consist of the best performers, vocal and instrumental, that can be procured. " Tickets for the Great Aisle at 5s. each. Galleries at 2s. 6d. each, to be had of Mr. Hawdon, organist, of Mr. Norris, at the Bell, and of Mrs. Todd, at the Tyger, in Beverley ; of Mr. Forster, carver, in Salthouse Lane, and of Mr. Ferraby, Bookseller, in the Butchery, in Hull. Of whom may be had Books of the Oratorios, with Mr. Handell's Alterations and Additions,as they will be performed at Beverley. Price 4d. each. The North doors will be open'd at Ten in the Morning, and the Con- cert to begin at Eleven. The Great Aisle will be fiU'd with Benches. And to add to the solemnity of the performance, the gingers will be dress'd in surplices. " All tickets transferable. No Money taken at the Door. " A Concerto upon the Organ each Day. And Mr. Giardini will oblige the company with a Solo. IS"' An Assembly on Wednesday and Friday." Concertante (It.) (i) A composition suit- able for performance at a concert. (2) A composition in which several of the parts are in turn brought into prominence. Concerted music. Music for two or more performers, either vocal or instrumental, as opposed to a vocal or instrumental solo, with or without accompaniment by a single in- strument. Concertina (Eng.) A portable musical instrument of hexagonal form, invented by Professor Wheatstone, consisting of a series of vibrating metal reeds acted upon and set ( 103 ) CONCERTINA CONDUCTOR. in motion by the current of air, caused by a bellows placed in the body of the instrument connecting the two ends in which the metal tongues or springs are fixed and worked by ■the player, both hands being in such a position that the wrists move the bellows while the fingers are free to press the stops or keys which cause it to sound. The compass of the concertina is of three and a half octaves with intermediate semitones from fiddle G : Each note in this scale is double, that is to say, is capable of being produced by the in- spiration or respiration of the bellows. [Ac- cordion.] Concertina (Ger.) An instrument of shape similar to the English concertina, but of less finished appearance and more limited com- pass. The bellows excites the vibration of the free metallic reeds as in the English concertina, but the scale instead of being double is single, that is, the respiratory note is different to the inspiratory note, and has only those chromatic notes necessary for the modu- lation of melody into the tonic or dominant of the scale in which the instrument is tuned. There is also an escape valve to allow the passage of superfluous air, a contrivance not necessary on the English concertina, where the notes are of double sound. The German concertina is capable of being performed onlyin the one key in which it is tuned, the English concertina can be played in any key. Concertino (It.) (i) The principal in- strument in a concerto as violino concertino. (2) The diminutive of concerto. Concerto (It.) (i) A concert. (2) A com- position for the display of the qualities of some especial instrument, accompanied by others of a similar or dissimilar character. A concerto' may be for a solo violin, or violon- cello with an accompaniment for strings, or wind; or it may be for a pianoforte, violin, or any wind instrument, and a full band. Those for pianoforte, violin, or organ, are generally made of more classical character than those for any wind instrument, as in many cases the last named are constructed by the performers themselves with the object of exhibiting their own accomplishments, and their artistic taste. In a work by Scipio Bargaglia, published in Venice, 1587, "Trattimenti ossia divertimenti da Sonare," the word concerto is applied to a piece for a solo instrument with accompani- ment, probably for the first time. The con- certo is usually constructed in symphonic form, but without a minuet or scherzo. Though the early concertos show some deviation from the plan now accepted, they were, however. designed according to rules or plans, accepted or allowed from time to time. The concertos of Corelli, Torelli, Bach, Tartini, and writers of the periods in which those masters lived are only different from their suites in that a solo instrument has the accompaniment of other instruments. Torelli (1683- 1708) was the first writer who suggested an extension of the number of in- struments employed in a concerto, and by this means pointed the way to the symphony. He called this sort of composition " Concerto Grosso." In his plan he gives certain phrases to one or more solo instruments which are repeated by the full band employed. Handel constructed his "Concerti Grossi " on the same model. Vivaldi (1690-1743) further de- veloped the idea; Gossec, Haydn, and Mozart' settled the form as it stands at present, and Beethoven, Weber, and Mendelssohn have left noble examples of their musical powers in their works of this class. Concerto spirituale {It.) Concert spirituel (Fr.) A concert formed of a miscellaneous selection of vocal and instrumental pieces with words of a sacred character. The con- certs spirituels in Paris were founded in the year 1725. Concertmeister [Ger.) The leader of the band, the conductor. Concert-spieler' (Ger.) A performer; a solo-player ; the player of a concerto. Concert-stuck (Ger.) A concert piece, a concerto. , Concha (Lat.) A trumpet in the conven- tional form of a shell fish ; Triton's horn ; a conch. Concitato {It.) Moved, disturbed, agitated. Concord. [Harmony.] Conductor, (i) A director or leader of an orchestra or chorus. It is supposed that a leader or a fugleman was employed by the Assyrians, to regulate the rhythm of the songs or dances ; he was armed with two sticks, one of which he beat against the other, and so marked the time or accent. Among the Greeks the Coryphoeus or exar- ' chus led the dance, and in everything requiring united action, a leader or conductor by his voice or certain understood gestures secured the desired result. The word in connection with music has several applications. It signi- fies one who directs with a biton the perfor- mance of a band of players. It is also appHed to one who accompanies vocal or instrumental pieces on the pianoforte. A conductor, as an independent time beater, was not known until the end of the last century. The player who sat at the harpsichord gave the time to the leader of the tand, who, directing his subor- dinates, was called conductor. [Orchestra. ] (2) The inventor or leader of, a chime, or ( 104 ) CONDUCTUS CONFRERIE DE ST. JULIEN. change in bell ringing, is also known as the conductor or composer. Conductus {Lat.) The name given to a certain vocal composition in parts, in the 13th and 14th centuries. It has been variously described as a composition having descant on an original melody (qui vult facere con- ductum, primum cantum debet invenire pul- chriorem quam potest, &c., Franco of Cologne) ; on an original or borrowed theme (conducti sunt compositi explicabilibus canticis decoris cognitis vel inventis, &c., Walter Odington). The definition of John of Garland points to an elaborate construction: "conductus autem est super unum metrum, multiplex consonans cantus qui etiam secundarias recipit conso- nantias." ..." In florificatione vocis fit color ut commixtio in conductis simplicibus." Con- ducti were sometimes sung without words. They were called simple, double, triple, or quadruple, but the real distinction between the different kinds cannot be clearly learnt from the old treatises. All the information which can be brought together will be found in Coussemaker's L'Art harmonique aux XIP et XIIP siecles. Cone Gamba. [Bell Gamba.J Confrerie de St. Julien. A Society of Musicians in France, at one period possessing great power. At the end of the 13th century, the troubadours ceased to exist, the " courts of love " were closed, the sentiment of the troubadour poetry was no longer enjoyed, and the excesses of the singers and poets were the things for which they were best or worst re- membered. Their followers, no longer having poetry as a veil and excuse for their peculiari- ties, became disreputable, and led a wander- ing, careless, and shifty life ; the sins of their masters were visited upon their devoted heads, and they became Ishmaelites against whom every man's hand was raised, and who had inclination but not power to lift hand against every man. They were no longer welcome for their skill at all times as heretofore. They were no longer free to enter the houses of the g^eat and wealthy " without leave and license previously had and obtained," as they had been when in attendance upon some poet prince or troubadour sovereign. It was, how- ever, necessary that they should live, and those that did not become openly dishonest, " robbers oh the king's highway with a gallows at the end of it," sought the means of liveli- hood in another sphere than that to which they had previou,sly been always welcomed in. The love for music still existed among a lower class of people, and these gladly received the musicians and performers "whose strains had made many a gentle heart beat quickly," as a proof of their own elevation of taste in matters of courtesy and refinement. Gathering cour- age by the patronage bestowed upon them, and deeming it needful to ' ' sort their humours " to those of the people for whose amusement they exercised their calling, they made a change in their programme and spoke out openly that which had hitherto been conveyed only through a delicate innuendo. Their suc- cess was complete, and to save the effect of troubles which might arise from an ungodly enterprise, they became apparently religious, placed themselves under the protection of a patron saint, Julien, Archbishop of Toledo, who after having led a life of vicissitude and vagabondage, died in 662, and became the tutelar protector of all vagabonds except thieves — who were committed to the care of St. Nicholas. There was also another Saint who divided the honours of their devotions, Genesius, a comedian, who was martyred tor his Christianity at the end of the 4th century. Under the care of these two patrons, the musi- cians flourished, and in the year 1330, settled themselves in the good city of Paris, and formed themselves into a guild for mutual protection and support. The title by which they were enrolled was that of the "Com- pagnons, jongleurs, menestreux or menes- triers," and this title sufficiently indicated their position of companions, yokefellows, and ser- vants to the former troubadours. They had sufficient interest left with the friends and connexions of their old masters to obtain "sealed letters" in November 27th, 1331, recognising their position ; and they lived together in one street, hence, called St. julien des m'enHriers. To this quarter all had to come who desired their services, and as the minstrels became further encouraged, and in- creased in numbers they assumed a line of conduct which caused William de Germont, Prefect of Paris, to place various restrictions upon them, which were continued with ad- ditions and modifications by his successors, By a decree issued in the year 1393, the pain of imprisonment was visited upon all niem- bers of the guild who offended by reciting scurrilous and scandalous verses either in the streets or in the houses of those who hired them. This check caused a division of the society, the one part devoting itself to the practice of tumbling and rope-dancing — these were called haceleurs — the other carrying on the music-entertaining business — took to viol playing, and marked a certain progress in their art, by the introduction of bass instruments hitherto not used by them. They distinguished themselves by the title of " MSnestrels joueurs d'instrumens tant haut que has." By this name they were recognised by Charles VI., who gave them letters patent dated April 14th, 1401. Armed with this document they elected a chief called " Roi des m6nestrels," and they ( i°5 ) CONFRERIE DE ST. JULIEN- CONSECUTIVE^. built and endowed a chapel in the Rue St. Martin, as much to conciliate the ecclesiastical powers, as to mark their attachment to religi- ous forms. They had a monopoly of all music in France, especially in Paris ; no one could learn an instrument without employing a member of the confraternity, no one could give a banquet of music without the leave and license of the Confrerie de St. Julien. Even the king, not to speak of thp mayor of Paris, was compelled to be indebted to them for the after dinner amusement of his guests, as well as for the means of giving brilliancy to pageants, processions, and other state busi- nesses. The Confrerie were all- important in the matter of vocal and instrumental music ; they had the monopoly of the court and mu- nicipal music of Paris until the reign of Louis XIV., who in 1 658 was weak enough to confirm their charter and privileges. These privileges must have been great, for they allowed the title of musician to be possessed by those who had funds sufficient to purchase fellow- ship in the guild: musical skill was of no import, for neither city or court cared for the performances of the Confrerie, though they were compelled to pay handsomely for that which they would rather have dispensed with. If the cultivation of true musical science had been the object in the maintenance of the guild, musical coi;nposition frorri the 14th to the 17th centuries would have been less of a puzzle and annoyance than it is ; but unfortu- nately for the body, in course of time, pressure from without was brought to bear, and the whole thing collapsed, though not without a struggle. From the date when attention was drawn to it for its inefficiency and incompe- tency, to the day when it finally ceased to exist, no less a period than 100 years elapsed. Louis XIV. in i56o happened to hear a piece of music by a rising composer called Jean Bap- tiste Lully, and thinking that it was exactly the sort of lullaby or reveille he should like to hear performed in his own palace, desired to have it executed by his own court band, but, alas ! they were musicians only in name, and this little request gave them trouble. But they plucked up courage ; the king was in- formed that they held their places by prescrip- tive right, and as it had not been the custom for the " Musiciens du Roi," to exercise the art which they professed and were paid for, for many generations, the king's request was unreasonable and unconstitutional. The con- fraternity would still enjoy their privileges and emoluments and the king must go without his music. This he was not inclined to do ; he was therefore pleased to command and ordain that Lully should organise a band, himself at the head, and in order to avoid collision with the patent place-holders and privileged ineffi- cients, this new band of practical musicians, these four and twenty were to be called "Petits violons du Roi," the king's little fiddlers, instead of the king's musicians, a very nice and comforting distinction. By degrees the income arising from the property possessed by the confraternity of St. Julien was applied to a proper purpose, the king's chamber music was executed by legitimate performers, and the perverted association was finally suppressed in 1761, after four hundred years of profitable but comparatively useless existence. Congregational music. Music in which the people or congregation take part, as op- posed to that which is sung by the trained choir alone. The plain-song of the Respong^es, Creeds, and of the Lord's Prayer ; and the melody of psalm and hymn tunes are con- gregational music, but services and anthems are specially set aside for performance by the choir, acting as it were as the skilled represen- tatives of the listening and meditating people. Conjunct, (i) One of the Greek systems of music. [Greek Music] (2) Conjunct motion, a succession of sounds proceeding by single degrees. Consecutives. A forbidden progression of parallel fifths or octaves, e.g. : Ex. I, Es.2. Consecutive fifths. Consecutive octaves. Consecutives are considered to be saved, if they do not occur between the same two parts, as shown in the following (Ex. 3), which em- bodies the harmonic progressions of Ex. i : That consecutive fifths are often productive of an ugly and distressing effect, is not to be denied ; but their use when not objectionable seems to have been somewhat thoughtlessly forbidden by musical law-givers. The great masters not unfrequently use them with good results, as will be seen by the following examples. (Stainer's "Theory of Harmony.") Bach. " Mdtett," No. z. Handel's " Solomon." "Almighty power." f TO6 1 CONSECUTIVES CONSERVATORIUM. MeHDELSSOHn'S " St. Paul." MESDEtSSOHN'S " St. Paul." To Crod on high." " To Thee, O Lord." Sfohr's " The Last Judgment." Introduction to Part III. Haydn's Symphony, No. 4. A -i-S-j Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata, No. z, Op. 2g. ^ 4 ?A rr It having been found by experience that the early attempts at harmony known as diaphony and organum, which consisted entirely of consecutive quarts, quints, and octaves, were remarkably unpleasant and barbarous, it is probable a reaction took place which led to the indiscriminate condemnation of con- secutive fifths. No satisfactory reason has yet been brought forward for the unpleasant effect of con- secutive fifths, but it is easy to see why consecutive octaves should not be allowed in pure part-writing. If in a duet, or trio, for instance, one part occasionally moves in unison or octaves with another, such a part is for the time wasted, and loses its power of forming a distinct melody or adding a real contribution to the harmony. But, on the other hand, any phrase, however short, may be legiti- mately enforced or strengthened by doubling at the unison or octave. Thus, the bass may be doubled by the left hand or the melody by the right hand, in pianoforte or organ music, and voices may join in unison whenever it is thought desirable. So, too, in writing for a full band, a theme or motive may be enforced by the combination of any instruments, at the unison, octave, or double octave ; but, instru- ments playing in parts are not allowed to combine in such a manner unless for such a purpose. Consecutives are said to be hidden when the progression of two parts gives the im- pression that they have occurred, although they have not actually been written, e.g. : Hidden fifths. Hidden octaves. They are to be discovered by filling up the interval of one of the parts with the interme- diate scale-series, e.g. : Ex.5. The law against hidden fifths and octaves has never been directed against the movement of inner parts, but only against that of extreme parts. But even this has been greatly relaxed in modern music, e.g. : Ex.6. Consecutives are said to be "by contrary motion " when the parts forming them pro- ceed in opposite directions, e.g. : Schumann's " Luck of Edenhall." Consequent. Consequenza {It.) The answer to a fugue-subject ' or any subject proposed for imitation. [Dux.] [Guida.] _ , Conservatorium {Lat.) Conservatorio {It.) Conservatoire de musique (Fr.) A public music school. The Italian academies or conservatories are the most ancient, and were formerly attached to hospitals and other benevolent institutions, and were intended for the education of the poor and fatherless, or orphans. Education, board and clothing, were dispensed without cost to both male and female pupils. The conservatorio at Milan was founded in 1808, and the advantages of the instruction of the professors is sought and obtained by many who are not eligible for the foundation, but who can obtain the benefit of a superior musical education at a small cost. ( 107 ) CONSOLANTE COPYRIGHT. The first school of the kind was established in France, in 1784, with the title of " L'ecole royalede chant etde declamation." A national institute was started during the period of the Revolution, to supply the want of musi- ' cians in the army; this institute became the present Conservatoire de musique, for the sup- port of which the government is charged with an annual sum of 140,000 francs. Many of the masters have been, and still are, men famed throughout the world for their practical skill and their success in, teaching, and the text books used at the conservatoire are among the standard works of reference in their depart- ment. There are also establishments of a similar character at Brussels, Cologne, Prague, Warsaw, Vienna and Leipsic, the last named, established under the direction of Mendels- sohn, is held to be one of the best in Germany. Consolante {It.) In a consoling, comfort- ing manner. Consonance. Consonanz {Ger.) [Har- mony.] Consonant. Concordant. Consonant interval. [Interval.] Con sordini {It.) (i) With the mutes on. (2) With the soft pedal at the pianoforte held down. Consort, (i) A consort of viols was a complete set, the number contained in a chest, usually six. [Chest of Viols.] (2) The sounds produced by the union of instrumental tone. Consort, (i) To sound together, to form agreeable sounds by combination. (2) To form a concord. Con stromenti {It.) With the instru- ments. Continued Bass. [Figured Bass.] Continuo {It.) [Figured Bass.] Contours. Conteurs {Fr.) [Troubadours.] Contra (7^.) Against. In compound words this signifies 'an octave below, e.g-. ; Contra- gamha, a 16 ft. gamba ; Contra-basso, a double bass ; Contra-fagotto a double bassoon, &c. Contra-bassist. A double-bass player. Contra-basso {It.) [Double-bass.] Contra-danza {It.) [Country-dance.] Contra-fagotto {It) [Double bassoon.] Contralto voice. The voice of deepest tone in females. It is of a quality allied to the tenor voice in men, and the usual compass is within two octaves. The best notes of the range are between G or A flat below, and C or D above : ■as- ^s>- The notes above these areof a,somewhat harsh and forced character, those below of little musi- cal value. In most contralto voices there is a break varying between C sharp and A flat in the lower part of the register, and the careful adjustment of the two qualities of tone above or below this break is one of the chief qualities of good contralto singing. [Alto Voice.] Contraposaune. An organ stop 16 ft. and 32 ft. pitch. Contrappuntista {It.) A writer on, or a composer of counterpoint. Contrappunto (7^) [Counterpoint.] Contrappunto alia mente {It.) Im- promptu counterpoint. [Alia Mente.] [Chant sur la livre.] Contrappunto doppio {It.) Double coun- terpoint. [Counterpoint.] Contrapuntal. Belonging to counterpoint. Contrapuntist. A writer on, or a com- poser of counterpoint. ' - Contr'arco {It.) False or incorrect bowing on the violin, &c. ■ Contrary motion. Melodies or chords proceeding in opposite directions, [Motion.] Contrassoggetto (7^.) [Counter subject.] Contra tempo (7^) Against time, (i) The part progressing slowly while another is moving rapidly: (2) Syncopation. Contra-tenor. [Alto.] Contratone {Ger.) Deep tones of the bass voice. Contra-violone {It.) Double-bass. Contre-basse {Fr.) Double-bass. Contre-danse {Fr.) [Country dance.] Contrepartie {Fr.) Counterpart, opposite. The entry of a second voice with a different melody, making harmony with the first. Contrepoint {Fr.) Counterpoint. Contrepointiste {Fr.) Contrapuntist. Contre-sujet {Fr) [Counter subject.] Contre-temps {Fr.) Against time. Syn- copation. Conversio {Lat.) Inversion. Convict of music. An institution for musical instruction in Leipsic ; from Lat. convictus (convivere), living together, social intercourse. [Conservatorio.] Coperto (7^) Covered, concealed. Tim- pani coperti, muffled drums; quinti coperti, concealed fifths,. hidden fifths. Copula {Lat.) In mediasval music a free use of slurred running notes in descant. Copyright is the exclusive right or privi- lege of printing, or reprinting, publishing, 01 selling his original work which is allowed by the law to an author. It is doubtful whether this is a right at common law, or whether (which seems the better opinion) it is merely the creature of legislative enactment. (See on this point the cases of Southey v. Sherwood, ( 108 ) COPYRIGHT COR ANGLAIS. 2 Mer. 435; Tonson v. Collins, i W. Bl. 301 ; Miller v. Taylor, 4 Burr 2303 ; Jeffreys v. Boosey, 4 H. L. C. 815.) By Statute 8 Anne, c. 19, § I, a copyright was given to books then printed for 21 years, and to authors and their assignees, an exclusive copyright for 14 years. By § 9 of the same statute, another similar period was given, at the expiration of 14 years, if the author was then living. This Act was extended to the United Kingdom by 41 Geo. III. c. 107. By 54 Geo.- III. c. 156, § 4, authors and their assignees had exclusive copyright for 28 years from the day of publi- cation ; and, if the authors were living at the expiration of that period, for the residue of their lives. The present law of copyright is to be found in 5 and 6 Vict. c. 45, which amends the general law on the subject, re- peals the above - mentioned statutes, and extends the privileged period to the author's life and for 7 years after his death ; but if that period falls short of 42 years, then for 42 years from the first day of publication. So that if an author lives for 42 years after publication, the copyright will exist for 42-^7 = 49 years. The remedy for unlawfully printing a book within the British Dominion is (i) an action on the case, which must, however, be com- menced within one year, or (2) by special in- junction in equity to restrain the progress of the injury and to compel an account of the profits which have accrued therefrom. By § 2 of this statute the word " book " includes a sheet of music. Lord Mansfield in construing the previously existing law said, " the words of the Act of Parliament are very large, books and other writings." It is not confined to language or letters. Music is a science ; it may be written and the mode of conveying the idea is by signs or marks. A person may use the copy by playing it, but he has no right to rob the author of the profit by multiplying copies of it and disposing of them to his own use. If the narrow construction contended for were to hold, it would equally apply to algebra, mathematics, arithmetic, hierogly- phics. All these are conveyed by signs and figures (Bach v. Longman; Cowp. 623), and this is so, even though the music was published on a single sheet of paper (Clementi v. Gould- ing, II East 244.) And it has been held that in a declaration for pirating a book, an alle- gation, that the plaintiff was the author of a book, being a musical composition called A, was supported by showing him to be the author of a musical composition" comprised in and only occupying one page of a work with a different title, which contained several other musical compositions (White v. Gerrock, 2 B. and A. 298.) It is of course impossible within our necessary limits to discuss all the points of law that have been decided on the subject of musical copyright ; but with regard to origi- nality we may mention the case of Lover v. Davidson (i C. B.,N. S., 182) in which it was held that one who adapts to an old air words of his own, adding thereto a prelude and accompaniment, also his own, acquires a copy- right in the combination, and may, in an action for infringement against one who has pirated the whole, property describe himself as the proprietor of the entire composition. In this case Samuel Lover had adapted the words of the " Low Back'd Car" to an air previously known as the " Jolly Plough Boy." It is not, however, lawful to publish as quadrilles or waltzes the airs of an opera of which there exists an exclusive copyright (D'Almaine v. Boosey, i Y. and C. 289.) It may also be noticed that the publication of a piece of music, not for sale or hire, but by the gratui- tous distribution of lithographed copies among the members of a musical society is a publi- cation for which a party is Hable as for an invasion of the copyright of the proprietor (Novello V. Sudlow, 12 C. B. 177.) In order to assign a copyright, it is only necessary to do so by a written instrument, which need not be under seal. But an agreement to exe- cute such an assignment will not operate as an assignment so as to render inoperative a subsequent regular assignment to a third party. By 5 and 6 Vict., c. 45, § 13. copyrights may be registered at Stationers' Hall, on payment of a fee of five shillings, A book of Registry of the proprietorship and assignment of copy- rights is there kept, and is open for inspection at reasonable hours, on payment of a fee of one shilling, and certified copies must be given on demand and on payment of a fee of five shillings to the proper officer of the Stationers' Company. These copies so certified are re- ceivable as evidence in all courts and summary proceedings, but they are rebuttable by other evidence. In the case of musical and dra- matic compositions they are prima facie evidence of the right of representation, but this presumption is similarly rebuttable by evidence of a contrary character. Cor {Fr.) A horn. Corale {It.) Chorale, hymn or psalm tune. [Hymn Tune.] Cor Anglais [Fr.) Corno Inglese {It.) English horn. A reed instrument of the hautboy character, possessing a compass of like extent but of lower pitch. Its scale is two octaves and a fifth from bass E with the in- termediate semitones : • these being the actual sounds pro4uced. The music for the cor Anglais is written in the ( 109 ) CORANACH CORNET. treble clef, and the instrument transposes the sound a fifth below. Gluck introduced the instrument in his " Orfeo," Meyerbeer has made frequent use of it, and Rossini produces a fine effect in the overture to " William Tell" by means of its tone, but Beethoven only once employed it, — Mozart and Weber never. Coranach, Coranich, Coronach, Cronach (Gaelic.) The word for a funeral song among the Scotch Highlanders ; it is said to be de- rived from corah-rainach a crying together. [Keeners.] Coranto (It.) Courante (Fr.) Current tra- verse {Old Eng.) {i) An Italian form of the country dance. (2) A movement in a suite or sonata of the early writers. The following is given as an early specimen : GiROLAMO FrESCOBALDI, Z59I-Z64O. ^a^i^^j=^ ^ N ^^r,rr^ ^ \ V w~& — 1* ' 0m r-w V. 1—1- — t 1 ■ ' ■' -T- ■ 1 ' 1 — 1— r- 4 r ^^p,j_^±p!^4^^, •^- J j r r JJ ^ J J r \r kvr .^|!riryi'rri.,..|fff| ^fe=^^^^^: J' r j" p Hj^-^ — 1 - ■ r L P±±=£=£=E=&g^^=^:,=; Corda, sopra una (It.) Sur une corde {Fr.) A direction that the passage is to be played on one string. [A una corda.] Cordatura {It.) [Accordatura.] Cordax (Lat.) KdpSa? {Gk.) An ancient Greek dance of a wanton character, in the old comedy ; but sometimes danced off the stage by drunkards. Corde 4 jour] /c % a »■ Corded vide t ^^"^'^ An open stnng. Cor de chasse {Fr.) A hunting horn. Corde fausse (Fr.) A false string. [String.] Corde signal {Fr.) A bugle. Cor de vaches {Fr.) Cow-horn, used in many places abroad to call the cattle home, and formerly employed in England to rouse the labourers to their work. " No more shall the horn Call me up in the morn.'" Corifeo {It.) [Coryphceus.] Cormuse. [Bagpipe.] Cornamusa (It.) Come muse {Fr.) [Bag- pipe.] Cornare {It.) Corner (Fr.) To sound a horn. Cornet. Cornetto (It) Zinken (Ger.) An obsolete reed wind-instrument not unlike a hautboy, but larger and of a coarser quality of tone. In this country they were of three kinds, treble, tenor, and bass. The tubes gradually increased in diameter from the mouthpiece to the end, and their outline was gently curved, hence the Italian name cornetto curvo. In Germany, as in England, they were once in common use for sacred and secular purposes. They were often made of wood neatly covered with dark leather. [Waits.] 2. A reed stop on the pedals of some Ger- man organs, of 4 or 2 feet in length, 3. Mounted- cornet. A solo stop on old organs, so called because it was placed on a separate sound board, and raised a few feet above the surrounding pipes, for the purpose of giving its tone special prominence. It con- sisted of several ranks of pipes, generally of five, namely, an open or stopped diapason (usually the latter), a principal,. 12th, 15th, and tierce. Thus, if the stop were drawn, and (no) CORNETTO COULE. the finger held on middle C, the following sounds would be heard simultaneously : Although these would of course combine into one, and not be audible as separate and distinct sounds, yet it may be supposed that such a combination of loud harmonics with a comparatively soft ground-note would pro- duce a most disagreeable and nasal tone. But, notwithstanding its unpleasant timbre it was a favourite stop in the last and in the early part of this century, and its general intro- duction into the best organs gave rise to a vicious and trumpery literature of " cornet voluntaries." The characteristic of these was, that while the left hand held down a soft chord on the choir organ, the right was en- gaged in passages, turns, shakes, and other musical capers, on the cornet stop of the great organ. The usual compass of the stop was from middle C upwards, but sometimes it commenced at tenor C. A large number of comet stops were removed to make way for the clarabella when first invented by Bishop, and better taste has so far ejected them that a specimen in good playable condition may be looked upon as a curiosity, 4. Echo cornet. A stop often found in Swell organs. Originally it consisted of the same series of ranks of pipes as the mounted comet, but was always of a very small scale. But the name is now often applied to any small- scale sesquialtera or mixture enclosed in the swell box. 5. Comet-cl-pistons. A modem brass instru- ment of the trumpet family, but having valves or pistons by means of which a complete chromatic scale can be produced. In propor- tion to the number of valves introduced into tube-instruments, the quality of their tone is deteriorated, but notwithstanding this loss of purity and brilliancy, the cornet is most useful and valuable for many purposes. It has been brought into discredit by being unwisely used in some orchestras as a substitute for its parent, the trumpet, with the grandeur of which it cannot compete. [Metal Wind-instruments.] Cornetto {It.) [Cornet.] Corno {It.) [Horn.] Corno alto {It.) High horn. Corno basso {It.) Low hom. Corno di bassetto {It.) [Basset-hom.] Corno di caccia {It.) [Caccia.] Corno Inglese {It.) [Cor Anglais.] Cornopean. [Comet, § 5.] Coro {It.) [Choras.] Cor omnitonique {Fr.) A hom on which by the use of valves, a chromatic scale could be played. ( 1 Corona {It.) A pause. Coronach. [Coranach.] Corps de voix {Fr.) The quality or the fulness of the voice. Corrente (7^) [Coranto.j Correpetiteur {Fr.) Correpetitore {It.) The instructor of the chorus, one who teaches the choral body to sing their several parts by ear. Corti's organ. [Ear.] Coryphaeus {Lat.) Kopva.iog {Gk.) (i) A leader or conductor of the dances or chorus. (2) An officer in the University of Oxford, whose duty it is to give instruction in music. Coryphee {Fr.) (i) A leader of the groups of dancers. (2) A female dancer. Cotillon {Fr.) lit. under-petticoat. A lively, spirited dance, originally performed by a male and a female, in which the latter alternately attracted and repulsed her partner. It was first called cotillon in the reign of Louis XIV. was expanded in its design by the French in the last century, and arranged for eight per- sons. It is now danced with any step by an unHmited number of dancers. When it is possible, chairs are placed round the room for the performers. " Each gentleman places his partner on his right hand. There is no rule that any particular figure shall be danced. The selection is left to the determination of the leading couple who commence the figure, which the other couples repeat in succession. In large parties of twenty-four or thirty couples, it is customary for two or more couples to perform the same figure at the same time. The constant variety of the figures enables each gentleman to dance with almost every lady." The figures from which a selec- tion is made are called the pyramid ; the two flowers ; the great bound and pass-under ; the cushion ; the round ; the basket, ring, and flower ; the two lines of six ; the coquette ; la gracieuse ; the mirror ; the handker- chief; the star ; the cards ; the double moulinet ; the deceived lady ; the quadrille ; the two chairs ; the rounds multiplied ; the lancers ; the three chairs, &c. : the whole being more or less allied to the old-fashioned country dance. It is not at all improbable that the tune " Petticoat loose " given in the article, " Country dance," furnished the title to the Cotillon. Couac {It.) An onomatopoeic word for the sound made by bad blowing on the clarinet, oboe, or bassoon. The quacking sound, the goose note. Couched harp. [Spinett.] Coul6 {Fr.) A glide, (i) Slurred notes. (2) A slide in dancing. (3) An ornament in harpsichord music ; e.g.: Written. Played. II ) COUNTERPOINT. Counterpoint. The term " counterpoint " in its broadest sense may be defined as " the art of adding one or more parts to a given melody ; " in its more limited sense as, " the art of harmonising a theme by adding parts which shall be in themselves melodious." The terms subject, melody, canto fermo, and theme, are synonymous. The common definition of counterpoint as the " art of combining melo- dies " is not strictly logical, unless the wford "melody" has a definition not generally ac- cepted ; because, distinct melodies are never given to the student to be combined by him unless they have been previously proved capable of combination ; and if a composer should attempt to combine two distinct melodies in accordance with the laws of strict counterpoint he will probably find it necessary to eliminate so much of one or both of his subjects that little real musical melody is left. The contrapuntist's notion of a melody is — a succession of sounds which does not infringe certain theoretical laws.' No wonder then that authors who have bound themselves by the commands of counterpoint seem to have trodden in one almost identical path and to have added little that is valu- able to the literature of counterpoint. Those masters who have exceptionally combined great genius with a deep study of the art of counter- point, such as Bach, Cherubini, and Mozart, exhibit in their works more than any other authors do,, with what beneficial results the laws of counterpoint may be purposely broken, for it cannot be denied that the first fact which startles, and shakes the faith of the student of counterpoint, is that the preaching and practice of contrapuntists are so thoroughly inconsistent. Their books consist of rules, their compositions of exceptions. But it would be dishonest to blink the fact that much good was for a time done by counterpoint, by elimi- nating crudities in harmony, by introducing an interesting rhythmical correlation of parts, and by opening to ingenious writers a large field for imitative construction of music at a time when the resources of key, modulation, form, and variety of tone in instruments, were greatly limited. Whether a course of study in counterpoint is not more interesting to the lover of musical history than beneficial to the gifted young composer, the reader may perhaps be able to judge for himself after reading the rules of the art and seeing the examples of its scope given below. Counterpoint is simple or double. There are five species of simple counterpoint. I, when the added part is note against note of the subject; 2, when the added part is two notes to one of the subject ; 3, when the added part is four notes to one of the subject ; 4, when the added part is in syncopa- tion to each note of the subject; 5, when the added part is free, or has a florid accom- paniment to each note of the subject. In the first species, note against note, in two parts, the following rules and regulations are to be observed: 1. No discords are allowed. 2. More than three consecutive 3rds or 6ths are forbidden. 3.- Consecutive 5ths and 8ths are forbidden. 4. The fourth is to be considered a discord. 5. No augmented or diminished intervals are to be used in the progression of the subject or counterpoint. The major 6th, major 7th, and minor 7th are similarly disallowed. 6. A tritone (or augmented 4th) should be avoided, between the component notes of a chord and that which immediately follows it. 7. False relations are forbidden. 8. Of the three kinds .of motion — similar, oblique, and contrary — contrary motion is to be preferred, g. Hidden fifths and octaves are forbidden. 10. Unison between subject and counterpoint is forbidden. ■ The first rule requires no explanation. The second is given to insure the independence of the counterpoint, as it is evident that if one part constantly follows another at the interval of the 3rd or 6th, it cannot possibly be said to form a separate melody. IT^e third and fourth rules need no explanation. The fifth rule is saddled with many exceptions, as might be expected ; the major 6th and aug- mented 4th in ascending, and the diminished 7th in descending, are tolerated. The origin of the sixth rule is to be traced in the difficulty of making dominant and subdominant har- mony succeed each other with good effect, e,g. : is certainly unpleasant to the ear, whereas is certainly not so unpleasant, though equally forbjdden by strict contrapuntists. The rule against false relations (7) is necessary in two- part writing, as it is impossible to introduce them with good effect. Such progressions as the following are palpably inadmissible : Rule 8 may be proved necessary on the same grounds as given in explanation of rule 2. Two parts cannot be forming separate melodies ( "2) COUNTERPOINT. when moving in similar motion, much less can they be doing so in oblique motion, in which, one part stands still : therefore, contrary motion is preferable as probably leading to more variety. The law against the use of hidden fifths and octaves, includes under it the well-known contrapuntal rule : " do not proceed from an imperfect to a perfect interval by similar motion," the fifth and octave being the only perfect intervals admissible in two- part counterpoint of the first species. The presence of hidden fifths or octaves is dis- covered by filling up the intervals between the consecutive notes of each part with the int€frmediate degrees of the scale, thus : g j T" gg * - i ^ Hidden fifths. Hidden octaves. or where both parts move by a skip : The examples given throughout this article are taken from Fux, "Gradus ad Parnassum," .1725, a work from which all later authors have borrowed largely, Cherubini and Ouseley not excepted : it is fair therefore to suppose that these specimens of counterpoint meet with the approval, if not the admiration, of modem expositors of the art. Counterpoint. The above is said to be " contrapunto sopra il soggetto." The followihg example has the same subject in the upper part, " contrapunto sotto il soggetto." , Qanto fermo. The gj;rqn^ "Pecie s^of simple counterpoint is subject to the ibllowing rules and regula- tions : I. Of the two notes in the coun^rgointj^the first must~Be"a concord, the secpn3~may be^a concord or passing discord. 2. Consecutive fifths or octaves on successive down-beats are forbidden. Some authors however admit the latter of these pro- gressions if the skip to the second note is greater than a third. 3. Scale passages are preferable to broken harmony. 4. The counterpoint may commence on the up-beat of the first bar. 5. The cadence of the subject should be har- monised by contrary motion. 6. The interval of a fourth may occasionally be used on the down-beat. 7. A false relation is not avoided by the introduction of a passing note or passing discord. A passing discord is a discord having a degree of the scale on each -side of it, e.g. : The first rule therefore forbids a discord to be a skip. The second rule is to prevent the use of such progressions as the following : The third rule strives to enforce independence of motion in the counterpoint, e.g. : In this example, the upper part is practically harmonised by the lower one, the first bar representing the chord of C, the next two bars a chord of G. Rules 4, 5, and 6, require no explanation. Rule 7 is to prevent the admis- sion of such passages as the following : The following are speciihens of this species : Counterpoint. ■ST Counterpoint. ■a- tS>- ( "3) COUNTERPOINT. If counterpoint in triple time is used, the first minim must be a concord, the other two may be concords or passing discords as may be found desirable. The tji ird. species of counterpoint in two parts in wKich there are four notes to each note of the canto fermo, is subject to the following rules and regulations : 1. The fourth note must be a concord, the second and fourth may be passingdiscords. 2. The third note may sometimes be a pass- ing discord, but should be generally a concord. 3. The first bar may commence with a crotchet rest, if the note immediately after the rest is a concord. 4. The cadence should be by contrary motion. 5. There may be unison between counterpoint and subject, provided it does not occur on the first note of the bar. 6. The tritone is to be avoided between any four notes of the counterpoint, unless they occur as an integral part of the scale, that is, having the next note of the scale on each side of them. 7. Octaves and fifths between counterpoint and subject should not occur on successive down beats ; or between the third crotchet of one bar, and the first crotchet of the following bar. The cases in which the third note may be a discord (see 2) are of the following kind : The sixth rule is to prevent the use of such passages as the following : It will, however, be noticed that a passage almost similar to the above, occurs in the second of the two models given below from Fux. Rule 7 is constantly broken. Fux him- self gives the following as a specimen of a cadence in this species: ^^ -F fffl f f^ ^ ^ N^^^^^N^^^ The fpJira ffppciea of counterpoint in two parts, is that in which the counterpomt though containing practically note against note of the subject, has each note bound into the following bar, or, syncopated. The following rules and regulations are to be observed : 1. That which is incorrect " sine ligatura" is incorrect when " cum hgatura." 2. It is necessary to begin on the up-beat. 3. Syncopations may be concordant or dis- cordant, a concordant syncopation being one that is heard in both bars (half of each) as a concord : a discordant synco- pation one that is a concord on the up- beat, but forms a discord on the down- beat. 4. If necessary, the syncopations may be relinquished for the space of two minims. 5. The best cadence is formed by the suspen- sion 7 6 on the supertonic. Rule I is directed against such progressions as the following : 1 tf — ■=■ ——=> — s^ For, tested by the omission of the ligatures, it appears thus : According to this rule the following passage is correct : Although it seems to infringe rule 2 of the second species, and rule 7 of the third species, but without ligatures it becomes merely a succession of 6ths: The following are specimens of counterpoint of this species : ^f^Ffi-^^ ( iH) COUNTERPOINT. (Transposed.) w^jnffr When this species is used in triple time the second note of the bar may be a concord or passing discord, the third must be a concord bound into the next bar and forming a synco- pated concord or suspended discord. The fifth species of counterpoint, florid or figurate counterpomt, consists of a mixture of the various kinds just given, and so far as it proceeds in any one species, is subject to the laws and regulations of that species. Shorter notes may occasionally be used. The following are examples : (Transposed.) Counterpoint in three parts is, generally speaking, bound by the rules of its correspond- ing species in two parts. The additional part, however, makes the following rules necessary in the first species, note against note. L Every chord^ should be a common chord, if possible. ' When not possible the chord I may be used. 2. The third of the common chord should not be doubled. The term " chord |" chord I includes under it the on the supertonic, that is, the second inversion of the chord of the minor seventh, the root being omitted. As the old masters did not consider this chord a discord, the seventh of the root (third of the chord) is frequently resolved upwards by them. It will not be necessary to give specimens of counterpoint in every form of which it is capable, one example of each species will suffice, if the reader will remember that the canto fermo may appear in upper, lower, or middle parts. The student of counterpoint should refer toFux, " Gradus ad Parnassum" Vienna, 1725,* or to an English translation called " Practical rules forlearningcomposition," printed by Welcker, Gerrard Street, Soho (at the end of the last century), or to Cherubini's.work (Novello, London). The second species of counterpoint in three parts contains one part having two notes to each note of the subject. 1. A syncopation is allowed to take place immediately before the cadence. 2. The third of the common chord should not be doubled. The following is a specimen of counterpoint of this species : The third species of counterpoint in three parts contains one part having four notes to each note of the subject. A syncopation before the cadence is not permitted in this species : Counterpoint. Canto fermo.. ^= A mixed kind of counterpoint, containing one part having two notes to each, note of the ( "5 ) COUNTERPOINT (DOUBLE). subject, and another having four notes to each note of the subject, may be classified under this species : (Transposed.) , ^^^^^^ The fourth species of counterpoint in three parts contains one syncopated part : Counterpoint. ^ Counterpoint. \^j fO^ -fCf-ff^^fr P_(=^ t m Canto fermo. i ''-' =fe -^ rJ^i^ r^f ^^f t^ ^^^ ^ The fifth species of counterpoint in three parts contains one figurate or florid part. It is unnecessary to g^ve an example of this species. In counterpoint of four parts, the rules of two-part and three-part counterpoint are necessarily relaxed to some extent in the case of the inner parts, unless the inner parts consist of the canto fermo and the counterpoint spe- cially characteristic of the particular species to which the example belongs. The following rules and regulations apply to four-part counterpoint generally : 1. In the first species, only common chords should be used, but the chord % may oc- casionally be used. 2. In every species, the different parts should be as much as possible equidistant. 3. Two parts may occasionally cross each other. 4. The laws against hidden fifths and octaves do not bind inner parts, and consecutive fifths by contrary motion are sometimes permitted. It will be sufficient if two examples of four- part counterpoint are given : (^econd Species.) (Fourth Specie ».). _ Counterpoint may be in 5, 6, 7, 8 or even 16 parts, but enough has been said to give the reader an insight into its principles. Counterpoint (Double) has been well de- scribed as a " kind of artificial composition where the parts are inverted in such a manner that the uppermost becomes the lowermost, and vice versa." Or, in other words " the art of making melodies grammatically conver- tible at certain intervals." If the melodies are interchanged at the in- terval of an octave, the double counterpoint is said to be " at the octave," but if the inverted melody is transposed one note, the other melody remaining untransposed, the double counterpoint is said to be at the gth. Simi- larly, the double counterpoint may be at the loth, nth, i2th, 13th or 14th. But double counterpoint at some of these intervals im- poses such difficulties in the construction of the component melodies, that it is rarely met with. Double counterpoint at the 8th, loth and i2th, are the kinds most commonly used, and shall be explained in order. It will be seen if the following passage : 1 be inverted by playing the lowest line an octave higher, and the highest an octave lower, thus: that the intervals between the two parts have undergone an entire change, with the excep- tion of the octave which has become a unison. Thus the and has become a 7th. 6th. „ 4th Sth. ,, 5th 4th. „ 6th 3rd. » 7th , 2nd. 8th , 1st. We have above, then, a complete scheme of ( "6) COUNTERPOINT (DOUBLE). the changes intervals undergo by inversion at the octave. It is evident that the following rules must be observed : 1. As the 5th becomes a 4th, and the 4th is a discord, the 5th must be treated as a discord, if used at all. As a discord, it may be prepared, or treated as a passing discord. 2. The octave must be approached by a single degree, not a skip, in strict style. 3. As it is usual to place the upper melody an octavelower, leavingthe lower unchanged, the interval of an octave between the two parts must not be exceeded, otherwise the object of inversion will be lost, e.g. : Ex. I. will become : Ex.2. In the first and third bars of Ex. 2, no inversion has taken place. If melodies are framed with the intention of altering the pitch of both when inverting them, this rule does not of course hold good, e.g. : P I 4. The melodies should be different in style, and one should commence on the up-beat. The following is an example of double counterpoint at the octave, from Fux : If we wish to discover the changes inter- vals undergo by double counterpoint at the loth, we can, as before, write them out thus : I. Consecutive loths become consecutive unisons, e.g. : r~^~^ Will become when inverted : and consecutive 3rds become consecutive octaves ; e.g. : Will become when inverted: rrr Both consecutive loths and 3rds must there- fore be avoided. 2. Consecutive sixths become consecutive fifths ; they therefore must be avoided, e.g. : Will become when inverted : i ^ ^ r 3. The suspension 4 3 becomes a 7th resolved wrongly ; e.g. : Will become : when inverted : T^rr 4. The interval of a tenth between the upper and lower melodies should not be exceeded, for the reason given in rule 3 of double counterpoint at the octave. The following example is from Cherubini : f "7 ) COUNTERPOINTS, TRIPLE AND QUADRUPLE. Inversion. ^ ^^^^^^^^^^m ^^^^^^RP ^^\-^^^f=\r r \ rrrf The subject of the above may also be written in the third above and the counter- point in the octave below, throughout ; or again, the counterpoint may be written in the third below, and thesubject intheoctave below. The following example, from Fux, shows how the same counterpoint may be used at the same time, at the octave and the tenth, each counterpoint being correct when taken se- parately : Counterpoint. Double counterpoint at the 12th is much less hampered by the change of intervals than many other species. I. The 6th becomes the 7th, if therefore introduced, it must be as a discord in the lowest part, e.g. : will become when inverted : "^^' 3t m ^ or, a sequence of prepared sevenths. 2. The final cadence will require special care in its treatment. The following is an example of this species : Inveraion, Interesting examples of combinations of counterpoints at the loth and 12th are to be found in Fux. Counterpoints, Triple and Quadruple, as their names show, are the due construction of three or four melodies respectively, in such a manner that they can be interchangeable without involving the infringement of the laws of musical grammar. It will be evident, on consideration, that the octave is the only feasible interval at which counterpoints of this class can be made, unless indeed one or more free parts, that is, parts not forming interchangeable melodies, are added. The following is an example of triple counterpoint, written out in full. Of course three sentence^ at least will be required for the exposition of triple counterpoint; four sentences for that of quadruple : The following example of quadruple coun- terpoint is from Zimmerman : ( 118) COUNTER SUBJECT COUNTRY DANCE. It is perhaps necessary to warn the lay reader against the confusion likely to arise between the terms two-part, three-part, four- part, counterpoint ; and double, triple, and quadruple counterpoint. The former refers only to the number of parts added to a given subject, and such parts need not necessarily be interchangeable ; whereas, the essence of the latter is that in each case all the parts must be capable of substitution one for the other. Occasionally, specimens of quintuple coun- terpoint are to be met with, but they may be looked upon more as curiosities than as substantial additions to the musical art. Counter subject. [Fugue.] Counter tenor clef. The C clef placed upon the third line of the stave for the use of counter tenor or alto voices, the viola, &c. : Counter tenor voice. The old name for the alto voice. [Alto voice.] Country Dance. Contre-danse (Fr.) Con- tradanza {It.) A rustic dance, of English origin, in which performers were arranged face to face, " one set against another," and performed certain prescribed figures. The old method of dancing the " country dance " was to place the ladies and the gentlemen in two parallel lines, the former on the left, the latter on the right, facing their partners. All advance, then retreat, during the first four bars of the music, then cross to opposite places, then advance and retreat, and then re-cross to original places. Each of these movements should occupy the time of four bars of music. The lady who stands at the top, and the gentleman whose place is at the bottom, advance towards each other, courtesy and bow, and return to their places. The gentle- man at the top and the lady at the bottom do the same. Then the first named couple ad- vance once more, give right hands and swing quickly round each other back to places. This figure is repeated by the other couple. The lady at the top then advances, gives her right hand to her opposite partner, and passes be- hind the two gentlemen standing in the places next to him : then, through the line and across it, giving her left hand this time to her partner, who meets her half way between the two lines, having passed behind the two ladies next to his partner's place. The lady then passes behind the two ladies next in the line, the gentleman moving in the like figure behind the two gentlemen next lowest, and so on, all down the line. At the bottom the lady gives her left hand to her partner, and they pro- menade back to their former places. Then the top couple come forward, courtesy and bow, the lady turns to the right, the gentle- man to the left, each followed by the rest of her or his line. Top couple meeting at the bottom join hands and raise their arms to form an arch for the other couples to pass under, until all have reached their places ex- cept the top couple ; these having become the bottom couple, repeat the figure from the beginning until they have worked back to their original places at the top of the lines, and then the dance is ended. Such is a general description of a dance which under various titles has been popular in England for centu- ries, has been adopted by other nations, and revived from time to time with a few modifi- cations under the several titles applied to it by the people from whom it was last taken. Thus it has been called " contre-danse " and is erroneously said to be French ; and when it has been named " coranto " it has been sup- posed to be Italian. John Stafford Smith, in his Masica Antiqua, quotes a dance tune which he copied from a MS., now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the date of which is probably about the year 1300. The tune is in | time, in three sec- tions of nine bars each, and notwithstanding the fact that it has one more bar in each section than the majority of tunes employed as country-dance melodies, can be danced to without difficulty or sense of inconvenience. Country Dance Tune, about 1300. ( "9) COUNTRY DANCE. ^^^J j: ^ ^^^^^ ^^m^^^^^S It is unnecessary here to enlarge upon the popularity of dancing, throughout all ages ; a reference to Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes," and to Chappell's " Popular Music in the Olden Time," will satisfy those who are curious as to details. It may be here stated that the old poets and dramatists, from the time of Chaucer and later, have frequent allusions to the custom, and make mention of many dances by name without giving descriptions, so that it may be inferred that their allusions point to practices in their time so popular that particular description was not deemed needful. One of the old English names for rustic dances was hey digyes or rounds. " While some the rings of bells and some the bagpipes play, Dance many a merry round, and many a hy degy." Drayton's " Polyalbion," Song xxv. The " Hay," or " Raye" as it is also called, is probably the same as the " hey digyes." It was danced by many, forming a line - or a circle, and the direction was to " wind round handing in passing until you come to your places." " The Haye," a Countrie Dance, 1678. "Dargason" was another name given to the country dance years before the time of the Reformation. Ritson in his Ancient Songs classes it as belonging to a very early period. Mr. Chappellquotes the tune in his " Popular Music," p. 65, and it is of the rhythm common to many country dance tunes : ^^F ^=S^mH^-^^=^^ ^ The same character of tune which suited the country dance was also used for the reel, the round, the morris-dance, the jig, and hornpipe, all of which are offshoots from the one original stem. Those among these dances now performed by one or at most two dancers, were not always so done, the reel was often " four or eight handed or even general," the jig and hornpipe were also dances for many. The two last named probably derived their title from the instruments employed as accompaniments, the usual accompaniment to most country dances was anciently the fiddle, in German Geig-e; or, pipe and tabour. There were many other names given to the country dance in successive ages, and the variety of the titles has led many writers into the belief that there were as many dances as names. The allusions found in the writings of the poets and dramatists have, to a certain ex- tent, increased the confusion in the minds of readers, and commentators not deeming the subject worthy of the consideration it deserves, have often by wrongly directed notes and glosses, made matters in a worse condition than that arising from original error. Sir John Davies (i570-i626)in his poem "Orchestra" is clearer than other authors on the subject. He identifies rounds, corantos, measures, &c., with country dances. His description of a ( 120 ) COUNTRY DANCE. country dance, to be found under "Brawl," is almost the same as that given above, which is the process of performing the country dance to this day. He calls a " measure" " a round dance for ever wheeling," and implies that " as men more civill grew, they did more grave and solemn measures frame" out of the primi- tive country dance. The "galliard " " a swift and wandering dance with passages uncertain to and fro, yet with a certain answer and consent." Thecoranto or " current traverses " in which he says of the dancer : " Everywhere he wantonly must range And turn with unexpected change " All these forms are but slight variations of the simple original, and as it is admitted that " no rules have ever been laid down for the com- position of a country dance, nor is it indeed confined to any particular measure ; so that any common song, or tune, if sufficiently rh)rthmical may by adoption be made a country , dance," the diversities of tempo in the several melodies, of the coranto, rondo, galliard, and measure ought not to be taken as a proof of a distinct character of dance. In the rustic dances the motion was rapid, but when people of less humble condition deigned to adopt them, they varied the figures, made the motion more dignified, and giving a new title to the old diversion, created a certain amount of confusion in the minds of interested posterity. The "stately measure, the graceful minuet, and the courtly quadrille" are each and all country dances, and people of all conditions have indulged in the pastime they offer. Mr. William Chappell ("Popular Music in the Olden Time," p. 626) shows that country dances were popular at court in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and succeeding reigns. The custom of dancing the ancient English country dance was kept up at court during the reign of George III, as many news- papers and other records show. Thus, in the " Universal Magazine," for June, 1784, we read : "June 4th, the anniversary of the King's birth-day, the drawing-room broke up about half-past five, when their majesties returned to the Queen's palace to dinner ; and at about nine in the evening there was a grand ball, which was opened by the Prince of Wales, who walked the first minuets with the Princess Augusta .... The country dances began a little before twelve, and continued till past one." It has been mentioned above that the rhythm of country dance tunes is various, some are in triple and some in duple mea- sure. Among the most popular airs employed for the dance, those called " Sir Roger de Coverley," the "Tank," the "Triumph," "Gee ho, Dobbin," "Merrily danced the Quaker's Wife," "Petticoat Loose," "Gossip Joan," " The Devil among the Tailors," " Moll in the Wad," and the "Wind that shakes the Barley," are still popular: these are all dif- ferent in accent and measure, yet all serve the purpose of the dance. It matters not whether th'e time be 2 , 8 > 8> or I ; all that is necessary is that the strains should be in four or eight bar phrases to accompany the several movements, and every need is satisfied. '•Roger de Coverley." ft^rr^^^rrrmm & r#f^ ^1 Ur ^^^fr^-^i r — i^'Ti r • 'FT f ="^ ^^f-^r-t^:r^fep^i "The Tank.' 1 p, r -g HHi nj?=a r^i r-r aa-THi p- jD.C ^M^-^^^^ ^^J!^3i:M^^*J- '^I'J^ ^ '=Tf= ^ "F N^ ^ "The Triumph." TJ-^ j T?T^ I -^- ( 121 ) COUNTRY DANCE. " Gee ro, Doebih." ^^^^^^^^^ ^l^^teta^^ f=^ rtJlj^-^- g^^feTSST ^ ^ ^a--£^^ ^ ^^ * Merrily danced the Quaker's Wife." n.c. "Gossip Joan.' r* -r* r " The Devil among the Tailors/ S'^€ I -n^ ^^ R^ ^S"^ 3*P= £=-=•:: feAl/.i ^ h- iJ±l — d-i ' 1 — V^> J 1 ^%i ^^ b^ -^ ^ -r*^ ^feSf-ggfr-r ^ r^-rg^.f^rr^^^ g)^! ri- ^^-^^ ^* 1 j-t- Ud — LL-U li 1 i 1 ».lJ!j : 1 i ' — ■g^* i'g=':5 ^ i^ 'i^ i^^ i?'''jJjj l r'Vf,: ( i^p ( 122 ) COUNTRY DANCE. l Ji''LL^'^J-| l r, !,L lLL ^^g ' MoLz. IN THE Wad." " Rolling in the Dew." ^(^j-jtrJrf/jrrr'^jt^rr/rrrriii ^^_3=:^^^^^^ i/'^rfirc^rr^ '^iH'r^ JJ5'Q^ 1 IJ=H (ii) : U ' '^ >4>Q* Country dances when imported into other nations have become as popular as at home. The Italians, in 1740, were said to be "fond to a degree " of them, and about the same period in Paris, " no kind of dance was re- ceived with so much favour as they." Dancing masters vied with each other in devising new combinations of figures, and musicians of the common order provided original or borrowed tunes for the dance, many of which were pub- lished in single sheets with such titles as "La N«"=- Chartres, countre danse par Mr. , M"'^- de Danse, prix 4 f. la feuille ; k Paris, ches M. de la Chevardiere, M''- de Musique, rue du Roule a la Croix d'or ; M^^- Castagniere, rue des Prouvaires, avec privilege du' Roy." These publications consisted of four pages, the first occupied with the title, as above ; the second containing a description " des figures de la centre danse ; " the third diagram-plans of the said figures, and the fourth the music, which in the instance quoted above, is as follows : The following diagram from the above work, shows the various figures of another dance, the black marks representing the position of the men ; the white marks, that of the women ; the arrow-heads, the direction in which they move. ( 123) COUNTRY DANCE CREMONA. Description des Figures de la Contredanse. 1. ha grande chaine, un demi tour. 2, 3. La poussette dessus, et dessous, et la pirouette d chaque bout. 4. Autre i tour de chaine, la poussette, et la pirouette au bout. 5, 6, 7, 8. Gager d'une place sur le cite; deux se tenant les mains passent en dedans et les deux autres en dehors, continuant d passer de cette maniere ^fois,jusqu'd ses places, faisant deux balance d chaque place. 9. La chaine des dames sur les cites. 10. Un tour allemande en pirouettant. 11. Refaire la chaine des dames. 12. Un tour d'allemande. La Main. LAN^50CIETE PLAN DesFfgures dela Confredanfe The subjoined is the melody to which it was 4anced ; '*Lk Nouvelle Societe," Contre-danse Allemande. 2 fois la rep. du majeur en rondeau, et deux fois chaque rep^ da mineur. or Coup d'archet {Fr.) Stroke of a bow, Couper le sujet {Fr.) To abbreviate curtail a musical subject or theme. Coupler. The mechanism which connects pedals with the manuals ; or, different manuals together. [Organ.] Couplet, (i) Two lines in rhyme, which contain a complete sentence. (2) A verse of a song. (3) Two notes occupying the time of three, e.g. : jH r r ^ I J^ Courante (Fr.) [Coranto.] Couronne (Fr.) The name for the sign of a pause /^ . Courtaut, Cortaud, Corthal. An ancient instrument of the bassoon kind. [Bassoon.]' Covered consecutives. Hidden consecu- tives. [Consecutives.] Covered strings. Strings of silk, wire, or gut, covered with a fine wire by means of a machine, by a process technically termed string-spinning. Covered strings are used for pianofortes, violins, violoncellos, guitars, &c., the wire covering,by adding weight and strength to the string, makes it slower of vibration, while, on the other hand, it is more elastic than an uncovered string of the same diameter. Cownterynge yn songe (Old Eng.) In Lat. concentus or accentus, singing an accom- paniment to a tune. [Descant.] Cracovienne. [Polacca.] Crackle. A direction in lute playing, thus explained by " Maister " Thomas Mace,- 1676: "To crackle such three part stops is only to divide each stop, with your thumb and two fingers, so as not to loose time, but give each crotchet its due quantity." [Arpeggio.] Credo {Lat.) One of the movements in a mass. [Mass.] Crembalum. [Jew's Harp.] Cremona, (i) A violin made in the town of Cremona. (2) A reed stop in the organ. A corruption of the word Krum or Cromhorn. ( 124 ) CREMORNE GUSTOS. Cremome (Fr.) [Krum horn.j Crepitaculum or Crepundia {Lat.) An ancient instrument of a character like the casta- nets, but with sound produced more by friction than striking. [Castanets, Bones, Knicky- knackers.] Crescendo {It.) Increasing, a gradual increase in the force of sound expressed by the sign _ or the abbreviation cres. The sign was first employed in England by Matthew Locke, in 1676. Crescendo-zug {Ger.) The swell box in the organ. [Organ.] Creticus (Lat.) A metrical foot consisting of one short syllable between two long — ^ — Croche (Fr.) A quaver, JN the hooked note. [Nomenclature.] Croma {It.) A quaver ^ Cromatico {It.) Chromatic, as, fuga cro- matica, a chromatic fugue ; fantasia cromatica, a chromatic fantasia, &c. Crom horn. [Krum horn.] Crooks. Short tubes either straight or curved, adapted for insertion between the mouthpiece and the body of the horn, trumpet, or cornet-a-pistons, for the purpose of altering the key. [Metal wind instruments.] Crotalum {Lat.) xporaXov {Gk.) A rattle, or clapper, used sometimes to mark the rh)rthm of dancing, in the worship of Cybele. They were generally made of wood, having a loose piece hinged about midway, so that, when shaken in the hand a clattering noise was produced, called by the Greeks ■n-Xarayri. Instruments of this kind were in use among the ancient Egyptians, as the following illus- tration shows: Crotchet. A note I one-fourth of the value of a semibreve. [Nomenclature.] Croupeza, KpoimE'Ca, Kpovirai^a, Kpovirava, Kpovirera {Gk. from Kpnvia, to knock, strike). High wooden shoes worn by flute-players or others, with which the time was marked by striking with the foot; c.f. Lat. scrupedae, women who wore high-heeled boots. Crowd. Crwth, an ancient instrument, like a violin, with six strings, four of which were played upon by a bow, and the other two played, or plucked with the thumb, as an accompaniment. The neck had a hole, through which the player thrust his hand, so that he could only command the notes lying under his fingers. [Violin.] Crovs^le. An early form of the word corolla {Lat.) a crowd, q.v. C-schliissel {Ger.) The C clef. Cum sancto {Lat.) A portion of the Gloria in the mass. [Mass.] Cue. A catch word or phrase. The last notes or words of other parts inserted as a guide to singers or players who have to make an entry after rests : npright on an beap. And the depths were con Currende {Ger.) Children carol-singers in Germany. Cushion-dance. An old English round dance, in which each woman selected her partner by placing a cushion before him. Taylor, the Water Poet, calls it a " pretty little provocatory dance," for that reason. There was a dialogue carried on, according to the description given in the " Dancing Master" of 1686 ; and the note appended to the same description points — perhaps unwit- tingly — to the probable origin of the dance : " Note. The women are kissed by all the men in the ring at their coming and going out, and likewise the men by all the women." Therefore, it is not at all unlikely that the Cushion-dance was the " Kissing dance." One of the tunes to which it was danced is subjoined, and another melody is printed in Mr. Chappell's " Popular Music," where it is shown that the dance was also called a Gal- liard. [Cotillon.] [Country Dance.] Cushion Dance. Custos {Lat.) (i) The chief of a college of minor canons. (2) A direct, the sign -w or V, placed at the end of a line or page to show ( 125 ) CYCLISCHE FORMEN CZIMKEN. the position of the first note of the line or page following. Cyclische Formen. Rondoforms.[Form.] Cymbalista. A cymbal player. Cymbals. Cymbalum (Lat.) kvii^oKov (Gk). Musical instruments of percussion, consisting of two metallic basins, which are set in vibra- tion by being clashed together. The shape of cymbals varies, from that of the actual form of a cup or basin to an almost flat plate. The following illustration shows those used by the Assyrians. It will be remarked that the lower basin is held in a stationary position, while the upper one is dashed on it. The Hebrews had two kinds of cymbals, mentioned by name in Psalm cl. 5, " Praise Him upon the loud cymbals ; praise Him upon the high-sounding cymbals." The Ara- bians have two sorts at the present time, the larger they use in their religious cere- monies, but the smaller are rarely used but for the purpose of accompanying the dance. In India cymbals are used called talan, and a smaller sort called kintal. An illustration of Indian cymbals is given : Fig. 2. The Burmese instruments of this class are of the true basin shape, as shewn in the following : Fig- 3- A pair of ancient Egyptian cymbals are in existence; they are about five inches in diameter, and are made of a mixture of copper and silver, and in outline are identical with those now used by modern Egyptians. As has been the case with other musical instruments, the name cymbal has been ap- plied in various ways. At one period the Italians called a tambourine by this name, and at another a dulcimer. As the harpsi- chord was the actual outgrowth of the dulci- mer, the harpsichord came to be called cembalo, a word still to be found occasionally affixed to the pianoforte part of full scores. It is probable that the peculiar clang produced by striking the wire strings of a dulcimer with a wooden hammer gave rise to the associa- tion of the name cymbal with dulcimer. In modern military bands cymbals are used in the ancient manner. One plate is held in each hand of the performer, and the sound is produced by clashing the plates together. In the orchestra of the concert-room, one plate of a cymbal is attached to the upper side of the rim of the big (upright) drum, and the other held in the left hand of the drummer. The tone produced by the beating of these is largely increased in power and depth by the connection with the drum. Very small cym- bals were introduced by Berlioz, tuned a fifth apart, as an orchestral instrument, hut have not come into common use. Small cymbals are sometimes attached to the fingers and are hence called finger-cymbals : Fig. 4. These naturally became associated with castanets; and they have also found their way into the rim of the tambourine, of which instrument they form an important element. It should be stated that cymbals are not struck together, actually face to face, for by so doing not only would the free vibration of the plates be very much arrested, but they would in all probability be split by the blow. Turkey is still celebrated for its manufacture of cymbals and other instruments of percus- sion, and exports them in large quantities to all parts of the world. The exact composi- tion of the metal used in Turkey is not known' to the manufacturers in other countries. Cypher-sysfem. [Notation.] Czakan. A flute made of cane or bamboo. Czardasch {Hung.) [Chica.] Czimken [Polish). A dance similar to the country dance. ( 126) -DANCING. D. (i) The first note of the Phrygian, afterwards called Dorian, mode. (2) The second note of the normal scale C. {3) The scale having two sharps in its sig- nature. (4) The name given to a string tuned to D, e.g., the third string of the violin, the second of the viola and of the violoncello. (5) The name of a clef in old mensurable music, D excellens. [Clef.] (6) A bb. for Discantus, Dessus, Destra, &c. Da ballo (It.) In dance style. Da camera {It.) For chamber use. In the style of chamber music. Da cappella (It.) In the church style. Da capo (It.) From the beginning. An expression first used by Scarlatti in his "Theo- dora," signifying that the performer must re- commence the piece, and conclude at the double bar marked " Fine." Da capo al fine (It.) From the beginning to the sign Fine. Da capo al segno (It.) Repeat from the sign (H) at the beginning. D'accord (Fr.) In tune. Dach (Ger.) Sounding-board. Resonance- body of an instrument. Da chiesa (It.) For the church. In the church style. Dachschweller [Ger.) Swell-box. Dactyl. A metrical foot, consisting of a long syllable followed by two short syllables. Dactylion {Gk.) An instrument invented by Henri Herz, for strengthening the fingers for pianoforte playing, [c.f. Chiroplast.] Daina or Dainos. A term given to some little Lithuanian love-songs. Daire [Turkish). A tambourine. Da lontano [It.) In the distance, e. g.', corni da lontano, horns heard in the distance. Dal segno [It.) To the sign (%). [Da capo.] Damenisation. The syllables da, me, ni, po, tu, la, be, which Graun employed for the notes of the scale in his vocal exercises. [Sol- mization.] Damp, to. (i) On instruments played by plucking the strings, as the harp, guitar, &c., to check the vibrations by placing the hand lightly on the strings. (2) To apply mechanical dampers. Damper, (i) Certain moveable pieces of mechanism in a pianoforte, made of wood covered with cloth, which, after the finger has struck the key and left it, immediately check the vibrations of the strings, and prevent that confusion of sound which would result if they were allowed to continue in vibration. (2) The mute of a horn, and other brass wind- instruments. Dampfer [Ger.) A damper. Dancing. A graceful movement of the feet or body, intended as an expression of various emotions ; with or without the ac- companiment of music to regulate its rhythm. Dancing is mentioned by the earliest writers, both sacred and profane, as a constituent part of religious ceremonies. There are many in- stances narned in the Bible, needless here to particularize, anH the ancient Greek poets have abundant allusions to the practice in their writings. Homer mentions dancing and music at social entertainments ; Aristotle tells of dancers who were able to express manners, passions, and deeds in rhythmical gestures; Herodotus, Pindar, Athenseus, and others of later date refer to the practice. Donaldson says that all ancient dancing was " either gymnastic or mimetic; it was gymnastic when intended merely as an exercise, it was mimetic when it was designed to express some mental feeling, or tO' represent by corresponding gestures the words of the accompanying chorus sung." Athenseus speaks of three divisions of the Greek dance : the Emmeleia [e/jiniXeia), the Sicinnis [trkivvie), and the Cordax (Ko'pSa?); the first named from the melody played to it, the second from its inventor Sicinnos, and the third probably for the reason hereinafter ex- plained. The Emmeleia, the tragic dance, was a kind of slow dignified movement or ballet. The Sicinnis was of a grotesque character, and was performed with a peculiar shaking of the body and violent motion of the limbs. The Cordax was less decent in style than the last named. It was introduced into comedies, and was performed by actors assum- ing to be under the influence of wine. In addition to these there were the Pyrrhic or war dances, expressive of the pursuit and encounter of an enemy. ( 127 ) DANCING DECANI. The Roman dances, at first connected with religious observances, became by degrees sepa- rated from them, and perhaps degenerated, as it was considered disgraceful for a free citizen to dance, excepting during devotional exer- cises. The Alm6e, or dancing and singing girls of Egypt, the Nautch girls of India, perform, at feasts and solemn occasions, certain dances akin to those which formed part of the ancient observances. There is ground for the belief that dancing was not discouraged among the early Chris- tians, and there are records showing continu- ance of the custom among the less orthodox sects at different periods of the history of the Church. Dancing and pantomimic actions formed part of the amusements sometimes offered by the jongleurs, a body of the minstrel class ; their dancing often included acrobatic per- formances. The common dances, popular among the people in various European coun- tries, vary more in name than in character ; and as they are unquestionable legacies of heathen days, have been condemned from time to time by the more serious-minded. The force and original meaning of dancing is now lost sight of. It is not now regarded in the light of an act of worship, but is en- couraged only as a means of social enjoyment. The rude forms of dancing have been softened and polished during successive generations, their character changed, and their identity or connection with their origin disguised under modified motions. Each country in which dancing is practised has considered itself free to change the steps, arrangement, and signifi- cance of the dance, or to give preference to one portion of a complicated whole ; and such alterations have been accepted as new dances, when they are not really so. The German waltz, the French cancan, the English country- dance, the Spanish bolero, the South American chica, the Italian saltarello, the Hungarian czardasch, are all forms traceable to one source. The allemande, the brawl, the co- ranto, the fandango, the forlana, the gavotte, the hornpipe, the jota, the kalamaika, the loure, the measure, the minuet, the passecaille, the quadrille, the ringeltanz, the saraband, the tarantella, trenchmore, zapateado, &c., are only different names of the several motions of that called in England the country-dance, with such variations in melody and rhythm as would arise from the use of accompanying musical instruments more or less perfect in their construction, or, on account of the speed at which they were danced, by which means a rapid triple measure may be made t© seem duple measure. The advancing and retreat- ing in the various figures ; the embracing and unloosing, the stamping, shrieking, and sing- ipg in some dances ; the " grand chain," or the gallopade which generally marks the con- cluding figure of a quadrille, are merely mild versions of some of the several peculiarities of the ancient prototype. The Itahans of the i6th' century are cre- dited with the distinction of having invented that form of dancing known by the general term of ballet: they arranged the motions and gestures of the body in an expressive pantomime, and reduced the various actions to a series of well-defined and understood rules, so that the performers were able to impart to the spectators a perfect story with- out the aid of words ; but their claim cannot be upheld, as the like thing had been done by the Greeks ages before. The rhythm of the more important dances will be found described under their respective titles. Darabooka or Darabukkeh. An Arabian drum ; the body, to which is attached a handle, is of hollowed wood. There are various kinds of this instrument. Darmsaiten (Ger.) Strings of catgut. [String.] Dash, (i) A line drawn through a figure in thorough-bass, showing that the interval must be raised one semitone, e.g. : (2) A line drawn through the duple time- sign, e.g., (^, implying a division either of measurement or of pace. (3) A short stroke placed above notes or chords, directing that they are to be played staccato. (4) In harpsichord music, a dash passing between two notes, called a slur, or coul6 : was thus played ; ^~^^T^ Da teatro {It.) In the theatrical style. Dauer (Ger.) Duration or continuance of notes or sound. Daumen (Ger.) The thumb. D dur {Ger.) D major. Debut {Fr.) A first appearance. Debutant, e {Fr.) A performer who ap- pears for the first time. Dec, abb. of Decani. Dec, abb. of Decrescendo. Decachordon {Gk.) An instrument with ten strings. Decani {Lat.) A term used in cathedral music, to signify that the part so distinguished is to be sung by the singers on the dean's, or south side of the choir, in contradistinction ( 128) DECEPTIVE CADENCE DEDICATION. to " cantoris " the cantor's or prsecentor's side. [Cathedral Music] Deceptive cadence. [Cadence.] Decide (Fr.) Firmly, with decision. Decima (Lat.) A loth, an interval of a loth ; decima plena de tonis, a major loth ; decima non plena de tonis, a minor loth ; decima quarta, a 14th or octave of the 7th ; decima quinta, a 15th or double octave ; decima tertia, a 13th or octave of the 6th. Decimole. [Decuplet.] Decisio. [Apotome.] Deciso {It.) Determined, decided, with firmness. Decke (Ger.) (i) Cover, an upper or lower plate of a resonance box. (2) The cover of stopped metal organ pipes ; e.g., lieblich gedeckt, the sweet toned stopped-diapason. Declamando (It.) In a declamatory style. Declamation. The proper rhetorical ren- dering of words set to music. [Recitative.] Decompose (Fr.) Unconnected, incohe- rent. Decoration (Fr.) Signature of a piece of music. Decres., abb. of Decrescendo. Decrescendo (It.) Decreasing gradually the volume of tone. Indicated in music by the abbreviations Dec, Decres., or the sign Decuplet. A group of ten notes played in the time of eight or four. Dedication. An address or inscription to a patron or friend, prefixed to a work. Dedications frequently form a valuable guide to the historian, as by them it can be ascertained whether the author designed to honour any special individual, or, in the case of early works, whether a production was issued at the " cost and charges " of any particular patron. Before the time when an author could command a large sale amongst the general pliblic, it was not an uncommon practice to dedicate a book to one who had borne the chief expense in the production, and the ingenuity of the author was exercised in finding expressions sufficiently flattering in return for money expended or presented. Th* character of these addresses became at one time somewhat fulsome, as may be seen by the following, prefixed to Clifford's "Divine Services and Anthems:" London, 1663; the first book of its kind printed in England: " To the Reverend Walter Jones, Doctor in Divinity and Sub^Dean of his Majesties Chappel-Royal, &c. : " Sir, — Under your able patronage I^iave presumed to shelter this my weak endeavor, which if for no other reason than the wel- meaning devotion thereof, I was sure would not be unacceptable or troublesome to you. Be pleased therefore to intermit awhile those seraphical raptures, in the excellency whereof, and your thereto tuned piety, you are so famously happy. And vouchsafe an eare to the mean addresse of these rudiments (as it were) of Church Musick, which, like other perfections, hath suffer'd meerly through the peoples ignorance. To you therefore more especially doe I dedicate this essay, whose alone competent skill and judgement in the highest -mysteries of this divine science, if it shall please you to descend and deign a favourable approbation thereunto, cannot but comand reception from others : since my knowledge at Oxford (improved further at London) of your eminency this way, cannot so far disoblige the world as not to believe you have the supreme mastery in religious musick ; by which, as you charm the soul, and all its affections, no doubt you can prevail upon and perswade publick acceptance. " I submit this piece in this (howsoever rude) manner to your judgement, having attempted, I hope something of tendency to the churches peace and harmony, whereof though I am a smal and an unworthy member, yet a mite even from such is justly expected : For higher works God hath fitted and prepared your most artfull hand, and hath placed you in an orb from whence your melody (as of the spheres) of holiness and constant goodness in and for the church is universally heard with joy and delight. In which happiness, God Almighty long continue you here and late translate you to the angelical choire : So prayes, Reverend Sir, your most devoted and obedient Servant, James Clifford." Master Thomas Mace, in a more manly mood, dedicated his famous book called " Musick's Monument" (1676) to a higher power than a sub-dean, on the principle that a man's work should be " dedicated " to God, and only " inscribed " to a fellow-m.an. His " Epistle Dedicatory " runs as follows : — " To Thee, One-Only-Oneness, I direct my weak desires, and works ; please to protect both them and me ; for Thou alone art able (and none but Thee) to make us acceptable unto the world. " I am not of that Catholic belief (I mean the Roman's faith) who seek relief (At th' second hand) from saints ; but I thus take My freedom, and (sans complement) thus make My seeming bold address : not judging it A crime with Thee ; but rather count it fit ; Part of my duty call'd for, which I owe Unto Thy goodness ; therefore thus it show. I've wondered much to see what great ado Men make, to dedicate their works, unto High mortals, who themselves can no way save From the sland'rous tdngues of every envious knave. Thou (only) art the able-true protector : Oh be my shield, defender and director. Then sure we shall be safe. ( 129 DEDUCTIO DESCANT. Thou know'st (O searcher of all hearts) how I, With right-downright-sincere-sincerity, Have longed long to do some httle good (According to the best I understood), With Thy rich talent, though by me made poor-; For which I grieve, and will do so no more, By Thy good grace assisting, which I do Most humbly beg for : Oh adjoyn it to My longing ardent soul ; and have respect To this my weak endeavour ; and accept (In Thy great mercy) both of it, and me, Ev'n as we dedicate ourselves to Thee." This is followed by "An epistle to all divine readers, especially those of the discent- ing ministry, or clergy, who want not only skill, buf good- will to this most excelling- part of divine service, viz., singing of psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs, to the praise of the Almighty, in the publick assemblies of His saints ; and yet more particularly to all great and high persons, supervisors, masters, or governors of the Church (if any such should be) wanting skill, or good-will there- unto." In 1713 Mattheson published a sonata " dedicated to the person who will best per- form it," and if it were necessary, many curious instances of remarkable dedications might be quoted to swell the list, but one only must suffice. There is extant a composition by Samuel Wesley, containing a series of intended violations of musical grammar, all of which are duly pointed out, and the whole is dedicated " without permission to William Horsley, Esqre., Mus. Bac, fifth and eighth catcher in ordinary and extraordinary to the Royal Society of Musicians." Deductio {Lat.) The succession of notes as they appear in their proper places in the hexachords, which are in consequence called prima deduction secunda, &c., up to septima. [Notation.] Deficiendo {It.) Gradually dying away. D6gr6 {Fr.) Degree of a scale. Degree of a scale. A step in the tone- ladder ; it may consist of a semitone, a tone, or (in the minor scale) of an augmented tone. Degree in music. The rank or title con- ferred by an University on a candidate who has matriculated, and passed through the necessary examinations. They are of two kinds. Bachelor in (or of) Music, and Doctor of Music. The latter is generally taken by bachelors of several years standing, but in special cases candidates are allowed (by a grace) to accumulate, that is, take both degrees at the same time, Dehnung (Ger.) Expansion, extension. Dehnungstriche (Ger.) A long stroke with the bow. Ddlassement (Fr.) A light trifling enter- tamment. Deliberatamente {It.) Deliberately. Deliberate {It.) Deliberate. Del, della, delle, dello (7^) Of the, e.g., sopra il soggetto della fuga seguente. On the subject of the fugue which follows, &c. Delicato, delicatamente {It.) Delicately; delicatissimo, very delicately ; con delicatezza, with delicacy. D61icatesse {Fr.) Delicacy of performance. Delirio, con (7^) With excitement, with frenzy. Delyn (Welsh). The harp. Demancher {Fr.) To cross hands, in pianoforte playing. To shift, in violin playing. Demande {Fr.) The subject, dux, or pro- position of a fugue. Demi-baton {Fr.) A semi-breve rest. Demi-cadence {Fr.) A half cadence, or the cadence on the dominant. [Cadence.] Demi-jeu {Fr.) Half power. Mezzo forte, applied to organ or harmonium playing. Demi - mesure, demi-pause {Fr.) A minim rest. Demi-quart de soupir {Fr.) A demi- semiquaver rest. Demi-semiquaver. A note of the value of one-fourth of a quaver ,* Demi-soupir {Fr.) A quaver rest. Demi-ton {Fr.) A semitone. Demoiselle {Fr.) A coupler in the organ. Denis d'or. An instrument having a finger board like a piano, and pedals like an organ, capable of producing a vast number of different qualities of sound. It was invented in 1762 by Procopius Divis, in Moravia. Derivative, (i) The actual or supposed root or generator, from the harmonics of which a chord is derived. (2) A chord de- rived from another, that is, in an inverted state. An inversion. Des {Ger.) D flat. Descant, Discantus {Lat.) The addition of a part or parts to a tenor or subject. This art, the forerunner of modem counterpoint and harmony, grew out of the still eariier art of diaphony or the organum, of which it is necessary to give a slight sketch. Diaphony {Siaipoivia.) signified in Greek music discordant sounds or dissonance (voces dis- crepantes vel dissonae), as opposed to sym- phony {trvftijxiivia.) consonance. But the term came afterwards to be applied to those first attempts at the harmonic combination of voices, and polyphony, which may be looked upon as the first life-pulse of modern har- mony. It is indeed strange that the term diaphony should have been selected for these early efforts, for, crude and painful as they are to our ears, they gave undoubted pleasure to those who first listened to them, who speak of their " melodiae suavitas " and " dulcis concentus ; " moreover, diaphony was well known to signify dissonance, intervals being ( 130 ) DESCANT. divided into symphonic and diaphonic, the former including. 4ths, 5ths, and octaves (and their compounds); the lattef znds, grds, 6ths, and 7ths. That they should not have called it "harmony" would not surprise us if they were ■only cognizant of the exact force of the ■Greek hpfiovia, but it happens that Isidorus of Seville (in the 6th century), gives the following definition of harmony, " consonantia plurimorum sonorum et coaptatio," a defini- tion which so far diverges frOm that of the Greek, that it might have included all the efforts of the. diaphonists, and indeed might almost pass muster as a definition of modern harmony. Why diaphony or the diaphonia cantilena was also called organum it is diffi- cult to say. A later explanation, namely, that it was because of a supposed similarity to the music of the instrument "organ" is plainly untenable (apte similitudinem exprimat instru- menti, quod organum vocatur) — J. Cotton in Gerbertus Script. II. 263. In time of Charle- magne the art of diaphony must have reached some degree of perfection, as it is certain that Roman cantors were called upon to teach certain French chanters the ars organandi, and pueri symphokiaci were part of the musi- cal staff of Vitalian at the end of the 7th century. The earliest forms of diaphony were of four kinds ; when the organum was added to the "principal" or subject throughout at the interval (i) of an octave, (2) of a fifth (3) of a fourth, (4) at an octave above and below. These species were combined in three or four-part music, thus presenting to the ear a simple succession of consecutives. It is unnecessary to give examples of each of the above ; the following (from Gerbertus) will Suffice as illustrations : — In the above S stands for semitone, T for tone. It is thus rendered by Gerbertus (De Cantu, &c., I. 112.) : tris sempiturnus / \ Pa/ \Fi / es \ li Tu / tris sempiturnus / \ \"s. Pa/ \Fi / \li Tu/ \us. Ex. I. f^\-. • ■ 1 ■ (W. ■ 1 \ 1 ■ 1 Tu Pa - tris sem - pi - turn - us es Fi - li - us. \^U 1 1^ 1 ^ He also gives the following, but in old notes and clefs : Ex. ^^= 1 i. Tu Pa - tris =- '^ ^- - sem - pi - turn-US ■iS- -- - aubade, huntsup. Diapason {Gk.) (i) An octave. [Greek music] (2) The name given in this country to the most important foundation stops of an organ, termed in other countries more properly Principal. There are two kinds of diapasons, ( 133 ) DIAPASON CUM DIAPENTE DI SALTO. the open and stopped. Opeh diapasons on the manuals are nearly always of metal, but on the pedals are often of wood. Stopped diapasons were formerly, in most cases, of wood, but now are frequently made of metal. When two or more open diapasons are on the same manual, they are of different scales. (3) Fixed pitch; normal diapason, a recog- nised standard of pitch. [Pitch.] Diapason cum diapente. The interval of a 1 2th. Diapason cum diatessaron. The inter- val of an nth. Diapente {Gk.) The interval of a 5th. Diapentissare (med. Lat.) To descant at the interval of a 5th. Diaphony. [See under Descant.J Diaschisma (Gk.) lia.a)(i(Tfia. An approxi- mate half of a limma^ Diastema {Gk.) StaaTrjfia. An interval. Diatessaron (Gk.) The interval of a fourth. Diatonic, (i) One of the three genera of music among the Greeks, the other two being the chromatic and enharmonic. [Greek Music] (2) The modern major and minor scales, (3) Chords, intervals, and melodic progressions, &c., belonging to one key-scale. A diatonic chord is one having no note chro- matically altered. A diatonic interval is one formed by two notes of a diatonic scale un- altered by accidentals. A diatonic melody is one not including notes belonging to more than one scale. A diatonic modulation is one by which a key is changed to another closely related to it. Diaulion (Gk.) SiavKiov. An air played upon the aulos or flute during an interval in the choral song. Diazeuxis (Gk.) Sia^evhe. The separation of two tetrachords by a tone : opposed to synaphe (awcKjiri), or the overlapping of tetra- chords. [Greek Music.} ■• Dichord. (i) An instrument having two strings. (2) An instrument having two stringsi to each note. [Bichord.] Di coho (It.) Suddenly, at once. Diecetto (It.) A composition for ten in- struments. Diesare (7i.), DiSser (Fr.) To sharpen. Diese (Fr.) A sharp. . Diesis (Gk.) SUine. Originally the name of a semitone, called afterwards a limma. In later writings, applied to a third or quarter of a tone in the enharmonic and chromatic scales. The modern enharmonic diesis is the interval represented by 125 : 128; that is, the difference between three true majorthirds and one octave. Dieze (Fr.) A sharp. Diezeugmenon. [Greek Music] Difficile (It.) Difficult. Di gala (/if.) Merrily, cheerfully. Digitorium. The name of a small por- table dumb instrument, invented by M. Marks, for the purpose of strengthening and giving flexibility to the fingers for pianoforte playing. It consists of a key-board with five keys, kept in their places by springs of metal. Di grado (It.) By conjunct intervals. Dilettante (It.) [Amateur.] Diludium. An interlude. Diluendo (It.) Wasting away, diminish- ing ; decrescendo. Diminished. Made less, (i) Diminished intervals are those made less than minor, e.g. : G ( to F 1) is a diminished 7th, because G to F being a minor 7th, G# to F contains one semitone less than the minor interval. Some authors, however, apply this term in a manner liable to lead to much confusion, namely, to a perfect interval when mad© smaller by one semitone, and to an imperfect interval when made less by two semitones ; thus, according to them, C to G b is a dimi- nished 5th, but C to E bb or C j); to E 1? a diminished 3rd. [Interval.] (2) Diminished subjects or counter-subjects are subjects, or counter-subjects introduced with notes half the value of those in which they were first enunciated. (3) A diminished triad is the chord consisting of two thirds on the sub- tonic, .e-gf., B„ D, F in the key^f C. Diminue (Fr.), Diminuito (It.) Dimin- ished. Diminuendo (It.) Decreasing in power of sound. Diminution. [Canon.] Di molto (It.) Very much ; as, allegro di molto, very fast. Din-din. An Indian instrument of the cymbal class. Di nuovo (It.) Anew, again, Dioxia. The interval of a 5th, This term was afterwards supersed by diapente. Direct. A sign (w) used at the bottom of a page of music, to indicate the note next to be sung or played ; Directeur (Fr.), Direttore (It.) Director. Manager, guide, conductor of an orchestra. Direct motion. [Motion.] Dirge. A solemn piece of music, of a funereal or memorial character, so called from the first word of the Antiphon, " Dirige, Domine Deus- meus, in conspectu tuo, viam meam." The office of burial of the dead was called in the Primer (cir. 1400) Placebo and Dirige, and in the Primer of Henry VIII (1545) is called The Dirige. Diretta, alia (It.) In direct motion. Dis (Ger.) D sharp. Di salto (It.) By a leatp, spoken of melody progressing by skips. ( 134) DISCANT-— DOLCIANO. Discant. [Descant.] Discant-Geige {Ger.) An old term for the violin. Discant- Schllissel (Ger.) The soprano clef. Descant clef. [Clef.] i Discord. A chord which when struck or sung requires to be resolved into a concord. [Harmony.] Discrete, con discrezione (It.) Pru- dently, discreetly, with judgment. Disdiapason (Gk.) An interval of two octaves ; a 15th. Disinvolto (It.) Free, unfettered, natur- ally. Disjunct motion. [Motion.] Dis moll (Ger.) D sharp minor. Disperato, con disperazione (It.) De- spairing, with desperation. Dispersed harmony. Harmony in which the notes composing the chord are at wide intervals from each other : Disposition. Arrangement (i) of the parts of a chord, with regard to the intervals between them ; (2) of the parts of a score, with regard to their relative order ; (3) of voices and instru- ments with a view to their greatest efficiency or to the convenience of their positions ; (4) of the groups of pipes in an organ, or of the registers or stops bringing them under control. Dissonance. Discord. [Harmony.] Dissonare (It.) To jar, to make discord. Distanza (It.) Distance, an interval. Distinto (It.) Clear, distinct. Dithyrambus (Gk.) A song in honour of Bacchus, from which arose the first dramatic representations in Athens. The choruses to the early tragedies were in dithyxambic form. Dito (It.) A finger. Dito grosso (It.) The thumb. Ditone. An interval of two major tones. This interval exceeds the major third, which consists of a major and minor tone, and is discordant. Ditonus (Lat.) [Ditone.] Ditty. A short, simple air, implying or containing a moral application. The word is said to be derived from the Latin word dictum, and signified a saying or sentence, not always connected with rhythm or music. [Ballad.] Divertimento (It.) A composition of a light, pleasing character, whether vocal or instrumental, written to engage the attention in a cheerful manner. Divertissement (Fr.) [Divertimento.] Divisi (It.) Divided. A direction that instruments playing from one line of music are to separate and play in two parts. The reunion of the parts into unison is directed by the words a due, e.g. : Viole. divisi. | J Division. An elaborate variation for voices or instruments upon a simple theme ; a course of notes so connected that they form one series. Divisions for the voice are intended to be sung in one breath to one syllable. The performance of this style of music is called running a division ; Handel. Division viol. A violin with frets upon the finger-board. [Violin.] Divotamente, divoto (It.) Divozione, con (It.) Devoutly, devotedly, with devotion. Dixidme (Fr.) The interval of a loth. D moll (Ger.) The key of D minor. Do. The first of the syllables used for the solfeggio of the scale. The note c, to which it is applied, was originally called Ut [Aretinian syllables], and is still called so in France. Its introduction dates from the 17th century. Lorenzo Penna in his " Albori Musicale," 1672, uses do for ut, and speaks of it as a recent practice. [Solfeggio.] [Nota- tion.] Doctor of, or in, music. [Bachelor.] [Degree.] Dodecachordon (Gk.) An instrument with twelve strings. Dodecuplet. A collection or group of twelve notes to be played in the time of eight, Doigtfe (Fr.) (from Doigter, to finger). Marking by signs or numerals the manner in which , a piece of music should be played by the fingers. [Fingering.] Dolcan. [Dulciana.] Dolce. A soft-toned 8-ft. organ stop. Dolce (It.) Sweet ; dolce maniera, in a sweet style. Dolcemente, Dolcezza, con (It.) With softness and sweetness. Dolciano, Dolcino (It.), Dulcan (Ger.), Dulzaginas (Sp.) [Dulciana.] ( 135) DOLCISSIMO DOUBLE BASS. Dolcissimo {It.) With the utmost degree of sweetness. Dolente, dolentemente, dolentissimo, con dolore, con duolo, doloroso (It.) In a plaintive, sorrowful style ; with sadness. Dolzflote (Ger.) The old German flute, with seven ventages and one key. Domchor (Ger.) The choir or body of singers in a cathedral church, usually consist- ing of boys and men. Dominant, (i) The fifth degree of the scale. [Harmony.] (2) The reciting note of Gregorian chants. [Chant.] Dominante (Fr.) Dominant. Donna, prima (It.) The principal female singer in an opera. Doppelbe (Ger.) A double flat, W. Doppelfldte [Ger.) An organ stop, con- sisting of wood pipes having each two mouths. Doppelfuge [Ger.) A double fugue ; a fugue with two subjects. [Fugue.] Doppelgeige (Ger.) One of the names by which the viol d'amour, q.v., is known in Ger- many. DoppelgrifFe (Ger.) Double-stopping on a violin ; playing on two strings at once. Doppelkreuz {Ger.} A double sharp x- Doppelschlag {Ger.) A double beat or grace note. [Beat.] Dopio (It.) Double, e.g., doppio movi- mento, at double the pace ; doppio peddle, the pedal part in octaves. Dopo {It) After. Dorian mode. [Greek Music] [Plain Song.] Dorien (Fr.) Dorian. Dot. (i) A point added to a note, or rest, which lengthens its value by one-half, e.g. : d . is equal to cs <2i ic^ ; [• . is equal to *1 1 1 When a second dot follows the first (when the note or rest is doubly dotted), the second dot adds one-half of the value of the previous dot e.g. : <& . . is equal to ) used in music before a note already flattened in the signa- ture, which depresses the note before which it is placed another half tone. It is contradicted by a natural and a flat. . Double octave. The interval of a 15th. Double pedal point. A portion of a fugue or melody in which two notes are long sustained, generally the tonic and dominant. [Fugue.] [Sustained note.] Double quartet. A composition for two sets of four voices or instruments soli. Double reed, (i) The vibrating reed of ( i37) DOUBLE RELISH DRUM-MAJOR. instruments of the oboe class. (2) A reed- stop on an organ of i6-ft. pitch. Double relish. An ornament in old music : Written. Played. Double root. [Sharp sixth.] Double sharp. A sign (x) used before a note already sharp, to indicate that it is desired to raise the pitch by a semitone. It is contradicted by a natural and a sharp. Double sonata. A sonata for two solo instruments, as pianoforte and violin, or two pianofortes, &c. Double stopped diapason. [Bourdon.] ■ Double-stopping. The stopping of two strings simultaneously with the fingers in violin playing. The practice was first sug- gested by John Francis Henry Biber in 1681, in a set of solos for a violin and a bass : one of these pieces is written in three staves, two for the violin playing in double-stopping, and the third for the bass. He also in the same work suggests a varied tuning in fourths and fifths for the purpose of making the double- stopping easy. Double-tongueing. A peculiar action of the tongue against the roof of the mouth used by flute players, to ensure a brilliant and spirited articulation of staccato notes. The term is sometimes applied also to the rapid repetition of notes in cornet playing. Double travale. A direction in tam- bourine playing. [Tambourine.] Down beat. The first beat in each bar is so called, because in counting time the hand or conducting stick is allowed to fall at that place. Down bow. The bow drawn over the strings from the heel or holding part of the bow to the point; the greatest power of tone in the strings is elicited by the down bow. [Bowing.] Double trumpet. An organ reed-stop similar in tone and scale to, but an octave lower in pitch than, the 8-ft. trumpet. Doublette (Fr..) A compound organ-stop consisting of two ranks, generally a twelfth and fifteenth. - Doucement (Fr.) Softly, sweetly. Doux (Fr.) Soft, sweet. Douxieme (Fr.) A twelfth. Doxology {Gk.) The hymn or song of praise — the Gloria Patri — used at the end of the Psalms in the Christian church ; also any metrical form of the same. Doxologia magna (Lai.) The version of the angels' hymn, "Gloria in excelsis Deo," sung at the celebration of the Holy Eucha- rist. The greater doxology. Doxologia parva (Lat.) [Doxology.] Drag, (i) An ornament consisting of descending notes in lute-music ; strascino, portamento, glissade. (2) A rallentando, Dramma lyrica, or per musica {It.) [Opera.] Drammaticamente (7^)) In a dramatic Drammatico {It.) ) style. Dreichorig {Ger.) The triple stringed grand pianoforte. A trichord. Dreiklang {Ger.) A chord of three sounds. [Triad.] Drei-stimmig {Ger.) Music in three parts. Dritta {It.) The right hand. Driving notes. Syncopated notes. Notes driven through the ensuing accent. Droite {Fr.) Right ; as main droite, right hand. Drone, (i) The monotonous bass pro- duced from the larger of the three tubes of bag-pipes. As there are no governing holes in the drone the sound it gives forth serves as a continuous bass to any melody; the pipe second in size is tuned to give out the fifth above the drone ; and the smaller pipe, called the chanter, has ventages by which the melody is made. [Bagpipes.] (2) The chorus or burden of a song. Druckbalg {Ger.) A reservoir of wind, as in an organ, &c. Drum. An instrument of percussion, of cylindrical form, having discs of vellum or parchment at each end, so made that the discs can be tightened or slackened at pleasure by means of braces acted upon by sliding knots of leather, or by the later application of screws. There are three kinds of drums : (i) The long drum, with two heads, held laterally and played on both ends with stuffed- nob drumsticks held in the hands of the per- former. (2) The side-drum having two heads, the upper one only being played upon by two sticks of wood ; the lower head has occasion- ally strings of catgut stretched over its surface, and then it is called a snare drum. (3) The kettle drum, always employed in pairs. The drum is a very ancient instrument, of Eastern oj-igin ; it was employed by the Hebrews, Romans, Parthians, and other na- tions in religious dances, and as signals of war, and was probably first broaght to Western Europe by the Crusaders or their followers, the old name for the drum and drummer being almost purely Eastern. [Naker, nakerer.] [Kettledrum.] Drum-major. The name of an officer in the British army who is responsible for the instruction of drummers in the various roll- calls, and for the invention and construction ( 138) DRUM SLADE DULCIMER. of new beats, communicated by order of the major of the regiment to the drummers. The office does not appear to be older than the time of Charles II. There was formerly an officer in the Royal Household called the drum-major general, who granted licenses to other than the royal troops for the use of drums in their regiments. Drum slade. A drummer. D string. The third open string on violins, the second on tenors, violoncellos, and three-stringed double basses, the fourth on the guitar. Duan (Gaelic). A verse, stanza. Due, a {It.) [Divisi.] Due corde (7^.) Two strings. A direc- tion that the same note is to be played simul- taneously on two strings of a violin or other instrument of its class. The bow is made to impinge upon two strings, one open, the other stopped to the pitch of the open string. Duet. A composition for two voices or instruments, or for two performers upon one instrument. Duetto (It.) A duet. Duettino (It.) A little duet. Due volte {It.) Twice. Dulgaynas (Sp.) The name of a larger sort of oboe, or small bassoon, " Se usa un genera de Dulgaynas que parecen nues- tras Chirimias." — Don Quixote. As it is sup- posed that the instrument was brought into Spain by the Moors, the word may be derived from the same root as the Egyptian Dalzimr, both instruments being of the oboe or reed kind. Dulcian, or dulcino {It.) The name of a species of small bassoon. [Bassoon.] [Dulciana.] [Dulfaynas.] Dulciana. A word now applied, in this country, solely to a soft and delicate-toned organ stop consisting of very small-scale flue pipes. Originally, a dulciana (dulcan, dulcian, dolcan, dolcin, or dulzain) was a kind of hautboy [Waits], and these terms are still found on some foreign organs as the names of soft reed-stops, as at Rotterdam, the Hague, and elsewhere, but in some cases the stop is not actually reed, but the pipes by their peculiar shape, narrow at the mouth and widening gradually towards the top, produce a reedy quality of tone. The dulciana stop was introduced into this country, or perhaps invented, by the celebrated organ-builder Snetzler. The first known specimen was included by him in the specification of the organ of St. Margaret's Church, Lynn, in 1754. Stops of this class are universally used, and are of great utility. They are most commonly found on the Choir organ. Dulcimer. One of the most ancient mu- sical instruments, used by various nations in almost all parts of the world, and which, in shape and construction, has probably under- gone fewer changes than any other instrument. In its earliest and simplest form, it consisted of a flat piece of wood, on which were fas- tened two converging strips of wood, across which strings were stretched tuned to the national scale. The only improvements since made on this type are the addition of a series of pegs, or pins, to regulate the tension of the strings ; and the use of two flat pieces of wood formed into a resonance-box, for the body. The word dulcimer is probably con- nected with dolce, sweet, through the inter- mediate word dolcimela ; but the German name, Hackbret {chopping-board), points to the manner in which it is played, the wires being struck by two hammers, one held in each hand of the performer. Perhaps the greatest divergence of form is to be seen in the Japanese goto, or koto, an illustration of which is now given : The next figure shows a dulcimer of Georgia : The Italians, who have ever been note- worthy for combining beauty with utility, have not failed to improve upon the original simplicity of the dulcimer, as the following illustration will shew ; The form of the instrument given in the next figure, the dulcimer of Benares, suggests ( 139) DULCIMER DUMP. that it is not placed, .for use, in the ordinary position : But, the fact which makes the dulcimer of the greatest interest to musicians is, that it is the undoubted forefather of our pianoforte. A modern grand pianoforte is, in reality, nothing more than a huge dulcimer, the wires of which are set in vibration, not by hammers held in the pianist's hands, but by keys : it is a keyed-dulcimer. It is remarkable that in the immediate fore- runners of the pianoforte (the spinet, harpsi- chord, &c.) the strings were plucked, so, the invention of "hammers" which constitutes the real difference between a pianoforte and a harpsichord, was in truth a return to a primi- tive type. At one period the dulcimer came to be called in Italy a cembalo, possibly from its " ringing " cymbal-like tone, hence the same term was afterwards bestowed upon a harpsi- chord (clavi-cembalo). In full scores it is not even now an unusual thing to find the piano- forte part marked cembalo. The dulcimer is much less commonly met with in England than formerly, but it is still to be heard in some rural districts, as the musical accom- paniment of a puppet-show. The following Swiss dance of the Canton of Appenzell, as arranged for a violin, dulci- mer, and baSs (from a collection of Swiss songs, &c., Berne, 1826), will give a fair notion of the capabilities of the dulcimer : Violin. Dump or dumpe. The name of an old dance in slow time with a peculiar rhythm. It is doubtful whether it was entirely " dull and heavy," or merely the slowness of the measure that made the title of the dance synonymous with wearisomeness, for Shake- ( 140 ) DUMP DUODENE. speare makes Peter, in " Romeo and Juliet," say, " O play me some merrydump," which may either have been descriptive of the character of the dance, or it may be a humorous contra- diction in terms. Some authors have supposed that the dance is called dump from a trick of lute players who struck the open strings with the fist at certain marked intervals of the rhj^hm. " My Ladye Carey's Dumpe." (cir. 1600.) -^,^^-i^ . ^-J . J J jJ- , d_pL m ^^f^^-^^ ^ m^^r^ ^ ^^f^tf^ h-- -^ N J >HH 1 -^ — ^ — h J J 1 1 — HH It-J ■' J- H* * ■! ftj c* : ^-'■- r \v V ' ^^-rv r Ih* Duo (/i.) A duet. Duodecimole. A group of twelve notes. Duodecimo (/i.) The interval of 'a twelfth. Duodene. A group of twelve notes suit- able for playing on ordinary manuals, with definite relations of pitch, arranged for show- ing relations of harmony and modulation, and for precisely fixing the theoretical intonation of any chords and passages without altering the ordinary musical notation, first introduced by Mr. A. J. Ellis, F.R.S., in the " Proceed- ings of the Royal Society," vol. xxiii. pp. 3-31, and subsequently more fully explained in an additional appendix (xix.) to his translation of Prof. Helmholtz's treatise "On the Sensations of Tone," 1875. The intention, construction, and notation of duodenes will be best under- stood from a brief account of their generation. Let C represent not only a note, but its vibrational number, in Roman letters indepen- dently of octave. Italic letters show octaves thus : C„, C,, C, c, c', c", c'", where C is the lowest note on the violoncello. Let the fol- lowing letters and marks have the values written under them : DEFGABjlJtt gr* 6 f 4r 3n sr l5r> 135 128 si so Then fD, read " low D " = | J x \Q,-=i-^§Q, = 1 X 3C = i A; t A, read "high A", =;|i C=i X I C= I D; t At* read X 3 U — 18 "high A flat": = II A, and so on. ( 141 ) SlvlSS V 5 80 13S 3 C=|C=|x 2 C The exact pitch of every DUODENE. note in relation to that of C is therefore given by its symbol. The marks x quint, + major, — minor, I Greek minor, placed between two symbols, show that they form a Fifth ^, a major Third |, a minor Third §, or a Pythagorean minor Third |^, respectively, or their alterations consequent on changing either note by octaves, t El? G An harmonic cell, as in the mar- C E gin, contains C x G vertical, C+EandtEb+G horizontal, and C — f E!7, E — G oblique from bottom up to left, and hence all the elements oi tertian harmony (i.e., excluding harmonic Sevenths) and its triads C -f E — G major, and C — t Ef -f G minor. C is called the First, G the Fifth, E the major Third, and f E b the minor Third of the C cell. t Eb G An harmonic heptad, as in the t Ab C E margin, consists of two cells, F A the Fifth of the lower cell being the First of the upper cell. It contains four cell .triads, major F+A — C, C + E — G ; minor F— t A b t C, C— f E P t G ; and two union triads, resulting from the union of the two cells into a heptad, major t A b + C — t E b. and minor A — C + E. It has therefore all the six consonant triads containing C, its First, and all the con-disso- nant triads containing two notes consonant with C and dissonant with each other (of which the trine f Ab + C -t- E must be noted), and hence all the elements of chord-relation- ship. t B b D An harmonic decad, as in the t Eb G B margin, consists of two hep- t Ab C E tads (of C and G) having a F A common cell (of C), and hence contains three cells, having 3 major and 3 minor cell triads, and 2 major and 2 minor union triads, and hence all the related elements of scalar harmony of Thirds, Fifths and Sevenths. The First of the central cell is called the tonic of the decad. A trichordal consists of three cell triads, selected one from each cell in a decad, form- ing 8 combinations of 7 notes, giving all the scales in use, with their harmonies, named by using ma, mi (with Italian voWels) for major and minor cell triads, and reading them in order from lowest to highest, thus — C. Mamama. B — D I F-hA— Ch-E — G + B— D | F + A C. Mimima, B— D|F-tAb-i-C— fEb-hG-HB— D|F— fAb To show with what note the scale begins, change the m of the name of the chord con- taining it to p (for pv'ima), or t (for iertia), or' qu (for qumta), as in C mapama (ordinary major), C mipima and mapima (two ordinary forms of ascending minor), C mipimi (ordi- tf fa + B? D fit' t Eb G B + Ab C E db F A nary descending minor), C mimifl (Helm- holtz's mode of the minor Sixth). Thus 56 scales, including all the old ecclesiastical modes and their harmonies, may be succinctly de- scribed, t db t gt^ t cb t Eb G B { d# tf b + Ab C E f g# bb td t f# An harmonic kepta-decad, as above, where the capital letters indicate the decad of C, and the small letters the newly-added notes, and the oblong contains the duodene of C, consists of seven decads, having for their tonics the notes of a heptad (of C in the example). It shows six new decads, of each of which the original decad forms the larger part, and hence constitutes the first step in a more general pro- cess of modulation, consisting of change into a related decad, and called decadation. The heptadecad introduces tetrachordal scales, with chords of the extreme sharp Sixth. The duodene represents a decad in the act of changing, by means of the two new notes (d b and f # in example) called mutators, each forming part of two new decads. A duodene is, therefore, formed on any root (as C), by taking the major thirds above and below it (as E and t A b) to form the initial trine (as f A !? -H C + E), and then taking two-fifths above, and one-fifth below each of the notes ini that trine. It consists therefore of four trines of major thirds, and three quarternions of fifths, and has three tonics, namely that of fAb mapama, that of C decad, and that of E mipimi. Its notes have a strict relation of pitch, and it contains no interval less than the small semitone or low sharp, || (as f Af to A). But if the trine above, asff-hfa-hcjf were introduced, two intervals of a comma |J (as f to f f, and a to ■[■ a) and one of a diaskhisma, lots (almost exactly lo-iiths of a comma, as c Jt to db), would be introduced, and similarly for a trine below. If we took a quaternion to the right (as Jc#xtg#X tdftxajf), four intervals of a diesis \\l (almost exactly 2i-iiths of a comma, as :j: c J to d b) would be introduced. Hence if we write the duodenal, that is the symbol of the root of a duodene, at the commencement of any piece of music, we determine the exact pitch which every one of its notes must receive, until we change the duodenal, and thus change the pitch of its notes to a definite amount. If we assume for the root named by the duodenal, the tonic of the decad of the duodene, the change of ( 142 ) DUODENE DYSTONIC. duodenal points out the actual decadations in the composition, that is, the actual process of the modulation. Thus, to take a simple but crucial example from " God Save the Queen," where the duodenals are written above : — Observe chords 3, g, and 13. The duo- denal G makes chord 3 from D — f F + ■(■ A (in the dominant duodene), because the melody requires the true D in order to sink by a per- fect minor Third to B, and the harmony does not treat chord 3 as the dissonance D | F-f- A. But the duodenal F, makes chord g from jD — F -^ A (in the subdominant duodene), because chord 8 contains A, and the change A to f A is unmelodic. But chord 13, in duodene of C, is marked as the dissonance D I F + A, which is duly resolved by the fall of D to C in 14, A being retained from 12. It would of course be possible, and smoother, to us'e the F duodenal, making chord 13 from J D — F -h A. In this way, three theoretical methods of treating the triad on the second of a major scale are accurately shown. For further details and illustrations, refe- rence must be made to the citations at the commencement of this article. Duodramma (It.) A dramatic piece for two performers only. Duolo, con (It.) With grief, sadness, pathos. Dur {Ger.) Major, as C dur, C major. Dur {Fr.) Hard, coarse. Durate, duramente, duro {It.) With harshness, roughly. Durchfiihrung (Ger.) The development of a theme or subject. [Form.] Durchgehend {Ger.) Passing, transient. Durezza (7^.) Rigour, harshness. Dutch concert. A so-called concert in which every man sings his own song at the same time that his neighbour is also singing his, a practice not necessarily so national as convivial. There is another form of Dutch concert, in which each person present sings in turn one verse of any song he pleases, some well-known chorus being used as a burden after each verse. When every person has sung his song, all sing their respective songs simultaneously as a grajidi finale. Dux {Lat.) The proposition, theme, or subject of a fugue, the answer being called Comes. Dystonic {Ger. from Gk.) False intona- tion or discord. 1 H3 ) -EAR. E. E. (i) The note Hypate in Greek music. [Greek music] (2) The key-note of the Church mode called Phrygian. (3) The note Elami in the system of Hexa- chords. [Notation.] (4) The E ahove tenor C, the octave above it being represented by e, the octave below it by EE. (5) The key having four sharps in its signature. Ear. The Ear is the organ of hearing, in other words, the organ for the appreciation of sound, i.e., of vibrations of the air or water. All that is necessary to form an ear is a nerve- mass capable of appreciating these vibrations. Its simplest actual expression is a sac, filled with fluids, containing " otoliths " (oZg, liroe, an ear, and \19oq, a stone), and supplied with a nerve, a condition best exemplified in the sub-kingdom of MoUusca, represented fami- liarly by the oysters, the mussels, snails both terrestrial and aquatic, and the octopus. The " otoliths " are masses of carbonate of lime, as may readily be seen by placing one of them dissected out from any of the above mentioned animals {e.g. a snail) on a glass slide, covering it with an object glass with sufficient water to fill the interspace between the two, and adding at the side of the cover- ing-glass a drop of any acid (acetic acid, or indeed ordinary vinegar will do very well) while the experimenter observes it through the microscope. Air bubbles — really bubbles of carbonic acid gas — will be seen to pour out from the otolith, and when these have ceased, that body will have entirely disappeared. It is true that we are suspicious of a specialised organ of hearing even in such animals as possess no specialised nerve system. This is somewhat apparently of a paradox, for it may be asked. How can an animal without nerves feel at all ? and is it not highly improbable that if no nerve system exists, any special sense-organ can be de- veloped ? The answer to the, first of these objections is very plain : all animals, even those who possess no specialised organs whatever, manifest the simple phenomena of sensation ; all, even the Infusoria and the Amoeboe, of which we hear so much now-a- days, and which are very little more than simple masses of protoplasm, manifest this faculty. Any one who has observed these occupants of almost any drop of water, with a microscope of low power, will have seen enough to convince himself of this. As to the second objection, the fact remains that in some animals which have no undoubted nerves, in some medusae* or jelly-fish, f we find in the mass forming their body crystals of carbonate of lime, which substance must intensify the vibrations of the water in which they live, and must, when put into a state of motion as a whole, or into one which affects its particles inter se, cause by its relative density greater disturbance of the soft matter in which it lies, than would be the case if it were absent. But leaving this as somewhat problematical, and taking the hearing organ of molluscs as the type, we shall find this type essentially adhered to in the higher animals in spite of endless complications. Let us propound the bold paradox without fear of contradiction, that a man as well as a snail hears in water, and that the essential parts of his marvellous hearing apparatus are a sac containing fluid in which are otoliths, and round which are distributed the ultimate filaments of a nerve. The typical physiology, as well as the typical anatomy of hearing, is very simple. These " ear-stones," by the vibrations con- ducted to them, are made to rattle in this bag containing fluid, and, by beating against its sides, cause more disturbance to the nerve fila- ments there distributed than would be caused by the same vibrations if they acted directly on the nerve. The power of hearing must be very widely if not universally distributed through the animal kingdom, though the hearing organ is not always easy to find. Von SieboldJ has however discovered this organ in the Euro- pean field-cricket, situated in the front legs * These medusae are by som,e said to possess a ring of nerves, but this is disputed. t " Gegenbaur, Grundziige der Vergleichenden Ana- tomie," p. 129, fig. 15 e, and p. 131. + " Lehrbuch von Vergleichender Anatomie," von Siebold und Stannius. ' Berlin, 1848. Erster Theil, p. 582. f 144 ) EAR. of both sexes. That the lower animals have the power of making music very widely dis- tributed among them is a fact of which any one who reads Mr. Darwin's " Descent of Man," part ii., can very easily convince him- self; the references to this work would be too numerous to give with completeness, and extracts would be impossible, seeing that the subject occupies a considerable portion of the whole work. It is, however, sure that this power is possessed by some spiders (vol. i. P- 339) ; by many insects, as e.g. of the order Homoptera (p. 350 — 352), including the Cica- dos ; of the order Orthoptera (352 — 360), in- cluding crickets and grasshoppers ; of the order Hymenoptera (366), including bees and wasps ; of the order Coleoptera (378 — 385), or beetles ; of the order Lepidoptera (387), or moths and butterflies. All these animals possessing the power of music, which they use principally for attracting the other sex (the male being generally the musician), must possess also organs capable of appreciating such music — auditory organs. When we reach the sub-kingdom of Verte- brata we find the same type throughout, gradually becoming more complicated as we proceed from the lowest fish to the highest mammal, man ; and it will be convenient to reverse the philosophical order and to describe the human ear first, since after the description of this it will be easy to allude to deficiencies or modifications in the less compHcated organs of the lower vertebrata. The Human Ear may be divided into three parts — the external, middle, and internal ear. The two former have the function of convey- ing vibrations to the latter which appreciates them. Fig. I. LEFT EAR. (Transverse Gection). I. Pinna ; 2. external auditory meatus or canal ; 3. cavity of tympanum and membrane of tympanum (between 3 and 6 chain of small bones) ; 4. eustachian tube ; 5. internal auditory canal or meatus giving pas- sage to the auditory and facial nerves ; 6. bony labyrinth (above fenestra ovalis) ; a. apex of petrous bone ; h. in- ternal carotid artery ; c. styloid process ; d. facial nerve passing to supply muscles of face ; t. mastoid process. The external ear (see fig. i.) consists of two parts, the " pinna," or auricle (i), and the external auditory canal or " meatus " (2). The pinna (i) is that part which is quite external, and which we unscientifically call " the ear," as when we say that a certain person has large or small " ears." It is com- posed almost entirely of cartilage or gristle, and has complicated foldings, to all of which names have been given, but which it is not our business to give here in detail. The general shape is that of an irregular funnel, having its apex in the auditory canal. The only part of which we shall speak particularly is the " helix," or the margin which is folded in. At the upper and posterior part of this is to be found, in many individuals, a small point or process, generally folded in like the rest of the helix, but sometimes projecting outwards. This is considered by Mr. Darwin to be a strong fact in determining the gene- alogy of man (" Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 22, fig. 2), for this point is well marked in many of the lower monkeys, as baboons and some species of macacus, and in them is not folded inwards, but stands erect. He thus considers it a reminiscence of some pointed- eared progenitors. He remarks (p. 23, note 26) : " This rudiment apparently is somewhat larger in negroes and Australians than in Europeans (see Carl Vogt, " Lectures on Man," Eng. transl., p. 129), these races being confessedly lower and more like the lower animals than Europeans." The pinna is fur- nished with nine muscles, three of which are called extrinsic and move it as a whole, while the remaining six would, if they contracted, move its parts on one another, and are called intrinsic. The extrinsic muscles are situated in front, above and behind, and move the pinna there- fore forwards, upwards and backwards re- spectively. The anterior muscle is called the " attrahens aurem," the superior is called the " attoUens aurem," and the posterior the " retrahens aurem." These muscles are in man without any function whatever; they do not have any effect on his hearing powers; they are capable of moving the ear only in some individuals, and are only rarely move- able at will. The " retrahens aurem," which is the strongest, is also the most commonly moveable ; in some people it is contracted involuntarily in fright, just as in a timid horse who throws back his ears ; it is much more rarely under the control of the will, but is less seldom so than the other muscles. Mr. Darwin (" Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 20) says : " I have seen one man who could draw his ears forwards, and another who could draw them backwards;" but this gives too great an idea of the rarity of such an accom- ( 145 ) K. EAR. plishment. A case has been observed in which a boy was able to move his scalp froni side to side by alternately contracting the " attoUens aurem" of either side, this muscle rising from the " aponeurosis" (or flat tendon) of the " occipito-frontalis " muscle, which aas the power of moving the scalp forwards and backwards. The intrinsic muscles are situated, four on the outer, two on the inner side of the pinna. They have never been known to contract. In some animals, however, they are functional, as any one can see who carefully watches the pinna of the ear of a cat when intent on some sound. In spite of the complicated structure of the pinna, it is nearly sure that it possesses no effect on our powers of hearing, either by collecting sound to a focus or by conducting it along its substance ;* that it is in fact of no use as far as hearing is concerned. This is the result of the observations of no less an authority than Mr. Toynbee.f It seems also that the nearly precisely similar ears of the orang and chimpanzee are equally function- less (" Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 21). The external auditory canal (fig. I. 2) is about i;|-in. long; rather less than the external half is formed of cartilage or gristle, the remainder of bone. Its direction is not directly inwards, but slightly forwards also. It is closed at its inner end by the " mem- branatympani " (fig. i. 3), or membrane of the drum. The glands which secrete the wax (ceruminous glands) are situated in the carti- laginous part of the canal, and agree in their structure with the sweat-glands. Fig. II. SMALL BONES OF TYMPANUM OR OSSICULA AUDITUS. A. Malleus. — i.head; 2. handle; 3. processus gra- cilis; 4. short process. B. Incus. — i. body; 2. long process with orbicular process ; 3. short or posterior process ; 4. articular surface receiving head of malleus. C. Stapes. — I. head; 2. posterior leg; 3. anterior leg; 4. base. C*. Base of stapes. D. Bones in natural mutual relations. The middle ear or tympanum (fig. i. 3) is separated from the external ear by the mem- • In using a stethoscope, however, we use the con- ducting power of the cartilage of the ear. + " The Diseases of the Ear," by J. Toynbee, F.R.S. i860, p. 12. branatympani(fig. III. ni, and fig. i. 3), which inclines outwards, making an angle of 45° with the floor. It is a cavity which is not shut off from the air, for the " Eustachian Tube" (fig. I. 4) forms a communication between it and the "pharynx," the upper part of the cavity of the throat. Fig. HI. OSSICULA AUDITUS AND MEMBRANA TYMPANI IN SITU. a. Malleus; &. tip of handle of malleus, the letter lies in the cavity of the tympanum; 6. incus; c. stapes; m. external auditory canal; ^. membrane of tympanum ; t. line of tension of tensor tympani muscle pulling lower part of malleus inwards ; I. line of tension of laxator tympani muscle pulling upper part of malleus inwards ; g. slender process of malleus. The axis round which the chain of bones rotates passes through its base. In the tympanum are situated three small bones (fig. I. 3 to 6, and figs. 11. and iii.), the Malleus (A), Incus (B), and Stapes (C), the names being derived from their shape. The malleus (hammer) has a round head (i), and a handle (2), and from the base of the head, a thin spike of bone, the " processus gracilis " (3) projects. The Incus (anvil), B, is more like a tooth with two fangs, a long and a short one. The long process (2) carries a knob or tubercle which is originally a sepa- rate bone, as it remains in some animals through life. The stapes (stirrup), C, is just like a stirrup. It is very difficult to under- stand the arrangement of these little bones from description or even from drawings, a model or the actual objects being almost necessary. It may, however, give a general idea of their position to say that the handle of the malleus and the long process of the incus are directed vertically downwards ; the slender process of the malleus and the short process of the incus are horizontal, the former being directed forwards, the latter backwards ; the stapes is also horizontal, but with its base horizontal and directed inwards. The malleus is anterior in position to the incus. The head of the malleus fits on to the body of the incus (the crown of the tooth), the long pro- cess of the incus fits on to the head of the stapes (the part where the stirrup-leather would be attached), and the base of the stapes fits loosely into the " Fenestra Ovalis," an oval window in the bony wall of the internal ear or labyrinth. The whole chain of bones ( 146) EAR. turns round an axis formed by the slender process of the malleus and the short process of the stapes. The handle of the malleus is firmly fixed to the membrana tympani on its inner aspect a little below the middle. There are three muscles in connection with this chain of bones, two are attached to the mal- leus, one to the stapes. The two attached to the malleus are the tensor and laxator tym- pani. The former is attached just below, the latter just above the origin of the processus gracilis (see fig. iii. t, V), which, as we ob- served, is the axis of this chain of bones. The stapedius muscle is attached to the neck of the stapes. These bones are exceedingly important from the point of view of compara- tive anatomy, since their homologies play very different parts in the lower animals. The homo- logue of the malleus, for instance, in fish, amphibia, reptiles, and birds, is the " os quad- ratum " which suspends the lower jaw ; and the stapes is in batrachia, reptiles, and birds, the " columella," a long bone, shaped some- what like a straight post-horn, or stethoscope, which alone discharges the function which these three bones discharge in mammalia. Other interesting points will be related later on in connection with development. The cavity of the tympanum is practically enlarged by communicating with the " Mas- toid Cells," air cavities which occupy the mastoid process of the temporal bone, that process of bone which may be felt behind and below the pinna, and is supposed by phreno- logists to be the residence of " Pugnacity," though they have never explained the connec- tion between that propensity and the function which these air-cells really discharge, that of increasing the tympanic cavity. The internal ear or labyrinth, (fig. iv.) is the essential part of the organ. It consists of two parts, a bony cavity enclosed in the thickness of the base of the skull, and a mem- branous sac within this. Fig. IV. RIGHT BONY LABYRINTH (Smaller figure real size). I. Vestibule ; 2. fenestra ovalis ; 3. superior semi- circular canal ; 4. horizontal or external semi-circular canal ; 5. posterior semi-circular canal ; 6. first turn of cochlea ; 7. second turn ; 8. apex ; g. fenestra rotunda ; * ampullae of semi-circular canals. The bony labyrinth may be briefly described as a chamber, the "Vestibule" (fig. iv. i), which sends one prolongation forward (the "cochlea," 6, 7, 8), three others backwards (" semi-circular canals," 3, 4, 5), and has its outer and inner walls perforated, the outer by the fenestra ovalis (2), in which lies the base of the stapes, and by a round hole closed by membrane, and called the fenestra rotunda (g) ; the inner by a series of holes in a depres- sion called the " Fovea hemispherica," which transmit branches of the auditory nerve from the internal auditory meatus in which lie the auditory and facial nerves. By these two lateral perforations it communicates with the cavity of the tympanum externally, and with that of the cranium internally. Close behind the "Fovea hemispherica" is a small canal, the " Aquasductus Vestibuli," to which refer- ence will be given later, in describing the course of the development of the ear. The bony semi-circular canals (fig. iv. 3, 4, 5) are three tubes bent so as to form about two-thirds of a circle. They are situated at the upper and back part of the vestibule with which they communicate by five open- ings, one end of the superior having an opening common also to the posterior semi-circular canal. Each tube at one end has an expan- sion, called an " Ampulla " (fig. iv.*) These canals are called from their position, superior, posterior, and external. The superior canal is vertical and transverse, the posterior is ver- tical and longitudinal, and the external is horizontal. The directions of these canals, or the planes in which they lie, will be best understood by placing a book with the two covers at right angles to one another, up- right on end on a table, so that one of the covers faces the reader, the other being at right angles to the side of the table at which he is seated. Then the reader will be on the outer or t3mipanic side, the side of the table opposite to him will be the side of the cranial cavity. The plane of the table will represent the plane of the external or horizontal canal, the plane of the cover oppo- site to the reader the posterior, and that at right angles to the side of the table at which he is seated the superior canal, which is also the most anteriorly placed of the three. Thus it will be seen that the planes of these three canals are the three planes of a cube, a fact to which allusion will be made here- after. * With regard to the terms anterior, posterior, ex- ternal, and internal, it may be necessary to explain that anterior means on the side towards the face ; posterior on the side towards the back of the head, and external and internal remote from or near to an antero-posterior axis drawn from the face to the back of the head. ( 147 ) EAR. Fig. V. VERTICAL SECTION OF COCHLEA, SHOWING ITS THREE PASSAGES OR SCAL^. sv. Scala vestibuli ; cm. canalis membranea, or canalis cochleae, or ductus cochlearis ; st. scala tym- pani; >n. modiolus. The cavity of the vestibule is prolonged anteriorly by the cochlea (fig. iv. 6, 7, 8), so-called from its likeness to the shell of a snail. As a whole, it forms a blunt cone with its apex outwards ; this cone is formed by a gradually tapering spiral tube, the first curve having its concavity upwards ; it is coiled" 2^ times round a central column or " Modiolus" (fig. v. m), which sends an incomplete parti- tion into the cavity of the tube (fig. vi. 3). This partition is called " Lamina spiralis ossea," and winds in the cavity of the spiral cochlea like the thread of a screw or the stair- case in a turret ; it is wanting at the apex of the tube. This lamina is completed by two membranes, that nearer the apex of the cochlea called the " Membrane of Reissner " (fig. VI. i), that nearer the base, the " Mem- brana basilaris " (fig. vl. mb), so that three canals are formed, that on the side of the apex of the cochlea being called the " Scala vestibuli " (fig. v. and vi. sv.), that next the base called the " Scala tympani " (fig. v. and VI. st), and the intermediate one, belong- ing to the membranous labyrinth (here on the outer wall of the cochlea not lying free), called the " Canalis membranacea, vel Cochleas," or " Ductus Cochlearis" (fig. v. cm VI. a). The scala vestibuli and scala tympani communicate at the apex of the cochlea, for the lamina spiralis does not extend quite to the apex, the scala vestibuli communicates below with the cavity of the vestibule as its name implies, the scala tympani would communi- cate below with the cavity of the tympanum through the fenestra rotunda, but that this is closed by a membrane. Thus it Would be possible to get through the fenestra ovalis into the vestibule, thence enter into the semi-cir- cular canals posteriorly, or anteriorly through the scala vestibuli to the apex of the cochlea, there into the scala tympani, through it to the fenestra rotunda, and through it again into the tympanum. Most books describe the cochlea as divided into two passages, the scala vestibuli and scala tympani, but it is both more accurate and plainer to describe three passages from the first, otherwise it is impossible to account for the canalis membranacea in the description of the membranous labyrinth. The difficulty in understanding this part consists, as will be presently seen, in the fact that whereas all other parts of the membranous labyrinth lie freely in the bony labyrinth, the canalis membranacea is not free at its outer side, the side farthest from the modiolus, but is there attached to the bony labyrinth. The membranous labyrinth lies, except in one part already alluded to, freely in the cavity of the bony labyrinth, and corresponds almost exactly with it. Between the two is a fluid, the " perilymph," or " liquor Cotunnii ;" and within the membranous labyrinth is the " endolymph," another fluid. The membra- nous labyrinth is the part of the internal ear which is essential to hearing, the bony laby- rinth serving to enclose and protect it. The membranous vestibule is divided by a con- striction into two halves, which do not com- municate. The posterior and larger is called the " common sinus," or " utricle ;" with it communicate the membranous semicircular canals, which correspond in arrangement with their bony cases. The anterior and smaller chamber is called the " saccule ; " it becomes constricted anteriorly into a narrow canal, called the " canalis reuniens," which opens into the " canalis membranacea" of the cochlea. This latter canal is, as above de- scribed, interposed between the scala vestibuli and scala tympani. It ends blindly above at the apex of the cochlea. " Otoliths," or " oto- conia" (ear-dust, Gr. ove, ibrbe, an ear, and Kovia, dust), are found in the common sinus or utricle, in the saccule, and in the ampullas of the semicircular canals ; and besides them, the ampullae are lined with long, stiff, hair- like filaments, called " fila acustica." They are six-sided crystals of carbonate of lime, with pointed ends, and lie in the walls of these parts of the membranous labyrinth. They are occasionally absent. In these parts we also find pigment cells, which seem in some mysterious manner to be essential to the sen- sitive parts of nearly all the special-sense organs ; for they are present in the olfactory region of the nose, as well as in the globe of the eye, and only in the latter is their func- tion known. It is a well known fact, that white cats (cats which have no pigment) are deaf. Within the canalis membranacea cochleae, and separated from it by a membrane called the " membrana tectoria," lies an assemblage ( 148) EAR. of structures known as the " organ* of Corti," after its describer. This is one of the most beautiful, as well as marvellously complicated, of all the structures in the body. Fig. VI. Transverse section of one complete passage of COCHLEA. I. membrane of Reissner : 2. auditory nerve ; 3. la- mina spiralis ossea ; 4. spiral ligament ; sv. scala vesti- buli ; St. scala tympani ; u . canalis membranacea or ductus cocblearis, or canalis cochleae ; be. sulcus spiralis ; p. merabrana tectoria ; d. rods of Corti ; /. cells of Corti and Deiters; i. cells of Claudius ; mb. membrana basi- latis ; sm. scala media. The organ of Corti, then, has a floor called the " membrana basilaris," attached at the inner side to the lower lip of the free edge of the lamina spiralis ossea, and at the outer side to the circumferential wall of the cochlea. This membrane separates it from the scala tympani. Its roof is a membrane attached on the inner side to the upper lip of the free edge of the lamina spiralis ossea, and at the outer side to the circumferential wall of the cochlea. This membrane separates it from the canalis membranacea vel cochle£e,'or duc- tus cochlearis. The essential part of the organ of Corti is a double series of rods, whose bases are separated by some distance, while their upper ends meet at an angle, the continuous series of rods forming a sort of spiral gabled roof, gradually diminishing as it follows the spiral course of the cochlea. The regularity of their arrangement, seen from above, suggests the key-board of a pianoforte. They have been estimated by KoUiker as about 3,000 in number, and are composed of a dense material. The inner series are more closely set and more numerous than the outer, which they overlap. Both series are enlarged at their bases and heads, especially the latter. The space between their bases and below their junction is called the " scala media " of the cochlea. Thus there are four canals in the cochlea, though this last belongs really to the canalis membranacea. Besides these rods, there are other bodies called " Cells of the organ of Corti." Some are placed be- tween the inner series of rods and the free 'Zeitscbrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, torn. iii. edge of the lamina spiralis ossea, and are called the " Cells of Claudius." They stand in a single line ; their upper ends are provided with stiff bristle-like prolongations, or " cilia." The outer set are like them, but are placed between the outer series of rods and the cir- cumferential wall of the cochlea. They are called the "pedunculated cells of Corti," and are set three deep, their cilia projecting through holes in a membrane extending from the junc- tion of the rods of Corti over the outer cells of the organ of Corti to the circumferential wall of the cochlea, and called by Kolliker the " membrana reticularis." Between the rows of the pedunculated cells of Corti are inter- posed the " spindle-shaped cells of Deiters," which are fusiform, as their name implies. All of the basilar membrane not otherwise covered, is covered by six-sided cells of epi- thelium. The auditory nerve, by which we appreciate sounds, does not rise from the brain, properly so called, but from the medulla oblongata, or that uppermost part of the spinal marrow which is enclosed in the skull, in company with the facial nerve, which supplies all the' muscles of the face with motor power. The fibres of the auditory nerve can be traced to the floor of the fourth ventricle, i.e., the ex- panded upper end of the tube which the spinal marrow really forms ; and across this floor, to the fissure or furrow which separates it into two halves. Here they are found to rise from a mass of gray matter, i.e., an assem- blage of nerve cells called the " auditory nucleus." Other inconsiderable fibres are added from nerve centres in the neighbour- hood, and some fibres are said to be connected with the sensory roots of the fifth or trigeminal nerve, the nerve of facial sensation.f It is connected by a small filament with the facial nerve. These two nerves run together along the floor of the cranial cavity outwards and forwards, and leave that cavity by the " in- ternal auditory meatus," a hole in the petrous part of the temporal bone. The facial nerve traverses a canal in that bone, and leaves the bone to emerge by a hole just behind the socket of the lower jaw. While in the tem- poral bone, it gives off a slender branch called the " chorda tympani," which crosses the membrana tympani and handle of the,malleus, and gives a twig to the laxator tympani muscle. It subsequently joins the gustatory nerve, the nerve of taste. Besides ■ this, the facial nerve gives a twig to the stapedius muscle. In the internal auditory meatus, the auditory nerve divides into two portions, both of which contain nerve cells. One division is supplied to the cochlea, the other to the vesti- t Hiisbhfeld and Leveille, pi. 15, fig. v; 5. ( 149 ) EAR. bule. The division which goes to the cochlea pierces the bony wall of the internal auditory meatus, not by one but by .many foramina in the centre of the base of the cochlea. The central foramen is larger than the rest, and contains a nerve destined for the last half-turn of the lamina spiralis. The rest of the nerve fibres surround this, and ascending in the substance of the modiolus, they are distri- buted to the rest of the spiral lamina, piercing its substance, and running outwards to the scala media. These nerves form a continuous spiral ganglion, i.e., a plexus or network Of nerve fibres, with the addition of nerve cells near the edge of the spiral lamina. It is pro- bable, but not proven, that their ultimate ends are connected with the organ of Corti. The vestibular division of the auditory nerve is distributed to the saccule, utricle, and am- pulla of the semi-circular canals, i.e., the parts containing otoliths. The development of the Ear is conducted, in its first stages, like that of the eye or nose. The skin becomes bulged in on the side of the head, and forms a pit which sinks deeper and deeper, while the opening gradually narrows, and at last closes. Thus a closed cavity is formed, and this becomes the membranous labyrinth. Towards it the auditory nerve grows from the developing medulla oblongata. Next a prolongation grows upwards and back- wards, persistent in the lower vertebrata but not in mammals, except as the rudiment called the "Aquaeductus vestibuli." Next, three portions of the sac get pinched up in an elongated form^these ridges rise higher, and by-and-by the middle or most elevated por- tion of each becomes separated from the under-lying sac, by its walls coalescing in this part. Thus three tubes are formed open at each end, and one end of each becomes dilated. These are the three membranous semi-circular canals. Another prolongation grows forward and gradually becomes spiral. This is the canalis membranacea cochlese. The bony case becomes developed round these from cartilage or gristle, from three originally separate pieces called " prootic," " opisthotic," "epiotic" respectively; i.e., anterior, posterior, and superior ear-bones or cartilages. These are separate in cold-blooded vertebrata throughout life. The space be- tween the membranous labyrinth and its bony case is filled up by connective tissue which gradually liquefies and forms the perilymph. The cavity of the tympanum, the external passage and the eustachian tube are developed out of what is called "the first branchial cleft ; " for in the embryo there are formed four arches which lie on the sides of the neck exactly like the arches of the gills of a fish, and between them are similar slits so that the cavity of the gullet here communicates with the outer world. These all close except the first, which remains as the external ear, cavity of the tympanum, and eustachian tube. Some of the clefts however remain occa- sionally during life. Out of the first arch are developed in order from above downwards, the malleus, a piece of cartilage called " Meckel's cartilage," and the lower jaw, an arrangement persistent in fish ; out of the second arch the stapes, stapedius muscle, incus, besides other structures which in- directly suspend the larynx, viz., the styloid process, stylo-hyoid ligament^ and part of the hyoid bone. During the whole of foetal life, according to Kolliker, the tympanic cavity is filled with connective tissue which embeds the little bones, and this only becomes ab- sorbed after the child begins to breathe. The pinna is a lappet developed behind the first branchial cleft. Propagation of Sound. — In order correctly to understand the sense of hearing we must have acquaintance with the principal laws of acoustics involved. Sound travels through air at about the rate of 1050 ft. a second, in water at about four times this velocity, and in very elastic solid bodies eighteen times as rapidly. In passing from solids to water the velocity is diminished, and from solids to air still more so ; the passage from water to solids is easy, but that from water to air or from air to water, very difficult. Vibrations lose much of their intensity in passing from air to solids. The cases of passage therefore from the medium of least to that of greatest density, i.e., from air to solid, or from the medium of least to that of considerably greater density, i.e., from air to water, are the cases of greatest difficulty in the transmis- sion of vibration. A dry stretched membrane easily receives and transmits vibrations of the air ; and such a membrane placed on the surface of water overcomes in a great degree the difficulty of the passage between air and water. This assistance is enhanced when the membrane is combined with some solid body. Any membrane conducts sounds well- when only in water. Sounds, like light, are liable to be reflected whether travelling in water or air. Certain terms require explanation. Sounds are " communicated " "when they are merely conveyed from one sounding body to another, and this can take place in a noise as well as a musical sound. Sounds are " excited " * under two circumstances : when the body which is sounding and that to be excited have the same note and the vibration of one produces sym- * This prdperty has been utilized in such instniments as the viola d'ainore. ( 150) EAR. pathetic vibration of the other, the bodies are mutually called " reciprocating," while if the vibration of one produces its harmonics in the other, the latter is said, with regard to the exciting body, to be " resonant." Ac- cording to Helmholtz, "timbre" or "quality" depends on definite combinations of certain secondary sounds or harmonics with a primary or fundamental sound, and such combinations he calls " sound colours." Hearing. — Sounds may reach the auditory nerve either through the combination of spe- cialized structures lying between the tym- panum and the filaments of that nerve, or through the bones of the skull. In the normal state the latter road is so much less effica- cious that it may be disregarded ; but when the other route is obstructed or rendered im- pervious, it then becomes the medium of the communication of sound. That sounds do however reach the auditory nerve in health by this way, anyone may learn by closing his ears and then speaking or singing. Under some circumstances the bones of the skull are the better conductors of the two ; a tuning- fork held between the teeth gives a distinctly- audible note long after its vibrations have become inaudible through the air. Sounds are heard under water by this means. The External Ear. — The pinna or auricle is said by some authors to help us to hear by reflecting sound into the meatus and by pro- pagating it through its substance to the bony part of the meatus and thence to the mem- brana tympani. Reflection can only be helped by the large hollow behind the meatus called the concha, and by the point in front of the meatus called the tragus, the concha reflecting the vibrations on to the tragus, and this reflecting them in turn into the meatus. The other parts of the pinna have been sup- posed to assist sound by conduction, their various folds having the function, according to this view, of receiving vibrations in various planes perpendicularly and thus most favour- ably for propagation. Another view regards these folds as instrumental in neutralizing conflicting sound waves, that the principal vibrations may be able to enter the meatus without interruption. All these are mere speculations. An animal with moveable ears, such as a horse, turns his ears to the source of sound, but we have no such power, the extrinsic muscles of our ear are generally quite functionless, and never, in any case, pos- sess this power, the only one which would help us to utilize our pinna. Mr. Toynbee believed the pinna to be quite functionless in man (see above). The External Meatus is undoubtedly func- tional in conducting sounds, its closure will instantly prove this. Its curved course proves that the vibrations must reach the tympanum after manifold reflection from its walls and not directly. It serves to conduct vibrations without dispersion to the tympanic membrane. The column of air which it con- tains increases the strength of the vibrations which reach it, and by lengthening the tube of the meatus by adding a tube externally, arid thus lengthening the column of air, the sounds are much increased in intensity. Its walls must conduct vibration to the mem- brane of the tympanum, but this function is so inconsiderable that we may practically neglect it. The Middle Ear or Tympanum. — The Membrana Tympani serves to conduct vibra- tions received from the external air to the three small bones, the malleus, incus, and stapes, and thus to the internal ear. It is usually in a state of moderate relaxation, and is made more tense by the action of the tensor tympani muscle, and less tense pro- bably by that of the stapedius and perhaps the laxator tympani. The vibrations which it receives are derived from the air in the external meatus, and perhaps also from the bony ring in which it is set. The state of moderate relaxation which is usual to it, is the most favourable state for vibrating in sympathy with sounds of a wide range. The membrane vibrates reciprocally as a whole if the sound is in unison with the note to which it is (so to say) tuned by the muscles of the small bones, i. e. its funda- mental ; or in resonance in divisions, if the note sounded is higher than this, one of its harmonics. That it is not always tuned to the very note sounded is obvious, when we consider that this can only be the case when one note only is sounded. It cannot, of course, vibrate reciprocally to a note lower than its fundamental. A membrane has a large power of vibrating sympathetically since its harmonics are very numerous. The effect of increasing the tension of the membrane may be easily tested by closing the nose and mouth and either blowing air out from the lungs or drawing it in. By the former we blow air through the eustachian tube into the cavity of the tympanum, and force the mem- brane outwards, by the latter we decrease the pressure in the tympanic cavity, and the ex- ternal air forces the membrane still more inwards than is naturally the case. The result is in either case the same, the sense of hearing is on the whole impaired, though very high sounds are heard better than before. We have stretched the membrane, raised its fun- damental note, and diminished its power of vibrating in sympathy with low notes, though we have at the same time increased its range of s}mipathy upwards. StiU it is chiefly im- ( 151 ) EAR. proved for reciprocal vibrations, for a lax membrane divides itself far more readily into segments which vibrate in sympathy with harmonics, the strength of such vibrations being increased by the number of the seg- ments into which it divides itself. The tensor tympani (perhaps the laxator tympani, though some deny that this is a muscle at all) and the stapedius are the muscles which regulate the tension of the membrane. These two muscles are generally considered antagonists, and are supplied by different nerves ; the former renders the membrane tenser, the latter, more lax.* They simply tune the drum of the ear, making the membrane tenser for high, laxer for low sounds ; there being practically a degree of tenseness which is most fit for perceiving vibrations of a certain average pitch. For exceedingly loud noises, as explosions, the probability is that the membrane is made tense, since in this state it canned vibrate so freely. Thus is probably ;explained the sense of effort which we feel when expecting a loud noise which may never occur, The ossicula auditus or small bones of the tympanum, that is, the malleus, incus and stapes, move as one piece, though they are not so tightly joined together but that they can play on one another. It is possible that their particles may also vibrate, but they are not adapted for this, seeing that much vibration must be lost at the joints between them. The direction of the applica- tion of the force to the malleus is the same as that in which it acts through the stapes ; a line perpendicular to the membrane is parallel with the long axis of the stapes, or perpen- dicular to the membrane closing the fenestra ovalis. Each time the membrane of the tympanum is bent inwards the base of the stapes is driven more deeply into the fenestra ovalis. The axis of the chain of bones is described above. Since the tensor tympani is attached to the malleus below, the laxator tympani above this axis, as far as their action on the membrane of the drum is concerned, the malleus is worked by the former muscle as a lever of the third, by the latter as a lever of the first order. These bones are covered with mucous membrane which must insulate them and tend to prevent the propagation of vibrations from them to the air in the tym- panum. The Eustachian Tube serves to equalize the pressure on the outer and inner sides of the membrane of the tympanum. It is naturally closed, being only open during swallowing or yawning, when the muscles of * Some, howftver, consider both as tensors of the raembraRe. the palate, inserted on opposite sides of the tube are put into action and pull its sides apart, thus temporarily opening it. During a bad cold in the head we often become deaf, especially after blowing the nose. We simply perform the experiment mentioned above of blowing air through the eustachian tube into the tympanum, forcing the membrane out- wards, and also rendering it too tense. The eustachian tube, however, is often swollen during a cold, and is pervious only to great pressure of air; it therefore collapses and imprisons this extra amount of air. Some people know that their best chance of relieving this uncomfortable state is to swallow or yawn, though they do not know the reason. This sometimes opens the eustachian tube, and the much compressed air escapes, the hearing being at once regained. If this does not succeed it is sometimes necessary to pass a catheter, a tube appropriately bent, along the floor of the nose and into the eustachian tube, thus opening it. A very ingenious method was invented by Politzer for this purpose ; the patient, whose eustachian tube is imper- vious, is given a glass of water, and the surgeon, having closed one of his nostrils with one hand, inserts a tube into the other; the patient is then told to drink. As he does so, the surgeon blows through the tube, and while the muscles of the palate open, or tend to open the tube, the additional pressure dis- lodges the plug of mucus or whatever was closing the tube ; it becomes pervious, and hearing is at once restored. The air of the tympanic cavity probably plays little or no part in the production of sound, though some effect must theoretically be produced through it on the membrane closing the fenestra rotunda, and through it in turn on the labyrinth, especially the scala tympani of the cochlea, by means of the perilymph. That this effect must, however, be very small is shown by experiment ; for vibrations are very ill-conducted from the moist side of a membrane to air, and from this air to water through a membrane stretched on its surface, i.e. from the inner moist side of the membrana tympani, to the air of the tympanic cavity, and from it to the perilymph by means of the membrane of the fenestra rotunda ; whereas they travel with remarkable intensity between air and water when con- ducted from the first membrane vibrating in air to the second membrane stretched over water through a chain of insulated solid bodies capable of vibrating as a whole, the last of which communicates with a solid body in close apposition with the second membrane, i.e. from the membrana tympani to the mem- brane of the fenestra ovaljs through the ossicula, covered with moist mucous mem- ( ISO EAR. brane, the last of which, the stapes, has its base in close apposition with the membrane of the fenestra ovalis, being in fact imbedded in it. This is, therefore, the principal route of the vibrations in their passage through the tympanum. The membranous labyrinth is, as above said, the essential part of the auditory ap- paratus, and hearing remains even if all the structures between it and the external air are disorganized. As to the special function of its constituent parts, we know nothing certainly ; suppositions have been made, but the theories propounded on the question have not advanced beyond the region of hypothesis. The vestibule is probably the most essential part, inasmuch as it is not only the first part of the ear to be developed in man, but is also the first part to appear in the series of vertebrate animals, being present in the lowest fishes, except the amphioxus, which has no distinct organ of hearing. The semi-circular canals are supposed to help us to determine the direction of sounds, since they would, if prolonged, intercept vibra- tions in any direction, being in the three planes of a cube, and this arrangement is found in nearly all cases where they are present at all. But whether they actually fulfil this function is quite unproved. M. Flourens * has experimented on the subject by cutting one or other of these canals, but has not removed the difficulty. The otoliths are supposed to intensify sound by striking against the fine endings of the auditory nerve as they vibrate. The cochlea, by far the most complicated part of the ear, is involved in the same obscurity as regards its functions as the rest of the ear. The complicated structures of the scala media have been supposed merely to deaden vibrations after they have produced their effect on the auditory nerve, thus pre- venting confusion. But it is by far more likely that they have a higher office to fill, arid it is now generally believed that they serve to distinguish pitch. The rods of corti especially seem adapted to this function, arranged as they are in regular graduated * Solucha. PflUger's Archiv, vol. viii., quoted in the London Medical Record, Feb. ii, 1874. Solucha has made further experiments which make this still more probable. On cutting one or more of these canals the ani- mal executes certain disorderly movements. These are probably due to the fact that the animal has lost proper conceptions as to the position of its head, since some- what similar movements follow from merely fixing the head unsymmetrically. These canals, probably, possess the function of informing the animal, by a series of unconscious impressions as to the exact position of its head in space, and each canal has an exact relation to a dimension of space. series, dense as they are in structure, and elaborate as is the distribution of the cochleal nerve in their neighbourhood. They are sup- posed to vibrate each in sympathy with one note, and to transmit the vibrations to the special twig of the auditory nerve with which each is supposed to be connected. Not only would they thus appreciate pitch, but since "timbre" or " quality " depends on the de- finite combination of harmonics with a fun- damental note (as Helmholtz has shown) they would thus convey what he well calls " sound- colours " to the sensorium, these sound- colours being combinations of a fundamental tone with harmonics, various both in pitch and relative intensity. Dugfes, who first pro- pounded the theory that the cochlea was the organ by which we appreciate " pitch," called attention to the concomitant variations in the evolution of the cochlea and the range of the voice in the three classes of mammals, birds and reptiles ; the former having the largest, the latter the smallest development of both cochlea and vocal range. A " musical ear " consists in the power of appreciating and distinguishing aerial vibra- tions both simple and compound, just as "the good eye for colour" consists in the power of appreciating and distinguishing the simple and compound vibrations of light. When we hear a sound all that is proven is that particular filaments of the auditory nerve have been excited, not necessarily that there has been any external cause for the sensation. Aural delusions occur, though not so com- monly as optical delusions. The singing in the ears which people often hear when they are out of health, overworked, when the blood- vessels of the head are congested, when blood is extravasated, when they are under the influence of a narcotic poison, when they are about to faint ; all belong to this category. Many people are painfully conscious, even for many hours after a long railway journey, of the note to which their carriage has been vibrating. Comparative Anatomy. — The lowest sub- kingdom in which we find any specialised hear- ing organ is that of the ccelenterata, the familiar representatives of which are the jelly-fish and sea-anemones. In them the ear is simply a sac filled with fluid, in which are crystals of carbonate of lime, the whole called a " lithocyst " or " stone-sac," by which the vibrations are intensified. This is analo- gous with the primitive auditory vesicle of man. A similar structure is found in the sub- kingdom " Vermes," or worms, in certain marine worms called " Turbellaria," a fami- liar representative of which is the worm often seen on the sea-shore and called the ( m) EAR. " sea-man's bootlace." Many of the higher worms, or annelids, represented by the leech and earthworm, have a pair of such organs in the head, connected by a nerve with the nerve-ring surrounding the gullet. Arthropoda, the sub-kingdom containing Crustacea (crabs, lobsters, shrimps, prawns, and the wood-louse) ; Insecta ; Arachnida (spiders and scorpions) ; and Myriapoda (cen- tipedes), have not all of them distinct hearing organs. In Crustacea both closed and open hearing organs are found. In the higher Crustacea they are found at the base of the inner or smaller pair of antenna or feelers, and in them they are open. In another crea- ture called Mysis they are placed in the tail, and are composed of an otolithic sac lined with hair-like bodies, reminding us of the human " fila acustica," which are, like them, connected with the endings of a nerve. In those which have open hearing sacs, the par- ticles of sand which are washed in are utilized for otoliths, being fastened in regular order to certain of these hairs. This variety of hearing sacs among Crustacea is very in- structive ; whether closed or open they are closely connected with the integument, and the fact of their being sometimes open, some- times closed, reminds us of the gradual development of the human ear, which is at first merely a pit in the integument, and after- wards becomes a closed sac (Gegenbaur, loc. cit. p. 388). Among Insects the power of hearing must be almost universal, since music is so widely distributed among them, but the organs themselves have not been satisfactorily made out in many cases. Some have thought them to be represented by a tight membrane near the base of the feelers, others by the feelers them- selves; among the grasshoppers and crickets by a sac filled with fluid, connected with a nerve, enlarged as it spreads over the sac, the whole sac being placed below a delicate membrane forming the floor of a pit on both sides of the first abdominal ring. In some locusts it is placed on the basal division of the front pair of legs, and is composed of a vibrating mem- brane like the tympanum, in the neighbour- hood of which is an air-chamber connected with one of the tracheae or air-tubes which pervade the bcidy.* It may not be uninteresting to insert a de- tailed description of a very elaborate hearing organ which is found in some orthoptera. The passage is translated from Von Siebold and Stannius, " Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Anatomie," part i. p. 582 : " Only in certain orthoptera has a paired organ been successfully discovered which seems provided with the Gegenbaur, loe. cit. p. 389. necessary apparatus of a sense of hearing. This organ is represented in the Acrididae by a depression or pinna surrounded by a horny ring and more or less vaulted over, in the bottom of which a tympaniform membrane is spread out ; on the inner surface of the latter a pair of horn-like appendages rise, between which a vesicle filled with clear fluid, extremely deli- cate, is fastened as a membranous labyrinth. Con- nected with this is a special auditory nerve, coming from the third thoracic ganglion, which swells to a ganglion on the tympanic membrane, and ends in the immediate neighbourhood of the labyrinth with a number of little and extremely Slender club-shaped rods; loosely surrounded with ganglion cells (? are these end- ings primitive nerve fibres). The locusts and achetidse (grasshoppers) possess a similar hearing organ in the ' shins ' of both forelegs. Some of the locusts possess on both sides of the ' foreshins,' close under the knee- joint, a depression, while others of this family of the orthoptera are provided on the same spot with two more or less spacious hollows, opening forwards, by an aperture (auditory capsules). In these pits and also in the hollows of both anterior tibiae of the locusts an oval tympanic membrane is fitted. Between the two tympanic membranes the main tracheal stem of the forelegs forms a vesicular swelling, on the superior end of which the auditory nerve rising from the first thoracic ganglion and running down with the main crural nerve swells to a ganglion. From this ganglionic enlargement a band-like nerve mass runs down on the gently excavated anterior side of the tracheal vesicle, upon which nerve mass a linear series of vesicles with watery contents rise which again contain those remark- able club-shaped and slender rods (? primitive nerve fibres). The two great tracheal trunks of the forelegs open with two wide funnel-shaped openings at the posterior edge of the Frothorax, so that here also part of the tracheal system as in acrididae allows of a compari- son with a tuba eustachii. In the achetidae an opening^ closed by a silvery membrane (membrana tympani) may be seen on the external side of both forelegs close under the knee-joint, behind which a similar hearing organ is concealed. "Note. — In acheta achatina and italica an equally large tympanic membrane is situated also on the inner side of the forelegs which, in acheta sylvestris, domestica, and campestris is only feebly indicated on this inner side of the tibias." Hearing organs are also found in cock- chafers in the root of the posterior wings. In the larva of crabs Heusen has described an ear consisting of an otolithic sac, in the adult the otoliths disappear and the sac is curiously composed of three demi-canals. In the diptera or flies they are situated in the rudimentary wings called halteres. Auditory organs are found in all classes of molluscs either connected with the nerve ganglia in the " foot " or motor organ, as in the lower forms (oysters, muscles, snails, and slugs), or with the ganglia below the oesopha- gus, as in the higher forms. In the cepha- lopoda (octopus, &c.) they are placed in the mass of gristle which composes the head, and in them the sac is complicated. In all, the type is essentially the same, viz., a mem- branous sac containing fluid and an otolith or otoliths and supplied by a nerve. In certain mollusca called brachiopoda, hearing organs are found only in the larval state. In > all molluscs the otolithic sac seems to be lined ( 154) EAR. with ciliated epithelium, i.e., epithelium which is furnished with eyelash-like hairs which continually lash the fluid in which they live.* Vertebrate Animals (Fish). — No hearing organ has been found in the lowest iish, the amphioxus or lancelot. In all other fish it is present, and it is very interesting to trace its gradual evolution as we proceed towards the higher representatives. In the myxinoids the vestibule, the only part of the ear constant in fishes, consists of a simple ring-shaped tube lined with cilia, and lies freely at the sides of the head, like the primitive auditory vesicle of the human embryo. In the lamprey, the ear consists of a vestibule with two semi- circular canals each of which has an ampulla. In all the higher fishes the labyrinth is en- closed in the bony or cartilaginous skull, and consists of three semi-circular canals, the vestibule being divided into two divisions as in man, with " endolymph " and " otoliths." The otoliths are often very large, as in the cod tribe. In the whiting, for instance, they may easily be found as two porcelain-like bodies, somewhat crescent-shaped and grooved transversely. In the rays the vestibule is prolonged by a tube which opens on the upper flat surface of the head. No fish has an external ear, tympanum, membrana tym- pani, or cochlea, but the labyrinth is often connected with the air-bladder, either by a tube or by a chain of bones. The air-bladder is thus pressed into the function of assisting the hearing (Weber, " De aure et auditu," p. 1245). In typical fishes we thus get the representatives of the vestibule, saccule and utricle, each with its otolith, and three semi- circular canals of man. Amphibia. — In those amphibians which retain their gills through life, such as the newt and salamander, we have very little more than we found in fishes. They possess an internal ear only, which consists of a vestibule, three semi-circular canals ; and as an addition to the ear of fishes, a " fenestra ovalis," with a small plate closing it, repre- senting the base of the stapes. In one called the axolotl (that animal on which Cortez fed his army) this plate is connected with a little bone, but none of these creatures have a middle or external ear. In those amphibians which when adult have lost their gills, we find the following additions. The labyrinth or internal, ear has an otolithic saccule ; in addition to the plate of cartilage closing the fenestra ovalis, which has a small muscle to move it (like the stape- dius in man), we find a long thin bone "columella" running through a tympanic Gegenljaut,' loc. cii.- p. 313. cavity and connected with a third member, a small cartilage which is attached to a tym- panic membrane, and has another muscle attached to it (like the tensor tympani in man). In these animals the middle ear or tympanum first appears ; this cavity is filled with air and communicates by an eustachian tube with the cavity of the mouth. The tym- panic membrane is on the level of the surface of the body— there is no external passage or meatus. , Reptiles. — We divide reptiles into ophidia or serpents, lacertilia or lizards, chelonia, or turtles and tortoises, and crocodilia, crocodiles and alligators. In serpents we seem to have an ear in- ferior to that of frogs ; they have no eustachian tube, the tympanum does not contain air, but a sort of packing material called cellular or connective tissue, the tympanic membrane, as such, is absent, the tympanum being closed externally by skin. This substitution of cellular tissue for air is very interesting when we remember that in the human embryo the reverse change takes place. With this exception the ear is the same as that of frogs. In lizards we again find a tympanic mem- brane and cavity, a eustachian tube, and in some the commencement of an external ear. In the iguana, for instance, there is a slight fold of skin beyond the tympanic membrane, and this is again instructive, for in the human embryo the tympanic membrane is at first on the level of the skin ; and the external ear, both the bony and cartilaginous parts of the meatus and the pinna, are subsequent ad- ditions. In turtles and tortoises we find the tym- panic cavity divided into two by a bony septum or partition, which, however, is incomplete. The cochlea makes its first appearance as a slight conical bud, as it does in the human embryo, and there is a fenestra rotunda.f In crocodiles the cochlea becomes bent and divided into two seals. The tympanic mem- brane is placed at the bottom of a deep fissure, and protected by a flap of integument con- taining cartilage and capable of closing the slit by muscles attached to it ; thus we have an external ear. The tympanic cavity com- municates with air-cells in many of the bones of the head as in birds. Indeed, to the com- parative anatomists to whom the striking dif- ference between feathers and scales is the least difference in the world and quite unim- f There is one lizard of very exceptional structure which possesses a cochlea with an indication of the spiral curve which afterwards produces the form which we find in man. Its name is Hatteria, but it is indeed so full of anomalies that it is best mentioned in a note, and not as a representative of lacertilia. ( 155 EAR E DUR. portant, the crocodile is nothing but a bird with certain practically unimportant distinc- tions. The ear of birds is composed of an internal ear consisting of a vestibule with a foramen rotundum, and a foramen ovale, a cochlea with an incipient spiral turn, three semi-circular canals, and two cartilaginous bands represent- ing the lamina spiralis ossea ; of a middle ear consisting of a cavity, filled with air, com- municating with air-cells in most of the bones of the head, provided with a membrana tym- pani and eustachian tube, and with a colu- mella or stapes. This columella which we have seen from amphibia upwards, is, as we have said, the stapes of man. It is shaped like a long post-horn, or like a stethoscope. The external ear consists of an external auditory meatus, and an indication of a pinna in the form of a fold of skin just in front of the meatus ; this is largest in the owls. In some birds as the bustards the meatus is sur- rounded by a ring of specialized feathers, which perhaps serve to reflect vibrations to- wards the tympanum. The Ear of Mammals is in the main so like that of man that it will be sufficient to mention such differences as we find in dif- ferent classes. In the internal ear we find that the cochlea has a very variable number of turns. The hedgehog has one-and-a-half turns, the seal two, many ruminants somewhat more, next the camel, horse, and elephant, and many bruta (ant-eaters, sloths, &c.) ; the bats, apes, and man, two-and-a-half; most carnivora three, the pigs nearly four ; the guinea-pig and agouti quite four; and the paca (a rodent) five ; marsupials have a very varying number of turns, the kangaroo two-and-a-half (like ruminants which they represent among mar- supials), and the opossum nearly five.* The otoliths are not universally found among maminals. The labyrinth has many variations, for which reference must be made to the larger treatises. The " ossicula audi- tus " are very variable in shape ; in the lowest order of mammals, the monotremata, includ- ing the ornithorhynchus (duck-billed platypus), and echidna (Australian ant-eater), the stapes is shaped like that of amphibia, reptiles, and birds ; it is a long and thin bone without any division — a " columella," in fact. In cetacea or whales, dolphins and porpoises, the ear is very remarkable ; the external auditory meatus is almost obliterated, in one dolphin hardly admitting a pig's bristle. It is probable that the vibrations of sound are communicated in them to the auditory nerve, not by the meatus but by the bones of the head, as in fish, and in them the tympanic bone, forming the wall of the tympanum and supporting the drum, is very dense and hangs almost independently, reminding one of the large otoliths of fish (Owen), though whether it really fulfils the same office it is difficult to say. The pinna is absent in most seals, the mole, cetacea, and the ornithorhynchus, in most diving animals it is very small. In some bats it is enormously developed, and has vibratile movements by which it seems to act as a sort of tactile organ " relating to the perception of atmospheric impulses re- bounding from surfaces near which the bat , approaches in flight."t Spallanzani says that ' a bat, after being deprived of the power of sight, hearing, and smell, by haying the eyes put out, and the ears and nostrils plugged, was still able to avoid obstacles and to pass through openings only just large enough to admit its body. Some animals have the power of volun- tarily closing their external meatus — the ele- phant and the water shrew, for instance. Ecbole (Gk.) The terms eclysis (iiihitng) and ecbole {iK^oXii) refer to the flattening and sharpening of sounds to adapt them to a change of key-note. Eccedente (It.) Exceeding, augmented, a term applied to intervals. Ecclesiastical modes. [Plain song.] Echelon, iix^iov {Gk.) (i) A hollow vessel, generally of metal (xoXkeioj') used as a drum or gong. (2) Metallic vases so ar- ranged behind the seats of the ancient theatre as to reinforce the sound of the actors' voices. An account of them is to be found in Vitru- vius. (3) The resonance box of a lyre. Echelle {Fr.) A scale, as echelle chro- matique, echelle diatonique; chromatic scale, diatonic scale. Echo. A sound produced by reverbera- tion, an imitation of a sound so produced, (i) In old organ music the use of this term signified that a passage so marked was to be played upon the echo-organ, a set of pipes enclosed in a box, by which a soft and distant effect was produced, incapable however of so great expression as that obtained by the use of the swell, which is an improvement upon the echo-organ. (2) Echo-stop on a harpsichord was a contrivance for obtaining a soft and distant effect. Eclisses {Fr.) The sides of a lute, guitar or violin. Eclysis. [Ecbole.] Ecole {Fr.) A school or style of music. Ecossais {Fr.) In the Scotch style. E dur {Ger.) The key of E major, the key having four sharps in its signature. Gegenbaur, p. 773. f Owen, Anat. of-Veitebrates; voh iii. p. 189. ( 156 ) EFFECT ENHARMONIC. Effect. Effet (Fr.) Effetto {It.) The mental impression produced by the perform- ance of music, arising from the genius of the composer in the novel invention of pleasing or striking remedies, or telling harmonies, and the happy fitness of choice of certain passages, vocal or instrumental, in certain understood situations ; or the clever inter- pretation of those passages by the performers. Eguaglianza {It.) Equality, evenness. Eguale {It.) Equal, as voci eguali, equal voices. Egualmente {It.) Equally, evenly. Eighth. The interval of an octave. Einfach {Ger.) Simple ; as, einfache In- tervalle, simple intervals ; einfacher Contra- punkt, simple counterpoint. Einfalt {Ger.) Simplicity ; as, mit Einfalt und Wurde, with simplicity and dignity. Eingang {Ger.) Introduction, as, Eingang schlussel, introductory key. Eingestrichen {Ger.) Having one stroke, as c', d', &c. [Pitch.] Einheit {Ger.) Unity. Einleitungs-satz {Ger.) An opening phrase, or introduction ; an overture. Einschlafen {Ger.) To slacken pace and diminish the power. Einschlagend {Ger.) Lit. striking in- wards, as is the case with a percussion reed ; whereas aufschlagend is used with reference to a. free reed. [Reed.] Einschnitt (Ger.) An incomplete musical sentence or motive. Eis {Ger.) E sharp. Eisenvioline {Ger.) Lit., iron fiddle. A nail violin, an instrument the sounds of which are produced from pointed pieces of iron. Ger,,Nagel-geige. Eisteddfod {Welsh). A congress or session for the election of chief bards, called together for the first time at Caerwys by virtue of a commission granted by Queen Elizabeth, May 26th; 1568. Eisteddvodau have been since held in variotis places at uncertain intervals, and now (1875) will probably take place an- nually in localities made known some time before the assembly. The object is the encouragement of native poetry and music. Eklysis or Eclysis {Gk.) [See Ecbole.] Ela. The name given by Guido to the highest note in his scale. Electric organ. An organ, the key and stop-action of which are connected with the pallets and sliders by the force of an electric current. Elegant {Fr.) Elegantemente {It.) Ele- ganza, con {It.) Elegantly, with elegance of style. Elegiac. In the style of an elegy ; of a mournful character. Elegy, kkeyeiov (Gk.) (i) A distich con- sisting of an hexameter and pentameter. (2) A poem in elegiacs. (3) A composition of a mournful and commemorative character. Elevatio (Lat.) (i) Arsis q.v. (2) A motett sung at the elevation of the host. (3) The raising of a mode beyond its ambitus. Elevato {It.) Raised, exalted. Elevazione {It.) A composition founded upon a special theme, as Elevazione sopra il Pange lingua. Eldve (Fr.) A pupil. Eleventh. The interval of an octave and a fourth. A compound fourth. Embouchure {Fr.) The mouth-piece of a wind instrument. Emmeleia, kfifiiXsia {Gk.) (i) Consonance, concord in musical sounds. (2) A Tragic dance accompanied by music. (3) The music of the Tragic dance. E moll (Ger.) The key of E minor. The relative minor of G major. Empiter les sons (Fr.J To sing legato, or with a portamento. Empfindung (Ger.) Emotion, passion, feeling. Emphasis. Accent. [Arsis.] [Accent.] Emport6 {Fr.) Passionate, hurried. Empress6 {Fr.) Eager, hurried. Enarmonico {It.) Enharmonic. Enbadinant (Fr.) Scherzando. [Scherzo.] Encore {Fr.) Again, more. A word used in England when a repetition of a piece is desired. It is used both as a noun and as a verb in common writing ; as, an encore, to encore. Encoenia. Dedication festivals ; in old English, chyrche-holy ; Anglo-Sax., cyric- halgung, church hallowing. Energia, con ; energicamente ; ener- gico {It.) With energy, forcibly. Enfant de Choeur {Fr.) A chorister-boy. Enfatico (It.) With- emphasis, earnestly. Enfler {Fr.) To swell, to increase in sound. Enfasi, con {It.) With emphasis. Enge {Ger.) Narrow, close, straight. A term used in reference to the small scale of organ pipes, or to the closeness of subject and answer in a stretto. Engel-stimme {Ger.) [Vox Angelica.] Engraving of music. [Printing of music] Enharmonic. (1} One of the three genera of Greek music, the other two being the Diatonic and Chromatic. (2) Having inter- vals less than a semitone, e.g., an enharmonic organ or harmonium is an instrument having more than twelve divisions in the octave, and capable, therefore, of producing two distinct ( '57) ENOPLIUS ENTREMETS. sounds where, on the ordinary instrument, one only exists, as, for instance, Gff and A\>, &c. An enharmonic scale is one containing intervals less than a semitone. (3) An enhar- monic modulation is a change as to notation, but not as to sound, e.g. : g— H ia , . , — «. It is important to notice that an enhar- monic modulation is not so termed in strict propriety, because, it is only feasible on an ordinary keyed-instrument by actually ignor- ing the existence of intervals smaller than a semitone. Enoplius. evowXioe {Gk.) Warlike music. Music of the war-dance. Ensemble {Fr.) Together. The whole, (i) The general effect of a musical perform- ance. (2) The union of the whole company of performers in a concerted piece. Entr'acte {Fr.) Music played between the acts or divisions of an opera, drama, or other stage performance. Entrata {It.) EntrU {Fr.) Entry, intro- duction, or prelude. Scena d' entrata, the first scena allotted to a vocalist in an opera. {Fr.) scene d'entree. Entrechats {Fr.) The peculiar bounds with which a dancer leaps across the stage on entering. Entremese {Span.) A short musical interlude, in one or two scenes, played by a few actors, rarely more than four. Entre- meses were mostly of aburlesque character, and when performed between the preludes and the plays, Autos, or Loas, made an interlude of a nature peculiarly acceptable to the Spanish mind. The subjects were chosen from pos- sible events of a droll character in common life, and were mostly wijtten in verse. They cannot be traced to a higher antiquity than the 17th century, and are still popular in re- mote parts of Spain. When more than ordi- nary prominence is given to the music, the name Saynetes (the Spanish for dainties) is given to them. Entremets {Fr.) Short dramatic or alle- gorical entertainments. A remote antiquity is claimed for this species of diversion, which some writers declare to be the origin of the opera and drama. The date of their inven- tion has been fixed at an epoch during the reign of Saint Louis (1226-1270). The king desired to re-awaken the en- thusiasm of his nobles and warriors that they might join him in the endeavour to wrest the Holy Land from the hands of the infidels. He sought the aid of the Duke of Burgundy, who, flattered by the preference shown to him in being selected as the king's agent in the matter, sought every means to carry his wishes into effect. He gave a series of banquets and entertainments to the nobility, who at that time were noted for their luxury, not to say licentiousness ; and in the course of these feasts certain allegorical poems, commemorating the deeds of the old warriors and kings, their ancestors, were recited or sung. Appeals were made to the chivalric spirit still supposed to exist in the breast of the scions of a warlike stock, and they were implored to unite in aiding the defenders of their religion in a crusade against the un- believing occupants of the sacred cities. The stratagem succeeded, the nobles and princes joined with the Duke of Burgundy and bound themselves by oath to follow and support him. The Entremets thus originated were con- tinued on great occasions, and ultimately became diverted from their primary intention. The performers, mimes, farceurs, baladins, menetriers, &c., as they are variously called, followed the fortunes of their lords, and in course of time invented new entremets, no longer confining themselves either to patri- otic or religious subjects. These entremets suggested more extended performances, and what can now be gathered of their character has led many, not unreasonably, to assume, that in them was the germ of the modern opera. In later times when acting was better un- derstood, a further change was made in the style of the subjects selected, and the entre- mets were almost always of a humorous character, though heroic subjects were some- times chosen. In 1237, upon the occasion of a marriage, Alberic, in his chronicle, speaks of the entremets then and there performed, and also adds that " Illi qui dicuntur minis- trelli in spectaculo vanitatis multa ibi fecerunt, sicut ille qui in equo super cordam in aere equitaret, et sicut illi qui duos boves de scar- late vestitos equitabant cornitantes ad singula fercula quae apponebantur regi in mensi." In 1378, at a feast given by Charles V. to his uncle in the castle of St. Germain, two entremets representing the conquest of Jeru- salem, by Godfrey de Bouillon, were per- formed. And at the marriage of Charles IX. in 1572, the entremets were on the subject of the destruction of Troy. Jean Antoine de Baif in 1573 published " Mimes, entremets, enseignmens et Proverbes," which were simply epigrams, and the change of opinion with regard to the use of the word in De Baif's mind, shows that even then a gradual altera- tion in the meaning and force of the entre- mets was taking place. The word is now ( 158 ) ENTUSIASMO EQUIVOCAL CHORDS. employed to signify any small entertainment between two greater ones. c.f. Entremeses. Entusiasmo. Entusiastico {It.) With enthusiasm. Entwurf {Ger.) A sketch. Eolian Harp. A musical instrument made of a long narrow box of thin even-grained deal, about five or six inches deep, having a circle of small holes drilled in the centre of the upper side. On this side the strings, six or more, are stretched in parallel lines over bridges fixed at each end, the tension being preserved by means of screwpins. The strings must be tuned in unison, and the box placed in a free current of air. A delicate combination of sounds is then produced, somewhat resem- bling the effect of a full orchestra, without instruments of percussion, when heard at a distance, the sound increasing or decreasing in power with the force of the wind. The usual method of using the instrument is by placing it on the ledge of a half-opened win- dow ; but the tone is best produced when the box is made of the exact length of the window opening, and the lower sash of the window closed as far as the box will allow. The Eolian harp is the invention of an English- man of the name of Pope, and was improved by Kircher, a. German (1670). The har- monics heard are due to the overtones of the strings. " Behoves no more. But sidelong, to the gently waving wind To lay the well-tuned instrument reclined ; From which, with airy flying fingers light, Beyond each mortal touch the most refined, The God of Winds drew sounds of deep delight." Thomson's Castle of Indolence. Eolian mode. The fifth of the authentic Gregorian modes. It consists of the natural notes La, Si, Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol. Epicedion. kiriKriZEiov {Gk.) A dirge, elegy._ Epigonion (Gk.) eviydvEwv. A musical in- strument, named after its inventor Epigonus, the date of whose existence is matter of doubt, and the character of the instrument is also somewhat uncertain. It is described as hav- ing forty strings, but the method of tuning is absolutely unknown. Epilenia, ciriKrivia (Gk.) Vintage songs. Epinette (Fr.) [Spinet.] Epinicium. iwiviKwv (Gk.) A song of victory. Episode. A term in fugue writing, applied to those phrases which are supplemental to the main subjects or their answers. [Fugue.] Epitasis {Gk.) eirhaaie. (i) The raising of the voice from a low to a higher pitch. (2) The tightening of the strings of an instru- ment, as opposed to avseric;. Epithalamium, EwieaXa/xiov {Gk.) A nuptial song. Epode, £irj)Sde {Gk.) (i) An after song, the strain of a lyric song after the strophe and antistrophe. (2) A burden or refrain. E poi {It.) And then, after ; as, e poi la coda, then go to the coda. Equabilmente {It.) Equally, similarly. Equal voices. A term for an assortment of men's voices or women's voices. Thus, a piece is said to be set for equal voices, when the voices of men only are needed, though the quality of those voices are not equal, the alto voice differing from the tenor as the tenor does from the bass. The like difference in a less marked manner, also exists among women's voices, but when all men's or all women's voices are required, the term equal is applied to each group. The union of the voices of the two sexes is styled " mixed." In its most true sense the term should only be applied to groups of voices of like register and compass. Equisonans {Lat.) The name given to the consonance of the unison and octave. Equivoca {Lat.) Equivocal, or doubtful, nota equivoca was, in mediaeval music, a note whose value varied according to the length of the notes on either side. Equivocal or doubtful chords. A name given to combinations of sounds which are common to two or more distinct keys, and which, when heard, make the listener doubt- ful as to the particular key-tonality into which they are about to be resolved. The simplest form of chords of this class is to be found in the so-called diminished triad, e.g. : The above chord may be resolved into the keys of C major, C minor, A minor, B minor, or B major (the last two by means of an enharmonic change), thus : ^ I 2 3 . ^, g ^^-H-^-^i II ^ ,^ t^— y-H — — t ,5 — I- - li)^ i fe=« — - '^ s ^ ^ ^ II The inversions of this chord give, as might be expected, greater scope for varied pro- gressions than can be obtained from its original position. The next important doubtful chord is the diminished seventh, but in this case it will be noticed that the numerous resolutions are the result of its possible enharmonic change, whereas, in examples i, 2, and 3 above, no ( 159) ERHOHUNG EXERCISE. alteration has been made in the notation of the chord : If this chord be struck and held down while the eye traces the various changes of nota- tion through which it is capable of passing, it will be found that an impression of an en- tirely new key is given at each successive change. Composers have not been slow to avail themselves of the suddert flights into remote keys, which such combinations suggest, every hey being easily and naturally reached by a judicious treatment 'Of this chord in the position given above or in' its other three positions. Another class of chords are used as doubtful chords, though less frequently than those just described, namely, the chords of the extreme sixth (called also sharp or augmented sixth), e.g. : The use of doubtful chords is only to be traced in moden\ authors ; old writers used them rarely, and then only to produce some startling effect, justified by the character of the words in vocal music, or by the professed drift of a piece of orchestral sound-painting. Erhohung (Ger.) Elevating, enhancing, raising; as, Erhohungs-zeichen, the sign of chromatic elevation, a sharp or natural. Erniedrigung (Ger.) Lowering, depress- ing, as Erniedrigungs - zeichen, the sign for chromatic depression, a flat or natural. Erst (Ger.) First; as, ersterSatz, first part. Ersterben (Ger.) To die away, morendo. Erweitert (Ger.) Extended, augmented, amplified. Es (Ger.) E flat. Esatto (li.) Strict, exact ; as, esatto in- tonazione, just intonation. Es dur (Ger.) The key of E flat major. Esecuzione (It.) Execution. Eses (Ger.) E double flat. Es moll (Ger.) The key of E flat minor. Espace (Fr.) A space of the stave. Espagnuolo, a (It.) In the Spanish style. Espirando (It.) Dying away ; gasping. Espressione, con (It.) With expression. Espressivo (It.) Expressive. Essential harmony. Harmony inde- pendent of grace, auxiliary, passing, synco- pated, anticipating, or pedal notes. Essential notes. Notes belonging to a key-chord. The essential notes of the chord of F major are F, A, C. [Chordae essentiales.] Estinguendo. Estinto (It.) Dying away, gradually reducing both power and pace. Estravaganza (It.) A work fanciful and far-fetched in composition or execution. Estremamente (It.) Extremely. Estro poetico (It.) Poetic rage, or fer- vency. Etendue (Fr.) Extended. Etouffe (Fr.) Lit. stifled. Damped, by means of pedal, mute, or palm of the hand. [Damp.] EtoufToirs (Fr.) Dampers. Etude (Fr.) A study, exercise, or lesson. Et vitam. One of the movements of the mass. [Mass.] Etwas (Ger.) Somewhat; as, etwas langsam, rather slow, &c. Euphonia (Lat. and It.) (i) Sweet sound, suavitas vocis. (2) A consonant combination of sounds. Euphonium. A brass bass instrument, properly belonging to a military band, but frequently introduced into the orchestra as a substitute for the third or bass trombone, to the tone of which the sound of the Euphoniumi has not the slightest affinity. [Metal wind instruments.] Euphony. Sweet sound. An agreeable combination of sounds. Evacuant (Ger.) An exhaust-valve, in an organ or other wind instrument. Evacuatio (Lat.) Lit. an emptying. In mediaeval music, the making of a note in owi- line only, by which its value was reduced by one-third, e.g. : Semibrevis plena et perfecta. o Semibrevis vacua et imperfecta. Other notes were similarly affected by eva- cuatio. Eveill6 (Fr.) Sprightly, quick, lively. Evirato (It.) [Castrato.] Evolutio (Lat.) The working out or development of a subject. Evovae. The vowels of the words " secu- lorum amen" at the end of the Gloria Patri. Hence used as a name of the endings of Gregorian tones, e.g., the following are the evovae of the fourth tones : ^ ■ ^" ■l- i ^"^" ^rjt: Evovae -^-^ T "I ■ = ^'^ 1 ^ 1 Bvovae Exercise. (i) Preparatory practice in order to obtain skill. (2) A composition. ( 160) EXPRESSION EXTEMPORE. intended for the improvement of the singer or player. (3) A composition or thesis, required of candidates for degrees in music in the uni- versities. Expression. The power or act of render- ing music so as to make it the vehicle of deep and pure emotion ; the spirit of music, as opposed to the mere mechanical production of sound. In rendering works of a high class, a true expression involves the merging of the artist's personality in an enthusiastic effort to carry out to the highest extent, the fullest meaning of the composer. Hence the diffi- culty of giving a reading of classical works which shall satisfy those critics who have formed their own ideal of the author's concep- tions. Compositions of a low order, often achieve great popularity owing to their clever treatment by practised artists, who know how to create an artificial interest in such a work, which its internal merit does not warrant. Marks of expression are of comparatively modern use. It is said that Locke (c. 1677) was the first Englishman who used signs for crescendo and diminuendo, but there can be no doubt that an expressive treatment of music has at all times been known and appreciated, although the signs or directions for this ex- pression were unwritten. This remark applies equally to solo and concerted music ; in the latter, whether vocal or instrumental, sacred, or secular, the proper treatment of certain passages would, if not traditionally received, be suggested by the leading musicians among the performers. If this be true, directors of modern choirs qr orchestras are to some extent justified in adding marks of expression to unmarked works to be performed, it being a fact that, where none exist, singers and players now-a-days sink into an uninteresting dead-level of production. The absence of such marks gives the greatest latitude to the artist who renders music, and allows him to stamp his reading more with his own individuality than, where the expression required is definitely indicated. Thus, some of the old simple songs or tunes depend entirely upon the performer for their true expression ; whereas modern music is so full of directions that any intelligent reader may see the drift of the author's meaning. But the fictitious expression obtained only by a strict attention to orders, is vastly dif- ferent from that true expression which is the offspring of sympathetic genius, which will ever remain the real test of the taste, culture, and ability of an artist. Expression-stop. In a harmonium the expression stop when drawn, closes the waste- valve of the bellows. Any alteration of the pressure of the feet on the wind-pedals, causes therefore a corresponding alteration of the power of the tone produced. Hence, by a proper sympathy between the pressure of the foot, and the force of sound required, the most delicate contrasts of light and shade can be obtained. Extempore. Musical improvisation. The art, or rather gift, of creating melody and har- mony without premeditation. The ancient Greeks were said to have possessed the talent of poetical improvisation ; and the gift is found in many races in which the imagination is free and vivid, such as the Arabs, and some tribes of Negroes. Among the former, the extempore effusions relating to small customs and superstitions such as those contained in the Sonnah, among the latter, hymns, religious poems and songs (generally with some rude kind of vocal and instrumental accompani- ment), form the themes improvised upon. Some of their songs, originally extempore, afterwards remembered and made traditional, are not without a savage kind of beauty, but like most productions of the class to which they belong, do not appear to produce the effect upon paper it is known they do when sung by an excited body of singers. In Europe the Italians, above all other nations, cultivate the gift of reciting extem- pore verses, which are not always mere simple effusions of a few stanzas, but are sometimes marked by extraordinary talent, and are ex- tended to the length of an epic poem. Even tragedies and comedies have been made on the spur of the moment. It is said that the people of Tuscany and of the Venetian terri- tories possess the gift in the strongest degree, and that females as well as males have exhi- bited powers of this sort. Petrarch is said to have introduced the custom of singing extempore verses to the lute, and many names of eminent improvisa- tori are preserved, one of the greatest being Metastasio, who, however, gave up the art at an early period of his long career. Among musicians, the gift of performing extempore upon an instrument is more remarkable than the power of making, verses ; for it not only requires a special aptitude, but also demands an extensive knowledge of art at ready com- mand. John Stanley, the blind organist, con- temporary with Handel, was an extraordinary impromptu player, capable of clothing any suddenly suggested theme with every resource of art. The stories told of J. S. Bach, in this respect, would be incredible, if his works did not show how great and free was his command over the technicalities of composition. The list of eminent musicians who have excelled as extempore performers might be swelled to a large extent, if it were necessary; but it will be sufficient for the present purpose to name only one or two, who may be said to repre- ( 161) EXTEMPORIZE EXTREME SIXTH. sent the historical sequence of the existence of the faculty of performing at a moment's notice a subject arranged according to any fonn that might for the time be selected. Mozart possessed the power in no mean degree, for there are records of the fact of his having performed a concerto with only blank sheets of paper before him, he having been either too idle or too busy to write out more than the accompanying parts. Clementi, Moscheles, and Cramer, were famed for this gift, in their day, and the elder Samuel Wesley also was noted for his skill. Secular or trifling melodies have frequently been made themes for improvisation of an amusing or grotesque character. One of the greatest pleasures Mendelssohn gave to his friends was, that of listening to his extempore playing, and many living musicians of eminence have also displayed their powers as well in public as in private. It is a singular fact that many performers highly gifted as extempore players, have failed, where it, might appear at first sight they were eminently qualified to shine ; a good exte.mpore player often proving an in- different, if not wholly bad accompanist or composer, and the reverse. Tlie union of the different qualities in one and the same indi- vidual is rare. Extemporize. To play extempore. Extended compass. A range beyond the ordinary limit of a voice or instrument. A pianoforte was formerly said to be of ex- tended compass, when a few notes more than the old five octaves were employed ; now, a pianoforte is not considered of ex- tended compass if it has less than seven octaves. Extended harmony. [Dispersed har- mony.] Extraneous modulation. A modulation to an extreme or unrelated key. [Modula- tion.] Extreme, (i) Outsi&s; as, extreme parts, the highest and lowest parts in part-music. (2) Expanded to its furthest limit ; as, extreme intervals, intervals greater than major or normal; e.g., C to GJf an extreme fifth. Such intervals are called also augmented, super- fluous, or sharp. (3) Not closely related ; a modulation into an extreme key is one into any key, other than, its own relative minor, its dominant, and sub-dominant, and their relative minors. (4) An old term for any key having more than three sharps or flats. Extreme sixth, chord of the. A chord of modern growth, so called because the in- terval of an extreme or augmented sixth is contained in it, either directly or by inversion. It exists in three principal forms : Ex.1. Ex.3. ^^^^|^^^:^fl^ I A A ^- -d--^. It will be noticed that this chord occurs on the sixth degree of the minor scale, but like many other chords originally formed of notes in the minor scale, it is as frequently resolved into the major key of the tonic, as into the minor ; e.g. : Ex- 4- Ex. 5, Ex. 6. The dominant chord G, Bi}, D, which is common to both C major and C minor, forms the connection between the resolutions given in Ex. I, 2, 3, and those in Ex. 4, 5, and 6. Various explanations of the origin of this chord have been suggested. Some consider it merely a chord of | on "the sixth of the minor scale, or the first inversion of the subdominant common chord with the 6th chromatically raised (Ex. i). Others look upon it as a chord of % on the sixth of the major scale, or the first inversion of the sub- dominant common chord, with the bass-note flattened (Ex. 4). These two opinions obtain favour in proportion to the supposed major or minor tonality of the chord. Some authors find a much more compli- cated solution, namely, that it contains the minor ninth of the Dominant, combined with the major 3rd, 7th, and other notes of the fifth above the Dominant. Hence it is called a double-root-chord, and ^ would be given as its derivative in all the above examples. This chord, as constructed in Ex. i and 4, is sometimes known as the Italian Sixth ; as constructed in Ex. 2 and 5 as the French Sixth ; as constructed in Ex. 3 and 6 as the German Sixth. The component notes of these are often converted and form different inversions or positions, e.g. : 1 — t— "< — -i — ■— ' — "-1 — r Chords of this kind are occasionally met with in the works of Bach and Handel, but are not of frequent occurrence at that date. Among modern authors, Spohr makes most use of them, and they fo.rm an important in- gredient of Ms flowing chromatic progressions- ( 162 ) -FAGOTTO. F. (i) The note called parhypate in the Greater Perfect system of the Greeks. The letter-name of Trite in the upper tetrachord. (2) The first note of the Eolian mode, or church scale, commencing four notes above the hypo-Eolian. [Greek music] (3) The note called "Fa ut" in the hexa- chord system. [Notation.] (4) The key-note of the major scale requir- ing one flat in the signature ; and the key- note of the minor scale related to A flat. Fa. The syllable used in solmisation for F. [Aretinian Syllables.] Fa bemol {Fr.) F flat. Fablier {Provencal). [Troubadour.] Faburden, Falsobordone {It.) Faux- bourdon {Fr.) One of the early systems of harmonising a given portion of plain-song, or a canto fernio. As the word implies, to faburden signified originally to hold a drone {bordonizare). It was afterwards used as a term for a sort of harmony consisting of thirds and sixths added to a canto fermo. It will be remembered that the organum was similar in construction, being only note against note, but consisted of fourths, fifths, and octaves. [See Descant.] But when counter- point had superseded both diaphony and descant, the term faburden still was retained, and applied to certain species of counter- point, sometimes (but not always) note against note. The following examples of Falsobordoni, by Bernabei (middle of 17th century), (from Proske's Musica Divina) are specially interest- ing as showing that composers, even at that time, ventured to alter church song when it suited their convenience. The intro- duction of the F# in the tenor at the close of Ex. I, to secure a good cadence, disturbs the tnode of the second tone ; and in Ex. 2, the introduction of Gj is equally fatal to the tonality of the fourth tone. Ex. I. —ii=i\ •^- g r "^^ Con -fi - tebor tibi Domine, in toto corde me - o : r in consilio justorum, et congrega - ti Falsobordone. r r "i i 'i^M i 'I Mag-na o-per-a Do-mi -ni, Ex-qui-si-ta in om-nes Xb ° - — -^ ., „ „ II vo - lun - ta - tes ej - us. &u -frT- ^ -= — 11-11 II I --- 1 I I: .p-5- . -^ Ex hoc nunc et us - que in sae-cu-lum,insee - cu lum. Faces d'un accord {Fr.) The positions or inversions of a chord. Fach {Ger.) A rank of pipes, as in an organ. Facile {Fr.) Easy. Facilita {It.) Facilite {Fr.) Facility, readi- ness of execution. Facilite {Fr.) Made easy. An easy arrangement of a difBcult passage. Facilement (Fr.) Facilmente {It.) Easily, with ease. Facture {Fr.) Fattura {It.) (i) The con- struction of a piece of music. (2) The measurement, dimension, or scale of organ pipes. Fa diese {Fr.) F sharp. Fagottista {It.) A bassoon player. Fagotto {It.) [Bassoon.] ( 163) FAGOTTONE FARANDOLA. Fagottone {It.) A large bassoon [Double bassoon.] Fall, A cadence. " That strain again It had a dying fall." — Shakspeaee. Fal las. Short songs with the syllables fal la at the end of each line or strain. Morley (c. 1580), who composed some, speaks of them as being a kind of ballet. The fal las of Hilton (c. 1600) are held in highest estimation for the freedom of their construc- tion and the beauty of their melodies. Gas- toldi is the reputed inventor of fal las. Falsa musica (Lat.) called also musica ficta. False or feigned music was that in which notes were altered by the use of acci- dentals. " Falsa musica est quando de tono facimus semitonium et e converse " (Johannes de Garland). False cadence. [Cadence.] False fifth. A fifth altered from its per- fect or major state. False intonation, (i) The production of an unnatural or improper quality of tone. (2) Singing or playing out of tune. False string. A badly woven string, which produces an uncertain and untrue tone. Falsetto [It.) The artificial or supplement- ing tones of the voice, higher than the chest or natural voice. Falsetto is present in every voice with more or less power or quality. The similarity of the character of the natural and artificial voice in boys or females renders the two tones less distinct ; but the chest voice and head voice in the man being of two qualities, the falsetto has a special char- acter. The control of the falsetto requires great skill. The voce d'evirato is not falsetto, although high in pitch. [Larynx.] Falso-bordone {It.) [Faburden.J Fancies, (i) An old name for composi- tions in an impromptu style ; a fantasy. (2) Short pieces of music without words. "And sing those tunes to the over-scutched hus- wives that he heard the carmen whistle, and sware — they were his fancies, or his good-nights." — (Shak- speaee.) Fandango (S/.) A lively Spanish dance in triple time, derived from the Moors. It is a mild form of the Chica, q.v. It is danced by two persons, male and female, and accom- panied by the sounds of a guitar. The dancers have castanets, which they beat in time to the measure, though sometimes the male dancer beats a tambourine. ^^^rrFSg^--^ I JJ^ "^^ ^^ ^-^^ — \ Fanfare {Fr.) A flourish of trumpets, a call. Fantaisie {Fr.) [Fantasia.] Fantasia (it.) Fantasia {Ger.) A compo- sition in a style in which form is subservient to fancy. [Form.] Fantasiren {Ger.) To play as fancy di- rects ; to improvise. Fantasticamente {It.) Fantastico {It.) Fantastique {Fr.) Fantastically, in a gro- tesque manner. Farandola {It.) Farandoule {Fr.) A dance popular among the peasants of the South of France and the neighbouring part of Italy. It is performed by men and women taking hands, and forming a long line, and winding in and out with a waving motion. The manner of taking hands is peculiar. The men and women are placed alternately, each man's right hand is held by a woman's right hand, afld his left by the left hand of another woman, so that along the line, when seen from the front of the row, there is a woman's face and a man's back, and the reverse. The dance is sometimes made the means of fanning popular excitement. A recent traveller, describing his experience of it, says : — " As the night wore on all the roughs in the town turned out, and began dancing the farandole — a kind of exciting dance pe- culiar to the south : men and women, hand in hand, form a long chain, and to a very quick step turn and twist along the various thoroughfares. This dance has the same effect on the fiery Southerners that the scalp dance has on the Red Indians, and makes them quite wild. It was after they had thus worked themselves up to a proper state of ( 164 ) FARSA IN MUSICA FIGURED BASS. excitement that the mob of Avignon massacred Marshal Brune in 1815." The figures of the Farandola by the name of the " Spanish dance," were well known in Enghsh ball-rooms thirty years since. ■> Farsa in musica {It.) A musical burletta or farce. • Fascia {It.) (i) A bind or tie. (2) The sides of a fiddle. Fastoso, fastosamente {It.) Proudly, haughtily. Fattura {It.) [Facture.] Fausse corde {Fr.) [False string.] Fausset {Fr.) [Falsetto.] F clef. [Clef.] F dur. {Ger.) The key of F major. Federclavier {Ger.) Spinnet. Feier {Ger.) A festival. Feierlich, in a festival style, grandly. Feld {Ger.) (i) The disposition of pipes in an organ. (2) Feld-fibte, a rustic flute or pipe. (3) Feld-musik, military music. (4) Feld-ton, the key of E flat, in which military instruments are often set. Ferial. Non-festal ; as, ferial use, music for use on ordinary days. Fermamente, fermato {It.) Firmly, with decision. Fermata {It.) A pause (from fermare, to stay, or stop). Fermo (it.) Firm, fast ; as, canto fermo, the subject or part held firmly, while descant or counterpoint moved about it. Feroce, con ferocita {It.) Wildly, fiercely. Fertig {Ger.) Quick, dexterous. Fervente, ferventemente {It.) Fer- vently, vehemently. Fes {Ger.) The note F flat. Fest {Ger.) A festival ; as, Festgesang, a festival cantata. Fest {Ger.) Firm; &s, f ester Gesang, ca.nto fermo. [Fermo.] Festivamente {It.) Solemnly, pleasantly. Festivita, con {It.) With joyfulness. Festive (it.) ' Festive, solemn. Festoso {It.) Joyous, gay. FF. ff., abb. of fortissimo. Very loud. Fiacco {It.) Weak, weary, faint. F holes. The openings in the upper plate of a violin or other instrument having a re- sonance-body, so called from their common shape /. Fiasco {It.) lit. a flask or bottle. A term applied to a failure in singing, playing, or representation. The fistula pastoricia was blown by the Romans to signify their dis- satisfaction, and it is possible that the present use of the term arose from the similarity between the shape of a flageolet {flasckinet) and a flask. The- Italians now blow some- times into the pipe of a key, whence the expression colla chiava. Fiato {It.) (i) Wind ; as, stromenti dl fiato, wind instruments. (2) Breath, in sing- ing ; as m the French une longue haleine, a long breath, a long note or passage performed with one respiration. Ficta musica {Lat.) [Falsa.] Fiddle. [Violin.] Fidicen (Laf.) (From fides and caito.) A lute or harp player. Fiedel {Ger.) Fiddle. Fier {Fr.) Fiero {It.) Proud, fierce. Fieramente, fiero {It.) Proudly, fiercely, boldly. Fife. Fifre {Fr.), Qiierpfeife {Ger.), Pif- fera {It.) An ancient musical instrument, the name being cognate with pipe. The com-, pass is two octaves from D : A combination of fifes and drums is the only music officially allowed in the British army and navy. Although of ancient use in Eng- land for military purposes, it was discontinued in the reign of James I., and was not restored until the siege of Maestricht in 1747. The fife in the orchestra is called Flauto piccolo. Fife. An organ stop. A piccolo, generally of two feet in length. Fifre. [Fife.] Fifteenth. The interval of a double octave. Bis-diapason. Fifteenth. An organ stop of two feet in length on the manuals and four feet on the pedals, consisting of open metal pipes. Fifth. A diatonic interval of five notes. Its ratio is 2:3, the diapente of the ancients. Figura {Lat.) A note. Figura simplex, a note standing by itself. Figura ligata, a ligature, or a single sign expressing more than one note. Figure. A form of melody or accompani- ment maintained throughout the phrase in which it is suggested. In a melody, figure is called sequence. In harmony a figure relates to the rhythmical observance of a certain form in all the accompanying chords to the melody. (2) A musical phrase. (3) A florid melody. Figurato {It.) Figure {Fr.) Figured. Figured Bass. A bass having the accom- panying chords suggested by certain numbers above or below the notes. It is at present the most satisfactory system of musical short- hand. The whole of the notes are not always indicated by a corresponding number of figures, because one number generally implies two or more to complete the chord. When there is no figure, it is understood that the common chord of such a note is to be used as ( 165 ) FILAR LA VOCE FINGERING. its harmony. The following table will show the manner in which figures are used : The figure 2 implies a 4th and 6th. „ „ 3 „ 5th perfect, or dimi- nished, according to the position of the note in the key. The figure 4 implies a 5th, or 5th and 8th. » ,, 5 » 3rd and 8th. » .. 6 „ 3rd. „ „ 7 „ 5th and 3rd. „ „ 8 „ 3rd and 5th. „ „ 9 „ 3rd and 5th. A stroke through a figure directs the raising of the interval by a natural or sharp, as the case may be. An accidental standing alone implies a cor- responding alteration of the 3rd of the chord. Horizontal lines direct the continuance of the harmony of the previous chord. If there are no figures under the previous chord, the line or lines direct the continuance of the common chord of the first note under which they were placed. Filar la voce (It.), Filer le son (Fr.) To prolong a sound, swelling and diminishing the tone by degrees. Fin {Fr.) The end. Finale {It.) The last movement of a con- certed piece, sonata, or symphony; the last piece of an act of an opera ; the last piece in a programme. Fine {It.) The end ; used to show the end of a piece or movement, after a repeat, or partial repeat. Finger-board. Fingerbrett {Ger.) (i) The flat or slightly rounded piece of wood attached to the neck of instruments of the violin and guitar class, on to which the strings are pressed when stopped by the fingers. (2) A manual or clavier. Finger cymbals. [Cymbals.] Fingering. Applicattira {It.), Application {Fr.),Doigter {Fr.), Applicatur {Ger.), Finger- setzung {Ger.) The art of placing and using the fingers properly in performing upon a musical instrument. (i) When instruments were for the first time constructed so that the leverage of their keys was light and admitted of rapid and ready motion, musicians soon formed rules for the employment of the fingers in such a manner as to give the greatest facility to the player. These rules were properly improved and ex- tended by each master who taught the use of a keyed instrument, and there is reason to suppose that they were kept more or less secret by each teacher, long before it was deemed expedient to set forth the methods in a general publication. , Comparing the earliest published methods of fingering with the musical compositions belonging to the same period, it is difficult to conceive that a clear, distinct, and rapid performance could ever be attained by those methods, for they are of a cramped, stiff and awkward character, while the compositions are of an opposite nature, considering the state of the art at the time. Such a thing as acquiring a knowledge of a keyed instrument without a master was out of the question, and it is not at all unlikely that this was contemplated by the authors or compilers of the books of instruction. One of the earliest printed books in which rules for fingering are laid down was Euse- bius Ammerbach's " Orgel oder Instrument- Tablatur," Leipsic 1571, where in the fourth chapter a scale is fingered in the following manner : — Recbte Hand (Right Hand). 232 Linke Hand (Left Hand). m- m m 32121 ai23 o Stands for the thumb, i for the forefinger, 2 for the middle finger, and so on. The thumb of the right hand was never used in scale passages, that of the left hand only occasionally, the little fingers were only used with the thumbs in spanning chords. The rules for fingering in striking or play- ing chords are thus stated : 3rds in either hand were to be struck with the first and third fingers ; 4ths, 5ths, and 6ths with the first and fourth ; 7ths, octaves, gths and loths with the thumb and third finger, and only occasionally with the little finger and thumb. Before saying anything further of other works on the subject, it may be as well to refer to a private MS. book of lessons pre- served in the British Museum, and quoted by Stafford Smith in his Musica Antiqua, in which the master has marked the fingering of a passage in a very different manner to that laid down by the German author. It is true that there is a difference of nearly thirty years in the dates between Ammerbach's book and this, but as treatises published later preserve and teach the like awkward system of finger- ing, a curious confirmation of the conjecture that there was a considerable difference be- tween the theory and the practice cannot fail to strike the thoughtful reader. The MS. referred to bears the date 1599, and the first lesson with the fingering (i being thumb, 2 forefinger, &c.) is as follows : — Right Hand. 343434543232 ( 166 ), FINGERING. Now in this fingering all the fingers are brought into play, and though it is somewhat clumsy according to modem views, it is less unhandy than that of Ammerbach, and as we have no ground for assuming that the English teachers had better principles to guide them than their German neighbours, and as it is known moreover, by tradition, that the most skilful players only imparted the secret of their power to favoured pupils, not only at that time but in later years, the assumption is not made without reasonable support. A modern player would find it a very diffi- cult task to perform the following extract from a " Gagliardo by Orlando Gibbons," printed in " Parthenia," 1611, if he confined himself to the use of three of his fingers in either hand : or to exfecute with ease any such a piece as that by Frescobaldi quoted in the article Canzona, belonging to about this period. And yet not only was the peculiarity of fingering as set forth by Ammerbach taught at that time, but was also continued to a later date. There is a lapse of more than 100 years before the next important book made its appearance, " Das Musikalische Kleeblatt" of Daniel Speer, 1697, in which the improve- ments suggested are few, the chief of which was the more frequent use of the thumb of the left hand, as will be seen in the following scale fingered according to his directions : R.H. * 2 3 2 3 2 3 232323 23 & „ r^ "^ Tl; _ rj '' — 1 M gj 1^ ■= . I-.H. 3 21212IZ I2I2I2Z ^ . a;.^ g ^j ^ - -^ r - f- gs — — That there were dilferences of opinion on the subject with regard to fingering in the published books of about the same period, is shown by the subjoined quotation from " Kurtzer jedoch griindlicher Wegweiser, vermittelst welches man aus dem Grund die Kunst die Orgel recht zu Schlagen," Augs- burg 1698, in which the scale of C is thus fingered ; the thumb being indicated by the circle : R.H. I 32 32 3 L.H. 2 I 3 2 X T^ 101 7-3— ag- I ZS3: z 3 - i^-s- I 2 I 2 I 2 121 2 I 2 I it— ^zll 01^32323 2312323 The well-known book, published by Walsh, under the title of " The Harpsichord Master, containing Plain and Easy Instructions for Learners on the Harpsichord or Spinnet," 1734, which, passing through many editions, may be fairly considered as correctly repre- senting the method of that period, gives the following directions for fingering : — " Observe in y= fingering of y"' right hand, y'' thumb is y^ I St, so on to y= 5th, and y"^ left hand y little finger is y ist, and so on, y= fingers to ascend are y= 3rd and 4th to descend y= 3rd and and." 13 3 + 3434 343434 5 54323232 32 3232 I 12 343434 -P-Jij — 3 434345 ;^4 3 2 32I2 323232 I & „0J2J^ W^^^ ^^^ ■^tnv^'- ru,!*' Lj^_=_. . >w y "*-«LM- Mattheson (" Kleine Generalbasschule," 1735) and Maier (" Musiksaal," 1741) agree in their fingering, their method being as follows, little or no advance or alteration having been devised in the meanwhile in other publica- tions. R.H. 2 3 2 3 - 3 2 3 2 323234 g^-.^---'"'- _ ^j e» '^ I..H. 2 3 1 2 I I 2 010 12 1 2 I 1 I I 2 I 2 I *=^ j=L. '^ It is stated that J. S. Bach disregarded the ordinary principles taught in instruction books, and employed both thumb and little finger as frequently as the other fingers, whereby a greater power was gained, and the performer was able to move rapidly in extreme keys. Some writers claim the suggestion for the free use of all the fingers, for Frangois Couperin, who, in his work, " L'art de toucher le Clavecin," 1716, describes the method of fingering practised and taught by Bach, and consequently they say that the German is indebted to the Frenchman for his ideas on the subject. But Couperin's fingering is somewhat different from that of Bach, the only similarity in their methods being the constant employment of the thumb. (167 ) FINGERING. Couperin, in the work alluded to above, calls the fingers of either hand 1,2, 3, 4, 5, commencing with the thumb : Main droite. Main gauche. 54321 And in order to make his fingering acceptable, gives instances of the old style of playing con- trasted with his own improvements. In some cases his suggestions are good, in others there is little if any help out of long-standing awkwardness, as the following fingered scale will show : Frogrds d'octaves. 1234343 45432323 His next improved example is better, and more in accordance with modern methods : " ManjSre ancienne de faire plusieurs tierces de suite." 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4. 4 4 3 2 '"^TTTj I I M IJ I 22 2222 222222 ' Facon moderne pour couler les m&mes tierces." 454545 454545 3 5 433 2 Bach never published his method, but it was made known through Forkel, who ac- quired it from Emanuel Bach. The peculiar methods of fingering shown in the quotations from the German books seem to have been confined to the country in which they were first given forth, the style adopted in England and France appearing to be borrowed from Italy. Many of the harpsichord instruction books printed in England in the early part of the last century profess to be based upon the " Italian method of fingering," which per- mitted the constant employment of all the fingers. The invention of the pianoforte called a new set of instruction book writers into ex- istence, but it required the genius of Cramer, Clementi, and Dussek to liberate learners from the trammels of the harpsichord finger-, ing. dementi's " Introduction to the Art of Playing on the Pianoforte " was written soon after his return to England, in 1784, and went through many editions., In 1810 he greatly improved the work, and added an appendix to it. Cramer made but few,, if any, advances on the method of fingering suggested by Clementi in his " Introduction," but Dussek, in his " Book of Instructions," published about 1798, when he began business as a music publisher, laid down a code of rules which have served as the basis of teaching fingering from his time onward. He recommends the pupil not to play his scales after the old method of fingering, by suffering the fingers to cross each other unnaturally, as in this example, right hand : thereby implying that the old clumsy methods were still taught ; but " to set it down as an invariable rule, and without any exception, that whether ascending or descending, the assistance, or rather, the displacing the thumb only is sufBcient to effect the necessary change of position in the other fingers, the thumb being naturally formed to glide easily under them, without, displacing the proper position of the hand." + 1 2+123+1 2+ 123 432 1+21 + 3 2 1 + 21 + Right Hand. +321+21 3+2I+2I+I2H Left Hand. 123+12+1234 The free use of all the fingers is now common, and the old rules with regard to the sparing of the thumb so little observed, that there is a tendency to go the opposite extreme in employing it more often than is absolutely necessary. Space cannot here be allowed, or the whole of Dussek's rules for fingering might be reprinted with advantage as a set-off against modern extravagance, but those who have leisure and inclination might study them with profit, for no better code of rules for pianoforte playing have as yet been given to the world. (2) In violin playing the fingers serve as stops shortening the length of the vibrating portion of the several strings as they are re- quired, a like practice being followed in the performance upon such fingerboard instru- ments as the lute, mandoline, or guitar, as are plucked with the right hand. Upon the guitar the places of the several degrees are marked on the fingerboard by frets, which, when the string is pressed — always a little behind the one required — serve as a temporary nut. (3) This is not the place to enter deeply into the anatomy of the hand, which can be found in any text-book on anatomy, and more espe- cially in the elaborate Treatise of Sir Charles Bell. The bones of the hand are joined to- gether by various sorts of joints, some of them fixed, some moveable. The joint by which the thumb joins the bone on which it plays is a remarkable one, admitting of a ( 168 ) FINGERING. most complex series of movements, and since the brain of man is indebted to the hand of man as much as the hand to the brain, each rendering higher development in the other possible, and thus helping to constitute a couple of mutually perfecting factors — by far the greater part of this potentiality on the side of the hand is owing to this articulation of the thumb. The thumb of man is pre- eminent in the animal series. From a musical point of view another subject is of interest. If we straighten our fingers we shall see that no two of them are of the same length. Now let us bend the fingers on themselves, so as to bring the finger-tips into the middle of the palm, and we shall find that the finger-tips form an almost straight line with one another. The convenience of this to the musician is obvious, in playing keyed instruments such as the pianoforte or organ ; or any wind instrument like the oboe, flute, or clarinet, we have a series of evenly arranged finger-tips ready to the notes. This is a point of what we may call accidental convenience, for the hand of man was not especially adapted for playing instruments. The question now arises howthis curious effect is produced, and a few words will explain it. If any one will take the trouble to measure as accurately as he can the length of the first and of the third joint of each finger (the "proximal and distal phalanges") omitting the middle joint, he will find that by subtracting the length of the end (distal) joint which carries the nail from the length of the nearest (proxi- mal) joint which joins the " knuckle," he will get a constant number, in other words, if the proximal phalanx is long, and would carry the finger-tip far beyond the middle of the palm, the distal phalanx is proportionately long and in a bent position of the finger carries the finger-tip proportionately far back towards the palm, or in yet other terms, the number of linear units obtained by subtracting the length of the distal phalanx of each finger from the length of the proximal phalanx of the same finger is constant in all the fingers. This is not absolutely correct, for the angles at which the phalanges are bent are not exactly right angles, so that the middle phalanx cannot be quite neglected, but the principle nevertheless we beheve to be correct. The muscles which move the fingers and thumb are situated some in the forearm, some in the hand. If any one grasps his forearm, and moves the fingers, he will feel the muscles moving under his grasp. The thumb has the greatest number of muscles attached to it, and therefore takes the precedence in importance ; the first or index-finger has a special muscle to extend or straighten it called the extensor indicis or " indicator." This muscle was said to be absent in 'all the apes, and there was an old saying, " no ape can point," which was quoted in favour of human superiority — this, however, is not true Qournal of Anat. and Phys., vol. vi. p. 185) ; we trust, notwith- standing, that the pre-eminence of man in the animal kingdom rests on somewhat more important foundations, and need not be ceded, however much apes may point. The little finger has a special muscle to extend or straighten it which the old anatomists called the " auricularis," because it is used to straighten the little finger when the extremity of that member is inserted into the ear. Thus did these_ ingenious men infuse an element of humour into the driest and apparently least comic of all subjects. Palm of Hand, TENDONS OF FLEKOR MUSCLES Fig. 1. There are a set of muscles called " lumbri- cales " (from "lumbricus," a worm, because they are not unlike an earth-worm in size and shape), which are of great importance to musical performers, and in pianoforte players become very largely developed. They are attached to the flexor tendons (which bend the fingers) as they pass along the palm. They help to bend the fingers, but their individual action is somewhat complicated, viz., to bend the finger at the knuckle-joint, but to straighten the finger. But there is one point in the anatomy of the hand which is of great interest to musical performers, especially to pianoforte and organ players. If any one will place the tips of his fingers on a table in a bent position, as if playing the pianoforte, and then try to raise them one at a time, he will find that he can raise his thumb easily, say four or five inches, the forefinger is also very moveable, and can be raised so that the tip is about three inches from the table, the middle finger about two- thirds of that height, and the little finger rather higher. Now let him try to raise the ring finger, keeping the middle and little fingers ( 169) FINGERLEITER FISTULA. down, and he will find a peculiar difficulty in doing so. If he is a pianoforte or organ- player he will probably call to mind many exercises which he has toiled at, all of them easy enough but for that unlucky ring finger. In fact, all good writers of exercises have the education of the ring finger very prominently in view. What is the cause of this ? It has been asserted popularly that this finger has a tendon too little, but this is just the opposite of the fact. Back of Hand. Fig. 2. If we look at figure 2. we shall see the ex- tensor tendons (the tendons which extend or straighten the fingers) running to the fingers, but, in addition, we shall see that the tendon which goes to the ring-finger gives off a small slip (*) on leach side, one of which joins the ex- tensor tendon of the little finger, the other that of the middle finger. Now we observed that none of these three fingers is as moveable as the forefinger. If we observe, also, the direc- tion of these slips we shall see that they do not run straight across from the ring finger to the two on each side, but run at the same time a little towards the fingers. Now if we see what happens when we raise the middle finger alone, we shall observe that the slip will become tight at a certain point, but not until it has passed through a considerable space, the first action being to relax the tendinous slip ; the same with the little finger. But if we raise the ring finger alone, the slips almost immediately become tight, and prevent its being raised, and the exercises before alluded to have for their purpose the stretch- ing of the tendinous slips, especially in youth, when growth and change are active in the tissues. Now these slips must have some purpose, though it is not at all certain that we know it. It is probable that their pur- pose is to make the grasp firmer, the three fingers being so associated together that each as it were assists the other, and it is hard to detach one without the rest. They are present in monkeys (see paper before alluded to), and in them would be useful in climbing, in which exercise, strength of grasp is of course of great importance. The forefinger is not included in this association, as its value depends largely on its freedom of inde- pendent movement, especially on its capability of being opposed accurately to the thumb. These slips have an historical interest. Robert Schumann, painfully aware of their presence, and acquainted with the cause of the difficulty connected with the ring finger, tied back that finger for a long time. Not being successful - in his operation, he irre- coverably damaged his hand, and injured his pianoforte playing most seriously, and in con- sequence turned his attention to writing, to which fact we are largely indebted for the number of his masterly compositions. What was a loss to him and to his contemporaries has become a rich gain to posterity. A case is recorded in which an accidental wound to the back of the hand partially divided one of these tendinous slips, and the ring-finger gained a considerably increased degree of mo- tion. The subject of the accident noticed the change on playing the pianoforte after the wound was healed. With regard to the feasibility of this as a definite operation, there is no doubt that if it could be done safely and well, it would be well worth every pianist's while to have these slips divided. But firstly, there is a strong feeling amongEnglish surgeons against " improving" nature; and secondly, there would be some risk of inflammation after the operation, which would result in matting the tendons at the back of the hand together, and making matters worse by limiting the freedom of motion still further. Apart from this risk, the operation is simple, easy, and would not be painful. Fingerleiter. [Chiroplast.] FinSrleSung} C^^''-) [Fi"g«ring.] Finite canon. [Canon.] Finite {It.) Finished, ended. Finto (it.) A feint, a term applied to de- ceptive cadences. [Cadence.] FiochettO {It.) Slightly hoarse. Fioco [It.) Hoarse. Fiorito^" } ^^^'^ Ornamented, florid. Fiorituri {It.) Ornaments, cadenzas, florid passages in a melody or an accompaniment. Fis {Ger.) F sharp. Fisfis or fisis {Ger.) F double sharp. Fis dur {Ger.) F sharp major. Fis moll {Ger.) F sharp minor. Fistula {Lat.) A pipe. Fistula dulcis, a Jliite a bee. Fistula, cui semper decrescit ( 170 ) FITHELE FLUTE. arundinis ordo, pan-pipes. Fistula ehurniola, the ivory pitch-pipe, from which an .orator took the pitch of his voice. Fistula pasioricia, the shepherd's pipe, sometimes blown in the theatre as a sign of dissatisfaction. [Flute.] Fithele {old Eng.) The ancient name of the fiddle, probably derived from fidicula, a small stringed instrument of the cithara class. Flageolet, (i) A small pipe with a mouth-piece inserted in a bulb (hence the derivation of the name from the same root from which the word flagon comes), producing a shrill sound, similar, but much softer in quality than that produced from the flauto piccolo. It is an instrument of English in- vention, and was formerly employed in the orchestra. The obbligato in the song, " O, ruddier than the cherry," in Handel's "Acis and Galatea," is for a flageolet. (2) The tone produced from a violin by lightly press- ing the bow near the bridge upon lightly touched strings, is called flageolet or flute tone. Flageolet tones. The natural harmonics of stringed instruments, so called from their pure flute -like quality of tone. [Harmo- nics, § 2.] Flaschinett (Ger.) The flageolet. Flat, (i) The sign b, which directs the lowering of the note to which it is prefixed by one semitone. Its shape is derived from the ancient b. [B quadratum..] (2) Singing or playing is said to he flat when the 'sounds produced fail to. reach the true pitch. (3) Minor ; as, a flat 3rd, a flat 5th, &c. Flatter la corde [Fr.) To play expres- sively upon a stringed instrument with a bow. Flat tuning. One of the varieties of tuning on the lute ; called also French tuning, or French flat tuning, because the French pitch was formerly lower than that used else- where. Hence the German term Franz-ton for a low pitch. Flautando, flautato (7^.) Like a flute ; a direction to produce the flageolet tones on the violin, &c. [Flageolet tones.] " Flautino (It.) (i) An instrument of the accordion kind. (2) A little flute, piccolo, or flageolet. (3) [Flautando.] Flauto (It.) [Flute.] Flauto amabile {It.), flute d'atnoiir (Fr.) An organ stop, consisting of sweet-toned closed, or sometimes open, pipes. It is generally of 4 ft. pitch. Flauto dolce (It.) [Flute.] Flautone {It.) [Bass flute.] Flauto piccolo {It.) [Piccolo.] Flauto traverso {It.) The German flute held laterally, flutes having been formerly played with a mouth-piece, whence they were called flutes d, bee. [Flute.] Flebile, Flebilmente {It.) In a doleful, tearful manner. Flessibilit^ {It.) [Flexibility.] Flexibility. The power of free and rapid execution, in vocal or instrumental music. Fling. A dance performed by Scottish Highlanders to a tune in common time. [Reel.] F Locher {Ger.) [F holes.] Florid counterpoint. A counterpoint not confined to any special species, but in which notes of various lengths are used. It is opposed to strict counterpoint. [Counter- point.] Florid music. Music in which the melody and accompanying parts are of an ornamental and embellished style. , Flote {Ger.) [Flute.] Flourish, (i) The execution of profuse but unmeaning ornamentation in music. (2) The old English name for a call, fanfare, or prelude for trumpets or other instruments to- gether or alone. (3) The preparatory cadenza for ".tuning the voice," in which singers formerly indulged just before commencing their song. Fliichtig {Ger.) Light, rapid. Fliigel {Ger.) A grand pianoforte or harp- sichord, so called because of the wing-like shape of the top. Fliigel-horn {Ger.) A bugle. A valve- horn. Flute, (i) One of the most widely used of ancient musical instruments, and at this day one of the most important instruments in an orchestra. It has been remarked in speaking of the aulos, that the general idea of a " flute," probably included anciently, not only open tubes, but also instruments having a reed, such for instance, as the oboe. But the word has for many centuries been used only in the former sense. Of tubes without reeds there are only two kinds — the flute played by a mouth-piece, and that played by placing the lips close against a hole on one side. The former kind was formerly called flUte a bee; the latter, flAte traversiere, or flauto traverso, the cross- flute, ^he flageolet, which still is in use, is a familiar example of a flAte a bee, but it is the smallest of its kind, for these instruments were at one time made sufficiently large to be called "tenor" and "bass" flutes; and complete four-part harmony could be obtained from a set [Bass flute]. The larger kinds only exist now as curiosities. Th&fliite a bee was used so commonly in England that it was called on the continent_^iii« d'Angleterre. They came to be called beak-flntes, because ( 171 ) FLUTE. of the similarity of the mouthpiece, through which the wind is directed against a sharp edge, to the beak of a bird. FlAtes a bee were single and double. Such double flutes were familiar both to Egyptians and Assyrians, and illustrations of them will be found on p. 40 (Aulos). The following illustration, from Boissard's RomarT Antiquities, is interesting from its great likeness to the modern double- flageolet : Fig. I. Fig. 4. The Romans gave various names to their flutes : calamus from the material (reed)' of which it was made ; tibia, because anciently flutes were formed out of a leg-bone, as shown in the following illustration : Fig. 2. It is a remarkable fact that flutes of this barbarous construction are to this day used in many parts of Asia. The word fistula seems to have been applied both to flageolets and pan's-pipes. Flutes a bee have at all times been a favourite object for ornamenta- tion, and the next illustration shows a very beautiful example in carved ivory in the Kensington Museum : Fig. 3. The ancients possessed cross-flutes, and it is strange that their real value should have been found out, and their use made general, after so long a period of disuse, that on their re-introduction they were called German flutes as opposed to the old English beak-flute. They were used by the Egyptians, as the fol- lowing illustration shows : Fetis having obtained the exact measure- ments of an ancient Egyptian flute preserved in Florence, caused a flute to be made of the like dimensions and shape. The following figure shows it : Fig. 5- He found the lowest note it was capable of producing, to be the A below middle C. But if Egyptian artists are to be trusted, the flute in Fig. 4 must have been of even graver pitch. Cross-flutes were known to the Greeks by the name plagiaulos {irKayiavXoe), and to the Romans as tibia obliqua, both of these terms leave no doubt as to their nature. By the Romans the cross-flute was sometimes called also tibia vasca, the meaning of which is very doubtful. It may be necessary to say, that although the tibia represented flutes of all kinds, yet if a real tibia or shinbone be made into a flute, it is held crossways, and the player blows into a hole in the side. * (2) The " German flute," so popular in England during the last century, has entirely superseded the old 'English flute a bee in our orchestra, and is now known as the flute. Its construction has, from time to time, been improved, until it has now a compass of three octaves. But as the lowest note is very soft, and three or four of the highest notes are exceedingly shrill, it is safer to consider it. as possessing a chromatic scale of about two octaves and a half. Notwithstanding the vast improvements in the key work of flutes (of which, by the way, the ancients seem to have been entirely ignorant), there are shakes on certain notes which are absolutely impossible, and others which are of excessive difficulty, for instance, between CJf and' DJf a shake is impossible in 172 ) FLUTE A EEC FOLIATED. either octave ; and shakes between D and El? are almost impossible. The lovely effect of this instrument in an orchestra must be so well known to all as to render it unnecessary to quote special examples of its use. (3) The piccolo-flute has the same extent of compass as the ordinary flute, but is one octave higher in pitch. When used in an orchestra with moderation and skill, it is capable of producing delightful effects ; but, unfortunately, it is so commonly abused that it has got an undeserved bad character. The lower portion of its notes are bright and joy- ous, but in the upper part of its compass it is so shrill as to only justify its use when rare and special effects are required. (4) As all open organ pipes of the flue class are made on the same principle as the flMe a bee, it will be easily understood that flutes are one of the most essential class of organ stops. They are of two kinds — open and stopped, and are equally common in metal and wood. The construction of the stopped flute, so far as the mouthpiece (foot) and lips are concerned, is identical also with that of the fl{ite a bee, only, of course, its first har- monic will be the twelfth, not the octave, of the primary sound. When organ builders describe some of their flute-stops as flauto traverse, or flute douce (another name for the cross-flute), it must be understood that they have only imitated the quality of tone, not the construction of that instrument. By slight modifications of the shape of the dif- ferent parts of a flute pipe, an almost endless variety of tone may be produced, and organ builders avail themselves of this fact to coin an endless variety of names. If the names so chosen carried with them a hint as to the special construction of each register, it would be unfair to complain of their multiplication ; but, with a very few exceptions, this is not the case. The following are some of the titles ap- pended to flute-stops on English and foreign organs : (i) Describing their material, as wood flute, woud, andwoude-fluit (in Holland). Metal flute. (2) Stating whether the pipes are open or closed, as open flute. Flute ouverte (Fr.) Stopped flute. Gedacktflote {Ger.) (3) Showing the pitch of the stop, as bass flute (16 ft. and 8 ft.) Flautone (16 ft.) Flauto grave (16 ft.) Flute principal (8 ft.) Flute major (8 it.) Unison flute (8 it.) Flute minor (4 ft.) Flute octaviente (4 ft.) Quint flbte (5^ ft.) Quintaton (sounding unison and twelfth). Piccolo flute (2 ft.) Flautino (2 ft.) Klein-flote (2 ft.) Terz-flote (if ft.) Flute discani. Flute dessus (treble flute). (4) Describing the shape of the pipes, as Doppel-flote (with two mouths). Pyramid flute (having pipes larger at the top than at the mouth). Flagfluit (Dutch). FlachflSte {Ger.) (having flat lips). Spitz-flote (Ger.), and Flute pointue (Fr.) (having pipes smaller at the top than at the mouth). Rohr-flote (Ger.), and FMte a cheminee {Fr.) (having a chimney in the stopper). (5) Intimating their quality of tone, as full flute. Hohl-flSte (Ger.), and Fliite creuse {Fr.) (hollow toned). Clear flute. Hell-flote {Ger). Lieblich flbte {Ger.) (lovely toned). Zart-flote {Ger.) (delicately voiced). Flute douce {Fr.), Dulcet. Flauto dolce {It.) (sweet-toned). Oboe-flute. Clarinet-flute (slightly reedy in tone). SiflU'ote (i ft.) (whistle-flute). (6) After their supposed nationality, as German flute, flauto tedesca, or allemande. Flute a bee, or English flute. Suabe flute. Schweizer-flote (Swiss flute, the German name for what was called in England the German flute). Flauto Francese. Flute Ravena. Cza- kan flute. (7) Implying that the quality of tone is similar to the modern flute, more powerful than the fl{ite a bee, as orchestral iiute, flauto traverso {It.), fliite traversiere {Fr.), and Traversfldte, Querflote (Ger.), (cross-flute), concert flute. (8) Names which are merely fancy titles, as flute d'amour, jubal flute, portunal flute, old flute, recorder (flfite a bee), Wald and Bauer-fldte{Ger.) (pastoral pipe), echo flute (soft toned), ^Mie tacet, cordedain, &c. It would be an advantage alike to organ builders and organists if some definite system of nomenclature of flute stops could be devised and universally adhered to. Fmte a bee {Fr.) [Flute.] Flute d'amour {Fr.) A low-toned flute, an A flute, sounding a minor third below the notes actually written. It is now obsolete. Fl^te douce {Fr.) An organ stop. [Flute.] Flute traversiere {Fr.) The German flute. Fly. A hinged board which covers the keys of the pianoforte or organ when not in use. F moll {Ger.) The key of F minor. Foco {It.) Fire, spirit. Focoso {It.) With spirit, ardently. Foglietto {It.) A first violin part ; the leader's part, which contains cues, &c., used by a conductor in the absence of a full score. Fois {Fr.) Time, as premiere fois, first time; derniere fois, \&s,ttvme (of repeating), &c. Folia. A Spanish dance, similar to the fandango. The tune of a folia was some- times written on a ground bass, as was also the Chaconne and Passacaille. [Follia.] Foliated. A melody or portion of plain- song is said to he foliated when slurred notes have been added above or below those of which it originally consisted. ( 173 ) FOLLIA- -FORM. FoUia (Sp. and It.) Variations upon an air or melody, in which the ingenuity was held of more value than beauty. The name " FoUias da Espana " became applied to laborious trifling in other matters besides music. Fondamentale (Fr. and It.) Funda- mental. Basse fondamentale, basso fonda- mentale, fundamental bass. Fondamento (It.) (i) Fundamental bass. (2) The root or generator of a chord. Fonds d'orgue (Fr.) The foundation stops, the diapasons and 8 ft. flutes on English organs, the principals of foreign instruments. In general, all flue stops of 8 ft. pitch, except sole stops of peculiar quality of tone. Foot, (i) A metrical measure, pes {Lat.) (2) A drone bass. (3) The chorus of a song. (4) The part of an organ pipe below the mouth. (5) To foot, to dance. Forlana {It.), foiirlane {Fr.) A dance much in favour with the gondoliers of Venice. The tune is a lively measure in 6-8 time, and is similar to the Tarantella, but not so varied in its motions. It is said to have been first danced upon the Frioul, and to take its name from that fact. La Fourlane Venetienhe ou La Barcaridole. S .=£=== J- f m it^trrrrr r-r c,r«r ^^^ ' S .T.^.T ■- <-' % 1 — 1 — ^r Form. The shape and order in which musical ideas are presented. This definition is, perhaps, the nearest that can be given of a word of such general mean- ing. Form has been divided into harmonic and melodic. By harmonic form is meant the key-tonality of chords, such, for instance, as would be illustrated by a comparison of a composition by Palestrina with one by Spohr. But this question of the key relationship of chords is now generally made subordinate to the study of harmony, and is taken from the domain of form. By melodic form is meant the proper grouping of the successive sounds which form a tune. This, again, is made almost foreign to the higher meaning of form, and is held to be subordinate to the laws of rhythm. In its highest sense, form has rela- tion more to the development than to the details of a composition. In attempting to classify and give names to the portions of music which, by their com- bination or succession, go to make up a com- position or movement, it will be necessary to say at once, that there is no settled or con- ventional usage of the terms employed, and all that is here done is to bring together those most commonly known, and as to whose meaning but little difference of opinion exists. The component parts of simple melodic forms may be arranged according to the fol- lowing order, {a) Motive or Theme ; (6) Section ; (c) Phrase ; {d) Sentence ; {e) Sub- ject. A theme consists of a note or notes con- tained in a single bar, whether the time be duple or triple, simple or compound. A single note may form a simple, and two or more a compound motive. Repeated notes belong to the second order : Simple Compound If a theme commences upon any other beat than the first, as much as is necessary to complete the bar, whether of rests or notes, is required to form the theme : Occasionally a subsidiary theme may be completed upon an incomplete portion of the ( 174 ) FORM. bar, having been first suggested at the begin- ning of a bar : Beethoven. Two motives form a section : Sometimes three motives are found in a section : A simple phrase consists generally of two sections : Mozart. which may sometimes be expanded beyond that limit to five or even more bars, with added motives : Beethoven. Phrases of more than four bars may be called compound : A sentence is formed of two phrases whether simple or compound : Beethoven. A sentence may be shortened : or lengthened ; Beethoven. Beethoven. Sentences may be said to be compound when two or more are united to form a musical subject. All musical subjects may be analysed by resolving them into their elements, which consist, as shown above, of themes, sections, phrases, sentences, and compound sentences ; the union of these, and the connection of the subjects they make up, constitute what is called Form. The use of the word Subject in the higher development of Form, must not be confused with its special meaning in the art of counter- point and fugue. Fugue-form will be found treated sub voce Fugue. The study of form is most important to the tomposer. Without an adherence to its rules compositions are liable to become in- coherent, unintelligible, and amorphous, es- pecially in these days, when there' is a great tendency, arising from ignorance or mistaken intention, to create music without much or any regard to form ; which is as much a necessity to a musical composition, as it is to the design of a picture, a building, or a piece of sculpture. In classical compositions the sonata form is the basis upon which is constructed the Symphony, the Concerto, the Overture and the class of work from which it derives its title. The sonata may consist of three movements in contrasted tempi and varied forms, but the first movement must be written according to given rules, which will be shown in detail after a general description of the ordinary arrangement of the sonata. Of the three movements the first should be an " allegro," with or without an introduction in slow tempo, though sometimes this is dispensed with. It mfiy here be remarked, that whatever key their first movement is written in is the key by which the symphony is known, and all the other movements must be written in keys akin to it, but the last one must be the same as the first. The second movement marked with any tempo from andante to adagio, is usually called the "slow movement;" the last movement is usually an allegro, and may be written on the plan of the first movement, or in what is called rondo form. As the symphony is the most important work in which the sonata form is employed, a des- cription of the usual method of constructing it is subjoined, on the principle that the greater includes the lesser. In addition to ( 175) FORM. the number of movements in the sonata proper, the symphony has a minuet and trio or a scherzo, movements vyhich are not necessary in the sonata. The minuet or the scherzo — the latter most usual since Beethoven's day — ordinarily oc- cupies the third place in the order of the movements in the symphony, but occasionally the adagio and scherzo change places, as in Mendelssohn's 3rd Symphony. Sometimes, as in Beethoven's Symphonies, Nos, 7 and 8, an allegretto appears instead of the andante or slovif movement, but as there is no iixed rule for the order of the intermediate move- ments, a composer is at liberty to make such changes as he pleases. Taking a symphony as a standard, the following is the usual order or form of each movement. The first of these, as has already been said, may begin with an introduction of a slow or moderately slow tempo. This in its design may foreshadow what is to appear in the succeeding allegro. If this is so written, it would give a coherence to the entire first movement; and, on account of the frequently mysterious nature of this kind of instrumental music, coherence and intelli- gibility is a thing much to be aimed at. The length of the introduction may be left to the discretion of the composer ; care being taken to lead well into the allegro or first move- ment proper. For an admirable example of this sort of treatment, the student is referred to Beethoven's Symphony No. 4. The allegro must contain two principal subjects : varied, and well contrasted, and written so as to give opportunity for good instrumental effect. The first of these is given in the tonic, and when , the key of the symphony is well established the composer should prepare the introduction of his second principal theme. The old- fashioned way of doing this, if the symphony were in a major key, was to work up to a major chord on the supertonic of the original scale, sometimes with the 7th added, and by that means to glide into the second subject in the dominant, thus, if the key of symphony were Bb the movement would eventually arrive at a cadence on the chord of C with major third, the second principal subject being then heard in the key of F, or if the symphony were written in a minor key the composer worked up to a cadence on the dominant of the relative major — thus in a movement in C minor, the second subject always appeared in Eb major. But the student is warned against blindly following this rule; it should be his aim to make his second theme grow out of the first ; thereby ' avoiding the angularity of what may be termed the cut-and- dried school. The many ways of doing this must- be left to the choice, guided by the ingenuity of the composer, but the chief thing to be borne in mind is to make the subjects melodious, striking, and workable. There may now be introduced one or two sub- sidiary or episodal subjects, growing out of, and in keeping with either the first or second principal subjects. With this ends what is called the first part of the first move- ment ; a double bar is usually made here, and a repeat marked to the beginning of the allegro. This repeat in the first part of the first movement of a symphony is a sine qua non, as without it the movement loses its dis- tinctive form. The composer must end this portion of the work in the dominant if the key of the symphony is major ; or in the relative major if it is written in a minor key. The most interesting part of this portion of a sym- phony now follows ; it is technically known as the "free fantasia." Here the composer's imagination may be employed to its utmost limit ; but he must bear in mind only to use material already brought forward in the sub- jects of the first part of the movement. A disregard of this injunction is the great mis- take which composers (especially young ones) make now-a-days, and leads to diffuseness. Again, this portion of the symphony may be spoilt by the composer having to develop sub- jects which are not clear, well defined, and interesting ; therefore to avoid this he should be careful to write subjects in the first part of the movement which will admit of much varied treatment. Having done this, he is at liberty to produce with them any legitimate effects : at the same time he should never allow his music to resemble a vague sort of improvisation, such as is frequently heard in many modern compositions, by so doing, all beauty of form vanishes, and the composer betrays a weakness and want of control over his subjects. These remarks apply with equal force to each portion of the entire work. Not more than a third of the movement should be devoted to the free fantasia ; and when it is finished, the first principal subject is re- introduced in the original key, which in due course should be followed by the second prin- cipal subject, heard this time in the tonic. Then a coda may follow, after which the movement may come to a close ; but it is suggested, for the sake of coherence, that the coda should be formed out of the material already employed, and it should not be too prolonged. The second, or slow movement, may be similar in form to that of the first, but its character is entirely opposite ; and further, no repeat is made at the end of the first part. The prevailing character should be that of pathos and repose ; but though the two prin- cipal subjects should partake more or less of (175) FORM. this, the rhythm of each should be arranged so as to form a striking contrast to the other. In this movement the themes are usually much more elaborately treated than those of the Allegro, and sometimes variations are made upon the first of the principal subjects ; examples of this latter style of treatment will be found in the slow movements of Beet- hoven's Symphonies, Nos. 5 and 9. The key should not be the same as that of the opening Allegro, such an arrangement would very likely produce monotony — the exception to this rule is when the original key is minor, the second movement could then appear in the same key ; but it should be in the major mode, or vice versa ; any key may be chosen that has some kinship to that of the preced- ing movement. If the minuet is selected for the third part, the composer must write it in accordance with the form of the dance of that name. But should the Scherzo be decided upon, he will find he has a much wider field for the expan- sion of his thoughts. The form of this move- ment may partake of that of the minuet, only the time should be generally double or three times as fast ; it may also be in f instead of f time. Its character is usually light, fantastic, and even humorous. It is sometimes written with two trios, sometimes without any, as in the case in the Scherzo of Mendelssohn's 3rd S3rmphony. The key is usually the same as that of the first movement. The last movement is an Allegro ; and is generally somewhat lighter in style than the first movement; though its form may be the same. Rondo form may be adopted for this movement ; or it may take the shape of an air with variations, as in the Finale to Beethoven's Symphony, No. 3. It is not neces- sary to repeat the first part of the finale, if it is written in the form of the first movement ; and the free fantasia need not be elaborated to the same extent as in the opening Allegro. ' The key of the first and last movements must of necessity be the same. The form of the Concerto is somewhat similar to that of the S)miphony ; but it diifers from it in these respects : (i) The opening movement never appears with an introduction placed before it. (2) The orches- tra usually plays both the leading themes in the tonic before they are heard on the solo instrument in the usual symphonic form. (3) The repeat of the first part is not a necessity. (4) The Concerto never contains a Scherzo, and therefore consists but of three move- ments — the first of which should be an Allegro, the second an Adagio, and the third an Allegro. (5) The movements do not re- quire to be developed at such great length as those of the symphony. (6) A cadenza is usually introduced towards the close of either the first or the third movement, sometimes written by the composer, sometimes left to the performers' improvisation. In all other respects the form of the concerto is identical with that of the symphony. An improvement in the form of the concerto may yet be made in two particulars. The old plan of beginning the first movement by the orchestra playing the leading subjects in the tonic, before the entrance of the solo instru- ment, might be dispensed with as unneces- sary, because the themes must appear towards the close of the movement in that key. Men- delssohn's Violin Concerto, and that for the Pianoforte in G minor, are examples of the advantage gained by beginning with the solo instrument at once, or after a few bars of orchestral prelude. The other suggestion for improvement is the abolition of all cadenzas, as being redundant. If they are written for the display of the performer's skill, surely the composer should give him sufficient oppor- tunity for this during the movement. If they are to show that the subjects can be treated in a different manner, they should be included in that treatment in the body of either allegro or finale. The modern overture in strict form should be written in one movement, usually an Allegro, with or without an introduction in a slower tempo, and partakes of the nature of the first movement of a symphony, without the repeat of the first part. The subjects of an overture may be lighter in character than those of a symphony ; but they must appear in the same order, and be worked out in the same manner; greater importance being given to the coda in the overture than in the symphony. The introduction and allegro must, of course, be in the same key. The form of the sonata is, as already shown, identical with that of the symphony in all points ; the only exception being that a minuet or scherzo is not necessary. The de- velopment of the subjects of a sonata ought not to be of the same extent as those of the symphony, concerto, or overture ; for the obvious reason that the tone-colour is much less varied ; sonatas never being written for more than two instruments. Trios and quartets, &c., for strings and pianofortes, though written in this same form need not be developed to the same extent. Nor should the attempt be made to introduce grand symphonic effects in these works. A warn- ing may be given to composers by pointing out how incomparably finer in effect Mendel- ssohn's D minor trio is to that of his trio in C minor, for the reason that in the latter work, especially in the last movement, pas- sages are given to the violin and violoncello ( 177 ) FORTSETZUNG FREE STYLE. which never produce the effect they are intended to convey : but nothing of the kind is found in the trio in D minor. Here every- thing has the character and form of chamber music ; and composers should bear in mind not to write symphonic music when they are composing musica di camera; though the form of the work and its movements may be the same as those of a symphony. For a model pianoforte quartet the student is referred to that in Qc minor, from the pen of Mozart. The string quartet for two violins, viola, and violpncello, is composed in the same form as the symphony ; but also should be written without any striving after sym- phonic effect or development, care being taken to give each instrument, as much as possible, its equal share of work and inde- pendent motion. The quintet, the sestet, septet, and octet should all be written in sonata or symphonic form, each instrument having proper but not obtrusive prominence and independence. The student is reminded that the whole of these remarks are not to be considered absolutely final ; since a com- poser may some day arise, who may alter the present forms of classical instrumental music as much as Haydn and Mozart did in their day. However, as such an one does not exist who has shown us any new form which is better than the old one, the student is exhorted to abide by the rules herein laid down, which are based upon precedent founded by the great masters. Rondo form differs from sonata or sym- phonic form, in that the first part is not marked for repeat. The original subject does not modulate, but reappears in its key- chord at the close of the first period, and again after the modulation of the second sub- ject, so that it must be heard three times. The arrangement of a movement in rondo form is a,fter the following order : The first subject enters, sometimes without introduction, and remains in its original key, Then follows an episode, modulating into the relative major if the key be minor, or into the dominant if the key be major; after which comes the second subject in the dominant or relative major, as the case may be, followed by a modulation into the original key, to bring back the first subject. This ends the first part, which is not marked for repetition. The second subject, modulating into distant keys, commences the second half. This is followed by the first subject ; then an episode, prepar- ing the way for the second subject, and a final episode and coda, generally in the original key, with slight passing modulations. It must be understood that this general outline is sometimes varied by the genius of the composer ; but, as a rule, the order indicated above is followed. Fortsetzung (G«r.) Continuation. Further development or expansion of an idea. Fort (Fr.) Forte {It.) Loud ; expressed in music by the abbreviations for. or/. Fortemente {It.) Loudly, vigorously, with force. Forte -piano {Fr., It., and Ger.) [Piano- forte.] Forte possibile {It.) As loud as possible. Fortissimo {It.) Lit. the loudest. Very loud. The letters ff or ffor are used as abbreviations of the word. Forza, con {It.) With emphasis. Forzando {It.) Lit., Forcing. Emphasis or musical accent upon specified notes or passages, marked by the signs sf or ==-. Forzato (7^) [Forzando.] Fourchette tonique {Fr.) Tuning-fork. Fourier's theorem, [Acoustics, § ii.] Fourniture {Fr.) A mixture stop on an organ. Fourth. An interval of four notes. Fourth flute. [Quart flute.] Fran^aise {Fr.) A dance in triple measure, similar in character to the country-dance. Franchezza {It.) franchise {Fr.) Free- dom, confidence. Franculus {Lat.) A mediaeval sign or neume for an ascending brevis plicata. [Neumes.] Franz -ton {Ger.) French pitch; lower than the recognised concert pitch. Frasi {It.) Phrases. Freddamente, con freddezza {It.) With coldness, indifference. Fredon {Fr.) (i) Vocal ornaments at the will of the performer ; a tremolo or quavering upon every note, {z) The humming of a tune. Free chant is a form of recitative music fpr the Psalms and Canticles, in which a phrase, consisting of two chords only; is ap- plied to each hemistich of the words. The author of the form, Mr. John Crowdy, in his " Free Chant Cadences," claims for it that it removes all difficulties in dividing the words, and enables the unskilled worshipper to join confidently in the chanting, without the assis- tance of any marks beyond the colons pro- vided for the purpose in the Prayer Book. Free fugue. A fugue in which the answer and general treatment are not according to strict rules, [Fugue.] Free parts. Additional parts to a canon or fugue, having independent melodies, in order to strengthen or complete the harmony. [Canon.] Free reed. [Reed.] Free style. Composition not absolutely according to the strict rules of counterpoint. . ( 178) FREGIATURA FUGUE. Fregiatura {It.) An ornament, embellish- ment. French horn. [Horn.] French sixth. [Extreme sixth.] French flat-tuning. [Flat-tuning.] French violin clef. The G clef, placed upon the first line of the stave. [Clef.] Frets. Small pieces of wood or ivory placed upon the finger-board of certain stringed instruments, to regulate the pitch of the notes produced. By pressing the string down to the finger-board behind a fret, only so much of the string can be set in vibration as lies between the fret and the bridge. Frets are, therefore, nothing more or less than little bridges ; hence the word ixayac came to sig- nify a bridge or a fret. The Egyptian lutes had frets made of camel-gut, tied or glued round the finger-board. All the viols con- tained in a chest had frets, and some of the early forms of the violin were even furnished with them. But not only do they prevent the rapid fingering of diflScult passages, but en- tirely deprive the violin of one of its most charming qualities, that of slurring or porta- mento, an attempt to produce which will, on a fretted instrument, result in a well-defined chromatic scale. Another reason for the abandonment of fretted violins was that, in extreme keys, the intervals could not be tem- pered. Fretta, con (It.) With speed, haste, hurry. Freie Schreibart (Ger.) Free writing ; composition in a free style. Frisch {Ger.) Lively. Frolich (Ger.) Joyous, cheerful, gay. Frosch (Ger.) The nut of a violin bow, into which the lower end of the hairs is fixed, and which, when moved up or down by means of the screw, tightens or slackens their tension. Frottola (It.) A ballad. F Schliissel {Ger.) The F or bass clef. Fuga {Lat.) A fugue, aqualis motus, a real fugue ; authentica, a fugue with a subject in the authentic part of the scale ; canonica, a fugue in canon ; contraria, a fugue by in- version ; impropria, or irregularis, a free or irregular fugue ; in contraria tempore, a fugue, the answer of which is differently accented to the subject ; libera or soluta, a free or irregular fugue ; per arsin et thesin, by inver- sion (i) of rhythm, (2) of interval; retrograda, a fugue by contrary motion ; obstinata, a fugue in which a definite figure is main- tained, &c. &c. [Fugue.] Fuga {It.) A fugue, as fuga doppia, a double fugue ; fuga ostinata, a fugue in which a definite figure is maintained ; fuga ricercata, a florid fugue, a fugue with florid episodes ; fuga sciolta, a free fugue. Fugato (7^) In the fugue style ; a com- position containing fugal imitation, but which is not in strict fugue form. Fuge {Ger.) A fugue. Fugue. A polyphonic composition con- structed on one or more short subjects or themes, which are harmonized according to the laws of counterpoint, and introduced from time to time with various contrapuntal devices; the interest in these frequently heard themes being sustained by diminishing the interval of time at which they follow each other (the stretto), and monotony being avoided by the occasional use of episodes, or passages open to free treatment. So varied are fugues in their character, that it is impossible to give any definition which shall include all kinds, but from what has just been said above, it will be at once seen, that they differ from all other formal or set compositions (the canon only excepted) in that each component part (which might in other works be only a means of harmony) must stand in important relationship to every other part, sometimes even to the extent of being interchangeable with any one of them. The key-relationship, and also the rhythmical form of the sections and phrases of a fugue, have always been modified by contemporary art, and by this means a fugue of an early period may be easily distinguished from one of a later date, until in some modern examples the influence even of the sonata form is plainly discernible. As the growth of the splendid form now known as a fugue has been gradual, having extended over more than three centuries, it is not surprising that the name should, from time to time, have borne various meanings. In old writers it is sometimes used to signify a short theme, the measure or figure of which is to be frequently repeated ; at other times, a canon, because herein one part enunciates a subject and then as it were, takes to flight {fuga), while the other, or others, pursue it closely note for note. Canons often formed an important ingredient of early fugues. It is easy to trace the germ of the fugue in the higher developments of counterpoint. When music in two parts was written in con- formity with the laws of double counterpoint, each performer found himself setting forth the theme proposed by the other, and the good effect thus produced would naturally suggest a repetition of the theme at other intervals (as in counterpoint), and also in other keys. The two elements of a fugue which separate it from the higher forms of ( 179 ) FUGUE. counterpoint are, first, the enunciation of the subject by itself, without harmony ; next the stretto or drawing of subjects and answers more closely together. The former is not properly included in counterpoint, as point (or note) is no longer against point when one part is heard alone ; nor is the latter trace- able among the various devices of the art of counterpoint proper. Fugues have been divided into many classes according to the point from which they have been regarded. (i) By number of parts ; as, a fugue in two, three, four parts, &c, (a 2, a 3, a 4, &c.) (2) By number of subjects ; as a double fugue, having two subjects ; a triple fugue, three subjects, &c. (3) By the relation of subject and answer ; as a fugue by inversion, when the answer moves by the intervals of the inverted sub- ject ; by augmentation or diminution, when the answer has notes of double, or half the length of those of the subject respec- tively. (4) By the scale-relation of subject and answer ; as a tonal fugue, when the answer is modified according to prescribed rules, so that it shall remain within a given compass, or, within a given key ; a real fugue when the answer is at a measured interval to the subject note for note. (5) By its adhesion to, or neglect of, the laws of fugue form ; as a free fugue, a fugue in which strict form is occasionally, or for the most part disregarded. (6) By its scale, or the scale which pre- dominates in it ; as a Doric fugue, when the subject, and perhaps also development, is in- the Doric mode ; a diatonic fugu£, in which diatonic harmony prevails ; a chromatic fugue, when chromatic passages abound. The chief elements of a fugue are : — (i) The subject. Dux, propositus, {Lat.) guida, (It.) antecedent, &c. (2) The counter-subject, or, contrapuntal harmonization of the answer by the part which has finished the enunciation of the subject. (3) The answer. Comes, Responsio {Lat.) ; consequenza (It.) ; consequent, &c. (4) Episodes. (5) The stretto. (6) The pedal point — point d'orgue (Fr.) ; Orgel-punkt (Ger.) The whole of these are bound together into perfect unity, from the fact that the answer is either identical with, or a prescribed imita- tion of the subject; the counter-subject or fragments of it are of frequent use as the material of episodes ; the stretto is usually founded on the subject or counter-subject ; and the pedal point forms the basis of in- genious treatments of the subject or answers, and sometimes even as the basis of the stretto. The first giving out of subjects and answers is called the Exposition ; and when repeated with a different arrangement of the parts, the Counter-exposition. It can be seen from the above, that handled by a genius, fugue may be infinitely plastic in regard to form. But it must not be forgotten that in its earliest existence it was wretchedly mechanical, as the following direc- tions how to compose a fugue in two parts from Fux (Welcker's English Translation) will prove. " First choose a subject suitable to the key you intend to compose in, and write down your subject in that part where- with you intend to begin. This done, and having first examined your subject whether it be comformable to your key ; if so, repeat the same notes in the second part, either in the fourth or fifth, and whilst the second part imitates the first wherewith you have begun, put such notes in the first part as will agree with your imitating part according to the directions given in the figurate or florid counterpoint, and after having con- tinued your melody for some bars, regulate the parts thus, that the first cadence may be made in the fifth of the key. Then resume your subject mostly in the same part you have begun with, but by another interval, after having first put a rest of a whole or half bar, which however may be omitted in case there should happen to be a great skip instead of it. After this, endeavour to bring in your second part after some rest, and that before the subject, of the first part draws towards a conclusion, and having carried on your subject a little longer, make your second cadence in the third of the key. Lastly, in- troduce your subject again in either part, and contrive it so that one part may imitate the other sooner than at first, and, if possible, after the first bar, whereupon both parts are to be united, and the fugue finished by a final cadence." The musical example which he then gives as embodying the result of all this learning, is as follows : TTTi^' j.jyij ( 180) FUGUE. i 'J I J. II 'J.JUL.^1. I i ^^5g5 ^=t ^j j j i j-j But the art of fugue was not long to remain thus lifeless. The successive improvements made by great masters have exalted it to the highest perfection, and have made it one of the noblest walks of the art of music. The best way of showing the construction of a fugue will be to describe in detail the nature of the six constituent parts just now enumerated. (i) The subject should not be very long if it does not contain any modulation, because a lack of interest may result. On the other hand, if it be very short, its treatment in the stretto will be difficult. It generally com- mences on the tonic or dominant of the scale. Subjects may be broadly divided into dia- tonic and chromatic. Of course, a vast number of fugue-subjects lie between these two boundaries, but by a diatonic subject must be understood one on which an author in- tends to construct a fugue whose interest shall arise from genuine contrapuntal treat- ment and device, and simple modulations from key to key. By a- chromatic subject is meant one whicia a composer takes with the avowed intention of constructing a fugue whose in- terest shall result from a complicated inter- weaving or frequent contrasting of changing key-tonality, with ordinary development of the subjects. The simplest form of diatonic fugue-subject is that which lies in a compass of a fifth, e.g. : Ex. I J. S, Bach. Ex.3. Graun. Tu Rex glo ri a, Or, when it reaches the compass of the sixth, e.g. : Ex. 4. Haydn. In glo-riaDe-i Pa-tris, Ex. 5. J. S. Bach. Ex.6. Cum Sanc-to Spi - ri tr : &c. The following is given in order 40 show a grand subject in this compass, although not strictly worked out : Ex. 9. Besthovkn. Cum Sanc-to Spi - ri - tu Diatonic subjects may, however, reach a very extended compass, especially in instru- mental music : , ^ Handel. The following is remarkable both for its extended c6mpass and length : Ex. II. {Fuga a ire voci con licenza.) Scale passages, or such as move up or down an octave, have always been largely used as subjects, both in the major, e.g. : Ex. 12. Benevoli. ( 181 ) FUGUE. Sometimes the octave compass of a subject lies between the fifth above and fourth below the tonic, both in the major, e.g. : Ex. 13. Handel. And also in the minor, e.g. Ex. 14. Bach. Chromatic subjects are also of varied ex- tent and difficulty. The following, which is capable of much contrapuntal treatment, is commonly met with : Ex. 15. Sala. More elaborate chromatic subjects are often found, e.g. : Ex. 16. ^^^^^^m . S. Bach. Sometimes both diatonic and chromatic passages are included in the subject, e.g. : Ex. iS. J. S. Bach. The interval of a diminished seventh has always been a favourite element of fugue sub- jects, e.g. : Ex. ig. Subjects, most commonly begin the key- note or its fifth, but there are exceptions to this rule, e.g. : Ex 25. (On the Second of the Scale.) Bach. As a rule, the answer enters before the sub- ject is finished, but exceptions are frequent. " He trusted in God " (Handel) may be cited as a well-known case. Sometimes after the subject has finished, a few notes are intro- duced to link it to the answer. These few notes are called a subject-coda or codetta. The name is also applied to the short passage sometimes connecting the answer and coun- ter-subject with the re-introduction of the original subject (see Exs. 43 and 68). (2) The counter- subject is primarily an accompaniment of the answer, and in a secondary sense, of the subject; but as such, must be according to the laws of strict coun- terpoint. It is usually written according to the laws of double counterpoint, in order that it may be used both above and below the subject or answer. Of course, the counter- subject may be in any species of counter- point, but it most commonly is figurate, or florid, e.g. : Ex. 30. 4 »- — » \ Mendelssohn, = h *J Subject. -^ ^ ■j% ^r-"- — : — 1 ^ V 5' r'z} t Counter subject. p. r J^J 1 1 1 —n 1 — 1~ —J —It .^--Tl I r.r,\ *^^ flj,. -^ri^ \}' rjj-|- r r ^T ^ 5=?^ ir^TJ^ But when the counter-subject is in simple counterpoint it generally happens that it is in ( 182 ) FUGUE. notes of greater length than those of the sub- ject in a rapid fugue, e.g. : Ex. 31 Bach. Counter subject y^.^'.iiJjJijj-^ ^ £ And vice versa, shorter notes of counter-sub- ject to those of the subject: Ex. 32. Subject. Counter subject. J. S. Bach. But something more is required of the counter- subject than to be a mere accessory to the subject and answer ; it is very often used as an episodal theme, either just as it stands, or in a slightly modiiied form. In the following example the counter-subject of Bach's beautiful E major fugue is given ; Ex. 33. Subject. Answer. Counter subject. Before the development of the Fugue has proceeded far, this (from *) is used as the subject of an episode, e.g. : Ex. 34. , If, therefore, the counter-subject is intended for separate use and treatment, it is necessary that it should be melodious in itself, as well as capable of forming good counterpoint in combination with the answer. In speaking of a tonal fugue it will be shown that the counter-subject sometimes has to undergo a change in order to suit both subject and answer. The term counter-subject is often applied in a manner which leads to much confusion. If in a fugue with two subjects the second subject is given out at the same time as the first, thus forming an accompaniment to it, it is by some called the counter-subject, instead of the second subject, e.g. : Ex. 35. Subject or zst Subject. Counter subject or 2nd Subject. It were well if this use of the word counter- subject for second subject could be dispensed with, the former being limited to the significa- tion of that counterpoint added to an answer or subject by a part which has already gone through the subject or answer. Nothing is gained by limiting the use of the words second and third subjects to such as are intro- duced separately. (3) The answer of a fugue is one of the most important parts of its construction. If the subject be wrongly answered, the effect and success of the whole composition is marred. For not only does a wrong answer compel the construction of a false counter- subject, inasmuch as the counter-subject must be the accompaniment of the answer whether it be right or wrong, but also, it overthrows those episodes founded on the counter-subject, and not unfrequently the stretto too, as being founded on a close combination of subject and answer. The large class of fugues called tonal, are so termed because the answer undergoes some slight modification in order to prevent a de- parture from the key-tonality of the subject. Roughly speaking, all answers are a fifth above or a fourth below the subject. If this relation of answer to subject were strictly carried out, a modulation in every answer would be inevitable. The answer is, however, often purposely made at strict intervals to the subject ; in which case, the fugue is called strict or real. These two classes of fugues must be considered carefully. First as to tonal fugues, The idea which underlies all tonal treatment of answers is, that the scale is equally divided into two parts, namely, from the tonic up to the dominant, one part ; from the dominant up to the octave-tonic, the other. But as a matter of fact the first half, tonic to dominant, contains five diatonic steps, while the second, dominant to tonic, only contains four. This ( 183 ) FUGUE, is the source of the whole difficulty of making a correct answer to any given subject, e.g. : Now when the subject proceeds from tonic to dominant direct, the answer must proceed from dominant to tonic, e.g. : Subject. „ Answer. and vice versa, e.g. : Subject. Answer, But if notes lying between the tonic and dominant are introduced, or if the subject exceeds the compass of a fifth, it is not easy to say that any uniform principle governs the relation of answer to subject, except that two notes must be represented by one, e.g. : Answer. .. ° '■' r " \ W^ — 1 1 1 1 Subject. t — — r — 1- . ^ \ m ^^^^

- ■=■ •' " The following examples show how tonic is answered by dominant, and dominant by tonic : Ex. 36. Answer. Bach. Answer. and, by the next it will be seen, that the suh- dominant also is answered by the tonic : Ex. 38. Subject. Answer. Bach. The following illustrates the application of the same principle in a case where the subject proceeds down to the dominant and then passes above the tonic : Ex. 41. Subject. Bach. The application of this principle to subjects in the minor key is much less easy than in the major. When, as formerly, fugues were often composed in the church modes, the position of the (so-called) dominant and final of the mode largely influenced the relation of answer to subject, but, although these complications do not lie in the path of the modern student, yet there is still much uncertainty and dis- crepancy as to the particular treatment of the sub-tonic of the minor. This arises from the fact that several sorts of minor scale are still in use, and the composer naturally frames his answer in accordance either to that kind of scale most congenial to him, or to that most capable of bringing into prominence the melodic form of his subject. Minor subjects are often too very chromatic, a fact which adds to the difficulty of forming a correct answer. In its simple state, a minor subject is in effect answered by a modulation into the minor key a fifth above (or fourth below), e.g. : Ex. 42. Subject. Key of F minor. and the following shows the method of return to the original key, sometimes called a codetta : Ex. 43. Another instance is here given ; Ex. 44. Subject iC minor). Answer. -rh- ^>n J^j^ iJ ^giJ^j^ Answertieremodulates into G minor. It is not an easy thing to connect two minor keys a fifth apart in a pleasing manner ; it takes- some little time to accustom the ear to the sound of the mmor third of the new key ; but the leading note of the old key must, of necessity, be discarded before the { 184) FUGUE. re-entry of the subject. In the fugue just quoted Bach inserts two bars between the close in G minor, as above, and the re-entry of the subject, namely : Ex. 45. (Codetta.) Re-entry of Subject, As minor subjects naturally lead to a modu- lation in the answer, it happens, as might be expected, that the minor fugues are chiefly real : for if a modulation must take place at all, it may as well include the whole of the subject as its closing portion, tonal alterations of the answer are therefore rendered to a certain extent unnecessary. But in strictly chromatic fugues the tonal answer is very common, as the following ex- amples will show, although it will be observed that, in some cases, the answer, before many notes are past, becomes a mere transcript at a fifth above or fourth below of the original subject. The next example is purely tonal : Ex. 46. Answer. f IJ J J [I'l^ n° I r r ^j p jf=j ^|4^^wil The following is mixed, being partly tonal, partly at a strict interval : Ex 47. Subject (8ve. lower). Hahdei,. i ^r nnj - i J \- \ fX^rM They loathed to drink. Answer. The tonal alteration of the answer to minor subjects often extends no further than the first note, e.g. : Ex. 48. Subject Mendelssqhn. ^^^^^^^^ In major subjects this also happens, e. g. : Ex. 49. Subject. Bach. Answer. This is more noticeable in short chromatic subjects, e.g. : , Ex. 50. Subject. Answer. Enough has been said to show the general force of the laws of tonal answer. Study and experience are the only means of cultivating a true perception of this peculiar relation of subject to answer. Many writers have at- tempted to draw up a regular code of laws, but the exceptions which persistently come forward render thern almost useless. A real or strict fugue is one in which the answer is throughoift at the interval of a fifth above or fourth below the subject, e.g. : Ex. S2- Subject. ^ m-l'--l»-m-0--r- * rn r^^ ^T. ^y-f. .^ rtf r rrufLJ m -^ t-r ft' M^r. f' == ^1 «-i- ..p^ p p-rr.r -- ^rrf | r|| It is unnecessary to give mprg examples of this exact and constant distance between sub- ject and answer. The question naturally arises, How is it to be known when an answer ought to be tonal or real ? It is only possible to answer this in the most general way. If a subject has one or more direct melodic progressions from tonic to dominant or dominant to tonic it is difficult to make the answer real or strict without • Made one octave lower to suit the compass of ordi- nary tenor voices. ( 185 ) FUGUE. giving an unpleasant effect of unnecessary change of key ; whereas, if the subject consist of a series of grades of the scale, it is difficult to make the answer tonal, without producing the effect of unnecessary alteration of melody (inasmuch as two notes have to do duty for one, and vice versd). This is all that can be said, except that special prominence of the sub-dominant in the subject seems to demand a strict answer, e.g. : Ex. 54. Subject. In cases where a fugue has more than one subject, if the second subject partakes of the tonality of the expected answer, and is intro- duced in the position ordinarily occupied by the answer, the answers of both first and second subjects may take place at the octave, sometimes without any alteration of the posi- tion of the parts, e.g. : Ex. 55. Bach. S ^ CTjwTP^ The subjects are as often apswered in the octave, but in inverted positions, e.g. : Ex. 56, ^m ^ jt- -I h ■i r It has already been stated that the counter- subject is often written in double counterpoint, so that it may be used without grammatical error, both above and below the subject. What has been said of a counter-subject applies with equal force to a second subject, as the above example (56) shows. But the first and second subject are given out very frequently, each at its own proper tonal distance, e.g. : Ex. 57. P P h es 1 gj eg CT \J J, J Beethoven. IJ ^^ J J 1 Et vi-tam J^J^^ •^. J,. ...... CI. WM) — ■ = ^fe"— 5- » -P-, a J^jjjJ^jyjJJ|i4^r^ Sometimes the second subject appears after the first subject, but is not answered in the position expected, an answer to the first sub- ject taking its place. oTr J ^ J J J 1 1 J J. .1"*-"'% i/ r . V g* - > ^ ^rZP. F'rj^ ■■ W ■ ^ — f — F-f-f-t-H-f-i--i- ■'-'|-'- g^b" -^ -==; In other cases, the first subject is, after its first enunciation, set aside for a lengthy treat- ment of the second subject, the first being reintroduced when the development has been proceeded with. The above examples of fugues with two subjects, have tonal answers ; but this is not always the case, as the following example of strict answer shows : Ex. 59- -^ r^n- -J-i i JTt= I^HERUBINI. -^ — ^ — IV- ^ — 1 — = — -irJ^^- ^ 1 ■■ — to r-rrSi-TO 1 r-• r i f^^ r— ^^ g ^ $ ±=si=^ To our great God. ^^ ^^^^^^^^=^f our great God. To our great God. & Fugues " by inversion," like all other kinds of fugues, are sometimes accompanied by free parts, e.g. : Bach. Tenors (8ve. lower). Episodes are passages introduced into a fugue, in which the actual development of the subject or subjects is for a time suspended in order to give some variety and relief to the ear. But it is important that episodes, while affording variety, should not disturb the character of the fugue of which they form part. To effect this object, they are generally made up of free or imitative treatments of a fragment of the subject, or of part of the countersubject, or of the coda connecting subject and answer, or of some new subject not dissimilar in style to one of these. An example (34) has already been given, of an episode formed on the countersubject. The following is an episode formed on a fragment of the subject given in Ex. 49 : The following is an example of an episode, founded on a coda : Ex. 68. Subject. ( 188) FUGUE. Coda connecting close of answer with re- entry of subject : Episode founded on the figure of the above coda: Episodes founded on a theme not part of subject, countersubject, or coda, are very commonly met with ; in the following example the theme is quite congruous with the sub- ject: letfaimde-liv- er him. A fine example of episodes of a totally different character to the fugue into which they are introduced is to be found in Bach's organ-fugue : rrri . s ubject m -t-^^T^ '^^rn-^^: itijd S ra U^sfLjjli — -« — U« — »«! ■- - T^ T'^ C^'^^^£^ The stretto is that part of a fugue in which the subject and answer are drawn or pressed closer together (Lat. strictus from stringere). In nearly all carefully constructed fugues the entry of the subject and answer is brought closer together from time to time, as the development proceeds, but the word stretto is only applied to that special passage in whith the whole of the parts, or as many as possible, take up the subject at as short an interval of time as possible. The simplest illustration of a stretto will be found in the treatment of some simple diatonic subject such as the following : Ex. 70. Sub. It not unfrequently happens that the subject and answer cannot be brought closer together than their original distance, owing to their harmonic inaptitude for such treatment. In such cases, an altered form of the subject, or a part of the coda, or part of the counter- subject, or even an entirely new subject, may form the theme of the stretto. In many fugues there is no one passage which can be- pointed out as the stretto, but the interest of the development is sustained by various other contrapuntal devices, or modulations. The masterly stretto (stretto maestrale) is formed in strict canon. If the subject is not capable of such treatment it may be slightly altered for the purpose. It is not necessary that the same intervals should be observed between the parts forming a stretto as are absolutely necessary in the enunciation of subject and answer, e.g. : Ex. 71. Subject. Bach. Strettos are often constructed on the pedal- point, an example of which will shortly be given. (189) FUGUE. Stretto, by augmentation or diminution, is when the subject, or subject and answer, are simultaneously introduced in notes of longer or shorter length, e.g. : ^ ^^^lagc^a^ ^^g^ A pedal-point is a long-sustained note, gene- rally the dominant, on which imitation, sub- ject and answer (simply or by augmentation and diminution), or even the stretto itself, are constructed. It is not always found as an essential part of a fugue, a vast number of fugues, especially for the pianoforte, are without it. But in vocal fugues with accom- paniment, and in fugues for the organ, it can always be introduced with fine effect. Modern composers have not neglected this interesting element of the art of fugue, as the next example shows : Ex. 73. Subject. Gounod. li J J J ii^ : 1 j J Jh ^ • 11 ^F — P — " ^ A4 ^^.-A A A A. , &c. — |S — ■ - .rj ,r^-Lr^- ' '>j Ir Sometimes the stretto precedes the pedal- point, sometimes it follows it. An episode introduced after the last close-imitation, or after the stretto, is called a coda to the fugue. It often is introduced on a tonic pedal, or worked into a prolonged plagal cadence. A few general remarks are necessary, in conclusion. The whole structure of a fugue points out that it is a work intended to be of constantly increasing interest, from the first exposition of subject and answer to the final bar. Out of this fact grow all the common rules for its formation, such, for instance, as, " no perfect cadence shall be heard till the end." A perfect cadence in any key gives a certain feeling of repose, and this feeling is alien to the spirit of the work. The only exception to this rule is when a fugue, with more than one subject, is broadly divided into two parts, as in Schumann's fugue No. 6 on the name Bach. Half-closes are not un- common under similar circumstances, as in " Egypt was glad " (Handel). Again " contrapuntal devices should be introduced in the order of their interest or ingenuity, beginning with the simplest,, and the most complicated being introduced last." Enough modulation should be introduced into a fugue to make it pleasing, and to avoid the tame effect of one continuous key-tonality; but, on the other hand, too much modulation would lead the hearers to believe that the^ work was intended to be made interesting as ( 190 ) FUGUE RENVERSEE FUNFFACH. a specimen of modulation, and so take away their attention from the treatment of subject and answer. Hence, fugue-modulation is in a general way limited to related keys. The same object is kept in view by the rule, " if there is a tonic pedal-point, it should never be heard before the dominant pedal-point." Of course a breach of this rule would entirely undo the wonderful effect which the massive imitations or stretto have, when heard over the dominant, for dominant harmony always causes a yearning for tonic-harmony, and when the tonic is at length reached, then it is time to add yet more to the delay by multiplying superposed tonic harmonies. A glance at the subjects of fugues given in the examples will show that there is not much room for originality left to modern writers. The more the vast literature of fugues which has come down toius is studied, the more apparent does this fact become. It is indeed almost impossible to write a short diatonic subject, capable of easy handling, which shall be in any sense original. The true lesson to learn from this is, that the modern treatment of fugue subjects should at least be original, and the composer who now sets about writing a fugue, should feel himself compelled, as an artist, to make use of all the freshness and novelty which modern chords, key-relation- ship, and rhythm are capable of producing. It may be objected, that such a modernized fugue ceases to be a fugue at all. But the history of fugue clears away such objections. Starting from the early time when fugue had barely commenced a separate existence from counterpoint, the word fugue meant nothing more than the subject, hence /«§•« composita, or fuga recta was, when the subject moved about by single degrees, or in conjunct motion ; and fuga incomposita was when the subject had skips in it, or proceeded by dis- junct motion. Again, when the subject went upwards from the tonic it was called fuga authentica ; when it went downwards from the tonic it was called fuga plagalis. Such expressions point out a very elementary stage in the art of fugue. What would now be almost distressing to us,, namely, a fugue without any episodes, one in which subject and answer never cease to be heard, was at one period considered the perfection of a fugue. It was called fuga ricercata. Again, it is easy to trace the gradual introduction of episodes, and modulation, and the discarding of the complicated laws which bound subjects and answers to the tonality of the ancient church modes. Then, again, an extension both of the com- pass and length of subject gave new scope to composers, while " licences " in counterpoint became of more frequent occurrence. In short, ttie fugue has gradually developed from an unartistic music-puzzle into a noble and splendid form, and it behoves modern com- posers to add their special share to its possible future development. It is quite true that a very large number of fugues, more or less in the old style, are at this time issued by so called scientific composers, and are considered clever, and favourably received by those who are not familiar with any music but that of the igth century ; but, were it worth the labour, such modern-antique fugues, could be , proved to be mere rescripts and collections of what has been written long ago, not only once or twice, but scores of times. Having carefully examined the various periods in the life and history of fugue, and having accus- tomed himself to treat with respect the rules which fence in its earlier rudimentary forms, the student who reads aright will unhesitat- ingly endeavour to make fugue-form the handmaid of modern music, and so avoid the too common error of wilfully casting aside all that accumulation of experience and progres- sive improvement, which we happily possess, and should learn how to use. Fugue renvers6e {Fr.) An inverted fugue. Fiihrer {Ger.) (i) Subject of a fugue. (2) A leader, director. Full anthem. An anthem in which there is neither solo nor verses. [Anthem.] Full cadence. A perfect cadence. [Ca- dence.] Full chord, (i) A chord, some of the essential notes of which are doubled. (2) A chord for the full power of an instrument, orchestra, or voices. Full score. A score in which all the parts for voices and instruments are dis- played. [Score.] Full service, (i) A setting of the Canticles for voices in chorus, with or without organ accompaniment. (2) An Office in which music is used to the fullest extent allowed by the rubrics. FuUstimmen. Additional chorus parts — remplissage {Fr.), ripieni {It.) — either of voices or instruments. Full stop, (i) In lute playing, a full chord followed by a pause. (2) A chord in which all available fingers are occupied in stopping the strings. Fundamental bass. [Harmony.] Fundamental tones. The tones from which harmonics are generated. [Acous- tics, § 10.] Funfebre {Fr.) \ Funereal, mournful, in the Funerale {It.) J style of a dirge ; as, marche funlbre, a funeral march. Fiinffach {Ger.) Five-fold. When applied to a mixture stop of an organ — having five ranks. ( 191 ) FUNFSTIMMIG FZ. Funfstimmig (Ger.) In five parts. Funzioni (It.) Functions, duty. The general title for services, oratorios, and other musical compositions performed in the Roman church. Fuoco, con ; fuocoso (It.) With fire, spirit, dash. Furia, con ; furibondo, furiosamente, furioso (It.) With fury, energy, vehemence. Furlano (7^) A dance. [Forlana.] Furniture. The name of one of the mix- ture stops in an organ. Furore, con (It.) thusiasm. With fury, passion, en- Fusa (Lat.) Fus6e (Fr.) roulade. A quaver, ^ Rapid division. shake, or Fusella (Lat.) A semiquaver, »^ Fuss (Ger.) Foot, (i) The part of an organ pipe below the mouth. (2) The measure by which the pitch of organ stops is deter- mined ; as, 8 fUssig, of 8 ft., or unison pitch. Fz. Abbreviation for forzando. ( 192 -GALLIARD. G. G. (i) The note Lichanos in Greek music. [Greek Music] (2) The first note of the church mode, called Eolian, the highest in pitch of the authentic modes. (3) The lowest note of the grave hexachord ; in the Guidonian system, gamma ut. (4) The fifth note of the normal scale of C, called Sol. (5) The lowest or fourth string of a violin, the third of the viola and violoncello. (6) The key-note of the major scale, having one sharp in the signature. (7) The letter-name of the treble clef. G. abb. for gauche (Fr.) Left; as, m.g,, with the left hand. Ga. The fourth syllable in the system of Bobibation. Gabel (Ger.) A fork •,Stimmgabel, a tuning- fork ; Gabelton, the note A, as given for the pitch. Gagliarda {It.) [Galliard.] Gai (Fr.) Gajo (It.) Lively, merry, gay, Gaillarde (Fr.) [Galliard.] Gaiment (Fr.) Gajamente- (It.) Gaily, cheerily, merrily. Galantemente (It.) Gracefully, in good taste, bravely. Galliard, Gaillard (Fr.) Gagliarda (It.) An ancient dance, so called because of its gay rhythm and motion. It is said by some to have been similar in character to the Cushion danpe, and is described by Sir John Davis as: ' " A swift and wandering dance, With passages uncertain to and fro, » • • • » With lofty turns and caprioles in the air, Which to the lusty tunes accordeth fair." Like the minuet, of which it was probably the parent, the galliard was danced by a lady and gentleman. If more than one couple per- formed the dance, they did so independently of other dancers. The tune was generally written in triple time. " Hence," says Butler (" Principles of Musick," 1636), " the triple is oft called gal Hard time ; and the duple, pavan time." Brawls, corantos, and galliards were danced at court from the reign of Queen Elizabeth to that of Charles I., as country dances^and minuets were in later time. Dowland's beautiful and well-known melody, " Now, O now," published, with words, in the " First Booke of Songes or Ayres, of foure parts," 1597, had been known before that date as a dance tune, under the name of the " Frog's Galliard." It is usually written in | time ; but as it is of slow pace, the subsidiary accent might be made a primary one, and so bring it within the general character of the measure of the galliard. The composers of the early part of the 17th century frequently employed the rhythm of the galliard as a vehicle for " fancies," with ilorid passages for the virginals. A good example of this form of writing may be seen in " Parthenia, or the Maydenhead of the first musick that ever was printed for the Virginalls," 161 1. The following tune, by Girolamo Frescobaldi, 1637, will show the measure of the dance : Frescobaldi. n -1^^ J J 1 1 ^ 1 J J J J.J^J J J J ^rrrm 4=-^ m'^'^^^'^ s^ T ,^is\ 4 f^ — l» i» E: '-f^ M =£*:^-- : ( 193 ) GALOP— GAVOT. rr^ '( '^rrf ^ 1^ J . jjJ| ,.. r\rT't •■ J J I :|| , ^. r " ** ii7J — 1 — s! — r^3 J 1 . O . .u h '^ l-^^rH-f— f M^=^^ Sir John Hawkins says that " the tune for the galjiard consists of five paces or bars in the first strain, and is therefore called Cinque- pace," but the existing galliards do not justify this description. Some writdrs say that the dance came in fashion about the year 1540. It had a reign of popularity extending over a hundred years, after which time corriposers ceased to employ the title. [Country Dance,] [Pavan.] Galop, galopade {Fr.) A lively dance in 2-4 time, originally a separate and indepen- dent dance, but now also forming a portion of a set of quadrilles, Galoubet (Fr.) A small flute of a primi- tive character with three holes, similar to the Picco pipe, Gamba, Viol da (It.) A stringed instru- ment of the viol sort, with six strings, weaker in tone and smaller in size than the violon- cello, so called because it was held between the knees of the player. [Viola di Gamba,] Gamba, or Viol di Gamba. An organ- stop, the pipes of which are, in continental organs, generally cylindrical, of small scale, and well cut up ; but sometimes are conical in shape. Its tone is pungent and not unlike that of a violin or violoncello. In England the Bell Gamba is more commonly met with, [Bell Gamba,] Gamme {Fr.) Gamut, [Notation,] Ganz (Ger.) (i) Entire, whole ; Ganzton, a whole tone; Game Note, a. semibreve, &c, (2) Very, as ganz langsam, very slow. Garbo, con {It.) With grace, politely. Garlands. A general name for collections of ballads, and other inferior literature upon given subjects, [Ballad,] Garrire {It.) To warble, to chirp, to chatter, • Gassatio. A word of varied meaning. Some writers use it to describe a street serenade, " hergeleitet von dem Herum- spazieren auf den Gassen um den Jungfern ein Standichen oder Hoferecht zu machen;" others say it is a " familiar expression for instrumental compositions generally, sym- phonies as well as quartetts." Others as- suming that the word comes from the Italian Cassatio or Cassazione, describe it as meaning a farewell or final piece, whether in a programme or as part of a whole composition. The word Gassaten or Cassatio is often made to do duty in describing the whole thing of which it only forms part, and thus it is that Suites or Sonatas of the earlier composers are sometimes called Cassazioni when final movements ought only to be so called. [Suite.] [Serenata,] Gassenhawer. {Ger.) The name given to one of the dance tunes in Wolf. Heckel's " Lautten Buch," Strasbourg, 1562, which contains many songs and pieces ; " Auch vil faltige Newe Tentz, sampt mancherley Fantaseyen, Recercari, Pavana, Saltarelli, und Gassenhawer, &c." The word is collater- ally related to Passacaitte, which is from the Spanish Passa calle (" qui court les rues "). The subjoined is a translation into modern notation, from the Tablature in the book referred to above, of the melody of this dance,^ which it may be perceived is capable of bear- ing a ground bass, like the chaconnes or passacailles, to which class it unquestionably belongs. Wolf. Heckel's "Lauttea Buch," 1562. Gauche {Fr.) Left; as, la main gauche, the left hand, Gavot, gavotte, or gavote {Fr.) Gavotta {It.) A dance tune of a lively yet dignified character, said to be of French origin, and to take its name from the Gavots, " Peuples montagnards du pays de Gap, ont donne le nom a cette danse que nous appellon gavote," The description of the dance, " a brisk round for as many as will," identifies it with the country dance, and the form of the tune sup- ( IQ4 ) GAVOT. ports this resemblance. The gavot seems to have been more popular as an instrumental piece th^n as a dance, and to have been a favourite movement in suites, lessons, and ■sonatas from the latter part of the 17th cen- tury, the time when the word appears to have been brought into use. The descriptions of the measure and rhythm .of the dance are many, and slightly different, one writer maintaining that it should begin ", with two crotchets, or the half of a bar, with a rise, of the hand in beati^ig, ending also with two crotchets that begin the last bar." .Another says, " It may begin with an odd quaver, as that in the gth of Corelli's concerto does ; or with a whole bar, as the same com- poser shows us in Sonata i. Op. 2." Hawkins says that the dance is in triple time, of two strains of four and eight bars respectively, the first ending in the key of the dominant; aqd quotes Walther, who states that the first strain should have its cadence in the third or fifth of the key ; " for that if it be in the key-note itself, it is not a gavot, but a rondeau." It would be easy to produce numerous examples of gavots by well-known composers, in which the conditions mentioned above are not present. The following ex- arnples, selected originally with the intention of showing some early specimens of this .dance, will also be interesting as bearing upon the question : Gavot in Gamut, by Dr. John Blow, 1700. f^tnrrt-^^f^m^M^^ iff fif rii iir -«-^- .L=£. j ; i J. »P^aJ. Francois Coupekin, b. i66S, d. 1733. ( 195 ) GAVOTTA GHAZEL. -^J STj^ -)t» |» r «T»^ V 1st time. gy:, J . J^^ 1 CJ-^ Lb — p-l — — s — 4 l^-ff J J I* .^^.^ X — p — ^ — .. — -ps^—d 1 T^T 1 ' w Xttd time. =£e^ fei - "Cr M^ ^ ^^' — ■ 1 r 1 f ^ + 4/ 1 ' ' r -i L_ — ! 1 Corelli, Bach, Handel, and others who have written gavots, do not always adhere to the so-called rules of this form of composition, but display some remarkable deviations from it, which those interested in the subject may dis- cover for themselves in the works of those writers. Like the galliard, the gavot, as an instrumental composition, had a limited period of popularity, for there are very few examples of later date than about the year 1760 to be found in the sonatas and suites. As a dance, the gavot was taught until a few years back, but the tune employed was different to those found in the compositions of the last century. Many of the old gavots are being restored to favour at the present time, and the com- posers of school-music are exercising their imitative powers in writing pieces after the manner of the old composers, to supply the demand made in consequence of the revived popularity of the melody and rhythm of this form of dance. Gavotta (It.) Gavotte (Fr.) [Gavot.] G clef. The character placed at the begin- ning of a stave, to indicate the pitch of the notes. [Clef.] G dur (Ger.) The key of G major. Gebrochene Akkorde (Ger.) Distributed harmony, or arpeggio. [Arpeggio.] Gedackt (G«r.) Covered or closed. [Decke, §2.] Gefahrte (Ger.) The answer to a fugue subject fFiihrer). [Fugue.] Gefiinl, mit (Ger.) With feeling, expres- sion. Gegenbewegung (Ger.) Contrary motion. [Motion.] Gegengesang (Ger.) Antiphonal music. Gegenpunkt (Ger.) Counterpoint. Gegensatz (Ger.) Counter-subject. Gehend {Ger.) Andante (It.) Lit., Going; at a moderate pace ; etwas gehend, andantino. Geige (Ger.) A violin. Geigen-blatt, the finger-board ; Geigeti-bogen, the bow ; Geigen- harz, resin; Geigen- saite, fiddle -string; Geigen-sattel, the bridge; Geigen-wirbel, a peg. Geist {Ger.) Spirit, genius, soul. Gelassen {Ger.) Calm, tranquil. Gemshorn (Ger.) (i) An instrument made of the horn of the chamois goat. (2) An organ stop, of conically-shaped pipes of tin, narrow at the open end, with ears at the broad end or mouth, to regulate the tuning. The tone is peculiar and pleasant. It is generally of 8-ft. tone, though sometimes of 4, and in the pedal organ of 16. General -bass {Ger.) Thorough bass ; basso continue {It.) Generator. A ground note, fundamental bass, root, derivative. Genere (7f.) GenH {Fr.) (i) Manner or style. (2) Kind or class (of scales) ; as, dia- tonico, cromatico, enarmonico. Generoso {It.) Nobly, with dignity^ Gentile ; gentilezza, con {It.) Noble, with dignity. Genus {Lat.) Sort or class, especially used with reference to scales; as, the diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic genera. [Greek Music] Gerade-bewegung {Ger.) Similar motion. [Motion.] Gerade-taktart {Ger.) Common time. German flute. [Flute.J German sixth. [Extreme sixth, chord of.] Ges (Gen) The, note G flat. Gesang {Ger.) Singing, song, cantata, hymn, &c. Geschwind {Ger.) Quick, rapid. Ges dur {Ger.) The key of G flat major. Gestossen {Ger.) Staccato. Getern, Getron {Old Eng.) Guitar. Ghazel {Arab.) A term used by Dr. Hiller to describe a piece in which a simple theme is constantly recurring. The name is suggested by those Eastern poems in which a word or sentence either forms the ending or commencement of the lines. The following ( 196) GHIRIBIZZI GLEE. is a short " ghazel," written by Dr. Hiller on the theme, G, A, B : Ghiribizzi {It.) Fantastic devices. Giga (/<.) Jig. Gigelira [It.) Giga vel lira. A name given to the strohfiedel (Xylophone). Gingras. A small ancient flute, of Phe- nician origin, afterwards adopted by some European nations. Gingrina {Lat.) [Gingras.] Giochevole (It.) Merry, jocose. Giocondamente {It.) Joyfully, merrily. Giocondezza {It.) Mirth, jocundity. Giocondato {It.) Happy, joyful. Giocondo {It.) Jocund. Giocosamente, giocoso {It.) Sportively, playfully. Giojante, giojosamente, giojoso {It.) With mirth, joyfully. Gioviale {It.) Jovial, pleasant. Giovialita, con {It.) With jollity. Giraffe. An ancient form of the spinnet. [Pianoforte.] Gis {Ger.) The note (i sharp. Gis moll {Ger.) The key of G sharp minor. Gittern. [Guitar.] Gittith {Heb.) This word, which is found in the titles of Ps. viii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv., is by some supposed to signify a musical instru- ment (perhaps as used at Gath) ; by others, a vintage-song, or well-known tune, to which the Psalm could be sung. Various other explanations have been offered, which it is unnecessary to give here. Giubiloso {It.) Jubilant, Giustamente {It.) Strictly, accurately. Giusto {It.) Strict, correct, moderate ; a tempo giusto, at a moderate pace. Glass. Musical instruments of this ma- terial are of two kinds, percussion and fric- tion ; the first consists of a series of small plates of graduated sizes, supported on tapes secured in a wooden box, the several tones being regulated by the size of the glass : this is a mere toy. For a description of the best of the second class see Harmonica. Another form of a glass friction instrument is made of a number of tubes of various lengths, and as the tone is brought out by stroking the length of the several tubes with flannel or india- rubber, it is only capable of producing slow melodies. Glee. A composition for voices in har- mony, consisting of two or more contrasted movements, with the parts so contrived that they may be termed a series of interwoven melodies. It may be written for three or more voices, either equal or mixed ; but it is neces- sary that there should be only one voice to a part. It may be designed with or without in- strumental accompaniment, and set to words in any style — amatory, bacchanalian, pas- toral, didactic, comic, or serious. As a com- position, the glee appears to have historically followed the catch, and to have had its origin at the time when part-singing began to be revived. But when musical skill was at a very low ebb, a satisfactory performance of existing vocal compositions for combined voices was neither possible nor desirable : not possible ; because the madrigal, to be eifec- tive, required many voices to a part ; and not desirable, because the words set to the catches, the other sort of secular part-music, were not of a character which fitted them for the ears of decent folk. The earliest glees, so called, were set to words of a pastoral character. One of the first, if not the very first, printed composition for voices to which the title was attached, was " Turn, Amaryllis, to thy swain,"' by Thomas Brewer, included in the second book of Hilton's " Catch that catch can," 1652. The most ancient collection in which glees are specially mentioned, was pub- lished by Playford. It is called, " The Musi- cal Companion, in two books : the First Book containing Catches and Rounds for Thiee Voyces ; the Second Book containing Dia- logues, Glees, Ayres, and Songs for two, three, and Four Voyces," 1673. The com- positions contained in these books can only be regarded as exhibiting the qualities of pre- liminary attempts to fix and form the style, which afterwards became known as the " glee style." Many other species of musical works have grown to their present proportions by slow degrees ; but the glee seems to have started into existence in its modem form all at once, and not to have been the result of a series of developments. From the time when Playford's book was published until between the year 1760 and 1770, the specimens of part-writing to which the authors attached the word " glee," are somewhat rare, the terms " ode," or " three, four, or five-part song," being preferred for vocal compositions in harmony. Sir John Hawkins does not mention the word once in his " History of Music," pub- lished 1776, although institutions for the encouragement of glee-writing were already established in his time. The period of the existence of the glee, as we now understand it, was about seventy years, namely, from 1760 to 1830 ; the most successful of the glee-writers during that time ( 197 ) GLEEK GONG. were S. Webbe, Dr. Cooke, Dr. Callcott, R.J. S. Stevens, Reginald Spofforth, J. Stafford Smith, W. Horsley, Sir Henry Bishop, Charles Evans, and to this list must be added. Sir John Goss. The compositions of these writers, with a few by their contemporaries, form the whole literature of this class. The so-called German glees are, for the most part, simply harmo- nised melodies, and belong to the order of part-songs rather than to that of glees. The application of the term to this class of com- position is correct philologically, but not formally. The old word glee meant harmony or combination ; and, therefore, all composi- tions for voices in harmony may be rightly designated by the term. But the word is understood to signify a special sort of vocal harmony, and if the pieces so called do not fulfil the conditions of the character, already described above, they ought not to be called by the term. The glee, like the anthem, is of, English growth, and has never beea successfully imi- tated by foreign writers. The increase of musical taste has led to the formation of large choral societies, by whom the master- works of the great composers are given with effect ; but it has also led to the neglect of private social musical gatherings, and, consequently, to the disuse of one of the most delightful musical pleasures, the performance of the glee. Glee-singing is almost a lost art in England. The tradition has not been pro- perly maintained, and we are in the somewhat anomalous position of a people in the posses- sion of a special literature, which we cannot rightly interpret or appreciate. A few remarks upon the origin and mean- ing of the word Glee may not be considered uninteresting or out of place here. The word comes from the Anglo-Saxon " gle," meaning music, or the performance of music. For example, the " Story of Genesis," written about 1250, and reprinted by the Early En|;- lish Text Society, has the following words : " Jobal is brotJer song and glew, Wit of music well he knew." Chaucer, in his " Troilus and Creseide," uses the word with a like meaning : " For though that the best harpair upon live Would on the beste sounid jolly harpe That evir was with all his fingers five Touch aie o string, or aie o warble harp Were his nailis poincted nevir so sharpe. It shuldS makin every wight to dull To here his gle and of his strokis fiill." In the " Promptorium Parvulorum" (1440), the same word, spelt glu, probably in accord- ance with the provincial pronunciation of the writer, is , translated armonia, minstrelsy. Some modern writers suppose the word, to come from gligg, the Anglo-Saxon term for joy or merriment ; or from gleek, which signir fies to scoff, sneer, or banter. Neither of these derivations point to the musical use of the word ; for the majority of glees are of a character too serious to be called merry, and too earnest to be called bantering. The early writers of glees frequently used a qualifying term with the word, as " serious glee," " chearfuU glee," &c., a practice which might be considered superfluous if the word only meant merriments It may be, therefore, gathered, .that they attached a meaning to the word similar to that found in the writings of the early poets and others, namely, combina- tion. That glee meant consort or harmony is implied in the following extract from a poem by Robert Manning, of Lincolnshire, in the reign of Edward I., c 1303 : " Yn harpe and tabour and symphan gle Worship God in trumpes ant sautre ; Yn cordes, yn organes, and bells ringying, Yn all these worship the hevene Kyng." and in Davie's poem, the Life of Alexander, [temp. Ed. II.] " Orgues, chymbes, uche maner gle ••••••• Withouten the toums murey ; " (Organs, chimes, all manner of harmony Outside the town's Vail). [Catch.] [Madrigal.] [Part-song.] Gleek. [Glee.] Gli [It.) The ; as gli stromenti, the instru- ments. Glissando, glissato, glissicato, glissi- candb (It.) (i) Playing a rapid passage in pianoforte music, by sliding the tips of the fingers along the keys instead of striking each note with a separate finger. (2) A rapid slur in violin playing. Glisser (Fr.) To slide. [Glissando.] Glockenspiel (G^r.) An instrument made of bells tuned diatonically and struck with hammers, or by levers acted upon by a key- board. It is occasionally employed in the orchestra, notably by Mozart in his opera, " The Magic Flute." [Bells.] [Carillon.] Gloria {Lat.) A movement of the Mass. [Mass.] Glottis. [Larynx.] Glottis (Gk,, yXunris); Lot., Lingula. The reed used in some of the ancient flutes. These reeds were moveable, and were carried about in a little box called yhaaaoKoiitiov. G moll {Ger.) The key of G minor. Gnaccare {It.) [Castanets.] Gong. An Eastern pulsatile instrument, composed of several metals mixed in propor- tions as yet unknown in this country. The gong has no distinct or appreciable note, but gives out a sound consisting of a combination of harmonics. It has been introduced with ( 198) GORGHEGGI GREAT ORGAN. remarkable effect as an orchestral instrument by Meyerbeer, in his opera " Robert le Diable," and by Rossini in " Semiramide." Gorgheggi, Gorgheggiare (//.) Trills, quaverings, warblings. Gosba. An Arabian flute. There are two sorts of the gosba, the one with three holes in the lower extremity, producing four sounds which with their harmonics at the fifth complete the octave. The instrument is employed to guide the voice of a singer. The other gosba is larger and pierced with six holes, with a double hole at the back. Grace notes. [Graces.] Graces. A general term for ornamental notes or short passages, introduced as em- bellishments into vocal or instrumental music, not actually essential to its harmony or melody. In former times, in vocal music, the selection of graces was left to the judgment of the performer to a great extent, but in instru- mental music numerous signs have from time to time been used, explanations of which will be found under their distinctive names. Harp- sichord and lute music was always lavishly ornamented, and in lesson books for these instruments, much care and space is often given to a full explanation of their force and meaning. [Harpsichord.] Music for viols was also graced in various ways, but never to so great an extent as that above named. As all these instruments are now obsolete it is unnecessary to enter further into the subject. In our own time a reaction has taken place against the absurd embellishments indulged in by our forefathers, and it has become fashionable to sing and play music just as it is written. This is perhaps to be regretted, as those who are rendering music should carefully consider whether the writer wished ornaments to be excluded, or, omitted to write them under a belief that they would certainly be introduced in performance. [See Cadenza.] [Accompaniment.] Gracieux {Fr.) Graceful ; in a graceful style. Gracile (It.) Small, thin ; as, voce gracile, a thin voice. Grad {Ger.) A degree or step of a scale. Gradation (Fr.) Gradazione (It.) Grada- tion, by degrees of the scale. Gradevole, gradevolmente (It.) Grate- ful, gratefully. Graditissimo (It.) Most grateful. Gradleiter (Ger.) A scale. Grado (7^) Degree or step of a scale; as, di grado, by conjunct motion, as opposed to di salto, by a skip. Graduale {Lat.) A gradual. A piece of music performed between the reading of the Epistle and Gospel in the Roman Church. Graduellement (Fr.) By degrees. Gradual modulation. A change of key by diatonic progreasion. Graduate in music. One who has taken a degree in music at a university. Gran.cassa (/f.) Grosse caisse (Fr.) The big drum. Grand (Fr.) Grande (It.) Large; great, complete ; as, grand bourdon, a double bour- don ; a grande orchestre, for a complete band. Grand barre (Fr.) A position in guitar playing, the object being to alter the pitch of the instrument by making a temporary nut of the forefinger laid lengthwise across the strings. [Guitar.] Grande mesure k deux temps (Fr,) Common measure of two beats. Grandezza (It.) Grandeur. Grandioso (It.) Grand, in a lofty manner. Grandisonante (It.) Loud, sonorous. Grand jeu (Fr.) The power obtained by th#'use of fhe whole of the stops in an organ, or by the employment of a stop so called in the harmonium which calls into use the whole of the available registers. Gran gusto (Jt.) Elevated taste or ex- pression. Grande orgue (Fr.) (i) Full organ. (2) The great organ. Grand pianoforte. [Pianoforte.] Gran tamburo (It.) The big drum. Grappa (It.) Ltt., a stem ; a brace which connects staves. Grave (Lat., It., Fr., Eng.) (i) Deep in pitch ; as, grave hexachord, the lowest hexa- chord in the Guidonian system. (2) Slow ia pace, solemnly. Gravecembalum, gravicembalo (It.) [Harpsichord.] Gravement (Fr.) Slow, and in a solemn style. Gravita, con (It.) With dignity, weight, majesty. Grazia, con (It.) With grace, elegance. Graziosamente, graziosO (It.) Grace- fully, elegantly. Greater. Belonging to the major scale ; as, a greater third, a major third, as C to E ; greater sixth, a major sixth, as C to A. A piece of music, said by the old writers to be in any key with the greater third, was in the major mode; with the lesser third, in the minor mode. Great octave. The sounds lying be- tween represented, according to one system, by single capitals, C, D, E, &c. ; in another, by double capitals, as CC, DD, EE, &c. [Pitch.] Great organ. [Organ.] ( 199 ) GREEK MUSIC. Greek Music (Systems of ancient).* From the time of Homer down to that of Terpan- der, who seems to have flourished some 300 years after Homer, the lyres of the Greeks had but four strings. At that early date the instrument could only have been used for the purposes of a pitch pipe, just as orators sub- sequently employed it to regulate the pitch of the voice. No tune could be drawn from four notes. Terpander raised the number of strings from four to seven, for the service of the Gods. The following two lines, from one of his hymns, are preserved in the Introductio Harmonica, ascribed to, but evidently not written by, Euclid.f " H|i£te rot Terpdycpw cmoaTip^avTce aotS^v, ETTT-ardrj) ^opfuyyi viovQ KeXaS^aofisv vfivove."X — (p. 19, edit. Meiboin.) This scale of seven notes was formed by connecting the first tetrachord, or series of four notes, with a second series of four, by one sound common to both. To represent these sounds in modern notes, they would be as E, F, G, A, and A, B flat, C D united by the A in the middle, which was the key note to the two. The Greeks had the same number of perfect fourths in a scale that we have, but when they formed their scales by tetrachords, or fourths, they selected that position of the fourth, in which the semitone came between the lowest two strings — as E, F, G, A. The ORIGINAL SEVEN-STRINGED SYSTEM OF THE LYRE was then as follows : — 'd. Nete (shortest string, giving the highest sound). ■ c. Paranete (beside Nete). bjlat. Paramese (beside Mese). >a. Mese (middle string and key note, connecting the two fourths). TetrlchoTdA^- Lichanos (forefinger string^. F. Parhypate (beside Hypate). E. Hypate (longest string, giv- ing the lowest sound). The above are names of the strings of the lyres, and not of notes of a fixed pitch. The * " The Systems ot Ancient Greek Music compared with Modern Music," abbreviated from Chappell's History of Music. + Two treatises on music are ascribed to Euclid, the Introductio Hannanha and the Sectio Canonis. The second is a mathematical treatise quoted by Porphyrius as Euclid's, but the first is an Aristoxenian or practical musician's treatise in a different school. (It is none the less valuable, whoever may have been its author.) With this reservation both will hereafter be quoted as Euclid's, to abbreviate references. Proclus says only that Euclid wrote on the elements of music. (Kara fioviriKrlv aTov^fetiiaeis.') % But we, loving no more the four-toned song. Will sing aloud new hymns to a seven-toned lyre. Upper Tetrachord. Lower same names would have been retained if the lyre had been tuned one, two, or three notes higher. The longest string was called Hypatfe, although it gave the lowest sound. If pitch had counted for height instead of mere length of string, the order of Nete and Hypate would have been reversed. The lower four strings of the lyre were played by the thumb and three fingers of the left hand, the string that fell under the forefinger being called lichanos (the licking- up finger), and the thumb upon the key note or Mese. The three treble strings were played upon by a plectrum, which was a piece of ivory, ebony, horn, or any hard wood. This was held in the right hand, and its use being only occasional, the right hand was in a measure left free for action in addressing the auditors. The next improvement in Greek music is connected with the most important of all dates in Grecian History — that at which Egypt was thrown open to the Greeks by Psammetichus the First, King of Egypt. From that event sprang the rapid advances of the Greeks in science, in art, and in literature. Philosophers, law-givers, historians, astronomers, mathe- maticians, musicians, architects, physicians, and alchemists — indeed all who were intent upon the acquisition of learning — sought it in that world of ancient civilization. It was there that Thales learnt to measure the height of a temple or of a pyramid by the length of its shadow — there to divide the year into 365 days. Itwas there that one of the philosophical re-discoveries of the last and of the present century, viz., that sounds may be both too high and too low to reach the human ear, was known thousands of years ago. Until the reign of Psammetichus the Greeks had been going on a wrong road to music. The seven strings could produce nothing worthy of the name of tune with such a scale as they had ; at least so long as the middle string remained the key note of that scale. All the ancient fables of Orpheus and Amphion must rest upon their skill in poetical recitation, which was one branch of music in the Greek sense. As to Amphion, he, no doubt, sang in such lively rhythm as to expedite the builders in order to keep time to it, and hence the fable of his having raised the walls of Thebes by his lyre. Psammetichus I. began his reign in 664, B.C.§ He was the first of the Pharaohs who § In Dr. W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, the date of Psammetichus I. is given as 671, B.C., and to this is added a note that Boeckh dates his reign as 654, B.C. As Egyptian dates can be carried back with tolerable certainty from the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, and the above is rather vague for a matter of such importance Cespecially when early ( 200 ) GREEK MUSIC. cultivated the friendship of the Greeks; he invited them as settlers, and engaged Carian and Greek mercenaries in his army. It was the change in Egyptian policy that enabled Pythagoras to go to Egypt, where he is said to have lived 22 years. He is the reputed discoverer of the octave system of music, which was certainly known in Egypt at least a thousand years before his visit. The popular myth of the Egyptian Hermes and the lyre, is that, when walking by the banks of the Nile, he accidentally kicked the shell of a dried tortoise, in which there was nothing remaining but dried sinews, and that it emitted musical sounds, and thus suggested to him the idea of forming it into a musical instrument. The Egyptian name of the God was Thoth. The instrument was the Egyptian nefer, in hieroglyphics nfr (without the vowels), so sometimes translated nofra or nefru. This musical instrument is found in hieroglyphics at as early a date as the building of the second pyramid. The meaning expressed by the hieroglyphic is " good." The difference between the Greek lyre and the Egyptian lute was that the former had no neck, against which the strings could be pressed. A lyre with an open back could give but one sound from each string, but when the same string was pressed against a finger-board it would produce notes in every variety, according as the vibrating part of the string was shorter or longer. The first lesson to be learnt from it was that the half of a string would produce the sound of the octave above the whole length; next, that, by stop- ping one-third of it, the remaining two-thirds would sound the musical interval of a fifth above the whole length ; and that by stopping a fourth part, the remaining three-fourths would sound the interval of a fourth above the whole. In this way the Greeks learnt to produce every note of a scale, as well as the relation between geometrical proportions and musical sounds. At the time of this discovery Greek lyres had only been made, on the Terpander model, to carry seven strings, so that, on learning the octave system, which required eight, they were obliged to leave out one of the notes. authorities differ also by ten years in the length of his reign), the assistance of Samuel Birch, Esq., LL.D., F.S.A., keeper of the Antiquities in the British Museum, was sought for to decide between the discrepancies, and most kindly given in the following words : — " The highest monumental date known of Psammetichus I. is 54 years, according to the Apis tablets of the Sera- peium, which agrees with the statement of Herodotus. The date of 664, B.C., is the lowest probable date of the accession of Psammetichus, which might be a year or two higher, and Boeckh's date is inadmissible." After new lyres had been made to carry eight strings the entire octave was included upon the instrument. The old system of tuning the lyre was then called Synaphe or Conjunc- tion [avva^rj),* and the new, or octave, system was called Harmonia {hpnovla), the " fitting in " system, because it fitted in the lesser consonances of the fourth and fifth into the greater consonance of the octave. (Verb. hpfioZtLv, and the participle, used as an adjec- tive, iiftfiodfiivoQ.') When ' the principle was fully established, harmonia became a syno- nym for music, in our sense of the word, for the Greek word, Mousike, embraced all the arts and sciences over which the Muses presided. ^ The old dissonant seventh (from E to d) was made into an octave (from E to e) by the interposition of a tone between the two, previously, conjoined fourths or tetrachords. This interposed tone was called the dia- zeuktic tone, or tone of disjunction {tovoq The following is the scale for the seven, and for the eight stringed lyre upon the Egyptian or Octave System. It is here printed in the Greek " common" musical scale — our A minor with a minor seventh : — Seven Stringed Lvre. e. Nete. Upper Tetrachord. ' d. Paranete. c. {omitted.) ih. Paramese or Trite Lower a Mese (key note). G. Lichanos. Tetrachord. F. Parhypate. Ie. Hypate Eight Stringed Lyre. [e. Nete. Upper d. Paranete. Tetrachord. c. Trite. ,b. Paramese. The tone of Disjunction or Diazeuhtic tone, I a. Mese (key note), g. Lichanos (or Diatonos). F. Parhypate. E. Hypate. In the eight stringed lyre Paramese and Trite were no longer the same string. Para- mese took its proper place, next to Mese, and Trite was third from the top, as its name indicates. By this system the player had a fifth up- wards froin his key note and a fourth below it, so as to allow scope for recitation both * Bacchius, Senr., p. 20. ( GREEK MUSIC. above and below. He could then produce something more like to a tune than was pos- sible upon the old scale. Before that time any Greek chant would have sounded to modern ears as never ending, for their key note would be to us as the third of the key, because we have a major scale (which the Greeks had not), and we could associate such recitations with the key of F major through the B flat. The scales of the Greeks were all in minor keys, and the nearest approach they had to a major scale was one of five tones, which might be extracted from the chromatic scale, of which hereafter. The reason why Pythagoras preferred to omit C, which was a major third from the top on the seven stringed lyre, and a minor third above the key note (a), was because, at that time (but not after Didymus, Claudius Ptolemy, and other mathematicians had re- vised the scale) Greek thirds were not only esteemed as discords, but were so. They were so because, at first, the Greeks used only major tones in their scales, and there are less than six major tones in an octave. It is not proposed here to enter upon the mathe- matical divisions of scales, wiricfa, after the introduction of "equal temperament" {alias, equal putting out of tune), few, especially they who have their pianofortes tuned for them, seem to care about. But still a very easy experiment may be recommended to prove the case. A major tone is the difference by which a fifth overlaps a fourth. Therefore, tune a perfect fourth from C down to G (or ask the tuner to do it), and then a perfect fifth up from G to D. There will be a major tone from C to D. Repeat the same, but beginning from D, a perfect fourth down to A, and a perfect fifth up to E. There will be another major tone from D to E, and the two will form an old Greek ditone, or third, from C to E. Try it by the ear, and it will be understood at once why the Greeks and the early writers upon church music (who had the worst of Greek divisions of a scale through the imperfect treatise of Boethius) for a long time treated thirds as discords. Harmonia, which thus had primarily the meaning of " The Octave System of Music," came to signify "The Science of Music" and "Music" generally, because Pythagoras had limited the doctrines of the science to the sounds which are included in an octave,* so Harmonia and the later word Harmonica * TlvOayopaa S'6 ag/ivos . . . Trj FavaXoynaj kpfiovl^ ■ airapKcc revd/iil^e fie\pi tov Sid traawv tTTYJa-ai rhv YiJQ fiovaiKric iirlyvitxiiv . — Plutarch, De Musica, cap. 37. (apfioviKif) had the same meaning. The Pytha- gorean writers on music were called Har- monici {dpfioviKot),i and some of them, before the time of Aristoxenus, had given such exclu- sive preference to the seven-stringed system^ coupling with it the enharmonic division of the octave, and calling this enharmonic branch of the system "harmonia," that the word was not infrequently used, instead of enharmonia, for a long time after. This, however, was not the original meaning, as the following extract from Philolaos, who first published the Pythagorean doctrines, will show. It refers to the seven-stringed octave, so Trite is B, not C, which it became on the eight- stringed lyre. § 'Apfioviag Se fiiyedoQ ivTi (TvWafia KalSio^etdv ' TO Se Sio^sidv ftei^ov rdc (rvXKa(iai iiroySo^ ■ £<7rt yap airo virarae ie p-iaav ' lia riaaapa irayrsc EWtji/ec, tTTtaviav fiovaav aeipafiEvoi \ Ion produced his first tragedy (according to Suidas), B.C. 453, and died B.C. 421. It is clear that he here refers to the old system, and not to the new, by nanjing only three harmonies or concords [avfiri]. \\ After the time of Ion, the original Greek scale received only one more string, the eleventh, which was added at the base to make an octave to Mese, thus borrowing from the octave system. It was a great improve- ment, for in this form it gave an octave of the Hypo-Dorian or common Greek scale (our A minor with a minor seventh) from A to a, and an octave of the Dorian scale (our D minor with a minor seventh) from D to d — the last through having the b flat in the upper part of the scale. In this, its completed form, it became "The lesser perfect system" of the Greeks, until Claudius Ptolemy disputed the claim of such a scale to be called " perfect." The defect he saw in it was that it did not include the twelfth or fifteenth. The Lesser Perfect System. The Synemmenon Tetrachord (trvvriiifitvtiiy) or Conjunct Fourth. The Meson Tetrachord (^fiEtrur) or Middle Fourth. The Hypaton Tetrachord (biraTiiv) or Lowest Fourth (added by Ion). The acquired note not included in any Tetrachord. d. Nete S)memmenon c. Paranete id. bu. Trite id. a. Mese G. Lichanos Meson. F. Parhypate id. E. Hyphate id. D. Lichanos Hypaton. C. Parhypate id. B. Hypate id. A. Proslambanomenos, The original seven strings had seven dif- ferent names, but no new ones were given to those added by Ion, so it became necessary to distinguish between the new and the old • Problems, 25 and 44 of Sect. 19. f Arist. Quint., p. 17. J Euclid, Int. Harm., p. 19. § Having the ten-note scale With three musical consonances conjoined by adding the name of the tetrachord, or fourth, to which they belonged. Thus the original Hypate (E) became Hypate-Meson {i.e. lowest of the middle tetrachord) and the I Till now with seven-stringed fourths all the Greeks hymned thee, Upraising stinted' song. Bacchius, Senr., p. zi. ( 203 ) GREEK MUSIC. new Hypate (B) became H)rpate-Hypaton, or lowest of the lowest tetrachord. And now, to quit the lesser perfect system and revert to the greater, and more important one. Many have written of Greek music without distinguishing between the two systems, and as one instance, we may name Dr. Burney. tte mixes the two into one as " the great, the perfect, the immutable system . . . com- posed oi five tetrachords" (p. 3), and then says : " after ascending regularly thus, up to D, by three conjoint tetrachords, the fourth in the great system is begun by descending a minor third to B natural . . . Something of this dodging kind is to be found in the scale of Guido" (note to p. 5, vol. i). This is altogether a mistake, there is no " dodging." The d, to which he refers, is the highest note of the lesser system, which was perfectly dis- tinct from the greater. Another difficulty of Dr. Burney's and of other writers, has been to understand Greek octaves. It was very natural to suppose that a Greek octave scale would begin and end like one of two octaves, viz., upon the key note ; but it was not so. The Greek octave scale took from the middle of the two-octave scale, and began a fourth below the key note and ended a fifth above it. In other words, when the octave scale was increased to two octaves, it was by the addition of a new tetrachord or fourth at each extreme, and then joining on at the base, the "acquired tone " to make an octave to the key note, Mese. So that, whether they had a one octave or a two octave lyre, the key note was in or near the middle, and a Greek could recite or sing at least a few notes above, as well as a few notes below it. The following is the "disjunct," two octave system complete. The Greater Perfect System. {avarrifia rsKdov) The extreme, or Hyperboleon. {yiTEpjioKaliov) Tetrachord. The disjunct, or DiezeugmenOn Tetrachord. The tone of disjunction, or Diazeuktic tone (rovoc ZiaievKTiKoe) The middle, or Meson (jutffwv) Tetrachord. The lowest, or Hypaton (inrarwv) Tetrachord. The acquired tone not belonging to any Tetrachord. a. Nete Hyperboleon. g. Paranete id. f. Trite id. e. Nete d. Paranete Diezeugmenon. c. Trite id. b. Paramese id. a. Mese (key note). G. Lichanos (or Diatonos) Meson. F. Parhypate id. "E. Hypate id. D. Lichanos or (Diatonos) Hypaton. C. Parhypate id. B. Hypate id. I A. Proslambanomenos. This two-octave scale is at least as old as the fourth century B.C., and it was a sliding scale, to be taken to the extent of an octave higher. Aristoxenus speaks of the highest of the above tetrachords in one of his extant fragments, as well as of the art of writing down music (pp. 39, 40). He also enumerates the six different modes of tuning the lyre, viz., two diatonic, three chromatic, and one enharmonic (p. 50 et seq.). Of these here- after. When the Greeks changed from one genus, or kind of scale {yivoe) to another, they never altered the tuning of more than the two inner strings of each tetrachord. The Lichanoses and P^rhypates of the lower octave, and the Trites and Paranetes of the upper were alone moveable (Ktvovfiivol or (pspoixivoi). Of' these it was only in the enharmonic genus that both second and third string of each tetra- chord were tuned differently. In the Chro- matic the third from the top (Trites or Parhy- ( 204 ) GREEK MUSIC. pates) remained as they were. The extremes of tetrachords and the "acquired tone" (Pros- lambanomenos) were fixed sounds (iffriiree). This did not prevent the re-tuning of the whole lyre to any other pitch. A comparison of the greater with the lesser system will show that the lower octave is the same in both. It is only from the key note up- wards that any change is made. In the lesser system, after a, it goes to b flat, c, d, and stops ; while the greater system carries up a second octave of the same kind as the lower one. The Greeks had in all fifteen Diatonic scales, viz., five Principal scales, Dorian, lastian or Ionian, Phrygian, jEolian, and Lydian. Each of these had its attendant Hypo and Hyper, or Dominant and Sub- Dominant. The Hypos were a fourth below their principals (which gives the same scale as the fifth above) and the Hypers were a fourth above. When they modulated from one key to another they did it as we do, by some sound common to both, and the greater the con- nection between the two scales, the better was the modulation esteemed.* The Fifteen Scales of Alypius are: Principals. (A.) Hypo-Dorian. (Bb.) Hypo-Ionian (B.) Hypo-Phrygian. (C.) Hypo-^olian. (C#.) Hypo-Lydian. (D.) Dorian. (G.) Hyper-Dorian or Mixo-Lydian. (E|7.) Ionian. (Ai? .) Hyper-Ionian. (E.) Phrygian. (A.) Hyper-Phrygian. (F.) ^olian. (B t».) Hyper-^olian. (F#.) Lydian. (B.) Hyper-Lydian. It will be observed that the classical Lydian was F sharp, and not F, as in church scales, The true Lydian was a tone above the Phrygian. f In Pindar's time the Hypo-Dorian scale was called .^olian ; the above arrangement of intervals between scales is therefore less ancient than his date. The Greeks had no fixed pitch-^neither have we at this present time. The only directions about it are to tune the lyre from the lowest distinctly audible tone of the voice, and every man had a different voice. Instru- ments made to be played together would necessarily be at one pitch ; but there was no fixed rule for them. The Greeks had, in the fifteen scales, one beginning upon every semitone of the octave and two beginning beyond it. The five Hypos extended from A to C sharp, the five princi- pals from D to F sharp, qnd the five H)T)ers from G to b. The three highest Hypers were therefore the same scales as the three lowest Hypos, only taken an octave higher. These double names for the same keys were unnecessary, except in relation to their principals. Dr. Bumey says "That the ancients had no G sharp or E flat" (p. 26, vol. i); but at p. 41 of the same volume he shows by a table of the modes that they had both. This * Euclid, p. 21. I f All Greek writers are agreed upon this ; see, for instance, Bacchius, p. 12. + Gaudentius, p. 22, &c. curious instance of self-contradiction remains^ in his second edition. As all Greek scales were tuned with per- fect fourth, fifth, and octave, and all (till about the birth of Christ) with major tones only, there could not possibly be any musical differ- ence, other than that of relative pitch, between one scale and another, if the lyre was tuned for each scale. Differences of character be- tween one key and another arise from one key being less perfectly in tune than another. But inasmuch as certain metres were asso- ciated with particular scales, and the character of the music would correspond with the spirit of the verse, there might be as much differ- ence between them as between a hymn and a march. The difficulty is that Greek authors were not agreed upon the character of any scale but the Dorian. That was to be severe, grave, and manly. But as to Phrygian, while Plato esteemed it as smooth and fit for prayer, Aristotle speaks of it as enthusiastic and bacchic. These contradictory estimates have been collected by Boeckh in his Metres of Pindar (lib. iii. c. 8.) The usual way of tuning the lyre was to the Dorian, the central scale of the seven, -and esteemed as the true Greek system. This preference for the Dorian is proved by all the accounts of the Greek octaves. The seven principal scales are therefore presented in that form, showing what notes would come upon the octave lyre (within the cross lines) and upon the two-octave lyre. ( 205 ) GREEK MUSIC. Scales for the Lyre. ixo-Lydian, or 1 Hyper-Dorian. J " minor. jC2Z Octave Lyre. c l?o -^ -^ i Mese. m^-- m ^ ~gy Lydian. FS minor. ^M 1^=1 S2Z le- ^ i Mese. JM^^:^!! ^^a^ 321 Phrygian. E minor. W- ^ >r> ff ■ Mese. P 32: -s> czz N % '■' "^ Dorian. D minor. ~73~ >3- Mese. i Mt rj «g- ^ - ?^» g*- Hypo-Lydian. C^ minor. ^la 1^=1^ Mese. i^ -i b - ^ ^ ucaz Hypo-Phrygian. B minor. ^^ 321 Mese. Hypo-Dorian. A minor. Miz 123= Mese. -!e| Q- ^ i T7~ In the above diagram the sharps and flats are marked to the notes (as well as at the signature.) only for the purpose of showing to the eye, at a glance, which of the strings must be retuned to change from one key into another. The Dorian, being the centre scale, has its entire fifteen notes; but the three scales above it want one, two, or three of their upper notes, while the three below it want one, two, or three of their lower. The octave lyre has its series complete. Supposing a Greek singer to begin in the Dorian, and to wish to take in the Hypo and Hyper (or Dominant and Sub-Dominant), he would require either to re-tune one string for each, or else to have a ten-stringed lyre. All the other strings serve for the three con- nected keySj and it would be the same in any other key. Thus, in the key of C we require but F sharp and B flat for its Dominant and Sub-Domjnant. A ten-stringed lyre would include the principal and its two connected scales. Hence the importance of a ten- stringe4 lyre, or a ten-stringed psaltery, such as we read of in the psalms. It was not the mere addition of an upper note or two, which was a great objection, in the public eye; as likely to lead to extravagances in declamation. After the Greeks had once discovered the octave system, they might have added an- other octave with the same facility as another string. The preceding (as well as the f6ll,owing) diagram will explain that most ancient 'puzzle, the Greek octaves. The root of the difficulty has been this. Although the, Greeks had different signs {ai\\itia) for writing down musi- cal notes, and they wrote down music in the 4th century B.C., they had no fixed name for any note. Some readers may remember that there was an old plan of teaching singing in England (which has been partially revived), in which the key note was always called Do, and consequently every modulation or change of key made another Do. Just so with the Greeks, only instead of Do read Mese. Ever;)' string was tuned to Mese, and if a Greek knew the Mese he could tell the distance of any other note, So, when Euclid and others* say that the Mjxo-Lydian octave begins upon Hypate Hypatop, they mean that it begins upon the lowest note but one of its own scale, just as it does in the preceding example. The key is G minor, with a minor seventh, and the octave lyre begins upon A. The great mistake has been to take the names of the strings for fixed soundsj and so to make a MixovLydian octave in a Hypo-Dorian scale, instead of in its own scale. This error underlies all the old music called Gregorian (although in the time of S. Ambrose and S. Gregory there was no such peculiar music), and in consequence of this misapprehension "Gregorian tones or scales" have wrong key notes, When Bacchius asks '< What are the names of the three scales, if only three are. used?" he answers for himself, commencing with the scale of highest pitch, " Lydian, Phrygian, Euclid, p. 15; Gaudentius, p. 19; Bacchius, p. 19; &c. ( 206 ) GREEK MUSIC. Dorian." And " when seven ?" " Mixo-Lydian, Lydian, Phrygian, Dorian, Hypo-Lydian, Hypo- Phrygian, and Hypo- Dorian." These are the seven in the preceding example. Claudius Ptolemy proposed to reduce the entire number of fifteen scales to the above seven, thinking them sufficient, and he pro- posed another very desirable change, viz., to transpose them all a fourth lower for the lyre, so as to bring them all within the reach of ordinary voices. Dr. Burney says that many persons imagined Ptolemy to have proposed to raise them a fifth higher (History, vol. I., p. 45, line 4I. That would have made them im- possible for men. They were decidedly very high for men at the ancient historical pitch. Ptolemy gives precisely the same rule for transposing these scales that any musician would give to-day, and the following is the result : — Scales for the Lyre transposed a fourth lower, by Claudius Ptolemy. Mixo-Lydian or 1 p, „■ „, Hyper-Dorian. j ^ '"">°'- Octave Lyre. lEz: JJQ- Mese. $ mh rj o zar Lydian. CJt minor. ^r^ — ^^ : ^-> ■ g Mese. m ^^ ^^ naz Phrygian. B minor. mf- Mese. $ E^ ~rr- zaz -&■ ^ Dorian. A minor. Mese. ^ di± O jQ- -^r I n?" T3~ o - " - Z2= Hypo-Lydian. gJi minor. Mese. W h^. C. 1h frg IVlDbC. J. f ^ *°- # | r>, ¥ 1 Hypo-Phrygian. F1 minor. ^|j Mese * TT" |M t^^ _cs_ -Q. -sr HypO'Dorian. E minor. Mese. I°= Y^ ^ ~gy - — Q- It will be observed that the key notes occupy I the same positions as before; therefore the I succession of intervals must be the same, for, I as with us, the key note determines the sucr I cession. I And now, quitting the diatonic scale which is I by far the most important of all, and the only I one which the Romans adopted, we turn to the Chromatic Scale. The Greeks had three kinds of Chromatic scale, of which only one was much used. Aristoxenus calls it the Chroma tonaion (xpw/iarovatoj-). It ascended the tetrachord by semitone, semitone, and minor third, as below. On the Octave Lyre A being the key note it stood thuS' — i =i«^ ->ri--fia- TiKai, avvTov written played (4) The tied trill (tremblement lie) was almost the same at the preceding, only that the first two notes were tied : written played : (5) The prepared trill (tremblement appuyS or pripare) was when a slight pause was made before commencing the shake, and its speed gradually increased : »■«- ^^ written pilayed : (6) A slided trill (tremblement coule) when the shake was preceded by a slide : written played Haupt (Ger.) Principal, chief, head ; as Hauptnote, the essential note in a turn or shake, &c. Hauptmanual (Ger.) The great organ. Hauptnote (Qer.) An essential note. Hauptperiode {Ger.) Principal isubjfect. Hauptsatz (Ger.) Principal theme or subject. Hauptschluss (Ger.) A perfect cadence. Hauptstimme (Ger.) Principal part. Hauptwerk (Ger.) The great organ. Hausse (Fr.) The nut of a violin bow, Hausser (Fr.) To raise, lift, to sharpen, Haut {Fr.) High ; as, haute centre, the alto part ; haute dessus, treble part ; haute taille, first or high tenor. Hautbois (Fr.) [Oboe.] Hautbois d'amour (Fr.) A small species of oboe, now obsolete. Music written for it can be played on the ordinary instrument. Hautboy. [Oboe.] H dur. (Ger.) The key of B major. Head, (i) The membrane stretched upon a drum. (2) That part of a violin or other stringed instrument in which the pegs are inserted. (3) The portion of a note which determines its position upon the stave, and to which the tail is annexed. Head-stall. A head-band or Cdpisfrum,- q. V. The Use of the v/ord stall in the sense oi bandage is Still to be found in Our word finger-stall. Head-voice. [Voice.] Heftig (Ger.) Boisterous, impetuous. Heiss (Ger.) Hot, ardent. Heiter (Ger.) Clear, calm. Feierlich heiter, solemn and calmi Helicon (Gk.) iKikuv. An instrument used by the Greeks in the calculation of musical ratios. Hemidiapente. An imperfect fifth. Hemiditone. The lesser or minor third. Hemlolios {Gk.) ^/jtdXios. (i) The ratio 3 to 2. The sanle as the sesquialtera in Latin treatises on music. (2) A kind df metre. A verse consisting of a foot and a half. Hemiopus (Gk.) fniiorrog. Having a small number of holes, iijxiowoi ai/Xoi, small flutes with three ventages. Hemitone. ' A semitone. Heptachord, (i) A series of seven notes. A diatonic octave without the upper note. (2) An instrument with seven stringSi Herabstrich (Ger.) The down stroke of the bow in playing stringed instruments. A down-bow. Herstrich. [Herabstrich.] Hexachofdi A series of six sounds. [Notation.] Hey de Guise, A country dance, " In our antique hey de guise we go beyond all natibns.'' Middleton. [Country dance.] Hidden Fifths, or Octaves. [Gonsecu- tives.] Hitiaufstcich \ fr.„\ a „ „„ i,„,„ Hinstrich | (^^'^O An up-tow. His (Ger,) The note B sharp. Hissing. A manner of showifig dissatis- faction. (Applause.] [Fiasco.] H moll (Ger.) The key of B ttiiflor. Hoboe. [Oboe.] Hoboy. [Oboe.] [Waits.] Hocket, Hoket, Ochetus. A species of part music, in which the voices seem to h&ve had to keep a large number of rests, the notes being divided into several parts for the purpose. It was the same as truncatio (truncatio idem est quod hoket). The truncatio was certainly a division of a long note into many smallet ones with rests between (pausatio), and was founded either on an original theme (ten^rem excogitatum), or a well-known tune (certum cantum) either popular (vulgare) or ecclesi- astical (latinum). The application of the word to part-music seems to have been brought about by its Latin synOnym conductus, for the Greek dxeros signifies also a conduct or conduit, atiid this name was commonly given in the 15th ■century to a kind of motet. ( aafi ) HOCHZEITMARSCH HORN. probably from the " bringing together" of the voices. Hochzeitmarsch(Ge»-.) Aweddingmarch. Hohlfiote {Ger.) [Flute.] Hold. An old English name for the sign of a pause /t\. Holding note. A note sustained in one part, while the others are in motion. Homophony {Gk.) Unison of voices or instruments of the same character. 6u6(p m 1 \l ■ i ^^ ■ " -fi^-^ = ai tr— "— 1 ■ — 1 — F^ Had planted ma - ny one. r^f^jL— s> = (S f-^— — p^ .. ,1 H In 1728, a professedly corrected edition of " Ravenscroft," edited by William Turner, was published by William Pearson ; and another edition by J. Buckland in 1746. The " Harmonia Perfecta " of 1730, which pro- fessed to give the chief of Ravenscroft's tunes, avoided most of his syncopations, and spoiled many of his harmonies. In 1615 appeared Andrew Hart's " Scotch Psalter; the cl. Psalms of David in prose and metre ; with their usual notes and tunes, newly corrected and amended." Edinburgh, printed by Andrew Hart. In this edition the (236 ) HYMN TUNES. melody only appears, the harmonized edition being dated 1635. It contains a tune for each Psalm. That the versifications of Tate and Brady, known as the " New Version'' of the Psalms, had any beneficial influence on the culture of psalmody has never been pretended ; but with the cbmposition of hymns by Wesley and his followers came a new poetic material of which musicians were not slow to avail them- selves. New compositions, in the new measures, and with the greater warmth of feeling suggested by the words, and differing entirely, both in melody and harmonization from the older school, follow naturally. The tune books and hymnals with which the piress abounds, present every variety of these — from the very time of Wesley to the present — and these lie open before the student'. In both melody and harmony they reflect not unhappily the style of the time in which they were written. In the following example the employment of the voices is akin to that in a glee, and short passages are employed " a la fug^e." It is from " Melodia Sacra ; or. The Devout Psalmist's New Musical Companion," &c., &c. By William Tans'ur, Senior. " Musico Theorico," &c., London, G. Bigg, 1772. The method employed has long been acknow- ledged as utterly unsuited to any good pur- pose: WESTERHAM. CM. As Ps. Ixxxi. Old or New Version. Ih Four Parts. W. T. and lift up your voice To Ja cob's The following is from ' ' Parochial Psalmody," dedicated to His Majesty George the Fourth, ( 237 ) HYPEJK HYPORCHEMA. by Thomas Greatorex, Conductor of His Majesty's Concert of Ancient Music, and Organist of Westminster Abbey ; London, 182 . . (?) Many good examples of this style of writing may be found in the works of composers of the same date : WESTMINSTER. CM. Psalm cv. New Version. " Sing praise to God." tr ^^^S ^m ?z A quotation from an older melody. Remark in both the above (though separated by an interval of fifty years, and the latter about fifty years only from our own time), the frequent occurrence of the " tr," even on the four notes of the same chord.* The following are examples of a style " to be avoided." They are reprinted without words, and in melody only, to show how unlike any accepted or acceptable form of music suited for Divine worship they are : 8.7.8.7. (DOUBLE.) ' Hyper, ymip (Gk.) Above. A prefix to the names of modes one fourth above the authentic; as, Hyper-Eolian, Hyper-Dorian, Hyper-Iastian or Ionian, Hyper-Lydian, Hyper-Phrygian. [Greek Music] Hyper-diapason. Super-octave. Hypo, viro (Gk.) Below. A prefix to the names of modes commencing one fourth below the authentic, otherwise called Plagal, as, Hypo-Dorian, Hypo-Eolian, Hypo-Iastian or Ionian, Hypo-Lydian, HyQO-Phrygian [Greek Music] [Plain Song.] Hyporchema (Gk.) viropxni^"^- A religious hymn and dance connected with the worship of Apollo from the earliest times. * For some interesting remarks as to the trillo as an integral part of a composition, see Preface to Hullah's edition of Pergolesi's " Stabat Mater." (238 ) IAMBUS IMITATION. Iambus. A metrical foot consisting of a short syllable and a long. [Metre.] Hynins are roughly said to be Iambic when thej' Consist of such feet, the music com- mencing on the upbeat, e.g., " All praise to Thee, my God, this night." lastian. Ionic. [Greek Music] Idyll (Gk.) sldvWiov. Lit., a small form. Hence, a beautiful form, (i) A poem of elegant structure, frequently, though not always, on a pastoral subject. (2) Music set to a poem of this character. II doppio movimento {It.) Double time, twice as fast. II fine {It.) The end. II piil (it.) Lit., the most, as, il pih piano possibile, as soft as possible, &c. Imhoccat\iTa{It.), Embouchure {Fr.) Birn {Ger.) The mouth-piece of a wind-instrument. Imitando {It.) Imitating, as, imitando la voce, imitating the voice part, &c. Imitation. The repetition of a short subject by another part. The subject pro- posed is sometimes called the antecedent, and the passage which afterwards imitates it the consequent. If the consequent is at a fixed interval from the antecedent throughout, the imitation is said to be strict, e.g. : If the consequent only roughly follows the antecedent, the imitation is said to be free, e.g.: Imitation may be at any interval, and may be supprorted by any number of parts, and though it often forms an important element of fugue, it is unrestricted by the laws of subject and answer which are binding in that form of composition. The following are examples of imitation at the second : This subject may be treated in three parts as follows, including imitation at the third and sixth : Examples of imitation at various intervals and numbers of parts might be multiplied to any extent. Imitation by augmentation is when the consequent is in notes twice the length of those of the antecedent, e.g. : Antecedent. Imitation by diminution is when the con- sequent is in notes half the length of those of the antecedent, e.g. : -^-^---^ t&c. Imitation by inversion is when the intervals of the antecedent are inverted in order to form the consequent : Bach. ( 239 ) IMMER INSTRUMENT. Imitation is said to be convertible when antecedent and consequent are interchange- able. If strict imitation be continued for any length of time it is said to be canonical, Immer (Ger.) Always, as, immer langsam, slow throughout. Impaziente, impazientemente {It.) Impatient, impatiently. Imperfect. Not perfect, (i) An imperfect interval is one which is a semitone less than perfect. (2) The imperfect consonances are the third and sixth, as opposed to the fourth and fifth. (3) An imperfect cadence is one which does not give complete rest in key. All cadences not having a dominant or sub- dominant penultimate are said to be imper- fect. [Cadence.] (4) An imperfect stop on an organ is one, the pipes of which do not extend through the whole compass of the manual. A short stop. (5) Duple measure was formerly called imperfect, as opposed to tempus petfectum, triple time. Imperioso (It.) With grandeur, dignity, imperiously. Impeto, con (It.) i Impetuosatnente (It.) I Impetuously. Impetuoso (It.) J Implied discord. A discord, the actual percussion of which is not found unless other parts be added to the chord, e.g. : The intervals forming the above chord are practically minor thirds, which are not in themselves discordant. Implied intervals. Intervals not ex- pressed in thorough bass figuring. [Figured bass.] Imponente (It.) In an emphatic, pom-, pous style. Impresario (It.) A designer, conductor, or manager of a concert or opera party. This term is often applied to a man who trains singers, or obtains them for public per- formances. Impromptu (It.) (i) A piece of music written or played without previous prepara- tion of the subject. An extempore perform- ance. [Extempore.] (2) A composition not in any set form, having the character of an extempore piece. Improvvisamente {It.) Unprepared, un- premeditated, extempore. Improvvisare (7^) To found an extem- pore piece upon a suddenly suggested sub- ject. Improvvisatore {It.) Improvisateur {Fr.) One who has the gift of improvising. [Extem- pore.] Improviser {Fr.) To improvise. In alt {It.) All notes in the first octave beyond the range of the treble stave. [Pitch.] In altissimo {It.) All notes beyond the range of the first octave in alt. [Pitch.] Incantation. The utterance of a charm or spell in a singing, monotonous tone. Inchoatio {Lat.) The Intonation or in- troductory notes of a plain-song chant. Indeciso {It.) Undetermined. In an undecided manner. {ndi£rlmlmentel(^^-) With indiifer- Indifferenza. con j ^"'=^' °' ""concern. Inferior. {Lat.) Lit., lower. At an interval below, as, Inversio in octavam in- feriorem; inversion at the octave below, &c. Infinite Canon. [Canon.] Inflexion. A departure from the Monotone in chanting. [Accent, § 4.] In fretta {It.) In haste. Hurriedly. Inganno (it.) Lit., deception, as, cadenza d'inganno, a deceptive cadence. Inner parts. Those portions of the harmony that are not at the top or bot- tom. Inner pedal. A sustained note in one of the inner parts. [Sustained note.] Inno {It.) A Hymn. Innocentemente ") {It.) Innocently. In Innocente Va child-like artless Innocenza, con J manner. In nomine, (i) The name given to a free fugue as opposed to one constructed in strict accordance with the rules of fugue-form. (2) A piece in fugal style, that is, consisting largely of imitation and of contrapuntal devices, sometimes vocal, sometimes for in- struments alone. When used in this sense the name has been by some traced to the words forming part of the Benedictus — in nomine Domini, and by others from the words of the Antiphon "in festo sanctissimi nominis Jesu," commencing "in nomine Jesu omne genu flectatur." Others again trace it to- verse 5 of Psalm xx. " We will rejoice in Thy salvation, and triumph in the name (in nomine) of the Lord our God." The in nomines which exist are chieiiy the pro- duction of composers of the i6th century. Inquieto (It.) Restless, agitated. Insensibile {It.) ) Imperceptibly, by Insensibilmente {It.) ) degrees. Instrument k I'archet {Fr.) An instru- ment played with a bow. Instrument & cordes (Fr.J) A stringed Instrumento a corda. {It.)) instrument. Instrument. Any mechanical contri- vance for the production of sound : The musical instruments employed are divided into the following classes. Stringed,, wind, and pulsatile. The stringed instruments are ( 240 ) INSTRUMENTATION INTERVAL. the pianoforte and older instruments of its kind which are played by means of a clavier or key-board ; the guitar and others whose strings are struck or plucked by the fingers ; and the violin class played with a bow. Wind instruments are of wood or metal ; those that are of wood are the flute, piccolo, hautboy, cor anglais, clarionet, basset horn, and bassoon; those that are of metal are the horn, trumpet, cornet-a-pistons, trombone, ophicleide, saxhorn, bombardon, &c. The pulsatile or percussion instruments are the kettle-drums, great drum, side drum, triangle, cymbals, and tambourine. A description of each will be found under its proper head. Instrumentation. The art of using several musical instruments in combination ; also, the style or treatment of orchestral in- struments with a view to the production of special effects. [Orchestra.] Instrument a vent (Fr.) \ A wind in- Instrumento da fiato {It.)\ strument. Instrumentirung (^Ger.) Instrumentation. Intavolare {It.) To set in notes, to score, to copy. In tempo (It.) or a tempo, in strict time. A direction to follow strict time after any passage in which has occurred a rail., &c. Interlude, interludium (Lat.) A piece of music either impromptu or prepared, played between the acts of a drama, the verses of .a canticle or hymn, or between certain portions of a church service. Intermede (Fr.) Intermedio (It.) An interlude. Intermedietto (It.) A short interlude. Intermezzo (It.) An interlude. Interrupted Cadence. [Cadence.J Interruzione, senza (7^) Without hin- drance, without pause. Interval. The distance between any two sounds. In discussing all subjects relating to melody, or to the construction of chords, it is necessary to find names for the various kinds of intervals. Hence, in the earliest treatises on music they are divided into classes. The old axiom that consonance depends on simplicity of ratio naturally led authors to draw a line at the point at which two sounds ceased to be consonant and became dissonant. Among the Greeks, the unison, octave, fifth, and fourth, were considered more perfect than the third and sixth and other intervals. In mediaeval treatises an interesting division of intervals into perfect, medium, and imperfect is found ; the unison and octave belonged to the first class, the fourth and fifth to the second, the third and sixth to the last. In later works appeared a division which is to this day followed by many writers, namely, into Perfect and Im- perfect. This division runs thus : Intervals Consonant Dissonant Perfect Imperfect 2nd, 7th All aug- 4th, 5th, 8th. 3rd, 6th. mented and di- minished intervals. So far, this division seems plain enough. But modem music requires that intervals shall be designated according to their scale value. Hence a perfect interval when accidentally flattened becomes imperfect, and a major interval minor. But the application of the word imperfect to a perfect interval made smaller led to serious confusion, because, an imperfect fifth came as a subdivision of perfect intervals, while imperfect intervals of themselves formed a separate class. To avoid this cross-division, theorists have in the last few years used the name diminished for perfect fifths reduced by one semitone. But it is important to note that by this change of name a new difficulty arises, for diminished has almost fey universal consent been applied to certain intervals when made less than minor, for example, C# to BP is a diminished seventh because C# to B# is a major seventh, CJf to Blj a minor seventh, C# to B!7 one semitone less than minor. The word diminished when applied by these authors to a fourth or fifth signifies that it is reduced from its normal state by one semitone, but the same word " diminished " when applied to a seventh signifies that it is reduced by two semitones. That utter confusion should result from such an undigested system is absolutely inevit- able ; and it will be found that professors and teachers of music to this day are unable to talk intelligibly to each other on the simple subject of " Intervals." For many years a system has been taught in Germany which makes the whole matter perfectly plain. It is this : — 1. Intervals are reckoned upwards, inclu- sively, and by the number of names of notes they contain. 2. Intervals are in their normal state when reckoned from the first note of the major scale. The lowest note of the interval being considered for the time as a tonic. 3. Normal intervals are major. Thus, D to Fjt is a major third, because F# is the third degree of the scale of D ; F to Bt7 is a major fourth, because Bb is the fourth of the scale of F ; B to FjJ is a major fifth, because FJ is the fifth of the scale of B ; and so on. In other words, all the intervals of any major scale reckoning up from the tonic respectively are major. 4. Intervals one semitone less than major are minor. Thus, C to Dl? is a minor second (241) INTIMO INTONATION. because it is one semitone less than the norrrial D in the scale of C ; B to FJj is a minor fifth because one semitone less than the normal F}f in the scale of B ; and so on. 5. Intervals one semitone greater than major are augmented. Thus, C to D# is an augmented second, because it is one semitone greater than C to D, the normal interval ; C to Gj, an augmented fifth ; and so on. 6. Intervals one semitone less than minor are diminished. Thus, F# to E!7 is a diminished seventh ; C# to Gt>, a diminished fifth; CJ to El7, a diminished third ; and so on. The simplicity of this system is already apparent; The following diagram shows it at a glance : Major 8th Major 7th Major 6th Major 5th Major 4th Major 3rd Major and CDEFGABC Minor 8th , Minor 7th Minor 6th , Minor 5th Minor 4th , Minor 3rd . Minor 2nd . C Db El? Fb Gb Ab Bb C? Augmented 8th Augmented 7th Augmented 6th,. Augmented 5th!, Augmented 4th' Augmented 3rd Augmented 2nd C DtE|F|:G|A|B$Ct Diminished 8th Diminished 7th| Diminished 6th' Diminished 5th. Diminished 4th Diminished 3rd. Diminished 2nd, ^, ( C T)i>\> Ebb Fbb Gbb Abb Bbb ebb or CS Db Eb Fb Gb At? B£> Ct> It will be seen from this last that diminished intervals are produced in two ways — either by making the upper note of a minor interval flatter, or by making the lower note of a minor interval sharper. Hence it is that some intervals have to be calculated from notes not having a diatonic scale of their own; thus, B# to A% In such cases, the nature of the interval is readily found by temporarily reducing the lower note; thus, Bb to At| is a minor seventh, therefore BJ to AH, being a semitone less than minor, must be a diminished seventh. The following is the simplest form of stating the rule for naming intervals accord- ing to this system. "When asked thp nature of any interval, bear in mind the major scale of the lower note, then, if the upper note is higher by a semitone than it would be in the major scale of the lower note, it is augmented ; if the upper note is actually a note of that major scale it is major ; if it is less than major by one semitone it is minor ; if it is less than minor by one semitone it is diminished. When the lower note is a sharpened note, which has no scale of its own, consider it as one semitone lower, when the interval can be easily determined, e.g., Cjtjt to G# is a minor fifth, because the in- terval is one semitone less than CJ( to Gg, the normal fifth. When the lower note is a flattened note, which has no scale of its own, consider it as temporarily raised before deter- mining the nature of the interval, thus Cbb to Gb is an augmented fifth, because it is one semitone greater than the normal fifth Cb to Gb." , The only obstacle to the general adoption of this excellent method of tabulating intervals is to be found in the pertinacity with which professors adhere to the expression, perfect fifth and ■perfect fourth, and abhor the term major fifth and major fourth. This absurd prejudice, which arguments drawn from the history and science of music seem to have no power to remove, must be allowed to die of old age. If there is any real distinction between the perfection of a fifth and the imperfection of a third, it might even then be allowed to students to call fourths and fifths major, on the understanding that they also possessed a remarkable perfection which no other intervals possess. It has been suggested that intervals should be called, instead of (i) minor, (2) major, and (3) augmented; (i) minor, (2) normal, and (3) major. This would certainly be a better system than any yet devised ; but it is to be feared that it would be impossible to disturb the universally accepted meaning of the word major. Intervals greater than major or normal have been termed (besides augmented) ex- treme, sharp, superfluous, pluperfect, &c. Intimo (Jf.) With inward emotion. Intonare (If.) To tune, to sing. Intonation, (i) The method of producing sound from a voice or an instrument. (2) Correctness of pitch ; e.g., just intonation, singing or playing in perfect tune. (3) The method of chanting certain portions of the church services. [Accent, § 4.] (4) The C242) INTONATOR ITE MISSA EST. Intrepidamente l ,j. , „ , Intrepidezza, con V- \ '■' .^, Intre?ido Jingly, with notes which precede the reciting-note in a Gregorian chant. Intonator. A monochord, or single string stretched across a flat sound-board. Below the string is a diagram of the exact divisions of the monochord necessary for the produc- tion of the true musical scale. By means of a moveable bridge, the student is able to sound the notes represented on the diagram, and so, to educate his ear to a true sense of relative pitch. Intonazione {It.) Intonation. Intoning. The practice of chanting in the Anglican church service, which includes the delivery of the prayers in monotone, and the precenting or leading of the plain song of the Psalms, Credo, Cantioles, &c. Intrada {It.) (From intra, between). An interlude or entr'acte. {It.) Boldly, dar- courage. Introduction. A preparation for, or pre- amble of, a movement or series of movements. Introductions were formerly employed only before larger musical works such as oratorios and operas, but are now used as preparations to works of nearly every kind from a cantata to a waltz. Introducimento {It.) An introduction. Introduzione (/f.) Introduction. Introit. Introito {It.) Introitus {Lat. from intro-eo). An antiphon sung while the priest proceeds to the altar to celebrate mass. In the Anglican Church, a short anthem, psalm, or h3mttn, sung while the minister pro- ceeds to the table to administer the Holy Communion. Formerly, in some English cathedrals, the Sanctus was sung as an In- troit. This practice arose probably from the fact that the Communion Service soon after the Reformation ceased to be performed chorally, a proof of which is found in the fact that for nearly two centuries — namely, from 1660 to 1840 — the Sanctus was never set to music except as an Introit, nor was the Gloria in excelsis set, but as an anthem. [Cathedral music] Invention, (i) The gift of finding new melodic ph'rases, or new combinations in har- mony. The possessor of such a gift is fre- quently the founder of a school or style in music. (2) Suites das pieces. [Suite.] (3) The name of a piece of music of a fanciful character. Invenzione {It.) Invention. Inversion. The transposition of certain phrases having a common root. There are three kinds of inversions in music — (i) of chords ; (2) of intervals ; (3) of subjects. (i) The inversion of a chord is effected by making one of the inner notes act as a bass note, and by this means as many inversions can be made, as there are actual notes in the chord, not counting the root. In such inver- sions the harmony remains the same, although the order of component parts is changed. (2) Intervals are inverted by making that which was the upper note the lower, and the reverse. The inversion of an interval within the octave may readily be found in the differ- ence between the figure g and the interval known ; thus an interval of a second becomes a seventh by inversion, &c. (3) The inversion of a subject is produced by inverting the intervals of which it con- sists. [Al rovescio.] Invitatorium {Lat.) A sort of introduc- tory sentence or antiphon immediately pre- ceding one of the of&ces of the Church ; such, for instance, as"' parts of the Venite exuUemiis, or other words inviting the presence or atten- tion of the congregation. Invitatory. [Invitatorium.] Ionian mode. The Church mode com- mencing on the note C. Ira, con Iratamente {It.) WrathfuUy, with anger. Irato j Irish bagpipe. [Bagpipe.] Irish harp. [Harp.] Irlandais {Fr.) In the Irish style. Ironicamente) ,,, N t ■ n Ironico |(^'-) Ir°n;«=^%- Irresoluto {It.) Uncertain, without set- tled purpose, in an undecided manner. Isochronism. Periodical recurrence. [Acoustics.] Ison {Gk.) In the music of the early Greek Church, the ison was the key-note or tonic of a chant. The ison was moveable. Istesso {It.) The same; as, I'istesso tempo, at the same pace. Istrumento. An old form of str omenta, an instrument. Italian sixth. The name of a chord con taining a bass note accompanied by a majoi third and a sharp sixth. [Extreme sixth.] Italian strings. Catgut strings for violins and similar instruments, prepared in a pecu- liar manner, so that they are more transparent in appearance, and less liable to become false in use than ordinary strings. The majority of real ItaUan strings are made in Rome. [Catgut.] Italienne, a 1' {Fr.) \i^ the Italian style. Italiano {It.) ] Ite missa est {Lat.) The concluding words of the Mass in the Romish Church, from whence the name of that service (Mass) is derived. ( 243 ) JACK JIG. J. Jack. The name of the hoppers attached to the keys of a harpsichord ; the end of the jack was furnished with a quill, as plectrum, to pluck the strings. [Pianoforte.] Jager-chor (Ger.) Hunting chorus. Jaleo. Zaleo {Sp.) A national dance of Spain. Janitscharen-musik (Ger). Janissary music, noisy music on instruments of per- cussion. Jeu (Fr.) A stop on the organ, or har- monium. Grand jeu, the full power. Jeu d'anche (Fr.) Reed stop. Jeu d'ange (Fr.) The vox angelica stop. Jeu de &tte (Fr.) Flute stop. Jeu d'orgue (Fr.) An organ stop. Jeux doux (Fr.) Sweet or soft stops. Jeux forts (Fr.) Loud stops. Je'w's harp, yew's trump, tromp de Mam, (Fr.), Mundtrommel, Brummeisen (Ger.) A simple musical instrument held between the lips, the musical sound coming from the vibra- tions of a tongue of metal, bent at a right angle, which is set in motioti by being twitched with the forefinger. The sound is increased in intensity by the breath, and altered in pitch by the shape of the cavity of the mouth, which acts as a reflector. This name some derive fromjeMj/iZayjfrom thefact of its being a toy; others find the derivation of the word in the manner in which the instrument is used, Jaw's trump ; the German word Maultrommel seems to confirm the latter derivation. Insignificant as the instrument seems, it is capable of producing the most beautiful and pleasing sounds of a melancholy character. A common soldier, named Koch, who served in the army of Frederick the Great, first raised the Jew's harp from a toy to a solo instru- ment, and a M. Eulenstein gave concerts in London some fifty years ago, during which he performed upon sixteen instruments, by which means he obtained a compass of four octaves. The Jew's harp is an old invention, being mentioned under the name of Cremba- lum by Prffitorius in his Organographia, in the year i6ig. It is a favourite instrument with the Hottentots, at the Cape, who load the end of the elastic spring or vibrator with small portions of hard wax to deepen the tone. The inhabitants of the island of St. Kilda were formerly great proficients upon this, which was their only instrument of music. Jig. Gigue (Fr). Giga (It.) (i) A lively dance which may be performed by one or more dancers. It is popular among many nations, is distinguished by various titles, and has a certain amount of difference in the steps according to the habits and customs of the people by whom it is adopted. With some it is a sober, steady, jog-trot sort of a country dance, with others it is a wild, savage exercise, without point or meaning. With some it is made a means of displaying the agility of the lower limbs of a combined company of dancers ; with others it is a terpsichorean drama for two performers, in which all the emotions excited by love are represented by gestures and monosyllabic cries. The, Hornpipe, La Matelotte, La Segui- dilla, the Czardasch, the Reel, the Rant, are portions of the country dance ; the Bolero and the Chica are only jigs in various forms. The term has been derived from the word chica, the name of a dance identical with the jig in some of its characteristics. But the similarity of the title of the instrument " Geige," a fiddle, with which the dance was usually accompanied, with the name of the dance, would seem to point to an origin similar to that of " hornpipe," where the character of the instrument gave the name to the tunes played upon it. The jig, gigue, gighe, or giga, as it is variously spelt, was one of the instruments used by the musicians of the I2th and 13th centuries, and this is generally understood to have been a sort of fiddle. The "Geige," or "jigg" may have received its name from the " up and down " motion with which it is played. A fiddlestick is still called in the west of England a "jigger," and there is a sort of pump used by brewers which has the same name. In the east of England a sieve is called a "jigg'in," and there are many other words of cognate origin, which it would scarcely serve the present purpose to quote. ' Songs sung by clowns in the interludes to the plays were called jigs, and any ambling rhyme was also called a "jig." ( 244 ) JIG. In the romance of " Gawaine and the Green Knight," the word Bauderyk is used. It is explained in the " Promptorium Parvu- lorum" as meaning " guige," a transverse strap, by which the shield was suspended round the neck. The use of the word with such a meaning may account for the fact that the vielle or hurdy-gurdy is called geige, gigalira or giga-vel-lira from having been slung round the body. Jig-tunes or fiddle-tunes are frequently found in old MS. and printed collections from the 1 6th century onwards. They are all of lively character though of no special or dis- tinctive rhythm. Jigs, though now danced by one, or by two at the most, were formerly " round dances," in which many did indulge. " the mad lads And country lasses, every mother's child With nosegays and bridle-laces in their hats Dance all their country measures, rounds, and jigs." Heywood " A woman killed with kindness." Mr. Chappell (Popular Music, p. 792), says that "the jig is now associated in the public mind with Ireland," but he further, says that he has " not found one called Irish before the latter part of the 17th century." Scotch jigs were noticed before Irish jigs, as for example,by Shakespear in " Much Ado about Nothing," comparing " wooing, wedding, and repenting " with a Scotch jig, a measure and a cinque-pace ; and this comparison im- plies that the Scotch jig was of a lively character. (z) As a movement in a " suite," the jig is found in works produced towards the latter part of the 17th century, and onwards to the time of Haydn. At first the phrases were short, and of no more variety than was needed for the purposes of the dance, for the jig was occasionally one of the figures of the country dance. But later it was made the vehicle for display in harpsichord playing, and was lengthened and elaborated and became the origin of the last movement of the sonata. It was written in |, |, |, |, f , %, and V^ time ; the peculiarity of the rhythm of triplets was nearly always preserved if not insisted upon. Sir John Hawkins says that the character- istic of the jig " is duple time, thus marked f or i^," and " that the air consists of two strains, undetermined as to the number of bars;" others say it is "of compounds of threes in time," and many of the " gigues " belonging to the "suites" are written to show the prominence of the triplets. But the following "jigg" out of " Compositions for Broken and Whole Consorts of two, three, fibwer, fiive and six parts, made by Matthew Locke, composer in ordinary to His Majesty Charles the II.," written in 1672, is an example of duple measure and unusual rhythm. /brCTJCr #^T^ i^rr^ >|J ^^J^Jiii fr)^ ' ^ ^^ — = — J 1 1 H-a-i "*^ a-u J f :t=rr^f>. jj J ! \>JJj J i;ii F=^U-Q'^ ^■" The subjoined specimens of jig tunes will give an idea of the progress in treatment from the earliest time when the dance was adopted as a harpsichord piece, until it began to be disused. A JEGG. Ben Rogers, af Windsor, 1678. ir ij jl-'rrn ^rirrrgfi ^^fM ^ I^J ffli-l — 1 — [ 1 i 1 L^ : 1 1 J. J.r Jj- , ■—4™ <&y-^^^^..^. ir^.p- f^U4 I 1 f^- r ■ ' ' 1 rr JIG.* Mr. EccLBS, c. z6go. ^jLfc^r i rr^Tff i Kjr'nrg^ffl ' A modification of this tune is still employed for the so-called Irish Jig. ( 245 ) JIG. GIGUE. J. Mattheson, i68ir— 1722. f"'' r^ ' ij.r i r ^ ^ ^ (246) JINGLES JUSTESSE. Jingles. Discs of tin, brass, or bell metal, fastened at intervals round a tambourine. [Tambourine.] Jobel (Heb.) A word applied in the Holy- Scriptures to certain trumpets or horns. It is probably equal to the affix jubilee ; but, jubilee-horns were used for other purposes besides that of proclaiming of jubilees. Joculator. [Troubadour.] Jodeln (Ger.) Jodie, Jodl. A peculiar method of singing adopted by the Swiss and Tyrolese, by the rapid alternation in melodic progressions, of the natural and falsetto voice. The following is a specimen of a jddl at the close of a national Swiss song. (8ve. lower.) Ben i nit e lus- ti - ge Bue ? jo lia ho al li i M_j -I ^ ^f ^^^= ^f-^^^^ Jongleurs. [Confr6rie de St. Julien.] [Troubadour.] Jump. Another name for the dance called a dumpe. [Dump.] Just intonation. The correct sounding of intervals in singing or playing. [In- tonation.] Juste {Fr.) Lit., just. In tune. Justesse {Fr.) Equality, purity, and cor- rectness ; as justesse de la voix, purity of intonation, jfustesse de I'oreille, correctness of ear. ( 247 )' KABARO KETTLE-DRUMS. K. Kabaro. A small drum used by the Egypt- ians and Abyssinians. Kalamaika. A Hungarian dance. Kammer (Ger.) Chamber, e.g., Kammer- concert, chamber- concert ; Kammer -musik, chamber-music {q.v.) ; Kammer-ton, concert pitch. [Chorton.] Kandele or Kantele. The ancient min- strel's harp of the Finns. The name is also given to a species of dulcimer, having five strings, in use among the same people. Kanon. [Canon.] Kanonik. [Canon.] Kanoon. A dulcimer. [Canun.] Kapellmeister {Ger.) The leader or con- ductor of a band of music. [Capellmeister.], Keckheit {Ger.) Boldness, audacity, vigour. Keeners. Irish singing mourners, who, in olden times, were hired to howl at funerals, in perpetuation of a heathen custom derived from a Phoenician ancestry. The duty of professional keeners was undertaken by the females of the family, or acquaintance of the deceased. After the body had been dressed in grave-clothes, adorned with flowers, and placed upon a bier, the chief keener arranged his followers at the foot and head of the corpse, and recited at the first the Caoinan, in which were described the virtues and pos- sessions of the departed. This eulogy sung softly, and accompanied upon the harp, was followed by a full chorus of all assembled ; the ullalu, or hubbaboo as it was sometimes called, next followed, joined in by every one in a louder voice ; and after this was ended, the goul, or lament, followed, in which the sounds were often raised to howls and yells. The process was repeated during the wake or vigil before the burial, the keeners sometimes following the corpse to the grave. When the body was laid down for the purpose of resting the bearers, or the procession came in sight of a wayside cross or chapel, the keening was suspended, and all present knelt to say in silence an Ave or a Pater noster, a practice which may be held to denote that keening was felt to be incongruous with Christian usage. Kemangeh. An Arabian instrument of the fiddle class. [Violin.] Kent Bugle. [Metal wind instruments.] Keras {Gk.) Ktpae , a horn. Originally, any instrument made out of the horn of an animal. Lat., cornu. Kerana or Kerrena. The name of the Persian horn which is sounded at sunset and at midnight. Keraulophon. An organ stop, invented by Gray and Davison. Its pipes are of small scale, and are surmounted by a moveable ring of metal. Its tone is soft, delicate, and reedy. Keren. A Hebrew trumpet. The word is sometimes used in the Bible as synonymous with shophar, and to it is sometimes affixed Jobel, rendered in the English version rams'- horns. Kern {Ger.) The language of an organ- pipe. Ketten-triller {Ger.) [Catena di trilli.] Kettle-drums. Timbales (Fr.) ; Timpani {It.) ; Pauken {Ger.) Instruments formed of shells of copper or brass, over the top of which parchment is stretched. Parchment is considered best when most transparent. There are two drums usually employed, the tuning of the larger being limited to the notes between m And of the smaller between ^ te So that the two drums overlap each other in compass by a tone. The tuning is effected by tightening or loosening the head or skin by means of a ring of metal moved by screws turned by a key. Several plans have been invented by v/hich they may be tuned from one screw. Cornelius Ward's plan was by means of an endless cord passing into the interior of the drum. Potter's is by curved rods outside the shell and meeting in the centre at the bottom. Drums are usually tuned to the tonic and dominant of the piece in which they are em- ployed, but other tunings are found in some ( •■^48 ) KEY KEY-BOARD. scores, as, for example, in Mendelssohn's Rondo in Bt|, in which the drums are in D and E. Beethoven, the first who elevated the drum from a mere noise-producing machine into an orchestral instrument, has his drums tuned in various way^ in his scores, as a reference to his symphonies will show. In No. 7, 1st and 2nd movements, they are in fifths played as written ; 3rd movement, in sixths as written. In No. 8, ist and 3rd movements, in fifths played as written ; 4th movement, in octaves. In No. g, ist move- ment, in fourths as written ; 2nd movement, in octaves ; 3rd movement, in fifths ; 4th, in fourths. Drums for all modern scores are of 8ft. tone, giving a definite and accurate note. When the drums are required simply for marking rhythmical measures, the i6ft. tone is best. For this reason modern writers add the long drum (grosse caisse, Fr.; gran cassa, Ji.; Trommel, Ger.) to their scores. The bass clef is usually employed in writing for the kettle-drums. Sometimes the notes required are written in their proper places on the stave, but the notes to which they are to be tuned is always stated, as : Timpani in D, A. Neither sharps nor flats are ever written as signatures for the drums. If the sounds required are the tonic and dominant of the key, the drum part may be written in C. If other notes are needed, the rule is to write the actual notes, but without sharps or flats : Timpani in Bb, F. ! Drums were formerly used in combination with trumpets [Dettingen Te Deum, Mozart's No. 6 Symphony], Beethoven being the first to employ them as a means of gaining special solo effects (see his Symphony in F, No. 8, and Scherzo of No. g). Snare, or side-drums, are employed in the same manner that the long-drum is, that is to say for rhythmical, not for harmonic effects. [See Rossini's overture to " La Gazza ladra," and the " Benedizione de pugnali " scene in Meyerbeer's " Huguenots."] The long-drum being played with one stick, the player is frequently called upon to per- form upon the cymbals at the same time, not with the best eff'ect with regard to the cymbals, for cymbals ought to be slided one over the other and not struck flat together. The best sort of sticks for the kettle-drums are those having whalebone handles with a wooden button covered by a piece of sponge ; by the use of these the finest gradations of tone may be gained. A long roll upon the drum is thus in- dicated : A short roll thus ; Kettle-drums are said to have been intro- duced into the orchestra by Handel, who employed a pair taken as part of the spoil at the battle of Dettingen, in the score of the Te Deum, written in celebration of that event ; but the drum was first employed by Lully to strengthen the tutti parts of his overtures and choruses. Among many remarkable passages for the drum may be noted that in A in the slow part of the overture to " Der Freischiitz," also one note C piano when the first subject (syncopated) of the middle movement returns. Four notes in Violin Concerto, Beethoven. In Haydn's Mass No. 2, and of " Agnus Dei," on the words " Dona nobis pacem," some soft notes of the drum are introduced which at first seem inappropriate. Key. (i) A mechanical contrivance for closing or opening ventages, as in flutes, clarinets, ophicleides, &c. By means of keys on such instruments, apertures too remote to be reached by the outstretched fingers are brought under control of the player. (2) A lever which brings the pallets of an organ under the control of the hand or foot of an organist. (3) A lever which controls the striking apparatus of a key-stringed instru- ment. In the harpsichord it acted on the jack, in the pianoforte it acts on the hammer. (4) The wrest or key used for tuning instruments having metal pegs. Its end is hollowed out, so as to fit over the four-sided end of the peg, and the crossbar with which it is surmounted gives leverage to the hand of the tuner, so that he is enabled to tighten or loosen a string, or (in the case of a drum) slacken or strain a parchment. (5) The sign placed at the com- mencement of the musical stave which shows the pitch of the notes, was originally called a clavis or key. This sign is called in modern music a clef. [Clef.] (6) Key, in its modern sense, is the starting point of the definite series of sounds which form the recognised scale. Different starting-points require the relative proportion of the steps of the scale to be maintained by means of sharps or flats in the signature. The key of C requires no flats or sharps for this purpose, hence it is called the normal key. Key-board. Clavier {Ger.) The range of keys upon a pianoforte or organ. Keys ( 249 ) KEY-BUGLE KYRIE ELEISON. played by the fingers are called manuals; those by the feet are called pedals. Key-bugle. [Metal wind instruments.] Key-chord. The common chord of the' tonic, e.g. : C, E, G is the key-chord of C. Key-note. The note which, according to the signature, forms the starting point of the scale. The tonic. The doh. Key-trumpet. [Metal wind instruments.] Khalil, Chalil, or Halil {Heb.) The flute of the Hebrews. As the word is traced to a root signifying bored through,it is quite possible that it may have been like the aulus, used to describe either a flute or an oboe. Kin. A Chinese musical instrument, the scholar's lute, a sort of dulcimer. King. A Chinese instrument of percussion, consisting of metal plates, which are struck with a hammer. Kink. A twist in a catgut string from close laying, which, by uncoiling and weaken- ing that part of the string in which it occurs, frequently makes it useless for the instrument for which it is intended. Kinnor. One of the most ancient of the Hebrew string -instruments, being the first mentioned in the Bible ; Jubal " was the father of such as handle the harp {kinnor) and organ • (M^a&) " (Genesis iv. 21). The German version has it, " from him descended ■fiddlers (Geiger) and pipers" PfeifFer). Several theories have been brought forward as to the nature of the kinnor. It has been variously described as a small harp, a lyre, and a guitar. Kirche [Ger.) Church, as Kirchencom- ponist, church composer ; Kirchenmusik, church music ; Kirchenstyl, church style, &c. Kit. Pochette (Fr.) Bretgeige \Ger.) A small violin, about sixteen inches long, played with a bow of nearly the same length, used by dancing masters because of its con- venience for carrying in the kit or pocket. It should be stated that some have derived the word from the Persian kitar, cithara, guitar. The Italian name of kit, sordino, is given to it because of its small stifled tone. Klang {Ger.) Sound, Quahty of sound, timbre. {Fr.) Klangboden {Ger.) Sound board. Re- sonance box. Klangfarbe {Ger.) Lit., sound-colour. Quality of sound, timbre. {Fr.) Klanggeschlecht {Ger.) A kind or genus of sounds, as diatonisches, chromatisches, und enharmonisches Klanggeschlecht, the diatonic^ chromatic, and enharmonic genera. Klangleiter {Ger.) A scale. Lit., sound- ladder. Klappe {Ger.) The key of any y^ind in- strument. A valve. Klappen-fliigel-horn {Ger.) Keyed bugle. Klappen-trompete {Ger.) Keyed trumpet. Klein {Ger.) Small, (i) Minor, as kleiner Halbton, a minor semi-tone ; kleiner Nonenak- kord, the chord of the minor ninth, &c. (2) Small, SlS Klein-bass, or kleine Bassgeige, a violoncello ; klein gedackt, a small stopped diapason, a stopped flute. Klingel {Ger.) A small bell. Knee stop. A mechanical contrivance on harmoniums, by which certain shutters are made to open gradually when the knees are pressed against levers conveniently placed for the purpose. A crescendo and diminuendo are thus produced. Knell. A stroke upon a bell made at periodic intervals, at the time of a death or funeral. " When thou dost hear a toll or knell, Then think upon thypassing bell." Old Proverb. A single stroke is made for a child, two strokes for a woman, and three for a man. Knicky-knackers. The common instru- ment of percussion known as bones. " Then let our armies join and sing," And pit-a-pat make our knackers ring." MiDDLETON. The Gipsy Rout, 1623. Kniegeige {Ger.) A Viola da gamba. Knoll. [Knell.] Kopfstimme {Ger.) Head voice. Voce di testa. {It.) Koppeln {Ger.) Couplers. [Organ.] Kraft {Ger.) Energy, vigour. Krdjtig, energetically. Kreis-lieder {fier^ A circle or series of songs. Kreuz (G^r.) The sign for a sharp. Doppelkreuz, a double sharp. Kriegslied, or Kriegsgesang {Ger.) A battle song. Krome {Ger.) A quaver J^{Lat. chroma). Krotalon. [Crotalum.] Kroumatic. Instrumental, KpovfiariKi'i IMvaiKti {Gk.), instrumental music. Sounds produced by striking. Krummhorn {Ger.) Lit., crooked horn. Cornetto curvo {It.) Corno storto {It.) An organ stop, consisting of reed pipes. It is of 8ft. pitch. This name has been corrupted to Cremona on English organs, Krustische instrumente {Ger.) Instru- ments of percussion (from Gk. Kpovoi, to strike). [Kroumatic], Kuhhorn {Ger.) Cor de vache {Fr.) A cow horn. The common Alpine horn. Kurz {Ger.) Short. Kyrie eleisoti {Gk.) [Mass.] ( 250 ) -LANTURN. L. L. The letter employed as the abbreviation of the word left or linke (Ger.), as L. H. left hand or linke Hand. La. (i) The solfeggio name for the sixth de^ee of the scale. (2) The key-note of the minor scale without a signature. La b6mol (Fr.) The note A flat. La bemol majeur (Fr.) The key of A flat major. La bemol mineur (Fr.) The key of A flat minor. Labial. Organ pipes with lips. Flue pipes. Labial-stimmen {Ger.) Stops belonging to the^Mfi work. Labium. The hp of an organ pipe. Lacrimoso (It.) Mournfully. Lade (Ger.) Wind-chest of an organ. La destra (It.) The right hand. La diese {Fr.) The note A sharp. Lagrimando {It.)\ Mournfully, sadly, Lagrimoso {It.) j tearfully. Lai {Fr.) A lay, song, lied. Lament. The name given to some Scotch melodies of a mournful character, or to tunes set to words of a melancholy cast. Lamentabile {It.) Lamentabilmente {It.) Lamentando {It.) \ Mournfully, Lamentevolmente {It.) f plaintively. Lamentevole {It.) Lamentoso {It.) Lampons {Fr.) Drinking songs, from the word lamper, to gulp down, whence, pro- bably our word lampoon, a libellous ballad. Lancers. The name of one of the arrange- ments of sets of country dances. Landler {Ger.) The name given to a dance popular among the Styrian peasants. The tune is of a lively, graceful character in f or I- time. Many of the melodies proper to this dance are of a beautiful and simple style. , ^^ -e- , - t_ f r J -I - J -I I ^ j _^ J I - L ^ ^"^^ 4A^ I w J U^ _ Pinp -i — F HI -' — Ml f" .) N -1 :|| r , J'^ w • \i* ' -4 U-^ =t=l ^ ^ S -^ ^laJYil^-r I r ftl' I r r - r r r f Langsam {Ger.) Slow; etwas langsam, rather slow; ziemlich langsam, moderately slow ; sehr langsam, very slow. Language of organ pipes. [Organ.] Languemente (Zi.) | j^ ^ languishing Languendo {It.) -.^^ Languente {It.) J ^ Languettes {Fr.) (i) The vibrating tongues of brass or other metal attached to the reed-pipes of an organ or harmonium. (2) The keys or valves of wind instruments generally. Languid. [Language.] Lantum. A name of uncertain derivation given to a modem instrument in form not unlike the hurdy-gurdy, but larger, and having metalUc reeds or tongues similar to tliose of (251) LARGAMENTE LARYNX. the accordion, concertina, or harmonium. The air is supplied by a rotatory bellows, the handle of which is at the bottom of the in- struments and the series of small square buttons or keys which are in front are played upon by the fingers. Largamente {It.) Slowly, widely, freely, fully. Large. A note formerly in use of the value of two longs, or four breves. [Nota.] Largement (Fr.) [Largamente.] Larghetto (It.) Lit., rather broadly, widely. At a slow pace, but not so slow as largo. Larghissimo {It.) Exceedingly slow, as slow as possible. Largo {It.) Slow, broadly. Largo assai (It.) Quite slow. Largo di molto {It.) Very slow. Largo ma non troppo {It.) Slow, but not too slow. Larigot {Fr.) (i) An old name for the flageolet. (2) An organ stop of 1 6 inches pitch. Larynx is the organ of voice ; the organ by means of which we produce vocal sounds. It is situated at the top of the trachea or wind-pipe, of which it forms a continuation, and its position is known popularly by that of the " Adam's apple," the prominence of one of the cartilages or masses of gristle which form it. Fig. I. FRONT VIEW OF HYOID BONE, LARYNX, TRACHEA, AND BRONCHI IN THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS. h. Hyoid bone ; e. epiglottis ; t. thyroid cartilage ; c. cricoid cartilage ; tr. trachea ; b. right bronchus ; b'. left bronchus. The essential parts are two semi-lunar membranes, placed with their flat sides next to one another, and called the " vocal cords," and the cartilages which support them. The accessory portions are certain other carti- lages, the muscles which move these cartilages, and the nerves and blood-vessels by which the whole structure is nourished and fur- nished with sensation and motion. The cartilages are nine in number, six paired, three unpaired. The unpaired carti- lages are the thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottis ; the paired are the two arytenoids, the two " cornicula laryngis " or cartilages of Santo- rini, and the cuneiform cartilages of Wrisberg. Fig. 2. BACK VIEW OF LARYNGEAL CARTILAGES. I. Epiglottis. 2. Thyroid cartilage: a. attachment of epiglottis ; b. of false vocal chords ; c. of true vocal chords. 3. Cricoid cartilage: a. facet for ary- tenoid cartilage ; b. facet for lower bone of thyroid cartilage. 4. Arytenoid and accessory cartilages : a. arytenoid cartilages ; 6. cornicula laryngis or cartilages of Santorini ; c . cuneiform cartilage or cartilage of Wrisberg. The cricoid cartilage is ring-shaped, as its name {icpiKoe, a ring) implies ; it is the base of the support of the other cartilages. It is not equally deep in all dimensions, but is much deeper, from above downwards, behind than in front. At the hindermost part are two small smooth elevations, and lower down are two other smooth surfaces. The former pair of these smooth surfaces serve as the articulations or joints for the arytenoid carti- lages which are perched on them and work with great • freedom ; the latter pair are the joints for part of the thyroid cartilages. The movements of the latter pair are not so free as those of the former, but are limited to a movement round an imaginary axis running across and through the cricoid cartilage, being thus a horizontal and transverse axis. The arytenoid cartilages {apvraiva, a pitcher) are perched on the two smooth elevations on the hinder part of the upper border of the cricoid cartilage. They are more or less pyramids of three sides in shape, but of the sides which form their base, two, viz., the posterior and internal, are at right angles to one another. The anterior tips are called the "processus vocales," or vocal processes, and to them are attached the vocal cords, of which we shall speak further on. On the summit of each of these pyramids are placed two other small cartilages, the " cornicula laryngis " (little horns of the larynx) or " cartilages of Santorini." The thyroid cartilage (shield-like, from flujOfde, a shield) is the largest of the carti- lages of the larynx. It is of a somewhat complicated shape. Take a thin book — a note-book will do vefy well — open it in the middle, place it upright, so that the two ( 252 ) LARYNX. covers shall be at an angle somewhat more acute than a right angle ; cut away the upper third of the back, or junction of the covers, so as to leave a notch above, and to each of the corners stick a piece of thin wood, such as a pencil, the two upper pencils pointing upwards, the lower downwards, and you will have a fair idea of the thyroid cartilage. The two lower horns articulate or join with the two lower smooth surfaces or "facets" on the cricoid cartilage ; to the two upper horns, ligaments are attached, which suspend the thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone, a horse- shoe shaped bone, with its convexity forward, forming the base of the tongue. The ante- rior part of the thyroid cartilage projects much more in adult men than in women or children, and the upper part of the anterior ridge, with the notch, form the projection known as the " pomum Adami," or Adam's apple, from an old tradition that the forbidden fruit stuck in his throat. The thyroid carti- lage at the passage from youth to adult age grows very suddenly larger in men, and as suddenly but to a less degree in women. On this relative size and .prominence of the thyroid cartilage depends the deepness of the voice, as will be hereafter mentioned. Fig- 3- BACK VIEW OF HYOID BONE, LARYNX, AND TRACHEA IN THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS (Only cartilages and bones shown), h h. Hyoid bone ; e. epiglottis ; t. thyroid cartilage ; a. arytenoid cartilages ; c. cricoid cartilage. The epiglottis (tirt on, and yXwrra the tongue) is a soft cartilage situated at the back of the tongue. In shape it resembles what is called technically in botany an "ovate" or " obcordate " leaf, i.e., it is oval above, and has a tail narrowing gradually from its lower end. This tail is prolonged by fibrous tissue and attached to the thyroid cartilage in the angle between its two sides, just below the notch. The front surface is free in its upper part, but below it is attached by an elastic liga- ment to the back of the hyoid bone. Its lateral or side borders are free at the upper- most part, but somewhat lower down a fold of mucous membrane (the skin lining any interior cavity is called by this name) runs backwards and joins the summit of the aryte- noid cartilage of each side. This fold is called the glosso-epiglottidean fold. In these folds lie two small conical cartilages, the cuneiform cartilages or the " cartilages of Wrisberg." Below the level of the hyoid bone on the posterior surface is placed a pad of fat and mucous membrane called " the cushion of the epiglottis," functionally a very im- portant structure. Fig. 4. INTERIOR OF LARYNX FROM BELOW. (About life-size.) cc. Cricoid cartilage; ac. arytenoid cartilage; tc. thyroid cartilage ; am. arytenoid muscle ; cap. crico- arytenoideus posticus muscle ; vc. vocal cord ; ta. thyro - arytenoideus muscle ; cal. crico - arytenoideus lateralis muscle. The true vocal cords, otherwise called the "vocal cords," aretwosemi-lunarmembranous folds which project on each side towards the middle line ; they are attached behind to the tips of the " processus vocales " of the aryte- noid cartilages, and in front, close together, to the angle between the two sides of the thyroid cartilage just below the notch. They are somewhat complex in structure, the basis of them is formed by two elastic bands near their edges, and both along these bands, the "inferior thyro-arytenoid ligaments," and more laterally, are muscles running in the same direction, which will be described later. The whole is covered by mucous membrane. Fig- 5- VERTICAL TRANSVERSE SECTION OF LARYNX. ep. Epiglottis; th. thyroid cartilage; a. ventricle of larynx ; v. vocal cord and its free edge ; cr. cricoid cartilage. The false vocal cords, called also the " superior vocal cords " are two folds of mucous membrane of the same general shape and direction as the former ; they are at- tached behind to the arytenoid cartilages above, and more laterally than the former, and ( 253 ) LARYNX, in front to the thyroid cartilages just above the Insertion of the true vocal cords. They enclose a ligament, the " superior thyro- arytenoid ligament." Their inner- edges do not approach the middle line so nearly as the true vocal cords. Between the upper and lower vocal cord of each side is the opening to the saccule or ventricle of the larynx, a small saccule or cavity, as its name implies, containing some gland cells for secreting mucus. It only remains to say that all the structures are covered with mucous mem- brane. Muscles. The larynx is covered with many muscles, but only those which are concerned in the production of the voice will here be mentioned. Fig. 6, SIDE VIEW OF LARYNX FROM RIGHT SIDE. tc. Thyroid cartilage; fm. pomum Adami; ce. cricoid cartilage ; ct. crico-thyroid muscle ; ctm. crico- thyroid membrane ; t. trachea. The crico-thyroid rises from the fore part of the outside of the cricoid cartilage and running back, spreads itself on nearly the whole of the lower part of the thyroid cartilage. The posterior crico -arytenoid rises from the back part of the outside of the cricoid carti- lage and is inserted into the outer or lateral angle of the base of the arytenoid cartilage, sometimes called the " processus muscularis," it also extends some distance along the back part of the base of the arytenoid cartilage. The lateral crico -arytenoid rises from the tipper border of the side of the cricoid carti- lage, and is inserted into the front side of the lateral projecting part of the base of the arytenoid cartilage nearly as far as the " pro- cessus vocalis." The arytenoid is a single muscle, while all the other laryngeal muscles are paired ; it runs across at the back of the arytenoid car- tilages between them and joins them. The aryteno-epiglottidean muscles rise from the lower and outer angles of the back of the arytenoid cartilages, run across to the upper and outer part of the base of the opposite arytenoid cartilages, crossing each other as they do so (like a pair of braces), and some fibres run no farther but are attached there ; the rest pass forwards in the aryteno-epi- glottidean fold and are inserted into the sides of the epiglottis. Thie thyro-epiglottideus is composed of two parts, rising from the inner aspect of the fore part of the thyroid cartilage and having the following course, some (thyro-epiglottideus major) curve outside the saccule of the larynx and are inserted into the side of the epiglottis, others run straight up and are attached to the epiglottis on each side of the cushion and below the insertion of the larger muscle. This is called the " thyro-epi- glottideus minor." The thyro-arytenoid is likewise divided into two portions. Part of it (thyro-arytenoideus internus) runs just along the outer border of the true vocal cord. The other part (externus) runs from the arytenoid cartilage piore ex- ternally, and before reaching the thyroid carti- lage it surrounds the saccule of the larynx, it is therefore above as well as external to the former portion. Some of its fibres seem to lie in the false vocal cord. The nerves of the larynx are two in num- ber, called respectively the superior, and the inferior or recurrent laryngeal. Both of these are branches of the great vagus or pneumogastric nerve which rises from a special nucleus or mass of nerve cells in the medulla oblongata or upper portion of the spinal cord within the skull where this ex- pands to form what is known as the " fourth ventricle." It leaves the cavity of the skull by the same opening as the internal jugular vein, which takes the greater part of the blood from the brain to the heart, and com- municates with most of the large nerves in this situation. The pneumogastric nerve gives nerve-supply to the pharynx, gullet, stomach, liver, spleen, larynx, windpipe, lungs, and heart, and extends down as far as the middle of the abdomen. The superior laryngeal nerve rises from the pneumogastric nerve just below the exit from the skull, and divides into two divisions called external and internal respectively. The external laryngeal nerve sends branches to some of the muscles which preside over swallowing, and ends in the crico-thyroid muscle. Theinternal laryngeal nerve gains the insideof thelarynxabovethe thyroid cartilage, supplies the lining membrane of the larynx, and the arytenoid muscle, and sends a branch which joins the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The inferior or recurrent laryngeal nerve has a most remarkable course. We have mentioned that the pneumogastric nerve supplies the lungs and heart ; just after reaching the cavity of the chest, while on a level with, and in front of the large blood- vessels coming from the heart, it gives off on each side a large branch, the recurrent .( 254 ) LARYNX. laryngeal nerve. This nerve dives under- neath the arch of the aorta (the main blood- vessel rising from the heart) on the left side, and under the subclavian artery (supplying the arm) on the right side, and then runs upwards to the larynx. Thus the fibres of the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which come down in the pneumogastric nerve from the medulla oblongata (for each separate strand in the smallest nerve has a separate con- nection with its nervous centre, brain, spinal cord or ganglion, a nerve being like an electric cable, seemingly one rope, but really composed of innumerable insulated wires) curve back and run upwards again. Thus every separate movement of the muscles of the larynx is due to a nervous impression which travels from the medulla oblongata down into the chest and then up to the larynx again. This seemingly purpose- less length of course will be explained when the development of the larynx is spoken of. On their way to the larynx, the recurrent laryngeal nerves give twigs to the gullet and wind-pipe, and when they have reached the larynx they supply all the muscles except the crico-thyroid. Epithelium. The mucous membrane of the larynx is lined with a layer of small cells called epithelium (which is the name which it bears on all internal parts of the body ; on the skin it is called epidermis). Each of these cells has a little hair-like filament which continually keeps lashing upwards, so as to drive any mucus towards the mouth. This kind of epithelium is found on the air-passages generally as well as .in some other parts. Above the vocal cords it gradually loses these hair-like filaments from which its name, ciliated (provided with eyelashes), is derived. These filaments are absent over the true vocal cords, as if to indicate that their function is special (Quain, Vol. I. Fig. 245, p. 326). Fig. 7. CILIATED EPITHELIUM OF RESPIRATORY MUCOUS MEMBRANE. A, vertical section of epithelial lining of human trachea magnified 350 times. Development. The larynx is essentially an apparatus for closing the wind-pipe, and in some of the lower animals has this function alone. The muscles, except the crico-thyroid and posterior crico-arytenoid, which lie out- side of the calibre of the tube, are mere differentiations of a circle of muscular fibres called a " sphincter," such as surround, in some form or other, all the entrances and exits of the body. The cricoid and thyroid cartilages are probably developed in two separate halves. Fig. 8. DIAGRAM OF AORTIC OR BRONCHIAL VASCULAR ARCHES OP MAMMAL, ACCORDING TO RATHKE. a. b. Subjacent membrane ; c. lowest or spheroidal cells ; d. middle or oval cells ; e. superficial, elongated, and ciliated cells ; B. separate columnar aiid ciliated cells. "A. P. primitive arterial stem or aortic bulb, now divided into A. the ascending part of the aortic arch, and P. the pulmonary ; a. the right, a', the left aortic root ; A', the descending aorta. On the right side i, 2, 3, 4, 5, indicate the five bronchial primitive arterial arches ; on the left side I. II. III. IV., the four bron- chial clefts, which for the sake of clearness have been omitted from the right side. It will be observed that while the 4th and 5th pairs of arches rise firom the part of the aortic bulb or stem, which is at first undivided, the ist and 2nd and 3rd pairs are branches above c, of a secondary stem on each side. The permanent systemic vessels are represented in deep shade, the pulmonary arteries lighter ; the parts of the primitive arches which have only a temporary existence are drawn in outline only. c. Placed between the permanent common carotid arteries; ce. the external carotid arteries; ci. ci'. the right and left internal carotid arteries ; s. the right sub- clavian rising firom the right aortic root beyond the fifth arch ; v. the right vertebral, rising from the same spot opposite the fourth arch ; »'. s'. the left vertebral and subclavian arteries, rising together firom the left or permanent aortic root opposite the fourth arch ; P. the pulmonary arteries rising together from the left fifth arch ; d. the outer or back part of the left fifth arch forming the ductus arteriosus ; /», pn', the right and left pneumogastric nerves descending in front of the aortic arches, with their recurrent branches represented diagrammatically as passing behind, with a view to illustrate the relations of these nerves respec- tively to the right subclavian artery, ^nd the arch of the aorta and ductus arteriosus." As to the recurrent laryngeal nerves, we must premise, that firstly the early embryo has no neck, the head abutting on the trunk, thus the heart is placed nearer the head ; secondly, the arrangement of the blood- vessels corresponds strikingly with that which is permanent in fish. In them the heart (255 ) LARYNX. sends off one large vessel which runs along the base of the gills and sends off branches on each side which run along the gills, and at the opposite extremity of them turn down and join in a common trunk which runs along the body and supplies it with blood, purified by having been aerated in passing through the gills. This is substantially the same in the human embryo, which possesses not true gills indeed, but slits in the neck just like the slits between the gills of a fish ; along the bridges between these slits (five in all), cor- responding to the gills, run the branches of the great blood-vessel. The further changes need not here be mentioned, but it will be sufficient to add that the last or hindmost of these arched blood-vessels of the branchial or gill -like bridges on the left side subsequently becomes the arch of the aorta, while the same arch on the right side is obliterated, the last but one becoming the subclavian artery. The larynx at the early stage is nearly or quite on a level with the lowest of these arches, the pneumogastric nerves run in front of them, and the recurrent laryngeal nerve, in its course to the larynx, runs directly, or nearly directly backwards, i.e., towards the spine. As the embryo grows, the head becomes further separated from the body, the larynx is drawn up with it, the neck appears, the slits are filled up ; but in the upward movement of the larynx the recurrent laryngeal nerves are drawn up too, and as they are hooked round the lowest arch on each side they are drawn out to a prodigious extent round the arch of the lowest vessel on each side. But the lowest arch on the right side is obliterated and disappears, so the recurrent laryngeal nerve on the right side is caught, so to say, by the last arch but one, the right subclavian artery. The gradual growth of the neck takes place, not only in the development of the embryos of the higher animals, but we can trace it in the progress from the lowest to the highest animals. A fish has no neck, a frog hardly any, a reptile rather more, birds and mammals have well-developed necks. Growth, During childhood the larynx hardly grows at all, and is of the same size in both sexes ; both have equally high-pitched voices, and in neither is that prominence of the " Adam's apple " (which depends on the acuteness of the angle between the two halves of the thyroid cartilage, and on the absolute size of the whole cartilage) observable. At the age of puberty, the passage to adult life, a sudden growth takes place in both sexes, but much greater in males than females ; the whole larynx grows much, and the two halves of the thyroid cartilage are set at an acute angle, forming the prominence of the " Adam's apple," the notch between them becoming deeper. The larynx nearly doubles its size in males, becoming about one-third larger in females. It will readily be seen, that the growth of the thyroid cartilage, and especially its increase in prominence, implies a cor- responding lengthening of the vocal cords, hence the increased deepness of voice at puberty which is always noticeable in males, sometimes in females — for a contralto voice in a child is a thing never heard ; this is acquired at puberty. In old age a bone-like deposit is apt to form in all the cartilages of the larynx except the epiglottis, first or most often in the thyroid, next in the cricoid, then in the arj^enoid. To this is due the cracked quality of the voice of old age, the quality of voice depending of course largely on the quality of the sounding bodies. Physiology. The crico-thyroid muscles rotate the front of the thyroid cartilage on the cricoid, forwards and downwards. Since the pivots on which the thyroid works are below the attach- ment of the vocal cords, to the arytenoid, and therefore practically to the cricoid cartilage, any forward and downward movement of the thyroid will tend to lengthen the vocal cords. This will be evident from the diagram (Huxley's EI. Phys. Fig. 50). If the finger be placed on the space in front, between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages, and a note and then a considerably higher one be sung, the space will be found to be considerably diminished ; in other words, the crico-thyroid muscles will have pulled downwards and forwards the thyroid on the cricoid, and in so doing stretched the vocal cords, the increased tension producing the higher note. As before said, the external laryngeal nerve supplies the crico-thyroid muscles. The thyro-arytenoid is the opponent of the crico-thyroid ; it rotates the front of the thyroid cartilage upwards and forwards, and in so doing relaxes the vocal cords. Besides this action as a whole, the outer and upper part presses on the ventricle of the larynx, and tends to empty it of any contents ; the inner portion, lying in the vocal cord (the thyro-ar3^enoideus internus) renders straight and tense the very edge of the vocal cord after the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages have been fixed by other muscles, and the length of the vocal cord thereby determined. By the contraction of its lower fibres, lying below the level of the vocal cord, the column of air might be narrowed, and the tone raised ; for this is the result of such a narrowing of the column of air before reaching the resonant membrane. It is by this muscle that the peculiar quality of the notes of the " head- voice," as opposed to the " falsetto voice," is probably produced, the edge of the vocal cord being very tight and capable of very (256) LARYNX. rapid vibrations ; the comparative thinness of quality is owing to the smallness of the bulk of the vibrating body. The "crack" in the voice which sometimes occurs during the attempt to sing a high note, and is so annoy- ing to performer and audience, is perhaps due to the sudden . paralysis of this muscle, which strikes work when overstrained. But it may also be due to the vocal cords touching each other, nodes being instantly produced ; this is more probable. This muscle is sup- plied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The arytenoid muscle draws the arytenoid cartilages together, and also tends to prevent their rotation. It is supplied by the superio.r and recurrent laryngeal nerves. , The aryteno-epiglottidean muscles, since between them they embrace the whole orifice of the air-tube, act as a sphincter, and in so doing draw the ar3ftenoid cartilages together and forward, the aryteno-epiglottidean folds together towards the middle line, and the epiglottis downwards and backwards. The thyro-epiglottidean muscles depress the epiglottis, the greater and upper one the upper part,- the smaller and lower one the "cushion"; by their action the epiglottis is pulled forcibly - on to the top of the vocal cords, completely stopping the passage, as takes place in straining or in swallowing. They are supplied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Before describing the action of the lateral and posterior crico-arytenoid muscles, we must premise, first, that the pivot on which the arytenoid cartilages move is a very loose joint, so that the arytenoid cartilages are able to be moved bodily in any direction without rotation. The posterior crico-arytenoid muscles, acting alone, pull backwards and downwards the outer angles of the arytenoid cartilages. By so doing they rotate these cartilages {a a in following Figs.) on their pivots {pp) and separate the front angles, or " processus vocales," separating therefore the vocal cords. The dotted line represents their actit)n. P^ ^^^ But if the posterior arytenoid acts with them it brings the hinder angles of the cartilages together and prevents them from being separated as they would be in rotation, so that the whole cartilages are moved bodily 'backward and the vocal cords are stretched. The lateral crico-arytenoid muscles have an opposite effect. Acting alone, they pull forward the outer angles of the arytenoid cartilages. By so doing, they rotate these cartilages (a a) on their pivots {pp) and ap- proximate the " processus vocales," bringing the vocal cords together. The dotted line represents their action : Thus it will be seen that the " glottis " or aperture of the larynx takes a diamond-shape. It will be seen that the posterior part of the glottis, between the cartilages, remains open, forming a triangular space with the apex forwards. This was formerly called the " glottis respiratoria " on the false idea that the position of the parts in this state was that of breathing. The space between the vocal cor(is in front was called the " glottis vocalis "; this name is correct, for it is only this part which assists in producing sound; but the "glottis respiratoria" is only an applicable name so far as it implies that this part is used in breathing, but not in producing sound. The whole glottis, however, is " glottis respiratoria " properly, as will be hereafter explained. By the action of the arytenoid muscle this triangular space is obliterated. There are two other muscles which, though they do not properly belong to the larynx, yet assist in vocalization. These are the sterno-thyroid and the thyro-hyoid. The sterno-thyroid muscles arise from the upper part of the sternum or breast-bone, and are inserted into the side of the thyroid cartilage. Their action is to pull down the I thyroid cartilage, assisting the crico-thyroid muscles and helping to stretch the vocal cords. They are supplied by a nerve called "descendens noni," being a descending branch of the ninth or hypoglossal nerve which supplies the muscles of the tongue with motor power. The thyro-hyoid arise from the hyoid bone, ( 257 ) LARYNX, which forms the base of the tongue, and are inserted into the side of the thyroid cartilage. Their action is to pull upwards the thyroid cartilage, rotating it and helping the thyro- arytenoidei to relax the vocal cords. They are supplied by a branch of the ninth or hypo-glossal nerve. The action of the sterno-thyroid muscle may be felt by placing a finger in the middle line of the neck just above the breast bone : in singing a high note, the muscles will be felt to contract. TABLE OF MUSCLES. Stretchers of vocal cords. Crico-th5Toid, sterno-thyroid (posterior crico-arytenoid + posterior ar)rtenoid), thyro-arytenoideus in- ternus (stretches edge of vocal cords when arytenoid cartilages are fixed). Relaxers of vocal cords. Thyro-arytenoid (when arytenoid cartilages are not fixed) ; thyro-hyoid. Openers of glottis. Posterior crico-arytenoid (alone). Closers of glottis. Lateral crico-arytenoid, posterior arytenoid. Physiology of the voice. The following remarks a,re taken from Czermak's book, " Der Kehlkopf-spiegel," which contains the best observations that have been made with the laryngoscope. During ordinary quiet breathing the epiglottis touches the back of the pharynx, so as only to leave one aperture behind and one at each side. Through the aperture behind and in the middle, a deeper view is obtained : one here sees the elevations of the cartilages of Santorini or cornicula laryngis, which surmount the tips of the arytenoid cartilages. In pronouncing the vowel a as in " fate," the epiglottis raises itself and discloses the laryngeal cavity, even the front wall of the windpipe being visible. This is the best position in which to observe the preparations for making any vocal sound. As soon as one prepares to make a sound with one's voice the arytenoid-cartilages rise and approach each other with surprising rapidity, the " processus vocales " are brought together and with them the vocal* cords by the lateral crico-arytenoid and arytenoid muscles. By practice this can be performed slowly, or even stopped half way, in which case one gets a position of the parts, as in Fig. 3- It is impossible to actually observe the production of the lowest chest notes, for as * It is plain that the glottis is smaller in singing than in breathing, and smaller in singing a high than a low note. This is easily proved by comparing the time taken to empty the lungs in each case. The larger the aperture, the shorter the time. No sound is pro- duced when the vocal cords are more than one-tenth of an inch apart. soon as we really sing such a note the aryte- noid cartilages approach aijd touch each other, and bend under the edge of the over- hanging epiglottis (Fig. 4), which gives us much the same appearance as in quiet breathing. During the production of the higher chest- notes, especially when sung sforzando, and still more in using the head-voice, it is easy to see into the larynx. It is from these that we infer the position of the parts in the deepest chest notes. In uttering a piercing cry a free view is afforded into the larynx (Fig. 5). In the middle are the vocal cords closely opposed ; then on each side of these a slit, the opening of the ventricle or saccule of the larynx,t be- tween the true and false vocal cords; still farther outside the false vocal cords. The whole arj^enoid cartilages, " processus vo- cales " and all, are closely opposed ; and these erected as they are, together with the epiglottis and the intervening ar3fteno- epiglottidean folds, in which are seen the prominences of the cartilages of Wrisberg, form a sort of additional tube on the top of the larynx, all the parts being (as one's sensations alone would tell one) in extreme tension. On the back of the epiglottis one sees the cushion which touches the insertion of the vocal cords. On taking breath (Fig. 6) the " processus vocales " are turned outward (posterior crico- ar3rtenoid alone) and we get the diamond- shaped glottis (diagram 1). Sometimes, however, we get the triangular " glottis respiratoria " with a second inverted tri- angular space in the "glottis vocalis " (per- haps from the action of the lateral crico- arytenoid muscles ; the posterior arytenoid and thyro-arytenoideus internus being much relaxed). Fig. 8. In these conditions all the parts are very relaxed. It is seen that the upper opening of the larynx is formed by a fold of mucous mem- brane supported by seven cartilages, epi- glottis, two cartilages of Wrisberg, two of Santorini, two arytenoid. (Fig. 2.) In deeper quiet breathing the diamond- shaped glottis is exaggerated, as in Fig. 7. During quiet breathing the parts of the larynx do not move, and in some cases the glottis is wide enough to admit a finger with ease. During deep laboured breathing the aryte- noid cartilages are brought somewhat together at each expiration, and are thrown into dis- orderly vibrations like the nostrils under f Its function seems to be to ensure a free space for the vibration of the vocal cords, and to keep them lubricated. ( 258 ) LARYNX. similar circumstances ; at each inspiration they are separated to their extreme limits. It is possible, under favourable circum- stances, to see as far down the wind-pipe as its division into the two bronchial tubes, that is as far into the chest as the third dorsal or rib-carrying vertebra. (Fig. 7.) In the shrillest cries the cushion of the epiglottis appears to be pressed down on the front part of the vocal cords, and to shorten their vibrating portion just as a string is stopped by the fingers on the finger-board of a stringed-instrument. In air-tight closure of the larynx, as in straining (which is best observed in passing from the position of Fig. 5, that of uttering a piercing cry) : ist, The arytenoid cartilages — "processus vocales " and all — are closely pressed together, and with them the vocal cords. 2nd, The false vocal cords apply themselves to each other and to the true vocal cords closely, so as to conceal the openings of the ventricles of the larynx. 3rd, The epiglottis presses its cushion tightly on the top of everything. (It is curious that whereas these parts of the larynx resent being touched so strongly that the smallest touch of them produces at least a violent fit of coughing, they suffer being touched by one another and by the epiglottis quietly. Czermak asks whether this is due to the kind of touch which they suffer, or to the peculiarity of the nervous apparatus through which the reflex ac- tion, which a foreign body excites, is pro- duced.) These changes are partly simultaneous, partly so quicldy following one another that we require the greatest watchfulness to ob- serve them. For instance, the false vocal cords cannot be seen to touch one another, for the epiglottis bends down and hides them while they are still approaching each other ; but it is inferred that they do so, for on suddenly opening the closed glottis they are seen to project as far towards the middle line as the true vocal cords which are known to be closely apposed to each other. If we stop the closure of the larynx halfway, we get the appearance presented in Fig. g. In complete closure we get the appearance presented in Fig. 10. Later, however, the free edge of the epiglottis sinks, and we get th? same appearance as in Fig. 4, the ap- pearance during the production of the lowest chest-notes. By this complex apparatus we can under- stand how the glottis can withstand the tremendous pressure put on it by the expira- tory muscles in straining, &c. If these are put into action the whole of the parts closing the glottis are! lifted up and become convex or dome-shaped upwards, resuming their position when the pressure is relaxed. In clearing the throat the glottis is firmly closed, and then the expiratory muscles exert- ing their force, the parts closing the glottis are suddenly relaxed, the epiglottis being, so to say, blown violently up, and all the parts are thrown into violent disorderly vibrations so as to remove any foreign body or mucus. In swallowing, the glottis is also closely shut. In increasing the strength of a note the cords are slightly relaxed to compensate for the increased pressure of wind which would otherwise raise the note.* Explanation of Czermak's Fig. (Taf. III.) z. Root of tongue. h.ph. Hinder wall of the pharynx. ce. Opening of gullet. e. Epiglottis. a. Arytenoid cartilages. e.w. Cushion of epiglottis. a.e. Aryteno-Epiglottidean fold. w. Cartilage of Wrisberg. g.a. Elevation between car- tilages of Santorini and Wrisberg. Fig. s. Cartilages of Santorini. p.v. Processus vocales. U.St. True vocal cords. O.St, False vocal cords. v.tn. Ventricles of the la- rynx. v.t. Front wall of wind- pipe. h.t. Hind wall of wind- pipe. b.d. Right bronchial tube. b.s. Left bronchial tube. Quiet breathing. Wide glottis. Arytenoids apart and depressed. Epiglottis falling back so as to obscure the view into the larynx. The same, but epiglottis raised by the pro- nunciation of a as in " fate," or ee as in " green," but the actual sounding of the latter makes the tongue rise so high, as to obscure the view. Fig. 3.' Vm, z i/st e The preparations for sounding the voice after quiet breathing, the process stopped half- * The parts to the right of the middle line of these figures, obtained by a mirror, necessarily correspond to those on the left side of the larynx, and vice verscu That which is situated above in the drawing in reality exists in front, that which is below is situated behind. ( 259 ) LARYNX. wa)'. The arytenoids project and approach one another with free and rapid movements. The glottis is narrowed. Position during a deep chest-note. The epiglottis lies back and obscures the view of the vocal cords. Fig- 5-* Position during a very high note. Glottis very narrow, all the parts very tense, arytenoid cartilages, aryteno - epiglottidean folds, and epiglottis, forming a sort of additional tube above the floor of the larynx. In the highest possible notes, the epiglottis- cushion is pressed on the front insertion of the vocal cords, shortening their vibrating length. Fig. 6.* i/C ce Position of parts on taking a deep breath after singing a high note. All the parts are relaxed- and appear thicker, the arytenoid cartilages move apart, the "processus vocales " are turned out, the glottis is larger and diamond shaped. Position in quiet breathing. The same as Fig. 6, but exaggerated. The glottis still larger, large enough to easily admit a fingei. The parts do not move during quiet breathing with inspiration or expiration. Position during whispering. The ary- tenoids are seen near together, but not so near as the "processus vocales;" these last are however too far apart to cause a vocal sound. The "processus vocales," being closer together than the rest of the arytenoids, produces a form of glottis, the opposite of that shown in fig. 6, namely, one approaching to that of two isosceles triangles, with their apices apposed ; the whisper becomes louder as the "processus vocales" approach one another, until at last all that remains is a triangular space (the hinder of the two tri- angles), between the arytenoids. In the louder hoarser whisper, the cushion of the epiglottis presses on the front part of the vocal cords and additionally prevents their being thrown into vibrations, though while any chink remains this cannot happen. Fig. g.' Position in air-tight closure of the glottis ; the process stopped half way. The aryte- noids and the vocal cords are firmly apposed, the false vocal cords are being approximated, the epiglottis with its cushion is being pressed down on the glottis. Fig. 10.* The state of complete closure. The epi- glottis pressed firmly on the glottis. The false vocal cords probably, the true vocal cords certainly, closely apposed. When the epiglottis is still further pressed back, we have a view similar to that during the sounding of ( 260 ) LARYNX. a deep chest-note (fig. 4), except that a small space exists in the latter case, between the epiglottis and arytenoids, for the passage of the air. Fig. II.* h.ph Position at the commencement of the act of swallowing. The laws governing the vibrations. It has been naturally attempted to identify the vocal cords with some type of sounding bodies, in order to examine the laws governing their vibrations. They have a considerable super- ficial resemblance to strings, the higher sounds are as in them produced (other things equal) by increased tension. But ist. no string as short as the vocal cords could give out so low a note, 2nd. the number of vibrations does not (as in strings) vary directly as the square root of the tension. Therefore they are not strings. ■ The human vocal organs are not a flue-pipe, there is nothing to lead us to think that they are, and besides the sound written m requires an open pipe, nearly 6 feet long, and the case is clearly not one of a stopped pipe. Is it a Reed instrument? The question is best answered by adducing some of the laws which govern them. ist. The pitch of a reed may be lowered, but cannot be raised, by joining it to a tube, and. it can never be lowered more than an octave, 3rd. after being thus lowered, the note is again raised by a further lengthening of the tube, and again lowered by a still further lengthening, 4th. the length of tube necessary to lower the pitch of the instrument to a given point, depends on the relation between the frequency of vibrations of the tongue of the reed, and those of the column of air taken separately. If a wind instrument depends for its note entirely on the length of its pipe, it must be a flue-pipe, if the range to which it can be altered depends only partly on the length of the tube, and if the range capable of being produced by lengthening the tube is never more than an octave, (the embouchure being constant,) it is a reed instrument. This latter is the case with the larynx. The reed in the voice corresponds with the "free reeds," since it vibrates freely back- wards and forwards, and does not " beat " against an aperture, but unlike those which are in use (Concertina, Harmonium, &c.,) it is formed with a tube.* The reed of the voice differs from ordinary reeds in not being a stiff lamina fixed at one end, freely vibrating at another ; it is a stretched membrane. Membranous tongues made elastic by tension may have three forms, ist. a stretched band in an interval between two firm plates, leaving a chink on each side, 2nd. it may be stretched over part of the end of a tube, the other part being occupied by a solid plate, a narrow chink being left between the free edges, 3rd. two elastic membranes may be stretched over the mouth of a tube leaving a chink between them. The last is obviously the case in point. But if the mem- branes are prolonged in a direction parallel with the current of air, not their edges only, but their whole surfaces are thrown into vibrations. This resembles the larynx still more closely. An instrument on these prin- ciples has been constructed, and corresponds very closely in its behaviour with that of the larynx. In such an apparatus, pitch depends on the length, tension, and thickness of the membranes, and though their edges must be close together to produce sounds, the size of the chink has nothing to do with the pitch. A lower note is formed from a pa,ir of such membranes than from one, their pitch is heightened by increasing the strength of the current of air, thus they differ from rigid reeds in which the note is lowered by a similar proceeding. Their behaviour when furnished with pipes of various lengths, corresponds in the main with that of metallic reeds, but it is not so precisely determinable, as might be imagined. A certain length of pipe suits a certain tone best. A tube prefixed to the reed, has the power of altering the tone, but not so definitely as when affixed. Thus the human vocal apparatus is a pair of membranous free reeds, with a prefixed tube and complex affixed resonance tube. * Helmholtz in his book " Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen," 1862, divides membranous reeds into two classes, (i) Those in which the aperture is closed by the shock of the air (German " einschlagend") — "beating" reeds; and (2) Those which are opened by the shock of the air (German " aufschlagend "—lit. " striking open ")— " free " reeds. The beating reeds have the free edges of the limbs of the reed pointing against the current of air, the free reeds in the direction of the current. The beating reeds give a lower tone than they would do if vibrating freely, the free reeds a higher tone. The reeds of organ pipes and wooden wind instruments are beating reeds ; the human lips in playing brass instruments are opened by striking, and are therefore free reeds (aufschlagend). They con- sequently give higher tones (apart from the question of the selection of a particular harmonic by the resonance tube of the instrument) than when vibrating alone. The Larynx is also a free reed, as will be seen by Fig. 5, V. (261 ) LARYNX. All the air-passages above the larynx, the pharynx, mouth, nose, and even the cells in the frontal bone, form part of this resonance tube. These tubes, forming the resonance tube, have an important part to play in vocal' isation, though their complexity makes it difficult to determine that part accurately, still that they do play a part is evident from the following facts. In ascending from a low to a high note the whole larynx is lifted towards the skull, the thyroid cartilage being drawn up within the hyoid bone so as even to press on the epiglottis ; the space between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages is diminished, the soft palate is depressed and curved for* ward, the tonsils approach one another. The aperture of the resonance tube is an important point, the smaller the aperture the lower the tone. In producing low notes the mouth is less Open than in high notes. There is probably a certain length of both affixed and prefixed tubes and a certain size of the opening of the affixed tube which is most suitable for each given note, and these matters are partly managed automatically, and are partly the result of practice and education. In producing the lowest notes we retract and depress the tongue with the epiglottis so as to partly cover the lower aperture of the resonance tube. The head-voice is probably produced by the vibration of the free edges of the vocal cords only. Helmholtz thinks this is produced by drawing aside the mucous coat below the cords, the edge of the cords being thus rendered sharper, the weight of the vibrating part less, the elasticity being constant. The falsetto voice is a problem not yet cleared up. Many physiologists seem to have quite lost sight of the fact that it is different from the "head-voice." There are various theories on the subject. Some believe that the vocal cords only vibrate in part of their length. We have seen this to be possible by means of the epiglottis-cushion. And it has thus much in its favour that some adventitious aid (if we may use the term) seems to be called in, for it is much easier to sing a very high note in the falsetto than in the chest register, the former depending on sheer muscular exertion as we know. But on the other hand anyone can sing falsetto with his tongue out of his mouth, and consequently with the epiglottis-cushion far away from apposition with the Vocal cords. Others have said that the cords vibrate in segments and give harmonics instead of funda- mental notes. This is possible, for some of the fibres of the thyro-arytenoideus internus muscle end at various points along the vocal cord and might favour such a splitting into segments. Others say that the falsetto differs from the other registers in that only the edges of the vocal cords are thrown into vibration, instead of the whole of them. This is possible, the only objection being that the extreme tension of the very edge of the vocal cords seems to be an explanation involving far more labour than our sensations tell us is expended in the production of the falsetto voice. This seems much more likely to correspond with the production of the " head-voice." In passing from the highest chest note to the lowest falsetto note, the space between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages in front which was closed suddenly opens, implying relaxation of the vocal cords. This is con- sistent with the hypothesis that they only vibrate in part of their length, for this would require less tension for a shorter membrane. In passing from the chest to the falsetto register, the larynx which was elevated de- scends and rises again as the falsetto voice rises. Others have thought that the falsetto voice was the result of a flue-pipe arrangement, the glottis being the embouchure, the air passage the tubes. We have already dismissed the flue theory as untenable. The person on whom most reliance is to be placed, M. Garcia, himself a singing- master, and the practical inventor of the laryngoscope gives a long account of the falsetto voice. He says that in the falsetto as in the chest register the lower tones are formed by the " processus vocales," as well as by the vocal cords, that these processes (which he calls the "apophyses") gradually approach one another in the middle line, that the vibrating length of the glottis is con- sequently diminished pari passu, that when the vibrating glottis is composed of the vocal cords and only the tips of the processus vocales, the weak uncomfortable tones well known to singers are formed, that when the processus vocales are so closely apposed throughout that only the vocal cords vibrate, the head voice is formed. " If we compare the two registers in these movements, we shall find some analogies in them ; the sides of the glottis, formed at first by the apophy- ses and their ligaments, become shorter by degrees, and end by consisting only of the ligaments. The chest register is divided into two parts, corresponding to these two states of the glottis. The register of falsetto-head presents a complete similarity, and in a still more striking manner. On other points, on the contrary, these same registers are very unlike. The length of the glottis necessary to form a falsetto note, always exceeds that ( 262 ) LARYNX. which produces the unison of the chest. The movements which agitate the sides of the glottis are also augmented, and keep the vibrating orifice continually half opened, which naturally produces a great waste of air. A last trait of difference is in the increased extent of that elliptic surface (the glottis). All these circumstances show in the mechanism of the falsetto a state of re- laxation which we do not find in the same degree in the chest register. " When the external fibres of the lateral crico-ar3?tenoid muscle remain inactive, we produce the falsetto. The lips of the glottis, stretched by the horizontal bundle of the thyro-arytenoid, come in contact by their edge alone, formed at once by the ligament and the apophyses, and offer little resistance to the air. Hence arises the great loss of this agent, and the general weakness of the sound produced here. During the chest register the vocal ligaments are stretched, and are in contact to an extent corresponding with the depth of the anterior apophyses of the arytenoid, whilst in the falsetto the edges alone of the ligaments are stretched and apposed." Some have tried to show that the falsetto depends on the state of the parts below, others above, the larynx. There is nothing to say for these theories. Another theory again assigns to the false vocal cords a large share in producing the falsetto voice, and Garcia found that in producing high notes of the chest or falsetto register they were some- what approximated. In reviewing these various theories, we shall be assisted in arriving at some sort of an opinion by eliminating such of them as seem to us obviously untenable ; such as the theory that the vocal apparatus is not used in the production of the falsetto voice as a reed instrument but as a flue-pipe, and that which states that the parts above or below the larynx (and not the larynx itself) are the necessary instruments for its production. The next theory to be discussed is that which states that only the edges as distinct from the whole of the vocal cords vibrate ; this we shall put aside as accounting more satis- factorily for the " head voice," which is quite a different thing, especially when we remem- ber the muscular effort necessary for pro- ducing a high head note as compared with the relative ease with which the same note can be produced in the falsetto voice, and also when we keep in view the fact above mentioned, that in passing from chest to falsetto register the crico-thyroid space en- larges, implying relaxation of the vocal cords. Let us now review the theory which sets forth that in producing the falsetto voice we set the vocal cords vibrating not in one seg- ment but in many segments or nodes. In the first place- this is not inconceivable, but we must freely admit that we do not know the mechanism by which it would be pro- duced. Garcia states that the length of the vocal cords necessary to form a given 'falsetto note always exceeds that which produces the unison of that note in the chest register, and adds that the falsetto note is accompanied by a relaxed state of the glottis ; now if the length is increased while the cords are re- laxed, we have two circumstances which would render the pitch deeper if the cords vibrated in their entirety, but both these factors would be favourable to vibration in segments. But there is another reason for supposing this, which seems to us worthy of consideration, though it does not depend on direct observa- tion. When the voice " cracks " in singing a high note, it flies up not into the head but the falsetto register. Now we know that this " crack " is produced by the vocal cords coming into contact and splitting into " nodes," just as a violin string will sound harmonics if lightly touched with the finger (this crack is due to the fact that a high note requires that the vocal cords should be all but parallel to each other and all but touch- ing, but either owing to a want of delicate muscular co-ordination or to their being swelled by a cold or other similar cause, they touch in some part of their length and nodes are at once formed). Thus we have two modes of production of the falsetto voice, one of which we know. Is it not likely that we produce the same effect (the falsetto voice) by a similar method in both cases (a splitting into vibrating segments or nodes) ? We think, therefore, that it is most probable that the falsetto voice is produced by the vibration of the vocal cords not in their entirety but in nodes, though the mechanism by which this is brought about is unknown to us. Timbre of voice depends partly on the con- formation, partly on the quality of the struc- tures composing the larynx. Garcia also says that the epiglottis plays a very important part, for every time that it lowers itself and nearly closes the orifice of the larynx, the voice gains in brilliancy ; and when, on the other hand, it is drawn up, the voice im- mediately becomes veiled. Range of voice in man. Garcia gives the following table of the full extent of the human voice : Chest. Head. (263 ) LARYNX. He says, " Let us here observe, that three registers of voice are generally admitted — chest, falsetto, and head. The first begins lower in a man's voice than in a woman's ; the second extends equally in both voices ; the third reaches higher in the female voice." Part of this statement is remarkable, and would seem to imply some essential difference in the physiology of the voice in both sexes, a difference beyond mere dimensions. I must leave it to musicians to criticise his statement, which does not commend itself to me. The whole of his paper is worth the careful study of every musician. It is found in " Proceedings of the Royal Society," Vol. VII., No. 13, pp. 399-410. In speech the pitch seldom varies more than a fifth. The nasal tone is produced by bringing the arches of the palate together, and bodily raising the larynx and also the tongue ; thus the air is prevented from passing' freely through the nostrils, that part' of the " re- sonance tube " being cut off. Some have stated that the air is prevented by this means from passing freely through the mouth, and passes along the nose, the cavity of the nos- trils alone vibrating freely ; but this is seen to be incorrect when we remember that the nasal tone cannot be produced when the mouth is closed and all the air is driven through the nostrils, while it is produced when the nostrils are held closed, or when they are obstructed by mucus during a cold. Thus the expression " talking or singing through the nose," is physiologically quite incorrect. The power of musical intonation depends on the power of accurate adaptation of the muscular parts concerned in the production of the voice to a state known to be capable of producing the desired sound. This state is at first recognised by the effect on the ear, and afterwards directly through the "muscular sensibility" of the muscles concerned. The previous experience has thus been acquired through the ear and also from the muscles, and an "idea" of the sound required precedes the production of the sound. Thus eventually an idea of the sound and of the necessary muscular state are presented simultaneously to the mind. Let us enlarge somewhat on this. A sound is emitted and appreciated by the ear as having a certain relative number of vibra- tions, and this experience is stored up as a memory. Secondly, attempts are made to re- produce this sound ; when the desired sound is produced, the ear recognises it as being the same as that before produced, by means of the memory ; and at the same time the sensorium takes cognisance of the state of the muscles of the larynx by means of " muscular sensi- bility," that sense by which we learn the state of our muscles, by which we know accurately the position of our limbs, &c., unassisted by our sight, and which is essential to a proper performance of any muscular action, especially of those beyond the regulating power of sight. Thus we have two memories stored up in in- timate connection, viz., the memory of a. definite sound and the memory of a definite state of muscles. This process is repeated for each note and fraction of a npte, for each possible sound. By practice and frequent repetition of the process we get the pheno- mena reproduced in an inverted order, for whereas, in the first instance, hearing came first, muscular action with muscular sensi- bility second, we now have muscular action with muscular sensibility as the first executors or reproducers of a definite memory, con- tinually checked, secondly, by the hearing. After a time this process becomes automatic, and is still more obviously so when a person is singing from notes, when we naturally have an additional factor or association, viz., that of a symbol with a definite musical sound. Instrumental music can be expressed in precisely similar terms ; it is true that at first muscular sensibility has less to do, for the guiding power of the eyes is possible, but this is only occasionally used as an additional sense when the performer becomes proficient. Again some instruments, viz., those in which the notes are already formed (all instruments but the stringed instruments and the trom- bone), require less guidance from the ear than those in which the production of each note, both in pitch and timbre, depends entirely on the performer. But these are only quantita- tive differences after all. Thus we come back to what we said at first that all correct intonation, whether vocal or instrumental, is checked and regulated by two sensibilities, the acoustic and the muscular, in varying proportions. It is plain from what we have previously said, that musical intonation may be imperfect from various causes; of these the most serious is defect in the appreciation of sounds, since this is first in importance as in time, — a "bad ear" is irremediable; but a person may also play or sing out of tune from several other causes. First this may occur in the performance of a difficult passage. In this instance the muscular adaptability is deficient. ' Again a person may play 'or sing a single note out of tune from deficient muscular power, either the note is too high or too low or in other ways too difficult of production, or the performer may be tired with previous singing or playing. But when a person habitually plays or sings out of tune, or fails to keep in (264) LARYNX. tune in performing an easy passage, we at once say correctly " he has no musical ear," that is, his sensorium is incapable of appreci- ating the delicate relations of musical sounds. It may not be out of place here to venture a few remarks as to the reason why it is much more irritating to those with good musical ears to hear a person sing sharp than to hear him sing flat. One is, of course, as incorrect as the other, but there is something particu- larly exasperating in hearing sharp singing. First of all it would be interesting to know whether persons possessing good musical ears, without any knowledge of music, would find sharp singing more painful than flat singing ; we should imagine that this would not be the case. On analysing our feelings when a person is singing sharp we fancy we detect in them a certain feeling of indignation at the singer doing something unnecessary. This is quite correct, he is using unnecessary muscular force, and we have a natural though not purely rational idea that if he took less pains, exerted himself less, he would sing in better tune — ^we feel he is committing a " pre- sumptuous " musical sin. On the contrary, when a person sings flat, his muscular exer- tions are inadequate, and we feel a sort of pity mingled with our annoyance, we feel that he is doing his best, but is not strong enough to sing correctly; in both cases, how- ever, it is generally not actual force which is deficient, but the " guiding sensation," the musical ear ; but there is this much correct- ness in our feelings that a person with ever so good an ear may sing flat from sheer weariness, just as he may be too tired to perform any other muscular exercise properly, while there is not the same excuse for singing sharp. Comparative Anatomy. — No invertebrate animal possesses a larynx. In Fish we have only one or two instances of a larynx, and in them it is connected with the entrance of the duct of the air bladder ; these fish are other- wise remarkable, being the Polypterus and Lepidosiren. In the latter the glottis is sup- ported by a sort of laryngeal cartilage. An- other fish, named Trigla, is capable of emitting sounds. In Amphibia we find a better developed larynx. In those which keep their gills through life it is extremely simple, as is the whole of the trachea and bronchi. The glottis is a simple slit each side, strengthened by a cartilage, which is sometimes subdivided. Below the glottis is a membranous chamber, the laryngeal cavity strengthened by carti- lages, and from this chamber the lungs di- verge either immediately or after a short trachea. In the Frogs the larynx is well-developed. and is present in all but two . frogs. The vocal cords are stretched transversely ; above and below them is a pouch, and sometimes a cartilage between them. The muscles are briefly classified as constrictors or dilators of 'the glottis, and one stretches the vocal cords. In the Toad the vocal cords are thin elastic membranes, and consist of two pairs. In many frogs we find pouches attached to the larynx or the mouth, and these serve either as resounding sacs or as reservoirs of the wind supply. Since all Amphibia and Reptiles do not respire as we do, but swallow the air, this, which is a laborious process, is economised by an elastic sac, in which the air, having passed through the larynx, is re- tained, and which, in contracting again, by its elasticity drives the air easily back into the lungs ; by this means a continuous croak- ing is produced. Reptiles. — The Serpents have no vocal cords, and nothing beyond a hissing can be pro- duced by the passage of the air through their simple glottis. The Lizards have a better developed larynx. Most have vocal cords, but in many of these they cannot be apposed or stretched. In Turtles and Tortoises we first find the cartilages divided into cricoid, thyroid, and arytenoid. Some are capable of vocal sounds, some only of a hiss. The Crocodiles have, again, only two carti- lages, a crico-thyroid and two arytenoids ; the vocal cords are capable of producing a sort of bellowing tone. Birds. — Most Birds have two larynges, an upper and a lower. The upper larynx is situ- ated as in us, at the top of the wind-pipe. There are several bony and cartilaginous sup- ports, from two to ten in number. One of these represents the thyroid cartilage. The cricoid consists of three bony pieces, the two arytenoids are also bony. With respect to this, we may observe that many more parts are ossified in birds than in other animals. The glottis is simple, and composed of two rigid lips, which do not admit of being stretched, but only approximated. The prin- cipal action of the muscles is to close and open this glottis simply, which they can do with great accuracy. The function of this upper larynx is either simply to guard the opening of the windpipe, or at most to modify, and not in the first place to create the voice. The lower larynx is placed at the bottom of the wind-pipe, where this divides into the two bronchial tubes, and is the true organ of voice. The purpose of its position here is probably to throw the weight which neces- sarily accompanies a complex apparatus of muscles and cartilages near the centre of gravity, instead of at the end of a long lever (265 ) LARYNX. like the neck. In the same way the masti- cating apparatus of birds is not a set of teeth placed at the end of this lever, but a grinding machine, the gizzard, placed at the centre of gravity. In singing birds the apparatus consists of a double glottis, produced by a bony bar called "pessulus" or "ostransversale," which runs across the lower end of the wind-pipe from before backwards, and supports a thin membrane which projects into the calibre of the windpipe, and ends in a free concave edge; it is called the "Membrana Semilu- naris." The muscular apparatus is complex, and in some singing birds consists of five pairs of muscles. In some birds, as the Ostrich and the Vulture, the lower larynx is absent. In some birds, as the Stork, Crane, Caper- cailzie and Wild Swan, the windpipe is several times folded on itself, being very long. The Parrot tribe has a single glottis, with a vibrating membrane on each side, thus re- sembling ours. The adjacent sides of these are concave, and there are muscles which stretch, approximate or separate these vocal cords. It is perhaps due to this peculiarity, as well as to the fleshy tongue of the Parrots, that they are able to imitate human speech. Mammals. — The larynx of Mammals in most particulars resembles that of man. In the Kangaroos the vocal cords are feebly de- veloped, and incapable of being stretched. Most Marsupials have little or no voice. Some Rodents have fairly developed vocal cords, as the Hare and Rabbit. Some, as the Porcupine, have no vocal cords, and it is only at the breeding season that they have any voice, when the male makes a low grunt. The Sloths have no false vocal cords, the Armadillos have no false vocal cords or voice. In the Whales and Porpoises, as in many of the Marsupials, the upper opening of the windpipe is modified into a conical projection which rises up and is embraced by the muscles of the soft palate, so that a con- tinuous air-tube is formed from the nose to the lungs, on each side of which fluid or solid food can continually pass to the gullet without getting into the wind- pipe. The purpose of this is obvious. In the Whales the large volume of water which they con- stantly receive into their wide open mouth, from which they extract their food, and which they eject through ' their blow-hole, is pre- vented from getting into their air-passages ; in the young Marsupial while in the pouch the milk which it is constantly sucking is similarly prevented from going "the wrong way." Marsupials are bom, as is well known, very immature, and while in the pouch are continually suckled; they are by th^s arrange- ment saved from the necessity of constantly closing their glottis in the act of swallowing, as is the case with other animals. In those aquatic Mammals called the Sirenia (as the Dugong and Manatee, the herbivorous Whales) the glottis is very small, and T shaped, the transverse slit being above the longitudinal slit. In the Ass the " bray " is produced by alternate inspirations and expirations, both producing, sounds, and is assisted by two large air sacs between the vocal cords and the thyroid cartilage. The Giraffe only has a voice at the breeding season. The male Deer's larynx enlarges greatly at each breeding season and this growth is associated with a large growth of a gland below it called the thyroid gland, the two producing that graceful prominence in the throat which one observes at that time. The purring of the Cat is produced by the vibrations of the false vocal cords, which are well developed; the true vocal cords are small and have no membranous part. Many animals have large air sacs in con- nection with the larynx, either opening into the sacculus laryngis or placed in front be- tween the thyroid cartilage and epiglottis, and opening between the epiglottis and true vocal cords ; or opening between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. In one monkey — the Mycetes or howling monkey — ^there are a pair of pouches lodged in cavities in the cricoid cartilage, another pair similarly lodged in the thyroid and extending on each side between the thyroid bone and epiglottis, and into a huge sac in the thyroid bone, and another pair between the glottis and arytenoid carti- lages, three pairs in all. Most of the Old World monkeys have a sac in the hyoid bone, but smaller than that of the howling monkey. The Gibbon has a well-developed larynx, and alone of all the apes can sing a complete octave ; moreover the quality of its notes is decidedly musical. In the Ouran-outan the air sacs in the male extend down over the fore-part of the neck and upper part of the chest, being sub- divided into several sacs. Castration in all mammals which possess a definite voice arrests the sudden development which takes place at puberty. Compare the voice of the ox and of the bull. ! W. C. Linnseus Martin, in his work, A general introduction to the Natural History ofMam- miferous Animals, 1841.,^. 431, says — " Hylobates agilis, Sumatra. — The voice of this gibbon is extraordinary, not only for its power and volume, but for the suQcession of graduated tones in which its cry is uttered. ( 266 ) LARYNGOSCOPE. In a room, it is overpowering and deafening : it consists of a repetition of the syllables oo-ah, oo-ah, at first distinctly repeated, and ascend- ing in the scale, but at last ending in a shake, consisting of a quick vibratory series of notes, during which the whole of the animal's frame quivers with the effort to produce them ; after this, she appears to be greatly excited, and violently shakes the netting or branch to which she may be clinging ; which action being finished she again traverses her cage, utteringthe preliminary syllables oo-ah, oo-ah, till the shake again concludes the series. It is principally in the morning that the animal thus exerts this modulated cry, which is, probably, its natural call to its mate, and ■which, from its strength, is well calculated for resounding through the vast forests. The fol- lowing observations on the voice of the ani- mal were obligingly presented to the author by Mr. Waterhouse : — " ' I should endeavour to give an idea of the whooping of the gibbon (as far as the music is concerned, but not as regards the quality of sound), by comparing it to the tuning of a harp ; first beginning with an E string, and repeating it at short intervals ; then being altogether silent for a little time, and then be- ginning again ; next, two strings, as it were, are struck, E and EJ (or Ft]) : the second string is then screwed up, by half-notes, until it reaches the octave ; the E and F natural, E and F sharp, E and G natural, &c., being struck nearly together. It must be observed that before the upper note arrives at the oc- tave, the animal amuses herself by occasion- ally descending a few semitones, then ascend- ing again, and so on. But when the octave is once gained, and has been sounded a few times, we may imagine the upper string to be very rapidly let down by semitones ; the lower note remaining the same as at first, and the two strings being always struck together. {Note : It appears, all through this rapid chromatic passage, as if the animal emitted two notes at a time, as in the music ; but this is the effect of the rapid transition from the lower note to the upper.] The rapidity of the descending passage is equal to that of an ex- tremely brilliant shake. The animal then remains quiet for a short time ; after which follow two barks, each composed of the low and high E, sounded nearly together. " ' It appeared to me that, in ascending and descending the scale, the intervals were always exactly half-tones ; and I am sure that the highest note was the exact octave to the lowest. In this passage the lips were en- gaged, and rapidly vibrated during its execu- tion. . " ' The quality of the notes is very musical ; and I do not doubt that a good violinist would be able to give a correct idea of the gibbon's composition, excepting as regards it loudness. The gibbon's voice is certainly much more powerful than that of any singer I ever heard. " ' One more fact I noticed, viz. : That the gibbon is usually a long time before she comes to the rapidly-descending passage; but when she has given it once she soon runs through the preliminary part of her composi- tion, and again comes to the descending passage.' Allegro, Accelerando^ crescendo. To this we have only to add that the quality is like that of a very powerful male alto, and that the sounds are produced, alternately by inspiration and expiration — the high notes by the former. This alternation, of course, makes it possible for the animal to sing continuously what would otherwise be an impossible passage, exceeding any possible capacity of lungs. Laryngoscope. History of the Invention — Taken principally from Dr. Morell Mackenzie's works. — The use of mirrors for examining the teeth is of exceedingly ancient date. Such mirrors were used by dentists in the Augus- tan age, and the tubular instrument for ex- amining the various orifices of the body, called a speculum, is also a very old invention ; one was found at Pompeii. The use of a mirror is obviously to reflect light into a dark cavity ; the use of a speculum is to render patent a tube which is, under ordinary circum- stances, collapsed, and to allow the entrance of light and, at the same time, unimpeded vision. Both these principles have been ap- plied variously in the gradual development of the laryngoscope. In 1743, M. Levret, a French accoucheur, invented a mirror as a means of illuminating the nostrils, throat, ears, &c., for the removal of growths from those parts, but he considered it only an accessory of his method of liga- turing these growths, and he did not value it as a means of diagnosing diseases of the larynx. In 1804, Dr. Bozzini, of Frankfort-on- Main, invented an apparatus for examining the various orifices of the body. It consisted of a lantern and a number of specula ; and the speculum intended for examining the (267) LARYNGOSCOPE, throat was curved at a right angle and pro- vided with a mirror in the angle. The specu- lum was divided by a vertical partition into two passages, one to convey the light to the larynx, another to convey the image from it. This division of the tube was, of course, quite unnecessary ; but Bozzini appreciated the things necessary for a laryngoscopic ex- amination, though he over-stated them. This invention was decried by the medical pro- fession, while the pubHc had an almost super- stitious regard for it, imagining that it would render possible a direct examination not only of the orifices but also of the cavities of the body. This instrument was soon forgotten. In 1825, M. Cagniard de Latour tried to examine the Larynx, with a small mirror in the Pharynx and another mirror to reflect the light on to the first, but failed. In 1827, Dr. Senn made a similar unsuc- cessful attempt, but without trying any means of illumination. In 1829, Dr. Benjamin Guy Babington in- vented an instrument closely resembling the present Laryngoscope. A small mirror on a stem at an angle of about 120° with the stem, was introduced into the Pharynx ; to the stem was fastened a spatula (a sort of flat spoon) which depressed the tongue ; this spatula he afterwards abandoned. A hand-mirror was used to throw light on to the Pharyngeal mirror. This instrument he called a " Glotti- scope." In 1832, Selligue, a mechanic in Paris who was himself suffering from disease of the Larynx, invented for his own case an appa- ratus like tjiat of Bozzini, except that instead of employing one tube divided by a partition, he used two tubes. With this Dr. Bennati of Paris professed to be able to see the vocal cords. In 1838, M. Baumes exhibited a mirror for examining the Larynx and posterior nares. In i840,Liston used a mirror on a stem for examining the throat, but apparently never thought of seeing as far as the vocal cords. He preferred the sense of touch to that of sight. In 1844, Dr. Warden of Edinburgh, who had used a prism for seeing the Tympanum, thought of using one for seeing the Larynx. He used a powerful Argand lamp for illumina- tion, with a second prism attached. In 1844, also, Mr. Aveiy of London, tried to use a speculum and reflector for the same purpose ; and besides, invented a circular mirror worn on the forehead and perforated in the centre ; the mirror reflected the light ' into the mouth, and the observer looked at the same time through its central hole. The defects of this were that the small Pharyngeal mirror was in a speculum, instead of at the end of a stem, and that a lamp (like Bozzini's) was attached to the mirror on the forehead, instead of being placed in any convenient position behind or at the side of the patient. In 1854, M. Manuel Garcia, a singing- master still well known, thought of employing mirrors for studying the interior of the Larynx during singing. He made his observations on himself and succeeded admirably. He used a small mirror on a long stem suitably bent, and introduced this into the Pharynx. He directed the person experimented on to turn to the sun, so that the rays might be reflected into the Larynx, but adds that if the observer experiments on himself he should reflect the rays of the sun into his Pharynx with a second ihirror, and, therefore, stand with his back to the sun. This second mirror served also for the person experimenting on himself to see the image of his own Larynx. Little notice was taken of Garcia's observa- tions. In 1857, Dr. Turck, of Vienna, who had read Garcia's paper, tried to use his mirror for clinical purposes. He used only one mirror, and employed no artificial ' light or second mirror for illumination; He did not succeed, and gave up his attempts after a few months. Later, in 1857, Professor Czermak, of Pesth, borrowed from Dr. Turck the mirrors which he had discarded, and overcame all difficulties. He introduced artificial light, and the large circular perforated mirror worn on the fore- head. He was the first to render the laryngo- scope a practically useful instrument. He was favoured by nature for examining his own Larynx, since his Pharynx and Larynx were very large, his tonsils and uvula very small. His demonstrations of his own larynx con- vinced the world of the usefulness of the laryngoscope. Since this time no real im- provement has been made, though the subject has been worked continually. Fig. 1. THE LARYNGOSCOPE a Shape of mirror, b mirror and holder in profile much diminished in size. The present apparatus consists of a mirror on a stem, bent at a suitable angle (about 120°), which is placed against tlie back of the pharynx ; of a circular mirror, either flat or ( 268 ) LARYNGOSCOPE. slightly concave, perforated at the centre, which is worn on the observer's forehead in some way so that his eye comes opposite the central hole, or it may be fixed to the illu- minating lamp. Fig. 2. LAMP WITH CONVEX LENS FOR LIGHTING. The third necessary part of the apparatus is a lamp, which may or may not be furnished with a double convex lens for concentrating the rays of light. The sunlight on a bright day may be used instead of a lamp. It is possible by casting a strong light on the neck from outside to illuminate the interior of the larynx, so that in this case the larynx is lighted through its walls. The principles employed in making a laryngoscopic examination are the following ; Dr. Morell Mackenzie thus well explains them : — Fig- 3- (to illustrate equality of angles of incidence AND reflection.) Fig. 4. k. Mirror in profile, ak. is reflected as kd., bk. as kc, and vice versa, " When rays of light fall on a plane sur- face, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. A small mirror is placed at the back of the throat, at such an inclina- tion that luminous rays falling on it are pro- jected into the cavity of the larynx; at the same time the image of the interior of the larynx (lighted up by the luminous rays) is formed on the mirror, and seen by the ob- server. The mirror is held obliquely, so that it forms an angle of rather more than 45° with the horizon. The plane of the laryngeal aperture (bounded by the epiglottis, the ary- epiglottidean folds, and the arytenoid carti- lages) is also oblique, the epiglottis being hi<^her than the apex of the arytenoid carti- lages. " The above diagram shows the position of the different parts, and explains their re- flection. Let m represent the plane of the laryngeal mirror, I the plane of the upper opening of the larynx, and o the observer. In the plane of the larynx, a represents the ary- tenoid cartilages, ae the ary-epiglottidean folds, and e the epiglottis ; the rays from these parts impinge on the mirror, at a, aS, and e, and are thence reflected to the observer at o. Thus the epiglottis, which is really the highest in the throat, appears at the upper part of the mirror, the ary-epiglottidean folds appear rather lower and at each side of the mirror, while at the lowest part of the mirror are the arytenoid cartilages. These remarks apply to the vertical reflection. The only in- Fig- 5- version which takes place in the formation of the image is in the antero-posterior direction ; the part which in reality is nearest to the observer, the anterior commissure of the vocal cords (ac. in B. fig. 5) becomes furthest in the image (ac. in A. fig. 5), and the pos- terior or inter-arytenoid commissure (pc. in B. fig. 5), which in reality is farthest from the observer, becomes nearest in the image (pc. in A. fig. 5). The symmetrical character of the image which makes it impossible to judge of right and left, and the antero-pos- terior inversion which actually takes place, often leads people to form erroneous opinions concerning the two sides of the larynx. The lateral relation of parts in the image must now be considered. The mirror being placed above and behind the laryngeal aperture, the rays of light proceeding from the larynx pass directly upwards and backwards, and the patient's right vocal cord is seen on the left side of the mirror, and the left vocal cord on the right side of the mirror (just as the ( 269) LATERAL VIBRATIONS LEGABILE. patient's right hand is opposite the observer's left, and his left hand opposite the observer's right)." Fig. 6. A LARYNGOSCOPIC SITTING. In making a laiyngoscopic examination, " the patient should sit upright facing the observer, with his head inclined very slightly backwards. The observer's eyes should be about one foot distant from the patient's mouth ; and a lamp burning with a strong clear light should be placed on a table at the side of the patient, the flame of the lamp being on a level with the patient's ej'es. The observer now puts on the reflector, fixed generally on the forehead, and tries to throw a disk of light on to the fauces, so that the centre of the disk corresponds with the base of the uvula. He then passes the laryngeal mirror to the back of the throat, so that the posterior surface rests on the uvula, which should be pushed rather upwards and back- wards towards the posterior nares. In this position the light is thrown from the mirror into the larynx, while the image of the larynx is observed on the mirror." Auto - Laryngoscopy . The practice of Laryngoscopy in self-observation requires a second mirror to reflect the image from the laryngoscope to the observer. An ordinary toilet gfass does very well. Lateral Vibr-ations. [Acoustics, § 15.] Laud (Sp.) Lute. Laudi spiritual! (It.) [Oratorio.] Lauds. [Horse canonicse.] Lauf {Ger.) (i) The peg-box in guitars or violins. (2) A run or division in singing or playing. A roulade. Lauftanz {Ger.) Lit., a running dance, a coranto. Laut {Ger.) hond, forte. Laute {Ger.) [Lute.] Lautenist {Ger.) A performer upon the lute. Lavolta {It.) An old Italian dance, much practised in the days of Queen Elizabeth ; many of the old dramatists allude to the dance, as Massinger in his play, " The Great Duke of Florence :" " dance A light lavolta with her." It seems to have been the precursor of the modern waltz, as it is thus described in a poem by Sir John Davies, called " Orchestra," 1622: " Yet there is one the most delightful kind A lofty jumping or a leaping round, Where arm in arm two 'dancers are entwined, And whirl themselves with strict embracements bound. And still their feet an anapaest do sound. An anap^st in all their music's song, Whose first two feet are short, the third is long." Lay. A song {Ger. Lied.) {Fr. lai.) Ahallsid. Lay vicars. Lay clerks. Clerk vicars. Vicars choral. Secular clerks. Chanters. Spngmen. Secular vicars. Secundarii. The officers of a cathedral whose duty it is to sing that portion of the music of the services which can be performed by laymen or men in minor orders. In some of the old cathedrals they formed a corporation, often jointly with the priest vicars. In many cathedrals the vicars choral were formerly in priest's orders. With certain exceptions, in the new cathedrals lay vicars are not in holy orders and are merely stipendiary singers. Lead. A point or short passage which has to be given out by one particular part. When the word is used as a direction, it calls attention to the importance of that point. Leader. The name of the principal first violinist in an orchestra ; of the chief clarinet- tist in a military band ; and of the chief cornet-player in a brass band. Before the introduction of a separate conductor, the leader of an orchestra was its director, and gave the tempo with his fiddle-bow, a custom which has led to the use of a fiddle-bow as a biton in France. [Conductor.] Leading note. Note sensible {Fr.) Cha- racteristischer Ton {Ger.) Leit-ton {Ger.) Nota characteristica {Lat.) Subsemitoniiim modi {Lat.) Subtonic. The seventh degree of the ascending major scale. It is called leading because of its tendency to rise or lead up to the tonic. It is called sensitive and charac- teristic, because it forms the essential differ- ence between the modern scale and ancient modes. The lastian or Ionic mode was the only church scale having a leading note. In consequence of the leading note forming part of the upper of the two tetrachords of which the modern scale is formed, that tetrachord is by some called characteristic. Lebhaft {Ger.) Lively, vivace {It.) Le^on {Fr.) A piece of music intended to develope the taste, skill and power of the performer. A study. Ledger lines. [Leger lines.] Legabile, legando {It.) Tied, connected, smoothly. ( 270 ) LEGATISSIMO LICENSE. Legatissimo (If.) Exceedingly smooth, close, and connected. Legato (It.) Bound, close, connected. A piece of music so marked is intended to be sung or played in an even, smooth, and gliding manner. It is opposed to staccato. Legatura (It.) A bind, brace, or tie. Accolade (Fr.) Bindungs-zeichen (Ger.) Leger or ledger lines. Lit., light lines, leger {Fr.) Short lines drawn above or below the ordinary stave at the relative distances at which the whole lines would be placed. On and between these lines, notes belonging to passages beyond the extent of the stave are placed. The use of leger lines is com- paratively modern in musical notation, for it was anciently supposed that the stave, with a certain clef prefixed, was sufficient for the compass of the voice or instrument using such clef. When the compass was extended, the clef was shifted so that the music might be still expressed within the limits of a stave. To avoid the frequent shifting of clefs, Frescobaldi, in his " Toccate d'Intavolatura di Cimbalo et Organo," Rome, 1637, employs two staves, comprising fourteen lines, as may be seen in the following fac-simile of the opening of the composition quoted in the article " GaUiard." The name ledger is also given to account- books because of the light lines drawn in the margin of the pages. Legdrement (Fr.) Leggieramente (It.) Lightly, easily, gracefully, rapidly. L6gdrete (Fr.) Leggerezza (It.) Light- ness, rapidity. Leggiadramente (If.) Beautifully, de- lightfully, charmingly. Leggiadro (It.) Handsome, beautiful. Leggiarezza, con (It.) With much light- ness. Leggiere (It.) Very lightly, rapidly. Leggieramente (It.) Easily, lightly, swiftly. Leggiero (It.) Light, easy, swift. Leggierucolo (It.) Rather easily and lightly. Legno, col (It.) With the wood. A direction to strike the strings of violins with the back of the bow. Leicht (Ger.) Easy, light. Leit-akkord (Ger.) A guiding chord. A chord which suggests an immediate resolution into another, as the chord of the dominant seventh, &c. Leiter (Ger.) Scala (It.) Lit., a ladder. The scale. Leitereigene Akkorde (Ger.) Chords proper to the scale, that is, chords made up of the notes of any particular diatonic scale, as for instance, the triads on consecutive notes which are major on the fourth and fifth degrees, minor on the second, third, and sixth, and imperfect on the seventh. Also, chords of the seventh, and of the ninth similarly constructed on successive notes of the scale. Leiterfremd (Ger.) Notes foreign to the scale. Leno (It.) Faint, weak, dull, flexible, pliant. Lent (Fr.) Slow, lento. Lentamente (It.) Slowly. Lentando (It.) Becoming slower by degrees ; slackening the time. Lentement (Fr.) Slowly. Lento (It.) Slow. Lenteur, avec (Fr.) Lentezza, con (It.) Slowly. Lesser. Minor, as : with the lesser third, in the minor key ; lesser sixth, a minor sixth. Lesson. An assigned task, an exercise or tune for the voice or an instrument. The word formerly was applied to exercises (for the harpsichord or other instruments) of the character now known as Suites or Sonatas. Lesto (It.) Light, lively, cheerful, gay. License. Permission to break one of the rules or supposed rules of the art of music. When the gradual growth of music in the church, and among wandering musicians, had proved that the loss of the art as practised by the Greeks was only temporary, attention seems to have been much more directed to the scientific side of music than to the artistic. No doubt the progress of music was considerably retarded by this, but the germ of harmony as found in crude diaphony was not to be stifled, and descant, counterpoint, canon, and fugue, came bit by bit into existence. But writers on music still continued to long for a perfect exactitude in the construction of music which should I make mechanical skill of primary importance, ( 271 ) LICENSING. and the inventive faculty of secondary value. At each stage, therefore, in its development, strong efforts were made by learned pro- fessors to build it up on a series of irre- fragable laws, and fence it round with sundry warnings to the ignorant or unbelieving. The true artistic spirit can never submit to such restraint, and must ever be searching for new forms of the beautiful. Hence, these laws were from time to time broken, and as professors could but allow that the result was in many cases good, they satisfied their con- sciences by calling these breakings of the law " licenses," or in other words, they gave dispensations. Any student fairly conversant with the history of music must have been convinced of this fact by the strongest evidence. The rules of descant were framed as if any further growth of the art were not only im- possible, but undesirable if conceivably pos- sible. So too are the rules of counterpoint as first laid down. In treatises of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the novelties introduced by the then " moderni " are attacked with all the asperity and prejudice which some are direct- ing at the present day against the so-called " music of the future." A well-known living writer on harmony recommends the student to avoid certain counterpoints, " although they have the sanction of great classical composers." The necessity of granting dispensations is thus made evident, for it is here admitted that great classical composers have practically repealed certain rules, yet, say the rule- makers, " the laws are true, so we will say they are broken by license." Examples of this obstructive tendency in most writers on musical subjects might be multiplied to any extent, but it will only be necessary to refer shortly to one more case. " Discords must be prepared " was a law which was enforced until public opinion asserted that many could be delightfully used without preparation. Then, and not till then, students were allowed to use certain dominant discords without preparation by license. This dispensation is happily not enforced in later treatises, and dominant discords "may be used without preparation." One author, more honest, though less logical, than his contemporaries, has said that fundamental discords (a name given for some unexplained cause to dominant discords) are called fundamental, " because they can be used without preparation." Of course art has its laws, and every com- poser and painter writes and paints under the direction of innumerable rules gathered by him from broad generalization and experience. He feels their force and obeys them, but whether they can ever be written down and codified is a question of great doubt. Even if music had now reached its climax of per- fection, no power could succeed in converting it into an exact science, and rules should be sparingly made where "license" will certainly be craved in order to disregard them. Nor can it be' said that there is any moral fault in breaking rules, for music is unlike morality, inasmuch as the artist should first do what his imagination prompts, and afterwards enquire whether it was right or wrong, and moreover, speaking geaerally, the end will justify the means. On the whole, the history of musical "license" is not very creditable to those to whom has been intrusted from time to time the training of enthusiastic musical youth ; and even in these very days it would be well if critics and teachers could be made to understand that many innovations are legitimate growths, and not faults, pardonable only " by license." Licensing {musical and dratnatic). The laws relating to the licensing of musical and dramatic performances are so closely con- nected that it will be convenient to consider them in a single article. In early times there were no such laws, but in the time of Queen Elizabeth players were declared by statute to be rogues and vagabonds, unless they were acting' as the servants of some baron or person of higher degree. The licensing laws, however, properly so called, take their origin from the revival of theatrical entertainments after the Restoration. At that period, the irregularities of the stage became so great, and continued, notwithstanding the efforts of the Lord Chamberlain and his subordinate officer, the Master of the Revels, so uncon- trollable that it was at length thought ex- pedient to include all common players of interludes in the Vagrant Act (12 Anne, stat. 2, c. 24). The evil, however, still prevailed, and was heightened by an attempt to enforce the law against a player who was a house- keeper. In 1735, the increased number of theatres {six in all !) in which the actors played without any legal authority, and the loose and scandalous nature of the performances, induced Sir John Barnard to bring in a bill "to restrain the number of houses for playing of interludes, for the better regulating of com- mon players." But a clause being proposed to enlarge, or at least to confirm the power of the Lord Chamberlain in licensing plays, and it being understood that the Act could not pass without such addition. Sir John Barnard, who disapproved of the Lord Chamberlain's jurisdiction, abandoned the bill. Two years afterwards Sir Robert Walpole introduced and carried the statute 10 Geo. II., c. 28, to explain and amend the statute of Anne, im- ( 272 ) LICENSING. posing penalties for acting without patent from the king or licence from the Lord Chamberlain, requiring all new plays, &c., to be submitted to the Lord Chamberlain, and empowering him to forbid the performance of any dramatic entertainment. The fifth section, prohibiting the granting of a patent or licence to act elsewhere than in Westminster or where the king shall be resident, is said to have been inserted at the instigation of Sir John Barnard. It has been held that " tum- bling " is not an entertainment of the stage within the meaning of this statute (see the case of R. v. Handy, 6, Term Reports, 286). The statute 28 Geo. III., c. 30, enables magis- trates in sessions to license theatrical per- formances in places where they could not be authorized by the previous enactment. It was held, however, that a conviction under that statute for performing without patent from the king or licence from the Lord Chain- berlain at Manchester was good ; it being for the defendant to show, if such were the fact, that he had a licence from the sessions. When, in an action, the plaintiff was a par- ticipator in carrying on an unlicensed opera house, it was held that he could not recover money paid at the request of the defendant for carrying on such unlicensed house (see De Begnis v. Armistead, 10 Bingham, 107.) By the Theatre Act, 1843 (6 & 7 Vict., c. 67) it is provided that all theatres for the public performance of stage plays must be licensed by justices, except in London, West- minster, Finsbury, Marylebone, the Tower Hamlets and Southwark, and such places as the Sovereign is in the habit of occasionally residingin. In those places the authority of the Lord Chamberlain is preserved. These licences are granted in special session of the justices, of which session seven days' notice must be given by their clerk. They must be under the hands and seals of four or more justices. The university towns of Oxford and Cambridge are the subject of special exceptions in favour of the authority of their respective chancellors or vice-chancellors. Performing stage-plays in unlicensed places subjects the offender to a penalty of not more than ten pounds per diem during the con- tinuance of the offence. New plays, and additions to old ones, must be submitted for the approval of the Lord Chamberlain, and the maximum penalty for the performance of plays before they have been allowed, or that have been disallowed, is fifty pounds, the offender's licence also becoming void. The word stage-play includes every "tragedy, comedy, farce, opera, burletta, interlude, melodrama, pantomime or other entertain- ment of the stage, or any part thereof." It has been held, in the case of Thorne v. Colson (3 Law Times Reports, New Series, 697), that a dramatic performance, which was in fact a duologue, was a stage-play within the mean- ing of this statute. A curious case was heard in the year 1865 (Day v. Simpson, 34 Law journal Reports, Magistrates' Cases) in which it was proved that at a music hall, licensed for music and dancing, but not licensed as a theatre, a stage was erected with lights and other accessories, a performance was pre- sented sustained by living persons with a dialogue between them and a regular plot, which was distinguished only from an ordi- nary stage-play by all the actors except two (the dialogue between whom was wholly sub- ordinate to the plot of the piece) being not bodily on the stage, but represented merely by a reflection of their bodies on a mirror at the back of the stage. This ingenious con- trivance was held to be a violation of the statute. It seems, that whether a certain performance be or be not a stage-play within the meaning of the act is a question of fact and not of law ; and that a ballet out of which any regular, story could be constructed would probably be held to be a stage-play requiring a licence. This point was argued in the Alhambra case (see Wigan v. Strange, 35 Law journal Reports, Magistrates' Cases, 31), to which, and to the authorities cited therein, we must refer our readers for further information on this part of the subject. The present law with reference to licences for music, dancing, or other public entertain- ment of the like kind is to be found in the statute 25 Geo. II., c. 36 (made perpetual by 28 Geo. II., c. ig). That act provided that all such places of entertainment, not licensed, were to be considered as disorderly houses, and persons keeping the same are liable to a penalty of £100, to such person as will sue for the same within the space of six calendar months after the commission of the offence. Various other stringent provisions are made in the Act, but nothing therein contained applies to " such performances and public entertainments as are, or shall be, lawfully exercised or carried on under or by virtue of letters patent, a licence of the crown, or the licence of the Lord Chamberlain." A room in which musical performances are regularly exhibited, though it is not used solely for that purpose, is within this statute, and requires a Hcence (see the case of BeUis v. Beale, 2 Espinasse's Reports, 592) ; but a room kept by a dancing master for the instruction of his scholars and subscribers, and to which per- sons are not indiscrirninately admitted is not (see BelHs v. Burghall, ib. p. 722). It seems to be doubtful whether the case is within the statute, where the musical entertainment is only the secondary object for which the place ( 273 ) Life— LIGATUR^E. is open to the public, as where a supper room is so open and no charge made for admission (see Hale v. Green, 9 Exchequer Reports, 247).. From the above resume the reader will be able to gain an outline of the law of dramatic and musical licensing. The statutes and decisions, however, above cited, should be consulted with care. We conclude with the subject of street music, or the law regulating itinerant per- formers in the public thoroughfares of the metropolis-. By § i of statute 27 & 28 Vict., c. 55, a previous enactment on the subject (§ 57 of 2 & 3 Vict., c. 47) is re- pealed, and in lieu thereof it is enacted that any householder within the metropolitan police district, personally or by his servant, or by any police constable, may require any street-musician or street-singer to depart from the neighbourhood of the house of such householder, on account of the illness, or on account of the interruption of the ordinary occupations or pursuits of any inmate of such house, or for other reasonable or sufficient cause. And every person who shall sound or play upon any musical instrument, or shall sing in any thoroughfare or public place near any such house after being so required to depart, shall be liable to a penalty of not more than forty shillings, or, in the discretion of the magistrate before whom he shall be convicted, may be imprisoned for any time not more than three days. And it is lawful for any metropolitan police constable to take into custody without wari;ant any person so offending. The offender must, ho.wever, be given into custody by the person making the charge, and the latter must accompany the prisoner to the station-house and there sign the charge-sheet kept for that purpose. When- ever any person charged with such an offence shall be brought to any station-house during the time when the pohce-court is shut, the constable in charge of the station-house may require the person making the charge to enter into a recognisance to appear to pro- secute, and upon the refusal of such person to do so, the constable in charge may dis- charge the party from custody. Li6 {Fr.) Tied, bound. Lieblich {Ger.) Lovely, sweet-toned, as Lieblich gedackt, lovely stopped diapason. Lied {Ger.) The name for a composition of a simple character, which is complete in itself, a song. There are several kinds, but the chief are classed under the following heads, (i.) Sacred songs or chorales, secu- lar songs, comprising national, people's songs (Volkslieder), drinking songs, and humorous songs. The French chanson, the English songs with their several pecu- liarities are described under their respec- tive headings : it remains therefore, to speak of the German lied, the sacred lied or chorale being the earliest and most ancient form. Its music was founded upon the ecclesiastical modes and remained unchanged until the days of the Minnesingers, whose influence continued for a period of 400 years ; though as a guild the Meistersingers existed so recently as the year 1839, yet the period of their power was from 1 100 until 1500. The alterations and inventions of this body gave lisetotheVotkslieder, a series of melodies of great beauty, rude in form and of a sim- plicity that vanished upon the application of contrapuntal treatment ; thus, as the science of music became cultivated the Volkslieder began to fade and die, and to give rise to the " volksthumliche Lied," a sort of compromise between the volkslied proper and the " kunst lied,"' in which the spontaniety of the one was enriched with the scientific decoration of the other. Liedertafel {Ger.) Lit., song-table. A society meeting for the practice of part-songs for men's voices. Ligaturae {Lat.) Ligatures.. An old sys- tem of connecting notes (notula) for purposes of singing. Notulse, says Franchinus (lib. i., cap. ii.) are of three kinds, simplex, com- posita, mediocris. A " Notula simplex " is one which is not joined to another, and is shaped thus,H, or with a stem (virgula) thus, p. A "Notula composita" is one that is attached to another, and is of two kinds. If the ligature ascends, that is, if the second note is higher than the first, the first note has no stem, e.g. .- but if the ligature descends, the first note has a stem on its left hand side, e.g. : A " notula mediocris " has the form of neither of the preceding, but appears like ordinary " mensurable " descending semi- breves, of which there are not less than two in succession, e.g. : ^ The final notula of a ligature may be written in three ways, ist, lower than the penultimate, thus : |-fVN^ 2. Immediately over the penultimate, with a foursided body, thus : P^^S^ 3. Or over the penultimate, on the right ( 274 ) LIGNE ^LUTE. side, with a foursided body and a stem on the right side, thus : bT-'^^rf^ It is wrong to write the ultimate of a ligature thus 1^ , but two notes only may be written thus lift, p.^ ; but an ascending oblique body may not be written upwards '', at such a thing, "usus perhorrescit." To the middle notes of a ligature no special form is attached, they are either foursided, or oblique. Only one syllable is to be sung to- all the notes included in one ligature. Ligne (Fr.) A line. Ligneum Psalterium {Lot?) A series of pieces of wood of graduated lengths, so arranged as to produce the various notes of a scale. These pieces are supported on two strings, running the length of the instrument, which is sometimes made in the shape of a boat. The tone is produced by striking. The in- strument is very ancient and universal, modifi- cations of its form beingfound in every country. It is also called Xylophone (GA. wood-sound), Strohfidel, Gigelira, wooden -laughter, &c. Lilt. An Irish dance accompanied with singing. " While the chanter with his merry pipes Struck up a lilt so gaily O." [Ballad.] Limtna {Gk.) [Greek Music] Linea (Lat.) Linie (Ger.) A line. Linien-system {Ger.) The stave of five lines. Linke Hand {Ger.) Left hand Lip, to. To adjust the lips' so as to produce the proper tone of wind-instruments played by the mouth. Lipping. [To lip.] Lira (It.) A lyre. This word was formerly applied to manyinstruments of the viol class or others having a resonance-box, as, lira da hraccio, a sort of large tenor-violin ; lira da gamha, or perfetta, a sort of violoncello ; lira rustica or tedesca, or tnendicorum, a hurdy- gurdy {Bauern-leyer). Lira harherina was a bowed instrument, invented by John Baptist Doni, so named in honour of his patron, Cardinal Barberini. Lire {Fr.) A lyre or harp. Liressa {It.) An inferior lyre or harp. Liscio {It.) Polished, smooth. L'istesso {It.) The same, as I'istesso movimento, the same movement; l'istesso tempo, the same time. Litany, XiTuvda {Gk.) A prayer, rogation, or supplication ; in particular, that early form of prayer in which a minister recites a peti- tion, and the people answer " Lord, have mercy." In the fourth century litanies were sung in solemn processions by the Eastern Church, but they were not employed by the Western Church till about a century later. Until the time of Mamertus they were only used on special occasions, but he, at the close of the fifth century caused them to be recited on fixed days. Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison, Kyrie eleison, is called the Lesser Litany. Lituus {Lat.) A crooked trumpet^ used chiefly for giving military signals. Liuto {It.) A lute., Lo. (i) Abbreviation for Loco. (2) One of the syllables used in Bocedization. Lobgesang {Ger.) A hymn of praise. Loco {It.) In its proper place. A direction to return to the proper pitch after having played an octave higher. Locrian {Gk.) A name sometimes applied to the Hypodorian mode.. Logeum (Z.ai.) XoytTov (Gi.) [Pulpitum.J Long. An ancient musical character equal to two breves. Long Drum. [Drum.] Longitudinal vibrations. [Acoustics, § I4-] Lontano(7f.) Fardistant. Trombalontano, a trumpet played in the distance. Lo stesso tempo {It.) At the same pace. Loure or Louvre {Fr.) A dance adapted to an air called " L'aimdble vainqueur," said to have been a favourite of Louis XIV. Some authors, however, consider it to have been a kind of jig, or a waltz. The name is perhaps, derived from the word lourer, to bind notes together, to slide. Lugubre (-Fr.) Dismal, doleful, lugubrious. Lu-lu {Chinese). The Chinese official collection of treatises on the art of music. Lunga pausa {It.) A. long pause. Luogo {It.) [Loco. J Lures. Ancient Scandinavian trumpets. Some specimens discovered in Denmark would, if straightened, have been six feet in length ; in their curved form they were three and a-half feet long. Notwithstanding their great antiquity, they were considerably orna- mented and in sufficiently good preservation to give out musical sounds. Lusingando {It.) \ Lusingante (/i.) I Caressingly, in a Lusinghevole {It.) f coaxingmanner. Lusinghevolmente {It.)' Lusinghiere (-''^Olcaressin? coaxing- Lusinghiero (/; .) | "-aressmg, coaxmg. Lute. Luth {Fr.) Laute {Ger.) Liuto {It.) Laud {Sp.) An instrument of the Guitar family, formerly very popular in Europe. It was used for accompaniments and the per- formance of solos, duets, &c. It had five to six pairs of strings, each pair tuned in unisons or octaves. The accordatura was as follows : 8va. bassa. The lower G was omitted on the five-stringed', and both G's on the four-stringed Lute. The German lutenists called the six strings, ( 27s ) LUTH— LYRIC STAGE, counting from the lowest, Gross-brummer, Mittel-brummer, Klein-brummer, Grossang- saite, Kleinsang-saite, and Quintsangsaite, or the five strings without the lower G, Prime, Secund, Terz, Quart, and Quint. In France, Italy, and Flanders, they were similarly named according to the language of the land, the upper string, upgn which the melody was usually made being called Soprano, il Canto, Chanterelle, as well as Quint. In England the lowest string was called the Bass, the next the Tenor, the next the Counter tenor, the next the Great mean, the next tl;e Small mean, and the highest the Treble. Gut strings were generally used, for covered strings were not knowij when the Lute was in common use. Thomas Mace ("Musicks Monument," 1676) describes the strings of his time in these words: "Be careful to get good strings which should be of three sorts, viz., minikins, Venice catlins, and Lyons (for basses). Music for the Lute was written in Tablature q.v. The word has been variously derived, from the Latin ludere, to play, from the Greek aXiEVTiKOQfiTOTa the lyre which was a dessicated tortoise, and from the Saxon Mud or lud, sonorous, but it is most probably from the Arabic el'ood, as the instruments came into Europe from the Moors through the Spaniards, who still call it laud. lLijd& The several frets of the lute were dis- tinguished by the letters of the alphabet, "one for each fret as many as there may be." The frets divided the strings into semitones. The Orpharion Lute had a larger number of strings than the common lute, and its strings were of wire, instead of gut. ORPHARION LUTE. Luth {Fr.) A lute. Luttuosamente (It.)\ ,, - „ ,, Luttuoso (/f.) ^[Mournfully, sadly. Lutenist. A performer upon the lute. The office of lutenist still exists in the Chapel Royal, but it has been a sinecure since the disuse of the instrument. The revival of the office was made in favour of Dr. Nares,in 1780. Lychanos {Gk.) [Greek music] Lydian mode. [Greek Music] Lyon catlins. Thick spun strings for the basses of lutes or viols. [Lute.] Lyra viol. An obsolete instrument, in form like the ordinary viol, having six strings and seven frets. Lyra mendicorum (Laf .) [Hurdy-Gurdy.] ' Lyre. One of the most ancient stringed instruments. The word lyre {Xvpai) does not occur in Homer ; he speaks only of the citharis (KiBapig) and phorminx (^dp/ity^). The distinction between a citharis (or guitar), and a lyre, is that the neck of the former runs behind the upper part of the strings, while the strings of the latter are free on both sides. A reference to the article " Guitar " will show the nature of the cithara. The following illustration of a , Greek lyre exhibits the characteristic of the instrument just alluded 10. The lyre was also called testudo or chelys (x«'\«c), because the back was of tortoiseshell, as shown in the next illustration. The cross bar at the top was called the yoke ^iiyov, Lat. transtillum, a little tran- strum or cross-bar. The uprights were called the horns Trjjxetc, The history of the progress of the lyre as a musical instrument, is the history of Greek music itself, and the reader is referred to the article on that subject for information. [Guitar], [Lute], [Greek Music] Lyric. Poetry or blank-verse intended to be set to music and sung. Lyric Stage, A term applied to operatic representations. (276) M- -MADRIGAL. M. M. Abbreviation of mezzo, mano, main, manual. M. M. stands ioxMaelzeVs metronome, q. V. Ma {It.) But; as, vivace ma nan troppo ; quick, but not too quick. Machalath', or Mahalath [Heb.) This word occurs in the title of Psalms liii. and Ixxxviii., the former is inscribed to the "chief musician upon Mahalath, the latter to the " chief musician upon Mahalath Leannoth." Mahalath is by some authors traced (like Machol), to a root meaning pierced or bored, hence it is thought these Psalms were accom- panied by flutes. It is generally thought that the term leannoth refers to antiphonal singing. Other writers consider the titles of these and several other Psalms to be a reference to well known tunes to which they were to be sung. Machine-head. An arrangement of rack and pinion for the purpose of tightening and keeping in tension the strings of the double- bass, and the guitar, as the ordinary pegs employed to stretch the strings are of unequal leverage. Machicot {Fr.') An obsolete term for one of the chori ministri minores of a cathedral, who in singing, added passing-notes between intervals of the plain-song ; or, according to others, added a part to the plain-song at an interval of a third or fourth, thus forming a sort of organum or diaphony. The music thus sung was called machicotage. Machol, or MahhoJ {Heb.) A word often found in the Old Testament, associated with " toph" (timbrel), and almost always rendered in the English version by dances or dancing. But some authorities trace the word to a root meaning pierced or bored, and therefore con- sider it to have been a flute. It is not im- probable that Machol and toph may mean " pipe and tabor," but as these two instru- ments are often associated with dancing, our version, and others which follow it, cannot in any case be said to be incorrect. Machwerk {Ger.) Composition, construc- tion, the result of labour rather than sponta- neity. Madriale {It.) A word derived from madrigal, and as in the early operas madri- gals were performed between the acts, with- out necessarily having any connection with them, the word came to be applied to any species oi intermezzo. Madrigal. In the doubt that has existed as to the origin of the word, many specula- tions have been advanced ; Huet, Bishop of Avranches, supposed it to be a cor- ruption of the word Martegaux, because he presumed that the inhabitants of that district in Provence, either invented or excelled in this peculiar style of composition, but as he produces no authority in support of his assertion, he gives occasion to Sir John Hawkins shrewdly to say, " had he known that there was a town in Spain called Madrigal, it is likely he would have deduced its origin from the Spaniards." The deriva- tion of the word from the Italian mandra, because some of the madrigals are of a pastoral character, need not be entertained, because for every poem with such a theme, there is at least a score having other subjects of a widely different nature. The modern idea that the madrigal may have originally been a song to the Virgin Mary, is likewise based upon very doubtful authority, if upon any authority at all, for in the first place, it is necessary to prove that the word madre came to be exclusively applied to the Virgin, and in the second, that there should be some applicable meaning in the latter part of the word, for gala relates to gaiety in dress or ornament, and not to joyfulness in poetry or music, and finally, that the supporters of this idea should produce specimens of such songs in numbers sufficient to justify their ground in making the statement. The term may possibly be connected with the Spanish word madrugada, dawn of day, for many of the Spanish cancioneros or madrigals have the character of an " aubade." The word was applied to a poem of a popular character as early at least as the 14th century. The first madrigals on whatever subject they were written, were always in popular versification, and generally contained a well-known pro- verb, or the application of some common- place wisdom. The words madrigal and villancico, or villanella ballato and sonetto, are frequently used to describe a popular song in popular language and versification. The madrigal as a poem arose out of the ( 277 ) MADRIGAL. cancionero general, the invention of the Spanish poets of the early part of the 13th century. A theme or moto was selected, and the poet exercised his ingenuity in varying the motives, as a m,usician does a phrase. The' following poem or glose, by Don Jorge Manrique de Madrigal, will show the method of treatment : — Mote. , " Sin vos, y sin Dios, y mi." Yo soy quien libre me vi Yo quien pudiera olvidaros Yo so el que por amaros Estoy des que os conoci Sin Dios y sin vos y mi. Sin Dios, porque en vos adoTO Sin vos, pues no me quereys Pues sin me ya esto decoro Que vos soys quien me teneys Assi que triste naci Pues que pudiera olvidaros Yo soy el que por amaros Esto desque os conoci Sin Dios y sin vos y mi. The early composers took the melodies of some of the popular madrigals and constructed counterpoint upon them, and further produc- tions were called madrigals or motetts, either from their having a proposed theme, or from the character of the poem which furnished the theme. In Spain to this day the motetts sung at high mass on Christmas eve are called villancicos. The word madrigal became a general term for secular compositions, of which there were three classes: (i.) The solo madrigal, or " Madrigale concertate con il basso con- tinuo ; " (2.) The madrigal in parts for voices unaccompanied, or " Madrigali di tavolino;" and (3.) The madrigal accompanied by several instruments, " apt for viols arid voyces," or as they are described in Italian, " madrigali concertate con varie sorte di stromenti." It was the second class that obtained the greatest popularity in England after having been introduced by means of copies printed in Flanders in 1588, by an unknown gentleman who translated the words of some of the most famous Italian madrigals and adapted them to English verse for his own use. Immediately upon their introduc- tion into England, the composers 'of the time produced works of a similar character which far exceeded in beauty of idea and construction all their prototypes, and so far exhausted the style that the Elizabethan madrigals have never been excelled for beauty and fancy in harmony and counterpoint, and the mere mention of the word madrigal calls into asso- ciation such names as Mofley, Wilbye, Ward, Benet, Dowland, Ford, and Gibbons. The earliest compositions to madrigal words were similar in character to the hymn tunes or chorales now in use, the counterpoint being of the simplest form, note against note, each measure being similarly accented in all the parts, they were, in fact, harmonised melodies. The madrigal " Down in a flowery vale," by Constantius Festa (1517-1545), is a good example in this form. The original Italian words are in true madrigal style and rhythm. The ballets or fa las, printed at Venice in 1591, by Gastoldi, who is the reputed inventor of this form of madrigal, are of a like character. By degrees, as it was discovered that it was possible to arrange the parts so that they might become melodies interchangeable as to form and rhythm ac- cording to the plan now known as double counterpoint, a greater freedom was attained, and not only were madrigals improved, but the art of composition made a great advance. The motett and the madrigal, always side by side, always written in like style, benefitted by the improvement, the only difference in their construction being that as in the madrigal every improvement or " license " in harmony and melody was permitted, certain progressions were forbidden in the motett as being inconsistent with the solemn character of the words to which they were usually set. The motett was originally in madrigal form, that is to say, was arranged in short phrases to correspond with the versification of the madrigal, a matter of necessity when it is considered that the melodies of the well known and often profane madrigals were taken as the plain song upon which new and severe harmonies were based. Richard Ed- wardes, 1547; Phillipo Verdelot, 1549 ; Adrian Willaert, 1565 ; Vincenzo Ruffo, 1568 ; Thomas Tallis, 1575 ; Palestrina, 1588 ; and Claudio Merula, 1598 ; wrote sacred compo- sitions in which the motett displays signs of this method of treatment. It may be need- less to point out that what has been called " the Conversational arrangement of short phrases," is essentially the character of the later madrigals, in which one part or more proposes a phrase which is replied to either in imitation or some such form by the other part or parts in turn, as in Converso's " When all alone my pretty love," 1580. In the longer madrigals a greater variety of phrasing is of course necessary, in order to avoid monotony of effect. " Shew" says Morley at page 180 of his " Plaine and Easie Introduction to Prac- ticall Musicke," 1597, " to the very utmost your variety," and " the more variety you shew, the better you shall please." In course of time the original signification of the word was lost sight of and many compositions were styled madrigals without consideration of the primary meaning of the term, hence has arisen a certain amount of confusion with regard to this class of music. ( 278) MADRIGALE- — MAGGOT. The dates of the several productions so called do not always indicate the state of the madrigal, some later writers using the earliest forms, as Dowland, Ford, and Gibbons, while the earlier writers in varying the accepted form of their time suggested improvements which were afterwards expanded. Existing madrigals may be divided into these groups : — 1. Madrigals with melody, harmonised note against note. 2. Those in which florid and double counterpoint is employed, but rarely consisting of more than one move- ment. 3. Those in which two or more move- ments are used, and every variety of counterpoint. The Villanellas or Madrigals of Donati [1510-1590], the Ballets or Fa las ofGastoldi, already alluded to, and all like works belong to the first division ; the Triumphs of Oriana, especially those by Weelkes and Morley, to the second; and all compositions like "Sweet honey-sucking bees " to the third class. The characteristics a Madrigal should pos- sess may be thus summed up : — 1. Themes suitable in character to the words. 2. Variety of rhythm. 3. Short melodic phrases. 4. Imitation and counterpoint. There are many pieces called madrigals in which certain of these conditions are more present than others, indicating the advance in thought and treatment, afterwards developed in the Glee, such as Wilbye's " Thus saith my Chloris," Benet's " Flow, O my tears," and Gibbons's " Silver Swan" and " Oh that the learned poets." The two last named are specially held to be transitions or bridges be- tween the madrigal and the glee. Madrigale (It.) [Madrigal.] Madrigaletto or Madrialletto {It.) A short madrigal. Maesta, con. \ Maestevoie'°" ) ('^i-e^''' ''^'^'^' Maestevolmente | ™^J^^ y* Maestoso / Maestrale {It.) ormagistrale, a term some- times applied to the Stretto of a Fugue. [Fugue.] Maestri secolari {It.) Teachers of secu- lar music. Maestria {It.) Skill, address, authority. Maestro del coro, or di cappella {It.) Choir master, leader, or conductor. [Capell- meister.] . Magadis {Gk.) fiayiSig. An mstrument of twenty strings, on which music could be played in octaves. Magadize, to {Gk.)ixayadi!:o,. (i.) To play ( 279) upon the magadis. (2.) To play in octaves. Magas {Gk.) fiayae. (i.) The bridge (Lat. pons) of a cithara. (2.) A fret. Maggiolata {It.) A May song. A song sung in celebration of the month of May. Maggiore {It.) . Major. Maggot. One of the later names given to fancies, airs, and pieces of an impromptu character. The most celebrated of these fancies or whimsical airs was that by Moteley' or Motley, which is subjoined. From "A choice collection of lessons, being excellently sett for the harpsichord," 1705. Ij r ^ 'ir • 1 ^J i^^^r^^=^i JL ^ ^ - J ^ r i V^'^ I h- ^ p ^ n- r ' -^ ^^ ^r '' T^ D » r ^ r f~^~r'rr 1 ^.fl^--^ (5) 1 ' 1 ' J — '■ — 1 — Qp- J. J. A J. (fif. ^r„BJ 1 1',- ,.. ■. 1 rJ j I-) .if lU.^.^I. pr.^ ^' r ^ r'- r ' ,^.f,f|,f,firrrr ^v^ f rf - ^) r r -F-X- 1 ' 1 ' --I — - J.. 4— P-- '^^^r^r'^-r' ''r^r ^ -1 MAGREPHA MARKS OF EXPRESSION. (It.) With sadness, sorrow, or melan- choly. Magrepha. An organ mentioned in the Talmud as having been in existence in the second century. It had ten ventages, each of which communicated with ten pipes, and it was played upon by means of a clavier. Main (Fr.) The hand, as main droite, the right hand ; main gauche, the left hand, abbreviated thus, m. d. and m. g. Maitre de chapelle {Fr.) Choir master. [Capellmeister.] Majeur {Fr.) Major. Major. Greater. A major third consists of four semitones, a minor third of three. A major tone is the whole tone having the ra,tio 8:g ; a minor tone, that having the ratio g:io. Intervals have had the term major applied to them in a conflicting manner. [See Interval.] Major mode. The ordinary diatonic scale, having semitones between the third and fourth, and seventh and eighth degrees. Major modus (La^) (Major mode.) Malakat. [Ashantee trumpet.] Malinconia, con Malinconicamente Malinconico Malinconioso Malinconoso Mammets. Puppet-shows, usually accom- panied with music on a dulcimer. [Dulcimer.) Mancando {It.) Decreasing, dying away. Manche {Fr.) The neck of a violin or guitar, &c. Mandola {It.) ^ An Italian fretted Mandoline {Eng.) l-guitar, so called from Mandolina (7^.) J its almond shape. There are several varieties, each with different tunings. The Neapolitan, considered the most perfect, has four strings tuned like the violin, i.e., G, D, A, E. The Milanese, next in favour, has five double strings tuned G, C, A, D, E. A plectrum is used in the right hand, and the left is employed in stopping the strings. Mozart in Don Giovanni, wrote an accompaniment to " Deh Vieni " for this instrument. Mandora (7^) A kind of guitar. Manica {It.) Fingering. Manichord. [Clarichord.] Manico {It.) The neck of a violin or guitar,' &c. Manche {Fr.) Maniera (7^.) Manner, style, method ; as, maniera affettata, an affected style, maniera languida, a languid, lifeless style. Manifere {Fr.) [Maniera.] Manieren {Ger.) [Harpsichord graces.] Mannergesangverein {Ger.) A society formed for the performance of music for men's voices. Mano {It.) Hand, as mano destra, diritta, right hand ; mano sinistra, left hand. Manual. [Key-board.] Manuductor. The man who beat time by striking the left hand with the right. Oyster- shells or bones were sometimes used as accessories. Marcando {It.) Marking the time or ex- pression. Marcatissimo {It.) Very marked. Marcato {It.) Marked, or emphasized. March. A musical composition so arranged as to be suitable for accompanying troops in walking. There are quick and slow marches in duple and triple time, besides marches peculiar to certain nationalities. Marche {Fr.) A sequence, as, Marche des accords, a sequence of chords. Marche redoubl6e {Fr.) A double quick march. • Marche triomphale {Fr.) A triumphal march. Marziale (7^) Martial, warlike. Marimba. [Balafo.] Marionette {It.) A puppet. Marks of Expression. Certain words or signs used in music to regulate the degrees of accent, power, time, or tone, required by the composer to produce the proper effect of his composition. The employment of elaborate marks of expression is a practice of compara- tively modern times, none of the earliest writers making use of any beyond the time signs, these being all that were then needed, as they suggested a certain pace generally understood. Most of the early printed music had no other directions than soft and loud, and these only sparingly. Thus, in Croft's "Musica Sacra or Select Anthems in score" 1724, the "First Essay of Publishing Church Musick in England," printed from engraved metal plates, all the directions are in English, as loud, soft, fast, slow, grave, brisk and lively, the only foreign words employed being solo and ritornello. The introduction of Italian music into this country in the eighteenth century necessitated a knowledge of the Italian terms of expression, which led to the gradual employment of a few of the terms so acquired, and Italian words or their abbreviations ultimately superseded the English words to such an extent that very few native terms for expression are to be found in music of modern times. The Italian words originally introduced were in their simplest forms, but as composers grew more fastidious and exacting, the phrases became complicated by the employment of diminutives, expansions, and compounds of terms, so that it became extremely difficult to determine the exact value of the many marks. The doubts that presented tljemselves to the minds of the performers as to pace necessitated the employ- ment of a method by which the time of a piece should be taken, and a string divided into inches was at iirst used as a standard to ( 280 ) MARQUE MASS. regulate the time value of the notes in a bar. This gave rise to the invention of the metronome. [Expression.] Marque (Fr.) [Marcato.] Marsch [Ger.) A march."* Marseillaise (Fr.) A song written by Rouget de Lisle, an ofBcer of artillery in the garrison of Strasbourg in 1792. It received its title from having been sung by a party of the Marseillaise club as they entered Paris on the invitation of Madame Roland ; the song, though less sanguinary in sentiment than most of the songs of the revolution, was employed as accompaniment to many of the horrible deeds of that, and of later periods, and by association became dangerous enough to be included among the songs prohibited to be sung in France. The tune to which it is set by the author of the words, contains pro- gressions so unusual in popular songs, that it is difficult to account for its general adoption. Martel6 (Fr.) 1 r -, , , Martellato {It.)\^'^-' hammered. Martellare (It.) Lit., to hammer. A term applied to staccato bowing on the violin, and to the strong percussion of notes of a pianoforte. Masque. A species of dramatic entertain- ment in which originally the performers wore masks of peculiar forms suggestive of the allegorical characters assumed. In many instances the masque had no definite design or plot, but depended for its success upon the occasion for which it was written, the wit of the poet who furnished the words, the skill of the musician who supplied the music, and the ingenuity of the machinist and scene painter by whom the stage effects were pro- duced. The early masques were simply acted pageants, but by degrees the genius of such writers as Fletcher and Ben Jonson furnished the poetical groundwork of many masques acted at Court by the children of His Majesty's Chapel Royal and St. Paul's Cathedral. The most beautiful work of this class is the "Comus" of Milton, acted at Ludlow in 1634, and although produced at a time when the taste for this class of entertain- ment had fallen off, it has always been held to be the most perfect specimen of a masque. [Ballet, Opera, Oratorio.] Mass. Missa (Z,a^.) Messa(7f.) Messe (Fr.) Messe (Ger.) The portions of the Mass usually set to music, namely, the Kyrie, the Gloria, the Credo, the Sanctus and the Agnus Dei. An Offertory and Benedictus are sometimes added to these numbers. Masses are desig- nated musically after the key in which they commence, as Beethoven in D ; and liturgically, according to the character and solemnity of the accompanying ceremonial, as 9. " Low Mass" (Messa Bassa) in which the priest simply intones or reads the service ; a " Chanted Mass," in which certain tones with inflections are sung ; a " High Mass," in which the service is partly chanted by the priest, partly by the deacons who assist the priest, and partly sung by the choir to an elaborate musical setting with or without instrumental accompaniment. It is only necessary here to speak of the various liturgical divisions of the service, so far as they are connected with the special form or character of their music. In early times the ancient ecclesiastical plain song was alone employed as the music for the several sections of this service, and when musicians were possessed of inventive skill, they still retained the old character of the music by interweaving counterpoint, and new harmonies upon the old plain-song, -either entirely unaltered, or with slight modi- fications such as those described in "Fa burden." Musicians afterwards took the tunes of popular hymns as well as the airs of vulgar songs, the latter ordinarily allied to words of questionable character, instead of the melodies of the plain-song, and the masses so composed were called after the name of the borrowed tunes. Thus Claude Merula calls his four " Missarum quinque vocum," Venice, 1573. (i.) " Missa Benedicta es celorum Regina ;" (2.) " Missa Susanne un giour ;" (3.) "Missa Oncques Amour;" and (4.) " Missa Aspice Domine." Baini in his " Memorie storico-critiche della vita, e opere di Giovanni Pierluigi da Pales- trina," Rome, 1828, gives what he calls a short list of some eighty secular tunes upon which masses had been composed and sung. If the language in which they are named indicate their origin, the majority were French songs, and if the titles are in any way sug- gestive of their character, they could not have been fit for church use. This custom of em- ploying popular melodies in the construction of sacred music was not a distinctive cha- racteristic of the 1 6th century, but it existed later, and was especially favoured by that class of religious formalists who prided them- selves upon purity in thought and worship. Shakespeare alludes to the Puritan "who sings Psalms to hornpipes ;" the dissenting bodies of the last century showed by their collections of melodies sung during worship that they would not allow " the devil to have all the best tunes." The special hold obtained over the minds of the lower classes during the recent "revival" meetings was in a great measure due to the influence of the " hymns " which were almost invariably sung to well known song tunes, either entirely unaltered, or only slightly modified. ( 281 ) MASS. There is now a recognised treatment for every section of the mass to which music may be set, as well as a received canon for the style of composition in which most of the several subdivisions are composed. This arrangement is not set forth by written laws, but is the result of traditional use of a slow and gradual growth, as the appended short descriptions of certain representative masses from the latter part of the i6th century to the middle of the i8th will show. A short analysis of the manner in which the several movements have been treated is subjoined to help towards the formation of as correct a notion on the subject as can be obtained without a reference to and study of the works themselves. The majority of these are only preserved in the cabinets of the curious, for they are for the most part of an obsolete character, more interesting as musical monu- ments than valuable as being available at the present time for the service for which they were written. There are many members of the church in which this form of musical composition is most employed who do not hesitate to say that a return to the older, and (as they say) ■purer forms of musical setting is desirable, for some musicians have taken advantage of the liberty allowed by non-interference with their designs, to introduce a style of composition utterly inconsistent with the character of the service it is intended to accompany. But modern writers have not only elaborated the various movements, they have also added music to certain parts of the service of the Mass which were left untouched in older times. The " Introit, Gradual, Offertory and Com- munio" were supposed to be given when sung to the ancient plain-song settings, and there- fore these portions have been left alone by the earlier composers. Later writers have sup- pHed music for these sections, and in the desire to be original have been tempted to write " sensuous settings " as well in these parts as in the others. The music preserved by Marbecke (1550) is simply an eking out of the old plain-song with phrases of his own invention in imitation of it. As there are no harmonies given, it is presumed that either they were not sung, or, if they were, some sort of " falso bordone " of a recognised character was intended to be used. Whether harmonised or plain, his " use " is very simple, and if it is, as some say, a mere transcription of that employed in his time, it is certain that no reasonable ground of complaint could be made against it, for it is not " overloaded with ornament nor spread abroad with superfluous syllabilisation." As only portions of Marbecke's settings can be traced to a remoter date than his own, he has a claim to be considered among the com- posers of music to the mass. Next in order stands William Byrd, who, in a mass com- posed c. 1553, displays some degree of charac- teristic originality, together with a leaning towards old styles if not forms. The " Kyrie " is simple and short, changing at the words " Christi eleison," and return- ing to the first subject and words, " Kyrie eleison." The " Gloria " is precented and is divided at the words " Domine Deus." The " Credo " is also precented and is divided at the words " qui propter nos homines," and also at " Et in spiritum sanctum." In the " Sanctus " there is a change of theme at the words " Pleni sunt." The " Benedictus " is a simple Motett-like setting, so also is the " Agnus Dei." This arrangement was one generally fol- lowed by other writers of the period. The idea influencing all seemed to have been to make the setting solemn and not dramatic. Plain counterpoint, with little points of occasional imitation, and with rarely more than two notes to one syllable, was most favoured. The writers thus avoided the pneumas, upon which contempt had been thrown as the relic of a barbarous period, and as being incompatible with the more en- lightened views then entertained. In the interlude of the "Four Elements" c. 1510 there is a dialogue between Humanity and Ignorance, in which the florid character of early conterpoint is thus satirized : Hu. — Peace, man, prick-song may not be despised, For therewith God is well pleased. Honoured, praised, and served In the Church oft-times among. Ig, — Is God well pleased, trows't thou, thereby ? Nay, nay ! for there is no reason why ; For is it not as good to say plainly " Give me a spade," As " give me a spa-ve-va, ve-va-ve-vade ?" In later times the " pneuma" was revived in the form of the " divisions," but these latter were made more acceptable by being introduced as an integral part of the com- position in which they appeared, and not as a mere adjunct. In this improved state they are observed as early as the time of Carissimi, who in a mass in D minor for five voices has introduced short divisions, contrary to former custom. There is another point of impor- tance in this mass. The first trace of a fugue to the words " Cum sancto spiritu " in the " Gloria" is met with, and also an attempt at dramatic expression at the words " Et in- camatus est." In the " Missa ad imitationem Moduli Dixit Joseph," by Orlando di Lasso, Paris, 1607, we find in the setting of the " Kyrie " a few short simple chords note against note; a like ( 282 ) MASS MEDIEVAL, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. arrangement in the "Gloria" to the "Domine Deus," at which point imitation is introduced, and another change at " Qui tollis " as well of time as character. The " Credo " changes style at " Et incarnatus est." The " Sanctus" like the " Kyrie " is simply set, and the arrange- ment of the " Benedictus " as a trio or tria upon a subject used in the "Kyrie" and " Sanctus," probably the " Dixit Joseph," completes the Mass. In Colonnas' " Messi Salmi, e Responsori perli Defonti," Bologna, 1685. The " Kyrie " is in imitation throughout. The " Sanctus," thirty-four bars long, is in eight part fugal writing. The " Benedictus " is short (fifteen bars), and in single counterpoint, the " Agnus Dei," like the " Kyrie," is in imitation, and is precented. In a " Messe a quattro voci, concertato e stromenti," by Isabella Leonarda, Bologna, i6g6, the " Kyrie " is set as a solo for alto at the words " Christe eleison." The plain setting of the "Gloria" changes at " Et in terra," and again at the words " Gratias agimus," an alteration of time rather than style at " Qui tollis," a return to the original form of the Kyrie at " Quoniam," and so on to the end. The " Credo " is divided at " Et incarnatus," " Et resurrexit," and at " Et iterum veiiturus est," the last movement having little points of imitation that must be called "Attacati," rather than fugal points. Judging by the specimens existing, it must be confessed that composers did not think it worth while to devote their best energies to the service of the Church during the period of the first half of the eighteenth century. A comparison of the Mass of Leonarda, with one by Konigsperger produced nearly sixty years later, shows little if any progress. It is true that in the meantime Bach had written por- tions of his Mass in B minor, but as there is reason to believe that it is for the most part a pasticcio, and probably not much known at the time, its influence is altogether out of the question. In the "Jubilatio Lyturgica" of Konig- sperger, Augsburg, 1750, among much that might be called time-saving writing, there are one or two points worthy of observation for their early use. Thus the " Kyrie " is adapted to the " Dona nobis," which appears later. The "Osanna" is set to an elaborate divi- sion. The " Gloria " is divided at the words " Domine Deus," " Quoniam," and at " Cum Sancto Spiritu," this last movement appearing as a regular and well worked out, though short fugue. There is nothing in any of the other movements that calls for especial mention. The Masses of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Hummel, and Schubert, are sufficiently well known to render a detailed account here unnecessary. Mass [Ger.) Measure, time. Massig (Ger.) Moderate, temperate. Massig langsam, moderately slow. Massima {It.) A semi-breve. Masternote. An old term for the sensible or leading note. Masure, Masurek, Masurlsa (Ger.) [Mazurka.] Matelotte {Fr.) A sailors' dance. [Horn- pipe.] Matinee {Fr.) A morning concert. Mattins. [Horse Canonicae.] Maultrommel {Ger.) [Jew's-harp.] Maxima {Lat.) A note equal to four breves. MfzuS} (^-) [^— ka.J Mazurka. A Polish dance of lively grotesque character, the music of which is in f or ^ time with a peculiar rhythm. It is generally performed by four or eight pairs of dancers, is popular in Germany as well as in Poland, and has been successfully introduced into England. The mazurka, like the waltz, has been treated in a classical manner, notably by Chopin. M. D. Abbreviation of (i.) Mano destra or main droite, the right hand ; (2.) Doctor of music. Mean. The name formerly given to the tenor part as being the mean in pitch between the bass and treble. The middle strings of instruments were also called mean. Mean clef. The C clef. Measure, (i.) A general name for a slow and stately dance, supposed to be like the minuet — " But after then as men more civile grew He did more grave and solemn measures frame." Davies' Orchestra. Reed says that " the measures were per- formed at court and at public entertainments of the societies of law and equity, at their balls on particular occasions. It was formerly not deemed inconsistent with propriety, even for the gravest persons to join in them ; and accordingly at the revels, which were cele- brated at the Inns of Court, it has not been unusual for the first characters in the law to become performers in treading the measures." (2.) Time, pace". (3.) Rhythm. {4.) The contents of a bar. Mechanism, (i.) That part of an instru- ment which forms the connection between the player and the sound-producing portion. (2) The physical power of performance, as distinguished from the intellect or taste which directs it. Medesimo movimento {It.) The same movement. Medesimo tempo. The same time. Mediaeval musical instruments. The ( 283) MEDIANT MEISTERSINGER. musical instruments known in the middle ages appear to have been flutes, flageolets, bugles, and trumpets among simple tubes ; waits, cornets, bassoons, bagpipes, &c., among reed instruments ; the harp, the guitar, the crowd, the violin or fiddle among stringed instruments ; drums and tambourines, cymbals and bells among instruments of percussion, but all of these dififer more or less from the instruments with the same names in use at the present day. There is a curious catalogue of musical instruments of the fourteenth cen- tury, which may be read with interest in reference to this subject, in a poem by Guillaume de Machault, entitled Le Temps Pasiour. The description is headed Comment I'amant fut au disner de sa dame : — Mais qui veist, apres mangier Vener menestraux, sans dangier Pignez et miz en pure corps. La feurent meints divers acors Car je vis la, tout en un cerne Viole, rubebe, guiterne L'enmovache, le mica mon Citole, et le psalterion Harpes, tabours, trompes, nacaires Orgues, cornes, plus de dix paires Cornemuse, flajos et chevrettes, Douceines, symboles, clochettes Tymberes, la flauste brehaingue Et le grand cornet d'AUemaingue Flajos de sans, fistule, pipe Muse d'Aussay, trompe petite, Buisines, eles, monocorde Ou il n'a quime seule corde Et muse de blet, tout ensemble Et certainement, il me semble Qu' oncques mais tele melodie Ne fut oncques veues ne oye Car Chascun d'eux, selon d'acort De son instrument, sans descort Viole, guiterne, citole Harpe, trompe, come, flajole, Pipe, souffle, muse, naquaire, Tabour, et quanque ou put faire De dois, de pennes, et d'archet Ois et vis en ce parchet. If each name here mentioned represented a different and distinct instrument, it might be supposed that there was a far greater variety in use in the fourteenth century than in the present time, with all our increase of know- ledge and improved skill in construction, but the truth is that many of the names are simply synonyms. For example the line : — " Cornemuse, flajos et chevrettes " would seem to imply three sorts of music making machines, but the names refer to one and the same thing, neither more nor less than the bagpipes, and the "muse d'Aussay," " muse de blet," and " muse " simply, are varieties of the same instrument. The "viole and rubebe," refer to the fiddle, the " flajole pipe, souffle, and fistule," to the flageolets ; " la flauste brehaingue" to the English flute ; " le grand cornet d'AUemaingue, buisines. douceines," were a species of bassoon ; "tym- beres, tabour, and naquaires," were drums ; the "citole and psalterion," were dulcimers ; "the guiterne" a guitar or cittern; " 6les," signified harps, from their wing-like shapes ; " L'enmovache," was also a harp of a larger kind; the "mica mon" is probably " maca man," a hand-drum or tambourine, and the rest are sufficiently obvious. Guillaume de Machault, the author of this poem, was pro- bably not a practical musician, but simply made use of a list of instruments with whose use he was probably unacquainted, hence his repetition of synonyms. It is no un- common thing to find a special ignorance of the use and qualities of musical instruments among modern poets, but when such a lack of knowledge is displayed by a poet writing in the palmy days of minstrelsy, it is not un- fair to imagine that Guillaume de Machault was more of a trouvere than a cantadour. [Troubadour.] , Mediant. Mediante {Fr.) The third degree of any scale. Mediation. That part of a chant which lies between the reciting-note and the next close. [Chant]. Medius {Lat.) The tenor part. [Mean.] Mehrstimmig {Ger.) In many parts. Polyphonic. Meisterfuge. (Ger.) A fuga ricercata, that is, a fugue without episodes, one in which the subject or answer is constantly heard. Meistersinger. Meistersanger [Ger.) Maitre Chanteur (Fr.) A title given to the most renowned musician of a township or district in Germany, during the middle ages. When the Minnesingers or Troubadours, formed from among the ranks of the aris- tocracy, began to die away, the Meistersingers arose, and at the beginning of the fourteenth century formed themselves in the towns of Germany into guilds or trading companies, and agreed to uphold certain fanciful and arbitrary laws of rhythm. Adepts in the poetic art. Master-singers, appear to have existed at the period when the Minnesingers were at their prime, and it is supposed that the title was only more univer- sally and distinctively bestowed when the spirit of pedantry had become general and when the "Songschools" or " guilds " became in Germany what the " consistories " and " academies" were in other countries during the then general decay of art. Wandering orators in connection with the " Chambers of Rhetoric " who recited a miserable doggrell composed by themselves or others, afterwards formed themselves in Flanders and Brabant, into societies by the name of Chambers of Rhetoricians (Kamers der Rhetorykers or ( 284) MELANGE MELODY. Rederykers) and offered prizes for the most meritorious poems written according to their barbarous rules. The ornaments and illustrations of this class of poetry were drawn from mean sources. Instead of princes, nobles, and knights, we have clerks, schoolmasters, and mechanics. Some of the poems, it is true, are not un- worthy of notice and survive in one form or another to the present day ; others have sunk into an oblivion not altogether undeserved. The " Masters " were always anxious to clothe themselves with the ancient glory of the " Minnesingers." They were fond of trac- ing the origin of their school to a very remote antiquity ; and the most celebrated names were placed by all sorts of anachronisms among the supposed united band of founders. Wherever the " hoch-deutsch " was spoken, there the Master-singers founded a colony and indulged the vulgar propensity of giving im- portance to bombast, parade, and external distinction to their hearts' content. A candi- date was admitted into the school of the "Master-singers" with great form and cere- mony. Four " Merker " sat behind a silken curtain to pass judgment upon his qualifica- tions. One of these had to decide whether the diction of the novice was pure and his gram- mar accurate, the others attended to the rhyme and metre of the composition and the melody to which it was sung. If they united in declaring that the candidate had complied with the statutes and regulations, he was de- corated with a silver chain and badge — the latter representing King David playing on the harp — and he was honourably admitted into the Society. The poems of the " Master-singers " were always lyrical and sung to music. The entire poem was called a "bar" and it was divided into five ormore stanzas, or " Gesetze," and each " Satz " also fell into three portions, the first of which was a " Stole," the second an " Abgesang," and the third a " Stole " like the first. The rhymes were classed into " stumpfe Reime," " klingende Reime," "stumpfe Schlag- reime," and " klingende Schlag-reime," and other denominations needless to particularise. The poets, singers, and merkers counted the syllables on their fingers, and if there was the proper number it was of no consequence whether they were long or short. The length of the verse, the number of the lines, and the order of the rhymes in each " Stole " or " Ab- o-esang" was variable and consequently the poems were susceptible of a great variety of forms, which were called tunes or "Weisen." The invention of a new " Weise " was con- sidered the test of a Master-singer's abilities. Therewere some hundreds ofthese" Weisen," all named after their inventors; as Hans Tind- eisen's rosemary Weise ; Joseph Schmeirer's flowery - paradise Weise ; Hans Fogel's fresh Weise ; Henry Frauenlob's yellow Weise ; his blue Weise ; his frog Weise, and his looking-glass Weise. The code of criti- cism to which the Master-singers were sub- jected was contained in the rules or "Tabula- .tur" of the societies, some of which rules were certainly severe. They were prohibited from employing " sentences which nobody could understand," or " words wherein no meaning could be discovered," interdictions which would completely disqualify many a so-called poet in the present day for member- ship. Melange (Fr.) A medley. Melisma (Gk.) fieXur/ia. (i) A song, tune, melody. In i6ri, Ravenscroft pub- lished " Melismata; Musical Phansies fitting the Court, citie, and country humours." (2) A grace, roulade. Fioritura. Melismatik. (Ger.) The art of florid vocalisation. Melodia (It.) Melody. Melodia (Gk.) /xtXwSta. (i) The sing- ing of an ode to a melos. (2) The tune to which lyric poetry was sung. Melodicon. An instrument made of steel bars in different lengths tuned to the diatonic scale, struck with hammers held in the hand. Melodico, melodicoso (It.) Melodiously, sweetly. Melodie (Fr.) Melody, tune. Melodrama. A dramatic piece in which the interest is heightened by the character of the vocal or instrumental music accompany- ing certain situations. The melodrama is of French invention, and was introduced into England at the end of the last century ; the subjects are generally of a romantic character, illustrated with picturesque costumes and scenery, and having serious and sensational incidents, and effective and striking tableaux. Although sometimes confounded with the opera, it differs from that higher class of work insomuch that the action is carried on in speak- ing and not in recitative and aria. [Opera.] Melodrame (Fr.) Melodramma (It.) [Melodrama.] Melody {melos Gk. /ie'Xoc). An agreeable succession of simple sounds, produced by a single voice or instrument, and so regulated as to give a pleasing effect, or to be expres- sive of some kind of sentiment. It is often founded on relative harmonies and yet is completely distinguished from harmony by not needing the addition of parts to make it perfect. The construction of melody is guided by certain rules in rhythm, and by the capa- bilities of the voice or instrument for which it is intended. Melos had a very general meaning among the Greeks, for it is said by ( 285) MELODY ORGAN METAL, WIND INSTRUMENTS. Plato to consist of " speech, music, and rh)rthm." In its more limited sense it sig- nified any succession of musical sounds. Melody Organ or Harmonium. A harmonium so constructed that the upper note of the chords played is louder than the rest of the sounds.. Melograph. An instrument invented for the purpose of writing down melodies when played upon a pianoforte. It has not yet been brought into use, as its action is imperfect. Melopoeia (Gk.) liEXomita. (i.) Music in general. (2.) The art or system of making a tune or melos. In this sense it is said, by Aristides Quintilianus, (Ed. Meibom, p. 28) to be of three kinds with reference to the pitch, namely, hypatoeides, mesoeides, and netoeides. He then divides Melopoeia into three parts, Sumptio (X^-^ts)^ Mistio (jj-i^ig), Usus (xprjaii). Sumptio, or the "taking," is the settle- ment of the pitch from which the " system " or scale is to be reckoned. Mistio, the mixing, is the co-ordinating or fitting together the sounds with regard to each other, or the, modulations of the voice, or the key-systems. Usus, the use, is of three kinds, Ductus {aywyfi), Petteia (■TTETTeia), Nexus (irXoKq). Ductus is of three kinds, direct, reverse, cir- cumcurrent (see Agoge). Petteia is the choosing of sounds that are suitable, and rejecting those that are unsuitable. Nexus is the interweaving of intervals or movements by skips. Quintilianus sums up by giving the following plain statement of the different kinds of melopce'ia.. Enharmonic. Chromatic. Diatonic. Hypatoid. Mesoid. Netoid. Dorian. Phrygian. Lydian. Gnomic. Dithyrambic. Tragic. / Systaltic. (Producing sadness.) Middle. ^Producing calmness.) Diastaltic. . {Producing excitement.) Melopiano. An invention by which sus- tained sounds can be produced on a piano- forte. It consists of a series of small ham- mers set into very rapid vibration by the winding up of a spring. When a note is struck and held down, the constant repetition of the blows of the hammer causes a con- tinuous vibration of the string which is of a most charming character. A beautiful cres- cendo is obtained by the ingenious device of Melopoeia is of different kinds as ta Genus . System Scale (tones) • Mode (tropos) Manner or character (ethos) raising the hammers gradually further from the string, causing them to descend with more force. It was invented by Caldara of Turin in 1870. Melos (Ger.) (jiiXoe). A succession of musical sounds as opposed to noises. A tune. A song. [Melody.] Meme mouvement (Fr.) The same movement. L'istesso tempo {It.) Men, meno {It.) Less ; as meno forte, not so loud ; meno piano, not so soft ; meno presto, less rapid ; meno vivo, not so quick. Menaaneim {Heb). This word occurs once in Holy Scriptures, in 2 Sam. vi. 5, where it is improperly translated cymbals. Its derivation points to a root meaning to swing to and fro, to vibrate. It is probable, therefore, that it was a sistrum. [Sistrum.] Menestrals (Fr.) [Troubadours] [Con- fr6rie de St. Julien]. Meno {It.) [Men]. Menschen-stimme {Ger.) (i.) A man's voice. (2.) Vox humana. Mensur {Ger.) (i.) The measurement of intervals on stringed instruments. (2.) The scale of organ pipes. Mensurable Music. [Cantus mensura- bilis.] Mensuralgesang {Ger.} [Cantus men- surabilis.] Mensuralnotenschrift {Ger.) Nota- tion of Time measurement. Menuet {Fr.) ) ttv/t- 4. 1 Menuetto (/i.) } [Mmuet.J Mescolanza (//.) Cacophony. Mese {Gk.) [Greek Music] Messa {It.), Messe {Fr.) Mass. Messa di Voce {It.) The swelling and diminishing of the sound of the voice upon a holding note. Mesochorus {fiEo-oxopoe.) [Coryphaeus.] Mesopycni {Mediceval Lat., from Gk. p-iaoQ, middle, and wkvoq close.) Church modes having the close interval or semitone in the middle of their primary tetrachord, e.g.— Dorian. Hypodorian. cf. Barupycni. Oxupycni. Mesto, mestoso {It.) Sad, pensive. Mesure {Fr.) Measure, time, as mesure a deux temps or trois temps. Duple or triple time. Metallo {It.) lit. metal.. The ringing quality of tone, as bel metallo di voce. Metal pipes. [Organ.] Metal plate of pianoforte. [Pianoforte.] Metal wind instruments. Instruments formed of various lengths of brass tubing gradually enlarged towards one end called the ( 286 ) METAL WIND INSTRUMENTS. "bell" and with a mouthpiece at the other end. The tubing is folded into a size convenient for carrying about, either into an oblong or circular form. A single length of tubing is capable of sounding the primary harmonics of its tonic with that note, in the following order, according to the power of lip possessed by the player, the key note being taken as C : — A double length of tubing enables the player to produce another octave with some addi- tional harmonics, thus : — and sometimes as in the French Horn and Trumpet. These are called the open notes, the intermediate tones — are made by inserting the hand in the "bell" of the Horn as well as the Trumpet, these are called closed notes and are less full and beautiful in character than the open tones, and being also difficult of production, are rarely written. Upon the application of the slide to the trumpet, an application probably suggested by the trombone, the uncertainties of intona- tion were made somewhat less. The first instrument of the tube kind in which an im- provement was sought to be effected was the Bugle, which was formerly without keys, like the horn and the trumpet. The bandmaster of an Irish regiment, named James Halliday, about the year 1814 or 1815, introduced a keyed bugle of his own contrivance which he called the Kent Bugle out of compliment to the Duke of Kent, the father of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, who was colonel of the regi- ment. The instrument became exceedingly popular, in consequence of the excellent per^- formance of the elder Distin, who introduced it into the orchestra of Her Majesty's Theatre in 1830 ; and the French composer, Adolphe Adam, wrote several solos for it. A bugle player named Macfarlane claims to have been the first who applied pistons or valves to the Cornopean. He called his contrivance " Russian valves," and he fur- nished his model with two of them, the first for the whole tone and the second for the half tone. As about that time (theyear 1834) the celebrated player, Koenig, made his appearance from Paris with an instrument of similar make which he declared was by a French inventor, there was some controversy at the time, and as no one suspected the honesty of Macfarlane, it is possible that the same idea may have occurred simultaneously to the two claimants. The application of the third valve to the cor- net or cornopean was claimed by a horn player named Kilback, but, on what grounds, it is difficult now to determine. Valves or pistons were employed in Germany before the intro- duction of the Russian valve (so-called) into England, these were the double cylinder and the rotatory valve, and the instruments played by Kalozdy's Hungarian band were on this latter principle. The principle of the Sax-valve was a Ger- man invention, and was introduced to the public by a man named Stolzel. The tuning slides for the piston notes, and the improve- ment of Stolzel's valve are due to the maker whose name is connected with the invention. Since the time that the Sax-horns were intro- duced into England by the Distin family, many modifications and improvements have been effected, the object of each alteration being to obtain the easiest and most accurate means of lengthening and shortening the tube at will, so as to produce chromatic into- nation. The metal valved-instruments now in use may be thus classified : — Soprano Compass. — ^Trumpet in F and E flat, both with slides and valves; soprano cornets in E flat and C, with 3 valves or pis- tons ; soprano saxhorn in E flat, with 3 valves or pistons ; soprano fltigel horns in E flat and C, with 3 and 4 cylinder valves ; bugle in C and B flat, with keys (rarely used now). Alto or Contralto Compass. — Cornet in B flat, with crooks for A, A flat, and G ; alto saxhorn in B flat, with 3 valves ; alto flugel horn in B flat, with 3 and 4 cylinder valves ; alto trombone in E flat, both slide and valved. Tenor Compass. — ^French horn, with and without valves, with 10 crooks ; tenor sax- horn, with 3 valves ; tenor flugel- horn, with 3 or 4 cylinder valves ; tenor trombone, both slide and valved. Bariton Compass. — Bariton sax-horn, with 3 valves; bariton flugel- horn, with 3. and 4 cylinder valves. Bass Compass. — Trombone in F or G, both slide and valved ; euphonium in C or B flat with 3 or 4 valves. Contra-basso. — Bombardon in F or E flat, with 3 and 4 valves ; bombardon, circular shaped ; contra-bombardon in BB flat, with 3 pistons or valves ; contra-bombardon, cir- cular shaped. (287) METHODE METRE. Most metal wind instruments are formed from a sheet of brass cut into the proper size. The sheet of metal is turned in the shape of a pipe until the edges meet correctly. The edges are welded together in a brazing forge and the tube is " pickled" in a chemical bath to remove the traces of brazing. It is then made perfectly cylindrical by means of a " draw bench," and afterwards is bent into the required curve, the tube being filled with molten pitch, for slight curves, or with lead for " U " curves. As both pitch and lead will melt at a lower temperature than brass, there is no difficulty in removing the in- terior "filling" by heat, leaving the tube in the required form without breaking or flattening it. The " bell" is made by careful hammering on a "mandril" of the required size and form, and is fitted to the tube by means of solder and the blow pipe. Shanks, crooks and the other parts are then put together ; the instrument is tested and polished, and is ready for use. Methode (Fr.) Metodo (It.) (i.) System of teaching, as, Kalkbrenner's method, Cri- velli's method, &c. (2.) School or style of music, as, the Italian m,ethod. Metre. A term used with various signi- fications ; (i.) A foot, as a subdivision of a bar or measure ; (2.) The relation between two feet having the same subdivisions of time-units, but in a different order of suc- cession ; (3.) The proper grouping of a number of consecutive feet. Authors who use the term in this last sense, consider it as equivalent to rhythm and divide it thus : Metre (rhythm). Measures (bars with accents). Feet (groups of tirne-units). Units of time (short and long). But it will be seen further on that this division is not good ; and also that the in- corpora.tion into music of the terms of prosody is not desirable. Before entering on this dis- cussion, it is necessary to give a list of the names and nature of the most important feet. Dissyllables have two units of time capable of a four-fold arrangement ; e.g., Ex. I. - - Spondee. Ex. Pyrrhic. i Ex. 3. Mozart. Symp. No. i. Trochee. g ^r-f-^ ^ Ex, 4* Beethoven. Symp. No. i. r^ Trisyllables or feet consisting of three time-units are of eight kinds. ^ M \J Tribrach. Ex. 7. Beethoven. Symphony No. 2. M -^ m m- -F- 1 ^ — -1 . — U- -» — n — *- -^ — -• * — ■ — F- ^.=^00.- 1 i ' "^: r ?B'tt'i — 1 — 1 — J- S2:*S — 1 1 — 1|- j d *- ^ J- * Bacchic. Ex.8. Schumann. ' Paradise and the Peri.' &c. g ^- ( 288 ) METRE. Ex. lo. Mendelssohn. u w Anapaest. Ex. II Molossus. Ex. 12. Weber. Voices. Mass in £i7. ]l^n , mnij i^^F-M- • r'- ^ l^^b'{,^a J J^ irj-*- 1 f ^ >- 1 r >• ^ rf^n Dactyl. Ex. 13. J, n Brightest and best of the sons of the mora-ing. Ex. 14. Beethoven. Symph. No. 3. - Cretic. ^J^J-^-t.^ j-iJ-^J , J "= j g^t^^^' Palimbacchic. Ex. 15. Beethoven. Ov, to Coriolan. There are also tetrasyllables, sixteen in number, which, of course, consist of the possible positions of four syllables of different lengths. u u u Proseleusmatic (Double Pyrrhic). y, - u Third Paon (Pyrrhic & Trochee), u o - Fourth Paeon (Pjrrrhic & Iambic), u - - Ionic a minore (Pyrrhic & Spondee). — u — Diambic (Double Iambic). - o u Second Paeon (Iambic & Pyrrhic). — - u Antispast (Iambic & Trochee). - - - First Epitrite (Iambic & Spondee). - - - Dispondee (Double Spondee). - o u Ionic a raajore (Spondee & Pyrrhic). - o - Third Epitrite (Spondee & Iambic). - - u Fourth Epitrite (Spondee & Trochee). u - o Dichoree (Double Trochee). u u - Choriambic (Trochee & Iambus). i; u o First Pseon (Trochee & Pyrrhic). u - - Second Epitrite (Trochee & Spondee). Feet of more than four " times " or syllables, are, strictly speaking, merely compounded of dissyllables and trisyllables. Musical ex- amples of all the above could be easily given if space allowed. On examination of the musical dissyllables and trisyllables (Exs. i to 15) many im- portant questions present themselves. I, It will be noticed that long syllables almost invariably fall on the accented part of a bar. Can we conceive of a long syllable in music as quantity without stress ? This ques- tion has been discussed over and over again with reference to modern languages. Some authorities say that stress and non-stress have ejected quantity from our poetry, and bring forward such lines as the following in proof of their assertion : " Th' infernal Serpent; he it was whose guile." in which four out of the five syllables, short as regards stress, are by nature long in quantity. Let us apply this to music, and ask whether we really reckon our feet by stress or quantity. If we reckon them by the latter then the following is correctly written : Ex. 16. o Now this is not written correctly musically, because, although an iambus in poetry has only the relation of short to long in quantity, it has in music the relation weak to strong in emphasis. We therefore write it thus : Ex. 17. Tlirough all the chang - ing practically disposing of the first short syllable, and then presenting the succession of feet to the ear as trochees ; for no one would venture to analyse this tune as consisting of the following groups : an analysis which is not only allowable but necessary if the analogy between poetry and music is to be sustained. (289) METRE. Again, in the following, the same length is given to the short syllables of the words as to the long : Ex. ig. 1 ] ■^i—T^ \-. !— ■ ■1 — i-i "^—^ peo - pie that on earth do dwell, ^=^^ r r -^ — r^ =^=^ =^=||&c. Sing to the Lord with cheer - ful voice, &c. One author, enthusiastic on the subject of quantity, actually proposes that the Old Hundredth Psalm should be thus sung : Ex. 20. Him serve with fear, His praise forth tell, Him and If musical feet were governed by quantity, and not by stress, the above would not only be correct but pleasant, whereas, we feel, that just in proportion as the words receive their due quantity, the true rhythm of the music is lost. On the ground, then, that musical metre is governed more by stress than quantity, the analogy between ancient poetry and modern music cannot be maintained. 2. If the reader will refer to Ex. 4, which gives a musical trochee, he will observe that the short syllable is followed by a rest. This example was given, not because it was felt to be correct, but because similar examples are to be found elsewhere ; but, as a matter of fact, rests in music io-rva part of rhythm, and therefore, if two minims in a bar (being equal to each other in length) are considered as two long syllables, Ex. 4 is not a trochee but a spondee ; and, what is more important ■jtill, iambics and trochaics can only be re- presented by triple time. Not only, then, is Ex. 19 incorrect, but all duple-measure psalm tunes set to hymns ordinarily spoken of as iambics are bad. On the ground, therefore, that when there are two notes of equal length in a bar we not only may, but do often con- sider the accented note long and the non- accented note short, we are again justified in saying that the analogy between poetical metre and musical rhythm does not hold good. With regard to the inclusion of silence or "rest"' as a constituent part of rhythm, music diverges widely from poetry, and stands on a vantage ground peculiarly its own. It is true that ccesura in verse bears some similitude to a "rest" in music, in the effect it produces, but the likeness is only apparent, and the musician has the power of suggesting length in quantity, by a short note if it is a stress-note, e.g. : Beethoven. Ex. 21. Ov. Men of Prometheus. In the above example, each of the two bars is a trochee, the long syllable of which is represented by the chord and first rest, the short syllable by the final crotchet rest in each bar. 3. It will be seen that in Ex. 13, bars 3 and 4, two consecutive notes in each bar are grouped under one long syllable. This com- . pression of two syllables into one foot, is a common occurrence both in ancient and modern poetry, as for example in the junction of consecutive vowels at the end of one word and commencement of another. In English poetry we have ma ny a, glo rious, &c., which exactly correspond to the musical junction of two notes under one metrical time-unit. This leads to the important question of the exact time relation of short and long in metrical feet. The general answer is that a long syllable occupies the time of two short syl- lables ( — " Syllaba brevis unius est temporis, longa vero duorum "). But ancient writers relax this rule and say that all long syllables are not the same length, nor do they stand in the same relation to the short. Some allow that a short syllable may be a third of a long, or even less. How does this bear upon music ? If we are to adopt the old system and names of metrical feet, are we only allowed to divide one long time-unit into two, three, four, or six parts ? Our time table teaches that a semibreve is equal to thirty- two .demisemiquavers, and this may be again multiplied by binding two stationary semi- breves together into one "double" time-unit, in which case demisemiquavers will stand to it in the quantitative relation of sixty-four to one. The classical names of feet are there- fore quite inadequate to represent the im- mense number of possible relations between the syllables of musical feet, and if we are to have musical metre on the model of classical metre, an entirely new system of nomencla- ture will be absolutely necessary. After all, such names could only apply to ( 290 ) METROMETER METTE. a single melody, or a simple harmonised tune, whereas, we know that one of the highest forms of modem music is harmony which consists of a combination of many melodies. 4. Lastly, is it of any practical use to adopt names and symbols of metre, if metre and musical rhythm are contradictory ? That they may be so is shown by a comparison of Exs. 16 and 17, the former of which is per- fectly correct metrically, perfectly ridiculous musically. Scholars explain this by saying that whereas metre depends on quantity alone, rhythm depends upon a combination of quantity and emphasis. Be it so, but in modem music, quantity without emphasis is inconceivable, therefore any nomenclature founded on quantity only is of no practical value. It may be thought strange that so much space has been given to this subject of metre, solely for the purpose of depreciating its value and discouraging its use. But the classical names of feet are largely used as musical terms by certain writers, more per- haps from a desire to appear learned at a little cost, than from a knowledge of their real bearing on the art. Metrometer. [Metronome.] Metronome. An instrument said to have been invented in 1815 by Maelzel, for the purpose of measuring the relative duration of the notes in a piece of music. The ma- chinery is of clockwork, and the various grades of time are measured on a balance-rod serving the purpose of a pendulum, the speed being regulated by a shifting or sliding weight. To be correct the metronome should beat seconds when set at 60. Maelzel's claim to the invention rests on very doubtful authority, that is to say, only upon his own word; for in the "Journal fur Deutschland " 1796 is a description of a time measurer in the form of a chronometer, J. S. Stoeckel, of Burg, claiming its invention ; but this being of large and inconvenient size, Maelzel suggested to Winkel the desirability of a new contrivance, which Winkel succeeded in producing, Maelzel exhibited the instru- ment as his own invention, and his name is always associated with it, though all the part he really had in the matter was in dividing the balance-rod to agree with the varieties of musical tempi. The claim to this portion of the invention was allowed before the Dutch com- mission appointed to enquire into the subject at the request of Winkel. But neither of these has the right to be considered as the inventors of the machine, although Stoeckel and Winkel acted in good faith, and in ignorance pro- bably of what had been done before them. A ■ pendulum for measuring time, independent of clock-work machinery, was common in Eng- land before the metronome was introduced. This was a tape like that used by surveyors, and as the length was in actual inches, it was necessary to have so great a length that its general use was inconvenient. Many of the glees of Calcott, Horsley, Webbe, and some of the compositions of Crotch and other writers of the latter part of the last century have the time indicated by such a pendulum. Twelve years before the date of Stoeckel's invention, namely, in 1784, an amateur violinist and composer of Paris, Jean Baptiste D'Avaux, wrote to the " Journal Encyclopedique," describing a newly-invented pendulum for measuring time in musiic : — " Lettre sur un instrument ou pendule nou- veau qui a pour but de d6terminer avec la plus grande exactitude les differentes degres de vitesse, depuis le prestissimo jusqu'au largo, avec les nuances impercep- tibles d'un degre a I'autre." This could hardly have been the invention of three- quarters of a century earlier, namely, in 1710, alluded to in the sixth edition of a work by Michel D'Affilard, published under the title of " Principes tr6s-faciles,pourbien apprendre la musique, qui conduiront promptement ceux qui ont du naturel pour le chant jusqu'au point de chanter toute sorte de musique et a. livre ouvert," in which the time of the exer- cises or airs is regulated by a " pendule." Taking the date into consideration,this instru- ment was probably the metronome or sono- meter of Etienne Louli6, invented in 1696, described as a " chronometre ou instrument de nouvelle invention, par le moyen duquel les compositeurs de musique pourront desormais marquer le veritable mouvement de leurs compositions, et leurs ouvrages, marquez par rapport a cet instrument, se pourront, exe- cuter en leur absence s'ils en battaient eux- memes la mesure." If this had been simply a cord or tape it would have indicated the time only while the motion lasted ; but the contrivance was of clock-work, as " I'estampe repr6sentant le chronometre " shows. In 1759 Henri Louis Choquel also advocated the use of a chronometer, probably that of Loulie; and in 1807 Jeanne Etienne Despreaux pub- lished a chart or table of the different measures in music, under the title of " Chronometre musical etabli sur les bases du pendule astro- nomique," the machine employed being a modification of Loulie's invention. All that Maelzel did was to suggest the construc- tion of an instrument more portable than any already in use, but the principle he worked upon was that which had been carried out nearly 100 years before he was bom. Mette {Ger.) Matins. ( 291 ) METZILLOTH MINUET. Metzilloth, Metzillthaim, Tzeltzelim (Heb.) These words are rendered in our version as cymbals, except in Zech. xiv. 20, where they are translated "bells of the horses," which is substantially correct, as little cym- bals were formerly used in the trappings of horses. The cymbals used by the Hebrews were probably similar in form to those of the ancient Egyptians, some existing examples of which are here depicted. They were found in the tomb of a certain musician- priest named Ankhapd, lying close to his side. They are very small compared to modern instruments of the same class, being not more than five inches in diameter. [Cymbals.] Mezzo, Mezza (It.) Half or medium, as, mezza bravura, semi bravura style ; mezza manica, half shift ; mezza orchestra, with half the orchestra ; mezza voce, half the power, of the voice ; mezzo carattere, with a moderate degree of expression or execution ; mezzo forte, moderately loud ; mezzo piano, mode- rately soft ; mezzo soprano, a voice lower in range than a soprano and higher than a con- tralto ; mezzo staccato, , slightly detached ; mezzo tenore, a voice of tenor quality and baritone range ; mezzo tuono, half the power of the voice ; &c. M. F. [Mezzo forte.] M.G. Abbreviation oi main gauche {Fr.), the left hand. Mi. (i.) A syllable used to indicate E, the third note in the scale of C [Aretinian syl- lables]. (2.) In solmisation Mi always indi- cated the leading note. [Solfaing.] Mi bdmol {Fr.) The note E flat. Mi bemol majeur or mineur. The key of E flat major or minor. Mi contra fa. The name given by the old contrapuntists to the ^ijkane, which was always to be avoided — "mi contra-^a est diabolus." • It is not as some suppose, the simultaneous sounding'of the tonic 'with the leading. note ;;but, as the notes, of the scale of C in old solfaing were named— -fa, sol, la/.fa- sol, la, mi, fa — the union or siiccessibnofthe' fa and mi would form the-tritone,' the'leadirig' note in the old scales always being called wi.' [Solfaing.] Middle C. The note standing on the first leger line above the bass stave, and the first leger line below the tr.eble stave. [Stave.] Mi difese {Fr.) The note E sharp. Militairement {Fr.), Militarmente {It.) In a military style. Military Band. [Band, § 5.] Minaccevole \ Minaccevolmente [{It.) In a menac- Minacciando > ing, threatening Minacciosamente I manner. Minaccioso ) Mineur {Fr.) Minor. Minikin. A small sort of gut string for- merly used on the lute, viol, and other stringed instruments. Minim. Halbnote {Ger.), bianca {It.), blanche {Fr.) A time character of the value of two crotchets. In modern music it is second in value to the semibreve now held to be the time standard, but in ancient music it was, as its name implies, of the shortest duration. Morley, in his " Introduction to Practical Musicke," 1601, ascribes the first use, if not the invention, of the minim to PhiHppo de Vitriaco, a musician of the 14th century, who is also credited with the inven- tion of the crotchet. [Nomenclature.] [No- tation.] Minnesingers. The German name for poets of the Troubadour character, who de- voted their talents to the production of love songs (Minnelieder). They enjoyed a certain amount of popularity in the higher grades of society for more than two hundred years (i 138-1347), when they fell out of popular estimation, and were succeeded by the Meis- tersingers, q. v. [Troubadours.] Minnim {Heb.) This word, which occurs in Ps. xlv. 8, and Ps. cl. 4, is probably a poetical allusion to stringed instruments generally. It is so rendered in the Bible and Prayer-book versions of the latter psalm. " Praise him with stringed instruments and organs." {Bible.) "Praise' him upon the strings and pipe" {Prayer-book). In order to bring out its meaning in Ps. xlv. 8, it has been proposed to alter the text thus : "out of the ivory palaces, stringed instruments have made thee glad." Minor (Laf.) Less, smaller, (i.) Intervals are said to be minor when they contain one semitone less than major. (2.) A scale is said to be in the minor mode when its third and sixth are minor. Formerly minor music was described as " with the lesser third." (3.) Flute minor, Klein fliite, a small flute- stop on the organ,- of 4ft. or 2ft. pitch. ■.Minstrel. ; [Troubadour.] Minuet • (Fr.) -The 'name ' of a graceful ( 292 ) MINUET. dance said to have been invented in Poitou about the middle of the 17th century. The tunes for the first minuets are said to have been composed by Jean Baptiste Lully. A minuet was danced by Louis XIV. before his courtiers at Versailles. The Marquis de Flamarens introduced it into England in the reign of Charles II., who made the dance fashionable by having it frequently danced at Court. It continued to be popular as a court dance until the reign of George III. The minuet form was used by many composers after Lully as a movement in sonatas, overtures, and the like, but com- posers made a few slight variations in the time and treatment in order to obtain as much originality as possible. The minuet with more or less success continued to be employed as a movement in instrumental music to the time of Beethoven, who abandoned it in favour of the Scherzo. Independently of its use for dancing pur- poses the Minuet, almost immediately after its introduction, was adopted as part of a Suite, sometimes in the simple form as required for the dance and sometimes with a second minuet of a slightly different character and key appended. This second minuet was so arranged as to demand a return to the original key. The title of Trio for the second minuet is said to have been first suggested from the circumstance that only three parts or instru- ments were employed in the performance of that section ; it is also stated that J. S. Bach is entitled to the credit of being the first so to call the second minuet. But the subjoined Round O (Rondo) minuet by Mr. Jerry Clark, c. 1700, shows an earlier division of the composition "into three parts or strains, and the form itself suggests that the third part which takes the place of the trio in more modern minuets, is more likely to be called trio because of its third place than because it was written in three parts or for three instruments. MINUET. Lully. ^^ ^ ^ :jLi\ia$ ^^ ^ : rt(^m^ m 2^gT iL^r l o^n g r-9- P— i" — 1 r-=-F 1 w r w=r^^ th^=r= y -1 r --^^^ ^toft ^ |j jj J. 1 1 1 ^^^-i- -J g *— -* *3= 1 h ( 293 ) MINUETTO MODE. MINUET. H. PuRCELL. Chorus Lessons. F~^ ROUND O MINUET. ist Straine. By Mr. Jerry Clark. End at ye zst Straine. Minuetto {It.) [Minuet.] Miscella. A mixture stop of an organ. Miserere. The 51st Psalm sung in the TenebrcB service in the Roman Catholic Church. Mishrokitha, or Masrakitha {Chaldaic) . This word occurs four times in the book of Daniel, and is probably rightly interpreted in the Septuagint by Syrinx. Missa (Lat.) A mass, as, missa fro defunctis, a requiem mass ; missa solemnis, a solemn mass ; &c. Misschallig {Ger.) Dissonant, discordant. Missklang [Ger.) Discord, cacophony. Misteriosamente, Misterioso {It.) Mys- teriously. [Mass.] Misura {It.) A measure, a bar. Misurato {It.) Measured, in strict time. Mit {Ger.) With, as mitBegleitung, with accompaniment ; mit Bewegung, con moto, &c. Mitos {Gk.) ixirog. A thread, a term some- times used for the string of a lyre. Mittelcadenz {Ger.) An imperfect ca- dence, or half-close. [Cadence.] Mittelstimmen {Ger.) Inner parts. Mixed Cadence. An old name for a cadence, consisting of a subdominant followed by a dominant and tonic chord ; so called be- cause the characteristic chords of the plagal and authentic cadences succeed each other. Mixolydian. [Greek music] Mixture. An organ stop, consisting of several ranks of pipes to each note. It is only used in combination with the foundation and compound stops, as it consists of high harmonics of the ground tone. [Organ.] Mode, (i) A scale [Greek music]. (2) A species of scale, as, major mode, minor mode. ( 294 ) MODERATAMENTE MODUS. (It.) Moderately. Very moderate. Modification, light Moderatamente Moderate Moderazione, con Moderatissimo (7f.' Modificazione (7^) and shade in expression. Modinha. A Portuguese love song. Modo (7^.) A mode. Modulation, (i.) Movement or gradu- ation of sound ; (2.) A change of key. One of the chief characteristics of modern music is the constant change of key. In many of the recognized "Forms" it is absolutely necessary to introduce "second" subjects in a different, although a related key to the chief theme. Hence, in old Treatises on Music the subject is barely touched upon, whereas modern authors enlarge upon it. Modulation is of three kinds, Diatonic, Chromatic, and Enharmonic. The first of these is sometimes called natural ; the last two, artificial. A Diatonic modulation is the passing from one key to another by using chords from relative keys. Ex. I. Beethoven, Symphony No. i. I I =«=«= ^^ 'Key of A minor. &c. 13 bars in A viitioT. In the above (Ex. i) a modulation is made from G minor to C, thus : G minor is a re- lative key of D minor, which is a relative key of A minor, which is the relative minor of C. When a remote key is reached by relative keys, the modulation is by some said to be extraneous. A chromatic modulation is the passing from one key to any other, by means of unrelated keys. Beethoven, Symphony No. 3. /t-'; ^r r = •iZ: F^M r r\r • f ^^=MM ^ tH r-¥=F=^ — ^ W:,!) „ — ■ y- h 1- ^H"}'-' ■ =^ z^ — ; ■^v^ ^ The above (Ex. 2) shows a chromatic modulation from the key of Eb to that of F. An Enharmonic Modulation is the passing from one key to another by the alteration of the notation of some of the over-lapping sounds, e.g.: Schumann, Song "Widmung." It is not easy to distinguish between the use of the terms Modulation and Transition. It is generally understood that the former denotes an entry into a new key, with the in- tention of remaining for some time in it ; the latter, the passing through a key rapidly, as for instance is often done in sequences. But by some, the word Transition is used for a rapid modulation. The Tonic Sol-faists call modulation in general, transition. Music- masters, who delight in technicahties, have, in addition to the above, divided modulation into (i) appropriate and digressive ; (2) sim- ple and compound ; (3) partial and complete, (i) Appropriate modulation is when the sense of key is not disturbed by the movement of chords ; digressive, when a complete change of key is made. (2) A simple modulation is a change of key into the next remove, that is, into a key having one more sharp or flat in the signature ; a compound is the passing through relative keys into a remote key. (3) Partial modulation is a temporary change of key ; complete, the establishment of a new key. Moduliren (Ger.) To modulate. Modus (Lat.) Mode, (i) A scale, as Dorian mode, &c. [Greek music] (2) One of the three divisions of mensurable music [see Tempus and Prolatio]. Modus major was the ^ 295 •) MOLL MORRIS DANCE. division of a Maxim (notula maxima) into Longs. Modus minor the division of a Long into Breves. The " Modus major " was per- fect vv^hen the Maxim contained three Longs, imperfect when it contained two. The "Mo- dus minor " was perfect when the Long con- tained three Breves, imperfect when it con- tained two. The following (from Franchinus) exhibits the different kinds of Modus. ^ , A * ■" ^ 1 fc y H ' ^ 1= . IHH 1=1 t=f 1=1 : <:b n " ' n 1 1 . -1 — . 1 a cq . n n 1 " 1 n Modus major Modus major Modus minor Modus minor perfectus. imperfectus. perfectus. imperfectus. The division of Modus into " hiajor " and " minor " was later in date than the division of mensurable music, into Modus, Tempus, Prolatio. Originally Modus (like Tempus and Prolatio) was only divided into Perfect and Imperfect. The former having the sign I • • • I , the latter \"-T\ This seems the more consistent, as then Modus is the division of Longs into Breves ; Tempus the division of Breves into Semibreves ; Prolatio the division of Semibreves into Minims. Each of these is Perfect when the division under it is trinary, Imperfect when binary. (3) A Gregorian tone. This use of the word is not strictly correct, and has always been condemned. Moll {Ger.) Minor. Molle {Lat.) Soft. A term applied in mediaeval music to Bflat, as opposed to B natural which was called B durum. Hence, the term came to signify major and minor mode, as in the German, e.g., A dur, the key of A major ; A moll, the key of A minor. Hence too, the French formed the word bemol, a. flat. Mollemente {It.) Softly, sweetly. MoU-tonart (G«r.) The minor mode. Molto (It.) Much, very ; as, molto adagio, very slow ; molto allegro, very quick ; molto sostenuto, much sustained. Monaulos {Gk.) fiovavXoe. A Greek single-pipe made of a reed. A flute a bee. Monferina [It.) An Italian peasant dance. Monochord. A single string stretched across a board or soundboard, under which a moveable bridge can be moved at pleasure. By placing under the string a diagram of the proportionate lengths of string required for the production of just intervals, the ear can be trained and experiments can be made. It was anciently called, or rather, the results obtained from experiments with it, the harmonic canon. ^Acoustics.] [Temperament.] Monocordo {It.) Monocorde, a {Fr.) On one string. Monodia (It.) Monodie {Fr.) Monody. A song for a single voice, generally of a plaintive character. The term was originally applied to vo- cal solos in the church service. Monodrama. A dramatic piece for one performer only. Monotone, to. To recite words on a single note without inflections. Montant {Fr.) Ascending^ Monter in, ut, re, &c. {Fr.) To sing a scale of c, d, &c. Montre. Mounted diapason. An organ stop whose pipes form part of the case or are placed away from the soundboard. One of the foundation stops is generally used forthis purpose. Morceau {Fr.) (i) A piece, a small com- position of an unpretending character. (2) An excerpt. Mordente {It.) Beisser {Ger.) A beat or turn or passing shake. Written, Played, Morendo (It.) Dying away. A direction that the sounds of voices or instruments are to be gradually softened, and the pace slackened. Morisca {It.) The Morris dance. Morisco {It.) In the Moorish style. Mormorando f ,rt\ -r^ „ „^„4.i^ „„,„„.. {It.) In a gentle, murmur- ing, wishing manner. To dance the Morris Mormorevole Mormorosa Moriscoe, to. dance. Morris dance. Morisca {It.) A rustic dance performed in spring and summer time. There are many records extant to prove the universal popularity of this dance, both in the parish accounts of several dates and in the writings of poets of various periods. Douce in his illustrations to Shakespeare, supposes "that the Morris-dance derives its name from the Moors, among whom it originated, and that it is the same that gave rise to the Fandango. It was probably brought to England in the time of Edward III., when John of Gaunt returned from Spain. Few vestiges can be traced of it beyond the time of Henry VII., about which time, and later, the churchwardens' accounts show the dance to have been very popular at parochial festivals." Laneham, 1590, in his description of a Bride Ale, mentions " a lively Moris- dauns according to the auncient manner ; six dauncers, Mawd-Marion and the fool." (296) MORTE MOTO. The pipe and tabor were the ancient and are the present accompaniments to the dance, which is still occasionally performed at rural festivals. Tunes of various kinds were associated with it. Morte (Fr.) The death note of any hunted animal sounded upon a bugle. " And whan the hare is take, and your houndes have ronne well to hym, ye shul the morte blowe oftirward, and ye shul yif to your houndes the halow." Twety in Rel. Ant., i, 153, quoted in Furnivalle's reprint of the Percy MS. " And then to sigh, as't were The mort of the deer." Shakespeare. Mosso {It.) Moved, as piii mosso, more moved or faster ; meno mosso, less fast. Mostra [It.) A direct y/'. A sign, sug- gested by Avison, for pointing out to a per- former the entry of a particular point or subject. Motett. A vocal composition in harmony, set to words generally selected from the Scrip- tures, or to paraphrases of the sacred writings. The motett was, at one time, a varied treat- ment of a given theme similar to the poem called in Spanish a "moto," referred to in the article Madrigal. Like the madrigal, the motett was at first set to words of a profane character, and there are ecclesiastical decrees extant forbidding its use in church. We read in Durandus " De modo generalis concillii celebrandi," cap. xix. " Videtur valde hones- turn esse quod cantus indevoti et inordinati motetorum et similium non fierent in ecclesia." And that the character of the motett was at one period the reverse of sacred, the following quotations from " Le Roman de la Rose," conjectured by Warton to belong to the 13th century, will show : " Qu'il faist rimes jolivettes Motes, fabliaux, et chansonettes Qu'il veuille a sa mie envoier." And further: " Chantant en pardurablete Motes, gaudias, et chansonettes." In the Constitut : Carmelit : Lib. IIL : " Neque motetos, neque uppaturam _ vel aliquam cantum magis ad lasciviam quam devotionem provo- cantem, aliquis decantare habeat, sub poena gravioris culpas." And Du Cange quotes (verbo Motulus) a decree of Odo, Archbishop of Rouen, in which it is said : — " In festo S. Johannis et Inno- centium nimia jocositate et scurrilibus can- tibus utebantur utpote farsis, conductis, rnotulis ; pracepimus quod honestius et cum majori devotione alias se haberent." The word motett was synonymous with pulpitre in the 15th century. In the account of the solemn entry of John of Burgundy, Bishop of Cambray in 1442, we read, "en vidant de I'eglise, les enfants d'autels can- terent le motet ou pulpitre, tournez le visage vers I'autel." Morley, in his " Introduction to Musicke," imperfectly describes a motett as " a song made for the church, either upon some hymn or anthem, or such like ; and that name I take to have been given to that kinde of musicke in opposition to the other, which they called canto fermo, and we do commonlie call plain- song, for as nothing is more opposit to stand- ing and firmness than motion, so did they give the motet that name of moving, because it is in a manner quight contrarie to the other, which after some sort, and in respect of the other, standeth still." Probably for the reason above quoted, Du Cange suggests that the motett was originally of a gay and lively nature, and the similarity of style between the motett and madrigal of the i6th century would point to the conclu- sion that the titles were interchangeable until' the character of the words of the madrigal fixed the title for this sort of writing, and the word motett remained to describe movements more especially intended for the church ser- vice. Metrical psalms and hymns in which the several verses are sung to a varied setting are called motetts in the Roman Catholic Church. Many sacred cantatas of uncon- nected movements are also described as motetts. The early anthems took the place of the motett in the Anglican church, and many of the church compositions of the Elizabethan musicians are of the motett form. [Anthem.] [Madrigal.] Motetto {It.) [Motett.] Motion, (i) The movement of a single part with reference to intervals taken by it. Conjunct motion takes place when the sounds move by single degrees of the scale, e.g., C, D, E, F ; disjunct motion is when they move by skips, e.g., C, F, D, G. (2) The movement of two or more parts with relation to each other. Similar or direct motion is when parts move in the same direction either by single degrees or by skips ; contrary motion is when parts move in opposite directions; oblique motion is when one part remains stationary while another moves. Motivo {It.) Motive, (i) The sort of move- ment indicated by the opening notes of a sentence. (2) A subject proposed for develop- ment. Moto {It.) (i) Motion, movement, as con moto, with spirited movement, keeping up the interest of the music. Hence con moto has become a time-sign, signifying rather fast. (2) Moto continuo, continuous motion, the constant repetition of a particular musical figure or group of figures. (3) Moto coit- { 297 ) MOTTEGGIANDO M. V. trario, contrary motion ; moto ohhliquo, oblique motion ; moto retto, direct or similar motion [Motion]. (4) Moto precedente, at the pre- ceding pace ; moto prima, at the first pace. Motteggiando {It.) In a bantering, jest- ing, jocose manner. Motus (Lat.) Motion ; contrarius, contrary ; ohliquus, oblique ; rectus, direct or similar. Conjunctivus, conjunct ; disjunctivus, dis- junct. [Motion.] Mounted cornet. [Cornet, § 3.] Mouth. The speaking part of an organ pipe, as opposed to the foot, through which the wind enters. Mouth organ. [Pan-pipes.] Mouthpiece, Embouchure (Fr.) ; Imboc- catura (It.) ; Mundstuck (Ger.) That part of a wind instrument which is put into the mouth of the performer. In the case of brass instruments the end of the instrument is placed on the exterior of the lips, and in the case of reed instruments the reed itself is inserted in the mouth. The name Kessel is given by the Germans to the hollow or cup in the end of a brass instrument through which the air is forced, and Schnabel or beak, to the pointed end of oboes, clarinets, &c. Movement, (i) Motion of melody, or of parts [Motion]. (2) A division, or definite portion of a work, as first movement, slow ^ movement, &c., of a sonata or symphony, or other extended composition. (3) A portion of a musical piece separated from the rest by a complete change of time or key. Mund {Ger.) Mouth of a pipe or musical instrument ; Mundstuck, mouthpiece. Munter {Ger.) Lively, allegro. Murky. A piece of harpsichord music, having a bass consisting of broken octaves, thus : Musars. Ballad singers of the troubadour period. Musette, (i) A small bagpipe {coma tnusa) formerly much used by the various people of Europe. (2) The name of a melody, of a soft and sweet character written in imitation of the bagpipe tunes. (3) Dance tunes and dances in the measure of those melodies. (4) A reed stop on the organ. Musica (It.) Music. Musica di camera, chamber music ; musica chiesa, church music ; musica da teatro, operatic music. Musical Box. A portable instrument the sounds of which are produced by a steel comb having teeth of graduated length. Projecting pegs or stops, in a metal barrel which is turned by clockwork set the teeth in vibra- tion. They are chiefly made in Switzerland. Small specimens were formerly called musical snuff-boxes. A set of free reeds is now some- times inserted for the purpose of sustaining a melody, in which case, the same mechanism which causes the barrel to revolve, also works a small bellows. Musical Glasses. A series of goblets of graduated sizes fixed in a case. The tone is produced by the friction of the fingers of the' player on the edge of th^ glass. The instrument has been recently revived under the name of Copophone. [Glass musical in- struments.] Musici. A name given to the followers of the Aristoxenian system. See Canonici. Musico {It.) A musician, a term for- merly applied to a Castrato {q. v.) Muta {It.) A direction to a- player on a horn, trumpet, &c., or on drums, to change the key of his instrument, as, muta in A, B, S'C. Mutation {Fr.) Mutazione {It.) Change. Mute. A small instrument of brass, wood, or ivory, so made that it can be readily fixed upon the bridge of a violin or violon- cello, to damp or deaden the sound. The direction for its use is written con sordini or muta, its discontinuance by senza sordini. A leather pad of a pear shape is employed as a mute for brass instruments, which, inserted in the bell, produces the effect of sound at a distance. Mutiren {Ger.) The change of voice. M. V. Ahhieviation oi mezs([voce. zgS ) NABLA NATIONAL AIR. N. Nabla vi(iXa (Gk.) [Nebel.] Nablium (Lat.) [Nebel.] Nacaire (Fr.) A large drum. Naccare or Gnaccare (It.) [Castanets.] Nacchera (It.) A military drum. [Na- keres.] Naccherone (It.) A large military drum. Nachahmung (Ger.) [Imitation.] Nachdruck (Ger.) Emphasis, accent. Nachspiel (Ger.) A postlude. Nachstverwandte Tone (Ger.) The nearest Relative Keys, q. v. Nacht-horn (Ger.) Literally "Night- horn," an organ stop consisting of stopped wood pipes of a moderately large scale, the tone of which is somewhat like that of a horn. Naenia (Lat.) A funeral song of the Romans, mentioned in the laws of the twelve tables. " Honoratorum virorum laiudes in concione memorantor ; easque nsenis ad Tibicinem prosequuntor. Nafiri. An Indian trumpet. Nagaret or Nagareet. An Abyssinian drum; a kind of kettledrum. [Nakeres.] Naguar. An Indian drum with one head only. Naif (Fr.) Simple, na'ivement, artlessly, unaffectedly. Nail Violin. [Eisen violine.] Naked fifth. The interval of a fifth with- out a third. Naked fourth. The interval of a fourth without the addition of any other interval. Naker. A drum. [Nakeres.] Nakeres {Old Eng.) The explanations of this word given by various authors are some- what conflicting. Albert Way, in his edition of the " Promptorium Parvulorum," considers the word identical with the nagirah, or drum of the Arabs and Moors. Joinville speaks of the minstrels of the Soudan " qui avoient cors Sarrazinois, et tabours, et nacaires." Most probably nakeres were small metal drums, used in pairs. In the poem, "Sir Gawayn and the Grene Knyzt," (Early English Text Society,) the word occurs : " Trumpez & nakerys Much pypyng per repayres." A genitive case " nakeryn " is found in the early English alliterative poems published by the same society. " Belshazzar's Feast." — (No. xiii.) : " & ay ^e nakeryn noyse, notes of pipes, Tymbres & taborns, tulket among, Symbales & sonetez swared ^e noyse." Chaucer, too, makes mention of them in his knight's tale : " Pipes, trompes, nakerers, and clariounes, That in the bataille blowen blody sounes." In Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes," a pay- ment to Janino le Nakerer of sixty shillings as one of the minstrels of the King (Edward II.), is recorded. Nanga. A negro harp. [Harp.] Narrante (7f.) As if narrating. A direc- tion to a singer, implying that the music is to be subordinate, as it were, to the recitation of the words. Nasard, Nazard or Nassat. An organ stop sounding a twelfth above the foundation stops. It will therefore be 2f feet in length. Nason Flute. A stop of 4ft. tone, some- times found in old organs. It is of a soft and delicate quality of sound, and consists of stopped pipes. Nassat. [Nasard.] National Air, or National Music. Popular music, peculiar to, or characteristic of, a particular nation. It often happens, from the fact of a melody possessing the characteristics which render it generally popular, that it is passed rapidly viva voce from one person to another, with less con- sideration of the author than of the music he has composed : hence a tendency to lose the names of the composers of national music ; but of course, music is none the less national because it has its author's name attached, and recent research has discovered the authorship of many a tune which was sup- posed to have this small claim to nationality. It is impossible to describe a piece of music of any kind as national, until it has proved, by its continued existence, that it has those qualities which will enable it to live. Thou- sands of melodies, some of them unfortunately of the most worthless kind, from time to time take a firm hold of the common people of this and ■ other countries ; but the hold is not lasting, their popularity is but ephemeral, ( 299 ) NATURAL, hence they are not truly national airs ; and the airs which have become entitled to be called national, numerous though they are, are probably a mere fraction of the vast number which have had a short existence, and then sink into complete oblivion. Bear- ing these considerations in mind, it will not be difficult to give a definition of a " national air," as follows : an Air which, by its reflection or representation of a sentiment, taste, or habit of a nation, either through the music alone, or words and music combined, has become so commonly known and used by that nation, as to be inseparable from the idea of its special or characteristic music. When the customs or tastes of nations are very similar, if their musical scale has also great similarity, we shall, of course, find many tunes common to all, and claimed bv each. The more general the adhesion to the sen- timent, or the greater the area over which the custom extends, or the more general the use of the scale from which it is formed, the more cosmopolitan will a piece of music become. The climate of a country, by acting upon the temperament of the in- habitants, influences indirectly the style of its music. It is incorrect to suppose that the minor mode is a universal charac- teristic of national music. From a state- ment drawn up in a tabular form by Carl Engel, in his important work, " An Introduction to the Study of National Music," it appears that in Sweden, Norway, Russia, Finland and Hungary, the minor mode pre- dominates in the national music. In some countries, as for instance, in Moldavia, and Wallachia, and in Russia, the music seems to vacillate between the two modes, the tunes sometimes commencing in the major and ending in the minor. Sometimes also, tunes commence in the minor and end in the major. As might be expected, some melodies become altered in various ways in passing from generation to generation by oral tra- dition ; our English Ballad literature, so ably collected and arranged by W. Chappell, abounds with examples. Some nations add profuse grace notes to a well known melody ; this is the case with the Spaniards, but chiefly with the Arabs and Persians. The Welsh performance called Pennillion consists of varied accompaniments to the voice parts, and the tunes played on the violin by the Transylvanian gipsies abound in flourishes. As regards the scale in use in different countries, it does not happen, as might be expected, that a simple form of scale is used among nations of a low order of civilisation, and a more complicated form by a more civilised race. The contrary is often the case. The scale used by the Maories is enharmonic, that is, contains intervals smaller than a semitone ; while that of the Chinese is pentatonic, that is, consists of five soifnds succeeding each other in a series similar to that which would be produced by playing only on the black keys of a pianoforte. The power of the ear to distinguish between sounds differing from each other by only a very small interval, varies considerably in different nations, some savage nations, the Maories for instance, having a perfect power of distinguishing between quarter-tones. The study of national music leads to the inevi- table conclusion that all musical scales are purely conventional ; the modern diatonic scale having no better claim to be founded on nature, or natural harmonics, than the complicated scales of the Arabs, Egyptians, or Hindus. Closely connected with the history of national music, is the history of national musical instruments, the two subjects throw- ing much valuable light on each other. The quality and pitch of that particular voice most common in any nation, will also much influence the style of the popular music. " Some Asiatic nations," says Engel, " sing in shrill notes by straining the voice to its highest pitch ; others delight in a kind of vibration or tremolando. Some sing habitu- ally in an undertone ; others in a nasal tone. Others, again, cultivate with predilection the falsetto, and usually introduce it into their vocal performances." It is a fact generally known in this country that Russia abounds in deep Bass voices, and Italy in fine Tenor or Baritone voices. It is said that Hottentots are chiefly Tenors, and that the Chinese sing entirely in falsetto. A proverb current in the 14th and 15th centuries (see Chappell's Pop. Mus., p. IX., Vol. I.) says, " Galli cantant, Angli jubilant, Hispani plangunt, Germani ululant, Itali caprizant." The allusion to the English is undoubtedly meant for a compli- ment, they "sing cheerfully;" in "caprizant" is probably an allusion to the frequent use of the tremolo. It was commonly stated by English authors that England possessed no national music, but the researches of Chappell have brought together a collection of melodies of various kinds, which cannot be surpassed by any European nation. Unfortunately, our national songs are but little known in our large towns and cities ; they are, however, handed down carefully in many rural districts where they may be heard in a more or less correct form. Natural, t|. A sign which restores a note to its place in the normal scale of C. It has the effect of sharpening a note previously flattened, or of flattening a note previously sharpened. It is an accidental, that is, it does not occur in the signature of a piece ( 300 ) NATURAL HARMONICS NEBENGEDANKEN. of music, unless at a sudden change of key, e.g. : The earliest known use of the sign is found in Bonaffino's "Madrigali Concertati," 1623, a work in which also bars are employed as marking the correct divisions of time. Natural harmonics. The sounds given off by any vibrating body over and above its original sound. Overtones. [Acoustics.] Natural key. Key of C. Natural modulation. Diatonic modula- tion, as opposed to Chromatic. [Modulation.] Natural pitch. The pitch pf a pipe before it is overblown. Nay. A flute used in modern Egypt, but almost identical with the long flute anciently employed in that country. The most common nay is called the " Dervish flute," because with it those people accompany their songs at their zikrs or religious dances. Lane describes it as "a simple reed, about eighteen inches in length, seven-eighths of an inch in diameter at the upper extremity, and three-quarters of an inch at the lower. It is pierced with six holes in front, and generally with another hole at the back." It seems to have been played like our own flute, and like ^t to be capable of additional compass when blown hard. Nazard. [Nasard.J Neapolitan sixth. A name, apparently without much reason, given to a chord occurring on the subdominant of a minor key, and consisting of a minor third and minor sixth, e.g. : It evidently can have nothing to do with the key of D7 major in the position given above, although it appears at first sight to be the first inversion of the common chord of Dl?. Nor can it be derived from the root G, inasmuch as a flattened fifth of a root is not admitted to exist by the best theorists. Some authors have explained the nature of the chord by calling the F Ab, notes derived from G, and the Dt? a note derived from C. This would make the chord a double-root chord (from G C) having the minor ninth of both roots, heard with the minor seventh and major third of the upper root. Another explanation found, is that it is derived from the minor scale of the subdominant, in its modern form, e.g. : If we combine i 3 6 of the above scale, we obtain the chord under examination. That it is so derived seems the more probable, inas- much as it is often preceded by a common chord of that key-note, e.g. : J- and soTsxttiraes followed by one, e.g. J-T-fcd ! ^-^-1- It is sometimes followed at once by a major tonic chord, e.g. : Nebel (Heb.) One of the most important of the stringed-instruments of the ancient Hebrews. It was not as ancient as the kinnor, but was probably of more elaborate construction. It is almost always rendered, in our version of the Bible, by the word psaltery, two or three times by viol, once (Ps. Ixxxi. 2) by the word psalm, "Take a Psalm, bring hither the tabret." This use of the word psaltery is most unfortunate, because it has by almost universal consent been the name of the ancient dulcimer, psanterin, •psalterion, psaltery, sautry, &c. This has led to a double error, many theo- logians thinking that a psaltery is a harp, many musicians thinking that a nebel was a dulcimer. In all probability the nebel was a harp. It was portable because Saul met a company of prophets " coming down from the high place with a nebel." That it was used on secular occasions is proved by Isaiah's words (v. 12), " The harp, and the nebel, the tabret, and pipe are in their feasts." David was proficient on this instrument, and the list of his nebel-players is given in I Chron. xxv. i, and elsewhere. Nebendominant {Ger) The dominant of the dominant, as D is in the key of C. Nebengedanken {Ger.) Accessory ideas, or subordinate subjects. (. 301 ) NEBENSTIMMEN NEUMES. Nebenstimmen (Ger.) (i.) Unessential parts, as for instance those notes which may be added to a triad, or those parts which are in unison with others. (2.) Accessory stops of an organ. Nechiloth (Heb.) The generic name for wind-instruments. Neck. That part of instruments of the violin and guitar class, which lies between the peg-box and the belly. To its upper sur- face is attached the finger-board or fret-board. Nefer. An Egyptian guitar, called also Nofre. [Guitar.] Neghinoth. [Nechiloth.] Negligente, negligentemente, negli- genza, con. {It.) In a negligent or careless manner. Nel battere {It.) At the down stroke of the bar ; on the beat. Nel stilo antico {It.) In the old manner or style. Nel tempo {It.) In time (after an ad libitum), or, in the previous time. Nerves of hearing. [Ear.] Nete {Gk.) [Greek music] Nettamente, netto {It.) Neatly, with precision. Neumes. The musical notations employed from the eighth or ninth to the twelfth cen- tury. Their origin is doubtful; Kiesewetter considers them to be the ancient nota Romana, others believe them to have been of Asiatic origin. There can, however, be little doubt that the earliest system of musical notation was merely a series of directions as to the intonation (accentus) of the voice ; the acute accent, directing the raising of the voice ; the grave, the flattening of it ; the circumflex, a movement up and down. These afterwards were modified into conventional cadences of various kinds, new signs being added from time to time to those already recognized, and the force and meaning of the old signs being amplified. The progress of these signs from the acute, grave, and circumflex into neumes of different shapes can be traced with tolerable precision. The acute accent grew into the virgula, the grave accent into the punctus, the circumflex into the clivus and podatus. Hence, Cousse- maker has, in his valuable " Historie de L'Harmonie au Moyen Age," divided neumes into generators and derivatives, separating the former into two kinds, " simple " (virgula and punctus) and " coiiipound " (clivus and po- datus) ; the latter class also into two kinds, "bound" and "conjoint." The following shews the accentual neumes as used in the eleventh century : — 1 ^ *^ ^ 1 The names above are as follows : — I Ac- centus acutus ; 2 accentus gravis ; 3 per- cussionalis brevis ; 4 percussionalis longa ; 5 inflatilis ; 6 circumflexa ; 7 muta. The next illustration of neumes is part of an interesting list given in Gerbertus " De Cantu et Musica Sacra," Vol. II. : JScjvndl.Mt<•<&■(*9l^c'cl1.macttPrl^i^1tt' unt It will be seen that the above shews Ihe form of the scandicus, salicus, climacus, tor- culus, ancus, pentafon (spelt also penta- phone)i strophicus, gnomo, porrectus, oriscus, virgula, cefalicus (cephalicus), clivus, quilisma, podatus. These are ^is-arranged for the purpose of getting them into verse. But those who are curious on the subject will find two admirable explanatory tables in the work above alluded to, pp. 184, 185. Neumes were originally written above the words to be sung to them. After the ninth century they began to assume graduated height and position, this was succeeded by the addition of lines and clefs. Neumes then grew into ligatures and into notes repre- senting sounds of different lengths. The foundation of the modern system of musical notation was thus laid. [Notation.] The word neuma is probably connected with the Greek pneuma {itvevfia), a breath, and signi- fied originally a group of sounds to be sung to a syllable ; but later on this particular meaning seems to have merged into the more general one of notes; and neumes and notes are 'used almost as synonyms. When applied to the system of notation the word is spelt without the letter p (neuma) ; when applied to a series of notes to be sung to one syllable, the word seems generally to have retained its p (pneuma). The practice of singing pneumas has been at times carried to an almost ridiculous extent. They may be divided into two classes : first, the expansion of a melody in the middle of a word, as in modern runs or divisions ; e.g.: q^t ♦ ^ ■ =q=*^ =*=«=S: ^ ♦ * ■ ^E^ 3fc » "^ ■ ■ . S: - le - - - lu {From the Compline Office on Holy Sunday.) This is not opposed to modern notions of musical form. The second kind may be described as a sort of coda, or tail-piece to the final word of a ( 302 ) NEUVIEME NINTH, CHORD OF THE MINOR. sentence, and such pneumas were generally sung to the last syllable of the last word; e.g.: Al - le - lu - ia Neuvieme {Fr.) The interval of the ninth. Nexus (Lat.) One of three branches of Melopoeia — Ductus, nexus, extensio. Ductus was the movement n'p {rectus) or down {rever- tens) by single degrees. Nexus was move- ment by an interval, and was of three kinds ; rectus, as fa-gb-ac ; revertens, as ca-hg-af ; circumstans, as af-gb-af-ge. Extensio was the holding on of the same note. See Agoge. Niederschlag {Ger.) The accented part of a bar. Nineteenth. An organ stop. [Larigot.] Ninna, nanna (It.) A cradle song. Ninth, interval of a. A compound interval, equal to a second in the superior octave. It may be major, minor, or aug- mented, e.g. : Major Ninth. Minor Ninth. Augmented Ninth. Ninth, chord of the major. A chord formed by a combination of thirds starting with the dominant or fifth of the scale, called by some writers the " added ninth," because it consists of a chord of the dominant seventh, with the addition of the ninth ; by others the " dominant ninth," because it occurs on a dominant bass. i r ^ It is composed of five sounds, and, there- fore has four inversions. Like all chords of the ninth, in its inversions the root or ground- note is seldom heard. They may be there- fore written thus : 1st Inv. 2nd Inv. 3rd Inv. 4th Inv. In the above, the ninth is made to resolve first, leaving the seventh to be resolved after- wards. In the following, both discordant notes are resolved in the next chord : The fourth inversion, having the ninth in the bass, is not so commonly met with as the others. In the resolutions given above it will be seen that the third of the dominant, that is, the leading note, ascends to its tonic ; the minor seventh descends ; the major or added ninth descends also. The first inversion of this chord is sometimes termed the " chord of the seventh on the leading note," because the leading note of the scale is in the bass, and an interval of a seventh is found in the chord. For similar reasons the second inversion is sometimes called the chord of | on the super- tonic, the third inversion that of * on the sub-dominant, the fourth inversion that of 4 on the superdominant. This chord and its inversions (excepting the fourth) are often used without preparation. Ninth, chord of the minor. One of the most important ingredients of modern music. Not only is it exceedingly beautiful to the ear, but from its peculiar form it gives the greatest possible facilities for modulation from key to key, whether closely related or not. It consists of a dominant, its major third, major (perfect) fifth, minor seventh, and minor ninth, e.g. : W In its inversions the dominant, that is, the root or ground-note, is nearly always omitted, e.g.: In the above examples the ninth only has been resolved, leaving the seventh unre- solved ; but in resolving the seventh it will ( 303 ) NINTH, CHORD OF THE SUSPENDED. be found that the major or minor third of the succeeding chord may be used, thus : Hence the chord is as often found in music in a major key, as in that in a minor. The beauty of the inversions no doubt arises from the fact that they consist practically of a combination of minor thirds, e.g. : The alteration of the notation of the inver- sions of this chord gives scope for rapid en- harmonic modulation. Take for example the second inversion : No. I is derived from G, dominant of C No. 2 „ E, ,, A No. 3 „ CJt, „ Fjf (No. 4 „. Bbl „ El?) lNo.5 „ At\ „ m\ Nos. 4 and 5 are a complete change from a flat to a sharp key. Without altering the sound of the above chord it may be made to lead into any of the above keys or the keys related to them. Such a change of notation as this, without a change of sound, is termed an enharmonic modulation. It has already been shewn that the chord may resolve either into the major or minor mode ; therefore the tonic minors of the above notes, and also the keys related to them, may be reached with equal facility. On looking at the five changes given above, the reason why the ground-note or root is omitted from the chords becomes obvious, for not only would the symmetry of form produced by the conjunction of the minor thirds be destroyed, but also a definite resolution would become absolutely necessary, or, in other words, the invaluable property of "doubtfulness of key" belonging to such chords would be removed. One more fact should be noticed. If the list of the notes given above as the ground-notes of the five examples be read separately, thus : G, E, Ci' Bi?, or, as Nos. 4 and 5 are convertible, 1: E, C#, Af, and their tonics, C, A, F*, Eb, or C, a'F|, D|, we get the following : * which will be found to be identical with those derived from them when separated into ground- notes, both as to the nature of their construc- tion and their capability for enharmonic modulation. The first inversion of this chord is often called the chord of the diminished seventh, because of the interval between the bass note and minor ninth of the root. Ninth, chord of the suspended. A name given to the chord of the ninth on the tonic, as opposed to that of the ninth of the dominant, owing to the fact that the former is more often used as a prepared discord than the latter. The ninth may or may not be accompanied by the seventh (in this case the leading note). In the following examples the seventh is omitted : The seventh is included in the following examples : It will be seen that the note on which the suspension resolves is not heard with the suspension, except in the original position of the chord ; also, that the third inversion , is only to be obtained when the seventh is used. The ninth is not unfrequently resolved up- wards, in which case some authors would not call it a " suspension," but a "retardation," e.g.: The ninth and seventh are both used with the fourth, or, as it is more properly termed, the eleventh on the tonic; under" Suspension," examples of their combination will be found. ( 304 ) NOBILE NOMENCLATURE. The division of discords into discords of suspension, discords by retardation, dis- cords by addition, and fundamental dis- cords, is purely arbitrary, consequently hardly any two authors apply these names in the same way. It is highly desirable that a simple and consistent method of arranging chords should be generally adopted. Nobile, nobilmente, con nobilita (It.) With grandeur, nobly. Nocturns. Services of the church held during the night, for which certain portions of the Psalms are set aside, each of which is termed in the Breviary a nocturn. [Horse Canonicae.J Nocturne {Fr.) [Notturno.] Nodal line. [Acoustics, § 7.] Node. [Acoustics, § 7.] Nodus {Lat.) Lit. a knot. A Canon. So called because compositions of this class were sometimes given as enigmas, the meaning of which had to be unravelled. [Canon.] Noel (Fr.) "Good news." Old Eng.: Nowell. A word used as a burden to Carols at Christmas. Hence, Carols are sometimes called noels, or nowells. [Carol.] Nofre. [Nefer.] Noire {Fr.) A crotchet J. The black note. Noise [Old Eng.) Music, or a performance of music. As in Shakespeare's Henry IV., part II., Act 4, " See if thou canst find Sneak's noise." So also in Milton's " Ode on the morn- ing of Christ's nativity : " "When such music sweet Their hearts and ears did greet. As never was by mortal finger strook ; Divinely warbled voice Answering the stringed noise, As all their souls in blissful rapture took." The prayer-book version of the Psalms has " God is gone up with a merry noise." (" As- cendit Deus in jubilo." Vulgate.) Nomenclature. In music the terms applied to the various signs employed to stand as the representatives of time, sounds, pitch, pace, and expression. Mr. HuUah, in a paper recently read before the Musical Association, says: "The signs relating to time are the breve, semibreve, minim, crochet, quaver, semiquaver, and demisemiquaver. Of these names the first three have lost their signifi- cance ; the fourth is no longer appropriate ; the fifth, sixth, and seventh, are arbitrary. " The Germans call these notes, beginning from our semibreve, the whole note, the half note, the quarter note, and so on. These appellations, so far as they express the pro- portion of the first note named to those which follow it, are convenient ; they form of them- selves a time-table. But it is an imperfect one ; for they do not show, without further calculation, any intermediate proportion. They show at once that eight quavers = one semibreve, but not at once that four quavers = one minim. But I have a much more serious charge to bring against them. They assume what, if not always false, is, as it seems to me, not always true — that the semi- breve is, or that any form of note can be absolutely a ' whole note.' What is, or what should be regarded as a whole note ? If I were sure that the word "phrase" represented to all of us the same idea'as it does to me, I should answer unhesitatingly that a whole note was any note that could be divided into a phrase, or — to be a little more precise — any note divided or undivided, which would fill either an entire measure or require as many beats as would make one. This would give us practically four claimants to the title of whole note; — the breve, the average whole note of the sixteenth century ; the semibreve, the average whole note of our own time ; the minim, and even the crotchet. For, that movements innumerable of four beats in a measure, each of which is a quaver, exist, I need not say, nor that the measure even of four semiquavers has been occasionally em- ployed. " It is certain that a sound lasting four beats may be expressed, and has been expressed by six different forms — the maxim, the long, the breve, the semibreve, the minim, and the crotchet. Perhaps some musician of the future may think proper to express such a note by a quaver. " Let us now consider the names used by the French — a people possessing in high perfec- tion the power of clear exposition of what they themselves see clearly. As usual, they leave or throw on one side whatever they regard as uncertain, or equivocal, or not commonly accepted, and proceed to deal with the undis- puted and indisputable facts or portions of facts before them. And what is there in respect to the forms which express the relative durations of sounds ? First, that they are forms, and secondly, that they are different forms ; — that one is an oval or circle, that another is a circle with a stem, and another a circular spot also with a stem ; and that all other notes are opaque and have not only stems but hooks varying in number. They call these notes or forms as they find them, — round, white, black, hooked, twice-hooked, and thrice-hooked. I certainly prefer the German nomenclature, which, though raised on a false basis is consistent, to our own, which is inconsistent as well as false ; but I prefer the French to the German, because, not pre • tending to do so much, it does what it pre- tends to do perfectly. " The nomenclature, not of sounds, but of the relations between them — the nomen- { 305 ) NOMENCLATURE. clature of musical intervals, is a subject on which English theorists and practitioners are by no means agreed. " I believe that the seconds and thirds and their inversions the sevenths and sixths found in the so-called 'natural' scale, and all scales made like it, are very generally called among us, major and minor ; and that six of the fourths and their inversions the fifths are as generally called perfect. Here, however, agreement ends. 'For the one exceptional fourth and the one exceptional fifth rejoice each in as many aliases as a swindler finally run down by the police detective. To the excep- tional fourth, which, according to the old theorists ' diabolus est,' I have heard and seen applied the name 'tritone,' and the epithets sharp, superfluous, redundant and augmented ; to the exceptional fifth the epithets flat, false, imperfect, diminished and equivocal. Others might possibly be added to this list. To the name tritone no objection is, I think, open ; it expresses the contents of the interval — three tones ; but it carries with it the dis- advantage of there being no corresponding name for its inversion, the exceptional fifth. Augmented and diminished are no doubt antonyms ; but both are epithets which, as I shall try to show, ought to be reserved ex-, clusively for another class of intervals — ^the chromatic. Superfluous and redundant are, I think, clumsy epithets ; but if either is to be applied to the exceptional fourth, its antonyms scanty or insufficient should be applied to the exceptional fifth. If this last interval is to be called false, its inversion (the tritone) should be called true. Only one of these epithets seems to me quite unobjectionable — imperfect as applied to the exceptional fifth. As an antonym to this I have long used the epithet pluperfect, which has been very largely adopted. " I objected just now to the epithets aug- tnented and diminished as applied to these particular intervals, the exceptional fourth and fifth. I think these should be reserved exclusively to chromatic intervals. I know of course that my objection involves a principle, or rather begs a question. What is a chro- matic interval ? This question, as often hap- pens, throws us back on another. What is a chromatic scale ? A chromatic scale I should define, with Dr. Crotch, to be a scale contain- ing more than two semitones. The so-called ' natural ' scale, and all other scales made like it, is not a chromatic scale, neither are any of the ancient scales formed from the arrangement of the same series of sounds in a different order. Of these last the ' natural ' minor scale is one, and the only one familiar to the modern musician. Only however by means of a most serious alteration has it been reconciled to modern tonality, which above all things demands, as the unequivocal sign, seal, or confirmation of a key, the combina- tion known as the ' discord of the dominant seventh.' Such a combination on the 5th of the natural minor scale is only possible by an alteration or non-naturalization which at once brings it under Dr. Crotch's definition. In the series A, B, C, D, E, Fj}, G#, and A, we find three semitones, and one interval greater than a tone. Moreover, by skips from one note to another of a scale so constituted, we get three other intervals alien to the natural scale, the inversion of the altered second formed by F-Gjf, the altered fifth formed by C-Gj(, and its inversion. These intervals are, I conceive, augm-entations or diminutions of intervals which would have remained unaltered, but for the artificial pro- cess needed to reconcile the minor key with modern tonalitj' ; they are therefore, I believe, generally called augmented and diminished accordingly. So all intervals, which the cultivated ear does not reject as cacophonous, formed by notes one or both of which are foreign to the key to which they are introduced, are but augmentations or di- minutions of those that are natural to it. Without change of key we can augment cer- tain of the unisons, seconds, fifths, and sixths ; and diminish certain of the octaves, sevenths,' fourths, and thirds. Now, as we have seen, in the unaltered or natural scale, major or minor, we find no examples ofany one of these intervals ; they are uniformly the result of artificial treatment. But, with the exceptional fourth and fifth the case is altogether different ; they are not the results of artificial treatment, we find them ready to our hands ; and they are as much constituent parts of the scale in which we find them as is the semitone between the third and fourth sounds. How then can the interval F-B in the scale of C, be augmented or B-F diminished ? Of what are they aug- mentations or diminutions ? Of F-Bl?, or of FJ-B ? Are Bt? or F# constituents of the scale — I do not say the key — of C ? If they are, our modern tonality must be reconstructed defond en comble, and every scale must be allowed three dominants instead of one. Again, we find that the intervals of the natural scale which bear augmentation are the largest of their kind in it, and those which will bear diminution the smallest. Of the seconds we can augment only the major ; of the thirds we can diminish only the minor. Can we aug- ment the tritone, the largest fourth in the scale, or diminish its inversion, the smallest fifth ? Both have reached their utmost limits, and resist and defy all attempts to put them further asunder orbringthem nearer together. If it be answered that they are already augmented ( 306) NOMENCLATURE. and diminished, I ask again what was their original condition ? The tritone and its inver- sion are, I repeat, constituents of the diatonic scale ; and they are diatonic intervals accord- ingly. For the latter an epithet, imperfect, is already largely accepted ; I submit to you, in the absence of a better,the epithet pluperfect for its inversion. " Before quitting this second division of my subject — pitch — I will ask you to give me your attention for a few moments longer. It seems to me that musicians have much cause to complain of the way in which not merely general litterateurs but even scientific writers employ words to which, since music has been an art, musical artists have agreed in attach- ing certain definite significations. Perhaps the most glaring instance of this, and it is the only one which I shall give, is the employment of the word ' tone ' to express the thing or sensation which we and they also sometimes call ' sound. ' A tone with us is not a sound, but the relation or difference between one sound and another. This acceptation of the word would seem to be, if not as old as the musical art itself, at least of great antiquity, as is shewn in the co-existence of two such words as tetrachord and tritone ; the one, ob- serve, representing a passage of four sounds, or strings which produce them. The other, an interval which, though it includes four sounds, is named after the three intervals — tones — which separate them. We hear now of over-tones, or the acute sounds resulting from spontaneous vibration ; and of under- tones, meaning grave sounds resulting from the combination of others. Some of us have occasionally been at a good deal of pains to explain that a major third consists of or includes two tones : if a tone be a sound, a major third must consist of three or even of five tones — or of both three and five. The most recent and extravagant employment of this word, in this sense, is in its application to great composers. Beethoven especially we often hear of as a g^eat ' tone-poet.' I should say that if this terminology is to be accepted at all, it should be graduated or made more precise ; so as to express the rank of the poet to whom it is applied. If Beethoven be a tone poet, some of our contemporaries should be authorized to call J. S. Bach an augmented tone poet, and, e converso, Rossini a semitone poet. What designation should be applied to the vast crowd of less successful aspirants to musical fame I know not. Perhaps they might be put off with some of those minute intervals the excess or insuificiency of which disturbs the minds of those who still generously devote themselves to the search afterthat philosopher's stone of our art — Perfect intonation. "I pass on nowto the consideration oiexpres. sion, under which term we may class words or signs indicative oi pace, intensity, and style. "A growing disposition has been observable of late among the different musical peoples of Europe to use their own languages as vehicles for these indications. I think this is to be regretted : (i) as inconvenient to foreigners among whom their music is likely to go. It seems hard on an English, French, Italian, Hungarian, or Bohemian musician, that to understand a piece of music by any eminent modern German master, he must not only be a musician, but a linguist ; that he should not merely be able to appreciate the musical sound of the notes in the score before him, but have also a vocabulary, practically un- limited, of German words. He opens, say, Schumann's Overture to ' Genoveva.' He sees by the position of the stave, headed by the C clef and designated ' Bratsche,' what is the meaning of that word ; he need not have much doubt about the stave similarly headed and holding three parts, against which is written Posaunen ; by the shapes of the pas- sages intended for them, he may construe Ventilhorn in Es, Waldhorn, and Pauken ; and by the help of the metronome mark he may coijie at the meaning of langsam. But a little further on he encounters leidenschaft- lich bewegt, which is harder upon him ; and a little further still, sehr frisch, which is really too bad. This example has lately found imitators among the Scandinavians, who expound their musical intentions in words which a German of philological tastes and pursuits could doubtless make out, but which to the average German must be as unintelh- gible as to the average Englishman. Strange to say, the French, who take it for granted that everybody understands their language, or ought to, have not sinned in this way so much as the Germans. It is true that the scores of their operas are covered with phrases like ' avec chaleur,' ' trfes-simplement,' ' a demi-voix,' ' avec ironie,' but these may be regarded as ' stage directions ' addressed to, and inevitably intelligible to those who are to play the parts as well as sing the music to which they refer. Otherwise French composers limit themselves in their scores to a few native words such as detache, douce- ment, and the like. As for ourselves, our modem musical publications would indicate, what certainly is the reverse of true, that we are the greatest linguists on earth. It is needless to present examples of what every- body is familiar with ; we have all seen, and see daily, title-pages, for instance, in which two, three, and even four languages are employed. (2) Irrespective of its practical inconvenience, which I do not wish to over- rate, this practice takes from music its noblest ( 307 ) NOMOS NOTA. characteristic — its catholicity. We musicians are able to discourse in a language touching to the hearts, if not always clear to the intel- ligences, of every people on the face of the globe ; and we are furnished with an alphabet in which to write this language, which is not the invention of a single mind, but of a thousand minds — a thing which has marched on to its present perfection pari passu beside music itself; an alphabet so clear, to him who knows how to read it, that a musical composition, no matter of what intricacy, composed, let us say at Moscow, can, with- out any serious violation of the intentions of its author, and without his personal assist- ance, be performed within a few days, weeks, or months, in London, Paris, New York, or Melbourne — ^wherever there are artists to interpret it. Let us cherish this precious possession, and do what we can to prevent its acquiring a sectarian, provincial, or even national character, through the introduction of any peculiarities whatever. The directions of which I have spoken were, up to a compara- tively recent time, made all the world over in one language — Italian. And even to this hour, the most Teutonic of musical composers are still obliged to resort to that language. In the score of which I have just spoken, Schumann's ' Genoveva,' there are as many Italian words or abbreviations of Italian words as there are measures, very often more. The words dolce, sempre, basso, soli, divisi, and the like, are of frequent occurrence ; and as for the contraction of piano, forte, crescendo, diminuendo, sforzato, and the like, they may be counted by hundreds. Granted that Italy has not been observant of Andrew Marvel's caution — " The same arts that did attain A power, must it maintain : " granted that she has not held her own against such competitors as Germany during the last hundred years has brought into the field, are we to lose all veneration for the people whom the slightest acquaintance with musical his- tory will show to have been the musical teachers of all the world ? Are we to kick down the ladder by which we have risen to our present superiority — to turn a cold shoulder on old friends because we have become better off, and it may be wiser than they ? Not, however, to throw more sentiment round this matter than it will bear, it does seem unwise to subject ourselves to the in- conveniences of which I have spoken, when they can be avoided by the simple process of using only one vocabulary, and that not a new or unaccustomed one, but one with which every musical people is at least partially familiar." NomOS. yo/iOf (GA.) A song. vofionroXefJ-iKoi, war-songs. Nona (It.) A ninth. Nonenakkord (Ger.) The chord of the ninth. Nonetto (It.) A piece of music for nine voices or instruments. Nonny, or "Hey nonny." A common burden to old English ballads, as " fa, la, la," was to madrigals. Nonuplet. A collection of nine notes to be played in the time of eight, or six. Normal Pitch. [Pitch.] Normalton (Ger.) The standard sound. [A. § 5-] Normaltonart (Ger.) The normal scale, C major and its relative minor A. Nota (li.) A note, as, nota buona, an accented note ; nota cambiata, in counter- point, the proceeding from a discord to a concord by askip, e-.g. : J — I- nota caratteristica, a leading or characteristic note ; nota cattiva, an unaccented note ; nota d'abellimento, a grace note, note of transition ; nota di passaggio, a passing note ; nota sen- sibile, the leading note or subtonic. Nota, or Figura (Lat.) (i) In general, any musical sign. (2) In particular, the signs placed upon the stave which shewed by their shape and position the duration and pitch of sound. They constitute the essence of mensurable music (cantus mensurabilis) as opposed to mere " signs of intonation," such as were the neumes. The first division of notes was, as might be expected, into long and short (breve or brief), "mensurabilis musica est cantus longis brevibusque men- suratus." (Johannes de Moravia.) The long was a four-sided note with a tail (No. 2) ; the breve a four-sided note without a tail (No. 3) ; the semibreve a diamond note ( No. 4)- 123456 These notes varied in length (i) according to the time-signature, (2) according to the notes which preceded or followed them, (i) In duple measure each was equal to two of the next order ; in triple measure each was equal to three. Thus, an imperfect (duple) long was equal to two breves ; a perfect (triple) long to three breves, and so on. (2) A long was perfect when placed before an- other long ; imperfect when preceded or followed by a breve, &c. The double long or maxim or large is shewn in No. i. It was in form like a long, but had an extended head. (308) NOTATION. The introduction of the dot (punctus) fortu- nately relieved musicians of the complications above mentioned, by adding half its value to a note regardless of its position or the time- signature. In course of time six musical figures were admitted, as shown above: i, double long ; 2, long; 3, breve ; 4, semibreve ; 5, minim ; 6, semiminim. In the fifteenth century an extraordinary movement to create novelties in notation seems to have arisen, and treatises of that date abound with rules as to the position of the tails of notes ; for their absolute length or proportion to each other was made to depend on this. A breve was allowed a tail to the left, a long to the right. Also, notes with tails up and down ♦ were invented, called dragme or fuiscee, and notes with two tails in the same direction ^ Then, again, open notes (evacuatas) were used, and when the head was black they were one-third less in value. These, and other similar complicated systems, never appear to have been generally received. On the disuse of the double long (No. 1) the note No. 2 seems to have been made into the breve. No 3 into the semibreve, and No. 4 into the minim. The note No. 5 then became a semiminima (crotchet), and No. 6 the fusa or unca (hooked-note or quaver). The notes Nos. 2, 3 and 4 were adopted by Marbecke, 1,550, as his breve, semibreve, and minim, and are so named in one of the latest and best treatises on Church-song, ". Les vrais principes du chant Gregorien " (Malines, 1845). But it should be remarked that in the " Trait6 th6orique et pratique du plain-chant" (Paris, 1750). No. 2 is called the long, and No. 4 the breve. Other author rities might be cited to show that uniformity of nomenclature has never existed with regard to this subject. In the majority of modem works on Plain Song, No. 2 is the breve. No. 3 the semibreve, No. 4 the minim. Notation, Early Systems of Musical, down to the invention of Notes. — The most ancient system known to us of expressing musical sounds upon paper, or other material employed for that purpose, is that of Alypius for the music of ancient Greece. This treatise sup- plies a complete method of representing the notes by letters of the Greek alphabet, the letters being sometimes upright, sometimes on their sides, and sometimes upside down, or broken in half. Unluckily, there are but three extant specimens of Greek music, in the genuineness of which any reliance can be placed, to which this system can be applied. The three are Greek hymns, of uncertain date, which were first published by Galilei in 1580, and by successive writers down to Dr. Bumey ; but there are evidently riiistakes, as well as omissions,' in the manuscripts from which the printed copies were derived, and the results are therefore unsatisfactory. The system of Alypius does not supply an adequate clue to the scales that are included in the later Greek treatise of Aristides Quintilianus. Scales are a sure test as to whether a clue be right or wrong, especially where the accom- panying text gives an explanation of the in- tervals that should occur, as in that case. The system of Alypius has therefore become, for practical purposes, useless. It may suf- fice then to say, that it may be referred to in the collection of Greek writers upon music pub- lished by Meibomius at Amsterdam in 1652. If any further specimens of Greek music should be discovered, it seems more probable that the later system of musical notation in- cluded in the treatise of Aristides Quintilianus will be of avail than that of Alypius. Aristides begins with the double omega for gamma — the g on the lowest line of the bass clef — and carries up the scale to the extent of three octaves and a third, viz. to b, including every intervening semitone as well as tone. This notation will be found on the lower half of p. 27 of his treatise, which is also included in Meibomius's collection of the Greek Authors on Music. The notation may be described as a later form of that employed by Alypius. Variations between the manuscripts used by Meibomius and others are noted at pp. 243 to 245 of the same work. One other Greek system remains to us of uncertain date. This is the ecclesiastical notation of the Greek Church. It is supposed to have originated in Greek accents, and to have been gradually enlarged into a compli- cated system of signs for chanting. These were written over the words without lines or spaces. Specimens of this kind of writings of various ages, may be seen in Gerbert's De Cantu et Musica Ecclesice (vol. ii. p. 56 et seq.), and the signs are explained by Chrysante de Madyte, Archbishop of Durazzo in Illyria, in the third chapter of his Introduction to the theory and practice of ecclesiastical music,* published in Paris in 1821. The Chinese have a good diatonic scale, but have now degenerated into a state of mu- sical barbarism, and do not know how to use it. The Chinese system of musical no- tation is explained by Morrison in his Dic- tionary of the Chinese language. Chinese musicians use principally the five tones of the scale without the semitones, but they oc- casionally use semitones also, as is proved by the song, " Nien lai yun chue koo woo e," * Eiirayuy^ els to dewprjriKov Koi ■jrpaKTiKoy tijq eKK\j]aiaaTiicrje fxovaiKijs (8vo.) Paris, 1821. ( 309 ) NOTATION. and by some others, printed in China about 1790. In these cases, supposing the interval between E and F to be a semitone as in our tonal system, it is to be found in passages both ascending and descending. As the fact of the use of semitones by the Chinese is denied by M. Fetis, it is well to give the title of the work from which this opposite conclu- sion is drawn. It is " Sin ting kew kung ta ching nan tsze kung poo," and is compiled by Chow Tseang-yiih and others. The music and the words of the song were kindly trans- cribed for the writer by Mr. Robert K. Douglas, of the British Museum, who adopted Morrison's interpretation of the musical notes. We next come to the Romans, who de- rived both their system of music and of mu- sical notation by letters of the alphabet, from the Greeks. The Romans adopted only one of the Greek divisions of the scale, viz., the diatonic, consisting of tones and semitones, as in modern music. They had therefore a sufficient number of characters in their alpha- bet without breaking the letters into parts, and without turning them round about, like the Greeks. We have no extant specimen of the music of classical Rome, and there remains but one Roman treatise on music that has any claim to completeness, and yet it is far from being complete. This is by the " ultimus Romanorum" Boethius, who was put to death by Theodoric the Goth in 525. It is entirely copied from the Greeks by a philosopher who had read Greek treatises, but who seems to have had no practical knowledge of music, and in many cases to have mistaken the meaning of Greek musical terms, even of those which express the lowest and the highest sounds. In later ages, Boethius was claimed as a Christian, and as he wrote in Latin, instead of Greek, there was a double reason why his work should be chiefly followed by writers on Church music* Nevertheless, the seven letters of the alpha- bet, A to G, which were used as names for the seven notes of the scale, were referred back by them to Virgil, as the " septem dis- crimina vocum," alluded to in the .^neid (vi. 645)- In the treatise of Boethius the letters run beyond G, and up to and P,t for the second octave, but they are intended as demonstra- tions of the diagrams in the fourth book, ra- ther than as musical notes. This is proved by A being there marked to the note that would be C in music, and by the same sys- * This had an unfortunate effect upon Church music, and we propose to show elsewhere that at least one of its defects may be traced back to this cause. f Our i and j count but as one letter. tem of illustration by letters being adopted throughout his treatise. The mediaeval system of musical notation was sometimes by letters of the alphabet, from A to G for the lowest seven notes, and from H to O for the second seven ; but it was fa,r more generally by marks or signs over the words called neumes, or pneumata, breathings for sounds. These names were taken from the Greek words, Trveviia and its plural irvti/i- ara. There are cases, but they are rare, in which the two systems of letters and neumes are combined, the letters giving greater cer- tainty to the neumes. An early instance of this combination is found in a collection ot Latin hymns, anciently used at St. Augus- tine's, Canterbury. The writing is of the tenth century, and the hymn is addressed to the Saint Augustin of the English (Austin the Monk). It begins: "Gemma sacerdotum ! -rutilans lux alma piorum Anglorum." The compass of this hymn is ninenotes,from bass C to tenor D, and the letters go up to L. (Cotton MSS.,Brit. Mus.Vesp.D., vi. fol. 77.) A book was printed in facsimile in Brussels, a few years ago, entitled Antiphonaire de Saint Grl^ojra, supposed at first to be from a con- temporary manuscript, and afterwards from a copy made about the year 790. The facsimile shows writing not older than the tenth cen- tury, and Father Schubiger conclusively dis- proves the assumed age and character of the manuscript by identifying one of the se- quences included in it, " Laus tibi, Christe" (p. 62) as written by Notker, Abbot of the Monastery of Saint Gall. There is little rea- son for believing that the chants in any anti- phonajy of the time of Gregory the Great would he intelligible now, or indeed that they ever were legible without living help, for Saint Isidore, Bishop of Seville, who was a junior friend of Gregory's, and one who had long outlived him, says in the third book of his Origines, or Etymologies, that "unless sounds are retained in the memory, they perish, be- cause they cannot be written."! This Saint Isidore wrote at the beginning of the seventh century. It seems to argue that the letters of the Roman alphabet were not in use for noting down Church music at that early date. Neumes which had neither lines nor letters added to them were but marks or signs over the words, to serve as rough guides to the eye, whether the voice should rise or fall. They could only serve to remind the singer of chants which he had first learnt by ear. He could not tell exactly how far to ascend or to descend, and whether by tone or semitone, nor the riote to begin upon. There was no J " Nisi enim ab homine memoria teneantur, soni pereunt, quia scribi non possunt." ( 310 ) NOTATION. precise measure of time in them. The earlier neumes were but an expansion of the system of accents and stops. At a later date, the flourish at the end of a chant, or of an alleluia was called the neume. These had no words to them, and were to be sung in one breath. The next system was one without neumes, but with a ladder of letters placed one above the other at the beginning of the chants. The syllables of the words were then discon- nected in order to place each syllable on a level with the letter which represented the note to which it was to be sung. This system seems to have been invented in Flandfers, by Hucbald, a monk of Saint Amand, who died at an advanced age in 930 or 932. Instead of using seven letters, he employed but four (on the Greek tetrachord system), viz., D, E, F, and G. He turned these four into four different positions, to make four disjoined tetrachords or fourths. The twisting about of the letters was probably borrowed from the Greek notation of Alypius. They were first in their ordinary position, then faced the reverse way, and then turned upside down, and faced to the left and to the right. By this means he obtained a scale of sixteen notes, and, for the seventeenth and eighteenth, to complete his number, he turned the first and second lettei-s jacent on their faces. It must be noted that Hucbald's scale was not what the ecclesiastical, or " Gregorian " scale is commonly supposed, and said, to have been. He made all his fourths to have the semitone between the second and third notes, as in D, E, F, G. This has been overlooked by all who have written about his notation, and Kiesewetter, in his History of Music, has translated Hucbald's examples without mark- ing a single sharp or flat. Yet Hucbald's text is clear enough to any one not prepos- sessed with the immutability of " Gregorian" music, for he says repeatedly that his tetra- chords have the same succession of intervals whether taken up or down.* It is a mistake to suppose that what is called " Gregorian music " is of the age of Saint Gregory. The word means nothing more than the " use of Rome." " Nos Gregoriani * See Hucbald's Musica Enchiriadis, in Gerbert's Scriftores de Musica EcclesitB, v. i, p. 152. In col. i, lines 17 and 18, " ut semper qnatuor et quatuor ejus- dem conditionis sese consequantur." In col. 2, lines 2 and 3, "Secundus deuteros, tono distans a proto; tertius tritos, semitonio distans a deutero." At p. 156, lines I to 4, " Sed dum forte in sono aliquo dubitatur qualis sit, turn, a semitoniis quibus constat semper deuterum tritumque disjungi ; toni in ordine rimentur." P. 152, col. 2, " Sive sursum sive jusum sonos in ordine ducas." If it is to be the same up or down, the semi- tone must always be in the middle. et nos Ambrosiani " — " We who follow the use of Rome, and we who follow the use of Milan." As another proof that the music is changed since the tenth century, a second writer of the same age may be cited. Notker says in his De Octo Tonis, that every chant of the first and second tones ends in B ; of the third and fourth in C ; of the fifth and sixth in D ; and of the seventh and eighth in E.f This differs much from the law of later times. The " Gregorian" tones have been changed by altering the positions of the semitones in the scales. The first and second of later dates end on D ; the third and fourth on E ; the fifth and sixth on F ; and the seventh and eighth on G. The music cannot be the same, because the intervals follow in a different suc- cession. It is not surprising that the music should have been changed since the tenth century, the only wonder would be, if it had not. Hucbald's tetrachord, with its semitone in the middle, became the parent of the hexa- chord system, or six-note scale. It consisted of a tetrachord of the same kind as Hucbald's in the middle, and a tone added at each end. It had quite the same object — that of bringing the semitone into the middle (between mi and fa) so as to make the succession of intervals the same whether the scale were taken up or down. Hucbald's scale was as follows : P (gamma) A, Bi7, C— D, E, F, G,— a, btf, c, d,— e, f$, g, a, — h, c4. His letters were placed in spaces formed between lines, which lines were de- signed to represent strings. In the following example, our ordinary letters are used, instead of Hucbald's oddly shaped antiquities, because they are more readily intelligible to general readers. A a G da te num F Lau mi de E do e D ccelis. The words are : " Laudate Dominum de coslis." One great objection to this system was the dislocation of syllables ; and another was, that it rendered necessary the doubling and trebling of the vowels when there were two or three notes to one syllable. Lastly, Huc- bald's musical scale was not ruled by musical f " Ex septem bis quatuor sunt, nempe B, C,D, E, in quas omnis cantus desinit: qui primi et secundi toni est, desinit in B ; qui tertii et quarti in C ; qui quinti et sexti in D ; qui septimi et octavi in E." Gerbert's ScHptores, I. g6. There were two Notkers at St. Gall, and this treatise is attributed by Gerbert to Notker Labeo (large lipped), but both were of the tenth century. The first was the abbot, ahd the second a monk of St. Gall. (311 ) NOTATION. laws. He had bJJ, f$, and c J as octaves to B[7, F, and c. Surely then some licence must have been taken by the singer, for no man with ears about him could sing such octaves. These were indeed the dark ages of music. Hucbald's harmony is equally barbarous. In all countries which were in communion with the Church of Rome, the system of writing down the music of the chants, either by neumes or by letters, endured for several centuries. The great preponderance was by neumes; indeed, the use of letters was com- paratively rare. The neumes were written over the words, without either lines or spaces to fix them to any pitch, or to distinguish tone from semitone. The earliest improvements upon this general practice are to be found in the Prosse et Sequentias (Hymns of Praise) which each country produced for itself. The earliest use of four lines and spaces is to be found in England. There are extant hymns with the neumes written upon alternate line and space, and with an index letter at the signature to fix the position of all, and these in a manuscript of the reign of Ethelred II, who is prayed for by name in the Third Litany as " our King" (regem nostrum), and whose reign was from 978 to 1016. The manuscript was then in use at Winchester Cathedral, and is now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford (MSS. Bodley, No. .775). The difference between this early English notation and that of later general use is neither great nor important. It con- sists only in the English use of any letter of the octave at the signature, instead of con- fining it to F, C, or G. Yet this is a suffi- ciently distinctive mark. Only the new hymns are upon four lines and spaces. The prayers and the psalms have the old indefinite neumes. The English continued to use any one of the seven letters at the signature down to the first half of the thirteenth century. At that time notes had been invented, and neumes were being gradually changed into the forms of notes. Although early Eijglish service books are exceedingly scarce, owing to the wholesale destruction of them enforced by the severest penalties for having any in possession in the reign of Henry VIII., yet there are a few still extant. Among these are the Saint Alban's Gradual in the British Museum (MSS. Reg. 2 B. iv.), and an equally beautiful manu- script in the Cotton Collection (Caligula A. 14). These contain some of the same hymns which are included in the Winchester manu- script, and to the same music. An examina- tion of the foreign collections of hymns, enu- merated by Daniel, Mone, and G. Morel, does not reveal any of the same as having been in use abroad, neither does the use seem to have extended beyond the southern half of England, all yet discovered belonging to the province of Canterbury. Early English advances in music are to be traced to the same cause as the early pro- ficiency in other arts and sciences, and in Greek and Latin. It was the fortune of England, about seventy years after the con- version of the southern part of the kingdom by Saint Augustine, to have a very learned Greek as Archbishop of Canterbury, and he came to England, accompanied by an almost equally learned African, who became Abbot of Saint Peter's, afterwards called Saint Augus- tine's, at Canterbury. Pope Vitalian had offered the Archbishopric to Hadrian, but Hadrian pleaded his youth and unworthiness, and recommended Theodore in his place. The Pope was doubtful whether Theodore might not introduce some of the usages peculiar to the Eastern Church, and therefore sent Hadrian to accompany him, and to keep an eye over him in that respect. Theodore remained in England till his death, viz., from 66g to 6go, and Hadrian survived him till 709. These two taught the arts and sciences as well as the languages of Greece and Rome, and the gain to the nation was soon apparent through the many learned men that England speedily produced. The venerable Bede says that some of their scholars were living in his own time, who were as well versed in Greek and Latin as in their native tongue.* Aldhelm, who was one of Hadrian's pupils, was also one of the first Englishmen who became celebrated for his skill in music, in poetry, and in other liberal arts. It is clear that the organ was intro- duced into England about the time of, and probably by, Theodore, from Aldhelm's full description of it in his Laus Virginitatis. It was a great advantage for us to have a Greek master, for the Romans, from Boethius downwards, knew very little about music. Boethius seems only to have known, or taught, the antiquated Pythagorean division of a scale, with all major tones in it, and so false thirds. The celebrity of Greek teachers endured at least till the nth century, for Guido d'Arezzo, in his letter De ignoto Cantu, thus alludes to them: "I have seen many very acute philo- sophers who, for the study of this art of music, have not only sought Italian, French and German masters, but even the very Greeks themselves. t Neither did the cultivation of music, once introduced, die away in England, for, in the time of St. Dunstan, who was him- self an organ-builder, the Winchester organ * Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Book 4, cap. 2. f " Ipsos que etiam Grsecos qusesivere magistros." ( 312 ) NOTATION. had 400 pipes. The large number of men necessary to blow this organ (which was to be heard all over Winchester), seems to prove the bellows to have been on the Greek construction. Wolstan (or rather Wulstan) of Winchester, who describes this great organ in his metrical life of Saint Swithun, was the author of a treatise on harmony [De Tonorum Harmonia) ; which continued in use in the 13th century. William of Malmesbury describes it as a most useful book {valde utile), nearly a hun- dred and fifty years after it had been written, while St. Dunstan was the author of a still extant "Kyrie," a creditable specimen for the age, in good Greek Dorian or D minor. Some of the Anglo-Latin hymns, written upon lines and spaces, are of a very florid character. (See, for instance. Cotton MSS., Julius A., vi. fols. 18 and 19.) The next musical system in order of date was that of the hexachord. This endured for many centuries, and yet it seems impossible to find any thing in it to commend. It is Hue- bald's system applied to the later church-scale, and with extra complexity. The one argument in its favour adduced by old writers is the ultra-perfection of the number 6. This admirable quality is dis- covered through its containing within itself all its aliquot parts, viz., 3, 2, and i, and " such perfect numbers are rare."* To all this, it might have been answered that the hexachord does not contain six equal parts ; but, in any case, its perfections will weigh lightly in mo- dern estimation against the far more ancient, the one and only true system of the octave. Eventually the hexachord system was combined with that of the octave. The hexachord required not only the alpha- betical name for the note (which sufficed by itself in the octave system) but also to tag on two or three other names. Wherever the interval between two notes was but a semi- tone, there was placed a mi for the one, and a. fa for the other; and as there was a b flat in use, as well as a b natural in the acute and super-acute parts of the scale, so there must be a separate hexachord for each of the two, and at the interval of only one tone, the first hexachord beginning on F, and the second on G. The addition of the tone below Hue- bald's tetrachord seems, by accident rather than by design, to have changed the hexa- chord from minor into part of a major scale, by moving the position of the semitone to the interval of one tone higher. If any one had designed such a reason for the change, there would have been some sense in the system, although it was still but an imperfect attempt to return to the octave. As it was, * Walter Odington, apud De Coussemaker's Scripto- rum, I. 215. (3 it may have been an accidental stepping-stone to the use of the major scale, by placing C below Hucbald's D, and thus making the in tervals in that position, C, D, E, F, G, A, but this order of notes already existed in the scale. The ancient Greek scale was wholly minor, and beginning and ending on the third note of a minor scale must make a "relative" major. The sharp seventh is a comparatively modern addition to minor scales. The following is the Hexachord system included in the octave scale : Super-acute. - la sol Acute. , la sol Grave octave. la sol fa mi re ut fa mi re ut la sol fa mi re ut la sol fa mi re ut fa mi re ut la sol fa mi re ut (ef d c ft:;;:; ^a g f e d c h9 a /G F E la D sol C fa B mi A re ,r ut All this surplusage of names does not suf- fice to distinguish the notes of one octave from another. There are two E-la-mis, two F-fa-uts, two G-sol-re-uts, two A-la-mi-res, two b-fas, and three b-mis. The only notes distinguished are C and D, so there could hardly be a more complicated and useless system of nomenclature. It was taken from the initial syllables of a hymn to Saint John the Baptist, which is too short to be omitted. Ut queant laxis Solve polluti i?esonare fibris. Labia, reati, Mira gestorum Sancte Johannes. Famuli tuorum : Here was a sa for the seventh note of the scale ; but, on account of the perfection of the number 6, it was not employed. In later use, in order to mark another semitone by the vowel i (as in mi) sa was turned into si. Ut was also changed to Do (France excepted) for the sake of openness of the vowel, although it was already included in sol. Guido Aretino, or d'Arezzo, had for a long time the credit, or discredit, as some may think it, of having invented the hexachord system. He makes no claim to it in any of his works, and as M. F6tis has justly re- f This " e " in the super-acute part of the scale is an addition made in the 14th century. 13 ) NOTATION. marked, Guide's fame has rested far more upon what has been attributed to him, than upon what he really did. His reputation as a teacher was well deserved, for he directed his pupils to sing intervals without always re- ferring to the monochord, but, instead of it, to think of similar intervals in some well- known hymns, such as this " Ut queant laxis." It appears from John of Cotton,* who wrote soon after Guido, and who was one of his great admirers, that this had been long the practice with French, Germans, and English, and even upon this particular hymn, but it was unknown to Cotton that the Italians had ever employed it for that purpose before Guide's time.f A second system, which has been attributed to Guido, is that of the red and yellow lines for F and C. In his Micrologus Guido says : " In order that sounds may be discerned with cer- tainty, we mark some lines with various colours, so that the eye may immediately dis- tinguish a note, in whatever place it may be. For the third of the scale [C] a bright saffron line. The sixth [F], adjacent to C, is of bright vermilion, and the proximity of others to these colours will be an index to the whole. If there were neither letter nor coloured line to the neumes, it would be like having a well with- out a rope — the water plentiful, but of no use to those who see it."| This exactly describes the state of all music with neumes only, and it sufficiently accounts for all the changes that have occurred in the traditions of several cen- turies. Of the fact of change there can be no reasonable doubt. Much of the Gregorian * This author is largely quoted by foreign writers, and always as Johannes Anglicus, but his precise birthplace is not known. There are four places named Cotton in England (besides Cotton Abbots and Cotton Edmunds). They are in Suffolk, Yorkshire, Cheshire, and Shropshire. It may be conjectured that he was one of the monks driven from England in the time of William I., for, if he had remained here, his ex- cellent treatise would surely have been quoted by some English writers, such as Odington, and he could hardly have escaped notice by Bale and others. Cotton dedi- cates his treatise " Domino et patri suo venerabili an- tistite Fulgentio" — not " Anglorum antistite," as printed by Gerbert. There is an imperfect copy of his treatise, written in the I2th century, in the Cotton Collection (Vespasian, A., xi. fol. 131). It is to be inferred that he went from one of the northern counties, in the province of York, as he does not seem to have known Canter- bury use. f Cap. i. apud Gerbert's Scriptores, 2, 232. % Regulae Musicas Rythmicse, apud Gerbert, ii. 30-31. " Ut proprietas sonorum discernatur clarius, Quasdam lineas signamus variis coloribus ; Ut quo loco quis sit tonus mox discernat oculus. Ordine tertise vocis splendens crocus radiat, Sexta ejus, sed affinis, flavo rubet minio ; Et afSnitas colorum reliquis indicio. At si littera vel color neumis non intererit, Tale erit quasi funem dum non habet puteus, Cujus aquae, quamvis multae, nil prosunt viden- tibus." music is now just as deficient in tonality as the Chinese ; but a skilful organist can, by the use of anti-Gregorian harmonies, bring some of it into shape. It will be observed that Guido does not claim to have invented the use of the red or yellow line, but to have employed them. There are specimens of both colours, among the fragments printed in Martini's Storia delta Musica, which have been judged to be, de- cidedly older than Guide's time, and M. F6tis (in his memoir of Guido) states that he has in his own library some more ancient still. The superior antiquity of the red line seems to be beyond question. This system was un- doubtedly an improvement upon the oldest — that of having neither line nor letter to the neumes — but it was not one that would lead up to the use of alternate line and space, be- cause the lower C, the third of the scale, was below F, the sixth, and there could be no line between them, unless lines only, and not lines and spaces, were employed. D and E only intervened between C and F, and so a single line with its space on each side would have been too much.§ Guido himself makes claim but to one in- vention, which tie describes as "most useful" and "hitherto unheard."|| John of Cotton gives him the credit for the same.^T It is but a mo- dified copy from Hucbald, utilising the spaces without employing the lines. Instead of twisting round the four letters, as Hucbald did, Guido placed the five vowels, a, e, i, o, u at the ends of the spaces; and when more notes than five were wanted, then the a, e, i, o and u were repeated. The system is shown in the following example : tu u i e a ■ so OS n n lis u ve ter. be Ma a, ma ra The words are: "Maria, veri solis mater, ubera tuos." This system will hardly be judged as an improvement upon that of Hucbald. The vowels were not even distinguished by capital and small letters, so that a, e, and i, each re- presented three different notes, and o and u two ; unless there were a double line of a, e, i, o, u's, as with the mi fas. A, for instance. § Some years ago the writer exhibited several speci- mens of this musical notation with the red and yellow lines to the Musical Society of London. The parchments had been cut up to line the covers of old books. The chants were plagals, so the C line was always below F. II " utilissimum usui, licet hactenus inauditum," Mi- crologus, Cap. 17. IT "Adhuc et aliam modulandi monstramus viam, pulcram sane, sed ante Guidonem inusitatam." Cap. XX., Gerbert's Scriptores, II. 256. (314) NOTATION. might be either gamma, the lowest note of the scale, the E above it, or the c above E. Guide's invention was dying out of use about I220, when Walter Odington wrote his treatise.* Odington does not in any way notice the red and yellow line system, which, if it was ever adopted by English scribes (and that seems doubtful), must soon have passed away. His own examples are upon the English plan of employing any one of the seven letters as a clef note, and of utilising four lines, and spaces, changingthe clef (cZauis) when the compass extended beyond them.f There are some difficulties in fixing the exact date of Guido Aretino, or d'Arezzo. The one fact which ought to be beyond ques- tion is the evidence of Guide's cotemporary, Adam of Bremen, who says that, about 1067, Hermann, Archbishop of Bremen, called Guido, the musician, to Bremen, to correct the music, as well as the monastic discipline of his See.t At the other extreme of date stands the prose version of the Micrologus, which is dedicated to Theobald, Bishop of Arezzo, who, according to Ughelli, died in 1037. There seems but little doubt that Cardinal Baronius (writing in the i6th century) was wrong in placing Guido*the musician, under the year 1022. The very quotation that he copies supplies a sufficient correc- tion. It is from a manuscript of the Micro- logus, ending : " Explicit Micrologus Gui- donis, suae setatis anno trigesimo quarto, § Jobanne Vigesimo Romanam gubernante ec- clesiam, sub quo ejusdem Guidonis librorum editio facta est." The Cardinal adds of Pope John XX. : " Successit hie Benedicto," and again : " ex cujus numeratione pariter * "Sed talis modus componendf jam evanescit." See Coussemaker's Scriptorum, I. 217. f See " De Clavibus," p. 214. " Unam dictarum clavium semper una linearum lineatur, aliter spaciatur ; linearis pro eo quod lineee applicatur ; spatialis pro eo quod spatium occupat, ut hie." This most useful treatise has been recently printed by M. E de Cousse- maker, in his Scriptorum de Musica medii Mtvi nova Series a Gerhertina alterum. The only writer unques- tionably English in Gerbert's Series is John of Cotton. M. de Coussemaker has added John Hothby (called Ottebi by Italians), Walter Odington, John of Garland, John of Tewkesbury, Simon Tunstede, Robert de Handlo, John Hanboys, Theinred of Dover, and the works of some anonymous writers, together with a greatly increased number of good foreign authors. The limited number of copies printed makes the speedy acquisition of this collection desirable to all those who are interested in the subject. + " Musicum Guidonem Hermannus, Archiepiscopus, Bremam adduxit, cujus industria melodiam et claustra- lem disciplinam correxit." Historia Ecclesiarum Ham- burgensis etBremensis, &c., ab anno 788 ad 1072, lib. 2, cap. 102, p. 30. § M. Fetis has printed it 24 instead of 34 in his Memoir of Guido. Biographic Universelle des Musi- ciens, v. 4, p. 147, col. i. intelligimus Joannem Benedicto successorem, Vigesimum ordine nuncupatum ejus nominis Romanum Pontificem." [Annates Ecclesice, anno 1022.) As Benedict VHI. was Pope in 1022, that date could not be right for either of the Johns. John XIX. succeeded Bene- dict VIII. in 1024, and John XX. followed Benedict IX. in 1044, and was deposed by the Council of Sutri in 1046, after which Benedict IX. was restored. || The short reign of John XX., his speedy deposition, and the restoration of Benedict, have caused John to be overlooked by some chronologers, and there is a gap in the list of Johns which they supply variously. M. F6tis has adopted John XIX. as Guide's John XX., and it has seemingly been the cause that induced him to question, if not wholly to reject, the most reliable of all the evidence — ^that of Adam of Bremen— because Guido might be supposed to be too old to be sent for in 1067. But the date of John XX., 1044 to 1046, would restore the probability, and Baronius's error of 1022 may be accounted for by a confusion between Guido Aretino the musician, and another Guido Aretino, who became prior of the convent of Santa Cruce at Avellano in 1029. The latter has often been mistaken for Guido the musician, and M. Fetis has enumerated some of the cases. ^ Having touched upon the date of Guido, it is of more importance to our present subject to point out some anachronisms in the copy of the Micrologus, printed by the Abbe Gerbert. A manuscript of the earliest date should have been selected for publication, for, in so popular a work, it might have been expected that the notation of the examples would be adapted by the copyist to the use of his own age. Those at pages 10 and 12 of Gerbert's edition have been thus modernised. They are printed on lines and spaces, which Guido did not use together, and a comparison of the whole text with that of one of the manuscripts in the British Museum,** proves that large additions have been interpolated to Guide's text in Gerbert's edition, not only in the- Micrologus, but also more largely in the De ignoto Cantu. The transition from neumes to notes was an easy one. It was called "quadrating" || " Silvestre III., antipape, etoit eveque de Sabine, lorsqu'apres avoir chasse Benoit IX., en 1044, les Romains le mirent a sa place. Trois mois apres, Benoit fut retabli par sa famille : son rival force de ceder, vendit sa dignite a un pretre, qu'il sacra sous le nom de Jean XX., mais resta luimeme a Rome, et con- serva ses partisans. Le conseil de Sutri, 1046, les d^clara tons les deux usurpateurs — ^Voyez Benoit IX. et Gregoire VI." (Dictionnaire General de Biographic et d'Hisioire, par Ch. Dezobry et Th. Bachelet, Paris, 8vo, 1857.) ^ Biographic Universelle, v. 4, p. 148, col. 2. ** Addit. MSS., No. 10,335, eleventh century. (3'5) NOTAZIONE MUSICALE NUT. them, i.e., squaring them like the old shape of the natural B. They thus filled the spaces between the lines. But although such changes were easy, they were practically slow, because old habits and prepossessions worked against them. The best explanation of neumes is that of M. de Coussemaker, in his Histoire de I'Har- monie au Moyen Age, where two tables of neumes with their interpretations, will be found at p. 184. Whoever shall desire to modernise neumes will do well to consider first the country and the age in which the manuscript was made. For instance, the Quilisma may be either a mark for a tremu- lous expression without altering the note,* and it may be a sign of graduated ascent of two or three notes.f The first is the earlier use (and just what its form would seem to have been invented to express) and the second is the later use, when neumes were soon to be altered into notes. The reader will find many pages of facsimiles of neumes in M. de Coussemaker's great work, and some in Gerbert's De Cantu et Musica Ec- clesicB, v. 2, about and after p. 60. A third source for the student is at the end of the so-called Antiphonaire de Saint Gregoire, * [Quilsima est] "unisonum quia not habet arsim et thesim" \i.e. neither rise nor fall] " nee, per consequens, intervallum vel distanciam, sed est vox tremula : sicut est sonus flatus tibiae vel cornu, et designatur per neu- mam qu« vocatur Quilisma" (B. Engelbertus, per Ger- bert, De Cantu, v. 2, p. 60). f " Has Aritiphonse, licet a finali incipiant, tamen, quia per Quilismata, quae nos gradatas neumas dicimus, magis gutturis." (Bernonis Augiensis Tonarius, Gerb. Serif. V. 2, p. 80.) which he should bear in mind to be only a facsimile of a manuscript of the tenth cen- tury. The names of the neumes transformed into notes will be found in Walter Odington's treatise (p. 213). and in some other treatises in M. de Coussemaker's collection. Notazione musicale (It.) The system of musical notation. Note. A sign of a sound made of various shapes to denote relative duration. Hence, the term is used generally for the sounds of which notes are signs, as when we say of a singer that his high notes are good, or that a player plays wrong notes. [Nota.] Note (Fr.) A note, as, note dilsee, a sharpened note ; note d'agrement, a grace note, note of transition ; note de passage, a passing- note ; note sensible, the leading note or sub- tonic ; notes de goAt, (Fr.) notes of embellish- ment. Notturno {It.) Originally, a kind of serenade ; now a piece of music of a gentle and quiet character. Notula {Lat.) ■ The notes used in writing ligatures. [Ligature.] Noursingh. An Indian horn or trumpet, formed of a straight metallic tube. It is supported in ^horizontal position by means of a long stick. Novemole. [Nonuplet.] Nuances {Fr.) Shades of musical ex- pression. Nuovo, di {It.) Again. Nut. The fixed bridge formed by a slight prominence or ridge at the upper end of the strings of instruments of the violin and guitar family. (3i5 ) -OBOE, O. A circle, formerly the sign of Tempus perfectum, as the incomplete circle C was of Tempus imperfectum. [See Tempus, Modus and Prolatio.] O (It.) Or, as Jlauto o violine, flute or violin. Oaten-pipe. The simplest form of a reed pipe, a straw with a strip cut to form the reed, at the end closed by the knot. Ob. Abb : of Oboe, also of obbligato. Obbligato. An instrumental part or accompaniment of such importance that it cannot be dispensed with. Ober {Ger.) Over or upper, as, Ober- inanual, or Oberwerh, the upper manual ; Oberstimme, and Obertheil, upper part. Oblige {Fr.) [Obbligato.] Oblique motion. When one part moves and the other remains stationary. [Motion.] Oboe. One of the most ancient, as also one of the most charming instruments of music. In some of the Egyptian pipes in the British Museum were found pieces of thin wood or straw inserted into the tubes in such a manner as to suggest at once the similarity between them and the oboe. In all probability the Greeks used instruments of this class, although they called them by the general name of " flute." That the reeds used were very small, and of more perishable material than the tubes into which they were inserted, is quite sufficient to account for the fact that we have not discovered a pipe with a reed fixed in it ready for use, among Greek antiquities. Moreover, it must be remembered that musicians do and always did carry their reeds and mouthpieces about, separated from the instrument. The word yXbiaaoKo/iov proves that Greek players were not exceptions to this rule. Almost all European nations have some form or other of the oboe in use, though the different kinds vary much in their merits as musical instruments, some being in the simplest form of a reed-pipe played by mountaineers, as the chalumeau (from calamus, a reed), which is still played by the peasantry in the Tyrol, and the piffero pastorale of the Italians, a similar instrument to the chalumeau, zaWed SchaPney by the Germans, and formerly shalm or shawm in England. The immediate forerunner of the modern oboe was the bom- bardino, or little bombardo, called by the Italians bombardo piccolo, a kind of chalumeau. The date of the introduction of the oboe is about 1720, but from the mention in Bach's Passion-music of two kinds of oboe, the oboe d'amore and oboe da caccia, it is evident that well-known varieties were in use in his time. The oboe d'amore, which was also called oboe luonga, produced a delicate and sweet tone, while the oboe da caccia corres- ponded to the tenoroon oboe, or corno inglese. The latter, though not in common use, is occasionally introduced into the scores of modern operas, as in Halevy's Jewess, Meyerbeer's Huguenots, &c. The oboe now in use owes its large com- pass, like many other wind instruments, to the overblowing of the player, which brings into existence a set of overtones. The over- tones of the oboe are similar to those of an open pipe, that is, they are represented by the numbers i, 2, 3, 4, &c., while on the other hand, the overtones of a clarinet correspond to those of a stopped pipe as re- presented by 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. The notes lying just between the sounds produced by the natural length of the pipe (as shortened also by finger-holes and keys), and those produced by an altered pressure of wind from the player's mouth, always present difficulties of execution when required to be played in rapid succession. The clarinet has a single reed ; the oboe, a double one. The extreme compass of the oboe now in use is two octaves and one fifth, namely : with the intermediate semitones, subject to certain limitations in their use. Some in- struments have the low BIT but it is not yet commonly met with. The compass given above should be very much ,( 317 ) OBOE OPEN DIAPASON. curtailed for general use, the four or five lower notes being weak and thin, the two or three upper notes harsh, and shrill. The latter, however, are not objectionable in fortissimo passages in tutti parts. The following shakes, lying between intervals played with difficulty, are given by Berlioz (Instrumentation) as difficult : -1 The following are impossible (and all tonal or semitonal shakes above this) : The oboe is more effective, because more easily played, in simple keys, than in keys with many sharps or flats ; and in simple passages, than such as are complicated or rapid. As an instrument of a pastoral cha- racter it can be cheerful or plaintive ; it pos- sesses also in its peculiar quality of tone, the wail of grief or agitation, but it has also the power of soothing and calming the mind after disturbing influences. Oboe. An organ stop consisting of reed pipes slightly conical and surmounted by a bell and cap, of 8ft. pitch. The tone is thin and soft. An orchestral oboe is an organ stop intended as a more perfect imitation of the orchestral instrument than that ordinarily made. Oboe da caccia. The " hunting " oboe, a large kind of oboe. [Oboe.] Oboe d'amore. The oboe " of love." A small oboe. [Oboe.] Oboist. A player on the oboe. Oboista (It.) An oboist. Ocarine (It.) A series of seven musical instruments made of terra cotta pierced with small holes, invented by a company of per- formers calling themselves the Mountaineers of the Apennines. With these instruments, which are of a soft and sweet, yet "travelling" quality of tone, operatic melodies with simply hannonised accompaniments were given. Octave, (i) The interval of an eighth. It may be major, minor, or augmented, e.g. : It was the diapason of the Greek system. (2) The first note of theharmonic scale. (3) An organ stop of 4ft. pitch on the manuals, or 8ft. on the pedals. (4) The eight days follow- ing a great festival of the Church. Octiphonium. [Ottetto.] Octochord. An instrument with eight strings. Octuor. [Ottetto.] Octuplet. A group of eight notes which are to be played in the time of six. Odeon. uSclov (Gk.) A building in which odes or other compositions could be performed for public approval or private rivalry. Odeum (Lat.) [Odeon.] CEuvre {Fr.). Opus or work, as, ceuvre premiere, Opus i ; chef d' ceuvre, a masterpiece. Offen {Ger.) Open ; as, Offenflote, open flute. [Flute.] Offertoire (Fr.) OfTertorio (It.) Offer- torium (Lat.) [Offertory.] Offertory, (i) The collection of alms during the celebration of Holy Communion. (2) A piece of music performed during the Offertory. Oficleida (It.) [Ophicleide.] Ohne (Ger.) as, ohne Fed. without Pedals. Ohne Begleitungen, without accompaniments. Oioueae. The vowels of "World without end. Amen," an imitation of the Evovae, the vowels of " seculorum amen," used to desig- nate the ending of a mode. [Evovae.] Oliphant. The name of an obsolete species of Horn, so-called because it was made of ivory (olifaunt, olivant, olyfaunce, being old forms of the word elephant). Three specimens of this instrument are in Ken- sington Museum, two of the eleventh century, one of the fifteenth. Ombi. A harp used by negroes in Western Africa, the strings of which are made of fibrous root or creepers. It bears a strong resemblance to the Oriental harp. Orrines, omnia (Lat.) Chorus or Tutti. Omquad. The name of the refrain of some old Danish ballads, called the " Kampe Viser." Onagon. A Chippawa drum. Ondeggiamento, ondeggiante (It.) With an undulating, or quivering sound ; making a tremolo. Onduliren (Ger.) • To make a tremolo, or produce an undulating tone. Ondul6 (Fr.) Undulating. [Ondeggia- mento.] 'Ood or Oud. An Egyptian instrument of a similar character to the guitar, q. v. It is flat on the upper surface and convex at the back. The neck is like that of the guitar but without frets, and there are seven pairs of strings, each pair tuned in unison. The player uses a plectrum formed of a strip of vulture's quill. [Lute.] Open Diapason. The name in England of the chief open foundation stop of an (318) OPEN HARMONY^ OPERA. organ, called by Germans " Principal " or "Prestant," and by French "Principal," or if in front, " Montre." On the manuals it is of metal, on the pedal organ of metal or wood. The metal pipes of this stop are cylindrical, and of the best material. A great number of foreign organs, and a few in England, contain open diapasons made of pure tin (Organ, § 13). It is, however, more commonly made of spotted metal, or of an equal mixture of tin and lead. If two or more open diapasons are allotted to one row of keys, they are made of different scales, in order that they may not destroy each other. One is then sometimes called large, another small. This stop is of 8ft. length on the manuals, and i6ft. on the pedals, unless stated to the contrary on the register. Open Harmony. Chords formed by as equidistant a disposition of the parts as pos- sible, e.g. : ' as opposed to m Open Notes. Of stringed instruments, — the notes of the open strings [q. v.) Of wind instruments, such as the horn, trumpet, &c., the series of natural harmonies which can be produced by the lip of the performer without the assistance of a slide, key, or piston. Open Pipe. A pipe open at the top, as opposed to one closed at the top. The pitch of a closed pipe is approximately one octave lower than that of an open pipe of the same length. [Organ, § 14.] Open Score. When each part has a separate line assigned to it, music is said to be in open score. When more than one part is written in each line, in close or short score. Open Strings. Strings producing the sounds assigned to them according to the " accordatura," or system of tuning belonging to the particular instrument. Strings are said to be stopped when their pitch is altered by the pressure of the finger. Opera (It.) A dramatic entertainment, in which music forms an essential and not merely an accessory part. Rousseau declares that Opera does not mean so much a musical work, as a musical, poetical, and spectacular work all at once, and the same definition is insisted upon by Wagner. This, scarcely the exact or true meaning of the term even now, was still less true in the days in which it was first written, as many works well known at the time, Rousseau's among the number, do not answer this description. The various titles given to works included in the general term Opera, also argue against Rousseau's defini- tion, for if opera meant all he declares it does, there would scarcely be any need to speak of operas as scenica, tragiea, sacra, regia, contica, esemplare, regia ed esemplare, etc. Algarotti calls his work on the opera " Saggio sopra rOpera in musica," a title he could scarcely have given with propriety if the word Opera implied even music, much less if it included all the terms used by Rousseau. The opera, as we now understand it, is composed of solos, recitatives, duets, trios, quartetts or other pieces for single voices ; choruses and finales ; accompanied throughout with instruments variously combined to pro- duce certain desired effects. Overtures or introductions precede the whole work or its several acts in nearly every case. The dra- matic effect is aided by the accessories of costumes and scenery, but they are not abso- lutely indispensable portions of an Opera. The libretto or book of words, rarely possesses any claim to literary merit, but serves as a mere framework for the purposes of the com- poser. Recitative is a species of musical decla- mation, not necessarily in rhythmical form, but so arranged or designed as to assimilate musical sounds as near as possible to ordinary speech. In many of the German and French operas of a lighter qharacter, spoken dialogue is in- troduced in the place of recitative, and the same practice is often observed in English opera, so called. There are many varieties of opera, but the chief are : the grand opera or opera seria, the romantic opera, or opera drammatica; and the comic opera, or opera huffa. There are of course many works which partake of more than one of the styles indicated by the above divisions, but as . a rule, these three classes are sufficiently distinct. _ The opera is of Italian origin, and of com- paratively modern date, and is the immediate successor of the miracle-plays with music, as the Oratorio is of the ancient mysteries. The consideration of the important part played by music in the performance , of the ancient Greek drama, has given probability to the idea of a high antiquity for opera; and Menestrier (c. 1670) whose ingenuity has made him a favourite authority in musical history, considers the song of Solomon as the earliest opera extant. The first compo- sition in any way resembling the lyric opera of later date, is said to be a work by Adam de la Hale, called " Le gieus de Robin et de Marian," produced some time in the 13th century. But as few trustworthy particulars have descended to us, there is nothing but the mere statement to rely upon. The title of this ( 319 ) OPERA. early opera implies, however, that it had some degree of connection with the ancient secular plays sometimes performed as a relief to the mysteries. The deeds or " gests " of " Robin Hood and Maid Marian," form the subject of more than one early play. Sir John Hawkins, in his " History of the Science and Practice of Music," declares that " the invention of the musical drama or opera is due to Emilio del Cavaliere, who in the year 1590 exhibited in the palace of the Grand Duke of Florence, II Satiro and La Dispera- zione di Fileno, two dramas of the pastoral kind set to music." Others state that Ottavio Rinuccini is the inventor, and that the first opera (performed privately) was called Dafne, and that this was followed by the production of Bury dice, in the year 1600, the music to both works being furnished by Jacopo Peri, one of the inventors of recitative. But there is evi- dence to show that a musical drama by Claudio Merulo was performed in 1574 at Venice, when Henry HI. passed on his way from Poland to France to claim the crown. Claudio Monteverde, a member of a society called the Florentine Academy, who also set to music 'Rmaccini' sDafne, introduced an improvement by giving great importance to the accom- paniments. One of Monteverde's operas, L'OrfeOjWSiS the first of the kind printed with the music. The dramatis personce and the instruments used in performance are worth quoting. Personaggi. La Musica Frologo.., Orfeo Eurydice Choro di Ninfe e Pastori Speranza Caronte Choro di spiriti inferni Proserpina Plutone Apollo Chpro di pastori che fecero la Moresca nelfine Stromenti. Duoi Gravicembani (Cla- vicembali.) Duoi Contrabass! de Viola. Dieci Viole di Brazzo. Un Arpa doppio Duoi Violini piccoli alia Francese. Duoi Chittaroni Duoi organi di legno. Tre bassi di gamba Quattro tromboni. Un Regale. Duoi Cornetti. Un Flautina alia Vigesima seconda. Un Clarino con tre trombe sordine. There was scarcely any difference between the church music of the period and the operas, inasmuch as both were in the same conventional forms, and with little attempt at religious or dramatic expression. The choruses in the early operas were written in what is called the Madrigal style, and were seldom essential parts of the work ; there were instrumental preludes to each of the acts, and the artifice of accompanying a certain voice with a special instrument was occasionally employed. As the study of music progressed, and the capabilities of the instruments form- ing the orchestra came to be better understood, the lyric drama began to assume its present character. Of the vast number of Italian operas produced up to the middle of the last century, only one, Cimarosa's Matrimonio Segreto, retains its place upon the stage. Though not absolutely the founder of the modern Italian school, Cherubini may be said to have inaugurated it. After the production of his first operas at Milan, he settled in France, leaving the direction of the opera to the illustrious Rossini. The versatility of Rossini's genius is well shown in those of his operas that keep their places upon the lyric stage, for although Semiramide, II Barbiere, Otello, La Gazza Ladra, and Guillaume Tell, contain much that is bad. and unworthy, among some noble thoughts nobly expressed, yet each opera is distinct in style and treatment. As a melodist Bellini ranks next in order of merits as he does in point of time, and his operas Norma, I Puritani, and La Sonnambula give greater pleasure through the beauty of their melodies, than they do by their dra- matic force. The same power of melody is the chief attraction in Donizetti's operas, but this last named composer has shown in Lucrezia Borgia, La Favorita, and in Lucia di Lammer- moor, that he was also gifted with the spirit of conveying dramatic expression, though scarcely in so great a degree as his successor Verdi. Rossini who found Italian opera weak from inanity, by the efforts of his genius, made it strong and powerful, but the" charm of melody with which he graced the revived form had greater fascinations for his followers than dramatic vigour, the real life and soul of opera. Italian opera has quietly subsided into the lifeless state in which it was found by Rossini, for there is no representative com- poser worthy or willing to develop and per- petuate that which is considered as the true Italian school, the characteristics of which are wealth of melody, sentiment without pathos, and little regard for instrumental effect. Rossini, by the infusion of a foreign element, departed in some degree from the standard models, for until his time German music was held in the greatest contempt in Italy, but he laid the foundation for a taste among his countrymen for the despised music by quietly introducing in his works many of the charac- teristics held to be essentially Teutonic, and at variance with the established orthodox style of operatic music. Verdi, the next great composer after Rossini, shows in his com- positions the result of the grafting of German ideas upon an Italian stock. His works, while possessing many points peculiar to Italian music, really belong to ( 320 ) OPERA. the German school of art, as much because of the freedom displayed in the instrumentation, as the evident and often successful attempt to impart the expression of passion by means of pure declamation. Therefore, as Verdi is accepted as the modern exponent of Italian opera, it may be safely said that Italian opera proper has almost ceased to exist. The introduction of the opera into France is said to have been the work of LuUy, but it is stated upon better authority, that the credit rests with Cardinal Mazarin ; for there exists the record of the performance in Paris of an opera in Italian in 1645, a time when Lully was.only in his twelfth year. It is also affirmed that the first opera performed in Paris was the composition of an Italian, named Baltza- rini, also called Beaujoyeux, who came to France in the year 1580, and was afterwards made valet de chamhre to the queen of Louis XIII. In the year 1669 the Abb6 Perrin obtained a patent from Louis XIV. to estab- lish an academy of music, the former privilege granted by Charles IX. to Antoine le Bai'f having become valueless. Under the rule of the Abbe the first opera in French delighted the ears of the Parisians. Notwithstanding the popularity of Lully and his successors, and the influence of court patronage — ^which may be said, in passing, to be not always of the best advantage to art — the French have failed to establish a school of grand opera peculiar to themselves, and it was not until the time of Auber that they were able to claim any individuality in opera at all. The support of the French court dying with Louis XIV., opera in France suffered many vicissitudes, until new life was infused into operatic taste at the beginning of the present century, from which time opera has been steadily encouraged, many of the best works of modern time having been first produced in Paris. The encouragement given to the production of grand opera in Paris, does not establish a right for the French to lay claim to the works so brought out as belonging to their school of art, a mistake which they and others seem inclined to make.* The greatest triumphs of musical art in France were first gained by Gluck, and there is no doubt hut that such individuality as the French composers have been able to gain for themselves, is due to the example set by him. This individuality, if such it may be called, is to be found in the writings of Gretry, Mehul, Boieldieu, Hal6vy, Auber, and Gounod, which upon examination will be found to be of a composite character, as much Italian as German, and more Italian and German than French. The history of attempts to establish a school of national opera in England would be a mere record of rash and unfortunate speculations. The example set by Purcell has never been successfully followed, and while he has been proudly pointed to as the founder of the English school of opera, two centuries have passed, and scholars are still wanting to the school. Purcell's operas, judged by the ordinary standard, and not by the three-fold character- istics demanded in our own days, have especial claims to consideration. The happy union of words and music in them was far in advance of anything that had been produced before. The delicacy of expression with which his compositions abound has not been surpassed by any subsequent English opera composer. His occasional " barbarisms," as they have been called, may be considered as " unavoidable compliances with the false taste of the age in which he lived." After Purcell's death there was no attempt made to continue English opera. Works in Italian alone occupied the attention of the public, until burlesqued and driven out of fashion by the " Beggars' Opera." The " Beggars' Opera," which keeps a certain place upon the stage, is a mere pasticcio of old tunes, popular for that reason, but value- less as a representative of English opera. With the exception of " Artaxerxes," by Dr. Arne, the majority of the operas of the last century were composed of old fragments by various writers, borrowed either with or without acknowledgment. The pioneer of modern English opera was Sir Henry Bishop, who deserves to be honour- ably named, some of his concerted works being remarkable for originality and vigour, and others for beauty of melody and form, so that the ungrateful neglect into which his music has fallen is inexplicable. It is true that he quoted thoughts from other writers, when he found those ideas better suited to his purpose than his own inventions, but it has yet to be deter- mined how far in music such a license is damaging to general originality. In literature quotations are frequently considered to enhance the force of the subject treated of, and the writer is praised as the possessor of extensive knowledge, as a scholar and as a man of taste ; but in music, as there are no means to make extracts distinguishable, all such introductions are stigrnatised by the ugly name of plagiarisms. Bishop's writings were received with great favour in their day, and are not without value as contributions to art. Considering this, and noting the success attained by the productions of Balfe, Wallace, Macfarren, and others, in recent times, some hope is inspired that an English opera is possible in the future, more especially when ( 321 ) OPERA. it is called to mind how immense are the dis- advantages under which Englishmen labour in their endeavours to obtain a just re- cognition of their unquestionable musical merit. The iirst important step necessary towards the founding of a good and permanent school of English operatic music, must be the dis- covery of a poet-musician or musician-poet, one who has perfect command over and fami- liar acquaintance with his language, an exact sense of the requirements of the musician, and the power of writing sensible, effective and useful combinations of words in vigorous and telling English. Italian opera was introduced into England in 1706, when Arsinoe was performed at Drury Lane theatre, but to English words. The first opera performed in Italian was Almahide, by a company of Italian singers (ridiculed by Addison in the Spectator when still smarting under the failure of his Rosa- mund) ; this was succeeded by others, and ended in the establishment of Italian opera in England. Handel did much towards securing this end, and was himself the composer of 44 operas, all of which are now forgotten. The operas of the period were not of the complicated character of the modern opera, but consisted of a few songs, with or without recitative, and but slight instrumental accom- paniments, the harpsichord supplying all deficiencies. For the later progress of Italian opera in England see History of the Opera (1862) by Sutherland Edwards, Memoirs of the Musical Drama (1851) by George Hogarth, and Eber's Seven years of the King's theatre. For some years past there have been two companies performing Italian opera in Lon- don, and it is not an uncommon occurrence to find excellent representations in the more important provincial towns. In addition to a large staff of principal singers of both sexes, an opera company consists of from 60 to 80 chorus singers, male and female, about 10 first violin players and 10 seconds, 8 violas, 8 violoncellos, 8 double basses, 2 flutes, 2 hautboys, 2 bassoons, 2 clarinets, 4 horns, 2 trumpets or cornets, 3 trombones, i pair of kettle-drums, i great drum and cymbals, with a military band occasionally appearing in the costume supposed to be proper upon the stage, a conductor, a prompter, maestro al piano, and chorus master. When the score requires the use of the cor anglais, bass clarinet, and other rarely used instru- ments the players upon instruments of like character in the orchestra perform on those instruments. The works are produced in Italian in London, independently of the language in which they may have been origi- nally written, and the patronage bestowed is great and encouraging, though without being subsidised by Government, as is the case in most foreign cities. The opera is resorted to less now as a matter of fashion, than as the result of a real taste for this species of entertainment. Many of the operas are placed upon the stage in the most magni- ficent style, with scenery that is in many instances beautiful as artistic work, and with costumes and other accessories remarkable for their historical accuracy. This excellence is not confined to operas produced in Paris or London, but is extended to other continental cities, so that without admitting the definition of Rousseau as a necessity, opera is frequently found to combine the several characteristics spoken of by him. It is in Germany that the highest forms of development have been made, the expression of passion, the perfection of instrumental accompaniments, orchestral colouring and scientific writing, being especially due to German invention and influence. Gluck, the founder of the French school of opera, was a German, and as already inti- mated, to a fellow-countryman of his, George Frederic Handel, the establishment of Italian opera as an entertainment in England is due. That which Monteverde began, Gluck revived, Mozart continued, and subsequent composers have expanded aind extended, and the instru- mental accompaniments to an opera are becoming equally as important as the vocal portion, in illustrating the emotions aroused by the story upon which the general subject is based. In Mozart's operas, Idomeneo, Le Nozze di Figaro, Zauherflote, and Don Giovanni, the construction is such that, while they delight the educated musician by the ingenuity with which the resources are managed, they also give the highest pleasure to the unscientific lover of music ; and by this means, the widest and most lasting popularity is secured. Following Mozart, the greatest operas are Fidelia by Beethoven, Oberon, Euryanthe, and Der Freischiitz by Weber, Faust by Spohr, Les Huguenots, Robert le Didble, L'Etoile du Nord, and Le Prophete by Meyerbeer. It was Mozart's music that dealt the first serious blow to the supremacy of Italian music in Europe — a blow which it has not yet recovered. The further extension of musical expedients has been attempted by Wagner, with large and growing success. In his early operas, Rienzi and Der Fliegende Hollander, Wagner has few of the advanced thoughts upon which later he founded his claim to originality. In his volume of essays, " Oper und das Drama," he sets forth his ideas upon the composition ( 332 ) OPERIST— ORATORIO. of opera. He maintains that " opera consists of music, poetry, and dramatic effect, and these should not be made separate objects, but should mutually combine and aid each other." In taking credit to himself for having reformed the opera by effecting this com- bination for the first time he is wrong, for the same union was attempted by Meyerbeer in his operas ; he is in error also in believ- ing that the contrivance of announcing or accompanying certain characters" by the use of special instruments is his own idea, for Monteverde, and nearly all the early opera composers, with very limited resources at their disposal, had adopted the like plan. The innovations for which he deserves most credit are those which he does not insist upon as novelties, yet for which his name will be remembered by posterity as the pioneer of a new path. The first is in not marring his situation by the introduction of symmetrical and wearisome melodies, and the second and more important is the restoration of tonic harmonies in place of the well used and almost worn out dominant harmo- nies. He may also claim credit for being possessed of the faculty of writing his own libretti. The words of his later operas are adapted to a declamatory style of recitative, without what is known as "airs," and accom- panied by harmonies and instrumentation according to the spirit of the situation. Wagner's eccentricities, his impatience of ad- verse opinions among others, have been, and still are, the self-imposed bars to his being accepted as the founder of an advanced school; but his firm stand against musical conventionalities has set many clever musi- cians thinking in his train, with a result that cannot possibly be without good influence over coming generations. Operist {Ger.) An opera singer. Ophicleide. A keyed serpent, {ofie and cXet'c). A brass instrument of large compass and great power, but having so peculiar a quality of tone as to necessitate careful treat- ment by a composer. There are two sorts of ophicleides, alto and bass. The bass instru- ment has a compass of three octaves and one note, from with all the intermediate semitones. Bass ophicleides in Bl? produce, of course, sounds one whole tone below those written, and those in A^, sounds a majorthird below those written. The ophicleide is capable of a great deal of execution, if not too chromatic and too low in its compass. The alto ophicleide has a compass similar in extent to that of the bass instrument, but starting from a note one octave higher, that is from m to m But as the alto ophicleide is in F or El?, the real sounds produced will be a major fifth or major sixth lower than the notes written. Three or four of the lowest notes and two or three of the highest notes should be avoided. This instrument is not so satisfactory as its bass fellow, and is therefore but rarely heard. The quality of the tone is not unpleasant, but it does not combine well with that of other members of the orchestra. This un- pleasant prominence of character tends to limit the use of the instrument. Opus {hat.) A work. Composers number .their works for purposes of distinction and reference. Opusculum (Lat.) A short work. Oratorio (Ital.) A composition for voices and instruments illustrating some subject taken directly from scripture or paraphrased upon some theme in sacred history. The music consists of symphonies or overtures, airs, recitatives, duets, trios, choruses, &c., with accompaniments for orchestra or organ. The origin and growth of oratorio is almost coeval with that of opera, both being developments of the early forms of drama, or, to speak more clearly, oratorio may be said to be the successor of the medieval Mystery play, as was the opera of the Morality. In both cases the poetical description of the subjects chosen is accompanied with music, but with this difference, that whereas the opera requires also scenery and dramatic action in its representation, oratorio is now performed without either. The soldiers ^d pilgrims of the first crusade, in their attempts to delineate drama- tically the Passion of our Lord, and other incidents of sacred history, together with the legends of the deeds and endurance of saints and martyrs, imitated the practice observed in the performance of secular plays by the introduction of music at these representa- tions. It is probable that more than one of the hymns written by St. Bernard of Morlaix and others living about the time were contri- buted for this purpose, and that the audience joined in the singing. As many of the first oratorios were mystical expositions of doctrine such as that described in many of the early hymns, some colour is given to the supposition that musical exposi- tion and teaching in the form known as oratorio may be as old as the time of the Crusades. It was not until five centuries later that it was made a recognised and dis- ( 323 ) ORATORIO. tinct medium of instruction and pleasure. St. Philip Neri, in the endeavour to establish firmly the institution he had founded in Rome, and also moved by a desire to win the people to the observance of religious duties, relied upon the universal love for music to gain his object. With this intention he engaged Gio- vanni Animuccia, a Florentine, as his Maestro di Cappella, who during his connection with the oratory produced several musical pieces, con- sisting of motetts, psalms, and songs of praise set to Latin and Italian words; known by the general title of " Laudi Spirituali." Ani- muccia published his first collection at Rome in 1563. The character of these compositions is similar to that known as the madrigal style, and these " laudi " have been taken as the origin of that class of composition. Animuccia was afterwards appointed choir- master to the Vatican, a post he held until his death in 1571, when he was succeeded by Palestrina. The experiment succeeded so well that not only was a new form of composition origi- nated, but what was probably more to the purpose of the founder, the congregation of the Fathers of the Oratory was placed upon so firm a basis that it exists to the present day. These musical performances were divided into two parts, a short form of prayer preceding the first, a sermon the second, the whole being concluded with religious exer- cises. By this plan those who came for the main purpose of the music were constrained to take part in the devotional observances, and doubtless, obtained much spiritual advantage. If in the performance of oratorio at the annual festivals in some of our English cathe- drals the same or a similar arrangement were adopted, much of the scandal now accruing might be unquestionably avoided if not totally suppressed. By degrees, the psalms and spiritual s,ongs gave place to sacred stories or events in scripture written in verse, sometimes in dialogue, and set to music. The subjects most popular in early times were — The Good Samaritan, The Prodigal Son, Tohit with the Angel, The Sacrifice of Abraham, and others, and the name of the place where these were first heard was given to the class of music performed. The first work in any way cor- responding to the more modern form of oratorio, with solos, recitatives, choruses, and orchestral accompaniments was called La Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo, com- posed by Emilio del Cavaliere, performed in the oratory of the Church of Santa Maria della Vallicella at Rome in 1600. Ten years previously Cavaliere had produced two pas- toral dramas at Florence, and he has, there- fore, claim to the honour of being considered as one of the first writers, if not the inventor of opera. Cavaliere's oratorio was represented in action on a stage erected in the church, with scenery and costumes; dances were also intro- duced. The recitatives in both his operas or oratorios were furnished by Jacopo Peri, and it was supposed that in the introduction of recita- tive the ancient use of the Greeks and Romans was recovered. In the preface to Cavaliere's oratorio each singer is required " to have a fine voice, perfectly in tune, and free from all defects in the delivery of it, with a pathetic expression, the power of swelling and dimin- ishing the tones," and is enjoined to be " particularly attentive to the articulation and expression of the words, and to have an equal respect for the composer as for the poet." The instruments, consisting of a double lyre, double guitar, a harpsichord, and two flutes, accompanied this oratorio behind the scenes. The choruses served as the music for the dancers, and madrigals commenced and con- cluded the performance. The violin was only sparingly used in the early oratorios, one of the first writers who wrote freely for that instrument being Domenico Mazzochi, and for this reason his name deserves mention among the early composers ; beyond this fact there is nothing remarkable in any of the works produced until the time of Stradella, 1670, for the only noticeable points in most of these compositions are the curious mixtures of piety and profanity. Stradella's best ora- torio was on the subject of St. jfohn the Baptist, and, judging from the specimens printed in Martini's " Exemplare di contrap- punto fugato," is remarkable for beauty and sublimity ; the scoring also shows some pro- gress in musical thought, but the work is little known, as it still remains in manuscript. The next writer of importance was Carissimi ; his compositions are marked by sweetness of melody, clever modulations, and skilful har- mony ; his most noted oratorios are the judg- ment of Solomon, and ^ephtha. One of the choruses in the latter work, " Plorate filise Israel," was appropriated by Handel, and intro- duced into Samson to the words " Hear Jacob's God." The chorus " Exululantes filii Ammon " also forms the conclusion of " With thunder armed " in Samson. " Et clangebant tubse " is imitated in the symphony of " We come in bright array " in yudas Maccabmus, and the recitative in Alexander's Feast, " He chose a mournful muse " is note for note identical with " Heu mihi, filia mea," from Carissimi's yephtha. Many other instances might be cited of Handel's obligations to this musician, the most striking and important being that all his recitatives were formed upon the im- proved model furnished by Carissimi, who, in addition to other advancements in music. ( 324 ) ORATORIO. gave great importance to the use of stringed instruments in his accompaniments, made the basses of his compositions move more freely than former masters permitted, and first recommended the introduction of the cantata upon the stage. He died in 1675 at a great age. Dean Aldrich, who was an enthusiastic admirer of his works, made a large collection of them, which he placed in the library of Christ Church, Oxford, where it still remains. After Carissimi, Scarlatti deserves the next place of honour, not only as a prolific, but as a thoughtful composer ; his works are rarely heard now, except when some of the choruses with Handel's name attached are performed. The device of accompanying recitatives with a string quartett was first tried by Scarlatti, and this plan was followed by Leonardo Leo, whose contrapuntal writing, similar in cha- racter to Handel's in sublimity and massive- ness, forms the chief beauty of his oratorios and sacred pieces. As a master of counter- point Caldara is worthy of mention, while as melodists Hasse and Pergolesi are best known ; the beauty and grace of melody in these two composers is also to be found in a certain degree in the writings of Jomelli, who was the last of the oratorio writers of the Italian school. Like the opera, oratorio arose and was nourished in Italy, to be developed to its highest form by German writers, and, although it was permitted to be used in the offices of the Roman church, and was to some extent abused by Italian writers, yet the value of oratorio was recognised by the German reformers of the sixteenth century, who en- couraged its introduction into their churches with a result that ultimately led to its most complete forms. It was formerly the custom in the German Lutheran church to have ora- torios performed with instrumental accom- paniments on solemn occasions ; the congre- gation was encouraged to join at intervals in the chorales or Psalm tunes which were introduced for this purpose. The Passion, according to St. Matthew, by John Sebastian Bach, is an excellent example of this kind of work. [Passion music] Bach, one of the most original, versatile, and prolific writers that the world has yet seen, was born at Eisenach in 1685, and died at Leipsic in 1750. The study of his music has influenced the thoughts and writings of most composers of importance since his time, his organ com- positions have created a new school of players, and the comparatively recent know- ledge of his oratorios and vocal music has shown the extraordinary power and value of his genius, which, unknown or not under- stood in his own time, is now thoroughly appreciated. It is quite reasonable to assume that, had his vocal works been earlier known, a greater advance in oratorio music would have been made than has been made. The Passion Music alluded to above is written for two choirs and two orchestras. The choruses and chorales are exquisitely har- monised, the airs are remarkable for tender pathos and truth of expression, and the reci- tatives are notable for the admirable force with which the meaning and intention of the text is conveyed. Bach's oratorios were written for the service of the church, and were never intended for any other purpose, the introduction of the oratorio into secular places being a later idea. The subjects are partly in narrative and partly deductions from the incidents, after the manner of the old Greek chortis. This is the true form of ora- torio as adapted to worship ; but as the oratorio was disused as an aid to devotion, and employed in the theatre and concert room, the narrative form was the one most favoured for the purpose, and it is in this form that the majority of Handel's oratorios are written. Handel, who is allowed to be the repre- sentative composer of oratorio, produced his first work. La Resurrezione, while he resided in Italy, before he was twenty years of age. Fifteen years later, while he was organist to the Duke of Chandos, Esther, the first oratorio written by him in England, was brought forward privately ; it was, however, not until 1732 that it was produced in public, having been laid aside for twelve years. In the ad- vertisement announcing this performance it was considered necessary to give the follow- ing explanation of the plan, as oratorios were then a novelty in England : " By His Majesty's command, at the King's Theatre in the Haymarket, on Tuesday, the 2nd May, will be performed the sacred story of Esther, an oratorio in English, composed by Mr. Handel, and to be performed by a great number of voices and instruments. N.B. There will be no acting on the stage, but the house will be fitted up in a decent manner for the audience." This explanation was pro- bably made in deference to the objection popularly entertained at the time against any performance savouring of Popery and pro- fanity, and was needful because of the preva- lent prejudice against the dramatic perform- ance of sacred subjects. After the production of Esther Handel was engaged in the pro- duction of operas and other secular works, and in the establishment of his short-lived academy of music — this entailed a loss of health and of much money. After the advanced age of 53, and in defiance of prejudice and failure, he gave to the world those immortal ( 325 ) ORATORIO. productions with which his name is now familiarly associated. The majority of these works were performed at the " theatre in the Haymarket," Deborah being first given in 1733, Athaliah in 1734, Israel in Egypt in 1738, The Messiah in 1741, Samson in 1742, jfudas MaceabcBUs in 1746, Joshua in 1747, Solomon in 1749, and ^ephtha in 1751. The greatest works in this list are Israel in Egypt and The Messiah. In all these, with the ex- ception of the last-named, Handel availed himself freely of the license of appropriating other men's works and incorporating them in his own. It has been said that he has always improved and invigorated all pieces so bor- rowed, but it is hard to believe that the mere adaptation of words different to those origi- nally set can be considered an improvement. Notwithstanding this pillage there is enough originality in Handel to constitute him a great composer, especially when it is considered that the work by which he is most popularly and extensively known, The Messiah, is for the most part his own. It is in broad choral writing that Handel's great strength exists, forjie only sparingly employed instru- mental effects, for the orchestra was only imperfectly developed in his time, and he generally employed his instruments more for the sake of supporting the voices than for any peculiar effects of colouring to be obtained from their use. There are some exceptions to this plan, but they are very few ; the scantiness of Handel's effects, and the more extensive means employed for the performance of his works, gave rise to the additional parts which have been made for instruments either only partly known in his time, or of subsequent invention. The first of these additional accompaniments was furnished by Mozart to The Messiah; Mendelssohn, Macfarren, Perry, Costa, and Sullivan have supplied parts to the other of the more frequently performed works with more or less success. The example set by Handel was followed by such writers as Stanley, Dr. Arne, Dr. Worgan,, Dr. Arnold, but little encouragement was offered to their efforts, so that no new oratorio of importance was heard in London until Haydn's Creation was performed. Haydn was the author of but few oratorios^ The Return of Tobias, The Seasons, The Seven Last Words, and The Creation, being all his compositions that can be in any way classed under this head. The Seven Last Words is more in accordance with the character of the Lutheran oratorios, being intended to follow as many short sermons on the last words of our Lord. The Seasons is somewhat secular in character ; and the same sweetness of melody prevalent in this ia found in Haydn's best known work, The Creation, produced in 1798. The special qualities of this oratorio, besides those already allutied to, are found in the brightness of the choruses and the interest of the instrumenta- tion. In general design The Creation is inadequate to the subject treated of, and while the ear is pleased by the sparkling and varied treatment, the heart is never moved by emotions which the grandeur of the theme should have inspired. Beethoven's The Mount of Olives is a drama rather than an oratorio, full of sublime and noble thoughts, but ineffective without the aid of scenery and accessories. Spohr's oratorios. The Crucifixion, The Last judgment, and the Fall of Babylon, contain many grand and surprising thoughts, much beauty of melody and clever harmonies ; the restless modulations employed by him cease to excite wonder after a time, and so, to a certain extent, their end is defeated. In the peculiarity of enharmonic changes on a domi- nant' harmony, Spohr so far exhausted the possible combinations, that composers in imitating his style simply reproduce his thoughts. The most successful composer in this manner of modern date was Mendelssohn, and his Elijah and St. Paul served to revive the drooping taste for oratorio. Elijah was produced at Birmingham in 1846, and St. Paul ten years previously at Diisseldorf, and both works have since held high rank as well in the estimation as in the affections of musicians. Of the two, St. Paul more com- pletely fulfils the conditions of oratorio proper, in the happy arrangement of its narrative and didactic portions. The production of this form is due to the assiduous study of the works of its great perfecter, John Sebastian Bach, and for this reason, and for its intrinsic merit, St. Paul is held to be Mendelssohn's best oratorio. Elijah is more dramatic in constitution, and if the prejudice should ever be sufficiently overcome to permit of its per- formance on the stage, with proper scenery and action, it will attain even greater impor- tance than that it at present enjoys. Of the more recent contributions to oratorio music, there are few worthy to be particular- ised, as they are for most part feeble filterings of an almost exhausted stream. Oratorio has ever been more patronised in England than on the Continent, but until the establishment of the Sacred Harmonic Society in 1832 the opportunity for hearing it was of rare occurrence, being confined almost to the annual meetings of the three choirs of Gloucester, Hereford, and Worcester in the provinces, and to the Lenten performances in London. The example set by this Society has been imitated with success, not only in London, hut in the country, and oratorio per- (326 ) ORCHESIS ORCHESTRA. fonnances are now frequent, and upon a scale of grandeur, magnificence, precision, and perfection hitherto unattained and completely unknown elsewhere. Orchesis {Gk. opxri at right angles, either horizontally or perpendicularly, squares are largely used. The square is of wood, and of this shape, r^^^-i" and generally in two pieces, dove- '--^^^ -i tailed, so that no s'trainmay W cause one arm to snap off. The arms ^ are generally about 3 inches in length. The block in which the squares work is termed the square-frame. Of course the length of stickers, trackers, and back-falls must entirely depend on the space to be occupied by an instrument, or the position in which it is placed. Long stickers or trackers are steadied by being made to pass through holes in a flat piece of wood called a register. The connection between pedal-keys and pedal-pipes does not differ in principle ffom that between manual-keys and manual-pipes, but from the usual position of the pedal organ squares have frequently to be used. (§ g.) The draw-stop handle acts upon the slider by means of a series of levers, the position of which varies greatly in different instruments. The most common system is called the wooden-trundle draw-stop action. When the stop is pulled out, the arms a a draw the trace b from right to left, the end of the trundle c being attached to the trace is moved in a similar direction, whilst the other end of the trundle d moves in an opposite direction, and draws out the slider. When metal trundles are used, this action is simplified. Sliders are sometimes made to move by means of small bellows placed under them, which, upon being filled with com- pressed air, suddenly expand, and as they expand draw the slider. A large organ, it will be now understood, is practically several distinct instruments, not differing in the prin- ciples of their construction so much as in quality of tone. But if this were all, the interior of an organ would appear very simple — there are still to be considered those contrivances which enable a performer to play upon more than one set of keys simultaneously. (§ 10.) The draw stops producing combina- tions of manuals or of manuals to pedals are terpied couplers. Suppose an organ to consist of four manuals and pedals, viz.: solo organ, swell organ, great organ, choir organ, and pedal organ, the couplers assigned to it would probably be "Solo to Great," "Swell to Great," " Swell to Choir," " Choir to Great," " Solo to Pedals," " Swell to Pedals," " Great to Pedals," " Choir to Pedals." To these are sometimes added couplers combiningthe super- octave or sub-octave of the swell with the great, or similar intervals of the swell organ on itself. The construction of unison manual-couplers is generally of the following kind. A rod passes between the back of two sets of manual keys, which is pierced with a series of holes in which are placed little stickers of this shape. fThe length of the sticker is the distance between^he two sets of keys to be com- bined, so that when the lower one is pressed down by the finger the sticker is pushed up by the back of the key and raises the back of the key lying above it. When not required for use the coupler-stop leaves the stickers standing in a hollow purposely made in the keys, thus : — a representing the coupler when ready for use, or " drawn," b when not required, and c the regulating button. The tumbler coupler is now almost obsolete. It consisted of a rod containing stickers, which were turned at an angle when not required for use thus : - but it will be seen that if a — "^^ coupler bf this kind is C<^- " drawn " while the fingers ''' are on the lower row of ( 335 ) ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. keys, the fingers will have to withstand a sudden pressure. This evil is avoided in the modern coupler. Octave couplers, coup- ling the octave either above or below, are of the backfall description. As the pedal- keys occupy more space than the manual- keys a roller-board is used, made on the same principle and practically for the same purpose as that already described. One end of the roller is over the pedal-key and the other under the manual-key desired to be affected. A sticker rests on the end of the backfall, when the pedal-coupler is " out," but is thrown out of the perpendicular when the coupler-stop is " in." A coupler attaching the great to the swell organ, termed a sforzando coupler, capable of being used for a single chord if required, is formed by a double backfall thus, End of swell organ key. End oi great organ . key. a*^ so that when a rises b is depressed and forces down c which in turn raises d. (§ II.) To enable a performer to make rapid changes of stops, short iron pedals are placed over the pedal-clavier, called composition- pedals or combination-pedals, whose office it is to produce certain definite arrangements of the registers when pressed down with the foot. A single-action composition pedal is one that draws out a certain number of stops, but does not alter the arrangement of the other stops on the same manual during the operation. A double-action composition pedal is one that has the power of drawing in any stops not belonging to its prescribed combination which may happen to be owf; for example, supposing the trumpet and sesquialtera on the great organ are drawn out, and the foot is then placed on the composition pedal which draws out the diap3.sons, if the action of the pedal be single the trumpet and sesquialtera will remain out as the diapasons are drawn ; if the action ■ be double, as the diapasons are being drawn out, the trumpet and sesquialtera will be drawn in. Composition pedals act by leverage either on the back of the draw stop handles or on the ends of the sliders, but it would exceed the due limits of this article to explain even a few of the many systems of connection between composition pedals and sliders which are in use among organ builders. Pneumatic bellows are not unfrequently employed for purposes of combining registers, and are often set in motion by small pegs or nobs projecting between the manuals, instead of iron pedals. In cases where several sound- boards are attached to one manual, containing each of them part of the stops, changes of combination are sometimes obtained by pedals or pegs, called ventils, which admit the wind to, or cut the wind off from, the separate sound-boards. (§ 12.) The pneumatic action is a contrivance for lightening the touch of manual or pedal keys by placing near each key a small bel- lows, having two openings on the under side, one of which is a pallet in a chest of com- pressed air, the other a waste-valve. The following diagrams will explain this : — CLOSED When either the finger or foot is pressed upon a key connected with k, the outer end of the back-fall gg is pulled down, which opens the pallet p. The compressed air in a then rushes through the groove bb into the bellows cc, which rises and lifts with it all the action attached to it by I. As the top of the bellows cc rises, it lifts up the throttle-valve d (regulated by the wire m) which prevents the ingress of any more compressed air by bb. But the action of the key on gg, which opened the pallet/! also allowed the double-acting waste- valve e to close, and the tape / hangs loose. The compressed air, therefore, as it is ad- mitted through bb cannot escape, but on the other hand when the key releases the outer end of g, and lets it rise up again, the tape/ becomes tightened and opens the waste-valve, t^e bellows cc then drops into its closed position. The principle of this invaluable inven- tion was introduced by Mr. Hamilton oi Edinburgh, or Mr. Barker. The latter gentle- man succeeded in making its importance understood by some leading French organ- builders, by whom it was at once adopted, and whence it found its way back to this country. English organ-builders have, how- ever, altered very much the original form of ( 336) ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. the pneumatic lever. The diagrams given above represent the lever as itnproved by the eminent organ-builder, Henry Willis, to whose talent organists are also indebted for the compressed-air action instead of trackers, for long distances — a simple and safe com- munication between two sides of a church. The organ in St. Paul's Cathedral which is divided into three portions on this principle, the Pedal-organ being under one of the arches of the chancel, the great and solo organs on the north-side, and the choir and swell on the south-side, deserves to be called a master- piece of mechanical skill. (§ 13.) Organ pipes are divided, with refer- ence to their material, into metal or wood ; with reference to their manner of producing tone, into reed and flue. Of the metals used in making organ pipes tin is the best, lead the worst. A mixture of tin and lead in equal proportions is technically termed " metal." An excess in the relative quantity of lead renders " metal " of proportionately less value. Zinc is used sometimes for large pipes, where cheapness is an object. Anti- mony may be used, but not in too great quantities, its brittleness being a serious drawback to its durability. Spotted metal is so called because of the mottled appearance of its surface. The spots are considered a guarantee of a fairly good material, as they do not rise unless there is one third of tin in the metal. Metal is prepared for use by being, when melted, poured into a wooden trough with a slit in the back, and passed rapidly along a bench faced with tick. The thickness of the sheet of metal depends, of course, on the size of the slit in the trough. It is afterwards planed down carefully to an uniform surface. Deal, pine, and cedar, are the woods most commonly used for pipes ; more rarely, oak, mahogany, maple, &c. ; , the harder woods being generally chosen for pipes to be used in hot countries. The tone of a flue-pipe is produced by the resonance of a column of air, which is set in vibration by a current of compressed air forced through a slit, over which is placed a sharp edge. The pitch is therefore dependent on the length pf the pipe. The tone of a reed-pipe is produced by a thin strip of metal which is placed over the entrance of a tube, in such a manner that the compressed air, in trying to force its way into the tube sets the strip of metal into vibration. The pitch of the reed-pipe is, therefore, dependent on the number of vibrations of the reed (strip of metal), not necessarily on the length of the tube. (§ 14.) Flue pipes are of two kinds, open or closed. The tone of a closed pipe is, in its pitch, an octave below that of an open pipe of the same length, the cause of which is, that in an open pipe the vibrating column of air is divided by a node (or point of rest) at its centre, whereas in a closed pipe the column of air is undivided. An open metal flue pipe consists of foot, and language, and body. The foot is that on which it stands, and into which the compressed air enters. LANGUAGE. The language is a flat piece of metal fastened by its edge to the top of the foot, and which by its shape, only permits the air to leave the foot in one direction. The whole of the pipe above the foot and lan- guage is termed the body. The lower edge of the body is indented in front thus, the indentation is called the leaf. The lower edge of the leaf forms the upper lip and the corresponding edge of the foot which is also indented is termed the lower lip. The space between the lips is termed the mouth. A wooden flue-pipe consists of a foot, cap, block, and body. The foot is a hollow wooden tube on which the pipe stands, and through which the air enters into it. n The air on entering is arrested in its up- ward course by the block. It, therefore, comes out towards the front through the throat, as the opening in the block is termed, and passes along the cap by which it is forced through the small opening between the top of the cap (the under-lip) and the top of the block, called the wind-way. The four boards used in making the pipe form the body. The upper-lip of a wooden pipe is generally made' by bevelling off that part of the body of the pipe just over the upper edge of the cap, m ( 337 ) ORGAN CONSTRUCTION, but the mouths are sometimes inverted thus : Occasionally also the block is superseded by a wooden " language," similar in its position and office to that in a metal pipe, thus : a The block is sometimes bevelled off on its underside, while the cap remains straight, thus : KJ The following section of a flue- pipe will probably make its construc- tion clear: — t is the foot through which air enters ; c the space between r the block and cap; dethe slit through «^ which the air is directed to strike against the lip, a b ; and r is inside of the pipe, which acts as a resonance- box, i- (§ 15.) A reed-pipe consists of a boot, Mock, reed, tongue, wedge, tuning wire, and tube. The boot is a metal case corresponding somewhat in its office to the foot of a flue- pipe, inasmuch as the weight of the pipe rests ?upon it, and through it the air passes upwards. The block is a round piece of metal fitting into the boot, pierced in two places, one to contain the reed, the other to admit the tuning wire. It would appear thus in section. Into the larger orifice the reed is forced, through the smaller the tuning wire is passed. The rim prevents it from being forced into the boot by the superincumbent weight of tube. The reed is a brass tube rather wider at the bottom than the top, and closed at the P bottom, having a narrow orifice over which lies the tongue, a thin elastic piece of brass large enough to cover the orifice .and its edges. It is kept in its position by a small wedge of wood which is forced into the orifice in the block with the reed. The lower end of the tongue is therefore perfectly free. The tuning- wire is a piece of common wire bent in such a manner that a flat part of it lies across the tongue. By moving the wire from the outside, more or less of the tongue is allowed to vibrate, and thus the pitch is regulated. The upper end stands just in front of the tube of wood or metal, into which the air passes when leaving the reed, apd which adds so ^\. materially to the tone of a reed-pipe. \M In small pipes the tube is generally of \y^. \ metal, but in large pipes often of wood; V'-',' it is conical in shape if a full tone is ^-' required ; if not, circular or circular with a bell-top ; and is either soldered to the top of the block, as is the case in small pipes, or is dropped into a small socket on the top of the block. Though, as before stated,the tube is not essential for the regulation of the pitch, its length and shape greatly influence the quality of sound produced. The closed reed is a reed which a.dmits a much smaller quantity of wind than the open or common reed. (§ 16.) The free or common harmonium reed is a reed the tongue of which does not lie over the edge of the aperture, but is able to pass freely backwards and forwards. Hence its name free, in opposition to the kind of reeds above described which are termed " per- cussion reeds." They are not commonly used in organs, but are more often met with in continental than in English organs. (§ 17.) The swell organ is the successor of the old echo organ, a portion of a few stops enclosed in a wooden box in order to produce a subdued tone, or the effect of distance. In 1712, Abraham Jordan invented the " Nag's-head swell," as it was afterwards termed. It consisted of an echo organ, having, instead of a fixed front, a moveable shutter working up and down in a window sash. A pedal on the right hand side of the performer raised ' and closed the shutter at will thus producing a crescendo and dimi- nuendo. But the mechanism of this old " swelling organ " was most unsatisfactory. A very heavy pressure on the pedal was (338) ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. required before the shutter would stir, but once in motion it would often run up to its extreme limit against the wish of the per- former, coming down to its closed position again when the pedal was released with a loud " bang." After half a century, England, and Avery, and afterwards Green, made use of the Venetian Swell, which consists of a series of shutters from six to ten inches in breadth, and from a half to two and a half inches in thickness, each hung on an axis one-third from the top of its breadth. The edges of each shutter are bevelled away at an angle of about forty-five degrees, so that each two contiguous boards overlap each other, and also are covered with felt in order to fit close, shut quietly, and shut in the sound thoroughly. The inside of the whole box may be lined with thick brown paper, glued on to the wood-work ; this prevents the escape of sound, and does not injure the reverberation when the shutters are open. The Venetian Swell is so named because of the similarity of the appearance of the shutters to that of a common Venetian blind. The shutters sometimes are placed perpen- dicularly instead of horizontally, and occa- sionally open at the sides or back, as well as in the front. (§ i8.) The quality of tone, and to some extent the pitch of pipes, whether they are wood or metal, reed or flue, depends upon their shape or outline, their scale, and the pressure of the wind to which they are sub- ject. Metal pipes are in shape either cylin- drical, conical, or inverted-conical, or sur- mounted by a bell whether cylindrical or conical. Wood pipes are four-sided, the opposite sides being equal in width, or pyra- midal, or inverted-pyramidal. (§ ig.) By Scale is meant the relation between the width and length of a pipe. If a pipe is wide in proportion to its length it is said to be of a large scale ; if narrow in pro- portion to its length of a small scale. Inas- much as scale affects to some degree the pitch of a pipe, it necessitates a proportionate alteration in its length, thus a pipe of a small scale must be made somewhat longer than a pipe of a large scale sounding the same note. (§ 20.) The amount of the pressure or weight of wind is regulated by the weights placed on the bellows. It is found, by using a wind- gauge or Anemometer, a bent glass tube, which is fixed into a socket, and into which a little water is poured. On placing the socket on one of the holes in the upper board of a sound-board, and admitting the air from the bellows, the water is forced up the tube, and the difference between the level of the two surfaces of water is measured in inches. The usual weight of wind on the swell, great, and choir organs of a church organ, is from two and a half to three inches, the pedal organ (where a sepa- rate bellows makes it feasible) receiving rather a higher pressure. The fourth manual or solo organ is nearly always voiced to a very high pressure, as very fine effects are in this way obtained both from reed and flue pipes. Organs in concert rooms and public buildings are often voiced throughout to a higher pressure than those in churches. The average amount of surface weight on the bel- lows required to produce a three-inch wind is nine pounds and three quarters per super- ficial foot. (§ 21.) As regards the disposition of the vari- ous qualities of tone between the manuals, — the choir organ, being as its name implies, intended for the accompaniment of voices, generally receives stops of a delicate and sub- dued quality of tone, such as the Spitz- flote, Gemshorn, Viol di Gamba, Dulciana, Keraulophon, &c. The great organ being required for grand effects, has allotted to it the large scale Diapasons, together with a complete set of octave, twelfth, super-octave, mixture stops, and a proportionate number of large scale reed-stops. The swell organ has a larger proportion of reeds than any other manual, chiefly because of the fine effects they produce during the opening and closing of the shutters of the swell box. The reed-stops are generally placed in the front of the swell sound-board, just inside the box, not only be- cause in that position the effect of a crescendo is increased, but also because they are more easily within the reach of a tuner. The Pedal Organ, as an independent organ, cannot be said to have been known in England for more than the last half century, although ap- parently always a constituent part of a good German instrument. The deepest tones (32 feet) are consigned to the Pedal Organ, as also a large number of 16 feet stops, to serve as a bass to the manuals, which have rarely more than one or two of that pitch, on any separate manual. (§ 22.) An organ is tuned by means of hollow cones and reed - knives. The former are used for tuning metal flue- pipes, and are used in this manner. If a pipe is too flat, the apex of the cone is inserted into the top of the pipe, and the cone being forced in enlarges the orifice and raises the pitch. If a pipe is too sharp, a cone whose base is so broad that it will admit the top of the pipe. ( 339 ) ORGANETTO OTTETTO. is placed on the pipe and squeezed down until the orifice is reduced in size, and the pitch is flattened enough. Cones are made of metal or wood, more often the latter, be- cause of its comparative lightness. Wooden flue-pipes are tuned, if stopped, by w moving the stopper up or down ; if fsfs open, by a piece of lead placed on the back of the top of the pipe for the purpose. Large open wood pipes are tuned by cutting off part of the top if too flat, and by raising a piece of wood screwed for the purpose near the top if too sharp. The largest metal-pipes have generally an opening at the back of the top, which can be opened or closed as it is necessary to make them flatter or sharper. Metal pipes, with soldered covers, with or without chimneys, are tuned by altering the position of the ears, which are made specially long. (§ 23.) The reed-knife is a long piece of common iron or steel in this shape, hence its name. c v The tuning wire is provided at its extremity with' a hook or projec- tion by which the edge of the 1 I knife is able, by gentle taps, to I gradually raise it. The wire is pushed in by being struck on the top. By referring to the account ^ of the tuning wire given in §15,* I it will be understood that raising the wire flattens the note, de- pressing it sharpens it. . 1 ,' IS \r! he U/ int \"W.'i upper \ ! \ ! db Organetto (It.) A little organ. Organic Music. A mediaeval name for instrumental music. Organo (It.) Organ. Organo plena, the full organ. Organochordium. An instrument having pipes and strings, invented by Vogler. Organo di legno. A claque bois. [Xylo- phon.] Organophonic. The name assumed by a band of Polish performers, who imitated the sounds made by various instruments with their mouths. Organo portabile (It.) A portative organ. A small organ capable of being easily carried about. Organ-point. [Fugue.] Organum. (i) An early form of harmony, called also diaphony [Descant.] (2) An organ. Organum hydraulicum {Lat.) Hydraulic organ. Organum pneumaticum [Lat.) The common organ. Orgel {Ger.) [Organ.] Orgelgehause [Ger.) An organ case. Orgel-punkt (Gen) A pedal point. [Fugue.] Orgue (Fr.) Organ or harmonium. Orgue expressif {Fr.) Harmonium. Orgue portatif {Fr.) A portable organ. Orificium {Lat.) The mouth of an organ- pipe. Original position. A chord is said to be in its original position when the ground-note is in the bass ; in other words, before it has undergone inversion : or, when its upper notes are in the order 3, 5, 8. Ornamenti {It.) Grace-notes and other embellishments. Ornatamente, Ornato {It.) With em- bellishments. Orpharion. A kind of lute, having wire strings. [Lute.] Osservanza, con {It.) With exactness. Ossia (//.) Or else, as ossia piU facile, or else in this more easy way. Ostinato {It.) Lit. obstinate, used in the sense of " frequently repeated," as basso ostinato, a ground-bass, q.v. Oton. An Indian wind instrument pro- ducing only a single sound, employed during the dancing' of the Bayaderes. The player holds the oton in his left hand while with his right he beats a tambourine fastened to his belt. [Tabor.] Ottava {It.) An octave, as ottava alta (to be played), an octave higher, ottava bassa, an octave lower. Ottavina {It.) The little .or higher octave. Ottavino flauto {It.) [Flute.] Ottemole. [Octuplet.] Ottetto {It.) A composition in eight parts. ( 340 ) OUiE OXYBAPHON. Ouie (Fr.) The hearing. Ouvert (Fr.) Open, as a livre ouvert, at sight. Ouverture (Fr.) [Overture.] Overblovw. A pipe is said to be over- blown when the pressure of air forces it to speak an over-tone, instead of its fundamental note. Overtura di ballo (It.) An overture in the style of dance-music. Overture. Overtura (It.) Ouverture {Fr.) An introductory symphony for instru- ments. It is usual to say that there are four kinds of overtures, two in the ancient, and two in the modern style. This may be true with regard to the limit placed upon the ancient overtures, but it is not entirely so with respect to the modern ones, for they are as various as the fancies of composers, and defy all attempts to reduce them to classi- fication. Old overtures may be arranged into two classes, the French and the Italian, or to describe them by the names of their reputed inventors into the Lully and Scarlatti over- tures. The Lully overture usually opened with a slow and stately movement, by way of introduction. The succeeding theme was treated in imitation in the old Canzona style ; if divided into sections, the first section ended in the key of the dominant if it began in a major key, and in the relative major if it , began in the minor. All kinds of free imitation were allowed in the next section. After this a "grave" was repeated, and a minuet, or some lively movement concluded the overture. This form is employed by Handel, Bach, Keiser, Telemann, Hasse, Graun, and other composers of the early part of the i8th century, with more or less alterations accord- ing to fancy. When Sonata Form began to be understood, overtures in the form described above were more rarely written, but the style was not wholly disused until the commence- ment of the present century. The Scarlatti form of overture consisted of three movements or sections; the first and third were quick or lively, and the second was slow. In the slow movement, a change of pace, and also of accent or rhythm was used, and fewer instruments were employed, so that the scoring might afford a strong contrast to the other portions. A near approach to the arrangement of the Sonata and Symphony was thus made, and the Italian overture or " Sinfonia" may be called the immediate precursor of the symphony as it now stands. The modern overture dates from the latter part of the i8th century, and may be described in a few words as a composition in the form of the first movement of a sonata, concerto, or symphony, with the exception that the sections are not always marked for repetition. It has occasionally a short introduction in a slow tempo, of a marked and stately character. Its principal themes are often taken from the work it precedes. Some- times the "free fugue" style is chosen, and occasionally the sonata and fugue form are happily united, as in Mozart's overture " Die Zauberfliite." Many modern overtures consist almost en- tirely of a series of clever contrasts indepen- dent of form. These should be described as medley overtures, though the medley overture proper includes portions of the chief melodies in an opera. One of the most effective works of this class is the overture to " Guy Mannering" by Sir H. R. Bishop. The invention of the medley overture is attributed to Richard Charke, the son-in-law of Colley Gibber. Overtures not connected with, or part of a larger work, are known as " Concert Over- tures ! " but it does not follow that overtures originally written as preludes to a special work, may not be treated as " Concert" pieces, even if the work to which they were attached has ceased to be known. Oxupycni (Med. Lat. from G^. djue, acute, and ffuKfoc, close.) Church Modes having a pycnon or semitone high in the tetrachord e.g.: Lydian^ Hypolydian. Oxybaphon {Gk.) 6h>^atj>ov. Lit. a vinegar jar. Hence (like the acetabulum) an earth- enware vessel used for experiments as to sound. ( 341 ) -PART-SONG. P. Abbreviation oi piano, soft. Paduana, Padouana. [Pavan.] Paean, irai&v. The ancient choral song addressed to Apollo, named after its burden, i(I» Traiai/. It was sung sometimes before battle, and sometimes after a victory. Donald- son thinks it probable that it was at first accompanied on the phorminx, which, how- ever, was afterwards superseded by the flute. From the ancient Psean sprang the gymnopoedic, pyrrhic, and hyporchematic dances. Pseon. A foot consisting of one long syllable and three short. The position of the long syllable can be varied in four ways, hence the Paeon is said to be primus, secundus, tertius, or quartus. [Metre.] Pair of Organs. The word pair simply means a set, and it is used in this sense in the expression a " pair of stairs," or a " pair of scissors." It was formerly in more general use than now, and " pair of cards," and " pair of beads," are met with in the old poets. A " pair of organs " means, then, an organ having a complete set of pipes. Palalaika. [Balalaika.] Palco {It.) The stage of a theatre, &c. Palilia. The rustic dance at the Festival of Pales, in which the shepherds leapt round and over burning straw. It may have been to some extent the origin of the May-pole dance. Pallet. [Organ, § 4.] Palmula (Lat.) Manual of an organ. Pambe. A small Indian drum. Pandean-pipes. [Pan's-pipes.] Pandora. [Bandore.] Pan's-pipes, or mouth-organ. The earliest form of a compound wind instrument, undoubtedly the precursor of the organ. It was the irtrpiyS of the Greeks, fistula of the Romans, and probably the ugab of the Hebrews. It was formed of seven, eight, or nine short hollow reeds, fixed together by wax, and cut in graduated lengths, so as to produce a musical scale. The lower ends of the reeds were closed and the upper open and on a level, so that the mouth could easily pass from one pipe to another. Pantaleone. An instrument invented by Hebenstreit in 1705. It was a sort of dul- cimer, but strung with catgut and metal strings in two series. ( 342 ) Pantalon {Fr.) One of the movements of a quadrille. Parallelbewegung. [Parallel motion.] Parallelen {Ger.) Consecutives. Parallel motion. The movement of two or more parts at fixed intervals, as thirds, sixths. Parallel fifths are under certain limitations forbidden. [Consecutives.] Paramese (Gk.) irapafdari. [Greek music] Paranete {Gk.) irapayriTri. [Greek music. I Parhypate {Gk.) Trapiurar?/. [Greek music] Parlando, Parlante {It.) In a declama- tory manner, as if speaking. Parlante {It.) Lit. speaking, (i) In the style of a recitative ; (2) played in the style of vocal recitation. Paroles {Fr.) Words ; as. Sans paroles, without words. Part, (i) So much of a piece of music, or work, as is performed by any one voice or instrument ; {2) Division of a work. Parte {It.) Part. Parte cantante, vocal part. Partie {Fr.) Partial tones. Those simple sounds which in combination form an ordinary sound and cause its special quality of tone. [Acoustics.] Partimenti {It.) Figured basses, used as exercises. Partition {Fr.) Partitur {Ger.) [Score.] Partitura, Partizione {It.) [Score.] Part-Music. Music in two or more parts, performed by more than one person. Part-Song. A vocal comp'osition, having a striking melody harmonized by other parts more or less freely, but from which counter- point is for the most part excluded. The Part-song owes its origin to the habit preva- lent among the Germans of adding simple harmonies to their " Volksgesange." On the model of these harmonized airs, fresh compositions have from time to time been produced, sometimes with a little more elabo- ration in their construction than their models, in such numbers, that there is now an exten- sive literature of this kind of music Alnaost every town in Germany has its " Singverein," " Liedertafel," or " Mannergesangverein," all of which largely encourage this special class of composition. From Germany Part-songs have been imported into England, and our native composers have produced a large number, many of which are of great merit. The Part-song holds now the position which PAS PASSING NOTE. the glee held in this country from the middle of the last century to the beginning of this, and which the madrigal held from the middle of the sixteenth to the middle of the seven- teenth century. The simplest form of Part- song is that in which the same music [tutti) is repeated for each verse of the words ; the most elaborate that in which soli parts occur, or a separate solo accompanied by the other parts, either pianissimo or con boccha chiusa. Part-songs may be for soprani, contralti, tenori, and bassi, or for men's voices only. In the latter case, the upper part is in Germany sung by high tenors, but in Eng- land, where the alto voice is still cultivated by alti, the score includes an alto, two tenor parts, and a bass part, instead of the ordinary two tenor and two bass parts of those by German authors. A Part-song differs from a madrigal in its exclusion of contrapuntal devices ; from a glee, in its being sung by many voices instead of by one only to each part. The treatment of the chords and the harmonica] progressions sufficiently stamp the madrigalian style, while the peculiar melodiousness of the inner parts of a glee, coupled with its special adaptability for chamber use, mark its character distinctly ; and on the other hand, the Part-song by its strong outlines and modern harmonization can easily be distinguished from a glee. Pas (Fr.) A dance, as pas seul, pas de deux, a dance by one or two performers. A step, as pas redouble, a quick step, or march. Paspy. The English name for the dance Passepied, called also Passamezzo by the Italian and Paspie by the Spanish writers. It was a precursor of the minuet, some of the tunes called by the title Paspy resembling the minuet in rhythm and measure. Hawkins says it " is said to have been invented in Bretagne, and it is in effect a quick minuet." The old English writers call it passa-measure, passy-measure, passing-measure, or simply measure. It was a favourite dance in the time of Queen Elizabeth, and from the fact that ex- amples exist by writers as late as Purcell and Croft, it could not have been out of fashion in their time. PASPY. " H^r r I r I* r H. Purcell. W! i» / b ; J rgh ~r=T- i'"!>i^=*= _C_r 1 r- 1 : w — : 1 J \ '-r. 1 izz -< t 1 1 1 r-isJ- Eu : lb' '^m -P- M -P- ^ ^p : r F -i ^ \-t: h- — =— r-' • — 1 I |2, frrrr^ 1 itF-1" ^ -p- :H A — ^ i»j ->^- r H FTKJ 4= — fl THE ENGLISH PASPY. Croft, c. 1700. ■ w» ' .. - 11 1 ^ '"v it_ i? I 1 jT^^ _ " ' ^ 1 r Passacaglio, passacaglia {It.); Passe.- caille, passe-rue {Fr.); Passacalle (Sp.); Gas- senkawer (Ger.) A dance in triple measure, constructed on a ground bass. Bach has used this form for one of his grandest com- positions for the organ. [Gassenhawer.] [Chaconne.] Passage, (i) A phrase of music. (2) A figure. (3) A run. Passage {Fr.) [Passage.] Passage-boards. Boards placed in dif- ferent parts of an organ, on which the tuner can walk, and from whence he can reach pipes or mechanism. Passaggio {It.) A passage or phrase, as passaggio cromatico, a chromatic passage. Also a run, or rapid succession of notes. Passa mezzo {It.) [Paspy.] Passe-pied. [Paspy.] Passing discord. [Passing note.] Passing note. A note not essential to harmony, forming an unprepared discord. ( 343 ) PASSIONATAMENTE PASSION MUSIC. which is not objectionable because it is a fragment of a scale. It is a necessary cha- racteristic of a passing-note, that it should have a degree of the scale on each side of it. Passing-notes having degrees of a diatonic scale on each side are said to be diatonic ; those having degrees of a chromatic scale on each side, are said to be chromatic. ± if * * Diatonic passing notes. Chromatic passing notes. Passing notes generally occur on unac- cented parts of a bar. When unessential notes occur on accented parts of a bar, they are generally called auxiliary notes, e.g. : Passionatamente, passionate, pas- sionate, con passione {It.) In an im- passioned manner. Passione {It.) A cahtata founded on the incidents of the Passion, or on the seven last words. Passion Music. Music set to the narra- tive of our Lord's Passion in the Gospels. Dramatic representations of the subject date from a very early period, there being still ex- tant a play ascribed, though somewhat doubt- fully, to Gregory Nazianzen, Bishop of Antioch. It is in 4th century Greek, and is entitled " xp'Toc uao-xwy." This, like many of the religious plays of a subsequent date, was de- signed only to be spoken as in ordinary dramatic representations, and is independent of musical aid. For, although music was occasionally employed to add to the attraction of the performance of these Mysteries or Miracle plays in early times, it was only in a secondary manner, and not so connected with or inseparable from the action as in still later times, or in the form now known. Passion plays are still occasionally performed in remote continental places, with music as an accessory. The dramatic performance of the Passion arose in imitation of the ancient custom, still observed in the Roman Catholic Church of dividing the recital of the Gospel of the Passion in Holy Week between two, three, or more readers, assigning those parts which reproduce the words of the people (turbas) to the congregation or choir. To one priest was assigned the part of Jesus, to others those of Pilate, Judas, the High Priest, &c., and the connecting portions of the narrative by a narrator. All these parts were recited accord- ing to the rules of the accentus ecclesiasticus, while the turbas or people's part was delivered in monotone. When the Passion was played at other times than during the course of the service, it is supposed that the words were spoken with- out the aid of music. So popular did these plays become that as early as 1264 a company of monks was formed for the express purpose of performing the " Sufferings of Christ." Bayle, Burney, and others give a series of dates of several notable mediaval perform- ances of the Passion, for example, at Padua in 1243, at Friuli in 1298, at Civita Vecchia in the same year, at Paris before Philip le Bel, and our own Edward II. in 1313, at St. Maur near Paris in 1404, at Constance during the Council in 1417, by the English fathers, at Paris, on the entrance of the Kings of England and France into that capital in 1420, in the same city in 1424, in 1431 on the occasion of the entry of Henry VI. of England, as King of France, and at Poitiers with great magnifi- cence in i486. In the Imperial library at Paris is preserved a copy of " Le MystSre de la Passion Jesus Christ," printed on vellum by Antoine Verard, 1490, in which a MS. note describes the performance of this play at Metz and at Veximiel, with some curious details re- specting the representation at the latter place. In Rymer's " View of Tragedy," there is a quotation from the Register of the Parliament at Paris in which the Procureur General du Roi lays a complaint against four laymen for having undertaken to perform Christ's Passion and the Acts of the Apostles, " with a company of illiterate and incompetent men ; ,that they had moreover introduced apocry- phal matters, and interlarded their plays with drolls and farces, so as to spin out the play and make it last six or seven months ; that they had played for lucre, and made their performance so attractive that nobody went to church, charity grew cold, and immoral excesses were occasioned." Their proceedings were stopped during the King's pleasure, and they were condemned to pay a fine of 800 livres out of their profits. The reformation witnessed, among the many important changes to which it gave rise, the modification of the representation of the Passion. Luther encouraged the con- tinuance of the practice, and a development of the ancient custom by which the several incidents told in the gospels were recited by different individuals, gave opportunities to the composers of the period to set music of ( 344 ) PASSY.MEASURE PATIMENTO. their own to the story, in the place of the traditional church tones, and by this means the story was told, not only at the times com- manded by the ritual of the church, but at other periods, in other places, and on other occasions. One of the first versions of the text of these improvements was printed at Wittenberg in 1573, with the music for the recitative and the choruses for the turbee in four-part harmony. The author of this in- teresting specimen of composition is unknown, though some writers attribute it to Antonio Scandell. Fifteen years later, namely, in 1588, Bartholomasus Giise, or Gese, produced a more elaborate composition, in which the expressions uttered by the priests, people, or disciples, were called by the general name " Turba." These were set in harmony or plain-song and sung in chorus. The words of our Lord, of Peter, Pilate, Judas, the High Priest, &c., were usually sung by separate solo voices ; but in the work of Bartholo- mseus Gese, a different practice is resorted to. The words of the maid-servant are set for two voices, thoge of Peter and Pilate for three, those of the Saviour for four. In this work, the words of Holy Scripture alone are used as the text. There was little attempt to vary the old plain- song in the early settings of the Passion, until Heinrich Schutz, or as he sometimes styled himself in accordance with the fanciful custom of his time, Henricus Sagittarius, introduced a new feature into the Passion music ; that of the reflective chorus, as sup- posed to be sung by the " Christian com- munity," — and while the greater part of his harmonies are based upon the old church modes, there is a noteworthy attempt in his recitatives to free himself from the accentus ecclesiasticus, and to make them more in- dependent. The design thus suggested was carried out by Johann Sebastiani, who was organist and Kapellmeister at Brandenburgh, in 1672, to whom also the introduction of orchestral, in the place of an organ accom- paniment, is due. A still further deviation from the ancient plan was made by Reinhard Keiser at the beginning of the i8th century. Taking, instead of the gospel narratives of the Passion, original poems on the subject as his libretto, he made his " Passiori Music " of like character with his many operas. In one of these works, " Der Blutige und Sterbende Jesus," the libretto by Menantes, he employs the term " soliloquia " to. describe the reflective or interjaculatory passages set in " arioso recitative," so fre- quently employed later by John Sebastian Bach, The words of Reinhard Reiser's " Passion" were written by Brocies, a Hamburg poet. who added to the Bible narrative, soliloquia, or reflections for the "Daughter of Sion," and " The Believing Soul." Telemann, Mattheson, and Handel set Brockes' poem to music, and traces of the influence of the poem are to be found in Bach's Matthew " Passion." A statement is made by Rietz that in the MS. score in Bach's handwriting certain solos, and solos with chorus, are marked as though they were to be sung by the Daughter of Zion, or Zion, or the Faithful. As there are several pieces in both the existing works on the Passion by Bach (the St. Matthew and the St. John), similar, if not identical with Brockes' soliloquia, there is a reasonable ground for believing the statement of Rietz. The credit of the introduction of the chorale has been assigned to Bach, but although he employed it freely, Telemann, Mattheson, and Handel, also used chorales in their works on the Passion. The earlier writers, Gese, Schutz, Keiser, and Sebastiani did not use the chorale as Bach probably did, with the design of enlisting the voices as well as the sympathies of the congregation. Bach selected from among a wealthy store of well known hymn-tunes those which had the greatest influence over the minds of German worshippers, tunes set to various words in- separably associated with the sentiments, affections, life, and citizenship of the people. Passy-measure {Old Eng.) A corruption of the word passu mezzo. [Paspy.] Pastete {Ger.) [Pasticcio.] Pasticcio {It.) Lit. a pie, or pasty. Pastiche {Fr.), Pastete {Ger.) An opera, cantata, or other work, the separate numbers of which are gleaned from the compositions of various authors, or from several discon- nected works of one author. Pastiche {Fr.) [Pasticcio.] Pastoral, (i) A simple melody in six- eight time in a rustic style. (2) A cantata, the words of which are founded on pastoral incidents. (3) A complete symphony, wherein a series of pastoral scenes is depicted by sound-painting, without the aid of words. Pastorale {It.) [Pastoral.] Pastorella {It.) A short pastoral. Pastorelle {Fr.) [Pastorella.] Pastorita. A shepherd's pipe. Fistula pastoricia {Lat.) An organ stop, the Nacht- horn. Pastourelle {Fr.) One of the movements of a quadrille. Pateticamente, Patetico {It.) In a pathetic manner. Path6tique, Pathetiquement {Fr.) In a pathetic manner. Patimento {It.) Suffering, as con espres- sione di patimento, with an expression of suffering. (345^ PAUKEN PA VAN. Pauken (Ger.) [Kettle-drums.] Pausa (Lat.) A sign for silence. A rest. Ancient authors allowed four kinds of rests : the long res.t being a perpendicular stroke drawn from a line to the second line below ; the breve rest, a similar stroke from line to line ; the semibreve rest, a stroke com- mencing from any line, and descending half Way between the lines ; the minim rest, the reverse of the semibreve, that is, a stroke ascending half way between the two lines; the semiminima rest (crochet), a line equal to half the distance between the lines, but bent to the left. These are, of course, practi- cally the same as modern rests, but the way in which they were written was far from preventing confusion. There were also varie- ties of form or position to indicate rests in triple or common time. Pausa (It.) A rest or pause. Pausa generate, a rest or pause for all the per- formers. Pause (Fr.) (i) A rest or pause ; (2) a bar's rest. Pavan. A dance tune of a stately cha- racter, deriving its title from Padua, where it is said to have been invented. Others find the origin of the word in " Pavo," a peacock, because it was danced with " such circum- stance of dignity and stateliness." Morley's " Introduction to Practicall Mu- sicke," speaks of it in these terms : — " The next in grauitee and goodness vnto this is called a pauan, a kinde of staide musicke, ordained for graue dauncing, and most commonly made of three straines, whereof euerie strain is plaid or song twice. A straine they make to contain 8, 12, or 16, semi-briefs, as they list, yet fewer than eight I haue not seen in any pauan. "After every pauan we vsualy set a galliard. The Italians make their galliards (which they tearm salta relly ) plain, and frame ditties to them, which in their mascaradoes they sing and dance." By this it would appear that the galliard and the pavan, when played upon the virginals, harpsichord, or spinet, formed a primitive sort of suite or sonata. That the pavan was not used entirely for the dance maybe gathered from the title of a work published by John Dowland, ' ' Lachrymse or Seaven Teares, figured in Seaven pas- sionate Pavans, with divers other Pavans, Galliards, and Almands." The pavan, when in duple time, is not unfrequently spoken of as a " quadron or quodran pavan." The " saltarello " or " salta relly," as Morley calls it, was in triple measure. When the pavan was played faster it was called a passamezzo. PAVAN, TRANSLATED FROM TABLATURE IN WOLF MECKEL'S "LAUTTEN BUCK," 1562. ^ J=J= ^^^^m (346) PAVANA PERDENDO. Pavana (It.) [Pavan.] Pavane {Fr.) [Pavan.] Paventato, Paventoso {It.) With an expression of fear. Pavilion {Fr.) The bell of a horn, or other instrument of a like kind. Flute a Pavilion {Fr.) an organ stop, the pipes of which are surmounted by a laell. Pavilion chinois, an instrument consisting of little bells attached to a staff. Pectis. A Greek instrument of the lute or dulcimer kind. Ped: Abb. (i) of pedal. In pianoforte music a direction to press down the pedal which raises the dampers. (2) Of pedals. In organ music a direction that the lowest part is to be played by the feet. Pedal. Any projecting piece of metal or wood which is to be pressed down by the foot, (i) On the pianoforte there are usually two pedals, one of which enables the per- former to play only on one string {una corda); the other, to remove the dampers {sordini). (2) On the organ there are combination pedals, which alter the arrangement of the registers, and a pedal clavier or keyboard, on which the feet play. (3) On the harp there are pedals, each of which has the power of flattening, sharpening, or making natural, one note throughout the whole compass of the instrument. Pedal-claviatur {Ger.) The pedal key- board of an organ. Pedal coupler. An accessory stop of an organ, by means of which the pedal keys are enabled to draw down the keys of a manual. Pedale (It.) (i) A pedal key of an organ. {2) A pedal note, or pedal point. [Fugue.] (3) The pedal of a pianoforte, which raises the dampers. Pedalfliigel {Ger.) A pianoforte, to which a set of pedal keys is attached. Pedaliera {It.) The pedal keys of an organ. Pedalion. A set of pedals acting upon strings, producing notes of a deep pitch, so constructed as to be capable of being used with a pianoforte. Pedal-pipes. The name given to the one stop which was often, in former times, in this country the sole representative of an independent pedal organ. It generally con- sisted of open wooden pipes of a large scale. Pedal Sound-board. The sound-board containing the pipes belonging to the pedal organ. Pedicula, Scabella, or Scabilla {Lat.) [KpovTre^a.l [Croupeza.] Pedarii, Podarii, and Pedicularii. The beaters of time in the performance of Greek music. It was done with the foot, which was furnished with wooden or iron sandals tor the purpose. [Croupeza.] Peg of an Instrument. A small round piece of wood or metal, placed in a hole, or two holes, so as to be capable of being turned round, and pierced to receive that end of a string or wire which is not fixed. It is pre- vented from slipping round under the in- fluence of the tension of the string or wire, either by being made slightly tapering in form, and then forced into its hole as in a violin ; or by being made with serrated edges, as in a pianoforte. The outer end of the peg expands into a broad flat surface which can be easily turned round between the thumb and forefinger, or has a four-sided head on to which a key can be fixed. Penillion singing. A Welsh custom of singing improvised verses on a given theme to a melody either well-known or then and there learnt from the harper who accompanies the Penillion. There is a similar custom among the Hungarian gipsies called the "Verbunges." [Dutch concert.] Penorcon. An obsolete instrument of the guitar family, somewhat broader and shorter than the Pandora, with a very broad neck over which passed nine brass strings, which were played upon by the fingers. Pentatone. An interval of five whole tones, an augmented sixth. Pentatonic scale. The name given by Carl Engel to the ancient musical scale which is easiest described, as that formed by the black keys of the pianoforte. It consists of the ist, 2nd, 3rd, 5th, and 6th degrees of a modern diatonic scale, e.g. : Per {Lat.), by, as per diminutionem, by diminution ; per inversionem, by inversion. Per {It.), by or for ; as, per il violino, for the violin. Percussion. An ingenious contrivance whereby a hammer strikes the tongue of a reed and sets it in motion simultaneously with the admission of air from the windchest, thus securing the' rapid speech of the reed. Were it not for the percussion, the reed would be only gradually set in motion by the ad- mission of the current of air, and the sound would not instantly follow the striking of the key. It is commonly used in harmoniums, but has also been applied to the largest reeds of an organ. Percussion of a discord. The striking of a discord, which takes place after its prepara- tion, and which is followed by its resolution. Percussione {It.) The striking of a chord. Perd. Perden. Abbreviations of Perdendo, Perdendosi {It.) Losing time and power, implying both dim. and rail. ( 347 ) PERFECT PIANO DROIT. Perfect. Complete, (i) Perfect cadence, an authentic or plagal cadence. [Cadence.] (2) Perfect concord, a common chord in its original position. (3) Perfect consonance, the consonance produced by the intervals fourth, fifth, or octave. (4) Perfect in- terval, one of the divisions of intervals. [Interval.] (5) Perfect time. An old name for triple time. Perfetto (It.) Perfect (of intervals, &c.) Perijourdine. A song-dance, a ballad, named after the district in which it was used. CHANSON A DANSER DE SARLAT EN PERIGORD. Period, Periode '{Fr.), Periodo (It.) A complete musical sentence. [Form.] Periodenbau (Ger.) The construction of musical periods. Periodic Vibration. [Acoustics, § 9.] Period of Vibration. [Acoustics, § 3.] Perle (Fr.) Lit., pearled. Cadence perlee, a brilliant cadence. A pearly touch is an ex- pression of our own for a delicate and bright touch in playing the pianoforte. Perpetual canon. A canon so constructed that it may be repeated constantly without a break in the time or rhythm. [Canon.] Per recte et retro. A species of imita- tion in which the antecedent is repeated at the unison, reading the notes backwards. The following chant by Dr. Crotch is a sim- ple example. The numbers over the bars will show the retrogressive movement. 6 Pesante [It.) With weight, or importance. Impressively. Petite flflte {Fr.) Kleine Flbte {Ger.) Piccolo. [Flute.] Petite mesure a deux terns {Fr.) Two- four time. Petteia {Gk.) Aterm of Greek ' ' Melopoeia. " Perhaps the same as extensio, the holding out of a sound, or its frequent repetition to different words or syllables. Petto {It.) The chest. Voce di petto,the chest voice. Peu a peu {Fr.) Little by little, gradually. Pezzi {It.) Pieces, as pezzi concertanti, concert pieces or concerti ; pezzi di bravura, pieces for the display of rapid execution and manual dexterity. P.f., abb. of (i) Pianoforte. (2) Piano, forte, soft then loud. (3) PiiL forte, louder. Pfeife {Ger.) Pipe, fife, little flute. Pfeifenwerk {Ger.) The pipe work (of an organ), including both reed and flue pipes. Phantasie {Ger.) [Fantasia.] Phantasy, pi. Phantasies {Old Eng.) [Fancy.] Phonascus {Lat., from Gk. ^wvao-Ko'c). A master who trained the voices of those who were preparing themselves for orators, singers, &c. Phonometer. An instrument for ascer- taining the number of vibrations of a given sound. Phorminx {Gk.), (^opjutyf. The ancient lyre or cithara, which had probably not more than seven strings. [Lyre.] Phrasing. The proper rendering of music with reference to its melodic form. A per- former who brings into due prominence the grouping of sounds into figures, sentences, &c., is said to phrase well. Formerly the phrasing of music was left to be discovered by the intelligence and taste of the performer. Modern writers use various signs as indica- tions of their wishes, such as, the slur, sf, &c. [Expression.] Piacere, a {It.) At pleasure (the time be modified at the performer's pleasure). Piacevole, Piacevolezza con, Piace- volmente {It.) In a playful or light style. Pleasantly. Piacimento {It.) [Piacere.] Piangendo, Piangevole, Piangevol- mente {It.) As if weeping. In a plaintive manner. Pianette {Fr.) A small pianoforte. - "' Pianino {It.) [Pianette.] Pianissimo {It.) As softly as possible^ abbd. pp. " Piano (/f.) Softly, abhd. p. Piano a queue (Fr.) A grand pianoforte. Piano carr6 {Fr.) A square pianoforte. Piano droit {Fr.) An upright pianoforte. (348) PIANOFORTE. Pianoforte, Forte-piano {It.) Ham- merclavier, Fliigel {Ger.) (i) A stringed instrument with a key-board. The name soft- loud was given to it because the gradations of sound are under the control of the performer. (2)- It is a development of the harpsichord, which in itself was an improvement upon the clarichord and spinet, but it differs from each in the manner in which the tone is produced and the strings set in vibration. In the earlier instruments this was effected by the scratch- ing of quills or hard leather, acting as plectra. In the pianoforte the strings are struck by means of hammers. The dulcimer is un- doubtedly the origin of the pianoforte ; in fact, the pianoforte is nothing but a keyed dulcimer. The possession of " keys " and other mechanism often assisted the makers in finding titles for the early instruments. Thus we find key- board instruments called clavicytherium, or keyed cithara ; clavichord, or string struck by means of a key ; virginells or virginal, from the rods attached to the keys ; spinet, from the quills which struck the strings, and clavi- cymbalum, from cembalo one of the Italian titles for a dulcimer. (3) The clavicytherium, clavierharpe, cla- viercither (Ger.) is supposed to be the oldest of the stringed instruments with a key-board. It was at one time arranged in an upright posi- tion, but was afterwards placed in a horizontal position similar to the grand pianoforte of the present day. The earliest representation of the instrument is to be found in the " Musur- gia seu praxis musicse " of Luscinius, Stras- bourg, 1536 ; but the picture, as well as the accompanying description, is very vague, and it is therefore difficult to gain a correct idea of its construction. According to the picture and description, the clavicytherium must have been an oblong box with a lid, having a num- ber of catgut strings arranged in triangular form. When the keys were pressed the strings were set in vibration hy plectra of hard leather. (4) The clavichord, clavicordo (It.), Clavier (Ger.) had strings of wire instead of gut. In other respects it was at first identical with the clavicytherium. The " action was simply a brass wedge or tangent, which was placed vertically at a point where it could be struck or pressed against its proper string; this wedge could be held against the string as long as required by the firm pressure of the finger. It thus formed the wrest-pin for the string, which vibrated only while the key was held down." The shorter length of the string had a cloth or list damper which checked the vibration of the whole length of the string when the finger was raised from the key, allowing the tangent to return to its place. The tangents struck and " stopped " the strings like a violin player's finger, so that more than one sound could be produced from the same string. Forkel says that " Bach delighted in the instrument as he considered it best for study, and, in general, for private musical entertainment. He found it most convenient for the expression of his thoughts, and he did not consider it possible to produce such a variety in the gradations of tone from any harpsichord or pianoforte as from the clavichord." The names clarichord, manichord and monochord were also applied to the clavichord. The clavicymbalum, mentioned above, differed from the clavicytherium and clari- chord in having strings of steel wire, which were set in vibration by means of quill plectra. The clavichord is frequently mentioned by writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies in such a manner as to show that the instrument was in general use at that period. Clavichords were made in Germany as late as the middle of the eighteenth century. The last maker of any note, according to Dr. Rimbault, was Kramer of Gottingen, " some of whose instruments may still occasionally be met with in the old baronial residences with which that romantic country abounds." (5) The virginal, or spinet, used a long time during the same period, gradually super- seded the clavichord in England and else- where. It was an improvement upon the clavicytherium, having brass instead of gut- strings. The plectrum was of quill, attached to the tongue of a piece of wood called " a jack." When the key was struck the jack rose up, forced the quill past the string, and set it in vibration. The quill remained above the string so long as the key was held down. As soon as the finger was moved from the key, the jack returned to its place, when a small cloth damper on its top checked the vibrations of the string. VIRGINAL AND HARPSICHORD JACK. In " Musick's hand-maid, new lessons and instructions for the virginals or harpsichord," ( 349 ) PIANOFORTE. c. 1660, it is said, that " the virginals, accord- ing to the ancient standard, were made to contain 29 keys (with the half notes 48 keys), but of later times they add to that number both above and below." It was usually placed upon a table or stand when performed upon. The instrument was a favourite one in the time of Queen Elizabeth, and continued to be popular until the commencement of the eighteenth century. The virginals or spinets were sometimes highly ornamented with inlaid work of different woods, and sometimes with mother-of-pearl and precious stones. It is needless to say that these ornaments did not improve the tone. A " PAIR OF VIRGINALS." (6) The Spinet, absorbing the title of the Virginal, the instrument next in historical order, differed from the older Virginals in that it was always of a triangular shape. SPINET, OR COUCHED HARP. It had the wires carried over a bent bridge, which modified their sounds. Like the Vir- ginal it was furnished with one string to each note, which string was set in vibration by means of the jack before described. The following is a diagram of the Spinet or Clavichord action. K Key, J Jack, and S String. (7) The Harpsichord, or horizontal Harp, had sometimes two rows of quills and jacks, and there was a contrivance by means of which one set of jacks could be moved out of reach of the strings if the player desired a soft effect. If power was required the me- chanism was moved so that both rows of jacks could act upon the string at once. Additional rows of jacks and additional key- boards were added to^ the Harpsichord until it became a very intricate piece of mechanism. The effects produced were pleasing but very weak. Some Harpsichords had three and even four strings to each note, so arranged that, upon using certain " stops," the octave above or below the strings could be sounded. It was difficult to keep such an instrument in tune. The quills in a well -used instrument required constantrenewal;and, as the process of " quilling" took some hours, tortoiseshell, ivory, and leather plectra were sometimes substituted for quills, but not with any per- manent success. The general appearance of the Harpsi- chord may be imagined from the subjoined drawing of Handel's Harpsichord, presented by Messrs. Broadwood and Sons to the South Kensington Museum. Handel's harpsichord. The action of the Harpsichord may be seen upon reference to the following diagram. K Key, J Jack, S String. Harpsichord makers made many attempts to improve their mechanism so that the per- former might gain expression in playing. ( 3S0 ) PIANOFORTE, Fetis, in his " Sketch of the History of the Pianoforte," says that " Harpsichords were constructed with more than twenty different modifications, to imitate the sound of the harp, the lute, the mandohne, the bassoon, the flageolet, the oboe, the violin, and other instruments. In order to produce these different effects new rows of jacks were added, which were furnished with various materials for dampers ; and yet, with all the complications of stops, springs, extra rows of keys, and Venetian swells over the strings, the grand secret — the real shading of the piano and forte — was still wanting." Godfrey Silbermann of Freyburg, about the middle of the eighteenth century made several improvements in the harpsichord, by lighten- ing the touch, and extending the keyboard. He also advanced one step towards the inven- tion of the pianoforte by constructing his clavecin d'amour in such a manner that the tangent, which he restored, struck the string in the middle, leaving each half to vibrate freely. The compass of the harpsichord, originally only three octaves, was gradually extended to five. Many of the Italian and Dutch harpsi- chords were ornamented with elaborate paint- ings inside the lids, often the work of famous artists. The most famous of the harpsichord makers of England in the last century were Kirkman, Schudi, and Broadwood. (8) It is difficult to determine now who was the original inventor of the pianoforte, as it appears, by the evidence brought forward, to have been conceived by three persons, very nearly, if not actually at one and the same time : a German organist named Schroter, a French harpsichord maker named Marius, and an Italian named Bartolomeo Cristofali. In 1717 Schroter, when only eighteen years of age, constructed the model of a "Clavier," with hammers upon which one could play loudly or softly, which model was exhibited at the Court of. Dresden, and received the approval of the Elector of Saxony. His invention was copied by Silbermann of Strasbourg, Stein of Augsburg, and Spatt of Dresden, without acknowledgment or profit to the author. Silbermann submitted two of his instruments to the judgment of Bach, who praised the mechanism, but found fault with the tone. Silbermann ultimately conquered this defect, and produced an instrument which Bach pronounced faultless. Marius is said to have " submitted two clavecins a maillets to the examination of the Acad6mie des Sciences, in February, 1716." The mechanism was very imperfect ; a piece of wood covered with sheepskin fastened at the end of each key formed the hammers. Cristofali's invention was earlier by five years. It was made known in 171 1, and there is little doubt, from the description of the instrument existing, that, of the above- named makers, Cristofali has the strongest claim to the invention of the pianoforte. The description, which is too long to quote here, is printed in Rimbault's " History of the Pianoforte." It was originally inserted in the " Giornale de Litterati d'ltalia," Venezia, 171 1, and its title runs thus : " Nuova inven- zione d'un gravicembalo, col piano e forte ; aggiunte alcune considerazioni sopra gli strumenti musicali." By this account it is shown that Cristofali made improvements in every part of the instrument. The invention is also claimed for Father Wood, an English monk at Rome, who made a pianoforte in 171 1, and sold it to Samuel Crisp, who re-sold it to Fulke Greville. It admitted of much greater expression than the existing harpsi- chords, but it was incapable of rapid execution. This particular instrument became very cele- brated, and was known as " Mr. Greville's pianoforte." In 1760 some German makers settled in London, and gave an impetus to the new instrument. A succession of improvements were made from time to time by such makers as Broadwood, Erard, Stodart, Clementi, CoUard, Wornum, Hopkinson, Brinsmeadand others, and the instrument has arrived at a wonderful degree of perfection, chiefiy through the labours and thoughtfulness of Englishmen. The compass of the instrument, originally five octaves, has been gradually increased to seven. The mechanism, however varied it may be by the several makers, is as ingenious as it is effective. (g) There are four chief parts of a piano- forte : the back or framework, the sounding- board, the mechanism or action, and the case. The construction of the framework is of great importance, for as it has to bear the enormous tension of the strings, a tension amounting, in a full-sized grand piano, to sixteen tons, it is necessary that it should be strong and durable. The method of " framing," though varied in details by several makers, is upon the same broad plan. " The strings are fastened to pins upon a wrought iron string- plate, which is curved to follow the hollow side of the instrument. From this plate, and fastened to it, metallic bars or tubes are extended parallel to and above the strings, their ends being so connected with the string- plate at one end, and the wrest-plank at the other, as to take upon themselves the whole tension of the strings. At the same time the string-plate, being screwed down firmly upon the wooden bracings or framing below, the whole forms one combined trussing (351 ) PIANOFORTE, lo which both wood and iron contribute to the strength. The reason for the use of so great a quantity of metal in the grand piano is, that the wood framing under the strings is necessarily severed completely across the opening through which the hammers rise to strike the under part of the strings." The bracing or " back-making " is simpler in up- right pianofortes. There is no opening through the framing for the hammers to pass, and there is less strain to be resisted. The "sounding-board," usually made from the best Swiss fir, is carefully selected and pre- pared, and its edges attached to the framing so as to leave the central part to vibrate freely under the strings when they are struck. The " mechanism " or " action," that is, the keys, hammers, and dampers, when inserted in the instrument, leaves it ready for the finisher and tuner. There are differences of detail in the action as constructed by different makers. ' Some are more complicated than others, but all are upon the same broad plan, only modified in shape and arrangement. The following diagram will show the action in use as early as 1777, called the horizontal or common- grand. COMMON ACTION TO GRAND PIANOFORTES. D K Key, H Hammer, E Escapement, J Jack, D Damper, S String. In the " first patent for pianofortes," the above is the drawing as given in the specifi- cation, but no claim is made by any one maker to its invention. VIENNA PIANOFORTE ACTION. D K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, J Jack, S String. The invention of the Vienna action is generally attributed to an organ builder of Augsburg. Its principle of action was adopted by almost all the makers in Germany. (lo)Thefirstpianofortes had the mechanism so arranged that the hammers were raised from below by buttons attached to upright wires fixed at the back ends of the keys. The motion given to the hammers when the keys were pressed caused them to strike the strings, after which they immediately fell back on to their buttons, leaving the struck strings free to vibrate. This was called the " single action." As the hammer, when resting on the button with the key pressed down, was necessarily at a little distance from the string, the effectual working of this action required that a certain impetus should be communi- cated to the hammer to enable it to touch the string. Hence it was next to impossible to play very piano. This defect was remedied by the invention of the " Hopper," a jointed upright piece attached to the back end of the key in place of the wire and button. To prevent the hammer rebounding on the string, a projection called the " check" was fixed on to the end of the key. This caught the edge of the hammer as it fell, and prevented it from rising. In this mechanism it was impossible to repeat a note until time had been allowed for the full rise of the key. This was remedied in " repeating or repetition actions," which hold up the hammers while the key is returning. The upright action was invented for the purpose of constructing pianofortes whose mechanism might be confined within a limited space. By means of this invention a piano- forte can be made which will occupy a space about a fourth of the depth of the "grand." The names given to such instruments are many and sometimes fanciful, though most of them indicate the object for which they were contrived. Many of these upright actions are very ingeniously arranged, as the following diagrams will show. BROADWOOD's upright action. — PLAIN COTTAGE. K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, S String. ( 352 ) PIANOFORTE SCORE PICCOLO FLUTE. BROADWOODS UPRIGHT CHECK ACTION. K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, S String. broadwood's grand action. K Key, H Hammer, S String, The following is a diagram of Erard's action : — PATENT repetition ACTION FOR HORIZONTAL PIANOFORTES. K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, S String. (ii) The strings of the pianoforte are of varying thickness and strength. The bass strings are covered with a fine copper wire to give depth of tone without any very great in- crease of diameter. When the loud pedal is used it raises the dampers, when the soft pedal is pressed down it either shifts the hammers sideways so as to allow them to strike one or two strings at a time, or else the strings are covered with a strip of cloth which deadens the sound. (12) Pianofortes have been named (i) from their shape or supposed resemblance to well known objects. Thus, the grand pianoforte has been caWedSchweinskopf from its likeness to the profile of a pig's head, and FZu^eZ, be- cause it is like a bird's wing. Upright pianos have been called giraffes from their tall appear- ance, and horizontal ones have been called couched harp, or square pianoforte ; the latter should more correctly be oblong; (2) the number of strings used for each note for a considerable part of the compass also serves to describe pianos of some sort, as bi-chord, tri-chord, &c. ; (3) the purpose for which pianos have been made, whether for the cottage, boudoir, drawing-room, or concert- room, and (4) the size, as piccolo, semi-grand, and full grand. Pianoforte score. A score of a vocal or instrumental composition, under which is written in two lines a condensed form of the harmonies for the use of a pianoforte. Pianograph. An ingenious machine, which on being attached to a pianoforte, in- scribed what is played. Invented by M. Gu6rin. Piatti {It.) [Cymbals.] Pibroch. The wild, irregular martial music of the Scottish Highlanders played on the bagpipe. The term is also figuratively employed for the instrument itself. " Cast your plaids, draw your blades Forward each man set ; Pibroch of Donuil Dhu Knell for the onset." — Scott. The pibroch style of music is irregular in rhythm, and, according to Sir Walter Scott, those learned in the matter affect to discover in it a well-composed representation of the sounds of a march, attack, flight, pursuit, and all the conflict of a " heady fight." The pibroch has so peculiar a connection with the bagpipe that it could scarcely have preceded the use of that instrument, therefore, the pibroch called the " Battle of Harlaw," and supposed to have been written at the time of the struggle [1411], is probably of later date, as the old chroniclers and the ballad de- scriptive of the scene mention only trumpets and horns as being there used. [Bag- pipe.] Picciolo {It.) Small ; a small-sized fiddle. as, violino picciolo. Piccolo. An organ stop of 2 ft. length— the pipes are of wood, the tone bright and piercing. Piccolo flute, or piccolo. A small flute, having the same compass as the ordinary orchestral flute, but whose sounds are one ( 353 ) PICCO PIPE PITCH. octave higher than the notes as they are written. Its compass may be said to be from chord playing, indicated by the signs here shown : nt "even one note Tiigher, but the lowest octave is so weak as to be far more effective When played by the higher Octave of the common flute, and the uppet notes are so Shrill as to be Only available in fortissimo tutti passages, or for peculiar and striking effects. Both Gluck and Beethoven use it in representing a storm, the former in his " Iphigenia in Tauris," the latter in his " Pastoral Symphony." Spontini combines the short piercing scream of the piccolo with the crash of cymbals in his " Danai'des." The tendency of modern orchestral writers is to use the piccolo too often, and in inappro- priate passages. It should be reserved for rare and special effects. Picco pipe. A small pipe having two ventages above and one below. It , is blown by means of a mouthpiece like a JlMe a bee or whistle ; and in playing, the little finger is used for varying the pitch by being inserted in the end. The player, Picco, after whom it was named, produced a compass of three octaves from this primitive instrument. Piccorn. Lit., horn-pipe. [Horn-pipe.J Piece (Fr.) A piece, as suites des pieces, sets of pieces. [Suite.] Pieds [Fr.) The feet, as, avec les pieds, with the feet, con peddle. Pieno, Plena {It?} Full; as, a piena orchestra, for a full band. Pietosamente^ Pietoso {It.) With pity, tenderly. Piffaro, or Pifiero {li.) The old form of the oboe, still in use in some districts of Italy and the Tyrol, formerly called the schalmy. [Oboe.] Piffarari, or Pifferari {It.) Players on the piffaro. PifFerino {It.) A little piffero. PifFero (7^) [Piffaro.] Pileata {Lat.) Capped (of an organ pipe). Stopped. Pileata major. i6 feet stopped. Pileata minor. 4 feet stopped. Pileata diapente. Stopped quint. Pinc6 {Fr.) Pinched, (i) A direction in French music equivalent to pizzicato, q.v. (2) The name of an ornament in harpsi- ( 354 ) The first was called pince simple, the second pince double. The note of ornament of the pinc6 was below the note written, while the added note in the tremhlement was above. A pinc6 or trill with a flattened note. Pince bemolise {Ft^ An ornament in harpsichord playing Pinc6 di6s6 (Fr.) A pinc6 or trill with a sharpened note written thus : — played thus : — T Pincement {Fr.) [Pinc6.] Piqu6 {Fr.) On string-instruments a kind of bowing, by which a staccato is produced by allowing the bow to lie perfectly still on the string between each separate note. It is written with dots and a slur, thus : It is also called spiccato. Piquiren {Ger.) To play piqui. Pitch, (i) The position of a sound with reference to the number of vibrations which produce it. The relative height of a sound. It is much to be regretted that one standard of pitch has not been universally adopted. The following Table selected from that given in the "Journal of the Society of Arts" (June 6, i860), and from other sources, will show some of the variations. The number of vibrations in each case represent the note PITCH-PIPE ^PLAGIAULUS. No. of Vibs. Paris Grand Opera, i6gg 404 Ditto 1858. 448 French " Diapason Normal " (gene- rally adopted) .„ 435 Handel's tuning fork (c. 1740) 416 Sir George Smart's " Philharmonic" fork (early in this century) 433 Italian Opera (London), 1859 455 Scheibler's pitch (recommended by the Society of Arts) 440 It will be seen from the above that the tendency-to raise the pitch has been arrested in France, and to a great extent in this country also. The chief obstacle to the in- troduction of a lower pitch at our Operas seems to be the witid-itistrumetds^ An at- tempt to use the French pitch, lately made at Her Majesty's Opera, had only the unfor- tunate result of putting everybody thoroughly out of tune. For valuable information on this subject, the reader is referred to Mr. Ellis's XIX Appendix to his translation of Helmholtz. (2) The method, now generally adopted, of showing the particular octave in which a sound occurs, is as follows : — fe T _ ^j ^ , ^J 1^^ ^•^ -, " " CD E F G A B (Great ocUveJ c d V f g a b (Small ocUve.) ^ /rs <^ '^ T -7n — ^ — ^^ g)^^^.. ^ -L^ /' g- <»' b (Once-accented octave.) i" t" j" g" a" b"&c (Tydce-accented octave.) Sounds in the octave next telow the great octave C, D, and so on. Sounds above the twice-accented octave c" d" and so on. The pitch of organ pipes is, however, still named after the old system, as follows : — i^^Svelower.) CCC (or) ififtC (orj Three C's CC 8ft C Double C ^^ C 4fiC Tenor C. iftC Treble C The octave below CCC being CCCC, and that above c in alt, c in altissimo. Pitch-pipe. A wooden -pipe having a moveable stopper or tampion with marks, showing where it should be placed for the production of different notes of the scale. This form of pipe has been almost entirely superseded by an ingenious invention known as " Eardsley's Patent." It consists of a free reed capable of being lengthened or shortened by a graduated curve, on which are registered the notes of the scale. Pi^ (It.) More, as piil allegro, faster; piti forte, louder ; piU lento, slower ; piU piano, softer; piU presto, more rapid; piii stretto., more urged or closer ; piU tosto allegro^ rather quick. Piva {It.) A bagpipe. Pizz. Abbreviation oi pizzicato. Pizzicato {It.), Pince {Fr.), Gekneipt (Ger.) Lit. pinched. A direction to violinists to produce the tone by plucking the string with the finger instead of using the bow. The place at which the use of the bow is to be resumed, is pointed out by the words coll' arco, or simply arco. Placidamente, Placido {It.) Quietly, peacefully, placidly. Plagal. The name given to those Church modes which were formed from the four older or authentic modes by taking the fourth below as the new key-note, and proceeding thence to the fifth above, e.g. : Authentic. Flagal. The plagal modes were distinguished by the addition of vvo, e.g. : Doric, an authentic mode ; Hypodoric, a plagal mode formed from the Doric. [Plain Song.] Plagal cadence. The cadence formed when a subdominant chord immediately pre- cedes the final tonic chord, e.g. : m The plagal cadence of the old church writers corresponded more to the modem half-close, which is formed when the final chord is dominant, and is preceded by a tonic chord, e.g.: Plagiaulus (_Gk.) ir\ayiav\oe, {Lat.) Tibia ( 355 ) PLAIN-CHANT PLAIN SONG. ohliqua. The cross-flute, or fiauto traverse. [Flute.] Plain-Chant. [Plain Song.] Plain Song. The kind of music used from time immemorial in the worship of the ancient Jewish or Israelitish Church, as well as among all the churches of Christendom throughout the world. The first principles of all music being found in nature, and its various forms having been gradually evolved by scientific and artistic in- dustry and research from those principles, there must necessarily be found much of co- incidence, and similarity, if not an actual identity, in the practical results of such in- quiries and experiments. Hence it is not strange to find some Greek Music traced to the Hebrew, nor that of the early Christian Church to both. In fact, so far as in any country the natural development of the musical art has grown up healthily, according to its inner principle of life, there can be little doubt that, in all essential particulars (al- lowing, of course, a certain amount of charac- teristic individuality) there will be so much of resemblance to that of other countries as to lead historians (rather too fondly) to trace a parentage and- derivation, where, be the fact as it may, neither are necessary to account for the likeness. The Plain Song of the Christian Church is a well known, and uni- versally practised form of musical accent, recitation, and simple melody, written records of which are extant dating from the eighth century; and these are themselves records of Christian Plain Song of still earlier times, of which some, it is not unreasonable to be- lieve, are the, very melodies sung by Our Lord Jesus Christ and His Apostles, and of Templar origin. The music of the Christian Church, like the gospel itself, was doubtless propagated orally, and by tradition, in the first years of its history ; and as in the New Testament traces are discoverable of a primitive liturgy and hymnody, so we also find in early writers indications of certain efforts to fix and rule the vocal performance of these, by an ap- pointed choral arrangement, with somewhat of a scientific connection. One point of primary importance in this respect would naturally be the pitch most convenient for the singing of the various parts of Divine Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual Songs ; the relation in which the several parts of the service, musically considered, were to stand to each other ; as also the interchanges to be made as to singing, either by course in alternate choirs, or by the clergy and people, in solo or in chorus. The writings of the New Testament and of the early Fathers are not without various interesting indications, both of the important functions discharged by vocal music in Chris- tian worship', and also of various ritual uses ; in such wise, moreover, as excited then, as they do now, the approval and admiration of some, the indignation and blame of others. Thus, " Sabellius and Marcellus took oc- casion to incense the Church of Neocesarea '(a.d. 363), against their Bishop S. Basil, as being an author of new devices in the service of God," when he introduced the antiphonal chanting after the custom of Antioch, where it had been taught by S. Ignatius, a contem- porary and disciple of the Apostles, specially of S. John. S. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, was a great admirer of S. Basil, and intro- duced the same kind of chanting into his church as had originally prevailed in the East, as we learn from S. Basil's refutation of the heretics' charge of novelty and singu- larity, alleging the example, not only of the Church at Antioch, but also "of the Churches of Egypt, Lybia, Thebes, Palestine, the Arabians, Phoenicians, Syrians, Mesopota- mians, and of all that reverenced the custom of singing Psalms together." Here, it would seem, we have ample grounds for the very general belief that in setting the music at first traditionally sung to various Psalms and Hymns, and the portions specially vocal in their Liturgies, the characters then used in noting music would be taken advantage of, to fix and perpetuate the arrangements of the early Christian music to the words. But the notation of the most artistic music then known was the Greek, which, like other refinements, was also at first used by the Romans, and subsequently improved by the use of the Roman letters, instead of the more complicated Greek cha- racters. But with the Greek notation would, to a great extent, be adopted Greek modes of arrangement, and Greek notions as to the construction of the scales in which any chant, antiphon, or hjonn tune might most fitly be said to stand. If its general character, e.g., were major or minor, a similar mode or scale of the Greek music would be selected, and to this it would be assigned, just as in the pre- sent day a modern musician's arrangement of any ancient melody would, in the absence of any other system to which he might be able to assign it, necessarily be in the modern major or minor scale. But in our inquiries as to the ancient Plain Song, we must always remember that both it and the Greek modes were founded simply on melodic, and not on harmonic considerations, in our present meaning of those terms. With their usual (356) PLAIN SONG. acumen, the Greeks, in their diatonic, chro- matic, and enharmonic genera, analyzed all the tone modulations of the human voice, with a discrimination most admirable, and effects most wonderful, as all are ready to admit who have studied their theoretic trea- tises, and the accounts recorded of the practical results of their performances ; re- sults, it may be suggested, such as poetic, oratorical, and musical recitation can even now occasionally produce in the case of sing-'s of rare eloquence and sympathetic voices, on an appreciating and impressible audience. Sentiment and feeling, the soul and spirit of all true music, are not confined to any set of outward appliances, however vast, as in the present orchestra ; but may be felt in the impassioned delivery of a Simple Plain Song, or the thrilling notes of an unaccom- panied solo instrument. It is probable that the first kind of musical notes used by the Christian Church, called pneums (from the Greek -Trvlvfia, breath) were derived from the Greek characters, after the fashion of the Hebrew accents for reading. The diatonic genus of the Greek music most nearly re- sembled (if it was not, in some modes, identical with it) the tonality of the Christian Plain Song and the ancient Hebrew music, of which it was, in part undoubtedly, the traditional record and sacred depository after the dispersion of the Jews and the conse- quent disuse by them of their Temple music, which, in their state of humiliation, they deemed it unlawful any more to sing. What music they now practice in their synagogues is still, however, eminently of the same, character as the ancient Plain Song of the Christians. The fact above stated forestalls any objection that might be . made from the modern Jews not now using them, to the be- lief that the well-known Ecclesiastical Psalm Tones have descended, through the " ages all along," the thirty centuries from the days of King David, the sweet singer of Israel, in an unbroken tradition, to our own day. The sources of information as to the history of Plain Song, in addition to the various re- ferences scattered throughout the early writers and Fathers of the Church, may be found in the voluminous pages oiBurney and Hawkins in English, and o{ Gerbertus in Latin ; as also in the original authors quoted by them, specially the Septem Scriptores Antiqui of Meibomius ; in the French Histoire deL' Har- monic au Moyen Age, by E. De Coussemaker ; in the XXIXth Vol. of the Nouvelle Ency- clop&die Theologique, edited by M. L'Abbe Migne, being a Dictionnaire de Plain Chant, et de Musique Religieuse ; in the pages of Alfieri, La Feill6, Clement, Janssen, Lambil- lotte, Alix, and in English in the various editions of Latin service and instruction books by Lambert, Benz, Chas. Child Spencer, and the prefaces to the Rev. T. Helmore's Accompanying Harmonies to the Psalter Noted and Hymnal Noted ; more satisfac- torily still in the MS. and printed books of Plain Song in various libraries at home and abroad. The subject is very wide, and can- not easily be studied without a large acquaint- ance with the numerous books of Ritual music, both of the present time, and of all the centuries backwards, till the very first in which any written remains of Plain Song can be discovered. A sketch of what may be gathered as the result of such an investigation is all that can be here at- tempted. Plain Song, then, it may be stated, is a definite, well known system of Church Song, which all Catholic musicians are obliged by their duties to study, and from which all the great composers, down to our own times, have more or less tinctured their highest and best compositions. It has already been stated that the ancient church modes of the Plain Song or Gre- gorian music had their prototypes, if not their very birth, from the Diatonic genus of the Greeks. Perhaps it would be more true, and in accordance with the notions before ex- pressed, to say that the Greek Diatonic genus was identical with the ancient Hebrew music, and with that of the Christian Church which perpetuated it. Here, then, is a digest of what can be gathered from ancient writers as to the Greek Diatonic scale. It embraces fifteen sounds, which practi- cally might be produced by the strings of a harp, fifteen in number ; or by the voice of any man of ordinary medium vocal power. It is divided into tetrachords, or divisions of four sounds each, — beginning, not on the first of the system, which (as its name im- plies) was originally an extra note added be- low, but on the second, or B. In the lower nine sounds the second and third tetrachords are reckoned to begin, each upon the fourth sound of the foregoing ; and are therefore styled conjoined tetrachords. The first pair of tetrachords is also succeeded by a tetra- chord, an octave above the first, beginning on the sound next to the fourth of the second tetrachord, and consequently denominated the disjoined tetrachord. Then a fifth tetra- chord occupied the highest part of the system ; all which will be better seen and understood by Diagram I., in which the Greek names for the various sounds (written in English letters) are given, with a translation of their characteristic nomenclature. ( 357 ) PLAIN SONG. DIAGRAM I. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV Conjc ined Tetracho rds. Supreme Tetrach 3rd. La, Si, Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol la si do re nu. ta sol la Disjoined Tetrachord. /■_S. n u II ((*;. rj J 11 nJ^ ("J fr rj V n H «-< -e- I 2 3 4. I 2 3 4 I 2 3 4- I z 3 4- I 2 3 4- "tf m •13 r a' 3 •-»» r* CD p« 3 o CO ct ►^ ^ 3* CD b" 3* CD 3 o CD p r1- 3. •1 3- O 3' a 5' •3 5' o o 31 3 3* n> 3 ct P 3 3. 3 2. •3 3 CD 3 ft- 3 CO ct •n 3* «D 3- Ct ^; o 3 cn? O •-*) 3* p" ca a 03 CO O 'o' o ff o 3" O 3 CD ct 3* O 1 P o 3- o p- •3 a. 3 13 3. 3 o 3 E*' 3 3* CD 3 CD P 3 f-h CD f-r- 3 s- o 3 f b •a 3. CD e- Ct 3 s- o. Bl •- r+ 3- CD o" 5' CD CD s- o p- o 3* CD sr % J? y- 3* CD R. P o O 3 a y- CU. CV S o 3- o CU N.B. — The accents and prosodaic marks are here used simply for the English reader. They are not Greek. It will soon be seen that these same fifteen natural notes are those from which the Church modes are all constructed. The musical theorists who, about the eighth century, dis- puted as to the number of modes or scales to be recognized in Church music, seem to have laiid down the principle that a 'scale or mode must consist of the combination of a perfect fifth ^diapente) with a perfect fourth (diates- saron). The division of a scale into these two component parts might be made so as to have either a diapente or a diatessaron in the lower position. The division which had the fifth in the lower and the fourth in the higher place was called Harmonic, as being that which music naturally suggests ; and the other division of the eight notes of a scale where the fourth was in the lower, and the fifth in the upper portion was called arithmeti- cal, because, in the science of numbers, the greater numbers take precedence of the less, and are counted their superiors. This fan- ciful nomenclature is mild in comparison with many other conceits and far-fetched analogies of ancient theorists. The Church modes, then, are formed of the seven natural notes of the scale and their octaves, beginning upon any one of the seven,, and extending to its octave, subject to the rule just stated that the fifths and fourths, of which any scale was composed must he. perfect. Now the Church melodies were generally contained within the compass of an octave or a little more. Some had a much less range from the highest to the lowest notes. When. (358) PLAIN SONG. the melody ascended to the fifth above the final and the fourth above the fifth, and did not descend below the final, it was said to be authentic; when it extended to a fifth above the final and a fourth below it, it was called plagal. The sounds of which these two sorts of melodies consisted being set down in orderly succession from the lowest to the highest, naturally arranged themselves into two corresponding classes ; and the ecclesiastical modes are therefore matched, or (as mediaeval writers have termed it) wedded to one another in pairs, authentic and plagal, in which male and female charac- teristics are respectively developed. Now, taking the notes before given as the Greek Diapason, and supposing any Antiphon or other piece of Plain Song to descend to the lowest note A, and, after ascending by various intervals to the A an octave above it, to settle do^vn and close on D, we should, accord- ingly, by arranging these sounds in an orderly sequence from the lowest to the highest, have a scale whose final or closing note is D, and its range of notes from A to A, and this, as before explained, would be the lower, collateral, and plagal scale or mode of another beginning on D, the final, and rising to its octave, which would be its own proper authentic, or ruling and authoritative mode. Such, in fact, are the first two modes of the Gregorian Plain Song, and the pair, as husband and wife, have reciprocal functions, and though two, are yet one by participation of one common bond of union, viz., the diapente D, E, F, G, A. In Diagram II, we see, then, the 1 1 notes of the Darian Modes, Authentic and Plagal, called the ist and 2nd. The 1st is authentic, and ranges from the 4th to the nth note, having a perfect fifth from D to A, which same fifth is the upper part of the plagal mode. From A the 8th to D the I ith is a perfect fourth, and thus fulfils the requirements before mentioned as essen- tials of a Church mode ; while the same law is obeyed in the case of the 2nd or plagal mode, as from A the ist to D the 4th is the required perfect diatessaron. The terms hyper (above), and hypo {below), are used to distinguish the two, though the hyper is often omitted as unnecessary ; and besides, it seems to have been used in another way by some of the Greek writers. We are told that in Charlemagne's reign (about A.D. 768) a great dispute arose as to the allowable number of the modes, and that the Emperor at first decided in favour of the first eight alone ; but that on the remon- strance of the malcontents, the gth, loth* nth, and 12th, were also allowed. The ritual books of the church have, however, been generally arranged for the eight tones only, and those portions of the Plain Song which formerly were assigned to the gth, loth, nth, and I2th modes were so re-arranged by a transposition, as to appear to have been com- posed in some one or other of the first eight ; though a careful inspection of these trans- positions will serve to show that the means at command were not (while no other change of sound was allowable than the B flat) sufficient to effect a /lez/gcf transposition. This will appear in the subsequent examples. DIAGRAM II. 1st AND 2nd MODES. Dorian or Hyper-Dorian, and Hypo-Dorian. I 2 3 4 ~^|5 6 V 5 JL 4 5 5 4 -■. ■ ■ ■ 1 1 I A I 2 B 2 3 C 3 4 D 4 5 E 5 6 F 6 7 8 a 8 b 9 c 10 d A II D a D a. d 3rd AND 4th MODES. Th« next pair is the Phrygian, thus : — Phrygian or Hyper-Phrygian, and Hypo-Phrygian. Final E. 6 7 8 4 5 « 5 .4"-- ■tiS I 2 3 -4- ~^S -jj 1* ^ I B I ■ 2 c 2 , 3 D 3 4 E 4 S 6 G 6 7 a 7 8 b 8 c 9 d 10 e II B E b Arithmetical Division. E B e Harmonic Division. ( 359 ) PLAIN SONG. Thes e are the 5th AND 6th MODES. Lydian or Hyper-Lydian, and Hypo- Lydian. Final F. I 2 3 4 5 678 ■ ■»J^ 4 5_ 5_4-". ~ "" " II '|V D 2 Phe 1 ■ 1 ■ C I r E 3 Mixo- I 2 F G 4 5 Lydian or 345678 CFc Fcf A B c d e f Arithmetical Harmonic 678 g 10 II Division. Division. 7th AND 8th MODES. Hyper-Mixo-Lydian, and the Hypo-Mixo-Lydian. Final G. N I 2 3 4 5 ' I - -m- »- '^ 4 5« S«4"5' ■ ■ 1 1 ■■ II I.S _ ■ 1 _ 1 ~ II I D 2 E 3 F 12 3 4 5 678 45678 9 10 II GABCd efg gth AND lOth MODES. rhe Aolian or Hyper-^Siolian, and Hypo D G d G d g Arithmetical Harmonic Division. Division. -^olian. Final A. "N I 2 3 4 5 6 7 £ m -m- ^ 4 5_^ 5_4-«. » — 11 1 _ B 11 1 ■ f ■ II ■ E I F 2 G 3 I 2 A B 4 S C D e 678 678 f g a g 10 II E A e Arithmetical Division. A e ^ Harmonic Division. B cannot become the final of a mode as the 4th below it is F, and the interval a pluper- fect 4th, and the 5th above it is also F, and the interval an imperfect 5th. nth AND I2th MODES. The Ionian (or lastian) or Hyper-Ionian for Hyper-Iastian), and Hypo-Ionian (or Hypo- lastian). Final C. I 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 ^ -O- -■. 4 5 5_ 4-M- 11 — 1 ■ «• 1 — 1 _ II 1^ 11 ■ 1 ■ II ■ G A B I C 2 D 3 E 4 F 5 g 6 a 7 b 8 c G C g Arithmetical Divisioil. C g c Harmonic Division. Thus it will be seen that the ancient system of scales took every one of the six natural notes on which the union of the per- fect diatessaron and perfect diapente can be effected as the final of a pair of modes, thus placing the diatonic intervals of tone and semitone in every possible position with respect to the two tetrachords of each, and of the final of each pair. There was yet another method of securing to each mode its own characteristic features, by which it is clearly to be discerned from all the rest. In each there is a note higher than the final which assumes the next importance to it, from being another point of sound about which the melodies principally, as it were, revolved, and on which the voice more fre- quently and (in the case of the recitation of any psalm, antiphon, or canticle) most con- tinuously dwelt. From thus predominating over the other sounds of each scale it is called the Dominant. But it must not be confounded with what in general is now understood by that term, nor with the har- monic associations which it suggests to the mind of a modern musician. In every authentic mode the dominant is the 5th above the final, except in the third mode, where B, the fifth, being a changeable note, i.e., sometimes natural and sometimes flat, and also standing, unlike any other note in the scales, at the forbidden interval of a tritone, or pluperfect fourth from the F below it, and of an imperfect fifth from the F above it, is rejected, and C, the nearest sound to it, is the dominant, being a minor 6th above the final E. In the six plagal modes the dominant is the third note in the scale below the dominant of each relative authentic mode, except in the 8th, where B, the 3rd below D, is also on the same grounds discarded for C. (360) PLAIN SONG. DIAGRAM III. Finals. 1. Authentic, Hyper-Dorian d 2. Plagal, Hypo-Dorian A B c d ^ Dom. ^-^ . f g a b c e f g a 3. Authentic, Hyper- Phrygian e f g a b ^-^ Dom. c d e f g a b Dom. C d 4. Plagal, Hypo-Phrygian B 5. Authentic, Hyper-Lydian f S "• , — s Dom. , — ^ _ 6. Plagal, Hypo-Lydian c d e f g a b c — — — Dom. Dom. bed 7. Authentic, Hyper-Mixo-Lydian g 8. Plagal, Hypo-Mixo-Lydian d e f g abed Dom. abed Dom. g. Authentic, Hyper-^olian abode Dom. 10. Plagal, Hypo-.^olian e f g a b c d e Dom. 11. Authentic, Hyper-Ionian or lastian c d e f g e f e f g f g a Dom. d e^'f g 12. Plagal, Hypo-Ionian or lastian g Thus A is the Final of the gth and loth, and Dominant of the ist, 4th, and 6th. „ C „ nth „ I2th „ ,, 3rd, 5th, 8th, and loth. „ D „ 1st „ 2nd „ „ 7th. ,, E „ 3rd ,, 4th „ „ gth and I2th. )> F „ 5th „ 6th „ „ 2nd. „ G „ 7th „ 8th „ „ nth. The following formula committed to memory will be of immense use in grasping the otherwise troublesome varieties of the Church modes. Finals D D, E E, F F, G G, A A, c, c. Dominants A / c a c a d c e c g e Mode No. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 [N.B. — The dominants spell the mnemonic word Afcacad[e]cecge.] Of this ancient system the German Pro- fessor of Music at the University of Berlin, Dr. Adolph Bernhard Marx, justly remarks that its " profound ideality is undeniable," and while thoroughly imbued with the notions and feelings of a modem, confesses that in many points it displays nicer distinctions and more striking characteristics than our own. Whatever view, however, may be true with regard to the discoveries and improve- ments of the musical art in our day, it is certain that for sacred music generally, and for Church music in particular, the study of Plain Song as it has come down to us, with all the hallowed associations of a definite history of twelve centuries and with an in- definite period of great extent before them, together constituting a sequence of near upon three thousand years' use in the highest acts of human concern, cannot be neglected with- out much injury to the sentiment and feeling of composers, and a secularising of Church music, both in its composition and in the style of its execution, highly to be deprecated by every true lover of Sacred Art, and of the Christian Church throughout the world. (361 ) PLAIN SONG PLANXTIES. It remains to say a few words on the time, accent, rhythm, and metre of Plain Song, all of which have unfortunately suffered much in the opinion of mankind by being misunder- stood in theory, and dreadfully distorted in practice. It is the opinion of those who, like Cousse- maker, have most deeply studied the subject, that there was by no means that monotonous equality in the length of the notes, which we have found practised and thought right since the Plain Song of the Church has been so generally neglected for more strictly mensur- able modern compositions. A manifest tendency has long existed to lengthen the short notes of ancient MSS., in orderprobablythattheaccompanyingorganists may give (as they intend) a greater dignity to the solemn march of their harmonies, and get rid of the charming varieties of what may be styled the bars, speaking after the fashion of modern music. Two striking instances of this will explain what is meant better than further description. There is in the British Museum, among the Lansdown MSS. (No. 463), a fine well- written copy of the ancient Sarum Anti- phonary ; and in the Bodleian Library, Ox- ford, there is a corresponding MS. most splendidly written, which formerly belonged to Archbishop Laud ; in both of these the writer of this article has found very many notes short {i.e., the ♦ ♦ diamond shaped semibreve) where in the printed folio (c 35 I., Paris, 1519. 20 B. M.), they are changed into breves thus ■ ■. The difference thus made in the music may be compared to an altera- tion of all the quavers in " God save the Queen " into crotchets ! Another instance of the same perverse treatment may be seen in the version of the melody "Veni, veni, Emmanuel," set to the words "O come, O come, Emmanuel," in Hymns AiicientandModern{^o.2fi,firsit\xa€), where all the short notes, originally printed (in the Hymnal Noted) correctly from the MS. copied by the late J. M. Neale from a French Missal in the National Library, Lisbon, are deliberately, and of set purpose, turned into long ones, seemingly to avoid the interspersion of a triple bar, in several places, among the duple or quadruple measures. See Hymnal Noted, "Veni, veni, Emmanuel," 65 Ac. Har., p. 213, " Draw nigh, draw nigh, Emmanuel." The time or rhythm of the Plain 'Song, where best understood and properly rendered, is a most entire and definite flow of melody in accordance with the accents of the words and the construction of the musical phrase combined. The fullest development of this is perhaps in the Ancient Metrical Hymns, in which the varied prosodaic metres are always complied with by the Plain Song, the accents of which correspond to those of the words ; and the notes fall into what we should now call bars, sometimes regular in their formation, and of one time, but often in duple and triple forms mixed. There is, to the lovers of Plain Song who have caught the spirit and intention of its various phrases, a charming variety and freedom from stiffness in these changes of measure, somewhat akin to the pleasure we derive in verse from similar departures from one stereotyped succession of accents or quantities. For example, after the regular iambics of this couplet— " Thro' life's long day and death's dark night, w I yJ f f^ tut O gentle Jesus, be our light — " how pleasing is the introduction of the trochee in the beginning of the next verse : " Labour is sweet for thou hast toiled." Something of the same kind seems to occur, in such a phrase as this, put into measured time, as it should be sung from the usual notes of the Gregorian Plain Song. folii gifts impart. In conclusion, it may be remarked that the more highly people are educated in all that concerns the employment of art in the Ser- vice of the Church, and the more deeply they enter into the rationale of the use of music as the handmaid of religion, the better will they appreciate the value of Plain Song, the better will they execute it, and the better too will they know and feel what other music is fittest, and really the best, to stand side by side with it in the Lord's House, as the offering of the first-fruits of man's highest art and most exquisite skill, to Him from whom all skill and all talent are derived, and who will be worshipped by each according to that he hath, be it little or much. The Plain Song of the Church gives all who can sing the best means of discharging this sacred duty. Plainte (Fr.) An elegy, or lament. Plaisanterie, or Pleasantrie. A kind of concerto for a solo instrument, in which various cheerful tunes or dance melodies were introduced. Planxties, or Laments. Certain melodies were so called by Irish and Welsh harpers. They were not always of the doleful character their name would seem to imply. (362 ) PLAQUE POLACCA. Plaqu6 (Fr.) Struck at once. A direction that a chord is not to be played arpeggio. Play-house Tunes. Musical composi- tions performed between the acts of the tragedies or comedies in the old theatres of London. After the Restoration, music became more general as a relief to the performers and the performances in theatres ; compositions, called Playhouse or Act Tunes, were written and played in concert, and not in unison as formerly, and the theatre music was of a superior character. " Insomuch," says Sir John Hawkins, " that to say of a performer on any instrument that he was a playhouse musician, or of a song that it was a playhouse song, or a playhouse tune, was to speak of each respectively in terms of the highest commendation." The most popular were the " Genius of England," Madame Subligny's " Minuet," the " Louvre " (or " Loure,") and many others. The principal composers of this kind of music were Mr. John Reading, John Bannister, Godfrey Fringer, Matthew Lock, Henry and John Eccles, Raphael Courteville, &c. A coranto written by Bui- strode Whitelock, one of the Lords Commis- sioners of Charles H., in conjunction with Henry Lawes, was played at the theatres for more than thirty years regularly " by the Blackfriars musicians, esteemed the best in London." Plectrum (Lat.) irXijicTpov. A little staff made of ivory, horn, quill, or metal, with which (having it in his right hand) the player on a lyra or cithara, set the strings in vibra- tion. It cannot yet be said to be obsolete, inasmuch as one is used by the performer on a modern mandolin and zither. From the method of using a plectrum to the cithara, the more perfect instrument, the dulcimer (Hackbrett), probably took its origin; and from the dulcimer came the spinet, harp- sichord, and eventually the pianoforte. But it should be remembered that while the quill of a harpsichord plucks, as it were, a stn'ng, just as a plectrum would, the hammer of a pianoforte strikes the string. The p]f;i;1i'jni was not invariably used by the JU-!( ients, for some of the paintings discovered Ht Heiculaneum depict citharists using the eijjs of their fingers. J Mc.in jeu (Fr.) With the full power. l'Ui:a {Lat.) A term used by the old vriteis on mensurable music, the exact weaning of which it is difficult to discover. Fraii(;o of Cologne (Gerbertus, Script, iii. 6) say.'i, " Plica est nota divisionis ejusdem loni in gravem et acutam" (PHca is a sign of the division of the same note into a higher and lower sound). This would seem to describe it as an ornament or grace. Joannes de Muris says, " Plica dicitur a pHcando, et continet notas duas, unam superiorem et aliam inferiorem " (Plica is so called from plicando, folding, and it contains two notes, one higher, the other lower). This would make plica a part of the system of ligatures. At other times the word seems used by old authors as synonymous with cauda or vir- gula, a stem. Ploke {Gk.), ■n-XoKTi. [Melopoeia.] Plures ex una (Lat.) Many parts from one. The old name of a canon because originally written only on one line. Plus (Fr.) More, as, plus anime, more animated, with greater spirit. Pneuma. [Neuma.] Pneumatic bellows. [Organ, § 12.J Pneumatic Organ. Organum pneu- maticum. The ordinary organ as opposed to the ancient hydraulic organ, or organum hydraulicum, in which water was uspd, not as was popularly supposed at the time, for the purpose of entering the sound-boards or pipes, but to act as a regulator of the pressure of. air. [Organ.] Pocetta {It.) [Poche.] Poche, Pochette {Fr.) A little fiddle used by dancing-masters. [Kit.] Pochettino, Pochette {It.) A little, as, ritard un pochettino, making a slight rallen- tando. Poco {It.) A little, as poco a poco, little, by little ; poco animato, rather animated ; poco lento, rather slow ; mosso poco meno,, rather less quick ; poco piano, rather soft ; poco piu allegro, rather faster; poco presto,, somewhat rapid. Poggiato {It.) Leant upon, dwelt upon. Ppi {It.) Then, as piano pot fortCy soft then loud. Poi segue, then follows. Point (Fr.) A dot. Point d'orgue (Fr.) A pedal- point. [Fugue.] Point de repos (Fr.) A pause. Point6 {Fr.) Dotted. Polacca (7i.) Polish. A title applied to melodies written in imitation of Polish dance tunes. It is synonymous with the French word polonoise, or polonaise. It is a term of modern introduction, as neither Brossard^ Grassineau, nor Rousseau, have the word in their dictionaries. KoUmann on " Style and National Music," describes it as " a particular characteristic piece in f time, and its move- ment like a majestic but fluent andante or andantino. It deviates from the general rule respecting simple measure in making every rhythmical cassure, not on the first, but on the last time or crotchet in the bar." In No. 3 of Handel's twelve grand con- certos is a polonaise or polacca, of a slightly different rh3rthm, and there are other polaccas (363) POLKA POSITIVE ORGAN. which differ still more from the model described above. Polka. A dance of world-wide popularity, the music to which is in -^ time, with the third quaver accented. There are three steps in each bar, the fourth beat is always a rest, the three steps are performed on the three first beats of every bar. It is stated that Anna Slezak, a farm servant at Elbeteinitz, near Prague, invented the polka about 1830. The room in which she was accustomed to dance being of small dimensions, the movements of her feet were short, and so the dance was called the "Pulka" dance, that is the "half" dance. The title was changed when it was introduced into France, as were also the steps and the character of the dance. In Bohemia, where it is said to have originated, it is danced with a peculiar alternative of hurrying and halting steps to which the music has to be accom- modated. It was brought into England about the year 1843, and was received with an extra- ordinary enthusiasm by all classes. It effected a revolution in the style of dancing which had prevailed up to that period. Country- dances and quadrilles were even performed with livelier steps than hitherto, for the polka was so popular that it absorbed every other dance for a time. Articles of food, of clothing, and of ornament, were named after it. Comic songs and farces were written on the polka- mania, as it was called. To such a height did this absurd fancy reach, that public- houses were called the " Polka Arms," and newly-built streets " Polka " terraces or cres- cents. When the mania subsided these names were altered to titles less suggestive of a passing folly. Polonaise or Polonoise (Fr.) [Polacca.] Polychord. An instrument invented by Fried. Hillmer of Leipzig, in 1799. It was strung with ten strings. In shape it was not unlike a double bass without a neck. It was never generally used. Polycephalus. One of the neumes. [Neumes.] Polymorphous. Of many shapes, a term applied to compositions, the parts of which are capable of inversion, as in double counter- point ; or of augmentation, diminution, per thesin et arsin, and other devices, as in Canon. Pommer. [Bombardo.] Pomposamente, Pomposo (It.) Pom- pously. Ponderoso (It.) With weight, impres- sively. Ponticello (It.) Lit., a little bridge, (i) The bridge of a violin or other instrument. (2) The break in the voice. [Break.] Pont-neuf (Fr.) A common ballad, such as was formerly sold on the Pont-neuf, Paris. Poogye. The nose-flute of the Hindoos. Probably blown by the nose instead of the mouth, in order to avoid possible defilement of caste. Portamento (It.) A lifting of the voice, or gliding from one note to another, Portando la voce (It.) Sustaining the voice, or gliding. Portative organ. A little organ which could be carried about, as opposed to a positive organ which was fixed. Many con- sider the portative organ to have been identical with regals ; they were certainly of the same class. A portative organ was often carried in processions, on a man's shoulder, who, when it was required, placed it on a stool and worked the bellows. Portato [It.) Lengthened, sustained. Port de voix (Fr.) A kind of appog- giatura combined with the Pince, q.v., written in old harpsichord music thus : No, I. T ^ •'-"T ll and played thus : or, No. 2. and played : thus : No. I is the Port de voix simple, and No. 2 the Port de voix double. Port6e {Fr.) Stave. Porter la voix {Fr.) [Portando. J Portunal-flute. An organ stop, the pipes of which are of wood, and are open, and larger at the top than at the mouth. Posato {It.) Quietly. Posaune {Ger.) [Trombone.] Posaune. A reed-stop on the organ, of a rich and powerful tone. Its pipes are of a very large scale. It is of 8 ft. on the manuals, and of 16 ft. or 32 ft. {contra-posaune) on the pedals. The tubes of the manual stop are generally, of metal, sometimes of tin ; those of the pedal stop, sometimes of metal, often of zinc or wood. Pos6ment {Fr.) Gravely, sedately. Position, (i) A chord is said to be in its original position when the groundnote is in the bass, in other positions when the relative arrangement of the component notes is changed. (2) The position of a chord is the same as the disposition of its parts. A close position is close harmony ; an open position open harmony. (3) A position, on a violin or other string instrument, is to use the fingers otherwise than in their normal place. [Shift.] Position {Fr.) [Position 3.] Positive Organ. An old name for the (364) POSITIF PRESA. choir organ. Originally a positive organ was a fixed organ.. [Portative organi,] Positif (Fr.) A chamber organ. A choir organ. Positiv (Ger.) A chamber organ. A choir organ. [Portative organ.] Possibile (It.) Possible, as, ,il piU forte possihile, as loud as possible. Post-Horn, (i) A wind instrument con- sisting of a simple metal tube, without valves or pistons, blown by postmen. It can hardly be termed a musical instrument. (2) A piece of music suitable to, or in imitation of the notes or passages of a post-horn. [Bugle.] Postludium {Lat.) Nachspiel [Ger.) A concluding voluntary. A piece played at the end of service. Potpourri (Fr.) A medley ; a collection of various tunes linked together ; a capriccio or fantasia on popular melodies. Poule, la {Fr.) One of the movements of a quadrille. Pousse (Fr.) [Up bow.] PP. abb. oi pianissimo. Pralltriller (Ger.) A transient shake, sig- nified by w. Preambulum, Preludium. V or spiel {Ger.) An introductory voluntary. Precentor, Praecentor, Cantor, Caput Scholae {Lat.), Capiscol, Cabischol, Armarius, Primicerio {Sp.), Prechantre {Fr.), Grand Chantre {Fr.), Vorsanger {Ger.) An officer in a cathedral, who in dignity ranks next to the dean. His stall is on the opposite side of the choir, and that side is called cantoris side, the side of the cantor, as the other is called decani, the side of the dean. The office of the Precentor was an important one in olden times, and the duties are variously defined. The Rev. Mackenzie Walcott, Precentor of Chichester, in his valuable book " Cathedralia," thus speaks of the Precentor and his duties : " The primicerius, the first named on the waxen tablets. or roll of singers, or precentor, was the bishop's vicar, who governed the inferior clergy, presided at the canonical hours, directed the lectures by the clerks, and con- trolled the order and mode of singing by the choir. From a mere office the precentorship in cathedrals became a dignity. He only sang on the greater feasts. In some places he had authority over all the city and diocesan schools, and was known as caput scholce,magister scholis, being also scholasticus. No one could open a song-school without his leave. He saw that all were attentive in the choir and observant of the statutes, he corrected faults and chastised offenders. In England the office of precentor was instituted at an early period — at Exeter, c. 1080; at Salisbury in logi ; at Chichester, 11 15; at Wells, c. 1135 ; at St. David's, 1224; at Hereford, c. 1195 ; at Lichfield, 1130 ; Lincoln, 1097; York, 1090; and at St. Paul's in- the reign of King John. The duties of the Pre- centor were generally alike, but differed only in a few local or diocesan peculiarities. A summary of his duties as laid down in the statutes of the several places may be briefly told. He had to direct the divine offices as regards the chant ; to select candidates to supply vacancies ; to provide and keep the choir-books in good condition ; to table the weekly rota, or list of officers, with their duties ; to choose and present a succentor when necessary ; to instal the dean and canons, and to assign stalls to the prebends ; to superintend the training of the choristers, not only as regards food and clothing, but also their morals and choral instruction. On great feasts he ' ruled the choir,' when two canons, robed in the red sontane (cassock) were the chanters, whom he followed up and down the choir, regulating the offices, and overseeing the service in rochet and cope, holding a staff in his hand, which was gloved and ornamented with a ring. He further observed that all the choir sang with proper modulation, and that various and proper chants, according to the day and festival, were used. He gave the note to the canon celebrant at the altar, distributed the copes in the choir, and having presented offenders to the dean and chapter, left correction to them." In most cathedrals, the revenues of the office have been taken away and its dignity and status lowered, but nevertheless, during the last few years there has been a general attempt to revive the musical responsibilities of the holder. Precipitamente, Precipitate, Precipita- zione, con ; Precipitoso {It.) With preci- pitation, impetuously, hurriedly. Precipite {Fr.) [Precipitamente.] Precisione, con (7^) With exactitude or precision. Prefectus Chori. Director of the choir. Precentor. Prelude. A movement played before, or an introduction to, a musical work or per- formance. Preludio {It.) A prelude, introduction, or introductory voluntary. Preludium (Lat.) [Preludio.] Premiere {Fr.) First, as premiere fois, the first time, prima volta {It.); premiere dessus, first treble, canto prime. Preparation. The causing a discord to be heard as a concord immediately before its percussion. It must take place in the same part as that which has the discord. Preparazione {It.) [Preparation.] Presa {It.) Lit. taken, caught. A cha- (365) PRESSANTE PRINTING OF MUSIC. racter or mark used generally in continuous fugues or canons to inark the point of entry for the voices or instruments. A lead. Pressante {It.) Pressing on, hurrying the time. Pressiren (Ger.) To hurry the time. Prestamente, Prestezza.con. Hurriedly, with rapidity. Prestant. The open diapason of an organ, sometimes of i6 feet, sometimes of 8 feet in length. Prestissimamente (It.') As rapidly as possible. Prestissimo (It.) Very fast indeed. Presto {It.) Fast. Presto assai. Very fast. Prick-Song. Written music, as opposed to extempore descant. Prima (7^) First (fem.), as -prima huffa, chief comic actress or singer ; prima donna, chief female singer in the opera ; prima viola, first viola ; prima vista, at first sight ; prima volta, the first time, i.e., before repeating. Prime, (i) Tonic or generator. (2) The lowest note of any two notes forming an interval. (3) The first partial-tone. Primicerius {Lat.) Prior scholse can- torum. In cathedrals the precentor, suc- centor or cantor. Prime {It.) First (masc), as tempo prima, at the original pace or time ; violino prima, first fiddle ; prima buffo, chief comic actor or singer ; prima musico and prima uama, prin- cipal male singer in the opera. Principal {Old Eng.) The subject of a fugue, the answer being termed the Reply. Principal {Ger. and Fr.) An organ stop. [Open diapason.] Principal. On English organs the chief open metal stop, one octave higher in pitch than the open diapason. On the manual 4 feet, on the pedal 8 feet in leng^th. Principal. Chief, as principal violin, the leader; principal vocalists, those to whom the solos are allotted. Principal. The name given by Handel to the third trumpet in the " Dettingen Te Deum." Principale {It.) {Principal 4.] Principalis mediarum (Laf.) [Hypate meson.] Principalis principalium {Lat.) [Hypate hypaton.] Principalis extenta {Lat.) [Lichanos hypaton.] Principal Subject or Theme. One of the chief subjects of a movement in sonata form, as opposed to a subordinate theme. Printing of Music. Music is printed in various ways : from plates, from lithographic stones, or from moveable type. The plates for music are generally of pewter, and the notes and characters are stamped with punches of the shape and character required. Corrections are made by beating up the back of the plate, so that the surface may be as equal as possible for making the alterations. The music is either printed direct from the plate, or an impres- sion is transferred to a lithographic stone, and so printed. This latter plan is the most usual when large impressions are needed, or when it is desirable to preserve the plates. In the earliest engraved music copper- plates were used, and every note was made with the graver. Both words and notes were formed in imitation of the writing of the time. " Parthenia," — " the first musicke that was ever printed for the Virginals," — in which there are compositions by Byrd, Bull, and Gibbons, was " engraven on copper," in 1611, and the character employed is very like writing. This style prevailed in France and Italy, as well as in England, until the, commencement of the eighteenth century, when stamping musical notes on plates became more general for this class of work. The process of stamping, which has been more or less im- proved according to the skill of the stamper, has always been called " engraving," though, strictly speaking, it ought to be called " punching." The invention of moveable music type is claimed forOttavianoPetruccijWhoestablished a printing press at Venice, and was working as early as 1503, the year in which he pub- lished some Masses by De La Rue. Petrucci, removing to Fossombrone in 1513, obtained a patent from Leo X. for his invention of move- able types, for the sole printing of Cantus Figuratus and Organoruni Intahulaturce, for a term of twenty years. There is, therefore, good reason for believing his claim to be supported by trustworthy contemporary evi- dence. The very first known example of printed music is in the Milan edition of Franchinus. The notes there printed are not, however, music types, but engraved wood blocks, like the musical characters in Higden's " Polychronicon," translated by Trevisa, and printed by Wynkin de Worde in Westminster in 1495. These characters were improved in a book published by Grafton in 1550, entitled " The •( 366 ) PRINTING OF MUSIC. Booke of Common Praier Noted," by John Marbecke, Organist of Windsor. The printer thought it necessary to prefix an explanation of the types he employed, which he does in the following words : "In this booke is conteyned so much of the order of Common Praier as is to be song in Churches, wherein are used only these iiij. sortes of notes : — The first note is a strene note and is a breue, the second note is a square note and is a semybreue, the iij. a prycke and is a myn- ymne. And when there is a prycke by the square note, that prycke is half as muche as the note that goeth before it. The iiij. is a close, and is vsed at only y" end of a verse." John Day, who in 1560 printed the Church Service in three and four parts, and in 1562 the " Whole Booke of Psalmes," by Stemhold and Hopkins, used music types, as did also many of the printers who immediately succeeded him. 1575. Thomas VautroUier, in Blackfriars, printed, among other works, Tallis and Byrd's " Cantiones," under a patent to the authors. The patent allowed them the monopoly of " ruling" paper, and as music was printed on ruled lines they managed to include it in their patent. It would form an interesting episode in the history of printing if special attention were to be given to the progress of the art of printing music from types in Europe, so that detailed accounts of the chief works produced by the several " Fathers of the Chapel " from time to time might be given. Such a list would be entirely beyond the limits of the present article. It has therefore been thought advisable only to include a few of the chief and, to antiquarians, well-known works of the early printers before Playford. After VautroUier in chronological order comes Thomas Este, the assigne of William Byrd, living and working by Paul's Wharf. The chief of his productions were the fol- lowing : — 1588. Byrd's Psalmes, Sonets and Songs ;■ Younge's Musica Transalpina. 1589. Byrd's Songs of sundrie natures. Black Horse, Aldersgate Street. 1590. Watson's Italian Madrigalls Eng- lished. 1591. Farmer's Divers and Sundry ways of two parts in one, to the number of 40 upon one playn song. 1593. M<)rley's Canzonets, 3 voices. 1594. Mundy's Songs and Psalmes. Mor- ley's Madrigals, 4 voices. 1595- Morley's Ballets, 5 voices ; Morley's Canzonets, 2 voices. 1597. Weelkes' Madrigals, 3, 4, 5, and 6 voices ; Yonge's Musica Transalpina, 2nd Book ; Morley's Canzonets, 4 voices ; Kirbye's Madrigals. 1598. Wilbye's Madrigals, ist Set. Morley's Madrigals, 5 voices ; Weelkes' Ballets and Madrigals, 5 voices. 1600. Weelkes' Madrigals of 5 and 6 parts, as assigne of Thomas Morley ; Weelkes' Madrigals of 6 parts; Dowland's Songs or Ayres of 4 parts. Book II. 1601. Triumphs of Oriana ; Jones's -First Book of Ayres. , 1603. Robinson's Scoole of Musicke. [In tablature.] 1604. M. Este's Madrigals; Bateson's ist Set of Madrigals. 1605. Pilkington's Songs or Ayres of 4 parts. 1606. Danyel's Songs. 1608. Youll's Canzonets ; Croce's Musica Sacra, Englished. 1609. Wilbye's 2nd Set of Madrigals ;* Rosseter's Lessons for Consort ; * Ferra- bosco's Ayres. 1610. M. Este's 3rd Set of Madrigals ; Campian's Two Books of Ayres. 161.1. Byrd's Psalmes, Songs, and Sonnets ; Morley's Consort Lessons ; Maynard's XII. Wonders of the World. 1612. Gibbons's Madrigals ; Campian's 3rd and 4th Books of Ayres ; Corkine's 2nd Book of Ayres ; Dowland's Pilgrim's Solace. 1613. Ward's Madrigals ; Pilkington's Ma- drigals. 1 6 14. Lichfild's Madrigals. 1615. Robert Tailour's Sacred Hymnes. 1618. Bateson's 2nd Set of Madrigals ; M. Este's 4th and 5th Set of Madrigals ; Ravens- croft's Pammelia ; Mason and Earsden's Ayres in the King's Entertainment. 1619. Vautor's first Set oi Ayres. 1620. Martin Pearson's Private Musicke. 1621. Adson's Courtly Masquing Ayres. 1622. Thomas Tomkins's Songs of 3 and more parts ; Attey's Ayres. 1624. M. Este's 6th Book (Anthems); Pil- kington's 2nd Set of Madrigals. Contemporary with him was Peter Short, at " The Starre, on Bread Street Hill." He produced — 1597. Morley's Introduction to Practical Musicke ; Dowland's Songes or Ayres of 4 parts, Book I. ; Morley's Canzonets, 5 and 6 voices ; Holbome's Cittham Schoole. 1598. Famaby's Canzonets, 4 voices. 1599. Cavendish's Ayres for 4 voices, * On the title-pages he calls himself Thomas Este, alias Snodbam. He subsequently used the latter name only. •( 367 ) PRINTING OF MUSIC. 1601. Rosseter's Ayres ; Jones's Second Book of Ayres. 1603. Dowland's Third Book of Songs or Ayres. And William Barley, the assigne of Thomas Morley, in Little St. Helen's, and sold at his shop in Gratious Street. 1596. Booke of Tabliture. 1599. Farmer's Madrigals ; Bennet's Ma- drigals. 1608. Weelkes' Ayeres or Phantasticke Spi rites. i6og. Ravenscroft's Pammelia. In later years Edward AUde printed — ,1614. Ravenscroft's Brief Discourse. 1615. Amner's Sacred Hymnes. Following next on the list was Humphrey Lownes, who produced in 1608 Morley's In- troduction ; and in 1627 Hilton's Ayres or Fa las. John Leggatt, London, was the printer in 1637 of " Sandys's Paraphrase on the Psalmes of David, with tunes by Henry Lawes." Edward Griffin in 1641 printed Barnard's " Selected Church Music," a book of which no complete copy is known. John Haviland, London, printed in 1636 :Charles Butler's " Principles of Musik," a book remarkable for its quaint diction; and William Turner, Oxford, in 1634, the same writer's " Feminine Monarchic." James Young, London — 1648. Henry and William Lawes's Choice Psalmes. William Godbid— 1656. Matthew Locke's Little Consort. 1657. Walter Porter's Mottets. (No place of printing mentioned.) Gamble's Ayres and Dialogues. 1659. Gamble's Ayres and Dialogues, 2nd Book ; Select Ayres and Dialogues. 1662. Dering's Cantica Sacra (Inner Tem- ple) ; Courtly Masquing Ayres, various authors. 1668. Tompkins's Musica Deo Sacra (Little Britain). 1669. Henry Lawes's Ayres, Third Book. 1674. Dering and others, Cantica Sacra. (No place.) William Hall, Oxford— i66r. Lowe's Directions for performance of Cathedral Service. 1664. Ditto, 2nd edition. 1668. William King's Songs and Ayres. J. Heptinstall, London — 1690. Purcell's Songs in Dryden's Amphi- tryon. 1694. Purcell, &c. Don Quixote. Parts I. and II. 1696. Blow's Ode on the death of Dryden. 1697. Purcell's Ten Sonatas in 4 parts ; Purcell's Ayres for the Theatre ; Purcell's Te Deum and Jubilate for S, Cscilia's Day, 1 694. Some writers declare that the Germans invented moveable music types, but this is not the case. It is certain that they were employed in Germany for books at a very early period. One of the first, if not actually the first book printed in Germany with music was entitled : — " Musicse active micrologus, libris quatuor digestus, omnibus musics stu- diosis non tarn utilis quam necessarius." Leipsic, 15 17. Andreas Ornithoparcus. It was translated into English by Dowland in i6og. When type was employed all musical notes were printed separately ; quavers and semi- quavers, no matter how many there were in succession, were all distinct. In or about the year 1660 John Playford invented what he called the " new tyed note," that is to say, he used a common stroke or strokes to connect a series of quavers or semiquavers. This improvement, which made music neater to the eye and easier to read, was soon adopted by other nations, the Dutch first, the French next, and after them the Germans. The Italians did not adopt it until many years later, for Marcello's Psalms, printed in 1734, had the old disjointed notes. To continue the record of improvements made in type music-printing, mention must next be made of William Pearson, who with John Heptin- stall mentioned above, was employed by Henry Playford, the son of old John. In 1699, Playford published " Twelve New Songs, with a Thorow Bass to each Song, Figur'd for the Organ, Harpsichord orTheorbo, chiefly to encourage William Pearson's New London Character." This improvement of William Pearson's consisted in matrices for music type, so cut that the several pieces cast in them could be better " ranged " than formerly. The commencement of the eighteenth century brought with it a change concerning music printing. Music types were consi- dered ugly, and the pages they formed in- elegant, and so a strong tide in favour of engraved music set in. In order to make the present sketch to a certain extent complete, and to show the state of music printing in its several branches, it will not be considered superfluous if we turn back to speak of engraved music, and of its progress up to the period at which we have traced type music. Frescobaldi's " Toccate d'Intavolatura di Cimbalo et Organo, partite di diverse Arie e Corrente, Balletti, Ciacdhe, Passaghali," Rome, 1637, was one of the earliest book's printed in Italy from copper plates ; a fac- simile specimen of the character of the engraving may be seen in the article " Leger- lines." Hawkins implies that the English adopted the practice from the Italians, in company with the Germans and the French. (368) PROASMA- -PROGRESSION. "The English," says he, in speaking of Fres- cobaldi's publications, " also gave into it, as appears by a collection of lessons by Dr. Bull, Byrd, and others, entitled ' Parthenia," already alluded to ; " but this work was pro- duced in 1611, twenty-six years before Fres- cobaldi's books, and it is not easy to see how a previous work can be indebted to a later one. Type, however, was most generally used for printing music in England as well as abroad. In fact, there was only one engraver of music in London at the beginning of the eighteenth century, one Thomas Cross. The great labour of engraving music, the cost of the plates, and other incidental expenses, made music type preferable to the pocket of the producer, although it was inferior in ap- pearance and elegance. Some Dutch printers are said to have discovered a means of softening copper so as to make it " suscepti- ble of an impression from the stroke of a hammer or a punch, the point whereof had the form of a musical note." There were many works produced by this process, and for more than a quarter of a century, from the year 1700, the Dutch printers had the mono- poly of work. Sir John Hawkins further states that " the dif&culty of getting music from abroad, and the high duty on the importation of it, were motives to an attempt of a some- what similar kind in England." The attempt included the use of pewter for copper, as the former material was more workable with punches than the latter. The enterprising publishers who carried this plan to a suc- cessful end were John Walsh, of the " Harp and Hoboy," in Catherine Street in the Strand, and John Hare, of the "Viol" in St. Paul's Churchyard. The first book printed from their plates was issued in 17 10. The method of stamping which they introduced has been continued with scarcely any im- provement in England to the present time. The Germans are more accomplished in this branch of the art of music printing than other European nations. Their punches are of more elegant shapes, and they can produce their work at a less cost than other folk. It is, therefore, not a matter for wonder when it is found that a great many English works are engraved and even printed in Germany in the present day. Many of the books of Walsh and Hare were clumsily and inelegantly sent forth, but still these men kept the trade in their own hands, and outlived all attempts to beat them off the ground. Richard Mears attempted to rival them, but ruined himself. Walsh's son produced better works than his father, and with almost the same materials published much neater music. Better punches were cut by a Welshman named Phillips, who,' with his wife and son, " improved the practice of stamping to so great a degree that music is scarce anywhere so well printed as in England " in his time. A native of Lapland, named Fougt, obtained about the year 1764, in England, a patent for printing with move- able types of his own cutting and founding, but he was undersold by the pewterplate music en- gravers, and compelled to leave the country. The French engravers exhibited more taste and elegance than any others. A reference to any work printed in Paris about the years 1710 — 20 will show this. Their work was expensive, as music was cultivated only as a luxury in France. When it began to be popular it became necessary to produce cheaper work, but the artistic excellence which the engravers had attained in former times did not desert them, and their cheap work was less clumsy in appearance than that issued in England. When the French printed from music types they employed English founts, for they were the best in Europe, as they had been for a century and a half before, and are still to the present day. Any one who has leisure, will, and oppor- tunity, may see by comparison that books printed in Venice, in Holland, and even in Spain, were set up from the same founts of type with which English books were printed at the beginning and nearly all through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. A vast improvement in music type took place at the commencement of the present century. A series of oratorios in folio size, published by Jones and Lackington, at the "Temple of the Muses," Finsbury Square, were printed in beautiful, legible, and sharp outlined characters. It is not necessary to trace the art of music printing beyond that point, or to say more than that it has arrived at a pitch of elegance and usefulness probably undreamed of by the early and enthusiastic printers. Proasma. An introduction, or a short symphony. Probe (Ger.) A rehearsal. Proceleusmaticus. A foot consisting of fourshortsyllables,oroftwo Pyrrhics. [Metre.] Program, or Programme. A list of the names of the pieces of music to be performed at a concert or other musical entertainment. Progression. There are two kinds of progression, melodic and harmonic. Speak- ing in general terms, the former is a " succes- sion of sounds forming a tune or melody," but the term is also applied to an " imitative succession of melodic phrases," that is to a melodic sequence. Harmonic progression is " the movement of one chord to another," and is diatonic or chromatic. The term is also sometimes used as synonymous with sequence- (369) 2 A PROGRESSIONSSCHWELLER PROSA. Progressionsschweller (Ger.) A con- trivance of Vogler for gradually drawing out, and then in, the stops of an organ in their harmonic order, thus producing a crescendo, forte, and diminuendo. Prolatio {Lat.) Prolation, one of the three divisions of mensurable music is, ac- cording to Franchinus, " essentialis quantitas semibrevibus ascripta." Prolatio is perfect or imperfect ; perfect when the semibreve is divided into three minims, imperfect when divided into two. The perfect, or ternary division of the semibreve is called by some "prolatio major;" the imperfect, or binary division, " prolatio minor." The presence of a dot (punctus) in the time-signature (in temporali signo) shews that the prolation is perfect ; the absence of the dot shows that it is imperfect, unless rests are added in the place of the dot. Perfect and imperfect pro- lation may each occur in perfect or imperfect time, that is, in time having three semibreves equal to the breve, or two. ■ Prolatio is the subdivision of a semibreve into minims, as Tempus is of a breve into semi- breves, and as Modus is of a long into breves, or of a maxim into longs. Promptement {Fr.) Quickly. Prontamente, pronto \It.) Readily, quickly. Prope media {Lat.) [Paramese.] Proper-chant. An old name for the key of C major which had its mi in B, that is which had B for its leading note. Proportio (Lat.) " Duorum numerorum ad invicem habitudo." The ratio of two numbers to each other. The discussion of the ratios of intervals formed one of the chief parts of mediaeval treatises on music. Pro- portio is of three kinds: (i) Multiplex. (2) Superparticularis. (3) Superpartiens. Pro- portio multiplex, is when the larger number contains the smaller so many times without a remainder, as 2 : i (dupla), 3 : i (tripla), 4:1 (quadrupla). Proportio superparticularis is when the larger number exceeds the smaller by one only, as 3:2 (sesquialtera), 4 : 3 (sesquitertia), 5 : 4 (sesquiquarta). Proportio superpartiens is when the larger number exceeds the smaller by more than one, as, 5 : 3 (superbipartienstertias), 7 : 4 (supertri- partiensquartas), 9 ; 5 (superquadripartiens- quintas). The following tables from Boethius, explain fully the kinds of proportio : \ Multiplex. I II I III I IIII I V I VI I VII Ses quialt er. Sesq uiquart us. Sesq aisex tus. 11"^ III Illf^'V Vl"^ ^11 Sesquitertius. Sesquiquintus. Superbipartiens . Superquadripartiens. m mi V VI VII VIII viii Super- particularis. Supeftripartiena. Sujjer- partiens. Thus, it will be understood, that instead of giving simply the ratio between two numbers, early writers on arithmetic and geometry, as well as music, coined a single word to express that ratio ; for example, 17 : 5 was said to be Triplasuperbipartiensquintas, i.e., that the larger number contained the smaller number three times (tripla) with two remainder (bipartiens). Again, Triplasupertripartiens- quartas proportio, signified that the larger contained the smaller three times and three over, as 15:4, 27 : 8, &c., the last part of the compound word always pointing out the smaller of the numbers compared, or an exact multiple of it. Lastly, the addition of sub showed that the smaller number was com- pared to the larger, e.g., 4 : 15 would be called Subtriplasupertripartiensquartas proportio. This system of proportion was used not only with reference to intervals but also to the comparative length of notes. Proposta (It.) The subject of the fugue. Prosa (Lat.) ; Prose (Fr.) ; a prose. A hymn sung after the gradual and before the gospel in the Roman Church. Some authors believe them to be of high antiquity and to have had their origin in popular hymns, sometimes metrical and written in the vulgar tongue. S. Cyprian uses the word in this sense in his life of S. Cffisar of Aries. " Adjecit et compulit ut laicorum popularitas psalmos et hymnos pararet, altaque et modulata voce instar clericorum alii Grace, alii Latine,^yosas antiphonasque cantarent." Other authors say that the prose was the result of setting words to the long neumes of alleluias, a specimen of which will be seen under the head Neume. From this cause a prose came to be called Suite de I'alleluia, or an alleluiatic sequence, or in short, a sequence (sequentia). Notker, a monk of S. Gall in the gth or loth century, is said to have intro- duced this custom of setting words to the " notas pneumaticas." Their use spread with great rapidity, and about the twelfth century they began to assume the form of rhythmical and rhyming poetry set to a well defined melody. They then threw off the former rule that the prose should be if possible in the mode of the alleluia, and the result is that the music of the proses (a large number of which are in triple time) are some of the most beautiful melodies handed down to us. Their use was limited by Pius V. to Easter- day ("Victimse paschali laudes"), Whit- sunday (" Veni Creator Spiritus "), Holy Sacrament (" Lauda Sion "), and Commemo- ration of the Dead ("Dies Irse "). But a vast literature of proses exists, and the term has often been somewhat loosely applied to ( 370 ) PROS-ffi SEQUENTI^ PYTHAGOREANS. h)mln5^ Qf various kinds, amongst which is the " Stabat Mater." Prosse Sequentiae (Lat.) [Prosa.] Prosarium (Lat.) A book of proses. Pros cenium. ( i ), The quadrangular space behind the logeum or stage. (2) The stage front : all that part of the stage between the footlights and the curtain. Proslambanomenos^ {Gk.) izooaXau- Bav6jxs.voQ. [Greek Music] Prosody. [Metre.] Prova {It.) Probe {Ger.) A rehearsal. Provengales. Troubadours of Provence, in which country the rhymers and minstrels of mediaeval times seem to have had their origin. So little of their music has been handed down that it is difficult to form a just opinion on its merits. It is certain, however, that they paid little regard to the laws of music as laid down by their contemporaries, but constructed rhythmical melodies, in what- ever scale was pleasing to the popular ear. The date of the rise of provengal poetry is by some stated to have been as early as the tenth century, but was more probably the twelfth. Psallettes. Maitrises {Fr.) Schools in which, at the time of Franco of Cologne, descant was taught. Psalm Melodicon. An instrument in- vented in 1828 by Schuhmacher Weinrich. It was a wind instrument with keys and ven- tages, imitating the tone of several orchestral instruments. In 1832 it was improved by Leo Schmidt, and named the Apollo-Lyra. Psalmody. [Hymn tunes.] Psalmistae. An order of clergy instituted about the time of the introduction of the Cantus Ambrosianus ; for the special duty of singing from the Ambo, such music as would have been marred by the singing of the con- gregation. At the council of Laodicea, held between the years 360 and 370, it was ordered that no one but the canonical singing-men should presume to sing in the church ; and by a canon of the fourth council of Carthage the following form of words was prescribed for their ordination. " Vide ut quod ore cantas corde credis, et quod corde credis operibus comprobes." Psalterium (Lat.) (i) A Psalter, generally with musical notation above the words. (2) A Psaltery. [Nebel.] Psaltery. [Nebel.] Psaltriae (Lat.) Female musicians who sang and played during a banquet. Pulpitum (Lat.) (i) The Xoyelov, or stage of the Greek Theatre. A wide but shallow space in the shape of a parallelogram, in the middle of which the chief actors usually spoke. Behind it was another quadrangular space termed the proscenium, not so wide as the logeum. The remainder of the logeum, right and left of the proscenium, had at the back a wall rising as high as the uppermost tier of spectators ; at the front, a way down to the orchestra, or space set aside for the chorus. (2) A motett. Pulpitre (Old Fr.) [Motett.] Pulsatile. A term applied to instruments of percussion, such as the drum, gong, cym- bals, &c. Pulsator organorum. An organ-player, at the time when the keys were very large and had to be struck sharply. [Organ.] Punctus (Lat.) A point or dot. A punctus was of various kinds. The punctus additionis, or augmentationis, added to a note one half of its value, as does the modern dot, making an imperfect note (or binary), into a perfect (or ternary). The punctus divisionis formed thus V, performed the office of a modern bar. The punctus perfectionis, similar in shape to the former, was in effect the same as a punctus additionis. The punctus prolationis was the dot inserted in the circle or half circle Q Q which distinguished prolatio perfecta from prolatio im,perfecta. Punkt (Ger.) Dot. Punhtirte Noten. Dotted notes. Punta (It.) The point, as colla punta dell'arco, with the point or tip of the bow. Puntato (It.) Pointed, detached, made staccato. Pupitre (Fr.) [Pulpitum § 2.] I Pyknon (itvkvov). The close note, (i) A I name given to those half or quarter tones i which came together in the chromatic and I enharmonic genera of the Greeks. (2) In I mediaeval music, a semi-tone. I Pyramidon. An organ stop of 16 ft. or 32 ft. tone, the pipes of which are closed at the top, and pyramidical in shape, the top being more than four times the width of the mouth. From a pipe only 2 ft. g in. in length, 2 ft. 3 in. square at the top, and 8 inches at the block, the note C C C is produced. Pyrophone. An instrument invented by Kastner, the sounds of which are produced by jets of gas burning under glass tubes. It has three manuals. Pyrrhic, (i) A dance among the Greeks, danced by boys in armour, accompanied on the lyre or ilute. In it was much warlike gesticulation and rapid movement. (2) A foot consisting of two short syllables. [Metre.] Pythagoreans. Thefollowers of the system of Pythagoras, in which the consonance or dissonance of an interval was judged by the ratio of the vibrations without appeal to the ear. The Aristoxenians, on the other hand, held that the ear should be the sole judge of right or wrong in music. The former were called Canonici, because they appealed to the monochord or harmonic- canon for their laws, the latter Musici, because they made the ear and practice their guide. (371 ) QUADRATE QUATRE MAINS, X. Quadrate (or B quadratum). The sign h, used originally to raise B rotundum [7, one semitone. Hence arose its general use for the raising of all flattened notes, as exempli- fied in its modern form of a natural, tj. Quadratum (La^.) A breve, |tJ| . Quadrible. [Quatrible]. Quadricinium or Quatriciniutn. A com- position in four parts. Quadrille. A well-known dance, consisting of five movements ; Le Pantalon, La Poule, L'Ete, La Trenise (or la Pastourelle), La Finale. [Dancing.] Quadruple Counterpoint. Counterpoint of four parts, so constructed that all the parts may be transposed among themselves without transgressing the laws of progression. A perfect piece of this kind of counterpoint will be capable of twenty-four different dispositions of the parts. It is only feasible at the interval of the octave. [Counterpoint.] Quadruple Croche {Fr.) A hemi-demi- semiquaver. Quart. The interval of a fourth. Quarta. {It.) The interval of a fourth. Quarta (Lat.) An interval of a fourth, as major, minor, abundans (superflua), a major, minor, or augmented fourth. Quarta modi, Quarta toni, the fourth of the scale, the modern subdominant. Quart de mesure {Fr.) A crotchet rest. Quart de soupir {Fr.) A semiquaver rest. Quarte de nazard {Fr.) An organ stop of 2 ft. length, so called because it is a fourth above the nazard or twelfth. Quarte du ton {Fr.) The subdominant. Quarter note. A crotchet, J. Quarter tones. A general name of intervals less than a semitone, introduced into enharmonic instruments. Quartet, (i) A composition in four parts, or for four performers. (2) Part of a move- ment sung by four voices soli as opposed to coro. (3) A composition for four instruments, in complete symphony -form, consisting of an introduction (occasionally), (i) allegro, (2) andante or adagio, (3) minuet and trio, or scherzo, (4) finale. Each of these movements has its form. [Sonata form.] By far the largest number of- instrumental quartets are composed for two violins, a viola, and a violoncello, not only on account of the smoothness and evenness of their individual and collective tone, but also because of the compass of each instrument allowing an ever-varying disposition of the harmony. The complete quartet, quintet, or sestet, is to chamber music what the symphony is to concert music. Both are, in their way, the highest production of which instrumental music, apa_rt from vocal, is capable. Attempts at a separation of instrumental and vocal music were mkde in this country as early as the beginning of the seventeenth century, by John Jenkins (b. 1592), one of whose three-part Fancies has been reprinted by HuUah, in his "Transition Period of Musical History," p. 194. Allegri, who died in 1652, composed a quartet for two violins, a viola, and basso di viola. But the string-quartet did not reach its prime until the time of Haydn and Mozart, simultaneously with the settlement of the form of the symphony. Quartetto (7^.) [Quartet.] Quartfagott {Ger.) A kind of bassoon, a fourth lower than that commonly in use. Quartflote (Ger.) A small flute, a fourth higher in pitch than the common flute. Quartgeige {Ger.) A small sized fiddle. Violino piccolo. Quarto d'aspetto {It.) A semiquaver rest, ^. Quasi (7^.) As if, or in the style of. Used to qualify certain terms, as, quasi allegretto, somewhat allegretto ; quasi sonata, a compo- sition very similar to a sonata, but in which sonata form is not strictly adhered to ; quasi fantasia, a piece in which form is displaced by the style of a fantasia. Quatre mains, a {Fr.) For four hands. ( 372 ) QUATRIBLE QUODLIBET. Quatrible {Old Eng.) To descant by singing fourths on a plain song (see Quinible). Quatricinium. [Quadricinium.] Quatricroma (It.) [Quadruple croche {Fr.)-] Quattro mani, a {It.) For four hands. Quatuor. [Quartet.] Quaver. The eighth part of a semibreve, J* Achtel-note {Ger.) Croche {Fr.) Querfiote {Ger.) Flauto traverse {It.) The flute played sideways, as opposed to the flute which was blown at one end, and, held straight in front of the performer. [Flute.] Querpfeife {Ger.), FifFaro, Fifre. The Swiss fife ; a small kind of flute, with six holes, but no keys. It has an incomplete compass of two octaves. Querstand {Ger.) [False Relation.] Queue {Fr.) (i) The tailpiece of a violin or other instrument. (2) The tail of a note. Quick Step. A quick march. Quinible. {Old Eng.) To descant by singing fifths on a plain song (see Quatrible). In Chaucer's " Miller's Tale," it is said of Absolon : " In twenty manere coud he trip and dance, (After the scole of Oxenforde tho) And with his legges casten to and fro ; And playen songes on a smal ribible ; Thereto he song sometime a loud quinible." Quindecima. [Quinta decima.J Quint, (i) The interval of a fifth. (2) An organ stop, sounding a fifth above the foundation stops, of 5^ ft. length on the manuals, io|- ft. on the pedal. It should not be used without a double diapason, to which it forms the second natural harmonic, or twelfth. It is sometimes used on the pedal organ without a double diapason (32 ft.), but with questionable effect. Quintabsatz {Ger.) A half close. The imperfect cadence, the penultimate chord of which is a tonic triad ; the final chord, a dominant triad. [Cadence.] Quinta decima {Lat.) (i) The interval of a double octave. (2) An organ stop, sounding the double octave of the foundation stops, fifteenth. Quinta modi {Lat.) The fifth of the scale. The modern dominant. Quintaton {Ger). An organ stop con- sisting of closed metal pipes, of a small scale, so voiced that the twelfth is heard with the ground-tone. Quinta toni {Lat.) [Quinta modi.] Quinte, Quintsaite {Ger.) Chanterelle (Fr.) The E string of a violin. The lowest string of violoncello and viola being C, A is their fourth string, hence the higher string of the violin came to be called the Quinte, or Quintsaite. Quinterna, or Chiterna. A species of guitar not unlike a violin in shape, having three, or four, or five pairs of catgut strings, and sometimes two single strings covered with wire in addition, played with the fingers, not with a plectrum. About two centuries ago it was commonly used in Italy by the lower orders of musicians and comedians. Quintet, (i) A composition in five parts, or for five performers. (2) Part of a move- ment sung by five voices soli, opposed to coro. (3) A composition for two violins, two tenors, and a violoncello ; or two violins, a tenor, and two violoncellos ; or two violins, a tenor, a violoncello, and double bass, having the same form as a sonata. Quintfagott {Ger.) [Basson quinte.] Quintfuge {Ger.) A fugue, the subject of which is answered at the interval of a fifth. Quintole. A group of five notes to be played in the time of four — Quinton {Fr.) The five-stringed viol. Quintoyer {Old Fr.) to descant at the fifth ; to quinible. Quintuor. [Quintet.] Quintviola. An organ stop of the gamba species, but of the pitch of a quint, or of a twelfth. Quire {Old Eng.) The collective title of the body of trained and authorized singers in a church. Quirister. A member of a Quire, whether man or boy. [Chorister.] Quodlibet. (i) A sort of Fantasia; (2) a pot-pourri. (3) A Dutch concert. At the annual re-unions of the members of the Bach family singing or improvising quod- libets was one of the amusements indulged in. ( 373 ) R RE. R. R, abb. for right, as r.h., with the right hand. Rabanna, or Rabani. A kind of Indian drum, of a small size, beaten by the hand. Rabbia, con (/f.) With fury. Rackett, Rankett. (i) An obsolete wind- instrument of the double bassoon kind, it had ventages but not keys. It was not of an extended compass, being incapable of pro- ducing harmonics. It was a double-reed instrument, the reed being at the end of a tube through which the player blew. The tone was nasal and produced with difficulty. The rackett was improved by Denner at the beginning of the last century, but was not able to hold its own against the then much superior bassoon. (2) An organ stop of 16 ft. or 8 ft. pitch now obsolete. Raddolcendo, Raddolcente {It.) With gradual softness and sweetness. Raddoppiamento, Raddoppiato (It.) The doubling of an interval or part. Radical bass. The fundamental bass, ground note, or root of a chord. Ragoke. A small Russian horn. Rags, Raginees. Certain Hindoo melo- dies founded on fixed scales. They were of three kinds, sumpoornu, or those comprising seven notes in a determined succession ; khadoo, or such as comprised six notes ; oodoo, or those comprising only five notes. Rail., abb. for rallentando. Rallentamento {It.) At a slower pace. Rallentando, Rallentato {It.) Getting gradually slower. Rank of pipes. A row of pipes (of an organ) belonging to one stop. A stop is said to be of two, three, four, or five ranks, accord- ing to the number of rows of pipes under the control of its one register. Rant. An old dance ; a sort of country dance. This name is often attached to tunes to which country dances were performed. It is perhaps a corruption of the word coranto. Ranz des vaches {Fr.), Kuhreihen {Ger.) The tunes or flourishes blown by Swiss shep- herds on their cow-horns or Alpine-horns (long tubes of fir-wood), as signals to the animals under their charge, such as the following : — The notes marked Ff are not properly thus represented, they beyig the natural harmonic lying between E and G, consequently a sound between F and Fjf. Rapidamente, Rapidita, con, Rapido {It.) With rapidity. Rasgado {Sp.) To sweep the strings of a guitar with the thumb, for the purpose of pro- ducing a full chord, arpeggio. Rastral. [Rastrum.] Rastrum (Lat.) {Ger. Harke.) A rake. The name given to the five-pointed instrument for ruling the stave. Rathselcanon {Ger.) A riddle-canon. Canon csnigmaticus, one part and the number of parts being given, the student to write it out in full. Ratio {Lat.) Relation or proportion. [Acoustics.] [Proportio.] Rattenendo, Rattenuto (7^) Restrain- ing or holding back the time. Rauscher. A passage of repeated notes. Rauschpfeif, Rauschquint, Rausch- werk, RauscMote, Ruszpipe. A stop in old organs of two ranks of pipes, consisting of a twelfth and fifteenth, or a fifteenth and octave twelfth. Ravanastron. A stringed instrument played with a bow in use among the Budd- hists. [Violin.] Ravvivando {It.) Becoming again ani- mated. Ravvivando il tempo, quickening the time. Re. The name of the second note of the scales, in the system of hexachords, and of the fixed sound D, in modern solmization. [See Notation, early systems of.] ( 37+ ) REAL FUGUE REED. Real Fugue. A strict fugue. The term is now used in opposition to a tonal fugue. The answer in a real fugue being a fifth higher or a fourth lower than the subject, note for note ; that in a tonal fugue being so far altered that dominant answers tonic and vice versd. So that in a tonal fugue, a sub- ject occupying a compass of five notes, namely from a tonic to its dominant, has to be answered in a compass of four notes, namely from the dominant to the tonic lying above it, [Fugue, § 3.] Rebab. [Rebec] Rebec, or Rebeck. The English name of a three-stringed instrument played with a bow. It was of Arabian or Turkish origin and was introduced into Spain by the Moors, under the name rabel or rebel. It found its way thence, in the ninth or tenth century, into Italy under the name of rebica, and into England under the name rebec. In other European countries it was variously called rebeb, or rebebe, reberbe, rebesbe, rubebe, or erbeb ; in Egypt and Asia, rebab. In its earliest form it probably had a long neck and small round body, made of cocoa-nut shell, or some such material, over which parch- ment was stretched to form the sound-board. After its introduction into Europe, the third string was added, for although the Persians have now a three-stringed rebab, the older form was probably only two-stringed. After its introduction into England, the rebec gradually assumed the form of a viol, of which instrument it was the precursor. [Violin.] Re bimol {Fr.) The note DP. Re bemol majeur, the key of Dl? major. Rebibe, Rebible {Old Eng.) A small rebec or three-stringed viol. [Rebec] Recheat. A hunting signal, which recalls the hounds. Recht {Ger.) Right, as rechte Hand^ the right hand. Recitando, Recitante {It.) In the manner of a recitative. As if reciting. Recitatif {Fr.) [Recitative.] Recitative. Musical declamation. An art lost to Europe in the destruction of Greek music, and not revived till the early part of the seventeenth century. It grew out of the aria-parlante or monody, which was an attempt on the part of certain Florentine dilettanti to restore the ancient recitation of poetry. The names associated in this work, which exercised such a wonderful influence over the art of music, were Vecchi, Galilei, Caccini, Peri, Cavaliere, and Montiverde. It is impossible to point to any one of these as the actual inventor of recitative, because the style cannot be said to have been perfected until it had received the free handling of Carissimi and Scarlatti, but their names deserve to be- held in reverence. Recitatives were for a considerable period accompanied, at performances both of oratorios and operas, on a harpsichord with a double bass support- ing the basso continuo. On the removal of harpsichords from our theatres and concert- rooms, which took place at the close of the last century, an arpeggio chord on the violoncello was substituted for the harpsi' chord-part, a double-bass (as before) sustain- ing the lowest note of each chord. If a band did not possess a very excellent violoncellist these arpeggio chords were often cruelly out of tune. Hence modern composers had no choice but to use soft chords in four-parts played by the whole string-band. This has been gradually followed by the use of the full band in recitatives, and as a natural result, pure declamation is to some extent merging into a semi-strict arioso. It is quite possibly that this is what the authors of aria parlante were aiming at in their early efforts. [Opera,] Recitative (It.) [Recitative.] Alia recti., in the style of a recitative. Recit. accomp. Recitative with accom- paniment, Recit. @ecco. A recitative supported only by a chord from a violoncello or double bass, or by a cembalo. [Recitative.] Recit. strotnentato. Recitative accom- panied by a band. Record, to. Recorders {Old Eng.) The verb to record is used with reference to the singing of birds, as in Shakspeare (Pericles, Act IV.) "or when to the lute She sung, and made the night-bird mute That still records with moan ;".... The instrument " Recorder " was originally a flageolet or tibia minor, but the name was afterwards used as synonymous -with, flute. Recte et retro. [Per recte et retro.] Re difese {Fr.) The note DJJ. Redita (It.) A return. A repeat. Redondillas {Sp.) Roundelays. Redoublement {Fr.) Raddoppiamenta {It.) A doubling of an interval or part. Redov<^a, Redowak, Redowazka. A Bohemian dance, originally in f and ^ time alternately. The time was afterwards altered, and the dance was made into a sort of polka. Reductio modi {Lat.) (i) The bringing back a transposed mode to its original pitch. (2) The conversion of an old mode into its corresponding modern scale. Reed. A thin strip of metal or cane set in vibration by a current of air ; the vibrations so caused, at the same time, dividing the current of air into rapid discontinuous puffs which produce a musical sound. The reed itself does not produce the sound, but is only ( 375 ) REED INSTRUMENTS OF AN ORCHESTRA RELATIVE KEY. a means of obtaining the sound from the current of air directed against it. " It is constructive, not generative " (Tyndall on Sound, p. 192). Reeds are of two kinds, striking and free. A striking reed is rather larger than the aperture, and is placed on that side of it against which the air is directed, being slightly bent upwards at its unattached end. As the current of air attempts to pass by it, the reed is forced against the sides of the aperture, and the progress of the air is suddenly checked, but the elasticity of the reed causes it immediately to recover its former position, when the current of air again rushes through, and so on. A free reed is of such size that it will freely pass in and out the aperture. The current of air forces it upwards, and its own elasticity restores it to its place again, and so on. The striking reed is that commonly used in an organ, the freereed in a harmonium. The tone of reeds is greatly intensified by the addition of a pipe or tube, care being taken that the tube should contain a column of air whose vibrations synchronise with the note produced by the reed, or with one of its overtones. In instruments of the horn or trumpet class, the lips perform the function of the reed, the notes produced being the fundamental note of the tube and its har- monics or overtones. The human voice is a reed instrument. [Larynx.] Reed instruments of an orchestra. Oboes, clarinets and bassoons, with others of their class. Reed of harmonium. [Reed.] Reed of organ. [Reed] and [Organ, § 15.] Reed-stops [Organ, § 15.] Reel [Old Eng.) Kreol. A lively rustic dance, popularly supposed to be Scotch, but probably of Scandinavian origin. The Danish kreols are very similar to the reel. [Country dance.] Refrain [Burden.] [Chorus.] [Ballad.] Regals, Rigals, Rigoles. These terms seem to be synonymous with " Portative Organs," although distinguished by some authors. The word regal is supposed to have come from rigabello, mentioned in the following passage : " InJEde Sancti Raphaelis Venetiis, instrumenti musici cujusdam forma extat, ei nomen rigabello ; cujus in ecclessiis usus fuerit ante organa ilia pneumatica quae hodie usurpantur. Rigabello successit aliud quod turcelio dictum est, cujus Venetias usum induxit homo Germanus." Regals had gene- rally only one row of pipes, and were probably used to support the treble voices. In an inventory of the musical instruments of Henry VIII., taken after his death (Sir Henry Ellis's original letters. Second series. Vol. I., p. 272}, we read of " thirteen pair of single regalls," and " five pair of double regalls." Double regals had two rows of pipes. Bernard Gates in 1767 received a salary as " tuner of regalls " in the Royal Chapel, but in 1770 he is called " tuner of organs." Snetzler the great organ builder could remember the regals in use in Germany. Regales de bois (Fr.) [Claque-bois.] Regel der Octav. [Rule of the octave.] Register. An organ stop (i) in a limited sense ; " the handle on which is written the name of the stop ;" (2) in a general sense — a stop or " the pipes belonging to, and acted upon by, one slider." Register (of an org^n.) A frame through which long trackers pass. [Organ, § 8.] Register (of a voice.) Compass. R6gle de I'octave {Fr.) [Rule of the octave.] Regular form. A work is said to be " not in regular form," if its subjects and their dis- position depart from the plan or form con- ventionally considered most suitable to a com- position of its kind. Regular fugue. A strict, as opposed to a free fugue, or one in which the- laws are not strictly obeyed. [Fugue.] Regular motion. Similar motion. [Motion.] Regulation (of a keyed instrument). The adjustment of the touch ; in the pianoforte, by means of the regulating-pin ; in the organ by means of leather buttons on a tap-wire, which when turned round shorten or lengthen parts of the action. Rehearsal. Probe {Ger.), Prova {It.) A general practice before a performance. Full Rehearsal, a rehearsal at which soloists, band and chorus are present. Public rehearsal, a rehearsal to which the public are admitted. Relatio non harmonica {Lat.) [False relation.] Relative chord. A common chord made up of notes taken from the scale, e.g. : The chords of D minor, E minor, F major, G major and A minor are therefore relative to the chord or scale of C, these being the only common chords which can be made from the scale of C. Relative key. A key whose tonic chord is a relative chord ; that is to say, a key whose first, third, and fifth degrees form a common chord made up of notes of the key to which it is related. Thus D minor, E minor, F major, G major, and A minor are relative keys of C. The first, third, and fifth of each of these scales forming one of the relative chords of C. (376) RELIGIOSAMENTE RETARDATION. Religiosamente, Religioso (It.) In a religious or devotional manner. Remplissage {Fr.) A filling up. Inter- mediate part. Renversement {Fr.) Inversion. Renvoi (Fr.) A repeat. Repeat. Wiederholungszeichen (Ger.) A sign that a movement or part of a movement is to be twice performed. That which is to be repeated is generally included within the sign of two or four dots in the spaces, thus, When the performer does not, on repeating, go so far as the last dot-sign, but finishes at a previous cadence, it is usual to write over the repeat. Da Capo, placing a pause and fine over ,the chord at which the performer is to stop. If the signs of the repeat do not coincide with a well-defined portion of a movement the sign § is sometimes added thus, A few bars are sometimes marked bis, Resolution, (i) The moving of a discord- ant note to another which produces a satis- factory effect. This is done sometimes by taking the discord downwards one degree, as. sometimes by taking it upwards, as but this sign is only used over a very phrase. Rep6tition {Fr.) A rehearsal. Repetizione {It.) Repetition, as senza repetizione, without repeating. Replica {It.) Repetition, as senza replica, without repeating; con replica, with repetition. Replicate {It.) Repeated. Reply. The answer in a fugue, the subject being called principal. R6ponse {Fr.) The answer in a fugue. Repos {Fr.) A pause. Reprise {Fr.) (i) Burden of a song. (2) Reprise d'un opera, the reproduction of an opera. Requiem {Lat.) A name given to the " Missa pro defunctis," because the words " requiem eternam dona eis," occur in it. Research. An extemporaneous perform- ance on the organ or pianoforte in which the leading theines or subjects in the piece to which it serves as prelude are suggested and employed. Resin, or Rosin. A gum, the viscid exudation of certain trees, chiefly of the fir tribe, which is obtained in large quantities by cutting away part of the bark, a vessel being placed below to catch the gum as it exudes. When purified and prepared it is used to rub over the hair of a bow, the surface of which it renders rough and so enables it to " grip" the string. [Colophony.] ( 377 Resonance. [Acoustics, § 21.] Resonance-body, Resonance-box, Resonanzboden {Ger.) The hollow part of a stringed instrument which reinforces the sound of the vibrating strings. Its shape is of the utmost importance, and, in the case of the violin has only been definitely fixed after great practical and scientific research. The resonance-box has certain openings to admit of the escape of the reinforcing vibrations. Respiro {It.) A semiquaver rest. Response, (i) The answer to a versicle in the Church Service. The following are the signs for these words, f, W- Responsorium. A response-book ; a choir-book containing the music of the ver- sicles and responses. Rests. Signs enjoining the silence of a performer for a given length of time. Each note has its corresponding rest, e.g. : Notes. \'^\ o p m m m m ' ' l' B g - - r 1 ^ a i ^ Corresponding ] ""^ ""' r rests. There is, unfortunately, no distinctive sign for a bar's rest. If the bar contain less than a semibreve, as in f , ■§■ times, &c., a semibreve rest denotes a bar's rest ; but, of course, rest for part of a bar is denoted by its proper signs, thus : — m 1T"^"^'^ If the bar contain more than a semibreve, a bar's rest is usually denoted by the sign of a breve rest, but this is not universally adhered to, as some authors use a semibreve rest for a bar's rest in ^ time. Dots may be affixed to rests and have the same effects upon them as upon notes, e.g-. : [- • is equal to a three-quavers' rest; f • *, equal to a seven-semiquavers' rest. For an account of earlier forms of rest see Pausa. Resultant Tones. [Acoustics, § 19.] Retardation, (i) A gradual slackening of pace in the performance of a passage. (2) The holding on of a concordant note into the succeeding chord, in such a manner that ) RETRO RIGADOON. it becomes a discord, which is resolved up- wards. A discord of retardation is thus opposed to a discord of suspension, the latter being resolved downwards, e.g. : Retardation oTtwo parts, (or a double Retardation.) Suspension raTwo parts, (or a double Suspension.) Three or more parts may be retarded or sus- pended, and retardations and suspensions may occur in the same chord. Retro. [Per recte et retro.] Retrograde (It.) [Retrogradus.] Retrogradus (Lat.). Motus retrogradus, reading music backwards. Imitatio retrograda, imitation per recte et retro, q.v. Contrapunctus retrogradus, counterpoint per recte et retro. Retto {It.) Direct, as mate retto, direct or similar motion. Reveil, Revelly (Old Eng.) Music which wakens from sleep. A signal given by dtum to soldiers at dawn (frorri Lat, revigilare). Reveille {Fr.) [Reveil.] Reverse motion or movement. Move- ment by inversion of intervals. Rf., abb. 0/ Rinforzando. Rhapsodes (pai^/wSoi). Wandering min- strels in ancient Greece, of the Ionian race, who formerly recited epics in public places, holding in their hands a staff (pafiSoe) as a sign of their calling. It is doubtful virhether the rhapsode had always a musical accom- paniment to his recitation, as one of his hands would be occupied by his staff. Rhap- sodical recitation must be regarded as the forerunner of stage-acting, and as forming when conjoined with the Bacchic chorus, the complete Greek drama. Rhapsodie {Fr.) {Ger.) [Rhapsody.] Rhapsody. A composition of irregular form, and in the style of an improvisation. Rhythm. [Metre.] Rhythmopoeia (Gk.) The due arrange- ment of arsis and thesis in metre. [Metre.] Ribattuta, Ribattitura {It.) A beat {^) or passing note. Ricercari {It.) (i) Difficult passages or flourishes. (2) Exercises. Ricercata {It.) (i) A sort of fantasia or toccata. (2) Fuga ricercata. A fugue con- taining nothing but various treatments of the subject. A fugue without episodes. [Fugue.] Ridotto {It.) Reduced, arranged from a full score. Rifacimento {It.) A reconstruction or restoration of a work. (It.) Extemporaneous em- [Re- Rifiorimenti bellishments. Rigabellum {Lat.); Rigahello {It.) gals.] Rigadoon. An old lively dance performed by a man and a woman, as the jig is danced in some places. It is said to have been invented in Provence by one Rigand, and from him to have taken its title, but as there are more ex- amples of melodies by English composers than by French, it is not unlikely that the word is English, coming ' from the same root as " Rig," which means wanton, lively. The character of the rigadoon would justify this derivation. The two dances without authors' names are from a work entitled "The newest Minuets, Rigadoons, and French Dances, perform'd at Court and Publick Entertain- ments. London, 1716." Rigadoon. Mr. H. Furcell. Choice Lesson, 1705. Rigadoon, 1716. /,b" J J J r ■-^^■^m^^^ gj s: — UJ r»4-?^rrT^f-^Tf^^ ^\>' \ ^ \ '^ 1 '^ 1 1 r r f ^ -^ — >= — w4 (378 ) RIGOLS ROHRWERK. ^cri^gj-rrrirrr^ir'^'^ #^ ddGnrrrrrrlr'r.^^ ^^ V — , . l/^ ji^^LJA^ ijiJ-ii Swifel^ jj |i 1 n^fp rpir^ #^ Rigadoon, 1716. ■"T^?^ Rigols. [Regals.] Rigore (It.) Strictness, as, o? rigore di tempo, in strict time ; con rigore, with exact- ness. Rigoroso {It.) [Con rigore.] Rikk. A small tambourine of modern Egypt. Rilasciando [It.) Relaxing the time. Rilch, Rilka. A Russian lute. Rinf., ahb. of Rinforzando. Rinforzando, Rinforzare, Rinforzato {It.) Reinforcing, or strengthening the power and emphasis of a musical sentence. Ringelpauke (Ger.) A sistrum having rings on bars, which rattled when the instru- ment was shaken. [Sistrum.] Ripienist. A performer who only assists in the ripieno parts. Ripieno (It.) (i) An additional or filling- up part. Any part which is only occasionally required for the purpose of adding to the force of a tutti, is said to be ripieno. (2) A mixture stop on Italian organs ; as, ripieno di due, tre, quattro, cinque, &c. A mixture stop of two, thtee, four, five ranks, &c. Ripresa (It.) (i) A reprise or burden. {2) A repeat. Risentito (It.) With expressive energy, Risolutamente, Risoluto, Risoluzione, con (It.) With resolution. Risolutissimo, very resolutely. Risonanza (It.) [Resonance.] Risposta (It.) A reply or answer to a fugue-subject. Ristretto (It.) Stretto. [Fugue.] Risvegliare (It.) To rouse up, awaken, re- animate ; risvegliato, in an animated manner. Rit., abb. of Ritardando, Ritardando, Ritardato (It). With gradu- ally increasing slowness of pace. Ritardo (It.) [Retardation.] Riten., abb. for Ritenendo. Ritenendo, Ritenente, Ritenuto (It.) Holding back the pace. Ritmo di tre battute (It.) In the rhythm of three beats, or triple measure. An ex- pression used when the group of accents is formed by three bars in rapid time, e.g. : The above passage is marked by Beethoven (Choral Symphony) ritmo di tre battute, but. is in ritmo di quattro battute. The former is practically in compound triple time, the latter in compound common time. Ritornello. [Interlude.] Riverso. [Rovescio.] Rivolgimento (It.) The inversion or transposition of the parts in double counter- point. Rivoltato (It.) Inverted or transposed as in double counterpoint. Rivolto (It.) [Rivolgimento.] Roccoco, Rococo (It.) Old fashioned, queer. Rock harmonicon. An instrument, the sounds of which are produced by striking graduated lengths of rock - crystal with a hammer. Rohr (Ger.) A reed. Rohrflote (Ger.) Reed-flute. An organ stop consisting of closed pipes, the tone of which is slightly reedy in quality, but very sweet. Rohrwerk (Ger.) Reedwork, the collec- tive name of the stops consisting of reed- pipes, as opposed to flue-work or stops consisting of flue-pipes. [Reed.] [Flute.] [Organ.] ( 379 ) r6lE ROSALIA. R61e (Fr.) The extract from a drama which an actor has to commit to memory. From Lat. rotula. The part assigned to an actor. Roll. The regular and rapid beating of a drum by two sticks so as to make the sound as far as possible continuous. It is commonly expressed thus : tr ^ w In the case of a tambourine, the roll is pro- duced by a rapid succession of blows from the knuckles, as the hand is swung backwards and forwards. RoUe (Ger.) A run', a group or series of groups of short notes. In vocal music they are mostly sung to one syllable of a word, e.g.: RoUo, Rollando {It.) Roll of a drum or tambourine. [Roll.] Romance {Eng., Fr., Sp.), Romanza {It.), Romaunt {Old Eng.) The dialect spoken in the south of France, in parts of Spain and of Italy, and elsewhere in the south of Europe during the middle ages ; so called, because it was founded on the Roman or Latin language. In the Romance dialect the greater portion of Troubadour poetry was recited, hence the term " Romance " came to be applied to any touching love-story, and in music is now frequently given to any simple rhythmical melody which is suggestive of such a story. [Troubadour.] Romanesca {It.) An Italian dance, a galliard. Romanesque {Fr.) A galliard. Roman-strings. Fiddle-strings made of the intestines of lambs, although commonly called " cat-gut." Italy still supplies the finest quality of strings, hence called Roman. Romantique (Fr.) In the style of a romance, imaginatively. Romera. A Turkish dance. Romischer Gesang (Ger.) Catholic Plain Song. Not correctly called Roman, because common to the whole church. England had its own old-established uses, before any Roman Plain Song had entered the country. [Plain Song.] Romanzesco {It.) [Romantique.] Ronde {Fr,) The round note, i.e., a semi- breve. [Nomenclature.] Rondeau {Fr.) [Rondo.] Rondiletta, Rondinetta, Rondino, Rondoletta {li.) A short rondo. Rondo. [Form.] Root, called also fundamental note, gene- rator, and ground-note, (i) A note which, besides its own sound, gives over-tones or harmonics. (2) That note from amongst whose over-tones any chord may be selected, e.g. : • , is produced from the vibration of the lowest note C, therefore C is said to be the root of this chord. An attempt to reduce chords to their roots forms the chief part of many treatises on harmony, but almost insuperable difficulties are met with in consequence of certain over-tones being omitted in our scale and other sounds being introduced which can only be obtained by a minute sub-division of the monochord. The flat seventh and the eleventh of nature are unused, and various notes are arbitrarily inserted in the modern scale in order to obtain more or less of temperament {q.v.) Some authors derive all their chords, or, rather all those called funda- mental (which constitute but a very small number of the chords actually in use), from three roots — the tonic,* sub-dominant, and dominant. Others, again, insist on only two roots, the tonic and dominant. Not a few modern musicians use the word root without reference to any mathematical laws, and only as describing a note on which, when either expressed or implied, a chord is built up. Rosalia {It.) The repetition of a phrase or passage, raising the pitch one note at each repetition. Ex. i is from Beethoven's Sym- phonia Eroica, Ex. 2 is from a Litany by Mozart. In tjie first the passage mounts by semitones, in the second by tones. ( 380) ROSIN- -RULE. Rosin. [Resin.] Rota (Lai.) A Round, but the word is sometimes applied to anything with frequent repeats, as for instance a Hymn tune. Rote (Old Eng.) [Hurdy Gurdy.] Rotondo {It.) Round or full, with reference to quality of tone. Rotruenges. Roundelays of the minstrels. Rotulae {Lat.) lit. little rounds. A term applied to Christmas Songs or Carols. Roulade {Fr.) An embellishment, a flourish, ornamental passage of runs. Round. A composition in which several voices starting at stated distances of time from each other, sing each the same music, the combination of all the parts producing correct harmony. It diifers from a Canon therefore in that it can only be sung at the unison or octave. It differs from a Catch, which is like it in construction, only in the character of the words. The catch should be amusing, the round may be even sacred. A round may be written out in the form of a canon, if it is of an elaborate construction, or has an inde- pendent accompaniment. When surig at the unison, a Round is said to be for equal voices. Travers. 2 : 3 Roundel. A dance in which all joined hands in a ring. It was sometimes called a Round and a Roundelay. Minshew explains the latter word to mean " Shepheards' daunce." " When that Arcite had romed all his fill. And songen all the roundel lustily, Into a studie he fell sodenly." Chaucer, Knight's Tale. " And arm in arm Tread we softly in a Round." Beaumont & Fletcher, The faithful Shepherdess. Roundelay, (i) A poem, certain lines of which are repeated at intervals. (2) The tune to which a Roundelay was sung. Round O. A Rondo. [Minuet.] - Rovesciamento. [Rovescio.] Rovescio, al rovescio, alia riverso (It.), niotus contrarius [Lat.) By inversion. The contrary motion between two parts, caused when one ascends the exact diatonic intervals which the other descends, e.g. : The above, the commencement of the chorus "Egypt was glad at their departing," (Israel in Egypt,) is said to be a subject answered al rovescio. Imitation al rovescio is when the converse of the intervals is not rigidly adhered to. Fugue subjects when treated by inversion are still often amenable to the laws which regulate the use of the plagal and authentic portions of the scale. A Canon hy inversion is formed when the answer is in contrary motion to the subject throughout the move- ment. Perhaps the most ingenious specimen of this difficult construction is by Purcell, in the Gloria to his "Deus Misereatur" in B?. Ruana. A Hindoo instrument of the violin class. Rubato (It.) lit. stolen or robbed. Tempo rubato represents the alteration made in the time, when some notes are held for more, and others for less than their strict duration. Riickung (Ger.) [Syncopation.] Riickfall (Ger.) A back-fall, a kind of grace note, e.g. : Riickpositiv (Ger.) A back choir organ, i.e., a choir organ which is behind the player, the connecting mechanism of which passes under his feet. Ruhepunkt, Ruhezeichen (Ger.) A point of rest, i.e., a pause. Ruhig (Ger.) Quiet, tranquil, calm. Rule (Old Eng.) A line of the stave, e.g. : "There standeth the F fa ut cliefe on the fourth rule from below." (Morley's Intro- duction.) "And so distinguish the cleffs and ( 381) RULE OF THE OCTAVE- -RYMOUR. notes as they stand in rule or space; for knowing the notes' places, their names are easily known." (Playford, Introduction to the skill of milsick.) Rule of the Octave. A name given to a system of adding harmonies to the diatonic scale, using it as the lowest part. From the nature and relation of the chords added, many laws as to progression and modulation were deduced ; in fact it was formerly taught as a formula for the assistance of students, who committed to memory the harmony or har- monies which each degree was capable of bearing. The above shows the simple form of these harmonies, to which great importance was once attached. RuUante (It.) Rolling, as, tamburo ruUante, the small military drum, the side drum. Run. A rapid succession of notes. In vocal music usually sung to one syllable, hence called in the German " Silbendehnung." Except for the purpose of training the voice, runs may be said to be out of fashion in this half-century. In writing the words under a run in vocal music, it is usual now to place under the first note as much of the word as will show what the whole consists of. This was not formerly the custom, and in one of the songs in Blow's "Amphion Anglicus,"the words under a lengthy run are thus divided, "th us fl y" an absurd division, as the combination of letters to which the run is supposed to be sung closes the mouth effectually. The word run being English, is avoided in fashion- able critiques and roulade is generally adopted. Running. The improper sounding of an organ pipe or pipes from a defect in the sound-board, or other causes. A running is not heard until keys are held down. The most common way of testing the workman- ship of a sound-board is to put in all, th& registers, and hold down full chords. If there is any fault in its construction, a running will then be immediately heard. Ruollo {It.) Lit. a roll; according to some an Italian dance, a waltz, from which the expression used by children "rowly powly " is derived. {Fr. rouler, to roll, and poulie, anything which rolls round, a pulley.) Russian horn-band. A band of players whose instruments are so designed that each produces a single note only. For the perfor- mance of a simple theme at least twenty horns are required, but the complete band numbers thirty-seven, comprising a compass of three octaves, the tones and semitones, in their relative degrees, being gained by the use of instruments of various lengths, the longest being more than twelve feet, and the small- est nine inches. The effect of the music played is said by those who have heard it to be extremely fine and of pure tone. As each player can give no more than his one note, his attention is fully engaged during the performance. The effort of mind needful being purely mechanical, similar to that required for hand-bell ringing, the players are not necessarily men of a high intellectual order. The invention of this horn music is assigned to J. A. Maresch, a Bohemian in the service of Prince Narischkin in 1751, who being permitted for the purposes of his ex- periments to employ serfs, did not scruple to use severity in order to make them perform with accuracy, rapidity, and distinctness. Having drilled his forces for four years, Maresch conducted the first performance in the presence of the Imperial Court in 1755, and the tradition he then established has been, or was until recently, strictly main- tained. A Russian horn-band visited England in the year 1834. Rusticano, Rustico {It.) In a simple, rustic manner. Rutscher [Ger.) Lit. the slider, the galopade. Rymour {Old Eng.) A bard or minstrel. ( 3S2 ) -SALTARELLO. s. S. Abb. of sinistra, left ; subito, suddenly ; segno, sign ; solo, &c. ; as M.S., manu sinistra, with the left hand ; V.S., volti subito, turn over quickly ; D.S., dal segno, to the sign ; V.S., voce solo, voice alone, &c. ; also Abb. for (i) scriptus', written, as MS., manuscript, hand-written; (2) senza, as S. Ped., without the pedal or pedals,- S. Sordini, without the dampers, or without mutes. K A sign used to point the extent of a repeat, as al segno (K) go bacls to the sign K, dal segno (K), repeat frofn the sign H. The- word fine (it.) is generally placed over the last chord of a movement repeated by the above directions. Sabeca. One of the musical instruments mentioned in Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, 15. It is generally supposed to have been identical with sambuka, a large species of harp, perhaps the large Egyptian harp. In the authorised version it is unfortunately rendered sackbut, an utterly unwarranted translation. Saccade {Fr.) Strong pressure of a violin bow against the strings, which by forcing them to a level enables the player to produce three or four notes simultaneously. Sackbut. (i) One of the Babylonian musical instruments mentioned by Daniel in chap. iii. v. 5, 7, 10, 15. It is the translation in the English version of the Bible of the word sabeca. Some authors identify it with the sambuka (o-a/z/jtnnj) of the Greeks and Romans, a kind of harp. [Sambuka.] (2) The old English sackbut or sagbut was a bass trumpet, with a slide Hke the trombone. "As he that plaies upon a sagbut by pulling it up and down alters his tones and tunes." — Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy," Sackpfeife {Ger.) [Bagpipe.] Sacring bell. [Sanctus bell.] Sailours. A word used in Chaucer which has given some trouble to commentators, " There was many a timbestere, And sailours, that I dare well swere Yeothe ther craft full parfitly." Romaunt of the Rose. It probably signifies dancers, and is derived from the Fr. saillir, Lat. salio. Saite (Ger.) [String.! Saitenhalter (Ger.) [Tail-piece.] Salamanie. An oriental flute. Salicional, Salicet, Salcional, Sol- cionell. A term derived from the Latin salix (a willow). An organ stop of soft and delicate quality, supposed to be similar in character with the salicis fistula, or withy-pipe, ft is generally placed in the choir organ, but some- times in the swell, in either case taking the place of the dulciana, to which it bears a strong resemblance. Salii. Priests of Mars Gradivus, twelve in number, who had the care of the twelve Ancilia, and who, during the feast of that God, were accustomed to go through the city carrying the Ancilia, singing and dancing, whence their name. Salpinx. , An ancient Greek trumpet. Saltarello (It.) (i) A dance in which leaping steps are introduced, similar to the Siciliano and Forlana of Italy, and the Jig of England. It is triple in time, with a triplet always at the commencement of each phrase. Saltarelli are frequently found as movements or separate pieces in harpsichord and piano- forte music. (2) A harpsichord jack, so-called because it jumps when the note is struck. (3) Counterpoint is said by old authors to be " in Saltarello," when six quavers of the accompaniment are given to each minim of the Canto fermo, e.g. : P s^;jgij^jg ,/3jj^^7sj:a^^. ^ 383) SALTERIO SARABAND, Salterio1(/i.) The Psalter, or book of Saltero J psalms. Salto (It.) (i) A dance in which there is much leaping and skipping. (2) A leap, or skip from one note to another beyond the octave. (3) Counterpoint is said to be di salto when the part added moves in skips. Sambucistria (Lat.) A player on the sambuka. Satnbuka (Gk.) aafif^vicrj. This word, though applied sometimes to several musical instruments of different kinds, such as a lyre, a dulcimer, a triangular harp or trigon, and a large Asiatic harp, seems to have been chiefly used as a term for the last-named instrument. By some authors it has been identified with the large Egyptian harp, illustrations of which are so familiar to all of us as to render one unnecessary here. It is generally thought that the saheca mentioned in the book of Daniel, iii. 5, 7, 10, 15, and which is im- properly rendered sackbut in our version, was a sambuka or large harp. It has been suggested that "sambuka" was used as a general term for instruments made of elder- wood {sambucus); but the best authorities will not allow any relationship between the two words. Sampogna, Zampugna. [Bag-pipe.] Sancho. A negro instrument of the guitar species, made of hollowed wood and furnished with a long neck. It is strung with the tough fibres of a creeping plant. It is tuned by means of sliding rings. Sanctus (Lat.) Ter Sanctus, or, Trisagion (Gk.) Holy, Holy, Holy, ^c. A part of the Communion Service in the Church of England, and a part of the Mass in the Church of Rome. In many cathedrals where it is not usual to celebrate the Holy Eucharist chorally, the Sanctus is used as an Introit, a custom which cannot be too strongly condemned. [Cathedral Music] Sanctus bell, Saints' bell. A small bell which is rung in order to mark the progress of the office of the mass. In some churches bells of this kind are placed outside the church, so that those unable to be present inside may be reminded of important parts of the service. Sanft (Ger.) Soft. Mit sanften Stimmen, with soft stops. Sans (Fr.) Without; as, sans /iJia/es, with- out the pedals. Santoral [Sp.) Church choir book. Saquebute {Fr.) [Sackbut.] Saraband, Sarabanda, Zarabanda (S/>.) Sarabande {Fr.) A Spanish dance of Moorish origin, for a single performer, who accompanies himself with the castanets. The tune is in f- time, but slow and stately, and with a strong accent on the second beat in the bar. This peculiarity would identify it with the Moresca. In olden times it was accompanied with singing the coplas or canciones, poetry of a trivial sort. Jenkins, Purcell, Blow, Bach, Handel and Scarlatti, in their suites for the harpsichord or clavichord, frequently employed the saraband as a movement. There is a Spanish proverb with reference to weak verses, that " they are not worth as much as the couplets of the saraband." " No vale las coplas de la sarabanda." Saraband. ^ (From E. Rogek's Virginal book.) ^^ \^- r ^-^--^ 1 f- -r -f r '' ^ ^ — ^ (384) SAROH SCALE. Saroh. Indian instruments played with a bow. Sattel (Ger.) [Nut.J Satz (Ger.) A theme, a subject, a com- position, a piece. Saut (Fr.) [Salto.] Sautereau (Fr.) The old name for the jack of a spinet. Sauterie {Old Eng.) A psaltery. Sax-horns. Cylinder horns invented by Antoine (usually called Adolph) Sax. They have 3, 4 or 5 cylinders, so that each horn is capalsle of playing all the notes of its scale without difficulty. A sax-horn band com- prises seven instruments, a small high horn, a soprano, an alto, a tenor, a baritone, a bass, and a double-bass. [Metal wind instruments.] Saxophones. Brass wind instruments, the invention of M. Sax. They are played with a single reed and a clarinet mouth-piece. The quality of tone is soft, yet telling and ex- pressive. They are six in number, the high, soprano, alto, tenor, baritone and bass. Saxtrombas. Brass cylinder wind instru- ments with wide mouth-pieces, of a shrill and piercing tone, a combination of the trumpet and the bugle quality. The complete set is six, divided as the saxophones. Saxtuba. Deep-toned brass bass instru- ments of similar character to the saxtrombas. Saynete^ (Sp.) Interludes or entremeses, introduced between the prologue and the principal comedy in the Spanish drama, in which music and dancing form prominent fea- tures. Saynetes are generally of a burlesque or humorous character. , Sbalzo {It.) A leap, a skip. Sbarra {It.) A bar. Sbarra doppia. Double bar. Scala {It.) A scale or gamut. Scald. [Skald.] Scale. The graduated series of sounds used in music. To give a history of the scale would be to give a history of music itself; it must suffice, therefore, to say a few words on the growth of the scale to its present shape. Nothing is known with certainty of the nature of the scales of any of the most ancient nations. If it be admitted that the Greeks obtained their notions of music from the Egyptians, it may be hazarded, merely as a supposition, that the Egyptian scale was tetrachordal, that is, consisting of groups of four notes. In the article Greek Music the reader will find a full explanation of the manner in which the octave system became practically a part of the ancient tetrachordal system, which it was destined afterwards to supersede entirely. Although our modern scale was unquestion- ably a development of the diatonic scale of the Greeks, yet, for several centuries, a hexa- chordal system was in use, a full account of which will be found under the head " Nota- tion." The Church modes were probably the connecting link between the ancient Greek music and the modern diatonic scale. [Plain Song.] The division of the octave into twelve parts, called semitones, each of which can be used as a key-note, became only feasible when keyed instruments were tuned on the system known as equal temperament. [Tem- perament.] This gives to the chromatic notes of our scale a far greater value than the chromatic or enharmonic notes of the an' (385) 2 B SCAGNELLO SCHALLBECKEN. cients, as it is probable: they were never used but as passing or auxiliary notes. The whole system of music hangs upon, the relationship of the sounds used to a . tonic, which, in modern music, is always the first note, of whatever octave system (key) is chosen,, but in Greek music and early Church-song was a note at or near the middle of the scale. The old Church mode corresponding to the modern scale was the Ionic or lastian,, but when this was finally adopted as the normal scale, a still older form was retained for use with it, founded on the Dorian and Hypo- Dorian modes, to which,, now slightly modi- fied. We give the name minor made, and by starting from any one note in the semitonal scale, we can have twelve minor modes. As a minor mode largely consists of the notes of the major scale beginning on its third degree, it is said to be relative to that scale. The form of the minor mode has varied from time to time, and even now cannot he said tQ be definitely settled. Ex. 1. Ex.3. Oldest form of minor mode. Form of minor mode sometimea used melodically: Ex. 4. Ex. 5. Transition fbim of minoc mode. . »g ^ » g Modern minor mode. The scale shewn in Ex. 2 is by no means obsolete. The revival of old Church-song has caused many composers tO' study its forms, and their works are,, perhaps insensibly, tinctured with its influence. The somewhat odd descent of the scale in Ex^ 3 is to be met with in Handel, Bach, and other writers. When this descending scale is harmonized, it is generally founded on the following bass : — A E B E G#- A E A 5 5 #5 5 6 5 5 5 3. Jt. It 8 5 383. It will thus be seen that the descending FJf of the scale is made part of a chord of B major, a sort of new dominant to E, the; dominant of A minor. The form of Ex. 4 is familiar to all, and has not yet been entirely supersed!ed by that of Ex. 5, which always presents both har- monic and melodic difiiculty in its augmented second from Ftj to G$. There seems to be no reason why one particular form of the minor scale should be used to the exclusion of artother;, all are at times useful and beau- tiful. Perhaps the great importance of the form given in Ex. 5 arises from the fact that it is the veritable source of the chord of the diminished seventh — F D B GS The musical scales of extr^ - European countries are so varied in character that it is impossible to draw any reliable conclusions from their form.. The Arabs,, Indians,, and many uncultured tribes in all quarters, of the globe have more than twelve divisions in the octave, that is,, use enharmonic scales. The Chinese have the old five-note scale, called by Engel,. Pentatonic. This, scale is; assoeiafed also with Scotch and other Celtic melodies. In some nations the natural harmonic, known as the sharp eleventh, which we dis- card, is in use, probably because it is produced upon their simple tube instruments. The degrees of the ascending scale are distinguished in harmony by thft following names. First. .... ... Tooici, Second Supertonic. Third- ... ... Mediant, Fourth SubdonriTtajiit. Fifth Dominant. Sixth Superdominant. r Subtonic or leading ■ \ note. Scagnello {It.} The. bridge a£ a stringed instrument. Scemando (It.) An equivalent to diminu- endo, gradually decreasing in power. Scena [It.) (i) A scene. (2) A solo for a single voice, in which various dramatic emotions are displayed., Scenario [It.) The plot or main incidents of an opera or drama. Scenici (Lat.) Games instituted, accord- ing to Livy, B.C. 364. They were the germ of the Roman play. Schaferlied, Schaferspiel (Ger.) A pastoral. Schallbecken (Ger.} Cymbals. Lit. Sotmd-cups. [Cymbals.] Seventh C 386 ), SCHALLHORN SCHLEIFER. Schallhorn ) (Ger.) Bell of ahorri, cornet,, Schallstiickj trumpet, &c. Schalnxey.. [Chalameau.] Scharf (Ger.) Lit.. Sharp. A mixture stop of an organic formed of a combination, of acute harmonics. Scherz. [Ger.) Drallery,, fiinu Scherzando, Sclierzandissimo, Scher- zante, Scherzevole, Scherzevolmente, Scherzoso (It.) (i) Playful, lively, Jokingly, merry. (2) A movement of a lively and droll chai-acter. Scherzhaft (Ger.) Droll',, fiinny.. Scherzo (It.) A. term, meaning- literally a jest, applied to, a movement in a Sonata oir Symphony of a. sportive, playful character. Beethoven introduced it in the place of the minuet, and sometimes in addition tO' it, and it has been supposed that the credit of iits invention is due to him.. But Haydn had previously done a similar thing in his quar- tetta, and J. S. Bach had also called one: of the pieces in a suite, by the, name. Other writers had directed certain movements to be played " Scherzando,," but only in connection with some other word descriptive of the general character of the movement- Thus Schobert, 1724-1768, marked the, second move- ment of his Sixth Sonata, " Badinage Scher- zando." In 1734, George Philip Telemann published at Hamburg " Scherzi melodichi.,, per divertimento di colore cheprendono I'acque minerali in Pirmonte, con ariette semplici e facili, a violono, viola e fondamento," and nearly 130 years before, Monteverde issued at Venice " Scherzi musicale atre voci.," These: were similar in style, to the " Cantici " or humorous songs ia parts-, the predecessors of the Catch.. Though they cannot fairly be considered as belonging to the class of com.- position; included under the general term^ Scherzo, yet they serve to show that Monte!- verde believed music to have a merry as well, as a serious side;. The Scherzo of Bach,, alluded to above, isi here added l Scherzo. ^^^ _ J. S. Bach. =3 m f-0 fffr I £f [■ ' r^"'r I rl ' I * b^' J' _^ .J* _ f- -r >* L. '"^~~' ^"^ ' lJ— a cr-^ Schiettamente (H.) Pure, simple, neat. Schietto (It.) Pure,, neat. Schisma (Gk.J oxtfffia. An approximate half of a Pythagorean comma, that is, half af the difference between twelve-fifths and seven octaves. Schlag (Ger.) A stroke or beat, (r) of time, (2) of a vibrating reed, (3) of an instru- ment of percussion. Schlagfeder (Ger.) [Plectrum. J Schleifbogen, \(Ger.) Lit. Slide-iaw . Schleifezeichen ) A slur. The sign. --. Schleifen (Ger.) To slide, to glide. Schleifer (Ger.) Slurred note. ( 387 ) SCHLUSS SCORE. Schluss (Ger.) The conclusion, finale. Schlusschor, final chorus. Schliissel (Ger.) A clef. Schlussfali {Ger.) Cadence. Schlussreim (Ger.) The burden or refrain of a song. Schluss-stiick (Ger.) Finale. Schmelzend (Ger.) Lit. Melting away. Dying away, diminishing. , Schmerz (Ger.) Grief. Schmerzhaft, sorrowful, dolorous. Schnabel (Ger.) The mouth-piece of the clarinet, flute a bee, and instruments blown in like manner. Schnarrpfeifen, Schnarrwerk (Ger.) Reed pipes or stops in an organ. Schnell (Ger.) Quick. Nach und nach schneller, quicker and quicker. Etwas bewegter schnell, a little quicker. Schneller or Schnelzer (Ger.) A trill. Schophar or Shophar. A Hebrew trumpet. Schottische (Ger.), Ecossaise (Fr.) Lit. The Scotch dance. A slow dance of modern introduction, written in f time. School, (i) A method or system of teach- ing ; as, Rink's organ school, Crivelli's vocal school, Spohr's violin school, &c. (2) Style ; as, the madrigal school, ecclesiastical school, operatic school, &c. (3) The manner or characteristics of a composer, or performer ; as, Handel's school, Rossini's school. (4) A group of composers whose works mark an epoch in the history of music. Such a school is generally named after the place where such composers resided ; as, the Venetian school, the Neapolitan school, &c. Schreibart (Ger.) Style. Schrittmassig (Ger.) Slowly. Andante. Schultergeige (Ger.) The shoulder-fiddle, or common violin, as opposed to the Kniegeige, or viola da gamba, the viol played between the legs. Schusterfleck (Ger.) . A facetious name for a Rosalia. Schwach (Ger.) Weak, feeble, soft. Schwarmer (Ger.) Bombo. An old name given to four or more notes repeated rapidly on the same degree of the scale. Schweigezeichen (Ger.) A rest. Schweinskopf (Ger) Lit. Pig's head. A name given to pianofortes because of their out- line, as viewed from the side of the instrument. Schweizerpfeife, Schweizerflote, Feld- pfeife. The name given in Germany to the old flauto traverso or Querpfeife, which, when in- troduced into this country, was known as the German flute. Schweller (Ger.) The swell organ. Schwermiithig (Ger.) Sad, pensive. Schwingungen (Ger.) Vibrations. [Acous- tics.] Scioltamente, Scioltezza, con, Sciolto (It.) Freely, with agility, easily. Fuga Sciolta, a free fugue. Scolia. Short songs of the Greeks. They were distinct from the religious hymns, as they were frequently sung during feasts or banquets. Though at first they were like the Pseans sung by the whole company assembled, they were afterwards performed by each guest alone, holding in his hand a myrtle branch, which, at the conclusion, he passed to his neighbour, and so on in turn. Sometimes they were sung to an accompaniment. Scolia were of three kinds : (i) Moral songs, like some of those preserved by Athenaeus. (2) Mythological hymns and historical songs. (3) Miscellaneous songs, chiefly on love and wine. Scordato (It.) Out of tune. Scordatura (It.) The mis-tuning of an instrument. When a violinist alters the accordatura of his instrument for a special purpose, he is sometimes said to make a scordatura. . [Accordatura.] Score. Partitur (Ger.), Partition (Fr.), Partizione, Partitura, Sparta, a partita (It.) A copy of a musical work in which all the component parts are shewn, either fully, or in a compressed form, (i) A short or com- pressed score is when all the parts are arranged or transcribed so that they shall appear in two staves. Such scores are com- monly used for hymn tunes, and also (espe- cially in Germany) for part-songs. When counterpoint is introduced into vocal music, or when the parts frequently cross, short- scores become too complicated for general use. But in simple vocal music, more or less note against note, they effect a great saving of space. In transcribing four-part music into short score, the two upper parts are arranged in the treble stave ; the two lowest in the bass, the tails to the notes of the first and third parts being invariably turned up, those of the second and fourth parts down. (2) A pianoforte or organ score is one in which the voice-parts are written out in full on separate lines, and the instrumental ac- companiment is arranged in two lines, treble and bass, for performance on a pianoforte or organ. (3) A vocal score is (or was formerly understood to be) one in which the voice- parts are written out in full, and the accom- paniment (if any) is indicated by a figured bass. (4) A full score is one in which each part is written on a separate line one over the other, subject, however, to the modification that the parts to be played by two wind in- struments of the same name and compass may be included on one line. For example, the parts of the two oboes, two flutes, two clarinets, &c., and, sometimes, of the alto and tenor trombones are written on one line ; (388) SCORRENDO SCOTCH SNAP. the tails of the notes to be played by the first instrument being uniformly turned up- wards ; those to be played by the second, downwards. The first and second violin parts are never written on the same line unless they are to play in unison ; but the violoncello and double-bass parts are usually written on one line. The parts of similar instruments are not necessarily written on the same line, unless it is desirable to economise space. The order in which the instrumental parts are arranged in a score has from time to time varied considerably, the only point of uniformity being that voice parts are nearly always placed immediately above the line or lines set aside for the violoncello and double-bass part. The following are a few examples of the manner of grouping instruments and voices : Flauti Oboi Fagotti Violino imo. Violino 2do. Viola jVioloncelli (e) JBassi Ex.5. Pauken Trompeten Horner Floten Hoboen Clarinetten Fagotto Alt und Posaunen ■ Tenor Bass Violine, iste Violine, 2te Bratsche Violoncell Contrabass Ex.6. Flutes Oboes Clarinets Bassoons Horns Trumpets Trombones Drums Violins, I Violins, 2 Violas Ex. I. Trombe Tympani Corni Flauti Oboi Fagotti Violino imo. Violino 2do. Viola I Voci 3 l4 (Violoncello (e Basso Organo Ex. 2. Violino imo. Violino 2do. Viola Fagotti Oboi \ ^ Voci \l J Organo. e [tutti Bassi Ex.3. fViolino imo. I Violino 2do. (in unison and on one line.) Oboe Viola BasSb Ex. 4. Tympani Trombe (or) Clarini Corni Clarinetti Voices 3 14 Violoncellos and Basses Organ Exs. I, 2, and 3 illustrate a disposition often followed by Handel ; Ex. 4 the arrange- ment often found in the works of Mozart, Haydn, and others. Ex. 5 shows the ar- rangement sometimes followed by Schumann, which is peculiar as separating the trombones (Posaunen) from the trumpets. The above examples (i to 6) show only a few of the many arrangements sometimes found. The disposition of the parts now most generally followed is shown in Ex. 6. Where more than the usual number of instruments are employed, this last disposi- tion may be indefinitely extended, if only the instruments . are grouped into classes, as follows : 1. Wood wind instruments. 2. Soft-toned brass instruments. 3. Loud brass instruments. 4. Instruments of percussion. 5. String instruments (excepting the bass part). 6. Voices. 7. Bass string instruments. 8. Organ or pianoforte. Modern scores owe much of their apparent intricacy to the individual existence which is now given to almost every separate instru- ment in an orchestra, for the purpose of obtaining constant change of " colour," as it has been called. In the scores prior to the commencement of this century, it is no un- common thing for the first oboe to be directed to play throughout a whole movement with the first violins, the second oboe with the second violins, the bassoons with the violon- cellos. It is still more remarkable that the viola should often have been made to play the bass part in unison, or (when below its compass) at the octave ; for the power and beauty of the "string-quartet" was thus wantonly destroyed. Printers of music use the word score to denote any lines (two or more) united by one brace. Scorrendo (It.) Gliding from one sound to another. [Glissando.] Scorrevole (It.) Running, flowing, gliding. Scotch Scale. [Pentatonic Scale.] Scotch Snap. A peculiarity of the com- paratively modern Scotch melodies in which a short note precedes a long one : , It is the characteristic of Strathspey tunes. Reels and jigs are distinguished from the Strathspey by the absence of the snap. The best informed among the Scotch writers on music declare it to be the mark of imitations of Scotch melodies, such as, " Within a Mile of Edinboro' Town " and the Scherzo in (389) SCOZZESE SEGUIDILLA. " Mendelssohn's Scotch Symphony," as none of the ancient tunes contain any examples of its use. It has been conjectured that its intro- duction into Scotland is due to the Hungarian gipsies, as the snap is characteristic of their tunes. Scozzese (2f .) Scotch, as, alia scozzese, in the Scotch style. Scriva [It.) Written. Si scriva, as written. Sdegno, con ; Sdegnosamente, Sde- gnoso {It.) Scornfully, disdainfully, Sdrucciolando {It.) Sliding. Sdrucciolare {li.) (i) Toslide,byprBs.'s- ing down the keys of a pianoforte in rapid succession and lightly, with the finger nails. Scales upon the harpsichord were frequently played thus. Se {It.) As, if; s« iisog^to, if required. Sec {Fr.), Secco (It.) Dry, unadorned, plain, as, recitaiivo secco, plain recitative, that is, without band accompaniments. [A table sec] Seccarara {It.) A NeapDlitan dance. Sechsachteltakt (Ger.) Six-eight time, §. Sechsvierteltakt, ^ time. Sech ssaitig (Gsr.) Six stringed. Sechstheilig (G«r.) In six parts. Sechszehnfiissig {Ger.) Of sixteen feet. The unison pitch of the pedal organ. Sechszehntheiltiote {Ger!) A seniiquaver. The sixteenth part of a semibreTe. Secondj Chord of the. An old ahhresn- ation of the chord S [Figured Biass.] Second, Interval of a. '[Interval.] Second {Fr.) Second; ^^, second dessws, the second treble; seconde fois, the second time. Secondo (7i.) Second; a^,violinosecondo, second violin ; zeconda parte, the second part ; seconda volta, the second time. Secund {Ger.) The interval of a second. Die Meine Secund, the minor second ', iiber- mdssige Secund, an augmented second. Secundakkord [Ger.) [Second, chord of the.] Sedecima {Lai.") A sixteenth. A name formerly given improperly to thejifteenih stop ■of an organ. Seg : Abb. of segue ; also, of segno. Segno {It.) The sign ;g [Al segno.] Segue {It.) Follows, succeeds, comes after ; as, segue il coro, the chorus follows ; segue il aria, the aria follows. Seguendo, Seguente {It.) Following, as, attacca subito il seguente, begin the following at once. Seguenza {It.) A sequence. Seguidilla {Sp.) A lively Spanish dance, similar to the country dance ; the tune is in ^ or I time. SEGDIDXLLA. •^ , M » ^^ r C-Sf 1 1^ ? % m rrrrrfir \jj, :ff ( 390 ) SEGUITE — r-SEQUENCE. Seguite [It.) [Segue.] Sehnsucht {Ger..) Ardour, desire, fervour, longing. Sehr {Ger.) Very, -nmch, extremely; as. sehr lebhaft, very lively ; sehr langsam, very slow. Sei {It.) Six ; as, sei stromenti, six instru- ments. Seitenbewegung {Ger.) Oblique motion. [Motion.] Seizieme de soupir {Fr.) A semiquaver rest. Semeia (G^.) crjifiUa. The mnsical cha- racters. Semibreve. [Nota.] Semichorus. A direction that the passage so marked is to be sung by half the chorus, or a selected portion of it. Semicroma. A semiquaver jS_ Semidemisemiquaver. A half demi- semiquaver, the 64th part of a semibreve. Semi-diapason {Lot.) An imperfect octave. Octava deficiens. Semi-diapente {Lat.) An imperfect or diminished fifth. Quinta deficiens. Semi-diatessaron {(Laif.) An imperfect or diminished fourth. Quarta deficiens. Semi-ditonus {Lat.) A minor third. Semi-ditonus cum diapenie. A minor seventh. Semifusa {Lat.) A semiquaver. Semiminima {Lat.) A crotchet. Semiquaver. The i6th part of ,a semi- breve. Semiquaver rest. The sign ^ repre- senting silence for the .length of a semi- quaver. Semisuspiriuni {Lai.) A quaver rest. Semitone. A half a tone, or an approxi- mate half of a tone. [Temperament.] Semitonium {Lat.) A semitone. Semi- tonium modi. The leading note, sensible, master note, or major seventh, called also suhsemitonium, modi. Semituono {It.) A semitone. Semplice {It.) Pure, plain, simple, un- adorned. Semplicemente (7i!.) Purely, plainly, simply, without ornament. Semplicita, con (It.) With simplicity, unaifectedly. Sempre {It.) Always, ever, cantimially ; as, sempre forte, loud throughout; sempre legato, smooth throughout ; sempre piano, always soft ; sempre piu affrettando il tempo, continually hastening the time ; sempre piU forte, continually increasing in loudness ; sempre ritardando, continually slackening the time ; sempre staccato, staccato throujgh- ■out. , Sennet, Synnet, Signet, Synet. (i) A word chiefly occurring in the stage directions of the old plays, indicating the sounding of a note seven times : (2) A florirish 'Consisting of a pnrase made ol the ropen notes of sl trumpet or other tube- instrument. Sensible {It.) Expressive. Sensibilita (7?.) Sensibility, feeling. Sensibile {Fr.) The leading note of a scale, the major seventh, note sensible. Sentie {Fr.) Expressed ; milodie hien sentie, the melody well expressed or marked. Sentimental. A term applied to all songs havingwoidsthatare not positively humorous, comic, or bacchanalian, -whether they express a special sentiment or not. Senza {It.) Without ; as, senza accom- Ipagnamento, without accompaniment ; senza bassi, without the basses ; senza fiori, without ornaments, plainly, simply ; senza interruzione, ■withoiatioteiraption, go on without stopping; sensa oboe, without the oboe ; senza organo, without organ; senza ornamenti, without embellishments or ornaments ; senza pedals, without the pedal ; senza repetizione, senza replica, without repetition ; senza rigore, not in strict time ; senza sordini, without the dampers in pianoforte playing ; senza sordino, without the mute of a violin ; senza stromenti, without instruments; senza tempo, without time, in no definite or exactly marked time. Separation. An old name for a grace or passing note "not reckoned in the measure or time, put between two real notes rising a third, and only designed to give a variety to the melody." Se piace {It.) At -will, as it pleases the performer. Septet, Septelto (7^.), Septuor {Fr.) (i) A composition for seven voices or instruments. (2) A piece in seven parts. Septieme (Fr.), Septime {Ger.) The interval of a seventh. Septimenakkord (Gsn) The chord of tlie seventh. Septimole. A group of seven notes to be played in the time of four or six. Sequence. The recurrence of aliarmonic progression or melodic figure at a different pitch or in a different key to that in which it was first given. Ex. i shows the repetition (five times) of the progression from a minor common thord to the major common chord of the third below : Beexhovbs. ^if-'j J J j-^\f J ^ ,U-J b4bM- ,W^ &=p^ ifei^te^fc^ ?&-F^ 1/ i Ml ' ^. g 1 r 4— i L_j 1 L_J 1 , — 1 — ■*-) I . — -r 1 Pig 1 fi- r 1 r ^ ibj L i4^^^:4^fcfe ^p*^mSI ( 391 ) SERAPHINE SERVICE. In Ex. 2 will be found the recurrence of a short phrase at the interval of one note higher : Bach. In modern music a striking effect is often obtained by the repetition of a phrase or theme at the interval of one semitone, (Ex. 3) : -.Ex.3. Wagner. Sometimes a striking melodic figure and a harmonic progression are combined in the formation of a sequence : Beethoven. Some authors divide sequences into tonal and real; others make a like division but term them diatonic and chromatic. A tonal or diatonic sequence is when no modulation takes place (see also Exs. ito4of Suspensions). A chromatic or real sequence takes place when the recurrence of a phrase at an exact interval causes a change of key, as Exs. i, 2, 3 above. Seraphine. An instrument introduced in the early part of this century, the sounds of which were produced by free-reeds, but being very coarse and unpleasant in tone, it rapidly disappeared on the introduction of the harmonium. Serenade. Originally a vocal or instru- mental composition for use in the open air at night, generally of a quiet, soothing character. The term, in its Italian form, serenata, came to be applied afterwards to a cantata having a pastoral subject, and in our own days has been applied to a work of large proportions in the form, to some extent, of a symphony. Serenades were sometimes called Standchen (Ger.) Serena (It.) An evening song ; an A bendlied. Sereno {It.) Calm, serene, tranquil. Seria [It.) Serious, grave, tragic, as, Opera seria, a tragic opera. Serinette (Fr.) A bird-organ. Serioso (it.) In a serious, thoughtful manner. Serpent. Serpente (7^) A bass instru- ment of a powerful character. It is of wood, twisted into a curved form, and covered with leather, with a mouth-piece like a horn or trom- bone, with keys for the several notes to be produced. It was invented by a French priest at Auxerre in 1590, and is frequently used in the orchestra to strengthen the bass part ; but it requires to be very skilfully blown, as it is capable of producing a quarter tone above or below the note intended, and there are three notes in its compass of greater power than the rest of its scale, which ranges from bar to ' with every intermediate tone and semitone. The serpent is a transposing instrument, being in B flat, and the part it is to take is therefore written a note higher than its real sound. [Ophicleide.] Serpentono (It.) [Serpent.] Serrata (7^) A concluding performance. Service. As a term used in church music, this word signifies a musical setting of those portions of the offices which are sung by the choir, such as the Canticles, Sanctus, Gloria in excelsis, &c. A " Burial Service " is a setting of those portions of the Office for the (392 ) SERVI SYMPHONIACI SEVENTH, CHORDS OF THE. Burial of the Dead which may be sung by a choir. Servi Symphoniaci, or Pueri Sympho- niaci. The band of musicians kept by persons of rank among the Romans. Sesquialtera. (i) Numbers in the pro- portion 3 : 2. [Proportio.] (2) An organ stop consisting of several ranks of pipes, sounding high harmonics for the purpose of strengthening the ground tone. [Organ.] Sesta, Sesto (It.) A sixth. Sestet, Sestetto (It.) A composition for six voices or instruments. Settima, Settimo (It.) The interval of a seventh. Setzkunst (Ger.) The art of musical composition. Seventh. [Interval.] Seventh, Chords of the. Chords are named on two principles: (i) by the largest interval contained in their component notes ; (2) by the largest interval they contain when referred to their supposed fundamental-bass or root. On the former of these principles sevenths have been divided into primary and secondary; primary being those which have the tonic or dominant for their bass note ; secondary, those which have the second, third, fourth, sixth, and seventh of the scale for their bass, e.g.: Primary chords Secondary chords of the seventh, of the seventh. (i) The inversions of No. i are and its most common resolutions, as follows : Ex. I. Ex.2. Ex.3. e (ist Inv.) 6 — 6 4 — 4 3 4 3 (2nd Inv.) (and Inv.) Ex. 7. Ex.8. (3rd Inv.) (3rd Inv.) From the above it will be seen that the seventh from the tonic sometimes ascends, sometimes descends. In the former case (Exs. I, 3, 5, 7), it is called the suspended leading-note or sub-tonic ; in the latter, the chord of the tonic seventh. (2) The next primary seventh is called the chord of the dominant seventh, or minor seventh, and, by some, the fundamental seventh. It has three inversions, namely : It is only possible to give a few of its many possible resolutions : Ex. g. 6 6 6 5 4 4 (ist Inv.) 3 3 (2nd inv.) (3rd Inv.) Ex. II. Ex. 12. Ex. 13. Ex. 14. Ex. 15. ^^m rj Pp II n ];--i-4| rj — rs L ^m Ex. 16. Ex. 17. Ex. 18. Ex. 19. Ex. 20. These resolutions have been divided into diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic ; also, into simple and compound ; and into related and extraneous, &c., &c. (3) The secondary sevenths are generally ( 393 ) SEVENTH, CHORDS UF THE. named after the degree of scale on which they occur; thus, chord No. 3 (Ex. 25) is called the "seventli on the supertonic;" No. 4 (Ex. 26) "seventh on the mediant;" No. 5 (Ex. 27) "seventh on the subdominant ; " No. 6 (Ex. 28) "seventh on the submediant;" No. 7 (Ex. 29) " seventh on the leading- note." (Chord No. 4.) 1st Inv. Ex. 27. (Chord Ha. j.) jst Inv. Ex. 28. (Chord No. 6.1 Tsftliiv. 2nd Inv. 3rd Inw. ,3rd lire. 3rd Inv. Ex.ira. (Chord No. 7.) ist Inv. 2nd Inv. 3rd Inv. The following are the most common reso- lutions of chord No. 3, the seventh on tbe supertonic : Ex. 30. Ex. 31. (4) The resolutions of chord No. 4 (Ex. 26) are commonly as follow : The first inversion of the supertonic seventh (Ex. 31) is also ^known as the chord of the added sixth, q.v. By some authors, the chord No. 3 (Ex. 25) is said to be derived from G, it becomes therefore the thord of the it, g, 7, 5, of that fundamental bass. On this principle, the chord * (Ex. 30) is the second inversion of the chord of the eleventh on G ; the chord * (Ex. 31) the third inversion of the same chord, and so on. Ex. 34. Ex.35. Ex. 36. Ei. 37- Most authors treat this as part of the chord of the ninth on C ; namely, C, E, G, B, D, with the C omitted. [Ninth, chord of.] (5) The resolutions of chord No. 5 (Ex. 27) are generally as follow: Ex.35. . Many authors call the above tbe third (Ex. 34), fourth (Ex. 35), fifth (Ex. 36), and sixth inversions of the chord of the dominant thirteenth of G, of which fundamental bass they form the intervals of the 7th, gth, nth, and 13th. (6) The following are common resolutions of chord No. 6 (Ex. 28) : Ex. 38. « Ex. 39. « This chord is by some a:athDrs considered as a derivative of tbe subdominant F. From this point of view the chords * (Exs. 38, 39, 40, 4j) become the iirst, second, third, { 394 ) SEVERAMENTE SHIFT, and fourth inversions respectively of a funda- mental F. Others look upon this chord as a thirteenth from G, and as analogous to that described in No. 5, (7) The following are the common resolu- tions of chord No. 7 (Ex. 29), known as the " seventh on the leading-note." Ex, 42. Ex. 43. Ex. 44. Ex. 45. This chord is attributed by almost universal consent to the fundamental note G, and is called the chord of the "dominant ninth," or "added ninth," or "fundamental ninth," or " major ninth." Chords of the seventTi are also cailled four- fold chords, because in their full form they are made up 01 four sounds. The chord of the diminished seventh ■will be found described under the chord of the minor ninth. Severamente (Ji.) Severely, strictly, exactly. Severita [rt.") Severity, strictnesSj exact- ness. Sexquialtera {Lat.) [Sesquialtera.] Sext (Ger.) (i) A sixth. (2) The name of an organ stop of two ranks, having the interval of a sixth between themj namely, a twelfth and tierce. Sextette. [Sestetto.] Sextolet, or Sextuplet. A double triplet, six notes to be performed in the time of fciir. Sextuor. A composition in six parts. , Sf. or Sfz. Abb. of Sforzando or Sforzato. Sforzando {It.) [Sforzato.] Sforzato (7f.) Forced. A term signifying that the note or notes pointed out Try the sign 5/. are to be emphasised more strongly than they would otherwise be in the course of the rhythm. Sfz. p. Abb. for 'Sforzato piano, a sudden forte followed by a diminuendo or piano. Also indicated by the sign ;:=-. Sfuggito (It.) Avoided, shunned, as Cadenza sfuggita, an interrupted cadence. Shading of pipes. The placing of any- thing so near the top of an organ pipe as to affect the vibrating column of air which it contains. Shake. TriUo {It.), PraUtriller {Ger.) An ornament produced by the rapid alter- nations of two notes, either a tone or semitone apart, as the case may be. The sign of a shake is tr. (the first two letters of the word trillo) placed over the chief note : Written tr Performed. ■^ f m^MfW^ an indefinite number of times according to the fancy of the performer or the duration of the note. A shake, preceded by an appoggia- tura is generally finished with a turn : Written. Performed. Written, tr Ferfefrmed. A succession of shakes is called a chain, Catena di trilli. A shake which commences ■with a turn is called a prepared shake. In harpsichord music a shake was written thus : ff _ J and played thus : = a plain note and shake, written thus : \ll _ _^ J played j ■ J ^ y . ^ F5=! a turned shalie written thus : I played Sharp, (i)The sign which raises a noteone semitone above the normal or natural scale. A note so affected is restored to its normal pitch by the use of a natural. In old music sharps were often used to raise notes ■v<'hich had been previously flattened, for which pur- pose a natural is always now used. (2) An augmented interval is said by some to be sharp. In old writers a major third is called a sharp third. (3) Out of tune, by being higher in pitch than is just. (4) Shrill or acute, as sharp mixture, an organ stop. Shawm. [Chalameau.] Shift, A change of the position of the hand in violin playing, by which the , first finger of the player has to temporarily be- come the nut. Shifts are complete changes of four notes ; thus, the first shift on the violin is when the first finger is on A of the ■first string ; the second shift, when it is on D above. The intermediate points on which the first finger can be placed are called posi- tions ; thus, ih.Q first position (called also the a&aZ/' s/fz/i) is when the first finger is on G'; the second position is the first shift ; the third position is when the first finger is on B ; (393 3 SHORT OCTAVES SIGNATURE. the fourth when it is on C ; the fifth position becomes the second shift, &c. Short octaves. In old organs, in order to avoid the expense of large pipes which were not frequently used, only the most im- portant notes between c c and g g g were employed. The following was a common system of arranging the four lowest sounds in English organs : — to w The keys as above appeared, of course, to be B, C, CJt, D. Si. The name of the seventh degree of the scale of Do. It was first suggested as a sol- feggio syllable by Ericius Puteanus, of Dod- recht, in 1580, and again by Lemaire, of Paris, about the year 1 6go. In the scale as divided into hexachords by Guido, the seventh note as the first was called Ut ; but the use of solmisation rendered a seventh name necessary. Za and Sa were both suggested at different times, the latter because it was a portion of the first syllable of the word sancte, one of the concluding words of the verse of the hymn which gave the names to the other notes. [Aretinian syllables.] Andreas Lorente, in a part of his book, " El porque de la musica," 1673, suggested the syllable Bi for the leading note of the scale, but the syllable adopted by Puteanus and Lemaire took firmer hold of the musical mind of the public, from a supposed notion that the sibilant sound indicated to some extent the peculiarity of the tone. Si b6mol {Fr.) The note Bjz. Siciliana, Siciliano [It.) A graceful dance of the Sicilian peasantry, set to a melody in ^ or y time, of a simple pastoral character. Compositions or movements of like character are so named. Side-drum. A small military drum fre- quently used in the orchestra. It is sus- pended at the side of the player and beaten with two wooden sticks on the upper head or surface, the lower having catgut strings called snares, stretched across to check the rever- beration. Rossini was the first to employ the side-drum as an orchestra:l instrument. See the score pf the overture to La Gazza Ladra. [Drum.] Siebenklang {Ger.) (i) A chord of the seventh. (2) A heptach(?rd or scale of seven notes. Siebenpfeife des Pan. [Pan's pipes.] Siegeslied (Ger.) A song of triumph. Siegue. [Segue.] SifHote, Sufflote {Ger.) [Flute.] Signa. (i) An old name for large Church bells. (2) Characters and signs in mediaeval music. Signalist {Ger.) A military trumpet player. Signatur {Ger.) [Signature.] Signature. The signs placed at the com- mencement of a piece of music. There are two kinds of signature, the time-signature and the key-signature, the latter requiring a clef to show the pitch, (i) The key signa- tures, including the clefs, are usually written on every stave ; the time-signature only at the commencement of the first line and where changes occur. It would be more proper to call the time-signature the measure-sign, as it shows the contents of a bar but not the pace at which the music should be performed. The signatures of minor keys are the same as those of their relative majors. This leads to some inconvenience, as it is often neces- sary to look into a piece before determining whether it is in the major or minor. Various remedies have been proposed for this, the most important of which is to mark the raised leading-note and minor sixth in the signa- ture, e.g. : A minor. E minor. B minor. Fjf minor. CJf minor. Gfl minor. Djt minor. A$ minor. D minor. G minor. C minor. F minor. BI) minor. Eb minor. Ab minor. It is remarkable that writers before the middle of the eighteenth century frequently placed one sharp less in the signature than was absolutely necessary, and consequently were obliged to use an accidental at every recurrence of the leading-note. It seems difficult to account for this custom, unless such writers thought it wrong to acknow- ledge that the force of the leading-note over- threw the old church modes. Some writers consider that it was done in order not to disturb the proper position of the mi and /a in sol-faing. [Sol-faing.] (2) Time-signatures are expressed by frac- tional parts of a semibreve. But the signs C and are, it is to be regretted, still much in vogue in common time. The former is a corruption - of the semicircle C , which was used to denote duple or imperfect ineasure, (396) SIGN- -SIM. the whole circle O being used to denote per- fect or triple measure. The stroke through the sign d; has two distinct meanings, namely, (i) a halving of the contents of the bar ; (2) a halving of the pace of the music. Thus, C formerly denoted fourminims in a bar ; and . lo • ) and g (<2) . 1^) . O .) ; are to be found. Sign. A note or character employed in music. Signe (Fr.) The sign §. [Segno.] Siguidilla. « [Seguidilla.] Silence (Fr.) Silenzio (It.) A rest. Si leva il sordino (It.) A direction that the mute (sordino) is to be taken off. Silver strings. The covered strings used on violins, tenors, violoncellos, guitars, &c. [String.] Sim. Abb. of simile. ( 397 ) SIMICION SIX POUR QUATRE. Simicion or Simicon {Gk.), aifUKiov. A harp with thirty-five strings, known to, and occasionally used by tiie Greeks., Similar motion. [Motion.] Simile (It.) Like ;: in the same manner. A direction that a method of performance previously ordered ia to be adhered to in all similar passages. Simpla {low Lat.) Semiminima. A crotchet. Simple, (i) Not florid ; as, sitnple counter- poinL (2) Not developed ; as, simple imita- tion. (3) Not exceeding an octave ; as, simple interval. (4) Containing only one group of notes ; as, simple measure, simple time. (5) Without valves or pistons ; as, a simple tube. (6) That which cannot be resolved into constituents ; as, a simple tone.. Sin' al fine {It.) To the end. Sinfonia {It.) Sinfonie {Fr.) [Sym- phony.] Singakademie, Singschule {Ger.) An academy or school for singing. Singend {Ger.) [Cantabile.] Singetanze {Ger.) Song-dances. Ballad's. Singhiozzando. {It.) In a sobbing style^ Single action. [Pianoforte.] [Harp.] Single chant., [Chant.]. Single fugue^ A composition in which, only one subject is employed. [Fugue.] Single relish. An old ornament in harpsi- chord music, viohn playing, or singing.. It was also called a cadent. Written. Played. Singschule {Ger.) A school for teaching vocal music. A song-school. Singspiel (per.) [Opera.] Singstimme (Ger.) A vocal part. Sinistra (It.) The left hand. Sinkapace. [Paspy.] Si place (It.) At pleasure, ad libitum. Si replica (It.) To be repeated. Si scriva (It.) As written, without im- promptu embellishment or alteration. Si segue (It.) As follows, go on. Sister (Ger.) An old German guitar having seven gut strings, the three lowest covered. It was tuned to G c f g c' e' g'. Sistro (It.) A triangle. Sistrum (Gk.), aeiarpoy (frorn o-EiVto sfia^e), A rattle used by the ancient. Egyptians-,, the Greeks, and Romans.. It is not improbable sistrums were known also to the Hebrews,, if the word menaaneim is correctly traced to a root signifying to " rattle,." Its common form was that of a handle surmounted by a loop of metal having cross-bars on which rings were sometimes placed; (Fig. i.) Fig; L Others had bars of unequal length without rings, a fact which has led some writers to suppose that they were struck with a piece of metal held in the other hand. (Fig. 2.), Fig. 3 shows Egyptian ladies rattling sis- trums at a. religious ceremony. Fig- 3- Sitole. [Citote.] Si tace (It.) Be silent Si volta (It.) Turn over. Sixieme (Fr.) The interval of a sixth. Six pour quatre (Fr.) A sextuplet, q.v. (398) SIXTE — ^SOL-FAING. SiXte (Fr.) The intervul of a sixth. Sixteen feet. The length of the open pipe which gives the unison of the: pedal organ and the double of the manuals. Sixteenth note. A semiquaver, the six- teenth part of a semibreve. Sixth, added. [Added sixth.] Sixth, chord of the. The first inversion of the common chord ; it consists- of a note with its minor third and minor sixth. Sixth, chord of the French, German, Italian. [Extreme Sixth.] Sixth, Neapolitan. [NeapoKtaii Sixth.] Skald or Scalld. A Gothic poet, priest, or bard. According to Percy the word denotes " smoothers and polishers of lan- guage," but others: derive it from gala to sing, whence galld, enchantment, and sgalld, skalld, an enchanter.. The root "gala"' appears in the termination gall in the word; nightingale. The name was especially ap^ plied to those who, in addition, to natural gifts, possessed some degree of education,, that is to say, a knowledge, of versification,, mythical imagery, and the traditions of their country. Skaldic poetry had for its object the celebration of the deeds of living, war- riors or their ancestors.. The Skalds were attached, to the courts of the Scandinavian princes, it being accounted honourable to be possessed of the most skilful of these poets» There are few complete poems of the Skalds extant, but a large number of fragments are preserved, partly by the younger Edda, partly in the Sagas and the Heimskringla, The Eddas are songs as old as the 6th century, the Sagas are historical and legendary tales. The Heimskringla, or Mythic ring of the world, records the- history of the kings, of Norway from the earliest times to the year 1 177, the year in which the historian Snorri Sturleson was born. Skip. A movement from any one note to another which is at a greater interval than one degree.. [Disjunct motion.] Skitzen {Ger.) Sketches. Short pieces, sometimes suggestive of some particular sub- ject, not in any prescribed form. Slancio, con {It.) With eagerness, im- petuosity; from slanciare, to rush upon. Slargando, Slargandosi {It) Widening, opening, extending. Used as an equivalent for rallentando. Slentando (7^) Slackening the time, becoming slower by degrees.. Slide, (i) An arrangement in the trumpet and trombone, by means of which the tube can be lengthened so as to generate a new series of harmonics. (2) To slide is to pass from one note to another without any cessa- tion of sound, or distinction between the in- tervals. (3) A slider of an organ. Slider. [Organ.] Sliding relish, ConU {Fr^ A grace in old harpsichord music. Written, m ^^ — ^ - ' Ei»y=d. W^'^-^ - Slur. A curved line placed over notes directing that they are to be played legato. [Bind.] A slur is often used in modern music to shew the phrasing. In violin music a slur directs that the notes under it are to be played' with one bow. [Bowing.] Small Octave. The name given by the Germans to the notes, and their intermediate; semitones. It is also called the lesser octave, and is described by the small letters e, d!, e. [Pitch.]' [Tabla- ture.] Smaniante, Smaniare, Smanioso {It!) Furious, frantic, with rage„ Smanicare {It.) To shift. [Shift.] Sminuendo, Sminuito, Smorendo (/f.) Diminishing, decreasing gradually, lessening the time and tone» Smorfioso {It.) Affected, coquettish.. Smorzando, Smorzato (7^.) Gradually fading away.. Snap. [Scotch Snap..]: Snare Drum, [Side Drum.] Soave, Soavemente {It.) Agreeably, delicately, gently, softly, sweetly. Sobb. An old vrord for damping in lute playing.. ""Cause them (the strings) to sobb, by slacking your stopping hand so soon as they are struck ; yet not to unstop them, but only so much as may dead the sound on a sudden. This gives great pleasure in such cases." Mace, 1676. Soggetto {It.) Subject, theme, motive, proportion of a fugue. Sol- The note G. [Sol-faing.] Sol-bemol {Fr.) The note G flat. Sol- bemol majeur, the key of G flat major. Sol- bemol tnineur, the key of G flat minor. iSoZ- diese, the note G sharp. Solennemente {It.) Solemnly. Solennit^ {It.) Solemnity, pomp. Sol-fa {It.) A general name for the notes in music. [Sol-faing, Solfeggi, Tonic Sol- fa.] Sol-faing. A system of smgmg ; a com- position in which the names of the notes are employed instead of the words to which it may be set. Formerly only four of the seven names of the notes — tit. Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, were used, namely. Mi, Fa, Sol, La. These were applied to every note in the scale, ( 399 ) SOLFEGE SONATA. on the principle that it is naturally divided into two halves of similar proportions. Sol La Mi Fa I a 3 4 Thus, from i to 2 is a tone, from 2 to 3 is also a tone, and from 3 to 4 a semitone, whether the upper or lower series be the first reckoned. So, as in the scale of C, from Fa to Sol and from Sol to La are each a tone apart, and from Mi to Fa only a semitone ; all tones in the scale were distinguished by these names for the purpose of Sol-faing. Fa Sol La Fa Sol La Mi Fa Mi was always used for the leading, or master note. This series, repeated to any extent, was supposed to express all the different orders of tones and semitones in the diatonic scale. " Above Mi will stand Fa, Sol, La, and below it the same inverted La, Sol, Fa, and one Mi is always distant from another an octave, which cannot be said of any other of them, because after Mi ascending come always Fa, Sol, La, Fa, which are repeated invertedly, descending." The old rules for remembering Mi in all keys were thus set forth, the positions of the notes being called by the seven letters of the alphabet in use then as now ; If that no flat is set in B, Then in that pldce standeth y'' Mi : But if your B alone is flat, Then E is Mi. be sure of that : If both be flat, your B and E, Then A is Mi, here you may see : If these be flat, E, A and B, Then Mi alone doth stand in D : If all be flat, E, A, B, D, Then surely Mi will stand in G : Learn this, and learn it well by rote, That Mi is aye the last sharped note For if a sharp on F be set, To call that Mi, do not forget : And if another on C be found, Remember there your Mi to sound : And if one more be set on G, Then in that place will stand your Mi : If all be sharp, F, C, G, D, Then Mi alone will stand in D : In the modern method of Sol-faing no distinction is made between tones and semitones by the use of a fixed nomencla- ture for the proportions of the scale, but the ftotes in any key are called by the names they bear in the key of Do or C. Thus, a piece in E or E flat would be Sol- faed by calling the scale notes — Mi, Fa, Sol, . La, Si, Do, Re, Mi, whether they were sharp, flat, or natural. The Tonic Sol-fa method calls all scales starting from any one of the twelve semitones by the same names as it gives to the notes of the scale of C, namely, Doh, Ray, Me, Fah, Soh, Lah, Te, Doh. Solfege (Fr.) A vocal exercise in which the notes are called by the several names Do. Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si. [Sol-faing.] Solfeggiamenti (It.) Solfeggi. Solfeggiare (It.) To practice solfeggi. Solfeggio. [Solfege.} Solist. [Soloist.] Solito (It.) Usual, used, accustomed. In the ordinary manner. SoUecito (It.) Careful ; a word directing a careful and attentive manner of performance. Solmisare (It.), Solmizare (7^), Solmi- siren{Ger.) To Sol-fa. [Sol-faing. Solfeggio.] Solmisation. [Sol-faing.] Solo (It.) Alone. Soprano solo, the soprano alone ; voci soli, voices alone, &c. Soloist. One who sings or performs alone, with or without the aid of accompaniment. Solo pitch. The tuning of an instrument a little higher than the ordinary pitch in order to obtain brilliancy of tone with a certain amount of ease to the player. [Accordatura.] Solospieler [Ger.) A. solo playet. Solostimme [Ger.) A solo part. Son {Fr.) Sound, tone. Sonabile (It.) Sounding, resonant. Sonare (It.) To sound, to play upon. Sonare alia mente to play extempore. Sonare il violino (It.) To play upon the violin. Sonata. The word Sonata is supposed by some to be derived from the Italian word sonare, to sound, but by others from sonetto, a sonnet. ( 400 ) SONATA. The term Sonata or Suonata, as applied to a musical composition, was first used about the beginning of the 17th century. Those of that time so called, had but one movement ; they were in fact, simply airs arranged in. parts, for an instrument or instruments. But the title of airs was given to some Sonatas as late as 1770, for in Hoyle's " Dictionarium musicae" of that date, voce "Suonata," we read " of Corelli's Musick, the first and third operas are Church Sonatas, and the second and fourth, Chamber Sonatas ; though the common distinction among us is made by the name of airs." Other terms were occasionally used to describe Sonatas, such as Consorts, Ayres, Lessons, Fantasies or Fancies, " so made as they must be plaid and not sung," and "Ayerie Fancies that may be as well sung as plaid." Sir John Hawkins, in his " History of Music," says these titles were disused about the middle of the 17th century, when new forms of concerted pieces of a more elegant character came into vogue ; these were called " the Sonata di Chiesa and the Sonata di Camera." The first of these, as being adapted to Church Service, was grave and solemn, consisting of slow movements, intermixed with fugues; the other admitted of a variety of airs to regular measures, such as the Allemande, the Courant, the Sarabande, &c. The slow movements "intermixed with fugues," arose from the introduction of the Canzona, and Sir John Hawkins in mentioning this as a characteristic of the Sonata, uncon- sciously proves that the influence of the Canzona style had not weakened or faded at the time he wrote. The connection of the Canzona with the Sonata is to a certain extent indicated in the pieces by Frescobaldi, published at Venice (1634). " Canzone da Sonare a una, due, tre, et quattro, con il basso continuo," which are exactly similar in style to the com- . positions recorded in early times as Sonatas. When in subsequent compositions of this kind two or more movements were employed, those most favoured were a Canzona or something in Canzona style, and a dance tune, such as a Pavan, an Allemande, or a Coranto. The Canzona was probably selected by the com- poser as a vehicle for the display of art and skill, and the dance tune was offered as a conciliation to the taste of his hearers. Long after the form was fixed, compositions bearing the name of Sonatas, constructed on the principles and according to the models of older times, were published, someas late as the end of the last century, as intimated above. Frescobaldi's Canzone consist of only one movement, with various changes of time. A short analysis of the whole piece from which the illustration to the word Canzona is taken, will give an idea of the character of these early Sonatas. The first phrase of ig bars is in fugal style, then follow 12 bars in f , after which are 27 bars in duple time in which free imitation is employed, then 9^ bars in f again, the music of a different character to that in the former movement, of the same pulse measure, then 2 bars by way of a coda or conclusion, in common time. No portion is marked for repetition, but the whole thing goes straight on from the first note to the last. The earliest compositions to which the title of Sonata or Suonata was attached, were written by Bonifacio Graziani (i6og- 1672), Marc Antonio Cesti (1624-1675), and Paolo Colonna (1630-1690), among others. It is presumed that some of the works of these musicians were those brought to Eng- land by John Jenkins (1592-1680), who after- wards, upon the models so suggested, pub- lished in 1660 in London "Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass, with a thorough bass for the organ." These were the first compositions of the kind by an Englishman. Jenkins was already well known as an' agree- able writer of "fancies for viols," and his Sonatas show a certain amount of artistic progress in the arrangement of contrasted movements. Most writers on musical history declare that Francis Henry Biber (1648- 1698), was the first who published a work with the title of a Sonata, but his compositions did not appear until 1681, more than twenty years after those by Jenkins with the same title ; and there were also the still earlier Italian writers named above, from whom Jenkins confessedly obtained the idea. Considering the variety of the German tongue, and the un- willingness of the German people to use a foreign term when a native equivalent can be found, it IS scarcely likely that the term Sonata would be first attached to a German composi- tion by a German composer ; therefore it is reasonable to assume that the word would have been adopted by the musicians of the country to which it belongs. Graziani, Cesti, and Colonna, who died before the time Biber pubHshed his Sonatas, used the term to describe certain of their compositions ; but supposing the honour of first using it belonged to a German, then Johann Rosenmiiller, who pub- lished at Venice " XII. senate a camera, a 5 stromenti," in 1667, has a prior claim to Biber. Henry Purcell (1658-1695), who was one of the earliest English writers of Sonatas, has almost as strong a claim to an early use of the word as Biber. Purcell composed Sonatas which were published in 1683, with the title of " Twelve sonatas of three parts, ( 401 ) 2 c SONATA. two violins and a base, to the organ or harp- sychord." These were issued in separate parts, and in the sixth Sonata of this set is the melody whose character has given rise to the erroneous statement that Purcell com- posed the air upon which " God save the King" is founded. Furthermore, some writers declare that there is evidence in the con- struction of this set of Sonatas, that Purcell was indebted to Corelli for his ideas. If there is a sufficient similarity of style to warrant the assertion, there still remains the doubt whether Purcell could have seen the work of his Italian contemporary before his own was published, as both sets were issued in the same year, and communication, espe- cially with a foreign country, was not so rapid then as now. In the preface to this book of Sonatas, Purcell states that " he has faithfully endea- voured a just imitation of the most famed Italian masters, principally to bring the seriousness and gravity of that sort of musick into vogue and reputation among our country- men, whose humour 'tis time now should begin to loath the levity and balladry of our neighbours." He further states, " He is not ashamed to own his unskilfulness in the Italian language, but that is the unhappiness of his education, which cannot justly be counted his fault ; however, he thinks he may warrantably affirm he is not mistaken in the power of the Italian notes, or elegancy of their compositions." If Purcell benefited by the writings of any Italian musician, it could hardly have been by those of Corelli. Purcell also composed a second set about the same time, but they were not printed until after his death. Among this second set was one well-known by the name of the " Golden Sonata," and as it is a very fair example of Purcell's compositions of this kind, and indeed of most others of the period, a short description may not be out of place here. It is written in three parts, for two violins and a figured bass. The key is F, and the first movement, only twenty-six bars in length, is a largo in common time of four crotchets. The subject, proposed by the bass and imitated by the trebles, is repeated in the key of the dominant at the 8th bar, but by the bass only, the trebles having a second subject. At the 12th bar the subject is in- verted in the bass and answered according to the inversion by the other parts in fugal form, modulating into the key of the relative minor, in which key the subject re-appears, having for counterpoint an inversion of the first and second subjects ; and with an imita- tion of the first episode as coda the move- ment ends. There are altogether five movements, a largo of great beauty of melody, the second an adagio in § time, with all the notes not in the key of F major written as acciden- tals, the third called canzona allegro is in F major (duple time), the fourth a grave in D minor (duple time), and the fifth is an allegro in F major |. No portion of any one move- ment is marked for repetition. The move- ments are each short, the last being the longest, and there is but little indication of that which is known as Sonata form in any, though each is written in a form regular enough in itself. Every device of imitation, inversion, and augmentation of the subjects proposed is employed freely, though not to a great extent. Lully [1634-1687], Pachelbel [1653-1706], Buononcini [16^8-1702], the great Arcangelo Corelli, and- Kiihnau [1667-1722], may be mentioned as Sonata writers contemporary with Purcell. Kiih- nau being, perhaps, next to Corelli, the most remarkable. His early Sonatas were in three movements, an allegro, andante, and allegro, and for this reason his claim to merit as the suggestor of the modern form has been made out. One of these Sonatas or suites (No. 3) in E minor, may be taken as an example not only of the rest of his works, but of the form the Sonata had as- sumed in his day. Commencing with a Prseludium of 22 bars in which sentences given out by the right hand are imitated in the left, there follows an AUemande with the half close in B minor, a Courante and a Sarabande with the first sections ending in B major; in none are the subjects developed, but the Gigue with which the suite concludes contains the nearest approach to modern form, in that the second section commences with the subject first proposed, though by in- version, and oddly enough the second half of the Gigue contains two bars less than the first, a very unusual circumstance — as in nearly all other instances the latter portion of a Gigue is the longer. There is not any at- tempt in either movement to introduce a subject of sufficiently marked character to justify its being called a second or distinctive theme. The yearning after a fixed form, and the suggestion of the treatment which became expanded into the Sonata form may certainly be traced in Kiihnau's " Frische Clavier- frtichte," seven Sonatas, published in 1703 (not in i6g6, as some say). In melodic treatment and expansion of subject these show a decided advance. That which in Frescobaldi appeared to be a mere capricious change oi,tempo, in Kiihnau became de- veloped into movements of respectable length, but still without any remarkable development of chosen themes. Kiihnau often ( 402 ) SONATA. makes the first subject of some of his move- ments heard in the dominant (whether the suite is in a major or a minor key) in the middle of a movement, but does not call, as it were, special attention to the fact by means of a double bar or a repeat. Johann Matthe- son (1681-1722) frequently imitates his first Subject in the second movement by inversion, and occasionally shows that he contributed something towards the settlement of form by the manner in which he treats his "Gigues," as may be seen in the example quoted sub voce "jig." His Sonata, published in 1713, and dedicated " to the person who shall best perform it " is in one movement only, and is capriccio-like in treatment. It may be here mentioned as an interesting fact that in the majority of the suites a Gigue is chosen as the concluding movement, and in its lively character as well as in the style of its construction is more in accordance with modern Sonata form than any other portion ; this Was the method often employed by Bach, Handel, and others to a later time. The thirty Sonatas of Alessandro Scarlatti (1659-1725), the next writer of importance after Mattheson, have each two movements, in which may be discerned a still further at- tempt to fix the style, and to impart some degree of unity. Contemporary with Scarlatti was Tomaso Albinoni [1674-1745], whose Sonatas were at one time so popular in England, that the common fiddlers were able to play movements from them ; but there is little indication of Sonata form in any one of his compositions. Domenico Alberti [1705-1739], whose name is associated with the arpeggio bass, said to have been invented by him, was one among the first, if not the very first who employed the nearest approach to modem Sonata form that had as yet been made. In his " VIII. Sonate per Cembalo " (1737), each one has two move- ments, and nearly each movement two well- defined subjects, properly introduced. With the exception of an occasional opening or closing chord, the whole of these movements are written in two-part harmony, and they are pleasingly effective. C, F, G major and minor, and A are the keys selected in obedience to the usual custom of the time of avoiding ex- treme keys, but Alberti employs accidentals freely for his bold and advanced modulations. In the works of these earlier writers an advance towards the Sonata form may be traced, for in more than one there is a close upon the dominant in the first section, and the original subject is announced in the key of the dominant at the commencement of the second section ; but there is little indication, if any at all, of what might be called a second or subsidiary theme. In five out of eight of the Sonatas of Domenico Alberti, the Sonata form is nearly observed in the first movement, and often in the second, and there are few compositions of better construction, either for voices or in- struments, of earlier date than his " Sonata in stilo nuovo " (1737). Alberti's Sonatas are in two movements only, like those of many of those of his con- temporaries and immediate successors, par- ticularly those by Dr. Croft (1679-1727), Nicolo Porpora (1685-1767), Dr. Boyce (1710-1779), Fedeli (1715-1762), Carlo Tessarini (1715- 1765), Frederic Theodor Schumann (1729- 1760), Valentin Roeser (1740-1787), &c. Francesco Durante (1684-1755), who, as a teacher, enjoyed a high and honourable reputation, as a writer of Sonatas displays a refined and correct taste, but very little originality of conception, many of his thoughts being based upon the ideas of Scarlatti his master. The Sonatas and clavecin composi- tions of Domenico Scarlatti (1683-1757), were, according to Burney, " the wonder and delight of every hearer who had a spark of enthusiasm about him, and could feel new and bold effects, intrepidly produced by the breach of almost all the old and established rules of composition," but they contribute little towards a settlement of form. It is probable that Handel noted the growth of the form, and occasionally employed it, some of the movements in his "Suites" having the orthodox first and second subject, while others have only a single subject in each section. Some of the songs in his Italian operas are almost in Sonata form, wanting only the observance of certain details. Some of the Sonatas of Christopher Wagenseil (1688-1779) are in correct'form, though the second subject is timidly in- troduced and employed. The lingering fond- ness for the same tonality, which is the characteristic of the Suites, and the earliest Sonatas, is to be found in Wagenseil; one of his Sonatas in the key of F, a fair specimen of his work in this style, has an allegro assai as the first movement, an andante grazidso as the second, and a minuet as the third. The first and last movements are in F major, and the andante in F minor.. The collection in which this Sonata is to be found was published between 1740 and 1750. The changes of tempo in the earliest coin- positions of this kind, probably suggested a division into separate movements. In- herent musical feeling would doubtless prompt the composer to make the several movements offer as much contrast as pos- sible, and the variety thus introduced would be accepted as the first canon of this class of composition. I 403 ) SONATA. The arrangement of the earliest " Suites des pifeces " may be studied with advantage in reference to this point. In the " Pifeces de Clavecin" by Franfois Couperin, 1713, there is a set in C minor, consisting of an AUemande, followed by a first and second Courante, then a Sarabande, a Gavotte, and finally a Minuet, each movement varying in tempo as well as in character, though not in key. The number of movements in a Suite alternated between five and seven for many years, but by degrees they became lessened in number. Although the names of dance tunes ceased to be attached to the several movements, it was easy to see that much of their character was retained ; for as composers began to feel that the measure of the dance turie had a tendency to cramp their musical thoughts, their models were altered or abandoned, and they expanded their movements at pleasure, without reference to the needs of the dance. Later, when three movements were adopted, the dance tune was restored, a preference being given to the Minuet or something in its kind, and this, with a slow and a quick movement, for a long \ime made up the recognised constitution of a Sonata. . Beethoven added a fourth movement, the Scherzo, which he used sometimes instead of, sometimes in addition to, the Minuet ; but he was not, as some say, the inventor of that movement, as Haydn in his quartets, and Bach in his Suites had previously employed a movement called Scherzo. The " Clavier-Uebung," of J. S. Bach, pub- lished singly between 1726 and 1730, marked in Hoffmeister's edition as CEuvre I., No. i, containing six Suites in various keys, offers a very remarkable series of studies, inasmuch as they show the master mind yielding to the custom of his time in the order and style of the arrangements of his suites or Sonatas, but as free from conventionality as possible, and pointing in the direction so worthily followed by later writers. In the first number there are six movements, all in the key of B fiat, namely, a prelude, an allemande, a courante, a sara- bande, a minuet and gigue. Each, with the ex- ception of the Prelude, is, as near as possible, in Sonata form, though the second subject is not always treated in the tonic in the second section. As usual, there is a second Minuet in the place now occupied by the trio, of which more presently. The second Suite is in C minor, and commences with a symphony or overture of two contrasted movements, but free in form ; the next movement is an allemande, the first section closing on the dominant (G major) ; the third movement a courante, similarly written ; the fourth a sarabande, with the first close in the relative major; the fifth is a rondeau, in the form proper to such pieces ; the last is a caprice, the second section having the first subject inverted. The third Suite, in A minor, opens with a, fantasia, followed by an allemande, which is succeeded by a co%rante, more or less free in treat- ment. The next piece is a sarabande in good form, then a burlesca, next a scherzo in duple time (given as an illustration to the article "Scherzo"), lastly agigue in fantasia style. The fourth Suite, in D major, begins with an over- ture of some length ; then comes a courante not in form, then an allemande, then an aria, then a sarabande, the three last named obeying the rules of form ; then there is a short minuet of two movements, and the last is a gigue. The fifth Suite, in G major, opens with what he calls a preamble, after which an allemande, a courante, a sarabande, a tempo di minuetto, a passepied and a gigue, the saraband only of all these movements answering to any extent the requirements of form. The sixth Suite, in E minor, the most remarkable and difficult of the whole set, begins with a long and beautiful toccata, having next an alle- mande with the close of the first section on the dominant B major, next a courante, treated in like fashion, then an air in rondo form, then a gavotte in Sonata form, a sarabande, written in fantasia style, and a gigue in the somewhat unusual tempo " alia breve," the first bar of which is quoted under the head " alia breve." In the third book of the second set, " Zweiter Theil der Clavier-ubung," there is a minuet in B minor which, instead of a second minuet in the relative major, according to custom, has a "trio" in B minor; this is noteworthy, as it is probably the earliest instance of this use of the word. The con- struction and arrangement of this second set is so similar to the first, that with the ex- ception just now pointed out, there is little or no point of difference to call for special remark. The " Sechs leichte Clavier-Sonaten," of C. Philipp Emanuel Bach (1711-1788), pub- lished at Leipsic, 1766, contain each the orthodox three movements, a moderate, a slow and a quick ; and the first, and sometimes the last movement of each is written in Sonata form, with the exception of No. 6, which begins with a movement in rondo form. Not one has the name of a dance tune attached, though there are several which would answer all needs, were they so named. Many of the Sonatas of his brother Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1710-1784) though, cleverly and ably written, show a less regard for the symmetrical form so characteristic of the works of Philipp Emanuel. More than one of Friedemann's Sonatas, like those of the older writer, consist of a continuous movement with a frequent change of time, rhythm and tonality. Some portions fulfil ( 404 ) SONATA. all the requirements of form, but they are not marked for repetition. There are no separate and distinct movements, and the form chosen might be called, if not a caprice, at all events an original idea of the rondo, for after many and varied contrasts of time and subject, the Sonata often concludes with the phrase originally given out. Schobert's Sonatas, published in 1741, are especially remarkable, because the second sub- jects are introduced in proper keys, after due preparation, although they are not so fully de- veloped as those by later vi^riters. There is an evident design in expanding the subjects to a greater extent than that which had been the custom before his time. So many of the Sonatas by E. Bach and Schobert are con- structed according to Sonata form as now accepted, that the honour of having fixed the form may fairly be divided between these two composers. Schobert's works were at one time the most popular of any performed in England, Dr. Burney having introduced them here in 1766. This writer makes a mistake, when he says that Schobert published nothing until 1764, for he was already well known as a composer when he was invited to become " Musician to the Prince de Conti " in 1760, and copies of his Sonatas were in the hands of every harp- sichord player before that time. Emanuel Bach knew Schobert's value as a musician, for Dr. Burney states that "his (Bach's) party allowed Schobert to be a man of genius, but spoiled by his affectation of a new and extraordinary style. They further accused him of frequently copying himself." His writing is perfectly individual, is fresh and novel, and more like an anticipation of Haydn and Mozart than Bach, from whom all the musicians of the time were wont to copy. It is scarcely necessary to pursue the question further, or to enter into any elaborate argument in support of the claim of any particular musician to the invention of that to which probably all have contributed more or less. For at the period of time to which our inquiries have now led, the Sonatas of Haydn and Mozart became the recognised form of this species of composition, and they are happily so well known that a particular description is unnecessary. But, notwith- standing the existence of such noble models, not every composer of a Sonata cared to use the recognised or Sonata form ; even Cheru- bini, with his love for form, sometimes wrote Sonatas not in true form. It is unnecessary, perhaps, to say that the Sonata was brought to its present per- fection by Beethoven. The works of Clementi, the father of pianoforte - playing, Dussek, Hummel, Weber, Field, Onslow, Moscheles, and Schubert show no further advance in pro- gress in development. A modern Sonata is generally constructed upon the following plan : — The first movement is an allegro, some- times with an introduction, but more fre- quently without one; the second movement, ordinarily called "the slow movement," is set in any time, between adagio and andante; and the final movement is an allegro, written either in Sonata or in rondo form. If there is a. fourth movement, it is usually placed after the slow movement, and is either a scherzo or minuet and trio. This is the broad out- line ; the details require a little more particular description. The first movement should have two themes, unlike each other in character ; for example, one vigojous and spirited, the other tender and expressive ; and each should be capable of varied treatment. After the first subject has been well announced, a modulation into the key of the dominant, if the subject starts it. the major, and into the relative major if the subject commences in the minor, should be made. In either case the second subject must be heard in the changed key before the half close or perfect cadence concludes the first part of the allegro. In the second portion of the allegro, a greater amount of license is permitted, this section often partaking of the nature of a free fantasia. The two principal themes are subjected to all kinds of treatment, and are introduced in various keys at the will of the composer. Having exhausted all chosen devices, the first subject must now enter in its entirety, then the second subject should be heard, this time in the tonic or key in which the movement is written, if that mode be major ; or it may appear in the key of the tonic major, if the mode be minor ; but the episode and cadence which are to usher in the conclusion of this section, must be in the tonic key. Sometimes a coda, formed of a portion of the first subject, is added, and the movement ends in the key first proposed. This method of treatment is called the " Sonata " or " Binary " form. The second movement may be written in several different ways, that is to say, treated like the first movement with two principal themes, or with only one principal theme. Whatever be the precise form selected, the style of the music should afford a great con- trast to that of the allegro. The style of the last movement should afford a still greater contrast by its character, what- ever be the form selected ; if it is a Rondo, it should be lighter than the first or second movements. Many instances could be quoted in which the final movement is made the ( 405 ) SONATA DA CHIESA SOUND-BOARD. vehicle for the expression of quaint musical humour. Sonata da chiesa (Jt.) A church sonata, an organ sonata. Sonate (Fr.) [Sonata.] Sonatina {It.), Sonatine (Fr.) A short sonata. One in which the subjects are not developed at length. Sonatore (It.) An instrumental performer. Sonevole (It.) Sonorous, sounding, re- . sonant. Song, (i) A short poem intended for music. (2) A musical setting of a short poem or portion of prose. The word is generally- applied to solos, but sometimes also to com- positions for two or more voices. (3) The second subject of a sonata is sometimes called the " Song." [Air.] [Ballad.] [Lied.] Sonometer. An instrument for measur- ing the vibrations of sounds. Sonoramente (It.) Sonorously. Sonore (Fr.), Sonoro (It.) Sonorous, resonant, harmonious. Sonorita [It.) Harmony, resonance, sono- rousness. Sonorophone. A metal wind instrument of the Bombardon class. Sons (Fr.) The name given by the Pro- vencal poets to their lyrical productions. Sons etouffes (Fr.) Stifled, veiled, or muffled tones. Sounds produced by a muted instrument. Sons harmoniques (Fr.) Harmonic tones or sounds. Sons pleins (Fr.) Full tones, applied to the production of full round tones by a voice or instrument. Sonus (Lat.) Sound. Sopra (It.) Above, before, over, upon, upper, as Di sopra, as above ; Come sopra, as above or before ; Nella parte di sopra, in the upper or higher part ; Contrappunto sopra il soggetto, counterpoint over the subject. Sopran (Ger.), Soprano [It.) The highest kind of female or boy's voice. Also the singer possessing that voice. Soprana corda (It.) The highest string on the fiddle, chanterelle. Soprano clef. The C clef upon the first line of the stave. [Clef.] Sorda [It.) Muffled, veiled, muted, damped. Sordamente {It.) Softly, gently, silently. Sordini {It.) (i) Mutes. Small instru- ments of metal, bone, or wood made to fix upon, the bridge of a violin to damp or deaden the sound, by intercepting the vibrations. Mutes of wood covered with leather, of a pear shape, are sometimes used to check the sound of horns, trumpets, cornets, clarinets and oboes, the mute being inserted in the bell. (2) When mutes are required during a per- formance, the direction con sordini is placed above the part so to be played, the contrary direction being senza sordini. Sordino {It.) A small pocket fiddle, a pochette or kit, formerly used for the purpose of giving the pitch, &c., at music parties. Sordo, sorda {It.) Damped with a mute ; as, clarinetto sordo, tromha sorda, &c, [Sordini.] Sordun, Sordono {It.) (i) An old form of wood wind instrument, having a double reed, with twelve ventages and two keys. (2) A sort of mute for a trumpet. (3) An organ reed stop of 16 ft. pitch. Sortisatio {Lat.) Counterpoint alia mente. [Alia mente.] [Chant sur livre.] Sortita {It.) (i) A word applied to the first piece sung by any one character in an opera. Thus, " Come per me" is the aria sortita, aria d'entrata, or entrance air for Amina in La Sonnambula. (2) A concluding voluntary, played as the congregation leaves the church. Sospensivamente {It.) Doubtfully, irreso- lutely, waveringly. Sospirando, Sospirante, Sospireiule, Sospiroso {It.) Sighing, subdued, wretched, doleful. Sospiro {It.) A crotchet rest. In old music a minim rest. Sost. Abb. of Sostenuto. Sostenendo, Sostenuto {It.) Sustaining. Maintaining the tone for the full duration of the notes written. Sotto (/i.) Below, under; ?iS,sottovoce,m an undertone ; sotto il soggetto, below the subject. Soubasse {Fr.) Sub-bass. A stop in the organ, of 32 ft. pitch. Soubrette {Fr.) A serving maid. A female singer in a minor part of a comic opera. Souchantre {Fr.) Succentor. Souffarah {Persian.) The general name among the Persians and Arabs for wind instruments without reeds. Soufflerie {Fr.) The apparatus connected with the bellows of an organ. [Organ.] SoufHeur {Fr.) (i) A prompter in a theatre. (2) An organ blower. Soum. A Burmese harp. Sound. [Acoustics.] Sound-waves. [Acoustics § 3.] Sound-board, (i) A piece of fir or other resonant wood placed behind the strings of a pianoforte for the purpose of increasing the power of the sounds. [Pianoforte.] (2) In an organ, the sound-board is that chamber of air into which the feet of the pipes are placed. [Organ.] (3) A wood screen placed behind a pulpit for the purpose of " reflecting " the preacher's voice ; or over it, to prevent the (406) SOUND-BODY STACCATO. sound from ascending into a lantern-tower, or a dome. Sound-body. Sound-box. [Body.] [Re- sonance Box.] Soupir (Fr.) A crotchet rest T. Soupir de croche (Fr.) A quaver restT. Soupir de double croche (Fr.) A semi- quaver rest ^. Soupir de triple croche {Fr.) A demi- semiquaver rest ^. Sourdeline (Fr.) A small kind of bagpipe, or musette. [Bagpipe.] Sourdine (Fr.) (i) A mute (Sordino.) (2) A stop on the harmonium, which by limiting the supply of wind to the lower half of the instrument, enables the performer to play full chords piano. Sous (Fr.) Under; as, Sous-dominante, the sub-dominant or fourth of the scale. Sous-mediante, the sub-mediant, or sixth of the scale. Sous-tonique, the sub-tonic or seventh of the scale; the leading or note sensible. Spaces. The intervals between the lines of the stave. The stave consists of five lines and includes four spaces, but notes in spaces between leger lines above and below the stave, are employed. [Stave.] Spagnoletta (It.) A dance in the Spanish style. iSpanisches-Kreuz {Ger.) The Spanish cross, the sign of a double sharp, X. Spanish guitar. [Guitar.] Spart. [Sparto.] Sparto (li.) Scattered, distributed; hence, a Score, as the parts are arranged on several lines. [Score.] Spartito (It.) Scored. Spassapensiere (It.) Jew's harp. Spatium (Lat.)] (i) A space on the stave, Spazio (It.) J (2) an interval. Spianto (It.) Smooth, level, even. Spiccatamente (It.) Brightly, brilliantly. Spiccato (It.) Distinct, detached, pointed. The direction for this is by dots over notes. [Bowing.] Spielart (Ger.) Manner of playing, method of performance. Spielen (Ger.) To play upon an instru- ment. Spieler (Ger.) A player. Spielmanieren (Ger.) Ornaments, graces, broderies. Spinse (Lat.) Lit., thorns. A name given to the quills and jacks of a spinet, and sometimes to the instrument itself. Spinet. Couched harp. Spinett (Ger.) Spinetta (It.) Epinette (Fr.) An ancient keyed instrument similar in construction to, but smaller in size than, the Harpsichord. The strings, which were placed at an angle with the keys, were sounded leather or quill plectra (Spinse.) [Harpsichord.] [Pianoforte.] Spirito, con, Spiritosamente Spirito so Spirituale (It.) by means of [Clarichord.] [Virginals.] (It.) In a spirited, lively, animated, brisk manner. Sacred, spiritual. Spirituel (Fr.) Ideal, pure, ethereal. Spissa (Lat.) Close, (i) Intervals in the enharmonic and chromatic genus were said to be spissa, (TrvKva.) (2) In mediaeval music a pycnon (ttvkvov) or spissum was a semitone. Spitzfiote, Spindelflote (Ger.) Cuspida, fiauto cuspido (It.) An organ stop of 8 ft. or 4 ft. pitch, consisting of open flue-pipes, of a conical shape. Its tone is thin and reedy. Spitzquint, a quint-stop or twelfth of conical pipes. Spondalium, or Spondaulium (Lat.) A Hymn sung during a sacrifice, accompanied by a flute. Spondee (Lat.) A musical foot consisting of two long syllables. [Metre.] Sprung (Ger.) A skip. Square-piano. [Pianoforte.] Squillante (It.) Ringing, sounding, bell- like in tone, from squilla, a little bell. Sroutis. The name of the twenty-two parts into which the Hindu scale is divided. Sta (It.) As it stands ; to be performed as written. Stabat Mater. A well - known Latin Hymn on the crucifixion, sung during Passion week in- the Roman Catholic Church. Jacopone, a Franciscan who lived in the thirteenth century, is supposed to have been the author of the words. In addition to the ancient setting, probably contemporary with the words, many composers have written music to the Stabat Mater, but the com- positions which are best known are those by Palestrina, Pergolesi, the last effort of his life, and Rossini. The first of these three is a noble work, the second is full of pathos and expression, and the last is a quaint unison of operatic effects and florid vocal writing. Stabile (It.) Firm, steady. Stacc. Abb. of Staccato. Staccare (It.) To make staccato. Staccatissimo (It.) As staccato as possible. Staccato (It.) Detached, taken off, sepa- rated. In music the word signifies a detached, abrupt method of singing or playing certain notes, by making them of less duration than they otherwise would be. A small dash over a note signifies that it is to be played staccato. Written. Played. Sometimes a dot over a note is called a ( 407 ) STADTMUSIKANTEN STEM. staccato mark, but it is more properly the sign of a spiccato. Staccato notes are played shorter than those marked spiccato. Stadtmusikanten, StadtpfeifTer, Stadt- zinkenisten, Kunstpfeiffer, Hausleute {Ger.) Town musicians. [Waits.] Staff. [Stave.] Stammakkord {Ger.) A key-chord or fundamental chord. Stampita (It.) A sonata, an air, a song. Standard pitch. [Pitch.] Standchen (Ger.) A serenade. Standhaft (Ger.) Firm, steady, steadfast. Stanghetta (It.) A bar-line. The vertical line placed on the stave to mark the division of bars. Stanza (It.) Lit., A station or resting place, (i) A series of metrical lines forming a verse or subdivision of a poem, (2) A strophe. Stark (Ger.) Strong, loud ; as, mit starken Stimmen, with loud stops. Stave. Linien-system (Ger.) Port6e (Fr.) (i) A term applied to the five horizontal and parallel lines in music, upon which the notes or rests are supported. rini," Venice, 1729, shows the form with the clefs then in use in Italy. (2) Kircher describes a Greek manuscript which he found in the Jesuits' library of S. Salvator at Messina, the age of which he declared to be more than seven hundred years, in which hymns are set to music, written on staves of eight lines, no use being made of the intermediate spaces. Guido d'Arezzo, to whom the invention of the stave is usually assigned, may only have reduced the number of the lines, by making use of the spaces as steps in representing diatonic degrees. In the thirteenth century the number of lines was further reduced to four, a number still found sufficient for the purposes of the Plain Song. Staves of various numbers, from three to six lines, are found in mediseval music, and in fact it was not until the invention of printing that the number of lines was settled at five. It is by no means an unusual thing to find six lines ruled in manuscript music books of the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth centuries, and in some of the early printed books a variable number of lines is occasionally found. Frescobaldi in his "Tocate, canzone versi d'Hinni Magnificat, Gagliardi, Correnti, et Altri Partite di Cimbalo et organo," which was printed from copper plates in 1637, employs a stave of eight lines. The stave of eleven lines, called also the " grand stave," has been in use for many generations ; the following from, " L'Armo- nica pratico el Cimbalo di Francesco Gaspa- ^ c^ -^J . • -^- -" *' - Sir John Hawkins, in his " History of the Science and Practice of MUsic," quotes a canzona from Frescobaldi's collection, but he has modernised the stave. Although five is now the general number of lines employed as the stance for all voices and instruments, yet it is by no means an unfrequent thing to find a stave of one line only for pulsatile instru- ments with a single unvarying tone, as cymbals, gongs, triangle, great drum, &c. (3) In modern music the position of the clef upon the stave gives a special title to the stave ; the G clef upon the second line, the C clef upon the first, second, third or fourth lines, and the F clef upon the fourth line, cause the stave to be known as the treble, soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, tenor or bass staves respectively. A double stave, with the G and F clefs connected by a brace, is used for pianoforte and organ music, &c. (4) A stanza, a portion of a song. A verse. Stag (Ger.) The bridge of a violin, &c. Ponticello (It.), Chevalet (Fr.) Stem. Cauda (Lat.), Virgula (Lat.) The line attached to the head of a note. All notes but the semibreve, or whole-note, have stems ; quavers arid their subdivisions have stems and hooks. In writing a " single part " for a voice or instrument, it is usual to turn the stems of notes lying below the middle line of the stave upwards, of notes lying above the middle line downwards. Notes on the middle line have their stems up or down as seems best, e.g. : When two parts are written on one line, the tails of the upper part are always turned up- wards, those ' of the lower part downwards. When both parts play the same note the stem is drawn both up and down, and if it is a semibreve, two notes intersect each other, e.g. : -rtr (408) STENTANDO STRASCINO. In short score, or a compression of four parts into two lines, the tails of notes in the treble part are always turned up, those of the alto down, those of the tenor up, those of the bass down ; the treble and alto parts being confined to the upper stave, the tenor and bass to the lower, e.g. : In groups of notes falling between the upper and lower stave the stems are sometimes partly up and partly down for convenience, e.g.: Up to the middle of the seventeenth century each note having a stem and hook was printed separately, instead of being bound together as in the above groups of semiquavers. [Printing of Music] In mediaeval music, for a short period, the position of the stem, up or down, aifected the length of the note. Stentando {It.) Delaying, retarding. Stentato {It.) Forced, emphasised. Steso (7i.) Extended, spread, diffused. Steso moto, slow movement. Stesso {It.) The same. L'istesso tempo, the same time. Sthenochire. A hand strengthener. A machine for imparting strength and flexi- bility to the fingers for pianoforte-playing. Sticcado or Sticcato. An instrument composed of pieces of wood of graduated lengths, flat at the bottom and rounded at the top, resting on the edges of an open box, and tuned to a diatonic scale. The tone is produced by striking the pieces of wood with small hard balls at the end of a flexible stick. A similar instrument made of glass or metal is called a Harmonicon. [Gigelira.] Stiefel (Ger.) 'Boot of a reed-pipe in an organ. [Organ.] Stift {Ger.) . The jack of a spinet or harp- sichord. [Jack.] Stil {Ger.) Style. Stile (7^) Style. [Stilus.] Still-gedact {Ger.) An organ stop of soft tone. ., , Stilus {Lat.) Style, as, stilus choraicus {stilo coraico, It.) the dance style; ^ttlus ecclesiasticus {stile ecclesiasttco, It.) the church style ; stilus familiaris {stile familiare, It.) the simple style, note against note ; stilus hyporchematicus, the theatrical style ; stilus madrigalescus, the madrigal style ; stilus melismaticus, the florid style ; stilus motec- ticus, the motet style ; stilus phantasticus {stile fantastico. It.) the fantasia style ; stilus recitativus {stile rappresentativo or dramma- tico,It.) thedramatic style ; stilus syllahicus, the syllabic style, in which not more than one note is given to each syllable ; stilus sym- phoniacus {stile sinfonico. It.) the instru- mental style. Stimme {Ger.) (i) The voice. (2) Sound. (3) The sound-post of a violin or violoncello. (4) A part in vocal or instrumental music. (5) An organ stop, or rank of pipes. Stimtngabel {Ger.) Tuning-fork. Stimmholzchen {Ger.) Sound-post of a fiddle, &c. Stimmhorn {Ger.) Tuning cone. [Organ.] Stimmpfeife {Ger.) A pitch-pipe. Stimmschliissel, Stimmhammer {Ger.) A tuning key. Stimmstock {Ger.) The sound-post of a violin or violoncello. Stinguendo (7^.) Fading away, dying away. Stiracchiato, Stirato {It.) Widening, enlarging, retarding the time. Stockfagott. [Rackett.] Stonante (7^) Discordant, untuneful. Stop, (i) The pressure by the fingers of the strings upon the fingerboard of a stringed instrument. (2) A fret upon a guitar or similar instrument. (3) A collection, register, or row of pipes in an organ. Stopped diapason. [Organ.] Stopper. The plug inserted in the top of an organ pipe, in order to " close " it. Stopples. Plugs inserted in some of the ventages of the flute in order to accommodate its scale to some particular mode. Storto, Storta {It.) A name formerly given to the horn, serpent, &c., because of their twisted form. Strain. A musical subject forming part of, and having relation to, a general whole. At one time every subordinate portion of a composition either marking rhythmical pauses or completed sentences was distinguished by a double bar, and therefore the double bar was held to mark the strain, a practice which is still observed in writing chants and hymn tunes, where the double bar marks a strain, but not a completed phrase or subject. Strascicando {It.) Dragging or drawling. Strascicato {It.) Dragged, drawled. Strascinando {It.) [Strascicando.] Strascinando I'arco {It.) Drawmg or dragging the bow over the strings so as to bind the notes together. Strascino {It.) A drag or slur ; a term applied to a slurring movement from sound ( 409 ) STRATHSPEY STROPHE. down to sound, the pace at the same time being sHghtly slackened. Strathspey. A Scotch dance in duple time, invented about the beginning of the i8th century, and first danced in Strathspey, from whence it derives its name. The " Scotch Snap " is one of the peculiarities of the tunes for this dance. Stravagante (It.) Extravagant, capri- cious, fantastical. Stravaganza {It.) Extravagance, eccen- tricity. Streichinstrument {Ger.) A stringed in- strument played by the stroke of a bow. Streichquartett (Ger.) String quartet. Streichzither (Ger.) A zither played with a bow. Strene. The name given by Marbecke to a breve. Two explanations have been given of the meaning of the word strene; the first is, that it is a note which may be stretched or strained for the purpose of recitation ; the second is that is bounded or constrained by two lines. Marbecke's use of the note certainly does not justify the first of these meanings. Strang {Ger.) Strict, severe, rigid. Streng gebunden, strictly, tied or legato, exceed- ingly smooth. Streng in tempo, strictly in time. Strenge Fuge, a strict fugue. Strepito (It.) Noise. Strepitosamente (It.) Noisily. Strepitoso [It.) Noisy, impetuous. Stretta (It.) A coda, a final passage taken in quicker time than the preceding move- ments. The conclusion of the chorus in Haydn's Creation, " The heavens are telling," is a stretta, Stretto (It.) Contracted, close. A stretto in a fugue is the bringing closely together the subject and its answer. [Fugue.] Striking-reed. A percussion reed. [Reed. J String. Abb. of stringendo. String. Prepared wire or catgut, plain or covered, used for musical instruments. Strings of steel or brass wire are used for all instru- ments which are struck with hammers or plectra, as dulcimers, zithers, mandolines, and pianofortes, and strings of catgut for instruments played with the unprotected fingers, or with a bow, as guitars, harps, violins, violas, violoncellos, and double-basses. Violin strings are made of catgut, each string being of a different thickness according to the tone and tension required, the fourth string being covered with a fine wire either of silver or white metal ; hence it is called the silver string. - Violas and violoncellos have each two silver strings, the object in using covered strings being to ensure a sufficient gravity of tone without having too clumsy a material. The covered strings on the guitar are upon a basis of silk instead of catgut, and the double bass strings are of thick gut un- covered. A large quantity of catgut strings for musical instruments is made in England, but the best are imported from Italy, which has, from time immemorial, been famous in this branch of industry. Rome, Venice, Pis- toja, Lyons, were mentioned by Thomas Mace, 1676, as the most famous places from whence strings were brought in his day. Silk has been sometimes used as the material of first violin strings, but with ques- tionable success. Among uncivilised people strings are made of the hair of animals, the fibres of creeping plants, of fibrous roots of trees, of cane, and of thongs of leather. Stringendo {It.) Pressing, hastening on the time. String-gauge. A small instrument for measuring the thickness of strings for violins, guitars, &c., consisting of a disc or an oblong piece of metal, with a graduated slit and en- graved table. String Organ. A new musical instru- ment, the sounds of which are produced by the association of a free reed and wire string in the following manner : " Near the ex- tremity of a free reed is attached a small rod or pin, which is in turn fastened to a point near the middle of a steel pianoforte wire properly stretched above it in the same linear direction, and the reed is then excited by a harmonium bellows." The tone produced is very sweet and pure, and by graduating the size of the reed, and thickness and tension of the string, a very extensive compass can be obtained. Mr. John Farmer, of Harrow, some years ago made experiments on this method of obtaining musical sounds, a;id so interested his pupil, Mr. J. Baillie Hamilton, that he has since that time devoted himself enthusiastically to the development of its resources, with every prospect of success. String quartet, (i) A composition in four parts ; for two violins, viola arid violon- cello. (2) The group of stringed instruments in a band. Strisciando {It.) Creeping, gliding, slur- ring smoothly from one note to another. Strofa {It.) A strophe. [Stanza.] Strohfiedel {Ger.) [Gigelira.] Stroke of the bow. [Bowing.] Strombettare {It.) To sound a trumpet. Strombettiere {It.) A trumpet-player, Stromentato {It.) Instrumented, scored for an orchestra. Stromento {If.) An instrument, Stro- mento di fiato or di vento, a wind instrument, Stromento di corda, a stringed instrument. Strophe {Gk.) (iTpo» t, -t TABLATURE NOTES TRANSLATED BY PETIS. That which may be called the modern Tabla- ture was invented not earlier than the sixteenth century. The general characterof thetablature employed was nearly the same in England, France, Spain, and Italy, though each country made variations in it according to fancy, and sometimes the several professors who taught in those countries had little peculiarities of their own in which they differed from their brother professors. These differences doubt- less contributed towards making the general system as perfect as it could be in the end. Sir John Hawkins, quoting Mersennus, says that several skilful men had laboured to improve the Tablature, but they affected to make a mystery of it, and this gave rise to a diversity of notation between them. It is therefore probable that systems of writing in Tablature were in existence long before the publication of treatises on the subject. Adrien le Roy, a bookseller in Paris, published about 1570 a book with the title of " Briefve et facile Instruction pour apprendre la Tablature, a bien accorder, conduire, et disposer la main sur la Guiterne ;" the popularity of this work was so great that it was translated into sundry languages as soon as possible afterpublication. An English translation, the basis of all sub- sequent systems published in England, was made by one signing himself with the initials F. K., and published by John Kingston in 1574- The tuning of the lute according to Adrien le Roy was as follows : — ist String C .. a b c d e f g h i and String G .. 3rd String D .. 4th String Bt».. 5th String F .. 6th String C .. so that, with the use of the frets, usually eight, and lettered from a, the open string, to i, each string was capable of giving a minor sixth from its open tone. The letters refer to the frets which were on the finger-board, each fret representing a semitone, the letter a always standing for the open string. The horizontal lines stand for the strings, and the letters, the points at which they are to be stopped, so forming the notes of the com- position. The signs for time were 1 Semibreve. p Minim. ^ Crotchet. I % Quaver. Semiquaver. placed over the stave, and were intended to cor- respond with the semibreve, minim, crotchet, &c., respectively.. It was to be understood that the sign after the bar represented the value of all the notes in that bar unless otherwise contradicted. > ft a c .N N ft C N add 7> f f f d a d c a a \.J — a a c c c c a ' c ( 415 ) TABLATURE, > ^ f f ^ e c a ^ c • add c d c a t e d e e &c. a e c c c which being translated into ordinary notation would read : — It is a remarkable fact that while in music the ordinary notation bars were either entirely omitted, or used as guides to the eye rather than as exact divisions of the notes into measurable bars, in Tablature the bars were more often properly divided according to the value of the time signature than not. An earlier publication than that of Adrien le Roy is the Lautten Buck of Wolf Heckel, a writer concerning whom nothing is known, beyond the fact of the production of this book, copies of which are extremely rare; one is preserved among the treasures of the Sacred Harmonic Society's library. It bears date Strasbourg, 1562, and its title runs thus, " Lautten Buch, von mancherley schonen und lieblichen stucken, mit zweyten lautten zusammen zuschlagen, und auch sonst das mehrer theyl allein fiir sich selbst. Gute Teutsche, Lateinsche, Frantzosische, Italien- ische Stuck oder lieder. Auch vilfaltige Newe Tentz, sampt mancherley Fantaseyen, Recercari, Pavani, Saltarelli, und Gassen- hawer, &c." The book is an oblong quarto, printed in a bold type, and the Tablature is entirely different to that employed by the English, French, or Italian writers for the lute, as the following example will show, when compared with the other specimens. The above cut shows the first two bars of the Tablature of the dance tune given under " Gassenhawer." The Italian and Spanish writers employed figures instead of letters to indicate the particular fret to be used, as in " II Fronimo, Dialogo sopra I'arte del ben intavolare e rettamente suonare la Musica," Venezia 1583, by Vincentio Galilei — the father of the famous mathematician. In the " Nobilta di Dame," Venice, 1605, the tunes are set in " I'lntavola- tura del Liuto" as well as in the ordinary notation. The Italian Tablature was used in England for MS. lute music, as shown in the subjoined specimen from a book written about the end of the sixteenth or beginning of the seventeenth century. 0^'^ ■■'i>iyitr\.\l ^^ [ate •A ^ a^ e 2- Guitar music was written in " an Alphabet." The above specimen is taken from Kaps- perger's " Libro Primo di Villanelle 3. i, 2 et 3, voci accommodate per qual si vogli» stru- mento con I'intavolatura del Chitarone et alfabeto per la Chitarra Spagnuola," Rome, 1 6 10. The Tablature for the arch-lute (Chita- rone) is after the ordinary Italian manner, while the alphabet for the guitar is placed over the usual notation, implying, however, the employment of a single note at a time only, and answering the purpose of figures for fingering, as in elernentary pianoforte music of the present day, unless the letters refer to a system of chords. The precise value of this "Alfabeto " is not now clear. In England Tablature was employed for all stringed instruments, and as those most in use at the end of the sixteenth century were those plucked by the fingers, the greater number of the early specimens existing refer to this class of instrument. The following portion of an " Almaine for the Lute " fn im tK^ fi, OC. + ou ^ S- •ir -^ ec -f- cc ' ^1^1^ "b >> -f "b ■ -b cc -^ 1 \ \ ^ \, CJL, 1 cc a. \ -i: e, -f «' 00 (416) TABLATURE. is to be found in "A new Booke of Tabli- ture, containing sundry easie and familiar Instructions, shewing howe to attaine to the knowledge to guide and dispose thy hand to play on sundrie Instruments, as the Lute, Orpharion, and Bandora: Together with divers new Lessons to each of these Instruments. Whereunto is added an Intro- duction to Pricke-Song, and certain familliar rules of Descant, with other necessary Tables plainely shewing the true vse of the Scale or Gamut, and also how to set any Lesson higher or lower at your pleasure. Collected together out of the best Authors professing the practise of these Instruments." London, 1596. A like form of Tablature was employed for viols, as in John Dowland's second book of Songs or Ayres, printed in 1600, in which is a lesson in this peculiar notation for the bass viol, entitled " Dowland's Aden for Master Oliver Cromwell;" and the " Schoole of Musicke," by Thomas Robinson, lutenist, has a song for the viol in Tablature, The number of lines employed in Tabla- ture was regulated by the number of strings the instrument possessed. The following portion of a "Pavin" is for the cittern, which had four strings : — s 1 -^ _:&. i _rL '^'Ti -f -P OufKemes'PAiiin. From Philip Rossetor's " Lessons for Consort," London, i6og. To show a little variation in the Tablature in use in these and similar books, the opening notes of a " Coranto," from " Musick's Re- creation on the Lyra Viol. Being a choice collection of New and Excellent Lessons for the Lyra Viol, both easie and delightful! for yong Practitioners," c. 1656; are here added : — Ora,nto. So late as the year 1682 Playford published his "Apollo's Banquet, containing instruc- (4 tions and variety of new tunes Ayres and Jiggs, for the treble violin (fretted)," in which Tablature is employed, with the com- pass of the four strings thus set forth — the upper line indicating the frets to be used : — The First or Treble. A B C D The Second or Small Mean. A — R — r- — n — F. — TT — r,- C;^D=E=F^Gz:x The Third or Great Mean. x:=r:A=B"=:Cz=D"z::E:^r F^G= p The Fourth String or Base. A R C. n F. F G^ TUNING OF THE LUTE, a fi ^d e-a «X aTT a -ars «/. p I g e a dJi-M. By unisons. By oetavions. Music for viols was written sometimes in the ordinary notation, or gamut-way; but lute music was always written in Tablature or Lyra-way. Tablature for wind instruments was ex- pressed by dots on a stave of six, seven, or eight lines, according to tliQ number of hol6s in the instrument, the number of dots signi- fying the number of holes to be stopped by the fingers. This method, employed for the German flute, hautboy and flageolet, is shown in the following example, taken from "The Pleasant Companion; or New Lessons and Instructions for the Flagelet," by Thomas Greeting, gent. London, 1680. \l \ I ^ _! \- ^ 9- ! : o ■ ^%' ar:KomiiJ^cpz 17) 2 D TABLATURE. To use the author's own words : — " All tunes or lessons for the Flagelet are prick'd upon six lines, answering to the six holes in the instrument, by certain characters called dots. These dots direct what holes are to be stopt, there being so many, and the same holes to be stopt on the Flagelet each breath, as there are dots placed perpendicularly on the six lines." The time was marked in a manner similar to that in lute Tablature. Another system of Tablature will be best explained by the following diagram (altered from that given by Koch in his Lexicon) which shows the sounds, proceeding by semi- tones, by the side of their letter signs. It will be seen that the strings are called by the old names fifth-string or quint, small fifth- string, great fifth-string, small prummer,* middle prummer, great prummer. Capital letters are reserved for the deepest string, but the alphabetical system is carried out by the small letters beginning from the a of the mittelprummer working upwards to the letter e of the quint ; then from the mittelprummer f up to It, and so on. 5 (\) rj Quintsait 4 igl) _ — Cldnsancksait Grossancksait w w Clainprummer Mittelprummer , Grossprummer Organ Tablature was a system of writing the notes without the stave by means of letters. Thus the several octaves were called great, little, one and two-line octaves, according to the style of letter employed to indicate them. I{*^) k(il^) pW &(4) 9W tz{d%) \\{e) II CO b(/) iC/|) °^) 1(4) z{d) ab(il» H(6|;j) t{c) M* n(i) 8(4) \{e) £t(/) \Wl) b(4) g(«) ■ ra{ib) r(il?) eW iW^) ssW n( — a\i — cb_ — ^ — \b — \e, we depress the pitch 8 X. 01955= 15640 below equal tem- perament. But the perfect third is 3.86314 semitones, i.e. .13686 below equal tempera- ment, which differs from the preceding value of (\ e ) by about -^ of a semitone. In the practical application of this, it is generally attempted to distribute the error over the eight fifths ; but for all ordinary ap- proximate purposes it does not matter where the error lies. We note here that the notes b,e,a,d have their major thirds in the same series, as <^— /f ; all other notes in the series below, as c—\e. The foUqwing definitions will now be re- ceived without difficulty : — Regular systems consist of notes which Definitions, form a continuous series 01 Regular System, fifths, e.g. the System of perfect fifths. Regular cyclical systems consist of notes Regular Cycii- which form a continuous series of cai System, fifths, and divide the octave into a certain number of equal intervals. OrderofSystems. Primary regular cyclical sys- tems are those in which the departure of twelve of the approximate fifths of the system from the starting point is equal to one unit of the system. Secondary systems are those in which the departure of twelve fifths from the starting-point is two units, and so on. Positiveand Positive systems have fifths systems^ Sharper than equal temperament fifths ; negative systems have fifths flatter than equal temperament fifths. The division of the octave into 53 equal intervals furnishes an important primary positive system ; into 1 18, a secondary positive system ; into 31, a primary negative system ; into 50, a secondary negative system. HISTORICAL. The earliest systematic division of the octave on record is known as the -Pytha- gorean system ; it consists of a series of perfect fifths. The third employed was that Pythagorean formed by four fifths up, which system. gtill bears the name of the Pythagorean or dissonant third; Thus where c—g — d — a — e are perfect fifths, c — e is the Pythagorean or dissonant third. The true third is said to have been discovered by Archytas. The Greeks were acquainted with the prin- Monochord. (-jpig of the monochord, and with Vibration of the numerical ratios obtainable vibratwn ^0^1 that instrument ; a short ac- numbers. count of these is necessary to our ra'tios'!° subject. We shall include vibra- tion numbers and ratios. The number of vibrations per second given by a string of varying length, tension and weight of string per unit of length being the same, varies inversely as the length. Thus half the string vibrates twice as fast as the whole string. If two vibrating strings have the same ten- sion and weight per unit of length, but lengths differing in a given ratio, they will always sound notes which include the same interval ; and hence : — If two sounds have different vibration num- bers, the interval between them is always the same when the ratio of the vibration numbers is the same. Thus if the lengths are as 1:2, the vibration numbers are as 2:1, and the in- terval is an octave ; if the lengths are as 1:3, the vibration numbers are as 3:1, and the in- ( 422 ) TEMPERAMENT. terval is a twelfth, and so on. The notes thus produced by fractions of the length of a Harmonics. string are called harmonics. The order of a harmonic is the denominator of the corresponding fraction. The following table exhibits the vibration, ratios, and inter- vals of the first sixteen harmonics, the intervals being taken to three places of decimals : — Table of Harmonics .-—distance from fundamental = n equal temperament semitones, order of Harmonic = denominator of string fraction ; — = number of vibrations relatively to number of fundamental ; — First Octave. Second Octave. Third Octave. Fourth Octave. X n X n X 11 X n I (Fundamental) o-ooo 2 (Octave) I2-00O 4 (Fifteenth) 24*000 5 (Tierce) ' 27-863 8 36-000 9 38-03-9 - (?ier) 39-863 2 (Octave) I2-O00 3 (Twelfth) 19-020 4 (Fifteenth) 24-000 6 (SI'S- Twelfth) 3ro2o 7 (narmonic) 33-688 8 36^ooo II 41-513 12 43-020 13 44-405 14 45-688 15 46-883 16 48-000 Mersenne's work on Harmony was pub- Mmatne. lished in 1 636. Amongst other intMvais. things he treats particularly of intervals. The following table contains a list of the principal intervals discussed by theorists. The last two columns show the number of units of the division of the octave into 53 equal parts which represents each interval most closely, with the equivalent of this representation in equal temperament semitones. This arrangement forms a classi- fication of the various intervals in question, which will much assist the mind in the com- prehension of their relations. The system of 53 is the most important primary positive system. One or two of the intervals are from Kircher, who wrote soon after Met- Mersenne and Kircher. Difference of. Ratio. Equal Tem- perament Semitones. sVr/s of Octave. ^ T^ds in Eq. Temp. Semitones. Octave 2 : I 3:2 4:3 5 =4 6:5 9:8 10 ig 27:25 16 : 15 2187 : 2048 135 : 128 256 : 243 25 :24 128 : 125 81 :8o 10240 : 10125 12-00000 7-01955 4-98045 3-86314 3-15641 2-03910 I 82404' 1-33237 I-II73I I -13685 •92179 -90225 •70673 •41058 •21506 ■23460 •20529 •19552 53 31 22 17 14 9 8 7 6 }5 }' 3 2 ■ I Fifth 7-01902 4-98098 3-84914 3-16988 2-03778 I-81136 1-58494 1-35852 Fourth Fifth and Octave Major Third Minor Third Maior Third and Fifth .. .. Major Tone Fourth and Fifth Semitone Maximus Major Semitone Major Tone and Minor Semitone Fourth and Major Third Seven Fifths up. Four Octaves down.. • Major Tone and Major Semitone Fourth and 2 Major Tones or 5 Fifths Apotome Pythagorica ... Semitone Medius, or Chromatic Semitone... Pythagorean Semitone... I-13210 -90568 1 Major and Minor Third or Minor Tone Semitone Minimus •67926 Major Semitone and Minor Semitone (Chromatic Diesis) Enharmonic Diesis •45284 Major and Minor Tone or 2 Major Tones and Perfect Thirds Twelve Fifths either way and 7 Oc- Comma of Pjrthagoras... •22642 Enharmonic Diesis and Major Comma ( 423 ) . TEMPERAMENT. Mersenne gives numerous systems of scales Mersenne's which admit of the construction of pf?i'ctum perfect concords. We will give in F. one as an example. It is a scale of the key of F, with i8 intervals in the octave ; the division is irregular, but can be represented as follows by means of a broken series of fifths : — w 6— v/l— \ c|— \g'# ; \g—\ d—\ a—\ e—\ b ; eO — b'?—f — c—g; ig^ — irfb — la!^ — le^. The resources of this system are very limited. We have : — Major chords of c— / — 6b — e7 ; — \e — \a — \d — \g thirds to the above : laV — idv — igV to which the first given three notes are thirds. Minor chords of — c—f — b'^^eP ; \e — \a — \d — \^, thirds to the above : \\b — \f\ — \cjj:, thirds of the chords of \g — \d — \a. The minor chord of \g gives the perfect , chord of the sixth on the subdominant in the key of F, i.e., (6b, \d, \g), thus requiring two different keys {g, \g) to represent the second of the key of F. A key-board for the system is delineated in Mersenne, in which the double G key appears. This double second has always been a characteristic of the more intelligent attempts at systems of pure inton- ation. Several other key-boards for more complex systems are drawn in Mersenne. In a tract, " Cyclus Harmonicus," (1698) Huyghens. Huyghens first described correctly the properties of the division of the octave into 31 equal intervals, which was previously known ' to be of interest. It is the most important primary negative system. Smith's Smith. Harmonics, 1759. Three systems are principally discussed, one called equal harmony, which has very flat fifths and flat thirds ; it is negative, and resembles the sys- tem of 50, as Smith points out : the mean tone or old unequal temperament, which re- sembles the system of 31, and has flat fifths and perfect thirds : and a system in which the thirds are just as sharp as the fifths are flat. An important tract is Woolhouse's Essay Wooihouse. on Musical Intervals (1835). He performs a part of his reckoning with the notation of equal temperament semitones. In the solution of the problem of tempera- ment, Wooihouse adopts as basis the division of the octave into 50 equal intervals ; this is a secondary negative system. But instead of treating it as a regular system, he selects from it notes sufficient to form a certain limited number of scales. This treatment we regard as imperfect. He distinguishes between such notes as c:| and d'^. We shall see later that this distinction is true and sufficient in negative systems only. Wooihouse also gives scales based on the system of 31. The same remarks apply. A paper by De Morgan (Cam. TPhil. Trans. De Morgan. X. 129) "On the beats of imper- fect consonances," contains some details on the calculation of intervals. The treatment of the problem of beats is fundamentally erroneous, as are all accounts of this sub- ject before that of Helmholtz. De Morgan employs equal temperament semitones as the measures of intervals, and gives rules for calculation nearly identical with those used independently by the writer. See Ap- pendix. A paper by Herschel (Quarterly Journal of Herschei. Science, V. 338) contains pro- posals for systems of temperament. The character of these will be sufficiently illus- trated by one example. In the table at top of p. 348, we have substantially a Pythagorean system, with twelve notes in the octave ; the break is made at d — \ a ; this fifth is a Pytha- gorean comma out of tune. Such a fifth cannot be used in music; and this system would exclude from use the keys of G, D, and A, both major and minor. The Pytha- gorean system is also defended by name. Two important practical attempts are those Thompson. of Gen. T. P. Thompson and Mr. Poole. H. W. Poole (Silliman's American Journal, Vol. xliv.) The limits of this article forbid more than a concise reference to the former. Gen. T. P. Thompson in his Enharmonic organ, arranged three key-boards, each starting from a key of the ordinary board in perfect tune, and admitting of performance in related keys by means of auxiliary notes ; there were 40 notes in the octave. Looking at the material of notes from our point of view, . it may be regarded as constituting a series of approximately perfect fifths extend- ing from \\c|; to ic, with the omission of two single notes \\d and 6. These omissions, and the distribution between different key- boards, greatly diminished the resources of the instrument, which were, however, far greater than those of any instrument pre- viously constructed. We cannotomit to notice Gen. Thompson's method of using the mono- chord. He varied the weight by which the string was stretched, as well as the length. We judge that his form of the instrument is probably the most perfect that has been constructed. The, subject of temperament owes much to Helmholtz. Helmholtz. The. principal con- clusions which we shall require to borrow from him, are : — The approximate formation ( 424 ) TEMPERAMENT. of a perfect third by eight fifths turned down- wards ; and the theories of harmonics, and of difference tones (subharmonics or Tartini tones) so far as we require them for the cal- culation of beats. We must also note his definition of dissonance, now universally received by physicists ; viz., the intermittent excitation of the ear by a sound. Thus con- sonant and dissonant properties of chords depend on the beats they furnish. Such combinations as fourths and harmonic sevenths, which give no beats, may be dis- tinguished as unsatisfied combinations. The theory of harmonics ; — Musical notes Harmonics. consist of combinations of bar- Beats, monies with their fundamentals (i.e. every note contains 8ve, 12th, &c., in very considerable strength). The ear analyses this complex note by receiving it on a resonant instrument, which may be roughly compared to a harp. The tones of different parts of the scale are thus so far separated that no direct interference can take place between tones more than a minor third apart. The beats of imperfect consonances arise : (i) From the interference of pairs of har- monics nearly coinciding in pitch (e.g. imper- fect fifth, by interference of 12th of C with octave of G). (2) From the interference of difference tones (Tartini tones) with each other or with harmonics, in pairs nearly coinciding in pitch. For Ex. see Appendix. Difference tones (Tartini tones) are such Difference that their vibration number is the ixTrifni difference of the vibration num- Tones.) bers of their primaries. Ex., if c" — d^^ be a major tone (8 : 9) [nine] its dif- ference tone is (i) [one] i.e. C, the lowest note of the organ key-board. If c/^ — d^ be sounded on a clarabella or harmonic flute, the difference tone will be distinctly heard, in the equal temperament of course not ex- actly in tune. For the somewhat abstruse theory of difference tones we must refer to Helmholtz. The old theory, in which their origin was ascribed to beats, is no longer re- ceived by physicists. The number of beats per second made by Rule for Beats, two notes nearly coinciding in pitch, is the difference of the vibration num- bers of the two notes. The above principles are required for numerical calculation, see Appendix. The remark already made, that in positive Distinction systems the distinction between YldbT say (4 d\f ) fails, while in nega- when admissible, tivc systems it is true and essen- tial, is the generalization of an observation of Helmoltz's. As this is very important we will shortly explain the reason. The perfect third is below the equal tem- Not in positive perament third in pitch. Hence systems, jjj positive systems, which have larger fifths than the equal temperament, a third formed by downward fifths will approxi- mate to the true third. That is to say the thirds of these systems will be forined by eight fifths down (see Th. p. 3) ; according to this, the major third to a would be the note commonly called d\>. But it must be written c^ ; so in order to be clear, we cease to recognise any distinction between these two expressions, and denote the position in the series of fifths by the notation before described. But in negative systems, where the fifths are less than equal temperament fifths, fifths But in negative, up depress the pitch ; so that the third formed by four fifths up is the represen- tative of the perfect third, and the distinc- tion between cf rfb becomes true and essen- tial. EiUs. A paper by Mr. A. Ellis, F.R.S., (Proceedings of Royal Society, 1864,) contains much information and copious references on the subject of temperament. GENERAL THEORY OF REGDLAR CYCLICAL SYSTEMS. The importance of Regular Systems arises Importance of from the Symmetry subsisting Regular , , ^, -' . -' , ° Systems. between the various scales to which they give rise. No idea in the pre- sent day is more connected with progress in music than that of the similarity of all keys. The importance of regular cyclical systems Regular arises from the infinite freedom of Systems. modulation which is possible in properly arranged systems of this class. In non-cyclical systems, modulation is apt to bring us to the end of our material. We shall consider the theory of regular cyclical systems in its simplest form. Definitions. The interval formed by tuning Seven-fifths seven fifths up (disregarding oc- semitone. taves), is Called a seven-fifths semitone, and it lies above the starting point. The interval formed by tuning five fifths Five-fifths down is Called a five-fifths semi- Semitone. tone, and hes above the starting point. The seven-fifths semitone is the Apotome Pythagorica,- (Table of Intervals) when the fifths are perfect. The five-fifths semitone is the Pythagorean semitone when the fifths are perfect. Theorem. In any regular system, five seven- Theorem on fifths semitones and seven five- fn Octavl! fifths scmitoncs make up an exact octave. For the departures from equal tempera- ( 425 ) TEMPERAMENT. ment of five seven-fifths semitones are due to thirty-five fifths taken upwards, and the de- partures of seven five-fifths semitones are due to thirty-five fifths taken downwards ; so that the departures destroy one another, and leave the twelve semitones of the equal temperament, which give an exact octave. Theorem. In positive systems of the first Theorem on dif- order (primary), the seven-fifths ferenceofthe . ^^ . •''' , i /> semitones, semitoue IS greater than the five- fifths semitone by one unit ; in positive sys- tems of the second order (secondary), by two units ; and so on. In negative systems less. For, in regular systems, the seven-fifths semitone has the departure from equal tem- perament due to seven-fifths up. [Ex. gr., c — g — d — a — e — b — i/# — jc#.) The five- fifths semitone, taken downwards, has the departure due to five more fifths taken up. {Ex. gr., icjjf — ta\> — /e|7 — ib\? — // — ic.) Hence, in positive systems, the seven-fifths semitone exceeds the five-fifths semitone by the departure of twelve fifths from the start- ing point {c — ic). But this is one unit in primary systems, two in secondary, and so on. (Definition.) And in negative systems (in which the fifths are less than equal temperament fifths, and twelve fifths fall short of the octave), the seven-fifths semitone is less than the five-fifths semitone by the departure of the twelve fifths, which is one unit in primary systems, two in secondary, and so on. These two theorems permit us to construct positive or negative cyclical systems of any order. Those few alone which present some points of interest are entered in the following scheme : — Scheme of Regular Cyclical Systems. PRIMARY POSITIVE. Seven-fifths Semitone, = 5 units. 2 3 4 5 6 Five-fifths Semitone, = / units. I 2 3 4 5 Octave (Th. p. 12), = 5S + 7f- 29 41 53 65 II SECONDARY POSITIVE. 9 118 PRIMARY NEGATIVE. I 2 19 2 3 31 3 4 SECONDARY NEGATIVE. 43 3 5 5° PROPERTIES OF INTERVALS OF THE ABOVE SYSTEMS. Departure, means displacement from equal temperament. Error, from the perfect interval. U:jits in Octave, = n. Value of Unit in Semitones, 12 n. Departure of 12-fifths. Error of Single Fifth. Departure of Thirds. Error of Thirds. 17 29 41 S3 65 •70588 ■41379 •29268 •22642 ■18462 •70588 •41379 •29268 •22642 •18462 •03927 Sharp. •01493 Sharp. •00484 Sharp. •00068 Flat. •00416 Rat. ■47059 •27586 ■I9512 •15640 •12308 •33373 Flat. •13900 Flat.' •05826 Flat. ■01954 Flat. ■01378 Sharp. 118 •ioi6g •20339 •00260 Flat. •13559 ■00127 Sharp. 19 31 43 •63158 •38710 •29707 •63158 •38710 •29706 ■07218 Flat, •05 181 Flat. •04432 Flat. •21053 •12903 •09902 ■07367 Flat. •00783 Sharp. •03784 Sharp. SO •24000 •48000 •05955 Flat. •16000 •02314 Flat. (426) TEMPERAMENT. On inspecting the columns of errors, we at Selection of once see that the system of ii8 systems. affords the greatest comhined per- fection of fifths and thirds ; and next to it comes the system of 53, which we prefer in practice as more manageable. The system of 31 has fifths 1^ of a semitone flat ; and this is enough to be disagreeable with sharp qualities of tone, but its thirds are very good. This system forms very nearly a cyclical form of the mesotonic system, which, in an im- perfect condition, was the old unequal tem- perament. The rule of that system was simply that all the fifths of the continuous series were made so flat as to bring down the third made by four fifths up to a perfect third. We cannot here enter on the subject of sevenths, except to remark that the systems of 53 and 31 both afford good approximations to the harmonic seventh. PRACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF THE SYSTEM OF 53. We will now point out shortly the arrange- Systemof53. mcut which has been adopted for the practical treatment of the system of 53 ; it is applicable to all regular systems. A key-board is arranged according to Position reia- position in a series of fifths. )ie°y-boaKU°"^ There are twelve vertical divisions in the octave ; in the c division there are notes such as \\c — \c — c — ic — iic ; these are placed in ascending and receding order. The vertical displacement c — ic is divided equally amongst the 12 intermediate fifths. Thus the whole tones of two-fifths each form diagonal lines, and six whole tones lead from y to ic^^. The following scheme shows the relative positions of a portion of this arrangement, with the characteristic numbers of the system of 53. f/n "C, //, c#i 'cSa C«8 "cS, ^cSe 'dx, ^1! ^dis "M„ >^M„ //ei2. ebi, ^ebie ''^11 "U '=•''18 [SCHEME.] "«, 'gse I'n »25 ^^f. N\V 'fjfai f#3 ^Jf. ^^i». gsa 'g34 "^^y '^. ai?. ^'3 8 * ^^abg. Hi ''bk 'b^4« b]?. ^bf. ^^bb* 'bx "b,. ^^b.a ^^^b« ■g3 2 It is to be noted that, by the symmetry of the principle of arrangement, the scales on a keyboard constructed on this principle are the same in all keys, as far as form and fingering go- ( 427 ) According to the formation of the system of 53, we see that the seven-fifths semi- tones exhibit differences of 5 units, the five-fifths semitones of \—Ex. gr. c^ — icgg '. and C4 — cjtg. TEMPERAMENT. A harmonium has been constructed with Enharmonic » key-board of 84 keys to the harmonium, octavc, the positioH relations of a, portion of which are shown by the preceding scheme. Some notes at the top are identical with adjoining notes at the bottom, on the right. Thus infinite freedom of movement is secured, and any one of the 53 notes can be used as key-note in exactly the same manner, and with the same facility. The rule for identifications is as follows: "A note near the top of one division is identical with one near the bottom of the adjoining division on the right, when the lower division is white (1^), if the sum of the marks is 4, and when the lower division is black (# or b), if the sum of the marks is 5." E.g. : ucg = \\cjtg. We have altogether four position marks in the first pair, five in the second. A few examples are subjoined, to illustrate the practical employment of the notation. Ci) m (2) Common major chord of C. Common minor chord of C. Common chord of dominant, with first form of second. Chord of sixth on sub-domi- nant, with second form .of second. (5) Example of the successive use of the two forms of the second ; the (o) is used to nullify the preceding mark of depression (\). (6) =3= Approximate harmonic seventh. Hence the theorem : if the harmonic seventh be used on the dominant, it must not be sus- pended to form a fourth with the tonic. For if we suspend the \f in the above, we obtain the fourth c — \f, a comma flat, which is un- bearable. (7) The passing note illustrates the combina- tion formed by the division of the octave into three major thirds. The major third being ■^ of an octave, three major thirds fall -^ short. We may distribute this error in a variety of ways. The example shows the case in which two of the thirds, c — \e — sgHf, are made perfect. The remaining third, \g^ — e is -^j instead of ■^. Noticing that -^ is the ordinary dissonant third, we may call \g$ — c, a super-dissonant third. If we employ g^ as the passing note, we should have two ordinary dissonant thirds. In the equal temperament, the error of nearly half a semitone is divided equally among the three intervals. The most favourable distribution is judged by the writer to be that given in the example. Another common instance of the same combination is the following: Here \b — ie\> is a super-dissonant third. The application of this arrangement to the systems of 118 and 31 presents considerable interest, but our limits preclude the discus- sion. If the above scheme be considered without Non-qrcUcai thg characteristic numbers of the systems. System of 53, we have^the form of application to any non-cyclical regular system. The only difference then is that, there being no identifications, continuous modulation, upwards or downwards, on the scheme would soon bring us to the end of the material of notes provided. This dis- placement takes place, in positive systems, most rapidly by modulation between major and minor keys ; e.g. : The a b at the beginning of the second bar, and id in the last, are derived from inver- sions of chords into which harmonic sevenths enter. The defects of the equal temperament may Defects of jjg estimated physically by means perament! of Helmholtz's definition of dis- sonance. Beats begin to be disagreeable when their number exceeds 3 or 4 in the second, attain the maximum of dissonance when about 33 in the second, and remain audible as beats up to considerably beyond 100 per second, when produced by inter- ference of tones of sufficient strength. The application of this remark to the results calculated in the Appendix serves for the estimation of the dissonances of the equal temperament. An ear accustomed to pure chords recognizes these dissonances imme- diately, even in the. organ and in the full-toned ( 428 ) TEMPERAMENT. modern pianoforte ; but especially in the har- monium. In cases where difference tones are strongly formed, as with wide-scaled organ-pipes, or with two treble voices singing duets, errors in small intervals displace the difference tone by many times their own amount ; and to educated ears this displacement, though not always involving beats, is very offensive. Helmholtz, who has written much on this subject, regards this as the most offensive characteristic of the equal temperament. E.g. : The difference tone of e' — g' should be C (8 ft.). In the equal temperament it bears to 'that note the ratio f^ very nearly, which is roughly about f of a semitone. The question of melodic progressions, as Melodic affecting the excellence of tem- sequences. peramerits, is too extensive for our limits. We believe that it is a matter entirely of custom and education, and that the ear can accustom itself to any melodic sequences whatever. The writer has accustomed his ear to such sequences as the following, which are new in music, whatever may be the opinion as to their effect : — (The o nullifies the elevation and depression marks.) The following example illustrates an instance in which a direct depression of pitch by a comma ( \ ) has proved to have a good effect. The second chord contains a depression of the tonic g. It may be regarded as derived from a passing dominant harmony on a, con- taining \g as harmonic seventh. APPENDIX. On the Calculation of Intervals, and of Beats. (i) To find the equivalent of a given vibra- . tion ratio in equal temperament semitones. Rule. — Take the common logarithm of the ratio ; subtract shy °^ itself, and call this the first improved value. From the original logarithm subtract ^ of the first improved value, and Tnr^ of the first improved value. Multiply the remainder by 40. The result is the required equivalent. If we take logs, to seven places, five will generally be correct in the result. Example. — To find the equivalent of a per- fect fifth, whose ratio is 4. log. 3 = -4771213 log. f = -1760913 log. 2 = -3010300 -0005850 log. I = -1760913 shs = -0005870 First^ynprovedl -17550 43 ■sU -0005850 •1755063 1755 ■17548875 40 7-01955 |oo In this case the whole seven places are cor- rect, but this is accidental. (2) To find the vibrations ratio of an in- terval given in equal temperament semitones. To the given number add -g^ of itself and TiT.-rinr °^ itself; divide by 40. The result is the logarithm of the ratio required. We must not take more than six plades ; then as many as we take will be correct in the answer. Example. — To find the vibrations ratio of the equal temperament third, consisting of 4 semitones. 4-000000 ■sU= 'oiasss ■nr,TOT= -000400 40 ) 4-013733 •1003433 = log. 1-259921 The ratio of the perfect third is 1-250000, so that the ratio of the equal temperament third to the perfect third is very nearly \§%. The calculation of beats is essential to the accurate construction of systems of tuning. The principles to be applied have been already enunciated. Ex. I. — To determine the number of beats per second in the equal temperament fifth c'—g' (c' = 256). The twelfth of c' is §-"=768. This inter- feres with the octave of ^'; and this is -0195500 flat, since a perfect fifth contains 7-0195500 semitones. To find the vibration number of the note •0195500 below §■" = 768. Proceeding by Rule 2 we have — -0195500 •0000652 = -^ 19 = 10,0 0' 40 ) •0196171 •0004904= log. ratio of note to g' Again— log. 768 = 2-8853613 log. ratio = -0004904 log. tempered g-" = 2^8848709 • = log. 767-I33 ( 429 ) TEMPESTOSAMENTE^— TEMPETE. The number of beats per second is the differ- ence of the vibration numbers. 768-000 767-133 •867 =^ no. of beats per second. 60 52-02 = no. of beats per minute. Ex. 2. — To determine the number of beats per second in the equal temperament third (/ — e', caused by the interference of the tierce c'with the double octave of e'. From p. 25 — log. ratio -^ = -1003433 log. c'''^log. 1024 = 3-0103000 log. tempered e"'= 3-1 106433 =log. 1290-16 and«"'=5X256= 1280-00 10-16 or 10 per second very nearly. These beats are, then, rapid enough to be offensive in the higher parts of the scale, where the notes used contain the harmonics of the 4th and 5th order in sufficient strength. Beats of difference tones (Tartini Tones J, Ex. — To find the number of beats per second produced by the difference tones of c' — e', e' — g', in the equal temperament triad. From the above examples we have — c^ = 256 ^^ =767-133 -= 383*566 e^— 1290-16 4 322-54 256' = 322-54 383-56 322-54 whence diff". of/ — c'i= 66-54 6i-02=diff. oi g^ — e^ These are the vibration numbers of the two difference tones ; and we have — 66-54 6l-02 5-52 or 5J beats per second nearly. Application to the construction of systems. For this purpose it is necessary to know the absolute pitch, as all the numbers in question vary with it. The following method can be carried out with a few organ pipes or harmonium reeds : — Rule. — ^To the note (c) to be determined tune a perfect fifth {c—g), and to this {g) a perfect fourth down [g — d). Then (c — d) is a major tone. Interpolate between these two notes so many others that the beats between each pair are just slow enough to admit of counting. Count the number of beats given by each of the pairs in two minutes : add, and divide the sum by 15. The result is the number of vibrations of (c) in one second. Ex. — A harmonium reed sounded a note near tenor c ; d was made a major tone to it as above: four notes (i., 11., in., iv.) were arranged so as to give countable beats. The numbers observed in a quarter of a minute were : — c— I. =58 I.— II. =44-5 II. — III. =70 III. — iv.=49 IV. — ^^40 261-5 Multiply by 8 we have the number for two minutes =2092; and dividing by 15 we get 139-5 for the vibration number of the given note. When we have the vibration number of .the starting-point, we can proceed to obtain numbers of beats for guidance in tuning. E.g. — To tune the equal temperament by fifths. The following are the beats per minute when c/= 264: — c^ — g' 53-4 «^«-/« 57- d^ — a' 60-3 e^^ — 6'i7 64-2 e^ — V 67-5 /^ —c" g^ —d" a'\)—e"\> a' —e" h' -f"l 71-6 75-6 80.4 85-2 90- 95-4 101-4 The methods indicated in the foregoing brief sketch are sufficient for the solution of problems in tuning. Our limits preclude further discussion on the subject. Tempestosamente (/f .) Impetuously, furiously. Tempestoso (ii.) Tempestuous, moved, agitated. TempSte {Fr>j A dance invented in Paris about twenty-five years ago. The dancers are arranged as in a quaflrille, in parties of four couples. Two couples stand side by side facing their respeptive vis-Or-ms, so that as there are no side couples as many sets can be arranged as the ball-room will accommodate. " The step is the same as the quadrille, varied ( 430 ) TEMPO TENORE. sometimes by the introduction of the galop step, when the couples cross to each others' places, or advance to the lines of the next set." La Temp6te is danced to quick music ip f time. Tempo (It.) Time or measure. Tempo comodo, convenient, easy, moderate time ; Tempo di Ballo, dance time ; Tempo di Cappella, in the time of Church music [A Cappella] ; Tempo di Gavotta, in the time of a gavot [Gavot] ; Tempo di Marcia, in marching time ; Tempo di Menuetto, in the time of a minuet [Minuet] ; Tempo di Polacca, in the time of a polacca [Polacca] ; Tempo di prima parte, in the tirne of the first part, or original movement ; Tempo di Valse, in waltz time [Waltz] ; Tempo frette- vole or frettoloso, in quick, hastened, hurried time ; Tempo giusto. [A tempo giusto] ; Tempo ordinario, in ordinary or usual time ; an ordinary walking pace, an andante. Tempo perduto, lost, interrupted, broken, and irregular time. Tempo primo, first or original time ; a direction to resume the pace with which thfe movement started after an alteration. Tempo reggiato, regulated time. A direction to accommodate the pace to the solo performer. Tempo ruhato, robbed or stolen time. Time occasionally slackened or hastened for the purposes of expression. Tempo wie vorher [Ger.) The time as before. Temps, or Tems {Fr.) (i) Time ; (2) the parts or divisions of a bar. Temps faible, (i) weak time ; (2) the unaccented parts of a bar. Temps fort, (i) strong time ; (2) the accented parts of a bar. Temps frappi, the down beats in a bar [Down beat]. Temps leve, the up beats in a bar [Up beat]. Tempus {Lat.) Time, one of the three early divisions of mensurable music, which were— (i) Mode ; (2) Time ; (3) Prolation. Modus was the division of a maxim into longs, or of a long into breves ; Tempus, the division of a breve into semibreves ; Prolatio, the division of a semibreve into minims. Tempus was of two kinds, " perfectum " and " im- perfectum ; " in the former, the breve was divided into three semibreves ; in the latter, into two semibreves. The sigh of the former is a complete circle, O ; that of the latter, an incomplete circle, C- It is from this latter sign, in all probability, we derive our mark for common time now usually written as aC. Ten., abb. oitenuto. Tendrement (Fr.) Tenderly, delicately. Tenebree (Lat.) An office celebrated on the afternoons of Maundy Thursday and Good Friday, and on other special days m the Roman Catholic Church, to commemorate the darkness over the earth at the time of the Crucifixion. Tenendo il canto (It.) Sustaining the melody. Teneramente (It.) Delicately, tenderly. Tenerezza, con (It.) With tenderness, softness, delicacy. Tenero (It.) Tender, soft, delicate, sensi- ble, careful. Tenete (It.) Keep, hold, sustain. Tenor, Tenore(/f.),Taille (Fr.) (i) The third of the four kinds of voices arranged with regard to their compass. It is the highest of male chest voices, and its extent lies between tenor C and treble A. m s (2) The tenor voice is sometimes called by way of distinction " the human voice," from an idea that it is the quality and compass of voice most common to man. The Plain Song of the Church was formerly given as a tenor part, the harmonies being constructed above and below it ; the supposed derivation of the word tenor from teneo, I hold, is supported by the fact that the cantus firmus was known and sung by the congregation or greater body of singers. Many of the hymn tunes employed up to the first quarter of the eighteenth cen- tury, as well as many of the arrangements of the responses used in the Church Service, were written with the melody in the tenor part. (3) In old music the tenor voice was divided into three classes — altus, medius, and bassus — high, mean, and low tenor. (4) The larger violin of low pitch is called the tenor, viola, bratsche, and sometimes alto violin. [Viola.] (5) The principal bell in a peal, or set, is distinguished by the name of tenor bell. Tenor C. (i) The lowest C in the tenor voice. (2) The lowest string of the tenor violin. Tenor clef. The C clef placed upon the fourth line of the stave. ' It is used for the tenor voice, tenor trombone, the higher register of the bassoon and violon- cello, &c. The treble clef is sometimes em- ployed for the tenor voice, but the notes are then expressed an octave above their true sound. The late Thomas Oliphant suggested that two treble clefs conjoined should be the sign of the tenor G clef. Tenore (It.) (i) Tenor voice. (2) A tenor singer; Tenore huffo, a tenor singer to whom ( 431 ) TENORIST TETRACHORD. is assigned a comic part in an opera ; Tenore leggiero, a tenor singer with a voice of light, small quality ; Tenore robusto, a tenor singer with a full, strong, sonorous voice. Tenorist. One who sings the tenor part, or plays the tenor violin. Tenoroon. (i) The name of an old tenor oboe with a compass extending downwards to tenor C. (2) A word affixed to an organ stop to denote that it does not proceed below tenor C, as, tenoroon hautboy. A tenoroon diapason is a double diapason which does not extend below tenor C. Tenor posaune {Ger.) Tenor trombone. [Trombone.] Tenor schliissel [Ger.) Tenor clef. Tenor trombone. A trombone with a compass of two octaves and a fifth I for the C trombone and ; «==• for the B fiat trombone. [Trombone.] Tenor violin. The viola. [Viola.] Tenorzeichen (Ger.) The tenor clef. [Clef.] Tenth, (i) A compound interval com- prising an octave and a third, nine conjoint degrees, or ten sounds. The tenth is the octave of the third, and may be major or minor, diminished or augmented. [Inter- vals.] (2) An organ stop, tuned a tenth above the diapasons, called also double tierce or decima. [Organ.] Tenuto {It.), Tenu (Fr.) Held on, sus- tained, kept down for the full time. Teorbo (It) [Theorbo.] Teoria (It.) Theory. Teoria del Canto, the theory of singing ; Teoria d'armonia, the theory of harmony. Tepidamente {It.) In a lukewarm man- ner, with indifference. Tepidita {It.) Coldness, indifference. Ter {Lat.) Thrice. Tercet {Fr.) A triplet. [Triplet.] Ternary form. Rondo form. [Form.] Ternary measure. Triple tim.e. Perfect time. [Signature § 2.] Terpodion. An instrument invented by David Buschmann of Hamburg, in i8i6, re- sembling in appearance the pianoforte, but the tone was produced from blocks of wood struck with hammers. It contained also a contrivance by which the sound might be increased or diminished at pleasure. Tertia {Lat.) [Tierce.] Tertian. An organ stop composed of two ranks of pipes, sounding a major third and fifth of the foundation pipes, in the third octave above ; a Tierce and Larigot on one slider. Ter unca {Lat.) Thrice hooked. A demi- semiquaver ^ Terz (Ger.) [Tierce.J Terza(/^) (i) The third. Operaterza,the third work; Violino terzo, the third violin. (2) [Tierce.] Terzdecime. An interval of a thirteenth, the octave of the sixth. Terzdecimole. A group of thirteen notes to be performed in the time of eight, or ot twelve. Terzetto {It.) A little composition for three performers. Terzflote {Ger.) (i) A flute sounding a third above the notes written. (2) An organ stop. [Tierce.] Terzina {It.) A triplet. Terzo mano {It.) Lit, a third hand. An octave coupler on Italian organs. Terzquartakkprd {Ger.) The | or | chord. 3 The second inversion of the chord of the dominant seventh. Terzquartsextakkord {Ger.) [Terzquart- akkord.] Terzquintsextakkord {Ger.) The % chord. 3 The first inversion of the chord of the domi- nant seventh, figured %. Testo {It.) (i) The text, theme, subject of a composition. (2) The libretto of an opera, or the words of a song. Testudo {Lat.) A name for the lyre, because the sounding part or hollow was made of the shell of the sea tortoise or turtle. [Lyre.] Tetrachord. A scale-series oifour notes. The word in its modern sense signifies a half of the octave scale, e.g. : First Tetrachord. Second Tetrachord. It will be seen that the position of the tones and semitones is similar in both tetrachorfls. A third tetrachord placed above these two would lead into the key oiQi., e.g. : and another into the key of D, and so on through all the sharp keys. Simi- ( 432 ) TETRACHORDAL SYSTEM THIRTEENTH, CHORD OF THE. larly, tetrachords placed below the first lead into flat keys, e.g. : Tetrachords which overlap are said to be con- junct; those having a degree between them, disjunct. -■g ♦-■a O £S o o c 2 Similar disjunct tetrachords necessarily pass through the whole key-series, and a com- bination of conjunct and disjunct tetrachords is required to form a diatonic scale of more than one octave in compass. [Greek music] Tetrachordal system. The early form of the system now known as Tonic Sol-fa. [Tonic Sol-fa.] Tetrachordon. An instrument similar in appearance to a cottage pianoforte, and like it played by finger-board, but the tone, instead of being produced by striking, is obtained by means of a cylinder of india- rubber charged with rosin, kept in motion by a pedal, variety of tone being gained by the depth of pressure on the keys by the fingers. It is called the tetrachordon from an idea that its sounds are similar to those produced by a string quartet. The instriynent is constructed also with self-acting machinery. [Bogen- clavier.] [Xanorphika.] [Hurdy Gurdy.] Theil {fier.) (i) A part or division of a bar. (2) A phrase, strain, or part of a piece. (3) A piece, composition, 'work. Thema {Ger.) [Theme.] Theme (Fr.) [Theme.] Theme, (i) One of the divisions of a subject, in the development of sonata-form. [Form.] (2) The cantus jirmus on which counterpoint is built. (3) The subject of a fugue. (4) A simple tune on which varia- tions are made. Th6orbe {Fr.) [Theorbo.] Theorbo, Tiorba {It.]; Th6orbe {Fr.); Basslaute {Ger.) (i) An old stringed in- strument resembling the lute in form or tone. It had two necks, to the longest of which the bass strings were attached. It was employed for accompanying voices, and was in great favour during the seventeenth century. Mace describes it as " no other than that which we call'd the old English lute." It differed from the lute in the possession of its two necks, from whence it is sometimes called cithara bijuga. The strings were usually single in the Theorbo, and when double, or tuned in octaves or unison with the bass or treble notes, the instrument was called the arch-lute, or chit- tarone. (2) Its invention has been variously as- signed to an Italian, Signor Tiorba, from whom it is said to have derived its name ; to one called Bardella about the year 1600 ; and to Hotteman, a German, living in France in 1650. Sir John Hawkins attributes the invention to a nameless Neapolitan, who called it Tiorba from its resemblance to an instru- ment used for pounding perfumes so called. Johannes Kapsberger, a German of noble birth, who died about 1630, was a skilful performer on the instrument, and wrote a large quantity of music in tablature for it. (3) The Theo'rbo was used as an instrument in the orchestra as late as the year 1708 by Francesco Conti. It was also employed in the performance of sonatas in the place of the cembalo, from its power of rendering a figured or thorough bass. Corelli's third set of sonatas, published in Bologna in i6go, contains a part for the Theorbo or violone. Theoretiker {Ger.) A theorist. Th6oricien {Fr.) A theorist. Theorist. One who studies the nature of sound or the principles of musical art. Theory of music. The science of music. The speculations arising from a knowledge of the principles of sound. The rules for composition and arrangement of music for voices and instruments in rhythm, melody, harmony, counterpoint, and instrumentation. Thesis {Gk.) The downward wave of the hand to denote the absence of accent. [Ac- cent, § 5.] [Arsis.] [Metre.] Thin, (i) Meagre and scanty harmony. (2) A poor quality of tone in a voice or on an instrument. Third. [Interval.] Third flute. [Terzflote.] Third stave. A name given to the stave upon which pedal music is written for the organ. Thirteenth, chord of the. A chord called by some a suspension ; t^y others, a secondary seventh {see Seventh, Exs. 34 — 41). It consists generally of the 3rd, 7th, and 13th ( 433 ) 2 E THIRTY-SECOND NOTE — -TIMBALE. of the dominant, and is used both in the major and minor modes. The following are its most common forms. Thirty- second note. A demisemi- quaver. Thorough bass, Basso continuo {It.], Basse contrainte (Fr.) A species of musical shorthand, reduced to a system by Ludovico Viadani, about the year 1605, which has remained substantially unimproved since his day. It consists of a bass part with the ac- companying harmonies indicated by figures. Henri Dumont was the earliest musician in France who made use of thorough bass, about 1640, and the first treatise on thorough bass, published in England, was the work of Matthew Lock, issued under the title of "Melothesia; or, Certain General Rules for Playing upon a Continued Bass, with a choice collection of Lessons for the Harpsi- chord and Organ of all sorts," London, 1673. Francis de la Fond in 1725, suggested a new method of figuring a bass by calling the notes of the chromatic scale by the num- bers one up to thirteen. [Figured Bass.] Threnody. An elegy, or funeral song, from the Greek OprivaSia. Thrice - marked - octave {Dreigestrichen octav). The name given in Germany to all the notes of the octave above C in alt. [Pitch.] Thrum, (i) To play without skill upon a stringed instrument. (2) The sound so made. Thurner(Gfir.) A town musician. [Waits.] Tibia {Lat.) [Flute.] Tibiae pares {Lat.) [Flute.] Tibiae utricularise. [Bagpipe.] Tibia major. An organ flute-stop of i6ft. pitch. [Flute.] Tibicen {Lat.) (From tibia and cano.) A flute-player ; tibicina, a female flautist ; tibi- cinium, a piping ; tibicino, to pipe. Tie. (i) A curved line placed over two or more notes in the same position on the stave : The tie is also called a bind, and the curved line, when used over notes representing dif- ferent sounds, is called a slur. [Bind.] [Slur.] (2) When two or more quavers, semi- quavers, &c., are united, instead of being written with separate tails, they are said to be tied. [Stem.] [Printing of Music] Tief ( er.) Deep, low. Tierce {Fr.) (i) A third. (2) An organ stop tuned a seventeenth above the diapason. [Organ.] (3) The service which took place at the third hour of the day, the undersang of the Anglo Saxons. [Horse Canonic^.] (4) The natural harmonic produced by ^ of a vibrating string. [Acoustics.] Tierce de Picardie {Fr.) The sharpened third in the concluding chord of a composi- tion in the minor mode. Tierce coul6e {Fr.) A slurred third. In old harpsichord music the tierce coulee was expressed by a dash through the notes of the third, in a diagonal direction, thus : when it was called the rising slurred third, tierce coulee en montant, and v(^as played : ^^ A stroke in the opposite direction was called the falling slurred third, tierce couUe en descendant, and was played : Timb. Abb. for Timballes. [Kettle- drums.] Timbale {Fr.) [Kettle-drum.] ( 434 ) TIMBALLO TONIC SOL-FA. Timballo (It.) [Kettle-drum.] Timbre {Fr.) Quality of tone or sound. Klang OT Klangjfarbe (Ger.) [Acoustics, § i6.] Timbrel. [Tabor.] [Tambourine.] Time. (i) The division of musical phrases into certain regulated portions mea- sured with regard to the value of the notes with respect to the semibreve, which, in modem music, is held to be the standard of time. There are two sorts of time, duple with two, four, or eight beats in a bar, and triple with three beats in a bar. There is also compound time, or time formed of the union of triple with duple, and triple with triple, each having a distinctive time signature. [Signature, § 2.] (z) The pace at which a movement is per- formed is called its time. Timorosamente (It.) Timidly, hesita- tingly, with fear. Timoroso {It.) Timorous, with hesita- tion. Timp. Abb. of Timpani. Timpani (It.) Kettle-drums. Timpanista (It.) A drummer. Tintement (Fr.) The tinkling of a bell. Tintinno (It.) [Tintement.] Tintinnabulum [Lat.) A rattle {Gk. TrXaTayii) formed either of small bells or little plates of metal. Tiorbo (It.) [Theorbo.] Tipping. [Double tongueing.] Tirade. The filling up of an interval between two notes with a run, in vocal or instrumental music, e^g. : Tirante (Sp.) The brace of a drum. Tirasse (Fr.) The pedals of an organ which act on the keys or manuals. Tirato (It.) (i) A down bow. [Bowing.] (2) A scale passage in notes of equal length. Tira tutto (It.) A pedal commanding the full power of the organ. (Fr.) Grand jeu. Tire (Fr.) (i) Drawn, pulled. (2) A down bow. [Bowing.] (3) The drawing out of an accordion. Titty, tziti, toutari. An Indian bagpipe. [Bagpipe.] Toccata (It.) (i) A prelude or overture. The overture to Rinuccini's opera " Orfeo," i6og, is called a toccata, and is directed to be performed three times, " Avanti il lever de la tela," " before the rising of the curtain." (2) Compositions written as exercises. (3) A fantasia. (4) A suite. Toccatina (7<.) A short toccata. Todtenmarsch (Ger.) A funeral march. Tombestere or Tymbestere (old Eng.) A female dancer, who accompanied herself upon a tambourine, occasionally throwing her instrument in the air and catching it. " There was many a tymbestere, Couthe her crafte full parfytly." — Chmicer. Tom-tom. A gong. Ton. (Fr. and Ger.) (i) Tone, sound.. (2) The interval of a second. Tonabstand (Ger.) An interval. Tonada (Sp.) A tune, air, or melody. Tonadilla (Sp.) A short tune, an inter- lude, ritornello, symphony to a song. Tonal Fugue. [Fugue.] Tonarion or Tonarium. A pitch-pipe (according to Quintilian) used by the Latin orators for the purpose of regulating the pitch of their speaking voice, called also fistula eburneola. Dionysius limits the com- pass of the oratorical voice to five twtes. When this compass was exceeded, an atten- dant blew the tonarion to enable the orator to recover his proper pitch. Tonart (Ger.) Mode, tune, key, scale- system, tonality. Tonausvp^eichung (Ger.) Modulation. Ton bas (Fr.) A deep, low tone. Tondichter (Ger.) A composer. A poet in sounds, as a painter may be described as a poet in colours. This word has been badly rendered " tone-poet." Tondichtung (Ger.) A musical composi- tion. A sound-poem. . Tone, (i) Sound. (2) Quality of tone. [Acoustics, § 16.] (3) The interval of a second. [Interval.] (4) A Gregorian chant. [Plain Song.] Tonfall (Ger.) A cadence. Tonfolge (Ger.) A succession of sounds. A melody. Tonfiihrung (Ger.) (i) A melodic sue cession. (2) [Modulation.] Tonfuss (Ger.) A foot. [Metre.] Tongang (Ger.) [Tonfuhrung.] Ton-generateur (Fr.) [Root.] Tongeschlecht (Ger.) The character of the modes. There are two Tongeschlechter — major and minor. [Scale.] [Mode.] Ton haut (Fr.) An acute sound. Tonic, Tonica (It.), Tonique (Fr.) (i) The key-note of any scale. The ground-tone or basis of a scale or key. (2) The key- chord in which a piece is written, and with which it concludes. Tonic Sol-fa. A letter-system of notation. Many attempts have from time to time been made to produce a simpler notation than the stave, clefs, signature, &c., of the so-called " Old Notation." As early as the year 1672, Thomas Salmon wrote a book entitled, " An essay to the advancement of music, by casting away the perplexities of different cliffs, and uniting all (435 ) TONIC SOL-FA. sorts of music, lute, viol, violins, organ, harpsichord, voice, &c., in one universal character." In this he proposed to write all music on a stave of four lines, which should give the notes the names of the first seven letters of the alphabet, octaves above or below being marked with the name of the cctave to which they belong. The proposition was violently opposed by Matthew Lock, but pther musicians treated it with contempt, and Salmon's book and proposition now exist only among the literary curiosities of music, Jean Jacques Rousseau suggested a notation where- by the notes of the scale were indicated by the numbers i to 7. Thig, or rather an im- proved form of it, is still largely used in France. Miss Sarah A. Glover, of Norwich, about thirty years ago projected and taught success- fully a system which she called the tetra- chordal system, which was the Tonic Sol-fa notation in its original form ; but it has since received such important modifications and additions fromthehands of the Rev. J. Curwen, that it is now justly associated with his' name. Its chief raison d'etre is that the ordinary no- tation, just in the degree that it accommodates itself to the keyboard and the theory founded more or less thereon, is not fittpd as a notation for the greatest of all instruments, the human voice. Tonic Sol-faists neverthe- less maintain that their notation may be used in all branches of the art, and pupils are taught to play instruments, to study harmony, musical form, and composition, entirely from the syllables. The leading features of the notation are as follows : Of the two relation- ships of musical sounds, those of pitch and key, the latter is of transcendant importance. It is argued, therefore, that it is of the first consideration that this supremely important fact should be prominently shown. The key- note of a piece is, therefore, always called doh, the second of the scale ray, and so on, me,fah, soh, lah, te. The reason for this departure from the ordinary spellin'g is, that the above is considered easier for English people to pronounce. In printing music, the initial letter indicates the scale note. Si and soh having the same initial, the former is altered to te. Higher or lower octaves are shown by figures placed by the side of the notes, d^, d', w", and Sj, m^, d^. The first part of the National Anthem is written in tune thus, d d rt^drmmfmrdrdt^d. The particular pitch of the key-sound is shown by the state- ment at the beginning of the piece, key G, key Et>, key A, &c. The minor mode is regarded as derived from the relative major, the tonic being called lah. It is maintained that to call the tonic of the minor scale doh, would lead to extraordinary practical diffi- culties, besides being false in theory. Changes of key in the course of a piece are met by what are called bridge tones. The note of the key quitted is placed side by side with the note of the same pitch in the key approached, and the pupil is taught to think and sing the sound of the first note, and to call it by the name of the second. Thus, d r ni f 'd t^ d would show a transition, say from key C to key G. By this means changes of the most complex nature are simply represented by Tonic Sol-faists, and they assert that the music has yet to be quoted which cannot be expressed in their notation. The chromatic scale is named by adding the vowel e to the initial of sharpened notes, and a (pronounced aw) to notes to be flattened. Thus de, re, fe, se, are respectively d, r, f, s, sharp, and ma, la, ta, are m, I, t, flat. The sharp sixth of the minor scale is called hah to distinguish it from fe the sharp fourth of the major. Time and accent are indicated by measurement across the page thus : I : I : I : I the space between one sign and the next, representing the pulse or beat ; the line showing the stronger beat or accent, and the colon the weaker. For short divisions a dot I • : in the centre of the pulse divides it into halves, and commas | , . , : are used to divide into quarters, and other divisions are similarly shown. A stroke — through a pulse means that a previous note is to be con- tinued. Sol-faists believe that their fixed standard of a pulse or beat gives them con- siderable advantage over the ever-shifting standard of the ordinary notation. " Rule ' Britannia " is thus written : .s,|d :d | d,r.m,f:s .d [ r :r ■m,f |m .etc. No account of the Tonic Sol-fa Notation would be complete without reference to its indis- pensable adjunct the Tonic Sol-fa Method, i.e., the distinctive plan of teaching the musicgj facts indicated by the notation. This method is the outcome of years of laborious enquiry by Mr. Curwen, and of the collated experience of all the best teachers of the system. Great stress is given to the doctrine of mental effect, by which is meant the various impressions or colours of the notes of the scale when sung slowly. Thus doh, is considered firm ; te, sharp and piercing; lah, sorrowful; fah, gloomy; soh, bright and clear, &c., &c. Teaching by pattern is also insisted on ; the scale is taught in the following order, first the notes of the tonic chord d m s and their replicates, next the dominant chord sir, then the sub-dominant chord/Z d. In develop^ ing the scale, large use is made of what has been justly called the backbone of the system, the Modulator, without a proper use of (436) TONKUNST TRACTUR. which, it is not too much to say, the method cannot be fairly taught or learned. r' s d' f t — m' — 1 r' s d' f tml = r' — sd'f t m Irs — DOH'— f TE — m 1 r S d f ta le t, m — LAH = r s d f la se t, m 1, r — SOH — d f ^^ fe t, m 1, r s, d — FAH t, — ME — 1, r s, d f, ma re t, m, 1, = RAY _ s, d f, de t, m, 1, r, s, —DOH— f, t, — m, 1, r, s, d, f, t, m, m, 1, r, 1. = r. •■■i, f,*- r, s, d, _ f, K m,i. K — m, -K r, s. This Modulator is a sort of map of musical sounds. It represents pictorially in an upright position the relative places of the notes of a scale, its minor mode, its chromatics, and its more closely related scales. By frequent and systematic handling of this sheet, the upward or downward motion of the notes printed all on one level, is adequately realised by the pupil. The Modulator is manipulated with great effect by the best teachers of the system. In teaching Time an adaptation of the time- names used in the French Cheve system has lately been more or less adopted by Sol-faists. Syllables are used to show the length of notes just as they are to show the relation of sounds. Thus iaa is the name of a pulse, taa-tai of half pulses, and tafatefe of quarter pulses. Continuations of any kind are met by dropping the consonant. It is thought that the finer ac- cents of divided pulses, as well as the broader accents of the measure, can be better taught by . the use of this language of duration than on any other plan. Tonkunst {Ger.) The art and science of music. Tonkiinstler (Ger.) A musician. A musi- cal artist. Tonleiter (Ger.) A scale. [Scale.] Ton majeur {Fr.) Major key or mode. Tonmalerei (Ger.) Composition, inven- tion, sound-painting. Tonmessung (Ger.) Tone-measuring, metre, rhythm. Ton mineur (Fr.) Minor key or mode. Tonos (Gk.) Tovos. [Tone.] Tonsatz (Ger.) A musical composition. Tonschluss (Ger.) A cadence. Tonschliissel (Ger.) [Key.] Tonschrift (Ger.) (i) Written music. (2) Musical notes or characters. Tons de la trompette (Fr.) Crooks used to alter the pitch of a trumpet. [Crook.] Tons de l'6glise (Fr.) Church modes or tones. [Plain Song.] Tonsetzer (Ger.) (i) A composer. (2) (In a sarcastic sense) a music-maker. Tonsetzkunst (Ger.) The art of musical composition. Tonsetzung (Ger.) A musical composition. Tonspieler (Ger.) A performer. Tonsprache (Ger.) The art of expressing thoughts and feelings in music. Tonstiick (Ger.) A piece of music, a composition. Tonstufe (Ger.) A step or degree of a scale. Tonsystem (Ger.) (i) The systematic ar- rangement of sounds according to the rules of melody, harmony, and rhythm. (2) A scale. Tonverhalt (Ger.) Rhythm. Tonzeichen (Ger.) (i) A note or other character used in music. (2) Accent.' Toomourah. An Indian tambourine. Toorooree. A trumpet used by the Brahmins in their religious processions. Toph (Heb.) A drum. [Tabor.] [Tam- bourine.] Torcelli. A name anciently given to organs in Italy. Tosto (It.) Quick, swift, rapid. PiU tostOr more rapid ; Tostamente, quickly, rapidly ; Tostissamamenie, Tostissimo, very quickly, with' great rapidity. Touch, (i) The resistance made to the fingers by the keys of a pianoforte or organ. Thus the touch of the keyboard may be hard or light accordingly as the resistance is great or little. (2) The peculiar manner in which a player presses the keyboard, whether light, pearly, heavy, clumsy, firm, &c. Touches (Fr.) The keys of a pianoforte, organ, harmonium, and concertina. Touquet (Fr.) [Toccato.] [Tucket.] Tours de force (Fr.) (i) Roulades, runs, or divisions for the voice. (2) Passages of rapid execution upon an instrument. Toys. An old English name for dance tunes and light and trifling pieces of music. " Pavens, Galiards, Almaines, Toies, Jiggs, Thumpes, and such like." Ford's " Musicke of sundre kindes," 1607. Trachea. [Larynx.] Trackers. [Organ.] Tractur (Ger.) [Trackers.] (437) TRACTUS ^TREBLE CLEF. , Tractus (Lat.) A melody sung in the Roman Catholic Church during Lent instead of the Alleluia. Tradotto (It.) Transposed, arranged, translated. [Arrangement.] Traine (Fr.) Slurred, bound, dragged. Trait (Fr.) (i) A run, or division ; trait de chant, a melodious vocal phrase. (2) A special passage, or phrase for body of instru- ments of the same class. Like the trait des violons in Cherubini's overture to " Anacreon," or the passage for strings in Beethoven's No. 3, " Leonora." (3) A sequence in har- mony, trait d'harmonie. (4) Trait d'octave, rule of the octave. Traite {Fr.) A treatise on the theory or practice of music. Tranquillamente {It.) Tranquilly, calmly, quietly. Tranquillita, con (It.) With tranquillity, calmness. Transcription. The arrangement or modification of a composition for some in- strument or voice other than that for which it was originally written. Transient Modulation. The temporary introduction of chords or progressions from an unrelated key. [Modulation.] Transitio (Lat) Change of key. Transitus {Lat.) Progression by passing notes ; transitus regularis, diatonic progres- sion, the passing notes on the unaccented portions of the bar ; transitus irregularis, pro- gression in which some of the notes of the scale are omitted; passing notes on the ac- cented part of the bar. Transition, (i) A modulation. [Modu- lation.] (2) A passing note. [Passing Note.] Transponiren {Ger.) Alteration of the original key. [Transposition.] Transponirende Instrumente {Ger.) ^Transposing Instruments.] Transpose. To alter the key in which a piece is set, by changing it into a higher or lower scale. Transposing Instruments. A general name for all instruments which do not pro- duce the exact sounds written on paper for them. Thus, a B!^ clarinet is so called because the written note C, when sounded, is Bl? ; its part, therefore, is written one note higher than the actual sounds required. Similarly, the A clarinet is so called because the written, note C, when sounded, is A ; its part, therefore, is written a minor third higher than the sounds actually required. The C clarinet is so called because it plays as written. The Cor Anglais and Corno di bassetto produce sounds a major fifth below those written. A C horn produces sounds one octave below those actually written ; a D horn, a minor seventh below; an E horn, a minor sixth below, and so on. A B|7 alto horn produces sounds a whole tone below that written ; a Bl7 basso horn, a ninth below. Similarly, a trumpet in Bt7 produces sounds one note below those actually written, and a D trumpet sounds one note above. Drum parts are usually written as if always in the key of C, directions being given as to the tuning, at the commencement of each move- ment. The only transposing string-instrument is the double bass, which produces sounds an octave below those written, as far as its com- pass will permit. Flutes, oboes, bassoons, and trombones, are not transposing instru- ments ; but the piccolo flute produces sounds one octave higher than those written, and the double bassoon sounds one octave lower. Transposing Piano. A pianoforte so constructed that its key-board may be moved to adniit of its giving sounds, other than those which the scale used would seem to imply. The key-frame is made in duplicate, and on it is screwed, by means of ordinary thumb-screws, the action, making it perfectly rigid. At each extreme end of the keys the block of wood, called the " key-block," is also attached to the key-frame, and thus rendered moveable. These blocks are pierced with holes exactly a semitone apart, in which small pegs of wood are inserted. When it is required to alter the piano to a higher or lower pitch the pegs are taken out, and the key-board can then be moved up or down the scale. Transposition, (i) A change of key. [Transpose.] (2) An inversion of parts in counterpoint. Trascinando {It.) Dragging, delaying the time. Trascritto {It.) Transcribed, copied. Trattato {It.) A treatise. Traversiere {Fr.) Across. FlMe traver- siere. The flute held crossways, as is now usual ; the JlMe a bee being blown with a mouthpiece like the oboe. [Flute.] Traverso {It.) [Traversiere.] Tre {It.) Three. A tre voci, for three voices ; or, in three parts. Treble, (i) The highest vocal or instru- mental part, sung by women or boys, or played by violins, flutes, oboes, clarinets, or other instruments of acute tone. (2) The treble or soprano voice is the most flexible of all vocal registers, its ordinary compass is from middle C upwards to the extent of a twelfth, its exceptional range a fifteenth, or even beyond this. [Triplex.] Treble Clef. The G clef on the second line of the stave, used for treble voices and (+38) TREM TRIPLE COUNTERPOINT. instruments of high and medium pitch, such as flutes, oboes, clarinets, horns, violins, and trumpets. [Stave.] [Clef.] Trem. Abb. of tremando and tremolando. Tremolando {It.) Trembling, wavering, (i) A chord or note played or bowed with great rapidity so as to produce a quavering effect. (2) Vibration of the voice in singing, arising from nervousness, or a bad production ; or used for the purpose of producing a special effect. [Vibrato.] Tremolant, or Tremulant. An organ and harmonium stop which causes the air as it proceeds to the pipes or reeds to pass through a valve having a moveable top, to which a spring and weight are attached. The up and down movement of the top of the valve gives a vibratory movement to the air which simi- larly affects the sound produced. On Ameri- can organs, a fan-wheel by rotating in front of the wind chest causes a tremolando. Tremore {It.) [Tremolando.] Tremoroso (it.) [Tremolando.] Trenchmore. An old English country dance, or Hey-de-guy. It was of a lively character. Dr. Barton in his " Anatomy of Melancholy," 1621, says : " There is no remedy; we must dance Trenchmore over tables, chairs, and stools ; " and Selden in his " Table-Talk" speaks of the dance as an " Omnium Gatherum, tolly polly, hoite cum toite." It is mentioned by several of the dra- matic writers of the time of Queen Elizabeth. TRENCHMORE. L jlUUjDJ-^f^i^^ l J-^- l rgJJl m • I ^J. II , I _r ■■ ■f"' i rvn gRRp=p^ Trenise {Fr.) The fourth figure in a quadrille. Trds (Fr.) Very. Tres animS, very ani mated ; tres vif, very lively. Triad, (i) A chord of three notes. (2) A com- mon chord. Triads are said to be major, e.g. augmented,; mmor, : diminished, j Triangle. An instrument of steel bent into a three-sided form. It is usually held by a string in the left hand and struck with a small bar of iron or steel with the right. It is employed with effect occasionally as an orchestral instrument. Trias deficiens (Lat.) Imperfect triad. [Triad.] Trias harmonica (Lat.) Perfect or major triad. [Triad.] Tribrach. A foot consisting of three short syllables. [Metre.] Tricinium {Lat.) A composition in three parts. Trill. A shake. Trill. Abb. oi trillando. Trillando {It.) Shaking. A lengthened vocal or instrumental shake. Trille {Fr.), Triller {Ger.), Trillo {It.) A shake. In a tract entitled " A brief discourse of the Italian manner of singing, wherein is set down the use of those graces in singing, as the trill and gruppo, used in Italy, and now in England ; written some years since by an English gentleman who had lived lonig in Italy, and, being returned, taught the same here," published by Playford about 1683 ; the trill is described as a shake upon one note only; it would therefore be similar to the effect called now the vibrato, vfhile the gruppo was the shake as now practised. Trillerkette {Ger.) A chain or succession of shakes. Catena di trilli. Trillo caprino {It.) A goat-like' shake. Trinklied {Ger.) A song in praise of drinking. Trio, (i) A composition for three voices or instruments. (2) A part of a minuet, march, &c. [Form.] [Minuet] Triole, Triolet {Fr.) A triplet. Three notes played in the time of two of the same name. Triomphale, Triomphant {Fr.) Trion- fale, Trionfante {If.) Triumphant. Tripedisono. A capo tasto. Tripeltakt {Ger.) Triple time. Triphonisch {Ger.) Having three sounfls. Triple croche {Fr.) A demisemiquayer. Triple counterpoint. A counterpoint in three parts, so contrived that each part will serve for bass, middle, or upper part as required. [Counterpoint.] ( 439 ) TRIPLET TROMPETTE A PISTONS. Triplet. A group of three notes performed in the time of two. The triplet is always indicated by a slur and the iigure 3 : Triple time. Time of three beats, or three times three beats in a bar. [Signature § 2.] Triplex, Triplum {Lat.) The name ori- ginally given to a third part when added to two other parts, one of which was a canto fermo, the other a counterpoint. This addi- tional part was generally the upper part, hence the word treble or triplex came to be applied to the canto primo. (2) A motet or other composition in three parts. Trisagion (GA.) Thrice holy. Ter Sanctus {Lat.) The opening words of the Sanctus. Trite. [Greek music] Tritone, Triton (Fr.), Tritono {It.), Tritonus {Lat.) An augmented fourth, con- taining three whole tones. The use of the tritone was anciently for- bidden in harmony or counterpoint, as it was regarded in the light of what is called a false relation. It was not permitted to be employed in the upper note of one chord and the lower note of the following, as in the subjoined examples : In each case it was called mi contra fa, the leading or sensitive note being known as nii, and according to the old rules, mi contra fa diabolus est.^ Tritt (Ger.) Tread, treadle, step. Trittschuh {Ger.) A place for the foot on the bellows of old organs. Trochee. A foot consisting of one long and one short syllable — ^ . [Metre.] Troll. To take part in a catch or round, the voices succeeding each other at_ regulated intervals with the same melody. Tromb. Abb. for troniba, trumpet, and trombone. Tromba {It.) (i) A trumpet. (2) An organ reed stop of 8 ft. pitch. Tromba bassa (7^) A bass trumpet. Tromba cromatica {It.) A keyed trumpet capable of producing intermediate semitones. [Trumpet.] Tromba marina {It.) [Trumpet marine.] Tromba sorda {It.) A trumpet whose sound is stifled by the insertion of a mute in the bell. Tromba spezzata {It.) An obsolete name for the bass trumpet. Trombetta {It.) A small trumpet. Trombone, (i) A large, deep and loud- toned instrument of the trumpet species, the name being an augmentative of tromba. It consists of two tubes, so constructed that one njay slide in and out of the other, and thus form one tube that can be lengthened at will and made of varying pitch. There are three kinds of trombones, called after their compass the alto, tenor, and bass trombones. Soprano trombones have also been made, but they are rarely used. The general compass of the trombone is a little more than two octaves, the pitch of the instrument varying with the length of the tube. Thus an alto trombone, the part for which is written sometimps in the alto clef, sometimes in the tenor clef, can play all notes between ^ a tenor trombone all between m and a bass trombone all between ^ including every intermediate semitone. Each instrument can also sound the note an octave below the first note shown as the commence- ment of the compass, besides other notes outside the notes indicated above, but as they are difficult and uncertain they are very rarely written. The trombone when judiciously used has a very fine effect, but the modern custom of forcing its tone, and playing in short sharp barks, is much to be regretted. The value of the instrument was well under- stood by Gluck, (who was probaTily the first who employed it in the orchestra), as well as by Mozart, Beethoven, Spontini and Weber, as a reference to the scores of Alceste, Die Zauberflete, Fidelio, La Vestale, and Der Freischiitz will prove. (2) A powerful reed stop in the organ of 8 ft. or 16 ft. scale on the manuals and i5 ft. or 32 ft. on the pedals. Trommel {Ger.) Military drum. Trommelklijpfel, or Trommelschlagel {Ger.) Drumstick. Trommelschlager {Ger.) A drummer. Trompe (Fr.) (i) A trumpet. (2) A hunting horn. Trompe de Beam {Fr.) [Jew's-harp.] Trompete {Ger.) A trumpet. Trompetenzug {Ger.) Trumpet stop or register in an organ. Trompette {Fr.) (i) A trumpet. (2) A trumpeter. (3) A reed stop in the organ. Trompette a clefs {Fr.) A keyed trumpet. Trompette k pistons {Fr.) A valve trumpet. ( 440 ) TROOP TROUVEUR. Troop, (i) A march in quick time. " ^i^" ^^^ ''"^"'"S ^""J fi*'es sounding a troop Off they briskly set."— Defoe. (2) The second beat of the drum as the signal for marching. Troparia {Gk.) rpoTripia. Hymns which probably had their origin in the ancient custom of inserting ejaculations in the Psalms, especially when used as introits. " Tanto opere enim christiani primis sasculis medii aevi psalmorum cantui, patrum institutis quasi consecrato, favebant, ut nova cantica Integra comprobare non auderent, sed in brevibus strophis psalmorum versibus intexendis vel adfigendis acquiescerent." But in time the Christian poets did dare to write complete new poems which grew out of the ancient iroparium just as the later prose or sequence grew out of the early attempts to set words to pneutKos. [Sequence.] It is an interesting fact that in the early Greek Church a tro- parium for a great festival was called an axoXovOia, which, of course, is actually synony- mous with sequentia. Troparion. An office-book of the Greek Church containing the sequences or chants sung after the lessons. An ancient troparion with the musical notes is preserved in the Bodleian library at Oxford. Troppo {It.) Too much. Troppo caricata, too much loaded, overloaded with ornaments or accompa!niment. Non troppo allegro, not too quick. Troubadour. A polished poet, who, un- like the jongleur, did not wander about the country singing for hire. In the days when all classes of the community were equally unrefined, there was no such distinction, every verse-maker was called a troubadour, a word derived probably from the Provencal trobar, to invent or find ; and ultimately the term came to be confined to kings, princes, and nobles, who practised poetry for pleasure, or out of chivalrous gallantry. The minstrels or jongleurs only recited or chanted poems, but did not write or invent them ; or perhaps accompanied on some instrument the trouba- dour who sang his own compositions. It was not an unusual thing for a troubadour to have several minstrels or jongleurs in his service ; the word minstrel meant probably a minister or servant. The minstrels in later times formed a separate guild, uniting for the purposes of mutual protection and support ; but the trou- badours were always independent, and this independence gives a character to their in- dividual productions, unfettered as they are by the trammels of any particular school of thought. The same free spirit gives a colour to the rude outhne of their history, so that the practice of their art is to be traced, not so much by its expansion and development in , ( 44 classes as in individuals. Troubadours fre- quently atta-hed themselves to the courts of kings and iiobles, whom they praised or censured in their songs; but it was a rule that some lady was selected as the " dame de du cceur," and to her, under some general or fanciful title, love songs, complaints, and other poems were addressed. The " love service " of the troubadours was often nothing more than a mere artificial gallantry, but there are instances on record where it Isecame some- thing more earnest. Contests, competitions, or verse battles were sometimes entered into, generally on questions of gallantry suggested by the ladies who presided as judges over a tribunal called the Court of Love, and awarded prizes to the I victors. The poems of the troubadours were not always confined to subjects of gallantry, sometimes they treated of the conditions of society, the evils of the times, the degene- racy of the clergy and other subjects. There is reason for supposing that the art of the troubadours, generally called the gay science, was derived from the East, coming into Europe through the Spaniards, and the troubadours of Provenge learning from their neighbours of Spain. Troubadour poetry was cultivated in Provenge, Toulouse, Dauphine, and other parts of France south of the Loire,, as well as in Catalania, Arragon, and Va- lencia in Spain, and in the north of Italy. Its duration Was about 200 years (logo- 1290), the period when Eastern customs were giving a tone to those of Western Europe, and while chivalry began to redeem men from barbarism. Warton (History of English Poetry) rightly estimates the value of the poems of the troubadours, when he» says : — " The Provencal writers established a common dialect, and their examples con- vinced other nations that the modern lan- guages were no less adapted to composition than those of antiquity. They introduced a love of reading, and diffused a general and popular taste for poetry by writing in a lan- guage intelligible to ladies and the people. Their verses, being conveyed in a familiar tongue, became the chief amusement of princes and feudal lords, whose courts had now began to assume a greater brilliancy ; a circumstance which necessarily gave great encouragement to their profession, and by rendering those arts of ingenious entertain- ments universally fashionable, imperceptibly laid the foundation of polite literature. From these beginnings it were easy to trace the progress of poetry to its perfection through John de Meum in France, Dante in Italy, and Chaucer in England." Trouveur, Trouverre, or Rymour. According to Ritson, one who composed Romants, Contes, Fabliaux, Chansons, and I ) TRUGSCHLUSS TUNING. Lais, whilst those who devoted themselves to the composition of Contes and Fabliaux were called Contours, Conteurs, or Fabliers. [Troubadour.] Trugschluss or Trugcadenz {Ger.) An interrupted or deceptive cadence. Trumbscheit {Ger.) [Trumpet marine.] Trummel {Ger.) [Trommel.] Trump. A poetical name for the trumpet. Trumpet, Tromba (7^),Trompette (i^"/-.) , Trompete (Ger.) A metal wind instrument of bright and penetrating tone, formed of a single tube curved into a convenient shape, with a mouthpiece at one end, the other having a bell. Its part is usually written in the key of C with the treble clef, though by means of crooks or lengthening pieces the sounds produced may be in various keys. The trumpet required for a piece is indicated at the commencement ; as, trumpet in C, D, E flat, E, F, or G. The scale of the instrument is formed of the harmonics of an ordinary open pipe. By means of the slide, the B flat shown above, which is a little flat, may be sounded in tune, and certain intermediate semitones obtained. In addition to the notes shown above, the trumpet is capable of producing, 1 and ^ m but the higher tones are very difficult to obtain. Handel and other writers of the last century frequently wrote them, but trumpeters of the present day omit them. In old scores the trumpet was often coupled with the drums, the notes of the one corresponding to the beats on the other. Gluck and Handel were among the earliest writers to discover the effect of long-holding notes, and the power of the softer tones of the trumpet. Trumpets with pistons or valves capable of producing eve«ry chromatic sound within their compass are sometimes used, but the tone is by no means to be compared with the true trumpet tone. Trumpet marine. An instrument formed of a triangular chest, over one side of which is stretched a thick gut string, passing over a bridge slightly uneven on its feet, one side being fastened and the other free. When the string is set in vibration by means of a bow, the rapid impact of the loose foot of the bridge on the belly sUghtly checks the vibration and causes the sound to resemble that of the trumpet. The fingers of the left hand of the player, being passed lightly over the strings, the ordinary harmonics of an open strirtg are produced. Tuba (J^at) (i) A trumpet. (2) A power- ful reed stop in the organ. Tuba major, or Tuba mirabilis. A stop invented by William Hill, consisting of an 8 ft. reed on a high pressure of wind. Tucket, Touquet {Fr.) A flourish on a trumpet. Mr. Staunton, in his notes on Shakspeare, conjectures it to be derived from the Italian toccata, or the Spanish tocar; tocar trompeta, to sound a trumpet. Tumultuoso {It.) Tumultuous, agitated. Tune, (i) A melody or air. [Air.] (2) Just intonation. Tuning Fork. An instrument of steel with two prongs, which when set in vibration gives out a musical sound varying in pitch according to the thickness of the metal or the length or width apart of the prongs. It was invented by John Shore, sergeant trumpeter to George I. There is a consider- able variety in the pitch of tuning forks, arising from the absence of any recognised standard of tonality. [Pitch.] The ordinary fork gives out a single note only, but one has been introduced from Germany which has a slider on each prong which can be moved up or down so as to alter the pitch. Tuning. The adjustment of the sounds naturally produced by any instrument to some standard pitch and to their proper relation to each other. Wind instruments played by the mouth are tuned by adjusting the length of the tube to one particular note ; and after that the just intonation to a great extent depends upon the construction of the instrument, sub- ject of course to certain artificial alterations made by vaiying the pressure of wind, or altering the length of the vibrating column of air by the insertion of the hand, &c. String instruments of the violin, guitar, and pianoforte class are tuned by altering the tension of the strings at the end where they are carried round a moveable peg. In the first of these three instruments, after the strings or open notes have been tuned, true intonation depends on the correct ear and mechanical skill of the former ; in the second class the position of the frets determine the pitch throughout. In the pianoforte and the organ, the intonation is entirely out of the control of the player, and owing to the large number of octaves in their compass certain notes are first tuned to the system of tem- perament adopted, and from these the whole instrument is tuned. These sounds first ad- justed are called hearings. But the whole subject of tuning these two instruments is so intimately connected with Temperament that the reader is referred to that article. ( 442 ) TUNING HAMMER TZETZE. Bells are tuned by paring off a portion of the inner side of the sound-bow, thus altering the relation of diameter to thickness. Musical glasses can be altered in pitch by pouring a liquid into them. Drums are tuned by tightening or relaxing their parchments. Reeds in an organ or harmonium can be tuned by altering the length of the part allowed to vibrate, also by varying their thigkness or breadth. Organ flue-pipes, are tuned by opening or closing the orifice, a process which has prac- tically the same effect as shortening or lengthening the column of vibrating air. Tuning hammer. An instrument em- ployed for tuning pianofortes or harps. It is in shape like a common hammer, but has a head of wood instead of iron and a shank of iron instead of wood. In the bottom end of the shank is a square or oblong hole made to fit the tops of the pegs round which the strings of the instrument are twisted ; these pegs being turned to the right or left, tighten or loosen the strings as needed. The old name for the tuning hammer was wrest. Tuono {It.) {t) Body of tone, sound. (2) A tune. Tuono ecclesiastico {It.) [Accentus ec- clesiasticus.] Turbse {Lat.) The chorus part or voice of the multitude in a Passion-Music. Turca {It.) Turkish ; alia turca, in the Turkish style. Turkish Music, or Janitscharenmusik. Noisy music produced solely by instruments of percussion such as cymbals, gongs, &c. Turn. An ornament in music formed by taking the adjoining notes above or below the principal note, according to the position of that note in the diatonic scale. The turn indicated by the sign ~' must be performed in the time the note it alters would occupy without it. Thus the common turn, which takes a higher note first in the change : f^ » ^ y should be performed — The back-turn taking a lower note first in the change : _j -^ • ft • I should be performed — When the turn appears over a note followed by a rising or a falling interval : The turn should consist of four notes besides the principal : or in the case of the back-turn, written thus ; it should be performed : is desired to alter the note above or a turn, that is to say, to change the If it below character as it appears in the scale, the fol lowing signs are used. The position of a sharp or flat underneath the sign of the turn shows whether the note above or below is to be sharpened or flattened ; the dash through the turn always signifying a sharpened note. Performed : A turn over a note in the unaccented part of the bar is usually performed with the changed note first. Written. Played. ~rzrr Turr. A Burmese violin with three strings. Tutta (/i.) All, the whole; tutta forza, the full power or force ; tutto arco, the vs^hole length of the bow. Tutte corde {It.) Without the use of the dampers in pianoforte-playing. Tutti(/f.) All. Every performerto take part in the execution of the passage or movement. Tuyau d'orgue {Fr.) An organ pipe. Tuyaux k anche {Fr.) Reed pipes. Tuyaux a bouche {Fr.) Open pipes. Twelfth, (i) Aninterval of twelve diatonic degrees, the replicate of the fifth. (2) An organ stop tuned twelve notes above the diapasons. Tympani. [Timpani.] Tympanon. A dulcimer. Tyro. A learner or beginner in music or any other science. Tyrolienne. (i) A song accompanied with dancing. Rossini's " Toi que I'oiseau," in the third act of Guillaume Tell, is the earliest specimen of a Tyrolienne other than the popular Volkslieder. (2) Popular songs or melodies in which the jodl, q.v., is freely used. Tzetze. An Abyssinian instrument of the guitar kind, formed of a long carved neck at- tached to a gourd. It has frets and one string usually made of the tough fibre of a palm-tree. ( 443 ) u.c. -UVULA. U. u.c. Ahh. oi una cor da. [A una corda.] Uebellaut ^} ('^^''•) discord, cacophony. Uebereinstimmung (Ger.) Consonance, harmony. Uebergang (Ger.) Passage, transition. Uebermassig {Ger.) Augmented. Uebung (Ger.) An exercise. Ugab, Huggab, Agub (Heb.) The first wind instrument mentioned in the Bible, rendered organ in the authorized version, " such as handle the harp and the organ " (Gen. iv., 21.) In the Septuagint it is some- times translated by cithara, sometimes by psalm, sometimes by organ. It is probable that in its earliest form the ugab was nothing more than pans-pipes or a syrinx, but that it gradually developed into a more important instrument. In Psalm cl. it may be possibly used in a poetical sense of all wind instru- ments, as minnim is of string instruments. " Praise Him upon the strings (minnim) and pipe (ugab)." Uguale {It.) Equal, like, similar, Canone a tre voci uguali, a canon for three equal voices. Ugualmente {It.) Equally, alike, similarly, Umana,)(/i.) Human; as, voce umana, Umano j the human voice. Umfang {Ger.) Compass, extent ; as Umfang der Stimme, compass of the voice. Umkehrung (Ger.) Inversion. Unharmonischer Querstand {Ger.) [False relation.] Ujjg {It.) One; as, Una corda, one Tjuo string ; Una volta, once, &c. Unca {Lat.) A quaVer. Uncoupled. A direction that the manual or pedal is to be detached from the row to which it was coupled. [Organ.] Unda maris. Lit. Wave of the sea. A name given to the "Vox AngeHca" Organ- stop, because of its wavy undulating tone. [Vox Angelica.] Undecima {Lat.) An eleventh. Undecimole. A group of eleven notes to be played in the time of eight of the same name. Undersong. [Burden.] Undertones. [Acoustics, § 19.J Undulazione (It.) The tremulous sound produced by violinists by the vibratory pressure of the finger upon the strings. Unequal Temperament. [Tempera- ment.] [Wolf.] Unequal Voices. Voices of mixed quali- ties, those of .women combined with those of men. [Equal Voices.] Unessentials. Notes not forming a neces- sary part of the harmony. Passing, auxiliary, or ornamental notes. Ungerader Takt {Ger.) Triple time. Unison, (i) Having the same number of vibrations; homophonous. {2)Musicin octaves for mixed voices or instruments. Unisoni {It.) Unisons ; two or more parts playing in unison with each other, or at the octave, according to the character of the in- strument or voice. Unisono (7^) Unisonous (Eng.) Unisonus {Lat^ Unitamente {It.) In unison, or in octaves. Together, unitedly. Uno a uno {It.) One by one, severally. Un peu plus lent {Fr.) A little more slow. I {It.) A little, a very little; as, Un pochino piu mosso, a very little more lively. Un poco {It.) A little; as, Un poco allegro, rather quick ; un poco piU, a little more; un poco ritenuto, held back a little, . slightly retarded. Unterbass {Ger.) A double-bass. Unterdominant {Ger.) Subdominant. Unterdominant-akkord, the chord of the sub- dominant. Unterhalbton {Ger.) The leading note. Unterleitton (Ger.) The dominant seventh. Untersatz {Ger.) Sub-bass. Unterstimme {Ger.) An under-part. Upbeat. The beat of a bar at which the hand is raised. An unaccented beat. [Accent.] [Arsis.] [Metre.] Upbow. [Bowing.] Uppatura {Med. Lat.) A song of a pro- fane character, forbidden to be sung in church by the Constitution of the Carmelite order. [Motet.] Urh-heen. The Chinese fiddle. [Violin.] Ut. [Aretinian syllables.] [Notation.] Ut bfemol {Fr.) The note C flat. Ut diese {Fr.) The note C sharp. Ut diese mineur. The key of C sharp minor. Utriculariae. Tibias utricularias. [Bag- pipe.] Ut supra {Lat.) As above, as before. Gloria Patri ut supr.a. The Gloria as before. Uvula. [Larynx.] ( 444 ) V. VELOCITA, CON. y. Abb. of verte, violino, violini, voce, voci, volta, volti, &•€. Va. Abb. of viola. Va (It.) Go on ; as va crescendo, go on increasing the power; va rallentando, go on dragging the time. Vacillando (It.) Wavering, uncertain as regards the time or tone. Vago (It.) With a vague, indefinite ex- pression. Valce (It.), Valse (Fr.) Waltz. ' Valeur (Fr.), Valore (It.) The value, worth, or length of a note. Valse a deux temps {Fr.) A form of waltz, now most commonly danced, in which two steps are made to each measure of three beats. Vamp. To improvise an accompaniment. Variamente (It.) In a varied manner. Variations, Variationen (Ger.) Varia- zioni (It.) Certain modifications with regard to the time, tune, and harmony of a theme proposed originally in a simple form. At one period it was considered indispensable that the subject chosen should be heard unchanged through all the variations, that no alteration should be made either in the relation, length, or melodic progression of the sounds. This only permitted the employment of the several species of counterpoint as variations. After- wards a ground bass was selected, or written, in which more freedom and variety was attain- able. Subsequently composers altered their melodies by the addition of florid passages, but not to such an extent as to make the subject not easily recognisable. There are many instances in the works of most of the classical writers in which this artifice is successfully employed. The old composers called their variations " Doubles." Modem transcriptions are often nothing more than elaborate variations of a theme. Variato (7^.), Varie (Fr.) Varied, changed, altered, with variations. Vaudeville (Fr.) A term originally applied to a country song of like kind with those written by Oliver Basselin, of the valleys of Vaux de Vire in Normandy, in the fifteenth century. These songs, which were satirical, had for their subjects love, drinking, and passing events. They became very popular, and were spread all over France under the name of Lais des Vaux de Vire. The peculiarity of their character lived after their origin was forgotten, and plays, inter- spersed with songs of this description, came to be called Vaudevilles, and occasionally Virelais. The songs in Vaudevilles should form an integral portion of the plot or subject. The following melody of a Vaudeville is from the " Second livre de Pifeces de Viole avec la Basse continue. Compose par Mons. De Caix D'Hervelois." Paris, c. 1719. VAUDEVILLE GAV6TTE. Viola da Gamba, (8ve lower.). j^n ost J -J-^ ^ pii=|i:ah ^^ ,— 4- ^ —^ — H- F>:i,i ' -m — m— -[ — t— 1 Z — |- ^ ^.^— Jt — ' tEtE^L 1 \ = -4- Veemente (It.) Vehement, forcible. Veemenza, con (It.) With vehemence, force. Velato, Velata (It.) Veiled, as voce velata, a voice the tone of which is not clear. Vellutata, Vellutato (It.) From velluta, velvet. In a soft, smooth, velvety manner. Veloce (It.) Rapid, swift. Velocissimamente (It.) Very swiftly Velocissimente (It.) Swiftly. Velocita, con (7^.) With swiftness, rapidity. ( 445 ) VELOCITY OF SOUND VILLOTTE. Velocity of sound. [Acoustics § 5.] Ventil (Ger.), Ventile {It.) (i) A valve, by means of which brass tubes may be made to sound the semitones and tones between the natural open harmonics. [Metal wind instru- ments.] (2) A mechanical contrivance on an organ for the purpose of cutting off the wind from a particular sound-board. Venusto (7^) Beautiful, graceful, fine. Veranderungen [Ger.) (i) Variations. (2) The mechanical arrangement by which " stops " on a harpsichord were moved in and out. Verbindung (Ger.) Combination, union, connection, binding. Vergniigt [Ger.) Pleasantly. Verhallend (Ger.) Dying away, decre- scendo. Verhaltniss [Ger.) Proportion ; ratio. Verilay (Fr.) [Vaudeville.] Vermindert (Ger.) Diminished; as Ver- minderter dreiklang, diminished triad. Verschiebung {Ger.) The soft pedal of a pianoforte ; mit Verschiebung, Una corda. Verse, (i) Those portions of an anthem or service intended to be sung by a single voice to a part. [Anthem.] (2) A separate stanza of a song or a ballad. (3) A verse anthem is one which begins with soli portions as opposed to a full anthem, which com- mences with a chorus. Versette [Ger.) Short pieces for the organ intended as preludes or voluntaries. Versetzen [Ger.) To transpose. Versetzungszeichen [Ger) Accidentals. Verspatung {Ger.) Retardation, delay. Verstimmt [Ger.) Out of tune. Versus Fescennini [Lat.) Nuptial songs, so-called because they were first used by the people of Fescennia in Etruria. From this kind of poetry arose the Epithalamium, a needful refinement upon the Fescenninian verses. Vertatur, Verte [Lat.) Turn over. Verwandt {Ger.) Related, as Verwandte tonarten, related keys. Verw^echselung {Ger.) Changing, alter- ing, as to tone, time, key. Verweilend {Ger.) Delaying, rallentando. Verwerfung [Ger.) Transposing. Verzierungen [Ger.) Ornaments, deco- rations, embellishments. Verzogerung [Ger.) Retardation. Vezzosamente [It.) Tenderly, softly, gracefully. Vezzoso [It.) Tender, sweet, graceful. Vibrante [It.) Vibrating, tremulous. Vibrato [It.) A tremulous quality of tone, as opposed to a pure equal production. Vibration. [Acoustics § 3.] Vicar choral. [Lay vicar.] Vide [Fr.), Vido [It.) Open. [Vuide.] Viel [Ger.) Much ; as, Mit vielem Tone, wit, much tone. Vielle [Fr.) The hurdy-gurdy. Vielstimmig {Ger.) For many voices. Vierfach [Ger.) Four-fold ; having fou) ranks of pipes. [Organ.] Viergesang [Ger.) Song for four parts. Vierspiel [Ger.) A composition in four parts. Quartet. Vierstimmig [Ger.) For four voices 01 instruments, or in four parts. Vierstiick {Ger.) A piece for four players, a quartet. Viertelnote {Ger.) Quarter note, a crotchet, the fourth part of a semibreve. Viertheilston (G«r.) A quarter tone, half a semitone. Viervierteltakt {Ger.) Duple time of four crotchets in a bar. Vierzweiteltakt {Ger.) Duple time of four minims in a bar. Vif iFr.) Lively, brisk, quick. Vigorosamente {It.) Vigorously. Vigoroso {It.) Vigorous, bold, forcible. Vihuela {Sp.) A simple kind of guitar. Villancico {Sp.) A species of song of two or more stanzas, each containing seven lines, belonging to the poetry of the 15th century, which, like the madrigal, is of an epigrammatic form — formerly very popular in Spain. The composers of that country em- ployed the tunes of many of these songs as themes for counterpoint in church motets. Those motets which are sung during high mass on Christmas-eve are always called Villancicos. Villanella {It.) A rustic dance accom- panied with singing. The melody was usually lively and the rhythm well marked. The words, when any were used, were com- monplace epigrams, and were also called madrigals and ballets. The villanella or villotte, and villancico were the precursors of the madrigal. When the title villanella began to be used to describe compositions in rustic style, not intended for voices, those composi- tions were embellished with variations upon the original subject. Villotte {It.) The name given to the first secular pieces in harmony after the rules of counterpoint were fixed. Every so-called " license " in harmony was used in this kind of composition ; whereas church music could only be written according to strict rules ; therefore, secular pieces were called vile or rustic, as being more fitted for clownish than for courtiers' ears. Morley, Speaking of the villanella says, " many perfect chords of one kind, nay, even disallowances may be taken at pleasure, uniting a clownish music to a clownish matter." [Villanella, Villancico, Madrigal.] (4+6 ) VINA VIOLIN. Vina. [Bina.J Viol. A stringed instrument, a little larger in shape than the violin ; it was furnished in England with five or six strings, had a fretted finger-board and was played with a bow. The viol was called in mediaeval Latin, vitula,. and is found depicted in MSS. as early as the nth century. In France, Germany, and Italy the number of the strings varied between three and six. It is supposed that they were tuned in fourths and thirds. A chest of viols consisted of six instruments of various sizes, the smaller ones were called in England, treble, the next mean, and the larger bass viols. In Germany the names were Bratsche, Schultergeige, and Bassgeige, and in Italy viol di braccio and viol da gamba were the names given to distinguish the several sizes. Viola (/f.) Bratsche {Ger.) The tenor vioUn. It has four strings, tuned thus : The two lowest are covered strings. Music ' for this instrument is written in the alto clef, whence it is sometimes called alto viola. Viola di Bardone {It.) An instrument of the violin kind, strung with six or seven catgut strings tuned in the following manner : Beneath the gut were metal strings, varying in number from sixteen to as many as forty- four, arranged in a diatonic order from w as the lowest tone. The sympathetic strings were occasionally plucked with the left hand in playing. The instrument is now obsolete, but was in use in the time of Haydn, who at the request of Prince Esterhazy composed upwards of sixty pieces for it. It is also called viola di fagotto, and baryton. Viola Pomposa (it.) A species of viol da gamba, invented by John Sebastian Bach. It had five strings, the four lower strings were tuned like the violoncello, in fifths, and the fifth string was tuned to E, by means of which greater facility in the execution of extended passages was possible. Improved skill on the part of violoncello players made the viola pomposa unnecessary. Viol da Gamba (It.) One of the larger instruments among a chest of viols. It received its name from being held within the knees of the performer. It had a fretted finger-board and six strings, tuned thus : It was particularly adapted to the perform- ance of broken harmony and extended chords. Viol d'amore (It.) An obsolete instrument of the violin family. In addition to catgut strings, metal strings were placed under the finger-board, which, by the production of sympathetic sound, gave a peculiar quality of tone to the instrument. The tuning varied according to the piece to be played, the "accordatura" being often indicated at the commencement of the copy which was played from, but the most usual method of tuning was the following: Meyerbeer has written an obbligato part for this instrument in the first act of the "Huguenots." Violetta. A little viol. Violetta Marina (7^) A stringed instru- ment similar in tone to the viol d'amour. It was called violetta piccola, and by the French Haute-contre. Violin. Discantgeige {Ger.) Violon {Fr.) Fiddle {Eng.) The most familiar of all stringed instruments played with a bow. It is somewhat smaller than the old viol, as its name implies, violin being a diminutive of viol. Like the rest of the family it represents, it consists of a wooden chest of peculiar form, made of two curved surfaces, called the back and the belly, united by sides, and with a hollow half-way in the length. A neck at one end has a finger-board, over which the four strings pass, being fastened at one end of the chest or body to a tail-piece, and kept in tune and position by a series of pegs at the end of the neck. The strings are raised above the belly by the bridge. In the belly are two holes, called the / holes from their similarity to the shape of that letter. The sound is produced by drawing a bow of horse-hair charged with rosin across the strings, which are tuned in fifths : — the changes of pitch being gained by " stop- ping" the strings with the fingers of the left hand against the finger-board, thus shortening the vibrating portion of the string. The har- monics of the violin are very telling in quality, and are produced by touching the stnngs lightly instead of pressingthem upon thefinger- board. The sordino or mute, placed upon the bridge, produces a peculiar modification of tone, and a good eifect is gained by plucking the strings, as in playing a guitar. [Pizzicato.] (447 ) VIOLIN. The compass of the violin ranges tween : — be- with every intermediate shade of sound. The extreme high notes are rarely used, as they are harsh and shrill. The violin is capable of producing a limited harmony by means of double stops and bowing in "arpeggio," while as to power of expression and execution there is no other instrument which can be compared to it. It has a wide range of sounds, to which any degree of loudness or softness, staccato or legato, can be given. This variety of tone, added to the capability of being played a great length of time with less fatigue than any other orchestral instrument, renders it invaluable, either for solos or combinations. The violin or string quartet, as it is called, that is to say, 1st and 2nd violins, viola, and violoncello, form an indispensable portion of a score ; while the same combination, used for quar- tets, is productive of the highest pleasure when well and skilfully managed. Stringed instruments played with a bow are in use among many Eastern nations, the form of the instrument so played varying consider- ably. The number of strings and the form of the bow also differ. The Urh-heen, or CHINESE URH-HEEK. Chinese fiddle, has no finger-board. There are usually only two strings, but some speci- mens have as many as four. The bow is twisted under the strings, and it is said that the Chinese fiddlers have to practise assi- duously in order to produce the tone properly from strings so placed. The resonance body of the Urh-heen is covered with snake-skin. The " Burmese Thro, Theyaou, orTarau," has three strings of silk, and although the tone is nasal, it is not of unpleasant quality. BURMESE THRO OR TARAU. The " Kermangeh," another bowed instru- ment, is in use among Mohammedan nations. It is usually furnished with three strings of gut, and there are two sound-holes beside the bridge. The Kermangeh is made in several sizes, like the European violin family. The larger instruments are supported on an iron peg. KERMANGEH. The Hindu "Chikarah" is supposed by some to be the modern representative- of the ancient Ravanastron, the oldest form of fiddle. The " Rebab " of Egypt has one string of horse-hair stretched over a resonance-body of skin. In Egypt it is used to accompany the recitations of the storytellers and the motions of the dancers. It is sometimes made in shape like the " Kergiangeh," and furnished with three or even more strings. Whatever the form may be, it is a favourite with the country- people who use it. It is also called rdbel .or arrabel. When it was introduced into Europe it retained its Eastern name, with certain modifications ; rehehe, reberbe, rubebe, rubeek, rebec ; but it was altered in shape. The old English jig, jegg, or gig, as it is variously spelt, was also called rebec, the " jocund rebeck " mentioned by Milton and other (448) VIOLIN VIOLONCELLO. poets ; it had three strings like its Eastern prototype, the rebab. - Modern writers find the origin of the violin in the above-mentioned Indian Ravanastron, an instrument still existing, and used by the poor Buddhist begging monks. From the Ravanastron descends the rebab, kermangeh, whence comes the Scandinavian guddok, the ancestor of the Welch and Anglo-Saxon crwth. From the crwth, the fithele, vitula, or viol descended, and from the viol the violin, the whole progress representing a period of nearly 5,000 years in history. The violin has not altered its form since the i6th century, many instruments of that time being still in actual use. One of the earliest makers of violins was Gaspar di Salo, in Lombardy, 1560-1610. In Cremona, during the 17th century, the Amati family, Andrew, his sons Jerome and Antonio, and Nicolo the son of the latter, were famous makers of violins. Antonio Straduarius, also of Cremona, pupil of Nicolo Amati, surpassed, if possible, the productions of the Amatis, and the reputation of Cremona for violins was maintained by Guarnerius and Rugerio. The Tyrolese makers. Jacobus Stainer and Matthew Klotz (and his sons) became as famous as the Italians for violin- making. Villaume, of Paris, is the most celebrated modem maker. Violin clef. The G clef placed upon the first line of the stave. In this position it is known as the French violin clef. Violino principale (It.) Solo violin, or leader. Violino prima, first violin. Violino secondo, second violin. Violino ripieno, a violin part required only to fill in and strengthen the tutti. Violin-steg (Ger.) The bridge of a violin. Violon (Fr.) The violin ; in Germany the same word is used for the double bass. Violoncello (7^) The little violone. When the violoncello supplanted the bass viol or the viol di gamba in the early part of the eighteenth century, many of the other in- struments were so altered by having the number of strings reduced, as to m&ke them playable like the violoncello. Excepting occasionally, when the exigences of an old score demand the use of a viol di gamba, no other small bass stringed instrument is employed in the orchestra, as the variety of tone it is capable of — almost equal in resource to the violin — renders the use of others unnecessary. The violoncello is strung with four gut strings, the lower two covered with silver wire \, all are tuned a fifth apart. The compass usually employed extends between and though soloists play an octave higher, with all the intermediate semitones. Music for it is written in the bass clef up to ^E^ i but the C clef, or sometimes the G clef, is employed for the higher notes of the scale. The tone of the violoncello is peculiarly sympathetic, almost tearful in the higher register, and these notes are frequently em- ployed with great effect as well in solos as in orchestral music. In the band the violon- cello is coupled with the double-bass, and the union of the tones of the two instru- ments is wonderfully telling and solid. Men- delssohn has used the double-bass without the violoncello in Elijah, and the effect is stormy and uncertain, while the violoncello without the double-bass is light and expressive of unrest. The violoncello is capable of giving rapid passages with more clearness than the double-bass, and so it is frequently found that composers give essential notes to the larger, and intermediate notes to the smaller of the two orchestral basses. Violoncelli. Beethoven rPastoral Symphony). The division of the two parts in this fashion was at one time a matter of necessity, as double-bass players were not sufficiently skilful to be able to perform such passages, but at the present time there is scarcely a ( 449 ) 2 F VIOLONE- -VOICE. double-bass player who is not able' to take such divisions with ease. In addition to the single notes of its scale the violoncello can give double notes, seconds, thirds, fifths, sixths, sevenths, and octaves in nearly every key between the two notes m Seconds, thirds, and fourths can be made when the upper note is an open string, as J-J- J J Fifths, sixths, and sevenths when the lower note is stationary: Violone (It.) The double bass. Virelay (Fr.) [Vaudeville.] Virginal. A stringed instrument played by means of a keyboard, like the modern pianoforte. It was in form like a box, or desk of wood without legs or supports, and was usually placed upon a table or stand. The strings were of metal, one for each note, and the sound was made by means of pieces of quill, whalebone, leather, or occasionally elastic metal, attached to slips of wood called "jacks," which were provided, with metal springs. The compass was about three octaves. This title has been by some sup- posed to have originated as a compliment to Queen Elizabeth, who was an expert performer upon the instrument ; but as the word was in use before her birth this sup- position is not valuable. Others say that the name was applied because of the small- ness and delicacy of its tone, as it was and is considered proper for a woman " to speak small." It is more likely to have received its name from the word " virgae." The virginal, also called spitiet, from the quills with which the string was sounded, was the precursor of the harpsichord, now superseded by the pianoforte. [Dulcimer, Spinet, Pianoforte.] Virgula (Laf.) (i) The stem or tail of a note. (2) A neume. Virtuoso (It.), Virtuose (Ger.) A skilled performer on some particular instrument, specially the violin. The term was formerly applied to an amateur, " one who feels de- light in, and possesses a taste for, the musical science." Vista (It.) Sight ; as, a prima vista, at first sight. Vistamente, Vitamente (It.) Briskly, quickly, rapidly, with life. Vivace, Vivacemente (It.) Lively, quickly, sprightly. Vivacetto {It.) Rather lively. Vivacezza, Vivacita (It.) Liveliness, vivacity. Vivacissimo [It.) Very lively. Vivamente (It.) Lively, briskly. Vive (Fr.) Brisk, quick, lively. Vivente {It.) Animated, lively. Vivezza, con (It.) With life, liveliness. Vivido (It.) Brisk, lively. Vivo (It.) Alive, brisk, lively, animated. Vocal, (i) For, or by the voice ; music intended to be sung. (2) Compositions so written as to be easy and effective for the voice. (3) The " singing " quality of tone ob- tained from an instrument. Vocale (It.) Belonging to the voice. Vocalezzo (It.) An exercise for the voice. Vocalisation, (i) Control of the voice and vocal sounds. (2) Method of producing and phrasing notes with the voice. Vocalizzi (It.) Vocal exercises, solfeggi. Vocal Score. [Score.] Voce [It.) The voice ; as, Voce di camera, literally, a voice for the chamber, applied to a voice of small quality, better fitted to the limited area of a private room than for a public concert room. Voce di gola, a guttural or throaty voice ; Voce di petto, the chest voice, the lower register of the voice ; Voce di testa, the head voice, the upper range of the voice ; sometimes the falsetto is so termed. Voce sola, the voice alone, unaccompanied. Vogelflote {Ger.) A bird-call, flageolet, or whistle. Mozart employs one in the score of the Zauberflote. Vogelpfeife {Ger.) [Vogelflote.] Vogelgesang {Ger.) A musical instru- ment composed of a series of small pipes standing in water, through which the wind had to pass. A merula. Voglia {It.) Ardour, desire, longing. Voice. Voices may be arranged in six orders or classes, according to gravity or acuteness, viz. : — The bass, baritone, tenor, alto, or contralto, mezzo-soprano and soprano. The first three are the natural voices of men and the second three those of women. The compass or range of notes is different in each voice, but it is not compass alone which determines the class to which any voice may belong, as very frequently a baritone quality of voice is limited to the range of a bass, and a tenor quality to the compass of a baritone. It is almost impossible to describe in words the general character of the several voices, it must be sufficient to give the number of notes they are capable of using. The part for the bass voice is written in the F clef and its most effective notes are those indicated in the following by ( 45° ) VOICING ^VOLUNTARY. crotchets, though for solo purposes the notes shown by the minims are often used. The baritone voice has a compass between its quality and character best fit it for solo singing. Its part is now written in the bass or F clef, on the fourth line, though there are instances, as, for example, in Dr. Cooke's setting of Collins' "Ode to the Passions," where the baritone clef, that is to say, the F clef on the third line, is used for the voice. The compass of the tenor voice is between The most serviceable notes being those between the two crotchets. Its part is written in the C clef upon the fourth line. The alto voice is an artificial and not a real voice. It is made by cultivating the falsetto notes instead of the true chest voice. The C clef is also used for this voice, but it is placed upon the third line, and the compass em- ployed is between the notes : All the tones between the two crotchets are produced from the chest, the D generally dividing the two qualities of chest and fal- setto, the point of junction being known as " the break." The contralto voice is of the lowest tone in female voices, and nearly corresponds in range to the bass voice in men, only, the sounds produced are an octave higher. Music is written for it in both the alto and treble clefs, more frequently the latter. Its range is between -I " The mezzo-soprano, often confounded with the contralto voice, has a compass of an octave and a fifth or sixth. It is more flexible than the contralto, though less brilliant in tone than the soprano voice, which latter has effective between and useful notes $ and even beyond these limits, in exceptional cases. Voicing. The regulation of the tone and power of an organ-pipe. [Organ.] Voix (Fr.) The voice. Voix celeste [Fr.) [Vox Angelica.] Volante (It.) Flying, applied to the execu- tion of a rapid series of notes, either in singing or playing. Volata (It.) A run, or division ; a light and rapid series of notes. Volkslied (Ger.) A popular song. [Lied.] VoU (Ger.) Full ; as, VoUgesang, with the full chorus ; mit vollem Werk, with the full power. VoUstimmig [Ger.) Full- voiced, full-toned. Vollstimmigkeit {Ger.) Fulness of tone. Volonte {Fr.) Will, pleasure, a volonte, at will. Volta {It.) Turn, or time ; as, Una volta, once ; due volte, twice ; prima volta, first time ; seconda volta, sfecond time. Volta {It. and Fr.) An old dance. [Lavolta.] Volteggiando {It.) Crossing the hands in pianoforte-playing. Volteggiare {It.) To cross the hands. Volti {It.) Turn; as, Volti subito, or abbreviated, v.s. ; turn quickly. Volume. A term applied to the power and quality of the tone of a voice or instru- ment, or of a combination of sounds. Voluntary. An organ solo played before, during, or after any office of the Church ; hence, called respectively introductory, mid- dle, or concluding. Such solos were formerly, and are often now unpremeditated, or impro- visations, as the name Voluntary seems to imply. Towards the end of the last century the style of the music performed had greatly degenerated ; the ordinary voluntary con- sisted of running passages played by the right hand on a comet-stop or flute-stop, while the left hand sustained a few soft chords by way of accompaniment. The protests of clergy and sound musicians against such performances had not such a powerful influence in eradi- cating them as the general introduction into this country of complete sets of pedal-keys, and the consequent study of John Sebastian Bach's compositions for the organ. Arrange- ments from instrumental and orchestral works are at the present time largely used as volun- taries, and although it must be said in their favour that they bring the themes of great masters under the notice of many who would ( 451 VORAUSNAHME-— VUIDE. not otherwise hear them, yet it is to be feared that they tend to discourage the composition of genuine organ-music, and foster the mis- chievous notion that the organ is intended to be an imitation of a full band. The custom of performing voluntaries and interludes in Church was at one time carried to an absurd extent. Not only was the Psalm-tune introduced with a " very pretty flourish," but interludes were played between each line of the tune, whether the sense was complete or not. A specimen of the style of these performances may be seen in the follow- ing, from " The Psalmes set full for the Organ or Harpsicord as they are Plaid in Churches and Chappels in the maner given out, as also with their Interludes of great variety," by D. Purcell, c. 1700. VOLUNTARY. St. David's Tune given out. Vorausnahme {Ger.) (i) Anticipation, e.g. Simple form. (2) Preparation of a discord. Vorbereitung {Ger.) Preparation of dis- cords. Vorgeiger {Ger.) Leader. First fiddle. Vorgreifung, Vorgriff {Ger.) Anticipa- tion. (i) Syncopation, (2) Appoggiatura, beat. Prelude, introductory Vorhalt {Ger.) Suspension. Vorschlag {Ger,) Vorspiel {Ger.) movement, overture, Vorspieler {Ger.) A leader or principal performer upon any instrument. Vortanzer {Ger.) Leader of a dance. Vorzeichnung {Ger.) Signature, q.v. Vox {Lat.) (i) A voice f as vox hutnana, the htjman voice. (2) A part ; as tres voces, three parts. (3) A sound ; as, inter aliquant vocem et octavam a se, between any sound and its octave. (4) A key, [Acutae claves.] (5) A theme ; as, vox antecedens, the subject of a fugue. Vox Angelica {Lat.) An organ stop con- sisting of two ranks of pipes of small scale and dehcate quality of tone, one of which is tuned slightly sharp, in order to produce a wavy and tremulous sound. Called also Voix cileste, unda maris, &c. Vox humana {Lat.) A reed stop in the organ intended to imitate the sounds of the human voice, consisting of a large reed and short tube ; called voce umana in Italian, voix humaine in French, and also anthropoglossa. V.S. Abb. for volti subito, and for violino secondo. Vuide {Fr.) Open, as corde vuide, open string on the violin or violoncello. ( 452 ) WAITS WALZE. W. Waits, or Wayghtes. Originally certain minstrels or musical watchmen attached to the households of kings and other great persons, who paraded an assigned district sounding the hours at night. Until very recently, the Waits of the City of Westmin- ster were regularly sworn before the " Court of Burgesses." In the " Liber niger domus regis " quoted in Rymer's " Fcedera," in an account of the musicians of the household of Edward IV., mention is made of " A Wayte, that nightely from Mychelmas, to Shreve Thorsdaye, pipe the watche within this courte fowere tymes ; in the somer nightes iij tymes, and Tuakyth. Bon Gayte at every chamber, doare, and offyce, as well for feare of pyckeres and pillers." Many cities and towns, both English and foreign, encouraged and licensed their "waits," Exeter among other places having a regular company as early as the year 1400. In the " Coxcomb," by Beaumont and Fletcher, we find this allusion to a neglect of duty on the part of the watchmen. " Where were the Watch the while ? Good sober gentlemen They were like carefiil members of the City, Drawing in diligent ale and singing Catches." The word was sometimes used to describe those who acted as the town musicians but who did not do duty as watchmen. It was also given to any company of performers when employed as serenaders. The instruments used were a species of hautboys, called also shawms, and from their use " waits." Dr. Busby in his Musical Dictionary [1800] says " The noun formerly signified hautboys, and (which is remarkable) has no singular number. From the instruments, its signifi- cation was, after a time, transferred to the performers themselves." In The famous history of Dr. Faustus, the word is in a list of musical instruments. " Lastly was heard by Faustus all manner of instruments of music — as organs, clarigolds, lutes, viols, citterns, Waits, hornpipes, anomes, harps, and all manner of other instruments of music." Butler in his " Prin- ciples of Musick in singing and setting, with the two-fold use thereof [Ecclesiastical and Civil]" published in 1636, identifies waits with the hautboy ; and Mr. H. Coleridge adds his testimony founded upon a passage in the romance of Kynge Alysander and Sir Bglamore, that the waits were wind instru- ments. A writer in the " Gentleman's Magazine," in 1756, describing the method of constituting freemen at Alnwick, says : — " They (the pro- posed freemen) are generally met by women dressed up with ribbons, bells, and garlands, who welcome them with dancing and singing, and are called timber-waits, probably a cor- ruption of timbrel waits, players on timbrels." At the present day the waits are detached bodies of impromptu musicians who make night hideous for three weeks before Christ- mas, with wretched performances of indif- ferent melodies. The waits or town musi- cians in Germany were called Zinkenisten — players of the Zinh, a coarse reed instrument, Waldflute,Waldfl6te,Waldpfeife(G«r.) Forest flute. An organ stop of 4 ft. pitch consisting of open wood pipes. [Flute.] Waldquinte or Waldflotenquinte is a similar stop one fifth higher in pitch. Waldhorn (Ger.) A hunting horn, Walnika, or Walynka (Russ.) A simple kind of bagpipe used among the Russian peasantry. Waltz, Valse (Fr.), Valce {It.), Walzer (Ger.) A dance said to have originated in Bohemia, now of almost universal adoption. The time is of triple measure in crotchets or quavers, and consists of eight or sixteen bar phrases. Modern waltz writers frequently add to the original dance^form an introduction and coda. The " Vienna " waltz is character- ised by a rapid movement and strict unbroken time. Landler are slower and more digni- fied than the waltz. " Classical waltzes " are compositions in waltz-form intended for set pieces, not for dance tunes. In them, greater scope is given to the composer and performer than is com- patible with the rhythm of the dance. Walze (Ger.) A roll. A symmetrical run or division, e.g. : (453 ) WASSERORGEL WURDE. Wasserorgel {Ger.) Hydraulic organ. Waves of sound. [Acoustics § 3.] Wayghtes. [Waits.] ■Wechselgesang (Ger.) Responsive or antiphonal song. Wechselnote (Ger.) Notacambiata [It.) In counterpoint, proceeding from a discord by a skip, e.g. : -1- Weich [Ger.) Minor. W^eight of wind. [Wind gauge.] Weissenote [Ger.) White note ; nota hianca {It.), a minim. ■Weiteharmonie [Ger.) Dispersed har- mony. Welsh harp. [Harp.] Wenig [Ger.) Little, as ein Wenig stark, rather loud. Wesentlich [Ger.) Essential ; as wesent- liche Septime: Essential, or dominant seventh. Wheel. The refrain or burden of a ballad. " You must sing, Down, a-down, an you call him a- downa. O, how the wheel becomes it ! " — Shakspeaee. Whiffler. A wand-bearer to head a pro- cession. A fifer. " Whifflers originally headed armies or processions as fifers or pipers ; in process of time the word whifflers, which had always been used in the sense of a fifer, came to signify any person who went before in a procession." Douce's " Illustrations of Shakspeare." Whistle, (i) To make a musical sound with the lips and breath without using the vocal cords ; the hollow of the mouth forming a resonance-box. The pitch of whistling is an octave higher than is generally supposed. Whistle, tin whistle, penny whistle. The common wood or tin flMe d bee having six ventages. Its scale is : when softly blown, which may of course be considerably extended upwards by increasing the pressure of wind, as in other flutes. Whole note. A semibreve. Wiederholung [Ger.) Repetition. Wind band, (i) A military band. (2) The wind instruments of an orchestra. W^ind chest. Windlade (Ger.) [Organ.] W^ind gauge. [Organ, § 20.] Wind trunk. [Organ.] W^ind instrument. A musical instru- ment whose sounds are produced by the breath of the player, or by means of a pair of bellows. Wirbel [Ger.) (i) A peg of a violin, &c. (2) The stopper of a closed organ pipe. (3) Wirbelstock, a sound-board into which pegs are fixed. (4) Wirbeltanz, a whirling or cir cular dance. Wolf, (i) The bad eifect produced when playing in certain keyis on an organ tuned to " unequal temperament." It is well known that tempered thirds are more distressing to the ear when heard from instruments of con- tinuous-tone like the organ and harmonium than from pianofortes, &c. To obviate this difficulty, tuners of organs formerly made certain of their thirds untempered, that is, true to nature, in the ratio 4:5. Thus Cjf was made a true third above A ; El^ a true third below G ; Fjt a true third to D ; GJf a true third to E ; Bl? a true third below D, e.g. : The common chords, therefore, of C, D, Eb, E, F, G, A, were perfectly in tune. But as will be seen from the above, the following would be heard for the chord of some remoter keys ; Chord, of Al> ofDb t^— ■^— F &c. The divergence of these intervals from just pitch was painfully apparent. Modern organs are almost without exception- tuned to equal temperament. [Temperament.] (2) Some particular note often found on a violin, violoncello, or other stringed instru- ment, the intonation of which is not true. W^ood wind, or Wood wind-band. The flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, and instru- ments of their nature, in an orchestra. Wood stops. Organ stops, the pipes of which are of wood. W^rist guide. [Chiroplast.] Wiirde (Ger.) Dignity, Mit Einfalt und Wiirde, with simplicity and dignity. ( 454 ) XANORPHICA ZIGAHKA. Xanorphica. A key-violin. An instru- ment somewhat like the tetrachordon, in- vented by Rollig (1761-1804), the sounds of which were produced by bows set in motion by a pedal, and acted upon by keys. Xyloharmonica, Xylosistrum. An har- monicon consisting of graduated blocks of wood, struck with hammers acted upon by keys. Instruments of this class were made by RolHg (1761-1804), and by Uthe (1810). Xylophone. [Gigelira.] Xylorganum. [Gigelira.] Yang Kin. A Chinese instrument fur- nished with brass strings, which are struck with two small hammers, like a dulcimer. Yo. An Indian flute. Yu. An interval of the Chinese scale. The ancient Chinese divided the octave into twelve equal parts, like the semitones of our chromatic scale, which were called lu. Their scale, as commonly used, consisted, however, of only five notes, which were called koung, chang, kio, tch6, and yu, and which corre- sponded to our F, G, A, C, D ; koung or F being considered to be the normal key. Yue Kin. A guitar called by the Chinese, " Moon Guitar." [Guitar.] Za. Formerly a solfeggio name for Bb. Zambomba (Sp.) A common toy instru- ment in Spain, formed of an earthen pot tightly covered at its open end with a parch- ment, into which is inserted the stem of a reed. When the reed is rubbed up and down with rough or moist fingers, the vibrations are transferred to the air enclosed iji the vessel, and a hollow rumbling sound is pro- duced. Zanjpogna (li.) A bagpipe in use among Italian peasants. The name is supposed to be a corruption of Symphonia. [Bagpipe.] A rough-toned reed instrument without a bag is also called Zampogna or Zampugna. Zaner. [Zummarah.] Zanze. A negro instrument. Known also by the names of mambira, ambira, marimba, ibeka, vissandschi, in different parts of Africa- It consists of a wooden box, on which a number of sonorous slips of wood or tongues of iron are fixed, in such a position as to admit of their being made to vibrate by pressing them down with the thumb or with a stick. The compass of two such instru- ments is given in Engel's " Music of the most ancient nations," pp. 12, 13. Zapatadeo (Sp.) A dance in which the heel is struck violently on the ground to mark the rhythm. Zarabanda. [Saraband.] Zarge (Ger.) The sides of instruments like the violin or guitar. Zart (Ger.) Soft, delicate ; as, mit zarten Stimmen, with soft stops. Zartflote {Ger.) A delicate-toned flute. Zartlich (Ger.) Softly, delicately. Zarzuelas (Sp.) A sort of drama, said to have been first produced at Zarzuela in the time of Philip IV. Zeichen (Ger.) A musical sign, note, or character. Zeitmass {Ger.) Time, measure. Zele {Fr.), Zelo {It.) Zeal, energy. Zelosamente (It.) Zealously, ardently, earnestly. Zeloso (It.) Zealous, energetic. Zergliederung {Ger.) Lit. dissection. The reduction of a subject to its component figures in order to expand it by their repeti- tion. Zerstreut {Ger.) Dispersed, spread, open, as Zerstreute Harmonie, dispersed or open harmony. Ziemlich {Ger.) Moderately, as ziemlich langsam, moderately slow. ZifTern {Ger.) To cypher. Ziganka. A dance popular among the Russian peasantry, similar in its figures to the English country-dance. The tune is lively, and the accompaniment is usually a "burden," or "bag-pipe bass," as shown in the following example : ZIGANKA. ( 455 ) ZIKRS ZYMBEL. li'Vr; -1 ti ?rr 1 ^ ^=?^ ^> r r H -f-^ ^ ' :|| l^fe / a.-^^ N#^ Ml Zikrs. Religious dances of the dervishes in Egypt. Zingaresca. A gipsy song or dance. Zinke {Ger.) Cornetto curvo {It.) [Cornet, § i.] Zither {Ger.) Cither. A flat stringed instrument, placed upon a table or on the knees, having brass strings played with the thumb of the right hand, while the melody is brought more prominently out by the use of a plectrum. Zogernd {Ger.) Ritardando. Zoppa {It.) [Alia zoppa.] Zufallige {Ger.) Accidentals. Zufolo {It.) A flageolet or whistle. Zug {Ger.) (i) A drawstop in an organ. (2) A pedal of a pianoforte. Zugwerk, the mechanical appliances of an instrument. Zuklang {Ger.) Unison, consonance. Zummarah. An Egyptian wind instru- ment. [Bassoon.] Zunge {Ger.) (i) The tongue of a reed- pipe. (2) The metal tongue in the reed of a harmonium. Zurna. A Turkish wind instrument, similar in character to the oboe. Zuriickhaltung {Ger.) Retardation. , Zusammengesetzt {Ger.) Compoend. Zusammengesetzttakt, ccMnpound time. Zusammenklang, Zusammenlaut {Ger.) Harmony, consonance. Zweifache {Ger.) (i) Two-fold, '(a) Having two ranks of organ pipes. (3) Com- pound intervals. (4) A dance having alter- nate triple and duple time. It is also called Zweifacher and " Grad und Ungrad." ZWEIFACHER. Played four times. sfP Zweigestfichen {Ger.) Having two strokes. [Pitch.] [Tablature.] Zweiunddreissigtheilnote {Ger.) A demisemiquaver. Zweivierteltakt {Ger.) Two^four time. |. Zweizweiteltakt {Ger.) Two-two time. |. Zwerchflote {Ger.) The German flute. Flauto traverso {It.) Zwerchpfeife {Ger.) The piccolo flute, or fife. Zwischengesang {Ger.) An interpolated song. ZwischenrMume< {Ger.) The spaces of the stave. Zwischensat2(Ger.). Anepkode. Zwischenspiel {Ger.) An interlude played between the verses of a hymn or choral. Zwolfachteltakt {Ger.) Twelve-eight time. Zymbel {Ger.) [Cymbal.] (456)