*• *i fyxmll ^nivmii^ W^^^^^ THE GIFT OF \ jSMlsa z°i Is^Jtk. 7583 Cornell University Library QP 915.A3D64 Psychological effects of alcohol; an expe 3 1924 003 195 413 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924003195413 FRONTISPIECE > u c a PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF MODERATE DOSES OF ETHYL ALCOHOL ON A RELATED GROUP OF NEURO-MUSCULAR PROCESSES IN MAN By RAYMOND DODGE and FRANCIS G. BENEDICT With a Chapter on Fbee Association in Collaboration with F. Lyman Wells WASHINGTON, D. C. Published by the Carnegie Institution op Washington 1915 ^-■s n CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON Publication No. 232 PRESS OF GIBSON BBOTHEKS, INC. WASHINGTON, D. C. CONTENTS PAGE. Chapter I. — Plan of the Investigation 9-32 Principles of selection of the experimental processes 13 General methodological considerations 18 Normal or basal experiments 20 Control mixtm-es 22 Subjects 24 Statistical expression of the measurements 27 Dosage 29 General arrangement of the apparatus 30 Chapter II. — Effect of Alcohol on the Simplest Neural Arcs 33-74 Available human reflexes 34 Effect of alcohol on the patellar reflex 35 Technique 36 Stimulus 37 Recording device 40 Experimental procedure 41 Results 44 Variability of the patellar reflex 44 Normal variations in the case of Subject II 46 Summary of the effect of alcohol on the patellar reflex 54 Effect of alcohol on the protective hd-reflex 56 Technique 56 Stimulus 57 Eyelash 58 Photographic recording camera 58 Experimental procedure 60 Records 61 Results 62 Summary of the effect of alcohol on the protective Ud-reflex 71 Chapter III. — ^Effect of Alcohol on Complex Neural Arcs 75-108 ^Effect of alcohol on the reaction of the eye to perip' eral visual stimuU 76 Methods for recording the eye-reactions 77 Theory of recording the movements of the eye by photographing the move- ment of reflection from the cornea 78 Reaction-time of the eye 78 Apparatus 79 Recording camera 79 Head-rest 81 y Recording light 81 Exposure apparatus and stimulus 81 Time records 82 t Experimental procedure 82 •^ Results 83 Summary of eye-reaction data 89 L Variability of the measurements 89 '**' Effect of alcohol on the eye-reaction 90 Effect of alcohol on the reaction-time in reading isolated words 90 Exposure apparatus 91 Voice-reaction key 97 Experimental procedure 99 Records 101 Results 101 Summary of the word-reactions 106 Effect of alcohol on word-reaction 188 3 4 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. PAGH. Chapter IV. — Effect of Alcohol on Free Associations 109-125 Methods and apparatus 1^ Apparatus for the psycho-galvanic reflex 109 Apparatus for recording the association time 110 Stimulus words 113^ Association-reaction time 114 Associative categories H' "Frequency" of the response words 120 Correlations between the various measurements 123 Special episodes 125 Chapter V. — Effect of Alcohol on the Process op Memorizing 126-133 Apparatus and technique 129 Experimental procedure 132 Summary of the effect of alcohol on memoi-y 133 Chapter VI. — Effect of Alcohol on the Sensory Threshold for Faradic Stimulation (Martin Measurements) 134-145 Apparatus and technique 137 Results 139 Chapter VII. — Effect of Alcohol on Motor Coordinations 146-185 General motor processes 146 Motor coordinations 148 Effect of alcohol on the velocity of eye-movements of the first type 150 Technique for measuring the velocity of eye-movements 151 Results 154 "^ Summary of eye-movement data 164 Effect of alcohol on the reciprocal innervation of the finger 167 Technique 168 Apparatus 169 Position of the subject 170 . Experimental procedure 170 -^' Results 171 Summary of finger-movement data 182 Chapter VIII. — ^Effect of Alcohol on the Pulsb-rate during Mental and Physical Work Experiments 186-241 Techniques for recording the pulse during psychological experiments 189 Telephone pulse-recorder 189 Construction and operation of an electrical sphygmograph for recording pulse-rate at a distance 189 Electro-cardiograms from body leads through condensers 193 Effect of alcohol on the pulse-rate during association experiments 194 Effect of alcohol on the pulse-rate during word-reaction and finger-movement experiments and also during moderate muscular activity and rest 211 Cause of the relative acceleration of the pulse after alcohol 233 Chapter IX. — Summaries and Correlations 242-265 Differential incidence of the effects of alcohol 242 Evidence for alcoholic stimulation 250 Is alcoholic depression a conservative process? 253 Temporal incidence of the effect after the ingestion of alcohol 256 Effect of repetition on the various measurements 259 Correlation of the various measurements with the average 262 Appendix I. — Tentative plan of investigation on physiological and psychological effects of alcohol on man 266-275 Appendix II. — Family and personal histories of the subjects 276-281 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAOIC. Frontispiece. General view of the psychological laboratory of the Nutrition Laboratory. Fig. 1. General plan of psychological laboratory and apparatus 31 2. Main apparatus table in psychological laboratory (first view) 32 3. Main apparatus table in psychological laboratory (second view) 32 4. Apparatus tor stimulating the patellar reflex 38 5. A typical record of the patellar reflex 43 6. The noise-stimulus apparatus for the lid-reflex in position before the photo- graphic recording camera 59 7. Time-recording interrupter at rest 60 8. Interruptor in action 60 9. Protective lid-reflex record 60 10. Falling-plate recording-camera 80 11. Falling-plate recording-camera (inner construction) 80 12. Eye-reaction records 83 13. Diagram of pendulum-stop exposure apparatus 94 14. Diagram of apparatus for Faradic threshold, word-reaction, Ud-reflex, and eye-movement 95 15. Record showing latency of the pendulum-stop exposure apparatus 96 16. Voice-reaction key 99 17 to 20. Records of the latency of the voice key 100 21. Photograph of a subject in position for the association experiments 101 22. Typical record of a word-reaction experiment ^ ... 101 23. Curves of the association-reaction time 115 24. Curves of the frequency of the association categories 118 25. Curves of the usualness of the association 122 26. Diagram of the connections for memory experiment 129 27. Typical eye-movement record 154 28. Typical records of the finger-osciUations and pulse of two subjects 171 29. Reproduction of a temporal-pulse record as made by the Dodge telephone- recorder in series with the string galvanometer 171 30. Part of an association experiment record 195 31. Association pulse of Subject VII ^ 201 32. Variations of the normal subjects from the average of the group for various measurements 264 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF MODERATE DOSES OF ETHYL ALCOHOL ON A RELATED GROUP OF NEURO-MUSCULAR PROCESSES IN MAN BAYMOND DODGE and FRANCIS G BENEDICT With a chapter on Free Association, in collaboration with F. Lyman Wells CHAPTER I. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION Probably no subject in physiological chemistry has received so much desultory experimental attention as has that of the effects of ethyl alcohol on organic processes. We have numerous systematic and exhaustive contributory studies on the physiology of the proteins, of the carbohydrates, and of the fats; but in spite of the fact that several million people regularly obtain a somewhat larger proportion of their total energy requirement from alcohol than they do from protein, there has been no adequate, systematic investigation of the metabolism of alcohol and its physiological action. This is a misfortune to science. On these grounds the Nutrition Laboratory believed it important to classify the lines of research, and to prepare a tentative plan for an extended systematic investigation into the physiological action of ethyl alcohol in man. While the central problems of the plan are questions of general physiology and total metabolism, it seemed desirable that there should be a correlated investigation of the psychological effects of alcohol. According^, as the plan indicates, a definite program was arranged for the study of the specific effects of alcohol on the various neural processes. This plan,^ which was privately printed and issued under date of January 1, 1913, is reprinted in full, with minor typographical changes, as Appendix I of this monograph. As a consequence of the distribution of this plan among scientists in Europe and in America, we received a large number of comments and suggestions which showed clearly that the program was given serious consideration. Many scientists granted personal interviews and freely discussed the problems. These are Drs. Paul H^ger, Slosse, and Van Laer, of Brussels; Alquier and Bertrand, of Paris; Kossel, of Heidel- berg; Cohnheim, of Hamburg; Jaquet and Staehelin, of Basel; Fano, of Florence; Luciani, of Rome; Tangl and Verzar, of Budapest; Durig, Kassowitz, and Hans Horst Meyer, of Vienna; Franck, Griiber, F. Miiller, and Neubauer, of Munich; His, Rubner, and Zuntz, of Berhn; Schaternikoff, of Moscow; Albitsky, Kartaschefsky, Likhatscheff, and Pawlow, of Petrograd; Tigerstedt and Von Wendt, of Helsingfors; Arrhenius, Johansson, and Santesson, of Stockholm; Hasselbalch, 'Tentative Plan for a Proposed Investigation into the Physiological Action of Ethyl Alcohol in Man. Boston, 191.3. (Reprinted as Appendix I.) 10 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Henriques, and Krogh, of Copenhagen; Hamburger, of Groningen; Pekelharing and Zwaardemacher, of Utrecht; Pembrey, of London; Schaefer, of Edinburgh; and Martin, of Boston. Many of these gentlemen supplemented their personal interviews by carefuUy written statements with regard to the program, and friendly, helpful letters were also received from the following: Drs. Hemmeter, Baltimore; Metzner, Basel; Bickel, Friedenthal, and Grot- jahn, Berlin; Kiilpe, Bonn; Cannon, Cabot, Councilman, W. F. Dear- bom, Edsall, Hunt, Joshn, and Rosenau, Boston; Cleghom, Brantford, Canada; Aron and Rosenfeld, Breslau; Hari, Budapest; Langfeld, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Rivers, Cambridge, England; MacNider, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Hough, Charlottesville, Virginia; Carlson, Freeman, and Judd, Chicago; MacLeod and SoUmann, Cleveland, Ohio; Sewall, Denver; Kirkpatrick, Fitchburg; Mora- witz, Freiburg; Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson, New York; Miiller, Gottingen; Abderhalden and Schmidt, Halle; Bingham, Hanover, New Hampshire; Cushny and Horsley, London; Davenport, Long Island, New York; Cady, Middletown, Connecticut; Rosemann and Krum- macher, Miinster; Galeotti, Naples; Berthelot, Neuchatel; Henderson and Mendel, New Haven, Connecticut; Coleman, Dana, and Thorn- dike, New York; Douglas, Oxford; Hare and Keen, Philadelphia; Hohtscher, Pirkenhammerbei Karlsbad; Brooks, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl- vania; Pick, Prague; Shaffer, St. Louis, Missouri; Crawford, Palo Alto, CaUfornia; Geill, Viborg; Goddard, Vineland, New Jersey ; Franz, Langworthy, and Salant, Washington, D. C. Helpful criticism of the psychological program was given on the occasion of the partial presentation of our data at the 1914 meeting of Experimental Psychologists at Columbia University and at the Phil- adelphia meeting of the American Psychological Association, 1915. It was generally felt that the tentative plan filled a real need. The principle of commencing a new alcohol research upon definitely organ- ized hnes was fuUy approved by practically all of the scientists with whom we conferred. While the Nutrition Laboratory is committed to a continuation of the investigation, and while definite arrangements have been formulated to make the alcohol in\'estigation, either on the physiological side or on the psychological side, a substantial part of each year's work, it is inconceivable that any one or a dozen laboratories can adequately complete this program in a decade. Consequently, as the published program clearly stated, it was presented with the hope that it would suggest profitable lines of articulated research in a con- siderable number of laboratories and institutions whose facilities and interests particularly fit them for undertaking the various problems. In the tentative plan no suggestions were made for digesting the literature of alcohol. The accumulation of scientific research upon the physiology and psychology of alcohol has been in more or less active PLAN OP THE INVESTIGATION. 11 progress for the last half century. An enormous number of titles is included in the available bibliographies, notably those of Abderhalden^ and Viazemsky.^ Many of these researches are at present absolutely inaccessible to us. To cover all adequately would be the labor of years. To delay experimentation until a complete digest had been made would have meant to postpone experimental work indefinitely. We have attempted to digest the main experimental investigations per- taining to the special phases of the alcohol problem of which we treat in this book; but we have written with a painful sense of many omis- sions that should appear in any attempt to record faithfully each experimenter's share in the progress of knowledge concerning the psychology of alcohol. Our hsts of works cited disclaim any pretense of being a complete collection of the relevant hterature. For such, reference must be made to the excellent bibUographies just cited. The investigation of certain purely physiological phases of the alcohol problem was begun concurrently with the investigation in the psycho- logical laboratory. But the larger proportion of the efforts of the Nutrition Laboratory in the alcohol investigation during the academic year of 1913-14 were concentrated upon the psychological program. This arrangement seemed desirable, since we were forced to take advantage of the relatively short time that Dodge could be free from his academic work. This first pubUcation under the general plan for the systematic investigation of alcohol consequently has to deal with the effects of alcohol on the neuro-muscular tissue, with special refer- ence to mental operations and conduct. Neither the technical nor the practical difficulties of this phase of the problem were underestimated. As we pointed out in the psychological program, unfortunately only the simpler and more elementary neuro- muscular processes can be studied directly by present laboratorj- techniques. Of the important higher mental and moral processes there is at present scant probability for securing experimental data of scientific reUabihty, owing to the difficulty of measuring them experi- mentally in any direct way. This technical defect is a serious Umita- tion to all experimental investigations of the psychological effects of the ingestion of alcohol, since it is in precisely these directions that our general and scientific experience indicates that the effects of alcohol are probably the most serious.' It is in these directions also that animal experimentation most needs to be supplemented by data from human subjects. The present investigation makes no pretense to have 'Abderhalden, Bibliographie der gesamten wissenschaftUchen Literatur iiber den Alkohol und den Alkoholismus, Berlin and Vienna, 1904. "Viazemsky, A bibliography on the question of alcoholism, Moscow, 1909, Part I. (Russian.) The Russian original, together with an English translation made by H. A. Norman and H. B. Dine, are both on file at the Nutrition Laboratory. 'Hodge, Pop. Sci. Monthly, 189&-97, 50, pp. 594 and 796; Hunt, Hyg. Lab., Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service Bull. No. 33, 1907; Laitinen, Zeitschr. f. Hyg. u. Infectionskrankheiten, 1907, 58, p. 139. 12 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. solved this fundamental technical difficulty. We beheve, however, that in our selection of definitely related groups of measurable phe- nomena we have not only secured accurate data concerning the action of alcohol on definite neuro-muscular processes, but that we have positively contributed to the knowledge of the conditions of the more complex psycho-physiological effects. In addition to the theoretical and technical considerations which we outlined in the psychological program, a number of accidental condi- tions combined to determine the particular series of measurements that could be undertaken in the single academic year which Dodge could devote to the alcohol program. These were chiefly matters of expediency. They concerned the economical use of the time, energy, and laboratory equipment which were available. Two different reac- tions to these practical limitations suggested themselves. The first was to cover as much of the program as practicable with one or two subjects. One could thus eliminate by trial such technique as seemed likely to yield least consistent data and elaborate those that seemed more promising. The second possibihty was to limit the year's work to relatively few lines of research, investigating the neuro-muscular system at various levels by techniques for which we were peculiarly well equipped, and endeavoring to make the data from those particular lines of investigation as exhaustive and definitive as possible. After consideration, the second reaction was adopted as on the whole the more expedient. Under these circumstances it was inevitable that the year's work should raise many questions to which there was no oppor- tunity for obtaining experimental answers. This explains also why a considerable part of our original psychological program is apparently neglected, and why we were unable to put into practice the many valu- able suggestions which were kindly sent in reply to our request for suggestions and criticisms on the original program. The Nutrition Laboratory is continuing this part of its plan under the direction of Professor W. R. Miles. It is a pleasure to acknowledge our grateful obligation to Professor Miles for his kindness in supplying several of the photographs used in this report and for his counsel in many ways. The preparation of the report has had the editorial supervision of Miss A. N. Darling, whose careful scrutiny of the tabular presentation of the material has been a valued service. Before beginning experimentation on the effects of alcohol upon the neuro-muscular processes, the special laboratory devoted to this pur- pose had been partially equipped for nearly a year and the main appa- ratus had been tested in a systematic research with several subjects on the neuro-muscular effects accompanying the metabolic disturbances which were provoked by an acidosis resulting from the use of a carbo- hydrate-free diet. Thus we were able to secure valuable experience prior to the vmdertaking of this more elaborate research. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 13 The following neuro-muscular processes were investigated in relation to the effects of alcohol: (1) Simple reflexes: (a) Lumbar arc. The patellar reflex, its latency and extent of contraction as measured by quadriceps thickening, with indication of its refractory period. (6) Cephalic arc. The protective lid-reflex to noise stimulus; its latency, extent of movement, and refractory period. (2) Complicated reactions — cortical arcs: (a) Eye-reactions to suddenly appearing peripheral visual stimuli. (6) Adequate speech-reactions to a series of 24 visual words. (3) Free-association reactions. Latency, character of the response, and concurrent pulse-changes. (4) Memory. Learning a normal series of 12 significant but uncon- nected words. (5) Sensory threshold to Faradic stimulation. Method of Martin.' (6) Motor coordination: (a) Speed of the reciprocal innervation of the middle finger. (b) Speed and accuracy of eye-movements in looking from one point of fixation to another in the same horizontal plane through an arc of 40°. (7) In addition to the neuro-muscular processes of the cerebro-spinal system, the autonomic system was investigated in the peculiarly significant pulse-rate. Throughout the experiments pulse was recorded either continuously or at such intervals as the changing conditions seemed to warrant. PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCESSES. In several respects this group of experimental measurements repre- sents a conscious departure from traditional methods for the investi- gation of the effects of foods or drugs on man. The fundamental principle of their selection was the attempt to secure a group of syste- matically coordinated measurements. Instead of studying the effect of alcohol on special, isolated, more or less arbitrarily chosen processes, we have tried to bring together systematically coordinated data cover- ing the most fundamental aspects of neuro-muscular action. It may be objected that in the end several investigations of different processes, even though the latter are somewhat arbitrarily chosen, would be as useful as a single investigation of coordinated processes. It would seem that if unrelated investigations are sufficiently numerous and sufficiently varied, they must finally furnish data for the most extensive correlations. This would undoubtedly be true provided the experimental material were obtained by comparable techniques on the same subjects. Such conditions, however, could scarcely be realized, except in carefuUy organized series like the present. Even under the 'Martin, Measurement of Induction Shocks, New York, N. Y., 1912. 14 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. most favorable experimental conditions the individual subject is often measurably different in his reactions at one session from what he was at another. The statistical problem of correlating the various meas- urements would be enormously more difficult if, in addition to the differences of the individual at different times, one must take into account the still larger differences between the several individuals. Whatever the faults of the present application of our fundamental principle, and they are admittedly many, we feel confident that the attempt to secure accurate measurements of the most complete possible group of systematically related phenomena is sound procedure. Indeed, on any of the current theories of science it appears to be the only sound basis for this sort of experimentation on man. Only in the simplest of inorganic processes can the measurement of a single function be satisfactory. The more complex the system under investigation the greater will be the number of possible organic variants, and the larger should be the group of coordinated measurements. In a group of tissues as complex as the neuro-muscular tissues in man our best arrangements for simultaneous measurements of coordinated processes must fall far short of the ideal. The arrangement of the experimental processes in convenient series was entirely a matter of laboratory economy and expediency. The main principles of arrangement were to distribute the use of our instru- ments so as to prevent waste of time and material, to avoid disturbing readjustments of the subject, and to condense the most possible into the half-hour periods into which the sessions were divided. Recom- binations of the series were consequently not specially avoided where they would increase laboratory efficiency. There were originally five series of experiments which were subsequently reduced to thi-ee, partly by the omission of some of the members and partly by consohdation. Experiments which were not carried into latter series are marked "not continued." The various original series are as follows: Series I. (1) Electro-cardiogram, lead I, of Einthoven, taken at the first session only (not continued). (2) Reciprocal innervation of the middle finger of the right hand for 8 seconds repeated after 60 seconds. (3) Pulse-records (tem- poral artery, telephone recorder) at rest and during finger-movements. (4) Patellar reflex; stimulated by pendulum hammers of vai-ious weights and recorded from the quadriceps thickening. (5) Sensory threshold to Faradic stimulation, Martin' measurement. Series II. (1) Eye-reactions. (2) Eye-movements through an angle of 40°. (3) Pro- tective lid-reaction to noise stimulus. (4) Memory. (5) Tapping test, full arm and wrist (not continued). (6) Time estimates, seconds (not continued). 'Martin, Measurement of Induction Shocks, New York, N. Y., 1912. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 15 Series III. (1) Adequate speech-reaction to visual words. (2) Memory, repetitions and new material. (3) Protective lid-reflex to noise stimulus with con- trolled attention. (4) Involuntary eye-movements in reading a moving text with supposed constant fixation (not continued). (5) Pulse-records, quiet, immediately after standing and after 60 seconds of standing, after two double genuflections, and after 60 seconds quiet. (6) Threshold for muscle contrac- tion in response to Faradic stimulation (not continued). Series IV. (1) Adequate speech-reactions to complete series of 24 words with con- current pulse-records. (2) Finger, hand, and arm tremors, photographic registration (not continued). (3) Rapid reading, with photographic registra- tion of eye-movements: (a) natural, as rapid as possible; (b) letter by letter (not continued). (4) Convergence and divergence eye-movements (not con- tinued). (5) Pulse-records as in Series III. Series V. (1) Association experiments under the direction of Dr. F. L. Wells, of McLean Hospital staff, with continuous graphic records of reaction time, pulse, and respiration, and occasional observation of the "psycho-galvanic reflex" by the aid of the string galvanometer. (2) Sensory threshold to Fara- dic stimulation. In the 12-hour experiments, Series I to IV were condensed to a single series, which was repeated each hour: (1) patellar reflex; (2) sensory threshold to Faradic stimulation; (3) protective Ud-reflex; (4) eye-reaction; (5) eye-movement; (6) speech-reaction with pulse; (7) finger-movement with pulse. Series V was never changed nor united with any other. It was not given to the psychopathic subjects. (See p. 25.) For most of the main group of subjects, and for all the psychopathic and occasional subjects, Series I to IV were condensed to two series, as follows : Series I a. (1) Patellar reflex; (2) speech-reactions with pulse; (3) finger-movements with pulse; (4) threshold to Faradic stimulation. Series II a. (1) Eye-reaction; (2) eye-movement; (3) protective lid-reflex; (4) memory; (5) pulse at rest, after rising, and after two double genuflections. In the succeeding detailed discussion of the various techniques and their results the matter will be arranged according to the nature of the experiment rather than according to the series. If we call the first principle which determined our selection of meas- urable phenomena the principle of systematic coordination, a second conscious departure from traditional procedure may be called the principle of relative simplicity. We have made the attempt to inves- 16 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. tigate elementary neuro-muscular processes in their simplest available form, and of the more complex processes to choose those involving as few unknown factors as possible. In particular we have tried to measure processes that were as insusceptible as possible to direct and arbitrary conscious modification, and as free as possible from uncontrollable influences of bias, effort, and attention. We thus tried to avoid the occasion for most of the adverse criticism that has been directed against earlier researches on the psychological effects of alcohol. This second principle led us to lay particular emphasis on the simplest reflex arcs as a precondition for interpreting the complicated reactions. In addi- tion to the accuracy and simplicity of the photographic technique, the freedom of the processes from arbitrary modification led us to measure the velocity of the eye-movements in preference to the movement of members which are more subject to voluntary control. The same principle of simplicity led us to measure the sensory threshold for Faradic stimulation in preference to those sense thresholds which are complicated by more or less elaborate adaptive mechanisms, as in vision; or by the irregular interplay of related sense data, as in the pressure threshold. On the negative side, this principle led us to ex- clude a considerable number of famiUar techniques, the most conspicu- ous example of which is the ergographic experiment. In addition to the fact that any ergographic data which v,e might collect would add rela- tively little to the mass of more or less conflicting data already at hand, and quite apart from the purely mechanical difficulties in the operation of the ergograph and in the interpretation of the resulting data, we were disinchned to use that instrument because of the fundamental difficulty of disentangling the numerous physiological and psychological factors that unite to produce any specific ergographic accomplishment.^ On similar grounds, any measurements involving long-sustained attention or effort, or indifference to increasing discomfort, without opportunity for adequate, objective control, seemed undesirable. But obviously, even at best, in view of recent analyses of neuro-muscular processes, such as those of Sherrington,^ Verworn,'' and Isserlin,^ simpUcity can be no more than a relative term. We must concede that the action of even the simplest spinal arcs is normally dependent on the interplay of an indefinite number of inhibiting and reinforcing conditions that can never be entirely eliminated. The action of the higher nervous 'The attempt of Mile. Joteyko (Joteyko, Travaux du Laboratolre de Physiologie, Instituts Solvay, Brussels, 1904, 6, p. 361) to give a mathemutical expression to the interrelationship of central factors, the effects of exhaustion, and the intoxication by fatigue products must be regarded as suggesting a direction of investigation rather than as establishing a technique. At the present time, at least, her original analysis can not be said to supply a reliable instrument for general application to ergographic curves. The classical analysis of the fatigue curve by Kraepelin shows how complex may be the interplay of the various factors. ^Sherrington, Integrative Action of the Nervous System, New York, N. Y., 1907. •Verworn, Irritability, New Haven, 1913; Verworn, Errogung und Liihmung, Jena, 1914. 'Isserlin, Psychol. Arbciten, 1914, 6, pp. 1 to 196. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 17 centers commonly follows enormously complex patterns. Granting all the difficulties, we still believe that the principle of simplicity is an im- portant practical guide in the selection of measurable phenomena, even though it must remain for the present a principle of relative simplicity. A third principle that guided us in the selection of our techniques is the principle of customary reaction. Wherever the practice curve is not intentionally an object of investigation, we believed that our ex- periments should be so arranged that the motor response of the subject will be a thoroughly natural and familiar act. The theoretical advan- tage of customary reaction is that, in view of the large number of pre- experimental responses of a similar character, the relatively few ex- perimental instances would not operate to introduce a practice curve in the results.^ It was on this principle that we chose adequate eye- reactions instead of any arbitrary opening or closing of special reaction keys. The adaptive movement of the eyes, by which a suddenly appearing peripheral object is fixated, has been practiced since birth. It does not have to be taught the subject for experimental purposes. It consequently seemed unlikely to us that any practice effects of our relatively short experimental series would materially affect the results. The sequel will show that our technique did not entirely eliminate unusual limitation in the variety of possible positions and consequent practice. But that does not affect the value of the principle. It was on similar grounds that we chose the familiar speech-reactions to visual word-stimuli in place of the more unfamiliar controlled association tests. It should be emphasized that neither the principles of selection nor the techniques for measuring the selected processes were elaborated solely for the study of the effects of the ingestion of alcohol. With the exception of the Martin's Faradic threshold measurements and the association experiments, for which Dr. F. L. Wells was responsible, both the theory and the techniques of all our measurements have been elaborated by Dodge^ through a number of years with special reference to their bearing on mental work and mental fatigue. Not only were the technique and apparatus in general thoroughly tried out, but the particular equipment of the psychological laboratory had been installed and tested in the previous acidosis experiments. Furthermore, assis- tants had been thoroughly trained to this investigation before the alco- hol problem was begun. 'Bryan and Harter, Psychol. Review, 1897, 4, p. 27; also 1899, 6, p. 346; Book, The Psycholoev of Skill, 1908; Swift, Mind in the Making, New York, 1908. 'Detailed references to the original papers are given in the bibliography of the various processes. 18 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. GENERAL METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. The problem of studying the consequences of any experimental inter- ference with a living organism is fundamentally a problem of scientific method, both general and specific. Both the experimenter and his critical reader should have clearly in mind the available canons of investigation, and the degree of accuracy that may be legitimately expected in the results, as well as the specific lines of investigation and the specific techniques that can be reUed on to yield adequate quantitative data. Since in our case the question at issue is the nature of the neuro-muscular consequences of the ingestion of alcohol, the logical problem is strictly causal. It is our task to isolate from the complex phenomena that may follow the experimental ingestion of alcohol the uniform and necessary consequences. It may not be amiss to emphasize at the beginning that the basic experimental method of difference in its true form is inapphcable in such experiments as these. It is obviously impossible to isolate a single experimental circumstance in man. The living human organism includes too many complex variables. It is subject to too many rhythmic and arrhythmic changes, which make it, at any moment of time, different from what it has ever been before. After the intro- duction of our experimental circumstance into this complex of ever- changing conditions, we could not be sure that even notable variations in the measurements of selected processes were not conditioned in whole or in part by organic changes which were quite unrelated to our experiment. Our excuse for appearing to insist on the obvious is that in past experiments on the physiological effects of drugs the obvious has not always been noticed. The importance of distinguish- ing between the accidental and the necessary by carefully planned series of control experiments is a relatively recent product. It is not always realized even in current studies. Still more frequently do experiments on the effects of drugs on animals as well as on man fail to provide for an adequate statistical elaboration of their results. This is a particularly difficult matter in operative techniques. But, in man at least, it is never a satisfactory procedure to regard succeed- ing changes in a measured phenomenon as the effect of an experi- mental change, merely because one is consequent to the other. If all the organic rhj'^thms and accidental changes were adequately known we might arrive at the quantitative results of our experiment by a process of subduction. Unfortunately, with our present knowl- edge this can not be done directly. With a few notable exceptions, such as the work of Lombard,^ and of Grabfield and Martin,'^ we know altogether too little about the daily rhythms of even the simplest neuro- muscular processes. We have still scantier quantitative data of the 'Lombard, Journ. Phyaiol., 1892, 13, p. 25. •Grabfield and Martin, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1912-13, 31, p. 300. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 19 accidental environmental effects, such as those produced by changes of temperature, light, humidity, etc. Except in a few isolated cases we have no knowledge at all of the mental consequences of such complex \dtal processes as are involved in the secretions of the various ductless glands, changes in blood-pressure and pulse-rate, the ingestion of different foods, and various kinds of muscular activity. As far as these various factors were known to influence the question at issue, they were more or less completely avoided by the arrangement of our experimental program. For example, we endeavored to avoid the interplay of possible weekly, as well as daily, rhythms by experi- menting on each subject, in so far as possible, only once a week on the same day of the week, at the same time of day, and at the same time after eating. (The group of psychopathic subjects made the only exception to this rule. They served as subjects five consecutive days.) But the cUmatic changes were not controllable. Moreover, from the data that we regularly collected at the beginning of each experimental session, it is clear that in the comparatively even life of students there were more or less conspicuous differences in the conditions which immediately preceded our experiments. The weekly routine of work and relaxation was far from constant. Neither the amount nor the kind of food could be accurately predetermined. SHght indispositions, differences of subjective tiredness and sleepiness, and probable differ- ences of real fatigue developed as the experimental sessions progressed. To have interrupted or deferred the experiments whenever any of these differences appeared would have lost much time and have enormously increased the number of experimental periods. To have demanded rigid controls and strict regulation of life would have meant the loss of all our subjects of the student class, and possible serious mental dis- turbances in the others. The complete elimination of physiological variation would be utterly impossible in human beings. For the purpose of our experimental investigation we were conse- quently forced to regard all the rhythmic and arrhythmic variables which we could not eliminate as accidents which a sufficiently large number of instances should tend to distribute, without bias to the question at issue. While we must carefully protect the experiments from every known bias, we must realize the possibility that in any given instance the real effects of alcohol may be completely masked by the accidental variables, and on the other hand, that on occasion the real effects may be more or less grossly exaggerated. Within the physiological limits which are prescribed by our immediate problem, viz., the effects of moderate doses, we can not expect any fundament- ally important neuro-muscular process to entirely disappear. Neither may we properly expect the appearance of a new specific reaction to alcohol within the limits of our selected measurements. All that we can legitimately expect to say at the end of our investigation is that 20 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. some modifications of the measurable qualities of selected neuro-mus- cular processes occur more regularly or in greater or less degree after the ingestion of alcohol than without it. Giving due weight to our measurements of the normal variations, we can say that the average change in the measurable quaUties of the selected processes after the ingestion of alcohol, minus the average change under otherwise similar conditions, but without the ingestion of alcohol, will represent the efTects of the dose of alcohol that was administered. Experimental results of this sort have a degree of probabiUty which depends not only on the accuracy of the individual measurements and the similarity of controllable circumstances, but also on the number of experimental instances and on the probability of a really chance distribution of the accidental variations. The sequel will show that for no single subject are the data sufficiently numerous, except in the case of the pulse- records, to give a satisfactory quantitative statement of the individual differences of the effect of alcohol. Our experimental answer to the main question at issue, viz, as to the general direction and amount of change in the various processes consequent to the experimental inges- tion of alcohol, is, we beheve, conclusive and adequate. In addition to the main experimental precautions, we systematically varied the alcohol dose. This was done for the following reasons: In the first place, it is a fact that different doses of some drugs produce quite different physiological effects, amounting even to a change of sign. That this is probably true of alcohol seemed to be indicated in more than one experimental investigation. The existence and con- ditions of such a change in the effect of alcohol, if it really occurs, is a pecuUarly important phase of the alcohol problem. In the second place, we felt that no safeguard against mistaking accidental variation for causal relationship is so effective and no evidence is quite so con- vincing as that of concomitant variation in the amount of the alcohol dose and its effects. We believe that the results justify the increased labor, and that in no other way could we have secured the same insight into the vagaries of the commonly observed effects of alcohol. NORMAL OR BASAL EXPERIMENTS. The fundamental requirements of method which we have already considered demand the largest possible number of measurements of the phenomena under investigation, both with and without alcohol, but under otherwise similar or comparable circumstances. On general logical principles, the number of instances should be approximately equal in both cases. This was arranged for in our routine, by the regular introduction of normal days identical with the alcohol days as far as practicable, with the exception that on normal days no alcohol was administered. Furthermore, even on alcohol days one normal period was given before the dose. Each experimental session may PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 21 thus be regarded as beginning with a "normal of the day,"^ which was followed either by normal or by alcohol experiments according to a predetermined plan. The non-alcohol periods and days are frequently called control periods and control days in the Uterature. The term is misleading. It would seem to imply that such experimental periods were occasional and incidental to the main course of the experiments. In fact, the non-alcohol experiment is as essential to the logical theory as the alcohol experiment. Strictly speaking, the non-alcohol experiments are not supposed to furnish controls of the validity of the other experi- ments; they are supposed to furnish norms or base-lines from which the alcohol experiments may or may not show characteristic differences. In careful terminology, then, our non-alcohol experiments are not controls, but basal or normal experiments, as Warren^ and Rivers^ properly call them. The normal or basal experiments were necessarily placed somewhat differently in the various series, as they were arranged for the different groups of subjects. The general arrangement for the main group was as follows: For each series of tests, one normal session of three consecu- tive hours preceded experiments with alcohol. Then followed one session each with the smaller and larger dose of alcohol respectively, given after the normal of the day. A final normal session concluded the work of each subject in each series of experiments. The psycho- pathic subjects began each of their two series of experiments with a normal session. This was followed by an alcohol session for the same series. On the fifth day a normal session was given for the combined series. In the 12-hour experiments only two subjects were used, and they were already familiar with the tests. The first day for each of them was normal. On the second day hourly doses of 12 c.c. absolute alcohol were administered after the normal of the day. In all cases the alcohol was administered after dilution with 5 volumes of water, cereal coffee, or other flavoring liquid. The arrangement as outlined above provided for normal sessions before and after the alcohol sessions. This gave an adequate normal base-fine for the experiments, and provided that any effects of practice in the various tests which might appear in the alcohol sessions must also appear in the normal. 'AtermfirstusedinalcoholexperimeutsbyProf. J. W. Warren. (Journ. Physiol., 1887, 8,p.311.) ^Rivers, The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue, I^ondon, 190S. 22 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. CONTROL MIXTURES. As our program indicated (Appendix I, p. 272) we were unmindful neither of the advisabihty nor of the difficulty of preparing a suitable control mixture to be used on normal days in place of the dose of alcohol. Since the discussion of Rivers/ the regular use of control doses has become a touchstone of accuracy in psycho-physiological experiments with drugs. The function of the control mixture is to prevent the subject's knowing which are normal and which are alcohol sessions. As Rivers himself notes, such control doses are relatively easy to pre- pare in the case of caffein and relatively difficult in the case of alcohol. The difficulty in the case of alcohol became more and more apparent as our preparations progressed. With the help of the various chemists of the Nutrition Laboratory, and the advice of a number of physiologists, a variety of possible control mixtures were considered. A number of these, including the preparation advised by Rivers,^ were tried on ourselves and other members of the Laboratory staff. None of them proved to be entirely satisfactory. In every case the alcohol mixture of a concentration anyTvhere approximating 20 per cent could always be detected by com- petent observers, even when the flavoring was sufficiently strong to raise serious questions as to its pharmaceutical indifference. Wiping the rim of the glass which contained the control mixture with alcohol introduced a somewhat confusing discrepancy between smell and taste, but the alcohol "taste," its peculiar stinging warmth, was never even approximately masked. If enough capsicum were put into the control dose to produce a sting at all comparable to that of the alcohol, it was conspicuously different in its subjective after-effects. But even then the control dose seemed flat. In those cases where the administration of control mixtures seemed imperative, i. e., for the psychopathic subjects, we used Rivers's mix- ture, substituting 1 c.c. strong infusion of quassia for the capsicum. We substituted the quassia for the capsicum because of its pharma- ceutical indifference and because of the general capacity of a strong bitter to cover other tastes. The mixture has good precedents; quassia was used by Zimmerberg,^ and by Von der MuhU and Jaquet.^ It produces a medicine-Uke taste which apparently distracts the attention from the other ingredients. While in these experiments none of the 'Rivers, The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue, London, 1908. ^Concerning his recent experience with the control mixture Professor Rivers kindly gave n^ information by letter. The control finally adopted by him is as follows: Concentrated compound infusion of orange 0.5 drachm. Elixir saccharine 1 minim. Alcohol or water 1 ounce. Liquor capsici to Inste. ^Zimmerberg, Untersuchuugen iiber den Einfluss dcs Alkohols auf die Thatigkeit dos Ib-rzrns. Dissertation. Dorpat, 1869. 'Von der Milhll and Jaquet, Corresp.-Blatl f. .• Tor slimvilatiiij; tho patellar reflex. Dodge' suggested as an indi- cator of the fatigability of a re- flex, as far as that can be shown i'''" ■'•■ in its relative refractory phase, that it would be desirable to give two similar stunuli separated by a definite interval of time within the relative refractory period. For that purpose our pendulum was made double, with similar bobs, and two separate release magnets. The weight of the two bobs was deter- mined directly. The actual lengths of the two pendulums were con- trolled by comparing their periods of oscillation. To secure uniformity of application of the two successive stimuli was more difficult. A light wooden rod {B', fig. 4), about 60 cm. long, 'Drxlsi;!-, Am. Journ. Psych., 1913, 24, p. 1. SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. '49 was mounted at one end on a vertical axis, so that it could move freely in a horizontal plane at about the height of the subject's patellar tendon. The free end of this rod was attached by a flexible cord to a point concentric with the axis of the pendulums, and was adjusted to such a height that both pendulums struck it at their center of gravity' when they reached a vertical position. The height of the whole system could be changed for each subject, without changing any of the instrumental constants, by raising or lowering the sUding base BB, so that the rod B' rested against the middle of that particular subject's patellar tendon. Once adjusted, the base was securely clamped against the vertical frame, and the rod B' was given an even tension against the tendon by the pressure of an elastic band which was stretched between the rod and a fixed point on the upright support. When once fixed for any subject, this system remained unchanged throughout an afternoon's experiments. It could be afterwards reset for the same subject by the use of a scale which was attached to the side of the frame. But for obvious reasons the scale alone was never depended upon. On each day the position of the system was carefully verified for each subject. The blows of the pendulums were thus transmitted to the subject through a light horizontal lever which was adjusted as above indicated. This secured identity of the point of application of the two blows. Since a lever neither increases nor decreases energy, the effect on the tendon must be practically identical for both pendulum hammers, even though one pendulum strikes the horizontal transmitting-rod somewhat nearer its axis than the other. This simple theoretical relationship is somewhat compUcated by the fact that in practice the lever will have a certain amount of weight and elasticity. To reduce the error of transmission to a minimum, our transmitting rod is as long as it can conveniently be (60 cm.), while the two percussion hammer pendulums strike it as near together as practicable (25 ram. apart). The consequent discrepancy in the energy of the successive blows is a small fraction of 1 per cent, and is negligible in practice. In compara- tive measurements this discrepancy can play no role at all, since it is an instrumental constant. Two checks on the constancy of the stimulus blows are included in our records. (1) If the blows of the pendulums are exactly equal, the extent of the mechanical disturbance to the muscle incident to stimulation should be equal after each blow. To be sure, this can not be a very fine measure of the relative energy of the pendulums, but it served to disclose any accidental differences in the weights. (2) We took what is probably excessive precaution in arbitrarily omitting the first blow at least once in every series of experiments, to see if the blow from the second pendulum produced an appropriate reaction. There were no measurable discrepancies. 40 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. RECORDING DEVICE. On grounds which are abeady indicated, we believe that adequate records of the human knee-jerk must be either direct records of quad- riceps thickening or galvanometric records of the muscle-current of action. While the latter are probably preferable to the former, and should be used for the final analysis of the phenomenon, they are much more expensive of time and material, and are practically more difficult to manage. In the present investigation the records were produced by direct recording levers which wrote on a Blix-Sandstrom kymograph the reflex thickening of isometric quadriceps muscle. The adaptation of our recording levers to the different subjects proved an unexpected source of difficulty. It was proved in the case of Dodge that neither the size of the lever terminal which rested on the muscle nor the pressure which it exerted on the muscle at the point of contact, had any considerable influence on the latency of the reflex. In various subjects, however, a new and somewhat serious source of error was discovered. The blow of the hammer upon the tendon always sets up within the muscle a mechanical wave-hke disturbance. We depend on this wave to record the moment of stimulation. Under certain combinations of stimulus intensity and tonic contraction of the muscle, which are otherwise undefinable, this mechanical disturbance consisted of a succession of damped osciUations, which occasionaUy seriously complicated the curve and rendered the true beginning of reaction uncertain. Two devices seemed to lessen these vibrations: (1) The area of contact between the lever system and the muscle should be relatively large. In all except the earhest experiments we used a rectangular base, 13 mm. by 70 mm., placed lengthwise of the muscle. (2) The elastic pressure of the lever system against the muscle should be relatively intense as well as quick acting. An elastic band was used for this purpose which exerted a pressure of about 500 gm. Though this varied somewhat from individual to individual because of the variations in diameter of the respective thighs, it remained practically constant for each individual throughout the series. Our lever system magnified the muscle thickening by the proportion of 6 to 1. This proportion was found by preHminary experiment to be the most favor- able with our particular lever arrangements. For recording the knee-jerk we used the Blix-Sandstrom^ kymo- graph, which was run at a peripheral rate of 100 mm. per second. While this form of kymograph is one of the most accurate and con- venient available, it may not be used without constant watchfulness and occasional readjustments of the regulator. Even the most careful regulation at the beginning of an experimental session proved to be inadequate. Except in the earliest experiments, we consequently used alcontrol time-record throughout. Unfortunately for psychological 'Blix, Arohiv f. d. gea. Physiol., 1902, 90, p. 405. SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. 41 investigations, the Blix-Sandstrom kymograph has one rather serious defect. It is never noiseless. In our measurements of the knee-jerk the noise itself was probably negligible, but the correlated vibration tended to transmit itself through the table to the axis of the recording levers. When this occurred an irregular base-line was produced, which more or less obscured the moment of muscle contraction. These vibrations of the lever axis may be largely eliminated by suitable independent supports. Before the cure was found, however, these vibrations ruined a number of early knee-jerk records. A final difficulty which appeared as the experiments progressed was the fact that the knee-jerk of a few subjects was highly refractory. In all our subjects a knee-jerk was elicitable, but in some only by reinforcements, by extra heavy hammers, or by considerably increased velocity of the hamnaers. Under these exceptional circumstances, the knee-jerk measurements were omitted, since intense stimulation tended to produce not merely mechanical disturbances of the muscle, but also unpleasant mental correlates, and an involuntary tendency to stiffen the leg-muscles for the blows. Any one of these factors would operate to make interpretation of the records questionable. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. The subject was seated comfortably in a slightly reclining chair at the edge of the main apparatus table (position I, fig. 1) . The experi- menter moved the chair so that the subject's left leg fitted comfortably into the double V supports (fig. 4) ; and the whole was oriented with respect to the apparatus table so that the middle point of the quad- riceps of the left leg was directly beneath the recording lever. Before the first records of a day were taken, the height of the pendulum- hammer system was controlled and accurately adjusted, so that the blow was deUvered on the middle of the patellar tendon. The recording-lever was then adjusted to its proper position. The muscle end of the lever was placed in position and secured by an elastic band which was passed around the thigh and fastened at proper tension. The recording end of the lever was adjusted so that it was perpendicular to the axis of the drum and tangential to its surface. The kymograph was set in motion and allowed four revolutions to gain regular speed. (Measurements showed that our instrument gains regular speed in three revolutions, when run at the rate of 100 mm. per second.) The time-marker was set in operation. The subject was instructed to relax completely, but to say "Ha" each time the knee was struck. This was done in an effort to control both the attention and the respiration. At each revolution of the kymograph, offsets from the shaft broke the circuit of the electromagnets which controlled the hammers, at a definite point of each revolution. This regulated the interval between the stimuli and determined the position of the records on the smoked paper. To insure regularity of the first stimulation, 42 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. the contact-breaker was tested by one free revolution of the drum, but without letting the hammers fall. When all these details were in order, the operator touched the key to the mechanism which gave the rotating smoked drum a gradual lateral displacement, so that the succession of knee-jerk records appeared as one continuous line whose base was a spiral. After each stimulus the operator caught the hammer on its rebound from the knee and raised it to the magnet. If more than one stimulus weight was used, the record regularly began with the Hghter. The pendulum bobs were then progressively increased in weight until a vigorous reflex was produced. For all except the earliest records, two or more stimulus weights were regularly used in each period. Unless this had been done, it would frequently have occurred that the reflexes at some period of the experimental session would have had no comparable "normal of the day." For example, it frequently, almost regularly, happened during an experimental session that, after an hour or two of relative quiet, the knee-jerk was notably decreased in extent. Occasionally a stimulus that at first produced a good reflex later produced no reflex at all. If that stimulus alone had been used, either the later experiments would be meaningless, or the stimulus must be changed at some time during the session, with consequent incom- parabihty of earlier and later results. In the record shown in figure 5, reading the upper line from left to right, the mechanical shock to the muscle, which is produced when the pendulum hammer strikes the tendon, is recorded by the first shght drop in the base-line. In reading the records for the latent time of the reflex, this point is taken as the moment of stimulation. Owing to the delay which is occasioned by the progression of this mechanical wave along the partially elastic muscle-tissue, this curve does not represent the exact moment when the pendulum strikes the tendon. As measured by Dodge^ in his own case, there is a delay between the two events of about 30 f;m. hammer: O"" 05" p. m 9 20 p. m 9 34 p. m 9 50 p. m 10 02 p. m 10 12 p. m 10 20 p. m 10 30 p. m 35 36 37 40 43 42 44 47 46 44 mm. 21.4 9.0 8.0 3.0 13.7 10.3 5.0 3.0 7.0 7.0 7.2 8.3 a 42 42 44 41 48 48 48 47 46 Tnm. 7 5.6 2.0 0.0 4.0 5.3 0.0 0.0 3.4 6.1 5.8 4.4 ^Subject had been "all day at the microscope." ^Normal period preceding the taking of alcohol. In this and all subsequent tables, the data for the first period of the alcohol experiments will be printed in italics to indicate that they were obtained before the alcohol was given. On September 23, 30 c.c. of absolute alcohol were given in a total volume of 150 c.c. directly after S"" 20" p.m. October 8 was a normal day without alcohol. The time of day at which the series were given is shown in the first column. Columns R' and R" give the latency of the first and second responses, respectively, in thousandths of a second. Columns H' and H" show the amount of muscle thickening in milli- meters as recorded by a marker with a magnifying leverage of 6 : 1 . The most conspicuous fact is that the two days, September 23 and October 8, started at widely different levels of reflex excitabihty. In the first period on September 23, a 30 gm. hammer falling 20 cm. pro- 21 4 duced an average muscle-thickening of ~- mm. This was about four-tenths of the maximum voluntary isometric contraction of Subject II. In the first period, on October 8, a 50 gm. hammer falling through the same distance produced a contraction thickening of only one-ninth of the previous amount. The latency in the two cases was 35 o- and 51 a respectively. The regularity of the succeeding periods shows that these values are not accidents. The notes on the two days show only SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. 47 one apparently relevant difference. On October 8, Subject II remarked that he had "spent all day at the microscope and was tired." A second obvious difference in the two days is shown in the course of succeeding periods. On the normal day, succeeding periods after the "normal of the day" show a tendency toward increase in the height of contraction and a reduction of its latency. On the alcohol day, on the contrary, succeeding periods after the "normal of the day" show a gradual increase of latency and a rapid fall in the height of contrac- tion. This change begins within 20 minutes after the ingestion of alcohol and lasts about 90 minutes. At 9*" 3", the effect of the 30 gm. hammer had almost disappeared. The substitution of a 50 gm. hammer showed a continual faU of height up to about 90 minutes after the ingestion of alcohol and a slight subsequent recovery. If the data of September 23 stood alone, one could interpret them only as an evidence of the depressing effect of alcohol on the knee-jerk. Taken in connection with the normal record of October 8, the question arises whether the changes on September 23 are not really due to an acci- dental initial extreme excitabiUty and whether the opposite tendency on the normal day is not due to an initial abnormal subexcitability. Subsequent records imply that both of these hypotheses are partially true. It is obvious that the least vahd measure of the effect of alcohol on the patellar reflex of Subject II would be the difference in the average values of the two days. That would be significant only if they started at the same level. The most significant data are given by the course of the process in succeeding periods after the respective normals of the day, with alcohol and without. If the average of all our cases shows a predominant change in the relation of subsequent measurements to the normals of the day on alcohol days, the direction of that change must be taken as the direction of the probable effect of alcohol. But only if related processes show similar tendencies can we regard this evidence as conclusive. All our knee-jerk data are exhibited on this plan in table 2. Each value entered under the appropriate column shows the algebraic dif- ference between the measurements of the first period, or "normal of the day" and each of the succeeding periods of the day. For example, -|-5 entered opposite 1 —4, under Subject II, October 8, R', shows that on that date the latency of the knee-jerk was 0.005" less in the fourth series than in the first of the same day. In the measurements of the patellar reflex, it proved impracticable to follow the usual plan of securing complete sets of comparable data after both doses of alcohol. The extent of the muscle contraction was reduced enormously even by the 30 c.c. dose. In many cases the curves were so low that the latency could not be satisfactorily measured when the action of the alcohol was at its maximum. In most cases 48 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. the same stimulus that produced a good reflex on a normal day pro- duced no reflex at all after the larger dose of alcohol (45 c.c.) • To have increased the weight of the stimulus hammer in such cases until a reflex was produced would have resulted in serious complication of the data, and would not have added to our comparable facts. To have foreseen the results was of course impossible. But even if the results had been foreseen, there are grave objections to using excessive stimuh on normal days. These objections may be summarized as follows: (1) excessive blows and excessive contraction of the big quadriceps muscle tend to produce prestimulation and preparatory stiffening of the whole body, with consequent inhibition of the reflex; (2) excessive isometric con- traction stretches the muscle mechanically at each contraction and notably changes the muscle tonus; (3) if the leg is held so that it can not move, it is hurt at the point of contact with the supports by exces- sive contraction of the muscle; (4) excessive contraction of the quad- riceps moves the body of the subject more or less out of aUgnment with the apparatus. In the few cases where reUable data were obtained after the larger dose of alcohol, the results are entered in the table with appropriate designation. Table 2 shows the results of the patellar reflex measurements for each subject, in D values (D equals the deviation of the measurements of the subsequent periods from the first period, or "normal of the day") . The table is so arranged that all the data for each subject are grouped together. Normal days are given on the left and alcohol days on the right. Under R' and R" are entered data from the latent time of the reflex after the first and second stimulation respectively. Similarly, under H' and H" are entered the data referring to the extent of con- traction in millimeters of muscle thickening multiphed by the leverage of the recording-lever, in the first and second reflexes respectively. SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. 49 a a a. "^ m .2 ja a d a 3 2 S n > Q ^ 00 no o o ti< 00 o lo o o •* lo ^ 00 ecus gO S+++ ++++++++++ +++++++++++++++ w 6? "5"^ ^-— ^^'^-^^^;c:^xr;c-i:^/^ tf 1 : + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 eSSS S rt N « M N N Nrtoo i__L_i__i__L j._u J.VI *"+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + rt A ■ U5 00 t- o>«-o=t-f £CC€£€€€£€£€€ .a 1 1 ■ f-, ^ :ci ^ 1 Q o t. • C) 0) a. a o CO X) o t4 a • CO .< : a ■ a <£ t> • o: ) o- c ^ CJ g 0) fa S g g ::::::: : >-t~00C»C ooiOrt-HM SL-e^e., '3 a + + + + 2; •d :Q :Q I i o o a 1 verage D ercentile hammer to -=; c) CO T[i >o << Ph gCjimr|<<5PH o f;^ a o iih o 2 xj d 03 l~l ,H ^ '^ "1 a; 03 8» g-^ 3 S . t S +5 s -^ o n-I 9 d '^ 03 1 a 1 p. cj d a H > CTS J3 3 J3 50 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Q -See «§. 53 ft. n m :y Tl s 'I ^ O d O a 4!i 0) fl 0) bS 6? . « i-H »0 t^ 1-* w a 1 M CO in i« •>* m ++++++ + + 1 ++ + 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + — 6? ~ /— s .'-^ -—N ^— s sr "'■^- s-iT-s- ^ sr^s-r si b t::^ ■^^ ^— ""— ' 1 II 1 1 1 7 M ^ . (N -^ O CO O* W coco>oOko co^cO'-t^ (NOiMO + 11111 +++++ + 1 +++++++ 1 ++4 ^ "?S? ^.S? ^ P^ fc> 0C0£^ wlO-'^'^O iOrHCOTjHlC'^Tj^Wl^ i-lOW^ 'o -§ o rH F-l till t + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 ^ •d C :C) :ci 0) q^ C| » .. • Q » .. P. S o S3 ^1 a a3 fe S'ga a a s 1 s S3 1 a o d > S ^ > fe »i > fe ■« •a '^ cq CO -^ lo -^rl P^ '^(NCO'^^IPh '^(NCO-^»OeDI>00 t^ N co»H no K CD i> r^ t* «o + + + + + + + 1 i 1 S? Mt- w^cT^eT^ tf b o o -Hod 1 1 1 W si = '*:«i6? ss 1 rt O lONO <© O b- ?H t* rH r-< ,-( CO 1 1 M + + + + + 6? rt to r-l rt IN d »- ■ O -* CO 05 O ■i o 1 + 1 1 1 MM TJ J'=> :ci 0} a, C) 0) 03 S3 p3 0) 1 c3 S o c3 S3 £ 1 : S5 1 -a •^ ci m ^<& Hi o o lO CO c<5 CO T3 Cl ^ S i~i s =J . Cj-H N'-' s « l-J l^" 5 3 *: ^ -^^ 00^ O SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. 51 6^ odooo --HOiMOoo^rHodof-H + + I I I I + I I 1 I I M 6? e? t~ 00 o o> U5I> ^^^ . 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 M +++++++++ t J I I I +++++++++ """ ^ ■^ CD C^ CO CO b- »ft dwi>^iOOiOU5CO I I I I I I 7 I-" OJ Cl rH .-H t^ 00 t^O f-l ^ i-t l-H ^ ,-< -^^ ++++++++ b-Ot^Ml-M COOOb-tMr-Hr-lOl-HfOO^H (TO T-Hi-H I— IrHrHi-Hi-HrH^Ht" +++++ ++++++++++++ Ol CD lO (N CO lO kO i>co(MTt0.*OCDCD.^.*0:CpH 00iO(M;fiN +++++++++++ I ++++ O 00 »05 1^ 7 I I I 'T to oasts + I I I I CD IC U5 00 CD CD t> kA + + + + + 6? COOOiOOi-HCOcDOOOMt* lOCOCDOiM'-HCDCOiMOTh +++++++ I +++ O t^ lot- kO ^ (M ^ »-< OS + + + + + CD CD ^ 00 go -* 1-1 OOtJIo « + + + + + rH lO 00 (N CD CN W O Cq CO CO O CO >0 C^l CO I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ''.fe? (M CD CDf-1 Y O t^ t^ U5 C + + + + + ::::::::: :ci C| cu a:::::::::Sg _gMmjnooo>o^«^ bo o :ci '^ (N CO riH J"^ •-1 O! N . "JO 52 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. a § s 0,-g CI m i^ o <» Ti a o 0, 1 J2 a 1 a .a oi "' a S d 0^ H d 03 ■a 1 o w £ OS OD I> t^ t^ l> Tl* CO CO (M Tt< CO Tt< Tt< ci JO rJH r-i (M O •-< O £|;«|;«^CO^ N ^ 1 1 1 1 1 iT 1 + 1 ++++++ 1 +++7+ 1 1 1 h 6? 6? 6? ■* '* ■>* P5 ^ ^ ^ ^ ". '^ ^ O ,-<,-( ,-H r-4 O O rH CO i-H ^ O (N ^ © I«H CD r^ w CO CO i-l ^ w w CO M 00 + 1 ++ II +1+1 l+ll II III III K 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 ++++ 1 +++ +++ 11+ 1 +++ « ^COTtliCiOiOTjITP OcqwU^cDi^COCOO U5(NCO(M-^o.= t^co + 6? 6? HW (N O O ©O II I I + I I I t- o -+ I 6? CO -^ ^ "^ *^ "^ *^ ^ 111 ++ I ++ 6? 6? OMrHCqrHi-(C^ ■»*<-^dffOC© I I I + I I I I I I I ■* o t^ cq i> ko rH ft d d O CO +++ I ++ ic u5 u5 e^ ^ S^ M O N O 10 + I I I I t> t^ Oi CO O* kO -•Jt CO CO CO CO PH ++++++ iC CO !>■ i-H .-H ffv] (N .-< o o ^ eo +++ 1 ++ w CO '^ CO CD CO CD O ■^ sO ^ o ci 1-1 ^ 6? (M o w CO i-( CO + 1 III CO O lO '•SH CO CO ++++++ s? iO ^ (N -^ ^ ■<3t CO O (N >0 (H C^ + I I I I I :q g a) C S g > 3 « rH g + + I C kO d d w c + I I I I xt< CO CO CD I I •o 6? IOU5 I I T "I d ++ 6? ^C^J CO + + ! t- CO 00 (M OM ^o + + I I I 1 ^ CO -^ CO « kO C-l O O CO ^ OS I +++ ++ O CO ++ Ol 1—1 CO ICICO l> ++++ fl CO ■^ i^ 1>N_ ; CO Oi^ CO ++ I I Ci CO d d + + 6? 00 Tji ^ T|t d Tti'o w + 111 Fh a fi 03 iV -^^1 ■^r m a rt a^a^i • - • • > 'V ' N CO ■" IN CO ■< Ph ; I I ^ I I 1 lO a ri ■ • S ■ • ^ 53 ~15 15 + 4.3 Average Mean variation. . . Oct. 29, 1913; 1 +11.3 +10.6 +11.4 + 6.2 + 6.5 + 9.2 + ■7'" + 6 +10 + 7.7 + '6'7' + 3.0 +14.0 +11.7 + 8.85 {') + 5 P) + 0.8 ■ ■ (3) ■ ■ (?) *40 51 49 50 38 39 45 6 33 40 37 35 36 2 44 43 38 39 41 2 (.") 30 29 {') (^ (.') («) (») e) 29.5 0.5 (') C) {') -11 - 9 -10 + 2 + 1 - 5.4 - 7 - 4 - 2 - 4.3 + '3'' + 4 + 9 + 8 + 6 (^) (^) (?) {') {') (') ■ ■ (2) • ■ e) (.') ^20.0 4.1 1.4 2.0 3.0 11.0 4.3 2.7 10 4 6 3.7 5.9 2.1 '4-6 4.1 1.3 5.0 2.7 3.3 1.3 15 15 e) (') (') (') P) 15 (') {') f31 + 15.9' +18.6 +18.0 +17.0 + 9.0 +15.7 + '6'" + 4 + 6.3 + 5.43 + 0.6 + 3.3 - 0.4 + 1.9 + 1.32 (=) (.') (?) (^) P) P) (') e) r3\ 2 3 4 5 6 Average Mean variation. . . Nov. 5, 1913; 1 Alcohol (dose A) . . Normal (12 hr. ex- periment) . Alcohol (dose C; 12 hr. experi- ment) . 2 3 4 Mean variation. . . Nov. 12, 1913: 1 2 3 4 5 Average Mean variation. . . Dec. 22, 1913: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean variation. . . Dec. 23, 1913: 1 2 3 4 5 (3-) 1 1-3-1 1 1 1 ^Approximate. ^Voluntary anticipatory lid-movement. ^No record. *rhe values for the first period of the alcohol experiments were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. 66 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Table 4. — Protective lid-reflex measurements — Continued. Subject and kind of experiment. Date and number of period. R' H' R" H" Aver- age of period. Differ- ence (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Aver- age of period. Differ- ence (1-2, 1-3, etc.) Aver- age of period. Differ- ence (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Aver- age of period. Differ- ence (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Subject VI — con. Alcohol (dose C ; 12 hr. experi- ment) — con. Alcohol (dose B) . . Subject VII. Dec. 23, 1913— eon. 6 22; 222 259 212 231 165 182 154 173 168 190 215 196 198 203 20O ^37 24 20 23 8 12 17 - 1 - 38 + 9 - 10 + 37 + 20 + 48 + 29 33 + 22 - 3 + 16 + 14 + 9 + 12 -22 + 10 - 6 - 6 + 3 +13 + 3 - 4 + 4 +13 +17 +14 +29 +25 +20 'The values for the first period of the alcohol experiments were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. 88 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Table 8. — Summary of the latent time of the eye-Teaclions . [Values are given in thousandths of a second.) Normal. Alcohol. Subject. I II Aver- age differ- ence. I Dose X} Dose B. 1 Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age Aver- differ- , age. ence. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age differ- ence. Normal subject a: II. Ill IV VI VII IX X Average . . . 12 hr. exp cri- men ts ; VI IX Average. . . Psychopathic subjects: XI. . XII . . XIV Average . . . 2.")0 193 199 209 21S 216 225 216 196 179 187 250 30 23 22 '17 37 23 25 23 15 19 :;9 205 179 183 204 193 26 14 1,S 23 20 -1- 4 +n -11 - 7 -1-88 +34 +38 -17 234 187 19 16 + 16' 231 179 184 206 225 182 21 15 9 28 35 15 -30 - 2 - 7 -22 -26 -21 159 206 209 243 206 '189 '187 ■188 231 168 200 199 24 14 37 19 21 '31 '22 '26 35 24 17 25 + 6 + 17 +136 - 3 '- 13 '- 20 201 20 219 1S4 197 200 17 37 26 27 - 5 + 5 + 7 - 10 + 33 + 12 161 1 25 225 24 213 \ 29 ^Dose C was used in the 12-hoxir experiments. Table 9. — Summary of the effect of alcohol on the latent time of the eye-reactions. [Average values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject. Effect as shown in average differences.' Effect as shown in percentile differences.^ Dose A. Dose B. Dose C. Dose .\. Dose B. Dose C. Normal subjects; II a a - 30 - 6 - 24 - 11 - 19 -109 (T p. ct. p. c(. -13.7 - 3.2 -12 2 V-ct. Ill IV + 12 + 6,2 VI VII IX + 17 +24 +48 -37 +13 + 9.3 - 6.0 + 11.1 + 15,2 -15.0 + 5.4 - 9 3 -49.0 X Average 12 hr. experiments: VI - 33 -51 - 3 -27 -15.6 -25.1 - 1.8 -13.4 IX Average Psychopathic subjects: XI - 5 +28 + 5 + 9 - 2.2 + 15.0 + 2.3 + 5.0 XII XIV Average 'Effect on the average difference equals (av. 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc., alcohol) minus (av. 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc., normal). 'Effect on the percentile difference equals average difference divided by average of the oor- responding first periods. COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS. 89 Summary of Eye-Reaction Data. A summary of the latent time of the eye-reactions, as well us the average diflferences, is given in table 8. The first and second normal days are shown on the left, the two alcohol days on the right. The other headings are self-explanatory. A summary of the effect of alcohol on the eye-reactions is given in table 9, calculated from the differences. On the left the effect is shown in the units of measurement. On the right it is shown in percentiles. V.iHlABILITY OF THE MEASUREMENTS. Inspection of the averages and mean variations of table 8 will throw considerable Ught on the reliability of this group of measurements: (1) In the first place, it will be noticed that the average mean variation of eye-reaction is about 12 per cent of the average of the measurements. In interpreting this variabihty it should be borne in mind that, with the exception of Subject VI, none of the subjects had ever served in sim- ilar experiments. We regard it as a conspicuous service of the eye- reactions that they furnished us comparable "choice reaction" data with an average mean variation of approximately 12 per cent from a heterogeneous group of subjects without previous training. No other "choice reaction" with which we are acquainted is so uniformly avail- able. (2) As appears from the table of average reactions, there is a slight but regular improvement in the average reaction time of all subjects as the experiments progress. The averages show a total reduction of 23(7 for the main group and 13 o- for the psychopathic group between the first and last normal days. The only exception is the second normal day of Subject XII, which prevents the average of the psychopathic subjects from showing any advantage of repetition on the second normal day as compared with the alcohol day. Notwith- standing this exception, the facts are unequivocal. The average latent time of the eye-reactions decreases by an average of about 1 1 per cent from the first to the last experimental day as a result of repetition. A regular practice effect of 11 per cent between the first and last quar- ters of 120 measurements clearly shows that the process was not ini- tially as thoroughly practiced as we had expected, i. e., to the degree that the practice effect of the experimental sessions would be insignificant. The question of the origin of the effect of repetition in the case of the supposed thoroughly practiced eye-reaction, and the possibility of adopting suitable experimental measures to reduce it,wiU be taken up again in the summary, Chapter IX. We would point out here that, notwithstanding the obvious effect of repetition, our normal base-line is adequate for any interpretation of the effect of alcohol. The experimental as well as the statistical procedure of these experiments was especially planned for just such exigencies. 90 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Effect of Alcohol on the Eye-Reaction. Following our regular procedure of calculating the effects of alcohol from the differences between the normal of the day and subsequent periods, it appears from table 9 that the average effect of the smaller dose of alcohol (dose A) is to decrease the reaction time in four cases out of five, amounting to an average change of 13 cr or 5.4 per cent. The effect of the larger dose of alcohol (dose B), on the other hand, is a length- ening of the reaction time, in all six subjects, by 33 c, or 15.6 per cent. The psychopathic subjects show a slight (5 per cent) decrease of latency like the main group after similar dosage. The effect of the 12-hour experiments (dose C) is an increase of the reaction time in both subjects, but the increase in the case of Subject IX is too shght to be significant. In general one must conclude that a dose of 45 c.c. of alcohol clearly increases the latency of the eye-reactions. The effect of 30 c.c, on the contrary, seems to be in the opposite direction. This corresponds rather closely with the results of the simple reaction experiments by KraepeUn. In conjunction with the data from other sources, we shall discuss in the general summary (Chapter IX) whether or not our data warrant the conclusion that the two doses of alcohol really affect the complex nervous arc which is involved in eye-reaction in opposite ways. EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE REACTION-TIME IN READING ISOLATED WORDS. There are very few mental operations which are comparable with the reflexes in uniformity ; very few that may be assumed to be even approx- imately equally practiced in the experience of different individuals. Probably the most nearly common element in the intellectual experience of normal individuals in literate communities is the association between visual, auditory, and motor symbols in language and the associations of elementary mathematics. The computation experiments of KraepeUn and his pupils make use of this community of elementary mathematical experience to measure the effect of alcohol on controlled associations. But common experi- ence, as well as laboratory experiment, makes it obvious that even in the associations of elementary mathematics there are gross differ- ences in the facility with which different individuals react to different combinations. Even in the same subject, provided he is not specially practiced, the difficulty of relatively simple mathematical tasks may vary enormously. For example, the multiplication of 8X5 is commonly a readier association than that of 8X7. Similarly 9-|-9 is commonly readier than 7-f6. The practice effects are, moreover, often enormous. Compared to even the simpler association tasks of mental arithmetic, the association process which is involved in reading short, familiar words seems easy to most subjects. For the average literate it is also probably better practiced. Reading should consequently be a reaction COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS. 91 in which the different individuals are comparable with each other and relatively stable with respect to the effect of repetition. It may be objected that actual articulation in reading is less common in adults than silent reading. While that is undoubtedly true, it must be remembered that the restraint of articulation is a refinement of develop- ment. Reading was learned by actual articulation. And the passing of silent reading into articulation occurs on the least provocation and in the aggregate relatively often. In any event, the arousal of the motor-acoustic residua is practically a universal if not a necessary accompaniment to the process of understanding the printed word. The nervous arcs which are involved in the articulation of familiar words are relatively complex, but they are relatively constant and thoroughly practiced. Of all the controlled associations, reading is probably the most nearly immediate and universally practiced. Even in a mathe- matical reaction the first associate which is aroused by digits, 7 times 8, for example, is probably not their multiple, but the auditory-motor associate which is involved in reading them. Other things being equal, reading simple words appeared to satisfy our criteria of a satisfactory experimental process better than adding or any other mathematical task. Furthermore, the basal psychology of the reading process has been subject to much more satisfactory analysis than the mathematical processes. The adequate reaction to visual verbal stimuh is about the best understood of all associations. It has been experimentally studied in connection with a considerable variety of mental processes, both normal and abnormal. It has furnished material for a large number of investigations in the psychology of perception and attention. The conditions which determine satis- factory experimentation are consequently thoroughly known and the criteria of a satisfactory technique are entirely familiar to the experi- mental psychologist. In all these respects, the inclusion of word-reac- tion measurements in our series has been justified. In none of the measurements, not even in the reflexes, have we found a lower percent- age of variation within a series of observations. Notwithstanding the differences between the words, the mean variation in a series of 24 is about 7 per cent of the reaction time. The same series of 24 four- letter English words was reacted to in aU our experiments by all our subjects, regular and control subjects alike. EXPOSURE APPARATUS. The variety of possible instruments for giving visual stimuh under experimental conditions is practically limitless. Equally hmitless are the experimental conditions which they may be required to satisfy. There is probably no one best universal exposure apparatus. No such instrument is equally good for all purposes. Any instrument is good if it satisfies the specific experimental demands of the occasion. Between 92 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. approximately equally good instruments there maybe a further criterion of expediency. Experimental psychologists have spent, in the aggre- gate, an unduly large amount of time in developing various types of exposure apparatus to satisfy various experimental demands. The excuse for using a new form in these experiments was a new combination of experimental demands and expediency. The most generally recognized criteria of a satisfactory exposure appa- ratus^ relate to the type called the tachistoscope. But the demand for tachistoscopic exposure, that is, for the most rapid possible exposure, is certainly not universal. It has probably been overvalued where it is most useful, that is, in the effort to isolate a single act of vision. It is entirely possible to produce experimental circumstances in which extreme shortness of exposure and consequent uncontrolled adequacy of exposure may be quite undesirable. This is doubtless the case in memory experiments. We beheve that it is also the case in all associa- tion experiments, where the first condition of a satisfactory association process would seem to be the least practicable interference with the normal and adequate perception of the stimulus word. If it is true in reading, as the evidence seems to point, that the normal visual perception of a word is a complex of stimulation and inhibition processes which may be more or less separated in time (Dodge,^ pp. 55-60), it would seem that the most satisfactory condition for the read- ing reaction would be to combine all the processes in the same instant, as far as practicable, and to increase to a maximum the visual controls that ordinarily complete the process which is begun in the preJ&xational perception of a word. In other words, the stimulus word of adequate size should appear suddenly, after a signal, all at once, in the field of clear vision, with provision for satisfactory adaptations to distance and illumination. After adequate exposure the persistence of the stimulus word has relatively Httle or no significance. It may serve a useful function as a control for misperception. Our experimental requirements distinctly excluded the tachistoscope tjrpe of apparatus. Our positive instrumental demands may be sum- marized as follows: (1) In order to exclude disturbing pre-judgments from partial visual exposure, and to give a definite amount of total exposure, the exposure should be rigidly simultaneous and as nearly instantaneous as possible (c/. Erdmann and Dodge'). (2) To facil- itate the calculation of latency, the moment of total exposure should be related in some constant way to a registrable process. (3) The obvi- ous visual requirements of adaptation to illumination and to the place of exposure in all dimensions must not be transgressed. (4) Since the 'Whipple, Mental and Physical Tests, Baltimore, 1910, p. 223. "Dodge, An Experimental Study of Visual Fixation. Monograph Supp. of the Psychol. Review. No. 35, 1907. 'Erdmann and Dodge, Psychologische Untersuohungen ttber das Lesen, Halle, 1898, p. 94 COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS. 93 same experimental conditions must be used for a large variety of sub- jects with very different natural adaptability, the demands on the sub- ject must be definite and simple. Disturbing influences must be reduced where they can not be eliminated. Conditions must be as natural as possible. (5) Finally, since we aimed to concentrate apparatus and tech- nique so that the different experiments should follow with minimum loss of time and a minimum change in the position of the subject, elaborate or bulky apparatus was inexpedient. The instrument which was devised to meet these conditions was not an accident. Back of it are some years of effort to produce the perfect exposure of a word without eye-movements, which accurately dupH- cates a normal fixation in reading. The instrument is in no sense a tachistoscope. It makes no pretense to satisfy all the desiderata of a perfect exposure apparatus. It does satisfy our particular experi- mental needs without serious defects. One new principle involved in its construction will doubtless be of general use, namely, the pendulum stop. It is a device to stop rapid movements of an object suddenly, but with as little noise and as Uttle vibration as is possible. In type, our exposure apparatus is characterized by a rapid move- ment of the visual field Uke the Erdmann-Dodge^ gravity tachistoscope or the commercial models of Ranschburg, Wirth, and Rupp memory apparatus, or the disk instrument of Dodge.^ The principle of this type of apparatus is to place the fixation marks and the stimulus word on the same surface, which suddenly and rapidly moves, at the moment of stimulation, to replace the insignificant fixation mark by the signifi- cant stimulus object in the field of clear vision. Since a word is entirely illegible to the motionless eye while it is in rapid motion across the field of vision, the exposure is simultaneous in all parts when the move- ment ceases. Complete adaptation to distance and light is preserved from prestimulation to stimulation period, by identity of background and identity of the plane of the fixation mark and the exposed word. The moment of exposure is the moment of stopping. The great difficulty in constructing apparatus of this type has always been to effect the sudden stop without undue noise or disturb- ing vibration of the exposed word. To meet this difficulty is the func- tion of our new device, the pendulum stop. Most of the stops in com- mon use involve considerable noise. If the stop is padded to prevent noise, it is practically sure to produce a rebound or vibration, with con- sequent blurring of the exposed word during the first moment of expo- sure. If the end-movement is damped by oil or air cushion, the moment of exposure is apt to become uncertain. The pendulum stop obviates or minimizes all these sources of disturbance. 'Erdmann and Dodge, Psychologisohe Untersuohungen fiber das Lesen, Halle, 1898. 'Dodge, An Experimental Study of Visual Fixation. Monograph Supp. of the Psychol. Review, No. 35, 1907. 94 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Our exposure apparatus is pictured in figure 13. It operates as fol- lows : Behind a suitable screen, which is pierced by an aperture, A , about twice the size of the words to be exposed, is hung a light horizontal arm OB. One end of the arm OB is pivoted, so that the other end — the free end — may move past the aperture in the screen. The free or moving end carries the cards on which are printed a fixation mark and a stimulus word. The fixation mark is held in front of the aperture during the pre- exposure interval by a magnet acting on the armature AR. An auto- matic circuit-breaker attached to the shaft of the kymograph (fig. 14) breaks the circuit of the electro-magnet and releases the free end of the arm at a given point in each revolution. The arm stops at a point to expose the word in the middle of the aperture. The required accelera- tion of the arm is produced by a quick-acting spring. TO VOICE KEY AND CIRCUIT BREAKER Diagram of pendulum-stop exposure apparatus. The arm is stopped quickly and quietly at the right spot for optimum exposure of the word by the previously mentioned pendulum stop, as follows: A rigid lever connects the free end of the arm with a short pen- dulum, PS, whose length is exactly the distance that the arm must move to produce a proper exposure. When the arm is at rest in the pre- exposure position, this short pendulum is horizontal. As the arm moves into the exposure position, the short pendulum becomes vertical. The pendulum is exceedingly Ught, so that there may be no tendency for it to go beyond the position of equilibrium. In our instrument the length of the pendulum was 13 mm. With this device the movement of the arm is exceedingly uniform and the otherwise inevitable, regu- larly increasing acceleration is prevented by the increasing resistance of the pendulum component of the compound system. The stop is COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS. 95 2 'o o x^ ">.' ^ ^■s.a.S g ^ s O o Sag o S S 9- d iS O rfi a E o 0) o ii -9 **-■ ej OT rt a 3 O a 5 <" O, C n t, t, CO 0) s^S !^ I ».a_§^ g •S a a5 += aj-43 g.2 •- fc t:^ S SCS- I'S- .ill 5 to . «, 3 O 1 ^ -a « a M 0) q -a o . .TJ t.- " § 2 o §•- .•SP:S »!■ » 2 «T .a-M d "^^ qa a fl 03 g -^ ja •aa.Jlii -2 3 ■^•^ ^■S o-g ..-i r. ■" d, M J a -^S w'Z , d O f d o •B d 2 a ^ . 2 « :g : . S =a o a » ■^i^^s 2 e-3 3-S d o i3 s^':;ca d m , - ^ S 2-3 a <^ iH 8 s S- " '-^ i" S 2 S .S "^ ""^ 'd S J3 -^ M ^t 3-!i p.^- o.d^ M s e «: 01 h - cu " •^ a mt3 ^^ S " a&|ggg| ■2»|t,^aa m g d 2 -*^ -o & d d d d oj a.3 oj r ^- cj rj (p 3 S 0, O 03 g u -43 .2 . O -o s » d .sStc fe « S S ; 96 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. produced when the pendulum reaches a vertical position. Rebound is impossible, because the pendulum in the vertical position is at a dead- point with respect to the direction of the apphed forces. The accompanying record (fig. 15) is one of a series which was made to measure the latency of the drop and the character of the stop. These records were taken in the following manner : The apparatus was set up before the vertical slit of a photographic recording-camera. A word was exposed exactly as during the experiments, except that a light marker was attached to the free end of the movable arm. This marker made the shadow record A (fig. 15). The horizontal ordinates are approximately 2 mm. apart. The vertical ordinates are produced by the vibrator interrupting the recording beam of Hght 100 times a second. Line S was made by the shadow of a Deprez signal in circuit Fig. 15. — Record showing latency of the peadulum-stop expoaure apparatus. parallel with the circuit of the recorder. The break in the circuit which releases the magnet of the exposure apparatus also moves the signal. The latency of the exposure apparatus from the moment when the current is broken to the moment of exposure is seen to be shghtly over 0.035 second. A series of 11 records gave an average instrumental latency of 0.0362 second; mean variation 0.0006 second. It may be objected that an instrumental latency of 36 o- is a grave technical defect in reaction experiments. Against such an objection we must urge: (1) that an instrumental latency which is known, and known to be constant within the limits of accuracy that are prescribed by the experimental requirements, can not affect the value of any measurement, since it may be simply subducted from the results, leaving the measure- ments free from instrumental factors; (2) particularly in comparative records, an instrumental constant can not hide or distort the experi- mental tendency. Inspection of the shadow record (Hne A, fig. 15), which is produced by the movement of the arm, shows that there is a very short period of positive acceleration, succeeded by a rapid move- ment at practically uniform speed for the greater part of the angle of COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS. 97 displacement. The movement terminates abruptly, absolutely with- out rebound or secondary vibration. Inspection of the curve at the moment of stopping shows that the transition from the most rapid movement to complete rest occurs in about 0.002". The exposure is not absolutely noiseless. It seems to begin with a light swish and ends with a light thud. Neither noise bears any resemblance to the usual noisy stop of the spring or the gravity tachistoscope. Granting its reasonable fulfillment of the main criteria of a satisfactory exposure appa- ratus, the chief advantage of this form over the camera tachistoscope of Erdmann-Dodge,^ the transparent-mirror tachistoscope of Dodge,^ and other satisfactory instruments, is its simplicity and compactness. None of these forms could have been used in our complex of instruments with- out serious inconvenience to the operator or subject or both. All of them are relatively bulky, and in our experimental arrangements space was a valuable asset. VOICE-REACTION KEY. Considerably more difficult of construction than an adequate ex- posure apparatus is an adequate reaction key for vocalization. We know of no even relatively good reaction key for recording the move- ments of the vocal organs. Movements of the chin, lips, tongue, and larynx may each be recorded separately, as is commonly done in experimental phonetics. But there is no one key for them all. The famihar voice keys of Kraepelin,^ Cattell,* Erdmann-Dodge,^ Romer,^ and others frankly surrender the effort to register the muscle-action of articulate speech in favor of the consequent air-movements. But this is a questionable expedient, unless due precautions are taken to render it innocuous. Voice keys depend on the expiration of air involved in utterance, to break an electric contact. Unfortunately, the chrono- logical place of the expiration of air in the total physiological process of utterance is very different for different words. Consequently, no air- current key can ever register in any reliable way the real beginning of the vocahzation reaction. In most experimental investigations, how- ever, this is not a material source of error. If one seeks the relative efficiency of the vocahzation process under varying conditions, and if one uses a definite, unchanging series of stimulus words, such as our group of words was, the precise beginning of muscular reaction is relatively unimportant. For studying the effect of a drug, any one of the systematically correlated movements of the reaction would be equally significant in comparing the normal with the drug-reaction periods. It is on these grounds and with the corresponding Umitations that air-movement keys are defensible in speech-reaction movements. As Wirth^ states in a discussion of this tj^pe of key, "They permit 'Erdmann and Dodge, Psychologische Untersuehuagen iiber das Lesen, Halle, 1898. "Dodge, Psychol. BuU., 1907, 4, p. 10. ^Kraepelin, Phil. Stud., 1883, 1, p. 417. 'Cattell, Phil. Stud., 1885, 3, p. 313. 'Romer, Kraepelin's Psychol. Arbeit., 1, p. 577. •Wirth, Psychophysik. Tigerstedt's Handbuch der physiologischen Methodik, 1912, 3, p. 490. 98 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. comparative records of the same sounds only." The admissibility of any particular type of such sound keys is first a matter of sensitivity and constancy, and secondly a matter of convenience. Sensitivity of the voice key affects reaction experiments chiefly through its relation to instrumental constancy. The use of extremely sensitive recording devices, like the phonoscope of Weiss, or the microphone, would be possible, but is probably inexpedient, since, in view of the fundamental defects of all records of speech-reactions by air-movement, an instru- ment of such sensitivity could only give the illusion of extreme accuracy in speech-reaction measurements. It would not obviate the main defects of the measurement. Simultaneous records of the throat- muscle movements and tested sound keys make it clear that the simi- larity of sequence of the physiological processes as close as 0.001" can not be reUed upon even for similar sounds. The demand for an ex- tremely sensitive instrument under such circumstances would be experi- mental pedantry. The voice key which was used in this experiment is one which was first described by Dodge.^ Like the Erdmann-Dodge key, it is a modification of the Kraepelin-Cattell sound key. The present form was evolved after a considerable number of changes, to make the instrument more compact, more manageable, and more regular in its action. One end of a short brass tube, 4 cm. in diameter, is fitted with a hard- rubber ring (shown removed from the brass tube in fig. 16). Across the ring a rubber membrane is stretched. This membrane presses a fight spring, with platinum tip, against an adjustable contact-point within the tube. "WTien the spring and membrane are in elastic equil- ibrium, the contact-point is adjusted by a micrometer-screw to make the fightest possible contact. The contact should be tested to break by a slight free-hand jerk of the key. It should break positively in movements of 2 cm. Under such circumstances a shght increase of air-pressure within the tube, such as is produced by speaking into its open end, distiu-bs the elastic equiUbrium of spring and membrane and breaks the electric circuit. The relative latency of this instrument has been tested in a number of ways. Records illustrating some of these tests are reproduced in figures 17 to 20. All these records are read from left to right. The vertical ordinates are 0.01" apart. The horizontal ordinates are approximately 1 mm. apart. These and similar records also give us definite controls of the total latency of our voice key in series with the Harvard marker, as actually used in these experiments, and also the relative latency of the Harvard signal as compared with the Depr^z signal. The total latency of our voice key and Harvard marker is not over 2a (0.002") for open tones. The latency of the Depr^z signal is not over 0.5 cr. Most available 'Dodge, An Experimental Study of Visual Fixation. Monograph Supp. of the Psychol. Review, No. 35, 1907. COMPLEX NEUEAL ARCS. 99 measurements make it smaller. When the spring and the current are carefully adjusted the latency of the break may be even less than 0.2 o-. The total latency of the Harvard signal without friction is not over 1.5(T. This seems to be constant within the errors of measurement for currents such as were used in our experiments. We were particularly gratified at this showing of the Harvard marker. We started to use it because of its availability. We continued to use it because of its excel- lence. From these various records of the latency of our apparatus, it appears that the actual latency of the word-reactions will really be about 37 0- less than the recorded value. This total error, however, will vary from word to word, but will be relatively constant for similar initial sounds. The instrumental variation is much smaller than the unit [ i i ii|ii i i ii iii| i i ii iiii i |ii i ii i iii| " ii |i"' |ii "l'"i | "" |i " i|iiii[i"i|ii'ipi|i"i|iiii|iiii| OI234-5678SI0 Fig. 16. — Voice-reaction key. of our measurements. In no event can it be understood as constituting a bias for or against alcohol days. We have entered into this careful analysis of the instrumental errors to guarantee as far as instrumental accuracy is concerned that the drug effect, though relatively small, indicates a real physiological difference occasioned by the administra- tion of alcohol. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. Position of the subject. — For the word-reactions the subject was seated at position I (fig. 1), as in the knee-jerk and memory experiments. The back of the seat was raised so that the subject sat upright with adequate support at his back. The leg was freed from the knee-jerk apparatus. The left hand held the voice-reaction key lightly but firmly against the upper lip, as per standard instructions. The left arm was supported either on the table or on a rest which was held in the subject's lap. Stimuli. — -A standard set of 24 words was used throughout the year. In every word-reaction experiment the entire set of 24 words was reacted to. Since the reaction time for reading varies directly with the length of the word, as shown by Cattell,^ and by Erdmann and Dodge,^ an arbitrary word-length of 4 letters was adopted. All the •CatteU, Phil. Stud., 1885, 3. p. 313. 'Erdmann and Dodge, Psychologische Untersuohungen ilber das Lesen, Halle, 1898. 100 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. subjects were shown each word separately before the first day's experi- ments. The psychopathic subjects were shown each word separately at the beginning of each day's experiments. Exposure. — The words were exposed by the exposure apparatus in chance order at intervals of 10 seconds. They were changed by the operator by hand. Operation. — With the subject in position, the time and reaction markers properly adjusted to the drum, and, the Blix-Sandstrom kymo- graph running at the rate of 100 mm. per second, one of the stimulus cards was selected at random and inserted by the operator in the exposure apparatus. From 2 to 2.5 seconds before the exposure the operator touched the kymograph lever to change the circular movement of the drum to a spiral, and withdrew his hand from the apparatus as a signal for attention. As the drum continued to revolve, an off- set on the kymograph shaft engaged a circuit breaker, with which the voice key, the electrical marker, and the electric magnets of the exposure apparatus were in series. The consequent movement of the marker indicates the beginning of the movement of the exposure appa- ratus which eventuates in the exposure of the word stimulus. As was previously explained, this movement of the marker is not coincident with the exposure ; the latter followed after 37 a. While this discrepancy between the registered and the actual beginning of exposure is theo- retically inexpedient, it can not affect comparative values as we have shown. Absolute values for the reaction time can be obtained by deducting the latencies of the exposure apparatus (37 c). The variation of this latency as is indicated above is considerably less than half the unit of measurement. As the drum moves on, the circuit- FiGS. 17 to 20. -Records of the latency of the voice key. Figure 17 is a record of the sound of "ah," recorded by three methods. Two records were produced respectively by a Harvard Apparatus Company marker and a Deprfez signal. Both were in series with each other and with the sound key. The middle record was made by a Cam- bridge string galvanometer (sensitivity, 3 cm. per 0.001 volt) in series with a telephone receiver which is pressed against the throat over the thjrroid cartilage by an elastic band. This record shows an exceedingly small difference between the various forms of recording devices. None of the records shows a relative delay of more than 0.002"- Of the three the string-galvanometer curve naturally shows the most details. Figure 18 is a record of the word "cake," recorded similarly as the above sound "ah." The various sounds of the word appear plainly in the record of the string galvanometer movement. The vowel is especially conspicuous. Almost identical time relations exist between the various lines in this record as in figure 17, i. e., the initial C is recorded by our voice key with as little error as the open vowels. Figure 19 is a similar record of the word "yolk." The character of the vowel is notably changed. The initial "y" and the final "k" are obvious in the galvanometer record. The relative latencies do not change. Another record of the word "cake," using the string galvanometer as before, is reproduced in figure 20. But instead of actuating the galvanometer from the throat, in this record the telephone receiver was placed at the side of our voice key. The latency appears not to be materially modi- fied by this process, i. e., the difference between the throat-movement and actual vocalization in the sound C is negligible, but the record contains some details which are not found in figure 18, namely, at the beginning of the record, the initial C of "cake" appears in the string galvanometer record of figure 20 as a high-pitched tone. This corresponds with the fact that the pitch of C is not determined at the vocal cords, but at the front of the mouth. iBBaSBI ISPSbSI ^«Sii^ ;& ta .C£ tA Ji ±ui_.i-.iK.iS>i-: iaaBa'B£5S»"SiB'iB!«SB^iS.. S wm^mSSSmm^mSiSR ■^5^5^gS^SS§— ^B3^FS^B^5^Bi5B^BS^B^5^S^1^5^B'"*^ ^T^5 ^^SBS ._£. .Sbm,S^ as ■"■" —t— !-■--.-■ — — ■_- ^s ^s SB ^B ^s ^B S9 ^9 ^S ^w ^9 ^B SB ^S SB ^S 5S BS ^Hi ■■■ MB ■■■ i^BH ^S ^S BS ^B ^S SS ^S ^S IS ^B ^S SS ^B &9 ^B ^S ^B B *^™g^"rBrF???f?P?MBPBT1jiMBBBBBB^^^^^^^n'^™^S^S MMaBB5w^ ^M^S^B^BBB^B^3B Figs. 17 to 20. Fig. 21. — Photosraph of a subject in position for the association experiments. The arrangement of the ^phj-gnionraph and the p.'ij cho-salvanic electrode-; can be seen in the photograph, a^ well a.s the operator'.-, table with it^ switche,-. (Sec p. 109.) -V/:''|"'>'/»V'>--'i',''";'f>- -*'t'i''Y^ ■ii'ji'fi'i,w^fi-X'''r' -.«;'-'»c/i-/V-i'.s'i'^ .■ir:i^JM,jjifr- -^'rf»','A_ ;/fi-;->',>/)'.>..-,V^>- -I 17 J*- ■«2j))l>Vu-- =^M!)^ -Mt- .i.'/'jy)i;yy,t;,,.;i,i„y,^;»,^lv- FiG. 22. — Typical lenird of a word-react ion experiment. -^^ COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS. 101 breaker closes again, and the marker returns to its normal position. The armature of the exposure apparatus, however, is so far from its magnet that it remains unaffected by the closure of the circuit and the exposure is continuous. When the subject reacts by speaking the word, the circuit of the electric marker is broken a second time by the voice key. This second movement of the marker indicates the moment of reaction. Since both the exposure and the reaction are recorded by breaking the same electric circuit, and since both events are recorded by movements of the same writing-point, the alignment of the marker and its latency do not affect the records. Standard instructions to the subject. — (1) Hold the voice key to the mouth, pressing it firmly against the upper lip ; (2) speak the words as soon as possible after you see them; (3) if you misread or mispronounce a word, speak it correctly as soon as possible. RECORDS. A typical word-reaction record is reproduced in figure 22. The record reads from right to left . The extreme right-hand breaks in the horizontal Unes indicate the moment of contact between the offset of the kymo- graph shaft and the circuit-breaker which was in series with the marker and the exposure apparatus. These breaks are in approximate vertical alignment. Since the kymograph drum revolves completely in 5", and the stimulus follows at intervals of 10", each alternate break is insig- nificant and is not followed by a reaction, because the exposure appa- ratus was arbitrarily prevented from falling by the operator. The second elevation in the horizontal lines of the significant records is the reaction break. The character of the reaction record varies with the word. The continuous record furnishes its own distribution curve. Measuring the distance between the stimulus and the reaction breaks gives the reaction-time. One millimeter along the base-line equals 1033 '351 -25 - 8 « - 2 +10 -18 -23 -11 -17 -14 -15 -16 +37 +25 +15 + 5 « -10 + 1 - 5 - 4 - 2 - 4 - 6 +28 -20 - 4 + 1 511 36 411 27 473 35 542 62 461 41 524 50 - 1 - 6 - 9 -70 -11 - 6 - 6 -19 -17 -24 487 42 -38 -14 'Dose C (12 c.c.) was used in the 12-hour experiments. ^Differences equal period 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. 'Experiment with dose A was accidentally omitted from this series. As appears from table 11, the average recorded normal latency of the word-reaction for the normal group, is 455 c. It is notably higher, viz, 590 (T, for the psychopathic group. Subject XI was especially handi- capped by a sUght impediment in his speech. His latency is conse- quently conspicuously long. The range of normal averages for the main group is from 402 =s, / \ / V \ ^ — = — __^ ^ / / s y^ ~ ' — . \ / \ / ^ ^ ^ j / -^ 1 v^ 1 / \ ' -4 -^ /_ ^ 1 ■•^ / 1 V — ■ - J s 1 s y \ j 1 _ L^ L_ Fio. 23. — Curves of the asBOciation-reaotion time. 116 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. As we already know, there is considerable practice effect in associ- ation-reaction time, and the influence of alcohol might be obscured by- it. The most we can do is to observe the relation of the first and fourth normal days to the days on which alcohol was given. The accom- panying curves (fig. 23) show this graphically for the different subjects. In figure 23, the average reaction times for the normal days are con- nected, also those for the alcohol days. If the alcohol produces no effect, the Une connecting the experiments should approximately coin- cide with that of the non-alcohol days. It very nearly does so in the case of Subject IX, though in the third experiment it is a little higher. Subject VI is slower with the smaller dose and nearly equal to normal with the larger one. Subject III is perhaps a Uttle faster with alcohol; Subject II somewhat slower; and Subject IV distinctly so. In con- templating the size of the variations in the individual series, it is plain that these differences are not too large to be due to chance, neither are they systematically distributed. Table 14. — Average differences in measurements of word-reaction time.^ [Values given in hundredths of a second.] Subject. Normal. Alcohol. I II Average. Dose A. Dose B. Average. II + 4 + 5 + 14 +27 +16 +38 - 8 - 9 + 2 -18 + 1 -14 + 12 - 2 + 3 2 + 14 + 1 +25 (- 8) -30 +20 + 2 + 6 -22 - 5 + 8 +44 + 1 - 9 + 6 + 1 -2S + 7 +10 - 3 + 6 -10 -16 (+ 8) Ill IV VI VII IX X + 5 + 0.3 1.6 Percentage effect of alcohol 'Differences obtained by subtracting the values for each of the series B to F from the values for the series A. (See table 13.) Each experiment consists of 6 series of 50 associations. We may compare the differences between the normal of the day and subsequent series in the rate of reaction shown on the alcohol and normal days. On the normal days Subjects II, IV, and X average an increase in the reaction-time, as is shown in table 13. On the alcohol days marked progressive increases are shown in the averages of Subjects VII and IX; the progressive decrease is less in Subject VI. Subject IV shows no significant change. Subjects II and III show a greater lengthening of reaction-time in the alcohol series. Subject X changes from a pro- gressive increase in rate without alcohol to a progressive decrease with it. Not only is this quite irregular, but the alcohol and non-alcohol FREE ASSOCIATION. 117 days do not agree among themselves; thus Subject II increases his rate an average of 0.30" in the second experiment and decreases it an average of 0.44" in the third experiment, both alcohol days. The experiments do not justify attributiag to alcohol such widely varying changes as the above, which are shown in full by table 14. The association time is not a simple process, and its results might conceivably be produced by consistent, though opposite effects upon its components — a facilitation of the motor and retardation of the psychic elements, for example. If this were the case, variations could still be expected in the form and content of the responses. ASSOCIATIVE CATEGORIES. In 1911 Wells^ formulated a system of quasilogical classification of associations, which aimed to preserve the valuable distinctions of such categories in their simplest possible form. It was derived most imme- diately from the system of Jung and Rikhn.^ The categories were reduced to 5 in number, the egocentric, the supraordinate, the contrast, the miscellaneous, and the speech-habit. A brief definition and illus- tration of them is as follows :' (1) The egocentric reactions may be typified by — (a) Predicate reactions : cloud-ominous, flower-pretty, crooked- line, red-rose, scratch-cat, lion-roar, money-wish, invent- machine, weasel-stealth, beauty-rose, safe-quite, almost- grown, sing-well, never-decide, nicely-very (including the responses yes and no). (6) Responses in the form of proper names: citizen-New York, boy-Johnny, mountain-Kearsarge. (c) Reactions interpreting the stimulus word as a proper name: eagle-newspaper, park-square. (d) Reaction involving the response of a pronoun: hand-you, health-me. (e) Interjections, failures of response, or repetitions of the stimulus word. (2) The supraordinate category is confined strictly to the individual genus order, defined in such examples as: priest-man, potato- vegetable, lily-flower, cow-animal. (3) The contrast group is composed, of course, of reactions in which the response meets the opposite of the stimulus and is made up of such associations as: good-bad, trouble-pleasure, scatter- gather, fertile-sterile, and the like. (4) The miscellaneous category is composed essentially of the remain- ing reactions of the "inner" type. It includes about 45 per cent of all associations. (5) The speech-habit group is composed of associations by familiar phrase (stand-pat), word compounding (play-groimd), simple sound associations (tease-sneeze), and ssnitactic changes (high- height). iWella, Psychol. Review, 1911, 18, p. 239. 'Jung and Biklin, Journ. f. Psychol, u. Neurol., 1904, 3, p. 55, and 1904-05, 4, p. 24; Jung, Joum. f. Psychol, u. Neurol., 1905-06, 6, p. 1. 'WeUs, Psychol. Review, 1911, 18, pp. 229-288. 118 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Individual differences are shown in the amount of incidence of these categories of associations, especially in the number of egocentric reac- tions. In respect to their types of association some people show practice effects and others do not; they are, in general, less marked than those of the association-reaction time. Such practice effects as do appear lie rather in the direction of greater egocentricity of response. kD inou^oiooiooinooio (*i fo rj CO — — ^ ^ — ooinoinoinou) , ,^ <^ fo ry ty CO UJ 10 o o 10 o in o r IS ID t o a FREE ASSOCIATION. 119 The present subjects show more egocentric reactions than others in Wells's experience, which probably, like their longer reaction-times, is a function of their greater education. There are no extremes save in the case of Subject IX, who is not strictly comparable, but the average is higher. A conspicuous way in which these results differ from any other that Wells has studied is in respect to the supraordinate and contrast reactions. There has been elsewhere a strong negative corre- lation between these, but here they are both practically absent. The results were examined to see if the normal performance was in any way affected by alcohol. The main situation is depicted in the curves of figure 24, in which the supraordinate and contrast associa- tions are obviously too few for significant comparison between normal and alcohol days. The letters on the left of the figure represent the various association categories as explained above; Eg. means egocen- tric; >Sw., supraordinate; Co., contrast; iW., miscellaneous; a,ndS.H., speech-habit. The plotted lines indicate the number of associations under each category that occurred in each of the six experimental periods (A-F) of each experimental day for the subjects II, III, IV, VI, VII, IX. The first and last normal days are represented by the solid line and the line of dashes, respectively. The day on which dose A was given is shown by a dotted line ; dose B by the line of dots and dashes. Table 15. — Effect oj alcohol on the miscellaneous and speech-habit associations. Normal. Alcohol. Average number of miscellaneous associations Average number of speecb-habit associations 22.5 5.7 21.2 7.1 1.32 1.32 6.5 23.0 Per cent of miscellaneous decrease Per cent of speecb-habit excess Do the curves for the alcohol days differ in any characteristic way from those for the non-alcohol days? Subject IX shows a fairly con- sistent increase in the number of reactions classified under the category of speech-habit. Riidin,^ working with much larger doses and with the "continuous" form of the association experiment, reports an increase in the " outer" associations, but his conception of this category is much broader than what is here formulated as speech-habit. He quotes observations to the same effect by Fiirer,^ who employed the discrete association method as here. It is the general result one would expect on the supposition, frequently stated, that alcohol makes easier 'Rudin, Kraepelin's Psychol. Arbeit., 1904, 4, p. 1. ''Filrer, Bericht fiber den V. Internationallen Congress zur Bekampfung geistigen Getranke, 1896, p. 367. des Missbrauchs 120 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. the lower level, motor reactions. However, Subject IX is the only one who shows it in the ciirves. The speech-habit category does not appear to be consistently affected by alcohol in any other subject. But the average of the alcohol days shows for all subjects some increase in the speech-habit category; the noisceUaneous category decreases in 5 cases out of 6, the total change being the same, as shown in table 15. The effects reported by Rtidin and Fiirer seem estabUshed, but require much heavier doses than are here given to produce them. The present effects, though small, are in the same direction. As regards the egocentric category, ordinarily the one of the greatest psychological meaning, Subjects II and III show the nearest approach to a consistent tendency in the direction of an increase of egocentric responses under alcohol. Nothing can possibly be read into the figm-es for the remaining categories as an alcohol effect. There is no doubt that, as Partridge^ remarks, sufficient alcohol wiU produce great changes in the character of associative responses; but beyond the results of such experiments as those of Riidin and Fiirer, or the unanalyzed data of Partridge, we are unable to say in what direction they are, or whether they would be in a uniform direction for different subjects. "FREQUENCY" OF THE RESPONSE WORDS. The Kent-Rosanoff Frequency Tables^ make possible this sort of measurement. For comparing the usualness of response on alcohol and normal days, it was thought necessary to divide the Kent-Rosanoff series of 100 into 2 series of 50 words each, so that comparison should not be had with material that had been used before. The two series should, of course, be so selected as to show in central tendency the same frequency of response in each. It did not seem that this should be left to chance, for a series of words like dark, mutton, or short, would be much more likely to have "usual" or "frequent" responses than one composed of words Uke anger, religion, or memory. Various sys- tematic means of selecting two equal series were tried, that finally employed being as follows: So far as was known, the normal median frequency value of the Kent- Rosanoff series of associations is represented by the figures 9.0. It was then determined for each stimulus word how many subjects out of a thousand had given a reaction word which was less frequent than this. Thus, in the case of table, 733 persons did so, in the case of dark, 352 persons, etc. All the words were arranged in the order of the 'Partridge, Studies in the Psychology of Intemperance, New York, 1912. ''These frequency tables were prepared on the following basis: "From the records obtained from these subjects, including in all 100,000 reactions, we have compiled a series of tables, one for each stimulus word, showing all the different reactions given by 1,000 subjects in response to that stimulus word, and the frequency with which each reaction has occurred." (Kent and Rosanoff, Am. Journ. Insanity, 1910, 67, pp. 37 and 317.) FREE ASSOCIATION. 121 number of persons who had given responses to them of less than the above standard of 9.0. These words were then paired, and one of each pair assigned to either series, which are called series D and D' respec- tively. The order of the words was kept the same as in the original Kent-Rosanoff series, so the two lists were finally constituted as follows : Kent-Rosanoff Words, Sekies D. Table. Spider. Head. Dark. Red. Blue. Sickness. Carpet. Religion. Music. Sleep. Stove. Man. Working. Bitter. Soft. Anger. Long. Deep. Sour. Hammer. Eating. Girl. Whisky. Black. Trouble. Thirsty. Mountain. High. Child. Mutton. Soldier. Square. House. Earth. City. Hand. Hard. Loud. Comfort. Cabbage. Butter. Smooth. Stem. Thief. Short. Eagle. Doctor. Chair. Dream. Bed. Fruit. Stomach. Lion. Sweet. Yellow. Heavy. Butterfly. Lamp. Joy. Whistle. Bread. Baby. Common. Boy. Tobacco Cold. Justice. Scissors. Woman. Health. Moon. Slow. Light. Quiet. Wish. Bible. Green. River. Memory. Street. Beautiful. Sheep. Salt. White. Hungry. King. Window. Bath. Cheese. Citizen. Priest. Blossom. Rough. Cottage. Afraid. Foot. Ocean. Needle. Swift. Kent-Rosanoff Wohds, Series D'. One or the other of these constituted the fourth series of each experi- mental day. The figures given in table 16, as c, represent the median of the different figures for the usualness of each response, as calculated from the Kent-Rosanoff tables. The higher this figure, the more usual are the subject's responses. The results of these calculations for the 4 days are shown in table 16. Table 16. — Index of community ''c" of 50 Kent-Rosanoff words normaUy and under alcohol. Kind of experiment. Subject II. Subject III. Subject IV. Subject VI. Subject VII. Subject IX. Aver- age. Normal I, List D 13.0 5.7 5.0 2.0 9.7 3.5 2.5 2.3 6.8 2.7 13.0 7.0 11.0 5.9 6.0 2.0 1.0 0.7 1.2 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.9 0.8 7.1 3.2 4.8 2.4 Alcohol (dose A) D' . . Alcohol (dose B) D Normal II, List D' Other experiments had made it apparent that practice increases the individuality of the response, and it is borne out in these figures. It seems certain, also, that the object of sphtting the series, namely, to get two series of equal tendency in respect to the frequency of response, was not achieved, at least for this group of subjects. There is an obvious tendency for Series D' to show more unusual responses than Series D that is beyond any reasonable expectation from practice. In further experiments it would be advisable to repeat the whole Kent- Rosanoff series. This unfortunate difference in the series materially interferes with interpreting the results in reference to alcohol. Marked alcohol effects are clearly not present. The figures for the alcohol days are generally between or on either side of those for the normal days. Diagrammatically the relationship is shown in figure 25, the general 122 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OP ALCOHOL. 2. (Dose A) ' 3. -tree window-pane rough— sea eagle— eye FREE ASSOCIATION. 123 CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE VARIOUS MEASUREMENTS. Owing to the exceptional opportunity, certain measurements of correlation were made, though they do not bear directly on the alcohol question. First, with reference to whether those who have more usual responses also have shorter or longer reaction times. This was the only definite relationship observed, the Pearson r's^ being in the four experiments respectively -0.75, -0.50, -0.53, and -0.33. That is, the person who gives usual responses seems also likely to have shorter reaction-times, as is not difficult to understand. It does not follow so pronouncedly that the usual reactions of a certain individual are quicker than his unusual ones, though there is a tendency in this direction. There appeared no significant correlation between frequency and pulse-change, or between pulse-change and reaction-time. Even when extreme cases only are considered, there was no special tendency for the longer reaction-times to be accompanied by larger pulse-changes, as table 18 shows. In table 18 we attempt to indicate the correlation of the pulse-change and reaction-times, by comparing the average latency of the 5 reactions that had the largest pulse-change with the average latency of the 5 reactions that had the least pulse-change. These values, together with their mean variations, are entered under the appropriate legend for each subject. A comparison of the average reactions is entered for each subject in the extreme right-hand column as the average excess of reaction-times with high pulse-change over those with low pulse-change. The extreme irregularity of these results shows an absence of correlation between pulse-change and reaction-time. This is interesting, in view of the fact that both increased pulse-rate and longtime-reactions have been suggested as indicators of the same thing, i. e., an emotional complex. (Coriat.^) No correlation between the pulse-change and the galvano- meter readings taken in connection with the so-caUed psycho-galvanic reflex was observed. Table 19 gives the relationships that were calculated between the reaction-time and the frequency of response, between pulse-changes and frequency, and between reaction-time and pulse-changes, series D'. 'Pearson's coeflScient of correlation, /, was computed according to the familiar formula: r = — in which the x's are the series of deviations from the median in the first group of data n o 'C ■? o-C ■p O'E •? O'C V ^S ^" ^S S ^ S A ^g tA xn Normal sub- Normal sub- jects: jects — Con. II.... 1 1,091 8 ^1,087 13 1,362 IX..., 1 890 7 HfiOO 14 1,290 2 945 9 929 14 1,130 2 1,120 8 535 15 659 3 859 10 850 15 801 3 1,020 9 877 16 812 4 510 11 517 16 1,042 4 820 10 1,004 17 787 5 590 12 1,155 17 991 5 930 11 925 Av. 887 Av. 799 7 Av. 1,243 939 Av. 1,065 Av. 956 Av. 1 835 '862 VI.... 1 841 7 O 13 1,045 2 385 2 655 8 295 14 773 3 1,183 3 610 9 829 15 775 4 832 4 460 10 915 16 765 Av. 800 5 600 11 1,033 Av. 839 6 936 12 1,272 13 H,105 Av. 684 Av. 1 2 3 4 869 904 1,045 692 14 15 16 17 Av. 1,295 955 914 865 1,007 5 730 X.... 7 990 13 }l,595 Av. 843 8 855, 14 1,431 13 'i,250 9 1,150 15 816 14 1,145 10 932 16 885 15 871 11 1,015 17 1,154 16 550 12 938 Av.' 1,071 Av. 855 Psychopathic Av. 980 VII ... . 1 1,074 7 '1,740 13 1,779 subjects: 2 1,880 8 1,910 14 1,612 XI.... 8 285 13 '67^ 17 619 3 1,460 9 690 15 223 9 698 14 284 18 472 4 1,800 10 1,040 Av. 1,205 10 528 15 756 Av. 545 5 1,580 11 850 Av. 504 16 510 Av. 1,559 12 Av. 1,060 1,110 Av. 517 7 H,SOO 1,417 1,119 1,268 XII ... . 7 781 13 '1,S71 4 587 g 8 1,017 14 869 5 594 9 9 958 15 1,065 6 520 Av 10 694 16 777 Av. 567 Av. 862 17 711 VIII.... 1 2 3 4 Av. 940 990 1,050 1,040 1,005 7 8 9 10 11 12 Av. ^583 821 1,371 1,046 1,095 536 974 Av. 855 'Values for first periods were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. 'Disturbed. 132 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. The subject sat before a horizontally placed Blix-Sandstrom kymo- graph, in line with its axis of rotation in position I (fig. 1) ; through a slit 14 mm. wide in the cylindrical screen, which was concentric with the kymograph drum, a series of 4-letter words was exposed backwards, i. e., in such a way that the last letter of each word appeared in the slit of the screen first and the first letter appeared last. A series consisted of 12 words. Each series was repeated 3 times. During the first reading of the series each word must have been completely exposed before the first letter was known and before the word was spoken. In the two succeeding readings, residua of the first series effected a certain saving in reaction-time. The word might then be spoken while one or Table 21. — Effect of alcohol on memory. [Average values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject. Average saving. Effect of alcohol' (alcohol — normal) . Percentile effect.2 Normal. Alcohol. Normal subjects: II 932 761 1,382 1,005 921 980 939 856 1,189 974 881 1,071 tT + 7 + 95 -193 - 31 - 40 + 91 - 12 - 7 + 141 + 67 p. ct. + 0.6 + 8.7 -13.1 - 4.1 - 3.9 + 7.0 - 0.8 - 1.3 +16.0 + 7.3 VI VII VIII IX X Average Psychopathic subjects: XI 524 714 517 855 XII 'Effect on the average saving equals alcohol average minus normal average. ^Percentile effect equals the effect of alcohol on the average saving divided by the average saving of the corresponding normals of the day. more of the letters were still hidden. In a perfect score each word was spoken before any letter appeared on the second or third exposure. Perfect scores often occurred for the first word of a series. Only one subject regularly achieved perfect scores for practically all the series in three exposures. The saving in reaction-time between the first and the two succeeding exposures is regarded as a measure of the advance- ment of the memorizing process. With the drum revolving at the rate of 10 mm. per second and the words 4 cm. apart, the time-interval from the beginning of one word to the beginning of the next was 4". The duration of the whole series was 48" for the words, plus 2" for the spare space at the end of the series. The whole memory experiment of three repetitions thus lasted about 3 minutes. The relative shortness of the experiment is of double advantage; it not only consei'ves time during the experimental period, THE PROCESS OF MEMORIZING. 133 but it saves the subject from the tedium and ennui of the classical methods. Relatively slight disturbances of attention during the series show immediately and directly in the record by a lengthening of the corre- sponding reaction-time beyond that of the previous exposure. Such disturbances are universal after a false reaction has been made. They are difficult to score simply, but should doubtless be considered in some way in the results. False reactions must be marked on the record by the experimenter. Their time was excluded in computing the total saving, but a record of them was kept for comparison with future experiments. SUMMARY OF THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON MEMORY. The results of our experiments on the effect of alcohol on memory are summarized in table 20. While different subjects vary widely in the effect of alcohol on the memory process as measured by our technique, the total results show no predominant tendency of alcohol on the main group of subjects. As far as our measurements go, rote memory (pri- mary retention) is neither better nor worse after small doses of alcohol. It is interesting to note that the most pronounced improvement of memory after alcohol was found with Subject VI, who frequently dif- fered notably from the group in other experiments. Under ordinary circumstances, he was the most easily confused of the group. He was particularly hable to become disturbed and to get "rattled," as he put it. The most pronounced decrease of capacity after alcohol was shown by Subject VII, who depended least on simple perseveration and most on quickness in forming artificial associations to memorize the series. It is not impossible that the same depression of the capacity for making new associations that decreased the effectiveness of Subject VII may have relieved Subject VI from intercurrent mental disturbances. CHAPTER VI. EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE SENSORY THRESHOLD FOR FARADIC STIMULATION (MARTIN MEASUREMENTS). In a series of papers published in the American Journal of Physiology between the years 1908 and 1911, Professor E. G. Martin/ of the Harvard Medical School, developed a method for measuring induction shocks. Starting vsdth a properly caUbrated inductorium of standard construction, it is now possible to include in a single equation all the various physical factors which are involved in the production of an induction shock of threshold intensity. The absolute threshold of a tissue may be expressed in units which are directly comparable wherever properly calibrated instruments are used. To these units Professor Martin has given the name /3 units. Their use involves more experi- mental data and considerably more mathematical elaboration of the data than has previously been customary in measurements of threshold for Faradic stimulation. The experimental procedure, however, is simple and the mathematical work with Wilbur's^ simplification of the Martin equation is now neither difficult nor extravagantly time-con- suming. For the theoretical derivation of the various formulae, we must refer to Professor Martin's papers, especially to his book, "The Measurement of Induction Shocks." We can scarcely overestimate the advantages to experimental psy- chology of a sensory threshold technique in which the stimuh can be expressed in absolute units of electrical energy. The high standards of instrumental accuracy, the ease of manipulation, and general avail- ability of electrical stimuli, the simplicity of the skin receptors, and their freedom from comphcated adjustments seem to make the thresh- old for Faradic stimulation the simplest and most satisfactory sensory- threshold measurements at our disposal. The recent criticisms of inductorium calibration by Erlanger and Garrey^ do not affect the fundamental value of the method (Martin*). Like aU threshold meas- urements, however, in which one must depend on the verbal reports of the subject, the Martin threshold probably depends for highest accu- racy on the subject's training in observation. There is at present no means for analyzing the sensory process, to determine in how far apparent variations in the threshold of any particular subject depend on changes in central conditions of perception, on interest, attention, alertness, etc. Our experience suggests that some indicator for the 'Martin, a. Am. Journ. Phyeiol., 1908, 22, p. 116. 6. Am. Journ. Physiol., 1909, 24, p. 269. e. The Measurement of Induction Shocks, New York, N. Y., 1912. ^Martin, Bigelow, and Wilbur, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1914, 33, p. 415. 'Erlanger and Garrey, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1914, 35, p. 377. 'Martin, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1914-15, 3G, p. 223. 134 SENSORY FARADIC THRESHOLD. 135 grade of attention is of vital importance to satisfactory measurements of the human threshold by the Martin method in untrained subjects. Of scarcely secondary importance seems to be the precise technique by which the operator satisfies his scientific conscience that any given position of the secondary coil of the inductorium corresponds to the probable true threshold of the subject. As Grabfield and Martin^ state, "The threshold position found by moving the coil in, is often several milUmeters away from the threshold position moving it out." To make their experimental conditions uniform, Grabfield and Martin dis- carded the threshold readings which were found when the coil was moving out^ (p. 304). It is not impossible, however, that this very discrepancy may serve as an indicator of the grade of attention, since variations of attention seem to produce it, and there seems to be no other ground for its existence. In our experience we have always found successive threshold positions, even in the same direction, to vary more or less. Our earliest measurements were based on the standard psycho- physical method of averaging the threshold values found by increasing and decreasing the stimulus respectively. It is commonly assumed in psycho-physics that the true threshold lies between the apparent thresh- old, which is found when a subthreshold stimulus is increased, and that found by decreasing a suprathreshold stimulus. The difficulty with this procedure in the present instance is probably due to a fatigue of attention. A somewhat later procedure was to take the highest value that was found three times out of five. This obviously produced fatigue effects, since the first values were regularly higher than the later ones. All values reported in this paper under dates subsequent to January 1, 1914, were found by averaging the first three ingoing threshold positions of the coil. Professor Martin kindly informed us that his present procedure is to repeat the ingoing movements of the coil until two thresholds agree. While this seems statistically somewhat arbitrary, his results are much more regular than ours. Our variation of procedure should affect materially only the level of measurements on different days. Differences between the successive series on one day should still be comparable with the differences between successive series on another day, even though the actual values are somewhat higher or lower on the different days. Since our whole statistical treatment is based on these serial differences rather than on average levels, our variations in procedure, as regrettable as it was un- avoidable in the present stage of experience with the Martin threshold, are not vital to our main problem. A further difficulty connected with the use of the sensory threshold for electrical stimulation is the nature of the sensation whose threshold is measured. Probably it may safely be said that threshold induction shocks are never felt as simple touch or pressure sensations. Martin, Porter, and Nice^ report an apparent difference in the sensations, and ^Grabfield and Martin, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1912-13, 31, p. 300. ''Martin, Porter and Nice, Psychol. Review, 1913, 20, p. 194. 136 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OP ALCOHOL. a probable difference in the receptors, when wire or needle electrodes are used instead of fluid electrodes. In the former case, the sensory effect was sharply localized and the receptors were probably superficial. In the latter case the effect was more diffuse and the receptors were probably those for deep sensibihty. For one of their subjects, who had a slight abrasion of one finger, each shock produced a distinct throb of pain when that finger was used. Our own experience corresponds with this report. A cut or scratch always occasioned a sharply locaUzed, superficial pricking sensation. The ordinary deep sensibihty quahty seemed to resemble that of a sUght, involuntary muscle-twitch. The apparent location of this sen- sation, as reported by our subjects, was not necessarily at the point of apphcation of the electrodes, but usually at some more or less remote point, often just above or between the fingers. Changes in the apparent position of the sensation occasioned some disturbance. It seems clear that the sensation quality of threshold electrical stimulation differs from that of more intense electrical stimulation. It was noticed that even threshold stimulation seemed to produce a different sense quahty at different times. It seemed sharper and quicker at some times, duller and slower at others. A further difficulty that we encountered is the variabihty in the degree of assurance that the sensation is present, which was demanded by different subjects, and by the same subjects at different times. It was not infrequent for a subject to say, " I really felt it before I pressed the signal key, but I was not sure." There are objective evidences of this difference. Dr. Wells kindly served as subject for two days' Martin-threshold experiments, one with alcohol and one without. His introspective notes show that he was aware of his being more easily satis- fied of the presence of the sensations on the alcohol day. This is proved to be correct by his records. They show that whereas without alcohol, that is, on the normal day, he never once reported a sensation when there was no stimulus; on the alcohol days such errors were very numerous. Especially in experiments on the effect of drugs, we beheve that such differences of critical reliabihty should be taken into account. They may be really more important for an understanding of the drug action than the apparent changes in the threshold level. Unfortu- nately, our realization of the possible importance of this secondary phenomenon came too late to enable us to collect systematic data. We have occasional notes, however, to indicate that other subjects showed a similar tendency, especially under the influence of the larger dose of alcohol. This experience leads us to a good working hypothesis as to the probable nature of the new factor that the results indicate must have influenced the threshold under the larger dose of alcohol. It must be remembered that the receptors of a finger immersed in a liquid are never entirely unexcited. Temperature and pressure sensations are present at first. Even after adaptation or fatigue makes them indis- SENSORY FARADIC THRESHOLD. 137 tinct, they may on occasion flash out intermittently. Furthermore, the throb of the pulse and shght muscle-twitches often appear to concen- trated attention. Geissler^ found pulse sensations to interfere with minimal-weight sensations. There may thus be some purely physio- logical grounds for the errors which occur under higher doses of alcohol, especially when, as our observations in Chapter VIII show, this is accompanied by an accelerated pulse. In general, we may say that a thoroughgoing psychological exploita- tion of the Martin-threshold measurements will probably take into account fatigability, differences between the threshold to increasing stimuli and the threshold to decreasing stimuli, the number and dis- tribution of errors, as well as actual changes in the apparent threshold level. Unless changes in the skin-resistance are considerable, we believe it will be more profitable psychologically to neglect the absolute ^ value, after it is once determined for a given subject and day, and to concentrate attention on a statistical treatment of the simplest thresh- old measurements at skin resistance (Martin Z units) . /3 values and Z values are commonly parallel in any event. Concentration on Z meas- urements will consequently not impair the relative significance of the results, while it may give important indications of varying subjective conditions. APPARATUS AND TECHNIQUE. The general arrangement of apparatus for the sensory threshold to Faradic stimulation (Martin measurements) is seen in figure 14, page 95. Inductorium, mil-ammeter, and resistance boxes are seen to occupy the lower right-hand corner of the main apparatus table. KI indicates the Kronecker inductorium, which was cahbrated for the Nutrition Laboratory by Professor Martin. The Martin key for breaking the primary circuit under a column of mercury is not shown in the diagram. In our early experiments, it was operated by an assistant in an adjoining room. In all the data which are reported in this paper subsequent to February 1, an electrically operated key of similar construction was used. A simple contact device held in the operator's hand caused the key to make and break the primary circuit of the coU. A indicates the mil-ammeter. It was continuously in the primary circuit, and served to indicate not only any accidental change in the amount of primary current, but also the exact moment of each stimulation. R^ is a non-inductively wound resistance-box, ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 ohms resistance. This resistance served to introduce a known resistance of 20,000, 30,000, and 40,000 ohms respectively into the secondary circuit. By use of the double switch at the left, this same box also served as a standard resistance for meas- uring the skin-resistance by the Kohlrausch method. The alternating current for measuring the skin-resistance was furnished by a Porter inductorium which is not shown in the diagram. Connections for iGeiasler, Am. Journ. Psychol., 1907, 18, p. 309. 138 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. measuring the skin-resistance were carried to the galvanometer table, whence they might be switched to the string galvanometer for optical measurements, or to a suitable high-resistance watch-case telephone receiver for the acoustic method. The electrical connections for the system are diagrammatically represented by the fine lines with appro- priate legends. Position of the subject. — Two positions were occupied by the subject for sensory-threshold measurements by the Martin method. In the earlier measurements and in the 12-hour experiments, the subject reclined in a comfortable chair in position I, figure 1. In the measure- ments which form the bulk of the experiments here reported, that is, in all measurements which were made on Subjects II to X subsequent to January 3, 1914, the subject reclined in a steamer-chair on the balcony of the laboratory. In the former case, threshold measure- ments were a part of Group I of the experimental series. In the latter case, threshold measurements alternated with association experiments. In every respect the balcony position corresponded more closely with the conditions that are recommended by Martin. In this position the subject faced a blank wall and responded to the stimulation by signaling with a telegraph key. When position I was used and the subject sat in the same room with the apparatus, the inductorivim and its connec- tions were hidden from view by other apparatus. In this case the subject indicated a perceptible stimulation by saying "now" or "yes." It is doubtless always more or less unsatisfactory to have the subject in the same room with the apparatus, even when the utmost precau- tions are taken to prevent his hearing the key or seeing the movements of the secondary coil. If the threshold work alone was under consid- eration the ideal condition of isolating the subject could be rigidly enforced. When a series of measm-ements was undertaken, such as ours was, such isolation becomes more difficult. Periodic movement of the subject from one room to another would have been indefensible in our case. Nevertheless, it seems probable that with increasing definiteness of the various controls in this type of experimentation isolation of the subject from the apparatus, both for the threshold measurements and for other psychological experiments, must not be neglected. Electrodes. — In all our threshold experiments zinc sulphate non- polarizable electrodes were used. Amalgamated zinc electrodes were immersed in concentrated sulphate of zinc. The fingers were placed in a porous porcelain inner vessel in which there was a physiological salt solution. Martin reported that the value of /3 was not changed by changes in the amount of the finger immersion. Assuming on this ground that it made no difference, we found it more convenient to have only the first joint of the finger immersed. Primary current. — For sensory threshold experiments we universally used a primary current of 0.5 ampere taken from two accumulators of SENSORY FARADIC THRESHOLD. 139 large capacity. The amount of the current was regulated by two slide resistances, of which the fine adjustment only is represented in figure 14 as a slide-wire resistance at the front of the table. Application of the electrodes. — The fingers to which the electrodes were applied were usually the index and middle fingers of the right hand. In case of abrasion of either of these fingers, or for any accidental reason that rendered their use inexpedient, the third and fourth fingers of the same hand were used. RESULTS. A fuU summary of our available data on the sensory threshold to electrical stimulation by the Martin method is given in tables 22 and 23. Table 22. — Threshold measurements for Faradic stimulation. [Values given in Martin units.] Subject, date, and number of period. Normal. Subject, date, dose, and number of period. Alcohol. Average. Difference.' Average. Difference.' Z /3 Z P Z /3 Z e Subject II. Jan. 6, 1914: 1 274 274 274 281 276 277 274 262 289 294 279 281 289 298 289 316 289 307 296 289 307 281 307 290 307 297 136 139 136 135 136 148 149 147 172 151 153 (.') O e) o (') (.') e) 166 197 157 159 137 141 159 Subject II. Jan. 13, 1914: Dose A: 1 ^326 385 361 409 409 349 383 ^298 349 433 433 500 429 ^307 298 349 409 349 361 373 356 2307 307 337 337 316 324 ^ZOJi- 223 (?) 203 235 152 203 ^152 167 222 195 272 214 120 190 247 179 196 208 190 "^174 170 181 177 181 177 2 - 7 2 + 3 1 1 3 2 . . - 59 - 35 - 83 - 83 - 23 - 57 - 19 + 01' - 31 + 52 + 1 4 3 Average .... Feb. 17, 1914: 1 4 5 6 Average .... Feb. 3, 1914: DoseB: 1 2 + + 03 15 12 17 3 + 1 1 24 3 7 3 2 - 51 -135 -135 -202 -131 - 15 - 70 - 43 -120 - 62 4 3 5 4 Average .... Siibject III. Oct. 1, 1913: 1 5 Average .... Subject III. Jan. 12, 1914: Dose A: 1 2 - 8 17 8 35 8 26 17 3 2 + 9 - 42 -102 - 42 - 54 - 66 - 49 + 7 - 63 -120 - 52 - 69 - 81 - 63 4 3 S 4. . . 6 5 7 6 Average .... Feb. 16, 1914: 1 7 Average .... Feb. 2, 1914: DoseB: 1 2 + 18 8 18 1 18 9 - 31 + 9 + 7 + 29 + 25 + 8 3 2 . - 30 - 30 - 9 - 17 + 4 - 7 - 3 - 14 - 5 4 3 5 4 . 6 5 Average .... Average .... 'Differences equal periods 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. 'The values in the first period were obtained before the alcohol was given, and are therefore not included in the averages. ^Insufficient data. 140 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Table 22. — Threshold measurements for Faradic stimulation — Continued. [Valuea given in Martin units.] Subject, date, and number of period. Normal. Subject, date, dose, and number of period. Alcohol. Average. Difference.' Average. Difference.! Z /3 Z B Z H Z |8 Subject IV. Jan. 8, 1914: 1 592 545 569 569 569 446 592 569 545 464 482 516 285 268 278 298 298 285 217 235 238 226 256 238 235 298 361 316 281 289 361 385 337 373 409 341 416 302 314 318 337 245 384 364 343 269 279 314 o (') (') 134 140 136 91 113 118 122 165 212 188 155 166 205 223 175 226 235 195 Subject IV. Jan. 15, 1914: Dose A: 1 521 569 647 592 647 595 349 397 473 421 421 397 410 326 349 463 445 520 439 521 438 226 238 274 274 253 '^S98 337 361 361 307 326 373 373 409 409 421 368 ^SS8 303 338 429 381 400 370 ^146 190 228 274 238 209 184 220 o o (') (') « ^127 130 140 158 153 145 192 215 210 168 166 212 200 244 230 244 208 2 + 47 + 23 + 23 + 31 +114 +102 + 98 +105 3 2 -100 -148 -226 -171 -226 -174 - 75 -110 -201 -153 -172 -142 4 3 Average .... Feb. 19, 1914: 1 4 5 6 Average . . . . Feb. 6, 1914: DoseB: 1 2 -146 -123 - 99 - 18 - 36 - 84 -139 -119 - 98 - 24 - 34 - 83 3 2 - 60 -108 -184 -132 -132 -108 -121 - 44 - 82 -128 - 92 - 63 - 38 - 74 4 3 5 4 6 5 Average .... Subject VI. Oct. 7, 1913: 1 6 . . . 7 Average . . . . Subject VI. Oct. 14, 1913 Dose A: 1 2 + 17 + 7 - 13 - 13 - 0.5 3 2 - 28 - 51 -165 -147 -222 -141 -223 -140 4 3 5 4 Average .... Mar. 2, 1914: 1 5 6 7 ... 8 Average .... Feb. 4, 1914: DoseB: 1 2 - 18 - 21 - 9 - 39 - 21 - 22 - 6 - 2 + 43 + 21 + 16 + 14 3 2 - 2 - 14 - 50 - 50 - 29 - 3 - 13 - 31 - 26 - 18 4 3 5 4 6 5 Average .... IS hr. experiment. Jan. 1, 1914: S*" 30"° a. m . . . 9 30 a. m. . . 11 20 a.m... 12 10 p. m. . . 2 00 p. m. . . 3 15 p. m... 4 25 p. m. . . 5 10 p. m. .. 6 10 p. m. .. 7 10 p. m. ,. Average .... Average . . . . IS hr. experiment. Jan. 2, 1914: DoseC: 8^ 40"° a. m . . . 9 30 a. m. . . 10 25 a. m. . . 11 30 a. m. . . 1 30 p. m.. . 2 30 p. m. . . 3 40 p. m. , . 4 45 p. m. . . 5 45 p. m. . . 6 30 p. m. .. 7 25 p. m. . . Average . . . - 63 - 18 + 17 + 9 - 63 - 87 - 39 - 75 -111 - 48 - 47 - 23 + 10 - 1 - 40 - 58 - 10 - 61 - 70 - 33 - 39 - 63 - 63 - 9 - 28 - 75 - 75 -111 -111 -123 - 70 - 9 - 32 - 27 + 15 + 17 - 29 - 17 - 61 - 47 - 61 - 25 'Differences equal periods 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. 'The values in the first period were obtained before the alcohol was given, and are therefore not included in the averages. 'Insufficient data. SENSORY FARADIC THRESHOLD. 141 Table 22. — Threshold measurements for Faradic stimulation — Continued. [Values given in Martin units.] Subject, date, and number of period. Normal. Subject, date, dose, and number of period. Alcohol. Average. Difference.' Average. Difference.' Z ^ Z /3 Z /3 Z /3 Svbjecl VII. Oct. 8, 1913: 1 210 226 226 221 221 173 166 204 215 238 204 200 262 268 250 244 256 343 379 433 445 445 409 244 250 326 274 316 297 284 (^) 111 58 115 116 148 100 108 - have been present in any of the subjects, or induced by the experiments. Under "No. of cycles" is entered, as far as data are available, the number of complete cycles of eye-movement and fixation that occurred in 5 seconds of experiment. MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 155 ^ o o lO ^) IC t^ o lO O U5 CO lO (N C( lO Ifl ^ =1 Is" d oo ,-1 rH d f-H CO rH (M e rH OMI r-< T^ M ^ CO en CO Tj* rH c^ a; 1 % CI (N C^l T-\ iC '-' 1 +4- 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 + 1 1 °2 , 3^^ O O OJ C<1 Oi U5 00 CO t^ oas 00 05 CO l> O l> r-t O lO l> ' b rt M CO 'IIC^ CO CD (35 C© CO CO rlH (M C^ Haa 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 li,l III II I t^H w lOiCiOW »o t* "0*0 a o s (Nt^!MTj< »^lCO(M t£ 0»00»00 OlOt^t^iCtOt^ Nu: ber cyol COCOCD^C ^lOeOlOwUS ?ob»iOiO d K^COOlfl OOOeOt^Oas t^ lO to O"© ^ rn OO M w CO w O O QJ H a a rHrH,-l,M f-H^^cqcs^ -^(NNCIC^ --(C0 lO lOlO o o o © lO CD 00 00 00 t» B 1 • t-< -o CO 0) Iff H 1 1 + + 1 + 1 ++++++ 1 o OS Q-J3 b m -*eo t~ CO cq >oN (N CO (N CS »-H CO CO l> CD ■y C^ O^ OOOOO o o o© o o -* cq 00© P:i1 1 1 1 1 ++ ■c io7 » S ^ S QS fa B ,5.2 b .1 iO« iH t- lii lO t* CD CD XT^pH OS l-H lO (N O © .2 a a +++ 1 1 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 1 ^ ^ «^ « wOCSO© OOOOO© dOOOO OOO'Tt<(M00O > O -^ - - ++ 1 I ^ A k»OtHOCO iQCDWOOC^l "^OO^pUi t^ CO 00 (M lO CO CD « l-H «t-lr-iFH 1-I.-I (JJ .. QJ .. 03 .. OJ 1 -a CO uim bC^ bC-<4^ M 03 »H C3 1-H C3 rH ca '^ •§ Oi 5:! Oi fc. OS fc- Ol u tH y T-t OJ rH O T-1 > > > rt P, ^" <:o <1o - t> M ■* (-. 03 O O c3 rt Q ^ ^ ^ s <4-l O 4i 1 o o 03 ffl ci rO M ■— ' w (— ( It CO rt "o 'o "S 02 o .2 " o ^ < 'So T3 'S O 01 -^ rH + I I •z^, COOOQOOOOIOOOO OiOlOOlOl o|> OOCOCO^Cli-HM (SOOICOCOCO t^.-iolO H a a i^ -^ CT! OS b Ol O 05 o ^ (N .-H f-l ^ Tt< rH Tt< t^ lO 00 Oi t^ 00 b- CD 05 t» ^ r-t ,-( i-H T-H rH pH O O O r-i o oooo 00 rH Ol Oi ^ »H CO CI tN C^ C<1 CI 2 1=1 g o is m c ^ » OS § § . J3 K 9 3.2 t~ OlOO +++ CO 0»M I I 00 01 00 X 'X 00 ++++++ ^ 00 --t -^ oo* ++++ + CO CO CO 05 ++++ (M t^ I:^ Irt I I I I o oo CO ^ a ++ + qoOt-hooofn gooooo oooo (N ■* O I i OO o I I w + I I QJ --< > 2 Oi" a- ^ ^CO- 05 CC ■^ IT zc (M C^ -^ IN ^ •^ ^ iM CO Tt< a a CO c^'S S"-! (§■« MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 157 ot- ■ uO »0 lO lO "O US "OTO • C^ lO t- w ■ (M lO (M (N CO CI (M M ■ l> 1^ t^ l> b- U^ i-< iH ■ rH (-1 1-H fH - O • ^ o o o o© . fH i-H ,-H T-H 1— 1 + + :+ + + + :+++++ : 1 1 + 1 ;++++++ I 1 CO in Tt< ■<* 1 1 1 1 ■ (N O O Ol N ;+ III ■ OJ CO :+ 1 •CO : + • 01 •CO • .H ;+ : 1 •00 : 1 cort Tl< CO (MTtI ■ O 00 rH |> •>(* • rt (M CO (M W : 1 1 1 1 1 • t^ t~ t^ o ■ m 1 1 (M in 00 W3 1 1 1 1 ■ T-i rH ; 1 1 : 1 • (M in CO t^ : 1 1 1 1 ■lO to W >0 O lO O U5 lo o lo o oo lOiOlCiCOOlC iClCiOiOiOUS t- ^ Q^ O I> lO t* (M O t> O O O ©ic^csicqioo-^ iMC^cqcqMTt" t>00 Oi CO t> t^b- CO 00 l> CO 00 00 iQCOlOiCiiCiiCW Co-^fTfllCTjlTji^ oi« >-i Tji to u5ia CO ^ CO 0-1 lO lO •^ «o l> •^^ t> : ^ -co U! i-H ^H >^ i-H iH iH 1-H 1-1 .-I rH -H - ^-'I'H >-H • ^ -co N i-H 00 Ol CO lO i-H « Ol O l> O CD 00 oo ::? 1H o o l> (N W ^ CS (N COM (M U5 - O lO 00 lO CD CI rH t> CI o CO CO 00 (N lO - 1 + + + + : i 1 1 1 1 ++ 1 + 1 + + + + + t» 00 00 w CO t~o ■ CJ CO t^ co-^ in 00 IC CO us CO 00 ^ ' CD >-H (N Ttl 00 1-H t> ri* CO 00 o inN J^ lO C^ O ^M b- O iC 00 .-H CO iH 1H -^ i-l iH rH fH tH (N CO CO COM CJl rH ,-1 1-H ^-'W -^ CO CO CO Tf< t-HtHi-H i-H i-,rHr-l,-HT-l n l-H w t' U5 ■<* 1 o o oo • CO o o o© : 1 o CO l> l> CO + 111 SO 1 ^ IN Tl< tH COM ++++++ lOTf CO CO in-* - I-H »C CO fH © CO LO CO 00 N ^ ex CD CO CO -^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 + cq 1 1 1 1^ 1 rH CO -^ -^ 1^ -^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 00 © U5 © oo o o o oo O CO o o o © o o ©3 O O O CO ^© ^OC '-' : > ^ > ^ : > "-1 >■ ^« : O OC^I^OOiOOOOOOCO 1 + +++ 1 +-I- CO t^ CI rH 00 + + + + + CD l> O CO W + 4- 1 + Total move- ment. o ocooooioooot-eDooas C-lrH COCOIOtJHGO-^CO 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 »0 Cq rH t^ O) Cq rH rH + + + + + -M O CO O O .-1 CO .|>I>!Ml>iOt>l>M lClOCDCDOir>iCi«0-*iOlO Sum of M. V. to right and left. O >0 (M iCt^ ^ M -coiOi-ioo> I> lO -H lO l« (N ^ (N CO^H o co oo j^o lO oo o^ r- o 3-6 a.o 1| r Q ►-3 CO o M .. !:::'.:::; 2 "*•::::::::;:■ c ......... V '-I ..:::::. s ...:....:> oi .,,, : > :::::::: I'^l : : : ; : ■ : : : ' :^ ■o If .It .a 3 CO Subject IV — con. IB hr. experiment. .A.lcohol (dose C) . . . . Subject VII. 1— MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 159 wrt £-^ to O O 00 iC >c l> (M iC O (M t* X CD O rH rt O O tHO o o ^ o CI .-H ,-1 ,-H + + + + + + + + + H- + + + + + + O IQ lO N N (M rM ■!^ O fH ^-l ^ Tj^M CO O CO o c I-H l> ea CD CD LO M + + 1 -I- 1 + 1 1 + + -h+ + 1 1 1 1 1 M + 1 rH CO CD CO ^ X ^ ro -f t~ iM CD GO M CD -^ O O CO GO I-H tH ^ »0 01 00 i-H C>1 C-l i-t cs CO coco .-H ^ Mill Mill MM 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 + II 1 1 •O O O iN lO ic to tr ic (N O ira (Nt- •Q (M O uo 05 O) b- w C1 c cq O^ "0 10 t- 10 0* s CO O to lO U5 ;;;^ -^t^ tP CO CO lO lO -^ CO ■^ CO CD O 't Tf lO CO CO -t CO >0 O O t^ ff-* tf 00 lO o o t» O O O — QO CC CO CiZ G5 to ^ €^ CO Oi «D to CI (M ^ 00 _i^ CI C^ .-H 1-( ©1 Ti* 00 O Tf oi r-H tM CO ff^q lO --1 05 '-0 o c ^cr^*^ -* CO 1-H Oi o o en a u 05 Oi o o © oo 5^0' t> 005 Oi Oi CO .-H ^ I-H rH cq C-1 c^ .-I CI ^ >-. --H M d c^q w in lO l> l> CO 00 CI ^ O C O CSC rt (O -1 CO « -t i-H CO ^ Tt^ O T}1 M ^ ■X cca CI ^ 1 1 + + + + + 1 ++ 1 + + + + + + 4- M + 1 ZD CD CKl Ttl l> (M (M t> l> lO Oi CD eo c 10 OOM r-l CT CO t> CO w X «^c^ 1 Ow _^ CI Tf^ I-H M lO O O h- oc ^ ^ C-1 O CO X ^ «o t^ l> C-1 cvi CD I-H IT (M ca in ^•o CO CO to ■* CO 00 CO Ol O O OiO* O ^ r-( ^ tH o .-H cs CI eq ^ o i-H .-H " I-H r- I-H 1-H *"* .-HfH ^ !-{ ^ ^ 'f-t ir W lO M 1? -< CD COTfi C O O (M C 1 1 ^ ^ rt rt o i 1 + 1 1 CI 05 -/* CO CO T-( Mill + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 + I 1 + 111 la -^ o ■^ en tN t-» to t> M C O O (M C 7 O O C-l o o 1 ©5 O CI O CO O w O oo o £0 CO 1 1 >^ I-H .-H 01 1 O O O OffS o O C3 ^ o o t>. I> rH CON Oi O ■^ CO c:i o T-H CO tH h- O O O O Oi 05 00 05 05 ^ 00 Oi o oo OiOS 00 wcn X 05 00 ^ 00 oj a> OS (1) l: MtH ■-1 hr a- ^ > > t> > -a1 co' < CO < c <: l> < < (M CO -^ lO i o CC1 CO r}< CO OS rH CS CO Tt» c rH Cq CO ^ a c ^ (N CO ■^ 10 i ■-1 C^ CO Tt* < U t^ < (U •^ o K s 3 - :& 1— 1 T3 OQ J3 ,J3 h J3 u o -u^© o O s " 1 1 1 + + 1 +11 -I-+ +-I- 111 + a " > t* •* S 1 b '<*' b- '^ CO '^ lO O lO CO lO ^ -)* o o ^r-tCl.-H(M«i5»i5-rJ^OUt W ^ «=i + 1 1 1 1 1 + + + 1111! + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 P<^l la 3 i-g i-H U5 r-t CD tH |> 00 c^ CI O X ^ CO o -./:7cr. ^CSCOCDCNrtHC© CO l> l> o lO ;D Has 1 1 i 1 1 1 + + + +11+ -lil+l+ll+l 'OOO OiCOOOlO OOOOOOOiOiCiOC^l g o I> C^ O b- 04 t~iOLO OI>»OOOt* OOClOi-'^iOOlNt^iOOS z^l ^^-t -t< lO ic -^-^ -tTt^T^WlOTjH-Tt^tClO-^ll _>QTtH-ftO-tTr CI CD CO CI lO '-D d »H 1 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 +++ 1 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 -1- 1 1 -1- 1 csi a > o 0-3- ^ « s a S" 00 -X (M c o CO esj J" ' ' ' ' ^^^£oci-^:Dod ©iOC-HL';-i-;;C — CO II 111 II 1 3 o boocooci-tiouj OoocDro^i>ooiOcD(NGs c;o-H--:oi^rO'McicjM Q'-^ O CO CD lO X TtH 10 dOCJ^-^i-Hr-lr-IClMi-l '?'}C0C1C)C1C|.-IC0CIWM -^ """^ ""* '"' ^^ JIT"""'"' l-(1-l.-l.--r-.-l,— t ^ Tf ■>* 03 - g s !M ■* ^ CN -* ^ CDOiCI>t>--H^00CD '•^cOTtHCu'r-^rc.-H— ^ ■a jg 1 " H 1 ++ 1 ++ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -I--I-+ 1 1 1 1 1 1 S A TP o Q- II b CO CO t^ O T}1 Oi CSl CN CO rH ^ ■■^looiOi-HcqcoiOi-i© Xi-HX-#<-lTr-^CC'^ .2 a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ++ 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 1 + 1 1 1 -F 1 o a t* -^ a S«! ■* N -H •* (M.H U3^^0C^C^cD-^CC0 ^0.-»::'-:U3 hJ, ■« + + 1 1 + 1 1 " i . 3g 0-43 iCiC»l>OcOt^C10COU5 toTtTPCll>OOcCOO 01010001C&<^C7lOa>0i 03rH0iOCnOOOOCR© -* (U CO :::::::: S^ M ; ; M ; Mi 03 :::::::: ^2 T3 53 cn 1-1 0? ;:::::::82::::::::::S -< ^ ...>'^!> d 0. 03 O ^ < cf <1 co~ < '^< rH (N C3 -"Jl lO to ^ rH CO •'J^ lO CC t^ CO 05 d '^ ^ CI CO -* CO t^ CO 35 d -t s a 0) CU Q 1-5 Q Q o d : ■?■ 9 ^ f£ 1 o TJ a SI o t3 ■8— " Is s 1 m ^ z ^ MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 161 lO O Ifl O »0 »0 CM lO ffO IC 10 1> (M M rH O 000 n 1 1 + ! 1 1 + + + eg > t> « -^ ^ CD M ^ c ^ CO ic ^05 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + + + 4 + + + + + :3 M ^ Tt< 00 CD 00 10 10 • '"SS ^ CO CO t* rt.tl IN r-i CO »-H j-H i-l CO rt '"' ^.2 + 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 + + + + ^a iC»OiOiOOiO iQiCiCOiCOO 3 ,-1 CN(NI>I>iOl>lO t^I>t^Oi>iOlO 1^ iCCDiO-^iOiOkO lC]»OiCiOiOiCU5 O. t^ CO (N O tH i-M «0 (M ^ (M iM O -*Ji CD C^-^ ©5 (N CO CI C^ CD CO --H iraos s-s cD CO CO ^- 01 - 00 »o 10 CO cq i^ 000 f " -1 i-H £tf lO IC iC lO IC l> N T3 CO lO CD ^ lOia CO i-H CO t^ Ui 00 CO ■ ^ fH N -^M ^O^jHO ca 1 1 1 1 1 i + + 1 + + + 1 ;+ 1 + + + + III a o ■^ -<*< (N Ol t- t* CO 1^ a> a>i-< CO ■ oota (M IM t- t^ ■»** 00 CO M .-H 1-H + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 03 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 + + + ^3 00 ^ bO CD CO (N CO --H (N 1^ t^i-H«^cOOON CO vo Oi .^ -^ •OC^ lOCOi-HM O'-HO-^tH-^ r^^ i-Ii-It-Ii-Hi-1t-4 t-,^^^ CiOCOOCOI> ■^Tt<«^C0OOW OU5 -^^ IC ■Ot^ 0(NC<»U5 COOt^iCOi-H ft OOlOrHi-Hi-HO ■•^T-l^-'(M(MCOM I> OOt* 00 c ■OOS 00.-H0 ^(NrtOOrt 1 lT T-H ,-lTHrHr- J3 B 11 O lO i 10 fN 00^ lO oo o«o i-H i-H r-i ^ w I-H tH + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 PL. + 1 1 1 1 1 + + 1 + 1 5 lO ^ t* U5 10 U5 10 rHClI>Tt^lCWffO ©lOO^CDtOOX IQ ■»*< -^ CO b- ■ OM CO IN M Tt< t^ CO OM ft M (MOiOOO^OOS *-H(Nir^COi-i005 > ^,H t> 2 > r-T <1 00 b r-( (M T}< CO C^ to »o to ^ 07 s ++ 1 + 1 + + + ^ w 3 5:^ •* lO Ci ^ CO 10 b fO -1^ CO CO -H CO H s a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 'M yi c '^ ^ " ^, "^ ■7 S >. Sum of M.V. to right and left. b ^ ^ ^ c^^ ■* t. CO t^ 10 X d t- cq •«<' ""* i^ tal (Ve- nt. CO CO ^ 10 e 00 la t» N 10 -0 - 1 S CO s bClNO-^OCqi^ OCOi^ OOOOC*! OC^IOXOOO ICCIOO C^OIW OlOlOOCi «DCnO100OSO5O5 QOOiOO '-^ c^ cc CI c^ ^ e^ ^ t» CO ? CO CI rH CO Cl rH Nrt N CO OiM CO 1 go. .4 «tt 1 00 a a Oi 9i 01 o> C9 V « ® .. V V ■* ^ 2^ 23 3 01 Cll 03 >2 > -' >'^ >-< > ft 0) m ^ CS C -^ IT CC C<1 (N c <* ^S"„ OJ c^ •* IC tc ^c. c ■< ^ ^ (it! t:~ 1 a c. a a 0, 1 < < ■< < <- 1 - 1^ T^ < '3 a tig H n R^ 8 •§ « 1 1^ ^ 1- - ^ ^1 1 OS J3 2 ■" s >< S .0 0. hI Table 26. — Summary of eye-movements . [Average values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject and kind of experiment. Movement.'? to right. Movements to left. Total dura- tion of move- ment. a .0 > Num- ber of cy- cles. Difference.' Dura- tion. Error. Difference.' Dura- tion. Error. Difference.' Total dura- tion. Mean vari- ation Num- ber of cycles. Dura- tion. Error. Dura- tion. Error. Normal siibjects. Normal I and II : II Ill IV VI VII IX X Average . . . Alcohol (dose A) : II Ill IV a f 93 1 96 f 99 I 99 rii2 1120 101 r 99 1 94 88 99 r 99 1102 92 90 deg. 0.9 -0.33 2.3 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 -0.7 3.1 1.0 0.1 0- l-» )-' )-' -M3 - 1 - 9 - 7 -1- 6 deg. - 0.4 - 1.7 - 0.8 - 0.4 -t- 1.0 - 1.9 - 0.6 f 92 \ 98 fioo \105 fll6 1128 92 r 98 \106 103 107 rioi 1109 107 88 deg. 0.9 2.2 3.7 1.2 2.8 0.4 5.0 1.2 11.2 2.7 2.5 10.0 -2.0 |-12 )+■ 1-' - 5 hi - 8 }-e -22 + 9 deg. + 2,8 + 4.0 - 3.7 + 1.1 -1- 9.0 - 5.7 -1- 1.2 - 5.0 -1- 8.2 fl85 ll93 ri99 1204 [228 1248 198 ri97 I2OO 191 207 f201 1211 199 178 tr 7 19 9 10 16 15 1 3 6 6 11 7 12 22 12 6.4 6.7 7.8 9.5 8.1 8.0 }-» }-■ IT + 1 - 2 - 3 -0.1 -0.4 -0.8 4.5 4.9 5.5 6.5 7.2 5.6 8.7 + 1 -16 -29 + 16 -f- 1 - 6 - 2 - 2 -22 - 4 4-0.7 -0.3 -0.2 -1.1 -0.5 VI VII IX X Average . . . Alcohol (dose B) : II Ill IV VI VII IX X 99 90 91 109 95 115 100 132 143 102 111 6.5 0.5 0.2 8.7 2.6 0.6 0.8 1.0 -12 - 1 - 8 - 4 -21 -24 -44 -15 -19 - 3.5 - 0.5 + 1.4 - 6.7 - 1.5 + 2.0 -f- 3.4 4-11.2 -1- 1.0 112 111 123 122 110 122 106 141 136 122 155 2.5 2.5 2.3 12.0 4.5 4.3 2.7 3.8 -2.6 - 5 -17 -17 -11 -10 -39 - 5 -30 -19 -17 -47 - 0.5 -fl3.5 - 1.1 -t- 5.2 H- 3.4 + 3.0 + 6.7 -1- 5.2 - 0.2 -1-10.6 206 201 214 230 205 230 207 273 271 224 267 11 7 18 14 14 13 15 25 8 21 5.4 5.7 3.9 5.5 5.8 3.7 9.2 7.7 4.4 3.9 4.9 -12 -17 -18 -18 -13 -67 - 6 -54 -55 -32 -67 -1- 3 - 1 - 2 -1- 2 - 4 - 4 - 8 4- 2 - 5 -0.2 4-0.7 4-1.6 4-0.2 +0.1 +2,3 -0,2 +1.5 + 1.5 +0.6 -0.1 Average . . . 12 hr. experiments. Normal; VI IX Average . . . Alcohol (dose C) : VI IX Average . . . Psychopathic subjects. Normal I and II: XI XII XIV Average . , . Alcohol (dose A) : XI XII XIV Average. . . 117 106 95 100 101 100 100 r 89 1 92 rii5 1120 / 92 1 93 f 99 1102 101 120 92 104 0.4 4.5 0.7 2.6 1.8 5.4 3.6 4.6 2.5 3.5 -0.5 0.7 3.5 2.9 1.8 3.5 1.0 1.0 1.8 -20 -21 -10 - 4 - 2 ) » I- -11 -20 ■-15' -1- 2.9 4- 7.2 - 6.4 - 0.4 + 2.1 - 1.4 -1- 0.3 -t- 1.0 - 1.1 - 0.6 - 0.2 -1- 2,5 -1- 1.0 -1- 1.0 -1- 1.5 130 115 119 117 114 122 118 f 75 1105 fill ll21 r 92 1 88 r 93 1105 97 122 90 103 1.4 3.9 -0.1 1.9 2.7 0.8 1.7 9.0 3.0 1.0 2.6 1.7 1.5 5.2 2.3 2.0 2.8 4.2 3.0 -26 -18 + 1 -8 + 1 - 2 )-» I- ]-' -15 -12 -10 -12 -1- 4.0 + 6.8 -1- 1.3 -1- 4.0 - 2.7 - 2.8 - 2.7 -1- 5.0 + 0.5 + 0.6 + 2.0 - 1.0 -1- 1.2 -1- 0.8 + 0.3 245 221 214 217 215 223 219 fl64 ll90 r228 I24I ri82 ll82 ri9i 1204 198 242 182 207 16 16 14 15 17 17 17 4 2 19 7 5.6 5.3 4.7 5.0 5.8 4.9 5.3 -47 -39 + 1 -19 - 6 - 3 }-' }-f- 2 j- 2 }- 2 -26 -32 - 3 4- 3 - 1 4- 1 4- 5 - 5 4- 2 4- 8 4- 5 4- 5 4-10 4- 3 +0.9 +1.0 +0.5 -0.1 +0.1 4 11 4 11 11 11 -29 4- 6 'Difference equals periods 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. 163 164 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OP ALCOHOL. SUMMARY OF EYE-MOVEMENT DATA. In view of the fact that reliable data on the eye-movements are rela- tively few, and in view also of the peculiar importance of this group of measurements, as will appear in the concluding chapter, it seemed advisable to make the summary as complete as possible. A complete statement of all the averages is consequently given in table 26. In this table appear (1) the average duration of the eye-movements; (2) the average errors; and (3) the average differences, under each of the three headings "Movements to the right," "Movements to the left," and "Total," i. e., the sum of the movements in both directions. In the group of data which is indicated as Normal I and Normal II the aver- ages for both normal days are given in a single column. But the dura- tions for the two days are given separately for each subject, whenever available, connected by a bracket. Similarly the averages at the foot of the columns appear double; the upper ones (99, 101, 201) are the average durations of the eye-movements of the group for the first normal day; the lower ones (102, 109, and 211) are the corresponding values for the second normal day. In giving the " differences" for this group of experiments the two normal days have been averaged, since that is the form in which they will be used in the subsequent tables. The summary of the effect of alcohol on the eye-movements is given in tables 27 and 28. In the former, the effect is computed from the averages according to the formula: the average values after alcohol minus the average values of the two normal days equals the effect of alcohol. From table 27 it appears that the average duration after alcohol is almost uniformly greater than the average duration on normal days. In table 28 the effect of alcohol on the various processes is calculated from the "differences." In the left-hand part of the table the effect is stated in average differences; in the right-hand part it is stated in percentile differences. The formulae for the two values are given in footnotes to the respective tables. In order not to complicate our main results and obscm-e their bearing on the main question at issue, we would for the present abstract from the minor questions of ocular balance, the individual differences in the interaction between the internal and external recti, the amount of fixation error, and the number of cycles for the sake of giving greater emphasis to the most general of all the eye-movement data that are given under the heading of "Total." This averages — 2.5 per cent after dose A, and —18.6 per cent after dose B. That is to say, after 30 c.c. of alcohol, eye-movements of 40°, without regard to the du'ection, took an average of 2.5 per cent longer time than under normal conditions. Similarly, after 45 c.c. of alcohol, they took an average of 18.6 per cent longer time than the normal. It is conspicuous that in all these values there is only one exception, viz, Subject III after dose A. It is further conspicuous that for all the subjects where there are comparable data, MOTOR COOEDINATIONS. 165 dose B delayed the eye-movements more than dose A. These effects are equally obvious in the effects as calculated from the simple averages which are given in table 27. The number of cycles in 5 "seems to show a significant change only after dose B, when it is diminished by 15.8 per cent. In this case, the simple averages given in table 27 again furnish corroborative evidence. Taken alone they would have indicated, however, that both doses operate to reduce the number of cycles. Table 27. — Summary of effect of alcohol on the eye-movements as shovm by changes in the average values. {Alcohol— normal.) [Time units given in thousandths of a second.] Subject and kind of experiment. Effect on move- ments to right. Effect on move- ments to left. Effect on total move- ment. Effect on mean varia- tion. Effect on nimiber of cycles. Dmation of move- ment. Error. Duration of move- ment. Error. Normal subjects: Dose A: II (T - 2 - 9 - 2 - 6 + 3 +10 - 1 +21 + 1 +16 +42 + 6 +23 +18 - .5 + 5 +11 + 5 deg. -0.3 -1.1 -t-6.5 +0.2 +0.9 +5.6 +1.9 -0.3 -1.1 -0.7 +0.6 +0.5 + 1.7 +0.1 -2.7 +4.7 -hl.O -0.5 -1.1 -0.5 +12 -14 +20 + 9 +20 +15 +10 +27 + 4 +19 +44 +20 +52 +28 - 1 + 3 + 1 + 7 + 6 + 4 deg. +8.5 -3.8 +2.5 -0.2 + 1.1 +0.8 -H.5 -1.5 -1.8 +2.3 -t-2.7 +1.1 -3.8 -0.2 -1.2 +0.9 -0.1 -4.0 +1.1 -1-2.6 -0.1 (7 + 10 -23 + 8 + 3 +23 +23 + 7 +41 + 6 +35 +73 +26 +76 +43 - 6 + 9 + 1 +21 + 8 +10 a + 9 + 3 +10 + 3 +12 + 3 + 7 ■'+'4' +24 + 4 +15 + 9 + 1 + 3 + 2 -0.9 +0.1 Ill iVI. VII +1.2 -1.0 -0.1 -2.8 +0.6 -0.3 IX X Average DoseB: II Ill IV VI VII -0.6 -0.6 +0.5 +0.2 +0.3 2IX Average 12 hr. experiments: Dose C: VI IX Average Psychopathic subjects: XI XII - 2 + 7 + 2 XIV Average 'No measurements of the eye-movements with dose A were made with Subject FV. ^No measurements of the eye-movements with dose B were made with Subject X. The data for the psychopathic subjects are complete only for Sub- jects XI and XII. They show a consistent effect of alcohol in the same direction as the normal group, only considerably more in amount, averaging 12.9 per cent after dose A. The incomplete data for Subject XIV are in the same direction as those for Subjects XI and XII. The two 12-hour experiments show opposite tendencies, as usual in these two subjects. 166 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OP ALCOHOL. There is no consistent change in the errors of fixation due to the alco- hol dose. Apparently the average error after dose A was materially- greater than the normal error, or the error after dose B. The mean variation is increased after both dose A and dose B in table 27, but this change does not stand the test of the computation by differences. In addition to these generalizations with respect to the effect of alcohol, there are other less important, but none the less interesting, general tendencies of our data. The errors of fixation which occurred in eye-movements to the left (adductive movements) are conspicuously larger than those in the movements to the right (abductive movements). While there are occasional exceptions to this rule, it seems to apply to all subjects, including the psychopathies. In general, the errors of Table 28. — Summary o/ efect of alcohol on the eye-m/)vements as shovm by changes in the differences. [Time units given in thousandths of a second.] Subjects. Effect as shown in average differences.' Effect as shown in percentile differences.' Movements to right. Movements to left. 1 a o ■S > 1 >> « •3 1 iz; Movements to right. Movements to left. Total. Num- ber of cycles. Q a Error. la b > P o Q S Error. Dura- tion of move- ment. Error. Dura- tion of move- ment. Error. Normal: Dose A: II Ill 'VI VII IX X Average .... DoseB: II Ill IV VI VII WeUs, Am. Journ. Psychol., 1908, 19, pp. 345 and 437. 168 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. arrangement; it would give valuable data not only with respect to oscillation frequency, but with respect to the onset of fatigue and the rapidity of recovery. The insurmountable difficulty in this arrange- ment was that it proved impossible to secure maintained maximum effort from our subjects for 30 consecutive seconds. Unintentionally perhaps, but none the less really, some tended to adopt an initial speed that they could maintain. Spurts appeared from uncontrolled sources. Some may have been purely physiological. Some were clearly connected with the feeUng that the effort had lapsed. In connection with the related but more complex tapping test, Wells states (p. 356): "The feelings of annoyance arising from a long-continued test make it desir- able that the experiment should be one giving the requisite data in as short a time as possible." This may be generaUzed as follows : Every consideration, practical as well as theoretical, demands the shortest experimental period that will give the requisite data. In this particular case, spurts and variability due to discomfort and other causes were enormously reduced by adopting shorter experimental periods of 8". That these shorter periods were in fact more satisfactory than the 30" periods appears from the relative uniformity of the results. Even in this relatively short experimental time, a regular decrement in the speed of oscillation, as measured by 2" intervals, shows the beginning of a fatigue process. Regularity in the onset of this fatigue process is our best insurance against initial indifference, and sub- maximal finger-movements. If no fatigue occurs, one suspects initial indifference. But if the fatigue drop is regular and normal, initial shirking is improbable, since it is beyond the capacity of an ordinary subject to simulate this gradual onset of fatigue. Other forms of incomplete adaptation to the experimental conditions are less easily determined. Correlated pulse- and respiration-rate should be worth something in this respect as an indicator, but our knowledge of the pulse-changes due to effort allows at present no numerical correc- tion of results from this source. A variable interplay of changed attention, effort, and adaptation to the experimental conditions must be admitted as a possible, if not an inevitable, source of disturbance of the results of the finger-movement tests. If our cases are sufficiently numerous, however, accidental disturbances of this sort should compen- sate and leave the general tendency of alcohol, both in direction and amount, clearly marked. TECHNIQUE. For purposes of comparison with existing data, our measurements of the most rapid possible reciprocal innervation of the finger may be regarded as the tapping test reduced to its simplest form. As ordinarily used, the "tapping test" measures the number of electric contacts that can be made by the subject, either between a stylus and a plate, or by the closure of a telegraph-key. Several considerations combine to make both of these processes physiologically unsatisfactory: MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 169 (1) A succession of taps is physiologically a succession of interrupted reciprocal innervations. Whether the interruption occurs early or late in the process, whether much or little force is exerted in the tap itself, will be an experimental accident which will be Ukely to suffer more or less irregular changes as the subject's experience suggests possible improvements. Wells^ found that one effect of practice was to shorten the periods of contact with the key. Langfeld^ found that practice tended to lessen the extent of the movement. (2) A second disadvantage of the finger-taps as recorded by the telegraph-key or stylus, is the difficulty of isolating the finger-move- ments from other movements of the arm and hand. Probably the interchange of finger, wrist, and arm movements is less apt to occur in short periods than it is in long periods of experiment under the incentive of conscious fatigue. But practice may change the type of movement, and may bring different groups of muscles into use in the succeeding experimental periods. It seems certain that the tapping time of the different hmbs is not uniform. In an unpublished experimental study of the finger-movements by Dodge, it proved possible to get a tapping- rate of the arm when all the muscles of the arm were in voluntary tetanus that could not be duphcated with the finger alone. In less degree the same holds true of the wrist-movements. This seems to cor- respond with the finding of Griffiths,^ that "loaded muscles in tetanus show a higher number of responses per second than unloaded." In the above case, the load was the contraction of the antagonistic muscle. (3) Moreover, all arrangements for recording the rapidity of the finger-movements by stylus or telegraph-key demand a more or less consciously controlled position of the subject's arm, with a more or less conscious control of the aim of the finger or arm movements. By reducing the tapping test to its lowest physiological term, i. e., the true reciprocal innervation of the finger, we have preserved the freedom of movement of the original experiments by Von Kries,* and of the myo- graphic experiments by Binet and Vaschide,^ without introducing the questionable ergographic comphcation of the latter work. The reciprocal innervation of the finger, like the tapping test, seems to satisfy our demands for relatively slow practice improvements. As Wells states, "This would seem to indicate that such unsystematic practice in this function as we receive in normal life ehminated the marked gains so frequently seen at the beginning of practice curves." APPARATUS. In our experiments records of the finger-movements were never taken separately, but always in conjunction with corresponding pulse-records. The pulse-records are electro-cardiograms. The finger-movements were recorded on the same photographic record by the following device: iWells, Am. Journ. Psychol. 1908, 19, p. 445. "Von Kries, Archiv f . Physiol., 1886, Supplbd., p. 1. ^Langfeld, Psychol. Review, 1915, 22,p. 45.3. ^Binet and Vaachide, L'Annee Psychol., 1897, p. 267. 'Griffiths, Journ. Physiol., 1888,9, p. 39. 170 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. In front of the slit of the photographic recorder of the string galva- nometer which recorded the pulse, a hght wooden lever was placed so as to throw a shadow across the slit. The other end of this recording lever was attached to the finger by a Ught rod held against the upper phalanx of the middle finger by the pressure of an elastic band. The axis of the lever was so placed as to decrease the amplitude of the move- ment in the proportion 5 to 1 . The mass of the entire recording system is about 7 grams. Since the leverage is the most favorable possible, both with respect to the recording-lever and its attachment to the finger, interference with the free movement of the finger is objectively and sub- jectively so slight as to be practically negUgible. The finger feels no resistance to starting and no instrumental momentum in stopping. POSITION OF THE SUBJECT. For measurements of the finger-movements, the subject was seated in the steamer-chair approximately at position I. But the steamer- chair was so moved by the operator that the subject was nearer the recording-camera of the string galvanometer than in other experiments from position I. A stand with an adjustable arm-rest was so placed that the subject's right arm was comfortably supported with the hand near the edge of the recording-camera table, but shghtly above the level of its top. The palm of the hand rested against a vertical wedge- shaped support, against which it was held by the flexible but regular pressure of a broad elastic band. The sharp end of this wedge rested against the palm of the subject's hand, leaving the digits entirely free to move in a horizontal plane. In a relaxed position, the upper phalanx of the middle finger should be perpendicular to the face of the recording- camera, so that when it was attached to the recording levers there would be as little lateral movement of the levers as possible. The operator was always careful that there should be no unnatural or forced position of the hand or fingers, and that the arm was comfortable. There was no restriction of the movement of the other fingers, but their movement did not affect the recording lever. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. While the subject sat in a half-reclining position in the steamer-chair, with electrodes in position, and connected for recording his electro- cardiogram as in word-reaction movements, the chair was slid into position by the operator. The subject's arm was placed on the arm- support, so that his fingers were entirely free beyond the edge of the hand-support against which his palm was held bj- the pressure of the elastic band. A fine rubber band about 1 cm. in diameter was then placed so that it rested on the fold of the skin which separates the first phalanx of the finger from the palm of the hand. This elastic band served to hold an offset from the end of the horizontal member of the recording levers, and thus formed a flexible but close connection between Tim« in secBTKisi 'F i ng e r movem e nts g^m .VW^7^T.^Ifa*£A Fig. 2s. ^Typical records of the finger-oscillations and puIm' of two subjects. Fiti. 2!l. — Reproduction of a temporal-pulse record as made hy the Dodj^e telephone-recordri' in series with the stiing galvanometer. (v'-^ee p. 235.) MOTOE COOBDINATIONS. 171 the finger and the recording levers. The vertical member of the re- cording levers was then adjusted to cast its shadow on the center of the slit of the recording-camera. The standard instructions were repeated by the operator. While the subject was entirely in position and relaxed as far as practicable, a normal pulse-record was taken without finger-movement. Immediately after this record a combined pulse- and finger-movement record was taken as follows: When the record started the operator said "go," in time with the stroke of a Jaquet clock, beating seconds. After 8" the operator gave the signal "stop." After a 60" rest, but without disturbing the position of the subject's arm or finger, a second finger-movement record was taken Uke the first. The standard instructions, repeated before each experiment, were as follows: At the signal "go," move the middle finger back and forth as fast as you can until you receive the signal "stop." Figure 28 reproduces two typical records of the reciprocal innerva- tion of the finger by different individuals. They should be read from left to right. The lower fine in each case marks the seconds (Jaquet clock) . The next fine is an electro-cardiogram (body leads) ; the upper line is the respiration curve. Inspiration is represented by a rising curve. The oscillating line shows the finger-movements. Instructions to the assistants who were detailed to read finger-move- ment records were to commence reading 6 movements from the begin- ning in order to avoid the initial irregularities, which seem to be a characteristic of the beginning of almost every finger-oscillation curve. The reader then counted the number of complete oscillations in 2", 4", 6", and 8", respectively. Full 8" of oscillation were so rarely com- pleted in legible form that they seldom appear in the results. For the sake of uniformity the calculations are all based on 6" of oscillation. RESULTS. The data for the reciprocal innervation of the finger are given in table 29, under the several subjects arranged in numerical order. The number of complete finger oscillations in 2", 4", and 6" is entered in the appropriate columns. In the earUest experiments, as for example those with Subject II on October 8 and September 23, only one record was taken at each experiment. In the later experiments, where two records were taken, the data from both are given, together with their average. Wherever available these averages are used in the elabora- tion of the results. 172 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. « F-H 00 .-ir-(ooooTtias !N CO a» i OrH(NCO(N(Nr-l.-ICOOiHCO»H a- ^ ■* M i-H d +++++++++++++ + + + + »00CO(Mr-<0 CD CO ce pj 0) ^ 0,-<(MIM(N.-li-<0(NOr^cq^ ffO CO N 3 I +++++++++++++ + + + + OiOOcOtOTtHiOOQOCO-^OC^ OC Tt 1-t cq OOrMOOOOOOOOOO c ,- ^4 ++++++ +11 + + + +r OOt^t-CDfOOOTHOCOCOOCO-^CO •' M 1 o u >cOici(rococoi>ooooi>cOTt O" u> •^ -H (M CS CO rH N ^ 05fN(N(N(M(N -* CO IC (M CO ■* Ol> -^oi> CO to o- iC 00 CC CD ci- «tH >^ CO to^ c3 m "S 01 ^ => i^t > > > > ^ '2^ •^ .O'-'C01 t- CD cOOOCDt* COI>iC -^iCTti CO»i:>-* »O(MC0 s COCOCOM COCOCO COCOCO COCOCO COCQCO 13 ocoocfi corHiN ooioi oiocq ooocn vo o 2; ■>*< locoirjw coiOTt< 'tjicoco w-^co oo(N(N ?s (MfNiNC^ tMC^iN CNICN(N CqiNiM fM(NtN C0CDOU5 -M CO iM 00 Tji CD Cq rH cO X O -^ t* N (NTt > CD rQ -^w ^ > > > < ^1 OOT-HtMCO .^ <](N <]fO <]-^ ■< t/3 rt Oct. Mar MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 173 (Nb-000100XC0C0t-O0:C00iC0U5 ,-iOi-H.-ir-i(M(MmiOiM(Ni-i(NCOCsj +++++++++++++++ ■ Oi "O lO lO Tf ■ O l-H O ■-! O : I + I + + cr>cC.-i050iO(NcDCC0Q0'^Ot^'^Ol0O e0COC0C0C0C0-H^ (NC-ltN (NCOC^ s < 0^C^C0-^"icDt^0005O^C ^ . O '-' <^1 C*3 "* lO O O O »0 M GO-^ O O 1-H Tji ,-H i-H ^^ +++++ • »0 !N CO O • M CO CD-id^ : I I I I OOOOiCOOOlCO OOOOl COOCO lOOiN t^ iM Ol Ot* CO CO CO CO « o-^io oooos aii> t*.-!-^ COi-i(N l>CO < ^2 =5 0)-^ 174 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. o 7 V I so "-I CO a + + + OlQ^CO (MIOCO -^OC-I Nt^-t v^>^0<^ CO00U5 COTjiOO iOiOO COCjt^^ coooio t^coo oco^ ©^^^03 corCCO rH^^ (NC3(M t^ 00 00 O CO w « lO U3 U5 CD 10 ++++++ CI Tt< tH >o c» « Tl CO CO CO CV3 ffO ++++++ 1-t i-H i> m o o CO rH ,-H rH .-I (N C^ P^ + + + + + + + X t^ I> »0 (N N M (N cq (N (N « »0 CO fO (M 00 '^ t> O CO CO lO CD OOiOlCOiCOO-^ OOOQOXX3DXCO ^2- la CO © > ^ 5f fc.. > s ^ S iS' Q COOCD t^^OS OlOtN t^iOi-l lOt^O C005t^ lOOt^ CDC^IC^ 10 IM CO 01 ^ iC OJ ■* CO CO W (M Cq cq (N M CO r-l IM (N (N IM H- CO CO O iCOi O ^ ^ r-H O I ++++ CO O CO O 1^ O i-f i-H (M pH + H- + + + ^ O CO Ot» O ,-( O --lO 10 00 (M 10 O 00 (N (N CN CS (NS CO iC 00 10 00 OS 01 Oi 00 00 I>00 i-H O iH lO >-< CO O O O 01 03 0) d ^ •^ a DD 13 ^S 00 t9 ^ lO rt CO CD rH o 1> oc 00 ^a N TJH -t -t Oi p- .-H CM O rH 00 00 Oc CD (N cq c< -H >-( >-l I> GO b- lo in c iO 05 CM 00 lO ^ lO IQ S! 00 O CO X c^ o- lO lO ic >o OJ Ol CT- 00 t^ oc t- t~ 00 f^ X CO 1> I> l> 1> 1 T-t 1-1 tH t- i-t i-t i-t ■^ '^ 90 05 "^ C^ O fH I> lO CO CO Th CD O ^Tf c CO Oi Co ©i CI CI o C^ CO t> O CO X OS Oi O 00 00 00 CO 00 CO Ol 00 X 00 X CO Ol 03 Oi X O) O X X C^ X X g ■^ Sf •£ .. S.S Ol > > > > ^ > > > > (N g 1-H < N < « < ^ < lo <: .-1 o rH rH XXX o O X VI lO X cc lO O! * CD lO OJ X X » 00 X a X X 35 05 03 ^ S s,-* S OJ . r-i y- - > > > !> -Srt ^ «< N > /c CO CQ ■2S 176 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. ^ CD F-1 CD C^ 00 00 d (N 1-1 d 00 cc c (M H^ T^ -.4 1 1 + + + 1 1 1 1 + + + + 11> a a o 1 ^ CO 10 (M I-H CO d CO 1-1 d CO IN C rH CO rH Cv CO 1 1 + + 1 1 1 + + + + ^ rH Q C^l 10 d CM IC d d CO >o d d 10 CO fH d d rH C 1 + + + 1 + + + + + -t i-H 10 CO CO i-H rHOiO iOlMOOLO Tt(Tt CD CO CD x-ioio cot^i>t^ i>ocD eci 00 CC -t Tj< -* 'o ei (M l> t* l> CD i>i>t^ Oiodcooo oot-oollt* Co -^ CO 10 Tj^ 'M 1-H i-H 1-1 r-l 1-1 i-< i-H 1-1 t-H r-( r-1 I-H I-H I- i-< rH I- 1-H OiJ (M W (M Cq CO 1-1 l> i-H l> [>tccD t^aiioi> oo-c S 00 CI c (M a 01 -yj y a -0 CO C-J CO CO ^ ► 13 QJ O a . .. §18 -o p. t5 a 8 i g 6 U2 »— CO i|-. > > > > < ■12 <; ■§U5 =; •Si 3 3-0 CO a JD <] Gi < rH n ?o 0^ a IB ^ c c 00 ID 7 1 1 4 + 4- + 1 : 1 1 Q N t-l d d d c l-H C CS ^ d do 1 1 -+ ■+ + 1 1 1 r^cDi-H -^ 10 a:> -^ Oi ^ (N CD »o Tti a- 05 10 (N ^ ^ 0© lO CD CDiOCD GOiCcD lOtOcO sss ss;^ lO ■* 10 CC CSNCS (M(NN (MCqW 0^ C<1 C^ rq CO CO CO PO CO K OStJ*CD (N^rH OOi'* r^ CO CD rtH C 10 10 c U5 (M IC (N M CO •* b-t^b- Osb-00 t-l:^I> r> t^ i> i> CD i> t^ CO 1> l> 10 iC iC U5 iC ^ tH i-< rH r-t T-t r~ T-< 1-H T-H ^ C^ W CNC^ (M OOOOi OsiO(N cOOit^ (N 1(5 00 U5 CO Tj 01 >o t- 00 00 OC Oi U5 (N OlOOW O1G0O3 OOOOQC OS 00 00 00 00 OC X « OC 00 l> : > > > (< ^ > 5 i 00 <1 cn < 5 < ^ » .-H IN CO "^ i-H 03 rt t5 1 S MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 177 W5 »0 -^ CO ^ "^ ■"ti-^COWCOfOOlCO ^ CO "^ CO CO c^ + + + + + + ++++++++ ++++++ tc oooc co^oo - C CO C/J ^ l^ f-l ^ COf-H ^ ,_, rH y: c-i 0^ oi ^ c-i i-> eff> Oi iQ ?^ rj^ t^ O 3: o oi -^ 'JSCOiC»cc:»OOOM O t'- O O C/li O F-l CO CO-Tfi ^N. ?^ J^, CO co« op GO eo ^ c-i -+' ^ -* c-i « ^CNOlCOCOCOCO'trt fYjcococococococceo ?^ lO -+- CO CO rj* -^ ■0 cc CO -0 CO CO ffO (^ CO CO CO CO CO ffO O O05 -^^ CO ■O O rt Dl (N O 00 OiC^O-^Ot-OM Oi (N O l> C5 lO © e^i vh T^ CO oi oi cq CO (N (N C ^zriooo-— ^OiOa> c!; aj cc ^ o CI i> (N OM '>:) QO GO CM rH -H Cl -H W Cl W fh •-) i-H *H >~, 1-^ >s ^^^ f-* i-H r-( fH ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^ ^^ '^ .. M tt rt ;^ ^ a= ■■ C ^E2 © : > : > > > < -o'co" «> ■ • ' -? 3 O cu < tot- . grH <: C^ "^ CO <1 r^""" 0'-'<^CO-l-lOOI>X ^'^^ 0'"''=^^'*^*^ ^Q s o O ■^ ■ a 3 Tl ■* ^H ■ CD CO 01 cq N O Tt^ O (N i-< 1 ■ c 3 C 4 - ? . W ^ ^ rHO . 1 1 H-+ 1 t^ CS -^ CO ^ 1 1 1 1 1 00 ■ c 5 If > lO --1 1-1 Oi !> 05 U2 O W O U5 7 • c 3 c 4 J © - 1 O O tH rH O 1 + + + + CO --H ^ Ot-4 III 1 CO c^ ;c --' (N lO (N |> O IC t^ o -^ 7 c 1 c i o 1 O O r-C i-H © 1 + + + H- -H O o oo 1 1 1 + 1 coos OlOOCO i-HOlLT IC »i" 00 CI CO CO O O -^ CO CO CI CO o ^ to to iHtDOl OllOl^ m f «o n CO CO CO CO ro CO CO CO CO CO CO CO OOO ss sss sss >0 CO Tt m (M CO (N ^ rH fi^I CO t> ^ lO CO ^ N (N CM (M CM CN e^ o cq CI cq cq M ■^""ii Tff-Ht^ lOOit^ Tt< to >r 00 O .-H CO Ui GO ■^ ic »o o cq OOO W« TjfCOCO COrHC> CO rH CT i-t »H ,- s (N (N w O O^ cq CO CO CO cq N W rt rt ,H .-H fh 6 a. H rt M i^c^i to 2 H) > g O) > ^ c ^ CO ■* > '^ •fi (U ^ 1 H IB 178 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. TO CO :+ : + CI '■ t^ .+ : + -r o + : + CO O -* rH 03 ^ urti lO 'C lO c 0■^^- t-OiCO CGOiM CD-^iC I---tO ^^to&^ 'fiO't- lOi-HTc oia;3i lonco Oj ©:» ^J (MO--' ri O 1-1 Cr.' Ci O r-( O O ?, so 'C O (M OS CO '^i 'O to >Qi ■^ ->> ^ LO -* Tj* (N (N (N (M C^ CO ©5 SO C: O -7^ CI CI (N OS i-O d o o-E 3 ^ ids .J o S Srn- a. 3 :s'" 1-5 dTj 02 Pi O-O: '-i •"^ O - CO -c; O ""^ 04 ^ <; n s-s ^ 2 m el C^ .-H(NrH is (O ^ CO Oi rH O CO »0 O lO »rt o CM Ol rH CO d C*^ ■i-a .. ^ <1- CO MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 179 " " " ; : O /J '^ 00 . — - - o ■ . . ■ : i : ■ t o o 1 23 CR lO <0 O ■ ■ ■-/. ~T ■ iO l^ 01 ■ rf eo ,_^ _ I-* o o o o + + + + + : . +:+..+ : + ■i- + , + + + — ■- ... « -^ CO — Oi -C ■ c? ■ cC --• ■ CO 00 71 — ^ I— 1 '^l ^ - r* 01 X lO 01 01 i^ to Tt< M CO ■rt< »0 C- CM n- O Ol ,-1 ,-( tH t-O --i CO CO l-H CI CM (N iM CM Ol 01 Ol .-H Ol Ol cq 01 Ol 01 Ol oi oi oi c^^ S^SOi^O COCOCO COCO — l~ l>- CO O (N (M (M iCcDr-iO: O^iO «DTt<0 rt^CDiO M o o o ^ C^ c --* ^oicr. c: coo— rHOi-t oqow ^H 'O 'S: '■C; CD - - O lO CO O to 1-1 .-1 T-H TH ^ ^_^ W-- ^ o it '<^ o 0^ > > ' J> < ,.~ >X Ci . > > > > < \ < -r. ..- :C < 1- X -^ ?. - o - Ui CO « o CI w rt c^ c ;7 ■ Ol ; 1 : 1 : 1— 1 1 1 1 7 7 FH 1 a • Ol r- : -, ^ ta t^ m lO lO (> c 1 ■ 7 - i-i Oi ■ : 1 : 1 : 1 l-H 1 o 1 o 1 o 1 o 1 -J-*0 "OiOO OXOl iJO-tOlTt< -HOICO M OlOO .-If-.,-! rHrHW ^.-(rH ^^ tM (M CS Ol C^ C^ Ol tN Ol 01 Ol Ol Ol 01 01 01 Ol 0-1 C-ICOCO COCOCO COCOCO cococo M Ol O Tt O Ol CN U Tt COiC-<^ OOO COO^Ol fe N (N CV i-H rH F- (N Ol r- i-H r- Oli-lOl Mi-lOl COi-HOl 01 ©--l ^ ^ lOCDiC cDcDcD cDCDCD cDcOcO i^ a > «! l-H £■2 t> > > > : > < 3 '-' 03 - !> > > ^ ^ 1 tb < t^ ^ o o a -*^ ft •S .2 J5 o HZ 180 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. o t^ ■ • c 1 « UO CD CO o ■ c r N o 1 + + + 1 "•" 1 1^ ^ CO d ■ C I 1-4 b + + + + b- ^ -^ ■ t- -" ch Cl ^ o . r- -1 o o + .+ :+ir + ^. =c 00 c) ic X cr. Tf « CO o a IC 91 oj t^ r* 00 (N o *N.i^^. zj^'rt r^ot^ oih-' t^ l« Oi O OS Oi o o Qoeo^ CO CO or cccocc cococ ? ffO ©J «0 ©^ C* CO CO o -a o OOO OiOb- OOiO 0't^^ CO «t ^. -.*. CO wo '^P -* to ito to CD .-1 fo ir> 10 i-o 01 »o CO -^ ©1 ©) ©1 0^ (M Ol 01 M Ol Ol Ol IN M Q O ci O O O ^ «^ «» ^ C4 CM CJ 'CCO'^I-'CIOO TfCDC: tDOC ■^ *Ci Qo to ■* CO CO M sQ&:i&:i coooi coo^co ^coc O ^ C; O O O w* — " -T3 4) O S'S •-H -- ibjeci XI J . 1914: e A: V . . , tf a ubject 15, 19 eA: a, 3 3-0 ^ . o -- ^' o'* *^ ^ - -^ < -Z^ E- < ^1 < J3Q i^ ^ i < I CI ct N N CD rr o> 1 ^ o ■ o O O O o o (N 1 1 1 + + + + ""• ^ ^ o o 1— ( © 6 d d S CO 1 1 1 1 + 1 + a c^ fh JC CO CD CS1 ■"HiCCO OCDCO 23.3 24.8 24.8 25.7 25.2 O HO b- iC ■^ ■«}* ■^ O (N kO »C lO O •-H CO O) I-H 1-H I-H v-H ^ CSNO^ (N(M 00 OS rH O U3 ^ 00 OS 00 (N rH c > < 5 f< » ■< > * r. M (3 s s 03 MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 181 to OS OS OS CI If ■ Ol t- en 1 1 1^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 O) 'f 00 CO X Oi • o o o 1 1 o 1 1 1 1 CO 1 N r» N 114 1^ t^ ^ ^ 114 t- o 1 o 1 1 O O rH 1 + 1 7 o 1 eo .-^ (N O N ID l> LO tN CO 00 O Tt< W CO C^ 01 i> O oi ^ ci CI o ^ (N ■* CO ^4 CO CO CO CO CO CO « <3o *<^Qp -^ -t^ -r T -tH CO CO CO (N U5 00 N t^t^t- ooo icco O lO t- t~ C4 rH 1-4 •ct^to oioioi r^oo OS O g: 00 (N l 30 2^ »0 Tf< Tti CD X X lO r-H US o ^ c ,-1 O ^ o 1^ CO -^CO ■* ^ Tt^ CO -^ Tt4 li^ lO 1-M 1/ ■zi > ^^< : > ^ iS-cfdi : ;> ^ > < CT < -» < lO •< < ■ l> n b- c^ Ifl QO rD N to to 1(4 eo . p., 1-4 o c ^ c "C M '~> CO t^ . ^ o o c e o o o o o O o : + + 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 4- 1 IC a> i~ 1- e CO c M CO Oi CO t^^oo »coo uoicii:! ir; M O »i3 C^ c» ■* oc 00 to 114 u- M o o T IS '^ .-H ^ (N ^ r-1 CS ,-H 1-1 -tt^l> Cfl CO CO c<- ^ «>» CO CO CO co OQ ol o: lO CD O »fl CO OS 10 "* OS cc CO c et COiCOl »00(N OiODl iH CO 1*4 ^ us O 1> O us lJ4 I^ US O O 1-1 O .-1 O O ^ O O .-H ^ o 1-H MiOcO Tt*-r'a <" > B -H > -< > -n-^ > t^ > <3 fs > > > <5.0 :> < s. !14. *Rosenfeld, Dor Einfluss des Alkohols auf den Organismus, ^^'iesbadon, 1901. 'Cushny, Pharmacology, Philadelphia, 1910. "Meyer and Gottlieb, Pie oxporiraentelle Pharmacologie, 3d ed., Berlin. 1914. 186 PULSE DURINfJ MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 187 Alcolwl was found to increase pulse-ralt by: Parkes and Wallowicz,' 1870. Man; moderately large doses. Dogiel^ (ref.).* First rise, then fall; no data cited. Fraser,' 1880. Man; 75 c.c, 20 per cent. V. Jaksch,' 1888. Children, 2 to 3 g. Binz,* 1888. Dog; 5 c.c; stomach. Swientochowski," 1902. Patients; 25 to 100 c.c. ; 50 per cent. Mosso and Galeotti,' 1903. Men; mod- erate. John,' 1909. Men; moderate. Alcohol was found to have no effect on yulse- rale by: Zimmerberg" (ref.), 1869. Various animals 60 CO.; Man, 40 per cent Al. Von der Miihll and Jaquet," 1891. Men, 30 to 100 c.c. Bock," 1898. Isolated rabbit heart, 255 c.c. ; 10 per cent. Wendelstadt,*' 1899. Men, irregular, 5 to 100 c.c. (actually rose two-thirds cases). Rosenfeld," 1901. Dogs, 2 to 29 c.c. A. A. Kochmann,'* 1904^5. Man; moderate, 60 to 80 c.c, 20 per cent; 50 c.c, 30 per cent. Wood and Hoyt," 1905. Dogs; various, moderate, irregular. Baohem,^!' 1907. Rabbits; 0.2 to 1.0 c.c. Dixon," 1907. Man; moderate; dilute. Deimig el al.,^ 1909. Fever patients; 6 to 40 c.c. Woodhead,^' 1911. Man; moderate. Alcohol was found to decrease pulse-rate by: V. .Jaksch,'' 1888, Children, 3.2 gr. ; patients, 75 per cent of cases. Gutnikow,' 1892. Dog; 100 to 2.50 gr.; 50 to 70 per cent. Hascovec,'" 1900-01. Dog; 5 c.c. A. A., 25 per cent intravenous; 20 c.c. A. A., 33 per cent: 100 c.f. A. A., 50 per cent. stomach. Backmann," 1906. Isolated rabbit heart, 0.05 to 0.5 per cent. Di Cristina and Pentimalli," 1910 (ref.). All dosea. Alcohol was found both to increase and decrease pulse-rale by: Maki^ (ref.), 1884. Frog; small doses. Weissenfeld.® Self; .50 to 70 c.c. sherr.\-; irregular. Loeb,^' 1905. Frog and cat; inconstant. Dixon,^' 1907. Frog; first slow, then rapid. Brandini,''' 1908. Rabbit and dog; depres- sion moderate; isolated heart. Luzzato,28 1910-11. Men (ref.); 20 to 50 c.c. Al. ; individual differences. Miller," 1910. Animal; transfused; 0.13 to 0.3 per cent stimulated; over 0.3 per cent depressed. Downs,^" 1911. Frog; external application to heart; 1 to 2 per cent increased at first; 5 per cent decreased. ♦Original not available. 'Parkes and Wallowicz, Proc. Royal Soc of London, 1870, 18, p. 362; Parkes, Proc Royal Soc of London, 1874, 22, p. 172. ^Dogiel, Fourth Congress of Russian Naturalists in Kasan, reported in Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1874, 8, p. 604. ^Fraser, Alcohol, its function and place, Edinburgh, 1880. (Ref.) 'v. Jaksch, Verhdl. des Congresses fiir innere Medizin, Wiesbaden, 1888, 7, p. 86. 'Binz, Verhdl. des Congresses fiir innere Medizin, Wiesbaden, 1888, 7, p. 70. "Swientochowski, Zeitschr. f. klin. Med., 1902, 46, p. 284. 'Mosso and Galeotti, Lab. Sci. Int. du Mont Rosa, 1903. (Published 1904.) 'John, Zeitschr. f. exp. Path. u. Ther., 1909, 5, p. 579. KJutnikow, Zeitschr. f. klin. Med., 1892, 21, p. 168. "Hascovec, Mitteilungen der bolmiischen Akademie, 1900-01. "Backmann, Skand. Archiv f . Physiol., 1906, 18, p. 323. "Di Cristina and Pentimalli, Archiv di Fisiol., 1910, 8, p. 131. "Zimmerberg, Dissertation, Dorpat, 1869. (Ref.) • -?? 3 -§ .a J a > 1:=1. •a S^ m ? i m >, i 3 O. a >, o i 3 3 .S i OOiOtPC^ ^ a t> CO t>- CO iQOCCOOiOi-i ;DI>'^QOOOS "* r^ CO X o o « 100.5 96.4 102.2 108.6 100.4 . . . 105.2 104.5 lOS.S 1)6.6 . . 99.5 91.1 . 107.2 . 100.7 . 99 1 101.7 ' a-. O O (M «D -M ■ ■ CD rH Ol CD O O ■ • cn O O O O ^ --1 CT) -* to X' CI -N O CO CO ^ O CO Tt< lO CD TjH O O O O i-t ,-1 ^ ^ ,-H W =D iCi 00 (N O o o o o S o Oi CD Oi iC Tt^ O t^ CO Tf^ :o t^ t^ o o o o o o •^ rH Ui t^ -rt^ Ol c: CO LO X jC Tt< CI O O o o ^ r- 'jO (M ■:>;. CD o h* CI cc ri x Oi o c .— o GO CO ^ ic r: -^ o o c o o c to -f lO CO t- b- C) o o o o o t'- C-l l> X X X : X O O O 3'0 o Ol X ■^ CO iC |0501X-^-t CfiCOiCCO-Pt' ;DC0CDCliCO Oi>oioco-*>o 9:)c^ot-co'C zcoooiOOi »o o lO CO CO T^ a> Tt< 05 X 00 ^ 05 £N ■«*< Tf ^ CI CD CTi (N i> o lO r- - Ol .X o o o o o rH .-( r-( ■-( ,-( ■-* o> i-t u:i o o Ci o> o o o o GO CI M O t^ O O O O O O --< t^ CI CO b- i^ o O O O O O r^ OO CI CO O b- e ^ CI (M »0 CI to CI lo »c i-H o C> ^ X 1> X :c -M TJH t^ O 00 O O O -H o >-i O r-l ^ CJ O O O O O O O §SSSS:= OS o o o o ^ CO iC 00 O tH »0 O X i-H o o t^ CO OS O CJ X CO l> t- CI CO O O O OS »C OS CO N O lO X CO t^ l> b- 00 s OS a CO X o o -* CO 00 _ 4C *-3 b- t^ s CO X' X CO X ■ o ■* c^ 00 r* c3rH(NTO*lI-t3cOt^OOWoio3^NCC CO i-t C* CO 00 QO * 00 00 Oi GO -^ 03 C-1 Ol »0 (N l> t^ QC t> X 00 MOi-Hb-T-H tob-0(N*C lO Oi <0 -^ CO b- : : :g : er 3 70.7 2 77.3 74.6 y 78. 5 ■ ■ -co ■ CC ■ Oi c:^ o ■ iQ .-< lo (v, t> • i> t^ 1-- . . . t^ ■ i> ■ r- ■ o ■ 00 GO Ol &, i> t^ 00 t^ ^ t^ CO CT o -^ CD •* o; "ci -- fOOOOO OOl>Tf '-Q. -^ X lO O »- CO ' GotO-'f^^COC'l OCIiO'Mt^r^ OOiCOiTt^o: 'X CO iCt CD fO ic CO ■* ir> ^ :c CD CO ^ CO O -^ »C 1-1 iC X l> X Oi C31 CT. X lO ir5 O -* •:o t^ (N lo en ?>. X Oi Oi Oi lO !-• t- CO c-i >-. t- rH lO Tt< lO 00 X o o o o 1^1 I> lO iC CO l> •a 73 o o o o »o X (M X Oi a:. fi th ^ lo lo CO O ^ CD Oi CO lO Oo O O Oi CD O CO *^ »^ r^ h- X 00 t^ >0 -^ Tj< lO as CO CD CD C: h- ?^ X X X X X Lo X X t^ i-H i:t< th CO ^ c:i »o 1-1 t^ l^ X l> X X O M CO iC lO o C^ O CO O iO ©;» .-H LO ^ t^ --T- -M Ol O tH CD CO ■<:tl O Ol a> t>. O CO l> ■'ti Oi CO CO CO Tt< i-H > •s ^ ■^CO t- CO "* CO O ^ cc -^ o: X O 1-H CO X X CO O "Jt ^ CO Oi CO ^. t^ X X i> X i^O »C t^ O Ol Ol CO X X Oi X X i> i> CO o -t cq I> l> X X X X 00 kO O (M X Oi IQ, X O i-t 00 X O Oi C-l - T-t t- lO ocor^xCQcRO o.-ll:^^co^Tf^lO 5'0^t^„r-(X o o " c cog ^ -«3 ^; ■-s N -^t^ O f^ CO r-H IC O) Oi - •n 204 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. S Q J?! 3 ^ ji > a 1 a •T3 bO s -i. >, ^O J. •^ 1 ^ CI o i? -a S tfi 3 a ^ J > bC -5 « 3 .a i •C'S o o "© O CO CO Ol 5D ■^COOOOiOlOa »QO Q40COiOCi»0'-"« CD (M ■ o> rt< CO ■ b- 00 00 ■ Ol Ci IC I> CD ■ -<*< CO lO CO 00 ■ r 00 OO C3> Oi ■ 05 OC CD Ci ■* (M . Oj CO CD M CO O »CXMt-^5Tj< 0<-HiOC100iC -f >o t- O CO o ? ? §§3S CD -^ ^. '-; CO t~ r-l -^Jf Ol 01 Ol O >3 O :^ CO Tt^ CD f- O lO CD OS CD CO CD CO Ol -J* :> o ol T}^ CD 00 § 2 g cm CO 'J' l^ t^ ■* ■g »o en M (N CO CD o o I CO c^ 00 CD O ^ g 22 o CD r- b- CO 00 iC 00 i3 00 O O CO Oi O O O c-l c-i lO CO Oj t^ !M 05 X oi : «5 C^l C^l C- CVI tC C^ O b- 33 CO Ol ^ X Ol t- »0 I Ol TjH t> CO (N t^ CD CD ^ CD (N ■* "to Oi X »0 O CD •-I r* t*- "^ CO o> — Tl O ^ CO M" CD t> t- 00 00 C f^ X GO -H IN CO O lO ^~■ X oo Oi o OS ^ t- CD O <-< '^ CD I> I> 00 00 00 (N O Tj4 Ol 00 TjH ■ ^ ^ CD »f5 »0 N -^ Ol CD '^J* CD O O 00 0> 00 N g§ lO -«« X Ol CO O X 00 X Oi CD O OJ o O OS OS 00 o X o I a n < O fto CO b- C3 t- o ^ Ol CD CO CO lO lOOCIb-TiO (71 b» 1-t M CO lO 00 o o 0> M F-i O <-< OS -n- -^ O 03 "^ i-O cO CO O rH O ®l b- 00 CD iC CO 151 Tt< 03 1-4 ■* 00 C-l Tt< O »0 Tt< Tt* CO « ■* 0> 05 Ol 00 Ol o Oi f-i tJ* CO CO -^ t^ « CO 00 CO 00 90 Ol Oi '^ i-i lO -+(M 05 CM 00 I> 00 00 I> CO 00 CO c: 00 o t» 1-1 t- l> Tt< CM rH CO CO GO OS o: O O O t— 1 t— 1 1— 1 Ct O O lO to CO . ■ . 00 ■ ■ < lO CO CO i-i o ■**< OS -* CJ Oi l> ■<*■ lO O GO CO CD t- 00 O O 'X t- t>. 00 OS OS C". C". iT'- "O OS 00 CO F-t ?-- CO CO CO 00 CJ »-t iM Oi OS TfH lO ^ t- CO CO »o b- 00 oi o CD o t.': t> 00 OS OS O d t^ '^ 00 OS OS 1-H ^- GO 00 00 00 OS i-H CO CO O I* o CO OS l> OS OS t^ ■ O CO O lO O CO o eo CO -^ i-H 1-H o ©5 'X C>:i 00 GO crs t^ 00 CO CO CO -^Jl 95 7 99 103 lO CM CO O O CD 00 00 00 c:s OS oi 'C. I> -t^ 00 CO OS CO "* CM 00 O !-< 00 GO 00 CO OS OS ■^,-1 IC ^ CO ■* O CO CO O tH »o OS Ol OS o o o i-t.-H.-l l> CO t> C71 CO CO t*OOOOSt-CJ OC^1050SC0.-t OSOt>iOr}«t^ ---^COOCMOSl-- 00 00 o ^ -^t CO CO C3S c^ C^ i-< O OS iH CM Tt< CO O O CO t> 1 95 2 104 102 CO CO l> CM 00 b- OD 00 CO OS 00 OS O CO O t-* O 00 00 CO CM CO CM 00 CO CO CO 00 OS 00 1-1 C^l C*1 CI O CO CO CO 00 -*i OS .-( OS OS o o o o CM (M CD lO CO 00 Co 1-t 1-1 CO -^ t^ »c w i-H -* CO u:! CO CM OS lO 00 OS O CO ■* CI tjt -^ OS OS OS o o o COiCCOOcD >-HiOt-Ot^OC' »J3OiC00t>0S lO lO CD O ■** lO ■^T- --* Tti OS b- CD cn o CM OS o CO t- OS OS OS O OS i-H 00 00 CO 00 00 OS lO ■* OS ^ t^ ^ Ol I> OS CO »C lO 00 00 OS 00 l> uo l> CO GO OS OS OS ^ CO b- t* 00 o t^ 00 X GO CO GO O OS 00 »-« rH .-1 ■^ CM I> C 00 00 OS OS OS Ol ■<** 00 CO CO OS i^ 00 00 CO 00 00 CO lO CM lO 1-1 CM CO tH CO b. CO T}< ■-1 t}< CO rH Ttl CO C000P30SO OCD^ " ^ -- tH ^ j-f <^ I o h o 206 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. the succeeding periods. This whole picture of the pulse adaptation in successive periods of the same session and in the first period of successive sessions is a direct analogue to the familiar laws of habit formation, and corresponds with the large practice effect that was actually found to occur in the association experiments (Chapter IV) . Another conspicuous difference in the pulse-reactions on the first and last day is the longer duration of the experimental distiirbance on the former. This again is probably an adaptation phenomenon. To recur to the apparent effect of alcohol on the association pulse, figure 31 makes it clear that gradually increasing pulse-retardation from the beginning to the end of the session is a distinct and character- istic feature of the normal days. The second normal day starts at a sUghtly different level from the first, but the total relaxation change is practically the same in both days. It is exactly this gradual relaxation which is most obviously modified in the curves for the alcohol pulse. After dose A there is still an increase in the average duration of the pulse-cycles, but it is distinctly less than on the normal days. After dose B, this increase in duration gives place, after the third period of the day, to an irregular decrease. A further conspicuous effect of the larger dose is almost to annihilate the experimental rhythm. These pulse-changes in Subject VII are too systematically related and too clearly marked to be accidental, but only a few of them are general with the group. While there are points of agreement, several subjects seemed to show more or less persistent pulse-changes in the association test which are purely individual. For some of them, the course of the pulse was quite irregular. Subject VII shows the most pronounced experimental change. Subject IX (a native German), who had considerable difficulty with the association test, shows peculiarly long and relatively large post-stimulation acceleration. The data of association pulse-changes for all the subjects except Subject VII, which has already been given in the preceding table, are given in table 36. As in table 35, each average represents about 50 pulse-cycles in a corresponding phase of the association experiment. All averages are given in 0.01". The number or letter in the first column designates the series of association words as described in Chapter VI. Inspection of tables 35 and 36 shows that the pulse of all the subjects is accelerated more or less in the post-stimulation phase of the associ- ation experiments. For all subjects, moreover, the post-stimulation pulse-acceleration is greatest on the first normal day. The same kind of adaptation process that appeared conspicuously in the pulse-records of Subject VII appears in the records of all the subjects to some degree. Subjects II, X, and III show a rapid return of the pre-stimulation pulse-length immediately after reaction. The average post-stimulation acceleration of the pulse is shown in table 37, for both the normal and the alcohol experiments, by the aver- PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 207 age decrease in the length of post-stimulation pulse-cycles. For illus- tration, the post-stimulation pulse-acceleration of Subject II on the first normal day is 0.043" for the first period (see table 36), 0.023" for the second, 0.026" for the third, etc. The average of all periods of the first and second normal day for Subject II is 0.023." (See table 37.) From the averages of table 37 it appears that alcohol tends to de- crease the post-stimulation acceleration, though not directly in propor- tion to the dose. This disproportion depends on two cases, Subjects VI and IX. Unfortunately, the lack of records for Subject VI after dose A unbalances the data here and elsewhere in the association-pulse records. Inspection of the individual records shows that the dispro- portionate effect of the doses is not general. Doubtless in these, as in Table 37. — Summary 0/ the post-stimulation acceleration as shown by decreased length of post-stimulation pulse-cycles. [Values in hundredths of a second.] Subject. Averages. Difference (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Normal I and II. Dose A. Dose B. Normal I and II. Dose A. Dose B. II Ill IV VI 2.3 3.3 3.1 8.8 5.8 8.2 3.0 4.9 1.3 -2.5 -0.1 5^1 1.2 3.1 1.3 1.8 2.3 -0.9 8.8 2.1 7.7 S.G 1.1 -0.8 -2.0 2.0 1.6 1.3 -1.2 0.3 5.5 -0.2 1.6 0.8 8.2 1.9 3.0 4.1 1.6 1.6 2.9 4.4 -1.3 vii IX X. Average . . other measurements, the "differences" between the normal of the day and subsequent periods is a better expression of the effect of alcohol than the averages. Both expressions agree in their clear indication of a falling-off in the post-stimulation pulse-acceleration after the ingestion of alcohol. As a contribution to the general theory of association, as well as to the knowledge of the effect of alcohol on the association process, it seemed desirable, if possible, to use our extensive pulse data for a comparison of the other characteristics of the association experiments with the post-stimulation pulse-acceleration. Such a comparison de- manded a measure of the experimental acceleration in each association reaction. In view of the previous discussion of the intercurrent pulse- rhythms, and the statistical treatment of our pulse data in the effort to eliminate these rhythms from the average results, the sources of error which are involved in the attempt to isolate the true experimental changes in each experiment need no new emphasis. While the averages of 50 measurements at each homologous moment in the experiment should give a fairly satisfactory indication of the 208 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. tendency of the pulse during the experiment, the course of the pulse in any single experiment would be subject to all possible accidental disturbances. For example, if the post-stimulation acceleration hap- pened to coincide with the inspiration acceleration it would be too large. Conversely, if it happened to coincide with the expiration depression, it would be too small, perhaps even negative. Fortunately, the experimental rhythm, 10" between stimuU, is quite different from the respiration rhythm, and it seemed possible, consequently, to elabo- rate the data by using the statistical device which is commonly known as the sliding average to eUminate in part the shorter rhythms, while leaving the longer rhythm relatively undisturbed. For example, a supposititious series of pulse-records may be thus elaborated. We maj' suppose a pulse-sequence which shows a respiratory pulse-rhythm cor- responding to the series, 95, 90, 95, 100, 95. If the experimental accel- eration were 10, and the stimulus occurred at 90, the series would read, 95, 90, 85, 90, 85; in which case the apparent post-stimulus acceleration would be only 0.05", or only 50 per cent of the hypothetical acceleration. If, on the other hand, the stimulus coincided with the value 100, the line would read, 95, 90, 95, 100, 85, 90, etc., and the apparent post- stimulation acceleration would be 0.15" or 150 per cent of the hypo- thetical stimulation. The operation of a sliding average of 3 would transform our supposititious pulse-rhythm to 93, 95, 97, 95, and the consequent disturbance of the experimental change occurring at any point would be correspondingly reduced. The pulse data for the Kent-Rosanoff association series, A and B, were elaborated in this way by substituting the sliding average of three for each measured pulse-length. From the elaborated table the post- stimulation accelerations were computed for each experiment. It is these values which are used in the correlation measurements of pulse and association character as described in Chapter IV. It is obvious that such elaboration of the pulse data does not entirely eliminate the lesser rhythm that it mitigates, and that it leaves all of the larger but probably slower and less disturbing rhythms untouched. Each meas- urement, consequently, has a relatively large probable error. But the errors were accidentally distributed, and any regular or close connec- tion between an association category and an exaggerated pulse-accel- eration should appear as a general tendency in the correlation, if it existed. In addition to the effect of alcohol on the post-stimulation pulse- acceleration, our data permit us to study the more general effect of the alcohol doses on the course of the pulse from period to period throughout the 3-hour experimental sessions. A summary of the average duration of the pulse-cycles on normal and on alcohol days is given in the first part of table 38, together with the average differences between the normal of the day and subsequent pulse-cycles. In the second pai't of PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 209 table 38 is shown the effect of dose A and dose B on the average pulse and on the average difference respectively. An inspection of table 38 shows that the general effect of alcohol on the average duration of the pulse-lengths during the 3-hour association experiments is in the direction of pulse-acceleration. The average pulse-cycles are shorter under alcohol than on normal days. In terms of the average differences (1-2, 1-3, etc.), the natural retardation of the pulse in the sequence of the experimental periods is notably dimin- ished by alcohol. The numerical values of these changes after dose A and dose B are given in the columns under the legends, "Effect of alcohol: dose A," Table 38. — Summary of the average length of pulse-cycles during the association experiments [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject, Normal I Alcohol. Effect of alcohol (alcohol —normal). and II. Dose A. Dose B. Dose A. Dose B. Aver- age Aver- age differ- ence. Aver- age. Aver- age differ- ence. Aver- age. Aver- age differ- ence. Aver- age Aver- age diiier- ence. Aver- age. Aver- age differ- ence. II 1,050 797 931 876 816 968 913 907 - 69 -106 -168 -172 - 91 -102 -161 -124 1,018 769 890 + 8 - 79 -152 1,040 872 927 849 728 850 -1- 26 - 59 -114 -173 + 1.4 + 19 - 32 - 28 - 41 -f77 -1-27 -1-16 - 10 -1- 75 - 4 - 27 - 88 -118 + 95 -t- 47 + 54 - 1 + 92 -M21 Ill IV VI VII 799 862 862 867 - 56 - 44 - 88 - 68 - 17 -106 - 51 - 46 -1-35 -1-58 -1-73 -h48 IX IX Average 878 - 50 - 29 -t- 68 'One normal day oijy. and "dose B " respectively. This table shows that the average normal retardation of the pulse in the 3-hour association experiments is 0.048" more than it is after the 30 c.c. dose, and 0.068" more than it is after 45 c.c. dose of alcohol. In each case where there are data for both doses, the effect varies with the dose. In the entire group of data there is only one negative instance, Subject VI. In answer to the question whether alcohol accelerated or retarded the pulse during the association experiments, one must say that while an actual acceleration after the dose of alcohol is only occasional, a relative acceleration is almost universal. In other words, under similar conditions, and in homologous periods of the 3-hour experimental sessions, the pulse is faster after alcohol than on normal days. A comparison of the pulse-lengths of the various periods of the two normal days and after alcohol is given in table 39. The course of the pulse on the first normal day shows a regular retardation from the first to the last period. A comparison of the 210 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. course of the pulse in homologous periods of the first and second normal days shows that the retardation is slightly less in the second normal day, period for period, than it is in the first. The second normal day, moreover, shows a somewhat less regular retardation than the first. Period for period, the alcohol days show less retardation than the normal. As between the different doses of alcohol, the larger dose shows less retardation in homologous periods than the smaller. Table 39. — Differeiurs hidircen the average pulse-lenglh of the first and of each succeeding period. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Nonnal Alcohol. Subject and experiment. Subject and experiment. i 1-2 1-3 ' 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 Normal I: I Dose A: II - 30 - 45 1- 74 - 72 II + 20 + 2.S - 28 + 8 + 7 Ill - 73 - 79 -144 -166 -196 Ill - IS -100 - 99 - 67 -109 IV -118 -109 -189 -229 IV - 89 -152 -164 -207 VI VII 109 114 — 175 — 218 -175 VI - 32 - 48 -112 -125 -1.32 VII - 37 - 13 - 82 - 74 - 76 IX - 86 - 75 -130 -125 IX + 15 - 35 - 57 - 60 - 95 X -128 -122 -193 -207 -176 X - 52 - 92 - 91 - 94 -113 Average - 82 - 95 -145 -163 -170 Average - 26 - 61 - 87 - 82 - 79 Normal II : DoseB: II - 51 - 58 -102 - 84 -123 II + 25 + 32 + 27 - 36 Ill - 22 - 80 -1.57 -112 - 79 Ill - 25 - 52 - 65 - 87 - 66 IV -137 -163 -169 -174 IV - 43 - 81 -119 -212 VI -139 -142 - 85 -201 -216 VI - 82 - 89 -201 -262 -234 VII - 47 - 68 -102 -126 -126 VII + 71 + 39 - 2 - 14 + 25 IX - 56 - 48 -122 -142 -135 IX - 29 - 71 - 40 - 25 - 21 Average - 75 - 93 -140 -140 -136 Average - 22 - 13 - 51 -100 - 66 Total av - 78 - 94 -142 -151 -163 Diff. (A-B)... - 4 - 48 - 36 + IS - 13 Diff. (I -II)... - 7 _ 2 — 5 - 23 - 34 Effect (alcohol —normal). Dose A + 52 + 33 + 55 + 69 + 74 Dose B + 56 + 81 + 91 + 51 + 87 In estimating the degree of probability of these results, it should be remembered that they are based on the measurement of over 12,000 pulse-cycles for each subject, except Subjects X and VI. The large number of data, the consistency of the results, and their direct corre- spondence to the size of the dose satisfy, we believe, the most rigid criteria of experimental evidence for a causal relationship between the ingestion of small doses of alcohol and a relative acceleration of the pulse during the moderate mental activity of the association experiments. It is worth inquiring further whether there is evidence that the rela- tive acceleration has reached its climax within the experimental session. A comparison of the effects of alcohol on the differences (table 39) shows that there is a regularly increasing relative acceleration after dose A PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 211 that is greatest at the end of the session. The evidence is less clear after dose B. But in neither case does it appear clear that a real chmax of the acceleration effect has been reached in the 3-hour session. The question of cause can not be answered from our association-pulse data. These data alone can not even answer the question whether the relative acceleration is a general consequence of the ingestion of alcohol, or a consequence that is peculiar to a special kind of moderate mental activity after taking alcohol. Both of these questions need the addi- tional data from the pulse-records during the other experimental processes. THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE PULSE-RATE DURING WORD- REACTION AND FINGER-MOVEMENT EXPERIMENTS AND ALSO DURING MODERATE MUSCULAR ACTIVITY AND REST. In accordance with our general program (Appendix I) , pulse-records were taken at a variety of homologous points in the course of every experimental session. In the hght of the results, it would doubtless be desirable if these records, like those taken during the association experi- ments, could have been more numerous, or perhaps even continuous. That this was not arranged for was due partly to the enormous addi- tional labor and expense that would have been entailed, partly to the technical difficulties, and partly to the belief that shorter records covering several respiration rhythms at homologous points in the experi- mental session would contain sufficient pulse data to indicate clearly the effect of alcohol on the pulse frequency during the experiments. With respect to continuous records, it is obvious that they would be useful only if homologous moments of the session were clearly indi- cated, and only the records of such moments might be compared. Our "sample" records, as we may call them, are theoretically as adequate as any comparable phases of continuous records could be. The only advantage of continuous records would be that the number of phases could be indefinitely extended. It will be obvious, to all those who have struggled with the difficulties of securing pulse-records during muscular activity, why sphygmo- graphic devices which depend on air transmission were not even con- sidered for the present group of records. The pulse-recording technique first used in these experiments was the Dodge telephone-recorder from the temporal artery, our method I. Later we took electro-cardiograms from body leads through condensers, our method III. Both methods caU for the use of a string galvanometer as a recording instrument. Both methods are equally accurate, but in simpHcity of adjustment, and dependability under all sorts of conditions, we believe that the latter method has no equal for recording the pulse-rate. 212 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. ■I 11 1 5 3 S o i -o ■I g I I ,0 ?3 J2 N a 5 3 o a to M a »< ;> • on I , c3 CO cj fe S.2 J^ d cri d oj . C3 W rt I 9.2 < 3.« 0) C be t . C3 CS r1 ^ ^ n :S oj . (fl 03 H S 9.0 :S CO iC lO C-l lO CO C» CD OJ O OS o> 1 ^ r-r. ro m O »H OS COM 90 Tt C\ CI (N W CI OS CO CI O Ol CO CO X 00 CO cr Cl X t^ o ^ CO CD 't*' ^ O OS O 5 --• 00 b- CC 0= Tt^ Oi CO CO h- t^ t- s s rt 03 r1 *-' ia S > -a -^ _^ cS ca d >-( • i-H t^ lO »o "^ ■to ■ CO -«f o> '^ CO QQ • CX) 00 00 00 00 ■ M CO 00 CO CO b- ■ T+i en ■"-!.-« o o ■ 00 00 Oi 00 Ol 0> r- 00 Ol Oi lO O 00 CO OJ OJ •J 03 ri d S S.2 _s CJCDOli-HOlOOlCC^rHtvOlOOOOO OOT}cD--li-lOtN.OcDCOi-H ^OlOiOJOiOSf-HOOOlOOOli-H aaaaaaaaaaaaaa . .." p,aoiftP.o.p.p,p. •-< -— S a p4 p. p. A p. fOs ft 3 "* 01 CO (M Ol «-H 00 CO Ci C3 o eOOCOiOWOiCOiOb-COCOO-^iNGOTtlt* ^ CD CD CO >-i O O rH <0 1-H 01 r-t CD t^ 10 ,^ OS t^ GO O M O t-.'^OOcD(N^I>Tt<001 QOCDCDlOI-»COCOOCTiO(NTtt-b-l>l>t*b- s a 0. p. a a a a ., ^ p< P( a P( rt to o ifl ^ •*3 ^ OS J3' 8 o ^_ a a a a a ^ Pt p< s^L P( fi rH O lO ■^ IC lO 01 i-H Tt< i-H tP O bO »-t »0 lO CD CD t> 53 aaaaasaaasaaaaas : K;..«dddaftftci(iaiidp^*^*>*>^*>CO0000M0000OlOiCT'OiOlOl !s jam o b fn Si F3 03 na > s J3 . rt 1 3 a M 3 a a > §■ •a •B "S t> ,2 S 0, pq eg >- 2 it ?| b a Mean varia- tion. X M O O O ^ X '0 o 00 CO »C -t Oi »0 X' fc^ CO Oi CD 'r^ ':o CO CD b- •- §•2 (N(N W ^ ^^^,-H^ U) 1 . 03 o3 fl M (H 9 - — -4- IT c" X CD IC to t^ ^^ CD t^ CD Cl ^ CD ^ >0 CD 00 t* Oi N- CO 00 »C lO U5 CO iC lO (N iMU5 *-tO)^r-.-^.-lC^ tC CO CD CC CD CO ^ -f CO i> CO r- ■^ 00 Ol t^ tc <-< *-i O iC --H t^ CO CO t- CD CD t^ CD C 5 0) C o (D^cDOlC^ &^cDt^fCO CO £^ j: X tXD -tt< t* ^ CD (o b- r* c •B 1 =3 i ■ CO I> S ■^ tl CD OS b* ■^ oi ©J .-o oi CO e% rt c3 fl fe 3.2 oc »0 00 CD CD O O Ol CO ■ Do CO ■^ CO - ^ t- t^t- J 3 J, . « .2 3 «) C o 2 > -^ COCOlO»OiOCOI^Ui r- = ■^ bo 1 . OS 00 b- O 00 CS w 4C O CD O O l> 00 00 o o o o ill O »0 W5 -^ 00 O ^- t^ 00 S t^ 00 etj CO b- o ■ ■0 43 ■^ 3S &■ ■01 N >0 M 0) "-1 ■* - < PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 215 to (N u:) o O lO Tji 00 CO t^ 00 CO t> O |> lO ic I> t^ CO t^ i-H CO tC i-H i-S 00 UD U3 00 00 CO 00 t> t~ fO CC i-H CO »0 CO (£i GO CO 00 Oi o^ a> ■^ 5* o l> CO 00 iH t* OJ .-H OS O O Oi ^- 00 CO 00 iM <© CO l^ f-H lO t- Oi CO <0 iC OS O b" Qo 00 b- cq r- ^^ 00 CO Oi 00 O 00 00 ^ (N CO IC i-H 00 CO 00 o o o ^00 t-: M* OS t* CO OS O O 00 saa " ti (i ft oi a O "3 * Si O O « M BBBBB .' ..^ Pi Pi D, d p, '^S s •^^-^fHlCCOOOifl oj •K© .»C'^iHCO'»J j3 ^ ^ o ei (N CO -^ -^ ■* ^ ^^ ft o ^ o s a a s ,, ft ft ft ft CO s ^i o lo »c la (D OT (>) ,-1 lO CO M ^- 1- CO 00 OS §3 a s a a ; ft ft d ft s a a a .. -^ ft ft p, ft — r.£3 ^ to -^j e3 fiO d 03 o o .ah _ a a a a a ^ d D. ft ft d o> a _ 1-1 O O O lO O 05 ^(N O CC O IN M 03 .a ^ .-( ■^ VO lO O CO a^ .Q o » IS 6 > 216 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. ^ g si Mean varia- tion. a, . (u C o -;— a, . 1 1« d (P E o bJD 1 . til g.^d 0) bO 1 . §5.§ 2 o si i . g-cg ill > s a oJ .2 a w2 a 2 Cl CM s?^ 5 CD Mu; t-OiOOt^OlOjOOiX QoQOooxa "S a •c . 8 1 ^ COB 1 a a a a a ; e < aaaaaaaaa: ae j^^dddddddad :..;^dc 1 •-'lOIN-^t-INWCOi-tCObDaj'-'OC = 1 1. c £ 1. 1: <- E 1. c c > u: > PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 217 <3S OS t- O O -^ ■M rH (M (M CO CM OS Ol CD CO I> O U? ^ i-H f-H rH .-H 1-1 M CD O O CO 00 t- l^ l> CD CO b- t^ i> to ^ (N Tjl O CO b. CO t> t> t^ CD C-1 O C<1 G5 O l- CD t^ O Tt< ^ IN I> GO CO lO CM (M fl »45 CO •* O (N Ol >-H CO lO Oi OS 00 ^^ b- i> CD CO CD Oi O CD 00 CD CO CD CD CD o:> o -"^ w t^ t- CDi lO t^ CO Co CD t-- b- b- b- 00 CO •C iCi CD CD CD CD 00 O O O 00 1^ l> O CO ■-! Co CD t- CO CD Oi O CO (N O >0 ©i IC CD CD »-< >-H Co CD CO CD CD CD CO 00 CD 00 CD CD CO t>- CO c-i c:i C)0 b- Ttl ■^ CO Co CD CD CO CO IQ 00 tP b- 00 lO Ob CO Oi CD 05 IC Co I> CD b- CO CO O C^ CO Ol '^ O) CSI •a o o N. 1^ CD C<1 b- K (M (M Ol CO Co CD 1> CO l> O iM O O iM (M CO CO CD «l CD ^ »0 i-H Co O O Ci CJi M5 CD CO ^ >0 O* iC 00 (N 'I* t^ O Oi CO (M O O Co lO b- CD CO CD l> C31 t- 00 •-H lO CD c^ to t^ b- b- t^ -3 tf Ol 00 ■* t^ CI CO »0 CD CO 00 t* 00 I> b- LO ic »o t^ (M 00 00 00 00 O ^ lO CO lO CO Cft 00 00 00 00 t-H Oi CD iQ, CO CD ■^ o: 00 b. t* l> CO ^■* 'tjl rtH lO i-H >-i 00 CO iC b- o od t* l> b- b- 00 a a a Q* fX (X tH CO CO CD a a a 0< d. P< s a a a a ^^fe CO a d (i P. ft i-H a ■ ■^oi 0>»0»00 cu'^i-l'OOlC(NO (D i-HNtOCObOgj _iO(NiCCOObJ) ^^ o3 CO C^ ^ p3 iO»0»OCO S 0»-HTjiiCU5cOI> &J >3 s: > a s a ^ p. d d a a a a a P, d fi Ph P< a a a a a a d d d d d d o ^^ ^r ja 03 (o -ja si 0) (n 218 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. .■§ 1^ ,^ ^ ^ "i ^ a 1 a L a Si o a -a lU C O 01 d w d *-• ^ n J^ (N o o o *^ 00 t^ I^ N ^- I^ 1^ t~ 00 to -H ■* s> « ffl *^ 00 t^ > S 3 S cfl o3 d ^-i *2 o >T3 -*^ vhcD cq CD CO Qd i-H -^ t- Oi ?^ GO t^ t^ 00 00 O 00 ^. iC 05 b- t^ l^ CO ■£> IN »0 ,-^ 5 -I ■I n 1.2 0) u I . Ci C3 rj fe 9.2 -o -^ _^ ©J CO CO !< il QQ ^ ^ ^ lO CD aaa £X P) Pi O C4 U3 «} CO CO ^ e« 16 4 PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 219 ;:3-Tj< CO CO i-H Oi (V Oi O -^ to CD CD b- b» 03 O lO W3 1-H Co Oi b- i-l OS CO CD b- t* t* ©3 rH 00 O i-< CO (N N cq 00 IQ to CO CD CO to U5 Oi >0 O CD Ol i-H CO b- CD CD b- ■^CO (M CD tH ■40 ^ OS CO Co cO b- »i5 CO CJO CO CO f-l b» Co O OS to CO Ms (D lO CD CD }■ y-t -f^ C^ Oi ^ Ci I ^. 00 CO CD b- CD o is. iC -^ GO O to CO *(S CD CO b- b- b- 00 O 00 00 C3 Tj< CO 00 b- b- ^Os CO Q <» ■<*< f^ CD 1^ I> -^ M 00 I> .-H (N ■* r^. i> CO 00 (N r-1 (N CD O 05 ■* (N 00 CO 00 CO ss 00 N Ol b- ©} l-H IC Tjl b- 1* b» b- Oi CD (N i-H O CD CO O X 00 CO CS 05eOi-H -^ Co b» CD b- b- 00 00 a aa a s a a p, p< p« P. a p, »0 CO CO 00 -^ So OS »0 OS lO b* CD t^ b- CO _ a a a a a .. w (i p, p, p, d '70S B 00 t> -^ CO CO v». .-I CD -*! I> b* b- b- 00 b* a a a a a .. A P4 P< P< P< *o CO -OiO Oj ^^COCOiONTt ^OrH'(ifiDCOcDI> g Ocyf-^iOiOCOcO ^ O .. ^ fi p, ft a W 1-1 ID O O lO oj CO lO ■»}< O M es ^il M d, (i o, ft 1-1 »0 »C O lO 0) ..CQ i-( lO so U] Orf3 rt S3 N T* lO lO to Jj IS o S n & ■§ a XJ ^ <« o is ^ 5 ■s -2 01 ■& 5 ■o Is? c3 M O 00 ■c -s a O P. a CD ^ o S J= m ■ a 03 ^ ^ > o s 2 § S HusfS 220 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. .1 t» 00 t> 3 .a o o ■s 3 3 ■^ - 8 « ll 2 f^ fl o 11 --3 eS c3 cj fe 3.2 > XI -^ (N 'I* M O IM (N » t^ 00 S g- as oJ rt ^1 tH ^ S^ s a 0) C o a> o e -H » M t» eo t» 3 ft. a^ E a tf ¥ 3-- *l1 M 1 . OS TO c! SS S.2 S-S S3§ C/C- C^ O M o O O t- "^ CO yj 0> OJ Ol t^ ^ t- O -^ tJI CJ 'X 90 -t O ■-' M 00 X 00 X X X X t^ r- ©1 (N (N CO 01 (O ' (NO-*«00iN»OC0t* i-< 1-1 CO t- lO CO ^ QO CO IC a> oi 00 o o »ja O lO Oi CO CO -^ ■^ O CN »0 CD Oi r-t t^ 00 00 00 X 00 Oi CO r-l CO N >0 CO O O X lO CD 0(NM««oS3l —Trf] rt m _.rj4 eS -J c8 o ° -* u3 ® » t- Jj o o .* lo lo lo !0 >^ CO 00 CO b- CO CD b- O t^ CO t^ 00 CO Tt< (N r:t< O fr* l> t^ 00 05 00 00 Ol 1-1 >-H .-H Ol CO »0 ^- 00 b- t^ 00 O »0 <0 O IN 00 Ol t* CD CO l> l> t* 00 00 €0 lO CD Tt< CO OO I> l> l^ t- 1-H O O lO CO Ol O 00 <0 iM l^ 00 CO l> I> r-l CM (N Tt< CO CO CO o b- i> 00 00 »-H N «-t t- .-( Co (N Oi 03 CO Qq 00 b- 00 GO lo ^ -^ lo in OS Ol CD CO CO t^ l> l> l> 00 It^ i-H O i-l 00 Ol Tj< Oi lO lO f—l OS ^Tj< CO »C CD to CO CO CD CD CO CD CD CD X Ol (N 00 CO CD l> t> ■^CO »0 t> CO b- O W tH i-H ?^ GO t^ t^ 1> CO CO lO '<^ i-H OS (M CO en CD CD t- CO CO CO O O 00 ^ 00 do O 0> lO b- t^ 00 t^ h- b- "^lO to l> 00< >-< O 1-t »H lO b- C<1 i-H i-H CO b- 00 00 05 00 O CO o o r-H lO CO 00 o o ^NrHi-HTH-^iOC to 00 t^ b- r- t~ O CO CO '-< CD f^ t> I-, CO t* i _ 1 i=) o cs .2 d a> E o OS CO lO O CO c^ o - .-H .-« 1-H •9 g (3 O 9 ss.§ CD CO lO CO CO IM r* lO CD t^ -^ OS CO CD CD CD CD CD O ■* 00 Tt< »o Q^ »o Tjf cq -^ r>) CD CD CD O a 1^ to a A ■ a .3 a (U c o w CD OS lO CD t^W O) -H ^ ^ I^O >-l i-H >-* >-« ^H 1 6 1. (D SS.2 00 lO OS lO ■# CD O *0 CO CO (N 00 r^ i> t^ i> i> CD i-H lO lO (N •* Oil (M t^ CO <-< t^ r^ CD CD b- 5 £ -i TTi ^ -H O « a cS a CD > 1 5 a> a 0) M 1 . g S g iC lO -t m ^ CD OS Tj* O l> y> CD CD t"- t- CD CD ;D JN( CC -H CI (M C^ CD -r ro lO (^ CD CD CD CO E33 3 3 a "1 '° e .g i g 1! a § ph a a i . OS .3 a « §-2 to -t t^CJ cq ro CO « ^S ^ ■:;;;:; J ^is a S3 S.2 O t^ CO 5 s 1 > u II « §.2 U3 lO t-t ':D fH -^ CO ■(*< CO CO -s M ^ '^ w ■ • .... ■^ ■•••=■ .... 1 a "3 III (31 O C^ CO CD O (M ^ CO t* t^ I> CO r^ s 3 S 1 o o oi o III CO OS r-l OS -^ C^ i-H (N (N N |;S222 t- Tt- OS r^ M W g 111 (Xl CD lO r~i (N 00 iO CD t^ r* 00 00 CO -^J* CO lO ^.-l CO U3 t^ C30 00 00 Oi lO CN W3 CD QlOSOOCDCO g ft. g i a S522S2 01 U3 ^ MC -^ r-l (N CO?) Tt< OS t^ ^ OS »o U5 rH 1-1 IN tH fH 9:s CO lO OS OC5 >-H T-t i-H 1 1 2 H S <3 iC lO CD t^ « s s s ®3 -^ t^ (N CO w r^ 00 CD tH CO r-l CO <-H lO - t» ». ^ (M -- 3 ■>( 11 b d > < 1 1 E ■* e OS g oo"-! ■g £ c CV E !< C > c If E 1. c »f >• ? s I < a a a a a s ;* (i a 0. d d p, 1 rH.a Ct 1 < 'o -§ a a a a E 1* d a d d c 2 a lo o lo c .m ■* IM ■* - 00 jj 1-1 .H (N CO CO -^ i s 1, 1 < "g a 1 ll PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 223 The particular phases of the experimental sessions during which "sample" pulse-records were taken varied with the experimental series. In the group of experiments, Series I and I a, pulse-records were taken during the finger-movements and during word-reactions. In all cases, "rest" or no activity records were taken after the subject was in posi- tion, but before the experimental process was begun. In the group of experiments. Series II and II a, pulse-records were taken at rest, i. e., sitting in position, immediately after standing, 60" after standing, immediately after two double genuflections, and 60" thereafter. The average length of pulse-cycles under these several conditions at various periods of the experimental session is shown in table 40. A summary of the average pulse-differences during the different experimental processes is given in table 41. Unfortunately, in several instances the data are not complete. This is due to a number of circumstances, but chiefly to our estimate of the relative importance of the main experimental measurements. If a session was overcrowded or if the pulse-recording apparatus failed to function, the main meas- urements were taken without the pulse. The consequent gaps in the data seemed to make it inexpedient to compare the effects of the differ- ent doses on the pulse, except in the pulse-rate of rest and of finger- movement, in which cases the records were more numerous. Table 41. — Pulse data during mental and physical activity— [Values given in thousandths of a second.] -Differences.^ Subject and kind of experiment. Date and periods com- pared. Rest. Word- reac- tion. Finger- move- ments No. 1. Finger- move- ments No. 2. Rising. 60" after rising. 2 genu- flec- tions. 60" after 2 genu- flec- tions. Subject II. Alcohol (dose A) . . Normal Sept. 23, 1913: 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-13 1-14 Average . Dec. 5,1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 Average . Dec. 19,1913: 1-2 1-3 Average. + 61 - 1 + 1 + 12 -135 - 32 - 21 + 3 - 29 - 88 + 12 -130 - 29 -1-142 - 40 + 34 - 3( - 29 - 33 -1- 30 - 14 - 34 + 16 - 3 + 25 + 19 - 32 - 57 -1- 48 - 42 - 46 - 8 - 57 -106 - 92 - 85 + 87 - 49 + 19 + 4 - 25 + 2 - 6 - 18 - 31 - 24 - 37 - 4 - 13 + 50 + 98 + 74 - 77 - 37 - 4 - 39 + 41 + 47 + 44 Alcohol (dose A).. + 25 -1- 50 + 97 -t- 73 'Differences equal periods 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. 224 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Table 41.- -Pulse data during mental and physical activity — Differences'- [Values given in thousandths of a second.] -Continued. Subject and kind of experiment. Date and periods com- pared. Rest. Word- reac- tion. Finger- move- ments No. 1. Finger- move- ments No. 2. Rising. 60" after rising. 2 genu- flec- tions. 60" after 2 genu- flec- tions. Subject II — con. Alcohol (dose B).. Mar. 10, 1914; 1-2 1-3 1-4 Average . Mar. 17, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 Average . Sept. 24, 1913; 1- 2 1-4 1-5 1-6 1- 7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-13 1-14 1-15 + 60 -1- 59 - 15 -1- 35 -105 -296 O -325 -245 -1- 25 + 21 -1- 9 - 17 - 11 - 19 - 35 - 57 - 60 - 67 - 32 - 41 - 32 - 35 -1- 18 - 31 - 98 -119 - 57 + 5 - 33 - H - 12 + 2 -138 + 18 -t- 22 + 20 - 8 Subject III. Alcohol (dose A) . . Normal - 59 - 65 - 85 -106 -142 -153 -190 -214 -193 -140 -165 -234 -228 -230 -239 -216 -184 - 81 -121 -195 (^) -220 -201 -164 1-16 Average . Oct. 1, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 Average . Jan. 19, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 - 62 - 21 - 49 -108 -241 -249 -313 -262 -204 -1- 34 -fl80 -1- 49 + 145 + 50 + 19 + 71 - 35 - 65 -106 - 66 - 1 - 54 - 68 + 49 - 78 - 32 - 97 - 48 - 6 -164 - 20 - 67 - 46 -164 - 33 - 81 + 9 - 16 - 91 - 6 - 6 - 21 - 77 -178 -138 -130 - 9 - 24 - 90 + 7 -'29' Alcohol (dose A) . . Alcohol (dose B) . . Normal Average . Jan. 26, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1^ 1-5 1-6 Average . Feb. 9, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 Average . Mar. 9, 1914: 1-2 1-3 Average . -H07 + 45 - 45 + 116 - 28 - 40 + 9 - 83 - 94 - 7 - 61 -147 -281 -214 -1- 49 + 3 + 3 - 50 - 69 - 56 - 58 - 14 - 79 - 46 - 39 - 87 - 13 - 45 - 63 -144 - 81 -112 - 29 -100 - 60 - 80 'Differences equal periods 1—2, 1-3, 1-4, etc.. ^Record illegible. PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 225 Table 41.- -Pulse data during mental and physical activity — Differences'^ — Continued. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject and kind of experiment. Date and periods com- pared. Rest. Word- reac- tion. Finger- move- ments No. 1. Finger- move- ments No. 2. Rising. 60" after rising. 2 genu- flec- tions. 60" after 2 genu- flec- tions. Subject IV. Alcohol (dose A) . . Sept. 27, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 Average . Oct. 2, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 Average . Jan. .30, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 Average . Feb. 13, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 Average . Mar. 19, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 Average . Oct. 7, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-A 1-5 Average . Oct. 14,1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 Average . Oct. 22, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 Average . Oct. 29, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 - 51 - 59 -113 - 88 - 78 - 60 -179 -246 -162 - 9 -t- 26 - 79 - 20 - 3 -114 -225 -114 - 96 -114 -185 -1- 10 -104 -1- 66 + 42 + 19 -f 89 + 54 + 74 -1- 91 + 38 + 80 - 11 + 54 -123 - 48 - 10 -117 -120 -103 -154 - 85 - 95 - 20 + 16 -1- 29 + 7 + 48 - 39 - 99 - 93 -134 - 91 -104 - 18 - 38 -191 - 82 - 63 - 35 - 83 - 60 + 8 - 78 + 28 - 14 -1- 54 - 39 - 74 - 19 Normal -220 -239 -221 -226 - 77 - 44 - 40 - 53 Alcohol (dose B).. - 39 - 74 -138 -150 -120 - 22 - 64 - 65 -125 - 69 - 5 - 72 - 49 (') (') - 14 - 14 - 76 - 18 -100 Subject VI. Nnrrpfil - 42 + 4 - 41 - 18 - 65 Alcohol (dose A) . . Normal Alcohol (dose A).. 'Differences equal periods 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. ''Record illegible. 226 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Table 41. -Pulse data during mental and physical aclivily — Differences^ — Continued. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject and kind of experiment. Date and periods com- pared. Rest. Word- reac- tion. Finger- move- ments No. 1. Finger- move- ments No. 2. Rising. 60" after rising. 2 genu- flec- tions. 60" after 2 genu- flec- tions. Subject VI — con. Alcohol (dose A) — con. Normal Alcohol (dose A) . . Normal Alcohol (dose A). Alcohol (doseB).. AIcohol(doseB).. Alcohol (dose A).. Subject VII. (let. 29, 1913: 1- 7 1- S . . . 1-9 1-10 Average , Nov. 5, 1913; 1-2 1-3 Average . Nov. 12, 1913; 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 Average . Nov. 19, 1913; 1-2 1-3 Average . Dec. 2, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-^ 1-5 Average . Jan. 22, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 Average . Jan. 28, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 Average . Feb. 12, 1914: 1-2 1-3 Average . Oct. 8,1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 Average . Oct. 8, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1^ 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 Average . -1-133 + 14 -1-108 -1-135 + 52 + 50 - 10 -t- 20 - 27 - 17 - 5 -1- 13 - 9 -1- 86 -1- 95 + 90 -1-120 -1- 97 4-109 4-162 -(-122 + 30 -f- 80 -1- 60 -1- 39 + 13 -1- 44 -1- 71 -1- 31 -1-111 -204 -t- 2 - 74 - 37 -101 -no -177 -129 - 69 - 76 -122 - 82 + 4 -164 - 76 - 83 - 22 -22 -1- 6 + 40 + 41 + 44 + 33 - 43 + 1 - 72 - 3 -t- 40 - 15 -1- 29 + 53 + 41 - 17 - 81 - 99 - 94 - 73 - 1 - 9 - 5 - 32 - 62 -1- 8 + 20 - 16 - 21 - 34 - 33 -1- 19 + 14 - 11 - 14 + 89 -1- 37 -101 - 21 -1- 19 - 9 - 28 -1- 34 + 26 -t- 30 + 86 + 89 -1- 58 -1- 43 -1- 69 - 21 - 39 + 25 -1- 23 + 33 -1- 4 -M13 -H113 + 51 - 49 - 15 - 60 - 18 - 22 - 20 - 21 - 24 - 22 - 13 - 9 - 17 -f- 7 -166 - 20 - 2 - 5 - 37 - 62 - 62 - 6 -1- 6 + 6 - 44 - 9 - 95 - 38 - 66 -1- 7 + 13 + 10 + 42 -t- 8 -109 - 19 -1- 28 - 20 + 4 -130 Alcohol (dose A) . . -130 'Differences equal periods 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. 'Record illegible. PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 227 Table 41. — Pulse data during mental and physical activity — Differences^ — Continued. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject and kind of experiment. Date and periods com- pared. Rest. Word- reac- tion. Finger- move- ments No. 1. Finger- move- ments No. 2. Rising. 60" after rising. 2 genu- flec- tions. 60" after 2 genu- flec- tions. Subject VII — con. Alcohol (dose A).. Alcohol (dose A) . . Alcohol (dose A) . . Alcohol (doseB)., Normal Oct. 15, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1^ 1-5 1-6 1-7 Average . Nov. 11, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 Average . Dec. 3, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 Average . Mar. 13, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 Average . Mar. 20, 1914: 1-2 1-3 l-A Average . Oct. 10, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1^ 1-5 Average . Oct. 20, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 Average . Oct. 27,1913: 1-2 1-3 l-A 1-5 1-6 1-7 Average . Nov. 10, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-^ Average . - 47 - 1 - 38 -117 -203 -166 - 95 -1- 42 - 21 - 63 + 81 + 9 + 31 - 16 - 95 - 28 - 27 + 42 + 21 + 31 + 31 - 90 -115 -100 -101 - 30 -1- 48 -136 -124 - 60 - 55 - 80 -114 -121 -151 -169 -115 - 75 - 47 - 56 -119 - 80 -104 - 80 - 61 - 84 -123 - 89 - 81 - 71 -209 -130 -179 -253 -154 -1- 38 - 68 + 48 -t- 13 + 8 - 38 - 25 - 83 - 69 - 54 - 50 - 14 - 37 - 62 - 40 + 38 + 12 + 42 + 53 + 36 - 59 - 66 - 58 -119 - 75 + 20 + 1 - 14 - 47 - 10 - 28 -113 - 53 -129 - 80 + 16 - 31 - 19 - 11 - 57 - 53 - 92 - 67 - 4 + 5 - 42 - 4 - 89 - 40 - 24 - 51 - 94 -162 -134 -1- 78 - 78 - 15 + 32 + 18 -1- 8 + 50 -1- 44 + 23 - 18 -1- 63 - 45 - 71 - 18 Subject IX. Alcohol (dose A) . . Normal + 59 - 17 - 13 + 9 -122 -221 -155 -166 - 79 - 71 - 96 - 82 'Differences equal periods 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. 228 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Table 41. — Pulse data during mental and physical acliviiy — Differences^ — Continued [Values given in thousandths of a second. Subject and kind of experiment. Date and periods com- pared. Rest. Word- reac- tion. Finger- move- ments No. 1. Finger- move- ments No. 2. Rising. 60" after rising. 2 genu- flec- tions. 60" after 2 genu- flec- tions. Subject IX — con. Alcohol (dose A) . . Nov. 17, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 Average . Nov. 24, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-1 Average . Dec. 1, 1913: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 + 58 - 86 - 25 -1- 10 - 10 -1- 23 - 85 -155 - 72 - 14 + 85 -1- 58 -t- 4 + 14 - 2 - 20 - 1 - 10 - 43 -103 - 52 - 29 -1- 49 -1- 27 -1- 58 + 26 - 1 -101 - 73 - 58 + 39 -1- 70 - 36 -1- 18 - 2 - 33 - 99 - 80 - 53 - 18 - 18 -100 - 45 -f- 43 -1- 26 -1- 61 -1- 69 + 49 - 70 -172 -123 -161 -131 -1- 16 - 5 - 60 - 16 - 99 - 79 - 50 -132 - 90 - 35 Alcohol (dose A) . . Alcohol (doseB).. Alcohol (dose B).. Subject X. + 15 - 10 Average . Jan. 21, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1^ 1-5 1-6 1-7 Average . Jan. 29, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 Average . Feb. 11,1914: 1-2 1-3 1^ Average . Feb. 18, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 Average . Mar. 11, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 Average . Mar. 18, 1914: 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 Average . + 43 - 41 -1- 29 - 86 - 62 - 92 + 13 -39.8 - 41 -1- 5 - 70 - 49 - 36 -1- 10 - 1 - 52 - 14 - 81 - 64 - 19 - 55 -h 24 - 31 -1- 18 -1- 80 -1-112 -1- 40 -1- 50 -1- 39 -1- 17 + 36 + 35 - 33 - 66 -1- 25 - 34 - 1 - 22 - 13 - 9 + 18 -t- 47 - 83 - 8 - 72 - 81 -f- 39 - 46 - 4 - 33 -t- 6 - 9 -t- 10 - 74 - 46 - 23 - 60 -127 -133 -107 - 68 -120 -109 - 99 - 49 - 40 -140 - 15 - 61 - 37 - 53 - 77 - 56 - 90 - 20 - 18 -t- 29 -1- 2 - 1.7 Alcohol (dose A).. Normal - 96 - 90 - % - 50 - 9 -1- 20 + 14 -1- 29 + 0.8 -1- 36 + 61 + 70 + 50 -t- 54 - 47 - 31 - 27 - 16 + 22 - 19 - 4 -1- 46 -1- 59 + 7 + 27 + 23 + 11 -1- 33 - 16 -1- 10 - 34 - 28 - 4 + 5 - 15 - 33 - 1 -f- 18 - 5 - 39 - 6 - 3 -1- 14 + 59 - 6 + 16 Alcohol (dose A) . . -f- 4 -1- 17 -f- 34 -1- 68 + 17 'Differences equal periods 1-2, 1-3, 1—4, etc. PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 229 Probably the most insistent impression from a casual inspection of table 41 will be the enormous variability of the pulse in the same indi- vidual under what might appear to be identical conditions. In the case of Subject II, for example, the normal rest-pulse has an average difference in one case (December 5) of -|-34 and in the other case (March 17) of —245. No changes due to the effect of alcohol exceed this change on different normal days. It might seem that out of such chaotic data nothing could be learned. But the data are not so chaotic as they might seem at the first uncritical glance. If one refers to the other average normal differences for Subject II (December 5 and March 17) which are given in table 41, it will be noted that the rest- pulse differences of +34 and —245 belong to quite different series of experiments. The former corresponds to an experimental series which included the relatively vigorous muscular activities which are involved in rising from the steamer-chair, standing, and the double genuflections. The latter corresponds to an experimental series in which there was a minimum of physical activity. We would not deny that there is large, even gross, variability in the pulse differences under what were intended to be similar circumstances. It was something of a revelation to us that apparently similar conditions could be so different. But the accidental variations are only a small fraction of the apparent variations which are really due to the differences in the experimental series. In view of these differences, it may be questioned if we are not com- mitting a gross statistical blunder by combining into a single table results which developed under such various conditions. In answer, let us insist that, except in rare instances, normal and alcohol data both appear for each set of conditions. Since data from each set of condi- tions are obviously directly comparable with respect to the effect of alcohol, when the different sets of conditions are added together the alcohol differences will not thereby disappear or be quantitatively changed. One will merely average the changes due to alcohol which occurred in the rest-pulse of all the experimental series. We have a right to assume that the effects, which result from differences in the experimental series, will balance. Changes which are due to accidental disturbances would also tend to balance the more completely the greater the number of instances. The changes which represent the real ten- dency of alcohol should therefore most clearly appear in the total averages of all the results which were obtained under all the different sets of homologous conditions. An inspection of the general averages of the differences given in the extreme right-hand column of table 42 shows that in this group of experimental circumstances, just as in the association experiments, there was a gradual retardation of the pulse during the 3-hour session. On normal days this retardation averaged greatest in the finger-move- ment experiment, and least in the more violent muscular activities. 230 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Apparently standing and the genuflections are accompanied by about the same pulse-rate at the end as at the beginning of a 3-hour session. It is undoubtedly owing to the interplay of these same physical activi- ties that the average retardation in the normal rest-pulse of these experiments is approximately one-third of what it was in the associa- tion experiments which were free from violent physical activity. Notwithstanding this difference in the experimental conditions, it is conspicuous that in every case the average retardation after alcohol is Table 42. — Summary 0} average pulse differences.' [Values given in thousandthB of a second.] Conditions. Subject II. Subject Subject Subject III. IV. VI. Subject VII. Subject IX. Subject Aver- X. age. Rest: Normal . . + 34 -245 +107 -204 -214 -162 -104 - 20 + 20 + 90 + 54 - 95 - 9 + 122 + 54 - 37 + 44 + 2 - 62 -129 -101 -'95' - 83 + 9 - 27 + 31 - 67 - 60 - 80 - 89 - 72 -115 - 10 + 43 - 14 + 40 "-'55' + 35 -62 -18 }-« )-- -73 ,-™ >-23 1- }-' -32 }-» j-37 - 9 -22 Dose A Dose B Word-reaction : Normal Alcohol Finger-movements : Normal - 33 - 29 + 9 - 21 - 78 + 35 - 61 -114 - 36 - 40 - 10 -107 + 25 - 57 + 73 - 35 - 65 - 66 ' - " 8 - 46 - 58 - 69 - 39 -120 + 10 - 11 - 99 + 17 - 56 -164 - 80 -112 -184 - 82 - 42 - 65 -104 - 18 "+"4 - 66 - 19 - 09 + 113 - 21 - 18 - 37 - 22 - 15 + 33 + 41 - 5 - 73 - 16 - 11 + 37 + 30 - 28 + 4 + 69 -130 - 51 - 18 -154 - 78 + 23 - 90 - 96 + 1 ■+■54' - 19 + 27 + 10 - 15 - 6 + 16' Dose B Rising : Normal ....... - 12 - 20 - 85 - 63 - 29 + 71 - 14 -226 - 4 - 18 ■+"8' - 54 ■■_-40' + 36 - 75 - 10 - 80 - 61 - 2 + 9 - 52 - 1 - 22 - 58 + 18 - 8 -166 - 45 - 53 - 33 + 49 - 82 - 16 -131 - 23 - 90 + 19 - 54 60" after rising: - 6 - 24 - 32 - 67 - 53 2 genuflections: Normal - 13 - 81 - 60 - 14 Alcohol 60" after 2 genuflections: + 74 - 21 - 39 -130 - 19 + 44 - 29 'Differences equal periods 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 231 less than on normal days, just as it was in the association experiments. In the wide variety of mental and muscular activities which are repre- sented by these measurements, making very different demands on the heart, the effect of alcohol is always in the same direction. Individual exceptions to the rule are more numerous than in the association experiments, but they are negligible in view of the uniform tendency in the averages. The greatest average relative acceleration effect of alcohol appears in the rest-pulse, where it is 5.3 per cent of the average length of the pulse-cycles.^ After standing quietly for 60" subsequent to the double genuflection experiment, the average accelerating effect of alcohol is least, being 0.8 per cent. Between these two extremes the order of effect is 4.1 per cent for the double genuflections; 3.2 per cent for the finger-movements; 3.1 per cent for the standing rest subsequent to the rising; 2.4 per cent for the word-reactions; and 2.2 per cent for the rising. The average effect of alcohol in all these experiments is 3 per cent of the normal pulse-cycles. An indication of the relative demands of the various experimental processes on the pulse is shown in the summary of the normals of the day for each of the experiments. (See table 43.) From a comparison of the averages of table 43, it appears that the word-reactions accelerate the pulse 1.1 per cent; finger-movements 9.3 per cent; rising 21.6 per cent; two double genuflections, 18.5 per cent; while 60" after rising and the genuflections the acceleration is shghtly less than 1 1 per cent in both cases. The word-reaction acceleration is conspicuously less than that of muscular work; it appears to be less also than the acceleration of the association measurements. These latter values are, however, not strictly comparable, since the word- reaction pulse was not correlated with the process of reacting, as was the association acceleration. We were content in the former case with the average pulse of the experimental process. The amount of experimental acceleration bears no fixed relation to the percentile effect of alcohol in the several instances. The dispro- portion is greatest and probably also the most significant in the pulse- accleration 60" after the more violent muscular activities of rising and the double genuflections. We would not imply that our data in this respect are numerous enough or sufficiently followed up by related experiments to be conclusive, but taken together with other data they form part of the cumulative evidence that the effect of alcohol on the pulse-changes incident to physical as well as to mental work manifests itself in a slowness or sluggishness of response. In the association 'The percentile average relative acceleration of the pulse effected by alcohol is calculated from the data of tables 42 and 43. For example: the normal rest retardation of the pulse during the three hours experiment averages 0.062" (table 42) ; the alcohol retardation under similar circum- stances averages 0.0175", giving a relative acceleration of 0.0445", or 5. .3 per cent of the average normal of the day pulse during rest as given in table 43. 232 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Table 43. — Summary of the average duration 0/ the pulse-cycles during each of the experimental processes for the first period or normal of the day. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject. Rest. Word- reac- tion. Finger. Rising. 60" after rising. 2 genu- flec- tions. 60" after genu- flec- tions. II. . Ill ... . IV... . VI ... . VII .. . IX. .. X . . Average . 1,087 980 1,030 961 985 971 888 860 760 759 687 743 798 835 837 797 809 881 794 787 872 867 901 788 875 827 858 851 814 930 717 634 703 655 675 795 818 735 748 700 839 829 1,001 906 786 906 940 745 931 888 815 817 783 836 801 835 968 898 927 861 962 865 691 848 884 800 585 942 944 815 665 611 862 848 784 612 580 958 952 886 690 675 969 853 765 680 805 780 890 870 671 506 677 772 820 786 860 814 736 617 810 778 806 847 778 784 738 677 582 577 602 600 683 709 695 666 689 673 638 625 629 657 766 726 690 690 715 726 749 747 643 590 626 728" 809 577 730 802 644 568 565 683 660 774 649 719 655 654 731 782 860 656 562 561 698 719 804 663 602 690 662 668 743 786 719 616 727 820 843 1,061 728 746 771 832 808 870 809 669 654 . . . . 695 702 675 708 721 745 676 620 681 745 740 744 799 826 ' '757' ' PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 233 experiments this was shown in a flattening out of the experimental change after alcohol. In the pulse-acceleration of physical work the effect of alcohol is greater immediately after the exercise; 60" later it is conspicuously less. CAUSE OF THE RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF THE PULSE AFTER ALCOHOL. While a positive acceleration of the pulse after the ingestion of alcohol is found only occasionally in the succeeding periods of our experimental sessions, relative acceleration is, as we have seen, almost universal. By relative acceleration we mean a more rapid pulse than occurs at homolo- gous periods of normal days. It seems possible that some part of the discrepancies in the literature which we cited in the first section of this chapter, with respect to the effect of alcohol on the pulse-rate of both man and animals, results from a confusion between positive and relative acceleration. In the ordinary course of investigation it requires especial and insistent emphasis on normal experiments to detect relative acceleration. In operative techniques it is often difficult if not impracticable to secure homologous normal experiments in sufficient number for the detection of relative changes. Even when practicable it often seems like a waste of material. But where the alcohol effects are small and necessarily superposed on normal or other experimental rhythms, we believe that our data show the value of careful comparative treatment. To indicate a probable partial cause in the discrepancies of traditional data we believe to be almost as useful as direct data in our attempt to solve the alcohol problem. Other and more significant causes of dis- crepancy will appear in the following discussion. In our experiments at least, relative acceleration of the pulse occurs in greater or less degree in all subjects as a part of the effect of alcohol on the pulse during a considerable variety of mental and physical activities. The large number of our records and the variety of the processes permit us to make the following generalization: A regular effect of moderate doses of alcohol on temperate non-abstainers during intermittent mental and physical activity is a relative acceleration of the pulse. The fact is quite unequivocal in our records, but it consti- tutes a clear exception to our other experimental results. In no other case have we found consistent increase of a function as a result of the ingestion of alcohol. The cause of the relative acceleration of the pulse after alcohol thus becomes a question of considerable theoretical importance. As is well known there are two reciprocating mechanisms that determine the rate of heart-contraction. The classical paper of Reid Hunt^ is generally credited with the demonstration that increased pulse-rate after the beginning of muscular activity is commonly produced by a depression of the heart inhibitor as well as by a stimulation of the accelerator. 'Hunt, Am. Journ. PhysioL, 1899, 2, p. 395. 234 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Practically it might make no difference whether a given acceleration was produced by one mechanism or the other; but for the theory of the effect of alcohol on neuro-muscular tissue it is of the utmost importance whether or not the autonoinic system reacts in a directly opposite way to that of the cerebro-spinal. For theoretical reasons we are under obligations to ask the bearing of our data on the question whether the pulse-acceleration as effected by alcohol is due to a positive stimulation of the cardiac accelerator or to a partial paralysis of the cardiac in- hibiting mechanism. In the conflicting answers of traditional experiments to the funda- mental direction of the effect of alcohol on the human pulse, it is not surprising that there is scant experimental evidence with respect to the origin of that effect. Dixon/ Reid Hunt,^ and Lauder Brunton' hold that in view of the reflex acceleration of the heart from the stimu- lation of various afferent nerves, the acceleration of the heart by alcohol is a reflex of the vasomotor center to the local irritation of the mouth and stomach. But apparently the evidence for this view is indirect rather than direct. Our own data can not be harmonized with this hypothesis. If the relative acceleration were a reflex to local irritation, it should be most pronounced soon after the ingestion of alcohol, and should gradually decrease as the alcohol is absorbed. Our association data, on the contrary, show a relatively small effect in the first half hour and a gradually increasing relative acceleration up to the end of the 3-hour experimental session, when the alcohol by absorption and dilution may be supposed to have lost a large part or all of its effect on the stomach-walls as a local irritant. Hascovec* found with dogs that atropin, which specifically paralyzes the vagus endings in the heart, increases heart-rate after alcohol. But even that, if it were conclusively demonstrated for humans, would hardly answer our question. The observations of Reid Hunt" on the differential effect of accel- erator and inhibitor mechanisms on the relative length of systole and diastole give us the only non-operative technique which is commonly accepted as proving the involvement of either of the two heart-regu- lating systems. Hunt found that after stimulating the accelerator both diastole and systole decrease together, while as a result of the loss of vagus tone the chief loss is in diastole. In this manner he proved that chloral, chloroform, and ether affect chiefly the cardio-inhibitory center, and seem to have but little effect on the accelerator center. The chief difficulty in applying the method of Hunt to ordinary sphyg- mograms is the indistinctness and uncertainty of the separation between systole and diastole, which is incident to the interaction of the natural 'Dixon, Journ. Physiol., 1907, 35, p. 340. 'Hunt, Am. Journ. Phyaiol., 1899, 2, p. 395. ^Brunton, Therapeutics of the Circulation, London, 1914, p. 17,s. 'Haacovee, Wiener med. Wchnsch., 1909, 59, p. 457. PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 235 period of the registering system, as well as to the broadness of the dicrotic notch. Fortunately the Dodge temporal-pulse recorder, in series with the string galvanometer, gave sphygmograms which are pecuUarly adapted to the differentiation of systole and diastole. Not only is the string galvanometer an aperiodic recorder, but the form of the pulse-wave is such as to emphasize the beginning of systole and the dicrotic incisure. Without going into the details of the construction and operation of the recorder, let us recapitulate its principles. The string galvanometer is affected by minute electric currents which are generated in a telephone- receiver, when the little armature which rests on the artery moves towards or away from the permanent magnet of the receiver. The action of the armature on the field of the receiver and consequently on the string of the galvanometer depends on the speed and direction of its movement. If the armature is at rest or moves only slowly, as in the systolic plateau, the string returns to its zero-point, from which it moves in the opposite direction at the beginning of the dicrotic incisure. A pulse-record from this instrument consists chiefly of a large systoHc spike and a small inverted spike at the dicrotic notch, as represented by a specimen record in figure 29 (opposite page 171). The only Umitations to the accurate reading of such records are their length and the care of the reader; the points are clearly enough marked to read thousandths of a second. In the records at our disposal, however, the speed of the photographic paper was adjusted for reading not closer than 0.005". Pursuant to the theory of Hunt, a number of our temporal-pulse records were re-read with reference to the relative length of systole and diastole. The records that we happened to read first were those of Subject III and they will serve very well as an illustration. Three records from the normal rest pulse of Subject III on March 9 gave the following averages: 5^ 00" p. m. Av. systole 313 55 36 ,2, 25 38 57 18 27 31 57 25 47 40 38 41 46 44 61 67 66 49 34 34 82 50 47 39 37 32 30 69 40 33 62 28 21 49 "49" 35 24 34 31 40 53 37 39 45 19 31 32 Dose A . . . 46 42 26 11 13" 12 10 Dose B Rising: Normal Alcohol 33 77 125 37 29 62 20 52 H31) 41 43 40 12 23 65 43 63 21 17 14 28 18 17 22 184 15 90 19 12 23 19 16 16 60" after rising; Normal 34 30 59 22 H40) Alcohol 2 genuflections: 231 18 38 24 49 34 14 31 23 24 25 14 39 25 22 77 30 17 25 25 29 37 10 12 13 13 81 10 60" after 2 genuflections: Normal 56 40 Alcohol 27 28 'Bracketed normal mean variations had no corresponding alcohol measurements and are conse- quently excluded from the averages. 238 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. This change was so marked and consistent in this subject, and in several others that were sampled, that we reviewed the whole pulse data to collect the mean variations of the pulse-cycles of each record. The pulse-changes that commonly occur within the limits of our 12" records are on the one hand the respiration rhythms, and on the other hand such arrhythmic changes as are produced by the experimental processes. In both cases the long cardio-accelerator latency obviously precludes the accelerator mechanism from participation in these short rhythmic and arrhythmic changes in the pulse frequency. Consistent change in the mean variation of the pulse or its absence seemed to us to be a most important indicator of the responsiveness of the cardio-inhibitor mechanism. The relevant data are collected in table 44 and sum- marized with respect to the influence of alcohol in table 45. Table 45. — Summary of the effect of alcohol on the mean variation of the ■pulse-cycles. Condition. Effect of alcohol as shown by the mean variation. Percentase effect. Rest; Dose A ... Dose B Word-reaction. ... Finger-movements ; Dose A Dose B Rising (T rr Decreased from 35 . 5 to 21 . 5 Decreased from 35 . 5 35 . 4 Decreased from 41 32 Increased from 46 48 Decreased from 46 40 Decreased from 54 44 Decreased from 29 19 Decreased from 55 36 Decreased from 29 25 p. ct. 40 22 - 4 13 18 33 35 13 19 60" after rising . Genuflections 60" after genuflections .... Average decrease Notwithstanding large individual variations, and considerable vari- ability in records from the same individual, which foUow inevitably from the varying conditions under which the records were taken, the average changes, which alone are significant, indicate a persistent tendency for alcohol to diminish the mean variation of the pulse-cycles within the limits of our "sample" records. In only one instance, finger-movements after dose A, is the average mean variation larger after alcohol than on the normal days, and in this case the percentile change is conspicuously small. The average decrease in the mean variation of the pulse-cycles after alcohol is 19 per cent. It should be noted that these percentages are based on the entire pulse-cycle, and not on the diastole, as in the discussion of the relative changes in systole and diastole of Subject III. It may be held that the smaller mean variation after alcohol is due to the relative acceleration of the pulse after alcohol. This could not explain it. The changes in mean variation are absolute, not relative, and occur even in those cases in which there is no absolute acceleration. Moreover, the average acceleration was only 3 per cent (p. 231), while the average decreased mean variation is 19 per cent. The decreased PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 239 mean variation of the pulse-cycles after alcohol must consequently be regarded as a real effect of alcohol. The bearing of this fact on the evidence for alcoholic partial paralysis of the heart inhibitory mechanism depends on the previously discussed difference between the latency of inhibitor and accelerator. Let us repeat: Accelerator latency is 10" and over; inhibitor latency is less than 1". Consequently the first response of the heart to increased muscular activity with a latency of less than one pulse-cycle is not an accelerator impulse, but a release of the heart from the inhibitory influence of the vasomotor centers. Similarly, normal respiratory pulse-rhythms follow expiration and inspiration within one pulse-cycle. Inspiration, the active phase of respiration, accelerates the heart with a latent time of less than 1". Expiration retards the pulse with a similar latent time. Such latency corresponds with the known latency characteristic of the vagus, and fixes the respiratory rhythm as a function of the inhibitory mechanism. The accelerator latency of 10" absolutely precludes its participation in the pulse-changes correspond- ing to our experimental processes, or to the respiratory rhythms of rest. The flattening out of the respiratory and experimental rhythms after alcohol is consequently due to a partial paralysis of the inhibitor. It might be objected that some other influences could produce the same effect, as, for example, decreased depth of respiration. Such a change in the respiration would be the exact opposite of that found by Wilmanns^ and Weissenfeld.^ Unfortunately, our respiratory data are too few to give us any clue to the situation. But even if it were proved to exist, such a far-reaching flattening-out of respiration would be as significant as the changes in the pulse. Instead of one being referred to the other, doubtless both would have to be referred to a common cause. Moreover, the pulse-changes after experimental move- ments and other definite amounts of physical activity give us a clear guarantee that we are not dealing with a mere accident of modified respiration. The pulse-changes at the beginning of physical work have a latency that shows them to be due to changes in the vagus tone. And these work accelerations suffer even greater loss after the ingestion of alcohol than the respiratory rhythm of rest. It should be noted that the inhibitor paralysis as affected by 30 and 45 CO. of alcohol is not complete, but only partial. Even after 45 c.c. of alcohol, increased activity still produced a faster pulse. This is in line with other experimental facts. Gutnikow^ showed that the vagus could be stimulated by electricity in alcoholic narcosis; but in our experiments the accelerating effect of muscular action is less after alcohol, and the decreased mean variation indicates that its beginning is more sluggish. The whole pictm-e of the effect of alcohol on the iWilmanns, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1897, 66, p. 167. ^Weiasenfeld, Archiv f. d. gea. Physiol., 1898, 71, p. 60. 'Gutnikow, Zeitsohr. i. klin. Med., 1892, 21, p. 168. 240 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. depressor corresponds point for point with the effect of alcohol on the reflex mechanisms of the cord and basal ganglia. The extent of the reflex response was lessened and the latent time was lengthened. Hence it should not surprise us that the cardio-inhibitory reflexes of the medulla show similar effects of alcohol. The question as to why alcohol in moderate doses acts selectively on the heart inhibitor rather than on the accelerator is one that properly belongs to general physiology rather than to this investigation. It may be noted, however, that alcohol in this respect, as in others, appears to follow its pharmacological relatives, ether and chloroform (Hunt^). Moreover, it seems that the inhibitor is in general more susceptible to disturbing influences than the accelerator. It acts quicker and re- sponds to less vigorous stimuli (Hunt,^ Aulo,^ Krogh and Lindhard^). But we expressly limit our generalizations as to the effect of alcohol on pulse frequency to the dosage and other conditions of our experiments. There is, indeed, some probabihty that the curve which represents a direct proportion between the dose and pulse frequency for 30 and 45 c.c. would follow the same direction above and below these limits. But our actual data are hmited to our two doses; and theoretically there is no guarantee that a cusp in the curve or a change in its direc- tion might not occur at any point. In fact, Dixon^ definitely voices a common conviction that in the qualitative pulse-changes produced by different doses, alcohol is unique. Moreover, if alcohol is a general depressant, as our evidence shows, there is no reason why it should not also partially paralyze the cardio-accelerator as well as the cardio- inhibitor mechanism. Indeed certain of our results, viz, the relatively large loss in rhythmic, respiratory, and experimental changes in the pulse variability, as compared with the slight acceleration changes, suggest that the effects of a decreased irritabihty of the cardio-inhibitory center are contaminated, even in our data, bj' a decreased accelerator tone. That under our experimental circumstances the inhibitor mechanism suffers the greater depression seems to be clear from our data. But different circumstances might supposedlj^ alter the balance of the effects in the two systems so as to produce no change at all in the pulse-rate or even to produce a pulse retardation instead of an accel- eration after alcohol. Something of that sort apparently happened in the case of Subject IV in the association-pulse after dose B. The commonly accepted doctrine that alcohol retards the pulse of fever patients may be another case to the point. Mosso and Galeotti^ remarked the similarity of the alcohol pulse to the fever pulse. It seems plausible that if the cardio-inhibitor center has already been notably depressed before the alcohol is given, its further depression 'Hunt, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1899, 2, p. 395. 'Aulo, Skand. Archiv f. Physiol., 1911, 25, p. 347. =Krogh and Lindhard, Journ. Physiol., 1913, 47, p. 120 (esp.). 'Dixon, Journ. Physiol., 1907, 35, p. 346. 'Mosso and Galeotti, Lab. Soi. Int. du Mont Rosa, 1903. (Published 1904.) PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 241 mig-ht be relatively slow, thus bringing into prominence a coincident depression of the accelerator. Further support for this ereneral rela- tionship appears in the antagonism between atropin and alcohol (Hascovec). Moreover, the effect of alcohol on the pulse-rate has been found to persist after the vagi are cut (Hascovec^ and Dixon^) . Such an event would be inexplicable if the inhibitor center alone were affected. We suggest that in this probable effect of alcohol on both antagonistic mechanisms, combined with the failure to differentiate absolute and relative acceleration, there is ample opportunity for all the various experimental results that were noted from the alcoholic tradition in the first part of this chapter. Reversal of effect on the pulse-rate would seem to be theoretically probable, if ether or chloroform had been administered previous to alcohol or in febrile cases. The contention of Cushny^ that the pulse-acceleration effected by alcohol is due to increased muscular activity, and not to any direct action on the regulating mechanisms, is not supported by our data. One might have criticised any data that were obtained during mental experiments alone, on the ground that while the subjects seemed to be quieter after alcohol than on normal days, there might have been increased muscular activity that we did not notice. The fact that similar changes accompany definite physical tasks leaves such an objec- tion improbable. We have no disproof, however, of the hypothesis that without any mental or physical activity the pulse-rate might remain unchanged. We would again insist that the changes in the pulse-rate herein described belong to experimental conditions of moderate mental or physical activity. They should not be uncritically transferred either to intense activity or to complete relaxation, for reasons that we have already discussed. But whether the relative acceleration results or not, the effect of alcohol on the cardio-inhibitory center ought to be demonstrable wherever it occurs by a depression of the normal rhythms. In view of the large amount of our pulse data, and the thoroughness with which it was read and elaborated, we believe that the accelerating tendency of alcohol on the pulse-rate of normal human subjects, during moderate mental and physical activity, may be regarded as certain. We also believe that the evidence is sufficient to show that such relative acceleration must be referred to a partial paralysis of the cardio- inhibitor centers. But whether these generalizations be accepted or not, the experi- mental fact remains that generally decreased irritabUity of a consider- able number of related neuro-muscular processes consequent to the ingestion of alcohol was regularly accompanied by a relative accelera- tion of the pulse-rate. These two facts taken together we must regard as a clear indication of decreased organic efficiency as a result of mod- erate doses of alcohol. 'Hascovec, Wiener med. Wchnsch., 1909, 59, p. 457. ^Dixon, Journ. Physiol., 1907, 35, p. 346. *Cushny, Pharmacologj', Philadelphia, 1910. CHAPTER IX. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. DIFFERENTIAL INCIDENCE OF THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. The first attempt to measure the relative incidence of the effect of alcohol on various fundamental mental processes is the classical work of Kraepehn.^ In this task he was a pioneer. Since his work there have been numberless special investigations of the action of alcohol on various mental operations, but there have been no systematic groups of experi- ments that permitted an inference as to the relative incidence of the alcohol effect. The well-known conclusions of Kraepelin may be condensed as follows : All doses of alcohol depress the intellectual processes of appre- hension, memory, and judgment. Small doses faciUtate motor dis- charge at first and subsequently depress it. Large doses depress both intellectual and motor processes from the first. The nature and amount of the effects depend on the characteristics of the individual and on his condition. Certain apparent discrepancies between our results and his led us to a careful review of Kraepelin's original arg-uments. In that review two factors challenged our attention, viz, (1) the neural complexity of all his experimental processes, and (2) the unsatisfactoriness of some of his analyses as judged by present standards. For example: As experimenter and as theorist, KraepeHn worked under the tradition of a complete differentiation of the sensory and motor factors in reaction. Choice and discrimination were for him real factors in the reactions called by these respective names. It is now generally reaUzed, however, that choice is not discoverable in the consciousness that accompanies the practiced so-called choice reaction, and that the discrimination reaction is complicated by notable inhibitory tendencies that are in their nature motor rather than discriminatory. But from his stand- point, Kraepelin was able to say without hesitation that the difference between the results of the discrimination reaction and those of the simple reaction can be referred only to the new factor which it was intended to introduce into the process, viz, the discrimination. Conse- quently, since the ' ' discrimination " appears to be lengthened by alcohol, he holds that the intellectual factor in reaction processes is paralyzed by alcohol. Similarly, since the intentionally new factor in the choice reaction is primarily a motor process, and since the choice reactions are shorter in his experiments after alcohol, he held that the discharge of motor processes is facilitated by moderate doses of alcohol. Con- iKraepelin, Wundt's Phil. Studien, I, 1883, p. 573. Ueber die Beeinfluasung einfacher psyohisoher Vorgange duroh einige Arzneimittel. Jena, 1892. 242 SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 243 tributory evidence for these conclusions he found in his other experi- ments, as well as in acute alcoholic intoxication, and in the interrelation between the effects of alcohol and disease processes, particularly in relation with epilepsy. The conception of all sensory and motor processes as a resultant of complex stimulating and inhibiting factors was not as well established in the psychophysiological tradition when KraepeUn did his experi- mental work and made his first analyses, as it is at present. His own analysis of the work curve, for example, was a later development. Wliile we can no longer regard discrimination and choice as adequately describing the characteristics of the "discrimination" and "choice" reactions, we have come to regard the conditions of neural processes on a scheme of reciprocating mechanisms, as a complex of exciting and controlling tendencies, with great variability of the adequacy and completeness of the controls. In contrast to the experimental processes of the KraepeUn series, our experiments were planned expressly to test the conditions of the nervous system at widely different levels in the simplest practicable processes. The question of the incidence of the effect of alcohol on the different levels is not merely an effort to explain our data. It was a direct problem from the beginning of our investigation and served as one of the principles that determined the choice of measurable processes.^ But, even more than the direct measurement of the effects of alcohol on the various processes, we beUeve that their interrelations and experimental analyses give us the conditions for a more definite answer to the problem of the incidence of the effects of alcohol within the physiological schema of nervous action than could have been given by a less systematically organized group of processes. The relevant data with respect to the incidence of the effect of alcohol are collected in table 46, arranged in the order of previous discussion. From this table it appears that the most marked effects of alcohol are shown in the knee-jerk, where alcohol increased the average latent time 10 per cent and decreased the average extent of muscle-thickening 46|per cent. This extreme effect, it will be remembered, made it impracticable to measure the knee-jerk of several subjects after the larger dose (dose B). The second largest effect is produced in the hd-reflex, which shows an average increased latency of 7 per cent and decreased extent of movement of 19 per cent. These changes vary directly with the dose of alcohol, and must satisfy the most exacting demands of reUability. The change would be much larger, save for the two exceptional cases of Subjects X and IV whose lid reflexes were small in amplitude by reason of inheritance, or training, or both. In explanation of these two cases, 'See Psychological Program, p. 273, (2) and (3). 244 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OP ALCOHOL. in view of the general effects of alcohol, and in view of the specific evidence that in the pulse apparent facilitation in response to alcohol was proved to result from a paralysis of inhibitors, the most practical h3rpothesis is, as we have seen, that alcohol diminished the controlling influence of the particularly prominent inhibiting mechanism. The third largest change was produced in the sensory threshold for electrical stimulation. The threshold was raised an average of 14 Table 46. — Summary of the (fficl of alcohol onlhe va rious experimental processes in percentiles } Subject. Normal subjects II III. IV. VI. VII. IX. X Average. , . . Total aver- age Psychopathic sub. jects: XI XII XIV Average Reflexes. Patellar. R. H -20 -10 + 165 + 105 - 9 + 6 - 7 - 19 + 68 - 13 - 37 + 110 -17 -20 - 14 + 47 46 + 31 + 36 + 2 + 23 Lid. Reactions. R. H. I Eve. i Word, - 1 -19 -23 + 1 + 4 - 1 -19 -14 -14 -19 + 13 - 6 - 9 -46 - 3 - 6 -12 + 4 +50 +20 + 14 -43 + 18 + 19 +26 +34 +38 +97 -42 + 11 +2,S +19 +85 - 9 -11 +22 -II + 6 - 3 - 1 -17 -12 + 9 - 6 + 11 - 9 + 15 -49 -15 + 5 -16 + 15 + 2 + 5 - 4 + 5 - 5 - 1 - 5 + 5 - 6 - 6 - 6 - 1 - 1 + 4 + 1 Mem- ory. Far- adio thresh- old. + 1 Coordina- tions. Fin- ger. + 9 -13 - 1 + 16 + 7 -19 -46 -12 - 1 -.30 -21 -is - 7 -20 + 8 + 11 +19 -32 -21 - S -14 -12 -13 -11 -12 + 5 + 10 + 5 - 6 + 6 + 6 + 15 + 6 + 11 + 11 -'r20 +26 - 1 + 9 + 10 + 9 + 6 - 9 - 6 - 3 Eye. - 7 -29 + 8 -16 - 3 -10 -10 -35 - 1 - 3 -19 -11 -11 -15 (=) -13 'The plus and minus signs in this table must be taken in the light of their origin on the basis of our statistical conventions. We express the effect of alcohol throughout this investigation by the formula "Effect of alcohol equals the average difference on alcohol days minus the average difference on normal days" (see page 29). That is, if the effect of alcohol has a plus sign, then the aveiage difference between the normal of the day and suTisequent periods on alcohol daj's is greater than the average difference on normal days, i. e., the alcohol tended to reduce the meas- urements. ^Records too few for inclusion but in the same direction as the average. per cent, but this effect is irregularly distributed between doses A and B, showing the interaction of some new factor with the higher dose. As we have already seen, this is partially if not wholly accounted for by a modified critical demand of the subject. Fourth in extent is the effect on coordinated movements as seen in the speed of the eye-movements, which average 11 per cent slower SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 245 under alcohol. The effect of alcohol on the eye-movements varies directly with the size of the dose. A close fifth is the speed of reciprocal innervation of the finger, which is decreased by an average of 9 per cent. Sixth and seventh in the list are the changes in the reaction-time of the eye and speech organs, an increase in the latent time of 5 and 3 per cent respectively. Finally, there is practically no change at all in the memory. But our memory experiments did not include dose B. The natural grouping of the processes with respect to the magnitude of the percentile effects of alcohol, viz, first, the two reflexes; second, the sensory threshold ; third, the two motor coordinations ; fourth, the two elaborated reactions ; and fifth, the memory, is too consistent to be accidental. It is confirmatory evidence of the reliability of our results, that similar processes yield similar results. It is noteworthy that 5 of the 6 processes, in which there are com- parable data, show a greater average effect of the larger dose. The one exception is in the sensory threshold, where, as we have seen, the results are probably complicated by the interaction of at least two different processes. The group of psychopathic or reformed alcohoUc subjects is too small and the experimental days are too few to give data of similar reUability to that of the normal subjects. On the whole, however, it may be regarded as probable that the general effect of dose A on the reformed alcohoUc is not fundamentally different from that on normals. The average effect on the lid-reflex is greater than in normals. The change in the eye-reaction and word-reaction is identical with that of normals for dose A. The effect on the Faradic threshold is consistent, and while less than the effect of dose A on normals, is more than that of dose B. The effect on the finger-movements is reversed, but the effect on the eye-movements in the two cases in which the data are complete is relatively large and in the same direction. As we shall see later, the eye-movements are of especial significance. The average improvement of the eye-reaction after dose A is similar to that of normal subjects. It is probable that the improvement has a similar basis in the two groups. The most pronounced difference between the normal and the psychopathic subjects appears in the case of the finger-movements. For this difference we have no satisfactory explanation. Taken altogether, our data leave no doubt that alcohol shows a real difference of incidence in its effects on different levels of the nervous system of both normal and psychopathic subjects. The lower centers are depressed most and the highest least. This is entirely contrary to our traditions. But as Professor Hunt remarked in an informal dis- cussion of these results: "If alcohol had selectively narcotized the 246 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. higher centers it would have been used as an anaesthetic centuries ago." It can not be an experimental accident that all the cerebral reaction processes, ej^e-reaction, word-reaction, memory, and the free-associ- ation experiments are in a class by themselves with respect to the small percentile change effected by moderate doses of alcohol. In direct contradiction to the Kraepelin contention that motor discharge is facilitated by alcohol, are the regular and self-consistent data that the simplest possible movements are much more seriously depressed by alcohol than the more distinctly intellectual processes. Kraepehn's sensory-motor schema of the effect of alcohol arose from a questionable interpretation of the complex reaction forms. It proves utterly inade- quate for the facts. We beheve that the incidence of alcohol on the nervous system is a much more complex problem than that simple schema would indicate. In view of the self-consistent differences of the effect on the different levels, we must ask whether alcohol has a specific action at these dif- ferent levels, or whether the differences in its action are due to a differential organization of the processes. It is to be noted that the greatest and most persistent change consequent to alcohol is in the processes which are most completely withdrawn from voluntary rein- forcement and voluntary control. The higher centers alone show capacity for autogenic reinforcement. In spite of sleepiness, pain, or sensory distraction, and even narcosis, one can reestablish the normal controls on occasion, and make a fair showing, especially when the results would be serious if one let oneself go. Indeed, there is a wide- spread popular behef that persons in acute alcohoHc intoxication may be sobered by some unusual circumstance if the shock is intense enough. It seems to be common experience for the excessive user on occasion to struggle to remain master of himself. He finally succumbs to alcoholic narcosis only when the autogenic reinforcenaents fail. There is direct evidence in the experience of our subjects that cerebral autogenic reinforcement did in fact occur to modify the effect of alcohol. One of the subjects remarked mth surprise how "sleepy" he could be and yet "pull himself together" at the signal for the word-reaction. A similar phenomenon was noted in the discussion of the free association experiments, in which a subject went to sleep for a few seconds and failed to hear one stimulus word, and 10" later, after being awakened, responded normally both as to the latent time and the character of the associate word. The capacity for pulling oneself together with alter- nating periods of relaxation is a familiar expression of the same rhythmic reinforcement that conditions attention waves and "spurts" of various kinds. But in spite of the autogenic reinforcement, with one exception the performance after alcohol was not superior to normal. Reinforce- ment in these cases seems to consist chiefly of an arousal to more or less SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 247 normal performance. There is, however, one exception to this rule, and that is the eye-reaction. Here, at least, there seems to be a definite corroboration of the Kraepelin contention that the choice reaction is facilitated by moderate doses of alcohol. The case will receive our most careful attention (see pages 250 and 251). But granting the exception as a real one, there can be no doubt con- cerning the general experimental depression of the various processes. With only one apparent exception (the eye-reaction after dose A), alcohol regularly tends to depress neuro-muscular action. But so does sleep. The statement of the tendency gives no clue to its physiological character. Depression of neuro-muscular action may be due to any one of a considerable variety of antagonistic conditions. The same is true of facilitation. The unanalyzed question whether alcohol ejEfects a positive or negative increment in the capacity of the subject for any specific mental performance or group of performances is scientifically crude. We would not appear to deny the practical importance of such a question. Both morally and economically it may be useful to know whether an individual can do more or harder work after taking alcohol as a part of his food or as a condiment. But the practical capacity for effective work of any definite sort is scientifically the product of an indefinite number of interacting neural facilitations and inhibitions. In this complex and relatively unexplored interplay of psycho-physio- logical processes, the balance in any direction can rarely be predicted with scientific accuracy. In no single case do we know accuratelj' either the number or the relative force of the various factors. Con- versely, any specific outcome may be the resultant of an indefinite number of various configurations of the polygon of forces which may be in operation. In ergographic accompUshment, for example, a specific increase in the work done may be due to an actual increase of the available muscular energy, to a spurt, to increased interest and determination; or it may be due to decreased susceptibility to the normal inhibiting influence of muscular discomfort or pain. Similarly, a decreased reaction time may be due to increased attention, to real facilitation of the motor discharge ; or it may be due to careless reaction to some accidental pre-stimulation cue that the true stimulus is about to come, or even to some arbitary simplification of the reaction modes, such as the change from a sensory to a motor type. Only correlated data can determine which of the interacting tendencies is actually responsible for the increased output. The naive assumptions that increased physiological action is always organically beneficent, as well as that depression of physiological action is always organically disad- vantageous, are merely popular prejudices. 248 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Let US represent in schematic form some of the possible conditions of variations in the action of an indicator consequent to the ingestion of a drug. Apparent reinforcements of a process might he due to: A.' Increased action at some point in the direct process. B. The j^decreased action of some inhibiting factor. Under the first condition, i. e., increased action ^; at some point in the direct process: 1. The drug may stimulate the indicator directly. (Pilocarpin on the ciliary muscle.) 2. It may make the indicator more sus- ceptible to its normal stimuli. (Eserin.) 3. It may really depress the indicator, but the depression may at first produce Frolich's^ "scheinbare Er- regbarkeitssteigerung" due to the summation of delayed processes. (Action of CO2 and fatigue products on muscle, nerve, and nerve centers.) 4. The drug may act on some of the cen- tral Unks of the neuro-muscular arc, (1) to stimulate them directly, (2) to make them more susceptible to stimulation, or (3) to produce "scheinbare Erregbarkeitssteige- rung." (Caffeine on central nervous system; strychnine on the cord; CO2 and fatigue products on cen- tral nervous system.) 5. Tit may supply some condition of metab- olism, i. e. , the drug may be a food, or, like adrenalin, may facilitate the liberation of stored foods. 6. It may facihtate the diffusion of food or oxygen, by increased osmotic pressure, or by decreased resistance of permeable membranes. 7. It may facihtate the distribution of food or oxygen by increasing the flow of blood. (Increased pulse- rate.) B. 'Similarly the drug may depress inhibit- ing or controlling mechanism in some of the ways described under depres- sion and so facihtate the process that serves as indicator. Apparent depression of u, process might he due to: A. Decreased action at some point in the direct process. B. The increased action of some inhibiting factor. Under the first condition of direct depression : 1. The drug may narcotize the indicator directly. (Like curare on motor- nerve endings, or cocaine on pain- receptors.) 2. It may make the indicator more sus- ceptible to depressing condition. (Increased fatigability after strych- nine.) 3. It may directly increase the conserva- tive processes in the indicator by delaying metabolism. (The best example is not a drug, but cold.) 4. It may act on some remote point of the neuro-muscular arc (1) to nar- cotize it directly, (2) to make it more susceptible to inhibiting stim- uh, or (3) to increase in it some con- servative process. (Morphine on central nervous system ; unknown to writers if any drug has this specific action; extreme form in normal sleep.) 5. The drug may destroy or render una- vailable some normal food or oxygen supply. (Nerve-tissue under chlor- oform narcosis.) 6. It may hinder the diffusion of food or oxygen, by decreasing osmotic pres- sure. 7. It may decrease the distribution of food or oxygen by decreasing the blood flow, or by affecting the hemoglobin, as CO. Similarly it may stimulate the inhibit- ing and controlling mechanism in some of the ways described under stimulation of the direct process. Even this analysis does not exhaust the possibilities of complication; butjt serves to illustrate the difficulties of the task of interpreting the meaning of any specific increase or decrease in the operation of an indica- tor.ljjWhat we know of the physiological oxidation and pharmacology of alcohol makes it clear that some of these compUcations really exist in 'Frolich, Zeitschr. f. allg. Physiol., 1909, 9, p. 1. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 249 its action. Quite apart from the question of any hypothetical selective effect, alcohol is known to be a source of energy, which some tissues at least seem able to use directly (perfused heart). Under certain con- ditions it is known to act as a local irritant. In large doses at least it is known to be a narcotic belonging pharmacologically to the chloroform group. Following the general outline of problems that is indicated by our schema, the action of alcohol is first of all a problem of the resultant of its various possible effects on any given process, as a source of energy, local irritant, and narcotic. For human subjects our data seem to show rather conclusively that in the several neuro-muscular processes which we have investigated, depression overbalances all other effects of alcohol. But we are bound to ask whether the apparent depression is due to a real paralysis of some factor in the direct process, or whether in part or in whole it may not be due to the stimulation of inhibitory mechanisms. In either case we must inquire further whether the effect is peripheral or central; that is, whether the alcohol directly affects the end Unks in the neural chain, or whether it affects coordination processes in nervous centers. Finally, since the activity of nervous tissue as a whole is modified by the interaction of other tissues, a complete account of the action of alcohol on any given indicator involves the coordinate action of alcohol on all the several processes that may influence the indicator or the central nervous mechanism that operates it. This final problem will not be solved until the whole alcohol program is completed. But in the systematic interrelation of the processes which we have measured, as well as in the variation of the dose, we hoped that our present data would permit some definite contribution to the final solution. With the total problem in mind, our first task is to scrutinize our data for whatever indication they may give with respect to the fundamental interpretative question as to whether or not the apparent depression is due to a stimulation of inhibitory mechan- isms. The second question that we must face is as to whether the alcoholic depression may not be regarded as conservative or recupera- tive. Thirdly, we shall look for a possible interrelationship of the processes through differences in their temporal incidence, and finally, we shall inquire which of the various effects which we have measured represents the central tendency most completely. This should not only show us something of the general reliabihty of the measurements for the estimation of personal differences; it should also indicate whether the effects of alcohol are predominantly sensory, motor, or central. 250 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. EVIDENCE FOR ALCOHOLIC STIMULATION. There is in the scientific literature concerning the effect of alcohol a large body of experimental evidence that, like the mass of common non-experimental experience, seems to point to an initial neuro- muscular excitation, resulting from small or moderate doses of alcohol (school of Binz^) . Thus in excised muscles, the work of Scheffer^ and of F. S. Lee'' and his collaborators seems to have demonstrated that a small amount of alcohol "is capable of augmenting the work of a skeletal muscle." Increased excitability after alcohol was found in frog nerves (Mommsen,* Efron,^ and Breyer^) . The reinforcing action of alcohol on the exhausted perfused heart may be regarded as demonstrated (Loeb,^ Wood and Hoyt,^ and Dixon^). The reaction experiments by Krae- pehn and various ergographic studies are commonly cited in support of a short stimulatory effect of moderate doses on the central nervous system. Evidence is not wanting, on the other hand, that much of the augmenting effect of alcohol is really due to secondary or remote effects (school of Schmiedeberg," Bunge," et al.). The most carefully controlled ergographic work of Rivers^^ is entirely negative. In our own material, the chief evidence for neuro-muscular excitation is found in the latent time of the eye-reactions. They alone show consistent improvement after the smaller dose of alcohol. In 4 out of 5 a^'ailable cases the result of alcohol was facilitation. The greatest individual improvement was 15 per cent. The average improvement for the group was 5 per cent. Similarly, for the psychopathies, 2 out of 3 cases show decrease in the latency of the eye-reaction as a result of the smaller dose of alcohol. The facts are clear enough. It is no argu- ment against them that they are unique in our experiments. But it should not be forgotten that 15 c.c. more of alcohol, i. e., a dose of 45 c.c. conditioned a delay in the eye-reaction three times greater than the improvement produced by the smaller dose. The average result of both alcohol doses on the eye-reactions is to lengthen their latencj^ about 5 per cent. But it would be unjust to our data and to our problem to consider only the general average. Exceptions to a general tendency, provided they are genuine, are theoretically as important as the generaUzation. 'Binz, Grundziige der Arzneimittellehre, Berlin, 1901. ^Scheffer, Archiv i. exp. Path. u. Pharm., 1900, 44, p. 24. ^Lee and Salant, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1903, 8, p. 61; Lee and Ijcvinc, Am. Joum. Ph\siol., 1912, 30, p. 389. ■•Mommsen, Virohow's Archiv, 1881, 83, p. 273. 'Efron, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1885, 36, p. 467. «Breyer, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1903, 99, p. 481. 'Loeb, Archiv f. exp. Path. u. Pharm., 1905, 52, p. 459. 'Wood and Hoyt, Mem. Nat. Acad, of Soi. (pub. 1905), 1911, 10, p. 39. "Dixon, Joum. Physiol., 1907, 35, p. 346. "Schmiedeberg, Gruudriss der Pharmakologie, Leipsic, 1902. "Bunge, Lehrbuch der Physiologie des Mensohen, Leipsic, 1905, 2d ed.; Die Alkoholfrage, Leipsic, 1887. ■^Rivers, The Influence of Alcohol and other Drugs on Fatigue, London, 1908. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 251 While they do not affect the general tendency, they do save generah- zations from the error of artificial simpUcity. We are consequently under a double obligation to examine in some detail the apparent exception to the main tendency of our results. In discussing our eye-reaction technique, we found some grounds for dissatisfaction owing to the limited number of positions for the peripheral object of regard, and the consequent possibility of antici- patory reactions. The same fault will be found (p. 89) to have pro- duced an unexpected practice effect in the eye-reactions on normal days. We can not agree with a supposititious critic who, on the ground of this practice effect, might hold that the eye-reaction fails to fulfill our demands for a thoroughly practiced experimental process. That which is thoroughly practiced in this reaction is, however, the differ- ential coordination of the eye-muscles to bring the line of regard to any one of an indefinite number of positions. Our experiment was an arti- ficial simplification of natural conditions. Instead of an indefinite number of possible positions we used only 6. Apparently all our subjects learned by experience during the experiments to respond to one of the 6 new positions more rapidly than they were in the habit of responding to an indefinite number. Doubtless this should have been foreseen in planning the experiment. In excuse one can only say that the data on normal eye-movements are not very abundant and the particular point had never arisen before. Dodge^ had found that in the com-se of over 10 years of eye-reaction records his eye-reaction had not materially changed and we failed to reahze that in his experiments a great variety of positions were used. It is not impossible that indefi- nite variation of the eye-reactions would have been open to more serious criticism because of lack of uniformity on the different experimental days. After all, as far as the main results are concerned, a moderate practice effect is not serious. It was provided for by the distribution of normal days. This type of reaction gave comparable values for all sorts of untrained subjects, and the effect of repetition is clearly repre- sented on the normal base-line. Our faciUtation-inhibition problem, however, gives the possibility of simphfied elaboration of reaction a more serious aspect. We may indicate its bearing by a question: "What would have happened if we had still further simphfied the motor elaboration of the eye-reaction by reducing the number of stimulus positions to one instead of six?" The answer to this question we know from accidental experience. Such simplification would have led to frequent if not to regular anticipatory reactions. The voluntary control of our eye-movements is meager at best. If we know where an object is about to appear it takes a great deal of practice and an entirely artificial inhibition to prevent looking at the expected place. The artificial development of such inhibitions 'Dodge, Monograph Supplement of the Psychol. Review, 1907, No. 35. 252 PHYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. would have produced a most unnatural reaction type. Similarly, by analogy with all known "choice" reactions the simplification of the possible modes of reaction from infinity to six would also tend to reduce the reaction time. Now it is not inconceivable, and indeed, from the numerous indications of our experimental results, it seems probable, that the more elaborate controls often suffer earUer than the function itself. This tendency appeared in the highly inhibited reflexes (Subjects X and IV) , where the inhibition suffered first. It appeared in the memory experiments of Subject VII, when the complex associative "story" suffered far more than simple perseveration. Indeed, the suppression of distraction in one instance seemed to aid the perseveration process. This tendency appeared also in the threshold to Faradic stimulation, where alcohol disturbed the subject's caution and produced more numerous false reactions, i. e., reactions when there were no stimuli. The more exact elaboration of the motor response which brings the eye to a new point of regard in a single sweep also involves a complex control, and less careful elaboration would permit a quicker response. Whether or not the eye-movements after 30 c.c. of alcohol are in fact less accurately adjusted than normal could be finally settled only by experimental measurement. But unfortunately spatially quanti- tative techniques would be vastly more exacting than our temporally quantitative technique. It is somewhat doubtful if it could be appUed indiscriminately to untrained subjects, such as those with whom we dealt. However that may be, the records at hand were not taken with spatially quantitative results in view. Consequently our results may not be directly interpreted in spatial terms. But in the absence of direct measurements it was obviously necessary to bring whatever indirect evidence we possessed to bear on the problem of the apparent exception. It is not without significance that under almost identical circum- stances of a complex "choice" reaction in the process of training, Frankfiu-ther^ found typewriting errors enormously increased by alco- hol, while the speed was occasionally increased (c/. his 41st day, pp. 436-437). His introspection is not irrelevant (p. 455): "I had the feeling that the fingers ran faster than I could find the right spot for the stroke. I often struck keys against my will, so that I must voluntarily inhibit the movements in order not to make a mistake at every letter."^ There can be little doubt that even in small experimental doses along with and as a part of the general depression we have clear indications of a paralysis of inhibitory or controlling factors. These may on occasion suffer greater relative depression than the direct process, as in the pulse. When this depression of controls is combined with a reinforcement caused by the experimental instructions, suitable conditions are pro- vided for the slight reinforcements of reactions that rapidly pass over into •Frankfurther, Psychol. Arbeit., 1914, 6, p. 419. ^Translated bj authors. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 253 depression with slightly larger doses. It seems probable, too, that we have herewith come upon the grounds for a wide variety of effects which are commonly observed in the social use of alcohol, when circumstances give the reinforcement and alcohol reduces the inhibitions. Whatever may be the effect in isolated tissue, our data give clear and consistent indications that the apparent alcoholic depression of neuro- muscular processes is a genu'ne phenomenon that can not be reduced to the excitation of inhibitory processes; but that, conversely, whenever apparent excitation occurs as a result of alcohol it is either demon- strably (pulse-rate, reflexes, memory, and threshold) or probably (eye- reaction) due to a relatively overbalancing depression of the controlling and inhibitory processes. IS ALCOHOLIC DEPRESSION A CONSERVATIVE PROCESS? One factor in our related group of measurements was expressly intro- duced for its indication of general physiological conditions. That factor is the pulse-rate. There are grounds for believing that the pulse- rate is the best index of the general metabolic demands that is available in psychological experiments (Dodge^) . It would doubtless be better if the psychological experiments could be carried out coincidently with respiration experiments, or some other means for determining total metabolism during the mental activity. Such an arrangement, however, would present the greatest technical difficulties both from the standpoint of the psychological experiments and from the standpoint of total metabolism experiments. With respect to the psychological experiments, it would be a questionable procedure to add the insistently obvious and not too comfortable attachments for respiration experiments in the expectation of getting natural psychological reactions. With respect to the metabohc experi- ments, it would not be easy to arrange a technique to measure the differential metabohsm for the few minutes that are involved in the psychological experiments. Probably both difSculties could be over- come by sufficient sacrifice of time and money, but the satisfactory simultaneous operation of the two elaborate techniques would always be a difficult task. Fortunately for provisional experiments,-at least, there are scientific grounds for believing that changes in general metabolism are indicated by the pulse-rate. The experience of the Nutrition Laboratory in its studies of the relationship between pulse-rate and metabohsm is best expressed by the following quotations : "A comparison of this pulse-rate with the total heat-production shows a striking uniformity ia fluctuations and similar comparisons with other experi- ments show in nearly every iastance a parallelism."^ iDodge, Psychol. Review, 1913, 20, p. 1. ^Benedict, The Influence of Inanition on Metabolism, Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 77, 1907, p. 488. 254 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. "In the course of experiments it has been observed that with very slight activity the pulse and the metabolism are at a minimum. When the activity is increased, the pulse-rate is likewise accelerated, and there is an increase in the total metabolism. It has furthermore seemed clear that the increase in the pulse-rate is relatively proportional to the increase in the actual mus- cular activity observed." (Benedict and Carpenter.^) Again (p. 249) : "Pulse-rate increases during the waking hours of the day a.s compared with the night. We can obtain an approximate idea of the total metabolism from the pulse-rate of a subject, although the rate per minute of itself is not neces- sarily a general index of the katabolism for all individuals." Still more recently MurUn and Greer wrote ; "Experiments on dogs were devised in which the absorption of oxygen and the output of carbon dioxide were determined by means of a small Benedict respiration apparatus attached directly to the dog's trachea. Simultaneously the blood-pressure was recorded. The effects of anesthesia were controOed. Similar experiments on several different men in widely different nutritive conditions and in varying degrees of muscular activity (lying on a bed, stand- ing, standing and lifting weights, shivering, etc.) were also done by means of the same respiration apparatus and the Erlanger sphygmomanometer. The results show a fairly close correlation in the same individual between the heart- output expressed as the product of the pulse-pressure and the heart-rate on the one hand, and the absorption of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide on the other. The relation between carbon-dioxide elimination and heart-action is on the whole a little more constant than that between the oxygen absorption and heart action." Quite recently observations b}^ Professor H. M. Smith, of the Nutri- tion Laboratory, have shown that during walking the metabolism may increase 250 per cent without any increment in pulse-rate. This striking exception to the rule makes us very cautious in drawing unsup- ported inferences from the pulse-rate to metabolism, in spite of the fact that all the other experience of the Laboratory is to the effect that increased muscular activity correlates with an increased pulse. The existence of some intimate connection between pulse and mental states is a commonly accepted fact of great antiquity. Mosso^ and his followers found in the relative distribution of the blood to the brain and other parts of the body a measure of mental activity. Seriously controlled attempts to correlate definite circulatory changes with defi- nite mental processes find their most important expression in the work of Lehmann.* An enormous amount of data still leaves the question open whether any specific mental state can be absolutety correlated with any specific change in pulse or respiration, in the sense that the one can be inferred from the other. Indeed, in our knowledge of the nervous conditions of vasomotor innervation there seems to be no good reason for definite correlation with specific cerebral processes. That ^Benedict and Carpenter, The Metabolism and Energy Transformations of Healthy Man diiring Rest, Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 126, 1910, p. 248. ^Murlin and Greer, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1910-11, 27, p. xviii. 'Mosso, Ueber den Kreislauf des Blutes im mensohlichen Gehirn, Leipsio, 1881. 'Lehmann, Die korperlichen Aeusaerungen psychischer Zustande, Leipsio, 1899-1905. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 255 the circulator^' system responds with great deUcacy and complexity of adjustment to waves of nervous excitation is an empirical fact. But the mechanism of those adjustments is as little known to us as the nervous conditions of thought itself. As mere expressions of mental states they probably have no peculiar analytic function in psychology which may not equally well be assumed for a considerable number of involuntary muscles and glands. The biological function of the circulatory system, however, gives it a unique connection with the nervous as well as with the muscular activi- ties of the body. Since the blood-currents supply the conditions of all metabohsm, in any adequately organized body within the hmits of physiological efficiency there must be a general correspondence between need and supply. This theoretical assumption is borne out by the experimental evidence. Muscular activity in any part of the body almost immediately increases the heart-rate over the rate during relax- ation. In any individual under normal circumstances, the heart-rate is more or less closely proportional to the amount of activity. Apparently for considerable periods of sustained work the corre- spondence between metabolism and the heart-rate is much closer than for short periods. Grounds for the unreliability of short periods are easily discoverable. The biological correspondence between need and response can not be a cooordinate or a preliminary adjustment. No automatic vasomotor or cardiac excitation could be based on prophecy of action without the need of constant readjustment. No adjustment could be based on the actual need without a certain lag of latent time. So whatever the mechanism, whether one of preparation or one of reaction, we would expect oscillatory variations about the hne of actual need. This gives rise to a serious Umitation of the use of heart-rate as an indicator of metabohsm in mental activity. To assume that the intense disturbances of short duration that occur in emotion exactly correspond to metabolic demands would be unwarranted by any of the present evidences of correlation. It is not impossible. Since the emotions represent moments of active readjustment, there is some ground for suspecting that they will make their own pecuhar demands on metabolism. But correlations are matters of fact, not of probability. A direct study of metabohsm would seem to be a desideratum in the dynamic psychology of the emotions. Similarly, to assume that every change in the heart-rate is significant of some definite though uncleared mental state would be unwarranted. Lehmann some time ago aban- doned his early supposition to this effect. The rhythmic changes in heart-rate due to respiration give an illustration of the danger of attempting to isolate short intervals experimentally. Furthermore, the pulse-rate never gives direct and absolute values — only relative and comparative. The pulse of muscular work is com- monly known to be both larger and faster than that of muscular relaxation. The amount of acceleration produced by any given quan- 256 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. tity of muscular work is a purely individual matter and varies within wide limits in different individuals. It is a significant factor in the organic personal equation of the individual. At different times and under different conditions of health the pulse of the same individual shows changes of excitability. But, other conditions being constant within the same organic equation, two different kinds of work giving rise to the same pulse conditions may be provisionally expected to be physiological equivalents. Conversely, if the kind of woi'k remains the same, difference in the pulse in successive experiments will indicate subjective changes. Such subjective changes are clearly shown in our records in the adaptive process, as indicated by the pulse during the association experiments. That the same moderate physical activity is accompanied by a higher pulse-rate after alcohol is abundantly proved by our pulse- records. Still more significant is the fact that notwithstanding de- pressed neuro-muscular action the pulse-rate is unifoi-mly higher for the same kind of mental work after alcohol than it is without it. It does not seriously modify the meaning of the correlation if we should abandon the probable but debatable imphcation of increased metaboHsm for a given amount of mental work. Even if it should prove true that the local action of alcohol on the circulation centers disturbed the normal correlation between metaboUsm and the heart-rate, the fact of increased heart-rate for a given kind and amount of mental work absolutely prohibits us from regarding the neuro-muscular depression incident to alcohol as a conservative process hke sleep. TEMPORAL INCIDENCE OF THE EFFECT AFTER THE INGESTION OF ALCOHOL. The beginning of the effect of alcohol on our measurements is found within the 30-minute period after ingestion. Our experiments were not designed for a closer approximation. It is doubtful if, with our present techniques, the problem of a differential beginning of the effects of alcohol can be investigated profitably, since the first relatively sUght effects will be obscured by, or confused with, the normal accidental variations. The beginning of the effect of alcohol will probably be studied in the future as in the past on some particulaj-ly favorable indicator. As will appear later in this chapter, of all the techniques which are used in this investigation, the eye-movements are not only the most consistent for the entire group, but they correlate most closely with the average results for each individual, and can be repeated indefinitely without significant practice effects. Of all our measure- ments they are consequently the most Ukely to show the beginning of the effects of alcohol. That, however, is a problem for the future. In addition to the fact that the beginning of the effect of alcohol occurs within the first period, our present data show that the maximum effect and the beginning of recovery usually occurs within the 3-hour SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 257 session. The incidence of the maximum effect appears to differ some- what for the different processes, as is shown in table 47. The general time of incidence of the maximum effect of alcohol, as shown by table 47, is surprisingly uniform within the limits of the half- hour periods in which the measurements were repeated. While there are apparently some individual differences, the averages show consid- erable uniformity. The most conspicuous exception to the average incidence is found in the case of the eye-movements. The alcoholic disturbance, as shown in these most complex of the coordination proc- esses which we attempted to measure, increased up to the last period of the session. This disturbance of the eye-movements may partially account for the subjective impression of several of our subjects that they found it less easy to study effectively during the evening after an experi- mental session when dose B was given. In general it appears that the Table 47. — Time of incidence of the maximum depressive effect of alcohol. (Values in minutes after ingestion of alcohol.] Measurement. Time. Patellar reflex : 95 Extent of contraction Lid reflex: Ren.p,f.inn time 65 90 Extent of contraction 100 90 95 100 100 i 120 Word-reaction Eye-movements reflexes begin to recover first. It would be an easy hypothesis that the more primitive processes should show the earhest recovery. On the other hand, in the intricate interconnection of neural processes which we must take into account, it would be uncritical to assume that the relatively early maximum effect of alcohol on the reflexes and a conse- quent relatively early commencement of recovery is really an indication of particularly rapid recuperation of the reflex arcs from the effects of alcohol. It is not impossible that the partial recovery of sensitivity of the lower is due to the increasing paralysis of the higher centers. It is physiological commonplace that reflexes are quicker, more pro- nounced, and more regular when the lower centers are freed from the inhibiting action of the higher. Against this hjrpothesis, however, is the fact that the knee-jerk is depressed or lost in sleep, notwithstanding the extreme depression of the cerebral processes. Conversely, mental excitement commonly increases the amplitude of the jerk. Mere attention to the process may reinforce it. Direct evidence that might decide the question as to the conditions of the variation in incidence in our experiments is entirely lacking. It is doubtful if it can be 258 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. produced without operative technique. But whatever may be found to be the conditions, it seems to be of considerable theoretical and practical importance that the lower reflex centers begin to recover from the depressive action of moderate doses of alcohol while the disturbance of the more complex coordinating centers is still increasing. It is an important psycho-physiological question whether alcohol effects permanent residual modification of any neuro-muscular proc- esses in the direction of the original disturbance or not; and if not, whether the subsequent recovery just reaches the normal base-Une or crosses it. This question is directly related to the problem of tolerance, increased susceptibility, and secondary reactions to the alcoholic dose. It is also related to the theoretical question of the consequences incident to the disturbance and the permeability of the hmiting membrane of the cell and the solution of lipoid substances (Meyer^ and Overton^) . Minute permanent lesions, if they exist as the consequence of a small dose of alcohol, could scarcely be detected by any available technique. They would be swamped by uncontrollable accidental variations inci- dent to other conditions of development and bj^ the inevitable environ- mental changes. That permanent anatomical and physiological changes may and do follow long-continued use of even moderate doses of alcohol seems to be supported by a mass of clinical and experimental evidence. Such permanent changes, however, are certainly not uni- formly in the direction of the immediate changes produced by alcohol. Excessive patellar reflexes, for example, are not uncoimnon in confirmed alcohoUcs. Unfortunately our experimental sessions did not last long enough to follow any of the recovery processes to their base-hne. This is another of our unsolved problems. However, two indications in our data are relevant. First, the refractoriness of the hd-reflexes is inversely proportional to the decrease in the initial response after alcohol. In view of the demonstrated relationship (Verworn^) between refractori- ness and fatigue, the depression of reflex processes as the result of alcohol can not be regarded as due to exhaustion of available material, but chiefly to a decrease in its immediate accessibihty. The alcohoUc effect is, then, not due to exhaustion, but to decreased irritability. It is consequently a plausible expectation that in all fatiguing experi- mental processes the recovery after alcohoUc depression should give relatively better results than the normal values after a correspond- ing period of relatively more fatiguing maximum responses. There are indications in ergographic experiments that something of this kind is true. In our own experiments, something of this sort was found in the finger-movements. Even the fatigue of the 3-hour experi- mental session without exhausting work may properly be expected to 'Meyer, Arohiv f. exp. Path. u. Pharm., 1899, 42, p. 109. ^Overton, Studien iiber die Narkose, Jena, 1901. 'Verworn, Erregung und L&hmung, Jena, 1914. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 259 show similar results in some cases at least. The difference between the beginning of recovery of the simple reflexes and of the complex coordi- nation processes is again relevant. While the first effects are not so great in the case of coordinations, they are more persistent, and the probability of their passing their base-line in recovery would seem to be less. Moreover, it is in the direction of coordination of nervous processes that one would reasonably expect the most serious and lasting effects in the higher mental processes. There is no measurable difference in our records between the incidence of the maximum effect after the smaller and after the larger dose. Under comparable conditions the maximum effect came earher after dose B in approximately the same proportion of instances as after dose A. EFFECT OF REPETITION ON THE VARIOUS MEASUREMENTS. The effect of repetition on the various measurements is a matter of some interest in forming an opinion of the applicability of the various techniques for untrained subjects. The relevant data are given in tables 48 and 49. From tables 48 and 49 it appears that the latent time of the reflex lid-movement shows the smallest average percentile change of all the comparable processes as a result of repetition. It is not zero for any individual, but in this case, as in the general interpretation of our data, we must not lose sight of our statistical principles that individual varia- tion must be expected from numerous interacting tendencies. Only in the group or in a considerable number of cases may these accidental variations be expected to neutraUze each other and disclose the syste- matic or experimental change. The extent of the reflex lid-movement, on the other hand, decreased more than any other measured phenomena, especially in the psycho- pathic subjects. The general apprehensiveness of the psychopathies on their first day in the laboratory would have given us a reasonable ground for this change on the plausible, though unproved, assumption that the protective reflexes would be increased in activity if the mental "set" were in the direction of suspicion and fear. Partridge^ held that a diminished lid-reflex after alcohol was entirely accounted for by the increased indifference of the subject. In the present case, however, this ground becomes most problematical, inasmuch as the lid-reflex was not measured until the third day of the series, when the apprehensive attitude of the subjects had largely subsided. But as the data stand it is doubtful if the two can be wholly divorced. The second smallest percentile effect of repetition in the main group of subjects appears in the case of the word-reactions. This is a striking confirmation of our previous experience and theoretical expectation, to the effect that in the case of reading famihar words the few repetitions ^Partridge, Studies in the Psychology of Intemperance, New York, 1912. 260 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. of the experimental session would be a relatively insignificant addition to the sum of past experience. In only one subject does the effect of repetition approximate 10 per cent in this measurement, and that is the case of Subject VII, a native German with noticeable limitations in his use of English. Practically as satisfactory in this respect for the main group of subjects was the reciprocal innervation of the finger. Its average practice change in these experiments was 4 per cent. Table 48. — Effect of repetiiion on the various measurements. [;tthic subjects. Moasurcmoiit. Lid-reflex ; R' (ate.— September 23, 1913. Family history. — Father, American (Scotch-Irish); uncle, hard drinker; mother, American (English descent) ; brother, hard drinker; father and mother married 31 years. One sister, 27 years old. Does not know whether father took alcohol, but probably did in last two years of his life, during illness. Mother took practically none; wine 4 or 5 times a year; sisters practically none. No habitual use of drugs by any member of family. Grandfather on father's side died in "melancholia." Personal data. — Age, 29 years; height, 182.2 cm.; weight, 74.8 kilos. Occupation, student. Sport, gymnastics. Education. — Williams College, 1905; high scholarship; best in sciences, worst in languages. Memory. — Visual; fairly quick; fairly long (fixed if seen) ; fairly responsive ; high in accuracy. Very moderate user, in part for practical reasons; does not care for alcoholic drinks. Has occasionally taken wine, 5 glasses a year, at banquets, etc., with no effect. Largest amount, pint bottle of blackberry brandy as medicine, with no effect. Last use, 10 days previous, 1^ glasses wine at dinner. Never intoxicated; not affected by amounts taken. Tea and coffee.— Very little of either; occasionally weak coffee for hay fever. Life insvrance. — Last examined in 1907. Northwestern Mutual and Con- necticut Mutual Life Insurance Companies. Accepted by both. SUBJECT III. Date.— September 9, 1913. Family history. — Father, American; mother, American; father and mother married 27 years. One sister, 22 years old. None of the family take alcohol or use drugs of any kind. No insanity in the family. Personal data. — Age, 25 years; height, 176.5 cm.; weight, 67.5 kilos. Occu- pation, physician. Sport, tennis, an hour at a time. Education. — Dartmouth College, 1909, and Boston University. Tenth in class of 200 members. No special preference for any study. Memory. — Very quick, accurate, responsive, but forgets easily. Non-abstainer. — Drinks beer, a quart in two weeks ; no effect except geniality. Largest amount of alcoholic liquor taken, about 1 pint of whisky in high- balls at a banquet; " heail " next morning. Last use, bottle of beer September 8. Never intoxicated. Quickly affected by alcoholic liquor. It produces excitement, though sub- ject is normally quiet; no talkativeness, but a feeling of happiness; no physical sensations; does not affect affection or temper; effect on routine work not known; no effect on digestion; occasionally increases the flow of urine. Tea and coffee. — Uses neither, but tobacco in excess. Life insurance. — Examined in 1903. Mutual Life Insurance Company of Montpelier. Accepted. 'The histories of three subjects are not included because the experimental sessions in which they served were too few for statistical treatment with the group (Subjects I and V), or because it proved impracticable to carry out the experimental program for some other reason (Subject XIII) . The last mentioned was a hard drinker who refused to give us non-alcohol or normal days. Th» first two broke off the experiments to meet busineu=59 engagements. 276 APPENDIX II. 277 SUBJECT IV. Date.— September 25, 1913. Family history. — Father, American (Scotch descent); mother, American; father and mother married 34 or 35 years. Two brothers, 33 and 32 years old. Three sisters, all younger. Father takes whisky to excess at the end of the week; makes him ugly. Mother takes gin, rarely to excess, occasionally at period. One brother heavy drinker; no special kind of liquor; drinks frequently; to excess once a week. Other brother moderate drinker, but never intoxicated. Sisters abstainers. No insanity in family. Personal data. — Age, 27 years; height, 181.6 cm.; weight, 73 kilos. Occu- pation, student. Sport, football coach. Education. — Colby College. Average scholarship; best in sciences, worst in languages. Memm-y. — Quick and accurate when he remembers at all; slow in response; does not retain for any length of time. Non-abstainer. — Drinks beer three or four times a week at dinner. It exhila- rates at first, but later makes him drowsy. Largest amount taken, 2 or 3 bottles of beer and fancy drinks at a banquet. Last taken September 24, 1 liter of beer at dinner. Never intoxicated; makes hun sick first. Can take 1 liter of beer without noticeable effect. First noticeable effects are exhilaration, though subject is normally quiet; more talkative than usual, normally moderate in speech; gives feeling of happi- ness, though normally depressed. No peculiar sensations except a blurring of vision. No effect on the flow of ideas; softens the temper; produces a ten- dency to looseness of morals; no effect on the digestion or on the urine. Tea and coffee. — Two cups of strong coffee a day. Life insurance. — Examined in 1911. Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Com- pany of New Jersey. Accepted. SUBJECT VI, Date.— -October 7, 1913. Family history. — Both father and mother American, Scotch descent; married 28 years. One brother, not living, 21 years. None of the family take alcohol or drugs. There is no insanity in the family, and no alcoholism in the collateral branches. Personal data. — Age, 25 years; height, 164 cm.; weight, 68 kilos. Occupa- tion, student, second year medical school. Sport, walking 2 miles a day. Education.— OMahoma, Agricultural College. Average scholarship; best in biology, worst in English grammar. Memory. — Poor, verbal. Not quick, accurate, long, or responsive. Non-abstainer. — Drinks beer, etc., at banquets; 1 or 2 glasses at a time; effect, stupefying. Largest amount ever taken, 10 or 12 glasses, mixed drinks, in the evening, one year previous; "attempted to get drunk"; stupefying effect; only time ever intoxicated. Last used, October 3, 1913, one glass of beer. Two glasses of beer can be taken on a full stomach without noticeable effect. First noticeable effects are drowsiness and unsteadiness. Produces no excitement, though subject is normally nervous; causes talkativeness, normally moderate in speech; produces a feeling of elation, normally cheerful. No peculiar sensations. Seems to increase the flow of ideas. No effect on the affections, but sweetens the temper. Effect on routine work not known, as he never takes it when working. No effect on morals. One glass aids digestion; two glasses retard it; no effect upon the urine. Tea and coffee. — One cup strong coffee every morning. Life insurance. — Examined for life insurance a year previous. Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company. Accepted. 278 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. SUBJECT VII. £)ate.— October 8, 1913. Family history.— FsLther and mother both American ; married 29 years. One brother, 22 years. Neither the father nor the mother takes alcohol, nor the brother so far as known. No habitual use of drugs by any member of the family. Paternal grandmother had psychosis at menopause. Personal data. — Age, 26 years; height, 177.8 cm.; weight, 67.5 kilos. Occu- pation, student, medical school. Sport, tennis. Education. — Grinnell College, 1907. Scholarship, Phi Beta Kappa. Best in sciences, worst in languages. Memory. — Good " crammer." Fairlj^ quick, more accurate than the average, quick to memorize but as quickly lost, responsiveness above average. Non-ahstainer. — Drinks beer (not more than a pint at a time) irregularly; acts as a "narcotic, more sedative than stimulating." Largest amount ever taken, 2 quarts of beer at an evening party; "stimulation from social sugges- tion." Last used, October 4, 1913, 400 c.c. of beer in the afternoon; no effects observed. Intoxicated once, January 1911; took 1 quart of beer, IJ glass whisky, and | glass port. Can take one glass {\ pint) of beer after supper without noticeable effect. First noticeable effects, acts as narcotic; tends to talkativeness if more is taken; produces a feeling of happiness; when subject is in bed, alcohol pro- duces a sensation of floating; seems to make the ideas flow more easily. He becomes mellower, more affectionate, but there is no effect upon the temper. Seems to help physical pain; never taken for mental pain. Feels "like dancing the tango;" sense of conventionality lessened. Only physical effect is that beer sometimes causes fermentation. Tea and coffee. — Coffee every day, not too strong; seldom tea. Life insurance. — Examined spring of 1909. Union Central Life Insurance Company. Accepted. SUBJECT VIII. Date.— October 9, 1913. Family history. — Father, American (Scotch-Irish); mother, American (Pennsylvania Dutch); father and mother married in 1886. Two brothers, 26 and 13 years; one sister, 17 years. Father takes beer moderately, not with meals. Mellowing effect; intoxi- cated twice a year. Mother abstainer. Older brother, moderate amounts; younger brother and sister, abstainers. No habitual use of drugs by any member of the family. No insanity in the family. Personal data.- — Age, 24 years; height, 178.4 cm.; weight, 74.8 kilos. Occu- pation, student, third year medical school. Sport, walking at present, 3 miles a day. Education. — University of California. Scholarship, high honors. Best in sciences, worst in mathematics and English. Memory. — Verj^ quick, accurate, not very long, moderately responsive. Total abstainer. — Reasons, more particularly moral, but also scientific, practical, and family (mother). At 10 years of age, accidental overdose of whisky. Lost equilibrium on coming home, was put to bed and was sick for several days. Tried beer since, but did not like the taste. Tea and coffee. — Moderate amount of coffee about four times a week. Life insurance. — Never examined. Medical examination, June 1913; jaundice, at City Hospital.^ APPENDIX II. 279 SUBJECT IX. £>ote.— October 10, 1913. Family history. — Father, South German; mother, South German. Father and mother married in 1890. One brother, 20 years old. Father takes wine and beer, 1 bottle at a time in the evening; no effects observed. Brother takes beer, 2 or 3 bottles at a time. No habitual use of drugs, no nervous or mental disease, and so far as known, no excessive use of alcohol in family history. Personal data. — Age, 22 years; height, 174 cm.; weight, 63.5 kilos, in July 1913, after losing 10 kilos. Occupation, student, dental school. Sport, foot- ball; tennis previously. Education.- — Gymnasium, Wiesbaden. Scholarship, average. Best in gym- nastics and languages, worst in mathematics. Memory. — Rather quick, usually accurate, forgets quickly, no special diffi- culties in response. Non-abstainer. — Drinks 5 to 1 bottle of wine or beer a day now, but pre- viously 3 bottles a day, in the evening; no general effects. Largest amoxmt taken, 4 bottles beer in the evening; did not feel intoxicated, but vomited. Last use, previous evening 1 bottle of beer; no effects. Never intoxicated. 2 or 3 liters of beer could be taken in the evening without noticeable effects. Sometimes produced vomiting next day. In excess of 2 or 3 liters it acted as a diuretic. Tea and coffee. — One or the other taken at every meal; amount, one cup. Life insurance. — Examined, July 1913. Stuttgarter Lebensversicherung. Accepted. SUBJECT X. Date.— February 10, 1914. Family history. — Father and mother, American, married in 1868. Two brothers, 41 and 39 years. Not known as to whether father took alcohol; probably took small amounts rarely. Mother, abstainer. One brother, abstainer; other probably does not take alcohol. No knowledge of habitual use of drugs by any member of the family. No nervous or mental disease or excessive use of alcohol in the family history. Personal data. — Age, 43 years; height, 182.9 cm.; weight, 85 kilos. Occu- pation, scientist. Sport, no systematic exercise. Education. — Harvard University. Scholai-ship, A. Best in sciences, worst in languages. Memory. — Verbal, good. Memory for poetry poor; memory for figures phenomenal. Abstainer, but not total. Reasons, moral, scientific, practical, social. Occasionally takes small amount of wine at dinners. Effects rarely noticeable ; has produced flushing, with a distinct desire for fresh air; is not loquacious by design; never appears to affect reasoning. Largest amount ever taken and last time used, December 15, 1913, 2 glasses of champagne at dinner. Never intoxicated. First noticeable effects: No noticeable excitement or increased flow of ideas; so far as known, does not cause talkativeness or feeling of happiness, or affect routine work, the sense of propriety, the affections, or the urine. No effect on the digestion has been observed. Only peculiar sensation observed was (once) the flushing referred to. Tea and coffee. — ^A moderate use of coffee; two cups a day. Life insurance. — Last examined, 1907. Provident Life and Trust Company. Accepted for two policies. 280 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. PSYCHOPATHIC PATIENTS. SUBJECT XI. Date.— March 24, 1914. Family history. — Father and mother, EngUsh; date of marriage unknown. Three brothers, four sisters. Father heavy drinker, often intoxicated; probably drank ale. Mother, moderate drinker; takes ale and porter; never intoxicated. Brothers, mod- erate drinkers; three or four drinks a year. Sisters, very moderate drinkers. Never heard of an habitual use of drugs by any member of the family. No nervous or mental disease or the excessive use of alcohol in the family historj' was reported. Personal data. — Age, 51 years; height, 161.3 cm.; weight, 55.8 kUos. Occu- pation, grocery clerk. Sport, none. Education. — Common schools from 5 to 11 years. No high school or college education. Memory. — Excellent for long poetic citations; not good for proper name.s; indifferent for figures. Non-abstainer. — Last use, November 1913, dranl?; to excess 7 to 10 days, this leading him to go to the Psychopathic Hospital. At present abstainer, under hospital supervision. Previously took perhaps 2 glasses of whisky and 7 glasses of ale a day. Very little affects him very quickly. One glass of ale makes his head dull; feels the effect of one glass of whisky for whole day. When he once begins drinking, continues until intoxicated. First noticeable effects: Head dull with ale; whisky makes him talkative. Requires 3 or 4 glasses of ale to produce a feeling of happiness, but only 1 glass of whisky. Is not conscious that he is becoming intoxicated until he has reached that state. Drinking causes a flow of ideas; "could make a speech," as words come easily. Does not make him quarrelsome. Does not drink to dull mental or physical pain. Drinking incapacitates him for work; he can not reason, and makes blunders. Produces a feeling of independence, but does not affect morals. Has no appetite after a day's drinking. Ale increases the flow of urine. Tea and coffee. — Drinks coffee only on Sunday, strong. Tea freely, strong; 6 cups a day with no effect. Life insurance. — Examined, 1912; John Hancock Life Insurance Company; accepted. Examined, also, at the Psychopathic Hospital, to which he has been admitted twice for delirium tremens. Physical defects. — Left eye has scar on cornea; vision impaired; right eye, ordinary vision. Front teeth bad, preventing clear utterance of words in reaction experiments. SUBJECT XII. Z)a