91^ PURCHASED FROM UNIVERSITY FUNDS L.3'6'=i a^^mrYv Digitized by Microsoft® The daf 'i Cornell University Library PA 2087.B97 A Latn grammar, 3 1924 021 612 910 All books are subject to recall after two weeks Olin/Kroch Library DATE DUE •S^^ TTjooR GAYLORD Digitized by /V icrosoft® PRINTED IN U.S.A. This book was digitized by Microsoft Corporation in cooperation witli Cornell University Libraries, 2007. You may use and print this copy in limited quantity for your personal purposes, but may not distribute or provide access to it (or modified or partial versions of it) for revenue-generating or other commercial purposes. Digitized by Microsoft® A LATIN GRAMMAR BY HARRY EDWIN BURTON, Ph.D. Professor of Latin in Dartmouth College SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO Digitized by Microsoft® U3S^ Copyright, igii, bv SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY Digitized by Microsoft® PREFACE This book has been written in the belief that a Latin Grammar, in order to meet the needs of pupils in secondary schools, should contain morethan the elementary facts of the language. Begin- ners' books and grammatical appendices have to a certain extent superseded the strictly elementary grammar for the first two years of the school course. It seems, therefore, that a grammar, in order to be useful throughout the school course, should contain not only the ordinary and simple facts but also those which are more unusual or more complicated. The author believes that such a grammar best meets the demands of the secondary school, while at the same time it retains its usefulness through the college course. Familiarity with such a book acquired at school is of very great value to those who continue the study of Latin in college. In any case it is undoubtedly true that the proper use of a fairly complete grammar gives not only a wider but also a more appre- ciative and more permanent knowledge of the language. While seeking to include even the more uncommon forms and constructions, the author has studiously excluded all material which would be confusing to the beginner and would be neg- lected by the more advanced student. He has endeavored to present the essentials with the greatest possible simplicity for the benefit of the younger pupil, and has clearly subordinated statements regarding the more unusual constructions by print- ing them in smaller type. At the same time he has had in mind the needs of the college undergraduate, which, as a matter of fact, except for the peculiarities of individual authors, are about the same as those of the yoimger student who is reading Cicero or VergU. A b3pj^^wj^c]^.trea^adequately the grammar IV PREFACE of these two authors is, with slight additions, sufficient for the reading of college authors. Of the passages quoted as examples three-fourths have been taken from what may be called school authors, — that is, from Caesar, Cicero, Vergil, Sallust, Nepos, and a very few from Ovid, — though not always from the works or parts of works which are usually read in school. The other examples, almost without exception, have been taken from works commonly read by college undergraduates. It has been thought best to treat the formation of words under the various parts of speech, instead of treating the subject as a whole in one place. This has been done partly because this arrangement seems more logical, but especially in the hope that the younger student may find the subject less forbidding when pre- sented in this way. The subject of versification has been treated briefly but, it is hoped, sufficiently for the reading of Vergil and Ovid. It has been thought unnecessary to include the meters of Horace and other college authors. Versification is not a part of the subject of Latin grammar, and modern editions of Latin texts almost invariably treat the meters used by their authors. In the treatment of sounds and words the author has had the help of Professor R. W. Husband, and in the treatment of syntax that of Professor J. K. Lord, both of Dartmouth College, and wishes hereby to acknowledge his gratitude. He is indebted also to Dr. William Gallagher, Principal of Thayer Academy at South Braintree, Massachusetts, who has read the whole manuscript and has made many valuable criticisms. Thanks are due also to Harriet P. Fuller of the English High School, Providence, Rhode Island, and to Fra,nklin A. Dakin of Haverford School, Haverford, Pennsylvania, for many useful suggestions. Hanover, New Hampshire. Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS FIRST PART— SOUNDS The Alphabet Classification of Sounds Pronunciation Pronunciation of Vowels Quantity of Vowels Pronunciation of Diphtfiongs . . . ^ . . Pronunciation of Consonants Syllables Length of Syllables . . Accent Enclitics Phonetic Changes . . Weakening in Unaccented Syllables . . . Weakening of Vowels in Medial Syllables Weakening of Vowels in Final Syllables . Weakening of Diphthongs Loss of Vowel ... Combination of Vowels ... Iambic Shortening . Vowel Gradation Changes of Single Consonants Changes in Consonant Groups PAGE I 2 3 4 4 6 7 8 8 9 ID II 12 13 13 13 14 14 14 IS SECOND PART — WORDS Formation of Words Roots . . Stems . . . Inflection . . . Gender . . . General Rules of Gender Number Case ■ DigUizect by Microsoft® V i6 i6 i6 17 17 17 19 19 VI CONTENTS Nouns Formation of Nouns Primary Suffixes . . Agent Means or Instrument Action Abstracts . . . Secondary Suffixes . Abstracts . . Place Diminutives Patronymics . . Compound Nouns Declension of Nouns . . General Rules of Declension First Declension . Second Declension Third Declension Consonant Stems i-Stems . . Irregular Nouns Greek Nouns . Gender Fourth Declension Fifth Declension . . Defective Nouns . Variable Nouns .... Names of Persons ... . . Adjectives . .... Formation of Adjectives Comparison of Adjectives Declension of Adjectives . Adjectives of the First and Second Declensisns Adjectives of the Third Declension Adjectives of One Ending Adjectives of Two Endings . Adjectives of Three Endings Possessive Adjectives Adverbs Derivation of Adverbs Classification of Adverbs . . Comparison tSf Adverbs Digitized by Microsoft® PAGE 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 23 24 2S 25 26 28 31 31 36 4P 41 42 43 44 46 48 5° S2 52 54 57 57 60 60 62 63 64 64 64 67 69 CONTENTS Vll 7AGE Numerals 70 Numeral Adjectives 70 Fractions 72 Roman Notation . 72 Declension of Numeral Adjectives 73 Adjectives derived from Numerals 74 Numeral Adverbs 74 Peonotjns 75 Personal Pronouns .... 7S Relative and Interrogative Pronouns ..... 76 Indefinite Pronouns .... ... -77 Demonstrative Pronouns . .78 Verbs .... 81 Formation of Verbs .... . . ... 81 Primary Verbs ... . . 81 Derivative Verbs . . . 82 Verbs formed by Composition . . 83 Verb-Stems 84 Conjugation 85 Voice .... . . . ... . . 87 Deponent Verbs .... . . . 87 Mood and Tense Signs . . . .88 Indicative Mood . . . ... 88 Subjunctive Mood 91 Verbal Nouns and Adjectives . 92 Infinitives 92 Supine . . 93 Gerund 93 Participles . 93 Tense-Groups ... . . 95 Number . . . 95 Person . . 95 Principal Parts . . 97 Conjugation of sum ... . . 98 First Conjugation . . 100 Second Conjugation ... 103 Third Conjugation . . ... 105 Verbs in -id of the Third Conjugation . ... 107 Fourth Conjugation . , 109 Deponent Verbs . . . no Periphrastic Conjugation in Digitized by Microsoft® VUl CONTENTS Verbs — Continued Irregular Verbs . . Conjugation of possum Conjugation of volo Conjugation of fero Conjugation of eo Conjugation of /w Conjugation of edd Conjugation of do Defective Verbs . . . Impersonal Verbs . . List of Verbs . . Prepositions Conjunctions . . . Interjections PAGE 112 112 113 114 IIS 117 117 118 119 121 121 134 134 13s THIRD PART — SYNTAX Introduction . 136 Principal and Subordinate Clauses . . 136 Subject and Predicate 136 137 138 138 139 . . . 140 141 141 ... 141 ... . 143 .... I4S • • • 14s . . . 146 ... . 146 . . 146 .148 . . 148 . . ISO . . 150 .... 151 152 Phrase . Classification of Sentences Interrogative Sentences Answers Alternative Questions Syntax of the Parts of Speech Syntax of Nouns Appositives .... Predicate Nouns Cases of Nouns Nominative and Vocative Cases ... Genitive Case Genitive with Substantives and Adjectives Possessive Genitive Genitive of Definition Genitive of the Whole Genitive of Material Genitive of Quality Objective Genitive GenTtive of ^^^igf^ Microsoft® ■ ■ CONTENTS IX Syntax op '^ovns — Continued page Genitive with Verbs 152 Genitive of Charge or Penalty 152 Genitive with refert and interest 153 Genitive with Verbs of Plenty or Want 154 Genitive with Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, etc. . . 154 Genitive with Verbs of Mental Sensation 156 Genitive with potior 156 Genitive of Exclamation 156 Dative Gasp 156 Dative with Verbs ... . 157 Indirect Object with Transitive Verbs 157 Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs 158 Indirect Object with Compound Verbs 159 Dative of Reference 161 Dative of Separation 162 Ethical Dative . . 162 Dative of Possession 163 Dative of Agent 163 Dative of Purpose or Tendency 164 Dative with Adjectives . . 164 Accusative Case 165 Direct Object . ... . . .165 Accusative of Exclamation .... . 167 , Accusative of Kindred Meaning ... 167 Two Accusatives 168 Accusative of Limit of Motion . .170 Accusative of Extent . . . 171 Accusative of Specification 172 Subject of Infinitive . 173 Ablative Case . i73 Separative Uses . . -173 Ablative of Separation with Verbs 173 Ablative of Separation with Adjectives 174 Ablative of Place Whence i74 Ablative of Source i7S Ablative of Agent . ..... 176 Ablative of Material 177 Ablative of Comparison i77 Ablative of Cause , i79 Digitized by Microsoft® X CONTENTS Syntax oe Nouns — Continued pace" Instrumental Uses i8o Ablative of Accompaniment .... i8o Ablative of Manner . . i8o Ablative of Attendant Circumstance . . . ■. . i8i Ablative of Quality . . . ". . ... . . '. i8i Ablative Absolute . , ->. 182 Ablative of Means . . . 184 Ablative of Price 185 Ablative of the Road ... ..^ 186 Ablative of Measure of Difference . T . 186 Ablative of Specification 188 Locative Uses ... . . . . 188 Ablative of Place Where . . , ';. . 188 Ablative of Time . . . . . _• 190 The Roman Calendar , , . .,1. 191 Ablative of Extent of Time . , , .i'Vi '9^ Locative Case . . ,';. 193 Syntax of Adjectives 194 Classification . . 194 Participial Adjectives .• • • • "•■ '94 Possessive Adjectives . . . 195 Attributive and Predicate Adjectives .' ':"?•». 196 Agreement of Adjectives ... . . . ?' 197 Adjectives and Participles as Substantives . . 199 Adjectives instead of Adverbs . ■'. . .>'.)'. .' 200 Comparatives and Superlatives . - . .,• . . . 200 Syntax of Advekbs .... . . 202 The Use of Certain Adverbs ... . . 202 Negative Adverbs '. '. '..... 203 Syntax of Pronouns . 204 Personal Pronouns . '. 204 The Reflexive Pronoun . . 205 The Intensive Pronoun . . . . . 206 Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives . • . 208 Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives . . . . . . , . . . 208 Distributive Pronouns and Adjectives . . . .... 210 Relative Pronouns and Adjectives . . . 211 Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives 214 alius and alter . . .' 217 Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS xi PAGE Syntax of Verbs .... . 218 Voice 218 Agreement of the Verb with its Subject ... . .... 219 Moods a^id Tenses . . Indicative Mood The Use of the Tenses of the Indicative Mood Epistolary Tenses ... Subjunctive Mood Subjunctive Mood in Independent Sentences Volitive Subjunctive Subjunctive of Exhortation or Command Deliberative Subjunctive Optative Subjunctive Potential Subjunctive Tenses of the Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses . . Subordinate Clauses in the Indicative or Subjunctive Relative Clauses Relative Clauses of Fact . ... Relative Clauses of Characteristic ... ... Causal or Adversative Relative Clauses . . ... Relative Clauses of Purpose Subordinate Clauses Introduced by Conjunctive Particles . Clauses of Purpose Clauses of Result Substantive Clauses Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Indicative . . Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Subjunctive . 243 Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive Sub- junctive ... 243 Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative Sub- junctive . , ... . 246 Substantive Clauses developed from Clauses of Result . 247 Indirect Questions . .... . . 248 Temporal Clauses . 251 Temporal Clauses with cum ... 251 Temporal Clauses with antequam and priusquam . 253 Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc '. 255 Temporal Clauses with dum, donee, quoad, and qtiam diu . 257 Temporal Clauses with quando . . 260 Causal Clauses . ... . 260 Adversative and Concessive Clauses . . . . ' . . 262 Digitized by Microsoft® 220 220 221 22s 226 226 226 226 227 228 229 230 23s 23s 235 236 238 239 240 240 241 242 242 XU CONTENTS Syntax of Verbs — Continued paoe Subjunctive of Repeated Action 264 Subjunctive by Attraction . . 265 Independent Subjunctive Constructions in Subordinate Clauses 265 Conditional Sentences 266 The Use of the Conditional Particles . . 266 Types of Conditional Sentences . . . . 267 Conditions of Fact . . 267 Conditions of Possibility 268 Conditions Contrary to Fact . 269 Other Forms of Protasis . 271 Conditional Relative Sentences 272 Conditional Clauses of Comparison 272 Clauses of Proviso 273 Imperative Mood 274 Negative Commands 274 The Infinitive 275. The Use of the Tenses of the Infinitive 27s The Uses of the Infinitive . . 277 Infinitive as Nominative Case 277 Infinitive as Accusative Case 278 Infinitive with Passive Verbs 281 Infinitive with Adjectives 281 Infinitive of Exclamation 282 Infinitive of Purpose 282 Historical Infinitive 282 Indirect Discourse 282 Declarative Sentences in Indirect Discourse 283 Questions in Indirect Discourse 286 Commands in Indirect Discourse 286 Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse 286 Conditions of Fact or Possibility* 287 Conditions Contrary to Fact 288 Implied Indirect Discourse 289 Participles .... . 289 The Use of the Tenses of the Participle 289 The Uses of Participles 291 Gerundive and Gerund 294 Case-Constructions of Gerundive and Gerund 294 The Supine . . 296 Syntax OF Prepositions o^g,.f^gjy^^.^.^^3j,^ 297 CONTENTS XUl PAGE Syntax of Conjunctions 298 • Cojirdinating Conjunctions 299 Copulative Conjunctions 299 Disjunctive Conjunctions 301 Adversative Conjunctions 302 Logical Conjunctions 303 Causal Conjunctions 303 Asyndeton 303 Arrangement of Words 305 Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric 309 Versification 312 Meter 316 The Oral Reading of Verse 317 List of Authors and Works Cited 318 Index 321 Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® LATIN GRAMMAR FIRST PART — SOUNDS THE ALPHABET 1. The Latin alphabet was borrowed from the Chalcidian Greek colonies of southern Italy and adapted to the sounds of the, Latin language. Only capital letters were used; srhall let- ters did not come into use till the end of the eighth century A.D. 2. In Cicero's time the alphabet consisted of twenty- one letters : — letter pronounced letter pronounced letter pronounced A ah H ha P pay B bay I ee Q koo C kay E ka R air D day L el S es E eh M em T tay F . ^/. . N en V 00 G gay O X eex 3. Besides these, Y and Z were used in Cicero's time and later; to transliterate Greek words, but were not generally included in the alphabet. Y represented the Greek v and had the sound of the German ii, as in Briider; Z was used to trans- literate the Greek % and had the sound of the English Z. 4. Long and short vowel sounds, though quite distinct, were regularly indicated by the same letter. But long vowels were sometimes distinguishg^.^n^^^r^jj;.^L|J^ as follows: — a, e, and 2 THE ALPHABET (j-8 u were doubled; i was written ei or a taller letter was used; sometimes a mark (apex) was put over a long vowel; a late form of this mark is the one now used to indicate a long vowel. 5. The letter C originally represented a g sound like the third letter of the Greek alphabet, and was retained for that purpose in the abbreviations C. (Gaius) and Cn. (Gnaeus). It gradually came to represent a k sound, supplanting the letter K, which was used generally in the earlier period, but in the classical period only occasionally in Kaeso, Kalendae, Karthago, and a few abbreviations. When the letter C had thus assumed a new function (this Use was general by the beginning of the third century B.C.), a new letter was needed to represent the g sound; for this purpose G was formed from C and inserted in the alphabet in the place once held by Z, which had gone out of use. 6. I and V regularly represented both the vowel sounds (sim, bonus) and the semivowel or consonant sounds (maior, vols). The consonant i sound was, however, represented some- times by a taller letter, sometimes by doubling (TrSiia). The differentiation of U and V, for vowel and consonant respectively, was not made till the tenth century A.D. The letter J was intro- duced in the seventeenth century, to indicate the consonant i. In this book, according to the modern custom, i is used for both vowel and consonant, u for vowel u, and V for consonant u. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS 7. The vowels — a, e, i, o, u, and y — are classified as fol- lows: — open, a; medial, e and o; dose, i, u, and y. There is, however, variation within these classes; long e and o, for example, are closer than the corresponding short vowels. 8. The diphthongs are ae, au, oe, and eu; eu occurs in only a very few wojds. Besides these, the following are found in early Latin; — ai, el^stJ^euiijd/MMiosoft® P> lo) PRONUNCIATION 3 The combination ui occurs in huic, cui, and the interjection hui; some regard this as a diphthong, others beheve that the u is a consonant. 9. Consonants are classified as follows: — (a) Sonant: b, d, g, consonant i, 1, m, n, r, v, z. Surd: c, f, h, k, p, q, s, t, x. Sonants are voiced, surds are not. (6) Labial Lingual or Dental Palatal ,, , f Sonant ^"^" Isurd Nasals b P m d t n g c,k,q Liquids Spirants {Sibilants) Semivowels V s, z i (consonant) Mutes are distinguished from the others in being mere explosives, incapable of prolongation. X is a double consonant, equivalent to cs ; f is a labio-dental spirant; h is a mere breathing; c, g, k, q, and n before c, g, k, q, and X, are sometimes called gutturals. q is always, g and s are sometimes, followed by the consonant u sound, though it is the custom to write u, not v : quis, anguis, suavis. PRONUNCIATION 10. The pronunciation of Latin is determined with approxi- mate certainty from the detailed descriptions of Latin gramma- rians and bccasional statements of other Latin writers; from Greek transliteration of Latin words; from Latin transliteration of foreign words, especially Greek; from variations in spelling; and from the development of the sounds in languages derived from Latin. Digitized by Microsoft® 4 PRONUNCIATION {il-I4 PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS 11. Long Short a as In father a as in along e u they e << net i It machine i n pin 6 u no o <( oJey u (( rule u u ^< y is like German ii (as in BrUder) or French u. These EngUsh equivalents are only approximate; all long vowel sounds in English except that of a as in father end in a vanishing sound which makes them somewhat diphthongal. QUANTITY OF VOWELS 12. The sound of the long vowel is theoretically twice as long as that' of the short. We know the length of a vowel in many cases from its value in poetry; as, for example, in the first line of the Aeneid, we may recognize from their position in the verse the value of the long and short vowels, as indicated: arma virumque cano Troiae qui primus ab oris. But a syllable is long if its vowel is followed by two consonants, irrespective of the length of the vowel. In such cases the value of the vowel (called hidden quantity) may sometimes be learned from (a) statements of Roman grammarians; (b) inscriptions, in which long vowels are sometimes marked; (c) etymology; (d) com- potinds, in which long vowels are treated differently from short (cf . adactus from actus, affectus from factus) ; (e) transliteration into Greek; (f) treatment of the vowel in languages derived from Latin. 13. A vowel which represents a diphthong or is the result of contraction is long: as, concido from caedo; nil from nihil. A vowel is long before nf or ns, and probably before net and ax: as, infelix, insanus, defiinctus, coniunx. 14. A vowel^s short before another vowel or h. There are the following exC^pti(M9ii^«^ by Microsoft® ^5-^S) QUANTITY OF VOWELS 5 (a) Numerous words in early Latin: as, pius, ffli. (b) In "classical Latin: 1. a in the old genitive ending of the first declension, -ai. 2. a, e, and 6 in the genitive and vocative singular and nominative, dative, and ablative plural of nouns (usually proper names) ending in -aius, -eius, or -oius : as, Gai, Pompei, Boi, plebeis. 3. e in the ending of the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, — always when e is preceded by i, rarely, in early Latin, when another letter precedes: as, diel, but, with a few exceptions, fidel. 4. i in the pronominal genitives unius, totius, etc. The dramatists regularly have i; later, the vowel was commonly shortened. 5. i in all forms of fio, except when it is followed by er: as, fiebam; but fierem. 6. I in dms (for divus). 7. Many Greek words: as, Aeneas, aer, Diana (more often Diana). 15. A vowel, unless it is the result of contraction, is short before nt or nd : as, amant, amandus ; but contio from coventio, vendo from venumdo. 16. A vowel is short before ss, except in contracted perfects: as, fissus, fossus, but amasse; also before st in verbal endings, unless there is contraction: as, fuisti; but amasti. 17. A vowel is short in monosyllables and final syllables ending in any consonant except s. Exceptions: some monosyllables ending in c, 1, n, and r: as, hie and the other adverbs of place, sol, non, cur; before r and t, an original long vowel is retained in early Latin and sometimes in poetry of the classical period: as, pater, ferar, videt. 18. Before final s the quantity of the vowel varies: — 1. The vowel is long in final as, es, and os. Exceptions: anas, duck; as, copper; es in the nominative singular of some dental stems which have a short vowel in the other cases: as, miles; es (from esse) ; penes ; os, bone; compos ; impos. 2. The vowel is short in final is and us. Exceptions: is in plural case-endings; in the second person singular of the perfect subjunctive active (rarely -is. as, on the other hand, -is ^ Digitized by Micitsom ' 6 PRONUNCIATION {iQ, 20 occurs rarely in the future perfect) ; in the second person singular of the present indicative active of the fourth conjugation and of some irregular verbs: as, is, fis, ifis; in the second person singular of the present sub- junctive active of some irregular verbs: as, sis, velis; and in -vis, force, Quiris, Samnis, and sometimes sanguis and pulvis. us in the gem'tive singular and the nominative and accusative plural of the fourth declen- sion; in the nominative singular of third declension nouns having u in the other cases, e.g. virtus, tellus. 19. In monosyllables and final syllables ending in a vowel: (a) final i is long; Exceptions: nisi, quasi, sicuti, and, usually, mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi. (b) final o is long; Exceptions: cedo (imperative), cito, duo, ego, modo, and, rarely, the first person singular of verbs. Beginning with Ovid, the short vowel becomes increasingly common in the nominative singular of the third declension (as in virgo), in verb-forms, and in some other words: as, ergo, ilico, immo, octo, quando. (c) final u is long; (d) final a is short; Exceptions: the ablative singular of the first declension; the impera- tive of the first conjugation; and most uninflected words: as. frustra, triginta. (e) final e is ^hort ; Exceptions: all monosyllables except enclitics; the ablative singular of the fifth declension; the second person singular of the present imper- ative active of the second conjugation; adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions: as. longe, recte (but short in bene, male, inferne, superne). PRONUNCIATION OF DIPHTHONGS 20. In diphthongs both vowels are pronounced in quick succession by one effort. ae had the sound of short a followed by that of short e. It is the commou practice, however, to pronounce ae and the earlier ai in the same otget^fiiBsxIviiarcmfmsle, 2l) PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS 7 oe had the sound of short o followed by that of short e, but both oe and the earlier oi are. pronounced like oi in toil. au is like ou in our. eu is short e followed by short u. The early diphthongs ei and ou were originally pronounced respectively like ay in hay and o in no, where there is a vanish- ing sound of u. But by the middle of the second century B.C. ei had come to be pronounced like i in machine, ou like u in rvle. Diphthongs are always long; except that prae in composition is sometimes shortened before a vowel: as, praeeunte, Aen. 5, 186. PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS 21. Consonants are pronounced in general as in English, but the following points should be noted: — b before s or t has the s6und of p, as in ixrbs, obtineo. c always has the sound of English k. g always has the sound of g in get. h was originally the same as in English, but was often omitted in pronunciation. i as a consonant is like y in yes. m before another consonant and when final was pronounced without closing the lips like the French nasalized n. n is usually like the English n. But before c, g, q, and x it has a guttural sound like ng in sing. Before f, consonant i, s, and V, except in the prefixes con- and in-, it is silent, the preceding vowel being lengthened, if short, and nasalized: as, c6(n)sul, me(n)sis. As a final consonant it is weak, except in mono- syllables. r is trilled as in French. s is always unvoiced, like s in soft, never like s in his. In early Latin final s after a short vowel and before a consonant was only slightly sounded or disappeared entirely. V is like w V^^ctAsii^^SbjPfMcr^i8?k= "W®*"- 8 PRONUNCIATION (22, 23 The Greek aspirates, 0, 4*) and X, were always pronounced like t, p, and k. Before 145 B.C. they were represented by t, p, and c ; after that, by th, ph, and ch, but the pronunciation remained the same. Doubled consonants were not pronounced as in English like single consonants, but with a prolongation of the sound of the single consonant. In writing, consonants were not doubled till after 200 B.C. SYLLABLES 22. A word has as many syllables as it has vowels or diphthongs. The syllable before the last is the penult; the one before that is the antepenult. A syllable ending in a vowel or diphthong is called open; others are called closed. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant between two vowels goes with the following vowel: pa-ter, fe-ro. In a group of two or more consonants the division is made after the first, except that a mute and a liquid go with the fol- lowing vowel: dic-tus, fal-lo, mon-stnim, a-cris. In the case of a mute and a liquid, however, if in poetry a long syllable is needed, the mute may be sounded with the preceding vowel. In the treatment of the double consonant x, practice varies; some write di-xit, others dix-it; the actual pronunciation was die-sit. The combination qu is treated as a single consonant: a-qua. Prepositional compounds are separated into their component parts: as, ad-est, ab-rump6, con-cipio. LENGTH OF SYLLABLES 23. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diph- thong, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants (except a mute and a liquid, see 24), by the double consonant x, or by z (wljich is treated, accoUdinfc/tta'tlheoSfiigfek custom, as a double 24-27) ACCENT 9 consonant). In the latter case the syllable is said to be long hy position. One of the two consonants may be at the begin- ning of the next word, h does not count as a consonant; qu has the value of only one consonant: thus, in adhibeo and equus the first syllables are short. In early Latin final S on account of its faint sound does not always make a syllable long by position. 24. A syllable containing a short vowel before a mute followed by 1 or r is regularly short; in verse, however, it is sometimes treated as long. In compounds, when the prefix ends in a mute and the second part begins with 1 or r, the prefix is always long. 25. A syllable is long if it contains the vowel a, e, 0, or u followed by consonant i : as, maior, eius, Troia, cuius. In these words the first syllable is really a diphthong formed by the vowel and a transitional sound (vowel i), so that the actual ^ound would be represented by maiior, etc. 26. In compounds of iacio (spelled adicio, inicio, etc.) the consonant i of. the simple verb was probably pronounced, though not written. There- fore the first syllable, if it ends with a consonant, is long by position. In reicio the first syllable- is long for the same reason as in maior, etc. ACCENT 27. While the nature of Latin accent is disputed, it was probably like the English, a stress accent. The difference in stress between accented and unaccented syllables was, however, not so great as in English. In the earliest period all Latin words had recessive accent, i.e. were accented on the first syllable. As late as the time of Plautus words of four syllables of which the first three were short were still accented on the first syllable: as, facilius, mulierem. This recessive accent was the cause of numerous phonetic changes, being responsible for the loss or weakening of unaccented syllables: as, posse from potesse. Digitized by Microsoft® lO ACCENT (sS-^O 28. In classical Latin, in words of two syllables, the accent is on the first. But when a final syllable following a long penult has dis- appeared or has been contracted, the . accent is on the last syllable : — (a) in compounds of die and due: as, addue for addQee. (b) in words compounded with the abbreviated enclitics, -ce and -ne : as, illic for illiee, tanton for tjintone, viden for videsne. (c) in nominatives of adjectives ending in -as and -is, for -atis and -itis: as, nostras, primas, Quirfs, Sanuus. (d) in perfects like audit, for audivit. * 29. In words of more than two syllables the accent is regularly on the penult, if the penult is long; otherwise, on the antepenult. According to the Roman grammarians (their statement is now questioned), in the contracted genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and -ium, the penult is accented even if it is short: as, Vergili, eonsili, imperi. When faeid is compounded with another verb, the accent of facio remains unchanged: as, calefacit, patefacis. Nominatives of proper nouns and adjectives ending in -as for -atis have the accent on the last syllable: as, Maecenas, Arpinas. In words of four or more syllables there is a secondary accent, — on the second syllable before the chief accent, if that is long or is the first syllable of the word; otherwise, on the third: as, areessiverunt, habuerunt, habuerSmus. ENCLITICS 30. Enclitics are words which have no accent, being joined in pronunciation and writing with the preceding word. They are (a) -ce, -n^, -que,- -ve. (b) -dem, -dum, -ityiepd-fl^ieJ/prodaaBi, -per, -pte, -quidem, JI, J2) PHONETIC CHANGES II -turn: as in ibidem (ibidem in early Latin), a gedum , delnde, egomet, iibinam (ubinam rarely), parfimper, suQt)te, siquidem, etiimtum. ' (c) verb-forms: e.g. licet in videlicet, ilicet, and scilicet; libet in qt^bet; t^s in quamvis; forms of esse in compound tenses. After a vowel or m, the vowel of es and est was not pronounced and is often omitted in writing: as, audita es, pronounced auditas; auditum est, pronounced auditumst. The verb was combined with a noun or an adjective in the same way: as, epistulast, iudiciumst, bonast. In the early writers, if es or est follows a word ending in s preceded by a vowel (usually short), not only is e of the verb lost, but also s of the previous word: as, tu servos, for tu servos es; bonust, for bonus est; similist, for similis est. (d) the indefinite pronouns quis and qui: as, siquis. (e) the preposition cum following its case: as, nobiscum. Besides these, other words, if unemphatic, are sometimes enclitics; e.g. personal and demonstrative pronouns and possessive adjectives (as dic- mihi, pronounced dicmihi) ; even nouns (cf. qu6modo, quare, postridie). 31. As an enclitic was a part of the word to which it was attached, the combination was regularly acceiited as one word. The Roman grammarians assert, however, that the syllable before -ce, -ne, -que, and -ve was ac_cented even if short: as, magn^que, pericul^que; and though this statement has been questioned, the evidence against it seems insufiicifint. This principle does not apply to most of those combinations in which -que has lost its proper meaning, and; thus, denique, findique, utique, ftaque, (therefore); but, utrique and plerique, probably on account of the influence of their other cases. PHONETIC CHANGES 32. The form of many words in classical Latin is due to certain changes of sound based upon well-established prin- ciples. Some of these changes occurred in the pre-literary period, when all wor(isgW^*/3jin the first syllable. 12 PHONETIC CHANGES (jJ-JP WEAKENING IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES 33. The vowel of an unaccented syllable, either medial or final, was often weakened, especially in syllables immediately preceded by the chief accent. Weakening of Vowels in Medial Syllables 34. Medial a before a single consonant, except p or r, and before ng becomes first a and, later, i: as, cado, accedo (in Ennius), accido; facio, conficio; datus, redditus; tango, attingo. Medial a before p becomes u, when the preceding syllable contains o or u : as, capio, occupo. Medial a before two consonants and before r becomes e : as, capio, acceptus; dare, reddere. But before 1 and any other consonant except 1, it becomes u: as, salio, insultus; calco, inculco. 35. Medial e before any single consonant except r becomes i; other- wise, it usually remains unchanged: as, lego, coUigo; fero, confero; sedeo, obsessus. Before a labial the weakened sound varies between i and u: as, monimentum or monumentum. 36. Medial o before a single consonant except 1 sometimes becomes i (or e, if preceded by i) : as, ilico (from in loco) ; bonitas (from bono-) ; societas (from socio-); maximus (from maxomos), with an intervening stage, mazumus. Medial o before two consonants, and, unless preceded by a vowel, before 1, becomes u: as, dicuntur (for dicontiir); poculum (forpocolum) ; filiolus (from fflio-). The same change occurs in initial syllables when o is followed by 1 and another consonant, or by nc, ngu, or mb: as multa (for molta); hunc (for hone); unguis (cf. ov«|); umbilicus (cf 6)i<|>a\6s). 37. Medial u before a single consonant usually becomes i: as, fruc- tibus (f rom f ructu-) ; butacubus (from acu-). So, in an initial syllable, lubet becomes libet. 38. Medial av and ov become u: as, lavo, eluo; novus, denuo. Weakening of Vowels in Final Syllables 39. Final i and o become e : as, mare (from mari) ; ante (from anti) ; iste (fromisto). a in final clSsed syllables becomes e: as. auceps (from cap-); artifex ,, , V Digitized by Microsoft® (froni fac-). ^ 40-42) COMBINATION OF VOWELS 13 e in final closed syllables before s or t becomes i : as, dicis, dicit (for dices, dicet); virtutis (for virtutes). o in final closed syllables, unless preceded by u or v, becomes u: as, filius, filium (for lilios, filiom); donum (foi: donom); genus (for genos); dicunt (for dicont); but, equos, relinquont, extinguont, servos. In the time of Augustus words ending with -quo- and -guo- underwent a change; equos, relinquont, and extinguont became ecus, relincunt, and extingunt. Later the forms equus, relinquunt, and extinguunt came into use; and also such forms as- servus. The conjunction cum (from earlier quom) remained unchanged; the form quum did not come into use till the sixth century A.D. Weakening of Diphthongs 40. In initial syllables ai becomes ae: as, caedo (for caido); aedes (for aides) . ei becomes 1 : as, died (for deico) . oi becomes oe or u or i : as, poena (for poina); punio (for poinio); vidit (for voidit). au remains ■ unchanged, eu and ou become u: as, duco (for deuco); iussi (for iusi, earUer iousi). In medial and final syllables ai, ei, and oi become i: as, concido (for concaido); indico (for indeico); servi (for servoi). au and eu become u: as, concludo (from claudo); conduco (from deuco). Examples of eu occur in classical Latin, but they are either inter- jections (as, eu, heu) or new formations (as, neuter). Loss of Vowel 41. A short vowel in an unaccented syllable is sometimes lost. If the vowel is medial, the loss is called syncope; if final, it is called apocope. Examples of syncope: aetas (aevitas), pergo (perrego), prudens (providens), rettuli (retetuli), valde (valide). If, through the loss of a vowel, 1 or r would stand between two con- sonants or would be final and preceded by a consonant, it becomes syllabic, I being represented by ul, r by er: difficulter (from difficilter, difficlter), ager (from agros, agrs, agers). Examples of apocope: ab- (dirb), quin (quine), die (dice), nee (neque), ac (atque), animal (animale). COMBINATION OF VOWELS 42. If, in the formation of words by composition or through the loss of an intervening consonant, two vowels come together, they are Digitized by Microsoft® 14 PHONETIC CHANGES (43-45 sometimes allowed to remain (hiatus), but more often are contracted into one: coegi, deeram; nemo (ne-hemo), praetor (prai-itor), cogo (co-ago), promo (pro-emo), dego (de-ago), amo (ama-6),ames (ama-es). Rarely they are combined into a diphthong or one is dropped: coetus (co-itus), nullus (ne-ullus). IAMBIC SHORTENING 43. In iambic words (^ -) the fact that the accent was on the first syllable tended to weaken the second, and many long vowels thus became short. So' the final a of the first declen- sion and of neuter plurals of the second declension became a in iambic words and from these the usage was extended to all. The short final o of verb-forms arose in the same way. Other examples are homo, bene, male, cite, modo. VOWEL GRADATION 44. The Indo-European language from which Latin is derived had a system of vowel variation in related words, — changes of quantity, or of vowel due to the position of the accent. This system is called Ablaut. In Latin such variation occurs, but a regular and complete system cannot be recognized. The lack of such a system is due to the wide and levelling influence of analogy, to the fact that many diphthongs became long vowels, and to the development of sonant liquids and nasals; for example, 1 sometimes became ol and later, usually, ul; m and n sometimes became em and en. The following examples will illustrate Ablaut in Latin: — dare, donum; tegula, tego, toga; fido, foedus (forfoidus), fides; sedes, sedeo, sodalis, sido (for si-sd-6). CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS 45. Final d after a long vowel disappears. This change affects all ablatives singular of the lirst and second declensions and of consonant stems of the third declension, and some adverbs and prepositions: as, pugna (for pugnad) ; servo (for served) ; aere (for aerid) ; me, te, se (for med, ted, sed) ; aiso retro (for retrod) ; supra (for suprad) ; also future imperatives: as, esto (for^tftSa^^&itd tioMfitod). 46-51) CHANGES IN CONSONANT GROUPS 15 46. s between vowels becomes r; the process is called rhotacism : ero (stem, es-), gero (cf. gessi, gestus), Lares (for Lases), portarum (for portasom). If s appears between vowels in classical Latin, it repre- sents usually an earlier ss: misi (for missi), causa (for caussa). There are a few exceptions to the general rule; e.g. miser, caesaries, in which s was retained perhaps to avoid repetition of the r sound. Most of the other exceptions are foreign words. In nominatives like honor (for honos) r is due to imitation of the other cases, where the principle of rhotacism was properly applied. 47. V often disappears between vowels: iunior (for iuvenior), contio (for coventid), nolo (ior nevolo), ditior (for dlvitior), amasse (for ama- visse). CHANGES IN CONSONANT GROUPS 48. The pronunciation of consonant groups was made easier by (a) assimilation, (b) loss of one consonant, (c) development of a vowel between the consonants. 49. (a) Assimilation may be complete or partial, i.e. one consonant may be made the same as the other (the first is usually assimilated to the second), or one may be so altered as to employ the same vocal organs as the other. Examples of complete assimilation: — occurro (obcurro), accurro (adcurro), sella (sed-la), siccus (sit-cus), summus (sup-mus), concuss! (concut-si), differs (dis-fero), immortalis (in-mortalis), acerrimus (acersi-mus). Examples of _partial assimilation: — rectus (reg-tus; the first mute becomes unvoiced), scripsi (scrfb-si); the -prepositions ob, ab, sub, originally op, ap, sup, owe their form to the fact that they were often used before voiced consonants; imbellis (in-bellis), imperitus (in- peritus), tantus (from tarn), somnus (for sop-nus). 50. (b) A consonant may disappear at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a word: as, latus (tlatus from toUo), lupiter (Diupiter), nosco (gnosco), natus (gnatus), locus (stlocus); suscipio (subscipio), ostendo (obstendo), sescenti (sexcenG), quintus (quinctus), sparsl (spargsl), cognosco (congnosco), idem (isdem), ultus (ulctus), ipse (ispse); es (ess), ter (terr), hoc (hocc). No word ends in a doubled con- sonant. 51. (c) A vowel is sometimes developed in consonant groups, espe- daUy those containing aj^d^go^^i^^^clum), mina (mna). SECOND PART— WORDS FORMATION OF WORDS 52. A Root is that part of a word which contains the funda- mental meaning. With few exceptions this element is not and never was an actual word and exists only as a device for the convenience of grammatical statement. A root is usually common to several or many words in Latin and often to words in other languages, especially Greek or the Germanic languages. On account of phonetic changes the Latin form of the root often differs somewhat from the form which was originally common to the various languages of the group. Nearly all roots are of such a nature that their meaning may be expressed in the form of a noun or a verb; A very few appear only in the form of pronouns. A root ending in a vowel is called a vowel root; one ending in a consonant is called a consonant root. A root soriietimes appears in different forms: as, fid-, fid-, feed-, in fidus, fides, foedus. Roots are some- times indicated by the sign \/ . 53. The Stem of a word is the part which contains the fun- damental meaning of that word as a part of speech. The stem is sometimes the same as the root. More often it is formed from a root by the addition of ,a suffix. The root vowel is often lengthened or changed: as, rex, king, V reg; toga, toga, \/ teg. Stems formed directly from a root or from a verb-stem are called Primary. Stems formed from noun-stems or adjective- stems are called Secondary or Denominative. Thus victor, \/vic, is a Primary Derivative; victoria, formed from victor, is a Secondary Derivative. In the combination of the stem and the suffix the usual phonetic changes occur; i.e. a final vowel oP'S'^SSSfrfMisappeafl before a suffix beginning i6 54~57) INFLECTION l^ with a vowel; a final short vowel of a stem is weakened before a suffix beginning with a consonant; a final consonant of a stem is liable to change or loss before a suffix beginning with a consonant. INFLECTION 54. Latin is an inflected language; i.e. a word may appear in various forms, which have various meanings or grammatical relations. This variety is secured usu- ally by terminations attached to the stem, sometimes by changes of the stem itself. Pronouns (except personal pronouns) and adjectives (includ- ing participles) are inflected to denote Gender, Number, and Case; nouns and personal pronouns are inflected to denote Number and Case. This is called Declension. Verbs are inflected to denote Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. This is called Conjugation. The comparisoii of adjectives is another form of inflection. 55. The following are not inflected: adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Adverbs, however, are com- pared, and comparison may be properly regarded as a form of inflection. These parts of speech are called Particles. The term Particle is, however, sometimes restricted to a somewhat indefinite list of monosyllables, like an, -ne, ne, non, num, and sL GENDER 56. There are three genders, — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. In many nouns the gender is determined by sex, in others it is purely grammatical. GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 57. Names of males and of rivers, winds, months, and moun- tains are masculine: as, pater, father; Tiberis, Tiber; auster, south wind; Aprilis, April; Apetminus, Apennines. ' *^ Denized by Microsoft® 1 8 GENDER (58-63 But names of rivers ending in a are feminine: as, Allia, Albula; also the Greek names Lethe and Styx. Some names of mountains are feminine: as, Alpes; also Greek names ending in a or e: as, Aetna, Rho- dope; a few are neuter: as, Soracte. The names of months are really adjectives, agreeing with the mascu- line noun, mensis. 58. Names of females and of countries, cities, islands, trees, plants, and most abstract qualities are feminine: as, mater, mother; Italia, Italy; Roma, Rome; Deles, Delos; ulmus, elm; rosa, rose; virtus, manliness. But some names of countries and towns are masculine: as, Pontus, Sulmo, Gabii, and other plurals in -i; some are neuter: as, Latium, Tarentiun, Leuctra. Some names of trees and plants are masculine: as, oleaster, wild olive; iuncus, rush; boletus, mushroom; some are neuter: as, acer, maple; apiimi, parsley; papaver, poppy. 59. Letters of the alphabet, indeclinable nouns, infinitives used substantively, and quoted words, phrases, and clauses are neuter: as, O Graecum, Greek 0; fas, right; totum hoc philosophari, all this philosophizing; istuc taceo, your "I'll say nothing." But letters of the alphabet sometimes have a femi- nine adjective, agreeing with littera understood. 60. Some words are of common gender, being masculine or feminine according to the sex referred to: as, parens, parent; infans, hahy; bos, ox or cow. 61. Some words are of different gender in the two numbers: as, locus, place, plural loca; rastrum, rake, plural rastri. 62. Some names of animals have one grart^matical gender, though applicable to either sex : as, anser, goose or gander, masculine; aquila, eagle, feminine; vulpes,/oa;, feminine. These are called epicenes. 63. Collective nouns referring to persons have the gender regularly indicated by their endings: as, exercitus, army, mas- culine; cohprs, cohort, and copiae, troops, feminine; agmen, army, and concilium, si^^ihymMf^bm ^4-<^9) NUMBER AND CASE 19 NUMBER 64. There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. CASE 65. There are five cases : — Nominative: the case of the subject. Genitive: possessive, or objective with of. Dative: objective with to or for. Accusative: objective with verb or preposition. Ablative: objective with, from, with, by, or in. These definitions are not all-inclusive. The cases are treated in detail under the head of Syntax. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases. 66. Another case, the Vocative, the case of address, is in form not a distinct case except for masculine stems in -0 and a few Greek nouns with other endings. Of all other nouns the nominative is used as the case of address. 67. Some names of towns and a few common nouns have another case, denoting the place where, called the Locative: as, Romae, at Rome; ruri, in the country; domi mQitiaeque, at home and in the field. NOUNS FORMATION 68. Most nouns are simple; that is, they contain only one stem. Simple noun-stems are either Primary or Secondary. 69. Primary Stems are of two sorts : — (a) Roots, with or without change of vowel: — Root Noun-Stem Nominative due- due- dux reg- reg- rex These are found more commonly at the end of compounds: as, armiger, armor-bearer, \/[S§Xt^cM^imiio^dmpeter, s/ can-. 20 FORMATION OF NOUNS i70-72 (b) Roots, with or without change of vowel, or verb- stems, with an added sufBx. A great majority of primary stems are of this sort: — Root or Verb-Stem Noun-Stem Nominative fug- fuga- fuga od- odio- odium reg- rector- rector saluta- salutation- salutatio 70. Secondary Stems are formed by the addition of a suffix to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem : — First Stem Secondary Stem Nominatfve' civi- civitat- civitas aer- aerario- aerarium audac- audacia- aiidacia ' 71. Some suffixes have no definite meaning. Others have a meaning more or less definitely established. They are dassed as Primary or Secondary, according as they are U'sed -in the formation of Primary or Secondary Derivatives. For conven- ience the form of the suffix which appears in the nominative sin- gxilar is given, rather than that which appears in. the stem.' Primary Suffixes Agent 72. The suffix -tor (fern, -trix), added to verb-stems, forms'nouns denoting the agent or doer of the action indicated by the verb. The verb-stem which appears in these words is that of the perfect passive participle, and the suffix -tor may undergo the same phonetic change as the participial ending -tus ; that is, as -tus becomes -sus, -tor becomes -sor: — vena-tor, hunter (venari) lec-tor, reader (legere) vena-trJx, huntress pas-tor, i/jej^Wi (pascere) ton-sor, harher (tondere) scrip-tor, loriter (scrlbere) tons-trix, female barber peti-tor, candidate ^etere) Masculines in -sor have no corresponding feminine, except tonsor (tonstrix) and expulsor (expultrix), expeller. -tor is sometimes added. to iwunrstema^ thus ibecoming a secondary suffix: as, gladiator, gladiatar, from gladius, jttt0»2 (this form-, of -the 73i74) PRIMARY SUFFIXES 21 suffix, -ator, being due to the frequency of agent formations from verbs of the first conjugation) ; ianitor, doorkeeper, from ianua, door; senator, senator, from the stem sen-, old age; viator, traveller, from via, road. The sufSx -6 is sometimes used to denote the agent: as, err-6, warh derer (errare); praec-6, herald (for praevoco, from praevocare). The suffix -ter, originally denoting the agent, forms names of kindred: as, pa-ter, father; ma-ter, mother; fra-ter, brother. Means or Instrument 73. The suffixes -ulum, -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum, and -mentum, added to roots or verb-stems, form neuters, and the suffixes -ula, -bula, and -bra, added to roots or verb-stems, form feminines, denoting means or instrument : — vinc-ulum, chain (vincire) ara-trum, plow (arare) pa-bulum, fodder (pascere) ali-mentum, nourishment (alere) vehi-culum, wagon (vehere) reg-ula, rule (regere) delu-brum, shrine (deluere) fa-bula, tale (far!) sepul-crum, tomb (sepelire) late-bra, hiding-place (latere) Nouns formed with these suffixes sometimes denote place rather than means: as, delubrum, sepulcnun, latebra; cubiculum, chamber (cu- bare); stabulum, stall (stare); sometimes result, especially with -men- turn: as, tiagmentam., fragment (frangere); caementum, cut stone (cae- dere); simulacrum, likeness (simulare). -culum (earlier, -clum) and -crum are different forms of the same suffix; so, abo, -bulum. and -brum. In candelabrum, candlestick, from casdela, candle, the suffix is secondary. Action 74. The suffixes -men, -mdnia, and -monium, added to roots or verb- stems, form nouns denoting action or, sometimes, the residt of action : — flu-men, river (fluere) queri-monia, complaint (queri) certa-men, conflict (certare) ali-monium, nourishment (alere) -mentum is an extension of -men, and some words are formed with either suffix: as, fragmen, fragmentum, fragment; tegumen, tegumentum covering. -mdnia and -monium (derived from -mon, a form of -men) are used more commonly as secondary suffixes: as, sanctimonia, sanctity (sanctus); matrimonium, marriage {SiSiMif-d by Microsoft® 22 FORMATION OF NOUNS {75, 76 Abstracts 75. The suffixes -io, -ium, -or, -tio, -tura, and -tus, added to roots or verb-stems, form abstract nouns denoting action or condition, or concrete nouns denoting the result of action. If the suffix begins with t the same consonant changes occur as in the perfect passive participle ; hence, -tio -tura, and -tus may become respectively -sio, -sura, and -sus : : — leg-id, legion (legere) scrip-tura, writing (scribere) od-ium, hate (odisse) ton-sura, shearing (tondere) am-or, love (amare) can-tus, singing (canere) ac-tio, action (agere) vi-sus, sight (videre) mis-sio, dismissal (mittere) These suffixes, especially -ium, are sometimes used in secondary forma- tions: as, mentio, mention (mens); hospitium, hospitality (hospes); litteratura, literature (littera). The suffixes -do and -go form noims denoting action or the result 0} action: — cupi-do, desire (cupere) ori-go, beginning (oriri) torpe-do, numbness (torpere) vora-go, whirlpool (vorare) These are used also in secondary formations: as, dulcedo, sweetness (dulcis); lumbago, lumbago (lumbus). Secondary Suflixes Abstracts 76. The suffixes -ia, -tas, -tia, -ties, -tudo, and -tus, added usually to adjective-stems, and the suffix -ium, added usually to noun-stems, form abstract nouns denoting quality, condition, or office: — audac-ia, boldness (audax) magni-tiido, greatness (magnus) liber-tas, freedom (liber) senectus, old age (senex) tristi-tia, sadness (tristis) sacerdot-ium, priesthood (sacerdos) segni-ties, laziness (segnis) A stem- vowel disappears before -ia and -ium: as, superbia, pride (su- perbo-) ; collegium, college (collega-) ; it is changed to i before a suffix be- ginning' with t: as, magnitudo, greatness (magno-); bonitas, goodness (bono-); following i is ^,^|§^0;g/befoj^t: as, pietas, deniotion (pio-); societas, alliance (socio-). 77-^0) SECONDARY SUFFIXES 23 Place 77. The suffixes -arium, -etum (or -turn), and -ile form neuters usually denoting place; -elum denotes usually a place occupied by trees; -Ue, a place for animals: — • aer-arium, treasury(Aes) virgul-tum, thicket (virgula) oliv-etum, olive-grove (oliva) ov-ile, sheepfold (ovis) Diminutives 78. The suffixes -lus (-la, -lum), -ulus (-ula, -ulum), -cuius (-cula, -culum), added to noun-stems, iona diminutives. These usually have the gender of the nouns from which they are derived. Diminutives are often used to express affection, admiration, pity, or contempt, the exact meaning being determined by the context: — filio-lus, little son (filius) oppid-ulum, small town (oppidum) filio-la, little daughter (filia) homun-culus, dwarf (homo) reg-ulus, chieftain (rex) munus-culum, little gift (munus) 79. Stems in -eo-, -io-, or -vo- take .-lus (-lum); stems in -ea-, -ia-, or -va- take -la preceded by o, which displaces the stem-vowel. Other stems in -o- and -a- and stems ending in a mute take -ulus (-ula, -ulum). Stems in -i-, -e-, -u-, -1-, -n-, -r-, and -s- usually take -cuius (-cula, -culum). The diminutive ending -ellus is due to phonetic changes: as, agellus, little field (agar) ; fabella, short story (fabula) ; so, also, -ullus in homullus, little man (homo). Other diminutive endings appear in codicilli, writing-tablets (codex); avunculus, uncle (avus); homuncio, little man (homo). Patron3rmics 80. The masculine suffixes -ades, -iades, and -ides and the feminine suffixes -eis, -ias, and -is, form patronymics, denoting descent from a father or ancestor. They are nearly all Greek names and are used chiefly in poetry: — Aene-ades, descendant of Aeneas Ner-eis, daughter of Nereus Scipi-ades, a Scipio Thest-ias, daughter of Thestius Atlant-iades, descendant of Atlas Tyndar-is, daughter of Tyndareus Tyndar-ides, son of Ty^eu^ ^^ ^.^H^e^^r-ides (plu.), daughters of Hesperus 24 FORMATION OF NOUNS {81-84 The occasional ending -ides is due to the union of -ides with a preceding vowel: as, Tydides, son of Tydeus. Other patronymic endings are -ine and -one: as, Nerine, daughter oj Nereus; Acrisione, daughter of Acrisius. Other Secondary Suffixes 81. -alius, denoting usually a person employed in some business or craft: as, argentarius, hanker (argentum); statuarius, sculptor (statua). -cus, -icus or -icus (-ca, -cum) : as, biibulcus, ^/owma» (bubulus); vilicus, overseer (^la); amicus, friend (amare); fabrica, workshop (faber); canticmn, song (cantus). -ina, a primary or secondary suffix: as, rapina, robbery (rapere); regina, queen (rex); medicina, medicine (medicus); tonstrina, barber' s-shop (tonsor). Compound Nouns 82. In compound nouns the second member is usually the fundamental one, its meaning being more or less affected by the first. The second member is sometimes a root used as a stem, but more often either a root with a formative suffix or a noun- stem: as, armiger, armor-hearer, Vger-; iudex, judge, Vdic-; iaterregnum, interregnum. The first part of a compound may be 83. (a) the stem of a noun or adjective. In compounds of this sort a vowel at the end of the first member usually disappears before a vowel at the beginning of the second: as, magnanimus, great-souled (magno-); sometimes even before a consonant: as, manceps, contractor (manu-). But a final vowel regularly appears as i before a consonant: as, tubicen, trumpeter (tuba-); cormcen,6Mg/«"(comu-); latifundiimi,/ayge estate (lato-). By analogy a final consonant generally assumes an i before a consonant: as, fratricida, fratricide (fratr-). A whole syllable sometimes disappears: as, veneficus, poisoner (veneno-). Stems in -er-, -or-, and -or- usually drop the suffix, substituting i: as, opifex, workman (oper-). ! 84. (b),a preposition or an adverb: as, adventus, arrival; coniunx, spouse; perfuga, deserter. D^jfg^flgjiy&/fe)^rase pro consule forced into the form and inflection of a noun. 8s-8^ DECLENSION OF NOUNS 25 86. (c) the genitive of a noun: as, aquaeductus, aqueduct; senatuscon- sulttun, decree of the senate; aquae and senatus are genitives and remain unchanged, .while the second member is declined. In paterfamilias, father oj a family, the second member is the genitive, and only the first is de- clined. Compounds of this sort are sometimes called Syntactic Com- pounds. Similar to these ajre lupiter; Maxspitet, father Mars; res publica, republic ihoth parts declined); ius iurandtim, oath (both parts declined). 86. Names are sometimes given to compounds according to their meaning. Determinatives are those in which the second element is qualified by the first, as by an adjective or an adverb; and- those in which the first member has a logical case-relation to. -the second: as, agricola, farmer; armiger, armor-bearer; comicen, bugler. The former are sometimes called Descriptive Compounds, the latter Objective or Dependent Compounds. DECLENSION OF NOUNS 87. Caseis consist of the stem alone, sometimes with a final vowel shortened or lengthened or with the loss of a final con- sonant, or they consist of the stem with an added sufi&x. A final stem-vowel disappears before a vowel suffix or combines with it. The term case-ending, as used in the paradigms of this book, is applied to the characteristic endings of the cases in the several declensions; these are in some cases the final stem- vowel, in others" a suffix, and in others a combination of the stem- vowel and a suffix. General Rtiles of Declension 88. All masculine and feminine nominatives except stems in -a-, -1-, -n-, -r-, and -s- are formed by adding s to the stem. In all neuters the nominative and accusative are alike, in both singular and plural. The plural always ends in a. The accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in m with .the stem- vowel shortened, if long; the accusative plural in s preceded by a long vowel. The ablative singular of vowel stems is the stem with its final vowel lengtheneSiaii^^ii^tf'im^ that in stems in -i- the 26 DECLENSION OF NOUNS {8g, go ablative often has -e instead of -L The ablative singular of consonant-stems adds e to the stem. The genitive plural is formed by adding rum to stems in -a-, -0-, and -e- (the o of o-stems being lengthened); um to stems in -i-, -u-, and consonant-stems. The dative and ablative plural are always alike; stems in -a- and -o- take is, which combines with the stem-vowel, becom- ing is; others take bus, before which consonant-stems add i. 89. There are five declensions of nouns, distinguisiied by the final letter of the stem. It is the custom, how- ever, to indicate the declension by the ending of the genitive singular. Declension I II III IV V Stem-ending -a- -o- -i- or a consonant -u- -e- Gen. Sing, ending -ae -i -is -as -ei First Declension — a-Stems 90. Example : Nom. mensa Gen. mensae Dat. mensae Ace, mensam Abl. mensa Singular Case-endings a (or the) table -a a table's, of a table -ae to or for a table -ae a table -am from, with, by, or on a table -a Plural Nom. mensae tables, or the tables -ae Gen. mensarum tables', of tables -arum Dat. mensis to or for tables -is Ace. mensas Oi^ffMS^by Microsoft® "^S Abl. mensis from, with, by, or on tables -is 91-94) FIRST DECLENSION 27 91. The nominative singular is the stem with final vowel shortened. The stem-vowel is shortened also in the accusative singular. The case-endings are in general a combination of stem-vowel and suffix. The translations are intended only to suggest the most common uses. Town names and a few common nouns have a locative in -ae: as, Romae, at Rome; militiae, in service. Gender 92. Most nouns of the first declension are feminine. But names of males are masculine: as, agricola, farmer; nauta, sailor; poeta, poet; Belgae, the Belgians; also, Hadria, the Adriatic, and, rarely, damma, deer, and talpa, mole. Case-Forms 93. An old genitive singular ending is preserved in familias, of the family, often found in combination with pater, father, and mater, mother, and rarely with filhis, son, and filia, daughter. An old genitive singular in -ai is found in poetry: as, aulai, of the hall. A genitive plural in -vim, instead of -arum, is sometimes found (usually in poetry) in compounds of -cola, inhabiting, and -gena, born, in Greek patronjmiics, and in names of peoples: as, agricolum, of the farmers; Graiuge- num, of Greek-born men; Aeneadum, of the descendants of Aeneas; Lapithum, of the Lapithae; also in amphora, a liquid measure, and drachma, a Greek coin. In words in -ia, -iis sometimes becomes -is: as, taenis, with fillets; gratis, /iw nothing; this occurs regularly in nouns in -aia: as Bals, at Baiae. The dative and ablative plural sometimes ends in -abus; especially, deabus, goddesses, and fUiabus, daughters; also, duabus and ambabus from duae, two, and ambae, both. Greek Nouns 94. Greek common nouns regularly have Latin forms throughout: as, poeta, poet. Masculines sometimes have a nominative singular in -es, accusative in -en: as, anagnostes, reader, ace. anagnosten. Greek proper nouns are declined as follows: — Digitized by Microsoft® 28 DECLENSION OF NOUNS (95 Nom. Aeneas Gen. Aeneae Dat. Aeneae Ace. Aenean (-am) Abl. Aenea Voc. Aenea Some feminine nominatives end in -a: as, Phaedra. Greek forms are not found in the plural. Anchises Anchisae Anchlsae Anchlsen (-am) Anchise (-a) Anchise (-a, -a) Circe Circes (-ae) - Circae Circen (-am> Circe (-a) Circe (-a) Second Declension — o-Stems 95. Stems in -o- with the nominative in -us or -um: — Examples: amicus, m., friend Singular Case-ending belliim, N., war Case-ending Nom. amicus -US bellum -um Gen. amici -i belli -i Dat. amicd -5 bello -0 Ace. amicum -um bellum -um Abl. amicd -6 Plural bello -0 Nom. nmici -i beUa -a Gen. amicorum -orum bellorum -orum Dat. amicis -is beUis -is Aec. amic5s -OS bella -a Abl. amicis -is beUis -is ■ Stems in -o- with the nominative in -us have a special form for the vocative, ending in e: as, amice, Marce. The original endings of the nominative and accusative sin- gular of nouns in -us were -os and -om; the original ending of the nominative and accusative singular of nouns in -um was -om. For, the treatment of these endings when preceded by U or V see 39. Digitized by Microsoft® 96-98) SECOND DECLENSION 29 96. ! Stems in - Examples : puer, M., boy stem, puero- Nom. puer Gen. pueri Bat. puero Ace. puenim Abl. puero Nom. pueri Gen. puerSnim Dat. pueris Ace. pueros Abl. pueris 0- with the nominative in -er or -ir: ager, m., fidd stem, agro- Singular ag^r agri agr5 agrum agro Plural agri agrorum agris agrds agris vir, M., man stem, viro- vir viri viro virum viro vin virorum viris viros viris Stems in -o- of this class have no special vocative form; but the vocative puere occurs, as if from a nominative puerus. 97. If e is contained in the stem, it appears in all cases, as in puer; in this class are included adulter, adulterer; Celtiber (gen. -eri), a Celtiberian; gener, son-in-law; Hiber (gen. -eri), a Spaniard; Liber, Bacchus; liberl, children; Mulciber, Vulcan; presbyter, elder; socer, father-in-law; vesper, evening; and com- pounds of fer and ger: as, signifer, standard-hearer; armiger, armor-hearer. If e is not contained in the stem, the nominative singular is formed by dropping o of the stem and inserting e before r, as in ager. A few stems in -ro- are declined like amicus: as, erus, master; hesperus, evening-star; numerus, number; umerus, shoulder; taurus, btdl; uterus, womb. 98. Town names and a few common nouns have a locative in -i: as, Corinthi, at Corinth; domi, at home^ hutrn, on the ground. Digitized by Microsoft® 30 DECLENSION OF NOUNS (PP-^OJ Gender 99. Most nouns ending in us and r are masculine; those ending in um are neuter. Exceptions: — Nouns having meanings enumerated in 58 are feminine: as, Aegyptus, Egypt; Corinthus, Corinth; Rhodus, Rhodes; ulmus, elm-tree; some Greek noims: as, methodus, method; Arctos, the constellation of the Bear; and the following: — alvus, ielly; carbasus, linen (pi. carbasa, sails); colus, dis- taff; humus, ground; vamius, winnowing-fan. The following are neuter: — pelagus, sea; virus, poison; vulgus, the crowd. The accusative of these nouns is the same as the nominative, except that an accusative pelagum is sometimes found. They do not occur in the plural, except that pelagus, which is a Greek word, sometimes has the accusative plural pelage. These are really Heteroclites, the nomina- tive and accusative being third-declension forms. Case-Forms 100. Nouns in -ius or -ium, until the Augustan period, have the geni- tive singular in -i, not -ii: as, filius, son, gen. fill; Vergilius, gen. Vergili; ingenium, nature, gen. ingeni. For the accent of these words see 29. The custom of writing -ii began to be common in the Augustan period. The ending -i was retained longer for proper names, and gentile names almost always have the single -i. Locatives always have -ii. I The vocative of proper names in -ius ends in i: as, Vergili, Mercuri; also the vocative of filius, son; genius, good angel; volturius, vulture. Proper names in -eius have -ei, or -ei pronounced as one syllable: as, Pompeius, voc. Pompei or Pompei. 101. The nominative plural ended originally in oi, the dative and ablative plural in ois; these first became ei and eis, which are found -rarely in the Ciceronian period; then i and is. 102. Proper names in -aius, -eius," and -oius have the nominative plural in -ai, -ei, and -6i; the dative and ablative plural in -ais, -eis, and -ois: as, Gai, Gais; Pompei, Pompeis; Boi, Bois. 103. The genitive plural sometimes ends in um (after u or v, in the earlier cm) instead of drum. This is an earlier form, the later -orum being a mere imitation of the genitive plural of the first declension. The earlier form is used regularly infYmias'dsRcmngmiMsy or measure: as, sestertius, 104-106) THIRD DECLENSION 3 1 sesterce; nummus, coin; iugerum, acre; and is often found in cardinal and distributive numerals and in some other words: as, trecenti, three hundred; bini, two each; deus and divus, god; faber, mechanic; Uberi, children; socius, ally. 104. Deus, god, is thus declined in the plural: nom. del (rare before Ovid), dii or dl; gen. deorum or deum; dat. and abl. deis (rare before Ovid), diis or dis; ace. deos; dil and diis were pronounced like di and dis. For the genitive plural, divum or divom (from the adjective divus) are often used. The singular is regular; the vocative singular is not used; in late Latin the nominative is used as a vocative. Greek Kouns 105. Greek nouns of the second declension have regularly the Latin terminations. But masculines and feminines, espe- cially proper names in poetry, often have -os in the nomina- tive and -on in the accusative singular: as. Deles, Delon. Neuters often have -on in the nominative and accusative singular: as, Ilion. Names in -6s, like Afhos, ABdrogeos, have the genitive in -6 or -i, the accusative in -on, -um, or -6. For names in -eus, like Orpheus, see 125. A genitive in -u is found rarely: as, Menandru. Panthus has the vocative Panthu. The plural of Greek nouns of the second declension is usually regular, but the nominative plural sometimes ends in oe: as, Adelphoe. The genitive plural sometimes ends in on: as, Georgicon, of the Georgics. Third Declension Consonant Stems and i-Stems A. CONSONANT STEMS I. Mute Stems 106. Examples: miles, M., soldier rex, m., king princeps, m., chief stem, milit- D/g/siejiMyBBgrosoft® stem, princip- 32 DECLENSION OF NOUNS {.107 Singular ( Case-endings Nom. miles rex princeps -S Gen. militis regis principis -is Dat. militi regi principt -i Ace. mTlitem regem principem -em Abl. milite rege Plural principe -e Nom. mllites reges principes -es Gen. mnitum regiim principum -um Dat. militibus regibus principibus -ibus Ace. milites reges principes -es Abl. mTlitibus regibus principibus -ibus cor, N., heart caput, N., head poema, n ., poem stem, cord- stem, capit- stem, poemat- Singular Case-endings Nom. cor caput poema — Gen. cordis capitis poematis -is Dat. cordi capiti poemati -i Ace. cor caput poema — Abl. corde capite Plural poemate -e Nom. corda capita poemata -a Gen. capitum poematum -um Dat. cordibus capitibus poematibus -ibus Ace. corda capita poemata -a Abl. cordibus capitibus poematibus -ibus 107. Masculine and feminine nouns with stems ending in a mute form the nominative by adding s to the stem. A linguaT (t, d) disappears before s: as, miles; nep5s (stem, nepot-), grandson; cus^'^'Wfe^,1iff§!8?ig), guard. io8, log) THIRD DECLENSION 33 A palatal, (c, g) combines with s to form x: as, rex; pax (stem, pac-), peace. In words of more than one syllable, an original a or e appear- ing as e in the nominative is regularly weakened to i in the other cases: as, miles; pnnceps; iudex (gen. iudicis), judge. There are, however, exceptions to this rule: as, seges (gen. segetis), crop. I There is a change of u to i in caput; and of e to e in pes (gen. pedis), foot, and its compounds; abies,/r; aries, ram; and paries, wall. In auceps, bird-catcher, the genitive aucupis shows the true stem, the nominative being formed on the analogy of piinceps, etc. Supellex, furniture, has the genitive supellectilis, etc. 108. The only neuters with stems ending in a mute are cor; caput; lac, milk; and Greek words like poema. In these the nominative singular is the stem without the final consonant. In Greek neuters a dative and ablative plural in -is is often found, and sometimes a genitive plural in -orum : as, poematis ; poematdrmn. n. Liquid Stems 109. Examples: consul, M., consul victor, m., victor flos, m., flower pater, M., father stem, consul- stem, victor- stem, flor- stem, patr- Singular Noni. ■ consul victor fids pater Gen. consulis victoris floris patris Dat. consuli victori flori patri Ace. consulem victorem florem patrem Abl. consule vict5re Plural flore patre Nom. consules victores flores patres Gen. consulum victorum florum patrum Dat. consulibus victoribus floribus patribus Ace. consules victores flores patres Abl. consulibus D/, gitiZva' tjy^mjCr^t 3«® floribus patribus 34 DECLENSION OF NOUNS (no genus, N., race corpus, N., body aequor, n., sea stem. , gener- stem, corpor- Singular stem, aequor- Nom. genus corpus aequor Gen. generis corporis aequoris Dat. generi corpori aequori Ace. genus corpus aequor Abl. genere corpore Plural aequore Nom. genera corpora aequora Gen. generum corponim ~ aequorum Dat. generibus corporibus aequoribus Ace. genera corpora aequora Abl. generibus corporibus aequoribus 110. Most masculine and feminine nouns and many neuters, with stems ending in a liquid, have for the nominative the simple stem: as, consul; mulier, woman; ver, spring; cadaver, dead body; fulgur, lightning. Stems in -tr- (originally -ter-) have the nominative in -ter: as, pater; mater, mother; frater, brother; accipiter, hawk. Stems in -tor- and •■or-, which are very numerous, have the nominative in -tor and -or: as, victor; amor (gen. amoris), love. On the other hand, in sal (gen. sails), salt, and lar (gen. laris), household god, the vowel is long in the nominative singular and short in the other cases. Four masculine stems in -er- have the nominative in -is: cinis (gen. cineris), ashes; cuciunis, cucumber; pviivis, dusl ; vomis (of tener vomer) , plowshare. Many r-stems, masculine, feminine, and neuter, ended origi- nally in s; hence the nominative flos; mos, custom; Ceres (gen. Cereris); aes, copper; i^^^^^'i^^gfi^t; 6s, face; rus, country. In such words s became r regularly between two vowels and Ill, 112) THIRD DECLENSION 35 sometimes in the nominative singular: as, arbor (gen. arboris), tree; honor (g.en. honoris), honor; but the earlier forms, arbos and honos, are sometimes found. Vas, vessel, retains s even between two vowels. Most neuter stems in -er- and -or- (originally -es- and -os-) have the nominative in -us: as, genus, corpus. But some neuter stems in -or- have the nominative in -ur : as, ebur, ivory; femur, thigh; iecur, liver; robur, oak; femur has also the genitive feminis from an n-stem, and iecur (iocur in the Augustan period) has also the genitive iocineris. Neuter stems in -11-, -rr-, simplify U, rr, to 1, r, in the nomi- native: as, mel (gen. mellis), honey; far (gen. farris), spelt. Iter (gen. itineris) , journey, has the nominative formed on a different stem from that of the other cases. m. Nnsal Stems 111. Examples: leo, M., lion Virgo, F., maiden flnmen, n., river stem, leon- stem, virgin- Singular stem, flumin- Nom. leo virgo flfxmen Gen. leonis virginis fLuminis Dat. leonl virgin! flfimini Ace. leonem virginem flumen Abl. leone virgine Plural fliimine Nom. leones virgines fLfimina Gen. leoniim virginum fluminum Dat. leonibus virginibus fliiminibus Ace. leones virgines flumina Abl. leonibus virginibus fluminibus 112. Stems in -on- have the nominative in -6: as, leo; Cicero; legio, '--- Digitized by Microsom 36 DECLENSION OF NOUNS (113 Stems in -din- and -gin- have the nominative in -6, with the original short vowel of the stem lengthened: as, virgo; prdo^ rank. In this class are included, also Apollo (gen. Apollinis);. homo, man; nemo, nobody; turbo, whirlwind. Three nouns of this class have 6 in all cases: — harpago (gen. -onis), grappUng- hook; ligo, mattock; praedo, robber. ;-;• ■ Stems in -in-: (not -din- or -gin-), including many neuters andi a few masculines, have the nominative in- -en: as,- flumen;^^ flamen, u., priest; pecten, m., comb; tibicen, m., flute- player.. There is only one stem in -m, — hiems (gen. hiemis) , winter. Peculiar formations are card (gen. camis), flesh, and sanguis (gen. sanguinis),, blood; also canis (gen. canis) , dog, and iuvenis (gen. iuvenis) , young person, with the nominative formed as if from an i-stem. B. i-STEMSr I. Pure i-Stems 113. Examples: navis. r., boat auris, r., ear ntibes, f., cloud imber, m., rain stem navi- stem auri- stem, nubi- Singular stem, imbri- Nom. navis auris nubes imber Gen. navis auris nubis imbris Dat. navi auri nubi imbri Ace. navim (-em) aurem nubem imbrem Abl. naT« (-e) aure nube Plurar'- imbri (-e) Nom. naves aures niibes imbres Gen. naviiim auriiim niibium imbrium Dat. navibus auribus nubibus imbribus Ace. Abl. navis (-es) navibus auris (res), nubis (-es) uigmzecrbymcrosofm ' auribus niibibus imbris (-es) imbribus II4-II6) THIRD DECLENSION 37 mare, N.,5ea sedQe, n., 5ea2 animal, n., awwai cslcax,^., spur stem, mari- stem, sedQi- stem, animali- stem, calcari- Singular Nom. mare sedQe animal calcar Gen. maris sedQis animalis calcaris Dat. mari sedfll animali calcari Ace. mare sedQe animal calcar Abl. mari sedm animali calcari Plural Nom. maria sedilia animalia calcaria Gen. sedilium animaliixm calcarium Dat. sedOibus animalibus calcaribus Ace. maria sedilia animalia calcaria Abl. maribus sednibus animalibus calcaribus Nouns of this class — masculine, feminine, and neuter — except neuters like animal and calcar, are parisyllaUes ; i.e. they have the same number of syllables in the genitive as in the nominative. 114. The nominative singular of masculines and feminines is regularly formed by adding s to the stem. Many i-stems, however, have the nominative in -es, like nubes: as, caedes, bloodshed; moles, pile; proles, of spring. Four stems in -ri- have the nominative in -er; these are imber; linter, boat; liter, leather hag; venter, belly. 115. Masculine and feminine i-stems properly have the accusative singular in -im, the ablative singular in -i, the geni- tive plural in -ium, and the accusative plural in -is. But the influence of consonant-stems was so strong that only in the genitive and accusative plural were these endings regularly preserved. 116. Names of cities and rivers have the accusative singular in -im; also the following: — buris, plow-beam; ravis, hoarse- ness; tussis, cough; c^fj^-sm^bpym^m sitis, thirst. 38 DECLENSION OF NOUNS {liy-Iig The following have thfe accusative singular in -im or -em: clavis, liey puppis, stern sementis, planting febris, jemr restis, rope strigilis, scraper messis, crop securis, ax turris, tower navis, hoat. 117. Nouns having the accusative singular in -im have the ablative singular exclusively in -i; also canalis, conduit, and securis, ax. The ablative in -i is invariable also in neuters, except baccar, a plant, iubar, radiance, rete, net, and names of places like Praeneste and Soracte. The ablative ends in i or e in nouns which have the accusative in -im or -em, except messis (-e), restis (-e), and securis (-i); also in the following : — aimiis, river finis, end orbis, circle avis, bird fiistis, club ovis, sheep bilis. Hie ignis, _/ire pelvis, hasin civis, citizen imber, shower unguis, nail classis, jleet 118. A nominative plural in -is, formed in imitation of the accusative plural, is found rarely. The following nouns have the genitive plural in -um, not -ium: ambages, circuit; senex, old man; volucris, hird. Both endings occur in apis, hee; caedes, bloodshed; clades, disaster; mensis, month; sedes, seat; strues, heap; suboles, offspring; vates, prophet. The accusative plural in Cicero's time ends in either is or es; after the middle of the first century A.D. es became the regular ending. 119. The nominative and accusative singular of neuters was originally the stem; but the final i was in classical Latin either changed to e or, if preceded by al or ar, dropped, the preceding a being shortened. There are some exceptions to the latter rule: as, collare, collarf'uivSte, "Soc%yard. I20, 121) THIRD DECLENSION 39 n. Mixed i-Stems. 120. Examples: virbs, F., city nox, f., night cliens, m., client aetas, f., age stem, urb(i)- stem, noct(i)- stem, client(i)- stem, aetat(i)- Nom. urbs Gen. ixrbis Dat. urbi Ace. urbem Abl. urbe nox noctis nocti noctem nocte Singular cliens clientis client! clientem cliente aetas aetatis aetali aetatem aetate Plural Nom. urbes noctes clientes aetates Gen. urbium noctium clientium aetatum (or -ium) Dat. urbibus noctibus clientibus aetatibus Ace. urbis (-es) noctis (-es) clientis (-es) aetatis (-es) Abl. urbibus noctibus clientibus aetatibus These are consonant-stems which have assumed i forms in the plural. They are declined, therefore, like consonant-stems in the singular, like i-stems in the plural. Nouns of this class are imparisyllahic, having in the genitive one more syllable than in the nominative. 121. This class includes: (a) Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, skill; arx, citadel; falx, sickle; opes (no nom. sing.; gen. plu. in -um), means; pons, bridge; stirps, stock. (b)The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel: — as, as dos, dowry fauces (plu.) , throat fraus, fraud glis, dormouse Us, stri]e mas, male mus, mouse Digitized by Microsoft® nix, snow nox, night strix, screech-owl vis, force 40 DECLENSION OF NOUNS {l22 The nominative singular of fauces is not found in classical Latin. The genitive plural of some of these words varies between -ium and -um. (c) Polysyllables in -ns or -rs: as. cohors, cohort; cliens, client; parens, parent; cliens and parens have the genitive plural in -ium or -um. (d) Nouns in -as or -is: as, civitas (-itmi or -um), state; optimates (-ium or -\xm), aristocrats; penates, household gods; Quirltes, Roman citizens; Samiutes, Samnites. 122. bos, M. & F., ox, cow SUS, M. & F ., pig vis , ^., force luppiter, M., Jupiter Singular Nom. bos SUS •ns luppiter Gen. bovis suis T^s (rare) lovis Daf bovl sui vi (rare) lovi Ace. bovem suem vim lovem Abl. bove sue Plural vi love Nom. boves sues vires Gen. boum suum wiiim Dat. bubus (bobus) suibus (subiis) wibus Ace. boves sues wes (-is) Abl. bubus (bobus) suibus (sdbus) viribus Like sus is declined griis, crane (dat. and abl. plur. only gruibus) ; these are survivals of a ii-declension. Vis is a diph- thongal stem (vei-) in the singular, an s-stem in the plural; hence the plural wes (for mes). luppiter (spelled in early Latin Kpiter) was originally a vocative, formed by combina- tion of the vocative leu (earlier Dieu) with the weakened form of pater, father. The oblique cases are from the same root. The archaic nominative, Diespiter, comes from another form of the root, Dieu. Digitized by Microsoft® I23-I2J) THIRD DECLENSION 41 123. The following nouns are peculiar, having a nominative stem different from that of the other cases: — caro (gen. caxais), flesh; iter (gen. itinetis) jjouxn^ ; iecur (gen. iecoris, iecinoris, iocinoris), liver; nix (gen. nivis), snow; senex (gen. senis), old man; supellex tgen. supellectilis), furniture. , The Locative Case 124.- Town names and a few common nouns with consonant stems have a locative in -i: as, Carthagini, at Carthage; ruri, in the country. ' ' Greek Npxms ,.., 125. /Greek nouns of the third declension often have Greek forms in the nominative and accusative, singular and plural; sometimes in the genitive singular. The Greek endings are usually these: — genitive singular, -os; accusative singular, -a or -n; nominative plural, -es; accusative plural, -as; the stem is sometimes used as a vocative singular. Names in -eus usually have the forms of the second declension. Examples : herds, m., hero lampas, f., torch tigris, M. & r., tiger stem, hero- stem, lampad- itigrid- stem < ^. . Singular Nom. herds lampas tigris Gen.-' herois lampados tigris, -idos Dat. herSi lampadi tigri " Ace. heroa, -em lampada tigrin, -ida Abl. heroe lampade Plural tigri, -ide Nom. heroes lampades tigres Gen. heroum lampadum tigrium Dat. heroibus lampadibus tigribus Ace. heroas lampadas tigris, -idas Abl. heroibus Digitize^W^^^m tigribus 42 DECLENSION OF NOUNS (isd Proper Names Nom. Capys Dido Orpheus Socrates Gen. Capyos Didonls (Didus) Orphei (-os) Socratis (-1) Dat. Capja Didoni (Dido) Orpheo (-i) Socrati Ace. Capjm Didonem (Dido) Orpheum (-a) Socratem (-en) Abl. Capye Didone (Dido) Orpheo Socrate* Voc. Capy Dido Orpheu Socrates (-e) Paris has the accusative forms Paridem, Parim, and Parin. Gender in the Third Declension 126. The most important classes and the principal excep- tions are as follows : — (a) Masculine : — Nouns in -er, -es, -es, -ex (gen. -icis) , -o (gen. -onis) , -or, and -6s. Exceptions: — - Feminine: linter, miter, mulier; merges, seges, teges; compes, merces, quies, requies; abstract and collective nouns in -io; sorer, uxor; cos, dos. Neuter: cadaver, iter, tuber, fiber, ver, and names of trees and plants in -er; ador, aequor, cor, marmor; 6s. (b) Feminine: — Nouns in -as (parisyllabic), -is, -6 (gen. -inis) , -io, -s (preceded by a consonant), -lis, and -x. Exceptions: — Masculine: nouns in -nis, and anguis, axis, callis, canalis, casses (plu.), caulis, cinis, coUis, corbis, cuctmiis, ensis, fascis, foUis, fustis, lapis, mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, sanguis, sentes (plu.), torquis, torris, unguis, vectis, vepris, vermis, vomis; Apollo, cardo, cupido (sometimes masc), homo, margo (masc. and fem.), nemo, ordo, turbo; some nouns in -ns; mus, Greek nouns in -pus; calix, coniunx (masc. and fem.), dux (masc. and fem.), fornix, grex, rex, and most nouns in -ex (gen. -icis). Neuter: crus, ius, pus, rus, tus. (c) Neuter^ — Nouns in -c, -e, -1, -np^/z^this ending as well as the usual e: as, dure and duriter, harshly; humane and hvSi&tiP^p:hMm9^^ 206-20g) CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS 67 206. (3) The following adverbs are examples of the combi- nation of two or more words welded into a single word: — admo- dum, fully; antea, before; interea, meanwhile; postea, afterward; comminus (con-manus), hand-to-hand; eminus (ex-manus), at long range; denuo (de novo), anew; extemplo (ex tempulo), immediately; forsan (fors an), perhaps; forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps; ilico (in loco) on the spot; nihilominus, nevertheless; nimirum, undoubtedly; postmodo, presently; prorsus (pro vorsus) , absolutely; rursus (re-vorsus), again; quotannis, yearly; ilicet (i, imperative, and licet, you may go), straightway; scilicet (sci-licet), certainly; videlicet (vide-licet), clearly. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS 207. Adverbs may be classified according to their meaning in five groups : — Adverbs of Place ; Adverbs of Time; Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause; Nega- tive Adverbs; Numeral Adverbs. 208. (i) Most Adverbs of Place were originally case-forms of pronouns; they may be subdivided into four groups, denoting respectively place where, place to which, place from which, and way by which; the following are the most common: — hie, here hue, hither hinc, hence hac, this way ibi, there eo, thither inde, thence ea, that way illic, there illiic, thither illinc, thence ilia (iliac), that way istic, there istiic, thither istinc, thence ista, that way ubi, where quo, whither unde, whence qua, what way alicubi, 5owe- aliquo, (/o) alicunde,/rom aliq\m, some way where somewhere somewhere 209. A fifth group contains compounds of vorsum, turned: — deorsum, downward; sursum, upward; introrsum, inward; pror- sum, forward (prorsus, absolutely) ; seorsum, apart; quorsum, to what end; retrorsum, backward; rursum (rursus usually in classical Latin), agaitQigiti^ed by Microsoft® 68 ADVERBS (210-213 210. Other adverbs of place are citro. to this side; ultro, beyond (often best translated actually, i.e. beyond what is expected or required); intro, within; porro, further on; retro, backward; uspiata, usquam, anywhere; nusquam, nowhere; usque, as far as, continuously; ubique, everywhere; and some derived from nouns or adjectives: as, dextra, on the right; foris, out of doors; funditus, from the bottom; recta, straightway. 211. (2) Examples of Adverbs of Time are: — iam, already; mox, postmodo, presently ^ nuper, recently; nunc, now; turn (time), then; quondam, formerly; antea, before; pnmo, at first; primima, first; delude, next; postea, afterward; denique, tandem, postremo, at last; postremum, for the last time; alias, at other times; allquando, at some time: extemplo, immediately; umquam, ever; numquam, never; semper, always; totlens, 50 often; aliquotlens, several times; hodle, to-day; pridle, the day before; postridle, the day after; cottidle, every day; heri, yesterday; eras, to-morrow; iterum, a second time; rursus, again; crebro, repeatedly; saepe, often; plerumque, very often; tantlsper, so long; Interim, Interea, meantime. 212. (3) Most adverbs derived from adjectives or nouns are Adverbs of Manner: as, tuto, safely; brevlter, briefly; grada- tlm, by degrees. Others are ita, sic, so; ut (uti), how; utut, utcumque, however. Adverbs of Degree are magls, more; paene, almost; quam, how; quamvis, quamlibet, however much; tam, so; valde, very, very much; vix, hardly. Adverbs of Cause are eo, ideo, idclrco, propterea, on this account. 213. (4) The Negative Adverbs are non, not; haud, minlme, not at all, by no means (in stronger negation) ; ne (in prohibitions; and also in composition: as, nemo, for ne-homo, no one; nego, / say not; nesclo, / know not) ; ne . . . quldem, not even; nedum, much less. „. .^. , , ... ,^ Digitized by Microsoft® (s) The Numeral Adverbs are treated under the head of Numerals. 214, 215) COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 69 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 214. With few exceptions the only adverbs which are compared are those which are derived from adjectives or participles. The Comparative' of an Adverb is the neuter accusa- tive singular of the comparative of the adjective from which the adverb is derived (see 201). The Superlative of an Adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective by changing the stem-vowel to e (see 195). If the adjective is compared with magis and maxime, the adverb is compared in the same way : — alte, on high docte, learnedly misere, wretchedly acriter, sharply fortiter, bravely facile, easily egregie, excellently bene, well male, badly parum, little prope, near propius 215. The following adverbs have no positive: — magis (in poetry sometimes mage), more; maxime, most; potius, rather; potissimum, especially; prius, before; primum, first. A few adverbs have superlatives in -6 or -um: as, meri- tissimo, most deservedly; prime, at first; postremo, at last; primum, first; postremum, for the last time; plurimum, most. A few adverbs, not derived from adjectives, are compared as follows : — diu, a long time; diutius; diutissime. nuper, recently; nuperrime, most recently. saepe, often; saepius, saepissime. satis, enough; SaidlSSgitb^Sfy Microsoft® altius doctius miserius acrius fortius facilius magis egregie melius peius minus altissime doctissime miserrime acerrime fortissime facillime maxime egregie optime pessime minime proxime 7° NUMERALS (216 NUMERALS Under this head are included Numeral Adjectives and Nu- meral Adverbs. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 216. Of Numeral Adjectives there are three principal classes : — 1. Cardinals, answering the question, How many? 2. Ordinals, answering the question, Which in order? 3. Distributives, answering the question. How many at a time? Cardinals unus, one duo tres quattuor quinque sex septem 8. octo 9. no vera 10. decern 11. undecim 12. duodecim 13. tredecim 14. quattuordecim 15. quindecim 16. sedecim 17. septendecim 18. duodeviginti 19. unde^ginti 20. viginti t\n[ginti unus ■/unus efWginti 26. duodetriginta Ordinals primus, first secundus tertius quartus quintus sextus Septimus octavus nonus decimus undecimus duodecimus tertius decimus quartus decimus quintus decimus sextus decimus Septimus decimus duodewesimus undevicesimus vicesimus vicesimus primus unus et THcesimus '■'^■^''^cgsimuf Distributives singuli, one each bini term, trini quatemi quini seni septem octoni noveni deni undeni duodeni temi deni quatemi deni quiiu deni seni deni septeni dem duodeviceni undeviceni viceni viceni singuli singuli et Aicem duodetriceni 2iy, 218) NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 71 Cardinals Ordinals Distributives 29. undetriginta undetricesimus undetriceni 30. triginta tricesimus triceni 40. quadraginta quadragesimus quadrageni 50. quinquaginta quinquagesimus quinquageni 60. sexaginta sexagesimus sexageni 70. septuaginta septuagesimus septuageni 80. octoginta octogesimus octogeni 90. nonagiiita nonagesimus nonageni 100. centum centesimus centeni (centum unus centesimus primus centeni sineuli (centum et imus 200. ducenii ducentesimus duceni 300. trecenfi trecentesimus treceni 400. quadringenti quadringentesimus quadringeni 500. quingenti quingentesimus qixingeni 600. sescenfi sescentesimus sesceni 700. septingenti septingentesimus septingeni 800. octingenti octingentesimus octingeni 900. nongenti nongentesimus nongeni 1000. mille millesimus singula millia <■ 100,000. centum millia centies millesimus centena millia If there are more than two numbers in a compound numeral, et is rarely used: as, ducenti quinquaginta tres, 253. 217. Above 100,000, cardinals and ordinals are formed by- prefixing to centena millia and centies millesimus the proper numeral adverb : as, cardinal, centies centena millia, 10,000,000; ordinal, centies centies nullesimus ; the distributive is the same as the cardinal. The higher cardinals are used chiefly for reckoning money, and centena millia is regularly omitted: as, quinquies sestertixun, 500,000 sesterces. 218. Besides their ordinary use, distributives are regularly used in place of cardinals with nouns plural in form but usually singular in meaning: as, bina castra, two camps. With such nouns, however, uni, Sidk^MWi^irkoM^^' ^"^^ t^'"' not terai. 72 NUMERALS {2ig~22I Distributives are used also in multiplication: as bis bina, twice two; and sometimes, in poetry, in place of cardinals. Alternative Forms 219. Alter is often used for secundus. Compound forms, with or without et, are sometimes used for the numbers 13-19: as decern tres; decern et octo. In the corresponding ordinals the larger number sometimes comes first, with or without et. Instead of duodeviginti and undeviginti, octodecim and no- vendecim are sometimes used. There are similar alternative forms for 28, 29; 38, 39; etc. The corresponding ordinals are sometimes octavus decimus, nonus decimus, etc. So also the distributives: as, octoni deni. The ordinals vicesimus, tricesimus, etc., are spelled in early Latin vicensimus, tricensimus, etc. MQlia is spelled with one 1 in the imperial period. FRACTIONS 220. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by a cardinal for the numerator and an ordinal for the denominator ; the latter is in the feminine gender, agreeing with pars, expressed or understood: as, tres quintae, three-fifths. One-half is dimidium or dimidia pars. When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed: as, tertia pars, one-third. When the denominator is only one larger than the numerator, the denominator is omitted and pars is expressed: as, tres partes, three-fourths. ROMAN NOTATION I I IS XV 100 c 2 II 16 XVI 200 cc 3 ni 17 XVII 300 ccc 4 IIII or IV 18 XVIII 400 cccc S V . 19 XVIIIIor XIX 500 D 6 VI Digitiz^b-j^^^rosoft® 600 DC 222-225) NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 73 7 VII 21 XXI 700 DCC 8 VIII 30 XXX 800 DCCC 9 vim or IX 40 XXXXor XL 900 DCCCC 10 X SO L 1000 ©, 00 or M II XI 60 LX 2000 CD ®, MM, or n 12 XII 70 LXX 10,000 ®- or X 13 XIII 80 LXXX 100,000 ® or C 14 \ XIIII ^XIV ( LXXXX 9° JxC 1,000,000 1 X 1 In numbers like 4, 9, and 14 the addition method of formation is more common than the subtraction method; e.g., IIII is more common than IV. ® was the sign for 1000 until the second century A.D. DECLENSION OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 222. Of the Cardinals only unus, duo, tres, the hundreds above one hundred, and mille when used as a noun, are declined. For the declension of unus see 176 ; linus is used in the plural meaning alone, and also with its regular numerical force when it agrees with a noun which is plural in form but singular in meaning: as, una castra, one camp. The plural is used also in the phrase uni et alteri, one party and the other. 223. Duo and tres are declined as follows: N. duo duorum duobus duo duobus Ambo, both, is declined like duo. 224. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of bonus, except that the genitive ending is usually -um, not -orum. 225. Mnie in the singular is an indeclinable adjective; in the plural it is used as a noun, is declined like the plural of ■^ Digitized by Microsoft® M. r. Nom. duo duae Gen. duonim duarum Dat. duobus duabus Ace. duos (duo) duas Abl. duobus duabus M. &r. N. tres tria trium trium tribus tribus tres (tris) tria tribus tribus 74 NUMERALS {226-228 sedile (113), and takes a dependent genitive; e.g., tria mlllia hominum, three thousand men. The singular also is sometimes used as a noun in the nominative or accusative with a dependent genitive: as, mflle hominum misit, he sent a thousand men; rarely in other cases, unless connected with the same case of mQlia : as, cum octo millibus peditum, mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse. 226. Ordinals and distributives are declined like bonus, the latter, with few exceptions, only in the plural. Distribu- tives often have -um for -orum in the genitive plural. ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM NUMERALS 227. Multiplicatives: as, simplex, single; duplex, double; decemplex, tenfold. Proportionals: as, duplus, twice as great; triplus, three times as great. Partitives: as, binarius, having two parts; temarius, having three parts. These are declined like other adjectives of the same endings. 228. Numeral times ? 1. semel, once 2. bis, twice 3. ter 4. quater 5. quinquies 6. sexies 7. septies 8. octies 9. novies 10. decies 11. undeeies The early ending NUMERAL ADVERBS Adverbs answer the question. How many 12 13 14. IS' 16. 17' 19. 20 duodecies terdecies quater decies quindecies sedecies septies decies ( octies decies ( duodevicies { novies decies \ undevicies vicies 21. 30. 40. SO- 60. 70. 80. 90. 100. ( ^cies semel \ semel et vicies tricies quadragies quinquagies sexagies septuagies octogies nonagies centies mQlies -ieiftaifppyp* WteJsqSaater Latin. 22g-2Jl) PERSONAL PRONOUNS 75 The accusative singular neuter of the ordinals is sometimes used as a numeral adverb: as, primum, for the first time (also the ablative, primo, at first) ; consul tertium, consul for the third time. PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS 229. The Personal Pronouns of the first and second persons are declined as follows : — Singular Plural Singular Plural Nom. ego, / nos, we tu, you vos, you Gen. mei nostrum, nostri tui vestrum, vestri Dat. mihi, rai nobis tibi vobis Ace. me nos te vos Abl. me nobis te vobis 230. There is no personal pronoun of the third person. There is, however, a Reflexive Pronoun of the third person, which is declined as follows : — Gen. sui, of himself, herself, itself, themselves Dat. sM,to " Ace. se, Abl. se, by " Case-Forms 231. Tute'and tutemet (or tutimet) are emphatic forms of tu. The forms of the genitive singular and plural were originally genitives of the possessive adjectives; — • mei, tui, sm, nostri, and vestri, the genitive singular neuter; nostrum and vestrum, the genitive plural masculine or neuter. Old forms of the genitive singular are mis and tis. The old forms mihr / and tibi with final i occur often in poetry. Med, ted, and sed occur for both accusative and ablative singular. This is an original form of the ablative; as an accusative, it came to be used on the analogy of the ablative. Reduplicated forms are common in the same cases: — meme, tetg/f/sedSjy Alll4«j4efl®id septe are found rarely. 76 PRONOUNS {232-234 Vostnun and vostri for vestrum and vestri occur in early and late Latin. All forms except the genitive plural may be made more emphatic by adding -met: as, egomet. RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 232. The Relative Pronoun qui, who, which, and the Interrogative Pronoun quis, who? quid, what? are de- clined as follows : — Singular Plural M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae Gen. cuius cuius ciiius quorum quarum quorum Dat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Ace. quern quam quod quos quas quae Abl. quo qua quo M. & F. quibus N. quibus quibus Nom. quis quid Gen. ciiius cuius Dat. cui cui Ace. quern quid Abl. quo qud The plural of the interrogative is the same as that of the relative. The stem of these pronouns is qui- or quo- for the masculine and neuter, qua- for the feminine; only quis, quid, quibus, the ablative qvu, and the rare nominative plural ques come from the stem qui-; quem is formed on the analogy of consonant-stems. 233. The Interrogative Adjective qui, quae, quod, has the same forms as the relative pronoun: as, qui homo est? what man is it? quod mare visit? what sea did he visit? Case-Forms 234. In early Latin qg^^^gjj feminine of the interrogative pronoun. es as a nominative singular ^35-237) INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 77 Quoius and quoi for the genitive and dative singular are found even as late as Cicero's time. Qui often occurs as an ablative of either number and of any gender, and is used commonly as an adverb meaning haw. Ques is an early and rare form of the nominative plural. Quis for quibus (dative and ablative plural) is foimd even in classical Latin. Quis and qui (the interrogative adjective) are sometimes emphasized by the addition of -nam, — quisnam, quinam. 235. Other Relative and Interrogative Pronouns are: — liter, which of two; used both as relative and interrogative; for the declension see 176. utercumque, whichever of two; an indefinite relative. quicumque and quisquis, ^whoever; indefinite relatives. The two parts of quicumque (qui -|- cumque) are sometimes separated by an intervening word. Both parts of quisquis are declined, but only quisquis, quidquid (or quicquid), and quoquo are in common use. ecquis (adjective, ecqui), any one; an interrogative. 236. There are also the following Pronominal Adjectives, used as Relatives and Interrogatives: — quot, how many (inde- clinable) ; quantus, how large; and quails, of what sort. With these are correlative the Demonstratives: — tot, so many (inde- clinable); tantus, so large; and talis, such. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 237. The principal Indefinite Pronouns are quis, any one (substantive), and qui, any (adjective). These are declined like the interrogative and relative pro- nouns, but commonly have qua for quae except in the nomina- tive plural feminine. Quis is regularly used as the nominative singular of the substantive for both masculine and feminine genders. The Indefinites have the same early and occasional forms as the relative and interrogative; see 2Z^igitized by Microsoft® 78 PRONOUNS {2j8, 2jg 238. The compounds of the Indefinites quis and qui are as follows; the nominative singular masculine is the same for substantive and adjective, and quid appears in the neuter singu- lar substantive, quod in the adjective, except where it is other- wise stated: — quispiam, some one; neuter singular (substantive), quippiam or quidpiam. quisquam, any one; neuter singular (substantive and adjective), quicquam. There are no feminine forms; quisquam and quemquam are used rarely in early Latin as feminines." There is no plural. UUus commonly takes the place of this word as an adjective. quisque, each one. unusquisque, each one individually. Both parts are declined. aliquis, some one; aliqui is sometimes used as the nominative singular masculine of the substantive and usually as the nominative singular masculine of the adjective. The nomi- native singular feminine nearly always, and the nominative and accusative neuter plural always, is aliqua. quidam, a certain one; m is changed to n before d: as, quendam, quorundam. quilibet and quivis, any one. For the Indefinite Relatives see 235. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 239. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either alone as substantives, or with nouns as adjectives. hie, this ille, that Singular M. F. N. M. r. N. Nom. hie haec hoc ille ilia illud Gen. huius huius huius ^ illius ilUus illius Dat. huic huic huic illi illi illi Ace. hunc- banc hoc ilium illam illud Abl. hoc hac Dl}^^d by Microsofl^Q iUg, jUd 240-245) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 79 Plural Nom. hi hae haec ill! illae ilia Gen. horum harum horum illorum illarum illorum Dat. his his his illis illis illis Ace. hos has haec illos illas ilia Abl. his his his ilUs illis illis 240. The stems of hie are ho- and ha-, to which in some forms is added the demonstrative enclitic -ce, which usually loses its vowel. The enclitic is sometimes attached to forms which are usedregularly without it : as, huiusce ; haec (nomina- tive plural feminine); horunc (in early Latin). It is found also (with e weakened to i) in combination with the interrogative enclitic -ne : as, hocine. 241. The nominative and accusative neuter singular is a long syllable (though the vowel is short) because the vowel was originally followed by two consonants (hoc for hocc, from hod-ce) . The early forms hoius and hoic were used even in Cicero's time. A nominative plural masculine hisce occurs in early Latin. 242. Forms of an early pronoun olle, having the same meaning as ille, are sometimes found. 243. Iste, that, is declined like ille. The initial i is some- times omitted. 244. The enclitic -ce is often attached to ille and iste, chiefly in the following forms: — Singular M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. illic illaec illuc (illoc) istic istaec istuc (istoc) Ace. illunc illanc illuc (illoc) istunc istanc istuc (istoc) Abl. illoc iliac illoc istoc istac istoc Also in the nominative and accusative neuter plural, illaec and istaec. 245. The Intensive Pronoun ipse, self, is declined like ille, -except that it has ipsum in the nominative and accusative singular neuter. Ips?,4|^dS9^fe^J^fe'^ °^ *^^ demonstrative 8o PRONOUNS (246-248 246. IS, Singular is and the suffix -pse. The first part was originally declined; eapse, eumpse, and other similar forms occur in Plautus. In Plautus also are found forms with both parts declined: as, eapsa, eampsam. The nominative singular masculine is some- times ipsus. this or that Plural M. F. N. ii (i) ei eae ea eorum earum eorum iis (is) eis lis (is) eis lis (is) eis eos eas ea iis (is) eis iis (is) eis iis (is) eis 247. There are three stems, — i- for is and id, eo- and ea- for the other forms. Dative singular forms of early poetry are ei and monosyllabic ei; also eae. The usual forms of the nominative plural masculine and the dative and ablative plural are ii and iis, but these were pro- nounced (and sometimes written) as monosyllables, i and is. The forms ei and eis were usually pronounced as monosyllables. M. F. N, Nom. is ea id Gen. eius eius eius Dat. ei ei ei Ace. enm earn id Abl. eo ea eo 248. idem, the same Singular M. F. N. N. idem eadem idem G. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem D. eidem eidem eidem A. eundem eandem idem A. eddem eadem Plural eddem N. idem (iidem) eidem eaedem eadem G. eorundem earundem eorundem D. isdem (iisdem) eisdem isdem (iisdem) eisdem isdem (iisdem) eisdem A. eosdem easdem eadem A. isdem (usd^) eisdem isdem (iisdem) eisdem isdem (iisdem) eisdem idem is a c< )mpou Digitized by Micrpsc nd^ol is and tni B suflox -dem. 249-252) FORMATION OF VERBS 81 Rare forms of the nominative singular masculine are eisdem, isdem, and eidem. The nominative plural masculine and the dative and ablative plural, though sometimes written ildem and iisdem, were always dissyllabic in pronunciation. VERBS FORMATION OF VERBS 249. Verbs are either Primary or Derivative. Pri- mary Verbs were inherited from the parent language. Derivative Verbs were formed from Latin words after Latin had become a distinct language. Primary Verbs Of Primary Verbs there are the two following classes : — 250. Root Verbs. Only a few forms of certain so-called irregular verbs belong to this class. In these forms personal endings are attached directly to the root: as, from the root es, to he, es-t, es-te; from the root i, to go, i-s, i-mus; from the root da, to give, da-t, da-nt; from the root fer, to hear, fer-s, fer-t. 251. Thematic Verbs. In these verbs a vowel, called the Thematic Vowel, is attached to the root. To this combination are added the personal endings of the present system. The thematic vowel was originally e or 0, but usually appears in Latin as i or u: as, from the root ag-, to drive, ag-i-t, ag-i-mus, ag-u-nt. The root may appear in a modified form: as, gero, from the root ges- ; frango, from the root frag-. To this class belong most verbs of the third conjugation. There are, however, many derivative verbs of the third conjugation, and these also have the thematic vowel. 262. Most verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations are derivative, but a few are primary. In either case the per- sonal endings of the indicative present are attached to a final Digitized by Microsoft® 82 , VERBS {253-255 vowel which belongs to the present stem. The present stem may be identical with the root, as in dare, to give (root and stem da-), flere, to weep (root and stem fle-); or it may be the root with an added vowel, as in videre, to see (root vid-, stem vide-), venire, to come (root ven-, stem veni-). Derivative Verbs Of Derivative Verbs there are the two following classes : — 253. Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives. Most of these are of the first conjugation, but there are many of the fourth, some of the second, and a few of the third. In general the a-declension produces verbs of the first conjugation, the 0-decIension verbs of the secoftd conjugation, the u-declen- sion verbs of the third conjugation with the infinitive in -uere, and the i-declension verbs of the fourth conjugation; but there are many exceptions: — fugare, to put to flight, from fuga, flight. albere, to he white, from albus, white. metuere, to fear, from metus, fear. finire, to end, from finis, end. 254. Verbs derived from other verbs. Of these there are five classes : — 255. (i) Ileratives or Intensives, of the first conjugation, regularly derived from the stem of the perfect passive participle (therefore denomi- native in origin), and ending in the indicative present in -to or -so. Those derived from verbs of the first conjugation, however, always end in -ito, not -ato. There sometimes appears to be no iterative or intensive force, the meaning of the derivative being apparently the same as that of the simple verb : — dicto, say often or emphatically, from dico, say. prenso, grasp, from prendo, take hold of. rogito, keep asking, from rogo, ask. The iteralfve ending is sometimes added to the present stem: as, agito, move violently, from ago; fi&steOjf tec8^«^igo^gbm nosed. 236-260) FORMATION OF VERBS ,83 A second iterative is sometimes formed: as, dictito, from dicto; cursito, from cuTso. 256. (2) /wfeMijW, of the third conjugation, ending in -esso or -iss6. The perfect and participial systems are usually of the fourth conjugation: — capesso, seize, from capio, take. petesso or petisso, seek eagerly, from peto, seek. lacesso, provoke, from lacio, eniice. incipisso, begin eagerly, from incipio, begin. 257. (3) Inceptives, of the third conjugation, formed by adding the ending -sco to roots or to the present stem of verbs. In some cases the original verb, if there was one, has gone out of use. The name Inceptive sometimes indicates only the form, not the meaning, as many of these verbs, especially those formed from roots or obsolete verbs, do not denote the beginning of an action or condition; e.g. pasco, feed; quiescd, rest; posco, demand. Examples with real inceptive meaning are: — calesco, grow warm, from caleo, be warm. seised, inquire, from seio, know. horresco, begin to shitdder, from horreo, sh-udder. The endings -aseo and -esco, of which the first vowels are really stem- vowels, came to be regarded as suffixes and were attached to noun and adjective stems: as, vesperaseit, it becomes evening; vesper, evening. mitesco, grow mild; mitis, mild. Inceptives have only the present system of tenses, but the perfect and participial systems are often supplied by the simple verb from which the Inceptive is derived. 258. (4) i?jm»Miw«j, of the first conjugation, ending in -1116. These are rare: — cantillo, chirp, from eanto, sing. eonscribillo, scribble, from consciibo, write. 259. (5) Desideratives, of the fourth conjugation, ending in -turio or -surio. Only two are in common use: — parturio, be in labor, from pario, bring forth. esurio, Be hungry, from edo, eat. Verbs formed by Composition 260. Verbs are formed also by Composition; that is, by the combinatioiP/sB&eaiib'advepMal prefix with a verb. 84 VERBS ' (261, 262 Some of these prefixes are used separately as adverbs or prepositions, others appear only in composition. Those used separately are: — a-, ab-, abs-, away in-, in pro-, pro-, prod-, forward ad-, to inter-, between retro-, back ante-, before ob-, toward, against sub-, subs-, under' circum-, around per-, through, subter-, beneath thoroughly com-, con-, together post-, after super-, over de-, away, down prae-, before supra-, over e-, ex-, out praeter-, past trans-, across Those used only in composition are: — amb-, am-, an-, around intro-, within re-, red-, back dis-, di-, apart por-, forward se-, sed-, apart For vowel changes occurring in the composition of verbs see 34ff. 261. Some verbs are formed by the combination of words not regularly used as prefixes, with simple verbs. These are called Syntactic Compounds: — animadverts, attend to (animum adverto). benedico, bless. maniimitto, set free. satisfacio, do enough. In compoimds like calefacio, heat, and consuefacio, habituate, the first part was probably a formerly existing noun-stem, but was treated as a verbal stem in -e. VERB-STEMS 262. The root of a verb is modified to serve as a basis for the various forms. In this way three stems are formed, — the Present, Perfect, and Participial. The Present Stem is the basis of the following forms: — Present, Imperfect, and Future tenses in both voices and in all moods in ^y^Jj, i)iSSg,Ml?s are found. Present Infinitive in both voices. 26j-26j) CON:rUGATION 85 Present Active and Future Passive Participles. Gerund. The Perfect Stem is the basis of the following forms: — Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active; Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active. Perfect Infinitive Active. The Participial Stem is the basis of the following forms: — Perfect Passive Participle and, therefore, all forms of which this is a part, — namely, the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive, the Perfect and Plu- perfect Subjunctive Passive, the Perfect Infinitive Pas- sive. Future Active Participle and, therefore, the Future Active Infinitive. Supine and, therefore, the Future Passive Infinitive. 263. Every form of the Indicative and Subjunctive (except the present indicative and the perfect passive system) con- sists of three parts, — stem, mood and tense sign, and personal ending. 264. The Imperative has no mood and tense signs. Personal endings are attached directly to the stem, except that the thematic vowel appears in the third conjugation, in the third person plural of -io verbs of the third conjugation, and in the third person plural of the fourth conjugation. THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 265. The inflection of the verb by which are expressed Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person is called Con- jugation. There are four conjugations, distinguished by the vowel of the present stem. The Present Active Infini- tive most conveniently indicates the conjugation; the infinitive endings (rfg/*be/^owi"rofi0i®jugations are respec- 86 VERBS , {266-269 tively -are, -ere, -ere, and -ire. The present stem may be found by dropping the infinitive ending -re. 266. First Conjugation. Stem-vowel, a. Most verbs of this conjugation are denominative, but there are some primary verbs: as, sto, stand, no, swim. Some primary verbs of this conjugation originally had a stem in a: as, domo, subdue; perfect, domui (for domavi); supine, domitum (for domatum). 267. Second Conjugation. Stem-vowel, e. This conjugation includes both primary and denominative verbs. The stem-vowel e usually appears in the present system only; but it appears in all forms of certain verbs with roots ending in e: as, fieo, weep, neo, spin. The stem- vowel is shortened before another vowel. 268. Third Conjugation. Stem-vowel, e or o, changed in most forms to i or u. The stem-vowel is the thematic vowel. The present stem may be simply a root with the thematic vowel, as in dico, say; or the root may be modified in various ways, as follows: — 1. Present in -16: as, facio, make, do; Vfac. 2. Present in -SCO : as, cresco, grow; Vcre. (See 257.) 3. Present in -esso : as, capesso, seize; \/cap. (See 256.) 4. Present in -to: as, fiecto, bend; Vfiec. 5. Present in -no: as, sterno, strew; \/stra. 6. Present with inserted nasal: as, rumpo, break; \/rup. The nasal sometimes appears also in the perfect and participial systems: as, iungo, join; Viug; perfect, iunzi; participle, iunctus. 7. Reduplicated: as, sisto, set; \/sta. 269. Fourth Conjugation. Stem-vowel, i. Verbs of this conjugation are either primary or denominative. In the primary verbs fei^^^yj^toPJiJirs in the present system only: as, venio, come (veni, ventum); in the denominative verbs 270-274) VOICE 87 it appears also in the perfect and participial systems: as, finio, finish (finivi, finitum). The stem- vowel i becomes i before another vowel. 270. A few verbs have forms of two conjugations. Lavo, wash, has forms of the first and the third. A few verbs of the third conjugation have occasional forms of the fourth: as, oriretur or oreretur, and oriri, from orior, arise; potiretur or poteretur, and potiri, from potior, get possession of; moiiri or mori, from morior, die. In certain verbs the perfect system or the participial system, or both, belong to a conjugation different from that of the present system: as, peto, aim at, quaero, seek, haurio, drain, vincio, bind. 271. The term Irregular is applied to certain verbs which, though in large part regular, have some forms made by adding the personal endings directly to the root. (See 251.) The irregular verbs are sum, possum, void, nolo, maid, fero, eo, qued, fid, edo, and do. VOICE 272. There are two voices, Active and Passive. Deponent Verbs 273. Certain verbs, called Deponents, have a complete pas- sive system only, but with the meanings of the active. In addi- tion to the passive forms they have also the future infinitive active (the future infinitive passive is not used), the present and future participles active, t he geru nd, and the supine. The future passive participle and, sometimes, the perfect passive participle are passive in meaning. Some verbs are used either as active verbs or as deponents: as, assentio or assentior, agree; populo or populor, pillage. 274. A few verbs, called Semi-Deponent, have active forms in the present system, passive forms with active meanings in the perfect and participial systems. These are audeo, dare, fido, trust (and its compounds confido, trust, difiido, distrust), gaudeo, rejoice, solecf^i^^^^^ims^t® 88 VERBS {275-280 MOODS AND TENSES 275. There are three Moods, — Indicative, Subjunc- tive, and Imperative. Indicative Mood 276. The Indicative Mood has six tenses, — the Present, Imperfect, Future, Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect. " 277. The Present has no tense-sign; the personal endings are added directly to the present stem. For vowel changes see 315. 278. The tense-sign of the Imperfect is -ba-, the vowel being shortened before the personal endings -m, -t, -nt, and -r. In the third and fourth conjugations the stem-form to which this is attached ends in -e-: as, rege-ba-m, capie-ba-m, audie-ba-m. In the fourth conjugation in earlier Latin, and in poetry of all periods, this e is sometimes omitted: as, scibam, for sciebam. 279. The tense-sign of the Future in the first and second conjugations is -b- and the thematic vowel, — that is, e or o, changed, except in the first person singular, to i or u. The tense-sign of the Future in the third and fourth conjugations is -a- in the first person singular (shortened because it is fol- lowed by m or r), -e- in all other forms (shortened before -t and -nt). In early Latin the fourth conjugation sometimes has a future like that of the first and second: as, audibo, for audiam. The regular future of eo, go, is ibo. 280. The Perfect is formed in various ways. Rarely the stem is the same as that of the present: as, solvi, from solvo, loose; verti, from verto, turn. Sometimes it is different only by the lengthening or change of the vowel: as, fugi, from fugio, flee; veni, from venio, come; egi, from ago, drive. The com- monest tense-sign is -v-. This appears in the form -av- in nearly all the verbs gfg,|^ g^^,.^j^^ation, and in the form -iv- in nearly all of the fourth: as, amavi, audivi. The sign 281-284) MOODS AND TENSES 89 -V- appears also in the perfect of some verbs of the second and third conjugations: as, delevi, from deled, destroy; novi, from nosed, learn. Five verbs of the third conjugation with nasal suffix have the perfect in -vi; these are cemo, lino, sino, spem5, and stemo. 281. In verbs of this class with perfects in -avi and -evi there are often shoirtened forms in all the tenses of the perfect system, V and the following vowel disappearing before s or r : as, amasti, for amavisti; consuerat, for consueverat; in the subjunctive, amarim, for amaverim; consuessem, for c5nsuevisseni; in the infinitive, amasse, for amavisse. Perfects in -m also have shortened forms, but the vowel disappears only before s, not before r : as, audisli, for audivisti; aadierunt, for audiverunt. The perfect forms of nosed are similarly shortened: as, nosse, for novisse ; also compounds of moved: as, commossem, for commovissem. 282. Some verbs with perfects in -m have also forms in -u, -lit, in the first and third persons singular: as, audii, audiit; ii, lit, from eo. Rarely there is a first person plural in -iimus : as, audiimus. 283. Another common tense-sign of the perfect is -u-. This appears in most verbs of the second conjugation, in many of the third, in a few primary verbs of the first (see 266), and very rarely in the fourth: as, monm, alui, sonm, salui (from salio). 284. Another common tense-sign of the perfect is -s-. This appears, especially with mute stems, in many verbs of the third conjugation, in some of the second, and in a very few of the fourth: as, carps!, aim, sens!. For consonant changes due to the combination of the final consonant of a root with s, see 49. The vowel of the root generally remains the same as in the present, but there is occasional variation: as, cessi, from cedo; misi, from mitto; rejd, from rego; fiuxl, from flup; ussi, from ijyQ^ Digitized by Microsoft® go VERBS {285-288 285. Some perfects have reduplication, — that is, a prefix consisting of the initial consonant of the root and the vowel e: as, cecidi, from cado; cecini, from cano; pepuli, from pello. A stem- vowel a is weakened to i or e ; ae to i. If the stem- vowel of both present and perfect is i, o, or u, that vowel appears in the reduplication: as, didici, from disco; poposci, from posco; cucurri, from curro. If the verb begins with sp or st, both consonants appear in the reduplication, but s disappears from the root: as, spopondi, from spondeo; steti, from sto. Reduplication occurs, with a few exceptions, only in the third conjugation. It is found in four verbs of the. second, — mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, tondeo, — and in two of the first, — do and sto. Reduplication does not occur in compounds, except in compounds of do, sto, disc5, posco, and sisto: as, abdidi, circumdedi; cecidi from caedo, but occidi from occido; it occurs also in repperi (for repeperi), rettuli (for retetuli) and sometimes in compounds of curro. 286. The Perfect Passive and all other passive tenses of the perfect system, — that is, the pluperfect and future perfect indicative, the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive, and the perfect infinitive, — are made by a combination of the perfect passive participle with forms of the present system of the verb esse, to he: as, amatus sum, / have been loved; amatus esse, to have been loved. But forms of the perfect system of esse are sometimes used: as,' amatus fui, for amatus sum; amatus fuerat, for amatus erat. 287. The tense-sign of the Pluperfect is -era-, which is at- tached to the perfect stem; a is shortened before final m, t, and nt. 288. The tense-sign of the Future Perfect is -er-, followed by the thematic vowel; this is attached to the perfect stem. The forms of this tense are similar to those of the Perfect Sub- junctive, and the occasional forms of the second person singular and the first and second persons plural with -i-, that is, -is, -imus, and -itis, are due to confusion with the perfect sub- junctive, where -x- is ?Jjgyi&V nS^^^ular ending of the third 28g-294) MOODS AND TENSES 91 person plural, -int instead of -unt, is a mere imitation of the corresponding form of the perfect subjunctive. 289. In early Latin (and rarely in later writers) the future perfect indicative sometimes has the ending -so (or -sso) , the perfect subjunctive -sim (or -ssim) : as, capso, from capio; amasso, from amo; faxim, from facio; negassim, froin nego. These are forms of an earlier system of con- jugation. Forms of the perfect indicative, pluperfect subjunctive, and perfect infinitive, belonging to this same system, are found, especially in early Latin: as, dixti, for dizisti; dixem for dixissem; dixe for dixisse. Subjunctive Mood 290. The Subjunctive Mood has four tenses, — Pres- ent, Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect. 291. The tense-sign of the Present is for the first conjugation -e- (representing a form of the old optative mood-sign), the stem-vowel a disappearing before the other vowel. For the other conjugations the tense-sign is -a-. Both e and a are shortened, as usual, before final m, t, nt, and r. The long stem- vowel of the second and fourth conjugations is shortened, and in the third conjugation the thematic vowel does not appear in this tense. Some irregular verbs have the tense-sign -i-, the usual mood-sign of the old optative; in this way are formed the present subjunctive of sum, of volo and its compounds, and occasional forms like duitn (from do), edim, etc. 292. The tense-sign of the Imperfect is -se-, which is added to the present stem, s becoming r between two vowels (see 46) : as, es-se-s, ama-re-s. 293. The tense-sign of the Perfect is -eri-, which is added to the perfect stem. Confusion with the future perfect indica- tive often shortens -is to -is in the second person singular and, rarely, -imus to -imus in the first person plural. 294. The tense-sign of the Pluperfect is -isse-, which is added to the perfect stem. In all forms a long vowel is shortened before final m, t, nt, and r. For the forms of ^^i^§i^mMmA see 264. 92 VERBS {2QJ-3OO VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 295. Besides the forms of the three moods, certain noun and adjective forms are treated as parts of the verb. These are the Infinitives, the Supines, and the Gerund, which are verbal nouns, and the Participles, which are verbal adjectives. Infinitives 296. There are six Infinitives, — the Present, Perfect, and Future for each voice. 297. The ending of the Present Active Infinitive is -se, which is attached to the present stem. This ending appears only in esse, to be, esse, to eat, and their compounds. In other verbs it comes between two vowels and is changed to r: as, amare for amase. (Ferre and velle stand for ferse and velse.) 298. The ending of the Perfect Active Infinitive is -isse, which is attached to the perfect stem: as, amav-isse. 299. The ending of the Present Passive Infinitive is -ri, ex- cept in the third conjugation where it is -i : as, ama-ri, mone-ri, audi-ri; but reg-i. This infinitive is sometimes extended by the addition of the syllable -er, with shortening of the preceding vowel: as, amarier, dicier. 300. The three other infinitives are formed by combination as follows : — The Future Active is the future active participle with esse: as, amaturus esse. The Perfect Passive is the perfect passive participle with esse: as, amatus esse. But in the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitives esse is often omitted: as amaturus for amatiirus esse; amatus for amatus esse. The Future Passive is the Supine in -um with iri, the present passive infinitive of eo, go, us^^g^Qegs^j^^i^^s, amatum iri. 301-305) VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 93 Supine 301. The Supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, formed from the participial stem, but with the suflSx -tu-, not -to-. There are only two forms in common use, — the accusa- tive, and the dative or ablative singular: as, amatum, amatu. There is a rare dative in -tu. Gerund 302. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the Future Pas- sive Participle (Gerundive), used as a verbal noun of the second declension, with genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative cases. The meaning is the same as that of the English verbal noun in -ing : as, regendi causa, for the sake of ruling. Participles 303. There are four Participles, — the Present and the Future Active, the Perfect and the Future Passive. 304. The Present Active Participle is formed by adding the suffix -nt- (nominative singular -ns) to the present stem, the long stem-vowels of the first, second, and fourth conjuga- tions being shortened except in the nominative singular. The thematic vowel of the third conjugation appears as e; in the fourth conjugation the same form of the stem is used as in the imperfect indicative. The Present Active Participle is de- clined as an adjective of the third declension and has the mean- ing of the English participle in -^ng. 305. The Future Active Participle is formed with the suffix -uro- (nominative singular masculine, -urus) added regularly to the participial stem with omission of final -0: as, amatiirus, monitUTUS, rectiirus, cursiirus. There is, however, occasional variation: as, moritiirus, oriturus, ruiturus. The Future Active Participle is declined as an adjective of the first and second declensions an^^g^^^|j|J^ about to happen. 94 VERBS {306-308 306. The Perfect Passive Participle is formed with the suffix -to-, often changed to -so- (nominative singular mascu- line, -tus or -sus). There is great variety irr the stem-forms to which this suffix is attached. Some verbs, especially those of the second and third conjugations, add -tus or -sus directly to the root-syllable (with the usual consonant changes): as, auctus, from augeo; suasus, from suadeo; factus, from facio; sparsus, from spargo. Most first-conjugation verbs have the participle in -atus, fourth-conjugation verbs in -itus. An exception in the first conjugation is potus, from poto; in the fourth, sepultus, from sepelio. Verbs in -u6 have the parti- ciple in -utus; so also locutus, from loquor, and secutus, from sequor. Verbs with the perfect in -ui regularly have the participle in -itus: as, domitus, monitus, genitus; but there are exceptions; as, sectus, doctus, cultus. The quantity of the root-vowel is generally the same as in the present, but there is occasional variation. The suffix -so- (nominative -sus) is regularly used with all roots ending in a dental, the dental being assimilated to the following s: as, fossus from fodio; but ss is reduced to s after a long syllable: as, clausus from claudo. Many other verbs by analogy take the suffix -so-: as, mersus, from mergo; pulsus, from pello; cursus, from curro. The Perfect Passive Participle is declined as an adjective of the first and second declensions and has the meaning of the English perfect passive participle. It is used also with forms of esse, to be, to form the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses in the passive voice. 307. The Perfect Passive Participle of Deponent Verbs has usually an active but sometimes a passive meaning. The Perfect Passive Participle of other verbs seems sometimes to have an active meaning: as, cenatus, having dined; coniuratus, conspiring; placitus, pleasing; potus, having drunk. 308. Th,e Future Passive Participle is formed with the suffix -ndo- (nominati-B5^/«iB(gjj^gur/c45ias©iline -ndus) ad4ed to 309-311) PERSON 95 that form of the present stem which appears in the present active participle: as, amandus, monendus, regendus, audien- dus. The original sufiSx in the third and fourth conjugations was probably -undo-, and this is often found in early Latin; eundum is always the future passive participle of eo. The future passive participle is declined as an adjective of the first and second declensions. TENSE-GROUPS 309. The tenses of the indicative and subjunctive are grouped as follows : — Primary or Principal : — Present amo, / love Future -amabo, / shall love Present Perfect ama^n, / have loved Future Perfect amavero, / shall have loved Secondary or Historical : — Imperfect amabam, / was loving Historical Perfect amavi, / loved Pluperfect amaveram, I had loved The perfect indicative, it should be noted, has two uses, — one (the present perfect) denoting action completed in present time, the other (the historical perfect) denoting past action. In the subjunctive the present and perfect are primary tenses, the imperfect and pluperfect are secondary tenses. It should be noted that tenses of present and future time are primary, those of past time are secondary. NUMBER 310. Verbs have two numbers, Singular and Plural. PERSON 311. Verbs have three persons, — First, Second, and Third. Digitized by Microsoft® 96 VERBS (312. 313 The personal endings of the indicative and subjunctive, except the perfect indicative active, are as follows: — Person Active Singular Passive Meaning First -m or- 6 -r / Second -s -re or -ris you (sing.) Third -t -tur Plural he, she, it First -mus -mur we Second -tis -mini you (plu.) Third -nt -ntur they The ending -m of the first person singular appears in the indicative in two presents, sum, I am, and inquam, I say, in the imperfect, in futures in -am, and in the pluperfect, and in all tenses of the subjunctive. The ending -6 appears in all other present indicatives, in futures in -bo, and in the future perfect. In the first person singular of the present indicative passive the ending -r is added, not to the stem, but to the corresponding active form with vowel shortened: as amor, from amo. In the second person singular of the passive -re was the early ending but was gradually supplanted, especially in the present indicative, by -ris. In Cicero and Vergil -ris is more common in the present indicative, -re elsewhere. 312. The personal endings of the perfect indicative active are as follows: — In poetry -erunt, with short e, is sometimes found in the third person plural. 313. The personal endings of the Imperative are as follows : — Active Passive Person Tense Singular Plural Singular Plural Second Present -te -re -mini Seco©d Future -to -tote -tor Third Futu9©/f/zec/-:(feoM/croem(® -tor -ntor Person Singular Plural First -i -imus Second -isti -istis Third -it -erunt or -ere 314-31^ PRINCIPAL PARTS 97 The second person singular of the present is simply the present stem (in the third conjugation with the thematic vowel e) : as, ama, mone, rege, audi. Verbs of the third conjugation in -io lose -i- before the ending -e: as, cape. There is no second person plural of the future imperative passive. 314. The imperatives of dico, diico, facio, and fero are die, due, fae," and fer, except in early Latin, where for the first three the longer forms, — diee, duee, and faee, — are more common. The same statement applies to compounds of these verbs, except that compounds of faeio always have the longer form. Deponents have rarely -mino instead of -tor in early Latin. 315. In the union of the personal endings with the stem or tense-sign certain vowel changes occur: — A long vowel is shortened before the endings -m, -t, -nt, and -r: as, amabam, amat, amet, amant, monet, audit, regar. In early Latin and in poetry, however, the original long vowel before final -t is sometimes retained: as, videt. In the first person singular of the present indicative active of the first conjugation, a disappears by contraction before 6 : as, amo ; in the second and fourth conjugations the stem-vowel is shortened: as, moneo, audio. The thematic vowel of the third conjugation appears as 6 in the first person singular of the present indicative active: as, rego; it appears as e before r (regeris), as u (earlier o) before nt (regunt), and as i before other endings (regis, regit, regitur). The early ending of the third person plural, -ont, was until the end of the republic retained after u, v, and qu: as, ruont, vivont, sequontur. Sometimes qu became c: as, secuntur. In the second and third persons singular of the present indicative active of the third conjugation i is sometimes lengthened by the poets. PRINCIPAL PARTS 316. The Principal Parts of a verb are four forms which show the Present Stem, the Conjugation, the Perfect Stem, and the Participial Stem. These are: — (i) The First Person Singular of the Present Indica- tive Active. (2) The Present /J/p&elty^ie/ 325) FOURTH CONJUGATION 109 326. audio FOURTH CONJUGATION audio, hear Principal Parts audire audivi auditum Indicative Active Passive Present audio audimus audior audimur audis auditis audiris, -re audimini audit audiunt auditur Imperfect audiuntur audiebam audiebamus ; audiebar audiebamur audiebas audiebatis audiebaris, -re audiebamini audiebat audiebant audiebatur Future audiebantur audiam audiemus audiar audiemur audies audietis audieris, -re audiemini audiet audient audietur Perfect audientur audivi audivimus auditus sum auditi sumus audivisti audivistis auditus es auditi estis audivit audiverunt, -re auditus est Pluperfect auditi sunt audiveram audiveramus auditus eram auditi eramus audiveras audiveratis auditus eras auditi eratis audiverat audiverant auditus erat auditi erant Future Perfect audivero audiverimus > auditus ero auditi erimus audiveris audiveritis auditus eris auditi eritis audiverit audiverint auditus erit auditi erunt Subjunctive Present audiam audiatnus audiar audiamur audias audiatis audiaris, -re audiamini audiat audian^igitized by im4iM§^ audiantur no VERBS (326 Active Passive Imperfect audirem audiremus audirer audiremur audires audiretis audireris, -re audiremini audiret audirent audiretur audirentur Perfect audiverim audiverimus auditus sim auditi simus audiveris audiveritis auditus sis audili sitis audiverit audiverint auditus sit auditi sint Pluperfect audivissem audivissemus auditus essem auditi essemus audivisses audivissetis auditus esses auditi essetis audivisset audivissent auditus esset audifi essent Imperative Present audi audite audire Future audimini audits auditote auditor audits audiunto auditor Infinitives audiuntor Pres. audire audiri Perf. audivisse auditus esse Fut. auditurus esse auditum iii Participles Pres. audiens Perf. auditus Fut. auditurus Fut. audiendus Gerund Supine audiendi audiendo audienduic L auditum audiendo audita DEPONENT VERBS 326. Deponent Verbs are conjugated like regular verbs, but with the exceptions noted before (see 273), only in the passive voice. Digitized by Microsoft® 32?) PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION III Examples: — First conjugation: conor, conari, conatus sum, attempt Second conjugation: vereor, vereri, veritus sum, fear Third conjugation: utor, uti, usus sum, use Fourth conjugation: ordior, ordiri, orsus sum, begin The semi-deponent audeo, dare, has an old perfect subjunctive ausim. For the meanings of the participles of Deponent Verbs and for the deponent use of the perfect passive ps-rticiple of certain regular verbs, see 273 and 307. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION 327. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, — the Active, consisting of the future active participle with the auxiliary verb sum, and the Passive, consisting of the future passive participle with the auxiliary verb sum. The Active indicates a future or intended action, the Passive indicates one that is intended, proper, or necessary. The conjugation is as follows: Indicative Active Present Passive amatunis sum, amandus sum, / am about to love / am to be loved Imperfect amaturus eram Future amandus eram amatunis erd Perfect amandus ero amaturus fui Pluperfect amandus f tu amaturus fueram amandus fueram Future Perfect amaturus fuero Subjunctive Present amandus fuero amaturus sii^. .^ izedbyMicrosom^'^^^^ S™ 112 VERBS (. Active , , . Imperfect Passive amaturus essem amandus essem Perfect amaturus f uerim amandus fuerim Pluperfect (328, 329 amaturus fuissem amandus fuissem Infinitives Pres. amaturus esse amandus esse Perf. amaturus fuisse amandus fuisse IRREGULAR VERBS 328. The conjugation of sum has been given. Its compounds are conjugated in the same way. In prosum the preposition appears as prod before a vowel: as, prodest, proderam, prodesse; this is due to the influence of retro and other words which origi- nally had a final d (see 45). Absum has afui, etc., and afuturus. Conjugation of possum, he able 329. In its present system possum is a compound of potis or pote, able, and sum; the perfect system and the participle potens (used as an adjective) are from an obsolete verb poteo. Uncompounded forms appear in early Latin: as, potis sum or pote sum, either form of the adjective being used for any gender or either number. Principal Parts possum posse potui Indicative Pres. possum possumus potes potestis potest possunt Imp. poteram Fut. potero Perf. potui Plup. potueram Subjunctive possim possimus possis possitis possit possint possem potuerim potuissem Fut. P. potuero Digitized by Microsoft® 330) IRREGULAR VERBS "3 Infinitives Participle Pres. posse potens (adj.) Perf. potuisse Longer forms, potessem and potesse, are sometimes found; also, the early present subjunctive possiem. Conjugation of void, wish, and its compotinds 330. Nold, he unwilling, is a compound of ne and volo; malo, prefer, is a compound of tnagis (in the form mag) and volo. Principal Parts vol5 velle voltu nolo nolle nolui malo malle Indicative malui Pres. volo nolo malo vis non vis mavis vult non vult mavult volumus noltunus malumus vultis non vultis mavultis volimt nolimt malunt Imp. volebam nolebam malebam Fut. volam nolam malam Perf. volui nolui maltu Plup. volueram nolueram malueram Fut. P. voluero noluero maluero Subjunctive Pres. velim, -is, -it, etc. noHm malim Imp. vellem, -es, -et, etc. nollem mallem Perf. voluerim noluerim maluerim Plup. voluissem Pres. Fut. noluissem Imperative noli nolite nolito nolitate k maluissem nplito ndlunto Digitized by Microsoft® 114 VERBS (JJJ Infinitives Pres. velle nolle malle Perf. Toluisse noluisse Participles maluisse Pres. volens nolens Down to the Augustan period volt and voltis were used for vult and vultis. In early Latin nevis and nevolt occur, for non vis and non vult; and si voltis appears as sultis. Si vis was commonly contracted into sis. Conjugation of fero, hear 331. This verb has two independent stems, — the present stem fer- and the root tol- (cf. toUo), which appears in the per- fect system as tul- and in the participial system as lat- (for tlat-). Principal Parts fero farre tuli latum Active Passive Indicative Pres. fero ferimus feror ferimur fers fertis ferris, -re farimini fart fanmt fertur fenmtur Imp. ferebam farebar Fut. feram ferar Perf. tuli latus sum Plup. tuleram latus eram Fut. P. tulero latus ero Subjunctive Pres. feram ferar Imp. ferrem ferrar Perf. tulerim latus sim Plup. tulissem latus essem Imperative Pres. far ferte ferre ferimim Fut. ferto fertote fertor ferto c^fmByMicrosSm^oT feruntor 332, 333) IRREGULAR VERBS "5 Active Infinitives Passive Pres. ferre fern Perf. tulisse latus esse Fut. laturus esse Participles latum iri Pres. ferens Perf. latus Fut. laturus Fut. Gerund ferendi, etc. ferendus 332. The compounds of fero are conjugated like the simple verb, but the phonetic changes of the prepositional forms should be noted: — adfero adferre attuU allatum aufero auferre abstuli ablatum confers cSnferre contull collatiim differs differre distuli dilatum effero efferre extuli elatum infero inferre intuli illatum offero offerre obtuli oblatum refero referre rettuli relatum suffers sufferre sustuli sublatnm Rettuli is for retetuli; the reduplicated form of the simple verb, tetuli, occurs in Plautus. Sustuli and sublatus serve also as the perfect indicative and perfect participle of tolls, raise. Conjugation of eo, go 333. The root is ei, which appears as i or i (the latter before a vowel or final t and in itiirus and itum) except before a, o, or u, where it appears as e. eo Principal Parts Di^&ed by MiU-ok itum ii6 VERBS {334 Indicative Subjunctive Pres. eo imus earn eamus is itis eas eatis it eunt eat eant Imp. ibam irem Fut. ibo Perf. ii isti iit, it iimus istis ierunt, -re ierim Plup. ieram issem Fut.P . iero Imperative Infinitives Pres. i ite Pres. ire Fut. ito itote Perf. isse ito eunt5 Fut. iturus esse Participles Gerund Pres. lens (gen.euntis) eundi, etc. Fut. iturus Forms with v in the perfect system, as, ivi, iverat, ivisse, are found, but almost exclusively in poetry or late prose, ii is regularly contracted to I before s, but the forms iisli, iistis, iissem, etc., and iisse are found soipetimes in compoimds. 334. The simple verb is used only impersonally in the passive: as, itur, ibatur, itum est, eundum est; but compounds of transitive meaning, like adeo, approach, have a complete passive conjugation. The present passive indicative of aded is conjugated as follows: — adeor adimur adiris adimini aditur adeuntur In prodeo, the preposition assumes a final d (see prosum, 328) . Ambid is inflected regularly as aoigrteftf 4'*^»*i^to®)njugation. 335-33^) IRREGULAR VERBS II 7 335. Qued, can, and flequed, can not, are conjugated like eo, except that the perfect is qum, nequivi, and that certain forms are lacking. Conjugation of fid, be made, be done, or become 336. Facio, make, do, lacks the present passive system, except the future passive participle faciendus; its perfect and participial systems are complete: f actus sum, f actus esse, etc. The missing present passive system is supplied by fid : — Indicative Subjunctive Pres. fio fiam fiamus fis fias fiatis fit fiunt fiat fiant Imp. fiebam fierem Fut. fiam Imperative Infinitive Pres. fi fite fieri 337. Prepositional compounds of facio are usually conjugated regu- larly; e.g. conficior, deflcitur. But sometimes forms of fio are used in such compounds: as, confit, confiunt, defit, infit. Compounds like benefacio, calefacio, patefacio have forms of fid in the passive. Conjugation of edo, eat 338. In addition to forms with the thematic vowel, edo has forms in certain parts of the present system, made by attaching the personal endings directly to the root ed-, the d of the root being changed to s and the vowel being lengthened. Principal Parts: edo, edere or esse, edi, esum. Indicative Subjtmctive Pres. edo / edimus edim(edam) edimus(edamus) es(edis) estis(editis) edis(edas) editis(edatis) est(edit) edunt edit(edat) edint(edant) Imp. edebam esseni(edereni) Fut. edam Digitized by Microsoft® ii8 VERBS (339, 340 Imperative Pres. es (ede) este (edite) Fut. esto (edits) estote (editote) esto (edito) edunto Infinitive Participle Gerund Pres. , esse (edere) edens edendi, etc. In the participial system there are esus, esurus, and the supines esum, ' esu. The longer forms of the present indicative are found only in late Latin. The subjunctive forms edim, etc., are the only ones in common use till the Augustan period. In the passive, besides the regular forms, the present indicative estur and the imperfect subjunctive essetur occur rarely. The compound comedo has the perfect passive participle comestus, as well as comesus. Conjugation of do, give 339. This verb is conjugated as a verb of the first conjuga- tion, except that a is long only in the second person singular of the present indicative and present imperative and in the nominative singular of the present participle. The passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Early forms from another root du- are the present subjunctive duim, dms, duit, etc., and, sometimes, duam, duas, duat, etc. The verb do had originally two meanings, give and put, and most compounds contain the latter meaning. 340. Compounds with a monosyllabic prefix are conjugated as verbs of the third conjugation, e and a becoming i in the perfect and participial systems: as, abdo, abdere, abdidi, abditum. Those with a dissyllabic prefix are conjugated like the simple verb do: as, circiundo, circumdare, circumdedi, circumdatum. Compounds sometimes have the subjunctive -duim, etc^ interdo sometimes has the present indicative interduo from the same root. Digitized by Microsoft® 341, 342) DEFECTIVE VERBS 119 DEFECTIVE VERBS 341. Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The most com- mon and the forms of each which are found are as follows: — Conjugation of aid, say Indicative Subjunctive Pres. aio ais aias ait aiunt aiat Imp. aiebam aiebamus aiebas aiebatis aiebat aiebant Imperative Participle ai aiens The imperfect aibam, etc. (with ai pronounced as one syllable) is com- mon in early Latin; ais with the interrogative enclitic -ne is often written ain. Before a vowel the i is a consonant, and in such forms a vowel i was developed before the consonant, so that they were prfciounced and some- times written alio, aiiebam, etc. 342. Conjugation of inquam, say Indicative Pres. inquam inquis inquit Imp. mqtiunus inquitis inquiunt Fut. mqmes inquiet Perf. inquii inquisti inquiebat — Imperative inque inquito Only inquam, inquis, inquit, inquiunt and the forms of the future are in commoi^pgferf ^^ M/crosoft® I20 VERBS {343-345 343. Pres. Fut. fatur fabor fantur fabitur Infinitive fari Conjugation of fari, speak Indicative Perf. fatus sum fatus es fatus est — Plup. fatus eram — fatus eras — fatus erat Imperative fare Participles Gerund fans fandi . fatus fando (abl.) fandus fati sumus fati estis fati sunt fati eramus fati eratis fati erant Supine fatu Other forms are used in compounds of fari. 344. Three verbs are used mainly in the perfect system, — coepi, I have begun, memini, I remember, and odi, / hate. The perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect of memini and odi have the meanings of the present, imperfect, and future respectively. These verbs all have a complete perfect active system. In addition, coepi has coeptiirus, coepturus esse, coeptus, and a complete perfect passive system, which is used regularly when there is a dependent passive infinitive: as, id fieri coeptum est, this began to be done; a few forms of the present system occur in early writers. Memini has the imperative forms memento, mementote. Odi has osurus and occasional forms of a perfect passive system used as deponents. 345. Many verbs of the second, third, and fourth conjugations are used only in the present system. Inceptives derived from verbs have no perfect system of their own, but use that of the simple verb; they have no participial system. The verbs used as regular forms of greeting, avere (or havere) and salvere, appear rarely except in the infinitive and imperative: salve, salvete, salveto ;ave, avete, aveto. The verb cedo, give (imperative) , plural cette, has no otheir^jamgt/ by Microsoft® 5^(5, 347) LIST OF VERBS 121 IMPERSONAL VERBS 346. These verbs are used (except for a few scattered forms) only in the third person singular and the present and perfect infinitives: as, pluit, it rains; licet, it is allowed. Some personal verbs are used impersonally in certain senses: as, accidit, it happens; constat, it is evident. The passive of some intransitive verbs is used impersonally : as, itur, it is gone, i.e. some one goes; pugnatur, there is fighting; ventum est, some one came. LIST OF VERBS 347. In this list the following verbs are omitted: — regular verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations, inflected like amo, moneo, and audio; verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations whose only irregularity is the lack of the perfect or participial system, or both; inceptives formed from existing simple verbs and having no peculiarities. The principal parts of compounds are given under the simple verb; compounds are not noted in their proper place in the alphabet- ical list if the form of the verbal element is the same as that of the simple verb. A prefixed hyphen indicates that the verb is found only in compounds. The abbreviations Def. and Impers. are used for Defective and Impersonal. abici5, see iacio. abigo, see ago. aboleo, abolere, abolevi, abo- litum. abripio, see rapid, abscido, see caedo. abstineo, see teneo. accerso, see arcesso. accido, see cado. accido, see caedo. accipio, see capio. Digitized by Mia acquiro, see quaerS. acud, acuere, acm, acutum. adhibeo, see habeo. . adicio, see iacio. adigo, see ago. adim5, see emo. adipiscor, see apiscor. adolesc5, see alesco. adsideo, see sedeo. afficio, see facio. aggredior, see gradior. 122 VERBS {347 agnosco, see nosed. ago, agere, egi, actum. So circumago and perago. But abigo, abigere, abegi, abac- tum; and so adigo, ambigo, exigo, prodigo, redigo, sub- igo, transigo. (Seecogoand dego.) aio, Def., (341). alesco,alescere. adolesco,ado- lescere, adolevi, adultum ; coalesce coalescere, coalui, coalitum; exolesco, exoles- cere,exolevi, exoletum; ino- lesco, inolescere, inolevi; subolesco, subolescere. algeo, algere, alsi. allicio, see -licio. alo, alere, alui, altum or alitum. ambigo, see ago. ambio, see e5. amicio, amicire, amixi or ami- cui, amictum. ango, angere. aperio, aperlre, aperui, aper- tum. apiscor, apisci, aptus sum. adipiscor, adipisci, adeptus sum; so indipiscor. arcess5 (or accers6),arcessere, arcessivi, arcessitum. ardeo, ardere, arsi, arsurus. arguo, arguere, argui, argutum. arrigo, see'rego. Digitized by arripio, see rapio. ascendd, see scando. aspergo, see spargo. attineo, see teneo. attingo, see tangd. audeo, audere, ausus sum. auged, augere, auxi, auctum. ave, Def., (345). batuo, batuere, batui. bibo, bibere, bibi. cado, cadere, cecidi, casurus. Cpds., -cido, -cidere, -cidi, -casum. caedd,caedere, cecidi, caesum. Cpds., -cido, -cidere, -cidi, -cisum. cano, canere, cecini. Cpds., -cino, -cinere, -cinui (rarely -cecini). capesso, capessere, capessi^, capessitum. capio, capere, cepi, captum. So antecapio; other cpds., -cipio, -cipere, -cepi, -cep- tum. carpo, carpere, carpsi, carp- tum. Cpds., -cerpo, -cer- pere, -cerpsi, -cerptum. caveo, cavere, cavi, cautum. cedo, Def., (345). cedo, cedere, cessi, cessum. -cello, -cellere. So antecellS, i/crog5^"l^o> 'e«^ell6. But ex- 347) LIST OF VERBS 123 cello, excellere, excellui, ex- celsum. -cendo, -cendere, -cendi, -cen- sum. censed, censere, censui, cen- sum. cemo, cemere, cre^, -cretum (rarely certum). cieo, ciere, civi, citum. Also, in cpds., -cio, -cire, -civi, -citum; so always accio. Other cpds. have forms of both conjugations. cingo, cingere, cin^, cinctum. clauded, claudere; also clau- do, claudere. claudo, close, claudere, clausi, clausum. Cpds., -cludo, -cludere, -clusi, -clusum. clepo, clepere, clepsi. coepi, Def., (344). c5gd, cdgere, coegi, coactum. collido, see laedo. colligo, see lego, cold, colere, colui, cultum. comburo, see uro. cotnininiscor, comminisci, com- mentus sum. como, comere, compsi, comp- tum. comperco, see pared, comperio, see -perio. compesco, compescere, com- pescui. compingo, see pango comprimo, see premo. concido, see cado. concido, see caedo. concino, see cano. concipio, see capio. concludo, see claudo. concutio, see quatid. cdnfercid, see farcid. cdnficid, see facid. cdnfiteor, see fateor. cdnfringd, see frangd. congredior, see gradior. congruo, congruere, congrui. conicid, see iacid. cdmved, cdnivere, cdnivi or cdnixi. conquird, see quaerd. cdnspergd, see spargd. cdnspicid, see -spicid. cdnstitud, see statud. cdnsuld, cdnsulere, cdnsului, cdnsultum. conticescd, conticescere, con- ticm. contined, see tened. contingd, see tangd. coqud, coquere, coxi, coctum. corrigd, see regd. corripid, see rapid, crebrescd, crebrescere, cre- brui. credd, credere, credidi, credi- tum. crepd, crepare, crepui (-cre- paia rare), crepitum. Digitized by Microsoft® 124 VERBS i347 cresco, crescere, crevi, cretum. crudesco, crudescere, crudui. cubo, cubare, cubui (cubavi rare), cubitum. cudo, cudere, -cudi, -cusum. -cumbo, -cumbere, -cubui, -cu- bitum. cupio, cupere, cupivi, cupitum. curro, currere, cucurri, cur- sum. In cpds., the perfect is -cum or -axcam. decerpo, see carpo. decet, decere, decuit. Impers. decipio, see capio. defetiscor, see fatisco. dego, degere. deleo, delere, delevi, deletum. delibuo, delibuere, delibui, de- libiitum. deligo, see lego, delitesco, delitescere, delitui. demo, demere, dempsi, demp- tum. deprimo, see premo. depso, depsere, depsui, deps- tum. deripio, see rapio. descendo, see scando. desilio, see salio. desipid, see sapid, detineo, see teneo. died, dicere, dixi, dictum, diffiteor, ^ee fateor. dnigO, see lego. Digitized by dirimd, see emo. diripio, see rapio. disco, discere, didici. discutio, see quatio. disicio, see iacio. dissided, see sede5. dissilio, see saUo. ditesco, ditescere. divido, dividere, divisi, divi- sum. do, dare, dedi, datum. So circumdo, etc.; see 340. Other cpds. are of the third conjugation: e.g. abdo, ab- dere, abdidi, abditum; so addo, cond5, credo, dedo, di- do, edo, indo, obdo, perdo, prodo, reddo, subdo, trado, vendo. doceo, docere, docui, doctixm. domo, domare, domui, domi- tum. duco, diicere, diixi, ductum. dulcesco, dulcescere. duresc5, diirescere, diiruL edo, edere or esse, edl, esum. So comedo, but comesum or comestum. efficio, see faci5. eicio, see iacio. elicio, see -licio. eligo, see lego. kMVS^Sm>^ eminere, eminm. 347) LIST OF VERBS I2S em5, emere, emi, emptum. So coetno and, rarely, in- teremo and peremo ; usually iaterimo and perimd. Most cpds. change e to i in present system: adimo, dirimo, exi- mo, redimo. Cf. also como, demo, promo, sumo. eo, ire, ii or ivi, itum. Cpds. the same, except axnbio, ambire, ambivi, ambitum. See also veneo. erigo, see rego. evanesco, evanescere, evanui. einlesco, e\^escere, e^olui. excio, see cieo. excipio, see capio. excludo, see claudo. excutio, see quatio. exerceo, see arced. exigo, see ago. eximo, see emo. exolesco, see alescd. expergiscor, expergisci, exper- rectus sum. experior, see -perio. explodo, see plaudo. exsilio, see salio. exuo, exuere, exui, exutum. facesso, facessere, facessivi or facessi, facessitum. facio, facere, feci, factum. So non-prepositional cpds.^ as benefacio, calefacio. Prep- ositional cpds., -ficio, -ficere, -feci, -fectum. fallo, fallere, fefelli, falsum. refello, refellere, refellL farcio, farcire, farsi, fartum (rarely farctum) . confercio, confercire, confertum; re- fercio, refercire, refers!, refertum. fateor, fateri, fassus sum. Cpds., -fiteor, -fiteri, -fessus sum. fatisco, fatiscere. faveo, favere, iam, fautum. -fendo, -fendere, -fendi, -fen- sum. fero, ferre, tuli, latum. For cpds. see 332. ferveo, fervere, ferbui; also fervo, fervere, fervi. fido, fidere, fisus sum. figo, figere, fixi, fixum. findo, findere, fidi, fissum. fingo, fingere, finxi, fictum. fio, fieri, factus sum. For cpds. see 337. fleets, fiectere, flexi, flexum. fleo, flere, flevi, fletum -fligo, -fligere, -fflxi, -flictum. flu6,fluere,fluxi, (fluxus, adj.). fodio, fodere, fodi, fossum. [for], fan, fatus sum. Def., (343). 126 VERBS {347 frango, frangere, fregi, frac- tum. Cpds., -fringo, -frin- gere, -fre^, -fractum. fremo, fremere, fremui. frendo, frendere, fresum or fressum. frico, fricare, fricul, frictum or fricatum. frigesco, frigescere, -frixi. frigo, frigere, frixi, frictum. fnior, frui, fructus sum. fugi5, fugere, fugi, fugiturus. fulcio, fulcire, fulsi, fultum. fulgeo, fulgere, fulsi; also ful- go, fulgere. funds, fundere, fudi, fusum. fungor, funp, functus sum. furo, furere. gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum. gemo, gemere, gemui. gero, gerere, gessi, gestum. gigno, gignere, genui, genitum. glisco, gliscere. glubo, glubere. gradior, gradi, gressus sum. Cpds. , -gredior, -gredi, -gres- sus sum. haereo, haerere, haesi, haesu- rus. haurio, haurire, hausi, haus- tum (but hausurus). have, see ave. hiSCO, hiSCere. Digitized by ico, icere, ici, ictum. illicio, see -licio. illido, see laedo. imbuo, imbuere, imbui, im- butum. impingo, see pango. incesso, incessere, incessivi (incessi rare). incido, see cado. incidd, see caedo. incipio, see capid. incipisso, incipissere. include, see claudo. incutio, see quatid. indipiscor, see apiscor. indulged, indulgere, indulsi. induo, induere, indui, indii- tum. ingredior, see gradior. ingruo, ingruere, ingrui. inolesco, see alesco. inquam, Def., (342). inquire, see quaero. insideo, see sede5. insilio, see salio. instituo, see statuo. interficio, see facio. inveterasco, inveterascere, in- vetera^a. irascor, irasci, iratus sum. iacid, iacere, ieci, iactum. So superiacio. Other cpds., -icio, -icere, -ieci, -iectum; kcroSSm'^^y in poetry with 347) LIST OF VERBS 127 lengthening of a preposi- tional element with a final consonant in the present sys- tem, due to an earlier form -iecio, -iecere. iubeo, iubere, iussi, iussum. iungo, iungere, iiiim, iunctum. iuvenesco, iuvenescere. iuvo, iuvare, iuvi, iutum (also iuvaturus). labor, labi, lapsus sum. lacessd, lacessere, lacessivi, lacessitum. laedo, laedere, laesi, laesum. illido, illidere, illisi, illisum. lambo, lambere. lavo, lavare, ]a.v\, lautum or lotum (rarely lavatum). Also, in early Latin and in poetry, lavo, lavere. lego, legere, legi, lectum. So adlego, interlego, perlego or pellego, praelego, relego, sublego, translego. With vowel change, colligo, colli- gere, collegi, collectum ; and so deligo, eligo, seligo. With X in perfect, diligo, diligere, dilexl, dilectum; and so in- tellego and neglego (rarely perfect intelle^ andneglegi) . libet, libere, libuit or libitum est. Impers. Digitized by Microsoft® licet, licere, licuit or licitum est. Impers. -licio, -licere, -lexi, -lectum. So allicio, illicid, pellici5. But elicio, elicere, elicui, elicitum. lingo, lingere, linxi, linctum. lino, linere, levl, litum. linquo, linquere, liqui, -lictum. liqueo, liquere, licui. liquor, liqui. loquor, loqui, locutus sum. liiceo, lucere, luxi. ludo, lUdere, lusi, lusum. lugeo, lugere, luxi. luo, loose, luere, lui. -luo, wash, -luere, -lui, -liitum. malo, malle, maliu. mando, mandere, mandi, man- sum. maneo, manere, mansi, man- sum. mansuesco, see suesco. marcesco, marcescere, -mar- cui. maturesco, maturescere, ma- tiirui. medeor, mederi. memini, Def., (344). mergo, mergere, mersi, mer- sum. metior, metiri, mensus stmi. meto, metere, messui, messtmi. metud, metuere, mettu. 128 VERBS i.347 mico,micare,micui. So emico, intermico. But dimico, di- micare, dimicavi (rarely dl- micui), dimicatum. mingo, mingere, minxi, mic- tum. minuo, minuere, minui, minu- tum. misceo, miscere, miscui, mix- turn. misereor, misereri, miseritus (rarely misertus) svim. mitesco, mitescere. mitto, mittere, misi, missum. molo, molere, molui, molitum. mordeo, mordere, momordi, morsum. morior, mori or moriri, mor- tuus sum (but moriturus). moveo, movere, movi, mo- tum. mulceo, mulcere, mulsi, mul- sum. mulgeo, mulgere, mulsi, mul- sum. nanciscor, nancisci, nactus or nanctus sum. nascor, nasci, natus sum. neco, necare, neca^ (necui rare) , necatum. eneco (enico rare), enecare, enecui, enec- tum ( enicavi, enecatum rare) . necto, nectere, nexui or nexi, nexum. • Digitized by neglego, see lego. neo, nere, nevi. nequed, see queo. nigresco, nigrescere, nignu. ninguit or ningit, ninxit. Im- pers. niter, niti, nixus or nisus sum. nolo, nolle, nolui. nosco, noscere, novi, notum. So ignosco, intemosco, per- nosco, praenosco; but agni- tum and cognitum from agnosco and cognosce. notesco, notescere, notm. nubo, nubere, nupsi, nuptum. -nuo, -nuere, -nui. obliviscor, oblivisci, oblitus sum. obmutesco, obmutescere, ob- mutui. obsideo, see sedeo. obsolesco, obsolescere, obso- levi, obsoletum. obtineo, see teneo. obtingit,obtingere,obtigit. Im- pers. occallesco, occallescere, occa- lui. occido, see cado. occido, see caedo. occino, see cano. occipio, see capio. occulo, occulere, occului, occul- tum. Microsofi® 347) LIST OF VERBS 129 6di, Def., (344). operio, operire, operui, oper- tutn. oportet,oportere,oportuit. Im- pers. opperior, see -perio. opprimo, see premo. ordior, ordiri, orsus sum. orior, oriri, ortus sum. Fut. Part, oriturus. Present sys- tem, except inf., usually of third conjugation. paciscor, pacisci, pactus sum. So depeciscor or depaclscor. paenitet, paenitere, paenituit. Impers. pando, pandere, pandi, passum orpansum. Soexpando; dis- pando or dispendo, dispes- sum or dispansum. pango, pangere, pepigi (panxi and peg^ rare), pactum. Cpds., -pingo, -pingere, -peg?, -pactum, pared, parcere, peperci or par- si, parsurus. compered or compared, eompersi. parid, parere, peperi, partum (but pariturus). pased, paseere, pavi, pastum. patior, pati, passus sum. per- petior, perpeti, perpessus sum. paved, pavere, pavi. Digitized by pectd, pectere, pexi, pexum. pellieid, see -licid. pelld, pellere, pepuli, pulsum. In cpds. perf. -puli; but reppuli (for repepuli) from repelld. pended,pendere,pependi (cpds. -pendi), -pensum. pendd, pendere, pependi (cpds. -pendi), pensum. percelld, percellere, perculi, perculsum. perficid, see facid. perfringd, see frangd. pergd, see regd. -perid, -perire, -peri, -pertum. So comperid and reperid (but perf. repperi for repe- peri) ; deponent, experior, experiri, expertus sum; and so opperior. perquird, see quaerd. perspieid, see -spicid. pertined, see tened. petessd or petissd, petessere. petd, petere, peti^, petitum. piget, pigere, piguit or pigitum est. Impers. pingd, pingere, pinxi, pictum. pinsd or pisd, pinsere, pinsui or pisivi, pistum or pinsi- tum. plangd, plangere- planxi, planc- tum. Microsoft® 130 VERBS {347 plaud5, plaudere, plausi, plau- sum. So applaudo, circum- plaudo; but explode, explo- dere, explosi, explosum, and so supplodo. plecto, plectere, plexi, plexum. So deponent in cpds., -plec- tor, -plecti, -plexus sum. -pleo, -plere, -ple\ii, -pletum. plico, plicare, -plicavi or -pli- cui, -plicatum or -plicitum. pluit, pluere, pluit or pluvit. Impers. poUuo, polluere, pollui, poUu- tum. pono, ponere, posui, positum. porricio, porricere, porrectum. porrigo, see rego. posed, poscere, poposcL possideo, see sedeo. possum, posse, potul. potior, potiri, potitus sum. Present system, except inf., usually of third conjugation. poto, potare, potavi, potimi or potatum. praecino, see cano. praeside5, see sedeo. prandeo, prandere, pransi, pransum. prehendo, prehendere, pre- hendijprehensum; alsopren- 46, prendere, prendi, pren- sum. * -,. ... ,, Digitized by premo, premere, pressi, pres- sum. Cpds., -primo, -pri- mere, -pressi, -pressum. prodigo, see ago. proficio, see facio. proficiscor, proficisci, prof ectus sum. profiteor, see fateor. promo, promere, prdmpsi, promptum. prosilio, see salio. psallo, psallere, psalli. pubesco, pubescere, pubui. pudet, pudere, puduit or pudi- tum est. Impers. pungo, pungere, pupugi (cpds., -punxi), punctum. putesco, putescere, putui. quaero, quaerere, quaesm, quaesitum. Cpds., -quiro, -quirere, -quism, -quisitum. quaeso, quaesere. quaeso and quaesumus are the only forms in common use. quatio, quatere, quassum. Cpds., -cutio, -cutere,-cussi, -cussum. queo, quire, quivi, quitum. queror, queri, questus sum. quiesco, quiescere, quievi, qui- etum. rabo or rabid, rabere. 347) LIST OF VERBS 131 rapid, rapere, raptii, rapttxm. Cpds., -lipid, -ripere, -ripui, -reptum. In early Latin surrupio (perf. .surrupuit or surpuit) is found for sur- ripi5. recido, see cado. recido, see caedo. recipio, see capio. recludo, see claud5. redigo, see ago. redimo, see emd. refello, see fallo. refercio, see farcid. reficio, see facio. refrigesco, see frigesco. rego, regere, rexi, rectum. Cpds., -rigo, -rigere, -rexi, -rectum ; but pergo, pergere, perrexi, perrectum, and so surgd; rarely porgo for por- rig5. remimscor, reminisci. reor, reri, ratus sum. reperio, see -perio. repo, repere, repsi. reprimo, see premo. require, see quaere. resided, see seded. resilid, see salid. resipiscd, resipiscere, resipivi. respergd, see spargd. retined, see tened. rided, ridere, risi, risum. ringor, rin^, rictus sum. Digitized by Microsoft® rddd, rddere, rdsi, rdsum. rudd, rudere, mdm. rumpd, rumpere, rtipi, ruptum. rud, mere, rui, -rutum (but ruiturus). saepid, saepire, saepsi, saep- tum. salid, salire,salui. Cpds.,-silid, -silire, -silui (-silivi late). salve, Def., (345). sancid, sancire, sanxi, sanc- tum, sapid, sapere, sapivi. Cpds., -sipid, etc. sarcid, sarcire, sarsi, sartum. scabd, scabere, scabi. scalpd, scalpere, scalpsi, scalp- ttxm. scandd, scandere. Cpds., -scendd, -scendere, -scendi, -scensum. seated or scatd, scatere or scatere. scindd, scindere, scidi, scis- sum. scribd, scribere, scripsi, scrip- tum. sculpd, sculpere, sculpsi, sculp- tum. seed, secare, secui, sectum. seded, sedere, sedi, sessum. So circumseded,superseded ; but other cpds., -sided, -si- dere, -sedi, -sessum. 132 VERBS i347 seligo, see lego. sentio, sentire, sensi, sen- sum. sepelio, sepelire, sepelivi, se- ptiltum. sequor, sequi, secutus sum. sero, serere, -serui, sertum; entwine. sero, serere, se^i, satum; sow. Cpds., -sero, -serere, -se^a, -situm. serpo, serpere, serpsl. sido, sidere, sidi (-sidi or -sedi), -sessum. sino, sinere, sm, situm. sisto, sistere, stiti, statum. soleo, solere, solitus simi. solvo, solvere, solvi, solu- tum. sotio, sonare, sonui, sonaturus. (Also rare forms of third conjugation, sonit, sonunt, etc.) sorbeo, sorbere, sorbui (sorpsi rare). spargo, spargere, sparsi, spar- sum. Cpds., -spergo, -sper- gere, -spersi, -spersum. spemo, spemere, sprevi, spre- tum. -spicio, -spicere, -spexi, -spec- turn. spondeo, spondere, spopondi (cpds., -spondi), sponsum. spud, spuere, -spui, -spixtum. Digitized by status, statuere, statui, -statu- tum. Cpds., -stituo, -sti- tuere, -stitui, -stitutum. stemo, sternere, stravi, stra- tum. stemuo, stemuere, stemuL sterto, stertere, -stertui. stingu5, stinguere, -stinxi, -stinctum. sto, stare, steti, -statum or -stitum. Most cpds. have perfect -stiti; but antisteti, circumsteti, supersteti. strepo, strepere, strepui. strides, stridere, stridi; also strido, stridere. strings, stringer e, strinxi,stric- tum. struS, struere, struxi, struc- tum. suadeS, suadere, suasi, sua- sum. subigS, see agS. subolescS, see alescS. succidS, see cadoJ succidS, see caedS. suesco, suescere, sueia, sue- tum. sufficiS, see faciS. sugS, sugere, sua, siictiun. sum, esse, fui, futiirus. siimS, sumere, siimpsi, sump- tum. suS, suere, sui, siittun. supplSdS, see plaudS. Microsoft® ' 347) LIST OF VERBS 133 surgo, see rega. surripio, see rapid. taedet, taedere, taesum est. Impers. tango, tangere, teti^, tactum. Cpds., -tigo, -tigere, -tigi, -tactum. tego, tegere, texi,. tectum. temno, temnere, -tempsi, -temptum. tends, tendere, tetendi (cpds. -tendi), tentum (tensum late). But extends and os- tendo have extensus and ostensus (besides the regular forms) in classical Latin. teneo, tenere, tenui. Cpds., -tineo, -tinere, -tinui, -ten- tum. tergeo, tergere, tersi, tersum. (tergo, tergere rare.) tero, terere, tri^/i, tritum. texo, texere, texui, textum. tingo, tingere, tinxl, tinctum. (Also tinguo, tinguere.) tollo, tollere, sustuli, subla- ' turn. tondeo, tondere, -tondi or -totondi, tonsum. tono, tonare, tonui, -tonitum or -tonatum. torqueo, torquere, torsi, tor- turn. torre5, torrere, torrui, tostum. Digitized by traho, trahere, tram, tractum. transigo, see ago. tremo, tremere, tremui. tribuo, tribuere, tribui, tribu- tum. trudo, trudere, trusi, trusum. tueor, tueri, tutus sum. tundo, tundere, -tudi (but rettudi from retimdo), tu- sum (-tusum or -tunsum) . turgeo, turgere, tursl. ulciscor, ulcisci, ultus sum. unguo, unguere, unxi, unctum. (Also ungo, ungere.) urgeo, urgere, ursi. uro, urere, ussi, iistum. utor, uti, usus sum. vado, vadere, -vasi, -vasum. veho, vehere, vexi, vectum. vello, vellere, velli (vulsi late), vulsum. (Also vollo, vollere, volli.) vends, see do. veneo, venire, venii. venio, venire, veni, ventum. vergS, vergere. verrS, verrere, -verri, ver- simi (early vorro, etc.) verts, vertere, verti, versum (early vortS, etc.). vescor, vesci. vesperascit, vesperascere, ves- peravit. Impers. Microsom> 134 VERBS (34^, 349 veto, vetare, vetui, vetitum. video, videre, ■vidi, ^sum. vincio, vincire, vinxi, ■dnctum. vinco, vincere, T^ci, victum. visb, ^sere, visi. Tavo, vivere, Aaa, -victum. vols, velle, volui. volvo, volvere, volvi, volutum. vomo, vomere, vomui, vomitum. voveo, vovere, voin, votum. PREPOSITIONS 348. Originally case-forms alone served to show in a general way those relations which later were expressed, by prepositidns in combination with certain cases. Then various adverbs began to be used, to define more exactly the meaning of the case-form, and a new part of speech, the preposition, was thus developed. Many of these adverbs which came to be used as prepositions continued to be used also as adverbs, either as independent words or, as prefixes, in combination with verbs: as, ante, cir- cum, contra, inter, per, post. The origin of some prepositions is doubtful: as, ab, ad; many are case-forms : as ex, extra, infra, supra, circum, coram, ante, in. (For the origin of adverbs see 195 £f., and for the use of adverbial or prepositional prefixes with verbs see 260.) The use of prepositions with case-forms is treated under the head of Syntax. CONJUNCTIONS 349. The origin of some Conjunctions is doubtful, but most of them are clearly pronominal adverbs : — as the following, derived from the relative, interrogative, or indefinite pronoun: -que) quoque, quidem, quippe, cur (for quor), quam, cum (for quom), quando, quod, ubi (for quubi), quia; from other pro- nominal roots: sed, ceterum, enim, nempe, utrum, si, dum. The following are from noun or adjective stems: — modo, venuil, vero. The following combinations contain the pro- nominal element: — quamvis, quare, qupminus. The con- junction vel is the imperative of void. The classi%;ation and use of conjunctions are treated under the head of Syntax. Digitized by Microsoft® J5o) INTERJECTIONS 13S INTERJECTIONS 350. Some Interjections are mere exclamations of surprise, joy, grief, etc.: as, 6, id, eheu; some are derived from other words: as, em (probably from eme, take) — later superseded by en, the Greek \\v — , ecce (from a pronominal stem), pro (the adverb and preposition); others are Greek words: as, euge, euhoe; others are oaths, containing the names of deities: as, hercle, pol. Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD PART— SYNTAX 351. Syntax treats, of the combination of words in sentences. 352. A Sentence is a complete statement or expres- sion of thought. It may be Simple, having only one "subject and predicate, or it may consist of two or more members, called Clauses, each having a subject and predicate. PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 353. Clauses are either Principal (independent) or Sub- ordinate (dependent). A Principal Clause is often called the Main Clause. The verb of a Principal Clause is most often in the indicative, but may be in the subjunctive, imperative, or historical infinitive; in indirect discourse and, sometimes, in exclamations a principal verb is in the infinitive. The verb of a Subordinate Clause is in the indicative or subjunctive. 354. A sentence consisting of two or more principal clauses is called Compound; a sentence consisting of one or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses is called Complex. The subordinate clauses may be coordinate with one another or one may be subordinate to another. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 355. The Subject is that about which something is said. The Predicate is that which is said about the Subject. 356. The Subject is a noun or pronoun, or anything else used as a noun. Digitized by Microsoft® 136 357-3'^l) PHRASE 137 The Subject may be an infinitive or a clause: — praeclarum est scire Latine, it is a fine thing to know Latin; Brut. 140. placuit ei ut legates mitteret, it seemed best to him to send envoys; B. G. I, 34, I. The infinitive subject is especially common with impersonal verbs: as, peccare licet nemim, no one is at liberty to sin; Par. 20. 357. As the subject may be expressed by the personal end- ing of the verb, a sentence may consist of a single word: as,' venit, he aame. 358. The Predicate is a finite verb or an infinitive; or, it may be a form of the verb sum (or a verb of similar meaning) with a predicate noun or adjective defining or describing the subject: as, Caesar imperator erat, Caesar was commander; fortissimi sunt Belgae, the Belgians are the bravest. 359. The verb sum, when used in this way, is called a copula. Other verbs are so used in the passive with predicate nouns and adjectives; these are fio, become, videor, seem, and verbs meaning to name, choose, regard, etc. : — hi consules facti sunt, these became consuls; Cat. M. 14. amicus appellatus erat, he had been called a friend; B. G. i, 3, 4. 360. The Predicate is rarely omitted unless it may be easily supplied from the context: as, haec hactenus (sc. dixi), so much for that; Att. 5, 13, 2. But forms of the auxiliary verb sum are often omitted: as, coloniae deductae (sc. sunt), colonies were founded; Liv. 10, i, i. PHRASE 361. A Phrase is a group of two or more words connected in sense and not containing a finite verb (i.e. any form of the in- dicative, subjunctive, or imperative) : as, cottidianis proellis, in daily battles; ab extremis Galliae finibus, from the very borders of Gaul; proelio decertare, to contend in battle. ■' ' ^ Digitized by Microsoft® 138 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES {362-36$ CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 362. Sentences are classified according to their meaning as follows: — Declarative: postero die castra movent, on the next day they move their camp; E.G. I, IS, I. Interrogative: quis est me mitior? who is gentler than I? Cat. 4, 11. Imperative or Hortatory: consuUte vobis, take counsel for yourselves; Cat. 4, 3. hos latTones interficiamus, let us kill these robbers; B. G. 7, 38, 8. Exclamatory: utinam copias eduxisset! would that he had led out his forces! Cat. 2,4. te in tantas aerumnas incidisse! to think that you fell into such misery! Fam. 14, i, i. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES 363. Interrogative Sentences are of various forms. They may contain no interrogative word: as, vis pugnare? do you want to fight? Pl.Rud. ion. The lack of an interrogative word is rather common if the question contains the negative non: as, patere tua consilia non sentis? you don't see that your schemes are known? Cat. 1,1. It is often doubtful whether such sentences are interrogative, exclamatory, or declarative. Or, they may be introduced as follows: — 364. (a) by an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb : — quid agis? what are you doing? Cat. i, 27. quali fide existimatis eos esse? wliat sort of honcrr do you think they have? Font. 31. cur loquimur? why do we speak? Cat. 2, 17. 365. (b) by the enclitic -ne attached to the emphatic word, usually the first in the sentence: as, potestne tibi haec lux esse iucunda? can this light of day he pleasant to you? Cat. i, 15. Sentences thus intro(|}i^g^(y^j5/cfego^n-committal as to the 366-371) ANSWERS 139 expected answer; or they may expect an aflSrmative answer; or, less often, a negative answer. The enclitic -ne is sometimes attached to other interrogative words: as, utnimne, whether. It sometimes loses its vowel: as, itan, for itane; viden, for Tidesne. 366. (c) by n.5nne, expecting an affirmative answer: — nonne meministi? don't you remember? Fin. 2, 10. nonne hunc in vincla duci imperabis? won't you order him to be put into prison? Cat. i, 27. 367. (d) by num, expecting a negative answer: — num baxbardrum Romulus rex fuit? was Romidus a king of bar- barians? Rep. I, 58. num infitiari pbtes? can you deny? Cat. i, 7. 368. (e) by an; this is especially common in argumentative language, introducing questions which are purely rhetorical and often exclamatory: as, an vero P. Scipio Ti. Gracchum privatus interfecit? did Publius Scipio, a private citizen, really cause the death of Tiberius Gracchus? Cat. i, 3. 369. (f) by ecquis (adjective, ecqui) and, rarely, by ecquando: — ecquis hie est? is anyone here? PL Am. 1020. ecqui metus? have you any fear? Verr. 4, 18. ecquando his de rebus tales viros audituros existimasli? did you think that such men would ever hear about these things? Verr. 2, 43. ANSWERS 370. The answer yes is expressed by repetition of the verb of the question: as, valetne? is he well? valet, he is; fienne potest? can it he done? potest, yes ; or by an adverb, etiam,' ita, sane, sic, vero, etc. : — numquid -nsf is there anything you want? etiam, yes; PI. Am. S44- ilia maneat? is she to remain? sic, yes; Ter. Ph. 813. 371. The answer no is expressed by repetition of the verb of the question with ^;gggg^jgji^/§^j^suniusne esse tufi? can I40 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES {372-376 we be safe? non possumus, no; Phil. 12, 27; or by an adverb, non, minime, etc. : — venitne? has he come? non, no; PI. Ps. 1067. an haec contemnitis? do you despise these things? minime, by no means; De Or. 2, 295. ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS 372. In Alternative Questions the first member is intro- duced by utrum or -ne, or, especially in early Latin, has no introductory word; the second member is introduced by an: — utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est? is this your fault or ours? Acad. 2, 95. servosne es an liber? are you a slave or free? PI. Am. 343. Tacitus es an Plinius? are you Tacitus or Pliny? Plin. Ep. 9, 23, 3. 373. If the second member is a mere negation of the first, it consists simply of an non or, rarely (but often in indirect questions), necne: — pater eius rediit an non? has his father returned or not? Ter. Ph. 147. sunt haec tua verba necne? are these your words or not? Tusc. 3, 41. 374. Rarely an introductory utrum precedes an alternative question, the two members being introduced by -ne and an: as, utrimi censes ilium tuamne de se orationem libentius auditurum fuisse an meam? do you think that he would have heard your speech about himself with greater pleasure or mine? Fin. 2, 60. 375. The two members are sometimes introduced by -ne . . . -ne: as, versans Siculisne resideret arns Italasne capesseret oras, deliberating whether he should settle in the Sicilian fields or make his way to the Italian shores; Aen. 5, 702. 376. The particle -ne is sometimes attached to utrum in the first member or to an in the second: — utrumne iussi persequemur otium an hunc laborem? shall I obediently give myself to leisure or undergo this toil? Hor. Epod. i, 7. cum interrogetur tria pauca sint anne multa, since it is asked whether three are few or BtsH^e^iot^^i^p^gft® 377-3^ l) APPOSITIVES 141 377. A single question is sometimes introduced by utrum, the second member being suppressed: as, utrum in clarissimis est civibus is? is he among the noblest citizens? Flacc, 45. For single questions introduced by an see 368. 378. Single questions sometimes contain alternative details; the ques- tion is, not which thing is true, but whether either is true. These, there- fore, are not alternative questions and do not contain the alternative particles: — quaero num id iniuste aut improbe fecerit, / ask whether he did this either unjustly or dishonestly; Off. 3, 54. num Homerum, num Hesiodum coegit obmutescere senectus? did old age compel either Homer orHesiod to become silent? Cat. M. 23, 379. An alternative question may contain more than two members; all but the first are regularly introduced by an : as, utrum hostem an vos «n fortunam utriusque populi ignoratis? are you ignorant of the enemy or of yourselves or of the fortunes of the two peoples? Liv. 21, 10, 6. Syntax of the Parts of Speech SYNTAX OF NOUNS APPOSITIVES 380. A noun meaning the same person or "thing as another noun or pronoun and used in combination with it, usually for the purpose of identification or description, is called an Appositive and is said to be in Apposition. 381. An Appositive agrees with its noun or pronoun in case and, if possible, also in number and gender: — P. Scipio, pontifez maximus, Publius Scipio, pontifex maximus; Cat. I, 3. lo^ Statorl, antiquissimo custodi huius urbis, to Jupiter Stator, the most ancient guardian of this city; Cat. i, 11. Themistocles veni ad te, /, Themistocles, have come to you; Nep. Them. 9. historia, magistra vitae, history, the teacher of life; De Or. 2, 36. ut omittam illas omnium doctrinarum inventrices, Athenas, to say nothing of Athgigit^0WffSKiBffi ^^ leairning; De Or. i, 13. 142 SYNTAX OF NOUNS {382-386 382. An Appositive may denote time or cause or other ideas usually denoted by subordinate clauses: — aedem Salutis dictator dedicavit, he dedicated the temple of Safety when he was dictator; Liv. 10, i, g. fortuna praemia vobis ea victoiibus proponit, Fortune ofers you these rewards if you conquer; Liv. 21, 43, 5. 383. An Appositive usually follows its noun, but may pre- cede: as, gravissimus auctor Cato, Cato, an authority of the great- est weight; Tusc. 4, 3. (See also 381, example from De Or. i, 13.) 384. A noun or pronoun is sometimes accompanied by an appositive which denotes only a part of the whole denoted by the noun or pronoun. This is called Partitive Apposition. Especially common in this construction are quisque, uterque," alius — alius, and alter — alter: — quos Poenus in civitates quemque suas dimisit, whom the Cartha- ginian sent away, each to his own state; Liv. 21, 48, 2. decemviri alius in aliam partem castrorum discurrunt, the decemvirs hurried one to one part of the camp, another to another; Liv. 3, SO, 12. 386. In poetry and late prose the accusative is sometimes used in apposition with a clause: — iaculum emittit in auras, principium pugnae, he hurled his javelin into the air, the beginning of the fight; Aen. 9, 53. deserunt tribunal manus intentantes, causam discordiae, they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists, a cause of dissension; Tac. Ann. i, 27. 386. A noun in apposition with a locative is put in the abla- tive with or without the preposition in (see 612). The preposition is regularly used with appositives of nouns denoting place to which or from which: — Tarquinios, in urbem fldrentissimam, to Tarquinii, a very prosperous city; Rep. 2, 34. Tusoulo, ex clarissimo- miinicipid, from Tuscuhim, a very famous town; Font, /[digitized by Microsoft® 3^7-390) PREDICATE NOUNS 143 387. An Infinitive or a Clause may be used as an apposi- tive: — hoc admiratus sum, mentidnem te hereditatiun ausum esse facere, / wondered at this, that you dared to mention inheritances; Phil. 2, 42. Caesar senatus in eum beneficia commemoravit, quod rex appellatus esset, Caesar mentioned the kindness of the senate toward him, the fact that he had been called king; B. G. i, 43, 4. id agunt, ut viri boni esse videantur, they strive for this, that they may seem to be good men; Off. i, 41. 388. A verb sometimes agrees, not with its subject, but with an appositive of the subject; this is the regular construction if the appositive is urbs, oppidum, or civitas, and is common with cases of partitive apposition: — Corinthum, totius Graeciae lumen, ezstinctum esse voluerunt, they wanted Corinth, the light of all Greece, to be extinguished; Manil. 11. Corioli oppidum captum, Corioli-town was taken; Liv. 2, 7,^, 9. duae res mazimae, altera alter! defuit, the two most important things were lacking, one to one of them, the other to the other; Brut. 204. PREDICATE NOUNS 389. A Predicate Noun agrees in case and, if possible, in number and gender with the noun which it defines or describes : — stilus optimus dicendi magister (est), the pen is the best teacher of eloquence; De Or. i, 150. ■nta rustica parsimoniae magistra est, country life is the teacher of thrift; Rose. Am. 75. consules creantur Caesar et Servilius, Caesar and Servilius are elected consuls; B. C. 3, i, i. For the use of the Predicate Nominative see 358, 359. 390. A predicate noun (or adjective) with an infinitive (except the historical^gi^d^g^n^kme^ary infinitives) is regu- 144 SYNTAX OF NOUNS i.391-393 larly in the accusative, whether the infinitive has an expressed subject or not: — non est amici talem esse, it is not the part of a friend to act so; Lael. sp. si vos voltis perhiberi probos, if you want to he held in honor; Ter. Ad. 504. hoc est patrem esse? is this being a father? Ter. Ad. 707. But very rarely, and almost always in poetry, when the subject accu- sative is omitted, the predicate nominative is used: — uxor invicti lovis esse nescis, you don't know that you are the wife of unconquered Jove; Hor. C. 3, 27, 73. ait fuisse navium celerrimus, it says it was the swiftest of boats; CatuU. 4, 2. For the use of a predicate noun or adjective with a complementary infinitive see 951. 391. With impersonal verbs which take a subject infinitive and a dative of the person, if the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predicate noun or adjective may be in the dative: — licuit esse otioso Themistocli, Themistocles might have been lazy; Tusc. I, 33. vobis necesse est fortibus viris esse, it is necessary for you to be brave men; Liv. 21, 44, 8. nostrapte culpa facimus ut malis expediat esse, by our own fault we make it profitable to be bad; Ter. Ph. 766. 392. A predicate noun in the accusative is often used in connection with the direct object of verbs meaning to make, choose, call, etc. : — Hamilcarem imperatorem fecerunt, they made Hamilcar general; Nep. Hamil. 2. me augurem nominaverunt, they named me augur; Phil. 2, 4. ducem se praebuit, he ofered himself as leader; Vat. 33. 393. With the phrase nomen esse, the name, which would naturally be in the predicate nominative or accusative, is often put in th| dative: as, Faustulo fuisse nomen ferunt, they say his name was FaustuliBi^itizid'^y m^i^fof® 394~39^) CASES OF NOUNS 145 394. A predicate noun is rarely used in the ablative: as, Dolabella hoste decreto, Dolabella having been voted an enemy; Phil. 11, 16. 395. An infinitive or a clause may be used as a predicate noun: — vivere est cogitare, to live is to think; Tusc. s, iii. altera est res ut res geras magnas, the other thing is that you do great deeds; OS., i, 66. 396. A verb sometimes agrees, not with its subject, but with a predicate noun : — pueri Troianum dicitiir agmen, the boys are called the Trojan band; Aen. 5, 602. non omnis error stultitia dicenda est, not every mistake is to be called folly; Div. 2, 89. contentum suis rebus esse mazimae sunt dmtiae, to be content with one's own possessions is the greatest wealth; Par. 51. The predicate uses of the genitive, dative, and ablative are treated under the Cases. CASES OF NOUNS The principles here stated apply not only to nouns but also to all other declined substantives, — i.e. to pronouns, and to adjectives and participles used as nouns. NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE CASES 397. The nominative is used as the subject of a finite verb and of the historical infinitive (see 963) : — Caesar ita respondit, Caesar replied as follows; B. G. i, 14, i. Appius ius dicere, Appius pronounced judgment; Liv. 2, 27, i. 398. The nominative is used also as the case of ad- dress, and, when used in this way, is called the Vocative. Stems in -o of the second declension are the only ones which have a special form for the vocative : — quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra ? tell us, Cati- line, how long will you abuse our patience? Cat. 1,1. res omnis mihi tecum erit, Hortensi, all my attention will he given to you, Hortensius; Verr. a. pr. 33. Digitized by Microsoft® 146 SYNTAX OF NOUNS {399-403 But the nominative of o-stems is sometimes used as a case of address: as, audi tu, populus Albanus, hear, ye people of Alba; Liv. I, 24, 7. So, also, an adjective in agreement with a voca- tive or an appositive of a vocative: as, nate, mea magna potentia solus, my son, thou alone my great power; Aen. i, 664. 399. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations, usually accompanied by an interjection: — O festus dies! joyful day I Ter. Eun. 560. O frustra suscepti labores ! toils in vain endured! Mil. 94. pro curia inversique mores I alas, the senate-house and our perverted nature! Hor. C. 3, 5, 7. In these cases the nominative may be regarded as the subject of a verb to be supplied. GENITIVE CASE 400. The Genitive is used with substantives, adjec- tives, and verbs, and, very rarely, with adverbs. Genitive with Substantives and Adjectives Possessive Genitive 401. The Possessive Genitive is used to denote not only actual ownership but also origin, cause, place, etc. : — potentia Pompei, Pompey's power; Sail. Cat. 19. clamor oppidanorum, the shouts of the townsmen; Liv. 2, 33, 8. Canachi signa, statues by Canachus; Brut. 70. bellum Venetorum, the war with the Veneti; B. G. 3, 16, i. Trasumenni pugna, the battle of Trasumennus; Liv. 23, 43, 4. 402. When the Possessive Genitive denotes the person who does* the act indicated by the noun on which it depends, it is called a Subjective Genitive: — Caesaris adventus, the arrival of Caesar; B. G. 6, 41, 4. reliquias Danaimi, the remains left by the Greeks; Aen. i, 30. 403. The possessive adjective is regularly used instead of the posseSsive genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun (for Digitized by Microsoft® 404-408) GENITIVE CASE 147 exceptions see 623); if there is a qualifying word it agrees with the implied genitive: — ad vestram omnium caedem, for the murder of all of you; Cat. 4, 4. tuum studium adulescentis, your zeal when you were young; Fam. 15, 13, I- tuam ipsius amicitiam, your own friendship; Verr. 3, 7. 404. The possessive idea is often expressed by an adjective; alienus is always used instead of the genitive of alius: — servBi tumultu, in the insurrection of the slaves; B. G. i, 40, j. aliena virtQs, another's courage; Sail. Cat. 7, 2. 405. The repetition of a noun governing two possessive genitives where the English uses "that " is regularly avoided: as, quis est qui possit conferre vltaxa. Treboni cum DolabeUae? who is there who could compare the life of Trebonius with that of Dolahella? Phil. 11, 9. 406. For the sake of brevity the possessor is sometimes put in place of the thing possessed: as, videtisne captivorum dratidnem cum perfugis convenire ? do you see that the talk of the captives agrees with that of the deserters? B. C. 2, 39, 2. 407. In a few common phrases the noim on which the genitive depends is sometimes omitted: — Hectoris Andromache, Hector's wife, Andromache; Aen. 3, 319. Hasdrubal Hamilcaris, Easdrubal, son of Hamilcar; Liv. 26, 17, 4. Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus, the slaw of Claudius; Ter. Ph. Didasc. ventum erat ad Vestae, we had come to the temple of Vesta; Hor. S. i, 9. 35- 408. The Possessive Genitive is often used in the predicate with sum or facio : — omnia hostium erant, all things belonged to the enemy; Liv. 6, 40, 17. neque Galliam potius esse Ariovisti quam populi Romani, and that Gaul did not belong to Ariovislus more than to the Roman people; B. G. i, 45, i. oram Romanae dicionis fecit, he brought the coast Under Roman rule; Liv. 2b^6^^e§-/,yM/croso«® 148 SYNTAX OF NOUNS {4OQ-412 This construction is especially common when the subject of the verb is an infinitive or a clause: — stulti erat sperare, it was the part of a fool to hope ; Phil. 2, 23. est consulis videre quid agatur, it is the consul's duty to see what is being done ; Mur. 4. negavit moris esse Graecorum ut in convivio Tirorum accumberent mulieres, he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to recline at a man's dinner; Verr. i, 66. 409. The genitive with causa, gratia, ergo, tenus, instar, pridie, and postridie is of possessive origin: — amicitiae causa, by reason of their friendship; B. G. i, 39, 2. illius ergo, on his account; Aen. 6, 670. laterum tenus, as far as the sides; Aen. 10, 210. instar montis equum, a horse like a mountain; Aen. 2, 15. pridie eius diei, on the day before this day; B. G. i, 47, 2. 410. Certain adjectives meaning similarity or connection and their opposites sometimes take the Possessive Genitive; so, similis, dissimilis, contrarius, par, dispar, proprius, alienus, etc. In this construction the adjective is treated as a noun. Genitive of Definition 411. The Genitive is sometimes used to define a word of general meaning; this is called also the Appositional Genitive : — Troiae urbem (the regular phrase would be Troiam urbem), the city of Troy; Aen. i, 565. haec vox voluptatis, this word "pleasure"; Fin. 2, 6. nuUam virtus aliam mercedem desiderat praeter banc laudis et gloriae, virtiie desires no other reward beyond this one of praise and glory; Arch. 28. Genitive of the Whole 412. The Genitive denoting the whole is used with sub- stantives, adjectives, and adverbs which denote a part: — eorum una pars, one pari of them; B. G. i, 1, 5. quis omnium mortalium? who of all men? Verr. 5, 179. aliquid boni, something good; Ter. And. 398- '-"''^ sapientum octavusc^ygig^jfft,^/%^j5jij|g men; Hor. S. 2, 3, 296. 413-417) GENITIVE CASE 149 6 maior iuvenum, O dder of the youths; Hor. A. P. 366. primos civitatis, the first men of the state; B. G. 2, 3, i. satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum, enough eloquence, too little wis- dom; Sail. Cat. s, 4. ubinam gentium sumus? where in the world are we? Cat. i, 9. eo miseriarum, to that pitch of misery; Sail. Jug. 14, 3. 413. The Genitive of the Whole is rarely used with the positive of a descriptive adjective: — peditum ezpediti, the light-armed infantry; Liv. 37, 18, 8. sancte dedium, thou holy one of the gods; Aen. 4, 576. 414. Adjectives of the third declension are rarely found in this con- struction unless used in combination with an adjective of the first and second declensions: as, nihil solidi, nihil eminentis, no solidity, no projec- tion; N. D. I, 75. 415. This construction is found sometimes in the predicate : — quid est tui consili? what is your advice? Fam. 11, i, 3. quid est huic reliqui? what is left for him? Sull; 89. mllites nihil reliqui viclis fecere, the soldiers left nothing to the conquered; Sail. Cat.. 11, 7. 416. Uterque, each (of two), both, when used with a pronoun, or, sometimes, with a noun and a pronoun combined, takes the genitive; with a noun it is regularly used as an adjective in agreement: — uterque nostrum, each one of us; Sull. 13. quaium civitatum utraque, each of these states; Verr. s, 56. uterque dux, each commander; Marc. 24. The plural is used either with the genitive or in agreement. 417. In certain phrases where the English uses of, an adjective in agreement is uSed instead of the Genitive of the Whole; the most common adjectives thus used are extremus, imus, medius, multus, nullus, omnis, plerique, quot, reliquus, summus, tot, totus, and ultimas : — extrema hieme, media aestate, at the end of winter, in the middle of summer; Manil. 35. hi omnes, all of thef$iy^^^i„y^ft^ 150 SYNTAX OF NOUNS (418-421. 418. With cardinal numerals (except mille) and with qtu- dam, a certain one, the ablative with e, ex, or de is regularly used instead of the genitive : — unus ex isGs, the only one of these; Cat. 3, 16. quidam de coUegis nostris, one of our colleagues; Fam. 11, 21, 5. The genitive is sometimes used with unus and quidam. 419. An extension of the Genitive of the Whole is found in such pas-' sages as the following: — angusta viarum, the narrow streets; Aen. j, 332. in aequo campi, on the level plain; Liv. s, 38, 4. Genitive of Material 420. The Genitive is used to denote material. This is a development of the Genitive, of the Whole : — flumen verborum, a stream of words; Or. 53. obtorti circulus auri, a chain of twisted gold; Aen. 5, 559. Genitive of Quality 421. The Genitive is sometimes used to denote a quality, but only when it is accompanied by a qualifying word. There is often no distinction between the genitive and abla- tive in this sense, but the genitive regularly denotes a quality which is permanent and usually one that is internal rather than external : — homines magnae virtiitis, men of great courage; B. G. 2, 15, 5. eius modi consilium, a plan of this sort; B. G. s, 29, 5. plurimarum palmarum gladiator, a gladiator of many victories; Rose. Am. 17. This genitive is sometimes used in the predicate : — magnae habitus auctoritatis, regarded as a man of great influence i .3. G. 7, 77, 3. notus animi ^Atevafji^iegmiffilJlihiStl^nal spirit; Hor. C. 2, 2, 6. 422-425) GENITIVE CASE 151 422. The Genitive of Quality is rarely used in direct con- nection with a proper name; it is usually attached to a common noun in apposition with the proper name: — Cato, adulescens nullius consili, Cato, a young man of no judgment; Q. Fr. I, 2, 15. Hannibalem, annorum novem, Hannibal, when nine years old; Liv. 21, I, 4. 423. When the Genitive of Quality denotes length, height, etc., it is sometimes called the Genitive of Measure: as, scrobes trium in altitudinem pedum, trenches three feet deep; B. G. 7, 73, 5. 424. One form of the Geniti-ve of Quality is the use of certain substantives and, more frequently, adjectives, to denote indefi- nite value: — non flocci facio, I don't care a straw; hit. 13, 50, 3. noli spectare quanti homo sit; parvi eaim pretrest qui tarn nihil! est, don't consider how much the man is worth, for he is of small value who is so worthless; Q. Fr. i, 2, 14. Objective Genitive 425. The genitive is used to denote the object of an action implied in a noun, an adjective, or a participle used as an adjective: — cupido gloriae, desire for glory; Sail. Cat. 7, 3. odium potentiae nobilitatis, hatred of the power of the nobility; Sail. Jug. 30, 3. Helvetiorum iniiiriae populi Romani, the wrongs done by the Helve- tians to the Roman people; B. G. i, 30. (Helvetiorum is sub- jective, populi is objective.) cupidum rerum novarum, desirous of a revolution; B. G. i, 18, 3. memorem vestri, oblitum sui, mindful of you, forgetful of himself; Cat. 4, 19. tempestatum potentem, ruling the storms; Aen. i, 80. amantissimos rei publicae viros, msn most devoted to the state; Cat. 3, s. Dignus, worthy, and indignus, unworthy, are rarely used with the geni- tive; see 687. Digitized by Microsoft® 152 SYNTAX OF NOUNS {426-43 1 426. With a present participle the genitive denotes a permanent qual- ity, the accusative a particular instance. 427. In place of the Objective Genitive we sometimes find a possessive adjective, a descriptive adjective, or a prepositional phrase: — neque neglegehtia tua neque odio id fecit tud, he did this neither from neglect nor hatred of you; Ter. Ph. 1016. metus hostilis, /eor of the enemy; Sail. Jug. 41, 2. odium in Antonium, hatred of Antony; Fam. 10, 5, 3. (Cf. ereptae Tirginis ira, in wrath at the loss of the maiden; Aen. 2, 413.) Genitive of Specification 428. The Genitive of Specification is used with a few nouns and many adjectives to denote that with reference to which a quality exists. This construction is an extension of the Objective Genitive and is particularly common in the poets and later prose- writers: — praestantiam virtutis, preeminence in virtue; Lael. 70. fessi rerum, tired of trouble; Aen. i, 178. integer vitae scelerisque purus, upright in life and free from guilt; Hor. C. I, 22, I. linguae feroces, bold of tongue; Tac. H. i, 35. 429. Either the genitive or the ablative is used with adjec- tives denoting plenty or want; as, plenus, dives, onustus, refer- tus, ezpers, inanis, and inops. 430. Animi, in mind (really a locative), and, by analogy, the genitive mentis are used with adjectives and verbs which express mental condi- tion: — animi maturus, mature in mind; Aen. g, 246. sanus mentis aut animi, sound in mind or heart; Plaut. Trin. 454. AntiphO me ezcniciat animi, Antipho distresses my heart; Ter. Ph. 187. Genitive with Verbs Genitive of Charge or Penalty 431. Verbs meaning to accuse, condemn, or acquit take a genitive of the charge and, sometimes, a genitive of the penalty: — Digitized by Microsoft® 432-434) GENITIVE CASE 153 accflsatus est proditionis, he was accused of treason; Nep. Milt. 7, S- pecuniae publicae est condemnatus, he was condemned for embezzle- ment of the public funds; Flacc. 43. video non te absolutum esse improbitatis, sed illos damnatos esse caedis, / see not that you were acquitted of outage, bid that they were condemned for murder; Veir. i, 72. ut damnarentur votorum, that they be condemned to pay their vows; Liv. 27, 45, 8. capitis condemnari, to be condemned to death; Rabir. 12. This use probably originated in the combination ofcrlmine, or a similar word, with the genitive. 432. The charge is sometimes expressed by de with the ablative, or by an ablative like crimine with the genitive. The Genitive of the Penalty is confined in prose to capitis, pecuniae, quanti, and multiples like dupli. Of other words the ablative is used. 433. The Genitive of the Charge or Penalty is used also with the noun reus: — pecuniarum repetundarum reus, charged with extortion; Sail. Cat. 18, 3. voti reus, condemned to pay his vow; Aea. 5, 237. Genitive with refert and Interest 434. With the impersonal verbs refert and interest, the person or thing affected, if of the third person and not reflexive, is expressed by the genitive; if of the first or second person or of the third person reflexive, by the ablative singular feminine of the possessive adjective, — mea, tua, nostra, vestra, or sua. Refert is characteristic of early Latin, interest of later Latin, beginning with Cicero. The degree of interest is expressed by the genitive of value or by an adverb: — quid tua id refert? magni, what difference does that make to youf much; Ter. Ph. 723. faciundum aliquid quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse videretur, something must be done which should seem more for their good than his own; /S^zfogy W*rofeoft® 154 SYNTAX OF NOUNS (435^43^ video quid mea intersit, quid utriusque nostrum, I see what is for my advantage, what for the advantage of us both; Fam. 7, 23, 4. The verb is sometimes omitted: as, quid id nostra? what's that to us? Ter. Ph. 940. 435. The person is rarely expressed by the dative or by ad with the accusative: — quid ref erat intra naturae finis viventi ? what difference does it make to one living within the bounds of nature? Hor. S. 1, i, 49. quid ad me aut ad meam rem ref ert ? what difference does it make to me or to my interests? PI. Pers. 513- Genitive with Verbs of Plenty or Want 436. The genitive is sometimes used with verbs, as it is with adjectives, meaning plenty or want: — implentur Bacchi, they Jill themselves with wine; Aen. i, 215. egeo consili, I need advice; Att. 7, 22, 2. For the ablative with these verbs see 528. 437. With verbs meaning separation, the ablative is the regular con- struction, but the genitive is sometimes found in poetry: — me laborum levas, you relieve me of my troubles; PI. Rud. 247. desine querellarum, cease your complaints; Hor. C. 2, 9, 17. abstlneto irarum, refrain from anger; Hor. C. 3, 27, 69. Objective Genitive with Verbs of Mental Action or Sensation Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, or Reminding 438. Memini and reminiscor, when they mean to be mindful of (also memini meaning to mention) and obliviscor, when it means to be unmindful of, take the genitive : — nee me meminisse pigebit Elissae, / shall not regret the thought of Elissa; Aen. 4, ZZS- reminisceretur virtutis Helvetiorum, let him bear in mind the courage of the Helvetians;. B. G. i, 13, 4. Achillam, ciiius supra meminimus, Achilles, whom I mentioned above; B.C. 3, 108,2. obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum, dismiss the thought of murder and fires; CaXDig/tbed by Microsoft® 439-442) GENITIVE CASE 1^5 The genitive is used also with the impersonal expression venit in mentem : as, venit mihi Platonis in mentem, the thought of Plato comes to my mind; Fin. 5, 2. 439. Memini and reminiscor, when they mean literally to remember, to retain in the mind, and oblmscor, when it means literally to forget, take the accusative: — Cinnam memini, / remember Cinna; Phil, s, 17. reminiscens pristini temporis acerbitatem, remembering the bitterness of the past; Nep. Ale. 6, 3. totam causam oblitus est, he forgot the whole case; Brut. 217. 440. The distinction which has been given is not always observed, especially in the case of reminiscor, which is compara- tively rare and usually takes the accusative. Obliviscor takes only the genitive of a person. Neuter pronouns and adjectives are regularly in the accusative. 441. Recordor, remember, takes de and the ablative of a person; of a thing either de and the ablative, the accusative, or, very rarely in classical Latin, the genitive: as, flagitidrum sudrum recordabitur, he will remember his crimes; Pison. 12. 442. The verbs of reminding, — adtnoneo, commoneo, and commonefacio, — take the accusative of the person reminded; the thing is expressed by the genitive, by de with the ablative, or, if it is a neuter pronoun and sometimes even if it is a noun, by the' accusative; the same constructions occur with moneo, except that the genitive is very rare: — admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae, he reminded one of his poverty, another of his greed; Sail. Cat. 21, 4. mearum me miseriarum commones, yoM remind me of my misery; PI. Rud. 743. commonefacere quemque benefici sui, he reminded each one of his kindness; Sail. Jug. 49, 4. quod vos lex commonet, that of which the law reminds you; Verr. 3, 40. eam rem nos locus admonuit, tlie place has reminded me of this thing; Sail. Jug. 79, I. legafis perfidiae monitis, the envoys being reminded of their treachery; Liv. 3O) 37, '■Digitized by Microsoft® 156 SYNTAX OF NOUNS (443-448 Verbs of Mental Sensation 443. Misereor and miseresco, pity, take the genitive: — miseremini sociorum, pity your allies; Verr. i, 72. tniserescite regis, pity the king; Aen. 8, S73- 444. The impersonal verbs miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, and taedet take an accusative of the person who feels pity, etc., and a genitive of the person or thing toward which the feeling is directed: — eorum nos miseret, we pity them; Mil. 92. me civitatis morum piget taedetque, / am sick and tired of the morals of the state; Sail. Jug. 4, 9. The passive, miseretur, is sometimes used impersonally. All these verbs except miseret and miseretur may have as subject a neuter pronoun (almost without exception in the singular), an infinitive, or a quod-clause. With pudet the genitive is sometimes used of the person before whom there is a feeling of shame: as, nos ne civium quidem horum pudet? not even before these citizens are we ashamed? Liv. 22, 14, 4. 445. In poetry the genitive sometimes occurs with cupio, fastidio (used impersonally), invided,miror, studeo,and vereor (once in prose, Att. 8, 4,1). Objective Genitive with potior 446. The genitive is sometimes used with potior, get posses- sion of, which usually takes the ablative: as, partis Siciliae potitus est, he became master of part of Sicily; Nep. Dion. 5, 5. The phrase rerum potiri is common in the sense to become, or to be, master of the situation. Tacitus uses rarely the same genitive with apiscor and adipiscor. Genitive of Exclamation 447. Very rarely, in imitation of Greek, thegenitive is used in exclatna- tions: as, foederis heu taciti, alas, the secret covenant; Prop. 5, 7, 21. DATIVE CASE 448. The Dative denotes direction or connection. It Is used with verbs and adjectives, rarely with nouns and adverbs, and sometisg/ggeaM^S^fe^^ sentence as a whole. 449-453) DATIVE CASE 157 Dative with Verbs Indirect Object 449. The Dative is used with many verbs, transitive or intransitive, to denote that toward which an action or feeling is directed. Indirect Object with Transitive Verbs 450. With transitive verbs in the active voice the Dative of the Indirect Object is used in connection with the Accusative of the Direct Object; with the passive voice the direct object becomes the subject and the indirect object remains: — Utteras a te mihi reddidit, he gave me a letter from you; Fam. 2, 17, i. regi haec dicite, tell the king this; Aen. i, 137. nuntiabantur haec Curioni, these things were announced io Curio; B. C. 2, 37, 1. 451. Verbs of motion, which regularly take the accusative with a preposition, sometimes take the dative: — cum aliis alii subsidium ferrent, while they brought help to one an- other; B. G. 2, 26, 2. rogas ut mea tibi scripta mittam, you ask me to send you my wriiings; Fam. I, 9, 23. This construction is regularly confined to nouns denoting persons, but the poets sometimes use it with nouns of place: ^ caelO capita ferentes, raising their heads to heaven; Aen. 3, 678. Carthagini iam non ego nuntifis mittam, no more shall I send messengers to Carthage; Hor. C. 4, 4, 69. So, with an intransitive verb: it clamor caelo, the shout rises to the sky; Aen. 5, 451. 452. With scribo, write, the person is either in the accusative with the preposition, or, less often, in the dative. 453. The verb dono, present, takes either the accusative of the thing and the dative of the person or the accusative of the person and the ablative of the thing: — praedam militibus donat, he presents the booty to the soldiers; B. G. 7, II, 9. hunc civitate dona^j^^^jj^^^g^w with citizenship; Arch. 5. 1S8 SYNTAX OF NOUNS (4S4~45^ 454. Verbs usually intransitive sometimes have a direct object in connection with the indirect: — multi se alienissimis crediderunt, ptany entrusted themselves to utter strangers; B. G. 6, 31, 4. id eis persuasit, he convinced them of this; B. G. i, 2, 3. equites imperat civitatibus, he demanded horsemen from the states; B. G. 6, 4, 6. (Cf. the passive use: singulis censoribus denarii trecenti imperati sunt, three hundred denarii were demanded of each censor; Verr. 2, 137.) Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs 455. The Dative of the Indirect Object is used with the following groups of intransitive verbs; in many cases the English uses a transitive verb with a direct object to express the same idea. 456. (a) Many verbs denoting a mental attitude or action; for example, verbs meaning to advise, persuade, believe, command, obey, yield, envy, favor, flatter, help, injure, indulge, pardon, please, displease, serve, resist, spare, threaten, trust, and distrust : — • an C. Trebonio persuasi? cui ne suadere quidem ausus essem, have I persuaded Gains Trebonius? whom I would not have dared even to advise; Phil. 2, 27. huic legioni Caesar et indulserat et confidebat, Caesar had indulged this legion and had confidence in it; B. G. i, 40, 14. 457. Some verbs of these meanings take the accusative; e.g. delecto, please; iubed, crrder (dative probably not before Tacitus); iuvo, help; laedo, injure. Other verbs take either the accusative or the dative without apparent dif- ference of meaning; e.g. adulor,/aiwj upon; de&cio, fail; despeto, despair of. 458. The verbs fido and confido, trust, and diffido, distrust, sometimes take the ablative. The verb invideo, when it means begrudge, takes the dative of the person, — the dative, accusative, ablative (with or without a preposition), or (once) the genitive, of the thing; when it means envy, the dative of the person or the dative of tl}§/^g^^|t)i!j^J^SsBS#essive genitive of the person. 459-4'^4) DATIVE CASE 159 459. Verbs of this class (denoting mental attitude or action), which take the. dative, are used only impersonally in the passive, the dative being retained: — his persuader! non poterat, they could not be persuaded; B. G. 2, 10, S- cui parci potuit? who could be spared? Liv. 21, 14, 4. Exceptions are very rare; e.g. cur invideor? why am I envied? Hor. A. P. s6. 460. Some expressions equivalent in meaning to verbs of this class take the dative; e.g. audiens esse, or dicto audiens esse, to he obedient to; praesto esse to be on hand; fidem habere, to have confidence in; morem gerere, to humor. 461. Some nouns similar in meaning to verbs of this class take the dative : — obtemperatio legibus, obedience to the laws; Legg. i, 42. miserils suis remedium, a cure for their woes; Sail. Cat. 40, 3. insidiae consuli, the plot against the consul; Sail. Cat. 32, i. 462. (b) The impersonal verbs, libet, licet, convenit, con- ducit, expedit, liquet, accidit, contingit, evenit: — quibus licet iam esse fortunatissimis,i£)to may now be most fortunate; B. G. 6, 3S, 8- si quid accidat Romanis, if anything should happen to the Romans; B. G. 1, 18, 9. 463. (c) Some verbs denoting union, and, in poetry, verbs denoting contention or difference: — potest hoc homini huic haerere peccatum? can this crime be asso- ciated with this man? Rose. Am. 17. tibi certat Amyntas, Amyntas is your rival; Eel. 5, 8. diSert sermoni, it differs from prose; Hor. S. i, 4, 48. ' ' Indirect Object with Compound Verbs 464. The Dative of Indirect Object is used with many verbs compounded with ad, ante, circum, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, sub, and super. Some of these verbs are transitive, others in- • transitive, the former J^gfc&o|fedir^ and indirect objects:— l6o SYNTAX OF NOUNS {465-469 finitinus bellum inferre, to make war on their neighbors; B. G. i, 2, 4. non solum interfuit iis rebus sed etiam praefuit, he not only took part in these matters hut even took the lead; Fam. i, 8, i. nee umquam succumbet inimicis, he will never yield to his enemies; Deiot. 36. The dative with most compounds is due to the preposition; with others (e.g. confido, trttst) it is due to the meaning of the simple verb. 465. If the meaning of the compound is such that there is no idea of direction, the verb takes a direct object; e.g. inter- ficio, kill. In some compounds an original idea of direction has been lost, and the accusative is used; e.g. aggredior, attack; obeo, undertake; oppugno, oppose. To emphasize the idea of motion or place a prepositional phrase is often used with compounds: — ut in gladium incumberet, so that he fell upon his sword; Inv. 154. tamquam ad saxum adhaerescunt, they cling as if to a rock; Acad. 2, 8. 466. Some compounds take either the accusative of the thing and the dative of the person, or the accusative of the person and the ablative of the thing; e.g. aspergo, circumdo, circumfundo, impertio, induo, intercludo: — tibi haec licia circumdo, / put these threads around you; Eel. 8, 75. quinis castris oppidum circumdedit, he surrounded the town with five camps; B. C. 3, 9, 4. 467. Some compounds (e.g. comparo, confero) take either the dative or cum with the ablative. Some compounds take either the dative or the accusative without difierence of meaning; e.g. antecedo, praecurro, invado. 468. The poets sometimes use the dative with verbs whose meaning is like that of compounds which take the dative; e.g. supero = supersum, survive (see 479); excello = praesto, surpass. 469. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam used in connection with a verb take the dative: — cui mgter sese tulit obvia, his mother came to meet him; Aen. 1, 314. fit obviam Clodio, ^itiw^b^MidtfispfM'ii. 29. 470-473) . DATIVE CASE 161 Dative of Reference 470. The dative is used with many verbs to denote the person or, rarely, the thing concerned in the action or condition expressed by the verb. The dative may denote actual interest, — i.e. advantage or disadvantage, — or a mere connection, more or less remote : — mea domus tibi patet, mihixlausa est, my own house is open to you, is closed to me; Rose. Am. 145. consurrexisse omnes illi dlcuntur, all are said to have risen in his honor; Cat. M. 63. ut suae vltae consuleret, that 'he should consult for his own life; B. G. 7, 12, 3. 471. The Dative of Reference is often used loosely, having no connection with any single word, but denoting an interest in the fact as a whole: — talia iactanti procella velum adversa ferit, as he utters these words a blast strikes the sail athwart; Aen. i, 102. The dative thus used often takes the place of a Possessive Genitive qualifying a single word: — ■ sese Caesari ad pedes proieceruut, they threw themselves at Caesar's feet; B. G. i, 31, 2. iter Poenis obstruere voluenmt, they wanted to block the march of the Carthaginians; Cat. M. 75. 472. The dative is used with verbs qualified by bene, male, and satis: — bene facere rei publicae, to benefit the state; Sail. Cat. 3. Optimo viro male dicere, to speak ill of an excellent man; Deiot. 28. operam dabo ut tibi satisfaciam, I shall endeavor to satisfy you; Att. 2, 4, 3. 473. The Dative of Reference is used of the person upon whose judgment a statement is based: — erit ille mihi semper deus, he mil always be a god in my eyes; Eel. i, 7. Quintia formosa est multis, Quintia is beautiful in the eyes of many; Catull. 86, i- Digitized by Microsoft® l62 SYNTAX OF NOUNS {474-478 Closely connected with this is the use of the dative of participles to indicate the point of vieiv: — est urbe egressis tumulus, there is a hill as you come out of the city [for those coming out); Aen. I,'] j:^. 474. Many verbs (e.g. consulo, metuo, prospicio) take either the Accusative of Direct Object or the Dative of Reference, according to the meaning. 475. The Dative of Reference is sometimes attached to nouns: — • aut coUo decus aut capiti, an ornament for the neck or head; Aen.' 10, 135. tribuniciam potestatem, munimentum libertati, tribunician power, the bulwark of liberty; Liv. 3, 37, S- 476. The Dative of Reference is sometimes used with interjections: — ei mihi, ah me! Aen. 2, 274. vae victis, woe to the conquered! Liv. 5, 48, g. Dative of Separation 477. The Dative of Reference (denoting advantage or dis- advantage) is often used with verbs of separation; with nouns denoting things this construction is rare and is confined to poetry: — aureum ei detraxit amiculum, he took a golden mantle from him; N. D. 3, 83. hunc mihi timorem eripe, take this fear from me; Cat. i, 18. fessos oculos furare labori, steal your weary eyes from toil; Aen. s, 845- The verb intetdico, forbid, takes the dative of the person and the accusa- tive or ablative of the thing, or the accusative of the person and the ablative of the thing. Ethical Dative 478. The dative of a personal pronoun is sometimes used in expressions of emotion or surprise to indicate a slight degree of interest in the statement as a whole; if of the second person it serves merely to call attention. This is a form of the Dative of Reference: — Digitized by Microsoft® 479-4^2) DATIVE CASE 163 quid mihi Celsus agit, what is Celsus doing, I wonder; Hor. Epis. i, 3, 15- at tibi repente venit ad me Caninius, but look, Caninius suddenly came to me; Fam. 9, 2, i. Dative of Possession 479. The dative is used with forms of sum to denote the possessor: — controversia milii fuit cum avunculo tuo, / had a debate with your uncle; Fin. 3, 6. est homini cum deo similitudo, man has a resemblance to God ;hegg. I- 25. The verbs absum and desum, ,be wanting, and supersum, survive, take the Dative of Possession. For the dative with the phrase nomen esse see 393. Dative of Agent 480. The dative is sometimes used to denote the per- son who has something to do or who has something done. This is a development of the Dative of Possession. It is the regular construction with the future passive participle, is com- mon with the perfect passive participle and forms of the perfect passive system, and is used rarely with other passive forms: — Caesari omnia find tempore erant agenda, Caesar had everything to do at once; B. G. 2, 20, i. mihi res provisa est, / have the thing arranged; Verr. 4, pr. neque cernitur ulli, he is not seen by any one' Aen. i, 440. 481.' To avoid ambiguity, the regular agent construction, the ablative with ab, is sometimes used with the gerundive: as, ei ego a me referen- dam gratiam non putem? should I not think that I ought to show my grati- tude to him ? Plane. 78. 482. The datives with probor, be approved, and videor, seem, are in origin Datives of Refereng^/^ed /,/ M/crosoft® 164 SYNTAX OF NOUNS i4^3~4^7 Dative of Purppse or Tendency 483. The dative is often used to express purpose or tendency. This is often found in combination with the Dative of Reference, denoting the person concerned : — muneii misit, he sent it as a present; Nap. Att. 8, 6. cecinit receptui, he gave the signal for a retreat; Tusc. 3, 33. quinque cohortes castris praesidio relinquit, he leaves five cohorts as a guard for the camp; B. G. 7, 60, 2. paupertas probro haberi coepit, lack of wealth began to he considered a disgrace; Sail. Cat. 12, i. 484. The indeclinable adjective frugi is a dative of this sort: — ero frugi bonae, I shall he good for something; PI. Ps. 468. homines fortes et frugi, men brave and thrifty; Verr. 3, 67. Also cordi, as in Verr. i, 112, .mihi mea fllia mazime cordi est, my daughter is very dear to we. 485. The dative in this construction is sometimes attached to nouns: — causam lacrimis, a reason for tears; Aen. 3, 305. recepttii signum, a signal for retreat; Phil. 13, 15. 486. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is sometimes used in this construction: — cum solvendo civitates non assent, since the communities were not ready for payment {were not solvent) ; Fam. 3, 8, 2. referundae ego habed linguam natam gratiae, / have a tongue made to express gratitude; PI. Pers. 428. triumvirum coloniis deducendis, a triumvir for founding colonies; Sail. Jug. 42, I. Dative with Adjectives 487. The dative with adjectives is like the Dative of Indirect Object with intransitive verbs; or, rarely, it is a Dative of Purpose or Tendency. It is used especially with adjectives denoting fitness, likeness, nearness, service, and their opposi tes j^^/zed /jy M/crosoft® 488-493) ACCUSATIVE CASE 165 par similisque ceteris, eqiuil to and like the rest; Sail. Cat. 14, 4. prozimi Germanis, next to the Germans; B. G. i, i, 3. vectigales sibi fecerunt, they made them tributary to themselves; B. G. 4, 3, 4. causae est alienum, it is damaging to the cause; Caec. 24. castris idoneum locum delegit, he selected a place suitable for a camp; B. G. 1, 49, I. . 488. Some adjectives (e.g. benevolus, fidelis, idoneus, utilis) take either the dative, or the accusative with a preposition. 489. For the Possessive Genitive with adjectives denoting similarity or connection see 410. With similis the dramatists regularly use the genitive, later writers either the genitive or dative; Cicero uses the genitive of persons and either the genitive or the dative of things. The pronoun idem is regularly followed by atque or a relative clause, but in poetry sometimes takes the dative, like similis: as, idemfacit Occi- dent!, he does the same thing as a murderer; Hor. A. P. 467. 490. The adjectives propior and proximus, like the adverbs ;)rope, propius, and prozime, sometimes take the accusative: — propior montem, nearer the hill; Sail. Jug. 49, i. proximus mare oceanum, nearest the ocean; S. G. 3, 7, .:. 491. Like the dative with adjectives is the occasional dative with adverbs: as, congruenter naturae convenienterque vivere, to live in har- mony and agreement with nature; Fin. 3, 7, 26. ACCUSATIVE CASE 492. The Accusative Case was first used as the direct object of a verb. The other uses are derived from that. It is connected chiefly with verbs, sometimes with adjec- tives to express extent, and rarely with nouns. Direct Object 493. The Direct Object of a verb is in the accusative; it denotes either that' which is produced or that which is affected by the acti@^,fe|rf^^,y^|-Jjfe— 1 66 SYNTAX OF NOUNS (494-498 duas legiones conscribit, he enrolls two legions; B. G. i, 10, 3. oppida sua omnia incendunt, they burn all their towns; B. G. i, S, 2. nisi me fallit, unless I am deceived {it deceives me) ; Sest. 106. 494. In colloquial language a direct object is sometimes used with verbal nouns: as, quid tibi istanc tactio est? what right have you to touch her? Pi. Poen. 1308. A Direct Object may be used also with the following verbs, which are usually intransitive: — 495. (a) Verbs denoting /ee/wg, especially grief; e.g. doleo, fleo, gaudeo, gemo, horreo, maereo, and queror; also iuro, maneo, rideo, sitio and taceo : — meimi casum doluerunt, they lamented my calamity; Sest. 145. quod Ariovisti crudelitatem horrerent, because they dreaded the cruelty of Ariovislus; B. G. i, 32, 4. quae manent victos, things which await the conquered; Liv. 26, 13, 18. sanguinem nostrum sitiebat, he thirsted for our blood; Phil.' 5, 20. The poets use a direct object with a great variety of verbs usually intransitive; e.g. ardebat Alexim, he burned with love for Alexis; Eel. 2, i. 496. (b) Intransitive .verbs, usually denoting motion, when compounded with certain prepositions: — si insulam adisset, if he should go to the island; B. G. 4, 20, 2. tives qui circimistant senatum, the citizens who stand about the senate; Cat. I, 21. Caesar omnem agrum Picenum percurrit, Caesar overruns all Pice- num; B. C. i, 15, i. For compounds taking either the dative or the accusative see 467. 497. (c) Other intransitive verbs of motion; e.g. ambulo, fugio, navigo, and the passive vehor: — cum Xerxes maria ambulavisset, terram navigasset, when Xerxes had walked the seas and sailed the land; Fin. 2, ira. me lupus fugit, the wolf fled from me; Hor. C. 1, 22, 9. maria omnia vecti, having journeyed over all the seas; Aen. i, 524. 498. Adjectives (originally present participles) ending in -bundus sometimes take a direct object: as, vitabundus castra, avoiding the camp; Liv. 25, 13, 4- Digitized by Microsofi® ) 499-502) ACCUSATIVE CASE 167 499. The passive voice of verbs meaning to put on is sometimes used reflexively in poetry and takes a direct object: — galeam indoitur, he puts on a helmet; Aen. 2, 392. inutile f errum cingitur, he girds on the useless sword; Aen. 2, 510. 500. The accusative is sometimes used in apposition with a clause: as, admoneor ut aliquid etiam de sepultura dicendum ezistimem, rem non difBcilem, / am reminded to consider that something must be said about burial also, — an easy matter; Tusc. i, 102. Accusative of Exclamation 501. The accusative is used in exclamations. The construction originated in sentences in which the accusa- tive was the object of an easily supplied verb: — me miserum ! wretched man that I ami Fam. 14, i, i. testis egregios 1 fine witnesses! Gael. 63. In early Latin the accusative is used with the interjections ecce and em, in later Latin sometimes with en. The combination of forms of is with ecce gives eccum, eccos, etc.; and with em, ellum, etc. The enclitic -ne sometimes gives to an exclamation an interrogative force: as, hocine saeclum ! O this generation! {can it possibly be?); Ter. Ad. 304- Accusative of Kindred Meaning 502. Many intransitive verbs may take a substan- tive in the accusative which has, or suggests, a meaning similar to that of the verb. The substantive may be a noun derived from the same root as the verb, or one which has a similar meaning but no etymo- logical connection; or it may be an adjective with which a noun of meaning similar to that of the verb is to be supplied: ■=— cur non eosdem cursiis cucurrerunt? why did they not run the same course? Agr. 2, 44. ut vrvks aetatem miser, that you may live your life in woe; PI. Am. 1023. magnum clamat, he's making a great noise; PL Mil. 823. acerba tuens, lookitt 1 68 SYNTAX OF NOUNS (jOSSOj 503. Verbs denoting taste or smell take an Accusative of Kindred Meaning: — herbam mella sapiunt, the honey tastes of grass; Plin. H. N. ii, i8. pastillos Rufillus olet, Rufillus smells of lozenges; Hor. S. i, 2, 27. 504. Some intransitive verbs which rarely or never take a noun may take a neuter pronoun or adjective of quantity as an Accusative of Kindred Meaning; and some transitive verbs may take such an accusative in connection with the direct object: — idem gloriari, to make the same boast; Cat. M. 32. multa alia peccans, making many other mistakes; N. D. 1, 29. pauca mllites hortatus, having said a few words of encouragement to the soldiers; Sail. Jug. 49, 6. eos hoc moneo, / give them this advice; Cat. 2, 20. 505. The poets use this construction with great freedom, — sometimes even with passive verbs : — vox hominem sonat, the voice sounds human; Aen. i, 328. saltaret uti Cyclopa, to dancethe Cyclops dance; Hor. S. i, 5, 63. Bacchanalia ^wmt, they live a Bacchanalian life; Juv. 2, 3. Satyrum movetur, he dances the Satyr dance; Hor. Epis. 2, 2, 125. Two Accusatives 506. For the twoaccusativeswithverbsmeaning make, choose, call, etc., see 392. Instead of the predicate noun a predicate adjective may be used: as, longiorem mensem faciunt, they make the month longer; Verr. 2, 129. 507. Many verbs meaning inquire, demand, teach, or conceal take two accusatives, — one of the person, the other of the thing: — ■ me sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion; Q. Fr. 2, i, 3. Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, Caesar kept demanding corn of the Eaedui; B. G. i, 16, i. quid te litterasdoceam? why should I tench you yourletters? Pison. 73. iter omnes celat, he[fm^^M^^j^gg^^m eeeryone; Nap. Eum. 8, 7. 508-511) ACCUSATIVE CASE 169 608. Some of these verbs (e.g. peto, posed, postul6,quaerd) sometimes take, instead of the accusative of the person, the ablative with ab, de, or ex, and, instead of the accusative of the thing, the ablative with de. 509. The accusative of the thing is used also with the pas- sive: — sententiam rogatus, having been asked his opinion; Sail. Cat. 50, 4. posceris exta, you are asked for the entrails; Ov. F. 4, 670. belli artes edoctus, trained in the arts of war; Liv. 25, 40, j. nosne hoc celatos, to think that we have been kept in the dark about this; Ter. Hec. 645. (But quor haec celata me sunt? why was this hidden from me? PL Ps. 490.) 510. Certain other verbs (e.g. volo, cogo, accuse) sometimes take two accusatives, but the thing is usually a neuter pronoun or adjective of quantity and the construction is probably not to be distinguished from that of 504: — '■ si quid ille se velit, if he wanted anything of him; B. G. i, 34, 2. id cogit omnis, he forces everybody to this; Rep. i, 3. si id non me accusas, if you do not accuse me of that; PI. Trin. 96. With these verbs also the accusative of the thing may be used with the passive: as, ego hoc cogor, / am forced to this; Rab. Post. 17. 511. Two accusatives are often used with verbs compounded with circum or trans, one being the object of the verb, the other of the preposition: — quos sua praesidia circumduxit, he led them around his fortifications; B. C. 3, 61, I. flumen exercitum traducere maturavit, he hastened to lead the army across the river; B. G. 2, 5, 4. The accusative connected with the preposition may be used also with the passive: as, traducto exercitu flumen, the army having been taken across the river; B. C. 3, 76, i. So also with praetervehor: as, Dyrrachiumpraetervehuntur, they sail past Dyrrachium; B. C. 3^,^,^^,i; ,^ „,,„3„^ lyo SYNTAX OF NOUNS (512-51$ 512. The verb traicio means also pierce or cross, and in these senses takes only the accusative which is connected with the preposition: as, ciun ratibus Trebiam traicerent, wlien they crossed the Trebia cm rafts; Liv. 21, 56, 8. Accusative of Limit of Motion 513. The limit of motion is regularly expressed by the accusative with a preposition: — legatos ad Caesarem mittunt, they send envoys to Caesar; B. G. i, 11, 2. in Italiam contendit, he hastens into Italy; B. G. i, 10, 3. sub populi Romani imperium ceciderunt^ they fell under the power of the Roman people; Font. 12. 514. With names of towns and small islands and with domum, home (also the plural domos), and rus, country, the preposition is regularly omitted. But with names of towns and small islands, if the meaning is not to but to the neighbor- hood of, a preposition is used: — Catilinam Massiliam ire dictitant, they say that Catiline is going to Marseilles; Cat. 2, 16. Latonam confugisse Delum, that Latona fled to Delos; Verr. i, 48. domum redierunt, they returned home; B. G. i, 29, 3. domum reditionis spe sublata, the hope of a return home being gone; B.G.I, 5, 3- ut domos suas discederent, that they scatter to their homes; Nep. Them. 4, 2. rus ibo, I shall go to the country; Ter. Eun. 216. ut ventum ad Cannas est, when they had come near Cannae; Liv. 22, 44, I- Poets and later prose writers often omit the preposition with names of countries and common nouns of place. 515. If domus means a building, it regularly has the preposition: as, (Uco te venisse in M. Laecae domum, / say that you came to the house of Marcus Laeca; Cat. i, 8. When accompanied by an attribute, especially any adjective'but a posseg^^^JJ gl'Wc)^/^ preposition. 516-521) ACCUSATIVE CASE 171 516. The preposition is regularly used with urbem and oppidum, even when the name of the town is given: as, ad urbem Fidenas tendunt, they hasten to the city of Fidenae; Liv. 4, ^t,, 10. 617. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um, which is an accusative case expressing limit of motion; or in the following phrases: — ezsequias ire, to go to the funeral. infitias ire, to deny. venum dare, to sell. venum ire, to be sold. suppetias ire, to go to one's assistance. It is sometimes omitted in the phrases malam crucem ire and malam rem ire, to go to the torture (colloquially, to the deuce). Accusative of Extent 518. The accusative is used with verbs or adjectives (especially latus, longus, and altus) to denote extent of space or time: — multa milia passuum proseculi, having followed for many miles; B. G. 2, II, 4. fossas qmndecim pedes latas, trenches fifteen feet wide; B. G. 7, 72, 3. cum dies et noctes nos fata circumstent, since the fates stand about us day and night; Phil. 10, 20. undeviginti annos natus erat, he was nineteen years old; Brut. 229. 519. Either the Accusative of Extent or the Ablative of Measure of Difference is used with the verbs absum and disto. 520. If the place from which the distance is measured is not given, the ablative with a or ab is sometimes used: as, positis castris a mUibus passuum quindecim, having encamped fifteen miles away; B. G. 6, 7, 3. 521. In expressions of time, instead of a cardinal numeral with a plural noun, an ordinal with a singular noun is some- times used with iam, to emphasize the fact that the statement contained in the verb is still true: as, annum iam tertium et ^cesimumregnat,Ae is now ruling his twenty-third year; Manil. 7. Extent of time is often expressed by per with the accusative: as, ludi per decem dies facti sunt, games were carried on for ten days; Cat. 3, 20. For the Ablative of E?tpfe^ ^JJiWfe/S^/^S. 172 SYNTAX OF NOUNS {522-525 522. A neuter pronoun or adjective of quantity is used with many verbs as an Accusative of Extent, to denote degree. The most common are aliquid, aliquantum, quicquam, multum, plus, plurimum, tantum, quantum, and nihil: — multum stmt in venationibus, they are much occupied in hunting; B. G. 4, I, 8. si me amas tantum quantum profecto amas, if you love me as much as you really do; Att. 2, 20, 5. Accusative of Specification 623. The accusative is sometimes used to denote the thing in respect to which a statement is made. With a few exceptions the construction is confined to nouns denoting the mind or a part of the body and to neuter plural adjectives such as alia, cetera, omnia, etc. The former use is rather common in poetry beginning with the Augustan period and is found occasionally in prose beginning with Sallust; the latter (except cetera) is very rare in both prose a,nd poetry: — percussa mentem, stricken in mind; Georg. 4, 357. caput nectentur, their heads shall he bound; Aen. s, 309. virum cetera egregium, a man excellent in other respects; Liv. i, 35, 6. clari genus, of illustrious birth; Tac. Ann. 6, 9. 524. The Accusative of Specification appears also in the following phrases which are used as adjectives or adverbs: — partem (with a qualifying word), in part. vicem (with a qualifying word), on account of, etc. secus (with virfle or muliebre), in sex. id genus, of that sort. id aetatis, of that age. id temporis, at that time. hat noctis, at this time of night. 625. The use of the adverbial quid, why, originated in this construction, and also that of quod in such phrases as quid est quod, why is it that, and niliil est quod, there is nd^&im^-kHfC'K^rosoft® 526-528) ABLATIVE CASE 1 73 Subject of Infinitive 526. The accusative is used as the subject of any infinitive except a historical infinitive: — dicit montem ab hostibus teneri, he says that the mountain is held by the enemy; B. G. i, 22, 2. Divitiacum ad se vocari iubet, he orders Divitiacus to be called to him; B. G. i, 19, 3. at te Romae non fore, but to think that you won't be in Rome; Att. s, 20, 7. ABLATIVE CASE 527. The Ablative combines in itself the functions of three original cases, — the true Ablative, which de- noted separation or departure, the Instrumental, which denoted originally association, and the Locative, which denoted the place where. The uses of the Ablative are therefore grouped under .three heads, — Separative, Instrumental, and Locative. Separative Uses Ablative of Separation with Verbs 628. Verbs denoting separation take the ablative. In this class are included not only verbs denoting actual separation but also those which denote absence, aversion, ces- sation, difference, freedom, deprivation, and want. The ablative is often accompanied by a preposition, but no general rule for its use can be given. It is regularly used when the noun denotes a person; also with verbs denoting difference or aversion; and with verbs denoting literal separation, unless the verb itself contains a separative preposition. It is regularly omitted with verbs denoting only figurative separation. Poets, and prose-writers beginning with Livy, omit the preposition more freely : — Digitized by Microsoft® 174 SYNTAX OF NOUNS (j2g, 5 30 te tuo loco demovere potuenint, they might have removed you from your place; Plane. 53. uti ex Galliae finibus pellerentur, that they would he driven out of Gallic territory; B. G. i, 31, 11. te ab eo libero, I free you from him; Q. Fr. 3, i, 9. ciTitatem dominatu regio liberarit, he freed the state from a king's rule; Plane. 60. oppugnatione desistunt, they abandon the siege; B. G. 6, 39, 4. quod abhorret a meis moribus, which is inconsistent with my habits; Cat. I, 20. omnibus egere rebus, to be in want of everything; B. C. 3, 32, 4. For the genitive with these verbs see 436, 437; for the dative see 463, 477. Ablative of Separation with Adjectives 529. The Ablative with or without a preposition is used with alienus and with adjectives denoting freedom or want: — alienum maiestate dednun, inconsistent with the dignity of the gods; Div. 2, 105. alienus a litteris, a stranger to literature; Verr. 2, 64. liber cura, free from care; Fin. i, 49. inopes ab amicis sunt, they are destitute of friends; Att. i, i, 2. For the genitive with alienus see 410; for the dative see 487. For the genitive with adjectives meaning want see 429. Ablative of Place Whence 530. Place Whence is regularly expressed by the abla- tive with a preposition; but the preposition is omitted with names of towns and small islands (unless the mean- ing is from the neighborhood of), with domo, from home, riire, from the country, and, in poetry, humo, from the ground: — decedit ex Gallia, he withdrew from Gaul; Quinct. 16. Roma acceperam litteras, / had received a letter from Rome; Att. 5, 8, 2. Delo proficiscitur, Beg'M9t^ee years; SaU. Jug. 11. 600-603) ABLATIVE CASE I91 600. With words denoting a period of life or a term of oflBce, and with words denoting a period of time, when preceded by a numeral adverb, the preposition in is regularly used, unless the noun is accompanied by a qualifying word: — in adulescentia, in youth; PI. Bac. 410. eztrema pueritia, at the end of boyhood; Manil. 28. in consulatu nostro, in my considship; Arch. 28. ter in anno, three times a year; Rose. Am. 132. The preposition is sometimes used with other words, especially those denoting periods of time, even when not accompanied by a numeral adverb : — in tali tempore, at stich a time; Liv. 22, 35, 7. in diebus proximis decern, within the next ten days; Sail. Jug. 28, 2. in hora ducentos versus dictabat, he dictated two hundred verses an hour; Her. S. 1, 4, 9. 601. The ablative of time within which when followed by a relative clause sometimes denotes time after: as, diebus decern quibus materia coepta erat comportari, within ten days after the lumber began to he hauled; B. G. 4, 18, I. 602. Time when is sometimes expressed by the accusative with ad or sub-, or the ablative with cum; time within which by the accusative with intra or per : — ad horam destinatam, at the appointed hour; Tusc. 5, 63. sub occasum solis, toward sunset; B. G. 2, 11, 6. cum prima luce, at daybreak; Att. 4, 3, 4. intra annos quattuordecim, within fourteen years; B. G. i, 36, 7. per eos ipsos dies profectus, setting out during those very days; Liv. 31, 26, 1. The Roman Calendar 603. The year is usually indicated by the names of the con- suls in the ablative absolute construction, less often by reck- oning from the traditional date of the founding of the city, le.T, B.C.: as, L. Domitio Ap. Claudio consulibus, in the consul- '-'•' ' Digiti^d by Microsoft® ' 192 SYNTAX OF NOUNS (604, 60 5 ship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius (54 B.C.) ; B. G. 5, I, i; the same date might have been expressed as follows: — annis post Romam conditam septingentis or anno septingen- tesimo post Romam conditam. 604. Before 45 B.C. the months of March, May, July, and October had thirty-one days, February twenty-eight, the others twenty-nine. Beginning with 45 B.C. the number of days in the months was the same as now. The first day of the month is called Kalendae, the Calends, the fifth Nonae, the Nones, the thirteenth Idus, the Ides; but in March, May, July, and Octo- ber the Nones are the seventh, the Ides the fifteenth. The Calends, Nones, and Ides, when used as dates, are in the Ablative of Time. Other days are reckoned back from these. The day before is indicated by pridie with the accusative: as, pridie N5nas lanuarias (abbreviated prid. Non. Jan.), the fourth of January. Other days are indicated by ante diem with an ordinal, the whole phrase being treated as a preposition, with the accusative Nonas, Idus, or Kalendas. Thus, ante diem sextum Kalendas AprHIs (abbreviated a. d. VI Kal. Apr.) is the twenty-seventh of March, since in reckoning forward or back the Roman counted both the first and the last of the series. A date expressed in this way may be preceded by a preposition ex, from, or ad or in, to. Sometimes a shorter form is used: as, quinto die ante Idus Octobris (abbreviated V Id. Oct.), the eleventh of October. The second day before the Nones, Ides, or Calends is, accord- ing to the Roman method of reckoning, the third. Ablative of Extent of Time * 605. Extent of time is sometimes expressed by the ablative : — tota nocte ierunt, they went during the whole night; B. G. i, 26, 5. quod quinque horis proelium sustinuissent, because they had kept up the fight for five hours; B. C. i, 47, 3. For the Accusative o^^Jggtjjp^v^j^^ 518. 6o6-6lj) LOCATIVE CASE 1 93 LOCATIVE CASE 606. The Locative Case denotes the place where. Only the following nouns have a locative case : — 607. (a) Names of towns and small islands in the singular of the first and second declensions: as, Romae, at Rome; Lanuvi, at Lanuvium; Melitae, at Malta; Cypri, at Cyprus. 608. (b) A few town-names in the singular of the third de- clension: as, Carthagini, at Carthage. But the ablative of third declension nouns is more commonly used to denote place where. 609. (c) Some common nouns of the first and second de- clensions; these are domi (rarely domui), at home; humi, on the ground; belli and militiae, in war; rarely terrae, in the earth. Also, of the third declension, run, in the country (the ablative rure is used in the same sense). For the locative aniini see 430. 610. (d) Very rarely, the name of a country or large island: — Aegypti, in Egypt; Val. 4, i, 15. Romae Numidiaeque, at Rome and in Numidia; Sail. Jug. 33, 4. Cretae considere, to settle in Crete; Aen. 3, 162. Of all other words the ablative is used to denote place where. 611. In early Latin, instead of the locative of names of towns and islands, the ablative with in is often used. 612. When a locative is followed by an appositive, — urbs, oppidtim, insula, etc., — the appositive is in the ablative with or without the preposition: as, Albae, in urbe munita, at Alba, a fortified town; Phil. 4, 6 ; Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe, at Antioch, once a busy city; Arch. 4. If the appositive precedes, the preposition is always used; under these circumstances the proper name is sometimes in the ablative: as, in urbe Rdma, in the city of Rome; Liv. 39, 14, 7. 613. The locative domi may be accompanied by a possessive adjective or alienus in the genitive, or by a possessive genitive: as, domi tuae, at your house; domi alienae, at. another fwn's heme; doim Caesaris, at Caesar's 194 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES {614-616 house. But when the noun is thus qualified, the ablative with in is sometimes used instead of the locative. 614. In the following words and phrases a locative is used to denote time when: — die in such combinations as die septimi, on the seventh day; piidie, the day. before; postridie, the day after; cottidie, every day; heri, yesterday; luci, in the light; mani (later, mane), in the morning; temper! or tempori, on time; vesperi, in the evening. SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION 615. Adjectives are classified according to their nature as follows : — 1. Descriptive adjectives, denoting quality or quantily: as, boniis, good; multus, much. 2. Participial adjectives: as, patiens, patient; rectus, straight. 3. Pronominal adjectives; these include (a) Demonstrative adjectives: as, hie, this; (b) Relative and Interrogative adjec- tives: as, qualis, of what sort, uter, which (of two); (c) Indefinite adjectives: as aliquis, some; (d) the Distributive adjectives, quisque, each, and uterque, each (of two); (e) the Intensive, ipse; (f) alius, another, and alter, the other (of two). 4. Possessive adjectives: as, meus, my; cuius, whose. 5. Numeral adjectives: as, unus, me. Participial Adjectives 616. All participles agree with nouns in gender, number, and case, and are therefore to that extent adjectives. Only those which denote a permanent quality, however, are classed as adjectives. The present active and the perfect passive are often used in this way. The future active is so used in the Augustan poets and later prose- writers: as, mansurus, perma- nent; Cicero uses futurus and venturus. The future passive is occasionally so used a^i^e'SW^hsSfh timendus, terrible. 6iy-62l) POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES 195 617. Participles used as adjectives are sometimes compared: — si qui adustidris col&ris essent, ij any were more sunburned; Liv. 27, 47, 2. homo eruditissimus, a very learned man; Verr. 4, 126. Pronominal adjectives are treated under the head of Pronouns. Possessive Adjectives 618. Possessive adjectives are ordinarily not used unless they are needed to make the meaning clear; they are used also to give emphasis or denote a contrast. 619. The reflexive possessive adjective of the third person, — suus,— in an independent clause regularly refers to the subject; sometimes to another word, when the context makes the meaning clear: — Orgetorix ad judicium omnem suam familiam coegit, Orgetorix gathered all his people at the trial; B. G. i, 4, 2. hunc sui cives e civitate eiecerunt, his fellow-citizens drove him from the state; Sest. 142. Romanls multitudo sua auxit animum, their own numbers increased the courage of the Romans; Liv. 21, 30, 4. 620. In dependent clauses suus usually refers to the subject of the main verb; sometimes to the subject of the clause in which it stands: — - Nasidius eos hortatur ut rursus cum BrutJ classe additis suis auxiliis confiigant, Nasidius urges them to fight again with the fleet of Brutus, adding his {Nasidius') troops as auxiliaries; B. C. 2, 3, 3. Helvetii persuadent Rauracis uti oppidis suis exustis proficiscantur, the Helvetians persuade the Rauraci to burn their towns and set out; B. G. I, 5, 4. 621. In indirect discourse suus refers sometimes to the sub- ject of the infinitive, but usually to the subject of the verb which introduces the indirect discourse: — quam praedicant fratris sui membra dissipavisse, they say that she scattered her brother's limbs; Manil. 22. omnes finitimos suae virtuti invidere, {they said) that all their neighbors envie^tJMiimMlhhf^- ^' 3^' 4- 196 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES {622-62 f 622. The lack of a non-reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is supplied by the genitive of the demonstrative pronouns. For the use of the possessive adjective instead of an objective genitive see 427. For the possessive adjective with refert and interest see 434. 623. The genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun is sometimes used for emphasis instead of a possessive adjective: as, magno sui cum pericttld, with great danger to themselves; B. G. 4, 28, 2. The personal or reflexive pronoun is regularly used when the noun is accompanied by omnium or utriusque : — - ad omnium nostrum vitam pertinent, they pertain to the life of all of vs; Cat. I, 14. domus utriusque nostrum, the houses belonging to each of us; Q. Fr. 2, 4, 2. For the Appositive Genitive with a possessive adjective see 403 624. The rare possessive adjective cuius, whose, is found chiefly in the dramatists; it has either an interrogative or a relative force. ATTRIBUTIVE AND PREDICATE ADJECTIVES 625. Adjectives may be classified also according to their use, as (a) attributive, (b) predicate. 626. An Attributive Adjective qualifies a noun di- rectly : — magnis itineribus contendit, he hastens by forced marches; B. G. i, 38, 7. eventiis varil sequebantur, various results followed; B. G. 2, 22, 2. pervenerat ad loca nata insidiis, he had come to places fitted by nature for an ambush; Liv. 22, 4, 2. 627. A Predicate Adjective qualifies a noun through the medium of a verb, which serves as a means of con- nection between thg,^^y^^34^oJj^adjective: — 628-630) AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 197 foituna caeca est, fortune is blind: Lael. 54. idoneum locum arbitratus, thinking the place suitable; B. G. 4, 23, 4. cum milites alacriores effecissent, when they had made the soldiers more eager; B. G. 3, 24, 5. tria praedia Capitoni propria traduntur, three farms are given to Capita as his own; Rose. Am. 21. fuit doctus, he was a learned man; Brut. 94. 628. A special form of the Predicate Adjective is the Pro- leptic Adjective, which is used with verbs not ordinarily taking a predicate adjective, to denote the result of the action of the verb: — si parcent animae fata superstiti, if the fates will spare my love and let her live; Hor. C. 3, 9, 12. scuta latentia condunt, they put their shields away in concealment; Aen. 3, 237. alios age rabidos, drive others mad; Catull. 63, 93. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 629. All adjectives (including participles) agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case : — fortissimi sunt Belgae, the Belgians are the bravest; B. G. i, i, 3. mulier litteris Graecis et Latinis docta, a woman familiar with Greek and Latin literature; Sail. Cat. 25, 2. quail pietate exastimatis esse eos? what sort of piety do you think they have? Font. 31. tuae potestatis omnia sint, keep everything in your own control; Liv. 22, 39, 21. bina castra comlnuniunt, they fortify two camps; Liv. 22, 44, i 630. A collective noun is often qualified by a plural adjective (or participle), the gender being determined by the sense: — pars perexigua Romam ineimes delali sunt, a very small part were taken unarmed to Rome; Liv. 2, 14, 8. omnis aetas currere obvii, people of all ages ran te m^et them; Liv. 27, ^ ' ■ Digitized by Microsoft® 198 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES {631-634 631. If an adjective (or a participle) qualifies two or more nouns, it is usually plural, but it may be singular, in agreement with the nearest: — NIsus et Euryalus priml, Nisus and Euryalus first; Aen. 5, 294. res erat multae operae ac laboris, it was a matter of much effort and toil; B. G. s, 11, 5- 632. An adjective (or a participle) qualifying two or more nouns of different genders, if attributive, agrees with the nearest noun : as, hominis utilitati agros omnis et maria parentia, all the lands and seas subservient to the welfare of man; Tusc. i, 6g. If predicate, it is usually masculine, if the nouns mean persons; neuter, if they mean things; sometimes, if the nouns form a con- nected idea, it agrees with the nearest: — quam pridem pater mihi et mater mortui essent, how long my father and mother had been dead; Ter. Eun. 517. tempus et ratio administrandi eius libera praetori permissa, time and manner of conducting this were left to the discretion of the praetor; Liv. 35, 25, 10. ut bracchia atque umeri liberi ab aqua esse possent, so that their arms and shoulders could be kept out of water; B. G. 7, 56, 4. 633. If the nouns include both persons and things, a predi- cate adjective (or participle) is sometimes masculine, sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees with the nearest, if that is plural: — rex regiaque classis una prof ecti, the king and the royal fleet set out together; Liv. 21, 50, 11. inimica inter se esse liberam civitatem et regem, that a free state and a king are incompatible; Liv. 44, 24, 2. patres decrevere legates sortesque exspectandas, the senate decreed that the envoys and the prophecies should be awaited; Liv. 5, 15, 12. 634. Two or more masculine or feminine nouns denoting things are sometimes qualified by a neuter adjective (or parti- ciple) in the predicate: — stultitiam et timiditatem et iniustitiam dicimus esse fugienda, we say that folly, timidity, and injustice are to be avoided; Fin. 3, 39. nox atque praeda hostis remorata sunt, the night and plundering delayed the ew^«9ir//^JbyJ/\%rq^^. '^SS'^jS) ADJECTIVES AS SUBSTANTIVES 199 ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES AS SUBSTANTIVES 635. In the singular, the masculine of an adjective is rarely used as a substantive except as a predicate genitive: as, stulti erat sperare, it was the part of a fool to hope; Phil. 2, 23. The masculine of participles is used freely in any case except the nominative. The masculine nominative of adjectives and par- ticiples is sometimes used even in prose: as, si tabulam de naufragio stultus arripuerit, extorquebitne earn sapiens? if a fool snatches a board from a shipwreck, will the wise man pull it away from him? Off. 3, 8g. But it is rarely found unless quali- fied by a pronominal adjective, — hie, quidam, etc. It is used more freely in poetry. The substantive use of feminines is like that of masculines, but examples are rare. 636. Neuter adjectives and participles are used substan- tively in the singular in any case, but are most common with prepositions and as Genitive of the Whole: — varium et mutabile semper femina, woman is always a variable and changeable thing; Aen. 4, 569. rapto vivit, he lives on plunder; Liv. 22, 39, 13. naves in aridum subduxerat, he had drawn the ships upon dry land; B. G. 4, 29, 2. ex insperato, unexpectedly; Liv. 1, 25, 9. aliquid boni, something good,; Ter. And. 398. 637. In the plural, masculine adjectives and participles are used freely as substantives in any case: — oderunt peccare bonl, good men hate to sin; Her. Epis. i, 16, 52. contemptu regentium, by contempt for those in power; Tac. Ann. 12, S4- suos continebat, he restrained his men; B. G. i, 15, 4. 638. Neuter plurals, — e.g. bona, good things, omnia, every- thing, — are used freely in the nominative and accusative, rarely in the other ca-^^f^^ed by Microsofm 200 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES {639-642 639. Perfect Passive Participles used as substantives may be qualified either by adverbs or by adjectives: — ob admissum foede dictumve superbe, on account of a foul crime or a haughty word; Lucr. 5, 1224. ferocibus dictis, with fierce words; Liv. 23, 47, 4. 640. Some adjectives constantly used as substantives have become nouns, and may be qualified by adjectives; so, for example, the names of the months; amicus, friend; inimicus, enemy; dextra, the right; sinistra, the left; fera, wild beast; hiberna, winter-quarters ; patria, native land; propinquus, kins- man; regia, palace. ADJECTIVES INSTEAD OF ADVERBS 641. Adjectives are often used where adverbs would be used in English : — erat Romae frequens, he was often at Rome; Rose. Am. 16. invitus feci, / did it unwillingly; Cat. M. 42. se totos tradiderunt voluptatibus, they have given themselves wholly to pleasure; Lael. 86. Thus, instead of adverbs, the adjectives prior, primus, princeps, pos- tremus, and ultimus are used to denote the first or last to do a thing: as, Troiae qui primus ab oris venit, who first came from the shores of Troy; Aen. I, I. For the use of adverbs instead of adjectives see 648. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 642. Comparatives and Superlatives (adjectives and ad- verbs) have regularly the same meanings as in English, but they are often used where there is no definite comparison, — the comparative denoting a degree that is rather high or too high (that is, higher than usual), the superlative denoting a degree that is very high. This meaning of the superlative is the same as would be expressed by the positive with admodum or valde, or by per or prae in composition with an adjective or adverb: — senectus est natura loquacior, old age is naturally rather talkative; , Cat. M. 55. vir foitissimus, a vqruji^kl^m ^(mtBsSfE)^, 12, 4. 643-646) COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 20I 643 . The superlative is sometimes used when there are only two persons or things: as, Numitori, qui maximus erat, to Numitor, who was the oldest (of two brothers); Liv. i, 3, 10. The superlative is often strengthened by vel, eoen, longe, by far, or, if an adjective, by unus, the one. 644. The superlative is used with quam, to denote the high- est possible degree, often with the addition of a form of possum, able: — quam plurimum scribere, to write as much as possible; De Or. x, 150. quam mazimis potest itineribus in Galliam contendit, he hastens into Gavl by as rapid marches as he can; B. G. i, 7, i. quam maturrime, as early as possible; B. G. i, 33, 4. For the superlative with quisque see 691. 645. When two qualities are compared, both adjectives or adverbs are regularly in the comparative, or, if magis is used, both are in the positive : — verior quam gratior, more true than agreeable; Liv. 22, 38, 8. libentius quam verius, with greater satisfaction than truth; Mil. 78. Celer disertus magis est quam sapiens, Celer is more eloquent than wise; Att. 10, i, 4. Rarely the first adjective or adverb is in the comparative, the second in the positive, or both are in the positive: — vehementius quam caute, more eagerly than cautiously; Tac. Agr. 4. Claris maioribus quam vetustis, 0/ a family that was famous rather than old; Tac. Ann. 4, 61. 646. The following adjectives — nearly all superlatives — in agreement often denote a part of an object: — medius, reliquus, extremus, Imus, intimus, postremus, primus, summus, and ultimus : — in coUe medio, half way up the hill; B. G. 1, 24, 2. in extremo ponte, at the end of the bridge; B. G. 6, 29, 3. summus mons, the top of the mountain; B. G. i, 22, i. So, also multus and serus in such phrases as multo die, late in the day, B. G. I, 22, 4; and nocte sera, late at night, Liv. 1, 57, 9. Digitized by Microsoft® 202 SYNTAX OP ADVERBS {647-651 SYNTAX OF ADVEkBS 647. Adverbs are used to qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs (or adverbial phrases): — nuper pacati erant, they had been recently subdtied; B. G. i, 6, 2. tam propinquis hostibus, with the enemy so near; B. G. i, 16, 6. minus facile, less easily; B. G. i, 2, 4. paene in conspectu, almost in sight; B. G. i, 11, 3. For the classification of adverbs see 297-213. 648. Adverbs are sometimes used to qualify nouns, especially those containing a verbal or adjectival idea: — hinc abitio, departure from here; PI. Rud. 503. baud dubie victor, undoubtedly victorious; Sail. Jug. 102, i. plane vir, in all respects a man; Tusc. 2, 53. maxim6 privatim periculo, nuUo publice emolumento, with very great personal danger and no public recognition; Liv. 6, 39, 6. 649. Some common adverbs, — especially bene, male, ita, satis, and sic, — are often used as predicate adjectives: — si vales, bene est, if you are well, it is well; Fam. 5, i, 1. satis esse iinum consulem, that one consul was enough; Liv. 34, 43, 4. For the use of adverbs as prepositions see 1025-1027. 650. Adverbs of place are sometimes used instead of a pro- noun with a preposition : — inde maiorem adoptavi, of these I adopted the older; Ter. Ad. 47. (inde = ex eis.) apud eos quo se contulit, among those to whom he went; Verr. 4, 38. (quo = ad quos.) is unde te audisse dicis, he from whom you say you heard it; De Or. 2, 285. (unde = ex quo.) For the meanings of the comparative and superlative of adverbs see 642-645. THE USE OF CERTAIN ADVERBS 651. Of the adverbs meaning so, tam (like adeo and eo) denotes degree; ita and sic usually denote manner: — tam opportune tempore, at so favorable a time; B. C. 3, 36, 8. sic'mnites cdasb\a.tgs^.lw,v^ri^t^s^co^ed his troops; B. G. 7, 19, 6. 652-657) NEGATIVE ADVERBS 203 652. Certo and certe mean certainly, but certe is used also in restricted aflBrmations, meaning at least, at any rate: as, res fortasse verae, certe graves, things perhaps true, at any rate important; Fin. 4, 7. 653. lam referring to past and present time means already or now, with reference to the time that has elapsed ; referring to future time it means immediately; with negatives it means {no) longer. 654. Nunc refers to present time without reference to any other. After present contrary-to-fact conditions it is best trans- lated as it is: as, si discere posses fidem, ea disciplina a me adhi- bita esset; nunc, etc., if you could learn good faith, I should have given you this lesson; as it is, etc.; Liv. i, 28, g. So, tunc, then, after past contrary-to-fact conditions is best translated as it was. 655. Primum mt&ns first or in the first place, beginning or im- plying a series, and is often followed by deinde, next, or, turn, then, and denique or postremo, finally. Prim5 means at first, as opposed to afterward, emphasizing the idea of time only. 656. Quidem, indeed, at least, follows the word it emphasizes; it often has an adversative force, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc.: as, est istuc quidem honestum, verum hoc expedit, that is honorable to he sure, but this is expedient; Off. 3,75. Ne . . . quidem means not even, rarely not either. The word or phrase emphasized stands between ne and quidem: as, ne Varus quidem dubitat copias producere, nor does Varus either hesitate to lead out his troops; B. C. 2, 33, 3. NEGATIVE ADVERBS 657. Non is the negative for statements and questions, and is used also with single words. Ne is the negative for expres- sions of command or wish. Non is sometimes used with the hortatory subjunctive (see 768). Ovid uses it even with the imperative. ' Digitized by Microsoft® 204 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS {658-663 658. Haud (haut, hau) negatives a single word and in classical Latin is commonly used only with adjectives and adverbs: as, haud facile, not easily; Sail. Cat. 13,5. Cicero uses it with a few verbs, especially in the phrase haud jcio a n, / don't know but that. 659. Nee is sometimes used for non in early writers and rarely in later writers, chiefly in the combinations necdum, not yet, and necopinans, unaware. 660. One negative in a clause usually counteracts another: as, non possum non confiteri, I must confess; Fam. 9, 14, i. Thus non nemo means some one, nonnumquam, sometimes, etc. After a general negative like nego or numquam, the cor- relatives neque . . . neque, neve . . . neve, and also ne . . . quidem, do not counteract, but add emphasis to the negative idea: as, nihil umquam neque insolens neque gloriosum ex ore eius exiit, nothing either insolent or boastful ever came from his lips; Nep. Timol. 4, 2. SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS 661. The person of the verb is shown by its ending; hence, Personal Pronouns are regularly used as subjects only to express emphasis or contrast: — quos ego a Catilina non revoco, these I, for my part, do not call away from Catiline; Cat. 2, 22. ego reges eieci, vos tyrannos introducitis, / drove out kings, you are bringing in tyrants; ad Her. 4, 66. 662. The Latin has no personal pronoun of the third person except the reflexive sui. The lack is supplied by the demon- strative and relative pronouns. 663. The genitive singular of the personal pronouns, and of the reflexive sui, is usually objective, the possessive adjectives meus, laius, and suus being regularly used instead of the pos- sessive genitive. Digitized by Microsoft® 664-66y) the reflexive pronoun 205 Of the two forms of the genitive plural, that ending in -1 is used as an objective genitive; that ending in -um is used regu- larly as a genitive of the whole, sometimes as an objective genitive, and always when accompanied by omnium: — habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui, you have a leader mind- fid of you, forgetful of himself; Cat. 4, ig. uterque nostrum, each one of us; Att. 13, 33, 2. custodem huius urbis ac vestrum, guardian of this city and of you; Cat. 3, 29. omniiun nostrum vitam, the life of us all; Cat. i, 14. 664. The plural of the personal pronoun of the first person is some- times used instead of the singular as a conventional expression of modesty: as, sitque memor nostii necne, referte mihi, let me know whether she thinks of me or not; Ov. Trist. 4, 3, 10. 665. The personal pronouns are used also as reflexive pro- nouns: as, tii te in ciistodiam dedisti, you gave yourself into custody; Cat. i, 19. THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN i 666. The Reflexive Pronoun sui, like the possessive adjective suus (see 619), in an independent clause refers regularly to the grammatical or logical subject; but often to some other word when the context makes the meaning clear : — is sibi legationem ad civitates suscepit, he iOok upon himself an embassy to the states; B. G. i, 3, 3. cum etiam feras inter sese natura conciliet, since nature makes even •udld beasts friendly to one another; Rose. Am. 63. quos studeo sanare sibi ipsos, / am eager to cure them for their own sokes; Cat. 2, 17. 667. In dependent clauses it may refer to the subject of the dependent clause; when so used, it is called a Direct Reflexive; or, it may refer to the subject of the main clause, and is then called an Indirect Reflgxi^e.^ ^B^Uhe^ndirect Reflexive is regu- 2o6 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS {668-671 larly used only when the dependent clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main clause: — si qua Eignificatio vittutis eluceat, ad quam se similis animus adiungat, i/ any indication of virtue should appear, to which a congenial mind may attach itself; Lael. 48. huic mandat ut ad se revertatur, this man he orders to return to him; B. G. 4, 21, 2. a Caesare invitor sibi ut sim legatus, I am invited by Caesar to be his envoy; Att. 2, 18, 3. (Referring to the logical subject.) 668. In indirect discourse, when the subject of the infinitive is different from that of the verb introducing it, the reflexive usually refers to the latter: — Ariovistus respondit omnes Galliae civitates ad se oppugnandum venisse, Ariovistus replied that all the states of Gaul had come to attack him; B. G. i, 44, 3. Faustulo spes fuerat, regiam stirpem apud se §ducari, Faustulus had believed that children of royal birth were being reared in his house; Liv. 1, 5, 5. (Referring to the logical subject of the introducing verb.) ne existumarent sibi perdita re publica opus esse, let them not think that he needed to destroy the state; Sail. Cat. 31, 7. (Referring to the logical subject of the infinitive.) 669. The reflexive is sometimes used of an indefinite person like the English " one ": as, deforme est de se ipsum praedicare, it is bad form to brag about one's self; Off. i, 137. 670. Suus is sometimes strengthened by sibi, but chiefly in early and late Latin: as, suo sibi gladio hunc iugulo, Tvith his own sword I kill him; Ter. Ad. 958. For the use of ipse as a reflexive pronoun see 675. For the use of is instead of the reflexive pronoun see 719. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN 671. The Intensive Pronoun ipse, self, is used alone as a substantive, or in apposition with another word. It is used alone as ifp^-mkr^icrosoft® 672-677) THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN 207 672. (a) In the nominative, to emphasize an omitted sub- ject of the first, second, or third person: — moderabor ipse, / myself shall manage; De Or. i, iii. ipsi omnia ad nos defenmt, they themselves report eoerything to us; De Or. 1, 250. 673. (b) In any other case, as an emphatic pronoun of the third person : — erat scriptum ipsius manu, it had been written in his own hand; Cat. 3, 10. id rei publicae praeclanun, ipsis gldriosum, this was splendid for the state, glorious for themselves; Phil. 2, 27. 674. (c) To designate an important person: — - ipse dixit; 'ipse" autem erat Pythagoras, the Master said; now the "Master " was Pythagoras; N. D. i, 10. Nomentanus erat super ipsum, Nomentanus was above the host; Hor. S. 2, 8, 23. 675. (d) As an indirect reflexive, in a subordinate clause, referring to the subject of the main clause: — peitimuerunt ne ab ipsis descisceret, they were afraid that he woidd abandon them; Nap. Ale. 7, s, i- Ariovistus respondit si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, sese ad etun venturum fuisse, Ariovistus replied that, if he had wanted any- thing of Caesar, he would have come to him; B. G. 1, 34, 2. 676. If there is a reflexive pronoun in the predicate, ipse sometimes agrees with it, but more often it agrees with the subject: — se ipsum interfecit, he killed himself; Tac. H. 3, 51. me ipse consolor, / console myself; Lael. 10. 677. Ipse is used in apposition with nouns and pronouns; the form ipsum is used to intensify adverbs of time: — ipse Caesar, Caesar himself; Fam. 6, 10, 2. turpe tnihi ipsi videbatur, even to me it seemed disgraceful; PhU. i, g. nunc ipsum, ywrf now; Att. 12, 16. For the use of ipse with a possessive adjective, see 403. Digitized by Microsoft® 2o8 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS {678-682 678. Ipse is used much more freely than the English self and is often to be translated very, exactly, of one's own accord, etc.: — ad id ipsum creatus, elected for this very purpose; Liv. 2, 42, 5. triginta dies erant ipsi, there were exactly thirty days; Att. 3,21. arma ipsa cecideruat, the arms fell of their own accord; Off. i, 77. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 679. The Interrogative Pronoun referring to an indef- inite number is quis, who; the corresponding adjective is qui, what or of what kind ( = qualis) : — quis clarior Themistocle? who more famous than Themistoclesf Lael. 42. scribis te velle scire qui sit rei publicae status, you write that you want to know what the state of the country is; Fam. i, 7, 10. 680. The distinction between quis and qui is not always observed; quis is sometimes used as an adjective, qui as a sub- stantive: — quis eum senator appellavit? what senator addressed him? Cat. 2, 12. qui nominat me? who calls my name? Ter. Ph. 990. 681. The Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective referring to two persons or things is uter, which: as, ut oculis in utram partem fluat iudicari non possit, so that you cannot see in which direction it flows; B. G. i, 12, i. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 682. Quis, any one, some one, is the most indefinite of the indefinite pronouns, and is rare except in combination with si, nisi, ne, and certain interrogative and relative words, as num, ubi, etc. It always stands after one or more words of its clause: — d^erit quis, some one may say; Off. 3, 76. si quid in te pecca.\i,ffiti^^,tlifffifQMmny wrong; Att. 3, 15, 4. 683-686) INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 209 The corresponding Indefinite Adjective is qui; but, as in the case of the interrogative pronoun and adjective, the distinction is not always observed; see 680. 683. Aliquis (adjective, aliqui), quispiam, and nescio quis, some one, all have about the same meaning, and are somewhat less vague than quis. Of similar meaning are the double negatives non. nulll, some, several (used also adjectively, as is the singular non nullus), non nemo, some one, and non nihil, something, but in these there is a fundamental idea of number or quantity. Aliquis sometimes means a person or thing of some importance: — ut me veils esse aliquem, that you want me to be somebody; Att. 3, 15, 8. meas esse aliquid putare nugas, to think my nonsense of some value; CatuU. i, 4. 684. Quidam, a certain one, is more definite, referring to one who might be named if necessary: as, video esse hie quosdam, / see that there are certain ones here; Cat. i, 8. As an adjective it is often used to soften the meaning of a noun: as, timiditate ingenua quadam, hy a sort of natural timidity; De Or. 2, 10. 685. Quisquam (substantive and adjective), awy one, and the adjective ullus are used only in negative sentences or phrases, in questions implying a negative, in conditional clauses, and in clauses which follow a comparative and imply a negative: — estne quisquam de quo melius existimes tu? m there any one of whom you have a better opinion? Rose. Com. 18. si cuiquam generi liominum probatus sit, if he is approved by any class of men; Verr. 2, 17. saepius cimi hoste coaflixit quam quisquam cvun inimico con- certavit, he fought more often with the enemy than any one ever wrangled with a personal foe; Manil. 28. sine tillo metii, without any fear; Verr. 5, 96. ni oSerumentas habebis pluris in tergo tuo quam iilla navis longa clavos, unless you have more stripes on your back than any man- of-war has nails; PI. Rud. 753. 686. Qui^as and qmlibet mean any one whatever, referring to more than two; utervis and uterlibet. eiiAer, of two. Neuter 2IO SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS {pS^-dgi means neither, of two; in the plural it refers to two groups: as, neutri alteros primo cemebant, at first neither side saw the other; Liv. 21, 46, 4. 687. Nemo, besides its regular use as a pronoun, is sometimes used as an adjective, in place of nuUus, and is regularly so used with a proper name, another pronoun, "or an adjective or par- ticiple used substantively: — ut hominem neminem pluris faciam, that I rate no man more highly; Fam. 13, 55, 1. nemo Cornelius, no Cornelius; Att. 6, i, 18. nemo quisquam, no one at all; Ter. Euti. 1032. nemo Arpinas, no one of Arpinum; Plane. 22. 688. Nullus, not any, no, regularly an adjective, is often used as a substantive in the plural and sometimes in the singu- lar; the genitive and ablative singular are regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of nemo : - nullis ^ta posset esse iucundior, to none coiM life be more pleasant; Tusc. I, 94. niilUus insector calamitatem, I persecute no one's misfortune; Phil. 2, 98. beneficia ab nullo repetere, he asked favors of no one; Sail. Jug. 96, 2. 689. Quicumque, whoever, properly a relative pronoun, is often used, especially in the ablative, as an indefinite pronoun or adjec- tive, any whatever: as, qui quacumque de causa ad eos venenmt, who have come to them for any reason whatever; B. G. 6, 23, 9. DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 690. " Quisque, each, every, refers to more than two; uterque is each, of two. 691. Quisque almost never stands first in its clause, and regularly follows the word with which it is most closely con- nected in sense. It is often used with superlatives to indicate not an individual but a class: as, optimus quisque, all the best men; Arch. 26; so, wi^ji^-f^j^^g ^uj^erkt^s, — in omni arte opti- 602-6q6) relative pronouns and adjectives 211 mum quidque rarissimum est, in every art the best is always the most rare; Fin. 2, 81; and with ordinal numerals: as, quinto qudque amio Sicilia tota censetur, every fifth year all Sicily is assessed; Verr. 2, 139. The combination of quisque with the reflexive pronoun was so common that it is sometimes used irregularly, without con- struction, as if it were an indeclinable word: as, multis sibi quisque imperium petentibus, many seeking power, each for himself; Sail. Jug. 18, 3. 692. Uterque in the plural, except when it is used with a noun plural in form but singular in meaning, refers to two groups: — pugnatum est ab utrisque acriter, both sides fought vigorously; B. G. 4, 26, I. utiisque castris,/(w each camp; B. G. i, 51, i. RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 693. Relative Pronouns and Adjectives are connecting words, which refer to a substantive (called the Antecedent), and serve to introduce clauses usually subordinate. Relatives are either definite, as qui, who; quails, of which kind; or indefinite, as quicumque, whoever; qualiscumque, of whatever kind. The definite relatives are sometimes indefinite, as qui meaning who- ever. The indefinite relatives are always compounded forms. 694. The relative pronoun is never omitted in Latin, as it is in English: as, equitatum omnem quern habebat, all the cavalry he had; B. G. i, 15, i. 695. The antecedent (especially if it is dies, locus, or res) is sometimes repeated in the relative clause: as, iter in ea loca facere coepit quibus in locis esse Germanos audiebat, he began to make a journey into those places in which he heard the Germans were; B. G. 4, 7, i. 696. The relative clause often precedes the one containing the antecedent; when this occurs, the antecedent is sometimes placed in the relative clause, .taking the case of the relative •^ ' Digitized by Microsoft® 212 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS {dgy-JOZ pronoun; the antecedent may then be represented in its own clause by a demonstrative pronoun : — quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus, attigit hie versibus, what things I did in my consulship, he has touched upon in his verses; Arch. 28. quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea piinceps poenas persolvit, that part of the state which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty; B. G. i, 12, 6. 697. The antecedent is sometimes attracted into the case of the relative pronoun, even when it is not included in the relative clause: as, Naucratem quern convenire volui in na^ non erat, Naucrates whom I wanted to find was not on the ship; PI. Am. 1009. 698. An antecedent which would naturally be an appositive in the main clause usually stands in the relative clause, agreeing in case with the relative pronoun: as, Amanum contend!, qui mons erat hostium plenus, / pushed on to Amanus, a mountain that was covered with the enemy; Att. s, 20, 3- 699. An adjective, usually a superlative or numeral, properly belong- ing to the antecedent, sometimes stands in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative: as, vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat, those very beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house; Verr. 4, 63. 700. In colloquial language the relative clause sometimes contains a redundant demonstrative pronoun without construction, which might properly stand in the main clause: as, ille qui cavet, diutine uti bene licet partum bene, he who is on his guard may enjoy for a long time what he has well obtained; PI. Rud. 1240. (Cf. 714.) 701. The antecedent is often omitted, especially if it is in- definite: — sunt qui dicant, there are those who say; Cat. 2, 12. bene est cui deus obtulit quod satis est, blessed is the man to whom Heaven has given what is enough; Hor. C. 3, 16, 43. 702. A relative clause may refer to an idea as its antecedent; it is then introduced by quod, id quod, or quae res: as, si a vobis, id quod non spero, deserar, if I should be deserted by you, which I do not expect; ^(f^^y ^/cfe%«® 703-709) RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 213 703. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number; its case is determined by its construction in the clause in which it stands: as, anulum quern haberet, pallium qu5 amictuS, soccos quibus indutus asset sua manu confecisse, the ring which he wore, the cloak with which he was covered, the slippers he had on, he had made with his own hand; De Or. 3, 127. 704. Rarely a relative pronoun is attracted into the case of its antece- dent: as, cum aliquid agas eorum quorum consuesti, when you do something of those things that you are wont to do; Fam. 5, 14, i. 705. If a relative has more than one antecedent it is in the plural, and if they are of different genders, it follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives (see 632, 633) : — fruges atque fructus quos terra gignit, the fruits and crops which the earth produces; N. D. 2, 37. otium atque ^vitiae, quae prima mortales putant, leisure and wealth, which men reckon of the first importance; Sail. Cat. 36. 706. If the antecedent is a collective noun, the relative may be in the plural: as, equitatum praemittit qui videant, he sends the cavalry forward to see; B. G. i, 15, i. 707. If the relative dause contains a predicate noun meaning the same person or thing as the antecedent, the relative usually agrees with the predicate noun: as, animal hoc quern vocamus hominem, that animal which we call man; Legg. i, 22. 708. A relative sometimes agrees with a personal pronoim implied in a possessive, or with some other word easily supplied from the context: — vestT^ qui cum summa integritate vixistis, hoc maximS interest, this is of the greatest importance to you who have lived with the greatest integrity; Bull. 79. coniuraTere pauci, d§ quj (sc. coniiiT&tifine) dicam, a few have conspired, and of this {conspiracy) I will speak; Sail. Cat. 18, i. 709. A relative clause containing an abstract noun, the antecedent of the relative pronoun, is sometimes used to characterize a person: as, spero, quae tua prudentia est, te valere, I hope you are well, such is your pmdence; Att."6, 9, 1. The same idea may be expressed by the Genitive of Quality, cuius es prudentiae, or byagiJ/^gy^^tHftj^fefe^, pro tua prudentia. 214 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS (jlO-yi^. 710. A relative pronoun is sometimes equivalent to a per- sonal or demonstrative pronoun, and may introduce a clause which is not subordinate : — quae cxim ita sint, since these things are so; Cat. i, lo. quae res magno usui nostris f uit, this thing was of great service to om men; B. G. 4, 25, i. For the use of a relative adverb instead of a relative pronoun in expres- sions of place see 660. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 711. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hie, ille, is, iste, and idem. They are used either as substantives or as adjectives. As substantives they supply the lack of a personal pronoun of the third person; as adjectives they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives. 712. Hie, this, refers to what is near the speaker in place, time, or thought: — hi sunt extra provinciam piimi, these are the first outside the province; B. G. I, 10, s. his paucis diebus, in these last few days; B. G. 3, 17, 3. hie tamen vvnt, yet this man lives; Cat. i, 2. Hie sometimes refers to the speaker himself: as, haec anna et hunc militem aecipias, receive these arms and this soldier (i.e. we myself); Liv. 2. 10, II. 713. Die, that, refers to what is remote from the speaker in place, time, or thought : — de illius diseessu, concerning his departure; Att. 11, 18, i. sol me ille admonuit, thai sun has reminded me; De Or. 3, 209. It sometimes refers to what is familiar: — hie est ille Demosthenes, this is the famous Demosthenes; Tusc. s, 103. Medea ilia, the well-known Medea; Manil. 22. 714. In poetry ille is sometimes used superfluously, but with the effect of increased emphasis ^V>°'^i^^S§W^^^<^f^ ^^ designated : — 715-718) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 215 quem neque fides neque ius iurandum negue ilium misericordia repressit, whom neither honor nor oath nor pity restrained; Ter. Ad. 306. nunc deztra ingeminans ictus, nunc ille sinistra, now with his right hand showering blows, now he, the same man, with his left; Aen. 5, 457. 715. Hie and hie sometimes mean respectively the former and the latter, referring to two persons or things just mentioned: as, Caesar beneficiis ac munificentia magnus habebatur, inte- gritate vitae Cato; ille mansuetudine et misericordia clarus factus, huic severitas dignitatem addiderat, Caesar was hdd great for his kindness and generosity, Cato for the integrity of his life; the former became famous through humanity and mercy, the latter' s dignity was based upon austerity; Sail. Cat. 54, 2. But hie sometimes means the former, ille the latter, when the person or thing designated by hie is more prominent in the speaker's mind: as, melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria; haee in tua, ilia in deoiium manu est, certain peace is better than hoped-for victory; the former is in your hands, the latter in the hands of the gods; Liv. 30, 30, 19. 716. Is, this or that, is more indefinite than hie or ille, referring either to what is near or to what is remote. It is used as a personal pronoun of the third person whenever the context does not call for the more definite hie or ille. It is often explained by a relative clause, of which it is the antecedent: — ex eo loco ad flumen contenderunt, from this place they hastened to the river; B. G. 2, 9, 3. si obsides ab ils dentur, if hostages should be given by them; B. G. 1, 14, 6. is qui erit adductus in iudicium, he who shall be brought to trial; Verr. 3. 207. 717. Is is sometimes similar in meaning to talis, such: as, neque is sum qui mortis perieulo terrear, / am not the sort of man that is frightened by danger of death; B. G. 5, 30, 2. 718. In combination with a connective is is sometimes used like the English and that too: — Digitized by Microsoft® 2l6 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS {jI^^S vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment and that too for life; Cat. 4, 7. negotium magnum est navigare atque id mense Quinctili, it is a great piece of business to make a voyage, and that too in the month of July; Att. s, 12, I. 719. Is is sometimes used instead of the reflexive pronoun: as, per- BuSdent Rauracis uti una cum iis proficiscantur, they persuade the Rauraci to set out with them; B. G. i, 5, 4. 720. Hie, ille, and is refer either to what precedes or to what follows in time or thought. 721. Iste, that of yours, refers to what is near the person addressed or to what relates to him or affects him: — ista subsellia vacuefacta simt, the benches near you were deserted; Cat. I, 16. ista praetura, that proctorship of yours; Verr. 2, 46. It is used also without personal reference, to express contempt: as, onimi est ista moUitia, that is weakness of mind; B. G. 7, 77, 5. 722. A neuter pronoun often refers to a clause either pre- ceding or following: — hoc dico nullum te signum reliquisse, this I say that you left not a statue; Verr. i, 53. eo, quod Minucius prospere pugnasset, on this account, because Minucius had fought successfully; Liv. 22, 34, 5. 723. The word that, as used in the English phrase that of, is regularly- omitted: as, solis candor illustrior est quam ullius ignis, the light of the sun is brighter than that of any fire; N. D. 2, 40. Sometimes the noun is re- peated: as, nulla est celeritas quae possit cvan. animi celeritate contendere, there is no quickness which can rival the quickness of the mind; Tusc. 1, 43. 724. Hie, ille, is, and iste (usually ille) sometimes acquire a concessive force by the addition of quidem: as, libri scripti ab optimis illis quidem viiTs, sed non satis eruditis, books written by men excellent to be sure, but insufficiently educated; Tusc. i, 6. 725. Idem, the same, refers to what has been mentioned or is about to be mentioned, or identifies two or more persons or things fienoted by the same substantive; or, as an adjective, it means unchanging: — Digitized by Microsofm 726-730) ALIUS AND ALTER 217 eodem tempore, at the same time {just mentioned); B. G. 2, 24, 1. causas simiUimas inter se vel potius easdem, cases very much like one another or rather just the same; Brut. 324. idem semper vultus, always the same expression; Off. 1, 90. 726. Idem is often used where the English would use more- over or yet: — splendida et eadem in piimis faceta oratio, a fine speech and more- over an exceedingly bright one; Brut. 273. rebus angustis animosus appare; sapienter idem contrahes vela, in straitened circumstances show a good spirit; yet if you are wise, you will take in your sails, etc.; Hor. C. 2, 10, 21. 727. To express the idea the same as, idem is used with qui, atque or ac, ut, the preposition cum, and, in poetry, the dative. 728. A demonstrative pronoun usually agrees with a predi- cate noun, if there is one, rather than 'with the word to which it refers; so, also, a demonstrative pronoun used in an indefi- nite sense as subject or object regularly agrees with a predicate noun: — hie locus est unus quo perfugiant; hie portus, haec arz, haec ara sociorum, this is the only place where they can take refuge; this is the harbor, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies; Verr. 5, 126. ea erat confessio caput Romam esse, this was a confession that Rome was the capital; Liv. i, 45, 3. eas divitias putabant, they thought this to be wealth; Sail. Cat. 6. ALIUS Airo ALTER 729. Alius might be included among indefinite pronouns, alter among demonstratives, but on account of similarity of meaning and use they are best treated together. They are used both as pronouns and as adjectives. 730. Alius, when used alone, means other, another, refer- ring to more than two; it is used also correlatively, alius . . . alius, one . . . another. Alter, when used alone, means either one or the other, of ^^jMi^ Bf>Wi^^iS8m> '^« second, of a series; 2l8 SYNTAX OF VERBS {731-734 it is used also correlatively, alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other: — divitias alii praeponunt, alii potentiam, some prefer wealth, others power; Lael. 20. fuit claudus altero pede, he was lame in one foot; Nep. Ages. 8, i. proximo, altero, tertio, denique reliquis conseciitis diebus, on the first, second, third, and then the rest of the days that followed; Phil. I, 32. alter exercitum perdidit, alter vendidit, one lost his army, the other sold it; Plane. 86. 731. The phrases alius . . . alius and alter . . . alter are used also in a reciprocal sense:- — alius ex alio causam quaerit, they ask one another the reason; B. G. 6, 37,6. ut alter alteri inimicus aiudlio esset, so that one enemy helped the other; B. G. s, 44, i3- In this sense uterque is sometimes used instead of alter: as, uterque utnquest cordi, each is dear to the other; Ter. Ph. 800. The reciprocal idea is expressed also by inter nos (or vos or se) : as, cohortafi inter se, encouraging one another; B. G. 4, 25, 5. 732. By a condensed form of expression alius is used only twice in a clause or phrase to mean one . . . one, another . . . another: as, aliud alii natura iter ostendit, nature points out one road to one man, another to another; Sail. Cat. 2, 9. So, with an adverb in place of one pronoun : — alias aliud sentiunt, they think one thing at one time, another at another; Or. 2, 30. 733. As distinct from alii, ceteri means all the others, the rest; so, also reliqui, but in this word the idea of completeness is not so definite. SYNTAX OF VERBS VOICE 734. The Active and Passive Voices have usually the same meanings as in English. With^rare exceptions intransitive verbs are used only imper- sonally in the passiveo^/^yj^ jajcASoifefee third person singular: 735-73^) AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH SUBJECT 2I9 as, ibatur in earn sententiam, they came {it was gone) to that decision; Q. Fr. 2, i, 3. But compounds of intransitive verbs (e.g. convenio, meet) may have a complete passive voice. The passive voice is sometimes used in a reflexive sense : — accingitur ense, he girds himself with a sword; Aen. 7, 640. ut lavarentur in fluminibus, that they bathe in the rivers; B. G. 4, i, 10. umeros mstemor pelle, I cover my shoulders with a skin; Aen. 2, 721. AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT 735. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person: — hos ego video consul, / the consul see these; Cat. i, 9. vobis populi Romani praesidia non desunt; vos ne populo Romano deesse videamini providete, the protection of the Roman people is not wanting to you; look out thai you may not seem to be want- ing to the Roman people; Cat. 4, 18. 736. A collective noun sometimes takes a plural verb : — cum tanta multitudo lapides conicerent, when so great a crowd were throwing stones; B. G. 2, 6, 3. pars maior receperunt sese, the greater part retired; Liv. 34, 47, 6. The distributives quisque and uterque sometimes take a plural verb: as, uterque eorum exercitum eductmt, each one of them leads out his army; B. C. 3, 30, 3- 737. With two or more singular subjects the verb may be in the plural: as, et Q. Maximus et L. Paullus iis temporibus fuenint, hath Quintus Maximus and Lucius Paullus lived at those times; Fam. 4, 6, i. Or, the verb may be in the singular: as, Orgetorigis filia atque iinus e filiis captus est, the daughter of Orgetorix and one of his sons were captured; B. G. i, 26, 4. With two or more singular subjects denoting things and regarded as expressing a single idea, the verb is usually in the singular: as, fama et ^^ta innocentis defenditur, the reputation and life of an innocent man are defended; Rose, Am. 15. 738. With singular and plural subjects pombined, the verb mav be in the plural or, if the nearest subject is singular, the ■' Digitized by Microsoft® 220 SYNTAX OF VERBS (73^743 verb may be in the singular: as, quanto in periculo et castra et legiones et imperator versaretur, in what danger the camp, the legions, and the commander were involved; B. G. 2, 26, 5. 739. A singular subject accompanied by an ablative with cum may take a plmal verb: as, Lentulus cum ceteris constituerant, Lentulus with the others had decided; Sail. Cat. 43, i. 740. If the subjects are of different persons, the verb is in the first person rather than the second or third, and in the second rather than the third: as, si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well; Fam. 14, s, I. 741. A verb having a relative as its subject is in the person of the expressed or implied antecedent: — adsum qui feci, I who did it am here; Aen. 9, 427. tu qui scis, you who know; Att. s, 2, 3. 742. In the compound forms of the passive system the par- ticiple agrees with the subject in gender, number, and case: — cum id nuntiatum esset, when this had been announced; B. G. 1, 7, i. se ad earn rem paratos esse arbitrati sunt, they thought that they were ready for this thing; B. G. i, s, 2. With subjects of different numbers or genders the participle follows the rules for the agreement of adjectives; see 631-634. For the agreement of a verb with an appositive see 388; for agreement with a predicate noim see 396. MOODS ANB TENSES INDICATIVE MOOD 743. The Indicative Mood is used as follows: — (a) In independent declarative sentences which state a fact: as, castra movent, they move the camp; B. G. i, 15, i. (b) In independent interrogative sentences which make in- quiry regarding a fact: as, quid te impedit? what hinders you? Cati I, 28. Digitized by Microsoft® 744"? 4?) INDICATIVE MOOD 221 (c) In exclamatory statements of fact: as, reliquit quos viros! what men he has left! Cat. 2, 4.- (d) Iii dependent clauses which state or assume a fact. These include certain types of relative, temporal, causal, adversative, conditional, and substantive clauses; examples of the use of the indicative are given in the treatment of these clauses. 744. The indicative in questions introduced by quin is some- times equivalent to a command or exhortation: — • quin tu adducis lormn? why don't you tighten the strap? Liv. 9, 10, 7. quin conscendimus equos? why don't we mount our horses? Liv. i, 57.7- From this comes the use of quin with the imperative: as, quin sic attendite, iudices, consider it in this way, judges, — why not? Mil. 79. The Use of the Tenses of the Indicative Mood The meanings and uses of the six tenses of the indica- tive are as follows : : — 745. The Present Tense represents an action as occurriflg or as actually in progress, or a condition as existing in present time: as, epistulas scribo, I write letters; epistulam scribo, / am writing a letter; valet, he is well. It is used also of a general truth: as, risii inepto res iaeptior nulla est, nothing is more foolish than foolish laughter; Catull. 39, 16. 746. The present sometimes represents an action as at- tempted or as just about to occur; this is called the Conative Present: — qui mortis poenam removet, who wants to set aside the death penalty; Cat. 4, 7. iam iamque manu tenet, he is just about to grasp him; Aen. 2, 530. 747. The present is sometimes used instead of the future: — eras est mihi iudicium, to-morrow I have a case in court; Ter. Eun. 338. si vincimus, omnia tuta erunt, if we conquer, everything will be safe; SaU. Cat. 58, 9. antequam ad sententiam redeo, de me pauca dicam, before I return to the subject, tDSi^mVfiM^^Amt myself; Cat. 4, 20. 222 SYNTAX OF VERBS {748-752 748. In vivid narration the present is often used of an action occurring in past time; this is called the Historical Present: — ad eum Caesar legates mittit, Caesar sends envoys to Mm; B. G. i, 35, I- postquam munun arietibus feriri vident, aurum atque argentum domum regiam comportant, when they see that the wall is being assailed with battering-rams, they take the gold and silver to the palace; Sail. Jug. 76, 6. 749. With expressions denoting duration of time (usually with iam) the present is used to indicate that an action or con- dition begun in the past still continues: — te iam dudum hortor, / have long been urging you; Cat. i, 12. Lilybaei multos iam annos habitat, he has lived at Lilybaeum now these many years; Verr. 4, 38. anni stmt octo cum ista causa versatur, it is now eight years that this case has been before us; Clu. 82. Similarly, the present imperative is used rarely with iam dudum: as, iam dudum sumite poenas, exact the penalty long since due; Aen. 2, 103. 750. The present indicative is sometimes used instead of the subjunctive, in deliberative questions: — quoi dono lepidum novum libellum? to whom am I to dedicate my bright new book? CatuU. i, i. advolone an maneo? shall I fly or shall I wait? Att. 13, 40, 2. quid ago? what am I to do? Aen. 4, 534. 751. The Imperfect Tense represents an action or condition as continuing or repeated in past time: — - wtam parce agebat, she used to live economically; Ter. And. 74. ara vetus stabat, an old altar stood there; Ov. Met. 6, 326. commentabar declamitans cottidie, / practised declaiming every day; Brut. 310, 752. The imperfect sometimes represents an action or condi- tion as just beginning, or as only intended: — • iamque arva tenebant, and they were just reaching the fields; Aen. 2, 2og. Digitized by Microsoft® 7 53-7 5^^ INDICATIVE MOOD 223 quod tua sponte faciebas, which you were going lo do of your own accord; Cat. i, 13. si licitum esset, veniebant, they were coming, if it had been allowed; Verr. 5, 129. 753. The imperfect is used with expressions denoting dura- tion of time, to indicate that an action begun at an earlier time was still continuing in past time: — copias quas diu comparabant, the forces which they had long been gathering; Fam. 11, 13, 5. iam dudum flebam, I had been weeping for a long time; Ov. Met. 3 , 656. For the use of the imperfect indicative in the apodosis of contrary-to- fact conditions see 921-923. 754. The Future Tense denotes an action or condition which will occur or be in progress in future time: as, epistulam scribam, / shall write a letter, or, I shall he writing a letter; adero, I shall he present. A verb in the future may contain a mere statement of fact, or it may contain a promise or an expression of determination: as, \avum te non relinquam ; moriere vir^s, I will not leave you alive; you shall die under the rod; Verr. 4, 85. Thus the future indicative in the second person sometimes has the force of an imperative: as, nuntius ibis PeUdae, you will go as a messenger to the son of Peleus; Aen. 2, 547. 755. Latin is more accurate than English in the expression of time and regularly uses the future in subordinate clauses 'where, in English, futurity is expressed only in the principal clause, and the present is used in the subordinate clause: — naturam si sequemur ducem, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow nature as our guide, we shall never go astray; Off. i, 100. nunc animiim advortite dum argumentum huius eloquar comoediae, now attend while I set forth the plot of this comedy; PL Am. 95. 756. The future is sometimes used to denote the future discovery of a present fact: — sic erit, you'll find it so; Ter. Ph. 801. hoc verum erit, this i0^i^mi^ ffSiraiBfefifo!«iew without reference to the 763-766) INDICATIVE MOOD 225 context: as, quia pacis auctores fuSrunt, ifls belli Achivfis abstinuisse, became they advised peace, the Greeks refrained from using the privilege of war; Liv. i, i, r. 763. The Pluperfect Tense represents an action or condition as completed in past time: as, epistulam scripseram, / had written a letter; adhuc valueranij up to that time I had been in good health. 764. The Future Perfect Tense repriesents an action or condi- tion as completed in future time: as, epistulam sciipsero, I shall have written a letter; refiixerit res, the matter will have lost interest. This tense is much more common in Latin than in English, which often uses the present or perfect in subordinate clauses, when accuracy- would demand the future perfect: — carmina turn melius, cum venerit ipse, canemus, we shall sing our songs better when he comes himself; Eel. 9, 67. eum cimi videro, Arpinum pergam, when I have seen him, I shall go to Arpinum; Att. 9, 15, i. 765. The future perfect is sometimes used instead of the future to emphasize the certainty of the completed act: — "quid cessas?" "fecera," "why do you delay?" "I'll do it at once'" ; Ter. Ph. 882. qui Antonium oppresserit bellum cdnfgcerit, whoever crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will have finished the war; Fam. 10, 19, 2. Epistolary Tenses 766. In letters the writer sometimes uses tenses which are appropriate to the time when the letter is received; that is, he treats occurrences from the point of view of the recipient of the letter. Thus he may use the imperfect or the perfect in- stead of the present, the pluperfect instead of the present per- fect: — proficiscebar inde pridie Nonas QmnctQes, cum hoc ad te litterarum dedi, / am setting out from here on the sixth of July, when I send this letter to you; Fam. 2, 8, 3. hiems rem gen prohibuerat, the winter has presented the thing from being done; V^iif^%,y^icrosom 226 SYNTAX OF VERBS (767, 768 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 767. The Subjunctive Mood is a combination of two moods which existed independently in the Indo-European language from which Latin is derived, — the Subjunctive and the Opta- tive. The Indo-European Subjunctive had two uses: — (a) it expressed the will of the speaker; (b) it expressed /MiMriij/. The Indo-European Optative also had two uses: — (a) it expressed the wish of the speaker; (b) it expressed possibility. Of these four uses the Latin Subjunctive retains three, — it expresses will, wish, and possibility. It is probable that the Latin Sub- junctive was at one time used also to express futurity, but in the literary period this use had disappeared except in certain types of subordinate clauses, and the origin of the use of the sub- junctive in such clauses is a matter of dispute. The Subjunctive used as an expression of will is called the Volitive Subjunctive; as an expression of wish, the Optative Subjunctive; and as an expression of possibility, the Potential Subjunctive, the Subjunctive of Action Conceivable, etc. From these three uses all other uses of the Subjunctive in independent and subordinate clauses are derived. Subjunctive Mood in Independent Clauses Volitive Subjunctive Subjunctive of Exhortation or Command 768. The subjunctive is used to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is regularly ne, rarely non. In early and colloquial Latin the second person singular (especially sis) is often used in positive commands. Otherwise, the second person is used only in prohibitions (then almost always the perfect tense), or when the subject is indefinite: — hoc quod coepi primum enarrem, let me first tell the story I've begun; Ter. Heaut. 273. amemus patriam, let us love our fatherland; Sest. 143. a legibus non recedSigitts^dSyulilmisi^rt from the laws; Clu. 155. f6Q-77l) SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 227 ne transieris Hiberum, don't cross the Ebro; Liv. 21, 44, 6. ne ezspectetis, don't wait; PI. Ps. 1234. isto bono utare dtun adsit, use this blessing white you have it; Cat. M. 52,- cautus sis, mi Tir6, be careful, my dear Tiro; Fam. 16, 9, 4. aut bibat aut abeat, let him either drink or go away; Tusc. 5, 118. desinant insidiaii consuli, let them cease to plot against the consul; Cat. I, 32. 769. The subjunctive of exhortation or command is some- times used in the imperfect or pluperfect, to denote an unful- filled obligation in past time: — urbis periculo commoverentur, they ought to have been moved (lit- erally, tliey were to be moved) by the danger to the city; Sest. 54. imitatus esses Voconium, you ought to have imitated Voconius; Verr. I, 107. ne poposcisses, you should not have asked; Att. 2, i, 3. 770. This type of subjunctive is sometimes equivalent to a clause of concession, the present referring to present time, the perfect to past time : — ne facial ea quae iuvenes, at multo maiora facit, though he does not do (literally, let him not do) the things that young m^n do, still he does much greater things; Cat. M. 17. fuerit aliis, tibi quando esse coepit? suppose he was to others, when did he begin to be to you? Verr. i, 37. Deliberative Subjunctive 771. This is a form of the Volitive Subjunctive used originally in questions which askeS the will or advice of the person addressed. The negative is non. The usage is extended to real deliberative questions which a person puts to himself, and to questions of a purely rhetorical and often excl&,matory nature which imply the impossibility of the thing mentioned. The present is used of present time, the imperfect, rarely the perfect, of past time: — « quid igitur faciam? non earn? what then am I to do? am I not to go? Ter. Eun. 46. Digitized by Microsoft® 228 SYNTAX OF VERBS {y)2, 773 huic cedamus? shall we yield to him? Phil. 13, 16. an ego non venirem? was I not to come? Phil. 2, 3. tibi narret! he tell the story for youl Ter. Ph. looi. afueris tarn diu et cum his de dignitate contendas? have you been away so long, and will you contend with these for honor? Mur. 21. 772. Such questions are sometimes introduced by uti or ut, either with or without -ne : — utine haec ignoraret suom patrem ! the idea of her not knowing her own father! Ter. Ph. 874. te ut ulla res frangat? could anything crush you? Cat. i, 22. For the present indicative in deliberative questions see 750; for the future indicative see 757. Optative Subjunctive 773. The subjunctive is used to express a wish. The negative is ne. The present (rarely the perfect) refers to future time and de- notes that the object of the wish may be attained. The perfect is sometimes used to express the idea that the wish may have been already attained. The imperfect is used regularly of a wish unattained in present time, the pluperfect of a wish un- attained in past time; but the imperfect sometimes refers to past time. The present and perfect are often, the imperfect and pluperfect are regularly preceded by utinam ; when utinam is used, the negative is sometimes non instead of ne : — sint beati, may they he happy; Mil. 93. utinam ilium diem videam, may I see that day; Att. 3, 3. ne istuc luppiter sirit, may Jupiter not allow this; Liv. 28, 28, 11 . mtinam spem impleverim, I hope I may have come up to his expecta- tions; Plin. Ep. I, 10, 3. utinam Clo'dius viveret, would that Clodius were alive; Mil. 103. utinam ille omnis secum copias eduzisset, would that he had led out I all his forces with him; Cat. 2, 4. utinam te dl prius perderent, would that the gods had killed you before; PI. Capt. 537. utinam susceptus non essem, wotdd that I had not been allowed to live; Att. 11, ^0zed by Microsoft® 774-77^) SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 229 774. In early Latin and in poetry ufi or ut (rarely, in imprecations, qui) is often used instead of utinam: — ut pereat positum robigine t§luni, may the weapon rust away unused; Hor. S. 2, I, 43. qui ilium di omngs perduint, may all the gods destroy him; Ter. Ph. 123. 775. In poetry a wish is sometimes expressed in the form of a condi- tional clause introduced by si: as, si umam argenti fors quae mihi mon- stret, O if some chance would show me a pot of silver; Hor. S. 2, 6, 10. 776. Unfulfilled wishes in present or past time are sometimes intro- duced by the imperfect subjunctive of volo or other verbs of wishing: — vellem adesset M. Antonius, / wish Mark Antony were here; Phil, i, 16. cuperem vultum videre tuum, / wish I could see your face; Att. 4, 17,4. nollem datum, I wish it hadn't been given; Ter. Ph. 796. Potential Subjunctive 777. The subjunctive is used to represent an action or condition as possible. The negative is non. The present and perfect regularly denote a present or future possibility, the imperfect a past possibility: — hoc vobis incredibile videatur, this may seem to you incredible; Verr. 3, 109. non facile dixerim, I could not easily say; Tusc. 5, 121. hoc bellxim quis arbitraretur uno anno confici posse? who would have thought that this war could he finished in one year? Manil. 31. The perfect is sometimes used of past time: as, haec fuerint non neces- saria, these things may not have been necessary; Brut. 52. ' 778. The Potential Subjunctive is often used merely to soften an assertion : — velim sic existimes, / should like to have you think so; Fam. 12, 6. hoc ebi>£xma.v6xim.cL!ff^^m^}^j^ift(§ssertion; Brut. 25. 230 SYNTAX OF VERBS ^779-7^^ 779. The Potential Subjunctive is used when the verb is in the indefinite second person singular, to express the idea "you (or one) can" or "could": — saepe videas, you can often see; Hor. S. i, 4, 86. perfectum Demosthenem facile dixeris, you might easily call Demos- thenes perfect; Brut. 35. Afros Romanam crederes aciem, you would have thought the Africans a Roman battle-line; Liv. 22, 46, 3. 780. The indicative is used in certain expressions where the English idiom would suggest the Potential Subjunctive: as, longum est, it would take a long tim.e; dif5.cile est, it would be difficult. For the Potential Subjunctive as the apodosis of a condition of the second t}fpe see 915. For the Potential Subjunctive in subordinate clauses see 906. Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood in Subordinate Clauses 781. The use of the tenses of the subjunctive in independent clauses has been treated in connection with the various types of independent subjunctives. The use of the tenses of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses is determined by the follow- ing principle, based upon the tense-groups (see 309) and known as the Sequence of Tenses: — Tenses of the subjunctive depending upon a primary tefise are primary (i.e. present or perfect) ; those depend- ing upon a secondary tense are secondary (i.e. imper- fect or pluperfect). The present and imperfect denote action that is contemporaneous with or subsequent to (i.e. incomplete at the time of) the action of the main verb; the perfect and pluperfect denote action that is past (i.e. completed) at the time of the action of the main verb : — - qyid est quod iam amplius exspectes? what is there which you can any longer expEaffti£&hyV/i&rosoft® 782-784) SEQUENCE OF TENSES 231 neque abest suspicio quin ipse sibi mortem consciverit, and sus- picion is not lacking that he committed suicide; B. G. i, 4, 4. erit verendtim mihi ne quisquam crudelius factum esse dicat, / shall have to fear that some one will say that I have acted too cruelly; Cat. i, S- dicent quid statuerint, they will say what they decided on; Verr. 2, 175. erant itinera duo quibus itineribus domo exire possent, there were two roads by which they could leave their homes; B. G. i, 6, i. quod per fines Sequanonun Helvetios traduxisset, quod a magis- tratii Haeduorum accusaretur, satis esse causae arbitrabatur quare in emn animadverteret, because he had led the Helvetians through the territory of the Sequani and because he was accused by the magistrate of the Haedui (Caesar) thought there was suffi- cient reason why he should punish him; B. G. i, 19, i. civitalj persuasit ut de finibus suis exirent, he persuaded the people of the state to leave their territory; B. G. i, 2, i. Ariovistus tantam arrogantiam siimpserat ut ferendus non videretur, Ariovistus had assumed such arrogance that he seemed unendur- able; B. G. I, 33, 5. 782. The present perfect, though properly a primary tense, often takes the secondary sequence: — mihi ut satis esset praesidi provisum est, / have arranged that there should be ample protection; Cat. 2, 26. ne ignoraretis esse aliquas pacis condiciones ad vos veni, I have come to you that you may know that there are some chances of peace; Liv. 21, 13, 2. 783. The sequence of tenses is sometimes disregarded, and the present is followed by the secondary sequence simply be- cause the writer is thinking of past time: as, cuius rel tanta est ^s ut Ithacam sapientissimus vir immortalitati anteponeret, so great is the power of this sentiment that the wisest of men preferred Ithaca to immortality; De Or. i, 196. 784. On the other hand, if the subordinate verb clearly refers to present time,„or . to, a.ction completed in present time, *^ . Vigitized by Microsoft® '■ 232 SYNTAX OF VERBS {785-787 the present or perfect may be used, even if it depends upon a secondary verb : — filius pertiniuit ne ea res mihi noceret, cum praesertun adhuc stili poenas dem, my son was afraid that this thing might injure me, especially since I am still paying the penalty for my writing; Fam. 6, 7, 1. ardebat cupiditate sic ut in nulla umquam iiagrantius studium ^derim, he was so on fire with eagerness that I have never seen more burning ardor in any man; Brut. 302. 785. In clauses of result (sometimes also in relative, causal, and adversative clauses) depending upon a secondary tense, the perfect may be used instead of the imperfect, though the sub- ordinate verb refers to the same time as the main verb. The fact contained in the subordinate clause is thus emphasized, the tense being treated as independent: — adeo anceps Mars fuit ut propius penculum fuerint qiu werunt, so doubtful was the conflict that those who conquered were in greater danger ; Liv. 21, i, 2. fuit mirifica vigilantia qui suo toto consulatu somnum non viderit, he was wonderfully wide-awake, for in his whole consulship he did not know what sleep was; Fam. 7, 30, i. cum ab bora septima ad vesperum pugnatum sit, aversum hostem videre nemo potuit, though they fought from the seventh hour till evening, no one could see an enemy inflight; B. G. i, 26, 2. 786. In a clause expressing a general truth, if the verb depends upon a secondary tense, it is regularly in the secondary sequence; this is unlike the usual English idiom: as, ibi, quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet, apparuit, here it appeared what power anger had to goad the mind; Liv. 33, 37, 8. 787. The Historical Present (see 748) is regarded sometimes as primary, sometimes as secondary, and takes therefore either the primary or the secondary sequence: — persuadent Rauracis uti una cum iis proficiscantur, they persuade the Rauraci to set out together with them; B. G. i, 5, 4. pe|suadet Castico ut regnum occuparet, he persuades Casticus to seize the power h^n&dh/M^osofm f 88-792) SEQUENCE OF TENSES 233 788. The Historical Infinitive (see 963) takes regularly the secondary sequence: as, Caesar Haeduos frumentum, quod essent polliciti, flagitare, Caesar demanded of the Haedui the gram which they had promised; B. G. i, 16, i. 789. Subordinate clauses in the form of deliberative ques- tions referring to past time or contrary-to-fact conditions and conclusions, retain their proper form, even if they depend upon a primary tense: — quaerd a te cur C. Comelium non def enderem, 7 ask you why I was not to defend Gajus Cornelius; Vat. 5. quod ille si repudiasset, dubitatis quin ei -ns esset adlata? if he had refused this, do you doubt that violence would have been ojffered him? Sest. 62. But the apodosis of a past contrary-tp-fact condition, when used as a subordinate clause, may take the form of the future participle active or passive with fuerim; see 924. 790. The imperfect subjunctive in contrary-to-fact condi- tions and conclusions is treated as a secondary tense and is regularly followed by the secondary sequence: as, quid me pro- hiberet Epicureum esse, si probarem quae diceret? what would prevent me from being an Epicurean, if I accepted what he said? Fin. I, 27. 791. The perfect subjunctive in potential clauses or in pro- hibitions is regarded as a primary tense: — excellentibus ingeniis citius defuerit ars, qua civem regant, quam qua hostem superent, great geniuses would be more likely to lack the skill to control the citizen than the skill to conquer the enemy; Liv. 2, 43, 10. ne dubitaris quin id mihi futurum sit antiquius, don't doubt that this course will.be preferable in my eyes; Att. 7, 3, 2. 792. When the perfect subjunctive is itself a subordinate clause and has dependent upon it another subordinate clause, it takes the primary sequence when it represents the present '^ ^ Digitized by Microsoft® 234 SYNTAX OF VERBS (7PJ, 794 perfect of the indicative, and the secondary sequence when it represents the historical perfect or the imperfect: — nemo fere vestrum est, quin, quern ad modum captae sint Syra- cusae, audierit, there is hardly one of you but that has heard how Syracuse was captured; Verr. 4, 115. magna culpa Pelopis qui non fMum docuerit quatenus esset quidque curandtmi, greatly to blame is Pelops for not teaching his son how far each thing was to receive attention; Tusc. i, 107. 793. A subjunctive dependent upon an infinitive, participle, gerund, or supine follows the sequence of the finite verb of the sentence; except that a verb dependent upon a perfect infinitive or participle may be in the imperfect or pluperfect, even if the finite verb is in a primary tense : — satis mihi multa verba fecisse videor, quare esset hoc bellum necessarium, / think I have said enough to show why this war is unavoidable; Manil. 27. versabor in re saepe quaesita, suSragia clam an palam ferre melius esset, I shall be busy with a question often asked, whether it is better to vote secretly or openly; Legg. 3, 33. 794. The lack of a future and future perfect in the sub- junctive is supplied as follows: — (a) by the use of active periphrastic forms with sim or essem after primary or secondary tenses respectively. (b) by the use of the ordinary subjunctive forms, the future idea being represented by the present after primary tenses, the imperfect after secondary tenses, the future perfect idea being represented by the perfect after primary tenses, the pluperfect after secondary tenses. The first method is employed for active verbs having a future active participle, unless they depend upon a future or future perfect or upon a verb whose meaning suggests futurity (hope, fear, etc.). With a main future or future perfect the periphrastic form is used only if the time of the dependent verb is subsequent to that of the main verb. Under all other circumstances the second 'method is employed:,—;.. .,_ Digifizea by Microsoft® 795-79?) SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 235 non est dubium quin legiones venturae non sint, there is no doubt that the legions will not come; Fam. 2, 17, 5. quod mihi proposueram, cum essem de belli genere dicturus, what I had set before myself when I was going to speak of the character of the war; Manil. 17. erit tempus cum desideres, the time will come when you will desire; Mil. 69. sum sollicitus quidnam de provinciis decematur, I am anxious to know what is decided about the provinces; Fam. 2, 11, i. egestatem suam se laturum putat, si hac suspicione liberatus sit, he thinks that he will bear his poverty, if he is (shall have been) freed from this suspicion; Rose. Am. 128. qiu pecuniam quam agrum maluisset, ei se argento satisfacturum, if any one preferred money to land, he would satisfy him with cash; Liv. 21, 45, s. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN THE INDICATIVE OR SUBJUNCTIVE 795. All subordinate clauses are developed from independent sentences. At an early stage in the history of language, thought was expressed by means of brief independent sentences. Though one might be subordinate to another in thought, it was independent in form. This coordinate arrangement is called parataxis. From this was developed hypotaxis, subordination in form. For exam- ple, the earlier form of expression would have been rogo, fiat, / ask, let it be done; then the second clause came to be regarded as subordinate and was connected with the first by the conjunc- tion ut, — rogo ut fiat, / ask that it be done. Relative Clauses 796. Under this head are included all clauses introduced by relative pronouns, relative adjectives, or relative adverbs. Relative Clauses of Fact 797. The indicative is used in a relative clause which states a fact. Such clauses may be essential to the meaning of the main clause, or they may bej/^jfeeailiylMrirofeB®, independent, adding a 236 SYNTAX OF VERBS (7p8 Statement of fact which is not essential to the meaning of the main clause: — ea legione quam secum habebat, mith that legion which he had ' with him; B. G. i, 8, i. se Caesari dediderunt ; in quos gravius Caesar vindicandum statuit, they surrendered to Caesar; upon them Caesar decided that a more severe penalty should be inflicted; B. G. 3, 16, 3. tantam dimicationem quanta numquam fuit, such a struggle as never was before; Att. 7, i, 2. apud eos quo se contulit gratiosus, popular among those to whom he has gone; Verr. 4, 38. Relative Clauses of Characteristic 798. The subj unctive is used in a relative clause which states a fact as a result of the character of the antece- dent. This is a development of the potential subjunctive. Such clauses are used rarely after a definite antecedent, more often after one that is indefinite or negative or after an interrogative antecedent which implies a negative. They are used also after the demon- stratives is, talis, tantus, and eiusmodi, and after the adjectives unus, solus, dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus: — secutae sunt tempestates quae nostros in castris continerent, storms followed which kept our men in camp; B. G. 4, 34, 4. sunt qui dicant, there are those who say; Cat. 2, 12. si quis est qui me acciiset, if there is any one who accuses me; Cat. 2,3. ntilla est natio quam pertimescamus, there is no nation which we fear; Cat. 2, 11. quid est quod exspectes? what is therefor you to expect? Cat. 1, 6. neque is sum qui mortis periculo terrear, / am not one to be frightened by danger of death; B. G. 5, 30, 2. unus est solus inventus qui dissideret, only one man was found who disagreed; Sest. 130. videtur qui imperet dignus esse, he seems to be worthy to rule; Legg. 3,5. nequed initium uUum invenire idoneum, imde exordiar narrate, I cannot find any suitable beginning with which I may start my story; Ter. Heo/J/feed by Microsoft® 799-^03) RELATIVE CLAUSES 237 799. Dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus sometimes take an infinitive in poetry and late prose; dignus and indignus sometimes take a clause introduced by ut in early and late Latin. 800. Comparatives are sometimes followed by character- istic clauses introduced by quam; the relative is sometimes omitted: — maiores arbores caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset, they cut trees larger than a soldier could carry; Liv. $s, 5, 6. non longius hostes aberant quam quo telum adig^ posset, the enemy were not farther distant than a javelin coidd be thrown; B. G. 2, 21, 3- Segestanis imponebat amplius quam ferre possent, he imposed upon the Segestans more than they coidd bear; Verr. 4, 76. 801. In classical Latin comparatives are more commonly followed by a clause of result introduced by ut: as, clarior res erat quam ut tegi posset, the thing was too notorious to be con- cealed; Liv. 26, 51, II. 802. After a negative antecedent or an interrogative imply- ing a negative, qiun is sometimes used instead of the nominative of the relative pronoun (see 820) : — nemo fuit quin vulneraretur, there was no one who was not wounded; B. C. 3, 53, 3- quis est qum cemat quanta vis sit in sensibus? who is there who does not see how great power there is in the senses? Acad. 2, 20. 803. Relative clauses of a parenthetical nature expressing restriction or proviso are sometimes treated as clauses of charac- teristic; such clauses are often introduced by qm quidem or qui mode : — oratidnes, quas quidem legerim, his speeches, at least such as I have read; Brut. 65. servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis, there is no slave, provided he is in an endurable state of servitude; Cat. 4, 16. quod sciam, so faiD^ti^tila^S/liShsoil^. 641. 238 SYNTAX OF VERBS {804-807 804. But the indicative is often used in such clauses, especially with quantum and when the verb is sum or possum; always in quod attinet: — erus, quantum audio, uxore ezcidit, my master, according to what I hear, has lost a wife; Ter. And. 423. prodidisti et te et illam, quod quidem in te fuit, you have betrayed your- self and her, so far as was in your power; Ter. Ad. 692. quod ad vos attinet, so far as you are concerned; Liv. 5, 9, 5. 805. Similar to such expressions as est qui, there is one who, are the expressions est cum, there is a time when, and est quod, there is reason why: — • fuit cum aibitrarer, there was a time when I thought; De Or. 1,1. fuit tempus cum Germanos Galli virtute superarent, there was a time when the Gaids surpassed the Germans in courage; B. G. 6, 24, I. est quod gaudeas, there is reason for you to rejoice; PI. Trin. 310. 806. In poetry and early Latin (rarely in classical prose) the indica- tive is sometimes used in relative clauses following an indefinite and affirmative antecedent: — sunt quos pulverem Olympicum coUegisse iuvat, there are those whom it delights to have raised a cloud of Olympic dust; Hot. C. i, i, 3. est ubi (vulgus) peccat, there are times when popular opinion is mistaken; Hor. Epis. 2, I, 63. In classical prose the indicative is rare, except when the antecedent is defined by such words as multi and nomiulli. Causal or Adversative Relative Clauses 807. The subjunctive is used in relative clauses which express a causal or adversative idea; in causal clauses the relative is sometimes preceded by ut, utpote, or quippe : — • inn fortiinate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris, fortunate youth, since you found Homer as the herald of your valor; Arch. 24. nee consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram certamini fecit, and the consul, since he had sought this very thing, did not delay the battle; Liv. ^2pjsiitg:ed by Microsoft® 8o8-8ll) RELATIVE CLAUSES 239 Cicero, qui omnes superiores dies milites in castris continuisset, septimo die qiunque cohortes frumentatum mittit, though on all the days before Cicero had kept the soldiers in camp, on the seventh day he sent five cohorts to get grain; B. G. 6, 36, i. « 808. The indicative is used often with quippe qui, very rarely with ut qiu and utpote qui. Relative Clauses of Purpose 809. The subjunctive is used in relative clauses which express purpose. This is a development of the volitive subjunctive: — legatum mittit, qui earn mantun distinendam curet, he sends his lieutenant to see that this force is kept separated; B. G. 3, 11, 4. sunt multi qui eripiunt aliis quod aliis largiantur, there are many who take from some in order to give to others; Off. i, 43. habebam quo confugerem, / had a place where I might take refuge; Fam. 4, 6, 2. 810. The ablative of the relative pronoun, quo, is used as a conjunction to introduce purpose clauses containing an adjec- tive or adverb in the comparative: — obducuntur cortice trunci, quo sint a frigoribus et caloribus tutiores, the trunks are covered with bark that they may be better protected from cold and heat; N. D. 2, 120. adiuta me, quo id fiat facilius, help me, that this may be more easily aaomplished; Ter. Eun. 150. 811. Rarely, a purpose clause which does not contain a comparative is introduced by quo: as, exercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret, liberaliter habuerat, he had treated the army generously, that he might make it loyal to himself; Sail. Cat. 11, 5. Other uses of relative clauses are treated under Conditional Sentences, Indirect Discourse, the Iterative Subjunctive, etc. Digitized by Microsoft® 240 SYNTAX OF VERBS (812-814 Subordinate Clauses Introduced by Conjunctive Particles Clauses of Purpose 812. Purpose is most commonly expressed by a clause introduced, if affirmative, by ut (earlier form, uti), if negative, by ne (rarely ut ne). The verb is in the sub- junctive. This construction is probably developed from two inde- pendent constructions, — the volitive subjunctive and the opta- tive subjunctive: — Dumnorigi custodes ponit, ut quae agat scire possit, he puts guards over Dumnorix, in order to know what he does; B. G. i, 20, 6. ultra eum castra fecit eo consilio, uti commeatu Caesarem inter- cluderet, he encamped beyond him with this object, to cut Caesar of from his supplies; B. G. i, 48, 2. quod ego praetermltto, ne in hac civitate tanti facinoris inunanitas exstitisse videatur, / pass this by, that the enormity of such a crime may not seem to have existed in this state; Cat. i, 14. te ulciscor, ut ne impune in nos illuseris, / shall punish you, that you may not make sport of us with impunity; Ter. Eun. 941. 813. Occasionally a purpose clause is apparently introduced by ut non, but it is really an affirmative clause, and the nega- tive applies only to a word or phrase, not to the whole clause: as, confer te ad Manlium, ut non eiectus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos isse videaris, betake yourself to Manlius, that you may seem to have gone, not driven out to strangers but invited to your friends; Cat. i, 23. 814. Purpose clauses are often used parenthetically, depend-, ing upon a verb of saying to be supplied : — ne longior sim, vale, not to bore you (I say) farewell; Fam. 15, 19, 4. vere ut dicam, de te futurum est, to tell the truth, it is going to be about you; Ve^.^^i^?^^ ^.^^^^^^ 815-818) CLAUSES OF RESULT 24I 815. If two purpose clauses are coordinated and the second is negative, the connective is regularly neve or neu; sometimes, especially in later writers, neque : — ut vis minueretur neu ponti nocerent, that their effectiveness might be lessened, and that they might not injure the bridge; B. G. 4, 17, 10. ut ea quae statuit praetemuttam neque eos appellem, to pass over the decisions he made and not to call upon those persons; Verr. 3, 115. 816. Independent clauses with nedum (rarely ne) may be mentioned in connection with purpose clauses, though their his- tory is uncertain. The verb in these clauses is in the present (rarely the imperfect) subjunctive: — nee vim tribumciam sustinere potuerunt; nedum his temporibus salvi esse possimus, they could not endure the tribunician power; much less in these times can we be safe; Clu. 95. secundae res sapientium animos fatigant; ne ill! victoriae tem- perarent, prosperity weakens the character even of wise men; much less did they use discretion in their victory; SaU. Cat. 11, 8. 817. Nedum is used sometimes merely to emphasize a word or phrase: as, erat domicilium huius urbis aptius humanitati tuae quam tota Pelo- ponnesus, nedum Patrae, a residence in this city was more suited to your refinement than all Peloponnesus, not to speak of Patrae; Fam.7, 28, i. Other methods of expressing purpose are treated under Relative Clauses (809) , the Infinitive (962) , the Future Active Participle (999) , the Gerund and Gerundive (1007), and the Supine (1015). Clauses of Result 818. Result is. regularly expressed by a clause intro- duced by ut, with the verb in the subjunctive. The negative is non. This is a development of the potential subjunctive. The main clause often contains an adjective- or adverb denoting degree or quality, as, for example, tantus, adeo, talis, ita: — multa rumor adfingebat, ut paene bellum confectum videretur, rumor started many false reports, so that the war seemed almost finished; B. C. i, 53 DigiliZ' , _. I. Di'gifiz'ed by Microsoft® 242 SYNTAX OF VERBS (819-822 sunt ita multi, ut eos career capere non possit, they are so many that a prison cannot hold them; Cat. 2, 22. neque is es ut te metus a periculo revocarit, you are not of that sort that fear has called you bach from danger; Cat. i, 22. 819. While negative purpose clauses are introduced by ne quis, ne quid, ne ullus, etc., negative result clauses are intro- duced by ut nemo, ut nihil, ut nullus, etc. 820. After negative ideas, either expressed or implied, result clauses are sometimes introduced by quin (see 802) : — nullum tempus intermlserunt quin trans Rhenum legato s mittereht, they let no time elapse without sending envoys across the Rhine; B. G. s, 55, I. numquam tarn male est Siculis qmn aliquid facete dicant, things never go so badly with the Sicilians that they cannot say something witty; Verr. 4, 95. Substantive Clauses 821. Any clause which serves as the subject or object of a verb, as an appositive, or predicate noun is properly a sub- stantive clause; thus, indirect discourse is the object of the verb introducing it, an indirect question is the object of the verb on which it depends. In practice, however, the term is confined to the following clauses when they are used as nouns: — a. Indicative clauses introduced by quod ; b. Subjunctive clauses without introductory particle; c. Subjunctive clauses introduced by ut, ne, quin, or quominus. Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Indicative 822. The only common form of substantive clause with the verb in the indicative is that which is introduced by quod meaning that or the fact that: — accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti, it happened very unfortunately that you did not see him anywhere; Att. 1, 17, 2. Caesar senatus in eum beneficia commemoravit, quod rex appel- latus esset, Caesar called his attention to the favors that the senate ^ had bestowed upon him, the fact that he had been called king; B. G. I, 43, 4. Digitized by Microsoft® 823-826) SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 243 hoc uno praestamus vel mazime fens, quod conloquimur inter nos, in this one thing most of all we are superior to the beasts, in the fact that we talk to one another; De Or. 1, 32. id, praeterquam quod fieri non potuit, ne fingi quidem potest, besides the fact that this could not be done, it cannot even be pretended; Div. 2, 28. 823. A substantive clause with quod is sometimes used like an accusa- tive of specification: as, quod me Agamemnonem aemulari putas, falleiis, as for the fact that you think I am emulating Agamemnon, you are mistaken; Nep. Epam. 5, 6. 824. Cum is sometimes used in the sense of quod, introducing a sub- stantive clause: as, hoc me beat, quom perduellis vicit, this makes me happy, that he has conquered his enemies; PI. Am. 642. Clauses introduced by cum after expressions of joy, grief, gratitude, etc., are substantive rather than causal, as appears from the use of the indicative: — magna laetitia npbis est cum te di monuere, we have great joy in the fact that the gods have warned you; Sail. Jug. 102, s- gratulor tibi, cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam, / congratulate you that you have so much influence with Doldbella; Fam. 9, 14, 3. ' Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Subjunctive 826. The subjunctive in substantive clauses, as in all sub- ordinate clauses (see 795), is developed from one or another of its uses in independent sentences. To which one of the independ- ent uses a certain type of substantive clause should be assigned, is in some cases a matter of disagreement. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volltlve Subjunctive Substantive clauses with the verb in the subjunctive are used with the following classes of verbs: — 826. .(a) As object clauses with verbs expressing will or purpose, — as, to command, induce, advise, ask, allow, decide, strive, accomplish (when the idea is one of purpose rather than result). ' The caranective is ut or ne: — suis imperavif ne quod telum reicerent, he ordered his men not to throw back 'a sM^^d3igWQr&Pitp46, 2. 244 SYNTAX OF VERBS {82^-829 quod suades, ut ad Quintum scribam, as for your advice, that I write to Quintus; Att. 11, 16, 4. peto quaesoque ut tuos mecum serves, / ask and beg you to save your friends together with me; Fam. 5, 4, 2. constitueram ut manerem, I had decided to wait; Att. 16, 10, i. eniti et efficere ut amici iacentem animum excitet, to make every effort and see to it that he rouses his friend's prostrate soul; Lael. 59. Many of these verbs take also the subjunctive without ut, an earlier form of expression, and many take a complementary infinitive; iubed, order, and veto, forbid, take the accusative and infinitive regularly. Those which contain the idea of saying or thinking may take the accusative and infinitive. 827. With the passive of these verbs the substantive clause is the subject: as, si persuasum erat Cluvio ut mentiretur, if Cluvius had been persuaded to lie; Rose. Com. 51. But verbs of admonishing have a personal subject and the object clg,use is retained: as, admoniti sumus ut caveremus, we were warned to be careful; Att. 8, 11 D, 3. 828. (b) As subject clauses with certain impersonal verbs, — as, licet, oportet, interest; with restat and sequitur, when the dependent clause expresses not a fact, but a thing to be anticipated; also with phrases like melius est, necesse est, ius est, lex est, mos est, opus est; the connective is ut or ne: — mea magnl interest te ut videam, it is of great importance to me to see you; Att. 11, 22, 2. illud restiterat, ut te in ius educerent, that had remained, to bring you into court; Quinct. 33. (Clause in apposition with subject.) quis nescit primam esse historiae legein,ne quid falsi dicere audeat? who does not know that it is the first rtde of history, that it shall not dare to say anything false? De Or. 2, 62. Many of these verbs and expressions take also the subjunctive without ut or the infinitive; so, regularly, licet and oportet. 829. (c) With verbs meaning to hinder, prevent, avoid, refuse, — g^, impedio, prohibeo, caveo, vito, recuso. The connective is ne, quin, or qu6minffl®/f/zeri iiy M/crosoft® 830-834) SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 245 qui tu id prohibere me potes ne suspicer? how can you prevent my suspecting this? PI. Trin. 87. neque recusare quin armis contendant, nor did they refuse to engage in battle; B. G. 4, 7, 3. nee aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus, . old age does not prevent our retaining an interest in agriculture; Cat. M. 60. 830. Substantive clauses are used also with the passive of these verbs: as, impedior ne plura dicam, / am prevented from saying more; Sull. 92. 831. Caveo sometimes takes the infinitive; the imperative of ten takes the subjunctive without connective. In the sense to take care that caveo takes the subjunctive with ut. 832. Of the three connectives, ne is used regularly only after an affirmative main clause, quominus after either an affirmative or a negative, qvun only after a clause that contains or implies a negative. 833. (d) With expressions of douht or ignorance when the main clause contains or implies a negative. Substantive clauses of this type are derived directly from the deliberative subjunc- tive. They occur after such expressions as non dubito, non dubium est, quis dubitat, quis ignorat, etc. The connective is qtun: — non dubitat quIn brevi sit Troia peritura, he does not doubt that Troy will quickly fall; Cat. M. 31. non esse dubium quin pliirimum Helvetii possent, that there was no doubt that the Helvetians were the most powerful; B. G. i, 3, 6. quis ignorat quin tria Graecorum genera sint? who does not know that there are three kinds of Greeks? Flac. 64. neque abest suspicio quin ipse sibi mortem consciverit, suspicion is not wanting that he committed suicide; B. G. i, 4, 4. 834. Non dubito takes also the accusative and infinitive (chiefly in late writers), the indirect question, and, in the meaning not hesitate, the infinitive alone. _. ... , , ... ^^ Digitized by Microsoft® 246 SYNTAX OF VERBS (835-838 Substaatlve Clauses Developed from the Optative Sabjuactlve Substantive clauses with the verb in the subjunctive are used as object clauses with the following classes of verbs: — 835. (a) Verbs meaning to wish. The connective, when one is used, is ut or ne, but often there is no connective: — velim ut tibi amicus sit; opto ut beatus sis, / should like him to he a friend of yours; I want you to be happy; Att. 10, 16, i. vellem me ad cenam invitasses, would that you had invited me to dinner; Fam. 12, 4, i. 836 . When vols has the idea of requesting or commanding, the dependent clause is developed from the volitive subjunctive: as, volo ut mihi respon- deas, / want you to answer me; Vat. 14. 837. With void, nolo, maid, and cupio the accusative and infinitive construction is more common; the accusative is usually omitted when the subject of the infinitive is the same as that of the main verb. 838. (b) Verbs meaning to fear. The connectives are ne, that, introducing an affirmative idea, ut, that not, introducing a negative idea. Instead of ut, ne non is used regularly after main clauses which contain or imply a negative; rarely otherwise. In the earlier paratactic form of expression vereor, ne veniat, for example, meant I am afraid, may he not come; then, I am afraid that he may come; vereor, ut veniat meant I am afraid, may he come; then, I am afraid he may not come. id paves, ne ducas tu illam; tu autem, ut ducas, you fear this, that you may marry her; you, on the other hand, that you may not marry her; Ter. And. 349. timed ne hoc propalam fiat, / am afraid that this may become known; PI. Mil. 1348. vereor ut Dolabella ipse nobis prodesse possit, / am afraid that Dolabella himself may not be able to help us; Fam. 14, 14, 1. , non vereor ne non scribendo te expleam, / do not fear that I may not satisfy you ^^gem&ilwiisfcms^ig; Fam. 2, i, t. 839-843) SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 247 839. So also when fear is only implied, as in periculum est: as, vidit periculum esse ne exercitum nequiquam tradiixisset, he saw that there was danger that he had brought his army over to no purpose; Liv. 21, 33, 9. 840. Verbs of fearing may take also the complementary infinitive, the accusative and infinitive, or the indirect question. Substantive Clauses Developed from Clauses of Result 841. Since these are derived directly from clauses of result, their origin is found in the potential subjunctive, from which the clause of result is derived. Substantive clauses of this.type with the verb in the subjunctive are introduced by ut and are used as follows: — 842. (a) With verbs meaning to bring about, accomplish, when the dependent clause states a fact (see 826); the clause is used as the object of an active verb, the subject of a passive verb : — ea feci ut essent nota, / made those things known (brought it about that they were known); Acad, i, 8. fieri non potest ut eum tu non cognoveris, it cannot be that you did not know him; Verr. 2, 190. quae res commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat, this thing made it possible for provisions to be brought; B. G. 2, 5, 5. 843. (b) As the subject of certain impersonal verbs, — as, accidit, contingit, evenit; of est {it is a fact that), accedit {there is the additional fact that), est with a predicate adjective, e.g. verum, falsum, rarum {it is true that, etc.) ; of relinquitur, restat, and sequitur, when the dependent clause states a fact: — accidit ut omnes Hermae deicerentur, it happened that all theHermae were thrown down; Nep. Ale. 3, 2. est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta, it is a fact that one man plants his vineyards more extensively than another; Hor. C. 3, i, 9. ad senectutem accedebat ut caecus esset, to old age was added the fact that he was blind; Cat. M. 16. Terum non est; sequitur ut falsum sit, it is not trus; it follows that it is false; 'Pa,^i§kzed by Microsoft® 248 SYNTAX OF VERBS (844-846 844. With tantum abest two clauses are often used, each introduced by ut; of these, one is a substantive clause, subject of abest, the other is a clause of result: as, tantum aberat ut sua signa noscerent, ut vix ad arma capienda competeret animus, so far were they from recognizing their own standards that they hardly had presence of mind to put on their armor; Liv. 22, S, 3- 845. A substantive clause of this type is often used as sub- ject with fore or futiirum esse, instead of a future infinitive active or passive; this is a necessary periphrasis when the de- pendent verb has no future infinitive: — non speraverat Hannibal fore ut tot populi ad se deficerent, Hanni- bal had not expected that so many peoples would revolt to him; Liv. 28, 44, 4. clamabant fore ut ipsi se di ulciscerentur, they cried out that the gods would avenge themselves; Verr. 4, 87. For the same usage in contrary-to-fact conclusions in indirect discourse see 981. Indirect Questions 846. An Indirect Question is a subordinate clause in- troduced by an interrogative word, — pronoun, adjective, adverb, or particle. The verb is in the subjunctive. The particles thus used are -ne, num (which does not differ in meaning from -ne), and nonne (used only after quaero). Indirect Questions are used with verbs meaning to ask, think, doubt, fear, learn, know, tell, etc., or with any other word or expression capable of introducing an interrogative idea: — [considerabimus] quid fecerit, quid factat, quid facturus sit, we shall consider what he has done, what he is doing, what he is going to do; Inv. I, 36. incerti quo fata ferant, uncertain where the fates are carrying us; Aen. 3, 7. vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte, you see how Soracte stands white with the deep snow; Hor. C. i, 9, i. Publilius itUTUsne sit et quando ex Aledio scire poteris, whether • Publilius will go and when, you can find out from Aledius; Att. 12, 24, 1, Digitized by Microsoft® 847-S49) INDIRECT QUESTIONS 249 void uti mihi respondeas num quis legem sit ausus f erre, / want you to tell me whether any one dared to propose the law; Vat. 17. quaero a te nonne oppressam rem publicam putes, / ask you whether ' you do not think the state is burdened; Phil. 12, 15. For methods of expressing future time in indirect questions see 794. 847. An indirect question ordinarily represents a direct ques- tion in the indicative; but it may represent (a) an exclamation or (b) a direct question in the deliberative subjunctive: — incredibile est quam ego ista non curem, it is incredible how little I care for those things; Att. 13, 23, 3. (representing quam ego ista non curd!) quo me vertam nescio, I don't know where to turn; Clu. 4. (rep- resenting quo me vertam?) neque satis constabat quid agerent, and it was not very clear what they would better do; B. G. 3, 14, 3. (representing quid agamus?) o 848. Sometimes, especially if the main clause contains or suggests the idea of trial or expectation, a clause introduced by si, if, to see if, is used instead of an indirect question : — quaesivit si cum Romanis militare liceret, he asked if it was per- mitted to serve with the Romans; Liv. 40, 49, 6. banc si nostri transirent hostes exspectabant, the enemy were waiting to see if our men would cross this; B. G. 2, 9, i. ad Gonnum castra movet, si poliii oppido posset, he moved his camp toward Gonnus, to see if he could take the town; Liv. 42, 67, 6. 849. Certain expressions which would naturally introduce in- direct questions had lost their original meaning and are used without effect upon the mood of the verb ; thus, nescio quis had become an indefinite pronoun, meaning some one; nescio quo, nescio unde, etc., had become adverbs: — boni nescio quo modo tardiores sunt, the good are in some way more dilatory; Sest. 100. me nescio quando venisse questus est, he complained that I had come at some ^kf^ HfiSnsoft® 250 SYNTAX OF VERBS {850-854 850. Thus, the following phrases are used regularly as adverbs: — mirum (mire) quam, wonderfully; minim quantum, tremendously; sane quam, valde quam, exceedingly; immane quantum, monstrously: — mire quam lllius loci cogitatio delectat, the thought of that place pleases me wonderfully; Alt. i, 11,3. Medus acinaces immane quantum discrepat, the Persian dagger is monstrously out of place; Hor. C. i, 27, 5. 851. The subjunctive is used regularly with forsitan, perhaps, and the clause is an indirect question, the adverb representing fors sit an. 852. In colloquial language and in poetry the word which would naturally be the subject of the indirect question is some- times taken into the main clause as object, or, rarely, if the main verb is passive, as subject: — nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit, you know Marcellus how slow he is; Fam. 8, 10, 3. quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves, in a little matter of money it is often seen how unreliable some people are (some people are seen how unreliable they are); Lael. 63. 853. Indirect Alternative Questions are regularly intro- duced by the same particles as direct alternative questions; see 372-376, 379. If the second member is a mere negation of the first, necne is more common than an non : as, quaesivi a Catilina, in noctumo conventil fuisset necne, / asked Catiline whether he had been at the nocturnal meeting or not; Cat. 2, 13. 854. Haud scio often takes an indirect question introduced by an, the first member of the alternative question being sup- pressed. This form of expression in Ciceronian Latin indicates the writer's belief in the truth of the fact contained in the question: as, haud scio an ita sit, / am inclined to think it is so; Tusc. 2, 41. So, but less commonly,^!^^ ^^^Ja^^grtum, etc., are used with an. 8s 5-^ 5?) TEMPORAL CLAUSES 25 1 , 855. The origin of the use of the subjunctive in indirect questions is not determined. It is clearly a late development, as, in early Latin, ideas which in the classical period would be expressed as indirect questions are coordinated with the main verb and are in the indicative: as, vide avaritia quid facit, see what avarice does; Ter. Ph. 358. So, sometimes in classical poetry: as, viden ut geminae stant vertice cristae? do you see how the double crests stand upon his head? Aen. 6, 779. Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses with cum 856. In early Latin cum (quom), meaning when, takes the indicative. In classical Latin cum, meaning when, takes the indica- tive if the clause refers to present or future time : — Romae videor esse cum tuas litteras lego, / seem to be in Rome when I read a letter from you; Att. 2, 15, i. timi denique interficiere cum nemo inveniii potent, etc., then at last you will he put to death when no one can be found, etc. ; Cat. 1,5. cum ego P. Graniimi testem produzero, ref ellito si poteris, when I call Publius Granius as witness, refute him if you can; Verr. 5, 1 54. 857. In classical Latin, when a temporal clause in- troduced by cum refers to past time, a distinction is sometimes made between a clause which merely defines the time of the main action and one which states a cir- cumstance connected with it; in the first case the indica- tive (historical present, imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect) is used; in the second, the subjunctive (imperfect or pluperfect). The distinction is that which is made between the relative clause of fact and the relative clause of characteristic; and the subjunctive with cum (which is a relative conjunction) is really a subjunctive of charr acteristic. The distinction is, however, not regularly observed. The subjunctive isflipii46fe/5ji»i9|-,§se^nmon than the indica- 252 SYNTAX OF VERBS {858-860 tive in temporal clauses referring to past time and is used even where no idea of characterization is apparent : — eo cum venio, praetor quiescebat, when I got there, the praetor was resting; Verr. 4, 32. quern ego cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam, while I was driving him from the city, I was anticipating this; Cat. 3, 16. Gallo narravi, cum proxime Romae f ui, quid audissem, / told Callus, when I was last in Rome, what I had heard; Att. 13, 49, 2. turn cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant, at the time when very many had lost great fortunes in Asia; Manil. 19. cum inambularem in xysto, ad me Brutus venit, while I was walking in the portico, Brutus came to me; Brut. 10. Caesari cum id nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe proficisci, when this had been reported to Caesar, he hastened to leave the city; • B. G. I, 7, I. I 858. Sometimes a clause introduced by cum is temporal only in form, and really contains the main idea of the sentence; in this case the indicative is always used and the clause follows the grammatically independent clause: — iam dilucescebat cum signum consul dedit, it was already grow- ing light when the consul gave the signal; Liv. 36, 24, 6. iamque hoc facere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in publicum procurrerunt, and they were just getting ready to do this, when the matrons suddenly rushed into the street; B. G. 7, 26, 3- 859. For the same reason the indicative is used in temporal clauses following main clauses which denote a lapse of time : as, nondum centum et decern anni sunt cum lata lex est, it is not yet a hundred and ten years since the law was passed; Off. 2, 75. 860. The indicative is used also in temporal clauses which, though they do not contain the main idea of the sentence, are still obviously statements of fact and not time-clauses: as, caedebatur virgis in medio foro, cum interea nullus gemitus audiebatur, he was beaten with rods in the middle of the forum, while meantime not a gfMW^dPi' ifleitf^fWeir. $, 162. 861-864) TEMPORAL CLAUSES 253 861. The subjunctive may be used in a temporal clause, even in early Latin, not because the clause is temporal, but for other reasons; for example, because the verb is in the indefinite second person : as, (infamia) etiam turn ^rivit quom esse credas mortuam, disgrace still lives even when you think it dead; PI. Pers. 356. Or the subjunctive may be due to attraction, or to the iterative meaning of the yerb; or it may be potential. For the use of cum meaning whenever see 904, 927. For the expression est cum, there is a time when, see 805. For the use of cum primum see 870, 873. Temporal Clauses with antequam and priusquam 862. Antequam and priusquam are combinations of an ad- verb with the relative conjunction quam; the adverbial element is often treated as a part of the main clause and is separated from the conjunction by one or more words. 863. Antequam and priusquam necessarily refer to pres- ent time in general statements only; when so used, they take the perfect indicative or the present subjunctive; rarely, the present indicative : — membris utimur priusquam didicimus, etc., we use our limbs before we have learned, etc.; Fin. 3, 66. antequam pronuntient, vocem sensim excitant, before they de- claim, they start the vocal organs gradually; De Or. i, 251. ea ante efiicit paene quam cogitat, he accomplishes these things almost before he thinks; Div. i, 120. 864. In clauses referring to future time antequam and priusquam take the present or future perfect indicative or the present subjunctive; rarely, the future indicative or the perfect subjunctive: — antequam pro L. Murena dicere institud, pro me ipso pauca dicam, before I begin to speak for Lucius Murena, I will say a few words in my own behalf; Mur. 2. nunquam conquiescam antequam illorum rationes percepero, / shall never rest until[id^^T^amJidh^fmethods ; De Or. 3, 145. 254 SYNTAX OF VERBS {865-867 antequam veniat, litteras mittet, before he comes, he will send a letter; Agr. 2, 53. priusquam quicquam convivis dabis, gustato tute prius, before you give anything to the guests, taste first yourself; PI. Ps. 885. antequam sit ea res allata, laetitia frui satis est pugnae, until that news is brought, it is enough to revel in the joy of the battle; Phil. 14, i. 865. In clauses referring to past time, antequam and priusquam take either the indicative or subjunctive; the perfect indicative (very rarely the imperfect or plu- perfect) is commonly used to denote a fact, regularly if the main clause contains a negative; the imperfect sub- junctive (rarely the pluperfect) is used to represent an act as anticipated or forestalled: — • neque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad flumen pervenerunt,o«(i they did not stop running until they reached the river; B. G. i, 53, i. priusquam educeret in aciem, orationem est exorsus, before he led {should lead) his men into battle, he began a speech; Liv. 21, 39, lo- antequam verbmn facerem, de sella surrexit, before I could utter a word, he rose from his chair; Verr. 4, 147. inde ante discessit quam ilium venisse audissem, he went away from there before I should hear {should have heard) that he had come; Att. 14, 20, 2. 866. When the main verb is a historical present, antequam and priusquam take the present subjunctive, rarely the perfect : — hunc celeriter, priusquam ab adversariis sentiatur, communit, he fortifies this quickly, before it is noticed by the enemy; B. C. i, 54, 4- non prius duces dimittunt quam ab lus sit concessum, etc., they do not let the leaders go until they have agreed, etc.; B. G. 3, 18, 7. 867. After Cicero's time the subjunctive is used more freely, where there is no idea of anticipation : as, ducentis annis antequam urbem Romam caperent, in Italiam Gall! tran- scenderunt, two hundred years before they took the city of Rome, the Gauls crossed into m^f'1^t^J^'f°^s, 868-870) TEMPORAL CLAUSES 255 868. Pridie quam, on the day before, takes the indicative or, beginning with Livy, the subjunctive; postridie quam, on the day after, takes the indicative. 869. Potius quam, rather than, takes the subjunctive, some- times (beginning with Livy) introduced by ut; except that, if the main verb is an infinitive, the subordinate verb also may be an infinitive; ante, prius, and citius are sometimes used in the sense of potius : — depugna potius quam serrias, fight it out rather than be a slave; Att. 7, 7, 7. multi potius quam ut cruciarentur se in Tiberim praecipitavenmt, many rather than be tortured threw themselves into the Tiber; Liv. 4, 12, II. debere eos Italiae t5Qus auctoritatem sequi potius qtiam unius hominis voluntati obtemperare, that they ought to follow the example of all Italy rather than yield to the wUl of a single man; B. C. I, 35, I. animam omittunt prius quam loco demigrent, they lose their lives rather than yield their ground; PL Am. 240. Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. 870. Postquam (postea quam), ubi, ut, simul atque (simul ac or simul alone, rarely simul ut or simul et), and cum primum (quom extemplo in Plautus) take the indicative, — usually the perfect or the historical present; postquam sometimes, ubi, ut, and simul atque rarely, take the im- perfect or pluperfect : — postquam Caesar pervenit, obsides poposcit, after Caesar arrived, he demanded hostages; B. G. i, 27, 3. ubi neutri transeundi initium facitmt, Caesar suds in castra reduzit, when neither side began to cross, Caesar led his troops back into camp;'B. G. 2, 9, 2. qui ut peroravit surrexit Clddius, when he finished his speech, Clodius got up; Q. Fr. 2, 3, 2. simul atque introductus est, rem confecit, as soon as he was brought in, he finished ^^kmW^l^om 2S6 SYNTAX OF VERBS {871-874 nostri simul in arido constitenint, in hostes impetum fecerunt, as soon as our men took position on dry ground, they made an attack on the enemy; B. G. 4, 26, 5. cum primum Romam veni, as soon as I came to Rome; Att. 4, 1, i. ubi lux adventabat, milites clamorem toUere iubet, when dawn was approaching, he ordered the soldiers to raise the battle-cry; Sail. Jug. 99, I- postea quam bis consul f uerat, after he had been twice consul ; Caecil. 69. 871. Following definite expressions of time postquam takes the pluperfect more commonly than the perfect. Under these circumstances post is sometimes separated from quam and is used as a preposition in the main clause ; or post may be omitted altogether:- — post diem quartum quam est in Britanniam ventum, four days after they came to Britain; B. G. 4, 28, i. sexto anno quam erat expulsus, six years after he had been exiled; Nap. Ale. 1, 5. 872. Ubi and simul atque introduce also clauses referring to future time and then take the future or future perfect indicative: — ubi primum poterit, se illinc subdiicet, as soon as she can, she'll get away from there; Ter. Eun. 628. simul ut videro Ciirionem, as soon as I see Curio; Att. 10, 4, 12. 873. Postquam is sometimes found with the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive, where it cannot be explained as potential or as due to any of the causes which might lead to the use of the subjunctive in a subordinate clause; such passages are generally regarded as corrupt and are emended. If the subjunctive is allowed to stand, it must be explained as due to the analogy of the subjunctive with cum. Ubi and cum primum also are sometimes found with the subjunctive. Tacitus sometimes uses the historical infinitive with postquam. 874. Postquam and ut sometimes have the meaning since, referring to a period of time: — • postquam natus sum, satur numquam fui, since I was born, I have never had enou^SitPsap)Mi 023-Q26) CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 271 923. Past tenses of the indicative of the active periphrastic conjugation are sometimes used in the apodosis. In such sen- tences it is often diflScult to determine whether the idea is past- future (see 918) or contrary to fact: — quibus, si Romae esset, contentus futurus erat, witk which, if he were in Rome, he would be satisfied; Att. 12, 32, 3. relicturi agros erant, nisi ad eos Metellus litteras misisset, they would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them a letter; Yerr. 3, 121. 924. If the apodosis is itself a subordinate clause, the imper- fect subjunctive remains unchanged, regardless of the tense on which it depends; instead of the pluperfect, the perfect subjunc- tive of the periphrastic conjugation is regularly used after a pri- mary tense and sometimes after a secondary tense (see 785) : — si turn P. Sestius animam edidisset, non dubito quin aliquando statua huic statueretur, if Publius Sestitts had given up the ghost then, I do not doubt that at some time a statue would be set up in his honor; Sest. 83. ^c quidnam facturus fueris, si eo tempore censor fuisses, tdl me what you would have done if you had been censor at that time; Liv. 9, 33, 7- ea res tantum tumultum praebuit ut, nisi castra Punica extra urbem fuissent, effusiira se omnis multitudo fuerit, this thing caused such a panic that, if the Punic camp had not been outside the city, the whole population would have poured out; Liv. 26, 10, 7. 925. In early Latin and in classical poetry the present and perfect subjunctive are sometimes used in contrary-to-fact conditions: — si sit domi, dicam tibi, if he were at home, I would tdl you; PI. Asin. 393. delicias tuas, ni sint inelegantes, velles dicere, you would want to talk of your pleasures, if they were not unseemly; Catull. 6, i. Other Forms of Protasis 926. The protasis of any type of conditional sentence may be expressed by a single word, a phrase, or by a clause not in the regular form of a protasis: — ^ qualem(dratidnem) nximquam Catilina victor habuisset, such a speech as Catiline i»i»^g^^ ^fl^igf^^^f^ successful; Sest. 28. 272 SYNTAX OF VERBS {g27,g28 nihil posse evenire nisi causa antecedente, that nothing can happen unless a cause precedes; Fat. 34. nemo umquam sine magna spe immortalitatis se pro patria offerret ad mortem, no one wotdd ever expose himself to death for his country without great hope of immortality; Tusc. i, 32. flliam quis habet, pecunia est opus, a man has a daughter, he needs money; Par. 44. tolle banc opinionem, luctum sustuleris, destroy this idea and you will have put an end to grief; Tusc. i, 30. dares banc vim M. Crasso, in foro saltaret, had you given this power to Marcus Crassus, he would have danced in the forum; Off. 3, 75. (dares is potential subjunctive.) absque eo esset, recte ego mihi vidissem, were it not for him, I should have looked out for myself all right; Ter. Ph. 188. Conditional Relative Sentences 927. Clauses introduced by relative words are often equivalent to protases and may have any of the forms found in conditional sentences: — haec qui videat, nonne cogatur confiteri deos esse? the man who should see this would be compelled, wouldn't he, to admit that there are gods? N. D. 2, 12. quaecumque vos causa hue attulisset, laetarer, whatever cause had brought you here, I should rejoice; De Or. 2, 15. cum rosam viderat, incipere ver arbitrabatur, whenever he saw a rose, he thought it was the beginning of spring; Verr. 5, 27. Conditional Clauses of Comparison 928. These are introduced by quasi (rarely quam si) tam- quam si, ut si, velut si, ac si (in late Latin), or ceu (chiefly in poetry); sometimes by tamquam or velut (without si). All mean as if. The subjunctive is used (probably volitive in origin), and the tense is usually determined by the sequence of tenses; sometimes, however, the imperfect or pluperfect is used after a primary tense, to mark the action as contrary to fact. The apodosis is implied in the introductory word (quam, ut, etc. ) : Digitized by Microsoft® g29, Qjo) CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 273 hie est obstandum, relut si ante Romana moenia pugnemus, here we must make a stand as if we were fighting before the walls of Rome; Liv. 21, 41, 15. ita hos (honores) petunt, quasi honeste vixerint, they seek these honors just as if they had lived honorably; Sail. Jug. 85, 19. tamquam de regno dimicaretur, ita concurrenmt, they rushed to- gether as if they were fighting for a kingdom; Liv. 40, 6, 6. deleta Ausonum gens, perinde ac si intemecivo bello certasset, the Ausonian race was destroyed, just as if it had fought in an inter- necine war; Liv. 9, 25, 9. eius negotium sic velim suscipias, ut si asset res mea, / shoidd like you to undertake his business, just as if it were my own affair; Fam. 2, 14. Clauses of Proviso 929. The present and imperfect subjunctive are used in Clauses of Proviso introduced by dum, dum modo, or modo, provided, if only. The negative is ne, sometimes (in later Latin) non. This is a development of the volitive subjunctive. The clause may express a wish entertained either by the subject of the main verb or by the writer or speaker; or it may be merely conditional: — omnia postposui, dtun modo praeceptis patris parerem, / held every- thing else secondary, in my desire to obey my father's precepts; Fam. 16, 21, 6. honesta neglegimt, dum modo potentiam consequantur, they neglect honor, if only they may obtain power; Off. 3, 82. dum res maneant, verba fingant arbitratu suo, provided the facts remain, let them make up words as they please; Fin. 5, 89. modo ne sit ex pecudum genere, provided he is not of the herd of cattle; Off. i, 105. 930. Clauses of Proviso are sometimes introduced by ut or ne: as, ita probanda est dementia, ut adhibeatur rei piiblicae causa severitas, mercy is a thing to be commended, if only strictness is observed in the interests of the state; 0&. i, 88. ■ Digitized by Microsoft® 274 SYNTAX OF VERBS {931-934 IMPERATIVE MOOD 931. The Imperative is used to express a command or request. The present calls for the immediate performance of the act. The future is used, as a rule, only when it is clear that the act is not to be performed immediately, — as, for example, when it forms the apodosis of a conditional sentence referring to the future; it is used also to express a permanent command, — in rules, laws, etc. : — proficiscere; educ tecum omnes tuos, depart; take out with you all your companions; Cat. i, lo. es, bibe, animo obsequere, eat, drink, and be merry; PI. Mil. 677. cum valetudini consulueris, tum consulito navigatidnl, when you have attended to your health, then make arrangements for the voyage; Fam. 16, 4, 3. si iste ibit, ito, if he goes, you go; PI. Ps. 863. moribus vivito antiquis, live in the old-fashioned ways; PI. Trin. 295. 932. The third person of the future imperative is used chiefly in legal statements: as, regio imperio duo stinto, there shall be two of regal power; Legg. 3, 8. 933. The future imperative of scio is used regularly, and that of habed usually, instead of the present. For quin with the imperative see 744. For the use of the imperative in the protasis of conditional sentences see 926. Negative Commands 934. Negative Commands are regularly expressed by noli or nollte with the infinitive, by cave or cavete with the present subjunctive (see 831), and by the perfect subjunctive with ne (see 768) : — noli putare quemquam pleniorem ad dicendum fuisse, do not think that any one was more fluent of speech; Brut. 125. cave eastimes me abiecisse curam rei publicae, do not think that I . have lost interest in the state; Fam. 9, 24, 4. ne sis admiratus, dSieiMzbd i%nf^sedgf^m. 7, 18, 3. 935-939) THE INFINITIVE 275 935. The present imperative with ne is used in early Latin and in ■pofetry; the future imperative with ne is used in rules, laws, etc.: — ne saevi, be not angry; Ter. And. 868. equS ne ciedite, trust not the horse; Aen. 2, 48. [Boreal ilante, ne arate, simen ne iacitd, when the north wind blows, do not plow, do not sow your seed; Plin. H. N. 18, 334. 936. Other forms of expression are cave ne, cura ne, fac ne, or vide ne with the subjunctive. The poets sometimes use the present subjunctive with ne; and they sometimes use, instead of noU, other words of similar meaning, — e.g. fugej mitte, parce. 937. Two commands, of which the second is negative (whether imperative or stibjunctive) are regularly connected by neve: — hominem mortuom in urbe ne sepelito neve urito, neither bury nor burn a dead man in the town; Legg. 2, 58. fructfis feros moUite colendo, neu segnes iaceant terrae, make the •wild fruit's edible by cultivation, and let not the lands lie idle; Georg. 2, 36. THE INFINITIVE 938. The Infinitive is a verbal noun and has charac- teristics of both noun and verb. Like a noun it may be used in certain case-constructions and it is sometimes qualified by a neuter adjective or demonstrative; like a verb it has distinctions of voice and tense, it governs the ■'Same case as its verb, and it is qualified by adverbs. The Use of the Tenses of the Infinitive 939. The tenses of the infinitive regularly denote time which is relative to tfet of the verb upon which the infinitive depends. The preser^t ten^e depojes action in progress, the perfect tense . action cQsapWsds'the future tense action still to be performed at the time 6f th«";aG^9^^^f, Jh^mdiy^erb. 276 SYNTAX OF VERBS (g40-g44 940. With some verbs which look forward to the future (for example, verbs meaning to wish or plan), the present infinitive refers to future time : — scire studeo quid egeris, I am anxious to know what you have been doing; Att. 13, 20, 3. cogito in hortis Crassipedis cenare, / am planning to dine in the gardens of Crassipes; Att. 4, 12. 941. The present infinitive is sometimes used instead of the future with verbs meaning to hope, promise, or threaten; also with verbs of saying when they contain the idea of promising: — totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant, they hope to be able to get control of all Gaul; B. G. 1, 3, 7. si operam dare promittitis, if you promise to attend; PI. Trin. 5. illi se, quae imperarentur, facere dixerunt, they said that they would do what was ordered; B. G. 2, 32, 3. 942. With verbs of remembering the present infinitive is sometimes used of a completed act: as, meministis fieri senatixs consultum, you re- member that a decree of the senate was passed; Mur. 51. 943. In indirect discourse (see 964) the perfect infinitive represents any past tense of the indicative. 944. The perfect infinitive is sometimes used instead of the present to emphasize the completion of the act: — bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfecisse, a war which we can finish before winter; Liv. 37, 19, 5. tendentes Pelion imposuisse Olympo, striving to put Pelion on Olympus, Hor. C. 3, 4, SI. For the same reason the perfect passive infinitive, usually without esse, is often used with volo (rarely with cupio and nolo): as, monitos etiam atque etiam volo, / want them warned again and again; Cat. 2, 27; also with oportet, decet, and similar verbs: as, quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit, which ought to haw been done long ago; Cat. i, 5. In poetry the use of the perfect infinitive where the present would seem more natural is, no ^J(fee,§99'*S«n^)fee to metrical reasons. Q45-94^) THE INFINITIVE 277 945. The future infinitive is used only in indirect discourse with verbs of saying, thinking, perceiving, etc., and with verbs of similar meaning, — for example, verbs meaning to hope', prom- ise, threaten, etc. 946. Instead of the future infinitive, the periphrastic form futurum esse or fore may be used, with ut and the subjunctive, either active or passive; this circumlocution is necessary when the verb has no future participle or supine: — magnam in spem veniebat fore uti pertinacia desisteret, he was becoming very hopeful that he woiM give up his obstinacy; B. G. i, 42, 3- qua ex re futurum uti totius Galliae animi a se averterentur, the result of this thing would be that the loyalty of all Gaul would be turned away from him; B. G. i, 20, 4. 947. The perfect passive participle with fore is sometimes used to denote completed action in future time: as, debellatum mox fore rebantur, they thought that the war would soon be {have been) finished; Liv. 23, 13, 6. The Uses of the Infinitive Infinitive as Nominative Case 948. The infinitive is used as subject with est and a predicate adjective; with est and an abstract predicate noun,— for example, fas est, mos est, opus est, tempus est; with est and a predicate possessive genitive; and with many impersonal verbs, — for example, decet, expedit, iuvat, licet, oportet, placet, praestat, pudet. When used in this way, the infinitive may have a subject accusa- tive and may take a predicate noun or adjective in the accusative : — longum est ea dicere, it would take a long time to tell this; Sest. 12. neque erat facile nostrls uno tempore propugnare et munire, and it was not easy for our men to fight and build fortifications at the same time; B. C. 3, 45, 3. cum vivere ipsum turpe sit, when mere living is disgraceful; Att. 13, 2°i 2. Digitized by Microsoft® 278 SYNTAX OF VERBS {949~95^ si eos hoc nomine appellari fas est, if it is right for them to be called by this name; Mur. 80. erat amentis pacem cogitare, it was a madman's act to think of peace; Lig. 28. oratdrem irasci minime decet, it is quite unbecoming for an orator to lose his temper; Tusc. 4, ^s. non esse cupidum pecunia est, not to be covetous is wealth; Par. 51. Many verbs or expressions of this sort may take a substantive clause; see 828. 949. The infinitive is sometimes used as the subject of other verbs: - non cadit invidere in sapientem, envy does not come to a wise man; Tusc. 3, 21. quos omnis eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere in iinum coegit, the fact that they desired the same things, hated the same things, feared. the same things, brought therri all together; Sail. Jug. 31,14- 950. The infinitive is used also as a nominative in apposition and as a predicate nominative: — proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum esset imperio iiti, just as if that only, to do injustice, were to make use of power; Sail; Cat. 12, 5- vivere est cogitare, to live is to think; Tusc. 5, in. Infinitive as Accusative Case 951. The infinitive without subject accusative is used with many verbs to denote another act of the same subj ect. This is called the Complementary Infinitive because it com- pletes a thought which is only introduced by the finite verb. With most verbs the infinitive is a direct object; with those which are intransitive it is used like an accusative of specifica- tion. The verbs (or verbal phrases) which take an infinitive of tl^s type are especially those meaning wish, decide, intend, prepare, strive, hasten p^ii^b^(mlmik0^ease, dare, fear, neglect, g52-g54) THE INFINITIVE 279 learn, remember, forget, ought, seem, be able, be accustomed. A predicate noun or adjective is in the same case as the subject of the main verb, — that is, usually the nominative: — bellum cum Germanis gerere constituit, he decided to wage war with the Germans; B. G. 4, 6, 5. cum primum p^buli copia esse inciperet, as soon as there began to he a supply of fodder; B. G. 2, 2, 2. nobiscum versari iam diutius non potes, you.cannot live with us any longer; Cat. i, 10. fieri studebam doctior, / was eager to become more wise; Lael. i. Some of these verbs may take a substantive clause instead of the infini- tive; see 826, 835. 952. An infinitive of this type may take a subject accusative even when it refers to the same person as the subject of the main verb, — but rarely, unless the infinitive is esse, videri, putarl, or dici: — cupio me esse clementem, I want to he merciful; Cat. i, 4. gratum se videri studet, he is eager to seem grateful; Off. 2, 70. 953. As an abstract noun the infinitive may be used as the object of a verb, or in apposition with the object, or as an accu- sative case with a preposition: — hie vereri perdidit, he has lost his sense of shame; PI. Bac. 158. ut totum hoc beate vivere in una virtute poneret, that he should base this whole matter of a happy life on virtue done; Tusc. 5, 33. tu das epulis accumbere (Uvum, you give me the privilege of reclining at the feasts of the gods; Aen. i, 79. misereri, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appel- lant, pity, envy, longing, joy, alt these things the Greeks call dis- eases; Tusc. 3, 7. nil praeter plorire, nothing except weeping; Hor. S. 2, 5, 69. The infinitive with subject accusative is used with the following verbs : — 954. (1) Verbs meaning say, think, know, perceive. This is the construction of principal clauses in indirect discourse; see 965. Digitized by Microsoft® 28o SYNTAX OF VERBS {955-957 The subject accusative is sometimes omitted, but rarely unless it would be me, nos, te, vos, or se. When the subject is omitted, a predicate noun or adjective is sometimes in the nominative, but chiefly in poetry: — stulte fecisse fateor, / admit that I have acted foolishly ; PI. Bac. 1013. oblitum credidi, / thought he had forgotten; Fam. 9, 2, i. ait fuisse navium celerrimus, it says it was the swiftest of boats, CatuU. 4, 2; uxor invicfi lovis esse nescis, you forget that you are the wife of unconquerable Jove; Hor. C. 3, 27, 73. 955. (2) Verbs denoting emotion, — for example, joy, grief, indignation, complaint, pride, wonder; these are verbs of thinking or saying, and the dependent con- struction may properly be regarded as indirect dis- course : — salvom te advenisse gaudeo, / am glad that you have arrived in safety; Ter. Ph. 286. ne querantur se esse relictas, lest they complain that they have been deserted; Tusc. 5, 14. 956. (3) Verbs meaning order, compel, forbid, permit, or teach: — tertiam aciem castra munire iussit, he ordered the men of the third line to fortify the camp; B. G. i, 49, 2. hunc patiemur fieri miserum? are we going to let him become unhappy? Ter. Ph. 536. Some verbs of these meanings may take a substantive clause; see 826. 957. (4) Verbs of wishing, when the subject of the infinitive is different from that of the verb upon which it depends : — hoc te scire volui, I wished you to know this; Att. 7, 18, 4. eas res iactari nolebat, he did not wish these things disacssed; B. G. i, jg j_ Digitized by Microsoft® g^S-gdo) the infinitive 281 Infinitive with Passive Verbs 958. Many verbs which in the active voice take the infinitive with subject accusative are used also in the passive voice with a dependent infinitive. J Verbs of saying, thinking, etc., are used either personally or impersonally in the present system and, as a rule, impersonally in the perfect system and in the periphrastic conjugation : — centum pagos habere dicuntur, they are said to have a hundred can- tons; B. G. 4, I, 4. dicitur eo tempore matrem Pausaniae vixisse, it is said that the mother of Pausanias lived at that time; Nep. Paus. 5, 3. traditum est Homerum caecum fuisse, there is a tradition that Homer was blind; Tusc. 5, 114. dicendum est nullam esse rem publicam, it must be said that there is no state; Rep. 3, 43. 959. Videor, seem, is used, as a rule, personally in all forms; credo, believe, impersonally; other verbs impersonally if they have. a dependent dative: as, Caesari nuntiatur Sulmonenses cupere ea facere quae vellet, it is announced to Caesar that the people 0} Sulmo are eager to do what he wishes; B. C. i, 18, i. Infinitive with Adjectives 960. In poetry beginning with the Augustan period (rarely in earlier poetry) and in post-Augustan prose the infinitive is used with many adjectives, especially those which denote wish, ability, fitness (or the reverse) to do something. This use is like that of the complementary infinitive with verbs or the supine in -u with adjectives: — avidi committere pugnam, eager to begin the fight; Ov. Met. 5, 75. fortis tractare serpentes, brave enough to handle serpents; Hor. C. i, 37, 26. nescia humanis precibus mansuescere corda, hearts that knew not how to be merciful to human prayers; Georg. 4, 470. niveus videri, snoiB'isiMti'tMMM^o^r. C. 4, 2, 59. 282 SYNTAX OF VERBS ig6i-g64 Infinitive of Exclamation 961. The infinitive with or without subject accusative is used in exclamations. The interrogative enclitic -ne is often attached to the emphatic word : — hoc non videre! the idea of not seeing this! Fin. 4, 76. non pudere! that he shouldn't be ashamed/ Ter. Ph. 233. mene incepto desisterel that I should abandon my purpose/ Aen. Infinitive of Purpose 962. The infinitive is used in poetry to denote pur- pose, — chiefly with verbs of motion and with verbs meaning to give or undertake: — non Libycos populare Penatis venimus, we have not come to pillage the Libyan homes; Aen. i, 527. loricam donat habere viro, he gives the man a breastplate to wear; Aen. s, 260. quis sibi res gestas Augusti scribere suinit? who takes upon him- self to write the achieoem^nts of Augustus? Hor. Epis. i, 3, 7. The expression do bibere, give to drink, occurs in prose as. well s^ poetry. Historical Infinitive ' 963. In animated narration the present infinitive'may be used instead of the imperfect (rarely the perfect) indica- tive. The subject is in the nominative. Beginning with Sallust the historical infinitive is used rarely in dependent clauses, — relative and temporal : — cottidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, eo'ery day Caesar demanded grain of the Haedui; B. G. i, 16, i; Catilina poUiceri tabulas novas, Catiline promised abolition of debts; Sail. Cat. 21, 2. postquam exui aequalitas, when equality was overthrown; Ta.c. Ann. 3, 26. Indirect Discourse 964. Direct Discourse is the quotation, without change, of onojs own or another's words or thoughts in the form of an independent sent^}ia»feec/ by Microsoft® 965-968) INDIRECT DISCOURSE 283 Indirect Discourse is the quotation, with the necessary changes of pronouns, tense, person, etc., of one's own or another's words or thoughts in the form of a depend- ent sentence, — the object of a verb of saying or think- ing expressed or implied. The construction of indirect discourse is used also after verbs of knowing and perceiving, and after many- other verbs which express or suggest in any way the idea of speech or thought. Declarative Sentences in Indirect Discourse 965. In declarative sentences in indirect discourse the infinitive with subject accusative is used in all principal clauses, the subjunctive in all subordinate clauses. 966. For the use of the tenses of the infinitive in principal clauses see 939, 941-943, 946-947. The tenses of the subjunctive are regularly treated according to the rule for the sequence of tenses (see 781), the sequence being determined by the tense of the verb of saying etc., which introduces the indirect discourse. For the treatment of original futures and future perfects, which have no corresponding tenses in the subjunctive, see 794. 967. The present and perfect subjunctive are often used even when the introductory verb is in a secondary tense; this irregularity (called repraesentatio) is due to a feeling that the statement is made more vivid by representing the action as occurring or as completed in present time. In the course of a long passage in indirect discourse the sequence may change several times. ■ For the use of the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive with a perfect infinitive after a primary tense see 793. 968. Verbs of remembering with the present infinitive (see 942) take the secondary sequence. „. .. ,, ... ,^ Digitized by Microsoft® 284 SYNTAX OF VERBS {969-971 969. Examples of declarative sentences in indirect dis- course : — proponit esse nonnuUos quorum auctoritas apud plebem plurimum valeat, he declares that there are some whose authority among the common people is very great; B. G. 1, 17, i. satis esse causae arbitrabatur quare in eum animadverteret, he thought there was sufficient reason why he should punish him; B. G. i, 19, i. regi patefecit Numidiae partem quam nunc peteret turn adven- turam, he made it clear to the king that the part of Numidia which he new sought would then come to him; Sail. Jug. iii, i. erilem filium eius duxisse audio uxorem, I hear that his master's son has got married; Tar. Ph. 39. legati venerunt, qui se ea quae imperasset facturos pollicerentur, envoys came, to promise that they would do what he should order; B. G. 4, 22, I. Ariovistus respondit, si iterum expeiiri velint, se paratum esse decer- tare, Ariovistus replied that, if they wanted to try a second time, he was ready to fight it out; B. G. i, 44, 4. (Repraesentatio.) hunc aiunt, cum taurum immolavisset, mortuum concidisse, they say that after he had sacrificed the hull he fell dead; Brut. 43. (Tense of the subordinate verb due to the perfect infinitive.) meministine me dicere fore in armis certo die, qui dies futiirus esset ante diem sextum Kal. Novembris, C. Manlium? do you remember that I said that Gaius Manlius would be under arms on a certain day, which day would be the sixth before the Kalends of November? Cat. i, 7. For the occasional omission of the subject of the main verb see 954. 970. The verb of saying etc. must sometimes be supplied from the context: as, omnes Caesari ad pedes proiecerunt: non minus se id contendere, all threw themselves at Caesar's feet, (saying) that no less were they striving for this, etc.; B. G. i, 31, 2. 971. A comparative with quam in indirect discourse is often followed by the accusative and infinitive: as, noime aAtmasm. quidvis me potius perpessurum quam ex Italia exiturum? did I not declare that I would endure anything whatever rather than leave Italy? Fam. 2, 16,3. Tlj^^ii^jy^j^y^sg^ut maybe used; seeSOl. 972-974) INDIRECT DISCOURSE 285 972. When one subject is compared with another in indirect discourse by means of such phrases as idem qui, a comparative with quam, tantus quantus, etc., and it is apparent that the second verb would be the same as the first, the second verb, which would naturally be in a finite mood, is omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative: — te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum conunoTeri, / suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as myself; Cat. M. i. (properly, quibus ipse commoveor.) aiebat se tantidem aestimasse quanti Sacerdotem, he said he put the same price on it as Sacerdos; Verr. 3, 215. (properly, quanti Sacerdos aestimasset.) 973. A subordinate clause may have the indicative, (a) if it is not a part of the indirect discourse, but an explanatory statement; or, (b) if the writer wishes to emphasize or vouch for the statement contained in the clause: — Caesari renuntiatur Helvetiis esse in animo iter in Santonum fines facere, qui non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, quae civitas est in provincia, it is announced to Caesar that the Helvetians are planning to make an expedition into the territory of the Santones, who are not far distant from the territory of the Tolosates, a state which is in the province; B. G. i, 10, i. video esse hie in senatu quosdam qiu tecum una fuerunt, I see that here in the senate there are certain ones who were with you; Cat. I, 8. 974. Clauses introduced by a relative pronoun are sometimes inde- pendent; see 710. In indirect discourse these are treated as principal clauses and have the accusative and infinitive. So also, occasionally, clauses introduced by cum, ut {as), quamquam, etc.: — censent unum quemque nostrum mundi esse partem, ex quo ( = et ex eS) illud nature cSnsequi, they think that each one of us is a pari of the uni- verse,from which this naturally follows ; Fin. 3, 64. ez quo intellegi potuit, ut mare ventorum vi agitari, sic populum Roma- num hominum seditiosorum vocibus concitari, from which it could be understood that as the sea is disturbed by the violence of the winds, so the Roman pegi^iSMl^p'M^kkf^f^'"''^^ °S agitators; CIu. 138. 286 SYNTAX OF VERBS (.975-979 Questions in Indirect Discourse 975. The subjunctive is used in any question in indirect discourse which in its original form had its verb in the second person. If in its original form the verb was in the first or third person, a real question, which expected an answer, has the sub- junctive; a rhetorical question, which expected no answer, has the accusative and infinitive: — si bonum ducerent, quid pro noxio danmassent? if they thought him a good man, why had they condemned him as guilty? Liv. 27> 34, 13- num recentium iniuriarum memoriam (se) deponere posse? cotdd he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? B. G. i, 14, 3. 976. An original subjunctive in a deliberative question is always retained in indirect discourse. Commands in Indirect Discourse . 977. Commands — whether originally imperative or subjunctive — have the verb in the subjunctive in indi- rect discourse. The tense is usually determined by the regular principles of sequence : — nuntius venit bellum Atheniensis indixisse; quare venire ne dubi- taret, a message came that the Athenians had declared war; where- fore he should not hesitate to come; Nep. Ages. 4, i. respondit: si ab armis discedere velint, se adiutore utantur legatos- que ad Caesarem mittant, he replied: if they wanted to lay down their arms, let them take his advice and send envoys to Caesar; B. G. 5, 41, 7. (Tenses due to repraesentatio.) 978. Some verbs of saying etc. may denote will or desire and are then followed by an object clause: as, Pythia respondit ut moenibus ligneis se milnirent, the Pythian priestess replied that they should defend themselves with wooden walls; Nep. Them. 2, 6. Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse 979. The protasis is a subordinate clause and has the subjiyictive. The apodosis is aDl§!t^t^\sim)iom^<^ has the accusative g8o) INDIRECT DISCOURSE 287 and infinitive, unless it was originally imperative or horta- tory, in which case the subjunctive is used ; see 914, 977. The tenses are in general determined by the principles of sequence. Conditions of Pact or Possibility 980. These may be treated together, as there is no distinc- tion in indirect discourse between future conditions that were originally in the indicative and those that were originally in the subjunctive. In both cases the tense of the protasis is deter- mined by the sequence and the apodosis has the future infinitive. Examples : — lovem sic aiunt philosophi, si Graece loquatur, loqui, the philosophers say that Jove speaks thus, if he speaks Greek; Brut. 121. (Direct: si loquitur . . . loquitur.) respondit: si quid ille se velit, ilium ad se venire oportere, he replied: if he {Caesar) wanted anything of him, he ought to come to him; B. G. I, 34, 2. (Direct: si vult . . . oportet; present subjunc- tive due to repraesentatio.) non dicam ne illud quidem, si maxime in culpa fuerit ApoUonius, tamen in hominem. honestissimum tarn graviter animadverti non oportuisse, / will not say this either, that if ApoUonius was very much at fault, still so severe a punishment ought not to have been inflicted upon a most honorable man; Verr. 5, 20. (Direct: si fuit . . . oportuit.) erat scriptum, nisi domum reverteretur, se capitis eum damnatiirds, it had been written that unless he returned home, they would con- demn him to death; Nep. Paus. 3, 4. (Direct: nisi reverteris . . . damnabimus.) sensit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tarn necessario se relictum, f uturum. ut ceteri consilium sequerentur, he saw that if it should get abroad that he had been deserted by d man so closely connected, the result would be that others would adopt that policy; Nep. Dat. 6, 3. (Direct: si exierit . . . sequentur; see 946.) Toluptatem si ipsa pro se loquatur concess^ram arbitror dignitati, I think that if .Pleasure should speak for'herself, she would admit her inferiority to Merit; Fin. 3, i. (Direct: si loquatur . . . concedat.) Digitized by Microsoft® 288 SYNTAX OF VERBS (98 1, 982 Conditions Contrary to Fact 981. Conditional sentences of the third type (contrary to fact) are treated in indirect discourse as follows: — The mood and tense of the protasis remain unchanged. The verb of the apodosis, if active, takes the form of the future active participle with fuisse (rarely esse). The verb of the apodosis, if passive, is represented in indirect discourse by futiirum fuisse followed by ut with the imperfect subjunctive. Examples: — illud Asia cogitet, nuUam calamitatem afuturam fuisse, si hoc impe- rio non teneretur, let Asia think this, that no disaster would be lacking, if she were not held by this government; Q. Fr. i, i, 34. (Direct: abesset . si non tenerer.) clamitabat Eburones, si ille adesset, ad castra (non) ventiiTds esse, he kept crying out that the Eburones, if he were there, would not be coming to the camp; B. G. 5, 29, 2. (Direct: si adessem . . . venirent.) (apparebat), si diiitius vixisset, Hamilcare duce Poen6s anna Italiae inlatiiros fuisse, it was evident that if he had lived longer, under the leadership of Hamilcar the Carthaginians would have brought war into Italy; Liv. 21, 2, 2. (Direct: si vixisset . . . intiilissent.) nisi niintii de Caesaris victoria essent allati, existimabant plerique futiirum fuisse uti (oppidum) amitteretur, unless reports about Caesar's victory had been brought, most people thought that the town would have been lost; B. C. 3, loi, 3. (Direct: nisi essent allati . . . amissum esset.) 982. If the verb of the apodosis was in the indicative in the direct form (see 921-923), it becomes the perfect infinitive in the indirect: as, Platonem existimo, si genus forense dicendi tractare voluisset, gravissime potuisse dicere, I think that Plato, if he had wanted to cultivate the forensic style of oratory, might have been a 294 SYNTAX OF VERBS {10O3-IOO7 Gerundive and Gerund 1003. The future passive participle is used most often as a verbal adjective in agreement with a noun, referring either to present or to future time, and con- taining no idea of intention, necessity, or propriety. When so used it is called the gerundive. The gerund is the- neuter singular of the gerundive used as an active verbal noun in the genitive, dative, accusative and ablative. As a noun it is governed by other words; as a verb it may have an object. The essential difference between the gerundive and the gerund is the fact that the gerundive is grammatically passive and agrees with a substantive, while the gerund is grammatically active and, if transitive, has an object. 1004. The gerund of an intransitive verb may be used in any oblique case. The gerund of a transitive verb is practically never used in the dative or accusative, or in the ablative with a preposition; it occurs rarely in the genitive, more often in the ablative without a preposition, but in both cases chiefly when the object is a neuter pronoun or neuter plural adjective used substantively. Case-Constructions ot Gerundive and Oerund 1005. The case-constructions of the gerundive phrase and the gerund, so far as they are found, are the same as those of nouns. . 1006. The genitive is used with substantives and adjec- tives: — proelii committendi signum, the signal for beginning the battle; B. G. 2,21,3. insuetus navigandi, unused to sailing; B. G. 5, 6, 3. cupidus te audiendi, eager to hear you; De Or. 2, 16. 1007. With causa or ^atia the genitive expres^.es purpose: — exercendae memoriae gratia, for the sake of training the memory; • Cat. M. 38. praedandi ca.usii,fdpim^fi^oM «"P«' 298 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS (1023-JO28 1023. In and sub, when used with the accusative, denote place whither; when used with the ablative, place where. Subter is used regularly with the accusative; rarely, in poetry, with the ablative. Super, meaning upon, at, or in addition to, is used with the accusative; meaning concerning, with the ablative. 1024. Dissyllabic prepositions are sometimes postpositive; that is, they follow the noun. Ad, cum, and de often follow a relative, and cum is regularly attached to a personal or reflexive pronoun as an enclitic. 1025. Certain adjectives and adverbs are sometimes used as prepositions. The following are used with the accusative: — propior propius pridie clam proximus proxime postridie usque 1026. Propior, proximus, propius, and proxiine are used also with the dative, and with the ablative with ab. Pridie and postridie are used also with the genitive. Clam occurs very rarely as a preposition except in early Latin. Usque is rarely used as a preposition; it is commonly com- bined with ad in the phrase iisque ad. 1027. The following adverbs are sometimes used as prepo- sitions with the ablative: — palam procul simul The use of these words as prepositions occurs only in poetry and late prose. In Ciceronian prose procul is always used with ab, simul with cum. SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS 1028. Conjunctions are either coordinating or suibor- dinating. Coordinating conjunctions connect two mem- bers, — words, phrases, or clauses, — usually of similar grammatical nature; if clauses, both are independent or both are dependent. Subordinating conjunctions con- nect dependent clauses with the clauses upon which they dfepend. Digitized by Microsoft® I02g-I035) COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 299 COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (a) Copulative Conjunctions 1029. The copulative conjunctions are et, -que, atque (ac), neque (nee), neve (neu), etiam, and quoque. 1030. Et and -que simply connect, but -que is used regularly when the two members naturally belong together: — hos video et de re publica sententiam rogo, I see them and ask their opinion about the state; Cat. i, 9. senatus populusque Romanus, the senate and the Roman people; Plane. 90. 1031. Et is sometimes used in the sense of etiam, too, es- pecially before pronouns: as, et ilia iure laudantur, those things too are justly praised; Tusc. 3, 28. 1032. When -que connects two words it is attached to the second. When the second member is a phrase or clause, it is ■usually atta:ched to the first word; but if the first word is a preposition, especially if it is monosyllabic, the enclitic may be attached to the second: as, sub occasumque solis sequi desti- terunt, and toward sunset they gave up the pursuit; B. G. 2, 11, 6. 1033. When there are more than two members et may precede each, or all but the first, or may be omitted altogether; or., rarely, the last two only are connected, usually by -que attached to the last. The repetition of -que in a series of more than two members occurs only in poetry. 1034. Two adjectives qualifying the same noun are regularly con- nected. 1035. Atque (ac) is used when the second member is more important than the first. It is used also after words of likeness pr unlikeness,, — Idem, alius, simul, contra, etc., — in the sense of as, than, etc.; also after comparatives, but, with very few exceptions, only when ffetf'fefetyiMenibi^^contains a negative: — 300 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS {1036-IO39 simul atque de Caesaris adventu cognitum est, as soon as the arrival of Caesar was reported; B. G. 5, 3, 3. non dm secus ac sentiebam, / did not speak otherwise than I thought; De Or. 2, 24. baud minus ac iussi faciunt, they do no less than they were ordered; Aen. 3, 561. For the use of atque or ac see 1038. 1036. Neque (nee) is usually equivalent to et non; neve (neu) is equivalent to et ne : — non 'wderunt nee sciunt, they did not see and do not know; Tull. 24. ufi suae pristinae virtutis memoriam retinerent neu perturbarentur animo, that they should keep the memory of their former valor and should not he disturbed in mind; B. G. 2, 21, 2. Neque is sometimes used instead of neve : as, suadebit tibi ut discedas neque verbum ullum respondeas, he will advise you to go away and answer not a word; CaecO. 52. 1037. Nee ullus is ordinarily used instead of et nullus, nee umquam instead of et numquam, etc. But et and a negative may be used if the negative belongs to a single word: as, si te Tarentum et non Samarobrivam misissem, if I had sent you to Tarentum and not to Samarohriva; Fam. 7, 12, i. 1038. Atque and neque are used before vowels or conso- nants; ae and nee are never used in prose before vowels and rarely before e, g, and qu; the poets sometimes violate this principle. 1039. Etiam (as a conjunction) and quoque, too, connect a word with another word to be supplied from the context. Etiam usually precedes, quoque always follows the word to which it belongs: — etiamne hoc negabis? will you deny this also? (i.e. this and something else); PL Am. 760. patriae quis exsul se quoque fugit? what exile from his country has escaped himself also? (i.e. himself and his country); Hor. C. 2, 16 10. Digitized by Microsoft® IO40-IO44) COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 301 (6) Disjunctive Conjunctions 1040. The disjunctive conjunctions are aut, vel, -ve, sive (seu), and an. These denote difference or choice. 1041. Aut connects alternatives which are as a rule essen- tially different and of which one excludes the other: as, hie vincendum aut moriendum est, here you must conquer or die; Liv. 21, 43, s. 1042. Vel (an old imperative of volo) implies a choice be- tween alternatives which are not mutually exclusive, or merely between forms of expression : — orabant ut sibi auzilium ferret, vel exercitum modo Rhenum transportafet, they begged him to bring them help or {if he wished) only bring his army across the Rhine; B. G. 4, 16, 5. post obitum vel pothis excessum Romuli, after the death or rather the departure of Romulus; Rep. 2, 52. Vel sometimes introduces an example and may be translated for in- stance; it is used before superlatives in the sense of even. In poetry and late prose it is used instead of aut. 1043. Sive (seu) as a disjunctive conjunction denotes a non- essential distinction or uncertainty on the part of the speaker or writer : — quid perturbatius hoc ab urbe discessu sive potius turpissima fuga? what more like a panic than this departure from the city or rather this most disgraceful flight? Att. 8, 3, 3. urbem matri seu novercae reliquit, he left the city to his mother or (jf the other story is true) to his stepmother; Liv. 1,3,3. For sive introducing a grotasis see 910. 1044. The enclitic -ve denotes a non-essential distinction ; it usually connects words, phrases, or dependent clauses: — amici regis duotresve, two or three friends of the king; Att. 6, i, 3. decretum ut consules sortirentur compararentve inter se, it was decreed that the consuls should draw lots or arrange between themselves; Liv. 24, 10, 2. For the use of an see zi^m.^ ^^ Microsofm 302 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS {1045-1050 1045. Both copulative and disjunctive conjunctions may be used as correlatives, — that is, they may stand before each alternative or before each member of a series of three or more: as, et . . . et, both . . . and; neque . . . neque, neither . . . nor; aut . . . aut, either . . . or; in poetry and later prose, -que . . . -que and -que . . . ac ; when one member is affirm- ative and the other negative, et . . . neque or neque . . . et. For the use of cum . . . turn see 901. Many adverbs are used in this way, losing wholly or partly their adver- bial force: as, nunc . nunc, mode . . . modo, qua . . . qua. (c) Adversative Conjunctions 1046. The adversative conjunctions are autem, sed tamen, at, etc. These usually denote modification or contradiction. 1047. Autem is the weakest, denoting contrast or merely transition; it may usually be translated however, but sometimes, when there is no suggestion of contrast, it may be translated moreover. Autem is postpositive, — that is, it stands after the first (sometimes after the second) word of its clause. 1048. Sed, verum, and ceterum, hut, contradict or modify a previous statement; sed is sometimes used in a weaker sense, simply to introduce a new thought or to resume an old one. Vero, hut, in fact, is stronger except in the historians, where it is often equivalent to autem; vero is postpositive. 1049. Tamen, nevertheless, yet, introduces a statement in opposition to a previous one which is in form or sense con- cessive or adversative; it may stand first in its clause or follow an emphatic word. 1050. At, hut (sometimes ast in poetry), introduces an oppos- ing argument or the imaginary objection of an opponent or a sharp transition of thsftil/gi^ iiylrotoid/lKJing an apodosis it may IO51-I054) COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 303 be translated at least: as, si genus humanum tenmltis, at spe- rate deos memores, if you scorn the human race, at least expect the gods to remember; Aen. i, 542. Atqui, and yet, is an emphatic form of at. 1051. The following correlative uses of adversative conjunc- tions are common: — non solum (or non modo) .... sed etiam, not only . . . hut also. non modo non .... sed ne . . quidem, not ordy not . . . but not even. But non modo (followed by ne . . . quidem) is used instead of non modo non if the two members have a verb in common Eind the verb stands in the second member: as, non modo praesidi quicquam sed ne nuntius quidem cladis Romam est missus, not only no guard, but not even a messenger of the disaster was sent to Rome; Liv. 5, 38, 9. (d) Logical Conjunctions 1052. The logical conjunctions are itaque, igitur, ergo, etc. These introduce a statement which is the logical result of a preceding statement. Igitur is usually post- positive. (e) Causal Conjunctions 1053. The causal conjunctions are nam, namque, enim, etenim. These introduce the reason for a preced- ing statement or an explanation of it. Enim is postpositive except in Plautus and Terence, where it almost always has its original meaning of indeed, really, and may stand at the beginning of its clause. ASYNDETON 1054. Asyndeton is the omission of a coordinating con- junction between members that would naturally be connected. This occurs especially in lively narrative and is more common when there are more ^)^^g^^^pi^/fjQ%^gf^rs than when there are 304 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS {1054 only two; see 1033. It occurs also in certain common combi- nations: as, luppiter Optimus Maximus; and when the year is designated by the consuls' names (unless only the nomen or cognomen is given) : as, M. Messalla M. Pisone consulibus, in the consulship of Marcus Messalla and Marcus Pisa; B. G. i, 2, i. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Subordinating conjunctions, — cum, ut, quamquam, si, etc., — ■ are treated under the head of Subordinate Clauses. Digitized by Microsoft® ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 1066. The arrangement of words in a clause depends to a greater or less degree upon their relative importance. It is based upon the principle that the elements of the thought are expressed in order of emphasis, the subject being normally the most emphatic. The position of the verb, which normally stands at the end, is an apparent exception to this principle, but in most clauses the verb serves only to make definite an idea which has been already anticipated from the meaning or construction of the preceding words. 1066. The normal order, so far as one may be formu- lated, is as follows: — 1. Subject. 2. Words qualifying the subject (not necessarily im- portant, but closely connected in sense with the subject, and really forming a part of it) . ■ 3. Direct Object (if there is one). 4. Adverbs qualifying , the verb. 5. Verb. An indirect object stands normally either before or after a direct object (if there is one). The position of other elements (for example, ablatives of cause, means, etc., and prepositional phrases) is determined in part by the emphasis which the writer wishes to give to them. The following details are noteworthy: — 1067. (i) Qualifying words normally follow the words which they qualify; these include descriptive and possessive • adjectives, indefinite pronominal adjectives, ordinal numerals, appositives, and geni^j^ed by Microsoft® 3°S 3o6 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS {1058-1063 But the following qualifying words normally precede the words which they qualify: — demonstrative adjectives (except ille when it means the well-known), adjectives of quantity (multus, totus, etc.), and cardinal numerals. 1058. (2) Relative and interrogative words normally stamd first in their clauses ; also demonstrative words or phrases which serve to connect a clause with a preceding one: as, ad eas res conficiendas Org'etorix deligitur, to accomplish these things Orgetorix is chosen; B. G. i, 3, 3. 1059. (3) When a noun is accompanied by a qualifying word, a case-form depending either upon the noun or upon the qualifying word usually stands between them : — maiore iumentormn quam hominum pemicie, with greater loss oj baggage-animals than men; Liv. 21, 35, i. subiectos Alpinis montibus campos, the fields lying at the foot of the Alps; Liv. 21, 35, 8. 1060. (4) Vocatives usually stand after one or more words in the sentence. 1061. (5) Most adverbs normally precede the words which they quahfy. 1062. (6) A monosyllabic preposition is often inserted be- tween an adjective and its noun: as, una ex parte, on one side; B. G. I, 2, 3. A preposition is often separated from its noun by a qualifying word: as, a Tolosatium finibus, /row the territory of the Tolosates; B. G. i, 10, i. For postpositive prepositions see 1024. 1063. (7) A governing word is often inserted between a noun and its qualifying word: as, eodem usi ccmsiiib, following the same plan; B. G. i, 5, 4. For postpositive conjunctions see 1047, 1052, 1053. The normal order is liable to unlimited variation, by which all possible shades of emphasis may be expressed. EmpHasis is secure^ j^^J^e^ollo^ng ways: - I064-1068) ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 307 1064. (i) By putting a word in a position in the clause earlier than that in which it would normally stand, especially by giving it the first place: — magna dis immortalibus habenda est gratia, great gratitude is due to the immortal gods; Cat. i, 11. Romam quae asportata sunt, the things which were carried to Rome (contrasted with those left at Syracuse); Verr. 4, 121. 1065. (2) By putting before a noun a qualifying word which would normally follow it: — Romae ad primum nuntium cladis eius ctun ingenti terrore ac tumultu concuTsus in fonun populi est factus, at Rome (empha- sized to denote change of scene) at the first news 0} this disaster, in great alarm and confusion, a crowd of people gathered in the forum (primum and ingenti emphatic); Liv. 22, 7, 6. cur ego non ignoscam, si anteposuit suam salutem meae? why should I not forgive him if he put his (mm safety before mine? Pison. 79. Emphasis may be given also by separating a qualifying word from the word which it qualifies: as, haec res unius est propria Caesaris, this thing belongs to Caesar alone; Marc. 11. 1066. (3) By putting together words of contrasted meaning or similar origin: as, quod victoribus victi ultro inferrent arma, because the conquered actually brought war upon their conquerors; Liv. 21, I, 3. 1067. (4) By reversing the order of words in the second pair, when one pair is contrasted with another: as, finis et Gallls territandi et pavendi fuit Romams, the Gauls ceased to terrify and the Romans to fear; Liv. 21, 25, 13. This is called Chiasmus. The use of the same order in the second pair is called Anaphora: as, princeps in proelium ibat, ultinxus ezcedebat, he was the first to go into battle, the last to come out; Liv. 21, 4,-8. 1068. The following facts may be noted regarding subordi- nate clauses: — • Relative clauses normally follow the clause containing the ante- cedent; for relative clau^s.prep|dj[gg.di^ntecedent see 696. 3o8 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS (1069 Clauses of result, substantive clauses, and indirect questions normally follow the main clause. Temporal, adversative, conditional, and purpose clauses nor- mally precede the main clause. When the subject or object of the main and subordinate clauses is the same, or when the subject of one is the object (either direct or indirect) of the other, it usually stands at the beginning of the sentence: — hostes, ubi primtun nostros equites conspexerunt, nostros per- turbaverunt, the enemy, as soon as they saw our cavalry, put our men to flight; B. G. 4, 12, i. Caesari cum id nuntiatum est, maturat ab urbe proficisci, when this was announced to Caesar, he hastened to set out from the city; B. G. i, 7, i. • 1069. The arrangement of words was affected also by the desire to produce a rhythmical succession of sounds and by the individual habit of the writer. The position of the subject at the beginning and that of the verb at the end were fixed by custom. The position of words in the middle of a clause was not so definitely established; ablatives, prepositional phrases, even forms of the verb sum (which do not stand habitually at the end) seem to be placed anywhere in the middle of the clause. These could be shifted without great change of em- phasis, and their arrangement is probably often to be explained as a matter of rhythm or habit rather than emphasis. In poetry the arrangement is affected also by the restrictions of meter and by the possibility of securing emphasis by placing a word at the beginning or end of a verse. Digitized by Microsoft® FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC 1070. Alliteration is the repetition of sounds; the term is used most frequently of a series of two or more words beginning with the same letter. Anacoluthon is a change in the construction of a sentence which leaves the first part without proper grammatical con- nection : — ceterae philosophSnim disciplinae . . . eas nihil adiuvare arbitror, the other instructions of the philosophers . . . these I think give no help; Fin. 3, II. Analogy is similarity in form or expression; to this are due many forms and constructions. Anaphora is the use of the same or a similar word in the same place in successive clauses: — ter si resuTgat murus aeneus, ter pereat, ter uxor capta virum pidret, if three times the wall of bronze should rise, three times would it fall, three times would the captive wife bewail her husband; Hor. C. 3, 3, 65. (See 1067.) Anastrophe is the use of a preposition after its case. Antithesis is the juxtaposition of contrasted ideas: — vincere scis, victoria uti nescis, you know how to conquer, you do not know how to use your victory; Liv. 22, 51, 4. Aposiopesis is an abrupt pause in a sentence, for rhetorical effect : — quos ego — sed mStos praestat compSnere fluctiis, whom I — but it is better to calm the angry waves; Aen. i, 135. (Cf. Anacoluthon.) Asjnadeton; see 1054. Brachylogy is brevity or condensation of expression : — ne cuius suoTum popularium mutatam secum fortunam esse vellent, that they might not wish to change lots with any of their countrymen (secum for cum fortuna sua); Liv. 21, 45, 6. Chiasmus; see lOBBlgltized by Microsoft® 309 310 FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC {1070 Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words needed to com- plete the sense: — ad Carmentis (sc. aedem), at the shrine of Carmentis; Liv. s, 47> 2. (See 360 and 407.) Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, one num- ber or gender for another, etc. : — populum late regem, a people ruling widely (regem for regnantem); Aen. I, 21. templa Vestae, the temple of Vesta (templa for templum); Hot. C. i, 2, 16. Euphemism is the use of mild or agreeable language to soften an unpleasant fact : — si quid mihi accidisset, if anything should happen to me (i.e. if I should die); Phil. 1, 10. Euphony is the choice or arrangement of words for agreeable sound. Hendiadys is the expression of a complex idea by the use of two nouns in the same case connected by a conjunction, instead of a single noun qualified by an adjective or a genitive: — quilem pateris libamus et auro, such as we offer from golden bowls (for patens aureis); Georg. 2, 192. H3^allage is an interchange of grammatical relations: — in nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas corpora, my mind prompts me to sing of forms changed into new bodies (for in novas formSs corpora); Ov. Met. i, i H3rperbaton is a violation of the natural order of words: — per omnis te deos aro, by all the gods I pray you; Hor. C. i, 8, 1. Hysteron Proteron is a reversal of the logical order : — moriamur et in media arma ruamus, let us die and rush into the midst of arms; Aen. 2, 353. Litotes is a form of expression which affirms an idea by deny- ing its opposite: — duces non indecoro pulvere sordidos, leaders stained with no dishonor- able dust; Hor. C. 2, i, 21. Metaphor is an implied comparison, expressed by the figura- tive use of words: — te nOn ezistumas invidiae incendid conflagraturum 7 do you not think you ' will be consumed^jL^^rg^l^g^^aX. i, 29. lOJo) FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC 31I Metonymy is the use of a word suggested by another word to which it is related in sense: as, Mars for bellum, Ceres for patiis. Onomatopoeia is the use of words which suggest by their sound the thing signified: — vipera nostris sibilet in tumults et super ossa cubet, may the viper hiss upon my tomb and lie upon my bones; Prop. 5, 7, 53. Oxymoron is the juxtaposition of contrasted words: — cum tacent, clamant, when they are silent, they cry out; Cat. i, 21. (C£. Antithesis.) Personification is the treatment of inanimate things as per- sons: — age die Latinum, barbite, carmen, come play a Latin tune, my harp; Hor. C. I, 32, 3. Pleonasm is the use of unnecessary words: — erant itinera duo quibus itineribus ezire possent, there were two roads by which they could depart; B. G. i, 6, i. Simile is illustration by comparison: — - senatus consultum inclusum in tabulis tamquam in vagina reconditum, a decree of the senate enclosed in our records, like a sword concealed in its scabbard; Cat. i, 4. Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole: — Gallica temperat 6ra, he guides the Gallic mouth (i.e. horse); Hor. C. i, 8,6. Synesis is construction according to sense: — magna pars occisi, a large part were killed; Sail. Jug. 58, 2. (See 736.) Tmesis is the separation of the parts of a compound word: — quam rem cumque, whatever thing; Hor. C. i, 6, 3. per mihi mirum visum est, it seemed very strange to me; De Or. i, 214. Zeugma is the connection of two words with a verb which strictly applies in sense to only one of them: — n6n legates neque prima per artem temptamenta tui pepigi, / sent no envoys nor made my first trial of you by cunning (from pepi^ sc. mi^ with legttos); Aen. 8, 143. Digitized by Microsoft® VERSIFICATION The subject of Versification is not a part of Latin Grammar, but, for the convenience of students, it has been thought best to give a brief general treatment of the subject and to define technical terms in common use. 1071. Latin poetry is based upon quantity, each verse con- sisting of a more or less definitely-established series of long and short syllables. The quantity of syllables is in general the same in poetry as in prose. A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants (one of which may be at the beginning of the following word) ; in the latter case the syllable is said to be long by position. A syllable is short if its vowel is short and is followed by not more than one consonant. The principles governing the quantity of vowels and diphthongs are given under the head of Sounds, sections 12 to 20; those relating to the length of syllables in sections 23 to 26. 1072. The unit in versification is a short syllable, marked w; the time occupied in pronouncing a short syllable is called a mora. A long syllable is regarded as the equivalent of two short syllables; it is marked — . A long syllable sometimes stands in the place of a short one; it is then said to be irrational and is marked >. On the other hand, a long syllable may be prolonged to fill the time of three morae (marked l_ ) or four morae (marked I—I ). 1073. A verse is a definite succession of feet; each foot is a gtoup of syllables containing a definite number of morae. Digitized by Microsoft® 312 IO74-I077) VERSIFICATION 313 1074. The following feet are in more or less common use: — ■ Feet of three morae Feet of four morae Trochee, — w Dactyl, — -^^ Iambus, w — Anapaest, ^^ w — Tribrach, www Spondee, Proceleusmatic, w w w w Feet of five morae Feet of six morae Cretic, — w — Ionic, w w Paeon, — www Choriambus, — w w — Bacchius, w 1075. If two short syllables stand in place of a long syllable (for example, a tribrach for an iambus), the long syllable is said to be resolved. A foot containing an irrational long syllable is itself called irrational. A dactyl standing in place of a trochee is called a cyclic dactyl and is marked — ww or — w w. 1076. One syllable in each foot — usually a long syllable if there is one — is pronounced with greater stress than the others; this stress is called the ictus and is marked thus: -^ w w. The syllable having the ictus is called the thesis of the foot; the rest of the foot is called the arsis. If a long syllable having the ictus is resolved, it is the custom to mark the ictus on the first of the two short syllables, though properly both have it. 1077. Elision. At the end of a word a vowel, a diphthong, or m and a preceding vowel are regularly elided before another word beginning with a vowel or h. The Romans slurred the final sound; it is our practice to omit it altogether. The following monosyllables are not elided: — do, dem, re, rem, spe, spem, sto, stem, sim, qui (plural). In dactylic verse the final syllable of an iambic (w — ) or cretic (— w— ) word is rarely elided before a short vowel. Elision is rare if the syllable that would be elided is immediately preceded by a vowel. In all these cases the necessity of elision is avoided by the arrangemenfo^/JiWbjSTO^dfeoft® 314 VERSIFICATION {1078-1084 1078. Hiatus. Sometimes elision does not occur wliere it regularly would occur; this is called /r^'ato^. Hiatus occurs espe- cially when the iirst word is an interjection, a proper name, or a Greek word. It occurs sometimes in the principal caesura of a verse and, in the dramatists, when there is a change of speakers. When a long vowel or a diphthong, instead of being elided, is treated as a short syllable, it is called semi-hiatus. 1079. Caesura. The ending of a word within a foot is called caesura. There may be several caesuras in a verse; at one of these there is likely to be a pause in the sense; this is called the principal caesura or the caesura of the verse. It is sometimes impossible to say which is the caesura of the verse. A caesura is marked l|. 1080. Diaeresis. If a word and a foot end together it is called diaeresis. 1081. Syllaba Anceps. There is a slight pause at the end of a verse. The last syllable (called syllaba anceps) may be either long or short; a vowel or m preceded by a vowel is usually not elided before a vowel at the beginning of the next verse 1082. An Acatalectic Verse is one in which the last foot is complete. A Catalectic Verse is one in which the last foot is incomplete; the time is usually made up by a pause marked A if one mora is lacking; A if two morae are lacking. But in catalectic iambic verse it is assumed that the last arsis is omitted and the preceding thesis is prolonged, thus: v^ U._i.. OCCASIONAL PECULIARITIES 1083. Some kinds of verse are preceded by an introductory syllable or syllables (a short, a long, or two shorts). This is called an anacrusis and in a metrical scheme is separated from the rest of the verse thus, : . 1084. Two vowels (or a vowel and a diphthong) belonging to different syllables ig/^^jyvgpwicS^B^imes coalesce to form a 1085-Iogo) VERSIFICATION 315 single syllable: as, aurea, Aen. i, 698; dehinc, Aen. 6, 678. This is called synizesis or synaeresis. 1086. A short vowel is sometimes used as long: as, videt, Aen. I, 308; amor, Aen. 12, 668; liminaque, Aen. 3, 91. This is called diastole. It occurs almost invariably in the thesis of the foot and is often merely a recurrence to an earlier quantity. On the other hand a long vowel is sometimes used as short: as, dederunt, Hor. Epis. i, 4, 7. This is called systole. This shortening probably represents in most cases an actually exist- ing pronunciation. The poets sometimes allow themselves variations of quantity in proper names. 1086. The vowels i and u are sometimes treated as conso- nants; the preceding syllable, if its vowel is short, is long by position: as, abiete, Aen. 5, 663; genua laMnt, Aen. 5, 432. On the other hand consonantal i and u are sometimes treated as vowels: as, Gaiiis, CatuU. 10, 30; siltiae, Hor. C. i, 23, 4. 1087. Syncope. A short vowel between two consonants is sometimes dropped; this is called syncope and probably repre- sents the common pronunciation: as, repostum for repositum, Aen. I, 26; periclo for periculo, Hor. C. 3, 20, i. 1088. In early Latin final s was indistinctly pronounced and does not count in making a syllable long by position. This peculiarity occurs as late as Catullus. In early Latin the first syllable of ille, illic (pronoun), immo, quippe, inde, unde, nempe, and oninis is sometimes treated as short. 1089. Iambic Shortening. A long syllable preceded by a short monosyllable (the monosyllable may be the result of elision), or a short initial syllable, and immediately preceded or followed by the ictus, is often treated as short. 1090. Synapheia. One verse is sometimes combined with another by the elision^oE^^a^^v^w^lj^w ^ and a preceding vowel, 3i6 VERSIFICATION {logi-iogs at the end of the first verse before a vowel at the beginning of the second. The first verse is said to be hypermetrical and the combination is called synapheia. METER 1091. The word meter is used of the definite system by which a verse or a strophe (a stanza, a group of verses) is measured. 1092. Trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verses are usually named according to the number of pairs of feet (dipodies) they contain: dimeter (two dipodies), trimeter (three), tetrameter (four). But they are sometimes named according to the num- ber of feet, — quaternarius, senarius, octonarius; the tetrameter catalectic is regularly called the septenarius. 1093. Other verses are named according to the number of feet they contain: tetrameter (four feet), pentameter (five), hex- ameter (six). 1094. Trochaic verses containing cyclic dactyls are called logaoedic verses. Of the various kinds of meter it will be sufiicient to describe those two which the student finds in his early reading of Vergil and Ovid, — the Dactylic Hexameter and Pentameter. The Dactylic Hexameter 1096. The scheme of the dactylic hexameter is as follows: — The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl; when it is a spondee, the verse is called a spondaic verse. Spondaic verses usually end with a word of four syllables. The last syllable (the syllaba anceps) may be either long or short. The principal caesura occurs most often after the thesis of the third foot; less often after the thesis of the fourth, in which case there is usually another caesura after the thesis of the second. Sometimes the principal caesura is between the two •short syllables, in ^^^^mcf4y\^^rM^ foot. 1096-Iogg) VERSIFICATION 3 17 1096. A caesura immediately after the thesis is called masculine; one between the two short syllables of the arsis is called feminine. A diaeresis after the fourth foot is called the bucolic diaeresis. 1097. In the second half of the dactylic hexameter, especially in the fifth and sixth feet, word-accent and ictus are very likely to coincide. The last word in the verse is rarely a monosyllable; if it is, it is usually preceded by a monosyllable. The Dactylic Pentameter 1098. The ancient grammarians divided this verse into five feet and called it pentameter. It is now treated as a hex- ameter, lacking the arsis of the third and sixth feet. The thesis of the third foot is prolonged to compensate for the missing arsis. The pentameter is rarely used except in combination with the hexameter, with which it forms the Elegiac Stanza or Distich (couplet). The scheme of the Elegiac Distich is as follows : — 1 I I - \i^^^ Spondees are used only in the first half of the pentameter. The third foot is always a long syllable, and this syllable always ends a word. The last syllable of the verse, as in the hexame- ter, may be either long or short. In Ovid, the last word of the pentameter is usually one of two syllables. The sense is usually complete at the end of each stanza. THE ORAL READING OF VERSE There are two opinions as to the Roman method of reading verse: ^- 1099. I. That the word-accent disappeared when the ictus fell on a different syllable. This is the method in general use. 2. That the word-accent was always heard, and that, when the ictus did not coincide with the word-accent, the ictus also was heard but ^^^^l^mmfh AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS CITED In citations from Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil the name of the author is omitted. The following abbreviations are used: — Caesar: B. C, Bellum Civile B. G., Bellum Gallicum CatuU., Catullus Cicero: Acad., Academica Ad Her., ad Heren- nium Agr., ie Lege Agraria Arch., pro Archia Att., ad Aiticum Brut., Brutus, de Cla- ris Oratoribus Caec, pro Caecina Caecil., Dimnatio in Caecilium Cael., pro Caelio Cat., in Catilinam Cat. M., Cato Maior {de Senectute) Clu., pro Cluentio Deiot., pro Deiotaro De Or., de Oratore Div., de Divinatione Fam., ad Familiares Fat., de Fato Fin., de Finibus Flacc, pro Flacco Font., pro Fonleio In v., de Inventione Rhetorica 'La.el.jLSelius (deAmi- citia) Cicero: Leg^., de Legibus Lig., pro Ligario Manil., -pro Lege Ma- nilia Marc, pro Marcello Mil., pro Milone Mur., pro Murena N. D., de Natura Deorum Off., de Officiis Or., Orator Par., Paradoxa Phil., Pkilippicae Pison., in Pisonem Plane, pro Plancio Q. Fr., ad Quintum Fratrem Quinct., pro Quinctio Rabir., pro Rabirio Rab. Post., pro Rabi- rio Postumo Rep., de Re Publica Rose. Am., pro Roscio Amerino Rose. Com., pro Ros- cio Comoedo Sest., pro Sestio SulL, pro Sulla Tull., pro Tullio Tuse., Tusculanae Dis- putationes Djgitized bu- Micmsoft® Vat., tn Vatinium 318 Cicero: Verr. a pr., in Verrem actio I Verr., in Verrem actio II Hor., Horace: A. P., de Arte Poe- tica C, Carmina{Odes) Epis., Epistulae Epod., Epodoi S., Sermones (Satires) Juv., Juvenal Liv., LivY Lucr., Lucretius Nep., Nepos: Ages., Agesilaus Ale, Alcibiades Att., Atticus Dat., Datames Epam., Epaminondas Eum., Eumenes Hamil., Hamilcar Hann., Hannibal Milt., Miltiades Paus., Pausanias Them., Themistocles Timol., Timoleon^ Ov., Ovid: Fast., Fasti H., Heroides Met., Metamorphoses Trist., Tristia LIST OF WORKS CITED 319 PL, Plautus: Am., Amphilruo Asin., Asinaria Bac, Bacchides Capt., Captivi Cas., Casina Cist., Cistellaria Cure, Ctiradio Epid., Epidicus Merc, Mercator Mil., Miles Gloriosus Most., Mostellaria Pers., Persa Poen., Poenulus Ps;, Pssudolus Rud., Riidens P1.,Plautus: Stich., Stichtis Trin., Trinummus Plin., Pliny, junior: Ep., Epistulae Plin., Pliny, senior: H. N., Historia Natu- ralis Prop., Propertius Sail., Sallust Cat., Catilina Jug., lugurtha Tac, Tacit US: Agr., Agricola Ann., Annates H., Historiae Ter., Terence: Ad., Addphi And., Andria Eun., Eunuchus Heaut. , Heauton Timo- roumenos Hec, Hecyra Ph., Phormio TibulL, TiBULLUS Val.jVALERIUS MAXIMUS Vergil: Aen., Aeneis Eel., Eclogae Georg., Georgica Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX The references are to sections. The following abbreviations may be noted : adv. = adverb or adverbial; app. - appositive or apposition; charac. = characteristic; cl. = clause; compar. = comparison; conjug.- conjugation; constr. = construction; cpd. = compound; decl. = declension; loc. = locative; pass. = passive; subj. = subject; subjv. = subjunctive; vb. = verb; w. = with. Other abbreviations will be readily understood. &, ab, abs, 1021; w. abl., 528; place whence, 530, 53 1; agent, 535; cause, 546. -a, adv. ending, 197, 199. abhinc, w. abl. of measure of differ- ence, 583; w. ace. of extent, 584. Ablative, for forms see Nouns, Ad- jectives, and Pronouns; loss of -d, 45; nouns used only in, 138. Syn- tax: in app. w. loc, 386, 612; pred. noun, 394; w. fids and cpds., 458; w. a or ab denoting extent, 520; Separative, Instrumental, and Loc- ative uses, 527; Separation, w. vbs., 528; w. adjs., 529; Place Whence, S3°. S3^'< Source, S32-534; source instead of place where, 533; Accordance, 5341 Agent, S3S-538; agent w. intrans. vb., 538; Material, 539. 54°; Comparison, S4i-54S; Cause, 546-549; w. causa and gratia, 547; w. prae, 549; Accompaniment, 550-553; Manner, 554; Attendant Circumstance, 556; Quality, 557; Ablative Absolute, 558-569; subj. of abl. abs. omitted, 566; cl. as subj., 567; participle alone as abl. abs., 568; Means, 570-576; w. utor, etc., 572; w. opus est and usus est, 573, 574; w. contineor, contentus, fretus, 576; Price, 577-580; w. mutS, etc., 579; Penalty, 580; Road, 581; Measure of Difference, 582-585; w. ante, abhinc, and post, 583; Speci- fication, 586, 587; w. dignus, etc., 587; Place Where, 588-598; w. vbs. of motion, 590, 591; instead of loc, 593, 612, 613; prep. or^^gg^^M/, 321 597; Time, 599-602; w. prep., 600; denoting time after, 601; Extent of Time, 605. Ablaut, 44. absens, 319. absque, 1021. Abstract nouns, forms, 75, 76; in plu., 135- absum, constr., 479, 519. -abus, for -is, first decl., 93. ac, see atque. Acatalectic, 1082. Accent, 27-29; in verse, 1076, 1079. Accompaniment, abl., 550-553. Accordance, abl., 534. AccasATivE, for forms see Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns. Syntax: in app. w. cl., 385, 500; pred. noun w. vbs. meaning make, choose, etc., 392; instead of dat. of ind. obj., 457; w. cpd. vbs., 465-467; Direct Object, 493; w. verbal nouns, 494; w. vbs. usually intrans., 495- 497; w. adjs. in -bundus, 498; w. pass, of vbs. meaning to put on, 499; Exclamation, 501; w. ecce, etc., 501; Kindred Meaning, 502-505; w. vbs. of taste or smell, 503; Two Accusa- tives, 506-512; w. vbs. meaning in- quire, demand, teach, conceal, 507, 509; w. other vbs., 510; w. vbs. compounded w. circum or trans, 511, 512; Limit of Motion, 513-517; names of towns, etc., 514-516; Ex- tent, 518-522, 585; in expressions of time, 521; Specification, 523-525; Subj. of Inf., 526. cte2«?fevbs. meaning, constr., 43I.432- 322 INDEX acer, decl., i88, 189; compar., 164. Acquit, vbs. meaning, constr., 431, 432. ac si, w. subjv., 928. ad, denoting cause, 548; place where, 595 ; time when, 602; postpositive, 1024. adeo, conjug. in pass., 334. Adjectives, formation, 150-161; corn- par., 162-170; decl., 171; first and second decl., 172-177; third decl., 178-189; of two decls., 190; inde- clinable, 191; possessive, 192, 193; neut. ace. sing, as adv., 200; fem. ace. as adv., 201; derived from nu- merals, 227; interrogative, 233; pro- nominal, 236. Syntax: dat. w., 487- 489; dat. or prep, and ace. w., 488; classification, 615; participial, 616, 617; possessive, .618-624; attribu- tive and pred., 625-628; proleptic, 628; agreement, 629-634; plu. adj. with collective noun, 630; quahfy- ing two or more nouns, 631; quali- fying nouns of di£ferent genders, 632; qualifying persons and things, 633; neut. adj. w. nouns denoting things, 634; adjs. and participles as substantives, 635-640; qualified by adjs., 640; adjs. instead of adverbs, 641 ; comparatives and superlatives, 642-646; compar. of two qualities, 645; with rel. pronoun instead of quaUfying antecedent, 699; adjs. as preps., 1025. admoneo, constr., 442. Adverbs, derivation, 194-206; classi- fication, 207-213; of place, 208-210; of time, 211; of manner, degree, or cause, 212; negative, 213; compar., 214, 215; numerals, 228. Syntax: dat. w., 491; constr. w. comparative, 545; general use, 647; qualifying nouns, 648; as pred. adj., 649; adv. of place for pronoun w. prep., 650; use of certain adverbs, 651-656; negatives, 657-660; double nega- tive, 660; as preps., 1025; as correla- tives, 1045. Adverbial prefixes, 260. Adversative clauses, relative, 807; w. quamquam, 894-896; w. etsi, tam- etsi, and etiam si, 896, 897; w. cum.9oo;Vut.903. o/g/feed/,y aedes, 142. Aeneas, decl., 94. Agent, dat., 480-482; abl., S3S-S38; abl. w. gerundive, 481. Agnomen, 146. Agreement, of adjs., 629-634; of vb. w. subj., 735-742. ai6, 341; ain, 341. -aius, names in, 102. alienus, for gen. of alius, 404; w. abl., 529- , aliquis (adj. allqui), forms, 238; mean- ing, 683. alius, decl., 176, 177; use, 729-732; w. abl., 543. Alliteration, 1070. Alphabet, i, 2. alter, 176, 177; gen. sing, for gen. sing, of alius, 177; use, 729-731; w. abl., .■;43- Alternative questions, 372-379. alteruter, decl., 177. ambio, conjug., 334. ambo, decl., 223. amplius, constr., 542. an, in single questions, 368; in alter- native questions, 372-379; in ind. quest., 854. Anacoluthon, 1070. Anacrusis, 1083. Analogy, 1070. Anapaest, 1074. Anaphora, 1067, 1070. Anastrophe, 1070. Anchises, decl., 94. animi, in mind, 430. an non, 373, 853. Answers, 370, 371. ante, w. abl. of measure of difference, 583; w. ace, 584. Antecedent, 693; repeated in rel. cl., 695; in rel. cl. instead of main cl., 696; in main cl., but attracted into case of rel. pronoun, 697; appos. of antecedent in rel. cl., 698; antece- dent omitted, 701. Antepenult, 22. antequam, 862-867. Antithesis, 1070. Apex, 4. Apocope, 41. Apodosis, defined, 907; as subordinate Micr^'dM'^' ^^® Conditional sentences. INDEX 323 Aposiopesis, 1070. Appositional genitive, 411. Appositives, defined, 380; agreement, 381; denoting time, cause, etc., 382; position, 383; partitive app., 384; ace. in app. w. cl., 385; app., w. loc. or w. nouns denoting place to which or from which, 386, 612; inf. or cl. as app., 387; agreement of vb. w. app., 388. aptus, w. cl. of charac, 798; w. inf., 799- Arrangement of words, 1055-1069; normal order, 1056-1063, 1068; va- riations, 1064-1067, 1069. Arsis, 1076. -ascd, inceptive suffix, 257. Aspirates, 21. Assimilation, 49. Asyndeton, 1054. at, 1050. atque (ac), 1035, 1038. atqui, 1050. Attendant circumstance, abl., 556; abl. abs., 564. Attraction, subjv., 905. Attributive adjs., 626. audeo, 274. ausim, 326. aut, 1041. autem, 1047. Auxiliary verb, sum, 286, 318. avere, 345. Bacchius, 1074. balneum, decl., 140. bene, compar., 214; quantity of -e, 195. benevolus, compar., 166. bonus, compar., 167; decl., 172. 1 bSs, decl., 122. Brachylogy, 1070. Bucolic diaeresis, 1096. -bundus, adjs. in, 153; w. ace, 498. C, original use, 5. Caesura, 1079; masc. and fem., 1096. Calendar, 603, 604. Calends, 604. Cardinal numerals, 216-219; w. prep, and abl., 418. Cases, defined, 65-67; formation, 87. See Declension, Nominative, Geni- tive, etc. „. .,. , , ' Digitized by Case-endings, defined, 87. See De- clension. Catalectic, 1082. causa, w. gen. or adj., 409, 547, 1007. Causal clauses, relative, 807, 808; w. quod, quia, and quoniam, 886-890; w. quando, 891; w. cum, 892, 893; in the form of ind. disc, 887. Cause, abl., 546, 547; prep. w. ace, 548; prae w. abl., 549; abl. abs., 560, 565. cave5, constr., 829-832; cave in neg. commands, 934. -ce, attached to demon, pron., 240, 244. cede, 345. celer, decl., 189. cenatus, 307. certe, 652. certs, 652. cSteri, 733. c§teTum, 1048. ceu, w. subjv., 928. Characteristic clauses, 798-806; w. quam, 800; w. quin, 802; w. qui, quidem or qui modo, expressing re- striction, 803; w. indie, 804, 806; w. est cum or est quod, 805. Charge, gen., 431-433- Chiasmus, 1067. Choriambus, 1074. circum, vbs. compounded with, constr., S", S12. circumdO, constr., 466. citerior, compar., 170. clam, as prep., 1025, 1026. Clause, principal and subordinate, 353; as app., 387; as pred. noun, 395- Close vowels, 7. Closed syllables, 22. coep'i, 344. ' Cognate accusative, see Accusative of kindred meaning. Cognomen, 146. cognosco, meaning of perf., etc., 761. Collective nouns, w. plu. adj., 630; w. plu. vb., 736. comedd, 338. Commands, subjv., 768-770; in ind. disc, 977. See Imperative mood, commonefacid, constr., 442. ,BmWm''^' constr., 442. 324 INDEX Comparative degree, meaning, 642; decl. of comparatives, 185, 186; comparatives w. charac. cl., 800; w. ut-cl., 801. Comparison, adjs., 162-170; adv., 214, 215; abl., 541-545; of two qualities, , 645- Complementary infinitive, 951-953; w. subj. ace, 952; w. vbs. of will or purpose, 826. Compound nouns, 82-86; vbs., 260, 261; constr. w. cpd. vbs., 464-467. Conative present, 746. Conceal,' vbs. meaning, constr., 507- 509- Concessive clauses, w. quamvis and licet, 898; w. ut, go2. Condemn, vbs. meaning, w. gen., 431. Condition, expressed' by abl. abs., 562. Conditional clauses, w. adversative force, 897. Conditional particles, 908-910. Conditional sentences, 907-927; of Fact, 911-914; denoting a repeated act or a general truth, 912; of Possibility, 915-918; fut. condition from past point of view, 918; Con- trary to Fact, 919-925; indie, in cont.-to-fact cond., 921-923; pres. and perf. subjv., 925; conditional relative sentences, 927; conditional clauses of comparison, 928. confide, constr., 458. Conjugation, defined, 54, 265; char- acteristics of first conjug., 266; sec- ond, 267; third, 268; fourth, 269; irregular vbs., 271; model of first conjug. (amo), 320, 321; second (moneo), 322; third (rego), 323; vbs. in -io (capio), 324; fourth (audio), 325; deponent, 326; peri- phrastic, 327; irregular, 328-340; defective, 341-345; impersonal, 346. Conjunctions, origin, 349; coordinat- ing and subordinating, 1028; copu- lative, 1029-1039; disjunctive, 1040- 1045; adversative, 1046-1051; logi- . cal, 105 2 ; causal, 1053 ; omitted, 1054. C5nsisto, constr., 598. Consonants, classified, 9; pronuncia- tion, 21; changes of single conso- nants, 41;-47; changes in groups. consto, constr., 598. consuevi, meaning, 761. consuls, w. dat. or ace, 474. contentus, constr., 576. contineor, constr., 576. Contrary-to-fact conditions, 919-925; in ind. disc, 981, 982. Coordinating conjunctions-, 1029-1053. copia, 142. Copula, 359. cordi, 484. Correlatives, 1045, 1051. Cretic, 1074. cuius, poss. adj., 624. cum, quom (conj.), form, 39; w. sub- stantive cl., 824; w. temporal cl., 856-861; indie, or subjv., 856, 857; introd. main idea or statement of fact, 858-860; w. subjv. in early Latin, 861; w. causal cl., 887, 892, 893; w. adversative cl., 900; corre- lated w. turn, 901 ; cum primum, 870. cum (prep.), w. abl. of accompani- ment, 550-552; w. abl. of manner, 554; w. abl. of attendant circum- stance, 556; w. abl. denoting time, 602; postpositive, 1024. cupio, w. gen., 445; w. subjv., 835; w. inf., 837, 951, 952. euro, w. perf. pass, part., 996. CycUc dactyl, 1075. d, loss of final, 45. Dactyl, 1074. Dactylic hexameter, 1095-1097; pen- tameter, 1098. Dates, 603, 604. Dative, for forms see Nouns, Adjec- tives, and Pronouns. Syntax: pied. noun w. impers. vb. and inf., 391; w. nomen esse, 393; Indirect Object, w. trans, vbs., 450-454; w. vbs. of motion, 451; w. intrans. vbs., 455- 463; w. vbs. of mental attitude or action, 456-459; w. phrases or nouns of similar meaning, 460, 461; w. im- pers. vbs., 462 ; w. vbs. of union, con- tention or difference, 463; w. cpd. vbs., 464-467; w. other vbs. of similar meaning, 468; w. obvius and obviam, 469;^ Reference, 470-476; w. vbs. qualified by bene, male, or satis, 48-51; assimilation, 49; l^s|.^°^^ ^^ Micr^lM' °°™=' 475! w. interjections. INDEX 32s 476; Separation, 477; Ethical, 478; Possession, 479; Agent, 480-482; Purpose or Tendency, 483-486; w. frugl and cordi, 484; w. nouns, 485; w. adjs., 487-489; w. adverbs, 491. d§, w. abl. of material, 539, 540; w. abl. of cause, 546; postpositive, 1024. Declension, defined, 54; formation of cases, 87; general rules, 88; stem- endings, 89; First Declension, 90- 94; Second, 95-105; Third, con- sonant stems, 106-112; i-stems, 113-119; mixed i-stems, 120, 121; irregular nouns, 122, 123; Fourth, 127-130; Fifth, 131-134; defective, 135-138. See Adjectives and Pro- nouns. Defective, nouns, 135-138; vbs., 341- 34S; . Definition, gen. of, 411. Deliberative questions, pres. indie, 750; fut. indie, 757; subjv., 771, 772; in subord. cl., 906; in ind. disc, 976. Demand, vbs. meaning, constr., 507- 509- Demonstrative pronouns, 239-248; meaning and use, 711-728; neut. referring to cl., 722; agreeing w. pred. noun, 728; redundant in rel. cl., 700. Denominative verbs, 253. Dentals, 9. Deponent verbs, 273; meaning of perf. part., 3P7; prin. parts, 317; conjug., 326. ■ ^ Derivative verbs, 253-259. Descriptive compounds, 86. Desiderative verbs, 259. dgsum, constr., 479. deterior, compar., 170. Determinatives, 86. deus, decl., 104. dexter, compar., 164. Diaeresis, 1080; bucolic, 1096. Diastole, 1085. dico, imperat., 314. Dido, decl., 125. dies, decl., 131. DiSspiter, 122. difScilis, compar., 165. diffidS, constr., 458. dignor, w. abl., 587. Digitized by dignus, w. gen., 425; w. abl. 587; w. charac. cl., 798; w. inf. or ut-cl., 799; w. supine, 1018. Dimeter, 1092. Diminutives, nouns, 78, 79; adjs., 159; vbs., 258. Diphthongs, 8; pronunciation, 20; weakening, 40. Dipody, 1092. Direct object, 493-500; w. vbs. usu- ally intrans., 454. Direct reflexive, 667. dispar, w. gen., 410. dissimilis, compar., 165; w. gen., 410. distS, constr., 519. Distributive numerals, 216-219; "sed for cardinals, 218; distrib. pronouns and adjs., 690-692. diu, compar., 215. do, conjug., 339; cpds., 340; w. perf. ■ pass, part., 996. domus, decl., 130; domum, limit of motion, 514, 515; domo, place whence, 530, 531; domi, w. quaU- fying gen., 613. donee, w. temporal cl., meaning while, 877; meaning until, 883. dono, constr., 453. Doubt, vbs. meaning, w. substantive cl., 833, 834. dubito, constr., 833, 834. duco, imperat., 314. duim, etc., 339. dum, w. temporal cl., meaning while, w. indie, 876, 878; w. subjv., 879; denoting cause, 880; meaning until, 881, 882; w. cl. of proviso, 929. duo, decl., 223. -e, abl., third decl., see -i. e, see ex. -e, adv. ending, 195. ecce, w. ace, 501. ecquis, ecquando, 369. eccum, etc., 501. edo, conjug., 338. ego, decl., 229. -eius, names in, 102. eiusniodi, w. charac. cl., 798. Elegiac distich, 1098. Elision, 1077. Ellipsis, 1070. ellum, etc., 501. Microsoft® 326 INDEX em, w. ace, 501. en, w. ace, 501. Enallage, 1070. Enclitics, list, 30; accent, 31. enim, 1053. eo, conjug., 333; cpds., 334; use of passive, 334. Epicenes, 62. Epistolary tenses, 766. epulor, w. abl., 572. -er, adj's. in, compar., 164. ergo, w. gen., 409. -es, or -is, ace. plu., nouns, 115, 118; adjs., 184, 186. -esco, inceptive suffix, 257. -esso, intensive suffix, 256. et, 1030, 1033; for etiam, 1031. Ethical dative, 478. etiam, 1039; in answers, 370. etiam si, adversative, 897. etsi, w. independent sentence, 896; w. adversative cl., 897; w. participles, etc., 899. Euphemism, 1070. Euphony, 1070. ex, use, 102 1 ; w. separative abl. con- structions, 418, 528-534, 539, 546. Exclamations, nom., 399; gen., 447; ace, 501; infin., 961. Exhortation, subjv., 768, 769. Extent, ace, 518-522. exterus, compar., 170. extremus, denoting a part, 417, 646. facilis, compar., 165. facio, accent of cpds., 29; imperat., 314; pass, of cpds., 337. fames, decl., 134. familias, 93. fari, conjug., 343. fas, w. supine, 1017. fastidit, w. gen., 445. faxo, faxim, etc., 289. Fear, expressions of, constr., 838-840. femur, no. fero, conjug., 331; cpds., 332; imperat., 314- -flcus, adjs., in, compar., 166. fido and cpds., conjug., 274; w. dat. or abl., 456, 458, 598. Fifth declension, 131-134. filia, forms^93. Final clauses, see Purpose. „. ... Digitized by fiS, quantity of i, 14; conjug., 336; cpds., 337; w. abl., 540. First conjugation, 320, 321. First declension, 90-94. Foot, 1073, 1074. fore, forem, etc., 319. fore ut, 946; fore w. perf. pass, part., 947- Forget, vbs. meaning, constr., 438-440. Formation of words, 52, 53; nouns, 68-86; adjs., 150-161; adverbs, 194- 206; vbs., 249-261. forsitan, w. subjv., 851. Fourth conjugation, 325. Fourth declension, 127-130. Fractions, 220. Frequentative, see Iterative. fretus, w. abl., 576. frugi, compar., 168; constr., 484. fruor, constr., 572. fungor, constr., 572. Future, Indicative: form, 279; use, 754-757. Imperative: form, 264; use, 931-933. Infinitives: form, 300; use, 945. Participles: forrn, act., 305, pass., 308; use, 990; see Gerundive and Gerund. Future perfect, Indicative, form, 288, 289; use, 764. Future time, how expressed in subjv., 794- futurum esse ut, 946. G, origin of letter, 5. gaudeo, 274. Gender, 56; general rules, 57-63; first decl., 92; second decl., 99; third decl., 126; fourth decl., 128; fifth decl., 132; variable, 141. Genitive, for forms see Nouns, Ad- jectives, and Pronouns. Syntax: 400; Possessive, 401-410; governing noun omitted, 405, 407; possessor for thing possessed, 406; poss. gen. in pred., 408; w. causa, gratia, etc., 409; Subjective, 402; Definition, 411; of the Whole, 412-419; w. posi- tive of adj., 413; in pred., 415; w. uterque, 416; adj. instead of gen. of the whole, 417; Material, 420; Quality, 421-424; w. proper names, 422; Measure, 423; Indefinite Value, MicrSih^^^'' Objective, 425-427; adj. or INDEX 327 prep, phrase instead of obj. gen., 427; Specification, 428-430; Charge or Penalty, 431-433; w. refert and interest, 434, 435; w. vbs. of Plenty or Want, 436, 437; w. vbs. of Re- membering, Forgetting, or Remind- ing, 438-442; w. vbs. of Mental Sensation, 443-445; w. potior, 446; Exclamation, 447. Gerundive and Gerund, 1003, 1004; Genitive, 1006-1010; w. causa or gratia, 1007; gen. of quality ex- pressing purpose, 1008; agreeing w. nostri, etc., 1009; w. obj. gen., loio; Dative, ion, 1012; dat. of purpose, 486; Accusative, 1013; Ablative, 1014; agent cOnstr. w. gerundive, 480, 481. Gnomic perfect, 760. gracilis, compar., 165. gratia, constr., 409, 547. Greek nouns, first deal., 94; second, 105; third, 125. Gutturals, 760. h, quantity of vowel before, 14. habeo, fut. imperat. for pres., 933; w. perf. pass, part., 995. baud, 658. Hendiadys, 1070. Heteroclites, 139, 140. Heterogeneous nouns, 141 ; see Hetero- clites. Hexameter, 1093; dactylic, 1095-1097. Hiatus, 42, 1078. hie, decl., 239; use, 712, 715, 720. Hidden quantity, 12, 13, 15, 16. Hindrance, vbs. meaning, w. subst. cl., 829-832. Historical infinitive, 963; w. post- quam, 873. Historical perfect, 309. Historical present, 748. Historical tenses, 309. hoc, quantity of 0, 241. Hortatory Subjunctive, 768-770. humi, 98; humo, place whence, 530. humilis, compar., 165. Hypallage, 1070. Hyperbaton, 1070. Hypermetric, 1090. H5T)otaxis, 795. Hysteron proteron, 1070. Digitized by I, vowel and consonant, 6; vowel treated as consonant, 1086; con- sonant as vowel, 1086. i-stems, 113-119. -i or -e, abl. sing, third decl., nouns, 117; adjs., 179, 181, 186. -1, adv. ending, 203. iaciS, cpds., quantity of first syllable, 26. iam, meaning, 653; w. pres. indie, or imperat., 749. Iambic shortening, 43 ; 1089. Iambus, 1074. Ictus, 1076. idem, decl., 248; use, 725, 726; w. dat., 489; expressions meaning the same as, 727; idem qui in ind. disc, 972. idoneus, w. dat. or prep, and ace, 488; w. charac. cl., 798; w. inf., 799. Idus, 604. -ier for -i, pres. pass, inf., 299. igitur, 1052. ille.decl., 239; use, 713-715, 720; posi- tion, 1057. illic, decl., 244. -illo, vbs. in, 258. -im, ace. in, third decl., 116. Imparisyllabic nouns, 1 20. impedio, constr., 829-832. Imperative mood, forms, 264; use, 931-937; negative commands, 934- 937; represented by subjv. in ind. disc, 977. Imferseci, Indicative: forms, 278; use, 751-753. Subjunctive: form, 292; for use see the various uses of the sub- junctive. Impersonal verbs, 346; w. ace. and gen., 444; pass. w. dat., 459; w. subst. cl., 828, 843-845; w. inf., 948; w. perf. inf., 944. Implied indirect discourse, 983; causal cl., 886, 888. imus, lowest part of, 417, 646. in,~io23; w. ace, 513-517; w. abl. of cause, 546; w. abl. of specification, 586; w. abl. of place where, 588- S98; w. abl. of time, 600. Inceptive verbs, 257. Indefinite pronouns, list, 237, 238; use, 682-689. Indefinite second person, 779. Indefinite value, gen., 424. Microsoft® 328 INDEX Indicative mood, general use, 743, 744; Present: 745-750; conative, 746; for future, 747; historical, 748; in de- liberative questions, 750. Imperfect: 751-753- Future: 754-7571 in de- liberative questions, 757. Perfect: 758-762; of a general truth, 760; w. meaning of present, 761. Pluper- fect, 763. Future Perfect, 764, 765. Epistolary Tenses, 766. Indicative in rel. clauses, 797; in charac. clauses, 804, 806; in ind. questions, 855; in contrary-to-fact conditions, 921-923. indignus, w. gen., 425; w. abl., 587; w. charac. cl., 798; w. inf. or ut-cl., 799- Indirect discoitrse, 964; Principal and Subordinate clauses, 965; tenses of inf. and subjv. , 966 ; pres. and perf . subjv. after secondary tense, 967; secondary sequence w. vbs. of re- membering, 968; vb. of saying to be supplied, 970; indie, in subord. cl.,- 973; independent rel. cl. in ind. disc, 974; inf. in subordinate cl., 974; Questions in ind. disc, 975, 976; Commands, 977; Conditional Sentences, 979-982; condition of fact or possibility, 980; contrary to fact, 981, 982; Implied indirect dis- course, 983. Indirect object, 450-469; position, 1056. See Dative. Indirect questions, 846-855; intro- duced by si, 848; subj. taken into main cl., 852; alternative questions, 853; haud scio an w. ind. quest., 854; indie in ind. quest., 855. Indirect reflexive, sui, 667; ipse, 675. inferus, compar., 170. Infinitive, forms, 296-300; as subj., 356; as app., 387; as pred. noun, 395; characteristics, 938; use of tenses, 939-947; pres. referring to future, 940, 941; pres. w. vbs. of remembering, 942; perf. in ind. disc, 943; perf. for pres., 944; futfirum esse or fore w. subjv. in- stead of fut. inf., 946; inf. as nom. case, 948-950; as ace case, 951-957; complementary, 951-953; as ab- stract noSn, 953; w. subj^acc,, 05?, 954-957; w. pass, vbs., 958, 959; w. adjs., 960; of exclamation, 961; of purpose, 962; historical, 963. See Indirect discourse. Inflection, defined, 54. innitor, constr., 598. inquam, conjug., 342. Inquire, vbs. meaning, constr., 507- 509- jnstar, w. gen., 409. Instrument, see Means. Intensive pronoun, see ipse. Intensive verbs, 255, 256. interdico, constr., 477. Interest, see Reference. interest, w. gen. or poss. adj., 434; w. dat. or ad and ace, 435. Interjections, 350; w. dat., 476. Interrogative pronouns and adjec- tives, forms, 232-236; use, 679-681. Interrogative sentences, 363-369; al- ternative questions, 372-379. intimus, inmost part of, 646. intra, w. ace, 602. Intransitive verbs, impers. in pass., 459, 734- invideo, constr., 445, 458. -io, vbs. in, third conjug., 324. Ionic, 1074. ipse, decl., 245; use, 671-678; as indirect reflexive, 675; agreement, 676; in app. w. nouns and pronouns, 677; w. adv. of time, 677. Irrational syllable, 1072; foot, 1075. Irregular nouns, third decl., 122, 123. Irregular verbs, 271; conjug., 328-340. is, decl., 246, 247; use, 716-720; equiv. to talis, 717; as reflex, pronoun, 719; w. charac. cl., 798. -is, nom. plu., third decl., 118; ace plu., third decl., see -es; for -iis, first decl., 93. -isso, intensive suffix, 256. iste, decl., 243; use, 721. istic, decl., 244. ita, 651; in answers, 370. itaque, accent, 31. iter, decl., 123. Iterative verbs, 255. iubeo, w. ace or dat., 457. iugerum, 140; gen. plu., 103. -ium or -um, gen. plu., third decl., 1 18, 121, Microsoft® INDEX 329 luppiter, decl., 122. -ius, -ium, nouns in, 100; accent, 29; adjs. in, 173. -ius, pronominal gen. in, 176, 177. iussu, 138. iuvenis, compar., 169. J, use of letter, 6. Jussive subjunctive, see Volitive. K, use of letter, $• Kalendae, spelling, 5; use, 604. Kindred meaning, ace, 502-505. Labials, 9. lavo, 270. liber, decl., 175. liberi, gen. plu., 103. licet, w. dat., 462; w. subst. cl., 828; w. concessive cl., 898; w. infin., 948. Limit of motion, ace, 513-517. Linguals, 9. Liquids, 9; liquid stems, third decl., 109, no. -lis, adjs. in, compar., 165. Litotes, 1070. Locative, 67; first decl., 91; second decl., 98; nouns in -ius, 100; third decl., 124; use, 606-614; w. app. in abl., 612; denoting time, 614. locus, decl., 141. Logaoedic, 1094. longius, constr., 542. m, elision of final, 1077. magis, in compar., 163, 214. magnus, compar., 167. male, quantity of e, 195; compar., 214. maledicus, compar., 166. malo, conjug., 330; w. subjv., 835; w. inf., 837, 951, 952. malus, compar., 167. Manner, abl., 554; per w. acc.^ 555; abl. abs., 561; participles, 991. mare, decl., 113. Material, gen., 420; abl., 539, 540. maturus, compar., 164. mazime, in compar., 163, 214. Means, abl., 570-576; of a person, 537. Measure, gen., 423. Measure of difference, 582-585. med, ace. and abl., 231. medius, the middle of, 417, 646. Digitized by memini, forms and meaning, 344; w. gen. or ace, 438-440. -met, 193, 231. Metaphor, 1070. Meter, 1091-1094. MetonjTny, 1070. metuo, w. dat. or ace, 474. ml, as voe of meus, 173. Middle voice, see Reflexive, mille, decl. and use, 225. minime, in answers, 371. minus, constr., 542. miror, w. gen., 445. mirum quam, etc., as adv., 850. misceo, constr., 552, 553. misereor, miseresco, w. gen., 443. miseret, constr., 444. missus, w. facio, 996. Mixed i-stems, 120, 121. modo, quantity of final 0, 43; w. cl. of proviso, 929. moneS, conjug., 322; constr., 442. Monosyllables, quantity of vowel, 17. Months, names of, decl., 188; gender, S7- Moods, see Indicative, etc., and the various types of sentences and clauses. Mora, 1072. morior, 270. Motion, vbs. of, w. dat., 451; w. abl., SQO, 591- Multiplicatives, 227. multus, compar., 167; use, 417. Mutes, 9; syllable w. short vowel fol- lowed by mute and liquid, 24; mute stems, third decl., 106-108. miito and cpds., w. abl., 579. n, pronunciation, 21. nam, 1053. -nam, enclitic, 234. Names of persons, 143-149; adopted sons, 147; women, 148; slaves, 149. Nasals, 9; stems, third decl., in, 112; inserted in verb-stems, 268. nascor, w. abl., 532. natu, abl. only, 138; w. minor, etc., i6g. nd, quantity of vowel before, 15. -ne, enclitic, 365; in alternative ques- tions, 372-376; in exclamations, 501; in ind. quest., 846. Microsom) 33° INDEX ne, 213, 657; w. subjv. of exhortation or command, 768, 934, 936; w. opt. subjv., 773; in purpose cl., 812; in subst. cl., 826, 828, 829, 832, 83s; in subst. cl. w. expressions of fear, 838, 839; in cl. of proviso, 929, 930; w. imperat., 935; in ind. disc, 977; for nedum, 816. ne non, in subst. cl. w. expressions of fear, 838. ne . . . quidem, 656; after general neg., 660. nee, for non, 659; see neque. necesse est, constr., 828. necne, 373; in ind. quest., 853. nedum, 816, 817. nefas, w. supine, 1017. Negative adverbs, 213, 657-660; two negatives, 660. nemo, forms, 138; as adj., 687. nequam, 191; compar., 168. neque (nee), 1036-1038; correl. after general neg., 660; connecting pur- pose clauses, 815. nequeo, conjug., 335. nescio quis, 683; nescio quo, unde, etc., 849. neuter, 686. neve (neu), 1036; correl. after gen- eral neg., 660; connecting purpose clauses, 815; in neg. commands, 937. nf, quantity of vowel before, 13. ni, go8. niger, decl., 175. nihil (nn), forms, 138. nisi, nisi si, 907, 908; w. abl. abs., 562. nitor, w. abl., 598. noli, w. neg. commands, 934. nolo, conjug., 330; w. subjv., 83s; w. inf., 837, 9SI, 952- Nomen, 145. nomen esse, w. pred. noun in dat., 393. Nominative, as subject, 397; as voc, 398; in exclamations, 399; in pred., 358, 3S9j ^s pred. noun w. inf., 390. nomine, w. gen. or poss. adj., 547. non, 657; in answers, 371. Nonae, 604. non modo for non modo non, 1051. nonne, 366; in ind. quest., 846. n6n nemd, nSn nihil, non nullus, 683. non quia, non quod, non quo, w. subjv. or indicat., 888. Digitized by non quin, w. subjv., 889. nos, for ego, 664. nostri, objective gen., nostrum, gen. of the whole, 663. Nouns, gender, 56-63; number, 64; case, 65-67; formation, 68-86; de- clension, 87-134; defective, 135-138; variable, 139-142. Syntax: apposi- tives, 380-388; pred. nouns, 389- 396; see Nominative, Genitive, etc. novi, meaning, 761. ns, quantity of vowel before, 13. nt, quantity of vowel before, 15. nullus, decl., 176; use, 138, 417, 688. num, 367; in ind. quest., 846. Number, 64, 310; nouns used only in sing., 135; only in plu., 136; plu. used for sing., 137; meaning of plu. different from that of sing., 142. Numerals, 216-228; cardinals, ordi- nals, distributives, 216-219; frac- tions, 220; Roman notation, 221; decl. of numeral adjs., 222-226; numeral adverbs, 228. nummus, gen. plu., 103. nune, 654. nflper, compar., 215. -6, adv. ending, 196, 199. Object, direct, 493-500; indirect, 449- 469. Object clauses, see Substantive clauses. Objective genitive, 425-427, 438-446. Oblique cases, 65. obliviseor, w. gen. or ace, 438-440. obviam, obvius, w. dat., 469. Octonarius, 1092. odi, 344. -oius, names in, 102. olle, 242. omnis, use, 417. Onomatopoeia, 1070. -ont, -unt, in verbs, 315. OpenVowels, 7; syllables, 22. opinione, w. comparative, 544. oportet, w. subjv., 828; w. inf., 948. Opposition, expressed by abl. abs., 563- Optative subjunctive, 767, 773-776; in subordinate cl., 906. opus est, w. abl., 573, 574; w. par- ticiple, 574; as pred. noun, 575; w. supine, 1018. Microsoft® ' INDEX 33^ Oratio obliqua, see Indirect discourse, 964. Oratio recta, see Direct discourse, 964. Ordinals, 216-219; ^.cc. sing, as adv., 228. orior, forms, 270. -8s, Greelc nouns in, 105. -Osus, adj. suffix, 155. Oxymoron, 1070. paenitet, w. ace. and gen., 444. Paeon, 1074. palam, w. abl., 1027. Palatals, 9. par, w. gen., 410. Parataxis, 795. Parisyllables, 113. parte, partibus, 596; partem, 524. Participial adjectives, 616, 617. Participles, forms, 304-3o8;pres. act., 304; decl., 179-183; fut. act., 305; perf. pass., 306; perf. pass. w. act. meaning, 307; fut. pass., 308. Syn- tax: characteristics, 984; use of tenses, 985-990; pres. referring to fut., 986; perf. referring to pres., 988-989; uses of participles, 991- 1014; w. vbs. of perception, 992; w. vbs. meaning represent, 993; perf. part, instead of coordinate cl., 994; agreeing with obj. of liabeo and other vbs., 995, 996; containing main idea of phrase, 997; fut. act. part, denoting purpose, 999; fut. pass, part., 1000-1002; denoting purpose, looi; see Gerundive and Gerund; part, used impersonally as abl. abs., $68; w. opus est or usus est, 574; perf. pass. part, as sub- stantive qualified by adj. or adv., 639; agreement w. subj. in forms of perf. pass, system, 742. Particles, 55. Partitive apposition, 384. Partitive genitive, see Genitive of the Whole. Partitives, 227. parum, compar., 214. parvus, compar., 167. Passive, see Voice. Patronymics, 80. pecus, forms, 140. pelagus, 99. Digitized by Penalty, gen., 431-433! abl, 580. Pentameter, 1093; dactylic, 1098. Penult, 22. penus, forms, 140. per, prep., of time, 521, 602; of the agent, 537! of cause, 548; of manner, SSS- Perception, vbs. of, constr., 992. Pehfect, Indicative: forms, 280-286; tense-sign, -v-, 280; shortened forms, 281, 282; tense-sign, -U-, 283; tense- sign, -S-, 284; reduplicated, 285; perf. pass, system, 286; personal endings, 312; use, 758-762; re- ferring to future, 759; gnomic, 760; w. pres. meaning, 761. Subjunctive: forms, 293; use, 781, 791, 792; see also the various uses of the subjv. mood. Infinitive: forms, act., 298; pass., 300; use, 943, 944. Participle: 306, 307; use, 987-989- Periphrastic conjugation, 327, 998, 1000; used to supply lack of fut. tenses in subjv., 794; in apod, of cont.-to-fact cond., 923, 924; in ind. disc, 981. Personal endings, indie, and subjv., 311; perf. ind., 312; imperat., 313, 314; vowel changes, 315. Personal or impersonal use of pass, vbs., 958, 959. Personal pronouns, forms, 229-231; Syntax, 661-665; use of gen. sing, and plu., 663; plu. of first pers. for sing., 664; reflexive use, 665. Personification, 1070. petfi, constr., 508. Phonetic changes, 32-51. Phrase, defined, 361. piget, w. ace. and gen., 444. Pity, vbs. of, constr., 443, 444. Place whence, abl. w. or without prep., 53°. SSI- Place where, abl. w. or without prep., 588-598; loc, 606-613. Place whither, ace. w. or without prep., 513-517- placitus, meaning, 307. plebs or plebes, forms, 134. Plenty, adjs. of, w. gen. or abl., 429; vbs. of, w. gen., 436. Pleonasm, 1070. !J^S&i&^' 417; pleraque, accent, 31. 332 INDEX Pluperi'ECT, Indicative: form, 287; use, 763. Subjunctive: form, 294; see the various uses of the subjv. mood. Plural, lacking, 135; plu. only, 136; plu. used instead of sing., 137; meaning different from that of sing., 142. plus, decl., 187; constr., 342- pondo, use, 138. posed, constr., 508. Position, length by, 23, 1071. Position of words, see Arrangement. Possession, dat., 479. Possessive adjectives, forms, 192, 193; use, 618-624; suus, 619-621; in- stead of poss. gen. of pers. or reflex, pronoun, 403; instead of obj. gen., 427; w. refert and interest, 434. Possessive genitive, 401-410. Possibility, conditions of, 915-918; in ind. disc, 980. possum, conjug., 329. post, in expressions of time, 583, 584; as prep., followed by quam w. tem- poral cl., 871. posterus, compar., 170. Postpositive prepositions, 1024. postquam (postea quam), in temporal cl., w. indie, 870, 871; w. subjv., 873; w. hist, inf., 873; referring to a period of time, 874; in causal cl., 875- postremus, meaning, 641, 646. postridie, w. gen. or ace, 409, 1025, 1026; w. quam and indie, 868. postulo, constr., 508. Potential subjunctive, 777-780; in subord. cl., 906; in conditional sen- tence, 915. potior, forms, 270; w. gen., 446; w. abl. or ace, 572. potis, use, 191, 329. potius, quam, w. subjv., 869. potus, having drunk, 307. prae, w. abl. denoting cause, 549. Praenomen, 144. praesens, 319. praetervehor, w. ace, 511. Predicate, defined, 355; consisting of vb. w. pred. noun or adj., 358, 359; omitted,^6o. Predicate adjectives, 627, ^^jfj^ed by Predicate nouns, agreement, 389; ace. or nom. w. inf., 390; dat. w. impers. vbs., 391; ace. w. vbs. meaning make, choose, etc., 392; dat. w. nomen esse, 393; abl., 394; inf. or cl. as pred. noun, 395; vb. in agree- ment w. pred. noun, 396; poss. gen. in pred., 408; gen. of the whole, 415; gen. of quahty, 421. Prefixes, in cpd. verbs, 260. Prepositions, origin, 348; w. ace, 1019; w. abl., 1020; w. ace or abl., 1022; postpositive, 1024. Present, stem, 252, 262; Indicative: forms, 277; personal endings, 311; use, 745-750; conative, 746; for fut., 747, 913; historical, 748; w. iam, 749; in delib. questions, 750. Sub- junctive: forms, 291; for use see the various uses of the subjv. mood. Injinilive: forms, act., 297; pass., ■ 299; use, 939-942. Participle: form, 304; decl., 179, 180; use, 986. Present perfect, 309. Price, gen., 424; abl., 577-580. pridie, w. gen., 409, 1026; w. ace, 1025; pridie quam w. indie or subjv., 868. Primary suffixes, 72-75.' Primary tenses, 309; in sequence, 781- 794- Primary verbs, 250-252. primus, meaning, 641, 646; primum and prima, 655. princeps, decl., 106; use, 641. Principal parts, 316, 317. Principal tenses, see Primary tenses. prior, compar., 170; use, 641. priusquam, 862-867. pro, form in cpds., 328. pro, interjection, 350. probor, w. dat., 482. Proceleusmatic, 1074. procul, w. abl., 1027. prohibeS, constr., 829-832. Prohibitions, 934-937. Proleptic adjective, 628. Pronominal adjectives, 176, 177, 236, 615; see Pronouns. Pronouns, forms, 229-248; personal, 229-231; rel. and interrog., 232-236; indefinite, 237, 238; demonstrative, Micr3S9f(&^^- Syntax: personal, 623, INDEX 333 661-665; reflex., 623, 666-670; in- tensive, 671-678; interrog. pron. and adjs., 579-681; indef. pron. and adjs., 682-689; distrib. pron. and adjs., 690-692; rel. pron. and adjs., 693- 710; demon, pron. and adjs., 622, 711-728; alius and alter, 729-733. Pronunciation, how determined, 10; vowels, 11-19; diphthongs, 20; con- sonants, 21. prope, compar., 214; as prep., 490. Proper names, 143-149; in plu., 135. propior, compar., 170; constr., 490, 1025, 1026. pTopius, constr., 490, 1025, 1026. Proportionals, 227. proprius, w. gen., 410. Prosody, see Versification. prdspicio, w. dat. or ace, 474. prosum, conjug., 328. Protasis, 907; unusual forms, 926; see Conditional sentences. Proviso, cl. of, 929, 930. prozime, constr., 490, 1025, 1026. prozimus, constr., 490, 1025, 1026. -pte, enclitic, 193, 231. pudet, w. ace. and gen., 444. Purpose, dat., 483-486; relative cl., 809-811; cl. w. ut, ne or ut ue, 812- 815; parenthetical cl., 814; two clauses coordinated, 815; infinitive, 962; fut. act. part., 999; fut. pass, part., looi; gerundive or gerund w. causa or gratia, 1007; gen. of qual- ity, 1008; dat., 1012; ad w. ace, 1013; supine, 1015. quaero, constr., 508. Qualifying words, position, 1057, 1065. Quality, gen., 421-424; abl., 557. quam, constr., 541, S4S; for postquam, 583, 871; w. superl. and often w. form of possum, 644; w. cl. of charac, 800; w. cl. of result, 801; w. mirum, sane, valde, etc., 850; w. ace. and inf. in ind. disc, 971.; vb. omitted in ind. disc, 972. quam diu, w. temporal cl., 876. quamquam, w. adversative cl., 894, 89s; meaning and yet w. independ- ent cl., 896; w. participles, etc., 899. quamvis, w. concessive cl., 8g8; w. participles, etc., 899. Digitized by quands, w. temporal cl., 885; w. causal cl., 891. Quantity, vowels, 12-19; vowel be- fore another vowel, 14; in mono- syllables, 17; in final syllables, 17- 19; hidden quantity, 12; diphthongs, 20; syllables, 23-26. quasi, w. abl. abs., 562; w. subjv., 928. Quaternarius, 1092. -que, 31, 1030, 1032, 1033, 1045. que8, conjug., 335. Questions, see Interrogative sentences and DeKberative questions; in ind. disc, 975,976. qui, rel.: decl., 232, 234; indef.: decl., 237; use, 682; interrog.: 679, 680; £is abl., 234; in imprecations, 774. quia, w. causal cl., 886, 888, 890. quicumque, 235; use, 689. quid, adv., 525. quidam, forms, 238; w. gen. or prep, and abl., 418; meaning, 684. quidem, 656; w. concessive force, 724. qunibet, 238, 686. quin.in questions, 744; w. imperat., 744; w. charac. cl., 802; w. result cl., 820; w. subst. cl., 829; w. causal cl., 889. quippe qui, w. causal or adversative cl., 807, 808. quis, interrog.: decl., 232, 234; use, 679, 680; indef.: decl., 237; use, 682. quis, for quibus, 234. quispiam, forms, 238; use, 683. qoisquam, forms, 238; use, 685. quisque, forms, 238; use, 690, 691; w. plu. vb., 736; in partitive app., 384. quisquis, 235. quivis, forms,' 238; use, 686. quo, w. purpose cl., 810, 811; w. causal d., 888, 890. -quo-, words ending in, 39. quoad, w. temporal cl., while, 876; until, 884. quod, w. subst. cl., 822, 823; w. causal cl., 886-890; quid est quod, 525. quoi, for cui, 234. qudius, for cuius, 234. quom, see cum. qudminus, w. subst. cl., 829, 832. quoniam, w. causal cl., 886. quoque, 1039. quot, 417. fl^ifl^§oB®ms in, 39; adjs., 173. 334 INDEX r-stems, ending originally in s, no. ratus, w. present meaning, 988. Recessive accent, 27. Reciprocal pronouns, 731. recorder, constr., 441. recusa, constr., 829-832. reddo, w. perf. pass, part., 996. Reduplication, in perf. ind., 285. Reference, dat., 470-476. refert, w. gen. or poss. adj., 434; w. dat. or ad and ace, 435. Reflexive pronoun, decl., 230; reflex, use of pers. pronouns, 665; of ipse, 675; of is, 719; of vbs., 734. reicio, 26. Relative clause, preceding antecedent, 696; introd. by quod, id quod, or quae res, 702; containing abstract noun, 709; of fact, 797; of charac- teristic, 798-806; causal or adversa- tive, 807, 808; of purpose, 809-811; equivalent to condition, 927; w. inf. in ind. disc, 974. Relative pronouns and adjectives, forms, 232, 234-236; Syntax: 693- 710; qui, agreement, 703; attracted into case of antecedent, 704; w. two or more antecedents, 705; w. collective antecedent, 706; agree- ing w. pred. noun, 707; agreeing w. word to be supplied, 708; equiva- lent to pers. or .demon, pronoun, 710. reliquus, use, 417, 646; reliqui, mean- ing. 733- Remember, vbs. meaning, constr., 438- 441. Remind, vbs. meaning, constr., 442. reminiscor, w. gen. or ace, 438-440. Repeated action, subjv., 904. repraesentatio, 967. res, decl., 131. Resolution, in verse, 1075. Result clauses, w. ut, 818, 819; w. quin, 820. reus, w. gen., 433. Rhetorical questions, 771; in ind. disc, 97S- Rhotacism, 46. Road, abl., 581. Root, defined, 52. rus, limit o^ motion, 514; rure, place whence, S30, S3i; ^rl, l