S>tate College of ^gritulture ^t Cornell ?anttjctsitp Stfjaca, M- W- ILibrarp Cornell University Library ^ The original of tiiis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003634973 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. forestry division. Bulletin No. 4. REPORT ON THE SuMitution of Metal for Wood in Railroad Ties. BT E. E. RUSSELL TRATMAN, C. E. TOGETHER WITH A DlSCUSSIOIf OX PRACTICABLE ECONOMIES IN THE USE. OF WOOD FOR RAILWAY PURPOSES. BY B. E. FERNOW, CHIEF OF FORESTRY DIVISION. PUBLI'SHKD BY AUTHORITY OF THK SECRETARY OF AGRlCDLTnHE. WASHINGTON": GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1890. LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. FoEESTET Division, Depaetment of Agkiciiltueb, Washington, D. C, March 10, 1890. SiE : I have the honor herewith to submit a report on the use of metal as a substitute for wood iu railroad ties, together with a brief discussion of other practicable economies in the use of wood material, this report being a sequel to Bulletins 1 and 3 of the Forestry Division, and forming a part of a continued investigation ioto the relation of railroads to forest supplies. Respectfully, B. E. Feenow, Chief of Forestry Division. Hon. J. M. EusK, Secretary, CONTENTS. [For reference index see page 351. J Introductory by B. E. Fernow Consumption of forest supplies by railroads and practical economy in their use, by B. E. Fernow Consumption of ties, 13— Economies suggested, 15, 17 — Use of metal for roll- ing stock, 15 — Use of stone and metal for buildiags, bridges, trestles, and culverts, 16 — Hedges for fences, 17 — Durability of timber, 17 — Illustrative table, 18 — Time of felling as related to durability, 19 — List of durable tim- bers, 19— Seasoning, 20 — Young or old trees preferable, 21 — Hewn or sawed ties, 22 — Life of ties, 23 — Metal tie-plates and methods of fastening, 25 — Preserving processes for ties, 29 — Comparative cost, 31 — Financial economy of various railroad tie systems, 34 — Formula for determining annual charges, 36. Tables for computing annual charge of initial expenditures and of renewal Report on consumption of ties and other lumber by railroads in the United States- Tabular summary for the whole country by groups Report on the substitution of metal for wood in railroad ties, by E. E. Eussell Tratman, C. E Letter of transmittal, 55— Circular asking information, 57. Europe. England. General Remarks, 59 — Railroads: Northeastern, 61 — London and Northwesteril, 64— Midland, 66 — Great Northern, 67 — Great Western, 68 — London and Southwestern ; Loudon, Chatham and Dover, 69 — London, Brighton and South Coast ; Metropolitan ; Mersey ; Great Eastern ; Furness, 70 — North Staffordshire, 71 — Ties : Livesey,71; Tozer— Kerr and Stuart, 72; Howard, 73; Wood — White, 74 ; Sampan, Bankart, Bagnall, Tredegar, 75 — Nut and Bolt Com- pany's, Quetch, MacLellan, Chair and Sleeper Company's, 76 — Sum- mary for England, 77. Scotland. Great North of Scotland Railway, Highland Railway, 77. Ireland. Midland Great Western Railway, 77. France. General Remarks, 78 — Ties: Paulet and Lavalette, 80 — Vau- therin, uniform and varying section, 81— Modified Vautheriu forms, 83 — Boyenval andPonsard, 84 — Railways : State Railways, 79 — Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean, 86 — Eastern, 87 — Western, 89 — Northern, Paris and Orleans, 91 — Ties described : Panlet and Lavalette, Brunon, Decanville, Goupillon, La Gressiere, 92 — Summary for France, 93. Holland. General Remarks, 93— Netherland State Railways, 93 — Trial of various ties, 94 — Cost of maintenance, 96 — Post tie, 9ii — Report at Milan Railway Congress, lOl^HoUand Railway Company, 104 — Dutch-Rhenish Railway, Dutch Central, 106 — Post tie described, 107— Summary for Holland, 108. Belgium. General Remarks, 109 — Belgium State Railways, 110 — Braet tie, Bernard tie, HI — Cockerill tie, 112 — Great Central Railway, 113— Northern, 114 — Liege and Luxembourg, Liege and Seraing, Local Railways, 115 — Ties described: Severac, Bernard, 117-^Coblyn, Z-iron, 118— Summary for Belgium, 119. 4 Page. Eeport on the substitution of metal for wood in railroad ties, by E, E Eussell Tratman, C. E, — Continued. Europe— Continued. Germany. General Remarks, 119 — Prussian State Railways, 123 — Ties: Berg-and-Mark, 125 — Hilf, Rlienish, and Haarmann ties and longitu- dinals, 128 — Bavarian State Railways, 137 — Heindl system, 138 — Baden State Railways, 140 — Wurtemberg State Railways, 142 — Al- sace-Lorraine State Railways, 143 — Main-Neokar, 145— Hesse Louis, 146 — Lower Palatine, 148 — L ubeck and Buchen ; Halberstadt and Blankenberg, 149 — Mulhansen, Ensisheim and Wittenbeim, 150 — Hollenthal Railway, 151 — Ties described: Hoerdetie, 151 — Good Hope Works tie, 153 — Burkhardt tie, 153 — Ties from old rails — at switches and frogs, 153 — Summary for Germany, 154. ' Austria and Hungary.- General Remarks, 154 — Austrian State Railways, 155 — Hungarian State Railways, Heitzing and Pertohtoldsdorf, 162 — Heindl ties, 157 — Northern Railway, 157 — Aussig and Teplitz, Gali- cian. Northwestern Railways, loS^Heindl ties described, 163 — Sum- mary for Austria, 164. Siiiitserland. General Remarks, 165— Railways : Gotthard, 165 — North- eastern, 167— Western and Simplon, 168 — Jura, Berne and Luzerne, 172 — United Swiss, 173 — Swiss Central, Mount Pilatus, 174— Bur- genstock Railway, 175 — Summary for Switzerland, 176. Spain. General Remarks, 176 — Bilbao and Las Arenas Railway, 177 — Almansa, Valencia and Tarragona Railway, 178 — Summary for Spain, 179. Portugal. Royal Railways, 179. Italy. 180. Sweden and Norway. Swedish State Railways, 181. ■■ Denmark. Danish State Railways, 182. Russia. Moscow-Kursk Railway, 184. Turkey. Eastern Railways, 184 — Summary of metal track for Europe, 186. Afkica. Egypt, 187 — Egyptian Agricultural Railways — Suakin Railway, 189 — Algeria ; Algerian Railways, 190 — BOne und Guelma Railways, 192 — Abyasinia, 192 — South Africa, 193 — Cape Colojiy, 194 — Katal, South African Republic, Congo Free State, 196 — Senegal, 197 — Island of Reunion, 197 — Summary for Africa, 198. Australasia. South Australia, 199 — Queensland; Queensland Government Railways, 203 — Fassifern Railway, 205 — Croydon and Normauton Railway, 206 — South Wales; Victoria; New Zealand, 208 — Tasmania, 209^Summary of metal track in Australasia, 209. Asia. India. Railway .mileage, 210— General Remarks, 212— Ballast for metal ties, 214 — Wooden vs. metal ties, 214 — Tie-bars; Bowl-ties, 217 — Manufacture of ties in India, 218 — Cast-iron to. steel, 219 — Steel ties, 220 — Contracts for raetal ties, 221 — East Indian Railway, 227^ Other railways in India, 231-250 — Ties described: Denham-Olpherts plate ties, 250 — Moore's ties, 252 — Bell's tie, 253 — Denham tie, 254 — J''a»'(Aer india, 254— Summary for India, 254 — Ceylon, Sumatra, China, 255 — Japan, 256 — Summary of metal track in Asia, 256. South America, Central America, and Mexico. Argentine Republic, 257 — Buenos Ayres. Great Southern Railway, 257 — Central Argentine Railway, 260 — East Argentine Railway, 262 — Santa F^ and Cordova Great Southern Railway ; Buenos Ayres and Euseuada Port Railway, 263 — Other railways, 264 — Summary for Argenlline Republic, 265 — Chili, 'i6?}— Brazil, 266 — Summary for Brazil, 269 — Venezuela, 269 — United States of Colombia, 270 — Guatemala, 271 — Cosla Rica, Salvador,. and Mexico, 272 — Summary of metal track in section, 275. North America. United States : New York and Hudson River Railway, 277 — Chicago and Western Indiana Railway, 279 — Delaware and Hudson River Railway, 2-,0 — Pennsylvania Railway, 280 — Chicago, Santa F4> and California Railway, 281 — Long Island Railway, 282 — Maine Central ; Denver and Rio Grande ; Philadelphia and Baltimore Central Railways, 283— Delaware, Lackawanna and Western and other railways, 284— Ties: Hartford, 284 — Standard, 285 — Pennsyl- vania ; Toucey ; International, 266 — Taylor ; Hicks ; Durand, S87 — Other ties, 288. Canada, 289. Report on the substitution of metal for wood in railroad ties, hy E. E. Russell, Tratman, C. E. — Continued. Tabular summary of metal track 290 General Eevibw of metal track question , 293 General Remarks, 293 — Requirements of successful tie, 295 — Elasticity, rust, simplicity in design, 29G — Life, International Congress, con- clusions, 297— Types of track, 299— Material, 301— Tests, 302— Form and dimensions, 303 — Weight, 305 — Manufacture of cross-ties, 307 — Preservative treatment, 308— Fastenings, 308 — Tie rods; Metal con- tact, 311 — Adjustment of gauge, closed and open ends, 312 — Cost, 313— Economy; Efficiency; Spacing of ties; Track-laying, 314— Ballasting, 315 — Renewals, 315— Maintenance, 316 — Frogs and switches; Records; Ties from old rails, 317 — Combination of wood and metal; Tie-plates, 318 — Glass ties; Rack railways; Mjlitaty railways, 319 — Light and portable railways, 320 — Street railways; Conclusion, 321 — Brief synopsis of extent of metal track, 322— Ad- vantages of metal track, 323. Pateuts relating to metal railway track, by E. E. Russell Tratman 326-347 Timbers used for ties in some foreign countries 348^ Index 351 TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Post's Bed-plate, opposite page 28. Plate 1. Cabry & Kinoh Tie (Northwestern Railway, England). Plate 2. Webb Tie (London and Northwestern Railway, England). Plate 3. Midland Railway (Cockerill Co. Tie), (England). , Plate 4. Ties: Bagnall, Bankart, Howard, Kerr &, Stuart, Sampan, Tozer, Wood. Plate 5. Paulet-Lavalette Tie, Vautherin (uniform section) Tie. Plate 6. Boyenval-Ponsard Tie, Vautherin (varying section) Tie. Plate 7. Guillaumo Tie (Eastern Railway, France); Chappee Tie (Western Rail- way, France). Plate 8. Post Tie (Netherlands State Railways). Platb 9. Post Tie (latest type). Plate 10. Ties: Bernard, Coblyn, Severac — Z-iron. Plate 11. Caramiuice to the old growth of the virgin forest, and the oft'er of the crop in this shape may be excessive at any time without necessarily indicating an over- abundance of forest supplies in. general and for the long run. The acci- dental simultaneous arrival at an age when the timber is fit for ties of a new growth over a large area may also in a given region make sup- plies appear plentiful if offered in that shape,- and therefore for a time reduce the price; but this present oversupply and reduction of price must necessarily be at the expense of a future short supply and increase of price. Another reason for an apparent oversui)i)ly of tie timber may be found in the opening up of new sources oi' supply on such roads as are capable of extension, while the old roads, with no new fields, to enter, will necessarily experience a constant advance in prices with decreased offers, and will be the first to have recourse to metal on ac- count of cheapness. These conditions are apparent from the replies re- ceived from various railroad managements, as recorded in the notes found in this report. It should also be known that, within limits, a railroad management has it in its power — and this power is being used — to keep the price low by raising freight rates, so as to make the exportation of tie timber from its territory unprofitable. The condition of the tie market, then, can not be the only, or even the main, criterion as to when the time for substituting metal has arrived, even from a financial point of view. But it is not a consideration of initial cost that makes the substitu- tion of metal ties desirable and profitable. It is superiority of track, permanence of road-bed, safety, reduced cost of maintenance, and hence ultimate saving and economy, that recommend the metal tie, as will be seen from a study of the experiences in foreign countries here presented. It will be a matter of astonishment to our railroad engineers to find that almost 30,000 miles of railroad track lies on metal ties, which means over 15 per cent, of the railroad mileage>of the world outside of the United states and Canada. The claim, then, that metal ties are an experiment and their general adoption premature for lack of experi- ence, will have to be abandoned, as based simply on ignorance in regard to the real state of affairs. The report, being primarily intended for the information of railway managers and engineers for the purpose of interesting them more di- rectly in the introduction of a substitute for wood, is necessarily of a 10 "technical character ; it is full of such details as alone can influence the judgment of the engineer. The laborious task which Mr. Tratman, without any adequate compensation, has performed in compiling the experience of the world in regard to this subject will, no doubt, be ap- preciated and the details welcomed by those most nearly concerned in it. The general public will be interested only in the ultimate result, which bids fair to advance the use of more permanent types of railroad construction in the United States, insuring greater safety and speed of railroad travel. The forestry interests of the country will be subserved by this report in a practical manner by spreading this information, which must lead to a reduction of the premature and illegitimate drain upon the forest resources of the future. Perhaps au- apology is due to the reader for the bulkiness of this re- port, which might possibly, have been compressed into more compact form. The desire to make public as soon as possible the results of the investigation, and the fact that Mr. Tratman, leaving for Europe, could not devote more time to the literary form, must stand as an excuse for the deficiencies in that direction, which a carefully prepared index will also tend to alleviate. That besides the adoption of metal ties there are other ways open to railroad managers for effecting desirable economies in the use of wood supplies has been pointed out at length in former i)ublications of this division, and is again discussed more briefly in the present publication in connection with a canvass recently made in regard to consumption of timber supplies by railroads. A curious lack of proper financial calculation has been noticeable in the writings of engineers when discussing the profitableness and mak- ing comparisons of the relative value on the balance sheet of various systems of construction. A railroad company that is bound by neces- sity to consider only the initial cost can, to be sure, always settle at once all financial questions by the limit of cash in hand ; but few corpora- tions are in such straitened circumstances, and the question constantly arises whether the temporary saving in initial cost is preferable to a greater initial expenditure which insures — either or both — decreased expenditure for maintenance and deferred expenditure for renewal. This question is capable of solution by simple mathematical calcula- tion, as will be shown further on in this report. Prom such calculation it will appear, for instance, that a road using ties for which it pays iiO cents and which last eight years — like white oak, in many sections — can afford to pay $1.20 for a metal tie lasting thirty years (the presumed life of such ties) and be sure of saving at "least the amount required for the renewals of the oak ties during thirty years; or, by doubling the life of the oak tie to sixteen years by means of preservative processes, we may pay 35 cents for such process and would still find an advantage on the balance sheet. 11 In conclasion. I may express the hope that the information here pre- sented will not only be found of value and be welcome to railroad man- agers and engineers, but that its presentation from this offlce will brilig them to a realization of their duty, as an intelligent and influential class of a great community with a future before it, to give thoughtful atten- tion to the subject of forestry in general as one of the necessary econo- mies in a modern civilized state. Railroads, while the carriers of civilization, the promoters of develop- ment, have committed many sins for the benefit of the i^resent at the expense of the future by needless forest devastation. Bdug institutions of a permanent character, it would seem that their managers ought.to be interested in anything that pertains to judicious use of natural resources and to favorable cultural conditions, at least within the territory which their roads traverse. While with their large consumption of wood material they are directly concerned in the continuity of forest supplies, they must also be indirectly concerned in the prosperous development of their territory, and that proper use and recuperation of forest re- sources, proper disposition of forest and field areas are essential to continual development of prosperity should be recognized by them, and their influence to secure both should be brought to bear even were it only for their own selfish interest. B. E. Feenow. CONSUMPTION OF FOREST SUPPLIES BY RAILROADS AND PRACTICABLE ECONOMY IN THEIR USE. By B. E. Fbrnow, Chief of Forestry Diviaiem. The requirements of our railroad system in regard to forest supplies liave been discussed several times in publications from this Division. A comprehensive canvass in regard to the kinds and quantities of tim- ber used for railroad ties and their life was published in Volume IV of Forestry Reports, in 1884, and a more extensive} discussion and compu- tation of the consumption of forest supplies by railroads were given in Bulletin 1 from this Division. A canvass, made this year and tabulated below, was undertaken to verify some of the conclusions reached and to ascertain what, if any, the change in supplies has been during the last six years, as far as change in prices and personal views of managers might indicate. The tabulation by geographical sections will recom- mend itself to students of the subject as an improvement on the alpha- betical one adopted by Dr. Hough in the first report mentioned, since forest and market conditions differ so widely in the various sections of the country that the relation of railroads to tie supplies can be profita- bly discussed only from local points of view. The larger roads, mainly, have been canvassed as indicating the gen- eral and most prevailing practice. In the summary, the percentage of mileage to which the report refers compared with that in operation within the section is calculated, and upon that basis the amount of for- est supplies consumed by the railroad system of the section is com- puted. Since the report refers to nearly 60 per cent. — ranging from 32 to 87 per cent, in the various sections — of the total mileage, such basis for computation will furnish a sufQciently close approximation to the truth for general discussion. The consumption of ties goes for new construction and for renewals. Both these uses are, to be sure, exceedingly variable, the latter natu- rally being influenced by the increase of new mileage as well as by many other causes; only a general approximation, therefore, is possible. The present canvass places the number of ties needed for repairs at 60,000,000 per annum, the figure which Mr. Dudley estimated in the Bulletin I referred to, and somewhat lower than that figured in Mr. Kern's paper 13 14 in the same publication.* To this, as has been there shown, 13,000,000 ties may be added for new construction, or in round numbers our pres- ent railroad system consumes 73,000,000 railroad ties, requiring at least 365,000,000 cubic feet of raw material. A rough computation of the proportion in which the various timbers participate in this consump- tion allows the following distribution of material : Oak ties 45,000,000 Chestnut ties 3,500,000 Pine ties 12,500,000 Cedar ties (red, white, and California) 5,000,000 Hemlock and tamarack ties 2, 500, 000 Cypress ties 1,500,000 Redwood ties 2,500,000 Various ,. 500,000 The oak, therefore, our most valuable timber, furnishes over 60 per cent, of the material, and not only from choice trees mostly, but from the young growth, which may make "one tie to the tree" or "one tie to the cut." For bridge and trestle timber, etc.. another 60,000,000 cubic feet of sawed material are to be added ; so that a consumption of 500,000,000 cubic feet of wood, in the shape of forest- grown (round) timber for rail- road purposes, which was claimed in a former publication, stands as a reasonable figure. This requires the annual culling of the best timber from probably more than 1,000,000 acres of our natural forest lands; and to furnish this amount continually not less than 10,000,000 to 15,000,000 acres of well-managed forest would be required, or in the absence of management — as at present — the area to be reserved for this purpose would have to exceed probably 50,000,000 acres, or more than 10 per cent, of our present forest area. Since the railways are responsible for a very large amount of the consumption of timber, it must be one of the problems of a rational forest policy, in a country where forest management is not yet practiced, to encourage such economies in the use of timber as are within reason- able reach of railroad managers. The use of wood and the method of using it are largely matters of custom everywhere. In the United States the enormous supplies which the native forest yielded have induced not only a very extensive but also a very wasteful use of wood, until now we have reached a point when the prospect of reduced supplies makes the study of economies a matter of national concern, and within a not too distant time private interest will also awaken to the need of it. As a nation, with our present conception of private property rights^ we have but little opportunity to check the wasteful use of our forest resources, except so far as this can be done by disseminating informa- *As will be shown further on, this figure is probably over 30 per cent, below actual requirements, and a consumption of 80,000,000 ties for renewals nearer the truth. 15 tion which will lead to private economy. As far as the Government holdings of timber lands — still some 70,000,000 acres — are concerned, certainly a rational management is the need of the hour. The condi- tions in which this common property is left at present, even if con- sidered merely from a business point of view, are deplorable. They are a disgrace to our nation. I« recognizing the necessity of Government action with regard to forest resources, the United States is the most backward of all civilized nations. Not only have all the European nations firmly established forest administrations, for at least that part of the woodlands held in the hands of the Government, but even Japan and China are inaugu- rating such, and the English colonies in India, Australia, and in Africa are fully imbued with this claim on Government supervision. Even in Canada the future action of the Government is at least not preclijded, the Government retaining title to the land which is stripped of its tim- ber, from which Canada, in fact, derives its principal revenue. The consumption of timber for railway purposes includes ties, fences, telegraph poles, bridges, trestles and culverts, station-houses and other buildings, rolling stock, fuel. In all of these uses most companies would find it to their advantage to study economy. Economy in the consumption of timber may be effected in two ways r (1) By the use of other materials as substitutes ; (2) by employing means to increase the durability and life of the timber used. The possibility of substituting metal for ties is fully discussed in Mr. Tratman's report and needs no discussion here. While it can not be ^expected that the use of this substitute will be brought about by any consideration of the waning forest supplies^ it is fortunate that the advantages, direct and indirect, which accrue from the use of metal ties are such as to recommend their employment; even before the time when the initial cost of the metal tie compares more favorably with that of the wooden tie and its financial advantage becomes palpable. Those roads which have a sufficiently permanent and sound financial status, to allow them to carry on their operations with a view to ulti- mate saving rather than to economy in first cost, and to consider re- duction of maintenance expenses the financial aim of a well-managed railroad, may even now profitably adopt the higher priced metal tie. The use of metal for the construction of rolling stock — not only car- frames and truck-frames, but of entire cars — has proved quite feasible and satisfactory. The economy to the railway company will consist in reduced cost of maintenance and repairs, and in longer life. A mail car built entirely of steel, on a plan patented by Mr. Green, was put iu actual service on the Louisville, New Albany and Chicago Railway (Monon route> some time in 1888, and Mr. Watkeys, the master mechanic of the road, informed me in September last that the car is still in use and has giveu satisfactory results. He stated that up to September 26 it had made about 88,000 miles, and had not cost 16 anything forrepairs. ■ The cars on the experimental line of the Meigs Elevated Rail- way at Cambridge, Mass., are of metal throughout ; the truck and floor frames are of iron and steel, and the body has transverse ribs or frames of metal tubes with sheet- metal panels. Freight cars with metal frames are already used quite largely. The use of stone for buildings, and of stone and metal for bridges, trestles, and culverts, suggests itself, and the substitution of these materials for lumber is, in fact, gradually progressing on all lines that haye acquired permanency. Yet this tendency does not seiem to have made a very great impression when we find that even in New England and the middle group of roads — leaving out the Pennsylvania Railroad — from 3,500 to 4,450 feet B. M. of timber per mile is used, while South- ern and Northwestern roads, which are expected to use more wood in construction, average hardly any more, and the more western roads, with fewer stations, and probably fewer water-crossings, use about 3,000 feet. While bridges are being more or less replaced by stone and iron structures, wooden trestles even in permanent and well established roads continue the rule, and it is very questionable whether the acci- dents resulting every year from burning of wooden bridges and trestles or from their collapse and washing out are not more expensive to the railroad companies than better structures. Filling in to solid bank should be done as fast as possible, or at least preserved timber and paint should be employed in the construction of trestles. The substitu- tion of iron and cement pipe for wooden culverts, or masonry and arches and abutments, with iron roof or concrete, would also prove a final economy. In regard to station-houses, freight-sheds, shops, round-houses, car- sheds, it is again the economy of maintenance which would dictate the use of stone or brick and iron sheeting. The use of paint at least should be insisted upon as long as wood is used. The objection that with in- creased needs it is cheaper to replace a small wooden structure by a larger one, is not valid when the design for the smaller structure is in the first place made with a view to enlargement and addition. The use of wood for fuel can hardly be said to be objectionable and uneconomical, as far as forestry interests are concerned, if managed with proper discrimination. In fact, a very great waste in the American forest results from the fact that much of the inferior material can not be utilized for firewood, and remains in the woods to feed and make more destructive the recurring forest fires. Some two and a half to three mill- ion cords of wood are probably consumed for locomotive use. Wood- burning locomotives are still found in all sections where fuel supply from the forest is plentiful and coal expensive. The only objection that » 16.6 This is almost 50 per cent, higher than the figures of Colonel Flad. Mr. A. A. Eobiusou, general manager, under date November 21, 1889, adds: The indications thus far are favorable and satisfactory. In 1885 we placed 305 of these treated pine ties in the main track just north of the bridge over the Kansas Eiver in North Topeka. A few weeks since I examined these ties and found no evi- dence of decay, each tie being apparently as sound as a dollar. Since oak ties last year on that road cost 48 cents free on board at Kansas City (a low price), and the pine ties 34 cents in New Mexico, the oak lasting seven and a half years, the treated pine, even if we in- crease its price to 60 cents, would need to last only ten years and yet be cheaper. Experience with burnettized ties would allow an assump- tion of twice that life as not extravagant. Ill all calculations of the advantage in the use of ties of longer life an important one is often overlooked, namely, the reduced necessity of dis- turbing the track, with all the advantages which that implies. The value of this indirect advantage, to be sure, it is almost impos- sible to establish by mathematical calculation, but the direct financial superiority of one tie system over another is perfectly capable of being figured upon a mathematical basis, and the factors to be used for such calculation are not doubtful. 22893— Bull. 4 3 34 FINANCIAL ECONOMY OF VARIOUS KAILROAD TIE SYSTEMS. There has been much difficulty experienced, even by the writers in the publication referred to of the Society of Civil Engineers, in getting at a proper basis upon which to compare the financial value of two tie systems of varying cost and duration, or the eventual saving of one over the other. For a perpetual concern lil£e a railroad the first cost is not always the most important factOE of calculation. In fact, the saving of labor for renewals and maintenance is now the vital question in the cost of railroad management. When this is brought to a minimum by perfec- tion of the road, safety and comfort in traveling as well as a safe divi- dend will be secured. We may dismiss at once as improper in a community with well estab- lished financial systems any calculation which does not apply com- pound interest. There can be a dispute only as to the rate of interest, which in discounting long-standing investments is usually taken at less than the current rate of interest. But, while the choice of the rate is of importance when the actual amount of saving is to be calculated, if the existence only of a saving — no matter of what amount— is to be es- tablished, this choice of rate of interest becomes irrelevant as long as we use the same rate in all cases which we compare. And, especially in the.case of two tie systems, the saving which the one of longer dura- tion brings, by virtue of greater safety and permanence of road-bed, is incalculable, so that to establish its superiority financially we need to ^ prove only that it is not more expensive. The expenditure for a tie system, which must be renewed at given intervals, may be conceived as a series of intermittent rents. In order to make them comparable with another series of rents, which are paid out at different intervals we must transform both series into annual rents. The sum total of the amounts represented in the intermittent rents, with compound interest discounted to the present date, are to be equal to annual rents discounted in the same way. If R = intermittent rent or charge, 2> = rate of interest, n = period of payment, »•= annual rent or charge, we have B B. _ r r Summing up both sides, which represent two endless falling geometric series, we get R l.Op" r l.Op" — 1 = O.Up ' or This istheonly proper wayof determiningtheso-called annual charge, and with this formula a table of annual charges has been constructed 35 and appended to this report, which allows ready comparison of systems of varying cost aud duration as to their profitableness. This table is calcalaled for a 5 percent, rate of interest. If a lower rate of interest is used in calculating the annual charges, these, to be sure, fall out lower, but the amounts of saving increase. So that it may be assumed that the table calculated upon a 5 per cent, basis gives the most conservative, practically applicable results. If the actual amount saved is to be determined, we need only find and compare the capitals which produce annually if placed on simple inter- est the amounts of the annual charge ; or to arrive at the amount of that capital directly, we need only omit in the above formula the multiplica- tion with O.Op. Calling C + R = S, the sum from which we may take the amount E for first construction and have the amount left to pro- duce K at stated intervals of n years, we have l.Op" ^ = ^1.02)"- 1 Using the table of annual charges, we see that a tie costing 30 cents and lasting 5 years involves an annual charge of 6.93 cents, which cor- responds to a capital of $1.39. Were we to pay 20 cents more for a tie lasting ten years, the annual charge would be 6.47 cents, corresponding to a capital of $1.29 ; or use of the latter ties would mean a capital sav- iug of 10 cents per tie or $260 per mile of track laid with 2,600 ties. This does not include the saving which comes by virtue of the less frequent necessity of renewal, and which can be determined in a similar manner ; a table of annual renewal charges is also appended. If objections should be made to employing indefinite time, as has been here done, in the capitalization, and it is desired to relate the cap- ital to any given term for which the business is supposed to run, the following formulas should be employed, representing the accumulation of recurring expenditures, with compound interest at the end of the business term : R = amount paid out once in n years, m = the number of terms of n years, V = the total value of the investment at the end of m n years, p = the rate of interest ; then (i.Oj>"'"-i)i.or ,,, ^-■" l.Oi?" -1 ^ ' If we consider two systems in which the corresponding values are V„ R„ m„ n„ and V^,, R„, m,„ w„, we have from (1) V, = E, 1.0p"-(L0p"''"- — 1 ) l.Ojj" — 1 (2) Y„ = R„ 1.0p"» (1.0ff"'»»>, — 1 ) 1.0p»„ — 1 36 Since for comparison we must have m,M, = »»„w„, the values (2) give V^ B, 1.0j?«» — 1 l.Ojj"'-"" (3) From this we see that the first or second system will be the more ad- vantageous, according as =^ is less or greater than 1. If, for instance, we introduce into these equations the following ele- ments, in one case a tie costing 60 cents in the roadbed, lasting eight years, in the other case a tie costing the same but lasting sixteen years, 2,600 ties to the mile, we find for a term of thirty-two years, in the first case an expenditure of investment and accumulated interest of $18,131.18, and in the other case of $10,836.42, or, since V^, _ 2600x60x1.05"— 1 X 1.05° _ V, - 2600x60xl.05i«— 1 -"■*>"; the saving of the longer-lived tie amounts to 40 per cent. By discount- ing the difference in accumulated expenditures after thirty-two years, namely, $7,294.76 to the present year, according to formula E=— ^^ — , we l.Op" get the present capital saving, namely, $1,531.90, This represents the financial advantage of the tie of longer duration for a thirty-two year run. For a longer run this amount increases naturally. The simplest and most satisfactory way, however, of comparing two systems is by -taking recourse to a calculation of annual charges. AJINTTAL CHARGES. As we have seen the expenditure E occurring now and recurring' every n years, like that for the renewal of railroad ties, is changed into an annual charge r by the formula as developed above ^_p l.0y»0.0p 1.0jp»-l in which p is the rate of interest and 1.0 io="*"^- ^ -^ 100 . In the following table the fraction ' f ' ^ has been computed for 1.0_p»— 1 "^ rate of interest at 5 per centum, and for various terms of n. By multiplying the fraction, given for 1 cent expenditure, under the term in which the expenditure is to recur, with the actual amount of the expenditure in cents the annual charge is found. This multiplication is carried out in the table for varying expendi- tures from 20 cents to 125 cents. 37 If the expenditure is not now incurred, but becomes first necessary after n years and then recurs at intervals of n years, like the cost of replacing railroad ties (assuming that first laying is done at a different figure), the formula for the annual charge is changed into ^_ B 0-Op For this the needful computations are found in Table II. Examples. (1) A hemlock tie, costing 40 cents in the road-bed, lasts five years; how long must it last to allow an additional expenditure of 25 cents for a process of impregnation without increasing its ultimate cost ? Find under column 5 (years) the annual charge for 40 cents = 9.23 ; find for 40+25^65 cents the annual charge nearest in amount to 9.23, this, beiug 9.14, be- longs to column 9 (years); so that to justify the expenditure a duration of between eight and nine years must be attained. (2) A railroad company is offered hemlock ties at 25 cents which will last five years, and oak ties which will last eight years costing 45 cents. Which is cheaper, when the cost of replacing Is 15 cents ? Cents. Find from Table I for 25 cents under column 5 (years) the annual charge 5.78 Add frflm Table II for cost of replacing every 5 years annual charge for 15 cents 2.72 Annual charge for hemlock tie= 8.50 Find for 45 cents under colum 8 (years) the annual charge 6.96 Add for cost of replacing every 8 years at 15 cents 1. 58 Annual charge for oak tie= 8.54 The oak tie under such conditions can only indirectly be cheaper by being more easily kept in condition. (3) It is proposed to increase the life of the hemlock tie, by means of burnettizing, to sixteen years ; how much can be paid for the process in order not to exceed the cost of an oak tie, and what is the amount of saving in capital over an oak tie, if the process can be kept at 20 cents per tie, when there are 2,600 ties per mile and 15 cents per tie must be paid for first laying and again for replacing ? The annual charge for the oak tie having been found, as above, to be 8.54 cents, look under columu 16 (years) for an annual charge of the same or nearly the same amount ; this is 8.30 cents, corresponding to an expenditure of 90 cents ; add to this annual charge, that for 1 cent as many times as it is necessary to bring it up to 8.54 or 2^ by 0.09, which brings the annual charge for the hemlock tie to 8.53, cor- responding to an expenditure. of 92^^ cents ; or since the hemlock tie originally cost 25 cents we may spend 67i cents for the preserving process and yet keep the financial value of the hemlock tie at least equal to that of the untreated oak tie. If we can keep the cost of process at 20 cents, making the hemlock tie in the bed 25 4- 20 + 15 = 60 cents, and the oak tie 45 -|- 15 = 60 cents, the annual charge for the oak tie is 9.28, or per mile of 2,600 ties $241. 28; the annual charge for the hemlock tie is 5.53, or per mile of 2,600 ties |143.78; the capital corresponding to these charges, bearing interest at 5 per cent., would be For oak. |4,825.60 For hemlock 2,875.60 Difference 1,950.00 38 That is to say, although the original expenditure is the same in both cases, namely, 60 x 2,600 =$1,560, in the long run the tie of twice the duration effects a saving of more than its original cost. (4) A metal tie costing $1.25, lasting thirty years, and then being worth for old iron 50 cents, rec[uires an expenditure of 30 cents to lay clown first and then of 40 cents for replacing ; what is the proper annual charge ? Cents. The annual charge for $1.25 through 30 year terras, according to Table I, is 8. 12 This is diminished by the annual change on 50 cents recnrring after the first term of thirty years, according to Table II, namely, 0.75 7.37 To this must be added from Table II, the annual charge on 40 cents, recurring every thirty years after the first term = 0. 60 7.97 and also the annual charge for the initial expenditure of 30 cents occurring only once according to formula r=R .-^-^2 — ljvP ^jiiol, fy^. n=:cc> becomes = "'"■ P l.Opn+l— 1 1.0 p or for 30 cents and 5 per cent, rate of interest JO X 0.05 j^g ^ 1.05 making total proper annual charge 9.40 Such a tie, then, would be financially superior to an oak tie costing 55 cents laid and lasting seven years, or to a preserved tie costing 85 cents in the road-bed and lasting twelve years, as can be readily seen by finding the corresponding annual charges in Table I, ifi r; o o o o o ■§ O 'tjl t^ 1-1 -^ CO r-l T« CO .- „ „ ^ ^ - imcoffMooiweooicocoomt- r-iNwc-iecciacoTli^-#iriirftri«ded(Dt^t-t-odcd iS .-I t- O «D -r*< g O 1— I C^l C^l cc [S^ o dodo ^di-HiHNNNweiaed-^'rf'^iriirfiotDddt^D flolM co-^cor-iioooc^icoo}eoi>o^L--i-Himooc^e ^Or-ii-icicomm'^^idu3iridddi>t-i>odcoos go --I CM C-J CO ;2 d d d d d tooooo oeCS ■"tgOJt-lOM—tOJt-mcOrHOSCO-iJiCMOOOW-^CMOCO KOlOCjOOTCDO^t-r-l»nCi««DOT|iQOC'liOroCOl~'-i-* Odr-irHc*(7ici3co»'diTiioiiriiridddi>t^i:^cooddos ^o o oo o ^Or-nMffawecco-Tj<^^irsiftdtDwi>i>cocoooddd 1^ o o o o o oglO 1 ■^cp—<-^eoo3WTioM"oooi-'eotoe)CM-^^-oM»n«) i§di-icqc^iNmco'«i'riiiriiriusd{di>t>cdodcddcJdd g OCO-*lf3 t- (^ddd d d ■S^I^WtOIMOSlO'-lr-M-asiOT-lt-COOCOWOOrHO^'M gOaocQt-c-ai03eowcOL--cMO>-i:oom f§diHCsiNeoa3'(iiT(iirfiriiftddi>i>coodo!ddd--'t-3 " o O OOO "k. 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CO CO CO 7^ CO, CO CO o Proportion- ate number used by all roads. 3, 941, 860 9, 543, 318 6, 402, 041 15, 224, 071 4, 563, 964 6, 681, 449 3,. 752, 684 5 to S Ties used annually for renewal by report- ing roads. 2,373,000 7, 067, 860 ■ 2,471,188 9, 149, 667 2,026,400 5, 411, 974 6, 377, 785 s 00 5 5S" 2,752 2,728 2,726 2,916 • 2,770 2,759 2,310 to of Per cent, of total track re- ported. 60.2 73.9 38.6 60.1 44.4 81.8 46.8 00 6,500 23,135 6,256 33, 519 6,568 10, 961 20, 520 O . 11 10, 813 31, 281 16, 2J4 60, 032 12, 522 20,-744 43, 881 on O 1 5 New England group. . Middle Atlantic group South Atlantic group . Northern Central group. Gulf and Mississippi group. Northwestern group. . Southwestern and Pa- cific group. 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OO 48 (35 O »-l a a " o o CI o ■I a ID a o 0-3 O <0 •^ + +++ + ■* MlH oitnoo gS "1-4^ ; - ■ o --^ At ■^ St- ' gSgS* XS c- Sin S .s3^o t- S*; WBUAjWOH ooooh mm (Mm 3 ° q o ■a g t. 8 q C O -4 S o S B I OO OO O O OOOUOr^ a go go. :.SE= a^- 31 a ^ CD CO f— 1 Ti S T3 P^ S ts n -2 g (I) V, o n > <1 Art ^ H 3 "3 ifi , o bt OS •iz fH .i M P a c3 0) a C hi ft > -a U) d 4-3 a g ft a ^ rt s M ? -=> !^ ^ k^ vJ O S -^ v o s &3 ■I* 1 £ o br ■j_, I;' S i tU -1 k O -o ^ Pia"t^ •i. ? 5 d Tf o tH ^ f« :S © ai ;^ ■^ p u 1 o ft p o 1 9 S 3 o S ^ ciy =s « 0)^ = i„ <1 P-^*^ III §11 rt '^^ ft.a t- CO <0 m C^ r- i-ICOOJCO0OOi««3^(M ffi D » 3 -.9 Ma sa ^ D ^ S MCO"*t-M'^COCO «j t^ 00 00 .-i (Nt-^ ed w N lXOOsC003T)(M«t- 'i]4(MOimiMOOi-IOOCOeO mNo6ca(o-^-^p3co(o coeioi-i-^c-wwooo t-^co"^o~c-red"o5 irrcTt-^ OS-«*<— 'OS-*OTllOWrf eooooot-ecxcminw nC !3 ° a '^ -^ ?* ^ 00 -£ ''■bL^ as* 3»§o""'p a,S ^_!-SS-S&r,aS-S l^-g»«|i: gl- ass fc ?.sa<25-2 S g^-af o.ag t^^^ oj^'S.gfaaogg t-" Jr? a 3 - ^ IS o Ti ra ■" coo S a 5to' P.g'C_.4&<»gfl| ' ^f^ "a a g •"'«"£ g£|a«S°gSa p.'-'.SS'^P.^.gaS 5?..S°S^*^-"a g .g-ggolsSa.'S 3.9 w ^C(H 00 00 ^ '^ o a CO f-i 30 ? a Ss*-gr°s?j.saS' 2-2893— Bull. 4- Ba-Sgga.o'^^gE 50 _ tH c c a Ot- I ro aj ^o O o o 00 p^ ~C3 O O lO in ,H «a^ 1:5=: a om 1 © 3 ^ , -=> 10 «- « « N Ci e» 2ss ^^- Cvf ^" « o- na ^, o -2 'd ^ o O) g p^ "3 2 o o t-l 00 00 00 to L- cf Cl" CO cf m' (N -^ .1 T^ w t~ to Oi 00 •S- -^ ■ra ei c3» ca CO If b£Vi u CO so in iH t- n o c^ V t4 m" tH ta ^ -^ s 'ti, "c (-1 a « 1 1 1 ^° e ^ ^ ill (Up m ■« ! ^ 1 i § H 1 1 t- oc 1^ H4 in CO ^ CO CO ¥5 V C0 3'3 ■S£ ES H'2 fl s§ ■5p, B. r4 --ir P op, o ■"& M S'?! ?'!> 1^ "eo M &4 W cc u$ M ►> T^^ W «.9 s rt -^ ? 12! -o'Sb >'^ p s 03 >3 .^ . 10 "" O sSp. So >. .Soft OHM i 1 .9 a -g p OT ** P 'E tt p CZ3 •=^ S ^ + + + + 00 oc "* xg. Tf W&IW iC in t-WM 00« ■<*N(MM p u p sp p P4 p (^ (- ^ _- t. po ■22bS 6S5> a ^0 d a. (M CO Q QD C5 L- CD (M 10 C9 t- (M 00 00 00 1-1 rH i-l [<. U l^i : Pi B 13 ; § : P H P M '^ ; !i fd 3 • __J- 3 M : ^ 1 p4 rfl ■a ^ A< ■0 ,S B r. II 1 |g.i P « n ° u n t^ *> IS 51 oo o o O ■n M 1 eo o C MCO oo o ■*CO 00 o o O (MW tH in CQ If ■* to tt o in CM to w- « f 03 ; (D t— ■rt ig a g 1 s be FM u o 1 tl g ll bo TS C a b ^ il il .5 c o C ^ 4 - + 4 - + IT CT W 5 w ■^ ■* M "* WifflN U6i!5 0304 aq « t. t e .j1 S-. i^''^ M^ "S^"E p ra E O ( w5i ^C p- 00 w QO lO *r C£ o ^ ^ c -^ c: c W c o c o cr o. IT o" t- w ifS = 51 C o c ^ c "! c w « OD tc '='_ (C ~ t- O. in" Cy CO (^ (N~ ■- ,_ <_ 00 « ^ u ira lO «o ir in p - p- to c c « 3 o [ 1 B < < nz rz 5 d P o s I-) s • ;^ ,a C CO 1= , d 1 "3 1 -3 « • 1 ^ g J S "p a s c C4 ^ ^ g p- Ph t- P 3 a •il P- "* ir C0 t- P- t^ P- (T' l:- 1 eSoow n cl ® « 3 ° S.Scd 11 :§ B o a" CJ'S SOS'S •B--S ..- rt rt «= « o ■'^ qT "^ c- S « *^°* ^ p-o-e •;3 » « 2 ■3 ^ a 03 "^ °a s a '• . .oi § o 2 2" £ S +j "S « " a ™ -S 3^^ = .2p.'?S=i .o.g oqo ^ © L ^ -O •ss.SSa ."t^ o = o 9 ^ t— "0 o •=1 ■« Is §.2=|=- o •< H M a W H O 03 ' fl '§^ rt bO i fl g^ c^ ■ea - te CO a o P.'S ri?p«-a OS p,a P,S o o g'SQ-*^ a 'J2 , - o > p d •'^ o bi L-, 2 ^ O rM a a g -43 -ta a 2 g ® a s REPORT ON THE SOBSTITDTION OF METAL FOR WOOD IN UUm TIBS, E. E. RUSSELL TRATMAN, C. E. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 103 Tribunio Building, New York City, January 31, 1890. Sir : Herewith I submit my final report upon the use of m3tal track on railways as a substitute for wooden ties. This report presents at considerable length, and in considerable de- tail, the development of the use of such track in many foreign coun- tries, the experience thus obtained and the present state of the metal track question. The bulk of the information has been obtained from official sourtjes. Foreign railway managements as a rule have mani- fested great courtesy and a willingness to furnish full information both in regard to the various systems of track, the conditions of service, and the results obtained. In order to show the thoroughness of my inves- tigation, I may state that my memoranda show personal letters of application for information written to over three hundred individuals, of whom about two hundred have replied. A large number of the replies have been very full and complete, and have been accompanied by drawings, reports, etc. Many of these returns necessitated farther cor- respondence, asking for missing links of information, more complete data, etc., or sending information requested by the persons making the returns. The total of the direct correspondence has amounted to about six hundred letters, with about three hundred communications received. These figures are exclusive of requests for information included in pri- vate or general business correspondence. Circulars containing a re- quest for information, with a list of questions showing the character of the information desired, have been sent out with most of the letters of inquiry, and have also been sent to many of the foreign technical and engineering papers. A copy of the circular is appended. In all, about five hundred of these circnlars have been sent out. Most of the infor- mation obtained, and that of the most complete and valuable character, has been received in answer to the personal letters of application for information. The American and foreign technical and engineering journals have been studied for published information relating to the matters under investigation. The report presents the results of more than twoyearsof direct work and investigation for this special purpose, but the subject is .one which has occupied my attention for a longer time. 55 56 It will of course be understood that the rail support itself can uot be considered independently, and therefore detailed information is pre- sented in regard to conditions of track, traffic, and rolling stock, all of which conditions have an important bearing upon the general question of the substitution of metal for wooden supports for the rail. The report covers, as will be seen by the tabular summary accompa- nying it, nearly 25,000 miles of railway laid with metal track, out of a total mileage of the world (exclusive of the United States and Canada) of 187,721 miles, or a relation of 13.21 per cent, to this total mileage. Allowing for omissions (which will necessarily occur in a work of this extent), incomplete returns, figures not brought up to recent date, etc., there is probably a total length of about 30,000 miles of rail way having metal track, or a relation of nearly 16 per cent, to the total mileage of the world (exclusive of the United States and Canada). These few figures show at a glance the great importan'je of the subject considered in this report, and show also that in other countries the subject has long ago passed the experimental stage in which it still rests in this country. The first part of the report is devoted to details, descriptions, and statistics relating to the several railways, and this matter is com- piled mainly from official returns and statements. The second part of the report consists of a general review of the subject, and a summary of the information on several points. I am particularly pleased to be able to show in this report that in the United States the subject is now receiving much attention by railway men, and that practical tests on a scale sufficiently large to enable definite conclusions to be made and opinions to be formed are now in progress in this country. Valuable results may be expected from these trials, and they will certainly tend to increase to a considerable extent the general interest which is felt by railway men in this subject. It is to be hoped that the results will be such as to lead to an extensive introduction of tested and approved forms of ties. It may be taken for granted that the tie adopted will be an American production and not an importation. It is the object of this report to bring the matter clearly and fully be- fore the practical railway men aud railway financiers. It will, I think, show that the use of metal ties is not only in the interest of forestry and the preservation of the timber resources of the country, but is also in the interest of the railways by reason of the reduction in maintenance expenses and the increased safety in operation. The introduction of metal ties will therefore be for the benefit of the forests, the railway companies, and the public. I am, sir, respectfully yours, B. B. EusSELL Tratman, Jun. Am. iSoc. C. H. B. E. Fernow, Esq., Chief, of Forestry Division, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. G, CIRCULAR. The following circular was addressed to numerous railway companies, managers, and engineers in foreign countries, and also to manufacturers and others possessing information upon, or likely to be interested in, the subject of metal track for railways. METAL- TRACK FOR RAILWAYS. Tlio information outlined below is desired for the purpose of a report to the U. S. Department of Agricultnre on the use of metal ties (sleepers) for railway tracks, and it is requested as a favor that all information furnished should be as complete as possible and sent at the earliest possible convenience. Respectfully, E. E. ROSSBLL Tratman, C. E., 103 Tribune Buildmg, New Yoi-Tc CiUj, V. S. America. INFORMATION. Railway : 1. Name. 2. Route. 3. Length of lines laid with metal ties (sleepers). 4. Character of same. (Particulars of grades, curves, etc.) .5. Dates when laid, fi. Eucrtneer in charge. 7. Character of traffic. 8. Weight of locomotives and weight on driving wheels. Tie (sleeper) : 9. Longitudinal, transverse, or bowl. 10. General form. 11. Dimensions, including thickness. (Figured drawings.) 12. Weight. 13. Material. 14. Spacing, center to center. 15. How treated. (Paint, anti-rust process, etc.) 16. Manufacturer. 17. First cost, at factory or delivered. 18. Expense of maintenance. 19. Attachment of rails. (Details and drawings.) 20. Arrangements for curves. 21. Tie-rods ; if used, how attached Tie (sleeper) — Continued. 22. Durability. • Track : . 23. Material of ballast. 24. Behavior of ballast under sleeper. 25. Construction of road-bed. (Draw- ing.) 26. Section and weight of rail. 27. Rail joints; how made. 28. Rail joints ; on sleeper or sus- pended. 29. Reasons for adopting metal sleep- ers. 30. General results; satisfaocory or otherwise. 31. Is there trouble with maintenance of track ? 32. Is there trouble with rail attach- ments ? 33. Is there trouble from breakages; how aud where do they usually occur ? 34 Efficiency, etc., as compared with wooden sleepers. 35. Cost, material, and durability of wcoden sleepers. 36. Climate, and effect of same on metal or wooden sleepers. 37. General remarks. 38. Opinions. and adjusted for gauge. Note. — -The writer of this report will be pleased to be notified of any omissions or corrections, and to receive additional information, with drawings, reports, statistics, or other matter relating in any way to the general subject of this report. He will also be pleased to have correspondence with persons interested in the subject. All communications should be addressed to— E. E. Russell Tkatman, C.E., Room 103, Tribune Building, New York City, U. S. America. 57 ERRATA. KoTE. — Owin j; to tbe departure of Mr. Tratraan for England before the report ou Metal Track could be put in print, the proof reading and tbe making of the index has devolved upon the undersigned, both of which tasks to one not familiar with the detail of the work have been fraught with difflculties ou account of tbe exceedingly technical character of the report. There may, therefore, iu addition to the Errata below, be found others that have been overlooked, and the index may not prove as valuable as the author himself could have made it; any deSciencies iu these respects the reader is asked to excuse and amend. i B. E. Feenow. Page 20, line 16 from top, "Tooley" should read "Torley." Page 57, foot-note on page 58 should be specially noticed. Page 59, line 12 from bottom, "Graves" should read " Greaves." Page 68, line 8 from top, " ganger " should read " ganger." Page 86, line 7 from bottom, "Fraisans" should read "Fraisant." Page 92, line 2 from bottom, "cotler" should read "cotter." Page 95, line 5 from top; page 136, line 14 from top; page 145, line 13 from top; page 145, line 16 from bottom, " Hosch ' should read " Hoesch." Page 117, line 1 from top, " | beam" should read "I-beam" Page 166, line 9 from bottom, "28 inch thick" should read ".28 inch thick," and. "36 inch thick" should read ".36 inch thick." Page 181, line 7 from bottom, " 34 miles" should read "30 miles." Page 181, line 2 from, bottom, "vertical 1 inch" should read "vertical for 1 inch." Page 188, drop all Notes from "Being relaid, etc.," to Note: "Ties in good condi- tion," each one line. "Buckled steel" refers to SteelTies only; "5 miles, etc.," relers to Vautherin ties only. Page 205, line 19 from top, " for " should read " from.'' Page 205, line 19, "The ties were made for plates" should read "The ties were made from plates." Page 248, line 6, " 40R5 miles" should read " 4.085 miles." Page 256, line 14, "rig" should read "rib." Page 262, line 1, " put up down " should read " put down." Page 263, line 23 from top, "Cardova" should read "Cordova." Pagi 318, "standard" should read "Standard." Pla'8 VIII, first tie marked should bear name "Cosijua type.'' JP^RT I. USE OF METAL TIES ON RAILWAYS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES AND IN THE UNITED STATES. Section L— EUROPE. ESTGiAND. General Eemarks. — The idea of using metal supports for railway rails was considered in the early days of railways. Mr. E. M. Stephen- son, in his " Kudiinentary Treatise on Railways," published in London in 1850, describes the five systems mentioned in the following para- graph : Mr. Barlow describes a cast-iron combined longitudinal and chair which was tried on the Southeastern Railway. Each longitudinal stringer was in two pieces, with one side of the rail chair upon each piece ; when put together, with the rail in place, a bolt (or two bolts at the joint chairs), was passed through the lower part of each chair, under the rail, holding the two pieces together. No transverse connections are mentioned or illustrated, but presumably tie-rods or bars were used. Mr. W. Brunton's track was very similar, but had a deeper web along the under side of the longitudinal, and the top instead of being longi- tudinal sloped upwards from the middle, forminga wideshallow V trough, with the rail along the middle. Mr. Graves' system consisted of two hollow cast-iron bowls in the shape of the frustum of a cone and con- nected by two tie-rods, one at the top and the other at the bottom of the bowls. A rail chair was cast on the top of each bowl, and the rails were keyed in the chairs in the usual way. Mr. W. H. Barlow patented a track with cross-ties bent up at the rail seats to lit the wide flanges of 59 60 the Barlow bridge rail ; another plan was to have a bridge rail bolted to a plate bent to the required form, and all bolted to the tie. Mr. Macdonald Stephenson's system consisted of kite-shajjed plates of boiler iron one-half or five-eighths of an inch thick, with both ends turned up and" notched to receive the rail. The rail joints were secured by a taper wedge or key driven between the rail and the side of the notch in the plate. The plates formed a continuous bed under each-rail, and were connected at the rail joints by transverse tie rods. About 1853 iron longitudinals on the Macdonnell system were laid under the Brunei rails of bridge section on the Bristol and Exeter Kailway (now a part of the Great Western Railway system), and in 188G were reported by Mr. Walter Browne to be still in good condition. They were all out of the main track, however, in 1888. (See Great Western Railway.) Cast-iron bowls had been tried, experimentally, pre- vious to 1877 on the Great Northern Railway and other lines running out from London. Within the present decade steel cross-ties have been tried on a number of roads, generally in connection with the standard English system of double-headed or bull-headed rails in chairs. No railway has really adopted steel ties, but Mr. Webb, of the London and Northwestern Railway, has laid down about 56 miles of his system at dif- ferent parts of the line, and a few trial lots of the same system have been tried on other main lines, but only for experiment. A steel cross-tie with heavy steel rails of flange section is being tried on the Northeastern Rail- way, and this experiment is of special interest, as the type of track is similar to that which would probably be used in this country should steel ties be introduced, and as it is under severe conditions of traffic its behavior will be some guide for American railway engineers. An English engineer writing to me in December, 1888, on this subject, made the following remarks : The chief diGficulty is iu the adaptation of tlie steol sleepers [ties] to the douljle- hcaded rail, as it does not make a good job, although perhaps Mr. Webb would say to the contrary. The steel sleeper ia essentially a sleeper for flat-bottomed [flange] rails, and- until our railway companies alter their rails I do not think steel sleepers will come into general use. The Northeastern Railway Company is now trying 3 or 4 miles with a flat-bottomed rail on a steel sleeper, and there appears some promise in this, but it will take years to convert English engineers to the steel sleeper ; there are some conditions of traffic opposed to it, as well as the satisfactory experience with our present system. With the English system of track, the rails are supported in cast-iron chairs, weighing from 20 to 56 pounds each, placed one at each end of every tie, and this practice tends to reduce very greatly any cutting of the tie, as the weight coming upon the rail is distributed over an area of about 7 by 12 inches, or 7 by 15 inches, so that the ties can be counted upon to last out their natural life ; while in this country the flange of the rail, 4 to 5 inches wide, cuts into the ties, so that they have often to be taken out before decay has connncnced. It may be mentioned, how- ever, that metal tie-plates are imw luiing introduced here to reduce this 61 cutting of ties. English ti'acls, tlibi-efore, with preserved ties and a broad surface to carry the loading, is very ecouoiuical in maintenance, and Mr. Owen, tlie engineer of the Great Western Railway, stated in September, 1889, that as long as creosoted timber ties can be obtained at anything lilse the present prices, there is no probability of metal ties being generally adopted on English railways. The life of wooden ties used in England is estimated at from eight to thirty years. Descrip- tions and illustrations of the track on different roads may be found in my paper on " English Railway Track" (Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. June, 1888). The manufacture of metal ties is a very large industry and is carried on by a number of the most important steel works and foundries. Up to 1888 about 525,000 tons of steel ties had been manufactured, and about 70,000 or 80,000 tons have been turned out since; most of these are for India, with a few hundred tons for railways at home and in other countries. Very large quantities of cast-iron ties have also been manufactured for export, principally plates and bowls for India and bowls for South America. Up to June, 1888, about 2,000,000 pairs of plates for double-headed rails and 600,000 pairs of plates for flange rails, had been supplied for railways in India. NoRTHBASTJSRN RAILWAY. — Some years ago several steel ties of the type designed by Mr. Charles Wood, of Middlesborough, were tried for about two and a half years, under the supervision of Mr. Cud- worth, the engineer. It is stated that the results were not very satis- factory, as the ties cracked vvhere piorced for the fastenings, and the fastenings themselves were very liable to wear. (See Wood's Ties.) I was informed in July, 1889, that they had all been taken out some time since. The ties were of inverted-trough section; the fastenings con- sisted of a crescent-shaped piece of steel, with the ends i^rojecting up through holes in the tie : one end was shaped to hold the rail-flange and the other end extended nearly to the height of the rail-head, a wooden key being driven between it and the web of the rail. Some steel ties of the type designed by Mr. Webb, of the London and Northwestern Railway, have been in service on the Stockton and Darlington section, aud on a piece of track north of Ferryhill. In July, 1889, they had been in service about four and a half years, and had given satisfactory re- sults, but having riveted jaws or chairs they were of course expensive. In 1887 an experiment was begun with some steel ties designed by Mr. Oabry, the chief engineer, and Mr. Kinoh, one of the resident engineers. (See Plate No. 1.) About 10,000 of these ties are now in service on the Central Division, and on the main line on the Northern and Southern Divisions, where the trafflc is heaviest and where the trains run at the highest speeds. Under these conditions they have given such excellent results that in July, 1889, the directors of the company, so I am informed, ordered a further supply. OTie of the most noticeable features of this track is, that steel flange rails, weighing 91 62 pounds per yard, are used instead of the double-headed or bull-headed rails generally used on English railways. The tie is stamped out of a steel plate and is of inverted trough section with a very narrow flange or rib on the lower edges, being a modification of the Yautherin type of tie. The ends are open. It is 8 feet long, 8 inches wide on top, 3J inches deep, and 1'2 inches wide at the bottom. It is of uniform section throughout, with a uniform thickness of three-eighths of an inch. Its weight is 150 pounds. In the operation of stamping, the part under each rail is pressed up at an angle to give the rail the usual inward inclination of 1 in 20. At the same operation four pieces are pressed up out of the metal at each rail seat ; three of these are on the outside of the rail, one forming a cUp or jaw to hold the rail-flange, the other two being studs against which the rail-flange abuts and which keep the gauge exact; the fourth projection forms a jaw to hold theinnerflange of the rail. The jaw on the outer side is 2^ inches wide and bears five- eighths of an inch in upon the rail-flange ; the jaw on the inner side is 3J inches wide and projects about three-eighths of an inch over the rail- flange but does not touch it, leaving space for the steel wedge or key to be driven tightly between the jaw and the rail-flange. The keys are tapering, 8 inches long, are split at the smaller end, and weigh 1^ pounds each. lu the track the ties are spaced eleven to a rail length of 30 feet, averaging 2 feet 8f inches from center to center. It is said that they compare favorably in cost with the present system of wooden ties and cast-iron cLairs, and it is expected that by their use the cost of maintenance of the track will be materially reduced. In July, 1889. they had been in service for eighteen months, and had given very satis- factory results. Their maintenance had given no trouble, and the cost of maintenance was as nearly as possible the same as that of track on wooden ties. The ties are manufactured by Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughan, of Middlesborough, and some of them have been sent to Italy to be tried as an experiment. They were patented in the United States, November 13, 1888 (No. 392,849). The rails are of flange section, weighing 91 pounds per yard ; they are 5^ inches high with a flange 5J inches wide and a head 2^ inches wide. To put a rail in position it is tilted slightly and the inner side of the flange slipped under the inner jaw, sufficient space being then al- lowed for the outer side of the flange to clear the outer jaw ; when on its seat the rail is slid under the outer jaw and the key driven on the inner side of the rail. As the rail-flange is overlapped by both jaws, it cannot be forced out of them by the side pressure of the wheels of trains even if the keys are displaced, though it might be tilted over a little. The heaviest engines in use are tank engines, with a wheel-base of 22 feet 6 inches ; they weigh 55f gross tons and have 16| tons on the driving-wheels. 63 The folio wiug,tables, prepared by Mr. Cabry, the chief engineer, and Mr. Worsdell, the locomotive superintendent, in December, 1888, show the cost of the track with flange rails on steel ties and the cost of the ordinary track laid with bull-headed rails in cast iron chairs on wooden ties. Both are exclusive of ballast, I have reduced the figures to American money. statement of eoat of 1 mile of single track on steel ties. Materials. Steel ilanf;e rails, 90 pouuds per yard Fiah-plates, 13 pounds each !Fish-bolts and uuts, H puuuds each. . Steel tiefl, 150 pounds each . Steel keys, 1^ pounds each . Carriage of materials Storage and incidrntal expenses Use of locomotive iu distributing materials on the line, at, say $75 per mile Labor of laying,' cubic yards Goat per mile Numbers. 704 1,408 I,93(i 3,872 1,760 Weight.- Tons. Lbs, 141 UBO 4 193 2, ua 129 2 1,'440 1,328 274 1, 860 274 1,860 Rate. Amount. $19.37i 28.75 41.92 23.75 55.00 1.25 .26 12,740.18 117.40 39.01 3, 079. 00 142. 60 343. 53 68.71 75.00 440. 00 Total. $2, 897. 25 3, 221. 60 927. 21 7, 046. 00 Statement of cost of 1 mile of single trade on wooden ties. steel bull-headed rails, 90 x>ounds per yard. Fish-plates, 13 pounds each Fish-bolts and nuts. Impounds each Chairs, 40 pounds each Eleys Spikes, 22 ounces each Greosoted wood ties Carriage of materials '. Storage and incidental expenses ITse of locomotive in distributing materials on the line, at, say $75 per mile Labor of laying, cubic yards Cost per mile . 704 1,408 3,872 3,872 11,016 1.936 141 960 4 192 2,113 69 320 "7 "292 352 836 352 836 519.374 2H. 75 41.92 J3. 12i 9.37i 33.01 .62^ 1.25 .25 $2, 740. 18 117.46 39.61 907. 50 30.30 239. 65 1,210.00 uoTk 88.11 75,00 440. 00 $2, 897. 25 2, 393. 45 6, 334. 27 SOMMAET OF STATEMENTS OF COST. Track on — Steel ties. Wooden ties. Differenbe. Cost per rail length, 30 feet. Cost per yard $40. 03 4.00 $35. 98 3.59 $4.05 .41 64 London and Northwestern Railway. — Experiments with steel ties bave been made on this road during over nine years and on a fairly large scale. Particulars of the experiments have been published from time to time, and the trials are given considerable prominence in dis- cussions on matters relating to metal track. The ties are of a form designed by Mr. F. W. Webb, the mechanical superintendent of the line; they are of the familiar inverted-trough section, with small flanges ou the bottom edges, and are of uniform section and thickness; they are a modification of the well-known Vautherin type, (See Plate No. 2.) They were first laid in August, 1880 ; in 1885 there were 32,174 in service; in June, 1886, there were 55,000 in use on this road in addi- tion to trial lengths on other English lines; in 1888 there were 83,204 of these ties in service, and the road had between 20 and 30 miles of track laid with them ; in November, 1889, Mr. Webb stated that there were then 56 miles of track and about 100,085 ties in use. They are of rolled steel, five-sixteenths of an inch thick; length, 9 feet; width on top, 6 inches; width at bottom, 11 inches; depth, 2^ inches; weight, 136 pounds each. The rails are of bull-headed section weighing 84 and 90 pounds per yard", the latter being now the standard rail. The chairs, instead of being of cast-iron, are made of three pieces of steel, rolled and stamped to shape from plates one-half an inch thick made from the crop ends of rails; one piece forms a tie-plate 15 by 6 inches, five-six- teenths of an inch thick, with the middle part bent to fit the bottom of the rail and'give the inclination of 1 in 20 ; the other pieces are one- half an inch thick and form angle brackets, the inner one fitting the web and lower head of the rail, and the outer one being placed so as to allow of a wooden or steel key being driven between it and the web of the rail. The steel key has a projection which fits into a vertical groove in the chair, so that it cannot work loose. A liner of brown paper or canvas soaked in tar is sometimes interposed between the angle-pieces and the tie-plate and between the tie-plate and tie. The chairs are fastened to the tie bj six three-quarter inch rivets, three on each side of the rail, passing through the angle-pieces, tie-plate, and tie; the rivet-holes are punched in a hydraulic press. The ties and chairs are made and fitted complete at the railway company's works at Crewe, and the cost is said to compare favorably with that of the ordi- nary system of cast-iron chairs weighing 45 pounds each, spiked and screwed to wooden ties 10 by 5 inches. This may be so in this case, where everything is done in the company's shops, and where the ordi- nary track is of an expensive character, but if made under contract for orders, the amount of shop-work required would probably make the finished tie very expensive. With these steel ties the distance from the bottom of the tie to the top of the rail is Si% inches, while with the wooden tie it is 12^ inches. The ties are covered with ballast, which is brought nearly up to the level of the top of the rail head on the outside of the track and between the 65 rails it is about 2 inches below the top of the rail head. It has been said that the ballast would be less affected by frost at a depth of 5 inches, where the wooden ties rest, than at 2J inches where the steel ties rest ; but this is probably of little practical account. The reduced depth of the tie of course effects a saving in the quantity of ballast. Tlie ties are spaced 3 feet apart center to center. The following is a comparison of the two systems, column A being for track on steel ties and column B for track on wooden ties : London and. Korthwestern Railway. Ties: Length feet. Breadth. inches - Depth do .. Thioknesa i do... Cliairs : Length of bearing on tie inches. Width of bearing on tie do. .. Area of bearing on tie square inches Weight of one tie compleco; Two chairs pounds - Fastenings, liners, etc do . . . One tie .' do. .. Total do... A. 9 9 11 10 2+ 5 A ■ 48 130 14| 111 ( 90 ) 12 The ends of the ties are open, but it is claimed that no trouble lias been experienced from lateral motion or shifting of tlie track when prop- erly ballasted, although some have been in use in the South Wak's district on curves of G(50 feet radius on a grade of 1 in 38. It is not stated, however, whether the entire curve was laid with these ties or whether only a few were laid for trial. In the latter case there might have been suflBciint wooden ties to hold the track in place. Con- sidering that wooden ties are found to shift in the track in some places, it seems only reasonable to provide at least as much end bearing or area for metal ties as for wooden ties, especially on lines where there are many curves. Mr. Brlcka, engineer-in chief of the French state railways, in his report on metal track, made to the minister of public works in 1886, attributes this freedom from lateral motion to the rigid- ity of the heavy rails, to the slight lateral play of the cars, and to the use of locomotives with inside cyhnders and running gear. He saw the ties in use on tangents and tlat curves, but thought they would shift on sharp curves. In view of extensive experience on other lines, he con- sidered that the ends of metal ties should be closed. This is the gen- erally accepted conclusion. The traffic is very heavy as regards the number and speed of trains. The heaviest main-line engine weighs 95,200 pounds, on six wheels, and the heaviest load on any one pair of driving-wheels is 33,600 pounds. Mr. Bricka, in the report above mentioned, refers to this heavy trafBc, and states that on one section there were twenty-four express trains per day, often running at nearly 60 miles an hqur, besides numerous freight- trains. He says the ties were first made of wrought-iron, but 22893— Bull. 4 5 66 later of Bessemer steel non-dephosphorized. Some ties of harder Bessemer steel, made by the acid process, cracked through the rivet holes and some of the steel-plate chairs also cracked through the holes. Some cast-irou chairs had also been tried. There were in service at the time of his visit 30,000 ties, of which 18,000 were in the main track. He gives the cost of a steel tie as $2.50 and of a creosoted pine tie $2.10, including chairs and spikes complete. The steel ties are dipped hot in tar and then in sand, to increase the adhesion in the ballast. Nevertheless considerable trouble was experienced from rusting, which Mr. Brioka attributes to the use of slag and cinders for ballast. The sulphur, being kept damp by the climate, produces a chemical action similar to that observed in tunnels. In Holland and Belgium, however, no trouble has been experienced from rusting, even in cinder ballast. These ties, with the English rails and chairs complete, have been tried experimentally in this country on the Pennsylvania Railroad. MiBLAND Railway. — In 1883, 250 tons of steel ties were rolled by the Cockerill Works, in Belgium, for this line. (See plate No. 3.) These ties were designed by Mr. A. Langley, chief engineer of the road, who has stated that they answer very well, but that the cost as com- pared with that of wooden ties is against them. In July, 1889, Mr. Langley stated that about 10,000 steel ties were then in the track, but that their use was not being extended. They have proved efiflcient in service and the maintenance is practically the same as with the cre- osoted wood ties. The steel ties are of inverted trough section, with a narrow flange on the bottom edges, and have the ends flared out and bent down. The closed ends prevent lateral motion and also prevent any tendency of the sides to spread. The ties are 8 feet long over all, 8 inches wide on top, 3 inches deep, 13 inches wide over all at the bottom. They areof uniform thickness and section throughout, the thickness being five sixteenths of an inch. The weight is about 132 pounds each and the cost $1.76 each. The joint ties are spaced 2 feet 2 inches apart, center to center, and the intermediate ties 3 feet apart. The ties are rolled from steel which is specified to be of such quality and temper that it will not crack or split when stamped or rolled to shape. The holes may be punched or drilled according to the engineer's approval. The ties are not tarred nor painted, but are given one coat of linseed oil, laid on hot, at the works. On each tie there are two cast-iron chairs weighing 40 pounds each (liattera of 1885), each chair being secured to the tie by a pair of patent steel twin bolts of (_J shape, seven-eighths-inch diameter, with four lock- nuts. The bolt-holes in the ties are fifteen-sixteenths inch diameter, 3J inches from center to center crosswise, and 11 inches from center to center lengthwise of the tie, the inner holes being four feet five-eighths of an inch apart center to center. The base of the chairs is 7| by 14 inches, and a felt pad one-eighth of an inch thick is placed be- tween the chair and the tie. The rails are of bull-headed section, weigh- 67 ing 85 pounds per yard, and are fastened in the chairs by wooden keys. The wooden ties weigh about 134 pounds each. The weight per yard of the ordinary track is estimated as follows : Steel, 170 pounds ; wrought-iron, 14.9 pounds; cast-iron, 110 pounds; wood, 151.9 pounds; total, 446.8. The weight of the heaviest engine is about 78 tons in working order, and the number of ordinary trains in twenty-four hours is two hundred and thirty, exclusive of special trains, light engines, etc. At the International Eailway Congress, held at Milan, Italy, in 1887, Mr. Kowalski stated in regard to this road that there were 10,000 ties of the form designed by Mr. Langley, being a modification of the Vautherin type, but that the experience with them only dated from January, 1886, and, therefore, no definite opinions could be given as to the results. A few of the Tozer steel ties have been laid as an experiment. (See Tozer ties.) Great Northern Railway. — Mr. T. H. Horn, assistant engineer, stated in December, 1888, that the experience with metal ties on that line was so limited that no results could be given which would be of service. Short lengths of several types had been laid down experi- mentally, but altogether there was not then a mile of track on which metal ties had been introduced. The first cost, as compared with that of ordinary fir ties with chairs and fastenings, tells against them. The ties of the Howard type for main lines were of inverted trough section, with a deep depression at each end, forming a seat for the bull-headed rails, which were secured by keys in the usual way. (See plate No. 4.) These ties were 8 feet long and weighed 140 pounds each ; . they were nmde from plates, of Siemens steel three-eighths of an inch thick. (See Howard ties.) The track of this road is laid with steel rails of bull- headed section, weighing 82 pounds per yard. At the International Railway Congress held at Milan, Italy, in 1887, the following particulars in regard to this road were presented by Mr. Kowalski : About 1,000 ties were in service, and four types were being tried, Webb, Moss-Bay Company, Howard, and Tozer. All were of steel. The Webb ties weighed 176 pounds each, complete; the Moss-Bay and Howard ties t39.5 pounds, and the Tozer ties 137.5 pounds, exclusive of the fastenings. They were all laid on embankments, and were on tangents. The traffic consisted of passenger and freight trains running at reduced speed. The weight of the engines was about 60 to 70 tons. The ballast was mainly of gravel. The first cost of the track appeared to be three times as great as that of track with wooden ties, but the experience was too short for any judgment to be formed as to the cost of maintenance and the durability. The elasticity of the track and the easy riding of the trains were the same as with ordinary ties. The in- conveniences were in the difficulty of attaching the several pieces to the body of the tie, and in case of derailment the ties would probably be damaged. The company bad at that time no intention of extending the nse of metal ties on its road. 68 The following report x)n the Howard tie was made in February, 1887, by Mr. Bastiu, and was published in The Indian Engineer, of Calcutta, March 31, 1888 : On the 7th instant I arrived at Holloway Station, on the Ureat Northern line, to inspect the Howard steel sleepers (ties), which I superintended the laying of in May of last year. After- the ballast had been cleared away I made a thorough examina- tion of them, and am pleased to report that they are in as good condition as when they were laid down. The ganger over this portion of the line informed me that the sleepers had not required any attention whatever since they were laid down : the bal- last had not been touched nor had thekeys had a hammer upon them. They were pur- posely laid upon a part of the line over which the most and the heaviest of the traflio passes, so that with such an amount of tra6So and the long and severe frost they had been well tested. I also examined some other steel sleepers, laid side by side of the Howard sleepers. These other sleepers are trough-shaped, with cast-iron chairs bolted to them, the ends of the sleepers being turned down. These sleepers are like the Belgian type on the Midland line near Bedford, -and, like them, they bad shifted endways ; and after the frost went they had to be reballasted. I have been to see the sleepers on the Midland line again to-day, Belgian type, and although they were reballasted after the frost they have again shifted so that the line is not perfectly true, the want of straightness being quite obvious. Great Western Eail way.— About 1853 the Macdonnell system of track, with metal longitudinals, was introduced on the Bristol and Exe- ter Railway (now the Bristol and Exeter division of the Great Western Hailway), and in August, 1889, the resident engineer reported that the last of it had been taken up only about twelve months previous. Tiiis gives some idea of its life, aud it must be borne in mind that it was in use under very heavy traffic. The ordinary track of this line was built on the plan designed by Mr. Brunei for the Great Western Railway, and consisted of rails of bridge section secured to wooden longitudinals, which were connected at intervals by wooden transoms. The gauge was 7 feet. The Macdonnell track consisted of iron longitudinals; the plates were a little over 1 foot wide, about one-half an inch thick under the rail, and five-sixteenths of an inch thick at the edges. In the mid- dle, on the upper side, was a rib about 2 inches high, fitting into the hollow of the rail. On each side of the rib was a wooden packing half an inch thick and about 2J inches wide, upon which the rail flanges rested. A shallow rib on each side, about 2J inches from the middle rib, held the wooden packing in position. The rails were fastened by bolts passing through the plate, packing, and rail flange, the nuts being .screwed down on the flange- In some cases the plates were flat I'ur their entire width; in other cases they were slightly curved down, out- side the outer ribs, to a depth of about three-fourths of an inch. The plates were connected at intervals by transverse T irons. The rails were about 3 inches high, 2§ inches wide, and 6 inches wide over the flanges ; the middle space or groove was about 2 inches deep, J to 1 incb wide. This form of rail is still in use. The resident engineer stated that while ho could not recommend the Macdonnell system for main track, it may bo very serviceable for light railways or for side tracks ; he has used it and is still using it for the latter purpose. The main objection to it ie 69 said to be the difficulty in l^eeping tlie rails tight npon it, aud the num- ber of bolt-holes weakens the plates so much that they were continually breaking, especially near the rail-joints. Another objection is, that " in very hot weather the expansion is so great as to displace it several feet from its proper position." In 1880 this track was reported by Mr. Walter Browne to be in good condition. The Tozer ties have been tried, but Mr. Lancaster Owen, chief en- gineer, stated in September, 1889, thart only a few ties ofthis type have been put down, and only as an' experiment. London and Southwestern Railway.— Mr. Andrews, the chief engineer of the road, writing in August, 1889, stated — The experience with metal ties on this line is very limited. About four years ago 11 few were laid down and are still ni service. TUey were pressed out of mild steel plates about five-eighths of an inch thick, and were of inverted channel form, with oast-iron chairs secured to them by wrought-irou bolts. When they were Idid con- siderable time and trouble was expended ir. thoroughly iilliug them and packing them with gravel ballast; but now that the track has become cousolidated, they do not require much more attention than timber ties. The chairs, however, break more fre- quently than on wooden ties, and the bolts require frequent attention. The wooden ties used are of redwood fir, obtained from the Baltic, and in view of the number available, the facilities for obtaining them, and the price paid, it is nut considered that the company can do better than continue to use them. The com- pany creosotes its ties, and the value of a creosoted tie is about 78 cents, delivered. Jarrah and otber hard-wood lies from Australia have been oifered at different times, but their high cost, delivered in England, prohibits their adoption, even though, as is urged, they would last much longer than the Baltic fir ties. The track of this road consists of doubleheaded steel rails, 30 feet long, weighing 82 pounds per yard; they are SJ inches high, with heads 'Zi inches wide. They are secured by wooden keys in east-iron chairs, weighing 40 pounds each, which are fast- ened to the wooden ties by three round spikes diiveu into hollow tree-nails; the chairs have a base of GJ by 14 inches. The rail joicts are even aud suspended, and are spliced by deep fish-plates, with four bolts. The wooden ties arc 9 feet lotig, 5 by 10 inches section ; they are spaced 2 feet 2 inches apart, center to center, at the joints, 2 feet 5 inches next to the joints, and 2 (eet lOJ inches intermediate. In 1890, rails weighing 87 pounds per yard aud chairs weighing 45 pounds each are to be used. London, Chatham and Dover Eailway. — Mr. William Mills, chief engineer, stated in August, 1889 : No metal ties are used, for the reason that the creosoted ties are found to last, in a general way, as long as the rails, aud it is to the company's interest to renew both rails and ties at the same time. The line passes through a brick-making locality, and has the advantage of being able to sell the bulk of its old ties at about half their original cost. Probably very few railways are able to dispose of their old wooden ties to such advantage, and in many cases in this country it is not easy to get rid of them except by burning. As regards renewals, it would seem to be still more to the company's intere.st to have ties which would not have to be renewed as often as the rftils, especially as the present system of track is already an expensive system to build, so that the increased cost for metal track would be comparatively small. 70 London, Brighton and South Coast Railway. — Mr. F. D. Ban- ister, chief engineer, stated in August, 1889: The only experience with metal ties on this line has been e. small trial, which was unsatisfactory; and the result was not sufficient to warrant any departure from the general system of using Baltic fir ties, creosoted by Brystie's process. Metkopolitan Eailway. — This is one of the city (underground) and suburban railways of London, the traffic on some sections of which is very heavy and is carried on' under exceptional conditions. Mr. J. J. Hanbnry, resident engineer, states : a trial has been made with twelve steel ties of the Tozer type; they were iu service about two years, at the end of which time it was found that the chairs began to work a little, owing to the wear of the stud which fits into a hole in the tie. (See plate No. 4.) These ties were considered to be unsuitable for this road. Some steel trough ties, similar to those of the Midland Eailway, but weighing 145 pounds each, have been t*ied ; they were made by the Tredegar Iron and Coal Company. The rails used are of double-headed section, carried iu cast-iron chairs boiled to the ties. Metropolitan District Eailway. — This is another of the city (un- derground) and suburban railways of London. Mr. George Estall, engi- neer and locomotive superintendent, stated iu October, 1889: Steel ties of the Tozer type have been tried on this road for a length of about 30 feet ; they are laid iu a locomotive yard, on the level, aud are spaced 2 feet 8 inclies to 3 feet apart, center to center. Tliey were not painted or otherwise treated. The ballast is of gravel. They were laid for trial only, and the results have not been sufficiently satisfactory to lead to their adoption ; as regards niaintenance, rail at- tachments, and general efficiency, they are said to be inferior to timber; they are also too rigid, aud are bad for packing. Mr. Estall is not in favor of their use. No breakages have occurred. The wooden ties used are of Memel fir, creosoted; they cost $1.50 each, and last fifteen years. The rails are of bull-headed section, weighing 87 pounds per yard, laid with suspeudcd joints, and supported in cast-iron chairs in the usual way. Mersey Eailway. — This is a tunnel line, connecting Liverpool and Birkenhead. Mr. 0. A. Eowlandsou, resident engineer, stated iu July, 1889, that about a dozen steel ties of the Tozer type had been tried, but only on a side-track. They have, however, stood very well as re- gards freedom from corrosion by the ash ballast aud in keeping their level or surface. Great Eastern Eailway. — Some steel ties have been in use on this road for several years. They are of the inverted trough section, with closed ends, and the rails are carried in cast-iron chairs of the usual form fastened to the tie by a pair of twin bolts. They are 8 feet long, and were manufactured by the Darlington Steel and Iron Com- pany. At the International Eailway Congress held at Milan in 1887, Mr. Kowalski stated that a trial was being made with 500 ties, and that 4,000 were to be laid. The experience with them "was then too short to enable any^opiuious to be given. FuRNESS Eailway.— In August, 1889, Mr. F. Stileman, chief engi- neer, stated : 71 A few years ago a trial was made with some steel ties of the Howard type (see plate No. 4); they were of inverted trough form, and of arched section ; a deep de- pression at each end formed a seat for the rails, which were secured by keys in the usual way. It was found, however, that with keying the rail up the ends of the tie were sprung, and in the course of four or iive months, with the traffic passing over, the ties split so that they had to be taken out. They were of steel and were shaped cold, the recesses for the rails being stamped by hydraulic machinery. (See Howard ties.) The company now uses none bnt wooden ties, 9 feet long, 10 by 5 inches section, sawn oat of timbers 9 feet by 10 inches by 10 inches. After being dried they were creosoted, which cost about 16 cents per tie. Their life will average from twelve, to fourteen years. The chairs have a base of about 15 by 7J inches and weigh nearly 50 pounds each. The rails are of ball-headed section, weighing 84 pounds per yard ; they are fastened in the chair by oak keys, scalloped out in the middle, with a saw- cut at one end, which enables the end to close when being driven and to open out when in place. North Staffordshire Railway. — A steel tie has been tried at' Stoke-upon-Trent, on this road, and in January, 1890, after two years' experience, a large order was given to the Chair and Sleeper Company for these ties, which are described further on. The ties were of Vsec- tion, with ordinary cast-iron chairs secured to the flanges. TIES. T)ie Livesey Ties. — A number of different forms of metal tracks have been designed l)y Mr. James Livesey, of London, and have been extensively used, especially in South America, by Mr. Livesey .and other engineers. (See India and South America ; and Plates Nos. 20 and 26.) The types most used are those consisting of bowls and tie-bars. Among the principal forms are the following: (1) Cast-iron bowls, arranged in pairs and connected by transverse flat wrought- irou tie bars. The bowls are oval in plan, and the upper part forming the chair can be adapted for double-headed or flange rails. Two fixed clips hold the outer side-ot tlio rail, and on the inner side is a flexible jaw let into fi socket and having a key driven between it and the rail. (2) Wrought-ironbowls, also arranged in pairs and connected by tie-bars. Theyare piacti-cally reotangnlar on the bottom and oval on top, shaped like a dish-cover. Thiey are adapted for flange rails. The fastening consists of a steel strip, of — i shape ; the longitudinal leg is within the bowl and is secured by a bolt, the washer of which holds the outer flange of the rail ; a metal key is driven between the rail and the upright leg, which is inclined inward. (3) Wrought-iron cross-ties. These are of inverted trough section, being a modifi- cation of the Vautlierin type ; some of these have horizontal flanges on the lower edges. The ends are closed and rounded off, and project deeper into the ballast than the body of the tie. The fastenings consist of two riveted clips, one bearing on the outer flange of the rail and the other projecting over the inner flange, with a key driven between the clip and the flange. A fastening similar to that of No. 2 may also be used. (4) Steel cross- ties. For meter gauge lines these ties are 5 feet 6 inches long over all, 10 inches wide at the bottom ; 5J inches wide on top, with rounded corners and curved sides. The ends are curved down. Thickness, seven-thirty-seconds of an inch throughout. Each rail rests on a tie-plate 9^ by 5 inches in size, seven-sixteenths of an inch thick, which is fastened to the tie by two rivets three-fourths of an inch in diameter. There are two jaws about 3 inches long, pressed up out of this plate ; the outer one holds the outer rail-flange, and a corrugated key 6i inches long is driven 72 between the inner jaw and rail flange. The tie is bent at the rail seats to give the rails an inward inclination. These ties are similar to the steel ties on the Indian State railways. The Toeer tiei. — Messrs. J. and H. Tozer of London, manufacture steel ties which are fitted with chairs for double-headed or flange rails. They are of inrerted troogh form, rounded in section, and deeper than is usual. (See plate No. 4.) For standard gange lines the ties are 8 feet loug, 9 inches wide on the bottom, and 4^ inches deep. The sides are about one-fourth of an inch thick and the top three-eighths of an inch thick. The ends are bent down and flared out at the corners; the tie is bent from the middle to give the rails the inward cant of 1 in 30. For flange rails, a flat chair is used 9f by 4 inches, having two jaws, one of which grips the rail flange, while a key is driven between the other jaw and the flange ; the thickness is three- fourths of an inch under the rail. On the bottom of the chair is a pin or stud, which engages with a hole in the tie and prevents spreading of the track ; in setting the chair, it is placed on the tie at right angles to its normal position, with the stud in the hole ; it is then turned round into position, the ends'of the chair passing under jaws or lugs pressed up out of the metal of the tie ; the chair has stops at diagonally opposite corners, to prevent it from "being turned beyond its proper position. The rails are then laid and the keys driven, after which the chair cannot shift in either direction. The chairs and ties are made to give an exact gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, but in order to allow for widening the gauge at cur\'es the chairs are so arranged that by reversing one and inserting it in the opposite direction under the lugs the gauge will be widened half an inch, while by reversing both of them the gauge will be widened 1 inch. To give this adjustment the keys must be always on the out- side of the rails. If keying on the inside is practicable, the gauge may be also in- creased by reversing one or both of the chairs and keying one or both of the rails on the inside. The several increments of widening of the gauge are thus as follows : i, i, and 1 inch ; IJ, 1|, 1|, If, and 2\ inches. The weights are as follows: steel tie, 93 pounds; two cast-iron chairs, 18 pounds; two steel keys, 1^ pounds; total weights 112^ pounds. A steel chair is also used, riveted to a steel tie five-sixteenths of an inch thick. ' The ties are of Bessemer steel and are dipped in a preservative solution. Their cost, as quoted in March, 1888, was about |26.25 per ton, free on board. For double-headed rails the only difference is in the form of the chairs, which are of the usual shape, with high sides to hold the rail and the wooden or metal key ; but with the audition of the round stud on the bottom and the stops to keep the chair in place. Small trial lots have been used on several English railways, a few have been sent to China, and 365,000 (20,000 tons) to the Argentine Republic. The advantages claimed are the broad surface of the chairs to distribute the load over the tie, the re- duction iu the number of loose parts, and the adaptation to present tracks with double-headed or bull-headed rails. The lugs which hold the chairs in place have a good holding-down ijower, but are claimed to be elastic ; so that while giving a firm grip in the chair they render it less liable to fracture than by being held too rigidly. The Kerr and Stuart ties. — Messrs. Kerr and Stuart, of London, manufacture a vari- ety of steel ties of different forms for permanent and light railways, portable rail- ways, and street railways. Their special patent type is a steel cross-tie of inverted section, bent np at the ends to give the rails an inward inclination of 1 in 20. The ends are closed. These ties are for flange rails. The outer flange is held by a riveted jaw or brace, which projects upward and bears against the under side of the railhead. The inner flange is held by a bolted clip, the lower part of which fits into a T-shaped slot in the iie; a steel cotter looks the bolt and clip in position. (See plate No. 4.) The ties are all of mild steel, made by the Bessemer or basic process, rolled in lengths, sheared olT, and stamped while hot. The clips are of steel, stamped by hydraulic pressure. This system of tie and fastening is also applied to girder rails for street railways. Following are the particulars of some of these ties: For 2 feet gauge, 4 feet long, costing 96 cents each ; for meti'r gauge, 5 feet 4 inches loug, costing $1.20 ; 73 for standard Range, 6 feet 8 laches long, costing $1.56; for the Indian gange of 5 feet 6 inches, 7 feetO inches long, costing $1,815. This tie is considered by the raanufaot- urers to be especially adapted to very narrow gauges, such as 24 inches, on account of the firm support of the rail by the outer brace ; it is used for a line of this gauge in Venezuela. Other forms of trough ties are made with diiferent systems of fasten- ings. One fastening consists of a clip holding the outer flange of the rail, and a gib and cotter on the inner side. Another fastening (Walker & Bear's patent) consists of two loose clips; a small clip or gib holds the inner flange of the rail, and a larger clip on the outer side has a wooden key driven between it and tho rail. Steel cross- ties of the pattern of the Indian State Railways are also manufactured, and hav^ been supplied to the Morvi Railway in India. These are of rounded trough section, with the rail seats inclined 1 in 20 and the ends closed and curved down. At each rail seat are jaws to hold the rail, which is fastened by a steel key. The ties are rolled with the metal of the top thicker than the sides and they are afterwards pressed to shape by hydraulic pressure, and the clips punched out and bent. The following are the particulars of some ties of this type: I'ricp, Suitable for Gauge. Weigbf. Lengtli. coinploto witli hoys. rails weigh- ing per ym-d— Ft. In. Founds. Ft In. Dollars. Pounds. 2 6 H5 4 0.69 25 to 30 3 n 05 6 4 1.02 40 to (iO 4 8J 80 6 9 1.32 60 to 80 5 6 95 7 6 1.56 60 to 80 The Soward ties. — The steel ties manufactured by J. and F. Howard, of Bedford, for main lines, are of approximately semicircular cross-section, of different dimen- sions and section at different parts of their length. (See Plate No. 4.) Each tie is made from a steel plate pressed to shape by hydraulic power. The rail seat for double-headed rails is a. depression in the tie deep" enough to admit the web and lower head of the rail, which is secured by a wooden key driven between the web •and the side of the depression in the tie. No bolts or rivets are used. These ties were patented in the United States December 22, 1885 (No. 333,015). In July, 1889, the firm reported that the manufacture of ties for main lines had not been commenced on a large scale, but that trial lots had been supplied to a few lines (see Great Northern Railway and F'nrness Railway). In March, 1888, special plant for making ties was patented in England. The plate of each tie is rolled so that the portions where the rail recesses are to be formed are left thicker, the trough formed on the under side by the corrugation being filled up or partially so, or the raised portion may be left solid throughout the length of the tie. The rail recesses are partially formed by the rolls which produce the plates, ami for this purpose depressions are formed upon the periphery of one roll and corresponding indentations upon the periphery of the other roll ; so that the plates in being rolled are indented at the parts where the recesses are to be formed. The plates are then passed through rolls with similar projections and indentations, which give the plates their finished form. The plates are passed between these rolls as they leave the plate rolls and while still hot, and are subse- quently shaped by suitable presses. The rail recesses are finished to the proper shape by cutting appliances, consisting in the use of an endless or revolving table composed of a number of links or small platforms carried upon wheels. The plates are jilaced upon these platforms, and as the table moves forward they are caused to pass under a number of cutters, arranged one before the other, by the action of which the sur- plus metal is removed. Several tics may be operated upon at the same time on one table, and after passing under the cutters they are delivered from tho table with rail recesses or seats ina finished state. 74 The firm makes a specialty of metal ties for light and portable railways, and has supplied them for light railways" for agricultural, miuing, aud construction work in many countries with succesful results. These tie « are of steel plates, with one or two vertical corrugations lengthwise of the tie, and having the sides bent down ; the ends are open. The corrugations are cut away at the rail seats to let the flange of the rails rest on the flat part of the plate, and a serrated metal key is driven between the rail and the side of the recess thus formed. There .are no bolts, clips, or rivets. Ties with two ribs or corrugations are used at rail joints. For portable railways, with rails weighing up to 14 pounds per yard, the ordinary ties are 5 inches wide and . the joint ties 6f inches wide ; for semi-portable railways, with rails weighing up to 30 pounds per yard, the ties are5J, Of, aud 6f inches wide; for light railways, using locomotives, with rails weighing up to 40 pounds per yard, the ties are 9^ inches wide at the bottom and about 3 inches deep. Ties of this latter form have been used on the Donna Christina Railway in Brazil. Ties for main lines laid with flange rails are of somewhat similar form, but with closed ends ; to make a seat for the rail, the metal of the corrugation is pressed down level with the surface of the tie, thus thickening the metal at the seat ; a steel key is driven between the rail and the side of the corru- gation, and in pressing down the metal it is made to project over the seat so as to form a clip to hold the rail flange. This type of tie was patented in the United States February 2, 1886 (No. 335,523). Another form of tie consists of two. pressed steel howls connected by a wrought-iron tie-bar ; each bowl is made of a steel plate flanged down to the form of au oblong box ; it is flat on top with outward flaring sides, and rounded ends corrugated vertically. The tie-bar passes through the bowl, and is held by a flat curved cotter lying in a depression in the top of the bowl. There are two transverse corrugations, which are pressed down at the middle to leave room for the rail flange, and the rail is secured by two serrated steel keys. The weight is said to be only about half thst of the ordinary cast-iron bowls. The Wood steel ties. — The steel tie designed by Mr. Charles Wood, of Middlesboi- ongh, is said to have been the first steel tie used with flange rails on English rail- ways, and to be still in use in England and the British colonies. It is of modified Vautherin type, of inverted trough section, and having horizontal flanges on the lower edges. (See Plate No. 4.) Each rail fastening consists of a half hoop or cres- cent of steel, the lower part being inside the tie, and the ends projecting upwards through holes in the top, having stops or lugs to prevent them from rising too high and to bring them into proper position. The outer end of the orescent is bent over to bear on the outer flange of the rail, while the inner edge projects higher and has a wooden key driven between it and the rail, the key bearing against the web and flange of the rail. Some of these ties were tried on the Northeastern Railway in England ; and they have also been used in South America. For light and portable railways steel ties with different forms of clips and bolt fastenings are used. The White tie. — This is a patent pressed-steel tic, designed by Mr. Henry White, of Newport, and manufactured by. Ibbotson Bro8.,.of Sheffield. At a meeting of the British Association in 1887, Mr. White read a paper on "An improved steel rail- way tie with chairs pressed out of the solid," the following notice of which is taken from Engineering, London, England, September 23, 1887: "This was.a trough section tie, to suit any ordinary type of rail, and the chairs being stamped on it there were no bolts or rivets required. Hydraulic presses with suitable dies are used. The steel trough is firsc cut to the required length, heated, and inserted between the open dies of a press, or, if both chairs are made at once, of a pair of presses. These roughly form two corrugations at each end, corresponding with the jaws of the chairs. The metal for this is gathered up endwise, thus shorten- ing the original length of the piece of steel operated on. Another heat being taken, the partly-made tie is placed between the dies of the finishing press and the jaws are given their final form. The lower dies in this case have two hinged pieces which project upwards, and when the upper dies descend they close inwards, causing 75 one of each pair of jaws to aasnine the undercut form necessary to fit the rail and hold it firmly in its place. A loose piece, resembling the lower part of the rail, is inserted between the jointed pieces, to form a resistance blocli for them to close against. It was claimed that ties so formed give a larger base to the rail, hold it more firmly, and are stiffer than any others hitherto used." The Sampan tie. — The Sampan combined railway tie and chair is a comparatively recent invention, and, I believe, has not yet been tried. It is intended to be made of cast-steel, the recent improvements in steel manufacture enabling a reliable quality of material and work to be obtained at reasonable cost. The tie is of shallow In- verted trough section, with outward flaring sides aud closed ends; a middle rib runs aloug the whole length of the under side of the tie, and this rib is deeper than the sides ; there are also four transverse ribs, one under each rib and two intermediate. (See plate No. 4.) The thickness is increased at the rail seat. The chairs for bull- headed or double-headed rails are cast with the tie and form a part of it, the rails be- ing secured by wooden or metal keys in the usual way. The joint ties are of extra width at the ends, and the rails are secured in the joint chairs by two cast steel keys, which are drawn and held together by a bolt passing through them parallel with the rail. This is claimed to make an efficient joint, dispensing with splice-bars and bolts. If desired, the ends with the chairs can be cast separately and connected by a tie-bar ; this arrangement is said to be adapted for railways in South America and other countries where the traiifio is not too severe. These ties have been patented by the Railway Sleeper and Tie Company, of Manchester. The Banhart tie. — This is a cross tie, the invention of Mr. Hubert Bankart, consist- ing of an I beam laid on its side ( m) with a part, of the upper flanges cut away to allow the rail to rest on the horizontal web ; the inner flange of the rail is overlapped by the flanges of the tie, which are undercut, and on the outer side of the rail is an angle wedge or key, bearing on the rail flange and web, and having a rib at the back which fits into a groove in the flanges of the tie and prevents vertical motion. (See plate No. 4.) No bolts or nuts are required, this fastening being used at the rail joints. The key may be placed on the inside or outside of the track, but the flanges must be cut according to which arrangement is adopted. These ties are said to have been tried in Brazil, but I have uot been able to obtain any definite information re- specting them. The Bagnall ties. — The firm of W. Gt. Bagnall, of Stafford, manufactures different forms of metal ties, principally for light aud portable railways, and the ties have been used to some extent. The type used is a pressed steel cross-tie, narrower and deeper at the middle than at the ends, and having grooves aud ribs running lengthwise on the surface. For permanent roads a tie is used having a groove running from each end nearly to the middle ; corrugated steel clips are riveted on and a steel key is driven between the rail flange aud one of these clips. (See plate No. 4.) Another form of tie with riveted clips has the groove runningin from each end and two raised ribs along the middle portion of the tie. Joint ties of this form are of extra width, with two grooves at each end apd three ribs at the middle. With other formsof ties lugs are stamped up out of the metal to hold the rail flanges, the rails being se- cured by keys. A tie for collieries, miues, and light tracks has the lugs bent over to embrace both flanges of the rail, the rail being slipped under the lugs, and no keys or other loose pieces being used. For portable railways, the rails and ties are riveted together to form sections of track, one end of the rails of each section having the splice-plates riveted on. The Tredegar ties. — Besides the steel ties made for the Metropolitan Eailway, the Tredegar Iron aud Steel Company makes other forms, including corrugated steel ties for use with flange rails. These are made of various sizes, and weigh from 12 pounds (2J pounds extra for fastenings) for a gauge of 24 inches to 62 pounds (4 pounds extra for fastenings) for standard gauge. 76 The Nut and Bolt Company's ties.— The Patent Nut and Bolt Company, of Newport; manufactures a tie of double oliaunel or H section. The lower part Is of trough sec- tion, 2/^ inches deep, lOJ inches wide at the bottom, about 5^ inches wide on top, and having on the uijper part two vertical ribs forming a channel 1^ inches deep and 4f inches wide. The horizontal part is eleven-thirty-seconds of an inch thick, and the sidfis of the channel are three-eighths of an inch thioh. For double-headed rails the fastenings consist of two loose jaws. The outer one fits the web of the rail and the under side of the head. It rests on the horizontal part of the tie, and has a hoolsed lug on the bottom which passes through a hole in the tie and takes a bearing on the inside. On the inner side of the rail is a similar jaw, but with the top flat and hav- ing a slot near the base. A flat taper steel key is driven horizontally through slots in the sides of the oiiannel and the base of the jaw in a similar way to the fastening used with the Denham-Olphects plate-ties in India. The chair and fastening make a heavy and cumbrous arrangement, and the jaws are liable to wear and thus cause rattling. It has been suggested that the outer jaw might be riveted. The holes for the keys and chairs are punched cold. The ties weigh 154 pounds each. They are said to have been in service under heavy traffic at the Alexandria Dock, Newport, and on the lines at the works of the manufacturers. The Quetch Hes.— This system of track has been described in an Indian paper as an English system, and it is said to have been awarded a bronze medal at the Railway Exhibition at Paris, in 1887. The rails are of bridge section with very wide flanges, about 14 inches wide over all. The joint and intermediate chairs consist of channel plates with logs on the side to hold the rail flanges, and a rib in the middle to fit into the hollow of the rail, keys beiug driven through the webs of the rail and this rib. The gauge is maintained by transverse tie-rods fastened by vertical cotters. The track seems to resemble the Macdonuell track on the Great Western Railway. The following is given as the weight per mile of single track : Kails, 24 feet long, 106 pounds per yard . , - Chairs: Joint, 90 pounds each Intcriuediato, 45 xjonnds each Tio rods, IJ iuch'dianietcr, 30 pounds each Keys: * Joint, 3 pounds each Intermcaiato, 3 pounds eauli Spriujis, for keys Cotters, for tie-rods, 3 ponnds each Total 227. 75 The MucLellan ties. — The MacLellan & Smith patents are for ties of embossed steel, either in the shape of bowls or cress-lies. A description of the former will be found in this report, under "ludia" (Calcutta Port Railway), and of the latter under "Australia " (South Australian Government Railways). (See plates Nos. 18 and 25.) They are manufactured by P. & W. MacLellan, of the Clutha Iron WorUs, Glasgow. MacLellan's wrought-iron ties have also been used in India, on the State Railways. The Chair and Sleeper Company's tie. — The tie manufactured by this company, of Widnes, Lancashire, and in use on the North Stafibrdshire Railway, is a steel tic of V-section. For double-headed rails, the ordinary cast-iron chairs are secured to the flanges. For fl.inge rails an angle plate at each end, as long as the width of the top of the tie, is secured by two rivets, and supports the outer side of the rg,il, while two loose riveted clamps are forced round upon the rail flange on the inner side. At joints the vertical part of the riveted angle-bar is as long as a sjilice-bar, and has four pro- jections or studs, which engage with the holes in the webs of the rails. Bolts are thus dispensed with. The tie is inlciuled for light railways, collieries, etc., as well as for main lines. 77 Summary of Metal Tkack fou England. Hiles. Northeastern Railway 5 Loudon and Nortli western Railway 56 Midland Railway f) Great Northern Railway i London and Southwestern, London, Brighton and South Coast, Metropolitan, Metropolitan District and Mersey Railways (estimated) f Great Easter j Railway '-^1 Total TO SCOTLAND. GrENERAL REMARKS. — The length of railways in Scotland is about 2,900 miles, laid exclusively with wooden ties. Great North of Scotland Railway. — Mr. P. M. Barnett, chief engineer, writing in August, 1889, stated: Metal ties have not been tried on this line. The ties used are of Scotch fir, 9 feet long, ii inches thick, 5^ inches face, and 10 inches wide at bottom. All the ties are creosoted, and the cost, including creosoting, was, at the time of the report, 56 cents per tie. The forests from which the ties for this liuo.are supplied are in the counties of Aberdeen, Banff, Elgin, and Inverness. Highland Railway. — Mr. M. Tatterson, chief engineer, stated in August, 1889 : Metal ties have never been tried on this line. Scotch fir and larch and some Baltic fir are used. The Scotch and Baltic fir is all creosoted, and the company has now begun to creosote the larch ties. The ties are 9 feet long; the foreign ones are of rectangular section, 10 by 5 inches, and the native ones are slabbed on the back for a breadth of 5 inches to give a seat for the chairs. The larch ties cost 84 cents to 86 cents and the fir ties 60 cents, when creosoted. The line is in the best part of Scot- land for native ties, and considerable quantities are sent to lines in the south of Scot- land and some to England. IRELAND. Midland Great Western Railway. — Some years ago Mr. James Price, while chief engineer of the road, introduced a system of cast- iron ties, experimentally, and obtained excellent results. The follow- ing description refers to ties of the type used, but as subsequently improved upon by Mr. 'Price, who has furnished me the particulars. Each tie consists of two boxes and a tie-bar. The boxes are 6 by 6 iuclies square, 4J inches deeji, open at the top; they are cast with a hollow base 12 by 12 inches square, 2 inches deep, and one side of the box (transverse to the rail) is extended to the width of the base, having a bolt hole in each wing. The box is partly filled with a special mixture' of "sawdust asphalt," consisting of sawdust mixed with well- boiled tar, as bttle of the latter as possible being used. This material is said to be everlasting, permanently elastic, and very cheap. Upon this is placed a plate fitting into the box like a piston, and the rails (of tlange'sectiou) rest on this plate and not on the sides of the box ; so 78 • that they have a firm but elastic bearing. The tie-bar is 3 inches deep by half an inch thick, with a clip or jaw on the upper edge at each end, to hold the outer flange of each rail. The inner flange is held by a short flat plate of the same shape as the end of the tie-bar. Bolts of 1-iuch diameter pass through the plate, tie-bar, and the wings of the box, and by the use of bolts with tapei'ed necks a very strong grip can be given on the rail flange. The ballast is brought up level with the top of the boxes. FRANCE. General Eemarks. — In this country no railway has definitely adopted metal ties for general use, but experiments with different forms of ties have been made and are still being conducted on five of the seven principal railway systems; in some cases to a sufficient ex- tent to enable conclusions to be drawn as to comparisons between track on metal ties and on wooden ties. There has been a tendency toward the designing of ties of complicated constmction, made up of a number of parts or difficult to manufacture; such ties, however, are necessarily more expensive and troublesome than ties which are sim-pXe in design and easy to manufacture, and for these reasons their wider introduction is not probable, after practical trials shall have proved their deficiencies. The majority of metal ties now in use are of forms derived from the type designed by Mr. Vautherin, a French engineer: this type consisted of a cross-tie of inverted trough section, with sides flaring outward from the top, and having a narrow horizontal flange on each lower edge. The Vautherin tie is the basis of the form of a very large number of the ties designed and introduced within recent years. These ties were first used in 1864, on the Paris, Lyons and Mediter- ranean Eailway, and were used later on the same company's lines in Algeria. Mr. Olerc, of the Western Eailway, in a paper published in the Eevue G^uerale des Ghemins de Fer, Paris,_March, 1889, stated that of the numerous systems of metal ties which have been tried, the majority had not proved satisfactory, and only a few would bear close investigation. Of these numerous systems few had been designed by persons experienced with railway work ; for while the manufacturers have considerable interest in the adoption of metal ties, most railway engineers i»refer wooden ties, and difficulty in obtaining wood appears to them to be the only reason justifying the use of metal ties. The time when this difficulty will really necessitate the use of metal ties can not yet, he says, be foreseen. The price of wooden ties was then less than it had been during thirty years, and this reduction was apparently due to the development of certain districts and the facilities of trans- portation resulting from the extension of the railway systems. The use of creosoted ties has increased the durability of the track, and no limit of service can yet be assigned to ties of creosoted beech ; such ties have been in service for twenty-five years, and were in good condition at the 79 end of that time, except a few not thorougbly treated and some which had been split, cut by the chairs, or otherwise damaged, but which liad not decayed. Nevertheless, Mr. Clerc believes that the questiou of the use of metal ties should not be overlooked, and trials have in fact been made upon the line with which he is connected. In 1885 Mr. Bricka, engineer 'in chief of the state railways, was di- rected by the minister of public works to investigate the principal systems of metal track in use in Europe, and he presented a very com- plete and valuable report, embodying the results of his investigations. He came to the conclusion that the use of track with metal ties is ad- vantageous, and is not in general more expensive than that with wooden ties, when the proportion of the prices does not exceed 8 to 5. He recommended cross-ties of the Berg and- Mark or Post sections, both of which are modifications of the Vautheriu tie. Ho further recommended that a series of practical trials should bo carefully conducted. If i)rop- erly carried out the cost would not be great, and the results thus ob- tained and recorded would be extremely valuable. He did not think, however, that the use of metal ties would become general in France to replace wooden ties, as there are yet extensive timber resources and the use of wood will be always economical in forest districts. A point not referred to, however, is the superiority of track on metal ties over that on wooden ties, especially under heavy and rapid traffic. Metal longitudinals have only been tried to a very limited extent. Use of old rails. — Several forms of ties in which old rails are to be used have been designed by Mr. Ozanne. They consist of different forms of castiron plates and rail chairs combined, placed in pairs and connected by an old rail, forming a tie-bar, bolted or keyed to them. State Railways. — The following information is taken from a special detailed report, sent to me In March, 1888, by Mr. Bricka, the engineer in chief, and from other reports sent by division engineers, dealing with the several queries contained in the circulars accompanying my letters of inquiry. The reason for using metal ties was that engineers had learned from the experiments and trials made in Germany, Austria, and Switzer- land that the use of metal ties ottered considerable advantages; the engineers, therefore, decided to employ such ties to a suflicieut extent to enable them to judge for themselves as to the results to be obtained from their use. Up to the date of Mr. Bricka's communication (March, 1888) the track had remained in good condition ; it was as firm as and more solid than track on wooden ties ; there was no trouble with the rail attachments, and no breakages hat! occurred ; no diflculty was experienced with the maintenance, which, after a time, tended to be- come less than the maintenance of track on wooden ties. The rails are of double-headed section on some parts of the line, and of flange section on other parts. The ordinary cast iron chairs have been used on some of the metal ties on account of the large stock on hand of double-headed 80 rails; but with metal ties there is less need of such chairs for the pur- pose of distributing the pressure. The joints are suspended and are Spliced by fish-plates and four bolts. The ballast is of sand, gravel, or broken stone ; on the outside of the track it is brought up level with the under side of the railhead; on the inner side it is level with the bottom of the rail and is crowned toward the middle of the track. The wQoden ties are of pine from the Landes, impregnated with chloride of zinc, which cost 52 cents each in the southwest district of the system. Oak ties cost 95 cents, and, since 1886 or 1887, these ties also have been impregnated with chloride of zinc, which increases the price 11 cents per tie. The temperate climate of the region in which this system of railways lies is favorable to the life of wooden ties. Atmospheric agen- cies do not appear to aflfect the metal ties, which only corrode in tunnels and when laid in ballast containing sulphurous material. No preserva- tive process or coating is applied to these ties. The engines with three axles weigh 56 tons, and those with four axles 75 tons, including the tender. The load on the axles of the engines is from 10 to 13 tons. The speed of express trains ranges from 38 to 50 miles per hour. The lines are of standard gauge, 4 feet 8J inches. {A) PauUt and LavaleUe ties (See plate No. 5).— These ties were laid in August, 1885, for a lengtli of 11,119.20 feet, on the line from Paris to Bordeaux (section from Montreuil-Bellay to Niort). Mr. Tyndall, of Tours, was the engineer in charge. There are nine trains per day, with a speed of 37 to 50 miles per hour. The liiio is double tract, and the profile and alignmeut'of the track laid with these ties are as follows : Profile : Feet. Level 2,246.80 On grades of 1 per cent 5,412 On grades .of .5 per cent - 721. 60 Ou grades of .1 percent 2,738.80 Alignment : On tangents 3,690.69 Ou curves of 1,640 feet radius 7,428.51 The ties are made of iron and are of two forms, single and double. The single ties are made of two angle-irons 3.6 inches wide, 2.8 inches high, .36 inch thick, and 7.55 • feet long ; these are placed back to back and have the ends bent slightly outward. A rib on the bottom of each of the two rail chairs rests between the angle-irons, and each chair is secured by four rivets passing through the angle-irons and rib. The weight is about 165 pounds per tie. The double ties are placed 24 or 32 inches apart, and are connected at the ends by irons of "the same section bent to the form of a Ui the legs being parallel with the main angle-irons and riveted to them ; the ribs or the chairs lie between the main and end pieces and are secured by the rivets. The double ties used at curves have the angle-irons about 32 inches apart, and weigh 308 pounds each ; those used at the rail joints have the angle-irons about 24 inches apart, and weigh 290.4 pounds each. The single ties ou straight lines are spaced 33 inches apart, centre to centre, and 32 inches from the joint ties. On curves two of the double ties are svibstituted for four single intermediate ties, leaving one single tie at the middle. The double ties are spaced 32 inches apart, or 34 inches from the single tics. The ties were mauufactured by the Soci6t/i Anonyme des Hauts Fourneaux, of Maubeuge. The first cost w.is about J145 per ton, and the expense of maintenance is said to be lower than that of track with wooden ties. These ties must be manufacli- 81 ured with great care, as otherwise the rivets may not fit exactly and may throw the track out of gauge. They are more expensive in first cost and are less advantageous than ties of the Vautherin type. The rails used are of double-headed section, 5.3 inches high, with heads 2.4 inches' wide, and weighing 76.5 pounds per yard. The upper parts of the chairs are of the usual form, aud the rails are secured in them by keys. The ballast is of broken granite, and is about 22 inches deep between the rails and 12 inches deep under the ties. The width of ballast is 23.4 feet on top, ex- tending 3.4 beyond the ties. The road-bed at subgrade is flat. Mr. Bricka stated in his letter that the Pauletand Lavalette ties were only used on a short length of track. Thoy have given satisfactory results, but ou account of the high price and the chances for damage which they present, the ties derived from the Vautherin type are much, preferred, more especially as their advantages have already been demonstrated in other countries. Mr. Tyndall, division engineer, writing in May, 1888, in regard to these Paulet aond Lavalette ties, stated that those laid up to that date, for a length of 2.5 miles, had given satisfaction, no chairs having been broken and no rivets loosened. He thought that they would be better if made 8.2 feet long instead of 7.55 feet, and that for sa nd ballast J. irons should be used, with the inner flanges j ust wide enough to meet, so as not to allow the sand to pass up into the tie while being tamped. The track was good, and the cost of keeping it in repair was about the same as for the track alongside of it, which was laid ou wooden ties. (B) Vautherin ties of uniform section for double-headed rails (See plate No. 5). — At the time of the report there were on the line from Paris to Bordeaux 4.25 miles laid with these ties on the section between Chartres aud Bron, 3. 1 miles were being laid on the section between Niort and La Kochelle, and ties were being manufactured for 18.6 miles more. Those ou the first section were laid in January, 1887, under the supervision of Mr. E. Colin (See paragraph D). On this section the ties are on the level for about 1 mile, and for the remainder of the distance on grades of from 1.2 per cent, to .2 per cent.; about 2.67 miles are on tangents, and the remainder on curves of from 1,804 feet to 9,840 feet radius. The line is single track, and the traffic con- sists of twenty-two trains per day, the speed of the express trains being from 37 to 50 miles per hoflr. Mr. Delauuay was the engineer in charge of the second sec- tion, the traffic of which consisted of twelve trains "per day. The rails are of similar section and weight to those already described. The ballast is of sand and clean gravel, about 13.2 inches deep under the ties. The width of the ballast bed is about 11.7 feet on top and 17 feet at the bottom. The road-bed at subgrade is crowned. The ties are of modifled Vautherin type, of uniform section throughout, having the top table of uniform thickness, and having ribs instead of horizontal flanges on the lower edges. They are 8.2 feet long, 4.8 inches wide on top, 3.2 inches deep, and ' 10.12 inches wide at the bottom; the thickness of the top table is .4 inch, while that of the sides varies from .28 inch near the bottom to .32 inch near the top. The weight is 126.72 pounds. In the track they are spaced 21 inches apart, center to center, at joints, and intermediate ties, 39.2 inches apart. No special arrangement of the ties is used at curves. The ties are of mild steel and are man ufactured by the Soci (section between Chartres and Bron) 4.2 miles were laid in January, 1887, under the supervision of Mr. Colin (See paragraph E). About 1 mile of this distance is on the level, the remainder being on grades of .7 to .1 per cent. ; 22893— Ball. 4- 6 82 about 3.25 miles are on tangents, the remainder on curves of 5,000 ^o 8,200 feet radius. The traflSc consists of twenty-two trains per day. The ballast is of broken granite and the section of road-bed is as described in Paragraph B. The rails are of fiange section, 5.2 inches high, 5.2 inches wide over the flange, with a head 2.4 inches wide, and weigh 78 pounds per yard. On the line from Tours to Sables (section between Bressuire and Sables), 4.6 miles were laid in March, 1887, under the supervision of Mr. Madelaine. About 1.25 miles are on the level, the remainder being on grades of 1.4 to .7 per cent. ; about 2.1 miles are on tangents, and the remainder on curves of 2,427 feet to 6,000 feet radius. The traffic consists of twelve trains per day. The ballast is of the same material and the road-bed is of the same general section as de- scribed above, except that the bed at snbgrade is flat and not crowned. The rails are of flange section, 5.2 inches high, 4 inches wide over the flange, with a head 3i4 inches wide, and weigh 70.4 pounds per yard. The tics are of the modified Vantherin type, of varying section and thickness of top table, being somewhat similar to the "Post" type of tie (Netherlands State Eailways). They are very similar to those described in Paragraph B, but the thickness of the top table varies from .40 inch or .44 inch at the rail seat to .28 inch or .32 inch at the middle; they are 8.52 feet long, with a top table 6 inches wide. They are bent to give the rails an inward cant of 1 in 20, and the ends are closed. They are of mild steel and weigh 124.3 pounds each. They were manufactured by the Soci(St6 de Denaiu et d'Anzin, and cost |34 per ton. The expense for maintenance during the first year is about the same as with wooden ties, but it then begins to diminish. The ties have given good results and are ex- pected to last thirty years in service. The fastenings used are of two types; the first consists of a bolt on each side of the rail flange, the bolt having a JL head inside the tie, and a clamp or washer held down on the rail flange by the nut ; the clamp has a projection which fits into a slot in the tie ; the second type of fastening consists of an arrangement of gibs and cotters, each side of the rail flange being held by a gib, and a vertical cotter being driven ou one side. This latter type is said to be satisfactory, aud to appear to be superior to the fastening by bolts and clamps, a result which is at variance with early experience with gib and cotter fastenings, it having been found, as a rule, that the cotter worked loose, or else rusted in so that it could not be moved and must be broken off, the whole fastening, as a rule, soon becoming loose enough to make a noisy rattling track. Some of the German railways, and the West- ern Railway of Switzerland, also report good results from the use of an improved gib and cotter fastening. For rail lengths of 20 feet the end ties are spaced 24 inches, center to center, aud the intermediate ties 36 inches ; for lengths of 36 feet, the mid- dle and end ties are spaced 24 inches, center to center, and the intermediate ties 39.2 inches. Mr. Edmond Colin, engineer of the First Division (Premier Arrondissement), sent me in July, 1888, a detailed report of experiments made under his charge on this di- vision, with three types of metal ties. The trials were made on the line from Paris to Bordeaux (section between Chartres and Bron), on asingle track. Thesetieshad, however, been in service too short a time to enable their durability to be determined, but no breakages had been observed since the ties were laid. They were all of mild steel, and were manufactured by the Soci6t6 de Denain et d'Anzin. They were spaced 24 inches apart, center to center at the joints, and 39.2 inches intermediate. The ballast used is very fine sand or gravel, mixed with 40 per cent, of broken flint; it is brought up level with the top of the ties, and is about 14 inches deep under the rail seats, where it is packed into the tie. The ballasting has to be done with great care, and requires at first more continuous care with metal ties; but it holds In them better, and after the first year the maintenance requires considerably less time. The track on metal ties keeps in better line and surface and is more solid than track on wooden ties. The oak ties used cost 92.2 cents each, and 5.6 cents more If treated with chloride of zinc ; their average life is twelve years. The climate of the region ia temperate, "but the wooden ties are affected by the various conditions of the baUast, 83 according to the seasons ; while moist in the spring and antnmn, it dries completely in the summer; the fastenings then work loose and the tie has a tendency to split. With the metal ties the atmospheric inflnences give no cause for apprehension, and it has heen observed that these ties do not rust more than the rails. The traffic con- sists of fourteen passenger trains (the speed of express trains being 37 to 50 miles an hour) and eight freight-trains (carrying merchandise, grain, wine, and cafitle) in twenty-four hours. The locomotives are of three classes : (1) with two axles coupled, weighing 36 tous; (2) with three axles coupled, weighing 33 to 37 tons; (3) with four axles coupled, weighing 53.3 tons; the load per axle is from 11 to 14 tons. Fol- lowing are the details of Mr. Colin's report : (D) Modified form of Vautherin type of tie, with uniform section and tliiekness through- out (See paragraph B). — These ties were laid between November, 1886, and February, 1887, for a length of 4.4 miles; 1.25 miles was on the level and the remainder on grades of .13 to 1.15 per cent.; about 3 miles were on tangents, and the remainder on curves of 1,640 to 9,840 feet radius. The section is uuiform for the whole length, aud is that of a Vautherin tie of which the upper table is widened, aud the sides have a rib along the bottom edge instead of a horizontal flange. The tie is horizontal, quite flat, 8.2 feet long, 4.8 inches wide on top, 9.2 inches wide inside at the bottom, and 3.2 inches deep ; the sides flare outward from the top aud then turn down vertically ; the thickness varies from .28 inch and .32 inch at the sides to .40 inch on top. The weight is 129 pounds. The ends are bent down vertically to close the ends of the trough. A few of the ties were coated with coal tar at the works; the others were not given any preparation. The cost was i|30 per ton at the market rates of 1886 aud $28 per ton at those of 1888. The maintenance expense during the first year was nearly equal to that of track with wooden ties, but it tended to diminish sensibly after the first year. No special arrangements are made on curves. The rails are of double-headed section, 36.08 feet long, weighing 76.5 pounds per yard. They are carried in cast-iron chairs, which are similar to those used on wooden ties, but have a lug on the under side which fits into a slot in the top table of the tie. Each chair is fastened by two X-tieaded bolts, and the rails are secured in the chairs by wooden keys. The rails are laid to break joint, the joints are suspended, and are spliced by fish-plates and four bolts. The results obtained have been satisfactory, the track keeping in good line and surface. The passage of trains is as smooth as ou a track laid with wooden ties ; at first it was a little harder, but there is now no difl^erence. The maintenance presents no difficulty, and there is only one special precaution to be taken for lining of the track. To shift the track in lining up it is necessary, owing to the closing of the ends of the tie, to open up the ballast to the outside of the end of the tie on the side towards which it is to be brought back, aud to open up the ballast in the interior of the tie from the opposite end; unless this is done the track will shift back to its original position on the passage of the first train. The rail fastenings give no trouble. During the first few months there were some chairs broken, which was attributed to insufficient packing of the ties. Only one tie had been found broken; it was broken transversely under the chair, and the break ap- peared to be due to a defect in the manufacture. The replacing of this tie was done without any difficulty by removing the ballast, sliding the new tie in under the rails, and then attaching the chairs. The ties behave well, aud the only improvement suggested was the strengthening of the rail chairs. The opinion given was tliat this type of tie is quite satisfactory and gives perfect safety. (E) Modified form of Vautherin ti/pe of tie, with varying section (See paragraph C).-t- These ties were laid in February and March, 1887, for a length of 4.46 miles; 1.24 miles were on the level, and the remainder on grades of .12 to .7 percent. ; 3.53 miles were on tangents, and the remainder on curves of 4,920 feet to 8,200 feet radius. The general form is similar to that described above (paragraph D), but the section varies at diflferent parts of the length, and the top table has an extra thickness of metal at the rail seats, The tie is bent to give the rails an inward iDoHnation of 1 in 20, and 84 the ends are closed. The length is 8.53 feet; width of top table, 6 inches; weight, 124.3 pounds. Some are tarred at the works, the others are used without treatment. The price was |34 per ton at the market rates of 1886. The experience as to cost of maintenance has been the same as noted for the preceding type (paragraph D). No special arrangements are made on curves. The rails are of flange section, 36.08 feet long, weighing 76.5 pounds per yard. They are placed directly on the ties. Some are fastened to the ties by gib and cotter fastening, a vertical cotter being used ; the others are fastened by bolted clamps. There are two clamps to each rail ; they are of I~ shape ; the horizontal part bears on the flange of the rail and the vertical part rests on the tie and has a projection which fits into a hole in the top table of the tie ; a tee-headed bolt passes up through the tie and clamp and is secured by a nut on top. The track was first laid with even joints, but was then being changed to.break- joint, that system being preferred; the joints are suspended and are spliced by fish- plates and four bolts. The remarks as to results and maintenance are the same as for the preceding type described (paragraph D), except that the passage of trains was still a little less smooth than on track with wooden ties. The rail attachments gave no trouble and there had been no breakage. Experience up to that date had shown that the gib and cotter fastenings were better than those with clamps. The opinion given was that this type made a very solid track and one very easy for main- tenance. (F) Boyenval and Ponaard tie (See plate No. 6). — Ties of this type were laid in April, 1888, for a lengtli of 298.48 feet on a tangent of a grade of 0.25 per cent. They are of uniform section throughout, and the cross-section is that of three troughs, the middle one open at the top and the two outer ones open at the bottom. The tics are horizontal, 8.2 feet long, 8 inches wide on top, 10.2 inches wide at the bottom, and 2.8 inches deep ; the width of the top is made up of two bearing surfaces 2.4 inches wide and a channel 3.2 inches wide ; the bottom width is made up of two channels 3 inches wide, a middle bearing 2.8 inches wide, and two flanges .7 inch wide. The thickness of top and bottom is .32 inch, and of the sides .20 inch. The weight is 129.8 pounds. They were all tarred at the works, and the price was |2.48 each. The ends of the two outer channels are closed by riveted angle-pieces. The rails are of double- headed section, 36.08 feet long, weighing 76.5 pounds per yard; they are carried in cast-iron chairs a little stronger than those used with wooden ties, and having a lug on the bottom ■which fits into a hole in the tie. Each chair is fastened to the tie by four bolts. No special arrangement would be used for curves. The rails are laid to break-joint; the joints are suspended and are spliced by fish-plates and 'four bolts. The results obtained had so far been satisfactory, and the passage of trains was as smooth as on a track with wooden ties. There had been no breakages, no trouble with the fastenings, and no difiScnlty with maintenance, while the lining up vras easily effected; the maintenance would not differ much from that with other metal ties. The experience with this type of tie had been too short to allow of any definite opinion being given. It may be noted, however, that the shape is difficult to roll, and the tie can not be considered as easy to manufacture. The double-headed rails used with metal ties are of "hour-glass" section; 5.4 inches high, with heads 2-64 inches wide and web .72 inch thick at the middle ; the radius of the top table is 3.6 inches for a width of 1.6 inches; the radius of the top corners is .38 inch, followed by an inward curve of .88 inch radius. The flange rails are 5.2 inches high, 5.2 inches wide over the flange, and 2.4 inches wide in the head ; the head has a top radius of 8 inches, top corners of .32 inch radius, vertical sides, and .24 inch bottom radius. The clamps for flange rails are 2.56 by 2.24 inches over all for the outer flange, and 2.56 by 1.86 inches for the inner flange ; the thickness is .52 inch, and the total depth 1.24 inches. The bolt holes are .84 inch square; the nut washers are 1.28 inches diameter, with a hole .84 inch in diameter, and a thick- ness of .10 inch. The gib and cotter fastening consists of one gib on the outer side, and on the inner side two gibs with a vertical cotter between them ; the cotter is 6 85 inches long, .8 inch thici, 1.08 inches wide at the top, and .76 inch wide at the bottom. The outer holes in the tie are 1.56 inch long, and the inner ones 2.5 inches long ; they are 4.56 inches apart in the clear, and .88 inch wide. The chairs on the Vautherin ties have a base of 13 by 4.48 inches, the longer dimensions being length-wise of the ties ; the jaws are 4.84 inches wide ; the bolts are .76 inch diameter. The chairs for the Boyenval and Ponsard ties have a base of 8 by 11 inches. Mr^ A. Delaunay, engineer of the Saintes division (Arrondissement de Saintes), stated in June, 1888, in regard to the metal ties used on the section from Niort to La Eochelle (See paragraph B), that the trials were made on a length of 3.1 miles ; the line was on a tangent and one curve of 3,280 feet radius, and had grades not exceeding .5 per cent. (5 millimeters per meter). The track consisted of steel rails of double-headed symmetrical section, 18.04 feet long, carried on six cross- ties and resting in chairs weighing 21 pounds each. The ballast, which was then being renewed, is of calcareous gravel, very clean and of coarse size, and exceptionally of broken stone screened. For the trials, Vautherin ties of uniform section were employed, weighing 130,24 pounds each, and laid six to a rail length. Special chairs are used, weighing 22.33 pounds, and having a lug on the bottom which fits into a hole in the tie. The bolts attaching the chairs to the ties do not work loose after the first tightening has been made. In laying the ties the r.iils and joints were not disturbed. For the six months they had been in service the ties had given good results in gravel and broken stone ballast, and made a very stable track, the riding on which was as easy as over a track laid with wooden ties. The packing had to be renewed rather frequently at first. This maintenance work caused an extra expense for labor of about two men per month, who have been added to the gang of five men, whose section of 4.96 miles includes five renewals of metal ties. The first ballasting holds better in sand or gravel than in broken stone. While the trial was too recent to enable him to pronounce on the results obtained, he considered it probable that six months later they would be able without difficulty to reduce the section gang to four men. The traffic consisted of five passenger trains in each direction per day, composed of 50 to 70 cars, and hauled by engines with four coupled axles, weighing 53 tons. Writing again in December, 1888, Mr. Delaunay stated that his opin- ion, in common with that of most engineers in France, was that the double-headed or bull-headed rail was the only form suitable with wooden ties for lines with heavy and fast trafQc ; but he believed, nev- ertheless, that the flange rail on steel ties would possess all the supe- riority and advantages claimed by its advocates over those of the' double-headed rails. The latter have, however, been used on metal ties on the State Eailways only because there was a large stock of these rails which it was necessary to use. Trials with flange rails on metal ties have been made on other divisions with excellent results. He con- sidered that the cause of the metal tie had definitely gained its success, and that its advantages could only be contested by companies whose 86 financial conditions do not permit tliem to pay at once the existing dif- ference of cost between wooden and inetal ties. The following information was i)rescnted by Mr. Kowalski at the In- ternational Eailway Congress held at Milan, Italy, in 1887 : Metal cross-ties were used in regular service for about 16.43 miles ; there were 2.48 miles laid with ties of the Paulet type, 4.65 miles with a modification of the Vauthe- rin type of tie, using^ cast-iron chairs, and 9.30 miles with the ''Post " tie. The first weighed about 220 pounds each, and the others about 125.4 pounds. They were all of mild steel, bnt it was intended to try 5,000 cross- ties of hard steel. As the laying of these ties had only been commenced in December, 1886, no precise information as to the results could then be given. In August, 1889, the engineer-in-chief stated that since March, 1888, metal ties had been laid for a length of about 13.18 miles, 11.68 miles on the line from Tours to Sables d'Olonne, between St. Mesury and Bressuire, and 1.50 miles near the station at Ohartres. There had also been 70,000 ties ordered. The total length of the lines of this system was then 1,609.5 miles, and the length actually laid with metal ties about 31.62 miles. Paeis, Lyons anb Mbditeeeanean Eailwat. — Iron ties were laid on this line during 1862 and following years, but by 1872 they had all been taken out. The engineer stated in February, 1888, that these ties were more expensive than wooden ties, and were taken out be- cause, on account of the constant traffic, they made a less firm track and lasted a shorter time. The ties were 7.34 feet long, 5.6 inches wide on top, 8.4 inches wide on the bottom, and 2.4 inches deep ; the thick- ness was .20 inch to .28 inch on the sides, and .32 inch on top, with a middle portion .52 inch thick for a width of 1.44 inches, this being given by extra metal on the under side of the top table. A gib and cotter fastening was used, and not being well adapted for this purpose was very likely the cause of the track being less firm than on wooden ties. On the Algerian lines owned by this company, however, 100,000 ties were laid in 1870 and gave good results ; in February, 1888, 60,000 more iron ties were being laid. The conditions on these lines, however, are not the same as those obtaining in France ; the burning climate causes the very rapid destruction of wooden ties, while the metal ties, much less injured by the passage of a very few trains, act sufficiently well in service, and enable a certain economy to be realized over the wooden ties on account of their longer life. (See "Algeria"). Vautherin ties were first used in 1864, on the line from Besanyon to Lous-le-Saalnier, then in course of construction ; 600 ties were used, ■which were manufactured by the Fraisans Works of the Iron Works Society of Franche Comt6. The present ordinary track is laid with rails 32.8 feet long, placed on twelve wooden ties in main track, or eleven ties at stations, and on branches where the speed is only about 31 miles per hour. In main track they are spaced 24 inches, center to center, at the joints, 28 and 34 inches next to the joints, and 30 inches intermediate; for 87 branches they are spaced 24 inches at joints, 30 inches next to the joints, and 3 feet 3| inches iuteruiediatc ; for sections with very heavy traffic 13 ties are used, spaced 32 inches center to center. Iron tie- plates, fastened by screws which hold the rails, are~xised on the ties next to the joint, and the outer angle-bar of each joint has a flange suf- ficiently wide to allow of the screw passing through it. To prevent creeping, some of the irou tie-plates have one side bent up to fit the rail-flange and web ; these plates are screwed to the tie and bolted to the web of the rail. Eastern Eailway. — In February, 1888, the director of construction reported that up to that time they had made only very limited trials ■with ties of several forms, and had not been able to draw favorable conclusions for the adoption of any one of these forms in preference to ties of hard wood (oak or beech), simply injected with dead oil of coal- tar (creosote). These wooden ties thus prepared gave results which did not admit of doubt as to tlieir superiority in first cost, in mainte- nance expenses, and in renewals. The trials with" metal ties were, how- ever, being continued, more with a view to the requirements of a prob- ably distant future than to any present interest. * The company estimates that the life of its creosoted oak ties is about twenty-five years, and that, therefore, the present introduction of metal ties is not necessary. The road is of standard gauge. One of the most interesting forms of metal ties tried on this road is a tie designed by Mr. Guillaume, the engineer of permanent way, which has been laid for a length of about 13 miles (See plate No. 7). It is of trough or channel section ijlaced in normal position, that is, with the open part upwards. It is 8.46 feet long, 10 inches wide and 3.2 inches deep ; the thickness at the bottom is 0.36 incb. The ends are bent down 3,28 inches below the level of the bottom, in order to offer resist- ance to lateral motion of the tie in the ballast. The weight of the tie is 171.6 pounds, or about 190 pounds including the fastenings. Each rail rests on two blocks of elm, creosoted and compressed; these blocks are 8.8 inches long, 3.12 inches square under the rail, and have the top inclined to give the rail an inward inclination of 1 in 20 ; they are thick enough to carry the rail clear of the sides of the tie. The elm blocks are made in England, and give much better results than blocks of oak, not compressed, which have also been tried ; they have not allowed any slack or play, and have not been seriously depressed or cut under the flange of the rail. The absence of metal contact between the rail and the the sides of the tie is claimed as an advantage ; this might be true with such a form of tie, which would give only two narrow bearing surfaces, but it has been conclusively shown with other forms of ties that the metal contact, where there is a wide bearing surface, need not be objec- tionable if proper fastenings are used. The rail is fastened by two fliit steel plates, cast and annealed, placed between the wooden blocks and sides of the channel ; each plate has a hooked lug on the upper part of 88 one end to hold the rail flange, and has also a stud on the side fitting into a hole in the side of the channel ; the plates weigh about 4.07 pounds each, o? 16.28 pounds for the set. They can be placed or re- moved separately, after driving out the wooden blocks, without disturb- ing the rails, thus rendering renewals easy ; it would seem, however, as though the fixing of the plates and the driving of the wooden blocts back in place in case of renewals or repairs, would disturb the track and make a good deal of work necessary to adjust it to proper line and surface and give it proper stability in the ballast. The depth from the head of the rail to the bottom of the tie is 8.76 inches. Mr. Bricka re- ported adversely to this form of tie, on account of the cutting away of the flanges or sides of the channel at the rail-seats, and he was of opin- ion that experience had shown that wooden bearing blocks were neither necessary nor desirable with metal ties. There are sixteen ties to a rail length of 39.36 feet, spaced 24 inches center to center at joints and 30 inches intermediate, with the fourth and fifth ties from the end of each rail spaced 31.2 inches center to center. The ballast between the rails is level with the middle of the web of the rail, and on the outer side of the track it is level with the middle of the head of the rail. The engineer stated in April, 1888, that the provisional trials were satisfac- tory, but that they were restricted to making them on a very limited scale, the superiority of properly creosoted wooden ties over all forms of metal ties being established in the minds of engineers. The rails are of flange section, weighing 74.4 pounds per yard ;, they are 39.36 feet long, laid to break joint. The joints are suspended and are spliced by a pair of fish-plates with four bolts ; the inner plates are of deep section, hav- ing a vertical web projecting below the flange. In 1886 one hundred ties of the Post type had been laid. The following particulars were presented by Mr. Kowalski at the International Eailway Congress, held at Milan, Italy, in 1887 : There were placed, about 1865, 2,200 iron cross-ties, 100 being of the Vautherin type and the rest of a type designed by the company's engineers as a modification. About 1886 there were laid 100 ties of the Ppst type and 100 ties of a type designed by the engineer. The Vautherin ties weighed 88 pounds, the company's old and new types 109 pounds and 141.15 pounds, respectively, and the Post ties 169.61 pounds. The two latter types were each laid with 50 ties on a tangent and 50 ties on a curve of 3,608 feet radius, with a grade of 0.3 per cent, in the direction of the traffic. The traffic in 1886 consisted of 21,682 trains, of which 12,031 were passenger trains, and 9,651 were freight trains ; the average speed of passenger trains is 40.3 miles per hour. The heaviest locomotives, with four axles, weighed 56 tons. The tonnage hauled in 1886 amounted to 4,616,000 tons. The rails were of steel, weighing 60.36 pounds per yard. The ballast was of a sandy nature, fairly good. The Vautherin ties were talien out in about six years; most of them were cracked. The company's old type of ties lasted better, but the work of ballasting was 45 per cent, greater than with wooden ties, and they were all taken out on account of the wear of the fastenings. The other types appeared to give better results, but the experience was then too short to ena- ble any opinions to be expressed. The passage of trains over these ties was very smooth, and similar to that over wooden ties. 89 Westeun Eailway.— The metal ties, of which I received particu- lars in March, 1888, were invented and manufactured by Mr. Ohappee, at Mans, and were laid, in May, 1887, for a length of about 656 feet on the line from Paris to Havre, under the supervision of Mr. Banchal. They are on curves of 4,920 feet radius and a grade of 0.5 per cent. The tie consists of a wrought-iron inverted channel iron, upon which the rail-chairs are cast in place. (See plate No. 7.) The channel iron is 8.2 feet long, 8 inches wide, and 2.8 inches deep ; the thickness of the top table is 0.36 inch. The upper part of the cast-iron chairs is of the u ual form for a double-headed rail, but there is a wing of "j-shape on each side, which fits over the side of the tie. These wings are 4 inches wide, 4 inches thick at the side of the tie, and 3.6 inches deep below the top of the tie. They thus embrace the iianges of the channel and project 2 inches inside and outside of them ; while at the middle, under the rail, they completely fill the space inside the channel. The width of the lower part of the chairs, over the wings, is 12 inches, and the rails have a bearing for that distance, which is double the bearing given by an ordinary chair. In each side of the tie are two holes 0.8 inch diameter, one to each chair, through which the metal can flow and so securely fasten the chair in its place. Both chairs are cast at the same time. The weight, including chairs, is about 297 pounds. The cost is about $3 per tie, the channel-iron itself costing $2. The time of the trial — one year — was then too short to permit of the mainte- nance expenses or the probable life being determined. The ties are not painted or otherwise protected against rust, and no special arrange- ment^ are made for curves. The rails are of steel, of double-headed section, and weigh 78 pounds per yard. They are secured in the chairs by wooden keys. The joints are suspended and are spliced by a pair of fish-plates and four 1-inch bolts. One of each pair of plates has a vertical web projecting below the rail. The ballast is of quarry chips, about 12 inches deep under the ties. The road-bed at subgrade is hor- izontal. The ties are spaced as follows : For a rail 19.668 feet long, 24 inches, center to center, at joints, 28 inches next to the joints, and 32 inches intermediate ; for a rail 26.24 feet long, 24 inches at joints, 29.08 inches next to the joints, and 34 inches intermediate, except the middle ties, 34.04 inches. The climate is temperate, its hygrometric condition average, and it exercises no particularly destructive influence on the ties. In March, 1888, the director of works stated that there are found in France, in quantity more than sufficient to meet the demand, excellent species of wood for ties, which are delivered in the form of ties at ad- vantageous prices and which would always be given the preference over metal ties. Under these conditions, and without being indifferent to the investigations which have been made in various places in regard to the substitution of metal for wood for service as ties, this company had only made very limited trials of metal ties. In sending particulars of the tie above described, it was stated -that the experiments were too recent 90 to enable any reliable conclusions to be drawn as to the advantages of disadvantages, or any opiuious lo be formed based on the experience acquired. Tliese trials are not of any immediate interest to the com- pany, as the railway is largely, and under advantageous conditions, supplied with ties of oak or beech of good quality, which when cre- osoted cost about $1 each and last about twenty-five years. In a short article in the Revue G6n§rale des Chemins de Fer, March, 1889, Mr. Clerc, the director of works, stated that after having made trials, lasting during two years, of the metal ties already described, on parts of the line under the heaviest traffic, the company had ordered 5,000 more of the same type, with some modifications suggested by expe- rience, in order to carry on the experiments on a large scale. This ad- ditional step is interesting, when the statements made by Mr. Olerc in March, 1888, are considered, as the metal ties seem to have been looked upon with favor in spite of the plentiful supply of wood. (Mr. Chappee also proposes to make the tie with the channel-iron placed with its open side upward.) The company exhibited specimens of its track at the Paris Exposition of 1889, and the following tables of weights are taken from Engineer- ing, August 9, 1889. Table of metal track. ( Weight per yarA=:bH pounds). Material for 39 feet 4 inches of trai^k. 2 rails, 39 feet 4 iocliea long, 88.7 pounds per 3'ard 2 pair of fish-plates 8 tish -holts, 1 inch diameter 18 metal ties (132 pounds of steel, 110 pounds of cast-iron) 36 keys, David system Total trnit weights. Pounds, 1,164: 37i 243 2J Separate weights. Steel. Pounds. 2, 328 75 2,380 SO Cast- iron. Poitnds. Wrought iron. Pounds. Table of ordinary track. ( Weight per i/ord=388 pounds). Material tor 26 feet of track. Unit weights. Separate weights. Steel. Cast- iron, Wrought iron. Wood. 2 rails, GO pounds per yard 4 fish-plates l6 tie-plates 8 jHsh-holts, seven-eighths inch diameter - 12 screws, seven-eighths inch diameter and 4i inches long. 48 scv ews, Boven-eighths inch diameter and 5^ inches long ; 10 ties 16 keys Total Lbs. 529 34J 33 1 0.8 165 2S 1,058 Lbs. Lbs. 35 1,162 Lbs. 1, 61)0 91 In 1875 the company adopted a steel flange rail, weighing only 60 pounds per yard, to reduce the expense; since then the track on grades and sharp curves has been strengtlieiied by the use of au.ele-bars on the inner side of the joints, ten tie« per rail-length instead of nine, and iron tie-plates on each tie except those at the joints. The angle-bars are fastened to the ties by coach screws, to prevent creeping of the track. The wooden ties are creosoted with dead oil of coal-tar, at the company's works. At first the Bethell process was used, requiring 35 to 40 pounds of Creosote for beech ties. Since 1876 the ties are first steamed under a pressure of five atmospheres, reducing the amount of creosote to 26 or 28 pounds and giving it a better distribution among the fibers. The oak ties are said to require 8 to 11 pounds of creosote. NoKTHBRN Eailway. — In February, 1888, Mr. Oontannin, engineer of permanent way, stated that this road had laid on its Belgian lines 1,700 ties of the S6verac type during eighteen months, and was then about to place 10,000 of these ties on its French lines. In order to es- tablish a comparison, allowing for the great difference between the first cost of wooden ties and that of metal ties, it was hoped that a sensible economy would be realized in the maintenance expenses, but the ex- perience was then too short to enable an opinion to be pronounced. (See Belgium.) At the International Eailway Congress held at Milan, Italy, in 1887, Mr. Kowalski stated that 1,500 ties of the S6verac type had been in use on this company's Belgian lines for about two years, and had given good results. (See "Belgium.") Southern Railway. — In September, 1889, this company reported that no metal ties have been used, even for experiment. Paris and Orleans Eailway. — This company reported in March, 1888, that no trials had been made with metal ties, as the forests in the neighborhood of the railway enable the company to count upon suffi- cient resources for a long time to come. The woods used are oak and pine. The average price of the oak ties is 90 cents each, and their aver- age life is fifteen to sixteen years. Tlie pine ties, which are being aban- doned, cost G6.4 cents each creosoted, and 61.4 cents treated with sul- phate (presumably of copper, but not stated) ; the average life of the latter is ten years; the creosoted ties are of too recent date for conclu- sions to be drawn as to their life. TIBS. Paulet and Lavaletie ties. — These ties have been described under the heading of the State railways, on which lines they are used with double-headed rails. They are also made for flange rails, the only difference being in the form of the chair, which has a flat-top with two lugs, a key being driven between one lug and the rail-flange. The chairs are secured by three rivets. The ends of the angle-irons may be straight in- stead of flared out. The weight of ties for standard gauge tracks is 165 pounds, with chairs for double-headed rails, and 154 pounds with chairs for flange-rails. The ties are also made for meter gauge lines, and may be made of tee-irons instead of angle- irons if necessary (See plate No. 5). 92 The Brunon ties, — These ties are of pressed steel, and were invented by Mr. Barthol- etny Brunon, but have, I believe, not been put iu service. They are of f\ section, narrow and deep at the middle and broad and shallow at the ends, the sides sloping up to the top table. The thicljness is .3<2-inch throughout, and the weight about 77 pounds per tie. The rail seats are pressed up and holes are made in the sides of the elevated seat for the ends of a bent bolt which lies within the tie. For flauge-rails clips are used which hold the flanges and are fastened by the bolt. For double-headed rails the same plan is adopted but the clips are larger, one bearing against the web and lower head of the rail, and the other embracing the side of the lower head. At the joints angle-bars .are used having an extension of the flange bent to fit the cnrve of the rail-seat, the bolts passing through these flanges in the same way as through the ordinary clips. The ordinary joint bolts are used. The Decauville ties. — These ties are used for the well-known system of Deqauville's portable railways, which are for narrow-gauge plantation lines, contractor's lines, light railways, etc. They are of inverted channel irons, with the flanges bent ronnd to close the ends. The rails are usually riveted to the ties. A line of 24 inches gauge was built on this system through the grounds of the Paris Exposition of 1889; the ties were about 3 feet 7J inches long, 5.6 inches wide, 1.16 inches deep, and .20-inch thick; they were spaced 10.4 inches apart, center to center, at the joints, and 25.56 inches Intermediate. The rails were of flanged section, 2.4 inches high and 2.5 inches wide; each rail was fastened to the tie by three rivets, two through the inner flange and one through the outer flange. The sections of track were 16.40 feet long, with fish-plates at the rail joints. This track could carry a service load of 3 tons per axle, and a 48- ton gun was hauled over it by using four trucks with four axles each, the trucks being coupled in pairs. The line was used for passenger and freight traffic, and was operated by compound, four-cylinder, double-truck engines, weighing 11.3' tons in working order. The tramway at Laon is laid with a similar track and oper- ated by similar engines. Tliis line has grades of 6 per cent., with curves of 88.56 feet radius. For particulars of these two lines see Engineering News, New York, Septem- ber 1, 1888, and June 1, 1889. The system is also referred to in the part of this report referring to " Light and Portable Railways." The Gou]}illon ties. — These are a modification of the Vautherin type of tie, and resemble the "Post" tie; but there is claimed to be less work done on the metal than with the "Post" tie, which is bent to give the inclination to the rail. The fastenings are entirely difl^erent in character. The ties are horizontal, bnt at the rails the metal is thickened, and so shaped as to form a rail seat giving the desired inclination, and having a depression to receive the flange of the rail. They are 8.85 feet long, 5.2 inches wide on top, 9.2 inches wide at the bottom, 4 inches deep over all ; the sides are vertical for 2.6 inches from the bottom. The thickness of the sides increases from .24 inch at the bottom to .28 inch at the top ; the top table is .36 inch thick, but extra metal is added on the under side, making it .52 inch thick for a width of about 2 inches. The thickness under the rail is .76 inch. The rails are fastened by screws of different forms, the heads being wide and holding the rail-flange. They may be (1) — only long enough to screw through the thickness of the metal of the tie; or (2) — long enough to screw also through a thick iron washer inside the tie, which takes both the screws ; or (3) — the ordinary long screw spikes used iu Euro- liean railway practice may be used, screwing into wooden blocks placed inside the tie, one under each rail. The ends ofthe ties are closed. For rails of 56 to 60 pounds per yard, the ties would weigh between 132 and 151 pounds each. These ties have not, I believe, been put in service. The La Gressiere tie$. — These are cross-ties of deep inverted channel section with vertical sides and a rib on each bottom edge. Along the whole length of the top table is a deep groove. A tie-plate the full width of the tie is riveted at each rail seat. The rail is fastened by broad clamps or flat spikes, which pass through slots in the tie-plate, and project down into the groove in the tie. A long taper key or cotler is driven horizontally through a slot in the lower part of each rail clamp, holding 93 tbem tightly in place. The ties weigh 66 pounds for meter gauge lines, and 121 to 132 pounds for standard gauge. They are said to have been tried on the Eastern Kailway, hut no iufornuition respecting them has heen furnished by that road. SUMMARY OF METAL TRACK FOE FRANCE. Kail ways. Cross- ties. State. Miles. Weatera :. .- , . "A 50 Total 52.12 HOLTLAND. General Eemarks. — Mr. Post, iu liis paper presented before the Society of Civil Engineers, France, in 1885, stated that Holland was a conutry not possessing any metal tie producing industry, but able to obtain plenty of cheap native and foreign timber, the latter being im- ported, at a low rate, by sea, river, canal, and rail. Nevertheless, nearly all the railways have been using metal ties for some years, not on ac- count of pressure from the government, but because they are persuaded that it is to their own interest. In Mr. Bricka's report to the Minister of Public Works of France, iu 1885, is given the following table of mileages : Tdble of mileage of railwai/ trade. Holland, 167S-1884. Tear. Maiu liues. L(ic:ll lines. "s.'io 4.34 4.34 39.68 Total track. Wooden ties. Metal lonKi- tudiniiLs. Metal cros.s ties. Stono, etc. 1878 1879 1880 1881 1027. 34 1034. 78 1008. 26 1096.66 1120.54 1235. 66 1279. 06 1764. 52 1624. 40 1718.64 1778. 78 1922.62 2066. 46 2204. 16 1653.54 1538.84 1589.68 1627. 50 1750.88 1876. 12 1988. 34 .63 10.54 10 54 10. U 10.54 10.54 7.44 49.60 75.02 118.42 HO. 74 161.20 179. 80 203. 98 1882 1883 1884 4.34 Netherlands State Eailwats. — The Netherlands State Railway Company, which oj^erates the system of railways owned by the State, has had a thoroughly intelligent, 'careful, and practical investigation made as to the merits and advantages of different forms of ties. The company was singularly far-seeing, and when the engineer began the work he began with a careful system of records as to the track and the results obtained. Mr. Post, the engineer of permanent way, during the earlier experiments designed and adapted a special form of >tie which, after some modifications shown by experience to be desirable, has been adopted as the standard form of metal tie on this railway system, and is also extensively used in other countries. This is the cross-tie of mild steel, of varying thickness and cross-section, which is now so well known as the " Post" tie. 94 In 1865 the company put down on the Deventer and Zwolle line 10,000 ties of the Oosijns type. (See plate No. 8.) Each tie consisted of an ordinary I beam, laid with the web horizontal ( m ) ; under each rail was an oak block with a groove cut in it for the rail flange ; the rail was fastened by two bolts. The ties were 8.85 feet loug, 8 inches wide, and weighed 124.74 pounds each. The results on the whole were satisfac- tory. The cost of packing had not been much higher than with wooden ties, aud the renewals of the wooden blocks had not cost more than those of wooden ties. Experience showed, however, that the fasten- ings were defective, the bolts being too long and permitting a trans- verse sliding of the blocks with the rails on the ti0. For this reason it was found better to attach the rails directly to the metal ties. In 1880 the company again took up actively the question of metal track, and at that time Mr. Post was directed to investigate the results of trials made by other companies. Acting upon his report the company decided to select the type of tie which seemed the best adapted for the purpose, to place it in the track, and to observe it carefully ; also, to lay a section of track on wooden ties, in continuation of the track on metal ties, and under the same condition of line and traffic. It was further resolved that the following year a second type of metal ties should be selected, profiting by the experience of other countries, and endeavoring to avoid any defects observed in the first type, in order to be able to form opinions as to the comparative merits of the different types. In 1886 the company had, besides the types of composite (iron and wood) ties of Oosijns and Eenson, six types of metal ties and three types of fastenings. While continually improving the ties, it was de- cided in 1884 to adopt the latest types, as improved by Mr. Post. This track consisted of steel cross-ties of varying section, weighing 110 to 121 pounds, with bolts 0.88 inch diameter, having eccentric necks, steel clamps for the rails, and plain Verona nut locks. The trials were all made on the Liege and Luxembourg line. The several types of ties were as follows : (See plate No. 8.) (0) Oak ties of half-round section, 8.53 feet long, 4 inches wide on top, 11 2 inches oil the bottom, 5 inches deep. There were 1,120 laid in 1881. (1) Rolled iron ties of inverted trough section ("Vautherin" type), weighing 88 pounds each ; 7.71 feel loug, 9.4 inches wjde at bottom ; they were bent up at the eud at an inclination of 1 in 20, aud the extremities were closed. In 1881 there were 4,133 of these laid. (II) Kolled iron ties of similar section, weighing 104 pounds each; 8.20 feet long, 8.8 iuches wide at bottom over the flanges ; the ends were inclined at the rail seats aud then curved down ; the extremities were closed by angle-irons and two pieces of angle-iron were riveted inside at the middle 20 iuches apart. In 1882 4,001 of these were laid. (III) Mild steel ties of inverted channel section, with wide horizontal flanges at the bottom (Haarmann type) ; they were of the form used on the Prussian State rail- ways aud weighed 110 pounds each; 8.20 feet long, 10 inches wide over the flanges, and of similar longitudinal section to No. 2. In 1833 2,089 of these were laid. (IV) Mild steel ties similar to No. 3, also as used on the Prussian State railways, but weighing 114.4 pounds each. At the middle, and placed 16 inches apart, were two riveted pieces of Z-irou. In 1883 2,090 of these were laid. 95 (V) Mild steel ties of inverted trough section (" Vautherin" type), 8.53 feet long, 8.8 inches wide at the bottom, weighing 95.5 pounds. The tie was horizontal, but at the rail seats for a distance of 10 inches the metal was pressed up cold to the de- sired inclination and at the end of the rail seat the metal sloped back to the normal level of the tie (Hosch-Lichthammer method). In 1884 11,680 of these were laid. (VI) Mild steel ties of inverted trough section, but of polygonal instead of pyram- idal section (" Post " type). They were rolled with varying section and thiclincss and an inclination of the rail seats. The bottom was horizontal, with the closed ends projecting below it. They were 8.36 feet to 8.7 feet long, 9 inches wide at the bot- tom, 3.3 inches deep ; 110 pounds weight, or 121 pounds for curves, grades, etc. The price in May, 1886, was |21.2 per 2,200 pounds at the works. All the ties, whether for tangents or curves, had the fonr holes drilled in identically the same places. In 1884 and 1885 47,338 of these ties were laid, and 50,000 in 1886. The fastenings were as follows : (See plate No. 8.) (A) Iron bolts, .76 inch diameter, with eccentric necks, giving .08 inch to .56 inch adjustment of gauge. Iron clamps and Verona nut locks were used. These were used in 1881, 1883, and 1884 for types of ties I, III, IV, and V. (B) Steel bolts of Ibbotson's type, having x-heads. A square washer received the thrnst of the rail flange and gave an adjustment of gauge of .08 inch to .64 inch ; the rail clamp was of channel shape, one leg resting on the rail flange, and the other on the tie, outside of the gauge plate. This is the Roth and Sohuler system and was used in 1P82 for ties of type No. II. (C) Steel bolts .88 inch diameter, with eccentric necks, giving an adjustment of gauge of .32 inch to .64 inch. The steel rail clamps had the upper surface roughened to give a grip to the Verona nut lock. A few bolts of special dimensions were used at the extremities of curves. These were laid in 1884, 1885, and 1886 with ties of type No. VI. During 1886 and 1887 three more types of ties were designed by Mr. Post, as follows : (See plate No. 8.) (VII) This type was in general similar to No. VI but was narrower and deeper at the middle than at the ends, the bottom swelling downward and the sides at tlie mid- dle flaring inward so that the bottom edges nearly met. It is more easily laid in the ballast, but Is more difficult to manufacture. (VIII) This is similar to No. VII, but at the narrow part the sides flare ontward in A-sh^P^; bottom width 9.4 inches at ends and 5.4 inches at the middle. Types VIII and IX are easy to manufacture. The object of narrowing the tie at the middle is to throw the principal bearing at the rail seat to insure the stability of the track ; it also increases the rigidity of the tie. (IX) This is similar to No. VIII but has the bottom horizontal, the increased depth at the middle being obtained by curving up the top table. At the end of 1886 there were 134,000 metal ties in service, the weight, date, class, etc., of which are given in a table, which will be found a few pages further on, in the company's report to the Eailway Congress of 1887. Of 124,000 ties laid since 1880, not one had to be removed. The ties of types Nos. VI to IX, being of varying section and thicliness, cor- responded to weights of 126.50 and 139.15 pounds of ties of uniform thickness, an economy of 15 per cent. In the Dutch contracts, official account is taken of this difference in weight to compare the behavior of ties of varying section with that of ties of uniform section ; it is the price per tie, with an equal section under the flange of the rail, which guides in the selection. The price paid by the company previous to 96 1887 for steel ties of varying section, not narrowed at the middle and not tarred, was about $20 per 2,200 pounds at the works. The price per tie was about $1.10 to $1.20. The following table gives the results of these trials, showing cost of maintenance; the prices do not include first cost. Twelve of the sec- tions are in rough country, with a trafQc of twenty-five or more trains per day; the, other nine sections are in flat country, with fourteen trains per day. All are single track. The varying conditions of grades and curves appear to have no particular effect upon the cost of maintenance, but the cost is aftected materially by the amount of trafBc, being much higher on the divisions with twenty-five trains than on those with four- teen trains. Eespildng on the trial divisions laid with wooden ties was carried on in 1S86 and 1887, so that the cost would not be less for 1887, and it would tend to increase with the age of the wood. I^Tone of the oak ties had needed renewing, but it soon became necessary, and this work, apart from the cost of new material, increased the maintenance expenses considerably. On the other hand, these expenses with metal track were generally highest during the first year of service, gradually diminishing thereafter. Cost of maintenance on trial tracks with wooden and of metal ties, Netherlands State Railway Company. 1 1 S3 p. 03 n '§ H Section of line. From — To- Is aa 1 a 1 V °% be B i3 ■■*-t o a Types. ■s Ties. Fasten- ings. 1 2 *3 6 7 8 *9 11 12 14 17 V 1 25 25 25 25 29 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 3 LlHge-Tongres ...do.. Bilsen-Hasselt Li6ge.Tonprea . . . ■- Lier8.F16inall6 Tongfe.s. Bilsen Bilscn.Hasselt.' Lii5g6.To)igres ...do ...do ....do 3 Eilom. 16. 620 16. 606 41.093 7.946 1.831 25.031 43. 625 3.790 12. 787 ( 4.002 \ 3. C4tl 12. 528 < 4.412 \ 4. 755 8.000 22.238 32. 67B 8.408 1.50-' 1.218 47. 334 47. 795 40. 868 52. 700 57. 342. 50 57. 425. 95 4 Eilom. 14.612 15. 620 40. 170 7.432 1.393 24. 57( 43. 349 3.640 12. 528 3.790 2.836 12.316 4.302 4.748 9.000 21.130 31.040 7.301 1.218 0.786 47. 796 48. 260 47.334 52. 032 50. 425. 9 57. 509. 10 3 12.0 12.0 . 1.2 16.0 level. 8.0 4 16.0 13.0 |l6.0 13.0 |l6.0 10.0 2.9 3.4 3.9 6.5 6.5 0.8 level. 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 ' 6 500 J 750 } straight. straight. 1,000 1,000 straight. straight. 350 500 350 600 530 1,000 straight. straight. straight. 500 500 2, 000 straight. straight. 5 2, 000 ^straight. 2,000 2,000 7 1.008 1 1.010 0. 923 0.514 0.438 0.461 0.270 0.150 0.259 1.016 0.213 0.117 1.000 1.108 0.733 1.107 0.344 0.453 0.461 0.461 0.466 1 0.677 0. 0«3. 40 0. 083. 15 s 1,120 1,133 1,000 600 500 500 300 201 300 1,328 250 200 1,081 1,200 800 1,200 400 BOO 600 500 505 735 93 93 9 Oals. I. I. 11. 11. n. II. II. n. III. IV. IV. VI. VI. I. I. It. II. in. IV. III. IV. V. VI VIIL LX. lO Spil^es. A. A. B. B. B. B. B. B. A. A. C. C. A. A. B. B. A. A. A. A. c 22 4 *6 10 13 15 16 18 19 ?n .-..do HasseltWycliiuael Wychmaol.Aclier Hasselt- Wychmael ..L do -. do Acliel.Eindlioven ...do .....do ....do 23 24 ...do ....do C. c. Cost of mainleiianee on trial traolcs with wooden and of metal ties, etc. — Continued. M .Q When ti Uid. a 'rt u H 11 1 1881 2 1881 *;! 1881 (i 1883 7 1882 f. 1883 *s 1882 n 1883 12 1883 u 1883 17 1883 21 1885 22 1887 4 1881 *S 1881 10 1883 13 1883 IS 1883 l(i 1883 18 1881 19 1884 20 1885- '86 23 1887 24 1887 ti'6 « o .a a O £> s a f = If ii 1!2 July 1, 1881 ...do Sept. 1,1881 Jau. 1, 1882 ...do ...do ...do Oct. 1, 1882 ...do ...do . do Apr. 1,1885 June 1,1887 Jane 15,1881 Sept. 1, 1881 Jan. 1, 1882 Sept. 15, 1883 ...do Mar. 1,1884 ...do ...do Juno 1,1880 Sept. 1,1887 do Days ill service. 13 2,376 2,375 2,313 1, 826 1,820 1,820 1, 1,553 1,553 1,663 1,553 1,005 214 2,313 1,826 1,569 1,609 1,401 1,401 1,401 ,679 122 122 14 305 365 365 365 365 365 365 365 363 305 214 365 365 305 365 305 365 365 122 122 Cost of maintenance in francs per Itilonietor per day. 1881. 0.159 1.128 1,930 06. G35 1.584 1882. Hi 0.217 0.42; 0.829 0.595 1.027 1883. ir 1.226 0.576 1.881 1.214 1 582 1.676 1.687 0.614 0.790 1.077 1884. IM 0.396 0.195 0.256 0.489 0.277 0. 533 0.861 1.084 0.891 1.647 1. 132 1885. 0.198 0.326 0.476 0.413 0.246 0.311 0.299 0.551 1» 0.483 0.080 0.901 0. 038 1.100 1. 353 0.953 1.974 0. 46.1 1.792 1.111 0.036 0.156 0.636 329 0. 438 0.412 0.143 0.372 0.897 t20 1. 101 0.538 0.383 1.112 0.494 0.118 0.2' 1.187 0.264 0.807 0.498 0.078 0.418 0.589 0.603 0.879 0.258 0.329 0.633 0.277 0.144 21 0.423 0.842 1.135 0.652 0. .673 0.046 0.025 1.660 0.746 1.610 1.000 0.983 0.297 0.227 0.695 0.583 0.429 0.803 0.651 0.492 0.252 o o 2i2 0.605 0.630 0.9o2 O.SuL 0.817 0.725 0.881 1.389 0.657 1.392 0.879 0.495 0.407 0.632 0.596 0. 643 0. 313 0.421 0.471 0.554 0.312 *Mar8hy ground. Remarks. — These trial-lengtbs are on single-track road. First group, 25 to 29 trains per day; sec- ond" group, 14 trains per day. Kails, 76. 46 pounds per yard ; steel angle splice bars. Ballast— gravel, sand , and cinder. . Heaviest engine on these lines. 60 tons, with 13J tons on the heaviest axle ; heaviest engine on other lines, 68 tons with 13.9 tons. on the heaviest axle. Speed up to 50 miles per hour (on some parts 60 miles per hour). A. day's maintenance per man costs 2.19 francs ; the results of columns 15 to 22 may be transformed into days by dividing by 2.19. The figures in columns 15 to 22 give the expense for work of maintenance, not the expense' for purchase of new spikes, bolts, washers, etc. Not one of the metal ties in this table, nor of the 124,000 steel ties in use on other lines of the Nether- lands State Hallway Company, has broken in the track. Mr. Eensou, engineer of the Liege and Luxembourg division, has stated that the actual cost of maintenance per kilometer for track on metal ties, after three and a half years' service, was equal to that for oak ties of the same age; the cost of the latter would, however, go on in- creasing until renewals became necessary, as they would ere long, while the cost for metal ties would diminish, owing to the settling together of the pieces. The ties of type No. I tended to shift, and after some months of service a number of bolts worked loose in a very short time. The shifting of the ties was prevented by filling in the ballast on the outside of the track to the level of the railheads. The use of steel nut-locks prevented the loosening of the bolts, so that only one inspection and tightening per year was needed. Experience with some nut-locks of poor quality led Mr. Post to the opinion that such were vrorse than none at all ; he prefers the nut-locks with one spiral turn to those with two turns, the latter g^iving less pressure and not retaining their spring. The labor of maintenance was about .35 day's work per day -kilometer ; Jij^e labor on long sections of line with uniform types of ties was even ii2893— Bull. 4 7 98 less. The maintenance includes lining, raising, tamping, trimming, in- spection of nuts, etc. The cost of renewals was nil, not one tie having been broken. A gang of four men, working two hundred and fifty days per year, can maintain 4.96 miles of metal track in good condition. Heavier ties are used on curves, owing to the greater wear caused by the thrust of the rail-flange. In order to test the comparative merits of the rail fastenings used with metal and with wooden ties, an experi- ment was made in 1885 by placing wooden packing pieces under rails on both forms of ties; after four mouths' service it was found that those on the metal ties were simply compressed, while those on the wooden ties were crushed and bruised, showing evidence of a hammer action of the rail, due to the inefEicient holding of the spikes. The standard tie of the Post type is 8.36 to 8.7 feet long ; at the middle it is of A section, 4.48 inches deep, top radius 1 inch, 4^ inches wide inside at the bottom and 5.4 inches wide over all at the bottom ; the sides slope about 1 to 3 ; average thickness .24 inch. At the rail- seat the section is polygonal, 4.4 inches wide on top, 10.20 inches wide over all at the bottom, 2.98 to 3.02 inches deep ; thickness of sides from .24 and .28 inch at lower part to .32 to 36 inch at upper part ; thickness of top table .36 to .40 inch, and .48 to .,52 inch at the middle, the thick- ness being increased at the bolt holes. At the extremities of the rail seats, the section is of rounded trough form, 4.96 inches wide on top, 9.4 inches wide over all at bottom, 2.56 to 2.60 inches deep, 1. .0 to 1.53 inches radius of top corners ; thickness from .24 and .28-inch at sides to .32 and .35 at middle of top table. The top table is sloped up at the rail seats to give the rails an inward inclination; it slopes down again to the horizontal and is bent down to close the end, projecting below the body of the tie. On the bottom edges are ribs of triangular section about .60 or .72 inch deep, and projecting .52 inch beyond the face of the side of the tie; these ribs prevent damage to the edge in tamping, and by lowering the neutral axis give additional stiffness, while they also make the section easier to roll. The bolt holes are .92 by 1.24 inches, oblong, with rounded corners. The weight of the tie is about 117.7 . pounds. The rail clamps are 2.4 by 2.6 inches, with a .96 inch bolt hole ; one end of the clamp rests on the rail flange and the other end on the tie ; the greatest thickness is .96 inch ; the top is toothed. The plain Verona nut locks are of .24 by .24 inch square section, .47 to .51 inch wide over the spiral, and .94 to 1.01 inch inside diameter ; the grooved Verona nut locks are of .26 by .26 grooved section, .51 to .58 inch wide. The bolts are .88 inch diameter, with Whit worth thread; they are 3.08 inches long under the head ; the head is 1.52 by 1.84 inches in size and .56 inch thick ; the eccentric neck under the head is .88 by 1.20 inches, oblong, with rounded corners. The nuts are of hexagon shape, 1.08 inches deep, with the lower face toothed. Two forms of bolts are used, type "A" being for three different adjustments of gauge, and type "B" for the points of change from one of these variatiofts Xo ^^ot;her, as at 99 the extremities of sharp curves. For the convenience of the trackmen, the type "A" bolts have a piece chipped off the edge of the end, while those of type " B " have a larger piece cat off and have also a groove cut across the end ; these marks not only serve to distinguish the two classes of bolts, but by their position enable the trackmen and in- spectors to see at once the gauge to which the rails are set. The " A" bolts have the eccentric neck projecting on one side only of the shank, the neck being .88 by 1.20 inches, giving a projection of .32 inch ; the " B " bolts have the neck the same size but projecting .24-inch on one side of the shank and .8 inch on the other. The weight of the bolt nut is about 1.1 pounds. The weights of the track are as follows : Material for 29.54 /eet of track. FonDds. a'raila 29.52 feet long, 68 pounds per yard 1,334.52 2 pair splice bars, 46.2 pounds per pair 92.40 8 splice bolts, with nuts and washers, 1.65 pounds each 13.20 40 rail clamps, .88 pound each 35.20 40 fastening bolts, with nuts and washers, 1.1 pounds each 44. 00 10 steel ties, 117.7 pounds each 1,177.00 Total 2,696.32 Weight per yard 273.87 Material for 39.38 /ee< of track. 2 rails, 39.36 feet long, 76.45 pounds per yard 2,006.40 2 outer splice bars, 25.08 pounds per pair 50. 16 2 inner splice bars, 25.96 pounds per pair 51.92 8 splice bolts, with nuts aad washers, 1.32 pounds each 10. 56 52 rail clamps, .88 pound eacli 45.76 52 fastening bolts, with nuts and washers, 1.1 pounds each 57.20 13 steel ties, 117.7 pounds each 1,530. 10 Total 3,752.10 Weight per yard .: ■ , .: 285.75 Mr. Bricka, in his report to the minister of public works (France) in 1885, spoke very highly of the Post ties, and stated that the weeds growing in the ballast at certain poiuts were evidently from the pre- ceding year (his inspection was made in April, 1884) and proved that frequent ballasting was not necessary. He did not approve of the re- duction of the thickness of parts of the tie in order not to exceed a weight of 110 pounds, and he preferred to the bolts with eccentric necks, used for fastenings, the Ruppel clamp fastening or the Heindl clamp, which is a modification of the former (see " Germauy," Prussian State Railways; and "Austria," State Eailways). Since the date of Mr. Bricka's report, the weight of the tie has been increased as noted ; and it will be noticJBd later on that Mr. Post has now, in his latest type of tie, abandoned the eccentric neck bolts and adopted the Eoth- Schuler system of fastening, type "B» (See plate No. 9); he still, how- ever, allows the bolt to resist the lateral pressure, instead of transfer- 100 ring some of it to the tie by using a clamp with a lug fitting into a hole iu the tie, which is the feature which Mr. Bricka considers to be advisa- ble. The report gives the following statement of the track in 1884 : Miles. Main lino — 851. 88 Totaltrack '. 1,286.50 Wooden ties 1,267.28 Metalties 14-88 Stone, etc , 4.34 The report made to me in March, 1888, by Mr. Kalflf, chief engineer, gave the following particulars : The system comprised 910 miles of line, of which 91 miles were laid with metal ties. The traiific consisted of passenger and freight trains, the speeds ranging from 20 to 47 miles per hour ; the engines weigh from 50 to 68 tons in working order, with a maximum of 7 tons on each driving wheel. The "Post" ties are of mild steel, (Thomas, Martin, or Bessemer) ; they are spaced 3 feet 2 inches apart at the widest spacing, and at the suspended joints they are 1 foot 5 inches apart, so that the ends of the flsh-plates butt against the rail clamps and prevent creeping. The ties are not tarred or otherwise treated. They are manufactured by the Hoerde Steel Works, Hoerde, Germany, and the Angleur Steel Works, Angleur, Belgium. They cost $22 per ton at the works, not tarred, and the fastenings cost 22 cents per tie. The maxi- mum adjustment of the gauge is a widening of five-eighths inch. Of the 10,000 ties ("Cosijns" type) laid in 1865, 9,550 were still in use and were expected to last twenty years more. The ballast is of gravel, sand, and ashes ; it fills the hollow of the tie and makes a compact mass. The width of road-bed at subgrade is 32 feet 94 inches ; it is crowned 7J inches, so that the ballast is 17 -J^ inches thick in the middle and 27^ inches thick at the sides ; the ballast is brought up level with the top of the rails, the rail being left clear on both sides, and has side slopes of 2i to 1. The ties were adopted on account of durability, economy, and security; the results, have been satis- factory, and there has been no trouble with maintenance, rail attachments, or from breakages; of 162,634 ties laid, not one had beenbrokem • The use of the " Post" tie was being extended on the line. The climate is damp, but the loss of weight by rust is only about 4 per cent, in twenty years. The oak ties cost $1 each. The minimum radiiis of curves where these trials were made is 1,148 feet; maximum grade 1.6 per cent. The track of this railway consists of steel flanged rails, weighing 68, 76.45, and 80.5 pounds per yard ; the latter are 5.55 inches high, with a flange 4.08 inches wide ; the head is deep, with vertical sides, 2.4 inches wide, 8 inches radius of top table, .56 inch radius of top corners. The joints are spliced with angle bars having short flanges, and the outer bar, with the heaviest section of rail, projects up the side of the rail head. The bars are 30.4 inches long ; the inner holes are spaced 4 inches and the outer holes 7.8 inches apart, center to center; the holes in the outer bar are 1.12 inches Etqu^f^t ^ith rounded corners, those iu the inner bar are 1.08 inches diameter. The joint bolts are of steel, 1 inch diameter, 4.24 inches long under the head. With wooden ties, spikes .56 by .64 inch section, and 6.48 or 5.8 inches long are used. At the joint ties the rail rests on a grooved iron tie-plate, 7.2 Inches square, with 4 spike holes ; the spikes engage with notches in the angle bars. The wooden ties are spaced 22 inches apart, center to center, at the joints, and 27.12 to 39.2 inches apart intermediate, there being 10, 11, or 12 ties to a rail length of 29.52 feet. A space of about .28 inch is left between the ends of the rails. The steel ties are spaced with 10, 11, or 12 to a rail length of 29.52 feet; they are^ about 18.08 inches apart, center to center, at the joints, and 28.68 to 39.2 inches apart intermediate. With rails 39.36 feet long, 13 ties are used ; they are spaced 24.08 inches at the joints, 34.76 inches next to the joiuts, and 38.64 inches intermediate. Splice bars 30.4 inches long are used, with notches in the flanges to admit the rail clamps. 101 The latest type of « Post" tie, as modified in 1889 (See plate Ho. d), presents some changes from the previous type which had been most extensively used. The bolt holes are circular instead of oblong, and the extra thickness of metal at the hole is given a channel form to fit the heads of the bolts and prevent them froni turning. The method of fast- ening is also different, being a return to type " B," already described, being the Eoth-and-Schuler system. A square gauge-washer is used, with the bolt hole .92 inch diameter, so placed as to be .24, .32, ,48, and .56-inch from the sides, thus permit- ting a very close adjustment of gauge according to the position of one, two, three, or four of the washers on each tie. The rail flange butts against this washer. The clamp is of channel form, one side resting on the rail flange and the other ort the top of the tie, and prevents the clamp from turning. A grooved Verona nut-lock is used between the nut and clamp. The washer is 1.72 inches square and .56 inch thick. The clamp is 3.16 by 3.48 inches, .56 inch thick, and 1.24 inches deep over all ; its hole is 1 by 1.32 inch oval. The bolt is .88 inch diameter in a .92-inch hole in the tie ; it is 3.52 inches long under the head, with Whitworth thread ; the head is 1.52 inches square, .56 inch thick. The tie is 8.36 to 8.7 feet long. At the outer part of the rail seat it is 3.78 inches wide on top, 9.4 inches wide on the bottom, 3.28 to 3.32 inches deep, .24 to .36 inch thick at sides, .36 to .40 inch on top, .48 to .52 inch at middle of top table. At the rail seat it is 4.08 inches wide on top, 2.98 to 3 inches deep, in other respects of similar dimensions as above. At the inner side of the rail seat it is 5.04 inches wide on top, 2.56 to 2.60 inches deep, in other respects as above. At the intermediate parts and at the ends it is the same width and depth, .24 and .28 inch thick at the sides and on top. The cross section is polygonal, each side hav- ing two planes, and the angles are rounded oft' by curves of 1.12 to 1.52 inches radius. At the middle the section is narrow and deep, either the top or bottom of the tie being horizontal; the section here is A-shaped with the top bent to a radius of 1 inch, and the sides sloping at an in- clination of 1 to 3; the depth is 4.6 inches, width at bottom about 5 inches, and the thickness of the sides .24 inch. The sides of the channel in which the bolt heads fit are .24 inch deep. A heavy rib of triangular section is on the lower edges of the sides. Report of the International Railway Congress, 1887. — The following is a translation of the report presented by this company at the Internar tional Railway Congress, held at Milan, Italy, in 1887 : The experience with the 10,000 " Cosijns" cross-ties, laid in 1865, has brought ont four facts: (1) There is no fear of rust ; after twenty-two_ years' service the weight has only diminished 4 per cent. The ballast is of gravel and sand ; on other lines it has been observed that ordinary ashes do not corrode the iron to a greater extent. (2) While in general the interposition of plates between the rail and the tie may not be desirable, as by such interposition the bolt permits a transverse motion of the rail on the tie, the gauge is fairly well maintained. (3) The bolt gives good results as a fastening of the rail to the tie ; while the iron of the bolts was only .68 inch thick. 102 there were still a nijml)er of bolts in use after twenty-two years' service. (4) A good tie lasts for a long time. After twewty-two years' service on the line between De- venter and Z woUe, with au a verage traffic of twelve trains per day (actually sixteen trains per day), there are In service and in good condition 9,547 ties (95J per cent.), and there is no reason to expect that they will not last twenty years more. The 4i per cent, taken ont would still have been in service if the splicing of the old rails had been sufficient. These results with an old type of tie promise well for the latter types of improved ties. The metal ties talien out have brought seven times the price of old wooden ties. The result of this first trial encouraged the company to commencein 1880 a method- ical and practical study of the question of metal ties, and it now presents some of the results of this worli. Information was acquired as to the results obtained abroad and in Holland both as regards the track and the manufacture. In order to keep within the limits of practice and economy it was decided that the first cost of the ties to be tried should not exceed 25 or 50 per cent, above that of oak ties, this difference representing the general valuation of the former over the latter. Each year a cer- tain number of ties were put in service, and it was the endeavor each year, in spite of the favorable impression from the beginning, to improve upon the tie and fasten- ing of the preceding year, avoiding defects observed and profiting by the experience acquired, by the experience of other companies, and by the progress effected in man- . ufacture. Of each of the types in service special observation was taken of the main- tenance, noting minutely every hour of work and keeping record of each piece (spikes, bolts, etc.) broken or replaced. As a base of comparison a new track was established on a trial section of line with good oak ties (presenting 4 inches wide of heart wood under the flange of the rail), under ordinary conditions of operation ; this track was carefully maintaiued and the maintenance expenses noted in the same way as with the experimental sections of track with metal ties. Proceeding in this way the company put ties in service as follows up to January 1, 1887 •- Year. Number. Cbaracter. ■Weight (each). 1805 1881 1882 1883 , 1883 1884 1884 to 1887 Total *10, 000 *4, 133 *4, 001 12, 089 t2, 000 til, 680 tlOO, 000 Cosijns .' — Type I Type II , Type III Type IV TypeV Types VI to IX Pounds. 12.1. 64 88 103. 84 110 110 95.48 jnO 10121 134, 000 * Iron, t Steel. { Corresponding to 126.5 to 139.15 pounds of uniform section. None of the lsi4,000 ties laid since 1880 have been taken ont of the track. The results of tlie observations of twenty-one trials made up to January, 1887, are presented in the table. [This table has already been given, as extended by Mr. Post later to include the year 1887. — E. E. R. T.] Columns 1 to 14 show the conditions of the track and traffic, the types of ties and fastenings and the duration of the ob- servation ; columns 15 to 21 show the cost of maintenance in francs per day and per kilometer ; these prices do not include the first cost, but the labor of renewals. The sections are grouped in two parts. The first group includes twelve sections in uneven country (columns 5 and 6) where the number of trains per day is twenty-five or more (column 1) ; the second group includes nine sections in flat country, with only four- teen trains per day. A record of thirty years of observations and for several kilome- 103 ters would give, it is true, more conclusive figures, but while awaiting more complete data we can already mate the following observations, taking Into account the facts observed and the records kept of the trials given in the table. (1) The sections Nos. U and 14 are on a curve of 1,148 feet radius and a grade of 16 millimeters per meter (1.6 per cent.). Tlie oalc ties formerly used here had to be re-spiked every year owing to the motion of the rail flange which cut into the spikes .12 to .16 inch per year. Some ties of Type III, with attachments " A," however, taken out of the curve for the inspector after 1188 days of service (1553 days in 1887), showed only .08 inch of widening of gauge, each of the bolts being cut into .04 inch by the flange of the rail. In other curves of larger radius than 1,148 feet there is no cutting of the bolts. The top table of the ties of Type III taken out of this curve only pre- sented a very slight wear and the bolt holes did not show any ovalisation or enlarge- ment. These ties are of steel; iron does not so wellresist the wear at the rail seat and bolt holes. In view of the very unfavorable circumstances under which these ties were laid, we need have no fear as to these two kinds of wear, but at the same time it is reasonable to put thicker ties on curves and to space them closer together. The cost of maintenance in this part has never reached 3 francs per day per kilometer (64.5 cents per mile per day). (2) As regards the work of maintenance, sections Nos. 3 and 9 are under equally unfavorable conditions, the country being marvshy. (3) The average cost of maintenance on four sections, Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5, which have had about the same service as section No. 1, with wooden ties, does not difl'er sensibly from the cost on section No. 1. In order to judge of the importance of this result it is necessary to bear in mind the following particulars: (a) Type I of the metal cross-ties is nsed on these four sections and is the most primitive of the forms used, each of the other types, 11 to VI, being an improvement upon the preceding. It may, therefore, he supposed that any of the other types would have given still better results. (6) The adzing and re-spiking of the wooden ties, which commenced in 1886, must be continued in 1887, so that the maintenance expenses for this section will be as high as in 1386, and it may be presumed that it will increase with the age of the wood, (o) The maintenance expenses of sections Nos. 2 to 5, however, show a tendency to decrease with the consolidation of the track, (d) Since the oak ties were laid in 1881 not one has been renewed, which proves that they are of excellent quality ; renewals must soon begin, however, and will add considerably each year (apart from first cost) to the expenses of work of maintenance. (4) The average maintenance expenses per day per kilometer of sections Nos. 6, 7, 8, 12, and 17 does not exceed .89 franc, and that of sections Nos. 10, 13, 15, 16, 18, and 19 is about .60 franc, although these sections only date from 1883 and 1884. (5) The observations of Type VI are too short to judge of its value by the mainte- nance expenses. The company has also put in service in 1886 and 1887 ties of Types VII, VIII, and IX. [Already described.— E. E. E. T.] (6) The putting in service successively of sections Nos. 2 to 21 not having up t6 the present time occasioned a higher rate of maintenance expenses than would have obtained with wooden ties, it may be admitted that a company which puts in every year a certain number of metal ties of reasonably good design will not increase its maintenance accounts and need not Increase its staff. (7) A piece of track near Liege (with twenty-five trains per day), 984 feet long, on a curve of 1738.40 feet radius and a grade of 1.6 per cent., laid with ties of Type III, was left, after having been carefully packed, for forty months (three and one-third years) without packing or surfacing or any other work except inspection of the nuts. At the end ot that period the track was still in good condition. This proves that a good metal track, once well laid and packed, does not require more, inspection or maintenance than a track on wooden ties ; on the contrary it would be dangerous to leave a track on wooden ties for three and one-third years unattended to, under these conditions. , • 104 (8) The diagrams of the gauge-registcrinn; apparatus are rauoh more regnlar for tracks ou metal ties of Types I to IX thixii for those on wooden ties, even when the latter are new. (9) The inclination of 1 in 20'of the rail, which is often disturhed on wooden ties hy the turning outward of the rail, is maintained invariable with metal ties of Types I to IX. (10) The lateral displacement of the tie by the traffic is nil, or insignificant, even on sharp curves, provided that the tie is properly closed at its extremities. It has been observed that intermediate closings, as in Types II and IV, are absolutely superflnons, as Types I and III, without these intermediate pieces, do not shift. (11) The re-adzing of the railseats and re-spiking, inl886, of soraeof the oak ties of section No. 1, necessitated the replacing of two tie-plates and four hundred and eighty spikes ; the renewal of attachments of metal ties is insignificant, especially for Type " C." (12) Eolled iron is not recommended as a material for ties ; mild steel of good qual ity is the best material in every respect for manufacture, inspection, solidity, and durability. (13) Track laid with rails breaking' joint has given, with angle splice bars, good results, especially on curves. (14) The joints should be suspended and spliced by angle bars. (15) The Types VI, VII, VIII, and IX leave nothing to be desired. The hollow trough packs itself easily in any ballast ; gravel, sand, ashes, or broken stone. Gen- erally the ballast forms a compact core adhering to the interior of the tie, filling it entirely at the rail seat, and increasing its base. If the packing does not extend more than 16 inches on each side of the flange of the rail, the tie can never " dance," and the shape of the tie tends to drive the ballast towards the rail seat. (16) The track men, who are generally opposed to metal ties at first, very soon become accustomed to them. It is easy to obtain an excellent track, even with inex- perienced men, by giving them proper instructions. (17) To test the bending which ties of Type VI wonlil sustain without cracking in case of derailment, the company made a series of tests of bending the tie cold at each side of the rail seat; punched ties, not annealed, of varying section, would bend 75 degrees before cracking ; it was concluded that with steel, the form of the tie and the punching (with round corners) in question, annealing is not necessary, the de- formation of the tie in case of derailment never being 75 degrees at the bolt holes. Ties punched .ind annealed would bend (like ties not punched and not annealed) 180 degrees without cracking. In view of this remarkable result the company con- sidered annealing to be desirable, but with the condition that it did not cost more than a few centimes per tie. We. end this description by the calculation of the normal maintenance in a case determined by the engineer of the system on which the twenty-one trials have been made: "A track of Type VI, C fastenings, in the conditions of line, ballast, and operation of the Liege-Hasselt section, can, after 3 years for consolidation, be prop- erly maintained at the rate of 100 days' work per year per kilometer. A gang of four men, working 250 days per year, can then, giving 50 days to other work, maintain in good condition, 4.96 miles of track." For further details of the work done on this system, see the paper by Mr. Post on "Maintenance expenses of track on wooden and metal ties," printed in my preliminary report (Bulletin No. III). Holland Eailway. — The Holland Railway Company (or Dutch Eailway Company), first used " Vautherin " ties weighing 72.6 pounds each, curved to give the rails an inward inclination, and open at the ends ; the rails were fastened by gibs and cotters, but the cotters worked 105 loose, being too narrow and not having sufficient bearing surface. The company now has mild steel ties of Vautherin section, as this is found to be the best shape for sand ballast (See plate ISo. 11). The ties are of two forms, joint and intermediate ; all are 8.53 feet long. The joint ties are 6.4 inches wide on top (of which 4 inches are slightly thicker and form the rail seat), 8.72 inches wide inside at the bottom, 11.2 inches wide over the flanges, and 2.64 inches deep over all ; the thickness is .24 inch at the sides and top, .32 inch at the rail seat, and .72 inch at the middle of the rail seat, where there is a rib 1.2 inches wide on the under side of the top table. The weight is about 112.2 pounds. The intermediate ties are 3.2 inches wide on top, 6.8 inches wide inside at the bottom, 9.2 inches wide over the flanges, and 2.64 inches deep ; the top table is .52 inch thick for a width of 1.36 inches. The ends of both forms are closed by riveted angle pieces. The tie is horizontal, but at each end is a tie plate, 11.6 by 2.8 inches, secured by two rivets. This plate has an inclined seat for the rail, and has a rib on each side par- allel with the rail flange. This rail is held by a T-shaped clamp on each side ; one side of the head of the clamp rests on the rail flange and the other side on the rib of the tie plate, with the lower part between them ; a i-headed bolt passes up through the tie plate and clamp. The shape of the tie allows for an adjustment of gauge. The ties are dipped cold in tar. For the light line from The Hague to Scheveningen a lighter tie of Vautherin section is used, with a bolt fastening similar to that of the Left-Bank-of-the-Ehine Eailway. (See "Germany.") For lines of which it owns the concessions the company has abandoned wooden ties, but Mr. Bricka, in his report in 1885, stated that it had not received permis- sion from the State to substitute metal for wood on the lines of which it is only the lessee. With the track on this road Mr. Bricka mentions a straight splice bar of three thicknesses, similar to the Samson bar used in this country. A later form of tie used is without the horizontal flanges, but has a rib on the inner side of each bottom edge. For main lines they are 5.84 inches wide on top, 7.2 inches wide inside at the bottom, and 8.8 inches wide over all, 3.2 inches deep, .24 inch thick on the sides and .32 inch on top. For local lines they are 4.4 inches wide at top, 5.4 inches wide inside at bottom, 6.64 inches wide over all, 2.4 inches deep, .20 inch thick on the sides, and .24 inch on top. Mr. Bricka, in his report to the minister of public works (France) in 1885, gives the followiug statement of the track of this road at the end of 1884 : Miles. Main lines 175.40 Local lines 35.34 Total tracli 496.62 Wooden ties ."t 417.26 Mbtal longitudinals 62 Metal ties 78.74 106 At the Tnternational Eailway Congress, held at Milan, Italy, in 1887, Mr. Kowalski presented the following particulars : There were 92.13 miles of metal track in service on December 31, 1886 ; this in- cluded 30.07 miles of the " Vautheriu " ties, 1.24 miles of the Haarmann system (as a test), 27.03 miles with the company's type of ties, and 33.79 miles with the' Vautherin and the company's ties mixed. The latter are straight, with riveted tie plates giving the inclination to the rails ; the mixed plan was adopted to remedy the inconveniences of the old type of " Vantberin " ties with open ends, by replacing these ties at the joints with ties of the new system. Up to 1882 they wereof iron, bnt since that time of mild steel. The joint ties are heavier than the intermediate ties; the first weigh 111.10 pounds, the latter 90.8 pounds; the fastening plates weigh 1.32 pounds per pair, the bolts .88 pound each, making a weight of 117.26 or 102.96 pounds per tie complete. The ties are placed on embankments and in cuttings, on curves and tan- gents, on grades and level line. The ballast is of fine sand and gravel, and the ground in some places is marshy. The traffic over the metal ties is very heavy ; on some parts there are more than sixty trains per day, with speeds of 58.7 to 55.8 miles per hour. The train loads are about 700 or 800 tons, and the engines weigh 68 tons. The rails are of hard steel, weighing 77.65 pounds per yard. The experience dated from 1868, and the results were so satisfactory, especially as to the solidity of the track, even in case of accident, that the use of metal ties was being continued. At the prices of that time (1886) the cost per meter of track was as follows: On half- round oak ties treated with chloride of zinc, $1.79; on mild steel ties of the com- pany's type, $2.28 ; the rails with splice bars and bolts are included at $1.09 ; a wooden tie, with four spikes, cost only 59.4 cents; a metal tie, with fastenings, costs about $1.04. The first "Vautherin" ties were too light and had been abandoned; the strengthened "Vautherin" ties dated from 1878-'79, and had necessitated 2per cent, of renewals per year during the three.years previous to 1887; of the company's ties laid in 1880, none had been renewed up to 1887. The track on metal ties is very elas- tic and very agreeable for passengers. The results were so satisfactory that from 1887 the company intended to Lay 1,000 tons (about 22,000 ties) per year. Dutch- Ehbnish Kailwat. — Ties of the Vautherin type were used up to 1885. They were of wrought iron, 8.53 feet long, 4 inches wide on top, 9.2 inches wide at the bottom, and 2.4 inches deep ; the bottom flanges were .8 inch wide ; the thickness was .28 to .32 inch at the sides and .36 inch on top. The weight was 99 pounds. The tie was hori- zontal, closed at each end by an angle plate. A tie plate was used to give the required inclination to the rail, and the fastenings consisted of bolted clamps on the Euppel system (see "Germany: Prussian State Eailways"). Being of wrought iron the bolt-holes were found to wear large. The following is Mr. Bricka's statement of the track for 1881 : Miles. Main lines 167. 10 Local lines .> 3. 10 Total track 339.14 Wooden ties 267.84 Sfetal longitudinals ^ 6.82 Metal ties 64.48 Dutch Central Eailway. — In Mr. Bricka's report to the minister of public works (Prance), in 1885, this road is mentioned as a line of minor importance. Since about 1878 experiments have been made with wrought-iron ties similar to those on the Main-Neckar Eailway, in Ger- many, with fastenings similar to those used on the Left-Bank-of-the- Ehine Railway, in Germany. They gave good results and effected an econ- omy in maintenance. The following is a statement of the track for 1884 : Miles, Main lines 62.62 Local lines 1.24 Total track 81.84 Wooden ties 35.96 Metal ties 45.88 TIES. The Post Ties. — (See plates Nos. 8 and 9.)— These ties have been described in detail under the head of the Netherlands State Railways. Mr. Post's main improvejntnt is in the variation of the thickness and in the methods of manufacture, and he has shown how this method might be applied to improve other forms of ties in use. While the wear of steel ties at the point of contact with the bolt may be very small, Mr. Post has considered it well to increase the thickness of the tie at this point ; it adds little to the weight of the tie, but incjeases its life, and is especially adapted for light ties with a thin top-table. A middle rib on the underside of the table in- creases the thickness at the holt-holes ; this rib runs the whole length of the tie, being thi^jkest at the rail seat and decreasing towards the middle and ends. With an extra thickness of .16 inch at the bolt-holes, the weight of the tie is only increased by 6.6 to 8.8 pounds, d.nd it enables a reduction of 22 or 33 pounds to be made (with- out changing the thickness at the bolt-holes) in the exaggerated weight ofsome rolled steel ties of varying section, such as the two types of the Belgian State Railway, which weigh 165 pounds each, corresponding to 189f pounds of a tie of uniform sec- tion. The material used is soft or mild steel, necessarily of good quality in order to stand the process of manufacture and the tests. The specified tests require a piece of a tie to be flattened cold under a steam hammer, and the plate then bent to a curve of 3 inches radius without cracking. Another piece must have the sides pressed to- gether till the tie is. of f) section, with a top curve of .6 inch radius. The fasten- ings have proved efficient, so that direct contact between the rail and tie is not con- sidered any objection ; there is little if any more noise than with wooden ties; there is no rattling, and crystallization of the metal has not been found to occur. The effect of making the middle of the tie deeper and narrower is to give the tie a better hold on the ballast, to force the ballast to pack under the rail seat, and to increase the stiffness of the tie so that it will be strong enough should the ballasting give way. Ties of Type VI have been made for rack railways, the thickness being increased at the holes for the bolts which support the rack-rail chair at the middle of the tie in the same way as described for the ordinary bolt-holes. The manufacturers have been required to guarantee to replace damaged ties during two years, but now this has been increased to five years. A tie of this type has been designed for the Indian gauge of 5 feet 6 inches. It is 8 feet 7J inches long, horizontal at the middle, inclined 1 in 20 at the rail seats, and closed at the ends ; atthe rail seats it is 9i inches wide and 2J to 3J inches deep ; at the middle it is 4.4 inches wide and 5 inchesdeep. The thickness of the sides varies from .24 inch at the bottom to .31 inch at the upper part ; the thickness of the top varies from .28 inch to .43 inch, the latter being at the rail ses^t. Weight, 125i pounds. Instead of bolt fastenings lugs are to be stamped up out of the tie and a steel key driven between the rail flange and the lug on one side ; the system is the same as that now used with steel ties on the Indian State Railways and other lines, and is claimed to be cheaper and better than the bolt system used in Europe. A similar tie, but weighing only 116 pounds, has also been designed and is said to be as strong as the steel ties now used in India. In a pro- posal made by Mr. Post's English agent for a supply of ties for the Indian State Rail- ways, he bid for the "Post" tie and for the type of tie specified by the engineer; 108 the price was sligttly in favor of the former, owing to its reduced weight with eqnal strength. The price quoted to me in February, 1888, by this gentleman was about I25.62J per ton at the port. In September, 1887, there were in service in railways in Belgium, France, Holland, Germany, and Switzerland about 3.34,500 " Post " ties, or about 18,753i tons. There were in course of manufacture 83,900 ties for standard gauge, weighing 4,363 tons ; for a gauge of 3 feet 6 inches in Sumatra, 70,000 ties, weighing 3,040 tons ; for rack railways, 20,000 ties, weighing 760 tons ; an aggregate of 518,400 ties, or 26,916i tons. In March, 1888, Mr. Post stated that there was a total of about 457,300 ties (abont 23,800 tons) of types VI, VII, VIII, and IX then in the track in different parts of the world, and that about 272,700 more (about 12,700 tons), including the narrow gauge and rack railway at Sumatra (See "Asia") were ordered and being manufactured. This made a total of about 730,0(}0 ties, or 36,.'i00 tons. They were in use in Holland, Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland, and Asia (colonies). About 50,000 ties have been introduced into the Argentine Eepublic. In January, 1890, Mr. Post stated that in addition to the ties in Holland, Belgium, France, Germany, and Switz- erland, there were 200,000 in Sumatra, 50,000 in the Argentine Eepublic, and 71,000 were to be sent to the Transvaal (South-Africa) in February. Within three months there would be, he stated, a million of these ties in service. The following table, prepared by Mr. Bodmer, civil engineer, the London agent, shows the number of " Post" ties sold up to September 26, 1889. Bids had also been invited for 71,430 ties for the Dutch South African Railway. The contraction referred to is making the tie narrow and deep at the middle : Where used. Contraction. Number. Ketherlands State railwity Do German State railways: Magdeburg Cologne Altona Straaburg Cockerill, Seraing, Belgium Military railway, Scboneberg Do German State railways: Franlsfort Erfurt Friedrich Krupp, Essen, Germany Ffalz railway, Germany Fortifications, Spandau Dutch Colonies, Sumatra Bavarian railway, Hitaikon-Ingolstadt German State railways (Berlin) Jura, Bern, Luzern railway (Switzerland) Carlos Stegman, Carlsruhe, Germany (for the Argentine Kepublic) . Total Manufactured in France and Belgium Total. "With . ... Without . ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... With .... Without. ...do . ...do. ...do. With . ...do . ...do. ...do . ...do. ...do. ...do. 12, 732 47, 390 44, 200 1,700 3,000 33, 000 200 5,750 2,300 108, 492 61, 487 400 176, 000 1,050 100, 000 300 2,020 6,000 50, 000 656, 181 200, 000 856, 181 SUMMARY OF METAL TRACK FOR HOLLAND. Kailways. Longitu- diuals. Cross, ties. Netherlands State (1888) .... Holland (esiimatcd to 1889). Dutch Rhenish (1885) Dutch Central (1885) Total . 1.24 6.82 91.00 120. 00 64.48 45.88 321. 36 109 BEIiGIUM. General Eemaeks. — lu this country quite extensive experiments with metal track have been made on several lines, aud the Grovernment has conducted experiments on the State railways since 1846. lu 1885 and 1886 the subject of the use of metal lies was warmly discussed in the Chamber of Eepresentatives, the principal object being to forward the interests of the iron industry ; the minister of railways then se- cured an appropriation of $180,000 for the purpose of carrying on further experiments on the State railways. In March, 1889, at a meeting of the chamber, the minister stated that the results had not been satisfactory. He had hoped that if the tests were successful the authorities would have been able to adopt metal track on a part of their system, and thus render a great aid to the national industry by advancing the condition of the iron trade. At this meeting there w:as a rather sliarp discussion on this point, several of the members being in favor of more extensive tests and wishing tests made of the " Z-iron " tie [described later on]. The minister stated then that three types of metal ties had been tried ; of these one had failed, but the inventor claimed that the failure was due to a defect in the quality of the material, and he was granted a further trial ; the other two systems had not been long enough in serv- ice to enable a definite opinion to be given. He was opposed to in- creasing the ntfmber of types to be experimented with. The Grovern- ment has been asked to have these " Z-iron" ties tried on the State railways, but the minister of railways declined on the ground that the Government preferred to await the results of the trials being made on the State and concessionary lines before proceeding with new trials or adopting new types. Mr. Bricka, in his report to the minister of public works (France) in 1885, stated that Belgium was the only country in which after a trial on a large scale metal track had been at one time almost entirely abandoned. He attributed this to the fact that the trials to which he referred, covering a length of iJ3.56 miles, were made by order of the Government on account of the agitation raised by the metal industries about 1877. It was proposed to lay about 93 miles at once. The ties were of the original " Vautheria" type; they were not of a good section and were of very poor material ; proving unsatis- factory they were taken up and no attempts were made to improve upon the system. A similar agitation was raised in 1884, and a commission was sent to investigate the progress being made in Germany, with the result that the Belgian engineers began to have a better opinion of metal track. Since then the Government has ordered trials to be made with different types of track, and these trials are still being carried on. Wooden ties. — The West Flanders Railway reported in August, 1888, that metal ties have not been employed, as oak ties 10,4 inches by 5,2 inches can be procured for 70 cents each. 110 Belgian State Railways. — Experiments with various forms of metal track have been made on the State railways since 1846 and are still in progress. Up to 1885 only unsatisfactory results had been ob- tained ; but this was attributed to bad or defective designs or material, and did not cause the abandonment of the trials. In March, 1886, Mr. Flamache, engineer of the State railways, pre- sented a paper at a meeting of the Belgian Society of Engineers, on " The History of Metal Railway Tracks," to which was appended a note by Mr. Mussely, an engineer of the same roads, detailing the trials made since 1846. These trials were briefly as follows: In 1846 there were four systems in use on the line between Brussels and Antwerp : (1) the Poncelet system of semi-circular plates of cast-iron, with rolled- iron tie-bars; (2) the Poncelet system with square plates; (3) the Go- bert system of two cast-iron plates with an old rail reversed, this rail having a notch which formed a chair ; (4) the Marchal system of rolled plates, with ordinary chairs secured by bolts and nuts. In 1851 the ad- ministration put in 5,000 ties of the Greaves and Barlow system, simi- lar to the Poncelet system. In 1868, 7,804 " Vautherin " ties were laid. About 1 869, 500 tons of the Legrand-Salkin system were laid. Between 1872 and 1879 several systems were examined, but none were considered worthy of trial. In 1878-1879 there were laid 74.56 miles of single track with the Hilf longitudinals (See " Germany ") and 94,035 miles of single track, similar to the Rhenish Railway type (See " Germany "). In March, 1879, 2,000 of the Desoignies cross-ties were laid. In 1879 the Serres and Battig system of longitudinals was tried. In 1881,500 Helsonties were laid. The Hilf longitudinals were similar to those on the Alsace- Lorraine Railway, Germany ; but there was much trouble from break- ages, owing to the bad quality ot the metal, and at the end of four years all of the track was taken out. With the Serres and Battig system there were many breakages, owing, the inventors claimed, to the quality of the material; these were soon abandoned. The " Vautherin" ties, laid in 1878, were 7.87 feet long, 4 inches wide on top, 9.52 inches wide at the bottom, 2.4 inches deep; the top table .36-inch thick; the bottom flanges .96 inch wide and .32 inch thick. The ties were curved longi- tudinally, to give the rail its inward inclination, and near each end a piece of angle-iron was riveted with the vertical leg inside the tie. The fastenings were on the Euppel plan (See "Germany — Left Bank of the Rhine Railway"), consisting of bolted clamps with lugs fitting into holes in the tie; at the joint ties the clamps extended over the whol« width of the rail-flanges. The weight was 105.65 pounds. The 2,000 Desoig- nies ties were laid on the line from Brussels to Ghent; they were of ap- proximately rectangular section, weighing 88 pounds ; the fastenings consisted of a riveted clamp on one side, and a bolted clamp on the other side, of the rail. Owing to the poor quality of the iron, breakages occur- red with both these types, and the holes were enlarged, while, owing to their being curved and laid in broken-stone ballast, the traolc was aot stable. These were only in servioe for about two years. Ill In December, 1885,it was decided to try 35,000 ties of the " Post" type, but heavier than those on the Netherlands State Eailways; 35,000 ties of the Braet plan, being a modification of the "Post" type; and 5,000 ties of the Bernard type. The first were of the old form, 8.2 feet long, 10 inches wide, 2.84 to 3.6 inches deep, .48 iucli thick iu the middle, aud .64 inch thick at the rail-seat ; the fastenings con- sisted of bolted clamps with spring washer nut-locks. There were twelve ties to a rail length of 29.52 feet, and the rails were laid with suspended joints. The weight was 165 pounds per tie. Mr. Bricka considered this too heavy, and thought that a thickness of .32 inch to .48 inch would be sufficient. The "Braet" ties wore designed or adapted by Mr. Braet, engineer of the Belgian State railways; they are 8.2 feet long, 10.8 inches wide at the bottom, 3.8 inches deep at the middle, aud 4.4 inches at the rail-seats ; the thickness is .36 inch at the middle and .52 inch at the rail-seats ; the weight is 165 pounds. With both these types the Riippel plan of bolted clamp-fasten- ings is used. The Bernard tie is composed of two channel-irons 7.54 feet long, 4.8 inches high, and 2.24 inches wide over the flanges ; the thickness is .24 inch. These are placed back to back, 7.32 inches apart, and at each end is a flat base-plate 16 inches wide and 36 inches long, fastened to the bottom flange of each channel-iron by fonr rivets .80 inch diameter, and turned up to close the end of the tie. At each end of the top of the tie is a grooved tie-plate 7.96 inches wide aud 13.2 inches long under the rail, resting on the top of the upper flanges of the channel-irons ; the plate gives the usual inward inclination to the rail. Hook-headed bolts pass through the upper flanges of the channel-irons and through the tie-plates, the rails being fastened by large washers or clamps, with a recess iu the top to receive a coiled-spring nut-lock. The tie is filled with and buried in the ballast, to increase its weight and the stabil- ' ity of the track. The weight, complete, is 231 pounds, and there are eight ties to a rail length of 22.96 feet. It was said during the discussion in the chamber that they had not given satisfactory results (see " The Bernard Tie "). The " Post" ties were made at the Louviere works, and cost $24.09 per ton ; the " Braet " ties were made at the Cockerill works, and cost $23.80 per ton ; the " Bernard " ties were made at the ■ Couillet works, and cost $29.90 per ton. The following particulars are taken from a special report sent to me in May 1888, in regard to the track laid with the "Bernard" ties. There were about 3| miles (18,450 feet) of line laid with 5,000 of these ties ; 4,000 were on grades of 0.16 per cent, aud 1,000 on level track. The first were laid in 1884, the remainder in June,1886. Mr. Mathieu was the engineer. The weight of the tie is given as 215.6 pounds. The cost is $2.90 per tie at the works, the durability aud the cost of maintenance are not yet determined. The metal is not painted or treated in any way. Passenger and freight traffic is hauled over the line ; the engines weigh from 35 to 75 tons, includiiig tenders, and the cars weigh empty 4 to 9 tons. The rails are iiange section, 76.5 pounds per yard; the _ joints are suspended and fastened by splice-bars. There are 8 ties per rail length of 29.52 feet. The ballast is of broken stone ; it is 20 inches deep in the middle, level with the top of the ties between the rails, and level with the rail-heads between the tracks and outside. The liue is of standard gauge and the width of road-bed is as follows: 6.56 feet center to center of inner rails of dpuble track, 4.92 feet center to center of rails of each track, 3.28 feet from center of outer rails to edge of bal- last, 30 inches width of ballast slope. The reason for adopting metal 112 ties was to obtain a solidity, a bearing-surface, and a weight which would increase the durability and diminish the expense of maintenance. The results have been very satisfactory ; the track is solid, the fasten- ings hold well and give no trouble. No breakages had occurred and there was no trouble with maintenance. The ties present the advantage that on account of the extra length of bearing-surface they -can be con- sidered as two ties spliced together and the number can be reduced 33 per cent, below the ordinary number of ties. Their bearing in the bal- last and their weight are very great, giving them exceptional stability. The climate is moist and variable, but no special observation has been made of its effect upon the ties. The Cockerill tie.— A tie of the "Post" type, of which the Cockerill works sent par- ticulars in February, 1888, was 8.2 feet long, 9.6 inches wide inside at the bottom, 10.8 inches wide over the ribs. The toi) was horizontal except at the rail seats, and the bottom was horizontal throughout. The ends were closed and bent belon' the level of the bottom of the tie, being 6 inches deep. Weight, 164.56 pounds. At the middle it was 3.64 inches deep with a top table .36 inch thick. At the outer part of the rail seat it was 4.4 inches deep with a thickness of .52 inch, and at the inside part it was 3.8 inches deep with the same thickness of the top table. The thickness of the sides was from .30 inch at the bottom to .36 and .46 inch at the top. The fastening bolts were 3.44 inches long under the head, .84 inch diameter, with X heads and hexagon nuts. The clamps were 2.28 inches by 2.60 inches, with a bolt hole .88 inch diameter; a lug at the outer side made the depth over all 1.80 inches, and this lug fitted into the ob- long bolt hole (1.6 by .92 inch) in the tie. Spring washers for nut-looks are used. The rail joints were spliced with angle bars having a rib on the under side of the edge of the flange. The bars were 27.20 Inches long, with four bolt holes, the inner ones 6 inches apart center to center, and the outer ones 4 inches. For a rail length of 29.52 feet there were twelve ties, spaced 22 inches apart center to center at the joints, 25 inches apart next to the joints, and intermediate ties 32 inches apart. Other ties of this type were 8.2 feet long, 8.88 inches wide inside, 10 inches wide over the ribs. The depth over all was 2.84 inches at the middle, where .48 inch thick, and 3 inches where .64 inch thick. At the rail seat the thickness was .64 inch and the depth 3.6 inches. The width of the top table was 5.04 inches, except at the rail seat, where it is 4.4 inches, and just outside it narrows to 3.78 inches. These ties are not nar- row-waisted at the middle, but are of uniform section and thickness between the rail seats. The adjustment of gauge is effected by the use of clamps with lugs of different width, instead of by eccentric necks on the bolts. The more recent form of track has rails weighing 76.5 pounds jier yard, with joints spliced by bars 31.84 inches long and four bolts, The joint ties are spaced 24.24 inches center to center. Prom 1885 to May, 1888, 2,625 tons of the " Post " type of tie had been manufactured for these lines by the Angleur works. They were of Thomas-Gilchrist steel, not tarred or treated ; they weighed 110 to 165 pounds each, and cost $22 to $25 per ton. Most of the ties of this type were considerably heavier than those used on the Netherlands State railways (Holland). Continued experience on these latter lines has shown the weight of 117.7 pounds to be suflBcient in every way, and the inventor considers, as does Mr. Bricka, that the extra weight is quite unnecessary, involving extra cost, and only resulting in putting useless and dead metal into the track. The Belgian State railways system comprises 1,990 miles, and on January, 1888, there were 219,485 metal ties in service. 113 G-EEAT Oenteal RAILWAY — Different forms of metal track have been tried. Among tbem was the Serres and Battig system of longi- tudinals (See " Austria"), but there were many breakages and the trial jvas not successful. In 1873 the superintendent of permanent way re- ported that he was fully satisfied with the experience so far obtained with metal ties. He was unable to employ them further at the time .in consequence of the extraordinary advance that had taken place in the price of iron. The company's report for 1887 stated that the favorable results during 1886 had been still more marked during 1887. In the latter year 0,000 additional metal ties were substituted for wooden tics. Satisfactory results are said to have been obtained with a " Z-iron " tie weighing 149.6 pounds and costing not more than $1.80 each ; these were laid about 1887. Since 1886 there have been in service 11,000 iron ties of two types, manufactured by Oaramin & Co., of Thy-le-Chateau (see Plate No. 11), and they are giving very good results as to security and economy in maintenance, according to a statement sent to me by the engiueer-in- chief in October, 1889. He stated that so far not a single one of these ties had been taken out of service, while on the state railways, where steel ties are used, quite a number had to be taken out owing to break- age. This unfavorable result he attributed to the alteration in the metal produced by the punching of the holes for the bolts. With steel special precautions must be observed in the manufacture, while with iron there is less need of such care. He does not, however, proscribe the use of steel for ties, but thinks much progress is still to be made in metallurgy before this material will be definitely successful for such purposes. The ties now used weigh, complete, about 154 pounds ; they are 8.52 feet long for standard-gauge track. This weight is sufficient for a moderate traffic with an average speed of 37.2 miles per hour for pas- senger trains, but he considers that the weight should be increased to 176 or even 198 pounds for tracks with very heavy traffic. Various kinds of ballast have been used with these ties; ashes mixed with eartii (a very inferior quality of ballast), river gravel and broken stone ; good results have been obtained with all these materials. The gravel should be slightly earthy, so as to form a solid core under the tie. This railway has a length of 365.18 miles. These ties a re of semi-cylindrical section, with horizontal flanges on the lower edges and having a flat top table; the horizontal flanges are cut away at the middle, of the tie. They are 8.52 feet long, 3 inches deep, 6.4 inches wide inside at the bottom and 1) inches wide over the flanges ; the upper face of the top is flat for a width of 3 inches. The flanges are .36 inch thick ; the sides are .36 inch at the bottom and .40 inch at the top, and the top table is .52 inch thick. Inside the tie, under each rail, is an iron ulate 10.8 inches long and about .75 inch thick, fastened by two rivets passing through the top of the tie. Each rail rests on a grooved tie-plate, giving the rail the usual inclination, and having a channel for the rail flange and a rib along each side. Short Screws, about 3f inches long over all, pass through the tie-plate and tie and are tapped into tho iron plate riveted inside ; these screws have wide round heads, which bear 22893— Bull. 4 8 114 on tlie flange of the rail and tUe rib of tbe tie-plate, and have a square projection on top for the track-wrench. The older ties of this form weighed 149.38 pounds com- plete ; but the newer cues, adopted in 1887, weigh 152 pounds, made up a.s follows : Tic, 133.30 pounds ; tie-plates, 5.10 pounds; riveted plates, 9.06 pounds; rivets, 1.63 pounds; screws, 2.91 pounds. The other type of tie, adopted in 1886, was of similar section ; but inside, under each rail, was an oak block 9.3 inches long; this was held in place by an iron plate 9.8 inches long, riveted to the tie by two rivets to each flange; the plate was about .37 inch thick, with a rib in the middle about 1.15 inches wide, making the thickness at that part about .56 inch. The rail rested on a tie-plate having a rib on each side, but no channel for the rail flange. The fastenings consisted of screws similar to those described above, but 6.12 inches long over all, passing through the wooden block and the thick part of the bottom plate. The weight of each tie, complete, was as follows : Tie, 130.64 pounds; tie-plates, 4.73 pounds; riveted plates, 17.20 pounds; screws, 3.96 pounds; oak blocks, 4.77 pounds ; total, 161.30 pounds. At the luternational Railway Oongress, held at MilaD, Italy, in 1887, Mr. Kowalski presented the following particulars respecting these ties: Five thousand were laid in 1886 and 5,000 were to be laid in 1887 ; they were placed under unfavorable conditions and in ground imperfectly drained; they were on em- bankments and in cuts on tangents and curves of 1,640 feet, 1,968 feet, and- 2,624 feet radius, and on a maximum grade of 3.5 per cent. During the first year the traffic consisted of 1,498 passenger trains and 2,920 freight trains, a total weight of 1,068,258 tons. The speed of the former is 37.2 miles per hour and that of the latter 15.5 miles per hour. The passenger engines weigh 31 tons, and the freight engines 52 tons. Tlie rails are of flange section, weighing 74.35 pounds per yard. The ballast is of ashes and quarry gravel. The track keeps in good condition and the fastenings keep tight. The price of the iron tie is double that of the wooden tie; The work of main- tenance during the iirst year of service was less than that of wooden ties. The ar- rangement of fastening with screws and an iron plate was being adopted in place of the wooden block. NoRTHEEN Railway. — On the Belgian lines of the Northern Rail- way of France, the " Severac" tie has been used. In 1883 there were 1,500 of these ties in the track, 750 at Engis, near Liege, and 750 near Charleroy. Since they had been laid 6,000 trains had passed over them, and no creeping of the rails or displacement of the keys which fasten the rails had been observed. At a meeting of the Belgian Soci- ety of Engineers in March, 1886, it was stated that 1,500 of these ties had been in service for nine months under a traflflc of sixty-four trains per day, and were in as good condition as when laid, while uo differ- ence could be noticed between the noise when passing over these ties or wooden ties. They were manufactured by the Angleur Works (See " the Severac ties "). The following particulars are from a statement re- ceived in May, 1888, in regard to the " Severac" ties : In June, 1885, they were laid on 1,968 feet of single track on the line from Namur to Liege ; and in July, 1885, on 1,968 feet of single track on the line from Brque- linnes to Charleroy. On the former section there were curves of 4,920 feet radius, and grades of 3.8 per cent. ; on the latter section there were curves of 1,610 feet radius, and grades of 1.46 per cent. Mr. Bernard was the engineer of the line to Namur. The locomotives weigh about 38 to 69 tons in working order, including the tender; the cars weigh 3.6 to 8 tons empty. The traffic is passenger and freight. The tie is 115 au I-beam, 8.2 feet long, 4.8 inches high, 3.2 inches wide over the flanges, .32 inch thick; on the bottom is a plate 9.6 inches wide and .32 inch thick, secured by eighteen rivets ; it runs the whole length of the tie and is turned up at the ends. A chair for the rail is riveted to the top at eaclL end of the tie. The weight of the tie complete is 204.6 pounds. The ties are made of iron at the Angleur Works ; they are not treated in any way, and cost the railway company $1.08 each, but the net cost at the works was higher than this, according to the state- ment of the inventor. The cost of maintenance had not been defined, but was very low. The joint ties were spaced 24 inches apart, center to center, and the intermediate ties 34 inches. The ballast is of ashes; it is 20 inches deep in the middle, level with the rails between and out- side of the tracks, and level with the tops of the ties between the rails. The dimensions of the road-bed are as follows : 6.56 feet between tracks (center to center of rails), 4.92 feet center to center of the rails of each track, 3.28 feet from center of outer rails to top of ballast slope, 30 inches width of Ballast slope. The rails are of flange section, weighing 60.36 pounds per yard ; the joints are suspended, and are spliced in the usual way. The reason for using metal ties was to compare the cost of their maintenance with that of the track on wooden ties. The results were satisfactory ; there was no trouble with maintenance, and the only trouble with the rail fastening (a taper key driven between the rail flange and a lug on the tie plate) was that before driving the keys to a tight bear- ing it was necessary to dress the track in line and surface, as after the keys have been finally driven this dressing is impossible on account of the extreme stiffness and rigidity of the track. The only breakages were in the chairs which appeared to be rather weak ; no accidents were caused by these breakages. The ties appeared to behave much the same as wooden ties; they are well made, but as regards bearing they do not present more advantages than wooden ties, which would have a width of 9.6 inches. The climate is moist and variable^" but no partic- ular observations have been made of its effect on the ties. Oak ties cost $1.17 each, including the rail fastenings, and have an average life of fifteen years. Oreosoted beech ties cost $1.09 each, including rail fastenings, and have an average life of twenty years. Liege and Luxembourg Railway.— The Serres and Battig system of iron longitudinals (See " Austria") has been tried, but with unsat- isfactory results owing to numerous breakages. The " Ooblyn" type of cross-ties has also been used. The principal trials have been with the "Post'^ type of steel cross-tie, with very good results, as noted under "Holland," Netherlands State Eailway. Liege and Seeaing Eailway. — The Society of Economic Railways (Liege to Seraing and extensions) has, after making experiments, adopted the " Coblyn" type of steel ties to replace oak ties. In thecompany's re- port presented at a meeting in May, 1888, it was stated tbat renewals with these ties would be carried on as needed, and by small sections. Local Railways. — A special statement received in May, 1888, 116 shows that the Local Eailways Company laid in December, 1887, 500 iron ties of the " Bernard" type, covering 2,437 feet on the line from Jedoigne. They were on tangents and curves of large radius, also on grades and curves, to 98.4feet radius. Mr. Dartevelde was the engineer. The ties and fastenings were of steel, but the chairs were of iron. The weight per tie was 132 pounds, and there were 6 ties tfta rail length of 29.52 feet. The cost was $2.10 each at the works. The rails were of flange section, 6.4 inches high, weighing 60.36 pounds per yard ; the joints were suspended. The results, etc., are the same as given in the statement relating to the Belgian state railways. Trials have also been made with the " Ooblyn" type of steel ties. For the Charleroy suburban lines the company has adopted the " Z-iron" tie. These lines are 9.3 miles long, one meter gauge, with maximum grades of 6 per cent, and curves of 82 feet radius. There are three lines ; on two of them the trafflc consists of thirty trains per day, and on the third line fifty-four trains. The lines were opened in 1887, and the track has given good results from the beginning, especially in regard to its freedom from noise ; there were 12,829 ties in service. The lines follow the country roads, and -the track is in some places in the paved streets, and in other places on waste ground along the side of the highway. The ties weigh 114.4 pounds each, including fastenings, and cost $1.30 each. The passage of trains is as easy and quiet as on track with wooden ties; the crossings are laid with wooden ties and no difference is noticed when the trains pass from track with metal ties to track with wooden ties, or vice versa. This is claimed to be due to the rigid fastening of the rails by a taper key. The following is an abstract of a report made to the company in Oc- tober, 1888, by Mr. F. Grumieaux, engineer and superintendent of the Charleroy lines : The lines are of very irregular proiile ; of the 9.3 miles total length, 6.2 luiles jire- sent grades of 3 and even 6 per cent. The rails are 29..')2 feet long ; those laid in the streets weigh 60?3 pounds per yard and have eight ties to a rail length ; those laid at the side of the road weigh 43.2 pounds per yard aud have ten ties to a rail length. The passage of trains is as smooth and easy as on track with wooden ties, as can be noted at crossings where wooden ties are used. The taper keys first used were too small ; on the Lodelinsart line, where there is a grade nearly 1.24 miles long, varying from 3.5 to 6 per cent., down whioh the engines run with the brakes partly applied, there was considerable creeping of the rails, the ends of the rail touching one another and the ties being shifted laterally so that the tangent became a series of bends. This part of the track was relaid in June, 1888, aud stronger keys were used, after which there was neither creeping nor displacement of the track. The ties taken out had a thin coat of rust, but the experience was then too short to allow of any opinion to be formed as to the ultimate effect on the ties. Some Belgian engineers have affirmed that metal ties can only be used with gravel or broken stone ballast, as ashes will destroy them by corrosion, owing to the sulphurous matter contained in this ma- terial. These liues, however, are ballasted entirely with ashes, and the future will show whether the opinions of these engineers are well founded. No figures could be given as to the cost of maintenance and repairs, and in fact German and Dutch en- gineers are of opinion that it is not until the. third year of service that the good re- sults of the use of metal ties become apparent. 117 TIES. The Severao Ties (See plate No. 10). — The "Severac" tie consists of an |-beam with a broad plate riveted to the bottom ; this plate extends the whole length of the tie, and is turned up at the ends. The size of the plate on plan is exactly that of an ordinary wooden tie and the height and width of the closed end are the same as those of a wooden tie, so that the volume of the ballast resting on the bottom plate is practically equal to the volume of a wooden tie. By this means the tie itself may be comparatively light for handling, say about 198 pounds, and very heavy when in place in the track, being more firm or stable than wooden ties. To the top table of the I-beam are riveted two rail chairs, giving the rails an inward inclination. There are two projecting lugs on each chair; the outer one holds the enter flange of the rail, while the inner one has a taper steel key driven between it and the rail flange. There are various modified forms of these ties. They may have a plate riveted on the top as well as on the bottom ; or they may be rolled with a narrow top flange and a wide bottom flange, so as to dispense with the riveted plate, the bottom flanges being cut through at the corners and bent up to form a closed end. They may also be of tee- section (T or J.)) with the horizontal flanges bent down or up, as the case may be, to close the ends. This form may be used for narrow-gauge lines, the horizontal flanges being bent down or up and then horizontally, so as to form a top table at the ends and a bottom table at the middle, or vice versa; this is advantageous for lines where it is desirable to economize in the width of the ballast, as the resistance to lateral motion is then at some distance from the ends of the tie. (This is one of the special features claimed for the Standard steel tie, now being tried in the United States. ) Another form is of _L-seotion, with a piece of angle-iron riveted to each side of the top of the web, under each rail, forming a rail seat. Another form is of similar section, but has a sad- dle piece of /\ -shape at each rail ; the flat top rests on top of the web of the tie and forms a rail seat, while the horizontal flanges are riveted to the bottom flanges of the tie. The fastening intended to be used was a. bed- plate of mild steel riveted to the tie; there were two lugs, the outer one holding the outer flange of the rail and the inner one being bent down to hold the inner side of the flange, or bent back when a rail or tie was to be removed. This would require a very soft metal to stand this bending and rebending without cracking, and steel made by the Gilchrist process was considered the best for this purpose. The fastenings by means of lugs and a key have, however, given excellent results. While this tie weighs, in position in the ballast, about 330 pounds (metal and stone), an ordinary wooden tie only weighs about 154 pounds. The inventor had the following objects in view in designing this form of tie: (1) the suppression of movable fastenings, so that the tie could be made complete at the works, the track men only requiring a hammer for the bent lug ; (2) the same ba^e and the same resistance to longitudinal and transverse motion as a wooden tie ; (3) easy ballasting; (4) the maintenance of the gauge and the inclination of the rails; (5) easy placing and removing ; (6) ease of manufacture. In regard to this last point, however, it may be noted that the ties in use, with eighteen rivets each, represent a good deal of shop-work. These ties have been tried on the Belgian lines of the Northern Eailway of France. The Bernard Ties (See plate No. 10. ) — Mr. Bernard, engineer of the Belgian division of the Northern Kail way of France, has invented a cross-tie consisting of two channel- irons placed back to back, and with a broad bed-plate riveted to the bottom at each end, each plate having eight rivets, and the end of the plate being turned up to make a closed tie. Each rail rests on a chair secured to the top of the channels by bolts, the J, heads of which are on the under side of the top flanges of the channels. A special form of nut is used, having part of its lower face plain and part indented; the plain part bears on a washer w liioh is large enough to leave a space between it and the bolt. In this space is a spring nut-lock of one spiral ; the lower part of the spring has a Ing whiuh fitu into a hole in the rail clamp, and the upper part has a tooth en- 118 gaging with tlie teetli on the lower face of the nut and so preventing it from worlsing loose. The tie may be made with two 2-iron8 Instead of channel-irons, the lower flanges being inward. They can also be adapted for .double-headed rails by using the regular chairs for this form of rail instead of the flat chair for flange rails. In a pamphlet upon his patent tie, Mr. Bernard says: "The tie may be considered as formed of two ties united ; it presents two bearing points for the rail, so that the distance between these ties is gained in the general spacing of the ties and their number can be reduced 33 per cent. The distance be- tween the two bolts on each side of the rail is 12.16 inches. For eight ties to a rail length of 29.52 feet, the joints are suspended, and the arrangement is 11.2 inches center to center of bolts of joint-ties, aud 34.2 inches between the adjacent bolts of intermediate ties, except that the distance between the two middle ties is 35. 12iuches. For six ties to a rail-length of 29.52 feet, the joints are supported and the arrange- ment is 41.68 inches between the bolts of the joint and shoulder ties, and 50.92 inches between those of the intermediate ties. The weight is from 242 to 305.8 pounds, but as each tie of this type is equivalent to one and a half ordinary ties, the com- parative weight would be about 160 and 203 pounds respectively. For the spacing of six ties to a rail-length of 29.52 feet, Mr. Bernard suggests a rail about 6.4 inches high, 4.2 wide over the flange, 2.48 wide at the head, and weighing about 86 pouods per yard. The sixteen rivets per tie represent a good deal of shop-work, as with the 'Severac ' tie." These ties have been tried on the Belgian State railways and the lines of the local railways company. The Coilyn Ties (See plate No. 10). — These are steel cross-ties of approximately X-section, but with a deep groove along the middle of the top table; the edges of the top table are turned down slightly and the ends are closed. For standard gange lines they are about 7.8 feet long, 9.6 inches wide over all, 3.64 inches deep in the middle, and 1.04 inches at the sides, .32 inch thick on top, aud weighing about 112.2 pounds. The cost, with fastenings, complete for rails weighing about 72.33 pounds per yard is about $1.89 per tie. For meter-gauge lines they are about 5.9 feet long, 8 inches wide, 3.5 inches deep in the middle, and .96 inch deep at the sides, .32 inch thick on top, and weighing about 61.6 pounds. The cost, with fastenings, complete for rails weighing about 42.25 pounds per yard is about $1.26 per tie. A special form of fastening is designed to be used with the heavier flange rails. The rail rests on a chair riveted to the tie; the inner side of the flange is held by a lug projecting 1.6 inches over it ; on the outer side is a high jaw inclined toward the rail ; over this fits a loose cap, with its inner face also inclined, and having a vertical groove; a taper wooden key is driven between the side of the cap and the web of the rail and bears tightly against the under side of the rail head; the wood swells into the groove in the caji so that the key can not work loose. The several parts of the fastening are stamped at the works. Thi.s fastening may be used for woodeu ties, and it is claimed that the use of the tie plate will increase the durability of wooden ties and enable soft woods to be used. These ties have been tried on the Liege and Luxembourg Railway, and adopted on the Liege and Seraing Eailway. The riding over metal ties with the fastening de- scribed is said to be as quiet as, if not quieter than, over wooden ties with ordinary clamp or spike fastenings holding the rail by the flange; this is attributed to the holding of the rail by the web and bead with an elastic body, which absorbs the vibra- tions. These ties give a good bearing for the rail, make a stable track, are easily ballasted, and may be used with broken stone or slag ballast. The 'Z.-Iron Ties (See plate No. 10). — These ties are composed of two rolled beams of 2-seotion, with vertical web, placed side by side with the lower flanges inward. At each end is placed a cast-iron rail chair with wings projecting down into the tie between the two beams ; three rivets passing through each chair and the webs of the beams hold the pieces firmly together. The Z-irons present a great resistance to vertical bending motion, and the tie is very strong. The weight, including fasten- 119 ings, for ordinary track, is about 195.8 pounds, and for rails weighing 100 pounds per yard about 209 pouuds. Tlie Z-irons for tbese heavy ties are about 2.6 luclies wide, 4.4 inches deep, and .28 inch thick. The rails are of flange section, and are given the usual inclination by the seat of the chair; there is a lug on each side of the plate; the outer lug fits over the outer side of the rail flange, and a taper key is driven hori- zontally between the inner lug and inner side of the rail flange; to prevent the key from slacking back the end is split, and may be opened with a chisel when driven home, and a, small wooden or metal wedge may be driven into the split end. This makes a very tight and secure fastening ; the rail is fixed as in a vise; the surfaces in contact being extended, there is no wear or play, and consequently no vibration or rattling. It is estimated that the proposed ties, weighing 209 pounds, would cost $2.45 each, or $4,740.75 per mile with 1,935 ties per mile; white oak ties would cost, with plates and fastenings, $1.90 each, or about $4,907 per mile with 2,580 ties per mile. The reduced annual cost for maintenance is a special advantage. It is calcu- lated that the annual cost per yard for maintenance would be with the metal ties 21.7 cents for ten years, 17.15 cents for fifteen years, or 12.21 cents for thirty years. With wooden ties 8 feet 2 inches long, 12 by 6 inches section, it would be 30.62 cents for ten years, and 22.92 cents for fifteen years. The track can bo more readily and quickly laid than with rails spiked or clamped to wooden ties. The weight of the tie in the track is increased to about 396 pounds by the ballast within it, and it is very easily tamped and ballasted. These ties are to be given trials in varions countries. The Congo Railway Company (in the interest of the Belgian Government) has ordered these ties for 270 miles of road, from Matade to Stanley Pool. The chief engineer of the Ottoman Railway, of Turkey (owned by an English company), has recently been in Belgium with a view to replacing the wooden ties with " Z" ties. The fol- lowing railways also intend to experiment with them: Loando and Ambaca, in the Portuguese territory of the Congo; Portuguese State railways; Minho and Douro Railway, Portugal; South and Southeastern Railway, Portugal; State railways, France-; Egyptian railways ; Bone and Guelma Railway, Algeria. SUMMAEX OF METAL TRACK FOR BELGIUM. Railway, Metal ci'oss-tiea, (about). State .. Miles. 100 00 5.00 75 9.75 Total 115.50 GERMANY. General Eemaeks. — Germany has an extensive system of railways, most of which are State railways. The principal sj'stem of the German Empire is that of the Pru.ssian State railways, which are owned and operated by the Prussian Government; the system is divided into divisions corresponding with the several provinces of the Prussian Kingdom. The railways of the other States of the empire, not belong- ing to Prussia, are owned by the governments of these States as a rule. There are also several private railways, some of which are under gov- ernment control. The lines are principally of standard gauge, 4 feet 8^ inches. In this country very extensive experiments with metal track have beea made, the experiments extending over a number of years and in- 120 eluding trials of various types of track. The experience has been in general in favor of the metal track, and has led to its being adopted in some cases. The first experiments were made in 1862, and in 188®-'81 there were 2,875.5 miles laid with metal track, equal to 8.1 per cent, of the total mileage then in operation. In January, 1885, there were 3,234.54 miles laid with metal cross-ties, and 3,145.26 miles with metal longitudinals, a total of 6,379.80 miles of metal track, representing 16.52 per cent, of the total length of single track, which was then 38,608 miles. The following table, showing the growth of different classes of track on German railways, from 1878 to 1884, is from the report of Mr. Bricka to the minister of public works (France), and to it I have added the ofiEicial figures for 1888 : Mileage of German railways, 1878-1884. Year. Main linos. Local lines. Total 1 rack. Wooden ties. Metallongi' tndinals. Metal ties. Stone, blocks, etc. 1878 18, 645. 88 19,041.44 18,886.44 18, 978. 82 19, 001. TO 18, 982. 54 18, 931. 70 19, 169. 16 833.28 1, 582. 86 1,988.96 2, 165. 04 2, 682. 92 3, 059. 70 3, 642. 60 5,107.56 33, 343. CO 34, 904. 76 35,522.90 36, 061. 68 36, 906. 12 37,697.86 38, 008. 02 41, 290. 76 32,008.74 32, 621. 30 32,399.34 32,150.72 32, 088. 72 32, 008. 74 31, 914. 60 32, 147. 62 902. 10 1,574.18 1,980.28 2, 359. 73 2,604.00 2, 892. 92 3, 145, 26 3, 562. 52 175.46 489. 18 828.32 1, 240. 00 1,906.26 2,485.68 3, 234. 54 5,224.12 257. 30 1879 220. lo 1880 . ... 314. 96 1881 311.24 1883 308. 14 1S83 1884 310. 62 313. 72 1888 356. 50 During the past decade there has been considerable activity in the introduction of metal track, and the results have been in general thor- oughly satisfactory. This experience is of more practical value than that of the earlier experiments, as the earlier forms of track were natu- rally deficient in many ways, while the more recent forms have been designed in accordance with the teachings of experience and have been in service under modern conditions oftrafiQc. Both longitudinals and cross-ties have been tried on an extensive scale, but the former are not being used to any extent for new' work, while large quantities of cross- ties arc being introduced continually. It is stated on authority that on new lines and on such old lines as are to be thoroughly repaired, the Hilf system of longitudinals is not to be used any more, and the Haar- maun system of longitudinals only to a limited extent. The reasons given are that the maintenance is difQcult and the construction and drainage of the road-bed especially difficult. As regards the life of the ties, that is a point as yet undetermined; the earlier forms of ties were too weak for modern conditions of traffic, and those fitted for such con- ditions have only been in service for from five to ten years. On the Elberfeld division of the Prussian State railways (Westphalia), it is considered that metal ties will not have a longer life than wooden ties (fifteen years maximum) ; but in view of the experience with the earlier ties and of the durability of steel rails, etc., this estimate can hardly be considered as correct. Mr. Gustav Meyer, chief engineer of the Prus- sian State railways, is of opinion that the life of metal cross-ties of modern design may be estimated as at least double that of the best 121 wooden ties, or thirty to forty years. Metal ties have been definitely adopted on some lines. Wooden ties are still used to a very great extent, partly owing to the policy of the government to foster and develop the forests and encour- age the forest industries, and partly on account of their smaller first cost. The native forests can not supply nearly enough timber to meet the demands, and large quantities of wDoden ties are imported annually. The appropriations for railways in 1888 included about $2,500,000 for wooden ties and only $1,000,000 for metal ties, and it was estimated that the importation of wooden ties amounted then to $450,000. This has roused the iron and steel manufacturers, who have called the attention of the government to the fact that metal ties are a success in point of efficiency and economy, and they have petitioned the gov- ernment to provide for a more rapid introduction of such metal track in the interests of the iron industries. Large quantities of metal ties are made for export ; according to a report by Mr. Tanner, United States consul at Chemnitz, Germany exported 26,991 tons of steel ties in 1885 as compared with 17,000 tons in 18S4. It has been stated sometimes in the technical and daily press that the metal track has not proved satisfactory, and is being either discontin- ued or actually removed. The perusal of the following pages will sliow clearly that the metal track is a success and that a supposed economy is the main reason for the comparative slowness with which it is being further introduced. The fact of the use of metal ties at switches and frogs on the Prussian state railways (see the end of the part of this report relating t(T Germany) is an evidence of the efficiency of the track and the favor with which it is regarded. In the only instance where metal track has been abandoned (on the Altona division of the Prus- sian State railways) it is officially stated that local conditions of the ballast and road-bed, and not any deficiencies of the track, have led to this action. The tracks laid with wooden ties- are being improved by the extensive introduction of heavy metal tie-plates and improved fast- enings for the rails. The wooden ties are usually treated with some preservative process. The administration of the Saxony State rail- ways report that wooden ties are used almost exclusively upon these lines. The extent of metal track on the Prussian State railways in 1886 and 1887 was as follows : 1885-'86. 1886-'87. Cross-lies. LoEgitudi- iiala. Cross-ties. Longitudi- nals. Miles. 2,480 Miles. Miles. 2, 870. 00 260. 40 Miles. ■^ 27.') 40 248 [ ' 124 124.00 Total 2 T^S 9 -l?i(! 3, 13). 00 2, 399 40 122 New material was used as follows : Iron lies and loDgitudinals. Wooden ties. Tear. Tons. Total cost. Oust per ton. Ifumber. Total cost. Cost per tie. 1885-'86 . .. . 40,214 31,913 $1,356,067.00 1,04]; 760. 75 $33.75 32.75 1,510,806 $1,7'<4,?46.25 1 581 169 ' 1 X7fi. .'ifl?. .10 $1, IS 1 15 ]886-'87 The following table gives the quantities of wooden and iron ties laid inl886, 1887, and 1888: Prussian state railicays. Year. 1886-'86 1886-'87 1887-'88 Wooden ties. No. 1, 507, 263 1, 582, 877 1, 654, 304 Metal ties. No. 672, 086 522, 470 49B, 623 Wood. Per cent. 69.16 75.18 77.02 Metal. Fer cent. 30.84 24 82 22.98 All railways in Germany. 1885 '86., ^ 2, 462, 004 2, 544, 992 2,677,424 1,007,152 868, 262 750, 670 70.97 74.56 78.10 29.03 1886-'87 V 25.44 1887-88 21.90 The following table gives the comparative mileage of different classes of track from 1880 to 1885 : Cross-tiea. Longitudi- Total mileage. Tear. Wood. Iron. Mileage. iials — iron (mileage). Crosr.-ties. Long?- • tudinals. 1880-81 Per cent. 96.73 95.39 93.51 91.90 89.97 Fer ctnt. 2.43 3.74 5.63 7.23 9.18 33,442 33, 704 34, 270 34, 873 36, 416 2, 046. 5 2, 422. B 2. 636. 5 2,957.3 3, 219. 3 Per cent. 04.10 93. IS 92. W 92.10 91.65 Per cetit. 5 76 1881 '82 6.70 1882-'83 . . 7 14 1883-'84 7.81 1884-'85 8.32 » Note. — Small balance of length not accounted for. About June, 1889, the following note on this subject appeared in " Kuhlow's German Trade Eeview :" Metallic v. Wooden Ties in Germany. — As far back as last year the North-German group of the German Iron and Steel Mannfaoturers' Union and the German Ironmas- ters' Union addressed a petition to the minister of public worlcs, in which the latter ■was requested to take steps so that the use of wooden ties shoiihl not only not be- come greater, bat that the substitution of iron or steel ties for wood might be con- tinued, as was the case in the previous year, and to proceed with the view to having everything connected with the railway lines only of iron and steel. The societies above named have recently again addressed themselves to the minister with the re- quest that the latter do all in his power to put an end to the importation of foreign wooden ties, and to supply the deficiency thus created by au increased use of iron ties. The petitioners assigned a number of reasons for their action. The increase in 123 the, use of iron ties, which on the Prussian railways was 11^ per cent, on the quantity in use in 1883-'84, was only .53 per cent, oq the other railways of Germany, while the German forest owners derived no benefit therefrom, as can be proven by the figures representing the yearly importation from abroad of wooden ties. The amount of wages lost by German railway worlimen consequent upon importing ties from abroad is calculated at |1,392,187.50 and the loss caused by the diminution in the traffic on the state railways at |371,250. A reply to the petition has just been received from the minister of public works, in which he states that he is very glad when he can encourage the use of iton ties on the Prussian railways as formerly, but he is not in a position to accede to the request of the petitioners to exclude as far as possible the wooden ties. The wooden ties, particularly after the new improvements in the tie-plates and track fastenings, have proved themselves to be especially suit- able as supports for the rails, while the iron ties hitherto supplied have not suffi- ciently justified their use on those portions of the line iu which a fine or impervious material for ballast has to be reckoned with. When iron ties are produced which will obviate the diiificulties attendant on their use in the cases named a large increase in their application will take place eveu on those lines on which they have been hitherto used only to a limited extent. Prussian State Railways. — Berlin division {province of Branden- burg). — Metal longitudinals of the " Hilf " and " Haarmann " types are used (See plate No. 12), and at the end of 1884 there were 473 miles of this class of track in service. The Haarmann longitudinal, as now used, is in lengths of 29.49 feet, weighing 508.95 pounds, or 51.75 pounds per yard ; it has the middle part about 4 inches wide, 2.08 inches deep, and .36 inch thick, with a rib on each side of the top table, forming a groove for the flange of the rail ; the flanges of the longitudinal are in- clined downwards toward the outer edge at a slope of 1 in 12 and the edges are bent down vertically to a depth of 1.18 inches ; the width over the flanges is 12.8 inches. The rail clamps are short channel plates (c ), with the top flange bearing on the rail and the bottom flange on the inner side of the longitudinal ; the two clamps are held together by a bolt .76inch diameter passing through the clamps and through the upper part of the longitudinal, under the rail. At the joints the ends of the longitudinals rest on a saddle plate of inverted channel section, with a deep groove rolled in the top table, which Is inclined so as to make the outer side of the longitudinals higher than the. inner side, and so give the rail the usual inward inclination. The lower flanges of the rail clamps pass through the top of the saddle, taking a bearing on the under side of the top table. The saddle is secured to a bed plate 19.28 inches wide and .40 inch thick, by bolted clamps on the Euppel plan (See plate No. 13). The rails are of flange section, weighing 59.7 pounds per yard ; they are 29.52 feet long and 5 inches high, with a flange 3.40 inches wide. The rail joints are spliced by deep angle-bars having a vertical web projecting below the rail. The weight of the track complete is 1,616.55 pounds per rail length, or 179.63 pounds per yard. This system of metal track is used on the Berlin City Railway. The Haarmann combined rail and longitudinal has also been tried for a length 3.1 miles. This compound rail (See plate No, 12) was a large flange rail composed of two pieces placed side by side ; it was 8 124 inches high over all, 12 inches wide over the flange, with a head 2.4 inches wide ; the two parts were connected by two rows of rivets, and the joints were spliced by angle-bars 16 inch«8 long, with eight bolts in two rows. The two parts of each rail broke joint by 20 inches. Flat tie-bars, with ends bent at right angles and secured by bolts pass- ing through the webs of the rails, were placed at intervals of 9 feetlOJ inches. The weight of this track was 273 pounds per yard. The following is Mr. Bricka's statement of the track of this division at the end of 1884 : Miles. Main lines 1,414.22 Local lines 163.68 Total track 2,762.72 Wooden ties 2,276.64 Metal longitudinals..'. 473.06 Metal ties 1.24 Stone blocks, etc 11.78 Two systems of track are adopted for the bridges of the city railway, for the purpose of deadening the noise : (1) The rails rest on iron lon- gitudinals, of the Haarmann type, connected by iron cross-tie connec- tions, wooden packlng'Tjlocks being placed between the two parts. A water-tight casing, hung below the floor, receives all water and drainage and is covered with a thin layer of gravel to deaden the noise from vibration. The wooden blocks are difficult to maintain. (2) The longi- tudinals are bedded in gravel laid in troughs along the bridge, the top of the longitudinal being level with the top of the trough. The floor is of buckle plates covered with gravel. This track is heavy and altera- tions cannot easily be effected for frogs and switches, while it is diffi- cult to tamp the longitudinals properly. Prussian State Railways. — Elberfeld division {province of West- phalia). — This division includes most of the lines in the industrial dis- trict of the Rhine, in Westphalia, and has a heavy traffic on its princi- pal lines. It also includes the former Berg and Mark Railway, the name of which is well known in connection with metal track, this road having been one of the first to experiment on a large scale with such track. The following is Mr, Bricka's statement of the track for 1884 : Miles. Mainlines 587.76 Local lines 159.96 Total track 1,590.30 Wooden ties 912.02 Metal longitudinals 41.54 Metal ties ,. 629.30 Stone blocks, etc 7.44 The first trials made in Germany with metal ties were made on the old Berg and Mark Railway. The trials were commenced in 1869, with ties of the original " Vautherin" type; these were 3.2 inches wide on top, 6.8 inches wide inside on the bottom, and 9.2 inches wide over the 125 flanges ; 2.4 inches deep ; the sides and top were .24 inch thick and the flanges .32 inch thick ; the weight was 40.70 pounds ; the ends were open. This type not proving satisfactory, changes were made which led to the designing of the " Berg-and-Mark " (or Bergisch-Markische) type of tie. It is a modification of the " Vautherin" type, doing away with the narrow horizontal flanges at the bottom, and having the lower par^ of the sides bent to a vertical position (See plate No. 12). Tlie tie was 7.5 feet long, 5.2 inches wide on top, 9.2 inches wide on the bottom, and 2.4 inches deep, with the sides vertical for 1 inch from the bottom ; the thickness was .24 inch at the bottom, increasing to .36 inch at the top, and on the under side of the top table was a rib 1.44 inches wide, making the thickness .52 inch to give extra strength at the holes ibr the fastenings. The tie was horizontal for a length of 3 feet 3| inches at the middle, and then inclined upward 1 in 20 to the ends, which were closed by bending over the top table. The weight of the tie was 98 pounds, and of the fastenings 5.4 pounds, makinga total of 103.4 pounds per tie. The rails were of flange section, weighing 66 pounds per yard, and having a flange 4 inches wide. The fastenings of each rail consisted of three gibs and a cotter (See plate No. 13). The outer flange was held by a gib, the lower side of which bore on the insidfe of the tie; a sim- ilar gib held the inner flange, and a small gib was placed against the opposite side of the hole in the tie, so as to give a good bearing for the cotter, which was driven down vertically between these two gibs. The cotter was about 6J inches long, eleven-sixteenths-inch thick — 1^^ inches wide at top and thirteen-sixteenths inch wide at 1^^ inches from the end, thence tapering to a point; the side furthest from the rail was perpendicular to the top of the tie. The gibs were all eleven-sixteenths inch thick ; the outer and the small inner gibs were made in three dif- ferent widths, to allow for the adjustment of the gauge at curves, etc. At the rail joints the ties were spaced 20.4 inches apart, center to cen- ter. ~ Metal ties only are now used for main lines ; metal and wooden ties are used for branch and local lines. The ties for main lines are of the modified Berg-and-Mark type (See plate No. 12). They are 8.2 feet long, 4.4 inches wide on top, 8.72 inches wide inside at the bottom, and 9.36 inches wide over the ribs on the bottom edges ; they are 3 inches deep, with the sides nearly vertical for 1.5 inches from the bottom; the sides are .28 inch thick ; the top table is .36 inch thick, with a strip along the middle ..52-inch thick for a width of 1.44 inches, the extra metal being added on the under side. The middle part of the tie is hori- zontal for a length of 3 feet 3| inches, and is then inclined upward 1 in 20 to the ends, which are closed by bending down the top table. The weight is 119.24 pounds per tie. There are 10 ties to a rail length of 29.52 feet ; the joint ties are spaced 24 inches apart center to center, and the intermediate ties 37.04 to 37.08 inches apart. The rail fasten- ings are gibs and cotters arranged as above described ; the outer gib 126 weighs .75 pound, the inner gib .68 pound ; the small gib .26 pound, and the cotter .97 pound. The rails are of flange section, 29.52 feet long, weighing 67.2 pounds per yard ; they are 5.36 inches high, and have a flffnge 4.20 inches wide. The weight of the track is 2,696.93 pounds per rail length, or 274.08 pounds per yard. The ties for local lines are of the original Berg-and-Mark type ; 8.2 feet long, 5.2 inches wide on top, 9.2 inches wide on the bottom, 2.4 inches deep, with the sides vertical for 1 inch from the bottom ; the sides are .28-inch thick, and the top table .36-inch thick, with a rib along the under side, making ifc .52-inch thick for a width of 1.44 inches. They are bent to shape and have the ends closed in the same way as the heavier ties. The weight is 106.26 pounds per tie, and the track weighs 2,567.13 pounds per rail length, or 260 pounds per yard. The following is a detailed statement, furnished in July, 1888, by the ofiQcers of the division for the purpose of this report : This division includes the former Berg-and-Mark Railway, and in 1887 it comprised about 806 miles of line, with about 1,649.30 miles of main and side tracks, iaid as follows : Miles. "Wooden cross-ties.... 790.50 Metal cross-ties 1 76'i. 60 Metal longitudinals 93. 00 The lines are divided into two classes, according to their traffic ; main lines, gen- erally with double track, with a maximum grade (exceptionally) of 1 in 7.'), or 1.33 per cent., and a minimum curvature of 984 feet radius; local or branch lines, with single track, a maximum grade of 1 in 40, or 2.5 per cent., and a minimum curvature of 590.40 feet radius. The first trial of iron cross-ties was made in 1869 by the Berg-and-Mark Railway. In 1874 they were used to a larger extent, and in 1877 a further introduction of them was commenced. Iron longitudinals have not been laid on the lines of this division, but in 1880, when all the Prussian railways were acquired by the Government, the boundaries were extended, and so included parts of some lines using these longitudi- nals. On main lines the traffic is about one hundred and sixty trains iier day (on double track), at speeds of 46.5 miles per hour for' passenger trains and 27.9 miles per hour for freight trains ; the six-wheel engines weigh about 42 tons, with 7 tons on the driving wheels. On branch lines the traffic is from twenty-five to thirty trains jjer day, at a speed of 18.60 miles per hour for passenger and freight trains. The six- wheel engines weigh about 30 tons, with 5 tons on the driving-wheels. The ties are now made of mild steel, and for their manufacture the basic process of Thomas Gilchrist has recently been used ; no preservative process has been used ; the ties are laid in the condition they leave the rolls, and there is v«ry little trouble from rust. They aie manufactured by a number of works, proposals being advertised for in the usual way. The cost at the mills in 1888 was from $27.50 to |30 per ton, or about $1.50 to |1.62i per tie for main lines and $1.32^ to $1.45 per tie for branch lines. The gibs and cotters, being of wrought-iron, cost at the same time $72.50 per ton. The cost of maintenance of the ties is very small, as the works furnishingthe ties must give a guaranty for two years, replacing every tie which becomes damaged during this time. If a tie has internal defects which escape notice at the inspection, they will show themselves within two years, and it is found that after that any failure of the ties now used is very rare. On the other hand, the labor for the maintenance of track on metal ties is considerable, and is greater as the ballast is less hard and less porous. This is especially the case during the first few years, until the track has set- 127 tied to a firm bearing. It seems, therefore, that metal ties require tbe best broken stoue ballast, aud with this material the cost of maintenance of track on luetal ties is scarcely greater than that of track on wooden ties, especially as the item of renewals (necessary for wooden ties in a few years) is eliminated. Exact comparisons between the cost of maintenance of track on metal and wooden ties on this division cannot be made, as the expenses are not separated, and there are wooden ties only on branch lines and on main lines with little traffic. All tracks having considerable traffic are now laid with metal ties. There has been no experience as to the life of metal ties. With the present form of tie there are no breakages under ordinary circam- stances, and there is no weakening by rust discernible, not even with the older ties. Wherever a renewal has been necessary it has been on account of the enlargement of the holes in the tie by wear or of a crack between the holes. In no case can it be said that metal ties last longer than wooden ties. [In this connection, however, it may be remarked that wooden ties in Europe have a much longer life than in this country, from fifteen to twenty years or more, owing to the use of rail chairs, broad tie-plates, and preservative processes. — E. E. R. T. ] As remarked above, metal ties require ballast of the best quality. On this division broken stone of a hard and durable character is used ; this material costs from 62^ cents to $1.12^ per cubic yard according to looality, while gravel ballast for wooden ties costs only 25 to 62^ cents per cubic yard. The experience here is that metal ties have a tendency to grind the softer ballast to dust, which in wet weather becomes mud. If the ballast consists of soft clayey gravel, the cost of maintenance is proportionately greater. Without ballast metal ties could not be used at all. [They are, however, successfully used under such conditions in Australia. See "Queens- laud." — E. E. E. T. ] On the other hand, ballast of hard broken stone formsa solid hard body in the interior of the tie, which contributes considerably to the firm bedding of the track. For main lines there is a bottom course of large stones and the smaller material is brought up level with the tops of the ties; it is 21.97 feet wide on top (for double track), with side slopes of 1 to 1^ and a depth of 14 inches at the middle; the subgrade is crowned to an inclination of 1 in 25. For local lines the style of construction is the same; 10.5 feet wide on top with side slopes of 1 to 1, and a thick- ness of 6 inches under the tie at the middle. The attachments of the rail do not cause any difficulty ; on the contrary, the position of the rails is more securely maintained than with wooden tie i, and any loose fastenings can be easily tightened by driving the cotters, while with wooden ties respiking would be necessary. An impulse to the general use of iron ties on this division was given by the hard times of the home iron industry at the end of the last decade; in consequence of which the prices were so low that iron ties were actually cheaper than wooden ties, which had to be imported, as the home forests could not supply a sufficient quantity. The use of metal ties was also, partly from a patriotic motive, to help the iron indus- try. The experience with these ties was in general satisfactory, and their use was therefore continued. The dephosphorizing of the poorer German ores by the Thomas Gilchrist process has also been favorable to the use of metal ties by reducing the price for mild steel. Oak ties for main lines cost $1.37^ each, or .$1.50 if impregnated with chloride of zinc ; for branch lines some impregnated beech ties have been used, costing 96 cents each. The life of wooden ties varies between five and fifteen years ; a life often years is rare even for oak ties, as on account of the occasional respiking they become weakened, even if still sound. The value of old material must be taken into account, for while old wooden ties are practically of no value, old iron ties can be sold for $11.25J to $12.50 per ton, or about 62^ cents each. On the whole, metal ties appear to be as serviceable as wooden ties ; a disadvantage consists in their less elas- ticity, as riding over them feels harder to the passengers; but theyhave the advantage of a firm and accurate rail fastening. The climate is uniform and moist, having about the same effect upon wooden and metal ties. On the strength of our experience we can cousider metal ties only equal to the best wooden ties. It will depend upon local circumstances whether their use will be economical ; if, as in our district, the first 128 cost is not much higher, and if there is good material for ballast available at a low price, then the use of metal ties may he considered advantageous and economical on account of their longer life aud their value as old material. PRUSSIAN State Eailways. — Cologne Division, right bank of the Rhine {province of the Rhine, or Rhenish Prussia). — Metal track of dif- ferent types has beeu tried ou this division since 1868. A longitudinal used was similar to the " Vautheriu" type of cross-tie ; it was 8|| inches wide ou top, 11|| inches wide on the bottom, 2| inches deej), five-six- teenths of an inch thick on top ; the weight was 4G.3G pouuds per yard. Cross-ties of similar form were also used ; they were 7 feet 4-^% inches long, 3|f inches wide on top, 8^^ inches wide at the bottom, 2f inches deep, live-sixteenths of an inch thick on top; the weight was 77.1G pounds per yard, or 82.76 pounds including the fastenings. These were manufactured by the Gutehoft'uung works at Oberhausen. The longi tudinals were closed at the ends by angle-pieces bolted on; the gauge was maintained by means of tie-rods of round iron passing through the webs of the rails and haviug a washer aud nut on each side of each rail ; the rails were fastened by clamps and bolts. The rail joints were even and suspended, spliced by angle bars and channel bars. Willi the cross-ties, the rails of flange section were secured by bolts and clamps similar to the Euppel plan (See plate No. 13). The ties were bent up at the ends to give the rails an inward incliuation. For a rail length of 21 feet 8| inches, the ties were spaced 21f inches apart, center to center at the joints, 32J inches next to the joints, and 39f inches in- termediate, giving eight ties to a rail length. The rail joints were even and suspended and were spliced by angle bars. Cross-ties of the " Haarmann " type (See plate No. 12), have been in use for some years on the Cologne and Minden lino ; they are 7 feet 10^ inches long, the middle part is 4j^e inches wide ^u top and l|f inches deep, the width over the bottom flanges is 9-^ inches, and the edges of the flanges are turned down for a depth of thirteeu-sixteenths of an inch ; the thickness of the top is three-eighths of an inch. The ends of the tie are bent upward, and the extremities are closed bji^ bending down the top table, instead of by riveted j)ieces; the rail fastenings consist of bolts and clamps on the Euppel plan. The weight per tie is 108 pounds, or 113.9 pounds including the fastenings. For a rail length of 30 feet the ties are spaced 20;^^ inches apart, center to center, at the joints, 33f inches next to the joints, and 39 inches intermediate. The Haarmann system of longitudinals has also been used. The longitudinals were 3.92 inches wide at top and bottom of the "cap," 2.08 inches deep ; the width over the flanges was 12.8 inches, and the total depth 3 inches ; thickness of the flanges, sides aud top table was .21, .28, aud .36 inch. The weight was 47i pounds per yard. The track is similar to that of the Berlin Division, already described. The longitudinals were 29.52 feet long, laid v/ith even joints, but breaking joint with the rails. At each joint was au angle iron cross-tie, 6.23 feet long; at each end of it was a sad- dle to which the ends of the longitudinals were fastened. 129 The following is Mr. Bricka's statement of the track for tlie end of 1884: Milns. Main lines 920.08 Local lines 234. 30 Total track 2,241.92 Wooden ties 1,7.')?'. 94 Metal longitudinals 124.62 Metal ties^ 347.20 Stone blocks, etc 11. 16 Iron cross-ties of the modified " Berg-and-Mark " type (See Plate No. 12) are now in use on this division. They are 8.2 feet long for heavy ballast, or 8.85 feet long for light ballast ; 5.2 inches wide on top, 9.44 inches wide at the bottom, 3.2 inches deep, with the ends 3.6 inches deep ; the thickness of the sides is ,28 inch, and of the top table .32 inch. The tie is horizontal, but at each rail seat is a tie-plate giving the rail the usual inward inclination ; the outer end of this plate has an S-shaped lug, the toiJ part holding the outer side of the rail-flange, and the lower part passing through a slot in the tie and bearing on the underside of the top table. The inner flange of the rail is held by a bolt and clamp on the Euppel plan, the lug of the clamp passing through the bolt-holes in the tie-plate and tie. The joint ties are spaced 26.68 inches apart, center to center ; and the intermediate ties 37 to 37.04 inches. The rails are of flange section 29.52 feet long, 5.36 inches high, with a flange 4.20 inches wide ; they weigh 67.2 pounds per yard. The rail-joints are spliced by deep angle-plates, having a web projecting below the rail, the ends of this web being cut to fit the slope of the side of the tie ; there are four bolts to each joint. The track, with ties 8.2 feet long, weighs 2,750.09 pounds per rail length, or 305.58 pounds per yard. In June, 1888, there were altogether 612.75 miles laid with metal track, 450.69 miles with cross-ties, 153.78 miles with longitudinals not having cross-tie connections, and 8.28 miles with longitudinals having such connections. There are also on one of the local lines 7.8 miles of the Hartwich system of combined rail and longitudinal, laid directly in the ballast. Peussun State Railways. — Cologne Division, leffbanlcof the Rhine {province of the Rhine, or Rhenish Prussia). — On this division metal track has been used very extensively, and several different forms of track have been tried. Metal cross-ties are now exclusively used for renewals and new work. The following is Mr. Bricka's statement of the track for the end of 1884: Miles. Main lines 850.02 Local lines 168.64 Total track 2,117.30 Wooden ties 1,212.10 Metal longitudinals 252. 34 Metal ties 639. 8-1 gtone blocks, etc. ,....,...., «,•• , 13.0^ 228^3— Bull, 4 9 130 OfIongitudiual8the"Hilf," "Ehemsh,"aiid "Haarmann" types ha vo beeu used, but no new track of this kiud is now laid. Of cross-ties the Vautheriu type was first used, theu the Rhenish, the original Berg-and- Maik, the modified form of the " Bergaud-Mark," aud the ''Haarmann" tie. The modified form of tLe Bergaud-Mark type was cousidered the best. The " Haarmaun " tie was ordered by the minister of railways to be used on most of the divisions of the State railways, but it is reported that it has not given as much satisfaction as some other systems, and its use is not being extended. The ties of this type used on this divis- ion were 7.8 feet long, with the middle part horizontal, and the ends inclined upward 1 in 20 for a length of 26 inches. It was 4.4 inches wide on top and 4.8 at the bottom of the " cap," 2 inches deep ; 10 inches wide over the Hanges aud 2.56 inches deep over all; the thickness varied from .28 inch to .36 inch. A piece of N-irou (or double-angle iron) was riveted inside at each end aud at the middle. The weight of the tie was 110 pounds. With cross-ties of the modified "Berg-and-Mark" type the Ha&rmann system of combined tie-plate aud fastening has been used, as already described for the Kight Bank of the Ehine Railway. A special return from this division was furnished in 1888 for the pur- pose of this report, as follows : Of the 1,681.81 miles of liue, 943.96 miles were laid with metal cross-ties and 241.45 miles with luetal longitudinals, the remainder being still ou woodeu cross-ties. The track on longitudinals included 43.44 miles of the Rhenish type,' 1.86 miles of the Haaimauu type, aud 200.57 miles of the Hilf type, a total of 245.87 miles, of which about 5 miles of the first two tj'pes were for experiment. The first longitudinals were laid in 1872 and the first cross-ties in 1876. The division has 30 per cent, of its length horizontal and 70 per cent, ou grades; the steepest grade is 1 in 37, or 2.7 per cent. In alignment there are 65 per cent, of tangents and 35 per cent, of curves; the sharpest curve has a radius of 590.40 feet. The traffic consists of passenger and freight trains, some of the former being express trains. The standard four-coupled passenger engines weigh 37 tons, having 24.4 tons ou the two driving axles andl2.6 tons on the leading axle or truck ; the tender weighs 27.5 tons. The standard six-coupled freight engines weigh 38.5 tons, and their tenders 27.5 tons. The standard six-coupled tank engines foi branch or local lines weigh 29.2 tons. The ties are of mild low-carbon steel, and are not painted or otherwise treated. They are manufactured by the Aachen Mills; the Phcenix Company, of Laar; the Union Company, of Dortmund ; the Khenish Steel Works, of Ruhrort ; and the Good- Hope Works, of Oberhausen. The cost, delivered, is about $31.25 per tou. In regard to maintenance, every mile of track ou metal longitudinals requires about 372.58 days' labor of oue man per annum (231 days per kilometer), aud every mile of track on metal cross-ties requires about 267.74 days' labor of one man per annum (166 days' labor pur kilometer). The adjustment or widening of gauge at curves is efiected by means of different sizes of rail clamps without varying the holes in the ties. The observations as to durability are not yet concluded. The ballast consists principally of river gravel, but broken stone is used in some places. It is satisfactory for cross- ties, but with longitudinals care must bo taken to provide proper drainage. The prin- cipal reason fo^i' adopting metal ties was their advantage in maintaining the width of gauge accurately, and the convenience of track laying and tamping was also cou- sidered. In localities poor in wood the cheaper cost aud at least the same, but prob- ably longer, life than that of impreguated woodeu ties must be taken into account. 131 The general results have been very satisfactory. There has been no trouble with maintenance, or with the rail attachments, which are much more secuie than the ordinary spikes in wooden ties. No trouble has been experienced from breakages. With metal track the ties are more durable, so that the track is more econouiical ; and the fastenings are more efficient, so that the track is safer thaa track on wooden ties. Impregnated oak ties cost, exclusive of the value of old material, about |1.75 each, or about $3,104.84 per mile. They have an average life of about tweuty years. The simplest testimony as to the opinion of the advantages of metal and wooden ties is that since 1879 no wooden ties have been purchased, irou ties having been used exclusively. The drawings accompanying tbis coirimuuicatioa show cross-ties of the "Haarmann" and the modified "Berg-and-Mark" typos. The latter are 9.36 inches wide on the bottom, 3 inches deep over all, with the sides and top .28 and .36-inch thick respectively; the weight is 110 pounds. The former are 4.4 inches wide on top and 4.24 inches wide inside at the bottom of the " cap," 10 inches wide over the flanges; the middle part, or '' cap," is 1.64 inches deep, and the flanges are turned down .80 inch, making the total depth over all 2.56 inches ; the flanges are .24 inch thick, the sides .28 inch, and the top table .36 inch ; the weight is 110 pounds. Both these forms of ties are 7.87 feet long, hori- zontal at the middle for a length of 3.6 feet, and then inclined upwards to the ends at an inclination of 1 in 20. No tie-plates are shown, the rails resting directly on the ties and being secured by bolted clamps on the Euppel system. The rails are 5.36 inches high and 4.20 inches, wide over the flange ; the rail joints are even and suspended, and are spliced by deep angle bars, projecting below the rail, with four bolts. For a rail length of 29.52 feet the ties are spaced 26.68 inches apart, center to center, at the joints, 33.76 inches next to the joints, and the intermediate ties 38 inches. Cross-ties of the " Hoerde " oi " Post " type have also been used. The system of rail attachment designed by Mr. Euppel, of this divis- ion, is in extensive use and has given general satisfaction. (See Plate No. 13.) The rail is held by a clamp of such form that while the inner side bears on the rail flange the outer side bears on the top of the tie; on the under side of the outer edge is a lug or projection which fits into the bolt hole in the tie. The bolt passes up through the tie and clamp, and the nut is secured down on the latter ; the head of the bolt is of l- shape, so that the bolt can be put in or taken out without disturbing the ballast or the tie. The adjustment of the gauge at curves, etc., is eifected by using clamps with lugs of different widths fitting into the bolt holes. Prussian State Railways. — Franhfort-on-Main division (province of Nassau). — Metal longitudinals of the "Hilf" type were used in 1868 on the Nassau State Eailway, now a part of this division of the Prussian State Eailways. The following is a brief notice of the several different systems of metal track which have since been tried : Cross-ties : (1) Ties of the original " Vautherin " type, with gib andl 132 cotter fasteninj^s, open ends, and a piece of T-iron riveted across the bottom of the tie under each rail ; (2) ties of similar section, but with bolted clamp fastenings and having the ends closed by riveted angle pieces (as on the left bank of the Ehine Eailway ; (3) ties of the " Berg- and-Mark " type, with bolted clamp fastenings and with an angle iron riveted inside the tie under each rail ; (4) similar tie and fastenings, but with the ends closed ; (5) ties of the original " Vautherin " type, with bolted clamp fastenings and with the top table bent down at the ends; (6) ties of Haarmann section, with bolted clamp fastenings and closed ends, 18S1 ; (7) modified form of " Haarmann " tie, with the upper part wider and flanges narrow ; bolted clamp fastenings, ends closed by riveted angle pieces, 1885 ; (8) similar to l^o. 7, but with the top table inclined at the rail seats. This is the form of metal cross-tie adopted in 1887, as noted further on: Longitudinals, (la) "Hilf" type, two forms of sections, one with middle rib, the other without the middle rib and resembling the original " Berg-and-Mark " cross-tie; the joints of rails and longitudinals coin- cided and round tie rods maintained the gauge; (16) longitudinals with middle rib ; they were not brought close to the rail joints, but a cross-tie of similar section was placed on each side of the joint ; (Ic) longitudinals and rails laid to break joint, with a cross-tie of similar section under the rail joints; (l(i) similar track, but with the cross-ties placed back from the rail joints; (le) joints of longitudinals and rails coincided ; a cross-tie or similar section was placed under the joints and had a saddle support for the longitudinals ; (1/) similar to No. le, but with the addition of a T-iron cross-tie at the middle of the rails. This is the form of metal longitudinal track adopted in 1888, as noted further on. (2) Longitudinals of Hilf section, with joints coinciding with rail joints, and an angle iron cross-tie fastened to the rails at the joints ; (3a) similar longitudinals, with T-iron cross-ties under the joints and a saddle for the longitudinal ; {3b) similar to No. 3a, but with a differ- ent seat for the longitudinals and with cross-ties of the Lasard section (T) under the joints; (3c) similar to No. 3&, but with a T-iron cross-tie on each side of the joints ; (4) similar in general to No. 3c. The follow- ing is Mr. Bricka's statement of the track for the end of 1884: MUf. Main lines 639.84 Local lines 37.20 Total track 1,468.78 Wooden ties 790.50 Metal longitudinals 634.88 Metal ties 37.82 Stone blocks, etc 5.58 Metal cross-ties and longitudinals are now in use for main lines. The former are of the "Haarmann type" (See Plate No. 12) 8.2 to 8.86 feet long, 6.4 inches wide on top, 7.2 inches wide at the bottom of the cap, ^.2 inches wid^ over all j the depth is front ?Si ijiches at the ends and 133 middle to 3.4 inches at the inclined rail-seat ; the weight is 112.4 pounds per tie for the shorter, and 127.93 pounds for the longer, ties. There are ten ties to a rail length ; the joint ties are spaced 28 inches, center to center; the next ones 33.12 irifches, and the intermediate ties 37.96 inches. The rails are of flange section and the joints are spliced by deep angle-bars. The fastening for the rails consists of a bolt with a gauge- washer against which the rail flange abuts, and a channel-shaped clamp fitting over the washer and bearing on the tie and rail-flange. It is somewhat similar to the fastening used on the Baden State rail- ways (See plate No. 13), but with the exception that the gauge-washer fits into the bolt-hole in the tie, having an eccentric head which rests on the top of the tie. This system of fastening appears to combine the advantages of the Euppel and Baden systems ; the gauge- washer by fitting into the bolt-hole adding greatly to the solidity of the fastening and reducing the strain on the bolt. The weight of this track is 2,815.30 pounds per rail length or 286 pounds per yard. The longitudinals now used are of the Hilf lype (See plate No. 12). They are 29.38 feet long, 7.2 inches wide on top, 12 inches wide at the bottom, 2.6 inches deep, with the top table .52-inch thick. The weight is 674.75 pounds, or 69 pounds per yard. The rails are of flange section, and the fastenings consist of bolted clamps of channel shape {' — i) which bear on the longitudinal and the rail flange. Under the rail-joint is a cross-tie of the same section as the longitudinal ; it is 8.53 feet long, and weighs 196 pounds. The cross-tie is under the longitudinals, which are fastened to it by large angle clamps ( — i), with bolts passing through the cross-tie and the horizontal part of the clamp. Two channels are riveted across each end of the cross-tie and support the top table of the longitudinal from the inside. At the middle of the rail length is a T-iron cross-tie, 8.2 feet long, 5.6 inches wide, 6 inches deep, and weigh- ing 154 pounds or 66.34 pounds per yard. On curves of less than 1,640 feet radius two of these cross-ties are used. The weight of this track is 3,040.75 pounds per rail length of 29.52 feet, or 337.85 pounds per yard. In September, 1889, the officers of this division stated that the Hilf system of longitudinals will in future be used only to a small extent on a certain part possessing excellent material for ballast, which lets the water drain off quickly. Iron cross-ties are used on parts where stone ballast is readily obtainable. Where the road bed is in clayey or loamyl sand wooden ties are used exclusively on new branch and local lines. For the renewals on all lines during 1889 about an equal number of iron and wooden ties were used. Prtjsscan State Raiun ays.— JElrfurt division {promnce of Thu- ringia). — Various systems of metal track have been tried on this line, both with longitudinals and cross-ties, but the latter have now been definitely adopted. In October, 1889, the officials of this division for- warded a detailed statement in regard to their experience with metal track. 134 Metal ties were first laid ia 1879, and there are now 251.10 miles of track on seven sections of the line. The grades are from to 1 per cent., and the curves down to 984 feet radius. The traffic consists of passenger and freight trains, the express pas- senger trainsrunning at 43 J miles per hour. The heaviest six-coupled freight-engines weigh 40 tons in working order. The ties are manufactured by the Hosch Iron and Steel Works, of Dortmund ; the Mine and Mill Company, of Horde, and the Queen Marie Works, of Cainsdorf, Sax- ony. The cost is $33.75 per ton at the works. No preservative treatment is em- ployed, the ties being laid in the state in which they come from the rolls. It is estimated that the metal track will last thirty years, while wooden ties must be re- newed every twelve or fifteen years. The reasons for the adoption of metal ties were as follows: (a) the maintenance is cheaper than that of track on wooden ties; (6) the price is cheaper, taking into consideration the durability of thirty years, than that of wooden ties; (c) the encouragement of the iron industry. The general re- sults have been satisfactory, and there has been no trouble with maintenance, with the rail attaohmnts, or from breakages. The wooden ties are of pine or oak ; im- pregpated pine ties cost 87.5 cents per tie and last about ten to twelve years ; oak ties cost 11.37^ each and are estimated to last fifteen to eighteen years. Arrangements have been made for giving up entirely the use of the Hilf longi- tudinal system after a lapse of not more than five years. At the same time that the longitndiuals were first laid, in 1879, the laying of metal cross ties was also com- menced, and there are at present 251.10 miles of main track laid with them, equal to 17 per cent, of the total length of track of this division. In selecting the sections of the line to be laid with these ties, the quality of the ballast was taken into con- sideration, to provide proper drainage. The form of the tie now used has been arrived at by the development of the original form according to the experience ob- tained. The earlier ties were of the " Haarmann," " Hilf," and the original " Berg- aud-Mark " types. The "Haarmaun" ties were 7.87 feet long, and weigbed 113.65 pounds each ; they were 4.4 inches wide on top, 4 inches wide inside at the bottom of the " cap," and 10 inches wide over the flanges; the sides of the flanges were bent down .8 inch, making the depth over all, 2.56 inches. The vertical parts of the flanges were .20 inch thick ; flanges, .24 to .28 inch ; sides, -.28 inch, and top table, .36 inch thick. The ends were closed by riveted pieces of double-angle section (| '), the upper web fitting inside the " cap " of the tie, the flange riveted under the flanges oT the tie, and the lower web projecting below the end of the body of the tie ; the total depth at the ends was 3.40 inches. The tie was horizontal at the middle, and inclined upward 1 in 20 to the ends ; as this was found to render the track unstable, the tie was after- ward made horizontal, with the rail-seat inclined 1 in 20 by the Hosch- Lichthammer system. (See " Holland.") The fastenings were of the Enppel type, already described. The Hilf ties were 7.87 feet long, and weighed 114.4 pounds each ; they were 4.8 inches wide on top, 8.8 inches wide at the bottom, 2.4 inches deep, with the sides vertical for 1.2 inches fromthe bottom ; the sides were .32 inch and tlie top table .40 inch thick; the top table was bent down at the ends to a depth of 4 inches, and the sides were bent round outside at the end. The ties were of similar shape, longitudi- nally to the Haarmann ties, and the same fastenings were used. 135 The " Berg-and-Mark " ties were 7.54 feet long, 5.2 inches wide on top, 9.2 inches wide at the bottom, 2.4 inches deep, with the sides A-ertical for 1 inch from the bottom ; the sides were .28 inch thick, and the to[) table .36 inch ; with a rib 1.44 inches wide on the underside, inakiug I lie thickness .52 inch. The weight was 97.90 pounds per tie. The tie was horizontal at the middle and tlieu bent up at an inclination of 1 in 20 to the ends, which were closed by bending down the top table. Gib aud cotter fastenings were used. The ties now adopted are a modification of the Haarmann type, hav- ing the " cap " wide and the flanges narrow. They are 8.85 feet long, aud weigh about 126.50 pounds each ; the ends are flared out and are closed by bending down the top table ; they are horizontal throughout. They are 6.4 inches wide on to]), 7.2 inches wide inside at the bottom of the cap, 9.2 inches wide over the flanges, and about 11.2 inches wide over all at the ends ; the depth of the cap is 1.84 inches, and 2.8 inches over all; the depth at the ends is 4.8 inches. The sides are .28 inch thick, and the top table .32 inch. The fastenings are of the Haarmann type iilready described, the rail resting on a tie plate with a hooked lug at the outer end, and a bolted claini) on the inner end. The plate is 6 inches long and 7.08 inches wide over all ; aud from .28 inch to .5 inch thick. There are ten ties to a rail length of 29.52 feet; the joint tics spaced 26.68 inches center to center, and the intermediate ties abont 'M inches. The weight of the track is 2,854 pounds per rail length, or 290. 1. pounds per yard. In renewals on existing lines on this division about 50 per cent, of the ties used are of iron and the balance of wood. On new lines, howevei', preference is given to wooden ties on account of their less cost. The wooden ties used are generally of pine, imported from foreign countries, as the forests of this country can not supply the great demand. Prussian State Eailways. — Altona Division {Province of Schleswig- Holstein.) — Trials of metal track have been made on a small scale, and some of the Hoerde or Post steel cross ties have been tried. The fol- lowing is the substance of a statement made by the offlcers of this di- vision in August 1889 : On this division metal track has been tried only to a limited extent; hnt even on the short stretches of road where iron ties were used they have been replaced by wooden ties, because the ballast and road-bed of this division have proved to bo un- suitEible for iron ties. This oflStjial statement suggests two comments: First, it has been reported from time to time in the technical and other papers that metal ties have not been a success in Germany and have been abandoned. This has been through ignorance in taking the experience on one di- vision as representing that on the entire railway system. The other official statements which are given in this report show that on the whole the metal ties are giving good results and are being extensively adopted, after years of experience and experiment. Second, the state- 136 ment shows very clearly that the metal ties will not of themselves nec- essarily make a good track, since their abandonment on this division is due primarily not to any defect in the ties (the type used is not stated), but to the material of the ballast and the road-bed. Prussian State Railways. — Hanover Division {Province of Han- over). — Longitudinals of the "Hllf" type were first used in 1876 and " Haarmann " longitudiuals in 1880. At the end of 1884 there were 340.38 miles of track on longitudinals, of which 154.38 miles were on the Hilf system. The track is similar to that of the Berlin division, already described. In 1888 there were 222.3 miles of the Haarmann and 142.84 miles of the Hilf type. Metal cross-ties were first used in 1878, and their use has been continued. The " Vautherin," " Rhenish," and " Haarmann " types of ties have been tried. The latter are similar to those on the Erfurt division, with the rail seat formed on the Hosch- Lichthammer plan. The Haarmann fastenings, with the hooked tie- plate, and the Ruppel fastenings, with bolted clamps, are both used. The following is Mr. Bricka's statement of the track for the end of 1884: MiUt. Main lines I,l5>4.68 Local lines 101.06 Total track 2,570.52 Wooden ties 2,117.92 Metal longitudinals 340.38 Metal ties 107.26 Stone blocks, etc 4.90 Prussian State Railways. — Magdehw^g Division (Province of iiax- ony). — In 1879 trials were made with cross-ties of the same section as the Hilf longitudinal. Then the " Berg-and-Mark " tie of the Elberfeld division was tried, and later the Haarmaann tie. The latter weighed 112.2 pounds, were bent up at the ends to give the inclination to the rails, and had the Ruppel system of fastenings. The "Hoerde" or "Post" tie has been tried within recent years. The following is Mr. Bricka's statement of the track for the end of 1884: Main lines 858.08 Local lines 73. 16 Total track 1,920.76 Wooden ties 1,780.64 Metal longitudinals 13.02 Metal ties 126.48 Stone blocks, etc .62 Prussian State Railways.— Srestow Division (Province of Sile- sia). — On this division, cross-ties of the modified Bergand-Mark sys- tem have been tried. They are 8.2 feet long, 4.4 inches wide on top, 7.76 inches wide inside at the bottom, 9.12 inches wide over all at the bottom, 3 inches deep ; thickness of sides, .32-inch, and of the top table .36 inch. The weight is 120 pounds per tie. The ends are inclined up- 137 ward 1 in 20. The rail fastenings consist of clamps and bolts on the Ruppel plan. The joint ties are spaced 26.68 inches, center to center, and the intermediate ties about 37 inches. The weight of the track is 2,704.77 pounds per rail length, or 274.80 pounds per yard. In November, 1883, a contract for 599 tons of metal ties was awarded to the Laurahutte Works at $31.25 per ton at the works. Prussian State Railways — Bromberg Division (Province of Hast Prussia). — Metal cross-ties and longitudinals are iu use on this division. Of the latter there were, iu 1888, 116.12 miles of the Hilf system with heavy cross-tie connections ; 43.64 miles of the Hilf system without these connections, and the ends of the longitudinals resting on a saddle plate, and 32.17 miles of the Haarmann system. Bavarian State Railways. — Different systems of metal track have been tried on these lines, partly to reduce the expenses for maintenance and renewals, and partly in the interest of the iron industry of the State. The Hartwich system of track has been tried (see plate N^o. 12); also the Hilf and Rhenisli systems of longitudinals. The types of cross-ties tried include the " Vautheria" (weighing 77 pounds per tie) ; the Haarmann (102.3 pounds;) the " Berg-and-Mark," with rail seat in- clined on the Hosch-Lichthammer plan (114.4 ponnds); and the "Heiudl" (138.6 pounds). The engineers have recognized the superi- ority of cross-ties over longitudinals for main lines, but the latter are still used to some extent on secondary lines. In Jane, 1888, contracts were let for 11,100 tons of metal ties at about $29.10 per ton. Mr. Bricka, in his report, gives the following statement of the track for the end of 1884: Miles. Maiu IiDes 2,401.26 Local lines ^ '327.98 Total track... » 3,727.44 Wooden ties 3,232.06 Metal longitudinals 275.90 Metal ties ...-. 10.54 Stone bloclis, etc 208.94 The following different forms of tracks are in use on tliese railways : (1) Main lines, (a) steel rails on iron ties of the Heindl system; (b) steel or steel-headed rails on wooden ties. (2) Branch lines, (a) steel rails on iron ties of the Heindl system ; (b) steel rails on. wooden ties. (3) Local lines of standard gauge, {a) steel rails on iron longitudi- nals of the "Rhenish" type; (6) steel rails on iron cross-ties of the Heindl system, but lighter than the ties for main lines ; (c) steel rails with longitudinals or cross-ties, Hartwich system. (4) Local lines of meter gauge, iron rails on iron ties of the Heindl system. 138 The Heindl system of track with cross-ties has now been adopted as the standard system of metal track for main lines, and it has also been applied (in a lighter form) for secondary lines. Up to the end of 1887 this track had been laid as follows : Miles. 1883 17 1885 19.10 1887 , 35.34 1887 31 Total 85. Gl The Heindl system of track for main lines is described in full further on. Two lighter forms of this track have been designed for secondary lines of standard and meter gauge : (36) 8.2 feet long, 7.2 inches wide at the bottom, 2.4 inches deep, with ends 3 inches deep, top table .36 inch thick ; weight, 86.83 pounds ; no tie plates are used, the ends of the tie being bent up at an inclination of 1 in 20 ; bolted clamp fasten- ings on the Euppel plan are used; (4) 5.57 feet long, 6 inches wide at the bottom, 1.72 inches deep, with ends 2.40 inches deep, top table .32 inch thick; weight of tie, 43 pounds ; the rails are fastened by bolts and clamps on the Eoth-and-Schuler plan (see "Baden State Eail- ways")- The longitudinals of the Ehenish type are similar to those on the Alsace-Lorraine Eailways; they are 8.8 inches wide on top, 12 inches wide at the bottom, 2.4 inches deep; at the joints were cross- ties of T-section, 7.5 feet long, to which the longitudinals were secured by bolted clamps holding the flanges (See plate Ifo. 12) ; the outer flange rested on packing pieces so as to give the rail the inward inclination of 1 in 20; round tie-rods 1.02 inches diameter were used, spaced one to each rail length ; they passed through the webs of the rails. A lighter form of this longitudinal was 29.42 feet long, 6 inches wide on top, 8.4 inches wide inside at the bottom, and 9.2 inches wide over all at the bottom; 2.4 inches deep; sides .24 inch thick, and top table .32 inch ; weight, 35.21 pounds per yard. The top table had a small rib along each edge, forming a channel for the rail flange. The rails were fastened by bolted clamps similar to those used on the Hesse-Louis Eailway, but the bolts had not eccentric necks. The Hartwich sys- tem of combined rail and longitudinal has been tried on a length of 6.2 miles. The rails were 24.6 feet long, 6 inches high, with a head 1.8 inches wide and fi flange 4.8 inches wide; the weight was 58.35 pounds per yard. They were connected by tie-bars 1.8 inches by .36 inch, turned and screwed at the ends, passing through the webs of the rails and secured by a nut on each side of the web. The weight of the track was about 136 pounds per yard. At joints the rails rest on grooved bed plates, to which they are fastened by bolted clamps simi- lar to those of the Hesse-Louis Eailway, but without eccentric necks on the bolts. 139 The following is from official statements and drawings furnished in April, 1889, for the purpose of this report: The management of the Bavarian Goverument railways has made experiments for a number of years with different systems of metal track, both with iron longitudinals and iron cross-ties. Based upon the experience obtained by those trials a track with iron cross-ties, on the Heindl syscem, has been U8ed%lnce 1885, in combination with wooden ties, for all new construction and in the reconstruction of main lines. This track includes a method of fastening the rails patented by Mr. Eranz Heindl, chief inspector of the Austrian state railways (see "Austria"). These Bavarian lines are of standard gauge, 4 feet 8^ inches. Of the total length of the railways, comprising 4,063 miles, there were in 1889 the following systems of track : Miles. Wooden ties 3,312 Wooden longitudinals on bridges 3 Iron longitudinals 399 Iron ties, of different systems 33 Iron ties, Heindl system i 107 Hartwich system and stone blocks 209 Total 4,063 The following particulars refer to the Heindl system. The ties have been laid be- tween 1885 and 1889 ; the maximum grade upon which they are placed is 2| per cent., and the minimum radius of curves 984 feet. The traflBc consists of express and ordi- nary passenger trains and freight trains. The amount of traffic on the different lines, per yearly average, is 200 to 1,400 passengers and 2,500 to 6,500 tons of freight per day. The express engines weigh 35.43 tons each, and have a weight of 12.32 tons on the driviilg wheels ; the maximum speed is 43i miles per hour. The freight engines weigh 41 tons each, have a maximum load per axle of 13.8 tons, and travel at a maximu m spe ed of 25 miles per hour. The balfii! Is partly gravel and partly of broken stone. It completely fills the in- terior of the tie and is compressed very firmly by the pressure of passing trains. The ties are of wrought Iron, and are used without any paint or other protection against rust. They are manufactured in Bavaria by the Maximilian Works, at Haidhof, and by Kramer Brothers, of St. Ingbert. They cost, in April, 1889, |30.50 per ton at the works. So far there had not been any appreciable wear. The reasons for adopting these ties were to obtain a firm and stable track, a long life for the ties, and a security of the rail fastenings. The general results have been very satisfactory, there having been no trouble with the fastenings, nor with the maintenance of track. No breakages have occurred and the rails only break the same as on wooden ties. An iron tie costs 96 cents, and a pine tie, impregnated with chloride of zinc, 67 cents. The latter lasts on an average about twelve years. Besides the proper shape, a certain dead weight of the tie is absolutely necessary for the stability of the track, and the engineers of these lines consider a weight of 139 pounds per tie as the minimum admissible weight for track with ordinary traffic. Mr. Heindl recommends for main lines with a heavy traffic a weight of 175 pounds per tie. [While general experience does not seem to bear out the requirement of such weight, I would call especial attentloTi to this point of miuimura weight, as in many cases metal ties have been designed and Invented in which every other feature has been sacrificed in order to secure the least possible weight and amount of material and consequent cheapness in first cost. Ties of such design cannot be efficient in service, and are likely to make a track very Inferior to one laid with wooden ties, however desirable the use of the metal may be in itself. This is one of the pronounced defects of some of the ties patented in this country. — E. E. E. T. ] 140 The engineers of these lines consider the horizontal tie to be superior to one having the ends inclined upward. A tie-plate is also considered advaatageous with metal track, because it distributes the vertical pressure over a larger area, prevents the flanges of the rail from wearing into the tie, and gives also a wider bearing to resist lateral pressure. Good results are expected from the method of fastening the rails, especially on account of the separation of the part resisting the horizontal thrust from the part resisting the overf urning of the rail. The former are firmly seated, and are not affected by the inevitable motion of the rail. [It has the disadvantage, however, of increasing the number of parts, but this appears to be a matter of very secondary importance in European track practice. — E. E. E. T.] The ties are of inverted trough section (See plate No. 14), 8.2 feet long, 5.2 inches ■wide on top, 9.6 inches wide at the bottom. They are horizontal and of uniform sec- tion throughout ; the ends are closed by bending down the top table to a depth of 4.8 inches, and in the older ties the sides were also bent round at the ends. The weight is 138.6 pounds per tie. The top table is .36 inch thick, and the sides from .3 inch near the bottom to .32 inch near the top. At each rail seat are two oblong holes 2.32 inches long by .92 inch wide, 4.08 inches apart in the clear. There are eleven ties to a rail length of 29.52 feet ; the joint ties are spaced 20 inches center to center, the- next 30.1 inches, the next two spacings 34 inches, and the remainder 36 inches. The rails are of steel, of flanged section, 5.22 inches high, with a flange 4.20 inches wide, head 2.32 inches wide, top table 9 inches radius, top corners .56 inch radins, weighing 62.78 pounds per yard. Each rail rests on an iron tie-plate 4.64 inches long, 5.12 inches wide, with notches for the rail fastenings ; the rail seat has an inward in- clination of 1 in 20, and is from .22 inch to .44 inch thick; at the outer edge the plate is .68 inch thick, having a rib which resists the outward pressure of the rail flange. The weight is 2.16 pounds per plate. The fastenings consist of gauge-wa-shers, clamps, r.nd bolts; the former are 2.6 inches wide along the rail, and of different lengths according to the gauge ; oue end butts against the tie-plate, having a notch for the bolt, and the other end has a lug which fits into the hole in the tie. Upon this is the clamp, one end resting ou the washer and the other on the rail flang^^ They are held together by a X-headed bolt, .80 inch diameter, weighing .95 ponnd each, with the nut screwing down on the clamps. At one tie in each rail length a short piece of angle-bar is bolted to the rail, the flauge bearing against the side of the rail fastening and preventing creeping of the rail. The fastening is similar to the "Rnppel" type (see Left-Bauk-of-the-Rhiue Railway), but with the rail-clamp of the latter divided horizontally into two parts. The rail joints are suspended and are spliced by a pair of angle-bars and four bolts ; the bolts are .88 inch diameter, and are spaced 4.20 inches center to center, for the inner ones, and 5 inches for the outer ones. A space of .20 inch is left at the rail ends. The weight of this track per rail length is given as follows: [Per 29. 52 feet.] Material. 2rails 1 1 ties 2 outer angle-bars 2 inner augle-bars 8 splice-bolta 22 tie-platea 44 gauge-waahera . Weigbt. Pounds. 1, 235. 52 1,524.60 39.10 52.30 10.12 47.52 30.80 Material. 44 fastening bolta... 44 rail-clampa Total. Total per yard Weigbt. Pounds. 46.42 24.64 3, Oil. 14 334.40 Baden State Bail ways.— Mr. Bricka, in his report to the Minister of Public Works (France), mentioned the curious fact that on these 141 lines the work of maintenance is done by contract ; the railway admin- istration furnishing the material. The work is said to be well done, and the method to hav« proved satisfactory. The plan has also been tried on the Wurtemberg State Railways, and on the Swiss Central Railway. He gives the following statement of the track for the end of 1884 : Miles. Mainlines '- 701.84 Looallines 97.96 Total track 1,425.38 Wooden ties 1,339.38 Metal longitudinals 3.72 Metal ties 182.28 The following particulars are from an offlcial statement received in September, 1889 : The total length of railways in operation is 857. 888 miles, of which 343.288 miles are double track and 514.000 miles are single track. The total length of main track 18 1,178.10 miles, and of this amount at the end of 1888 there were 569.878 miles, or 47.8 per cent., laid with metal track, including 2.604 miles With longitudinals aud 567.274 with cross-ties. Iron cross-ties were first used in 1881, aud the experience with them proved so satisfactory that they are being used exclusively for renewals for all main track now laid with wooden ties. During the last few years iron ties have also been used in the construction of new roads. The renewal of wooden with iron ties upon all the main tracks of these railways will be completed in eight or ten years. The ties weigh 94.16 pounds each, but it is intended to use heavier ties as an ex- periment. They are not painted or otherwise treated, but no damage by rnst has been observed. The time during which they have been in service is too short to allow of any observations being made as to their durability or life. As far as the expe- rience goes, the iron ties are found to have considerable advantages as compared with wooden ties ; they last longer, and so reduce the cost of maintenance ; they also keep the track in line better and maintain the gauge more accurately. At first, how- ever, the maintenance of track on iron ties is not cheaper than that of track on ■wo'oden ties. The adjustment of gauge is effected by a washer on the bolt, with the bolt hole placed eccentrically, allowing for each line of rails three side movements of .132, .268, and .40 inch, so that the gauge can be widened .80 inch. The ballast is generally of coarse gravel or broken stone, in pieces upwards of 2.4 Inches diameter, free from earth or sand. This material admits of proper drainage and has proved satisfactory. The heaviest locomotives weigh 107,800 pounds in working order, and have a maximum load of 15,400 pounds per driving-wheel. The traffic consists of passenger and freight trains. The ties are of the original " Berg-and-Mark " type, as used on the Elberfeld division of the Prussian State Railways (see Plate No. 12) ; formerly they were of iron, but since 1883 they have been made of mild steel. The earlier ones were 7.38 feet long, which was consid- ered too short. The ties now used are 7.87 feet long, 4.8 inches wide on top, 8.8 inches wide at the bottom, 2.4 inches deep, with the sides vertical for 1.2 inches from the bottom. The thickness of the sides is from .24 to .28 inch, and of the top table .36 inch. The middle part of the tie is horizontal for a length of 3.28 teet. The rail seats are inclined upward 1 in 20 for a length of 25 inches, and then the ti^ incUnes downwarci to the wd. At the ev^s the top table js beat 142 down aud flared out, so that the closed ends are 4 inches deep and 10.8 inches wide over the bottom. The bolt holes are .84 inch square, with rounded corners. They are staggered at each rail seat instead of being placed opposite one another. The rails are of flauge section, made of Bessemer steel. The fastenings consist of bolted clamps, on the Eoth-and-Schuler plan. (See plate No. 13.) The bolt is .76 inch diameter, with a neck .80 inch square, and a round cup head 1.36 inches diameter; the bolt passes through a gauge- washer and rail clamp, and the nut screws down on the latter. The washer is 1.76 inches square and .56 inch thick ; it has a bolt hole .80 inch in diameter, so placed as to be .28, .412, .548, aud .68-inch from the four sides, thus permitting a close adjustment to gauge; the rail flange buts against this plate or washer. The clamp is of channePshape (| j) and fits over the gauge washer; it is 2.84 inches by 2.6 inches, with an oval bolt hole .84 by 1.24 inches; it is about .52 inch thick ; the shorter leg is .68 inch deep and bears on the rail flange; the longer one is 1.16 inches deep and bears on the tie. There are 11 ties to a rail length of 29.52 feet; the joint ties are spaced 22.8. inches apart, center to center, and the intermediate ties 33.72 inches. The weight of this track is 2,640 pounds per rail length, or 267.6 jjounds per yard. Prices bid for ties in December, 1889, averaged about $38.20 per ton. The road-bed is crowned at subgrade, and the ballast is filled in level with the tops oflihe ties. For double track lines the width over the bottom of the ballast is 26.24 feet, and the side slopes are 2 to 3, giving 18 inches of ballast beyond the ends of the tie ; the depth of ballast is 18 inches at the side, and 12 inches at the middle. For single track the width at the bottom is 14.27 feet, side slopes 2 to 3, giving 18 inches of ballast beyond the ends of the tie; the depth of the ballast is 16 inches at the side and 12.8 inches at the middle. At stations the top of the ballast is level with the surface of the ground; it is 11.48 feet wide on top, 10 inches deep at the sides, and 16 inches deep at the mid- dle, so that all water runs to the bottom at the middle, where there is a drain covered with broken stone of large size. - WuBTEMBBUG STATE Eail WAYS.— Metal cross-ties have been used since 1879, and sever.al different forms have been used. Those now used are of the modified Vautherin section, with ribs instead of flanges on the lower edges, and with a rib 1.66 inches wide aloug the underside of the top table to strengthen it at the holes for the fastenings. The tie is 7.87 feet long, 5.2 inches wide on top, 10.4 inches wide at the bottom, 3.2 inches deep ; the top table is .36 inch thick, and .52 inch at the thickened part. The weight is 130 pounds per tie. The tie is bent up at the rail seat, and then slopes dosvn so that the end is at the same level as the middle. The ends are closed by riveted pieces. Tlic rails are secured by gib and cotter fastenings, similar to those used on the Elberfeld division of the Prussian state railways, and they have given satisfaction, T)ie yfQfk of maintenance ji^ less than with track on 143 wooden ties owing to the weight of the tie. At the end of 1884 there* were 194 miles of metal ties, out of a total of 1,426 miles, and it was then expected to extend this about 37.2 miles per year. The following is Mr. Bricka's statement of the track for the end of 1884: Miles. Main lines 878.54 Local lines 78.74 Total track 1,404.92 Wooden ties 1,185.44 Metal longitudinals 16.74 Metal ties 194.06 Stone l)lock«, etc ; .-..-. 8.68 Alsaoe-Loeeaine State Eailwats. — A number of different sys- tems of metal track have been tried, and in August, 1889, the manage- ment reported that there were in use eight kinds of metal track and four systems of attachments. Of the total length of track there were then as follows : Miles. Wooden ties ._. 888.931 Metal longitudinals • 583. 686 Iron and steel ties 312. 015 The form of cross-tie adopted in 1887 is of the modified "Berg-and- Mark" type (See plate No. 12); 8.85 feet long, 5.2 inches wide on top, 1(1.52 inches wide over all, 3.6 inches deep; the sides are .28 inch thick and the top table .32 inch; weight 156J pounds. The earlier form of the tie of this type was 7.87 feet long, 4.4 inches wide on top, 7.84 inches wide inside at the bottom, 9.2 inches wide over the ribs, 3 inches deep, top table .4 inch thick, weight 126.5 pounds ; it was bent to a curve to give the rails an inward inclination. The rails were of flange section and were secured by clamps and bolts on a plan similar to the Euppel plan. The newer ties are horizontal, and the " Haarmana "tie-plate and bolt fastening are used, as on the Cologne division of the Prussian State Railways. The ends are closed. With this newer form of track there are ten ties to a rail length of 29.52 feet ; the joint ties are spaced 23.6 inches, center to center, the next 30.4 inches, the next 38 inches, and the intermediate ties 30| inches. The weight of the track is 3,204,88 pounds per rail length, or 325.70 pounds per yard. The Hcerde or Post ties are also being tried. A cross-tie of the " Haarmann " type has also been used ; it was 7.87 feet long, 4.28 inches wide inside at the bottom, 10 inches wide over all; the edges of the flanges were turned down .80 inch ; depth over all (not including the end plates) 2.56 inches. The end plates were of double angle, or H section, riveted to the horizontal flanges, closing the end of the " cap " of the tie and projecting 1.2 inches below the flanges. The weight was 106.7 pounds per tie. The " Haarmann" tie-plate and rail fastening were used, requiring only one bolt and clamp for each rail. 144 The Hilf system of longitudinals has been tried on this line. The longitudinals were 24.6 feet long, 12 inches wide at the bottom and 2.4 inches deep ; the thickness of sides and top was .32 inch. The rails were secured by bolted clamps, on a plan similar to that used for the cross- ties on the Hesse-Louis Eailway, but the bolts had not eccentric necks. The rail joints were spliced by one angle-bar and one channel- bar. At J;he joints of the longitudinals was a cross-tie 7.5 feet long, and the gauge was maintained by tie-rods pa ssing through the web of the rail and secured by nuts ; these were spaced 12.3 feet apart. Lon- gitudinals of the "Ehenish" type were also used; they were 8 inches wide on top, 12 inches wide over the bottom ribs, 9.84 inches wide in- side at the bottom ; 3.6 inches deep ; thickness of sides .32 inch, and of top, .36 inch. They were 24.6 feet long, and weighed 63.6 pounds per yard, a little more than those of the "Hilf " type. The ends were closed. The joints of the longitudinals were spliced by saddle plates 28.8 inches long, of almost similar section to them, fitting inside and secured by bolts. There were no cross-ties, the gauge being maintained by tie- rods placed at intervals of 12.3 feet. Longitudinals are now only used in exceptional cases. The Hartwich system of combined rails and longi- tudinals, consisting merely of deep flange rails, without cross-ties, has been "used where local lines are laid in the streets or along roads. The rails were 29.52 feet long, 7.2 inches high, with a head 2 inches wide and a flange 4.8 inches wide ; weight, 73.2 pounds per yard. They were connected at intervals of 9 feet 10 J inches by round tie-rods, 1 inch diameter, passed through the webs and secured by a nut on each side of each rail ; there were three tie-rods to each rail length. The rails were spliced at the joints by angle-bars with two rows of bolts. The weight of the track was 1,647,9 pounds per rail length, or 183.10 pounds per yard. Great care was taken to insure proper drainage. At sabgrade a line of large rough stone blocks was laid under each rail, and upon this was a bed of broken stone in which the rail was bedded to the middle of^he web. The ballast was filled in to the level of the rail heads, with a paving of blocks just under the tie-rods. Cross-drains were laid at intervals. These precautions, however, were expensive, diminishingany economy due to this system of track. This track was first laid about five years ago. The weights of the engines in use in 1885 were as follows : Class of engine. Total weight. Maximam weight on one axle. Passenger Freight- ^ Mixed I'or secondary lines Pounds. 80, 000 86, 240 68, 760 55, 880 Pounds. 32, 230 30, 140 28, 600 145 The following is Mr. Bricka's stateineut of the track for the end of 1884: Miles. Main lines 699.98 Local lines 109. 12 Total track 1,516.52 Wooden ties 874.82 Metal ties 79.98 Metal longitudinals 559.86 Stone blocks, etc : ' 1. 86 Main-Neokae Eailwat (See plates Nos. 12 aud 13).— On this line mild steel cross-ties have been used since 1880, and their use is being extended. The original Vautheriu section is adhered to, with the rail- seats formed on the Hosch-Lichthammer plan. Mr. Bricka in his report (1885) stated that wooden ties were not being used for new lines or general renewals. He reported the track as excellent. He examined ties that had been in service for three years and found no signs of wear under the rails or at the bolt-lioles. The track beliaved as well under the passage of trains as tiie best track on wooden ties, and cost less for maintenance. The following is his statement of the track for the end of 1884: Milo9. Main lines 58.28 Total track 148.94 Wooden ties 126.48 Metal ties 20.46 In October, 1889, 1 received the following report from this railway, with a letter stating that it would have been sent at an earlier date, but that having adopted that year a heavier section of tie they pre- ferred to wait untl particulars of these new ties could be given: Up to the end of 1889, about 100,000 cross-ties on the Hoscli-Liolitliamnier plan had been laid; equal to about 12,500 rail lengths of 24.6 foet, or 58.125 miles of track. Iron ties were fir.st used in 1881, and each year, until now, 10,000 ties have been laid ; in 1884 and 1885, however, 20,000 ties were laid each year. The ties are now of mild steel. The traffic is very heavy. The ties are manufactured by the Hosch Iron and Steel Works, of Dortmund ; the De Wendel Works, of Haizengen ; and the Hoerde Mining and Rolling Mill Company, of Hoerde. The cost per ton (1,000 kilograms = 2,200 pounds) is from $33.10 to $35.90, delivered at the Darmstadt station. At pres- ent the life of the ties canuot be given, bnt it is estimated (from eight years' experi- , ence) that they will certainly last between thirty and fifty years. Formerly gravel ballast was used, but broken stone is now adopted as experience has proved its supe- riority, especially for the heavy ties of the section of 1889. The change from wooden to iron ties was made because at the same cost of iron and wooden ties the former give certainly inore security and better gauge, and are al.so of longer duration. At (irst ties of .32 inch thickness were used, which, at the prices at that time, were hiirdly more expensive than oak ties. These light ties (weighing 84.414 pounds each) had the disadvantage that the entire track, rails and ties, was too light; it had to be fre- quently tami)ed and straightened or lined up. It was thought that this objection would be remedied by increasing the thickness of the tie to .40 inch, giving a weight of 106.75 pnnnils. The result wi\» uot.as good as had been expected, and therefore, in 22893— Bull, 4 10 146 1889, ties weighing 135.3 pounds were adopted, but were not delivered until October of that year. The good results expected from the use of metal ties have been in the main realized, and the safety of tlie trafSc is increased.' The maintenance of track with the light metal ties was a little more expensive than with wooden ties. There is uo more tro lib lo with the rail joints on these ties than on wooden ties. Breakafjes of ties occur very rarely, and of rails hardly ever. The metal ties have maiutaineil the gauge accurately, which was not always the case with wooden ties. Formerly two-thirds of pine and one-third of oak ties were used, both impregnated witb «. solution of sublimate. Thoy were 8.2 feet long, 5 to 5.5 inches wide, and 4 incheti thick. The cost was $1.27^ per tie for oak, and 7'.\i cents for pine. The adzing of the rail seat cost 2 cents, ani the preserving 8f cents, so that the cost for tie com- plete was |1.38i for oak and 84i cents for pine. The life is from fifteen to twenty years for oak, and from five to eight years for pine. The sharpest curve on which the metal ties are laid is of 1,148 feet radius, and the steepest grade is 1 iji 333. The ties of 1880 were of mild steel ; they were 8.2 feofc long, 4 inches wide on top, 2.4 inches deep, 8.8 inches wide over the bottom flanges, which were .6 inch wide ; the thickness was from .24 inch at the lower part of the sides, to .32 inch at the top table. The middle portioix of the tie was horizontal for 4.23 feet, the rail seats were inclined 1 in 20 for 8.52 inches, and the ti^' was then horizontal to the end. The weight was 81.41 pounds per tie. The fastenings were of the Ruppel plan of bolted clamps. The bolt holes at each rail seat were staggered. The rail joints were even aud suspended, spliced by straight plates and four bolts. To a rail length of 24.6 feet there were nine ties ; the joint ties spaced 21.6 inches apart, center to center, and the intermediate ties 34.8 inches. The ties of 1883 were similar to the above, but the thickness was from .26 inch to .36 inch. The ends and middle of the tie were in the same horizontal line, the rail seats being inclined and then sloped back to the norm.il level. At the rail joints one of each pair of clampS was long enough to cover thi- width of the flange of the rail. There were nine ties to a rail length of 24.6 feci ; the joint ties were spaced 20.4 inches apart, center to center ; the next 31.88 inches, and the' intermediate ties 36 inches. The weight was 91.85 pounds per tie. These tics were of mild steel. The ties of 1886 were similar to those of 1883, but the thick- ness was from .32 inch to .40-inoh. The rail joints were spliced by one channel bar and one straight bar, 27.2 lEiches long, with six bolts. The weight was 106.75 pounds. There were nine ties to a rail length of 24.6 feet; the joint ties spaced 26.08 inches center to center, the next ones 29.04 inches, aud the intermediate ties 36 inches. The ties of the type adopted in 1889 are of the same general type. They are 8.2 feet long, 5.6 inches wide on top, 2.8 inches deep, 10.4 inches wide over the bottom flanges, which are .72 inch wide. The thickness is .32 inch at the sides and .40-inch at the flanges and the toi) table. The rail seat is inclined for a length of 10 inches, and then slopes back in 6 inches to the horizontal line of the tie. The ends are bent to a depth of 4.8 inches. The weight is 135.2 pounds per tie. The fastenings are of the Euppel system. The rails are of flange section, 5.2 inches high, with a flange 4 ' inches wide. The joints are spliced by one straight and one channel bar, with six bolts. For a rail length of 24.6 feet there are nine ties. The joint ties are spaced 26.08 inches center to center, the next ones 29.04 inches, and the intermediate ties 36 inches. For a rail length of 32.8 feet, there are twelve ties; the joint ties are spaced 26.08 inches center to center, the next ones 28.64 inches, aud the intermediate ties 35.2 inches. The weight of the track for a rail length of 24.6 feet is 2,337.32 pounds, or 28.5 pounds per yard. Hesse Louis Railway. — On this line the Hilf system of longitudinals has been tried, but this system of track was abandoned, as the cost of maintenance on tlie 78 miles laid with it was found to be, during tlie years 1881 to 1886, 36 per cent, higher than that of track on cross-ties, 147 The "Berg and-Mark" type of cross-ties is now used. The followiug is Mr. Bricka's statement of the track at the end of 1884: Miles. Main lines *. 420.36 Total track 757.02 Wooden ties 484.46 Metal longitudinals ; 78. 12 Metal ties 192.20 Stone blocks, etc 1. 24 The followiug is from a special report received in January 1890 : Metal track is in use to a greater or less extent on all the divisions of tlie road. The lines from Frankfort-on-Main to Eschhofen, from Wiesbaden to Niedernhauseu, from Babenhausen to Hauau, and from Erbaoh to Eberbacb, are laid entirely with metal track. At the end of 1888, there were 304.42 miles of main line, and 75.02 miles of local lines, laid with such track ; making a total of 379.44 miles. The steepest grade on which the track is laid is 1.43 per cent. (1 in 701, and the sharpest cuivehas a radius of about 984 feet. The first metal track was laid in 1874. The traffic con- sists of passenger, freight and express trains. The heaviest locomotives weigh 48 tons, without the tender, and have a maximum load of 7 tons on the driving wheels. At the end of 1888 the metal track included 300.08 miles of cross-ties and 79.36 miles of longitudinals. The longitudinals are of the Hilf type, with middle rib. The cross-ties are of similar section, but withoiit the middle rib ; they are 8.2 feet long and weigh 114.4 pounds. Both longitudinals and cross-ties are of rolled iron. They are not treated with any preparation to resist rust. They are manufactured by the Luxemburg Metal Works, the Saarbruck Iron Works, and the- Burbach Forge Company, near Saarbruck. During 1888, the contract price for cross-ties averaged $28 per 2,200 pounds, at the works. Lougitudinals have not been purchased since 1879. The cost of maintenance of the track on metal ties can only be given for the parts which are laid entirely with metal track ; on the other parts the costs for wages, road-bed material, etc., for track on iron and wooden ties, are not kept in separate accounts. In 1888 the cost for maintenance of track, for material and wages, per kilometer, was as follows: (a) Frankfurt Station to Eschhofen |108 (6) Wiesbaden to Niedernhausen 79 ( o) Babenhausen to Hanau 87 {d) Erbach to Eberbach 85 The cost per car axle per kilometer is calculated as follows : (a) 6.25 cents ; (6) 8.5 cents; (c) 7.25 cents; (d) 9.75 cents. At curves, the holes in the longitudinals are drilled to correspond to the curves, and the gauge is kept by the cross counectious and the cross-ties uuder the joiuts of the longitudinals. With cross-ties, the bolts which fasten the rails have eccentric necks which admit of an adjustment or widening of gauge at curves of .72 inch in nine movements. Tie-rods are used with the track on longitudinals. When first laid, only one tie-rod was placed to each pair of longitudinals, but experience proved that a second was desirable. These tie-rods are placed at the middle and ends of the rails, and are secured by bolts and nuts. As to the durability, the time during which the metal Drack has been in service to a large extent is too short to enable a definite statement to be made. The ballast consists of gravel and broken stone. Coarse gravel or broken stone are good; fine gravel or sand are not so satisfactory. The width of ballast is from 11.48 feet to 22.96 feet. The rails are of flange sec. tion ; those on longitudinals weigh about 52 pounds per yard ; those on cross-ties weigh 71.65 pounds per yard. In exceptional cases, rails weighing 71.65 pounds per yard will be laid on longitudinals. On longitudinals the rail joints are spliced bv 148 a i)air of plain splice bars ; on cross-ties they are spliced by a pair of angle-bars. On track with cross-ties the rail joints are suspended. Metal track was used priuci- cipally because wooden ties wero sometimes difflcult to obtain, and also because with raetal track a better track-laying and maintenance of gauge is insured than is at- tainable with wooden ties. The results with metal track thus far are thoroughly satisfactory. With good road-bed material the maintenance of the track gives no trouble, and neither is there any trouble with the rail fastenings. No transvertc breakages have occurred with longitudinals or cross-ties; on the other hand cracks lengthwise of the tie are not uncommon between the bolt holes, and a stronger con- struction of the track was very soon required. An opinion can not yet be given as tu the comparative durability or life of metal .and wooden ties. An impregnated pino tie costs at present 86 cents ; an impregnated beech tie, 84 cents to $1.37; and an oak tie, |1.30 to $1.42. The life of an impregnated pine tie averages ten years, th:it of an impregnated oak tie, twelve years. The life of beech ties is not yet determined. The temperature ranges between — 15° C. and + 25° C. in the shade. No effect of the climate upon wooden or metal tics has been observed. The cross-ties are consid- ered better than longitudinals, as they give a better drainage of the road-bed, and consequently the work of maintenance of the track is less. The following particulars aretakeu from the drawings accompanyiug the above commuQication : The longitudinals are 29.39 feet long, fur rails 29.52 feet long; the joints of rails and longitudinals corresponding. They are 7.2 inches wide on top, 13 inches wide at the bottom, 2.4 inches deep ; the sides are vertical for 1.3 inches from the bottom ami the middle rib is the full depth. The thickness is .33 inch ; the middle rib is .8 inch thick at the upper part and .4 inch thick at the bottom. The cross-ties at the joiuts are of similar section ; they are 8.53 feet long, with the middle portion horizontal and the ends bent up at an iuoliuatiou of 1 in 30 to give an inward inclination to thi! longitudinals and rails. Each rail is secured to the longitudinal by twelve pairs of bolted clamps, spaced about 34 inches center to center, aud 36.2 inches at the rail ends. The longitudinals are attached to the cross-ties by bolted clamps. Thelougitudluali and cross-ties weigh 59.1 pounds per yard, or 579 and 168 pounds each, respectively. The weight of the track is 2,484.5 pounds per length of 39.39 feet, or 276 pounds per yard. The ballast consists of a bottom course of large stone, and an upper course of ordinary broken stone, filled in to the tops of the longitudinals. The cross-ties are 8.2 feet long, 4.8 inches wide on top, 9.6 inches wide at the bot torn, 3.8 inches deep; the sides are vertical for 1.2 inches from the bottom. The thickness of the sides is from .24 to .36 inch; the top table is .4 inch thick. The mid- dle portion of the tie is horizontal, the rail-seats are inclined for alength of 16 inches, aud the tie is then hoiizoutal to the ends, which are closed by beuding down the top table to a depth of 4 inches. The bolt-holes are oblong, 1.24 by .88 inch; they are 3.6 inches apart in the clear and are staggered, being 1.6 inches center to center- The rails are secured by lolted clamps (See plate No. 13). The bolts have eccentric necks to permit of adjnsiment.s of gauge, and have hemispherical heads, so that they can not be put in from above. The clamps are of ^ shape, the horizontal leg rest- ing on the rail-flange aud the vertical leg on the tie. There .ire eleven ties to a rail lengili of 29.52 feet; they are spaced 25.2 inches ceuter to center at the joints, 31.4 inches next, and the intermediate ties 34 inches center to ceuter. The rail-joints are spliced by angle-bars aud four bolts; the bars bear against the clamps on the cross- ties, and creeping of the rails is thus prevented. LowEB Palatine (Ppalz) Railway. — The following particulars are taken from a statement and drawings furnished in September, 1889, by the officers of the Pfalz Railway (Rhenish Bavaria) for. the purpose of this report : 149 On tho railways of tlio Palatine, iron "cross-ties have l)eon nsed since 1885 ; at first tliey were of wrought iron, but are now of mild steel, niauufactured by the Thomas process. An far as experience goes, these ties have proved successful. They are now used not only in continuous stretches, but also Singly in exchange for wooden ties in ordinary renewals. The total quantity, up to the end of 1889, is about 160,000 ties, and there are continuous stretches of track 63.8() miles long laid with them. Tho ties are of the Hoerde type, similar to the " Post " type (See '" Holland"), ex- cept that each side is in one plane instead of two, as in the latter. They arc 7.87 feet long, and weigh 114.4 pounds. The top is horizontal at the middle, inclined npward 1 in 20 at thc*rail-seats, and then sloped down to the ends, which are closed. At the outer part of the rail-seat the tie is 4 inches wide on top, 9.4 inches wide over tho bottom ribs, 3.56 inches deep, .44 inch thick on top ; under the rail it is 4.4 inches wide on top, 9.4 inches wide over the bottom ribs, 3.26 inches deep, .44 inch thick on top; at the inner part of the rail-seat it is 4.8 inches wide on top, 9.4 inches wide over the bottom ribs, 2.8 inches deep, .28 inch thick on top ; at the middle, it is of fl section, flat for about 1 inch on top, 3 inches wide just below the top, 4^ inches wide over tho bottom, 5 inches deep, .28 inch thick. The top table is bent down at the end, projectiug 2.8 inches below the bottom of the tie. The rails are fastened by bolted clamps, on the Kuppel system. The rails are of flange section, 5.36 inches high and 4.20 inches wide over the flange. There are niue ties to a rail length of 24.6 feet ; the joint-ties are spaced about 22 inches center to center, the next 33 inches, and the intermediate ties 37.75 inches. The track weighs about 2,362 pounds per rail length, or 270 pounds per yard. LuBECK AND BucHEN RAILWAY. — On this line metal ties have been trietl since 1878. Mikl steel cro.s8-ties of inverted trough section are now used; they are somewhat narrower and deeper at the middle than at the ends. The section at the rail seat resembles that of the Hilf or the modified " Berg-and-Mark " ties, but the vertical part of the sides is very shallow, and has a small rib on the bottom edge; the section at the middle more nearly resembles that of the " Post" tie, but here too the change of plane of the sides is very low down. The tie is 7.87 feet long, and weighs 107.8 pounds; at the rail-seat it is 9.2 inches wide over the bottom and 3.2 inches deep, with the top table .36 inch thict, and the sides .3 inch thick at the top and .25 inch at the bottom ; at the middle it is 8 inches wide at the bottom and 4 inches deep, with the same thickness. The rails are of f3ange section, weighing 70.42 pounds per yard, and are secured by clamps and J.-headed bolts; the bolt- holes are staggered. For a rail length of 29.52 feet there are eleven lies; the joint-ties are spaced 27.12 inches center to center, the next ones 33.24 inches, and the intermediate ties 33.32 inches. The weight of the track is 2,716.36 pounds per rail length, or 276 pounds pier yard. Haleerstadt and Blankenberg Eailwat.— Cross- ties of the " Berg-and-Mark " type are used, with gib and cotter fasteTiings. They are 7.12 feet long, have the ends bent to an inclination of 1 in 20, and weigh 88 pounds each. The rails are of flange section, 21.62 feet long, 5.2 inches high, with a flange 4 inches wide. The weight of the track is 1,767.87 pounds per rail length, or 245.37 pounds per yard. This, railway includes the rack-rail line, on the Abt system, from Blankenberg to Tanne. The ties are of similar section to the above, 7.21 feet long, 150 8 inches wide on the bottom, and weighing 90 pounds each. The ends are closed by riveted angle-irons, and other angle-irons are riveted inside at about 18 inches from the end. The ties are spaced about 35 inches ■center to center. The rack-rail is carried in chairs which are fastened to the ties by gib and cotter fastenings similar to those for the track- rails. The ballast is filled into the ends of the tie to the inner angle- irons, and the middle part of the track between the rails is left entirely clear of ballast. MTJLHA.USBN, ENSISHEIM AND WiTTENHEIM EAILWA"!?. — This is a country tramway line, built partly along the public highway, and the information given, which is taken from a report published in 1888, re- fers only to the section from Mulhausen to Ensisheim, the extension of 4.83 miles to Wittenheim not having been built at the time of the report. The line was opened in December, 1885, being built to develop the trade of the old city of Ensisheim, which had declined on account of its isolation from railway communication. The line is 10.22 miles long, 1 meter gauge j maximum grade 2.4 per cent, for 295.20 feet, with other grades of 1.2 to 2 per cent, for a total length of 1,459.60 feet. The sharpest curve is 65.6 feet radius, and the alignment is as follows: Tangents, 7.70 miles, or 76 per cent.; curves of 3,280 feet radius, .35 mile, or 3 per cent.; curves of 1,640 to 328 feet radius, 1.63 miles, or 16 per cent.; curves of less than 328 feet radius, .53 mile, or 5 per cent. Three systems of track have been adopted : (1) The Demerbe track, consisting of a rail of saddle or inverted trough section, weighing 61.36 pounds per yard. On the upper surface is a groove for the wheel flanges. It is used for a length of 3.5 miles for passing through villages It requires no bolts, being secured by keys. On tangents the rails are 29.52 feet long, and on curves of 65.6, 98.4, and 114.8 leet radius they are 14.76 feet long, with two cross-ties. The rail is the same as that used on the Mulhausen street railway, but the attachments and splices are simpler. (2) Flange rails on oak ties. (3) Flange rails on iron longitudinals. This system, employed especially where the width of the road is not more than 22.96 inches from the center of the track to the side, is composed of a rail 3.4 inches high, bolted to an iron longitudi- nal. The joints are entirely suspended, the splice plates being clear of the ends of the longitudinals. The rails weigh 31.69 pounds per yard, the longitudinals 24.75 pounds per yard, and the track complete about 120.75 pounds per yard. The rails are 29.35 and 29.52 feet long, and the longitudinals 27.71 and 27.88 feet. The gauge is maintained by five tie-rods of round iron to each pair of longitudinals, secured by nuts at the ends ; they are spaced 6.9 feet center to center. With this system of track, which is laid for a length of 2.32 miles, the minimum curvature possible is 328 feet radius, on account of the necessity of bending the longitudinals. For curves of 328 to 656 feet radius, the outer and inner rails are 19.68 and 19.51 feet long respectively, and the outer and inner longitudinals are 18.04 and 17.87 feet long respectively. 151 HoLLENTHAL RAILWAY. — This IS a standard gauge railway between Freiburg and Neustadt, which was opened in May, 1887. It is 21f miles long, of which 4| miles are fitted as a rack railway. The rack used is of the Marsh (or so-called Eiggenback) ladder type. The track is laid with mild steel cross-ties of the Hilf type, with closed ends. The rails are of flange section, and are fastened to the tie by bolted clamps ; the chairs for the rack rail are bolted to the middle of the tie. The rails are 29.52 feet long and weigh 72.84 pounds per yard. There are ten tie^ to a rail length. The ordinary track weighs 246.3 pounds per yard, and the rack and appurtenances 256.8 pounds per yard. TIES. Ihe Hoerde Tie. — This is practically the same as the " Post " steel cross-tie, already described (see Holland). In February, 1888, the manufacturing company (Hoerder, Bergwerlis und Hntteu Verein) stated that the following numbers of these ties had already been supplied : German railways, 500,000 ; Gotthard Railway, 160,000; Swiss Western Railway, 160,000; Sumatra Railway, 80,000 ; Dutch State railways, 100,000; total 1,000,000 ties. Besides these, about 200,000 had been laid in France and Belgium. Tire price then varied from $25.84 to $28.34 per ton, free on board at Antwerp, accord- ing to size and quantity. The special features of this form of tie are that the inclination of 1 in 20 is given to the rail seat in the process of rolling, while at the same time an increased thicli- ness is given to the same part to increase its strength and durability. The tie is also made narrower aud deeper at the middle than at the ends. By the method of rolling just mentioned the metal is subjected to less working and fatigue than when the seat is stamped to shape by a subsequent operation ; the thickness may be increased .12 to .16 inch, while at the same time it may be reduced at other parts of the tie without diminishing the eificiency of the tie. A reduction of 10 per cent, iu weight is claimed, with equal strength and durability to a tie of uniform section. By making the tie deep at the middle its stiifuess or rigidity is increased, and any buckling or bending which inight alter the width of the gauge is prevented, even when the tie is improp- erly ballasted. Kor main lines it is not advisable to reduce the weight below 110 pounds, but it is claimed that for secondary railways the ties may weigh only 73 for a length of .62 mile. They are of similar weight and dimensions with those on the state railways. Galician (Gael- Louis) Eailwat. — A length of .62 mile was laid with the Heindl system of steel cross-ties in 1884. These also are simi- lar to the tics in use on the state railways. Northwestern Eailway. — On this railway metal longitudinals have been tried since 1876, and the following very complete description of the track was furnished in March, 1888, by Mr. Hohenegger, chief engineer, for the purpose of this report. (See plate No. 14.) The Hue betweeu Vienna and Tetschen has 59.51 miles laid with metal track, which have been laid as follows : Tear. Form. No. of miles. 1876 . I ir Ji II It III iir Tit III III in 2.5* 187r 2.45 1878.... 4.7U 1830 . . 3 33 188; 2.58 1882 . 7 87 1883 15.31 ]884 6 20 1885 ; 6.32 ]S8B 4.33 1887 3.87 Of this length the alignment is as follows : Miles. On tangents 37.21 On curves of: 9,840 to 3,280 feet radius 7.44 2,952 to 1,908 feet radius 3.35 1,640 to 1,148 feet radius 11.00 984 to 935 feet radius 51 There are daily, in both directions, two fast express trains, two express trains, eight accommodation trains, and at least ten freight trains. The passenger engines weigh 42 tons each, in working order, and have a weight of 12.4 tons on the driving axle ; the freight engines weigh 45 tons in working order and have a weight of 11.25 tons on the driving axle. The track is laid with three forms of metal longitudinals : 2.54 miles of No. I 13.07 miles of No. II, and 43.90 miles of No. III. Those of forms No. I and No. II are made from old iron rails, and weigh 51.90 pounds and 60.95 pounds per yard, re- spectively; No. Ill are of mild steel, made by the Thomas process, and weigh 58.80 pounds per yard. There is no protection against rust, the longitudinals being laid in the state in which they leave the rolls ; no rust has thus far been observed. The longitudinals are manufactured at the Teplitz Boiling Mill and Bessemer Works, 159 Price. — The prices are as follows, for delivery at railway stations : No. I, $5.94 per 220 pouuds, or about $60 per toa ; No. II, $3.46 per 220 pounds, or about $35 per ton ; No. Ill, $4.56 per 220 pounds, or about $46 per ton. For the manufacture of Nos. I and II, the railway company furnished the necessary old rails, which were aceepted and accounted for at $1.93 per 220 pounds, or about |20 per ton. Benewals. — Of form No. I, after eleven years' service, one longitudinal was re- newed on account of the opening of a welded joint; this is 0.0001 per cent, of the whole. Those of form No. II were made from old flange rails, which were simply welded together, and rolled in three sizes ; of the iirst delivery, after ten years' serv- ice, 7.08 per cent, had to be renewed ou account of imperfect welding. Those of form No. Ill are, so far, without defect or failure, and not one piece has been re- newed. Curves. — The longitudinals of forms Nos. I and II are rolled straight, and tlie holes for the rail-bolts were spaced according to the radius of the various curves; those of form No. Ill are bent, while hot, to the required curve. Those of form No. I were all of equal length, because, in consequence of the considerable distance left between the ends at the joints, a shortening on the curves can easily be effected by laying them closer together. Nos. II and III are made of shorter length for the inner side of curves, a certain number being laid according to the shorter rail length and the radius of the curve. Tie-rods. — These were originally used for Nos. I and II, because the longitudinals were only connected at the ends by transverse ties, the distance lietween them being 31.81 feet for No. I and 15.83 feet for No. II. An experience of several years has proved that tie-rods are not necessary for preserving the accuracy of the gauge, the transverse conuections under the longitudinals being sufficient for this purpose ; these connections placed at intervals of 9.84 feet answer the purpose. Wear. — The ouly wear observed has been with some longitudinals of form No. I, in which the flange of the inner rail ou curves has worn slightly into the top table. Durabilitij. — The life of the longitudinals of form No. I is estimated at about fifty years ; tliose of No. II, made of old flange-rails, will hardly last as long, as, being made simply by welding the old rails together, a gradual opening of the welded joints must be expected, especially in those parts which correspoud to the former web of the rail ; the pieces which have required to be renewed have shown this defect distiuctly.- Those of form No. Ill, being of steel, will certainly last even longer than those of form No. I. Fastenings. — The rail fastenings for form No. Ill (See plate No. 14) effectually pre- vent creeping of the rail on the loogitudinal by firm hold of the clamp on the rail- flauge and the.db of the longitudinal. The inclined outer face of the clamp admits of an adjustment of the gauge ; this is effected by slacking one nut, which allows the clamp to rise and also move back ; the rail is then shifted, the opposite clamp pushed down to a corresponding exteut, and both nuts then screwed tight. The rail-flange butts against a boss on the lower side of the clamp, which thus receives all the force of the lateral thrust caused by passing trains, and transfers it to the rib of the longi- tudinal, thus protecting the bolt from wear. Ballast. — The ballast is of river gravel, excavated gravel, and broken stone. The core of ballast inside the longitudinal is compressed, by tamping and by the pressure of passing trains, to such an extent that it can only be loosened by means of a pick ; this compression extends nearly 12 inches below the lower edge of the longitudinal and prevents the quick drainage of water from between the rails, this prevention of the drainage varying with the deijree of compression of the ballast. For this reason it is recommended that the ballast should be clean and of a character which will allow of the water passing through ; where this can not be had, however, snfflcient means for drainage must be provided. No heaving by frost has beeu observed on this track. Bails. — The rails are of one flange section, weigh ,5875 pounds per yard. The Joints are spliced by an inner straight plate, and an outer double-angle or channel plate ; 160 four bolts are used. The outer plate was of symmetrical shape for Nos. I and II, and served to hold the head of the rail in horizontal position as well as to support it vertically. At each end the splice-plate bore against a rail-clamp bolted to the longi- tudinal, and thus prevented creeping; in this way the tendency to creep caused by the passage of trains was transmitted to the longitudinal, which was itself prevented from moving by its rigid cross connections. For form No, III the outer splice-plato is of unsymmetrioal section, the upper flange being narrow; the edge of the lower flange bears against the rib of the longitudinal, thus increasing the resistance to the outward thrust of the rail. A bolt passing through this flange and the top of the longitudinal effectually prevents any creeping beyond that allowed by slight inaccu- racies in drilling the bolt-holes. An inner angle-plate, bearing against the other rib of the longitudinal, completes the joint and makes a solid continuous Crack. With Nos. I and II the rail-joints are supported, but with No. Ill they are suspended. The steadily increasing speed and weight of passenger trains made it necessary to employ heavier and more rigid locomotives, and this traffic nearly reached the limit of the power of resistance of the ordinary track with cross-ties. To strengthen this track by the use of oak ties, or even iron ties, in place of the usual pine ties, would have increased the expenses considerably wilhont increasing in equal proportion the power of resistance ot the track against lateral pressure on the many and sharp curves of the road. These reasons led to the adoption of track on metal longitudinals, afior a preliminary trial had been made in 1876; but the great cost of such track made it necessary to study the matter more thoroughly. At the first, attention was directed to making use of old rails, which, in consequence of the increasing introduction of steel, would bo obtained at very moderate prices. The success of the experiment per- mitted the adoption of iron track for other portions of the line in 1877, 1878, 1880, and 1881, but only to such an extent as old rails were taken up and welded together to form the longitudinals. These old iron rails becoming scarce, and the introduc- tion of the Thomas-Gilchrist process for the manufacture of mild steel, which made the cost of this material very moderate, led naturally to the adoption of form No. Ill (See plate No. 14), made of mild steel. Another reason for adopting the longitudinal stringer system of track was the proportionately weak section of the flange-rails used, weighing only 64.38 pounds per yard. In view of the increasing weights of the loco- motives, this gave the company and its engineer the alternative of increasing the weight of the rails to 100.43 pounds per yard, or of adopting a still lighter rail and obtaining the necessary strength by means of a strong longitudinal or stringer. Whether this method of obtaining a strong track is a correct one, the future will demonstrate. The behavior of the track laid with form No. Ill has been very satisfactory. On the part laid with Nos. II and I, it was found necessary to remove the broad iron cross-ties which were laid under the joints of the longitudinals, according to thellilf system (See Germany), and to replace them by plain angle-irons. Their purpose is merely to maintain the width of the gauge, and not to support the ends of the lon- gitudinals like abutments. The track stands admirably and requires little- or no labor for maintenance and surfacing, either on the straight portions, v^hich are in lengths of 3.72 to 4.34 miles, nor on sharp curves. On the straight portions no such swinging and rolling motion of the cars can be observed as is the case on track laid with cross-ties. There is no trouble with the attachments, the nuts being held in position by nut-locks, and tightening up of the nuts is rarely necessary. The track- men formerly required to redrive the spikes for track with wooden cross-ties can now be employed on other track work. In consequence of the continuous support of the rails, no rails or splice-plates on this metal track have been broken since Hie same has been in service. The economical value of the use of metal track has been worked out by calculation. Wooden ties. — On the guaranteed system of this railway impregnated oak ties aro used on all portions over which express trains are run ; impregnated piae ties are 161 used at stations, on side tracks, and oa branoli lines. The reason for this is that the terminus of the road is on the Donau Kiver, so that tlie oak brought by water from Hungary can be bought at a comparatively low price. On the supplementary sys- tem of the railway, which requires in addition the cost of freight of oak ties to Vienna, a distance of 200 miles, oak ties had to be abandoned on account of the in- creased cost, and pine tics are therefore used. These conditions, as already stated, were the cause of the introduction of metal track, and at present, of the total length of 83.70 miles over which express trains are run, 64.3 per cent, is laid with this track. The remaining parts will be renewed with metal in accordance with the amount ap- propriated for tins purpose. These parts are now laid with impregnated pine or spruce ties, but it -must be remarked that metal tie-plates .4 inch thick are laid on each new tie that is put in ; on curves of 1,640 feet radius, and less, these plates have a rib fitting into a groove across the tie, and the rail is fastened by boUed clamps. Oak ties cost at present (1888) about 84.96 cents each, not impregnated ; this is in consequence of the high German duty on timber which prohibits its export, but only a few years ago the price was $1.08 per tie. Pine ties, not impregnated, cost from 38 to 43 cents each. Oak ties were impregnated with oil of creosote, on the Bethel pro- cess, at a cost of 22 cents per tie ; chloride of zinc, of l.b degrees Beaunid density, by the Burnett process, is now used and costs 17 cents per tie. Pine ties are impregnated with tar oiLor creosote on theBIythe system, and partly with a solution of chloride of zinc of 1.5 degrees density, Beaura^, by the Burnett process, at a cost of 17.28 cents per tie. The life of an impregnaled oak tie is estimated at twenty years, and the life of an impregnated pine tie at twelve years. The following descriptions of the three classes of track are from draw- ings furnished by Mr. Hobenegger : No. I. — The longitudinal was of the "Khenish'' type (See plate No. 12). It was 8 inches wide on top, 11 inches over the bottom, 2.88 inches deep ; thickness of sides .3 inch, and of top table .32 inch. The rails were held by clamps bearing on the rail llange and the top of the longitudinal, and fastened by hook or L headed bolts. For tangents and curves down to 1,230 feet radius, the rails and longitudinals were 31.08 to 31.81 feet long, the joints of the former being about 40 inches from those of the latter. The ends of the longitudinals lested on saddle plates riveted to the ends of a cross-tie 7.87 feet long, 8 inches wide on top, and 12.8 inches wide on the bottom. There were two tie- rods to each rail length. For curves of 1,226.72 to 492 feet radius, the rails and longitudinals were 21.32 to 21.15 feet long, with a cross-tie at the joints of the longitudinals and two tie-rods to each rail length. The cross-ties were inclined at the ends to give the rails the usual inclination, and the longitudinals were fastened to them by c~ clamps holding the rib. The tie-rods were .88 inch diameter, with a bearing plate and nut on the outer side of the rail. The rail fastenings were placed at intervals of about 32 inches with the longer rails, and about 31.6 inches with the shorter rails ; at the joints they were closer together. No. II. — The longitudinal was of a section somewhat similar to the Hilf or the orig- inal ''Berg-and-Mark" types (See plate No. 12), but with a semi-cylindrical rib along the middle of the under side of the top table. For rails 31.98 feet long, the longi- tudinals were 15.90 feet long, breaking joint with the rails by about 11 inches. The ends of the longitudinals rested on saddle pieces fastened to cross-ties 7.87 feet long, • 8 inches wide on top, 10.8 inches wide on the bottom ; the cross-tie was horizoutal, but the outer side of each longitudinal rested on a packing piece to give it the re- quired inclination. The ballast was brought up level with the top of the longi- tudinals. No. 111. (See plate No. 14.) — The longitudinal is of a section similar to (liut of the " Berg-and-Mark " cross-tie, but has a rib along each side of the top table. It is 6.72 inches wide on top, 12 inches wide on the bottom, 3 inches deep, with the sides ver- tical for 1.84 inches.from tlie bottom ; the sides are .32 inch thick and the top table is 22893— Bull. 4- 11 162 .36 inch thick. The fastenings, as already flescribed, consist of bolted clamps bearing on the flange of the rail and the inclined face of the rib of the longitudinal, while at rail joints the bolts pass through the lower flange of the outer splice bar, which is of channel section. The longitudinals are 29.43 feet long, and the rails 29.52 feet long. The joints of the rails and longitudinals coincide. The ends of the latter rest upon a saddle made of a plate .40 inch thick, bent to shape to fit the interior of the longi- tudinal, and bolted to the end of an angle-iron cross-tie, 6.56 feet long, 3.2 inches wide, 4 inches deep, and .4 inch thick. The saddle is 16 intjhes long and 17 inches wide ; the top is inclined 1 in 16 to give an inward inclination to the rail. The bolts jiass through the saddle, longitudinal and clamp. There are two intermediate cross- ties, spaced 9.77 feet from each joint tie, center to center; they are of angle-irons of the same size as those at the joints, but the saddle for the longitudinal is only 4.8 inches long. There are three bolts on each side of every rail joint; the next fasten- ing is 22.2 inches away, center to center and the others are 30.4 inches apart center to center. All the nuts are fitted with nut locks ; the nut lock consists of a square flat plate, with a slit in one side ; the plate is prevented from turning and when the nut is screwed down upon it the slit piece is bent up against the side of the nut, thus preventing the nut from turning. The weight of this track is 2,791.58 pounds per rail length, or 283.72 pounds per yard. Mr. Bricka, in his report to the minister of public works, France, in 1885, speaks very favorably of this latter form of track. The cost is about $5.31 per yard for No. Ill, $5.22 per yard for No, II, $6.60 per yard for No. I, and $5.12 per yard for track on impregnated oak ties. HuNGAEiAN State Railways. — The following particulars were pre- sented l)y Mr. Kowalski at the International Railway Congress at Milan, Italy, in 1887 : In 1887 there were 3,000 metal ties in service, which had been laid in 1862 and suc- ceeding years, They were of the " Berg-and-Mark " type, with gib and cotter fasten- ings. Up to 1886 they were made of wrought-iron, but after that of Bessemer steel. ■ The ties weighed 108.90 pounds each, and the fastenings 5.19 pounds per set ; making a total weight of 114.09 pounds per tie. Up to 1886 they were employed only on the Mountain division between Piski and Petroseny, and they were all laid on curves of a radius of less than 984 feet. The speed of the trains was from 13.64 to 21.70 miles per hour. The track was laid with iron rails weighing 71.5 pounds per yard, and steel rails weighing 67 pounds per yard. The ballast was of broken stone. The metal ties cost $2.82 each, and the wooden ties 67|^ cents each. The advantages of the former were in the simplicity of the attachments and the stability of the track. In 1887 the company began the work of gradually roplacTng wooden ties with metal ties on curves of 984 feet and under. The price of oak ties was still too low to per- mit of the introduction of metal ties on a large scale for tfingents and flat curves, but nevertheless, it was proposed to substitute metal for wooden ties at switches and the approaches to important stations, as the former were considered advantageous for such a locality. Heitzing and Pertchtoldsdorf Steam Tramway. — This is a standard-gauge country tramway, built partly along the public highway and partly across country. It is 0.43 miles long; 3.9 miles, or CO per cent, of its length, are on roads and streets, and the ren>aining 40 per cent, is practically a light railway. Along the roads the track is laid on one side, next to the gutter. The track is on the Hartwich system, with flange rails carried on longitudinal steel stringers, connected at inter- vals by tie-bars. The longitudinals are of a section similar to that of the original " Berg-and-Mark " cross-Lios ; they are 4.-6 inches wide on 163 top,8.4 inches wide at the bottom, 2.4 inches deep, with the sides vert- ical for about .8 inch from tUe bottom. The weight is about 28.72 pounds per yard. At the joints the ends of the longitudinals rest on a saddle piece of such section as to fit the interior of the tie. The rails are of flange section, 4 inches high, iiange 2.72 inches wide, head 1.52 inches wide, with the top table at an angle, higher on the outer than on the inner sidej 'the weight is about 31 pounds per yard. The fast- enings consist of a riveted hig for the outer flange, and a hook headed bolt, with clamp washers, for the inner flange; the heads of the bolts are inside the longitudinal. The rail joints are spliced by straight splice plates. The tie-bar is 5.74 feet long, 2.4 inches deep, .32 inch thick ; it is notched for the bottom of the sides of the longitudinal, and at each end is keyed a fl piece against which the outer side of the longitudinal bears. In the streets there is a guard rail attached to the longitudinal, leaving a groove 1.20 inches wide for the wheel flanges. In streets the longitudinals are laid on stone blocks and ballast is filled in nearly iip to the underside of the rail heads. In country roads a trench is dug for each line of rail, broken stone laid for the longitu- dinals to rest on, and ballast then filled in to the underside of the rail heads, the heads just projecting above the street level. The engines are ordinary steam motors, boxed in. The older ones had four wheels, all coupled, and weighed 29,700 pounds. The later engines have six wheels and weigh 39,600 pounds. TIES. The Beindl ties. — The system of track with steel cross-ties, invented by Mr. Heindl (See plate No. 14), has already been described as used on the Austrian state railways. Ill 1888 Mr. Heindl sent 96.44 Wooden ties .' 573.50 Metal ties 22.94 Western and Simplon Railway. — Steel ties of the " Berg-and- Mark" type and similar to those in use on the Elberfeld division of the Prussian State railways, were tried about 1881. They weighed about 100 pounds each. The engineers thought the maintenance expenses 169 were greater at first, owing to the difficulty of ballasting, but the track was very elastic and the riding easy. In 1884 there were about 34.10 miles laid. Mr. Bricka stated that the iutroductiou of metal ties had reduced the prices of wooden ties as follows : Oak, reduced iToru $1.20 or f 1.30 to 90 cents per tie ; larch, reduced from 80 or 90 cents to CO or 70 cents per tie. For rails 19.68 feet long the ties were spaced 20.08 inches apart, center to center, at the joints, and 36.38 inches interme- diate. Mr. Bricka gave the following statement of the mileage of track up to 1884: Miles. Mainlines 368.90 Total track 49^.28 Wooden fcies 473.68 Metal ties . 18.60 The type of tie adopted in 1887 (See plate No. 15) is of inverted trough section, broad and shallow at the ends and narrow and deep at the mid- dle, being of fish-bellied shape in elevation. The cross-section is similar to that of the " Berg-and Mark " type. The tie is bent to a curve with a radius of 49.26 feet to give the rails an inward inclination. It is 7.54 feet long over all, 9.2 inches wide over all at the ends, narrowing to 4.8 inches at the middle, and flaring out to 11.2 inches at the extremities ; it is 4.4 inches deep at the middle, 2.4 inches deep for the greater part of its depth, and the ends are curved down and project below the body of the tie, being 4 inches deep. At the rail seat it is 5,2 inches wide on top, 9.2 inches wide at the bottom, 2.4 inches deep, with the sides verti- cal for 1.04 inches from the bottom. At the middle it is of f) section, with nearly vertical sides and round top corner.^ ; it is 4.8 inches wide at the bottom and 4.4 inches deep, with the toi) flat for a width of about 2.4 inches. The thickness is .28 inch at the sides, .36 inch on top, and .52 inch along the middle of the top table, the. extra thickness being given by a rib 1.44 inches wide on the underside of the top. For rails 19.08 feet long, the joint ties are spaced 20.08 inches apart, center to center, and the intermediate ties 36.68 inches apart. The rails are of flange section, secured by gib and cotter fastenings. The outer flange is held by a gib ; the inner flange is also held by a gib, and a third gib is placed back to back with the second one and the vertical cotier driven between them, the object of the third gib being to increase the bearing of the cotter. At each rail seat there are two holes in the tie ; the outer one is 1.56 inches long at right angles to the rail and .72 inch wide; the inner hole is 2.624 inches long and .72 inch wide; they are 3.36 inches apart in the clear. The gibs are .68 inch thick. The cotter is 5.96 inches long, .68 inch thick, 1.07 inches wide at the top, and .76 inch wide just above the point. Inner and outer gibs of three different widths are used for the adjustment of the gauge; they allow a widening of .16 to .64 inch, and raised numbers on the side enable them to be easily distinguished. The gauge on tangents, and on curves of over 2,955.8 feet radius, is 4.71 feet ; at the ends of curves of 1,315.28 feet to 170 2,952 feet, the inner rail is set out to give a gauge of 4.73 feet, and the gauge on the curve is 4.736 feet, the iuner rail being again set out ; on curves of 590.4 feet to 1,312 feet radius, the outer rail is set out to give a gauge of 4.75 at the end of the curve, and is set out again to give a gauge of 4.762 feet on the curve. This method enables very close ad- justments to be made, and the gauge is accurately maintained, but it liiis the disadvantage of requiring the use of several different kinds and sizes of material in track work, and as the fastening of each rail to each tie requires four separate pieces (three gibs and one cotter) the result is an apparant complication, especially on a line having many curves, where diflerent sizes of gibs are required. On the other hand, fasten- ings used with metal ties are expected to require very much less atten- tion when once in place than fastenings used with wooden ties, and many bolt fastenings require a still greater number of pieces. In track work it is always desirable to have as few separate pieces and as great simplicity as possible. The following particulars are taken from the company's book of " In- struction for the laying and ballasting of track having rails 39.36 feet long," issued in 1885: The gauge of the road is 4.70 feet on wooden ties and 4.71 feet on metal ties. The rails are of flange section, weighing 66.40 pounds per yard ; they are 5.08 inches high with a head 2.4 inches wide and a flange 4 inches wide; they have an inward incli- nation of 1 in 20. The joints are square and suspended, and are spliced by fish plates with four bolts; some of the plates have a lug which bears against the tie plate on wooden ties, or against the gib fastening on metal ties, the object being to prevent creeping of the rails. Changes of grade are effected by a vertical curve of 3,280 feet radius, giving a deflection of .32 inch for a rail length of 39.36 fetst. The following spacing of ties for rails of this length was adopted in 1887: Wooden ties are spaced 24.8 inches apart at the joints, 2LI.2 and 32.8 inches next to the joints, and 36.8 inches for intermediate ties; metal ties have the ties at the joints spaced 20 inches apart, center to center, the next oues 30 and 34.4 inches, and the intermediate ties 36.8 inches apart. The width at subgrade for single track is 16.40 feet. With wooden ties the ballast is 14.8 inches deep at the middle, 16.8 inches deep at the sides, and 9.84 feet wide on top for single track; the subgrade is crowned,' and the surface of the ballast is horizontal, jnst covering the ties. On curves the top of the ballast is given the same slope as the ties and on double track on curves the ballast between the two tracks is rounded off to a level with the top of the tie of the inner track and the top of the rail of the outer track. With metal ties the arrangement is simi- lar, but the ballast is shallower, only level with the tops of the ties and not covering them ; it is only 8.2 feet wide on top for single track. The volume of ballast per yard single track is as follows,the volume of the ties being deducted where wooden ties are used: On tan^nDtfl Ou curves below 1,968 feet. With wooden ties. Cubic yards. 1.55 1.71 With metal ties. CuMc yards. .83 .79 In April, 1888, Mr. Mayer, chief engineer of permanent way, stated that the laying of these ties was commenced in 1883 ; up to the date of 171 his letter 52.70 miles had been laid, and 21.7 miles were to be laid during 1888. Some of the ties put down in 1883 were taken out in 1888 to see how they had behaved in service, and they were found to be in excel- lent condition. They weigh, he stated, 90.8 to 99 pounds each. The track keeps in good order, and the engineer was very well satisfied with the ties. The cost of maintenance was even more economical than with wooden ties. It is expected that these ties will last twice or two and a half times as long as the best oak ties ; when rejected they will always be worth 40 to 50 cents each, while rejected oak ties are not worth more than 8 to 10 cents each. They are made from mild steel plates, and the railway pays $26.40 per ton of 2,200 pounds, or $1.16 per tie. An oak tie costs $1, and the two iron tie-plates for the same cost 10 cents. The ballast used with the metal tics consists of screened gravel, not too coarse, broken to pass through a ring of 1.6 inches diameter ; broken stone of the same size is also used. At the meeting of the International Eailway Congress, at Paris, in 1889, Mr. Mayer presented the following information : Since 1883 metal fries liave been used iu regular service, being introduced gradually as the wooden ties necessitate renewals The total lengtb of track thus laid is as fol- lows: Miles. 1883 6.738 1884 lO.T^f) 1885 10.131 1886 9.512 1887 13.036 1888 18.426 Total at end of 1888 68.568 This represents a total of about 126,990 ties in the track. The work is being con- tinued, aud it is intended to lay about 15.5 to 1S.6 miles of metal track per year. Contracts have been made for siipplies for five years. This typo of track, as already described, is now adopted as the standard track of the road. The ties first used were of uniform section throughout, but the form adopted in 1887 is narrow and deep at the middle (See plate No. 15) ; the objects being to give a better bold on the ballast, to increase the stiffness of the tie, and to prevent lateral motion of the tie. The ties are of mild steel, having a resistance. to breaking of 56,000 to 65,000 pounds per square inch. The weight is 99 pounds per tie. The maximum grades are 2.3 per cent, and the minimum radius of curves is 1,148 feet. The traffic varies on different jjarfs of the line, being from eight trains in each direction per day, with a maximum speed of 28 miles per hour, on branch lines, to thirty trains in each direction per day, with a maximum speed of 40 miles iier hour, on the main line. The heaviest locomotives weigh about 34 tons, with a maximum load of 12 tons on an axle, though some of the old four-wheel tank engines still in use have a load of 13 tons per axle. Up to 1884 the rails were 19.68 feet long, vrith seven ties to a rail length. They are now made 39.36 feet long, with thirteen, or iu exceptional cases fourteen, ties to a rail length. The first cost of track on new wooden ties is about $47 per rail length, or about $3.58| per yard. The first cost of track on steel ties is about $47.55 per rail length, or about $3.62| per yard. The current prices, on which the.se estimates were made, were 87 cents each for oak ties and $1.31 each for steel ties (.$1.16 for the tie and 15 cents for the fastenings). The cost of maintenance has not yet been established, but reports for the year ending 172 February. 1889, for tweuty-two sections of track on steel ties and twenty-one sections of track on wooden ties, showed the maintenance expenses of the former to be slightly less than those of the latter. The company has iound, and this is tlie gen- eral experience, that the maintenance expenses of track on metal ties are during the first two years rather higher than those of track on wooden ties, but after that time they decrease considerably for the former. Tbe introduction of steel ties has re- duced the price of oak ties from $1.25 to 87 cents each. A slight but scarcely per- ceptible metallic sound is heard when traveling over the steel ties. No difference in the wear of the rolling-stock has been noted. A few fastenings have been renewed, not on account of failure, but because they were considered to be too light, and were replaced with others of stronger make. The durability of the steel ties has not yet been determined, "but those first put down in 1883 do not show any wear or cutting by the rail flange. Of the 126,990 steel ties laid, only 43 have been taken out on ac- count of breakage (0.03386 per cent.), while it is estimated that with the same num- ber of wooden ties the renewals would have amounted to 20,000 or 25,000 ties (15.75 to 19.7 per cent.). Jura, Bekne and Luzerne Railway. — Iron cross-tics are in use on this road, and the following statement in regard to the track was sent to me in August, 1889, by the cliief engineer : Inclusive of the BodelL and Brunig linos. Exclusive of the Bnmig line- TotallenKtli of road Length ill opurntion Miles. 216.24 228. 16 Mileii. ]88.44 200. 26 Leugih of tr.2 inches wide and 2.88 inches deep, with an angle-iron 2.40 by 2.40 iucbes at each side, the angle-irons being riveted to the sides of the chair and the top of the tie by two rivets ou each side. At the joints the chairs extend over the two joint ties, being 20.8 inches long. These chairs carryaniron longitudinal of approximately _r\_ section, 8.4 inches wide, 4 inches deep, and on top of this is bolted the flat rack-rail, whicii is 5.2 inches wide over the teeth and 1.0 inches deep, made in sections 9.84 feet long. The gauge of the track is 32 inches. The rails are of flange section, about 4.8 incbes bigb, with a bead 1.64 inches wide and a flange 4 inches wide; they are 19.68 feet long. The rail joints are secured by angle-bars bolted in the usual way. Tbp bars are 2.72 inches high, with a flange 3.2 inches wide having a rib on the underside of the outer edge of the flange. This rib bears on the tie while the flange bears on the rail. Each angle-bar is bolted to the tie and extends over the two joint ties; a short angle-bar fa00 Do 9,390 With fine ballast, the maintenance expenses are higher than those with wooden ties ; but with coarse ballast the maintenance expenses of tracks on metal and wooden ties are about equal (allowance being made for the expense of renewing wooden ties). The trials with fine ballast have also been unsatisfactory, because with a spacing of 3.28 feet between the ties the resistance to lateral motion is too little unless good bal- last is used, preferably broken stone, No wear of the body of the tie had been ob- served, so that no limit of the life of the tie could be determined. With a good seat for the rails the tracks with wooden or metal ties present the same advantages as to the preservation of the rolling-stock, the elasticity of the track and the comfort of the passengers. The company reported that the intention was to continue the use of the " Berg-and- Mark " type of ties, if the price could be made suitable. They were not able to estab- lish a relation between the prices of wooden and metal ties to enable them to decide that the use of the latter was more advantageous. They were of the opinion, how- ever, that the use of metal ties was not an advantage when the net cost was double the cost of wooden ties ; but, on the other hand, they considered it to be an advantage to use metal ties when the price was only one and a half times that of wooden ties. For the comparative calculations" respecting the two forms of track, they took pine or beech ties, treated with chloride of zinc, and each provided with two tie-plates; they only counted the value of one of these plates, however, because they last much longer than the wooden ties. 186 SUMMARY OP METAL TKACK FOE SECTION NO. 1. Countries. Bowls. LoDgi- tudinala. Cross- ties. Total • Miles. MUes. Milee. 70.00 52.12 321. 30 115. 50 3,502.52 56.60 7.10 .02 MiUs. 70.00 52.12 Holland 8.06 329.42 115. 60 5,'224.]2 66.56 .25 8,780.64 122, 93 397.40 251. C8 258. 78 .02 Italy .. .50 18.10 .50 18.10 Turkey .... . . ...- 70.68 70.68 251. 68 5, 298. !19 4,578.25 10, 222. 09 Sectidn 2.— AFRICA. EGYPT. General Remarks. — In this part of Africa metal track has been in service since 1854. The type of track generally used consists of ties made of a pair of cast-iron bowls connected by a transverse tie-rod. This form of tie was originally used for a railway line in Egypt; the greater part of its length was through the desert, and it answered very well, as the fine loose sand made a ballast especially adapted for this type of tie. Now, however, this track is unfavorably considered by the consulting engineer of the railway administration, as noted in the following paragraph. It has been generally understood, however, that wooden ties were not suitable for the climatic and other conditions existing in Egypt, being destroyed rapidly by the heat, by insects, and by other influences. Egyptian Kailways.— Through the courtesy of Mr. George H. Wright, of London, engineer for the railway administration, I am en- abled to give the following details of the track, from a statement pre- pared from notes taken in 1887. Mr. Wright, in a communication received in August, 1889, stated that wooden ties only are now imported into Egypt ; in his opinion they are much to be preferred to the iron bowl ties, as they make a better road and cost less to maintain. He stated, however, that the steel plate ties (presumably of the type used on the Indian state railways) would probably prove better than either the wooden or bowl ties. Track of Egyptian Railways. Lines. 1 1 Track. Notes of 1887. Bails. Ties. Blsti-iciirol. 1S66 1855 1861 1866 1865 1859 1861 1865 1876 1876 53^ 12J 8i lOi 25i 'I D.H. D.H. p.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D, H. D.H. D.H. P. Bowls .... ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do .--.do ....do .--.do .-..do Vautherin Wood 15J milea.ateel rails, uew bowls, laid in 1887. 1885. Callioub to Benha ...i.. ditlou. Do. Do. steel rails and bowls, laid iu 1886. Iron rails, and ties in good order. Do- Cairo to Heloan Jnnotion Heloan Line Iron rails some wooden ties. Do. Some ties in bad condition. 187 188 Track of JSgypti'an Sailways — Continue^. Lines. Track. I Kails. Ties. Notes of 1887. District iPb. 2. Kafr-Zajat to MiUaha Kafi--Zayat to Millaha, second track Millaha to Sidi-Gabir . .-. Sidi-Gabir to Alexandria Sidi-G-abir to Alexandria, sec- ond track. Millalia to Gabl)ay Mitlaba to Gabbay,second track Gabbayto Mex Eosotta Line District No. 3. Tantato Cheibin-el-Com. Tanta lo Mohallet-Kob . ... Tanta to Mehallet, second track Meballet-Rob to Samanond . . . Saraanoud to Damietta ZifteU Branch Deasoub Branch Kafr-Sheik Branch District No. 4. Benha to Zagazig Benhato Zagazig, second track Zagazig to Suez and docks Callioub to Zaj^azig Zaiiazig to Mansourah Salhiel Branch District No. 5. Tchad-el-Baroud to Boulak. Dakrour. Boulak-Dakronr to "VVasta Wastato Fayoum Fayoum to Abouxa District No, 6. "Wastato Minieh Minieh to Millaiii Millaui to Assiout 1854 1855 18V6 187G 1876 1854 1855 18(J3 1875 1876 1866 1B57 1877 185B 1869 1865 1863 1875 1860 1870 1865 1865 1872 1867 1868 1869 1867 1870 6J I 2 < I 1 2i 18J 11 2H 44 : 2 19 43 26 5 61 2ni 97 29i ; 2i 149 D. H. D. H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. F. D. H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. F. F. D. H. D.H. F. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D H. D.H. D.H. F D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. D.H. F. Bowls'... 22 miles, steel rails, old bowls, laid I in 1880-'81. 92 miles, steel rails, new bowls, laid in 1882-'83. Old wooden ties in good condition. Kew steel rails and bowls, laid in 1887. Do. New steel rails and bowls, laid in 1885. A few wooden ties. -do Wood. Bowls. ...do ...do .... ...do .. ...do .. ...do J Wood... Bowl ,. .do.... ....do. Wood... Bowls .. Wood ...do liowla Wood VantUerin Bowls .. .. ...do Wood Bowls ...do ...do Wood Steel Bowls ...do Wood Vantlierin Bowls Wood ..-.do Bowls — ....do.... ....do Bowls ... ....do.... ....do .... Wood.... A few wooden ties. Extensive renewals required. In good condition. New bowls laid to replace woqi(l,to do away with a mixed track. 1 mile of new rail and bowls laid . in 1886. Bowls laid to ' replace wood, to do away with mixed track. Being relald with iron bowls. 17J miles of ties, much corroded. Pine.replacing old iron trough ties. Ties in bad coiidition. Ties in good condition. Tie-bars too long. \ Buckled steel. 5 miles must be renewed before 1889. 5| miles of new bowls, laid in 1884, 1886. SUMMAKX OF MILEAGE. The total length of lines, including sirlings, in 1887, was 1, 228i miles. District. Iron bowls. Vaatberin cross-ties. Steel plates. AYood. Total metal. Total. No 1 1.57i 1381 126^ 1031 132 120 7 3 42 245 31 49 164J 138S 1355 187 132 129 1671 180} No 2 . . No. 3 9J 19 16U1 No. 4 4i 228 No. 5 163 No. 6 178 Total 8i7i 35J 4i 1903 887 1, 077i 189 Egyptian Agbidultural Eailways.— A type of metal track used on these lines cousisted of ties made of a pair of wrought iron pliites connected by ti^-bars. (See plate Ko. 17.) The plates were rectangular in shape, 18 inches long, about 15J^ inches wide, and seven thirty-sec- onds of an inch thick. When bent to shape each plate is flat for its whole length and for a width of about 5^ inches ; the sides are bent down, flaring out to a width of 13 inches over all at the bottom, and the corners are bent in to a width of 10| inches over all. The depth is then about 2^ inches. Bach pair of plates is connected by a transverse tie- bar, 6 feet 2 inches long, 1^ inches deep, and three-eighths inch thick, placed on edge ; it is secured by a key or cotter on the inner and outer side of each plate. The keys are 6 inches long, IJ inches wide at the ends, 1.J inches wide at the middle, and three-eighths inch thick ; the edge bearing against the plate is beveled to the same slope as the side of the plate. The holes in the tie-bar are If inches long by three- eighths inch deep. The hole in the outer side of each plate is slightly lower than the hole in the inner side, so that the top of the plate is in- clined and gives the rail the usual inward inclination. The track is 4 feet 84 inches gauge. The joint-ties are spaced 2 feet 4 inches apart, center to center of tie-bars, and the interoiediate ties are spaced 3 feet U inches apart. The rails are of flange section, weighing 42 pounds l)er yard ; they are 3^ inches high, with a flange 3^ inches wide and a head 2 inches wide. The joints are suspended, and are spliced by ar pair of straight, flat splice-bars 15 inches long, weighing 9.60 pounds per pair ; there are four bolts three-fourths inch diameter, and the weight of the nuts and bolts is 3.24 pounds per set. The rail-fastenings consist of three clips ; on the outer side there are two clips 3 inches long, each fastened by a rivet eleven-sixteenths inch diameter ; on the inner side is a similar clip, secured by a bolt three-fourths inch diameter, with a j_ head on the under side of the plate. The weight of each tie complete is 60 pounds. The average weight of the track per yard is 140 pounds. . The following is the weight of material per mile of single track : Tons. Lbs. Rails -- 66 Ties 1 47 320 Splice plates and bolts with rails : 24 feet long 2 1,170 Slfeet long 2 1,976 18 feet long 3 812 SuAKiN Railway. — During the English campaign in Egypt in 1885, a short section of light railway was laid near Suakin for military pur- poses. According to information received from the war ofQce, the track was of the type manufactured by John Fowler & Co., of Leeds, England, for portable and light railways. The line had a gauge of 18 inches. The ties were of steel, 3 feet 9 inches long, of shallow in- verted channel section, with a deep groove or corrugation lengthwise of the middle of the tie. At each end of the tie were two brackets, ■ 190 each secured by two rivets ; the outer pieces were angle irous, with the upright web iuclined toward the rails; the inner pieces were made to fit the web and flange of the rail. The ties weighed ^5 pounds each, complete. The rails were of flange section, weighing 24 pounds per yard, and were secured by oak keys or wedges driven between the web of the rail and the outer angle bracket. A number of these ties wei'e laid, but the line was taken up at the end of the campaign, and the time during which they were in service was too short for any opinion to be formed as to their durability. AliGEEIA. Algerian Railways {Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Railway). — The Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Eailway, of France, which has not had success with metal ties on its home lines (see "France") has used them with very satisfactory results on the Algerian lines which it owns. These lines are from Oran to Algiers, 264.12 miles ; and from Phillip- ville to Constantine, 53.94 miles. The conditions, however, are by no means the same ; the burning climate of Africa causes the very rapid destruction of wooden ties, while the metal ties stand very well under the comparatively light traflic, and effect a decided economy over wooden ties by their greater durability. During 1867, 1868, and 1869 between 90,000 and 100,000 (reported as 93,7tl2) iron ties of the original "Vautherin" type, with short flanges on the lower edges, were rolled at the Fraisant Works in France, and were laid on the Algiers and Oran line. They were 7.87 feet long, 5.2 inches and 3.2 inches wide on top for joint and intermediate ties respectively; about 7.2 inches wide inside at the bottom, and 10.4 inches wide over the flanges, which were 1.4 Inches wide and .32 inch thick ; the sides and top table were .18 inch and .28 inch thick respectively, The ends of the tie were open. The weight was about 77 pounds. The rails rested on tie plates which gave them the required inward inclination of 1 in 20, and were secured by a gib and cotter fastening ; there was a gib holding each side of the rail flange with a cotter driven vertically at the back of the inner gib ; the fastenings passed through the tie plate and tie. The number of renewals in seventeen years was 3,200, caused principally by cracks due to bad metal or improper tamping. The cracks were generally in the angles, and went from the ends toward the rail seats. There was no trouble from rust, and the expe- rience of these seventeen years was favorable to the metal track. The metal was of inferior quality, and the attachments of the rails were de- fective; In 1885 there were still 01,000 of these ties in service. The average age of the ties in 1885 was 17 years, and the total of renewals during that period was 3J per Cent., while the renewals of wooden ties are about 10 to 12 per cent, per annum. Owing to this difference the iron ties had repaid the extra cost of establishment incurred by their use (principal and interest) in the fifth year, and the remainder of their service va§ a net gain in maintenance. From tt>eir st^ite of preservji- 191 tion in 18S5 it was estimated that they would give twenty-five years of service. From this trial it was concluded that metal ties behaved well in the ballast, that they do not rust or fail, and that the few renewals are due to defects in the ties or track, and not to a short average life of the ties. They cost less for maintenance, but up to the third year it is necessary to tamp the ballast and inspect the fastenings frequently; after that the attention is not required. In J 885, 20,000 steel ties of the " Hilf " or original " Berg-and-Mark " type were laid. (See plate No. 17). They were manufactured in France by the Soci6t6 de Denain et d' Anzin. These ties are 7.5 feet long, of uni- form section throughout ; 4.4 inches wide on top, 8.4 inches wide on the bottom, 2.4 inches deep, with the sides vertical for 1 inch from the bot- tom; the sides are .28 inch thick; the top table is .32 inch thick, with a rib on the underside 1.44 inches wide, making the thickness .52 inch. The weight is 85 pounds, or 96.8 pounds including the fastenings. The tie is horizontal for 3 feet 3| inches at the middle, and is inclined up- wards at an angle of 1 in 20 to the ends, which are closed by bending down the top table to a depth of 4 inches. The rails are of flange section and rest directly on the tie. Gib and cotter fastenings are used, but a third gib ("guard-gib") is now used, to increase the bearing area at the back of the cotter. The holes at each rail seat are 1.36 inches and 2.48 inches long, spaced 3.48 inches apart in the clear. In May, 1887, 35,000 ties of the " Vautherin " type were ordered, and in Feb- ruary, 1888, 60,000 steel ties were being laid. Mr. Mazieres, the engineer, made a report to Mr. Brioka in 1884, stating that in spite of defects in the earlier ties the general results of the track had been satisfactory. On the Algiers and Oran line not a single derailment had occurred. The following information was presented at the International Bail- way Congress at Milan, Italy, in 1887, by Mr. Kowalski : There were fj8.82 miles of metal track ia service, including 91,000 iron ties of the Vautheriu type and 20,000 steel ties of the Hilf type. The fastenings were of iron, weighing 5.2d pounds per tie for the former and 5.46 pounds per tie for the latter, making a total weight per tie of 82.96 pounds aud 100.98 pouuds respectively. The line was principally on low embankmeuts ; there were curves of 1,640 feet radius and uj) wards, long tangents, and grades of 2 per cent. The traffic consisted of passenger aud freight trains running at various speeds; 54,000 trains had passed over the Vau- therin ties ; the speeds varied from 18.60 to 34 miles per hour. The engines weighed from 30 to 35 tons. The rails were of flange section, of iron, weighing 72.4 pounds per yard for the Vautherin ties, and of steel, weighing 68.8 pounds per yard for the Hilf ties. The ballast was of river sand mixed with sand and clay of poor quality. The steel tie cost about 60 cents more than the wooden tie. but effected an economy of 20 cents in the ballast, a smaller amount being required. When the track is well gettled the work of maintenance is about a fourth less than with wooden ties. The life of the steel tie was estimated at treble that of wooden ties, but this could not be considered as determined. The life of fastenings was about the same for metal as for wooden ties. As to the elasticity of the track, the comfort of passengers, and the effect on the rolling stock, these were the same as with wooden ties. The results Jiad been satisfactory ancj. it was intended to extend f he use of the ^ilf steel tiep. 192 B6ne and Guelma Eailway.— In 1885 tbis road had had iu serv- ice lor more than two years 3,500 cross-ties of the Severac type (see Belgium), and 2,500 ties of the BoyenvalPonsard type (see France). ABYSSINIA. Massana and Sahati Eailway.— In May, 1889, the state inspector general of railways of the Italian Government famished a detailed statement in regard to this line, which was bnilt by that Government for military purposes, but which has been in operation for too short a time to enable any conclusions to be drawn as to the durability of the track. The line is 14.26 miles long, of 3.12 feet gauge, with a maximum grade of 2.3 per cent, and sharpest curves of 328 feet radius. It is a military line, with a traffic of water, supplies, and troops. The track was laid in March, 1888, under the supervision of Mr. Yernan. The engines weigh from 20 to 30 tons. They have four driving wheels, with a weight of about 5 tons in each wheel. The ties are of sted, of the Vautherin type, but without flanges on the lower edges, the sides being nearly vertical for .40 inch from the bottom. They are 4.92 feet long, 3.6 inches wide on top, 7.2 inches wide at the bottom, and 2.4 inches deep. The sides and top are about .25 inch thick, but a rib on the under side of the top table increases the thickness to .32 inch for a width of 1.44 inches. The ends are closed by bending down the top table. The tie is horizontal, but at the rail seats the top table is inclined 1 in 20, to give the rails the usual inward inclination. It is bent on the Hosch-Lichthammer plan (see Holland), the outer part of the rail seat sloping back to the normal level of the tie. The ties weigh 39.6 pounds each. They are not painted or otherwise treated for protection against rust, etc. They were manufactured by Tardy & Benech, of Savona, and the prices were $35 per ton for ties, $56 per ton for clamps, $76 per ton for bolts and nuts, all delivered at Na- ples. In the track the ties are spaced 32.8 inches apart, center to cen- ter. The rail attachments are of the Euppel type (see Germany), con- sisting of J.-headed bolts .64 inch diameter, with clamps 2 inches wide, one side of which holds the rail flange and the other bears on the tie, having a lug which fits into the bolt-hole in the tie. Adjustment of gauge is effected by the use of clamps with different widths of pro- jection of the lugs. Two sizes of clamps are used at each rail, and the gauge on tangents and easy curves is 3.12 feet. By transposing the two clamps of one rail the gauge is widened .24 inch for curves of 984 to 656 feet radius, and by transposing the two clamps of both raUs the gauge is widened .48 inch for curves of 656 to 460 feet radius. At each rail seat are two holes 1.6 inches long by .72 inch wide, spaced 3.28 inches apart in the clear. The rails are of flange section, 4 inches high, with a flange 3.2 inches wide and a head 2 inches wide. The weight is 46.26 pounds per yard. The joints are suspended and are spliced by plain bars. The ballast is of broken stone or gravel 14 193 inches deep, with the top level with the underside of the rail heads. The passage of the first trains packs the ballast well into the ties. The width at subgrade, for single track, is 11.48 feet. These ties were adopted on account of the short life of wooden ties in the tropical cli- mate. The general results have been satisfactory. The system is very simple, the track is easily laid, and maintenance, renewals, alignment, etc., are easily effected. For surfacing, whenever de^jressions occur the track can readily be elevated by tamping gravel under the ties. The gauge also is always accurately maintained, while with the wooden ties spreading of the rails occurs on curves of short radius. Wooden ties would have cost 60 cents each at Naples. SOUTH AFRICA. (.Portuguese territory. ) Delagoa Bay and East Afbioan Eail-WAT.— This line runs in- land from the port of Lourenco Marques, or Delagoa Bay, to the bound- ary between the Portuguese territory and the Transvaal, a distance of 50.22 miles. A report from Mr. Thomas Eumball, of London, the con- sulting engineer, in April, 1889, stated that 42.16 miles were then laid with steel cross-ties and the remainder with wooden ties; the reason for this was that the manufacturers could not keep up the supply of steel ties, and as the contract required the completion of the road within a certain time wood had to be used. An extension of 5.58 miles, how- ever, was then being laid with steel ties. The track was laid between April and November, 1887, under the superintendence of Mr. A. B. Eum- ball. The steepest grade is 1 in 40, and the sharpest curve is 1,320 feet radius. There are comparatively few curves, 45.26 miles of the line be- ing straight and only 4.96 miles on curves. The gauge is 3 feet 6 inches. The locomotives are six-wheel "bogi" tank-engines (i. e., with trucks), weighing 33 tons in full working order, and having a weight of 10 tons on the driving wheels. The freight consists of gold-crushing and other machinery, colonial produce, hides, etc. The ties are of similar type to those adopted for the Indian state railways. They are 6 feet long over all, horizontal in the middle, bent up at the rail seats to give the rails an inward inclination, and have the ends curved down and flared out to a width of 13 inches (see Plate No. 17). At the middle the sides are vertical and the top is arched ; at this point the tie is 8 J inches wide at the bottom and 5 inches deep; the sides are eleven-sixty fourths inch thick, and the top is slightly thicker for a width of 4^ inches, the extra thickness being added on the upper side. At the rail seat it is flat for a width of 4J inches on top, 9^ inches wide at the bottom, and 4J inches deep ; the sides are slightly curved and flare outward; the sides are one-fourth inch thick and the top is seven-sixteenths inch thick, the extra thickness being added on the upper side for a width of 4J inches and on the lower side for a width of 4 22893— Bull. 4 13 194 inches. There is a clip 3 inches long stamped out of the top table of the tie for each side of each rail, and the taper steel split keys are driven between the outer clips and the rail flanges. The ties are of steel, weighing 70 pounds each, and the keys weigh IJ pounds per pair. The joint ties are spaced 2 feet apart, center to center, and the intermediate ties are spaced 3 feet 3 inches apart. They were manufactured by the Moss Bay Hematite Company, of Workington, Cumberland, England, and cost 90 cents each at the works. The ties are dipped in a boiling solution of Dr. Angus Smith's composition, and the keys are dipped in boiling linseed oil. An improvement in these ties has been patented by Mr. H. Law. The rails are of flange section, weighing 56 pounds per yard ; they are 4 inches high, and 4 inches wide over the flange; the joints are sus- pended and are spliced in the usual way. The road is ballasted with sand and broken stone ; the ties aj:e considered to be better adapted for sand, as the ballast packs well into the tie. The durability of the ties had hardly been tested, as the road had only been open for about two years at the time of Mr. Eumball's communication, but it is confi- dently expected that they will not require renewal for thirty years. The cost of maintenance can only be arrived at so very approximately as to be of no value, since the line lias been subject to severe floods. The labor for track-laying was entirely unskilled, but it was found in prac- tice that the Kaffirs very quickly got into the way of '.' threading " the ties on the rails. The steel ties were adopted on account of timber-ties being eaten away by tlie white ants in a short time. They are very sat- isfactory, and the running over them is very smooth. The engineer thinks that in a country like Africa steel ties should be used in prefer- ence to wood. CAPE COLONY. Cape Goveenmbnx Eailways.— These lines aggregate 1,523.75 miles in lengMi. They are of 3 feet 6 inches gauge, and have maximum grades of 1 in 40 and minimum curves of 400 feet radius. The follow- ing particulars in regard to the track are abstracted from a paper by Mr. Wm. Geo. Brouuger, presented to the Institution of Civil Engi- neers (London) in 1885. (Proceedings ; Vol. LXXXI ; session 1884-'85 ; Part in.) ,«; Steel rails of flange sectiou are used weighing 45 and 60 pounds per yard, with suspended spliced joiuts, and spiked or bolted to creosobed Baltic ties, 7 feet by 9 inches by 4J inches for the lighter rails, and 7 feet by 10 inches by 5 inches for the heavier rails. With a view to check the tendency to spread of gauge round the sharp curves of the Hex River Mountain, on the Western division, bowl ties of Livesey's pattern were ordered for a few miles for.the sake of the wrought-iron tie-bar, all the different kinds of fastenings employed being found to yield in the case of wooden ties, even where hard wood was used, though the latter checks the tendency to some extent. This piece of track has answered well under a trying traffic. Most of the ties were of cast-iron, but a length of 1 mile was laid with wrougUt-iron, Of tha ISWer iiot ft Btngle We l)»d tg l)e replneed, l^ut muny of tlie fuymer >rero Ijroljen 4url»g 196 the process of jiacking. In cousequence of the difficulty and uncertainty in obtain- ing wooden ties, the increase of their price, and the delay in procuring them, it was decided to ti'y iron ties on a more considerable scale, and 36^ miles of wrougbt-iron trough ties and 73^ miles of wrought-iron bowls, both of Livesey's patterns, had been laid down. They had only been recently laid, so that little could bo said as to the results, but the following particulars were given: First. Both types require careful packing. In the case of the bowls, if this is not done, they are apt to get out of level transversely, and the result is a cant, which throws the lino out of gauge. Second. Special care is essential in the manufacture of both kinds, jjarticularly in the fixing of the jaws, otherwise the gauge is aiiected. Where irregularity occurs in the spacing of the holes in the bars, adjustment of gauge on curves is given with bowls by placing the cotter on the inner side, instead of the outer side, of the bowls ; on sharp curves this may be done with both bowls. With the iron trough ties it is desirable that special ones should be provided for sharp curves, with allowance for slack, such ties having unmistakably distinctive marks to pre- vent confusion, or otherwise some safe means of adjusting the jaws for gauge. [The use of special ties for curves is not to be recommended, as it is probable that the right ones will not be at hand when wanted, and they complicate the traok-lay- 'iig. There are better means of adjusting the gauge by means of the fastenings. — E. E. E. T.] Third. More care is requisite as regards ballast, and this has been a source of trouble. It is undesirable that the ballast should be coarse for these ties, but it is often difficult to obain it fine, it being sometimes necessary to vise broken stone for top as well as bottom ballast. Various kinds of timber have been tried in order to test their durability as ties. Some varieties from colonial forests have given favorable results, but their cost has been prohibitory. A species of timber from Madagascar proved durable, but its ex- port was attended with difficulty. The timber which has hitherto proved the most durable is that of the camphor tree, which has been taken up after being in the ground for twenty years, without any preparation, and found perfectly sound through heart and sap wood. The Government, therefore, decided to make plantations of this tree, which, under favorable conditions, attains a large size in the Colony, The following particulars are from a communication received in De- cember, 1889, from Mr. H. C. Litchfield, and referred to the Junction or Hanover line, built in 1883-'84: The Hanover line is, approximately, an east and west line, over an open, treeless and bushless, undulating country, 300 miles from the coast, and with an average elevation of 4,500 feet above sea-level, crossing at right angles the main streams Sowing north- wards to the Orange Eiver. It is about 70 miles in length, with maximum grades of 1.25 per cent., and sharpest curves of 8° 40'. The ties were spaced 2 feet at the (all opposite) joints, the intermediate ones being spaced (to the nearest inch) 2 feet 9 inches for wooden ties, 2 feet 5 inches for iron trough ties, and 3 feet 2 inches for bowl ties. The wooden ties were all 7 feet long, and of two sections, the heavy being 10 by 5 inches and the light 9 by 4^ inches; they were all imported Baltic red fir creo- soted with not less than 10 pounds per cubic foot of timber of the best creosote oil, weighing not more than 10 pounds per gallon. The weight of each heavy tie when dry was 110 pounds, or 80 tons per mile. The rails were fastened by spikes. The weight of the iron trough tie was 6t)i pounds, or 68.1 pounds with the keys. The weight of a pair of bowls was 74 pounds, and of the tie-bar 12 pounds; the weight complete, with the keys, gibs, and cotters, was 88.27 pounds per tie. The weights per mile of these two kinds were 62 and 62.21 tons, respectively. The prices in 1883- '84, lauded at the nearest port. Port Elizabeth, were $1.32, (fl.84, and $2.26 each, yespeotivel^, orp,m (incJqdin^ spikes)^ f 3,833, mi f 3,6^5 per »iJe. Steel wis were 196 then |35 per tou, free on board, and freight to South Africa about $6.25 per ("on. The rails were mainly !i4 feet long, and 23 feet 10 inches long for curves; none were longer than 24 feet. With regard to the bowl ties, on tangents the gibtf were placed inside, and the cotters outside, of the track, giving a gauge of 3 feet 6 inches on flat curves one gib was placed outside, giving a gauge of 3 feet 6^ inches, and on sharp curves both gibs were placed outside, to give a slack gauge of 3 feet 6i inches. In order to insure the bowls being packed, a mound or hillock of ballast was first made for each to rest upon; when the ties were placed in position a rail was laid in and keyed up on one side of the track first, and the opposite rail put in and keyed lip afterward. The large lug of the bowls was tapered to suit the corrugated key, and the key was driven by the right hand of a man standing between the rails, so that all keys ou the left hand rails pointed backwards, and those on the right band rails pointed forwards, with the mileage: NATAL, JSTatal Goveknment Railways. — These lines are also of 3 feet 6 inches gauge. Originally the track consisted of iron rails laid mainly on imported creosoted ties, the average life ot .which was about seven years. Since about 1881 native yellow-wood ties have been tried, but their life is only about two and one-half years, and soaking them in mineral oils was not found to be of much service. Good ballast is difficult to ob- tain, and poor grades of disintegrating shales, quartzites, and crystal- line rocks are frequently used. Steel rails are being laid on some parts of the line, and on some of the extensions a track of steel rails on plate ties had been laid. Mr. Kielland, an engineer who had some experience with the early railways of the Colony, informs me that with the exception of a small piece of line from Durban to the TJmzemi Eiver, about 4 miles, no rail- ways had been constructed previous to 1876, when the location of the iirst Government railways was commenced. In 1878-'79 regular trains began to run. The ties used on these first roads were of creosoted pine, about 7 feet by 6 inches by 6 inches. It is reported that there is very little timber in Natal or the Cape Colony which is suitable either for ties or railway structures, the timber, as a rule, being hard and crooked. In the country north of Zululand, Mozambique, and Madagascar there are said to be immense tracts of swampy land, covered with a very lasting magnolia or mangrove tree, which is thought to be suitable for ties. SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. (.Transvaal.) The Dutch company owning the railways awarded a contract in Oc- tober, 1889, for 71,430 steel ties of the Post type (see Holland). CONGO FREE STATE. Congo Railway. — This road is to be built by a Belgian company, and it is reported that Belgian works will supply steel rails and steel ties. The latter will probably be of the Post type. 197 SENEGAL. About 5,000 cross-ties of the Severac type (see Belgium) have beeu used in this French colony. ISLAISTB OF REUNION. On the Island of Eeunion, off the east coast of Africa, a French possession, there is a meter gauge railway 77.5 ftiles in length, built in mountainous country, at a cost of $48,000 per mile. The track consists of steel rails of flange section, weighing '2S.2 pounds per yard ; these were originally laid on preserved pine tics, imported from France, spaced 28 inches apart, center to center, but iron bowls ar- ranged in pairs, on the Livesey system (see England), as employed ■with success in South America, have been substituted, and so far have given satisfactory results. The bowls are laid in broken stone ballast. The locomotives weigh 15 tons in working order, and can haul a load of 50 tons over the steepest grades. The traffic consists of about five trains per day, at an average speed of 15.5 to 18.5 miles per hour. For the sake of economy the location follows the -surface of the ground as nearly as possible; this necessitates numerous curves ; but these have caused no inconvenience in operation on account of the slow speed nec- essary to satisfy the demands of the traffic. There' are curves of 351, 410, 492, and 656 feet radius. The steepest grades are 2 and 2.5 per cent. The conditions of the traffic led to the adoption of a light track. The imported pine ties only lasted two years, and trials with native wood from Madagascar, even with mangrove, not having been success- ful, metal ties were adopted. Each tie (Livesey) consists of a pair of cast-iron bowls iiattened on the upper part to form a seat for the flange of the rail, and having lugs between which the rail is held by a corrugated key. The gauge is main- tained by means of a wrought-iron tie-bar connecting each pair of bowls and secured by keys. The spacing of the keys, and consequently the length of the tie-bar, can be varied at will, thus permitting an adjust- ment of the gauge at curves, etc. The ties are spaced about 3.28 feet apart, center to center of tie-bars. For over three years (up to 1888) 62 miles of track had been laid with this track and had not required aiiy maintenance. The ballast is of broken stone. The cars run smoothly, without jarring, and passengers can not distinguish this part of the line from that on which wooden ties are still used. The following particulars were presented by Mr. Kowalski, at the International Railway Congress, held at Milan, Italy, in 1887 : The Livesey system of cast-iron bowl ties was then in use on 62 miles, inolnding a tunnel. Each tie, complete, weighed 128.4 pounds; the tie-bars weighed 2.8 pounds, and each key .71 pound. The rails were of flange section, weighing 28.2 pounds per yard. The ballast was of sand and broken stone. The traffic consisted of six to eight trains per day. The ties were laid in 1881, and have given good results, but 198 the jaws on the bowls have to be made heavier than at first, as they broke frequently. The price in London was $1.40 each, or |2 each delivered at Eeuniou. Wooden ties cost $1. The cost of maintenance was very small. There was no bad effect on roll- ing stock, and no unpleasantness to passengers, but this might have been due to the low speed. The only renewals have been of a few bowls broken by derailments. The use of these ties is to be continued. It is considered that the advantages of metal ties in tropical countries are indisputable. Native and imported preserved wooden ties only last two and a half years, while the iron ties last Indefinitely, and the maintenance is very much less than with wooden ties. SUMMARY OF METAL TEACK FOE SECTION NO. 2. Bowla. Cross-ties. Plates. Total. Egypt Algeria Abyssinia Portngaese territory (South Africa) '. Cape Colony South African Eopubl ic • Senegal Island of Eeunion 62.00 Total . 35.25 120. 00 14.25 47.76 36.50 40.50 2.50 296. 75 887. 00 120. 00 14.25 47.75 116. 50 40.50 2.50 62.00 I, 290. 50 Section 3.— AUSTRALASIA. AUSTRAIjIA. General Remarks. — The railways of each of the five colonies of Australia (South Australia, Queenslanil, New South Wales, Victoria, and West Australia), are for the most part owned and operated by the separate governments of these colonies, and are under the control of railway commissioners. A very complete account of these railways will be found iu Engineering News, New York, March 30, 1889. It is of interest to note that metal ties have been introduced into this new country, of which comparatively little is known here, and that their use is likely to be extended. In one case (South Australia) they have been introduced on account of the destructiveness of white ants, and in an- other case (Queensland) they have been adopted, after a partial trial, for an up country line for motives of economy. One feature of this latter case is that the system adopted is claimed to be specially adapted for light and economical construction and to be suitable for some of the western sections of the United States. Hard- wood ties are in general to be obtained in abundance, but they are liable to be at- tacked and rapidly destroyed by white ants. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. South Australian G-overnment Railways. — In July, 1888, tliere were 1,500 miles of railway in operation, and two lines, aggregating 324 miles, under construction. The railways are of 5 feet 3 inches and 3 feet 6 inches gauge. The colony extends from the north to the south coast, and a north and south transcontinental line is to be built, some small sections of which are already in progress, On the Palmerston and Pine Creek line (3 feet 6 inches gauge) steel cross-ties are being used; full details have been furnished by Mr. A. B. Moncrieff, engineer in chief of the Government railways, and are given further on. As this railway was not completed at the time of Mr. MoncriefiPs re- port to me, and therefore sufficient information was not obtainable to answer some of the questions asked, he kindly sent the following par- ticulars from a report of Mr. J. C. B. Moncrieff, M. Inst. 0. E., the resi- dent engineer of the Adelaide and Terowie line (.5 feet 3 inches gauge), who had been directed to lay twenty-seven t'es of the same design, but of 199 200 the requisite size for the wider gauge, at the entrance to the Adelaide sta- tion yard, where they would sustain the heaviest traffic. The' expense of maintenance was not greater than with wooden ties, but they had not been tested long enough to enable a decided opinion to be formed as to their durability. Gravel ballast was used, and it paclied well, giving no trouble. The packing did not, however, fully drive up the ballast into the hollow of the tie, so that the chief weight had been car- ried by the flanges. _ [This was one of the troubles with the original form of the Vautherin tie, and led to the substitution of a thickened rib instead of the hori- zontal flange on each of the lower edges. — E. E. R. T.] There was no trouble with maintenance, but as the length of the track in use with these ties was only 40 feet, it was impossible to say whether they would keep the line straight. The rail attachments had given no trouble. Mr. J. 0. B, Moncrieff thought very highly of these ties and considered that if they were a little stronger, especially around the rail seats, they would be a really serviceable article. From the results of these experiments he reported as follows : These ties are of the same thickness as those for tlie Palmerstou aud Pine Creek Railway (3 feet 6 inches igauge) and are, therefore, too slight for the heavier track with 61-pound rails, of these lines of 5 feet 3 inches gauge. They were twenty-seven in number, and were placed on the up aud down tracks atthe eutr.anee to the Adelaide station. They were laid on April IP, 1886, aud have been in use until now, June 3, 1889, except during a few days when they were taken out for inspection. Three have been removed on account of cracks in the rail seats, and round the holes forthe attachments. There are now twenty-four in the track and tliese are in fairly good order, although some of them are showing cracks similar to those in the rejected ones. Apparently these cracks were originally started in the creasing of the steep angles round the rail seats. They have been in use for one hundred and fifty-three weeks, ii,nd have had a traffic of 6,500,000 tons over them daring that time. Wooden ties, of jarrah, red gum, or sugar gum, cost about 84 cents each, and last about twenty years, under favorable conditions, in the .s(nithern part of the colony, but their durability in the northern or tropical part remains to be seen. Palmerston and Pine Greek Railway. — In June, 1889, 1 received a very complete and interesting statement from Mr. A. B. Moncrieff in regard to a government line of 3 feet 6 inches gauge being built from Palmers- ton to Pine Greek, in the northern territory of South Australia, a dis- tance of 146 miles. The works are in general moderately light; there are 3 J miles of curves of G60 feet to 1,320 feet radius, the rest being- of larger radius; the grades include 12 miles of 1 in 60 (1.66 per cent.) 15 miles of 1 in 60 to 1 in 80 (1.66 to 1.25 per cent), and 12 milesof 1 inSO to 1 in 100 (1.25 to 1 per cent.). The bridges are up to 100 feet span. The road was not then completed. The object of the road is to develop a mineral country, and the traffic is generally light. The locomotives weigh 24J tons, aud have a weight of 6^ tons on each driving-wheel; the tenders weigh 17 tons. Track laying was commenced in July, 1887, under the superintendence of Mr. J. W. James. 201 Metal ties were adopted on account of the destructiveness of white ants. The ties are transverse, of steel, of the type known as MacLellan and Smith's patent embossed stamped steel ties. (See plate No. 18.) They are manufactured by Ibbotson Bros. & Co., of England, and cost $65 per ton, free on board, at an English port. They are coated with Dr. Angus Smith's composition. The general form is that of an inverted trough, with closed ends, and having a horizontal flange all round the lower edges. The trough part is formed with corrugations at the ends and near the rail seats ; this part is narrow at the middle, the top table and bottom flanges being of equal width ; at the rail seats it is wide and flat, with narrow flanges ; and at the ends it is wide, and is corrugated where it slopes down to the horizontal flange. The tie is 6 feet 3 inches long, 12 inches wide in the body, 14 inches wide at the ends and about 2f Inches deep.. The top table is about 3 inches wide at the middle and 7 inches wide at the rail seats. The length of the trough is about 5 feet 7 inches on the bottom, leaving 4 inches of flat plate at each end ; the top is slightly arched or curved. The tie has a uniform thickness of three-sixteenths inch, and weighs 56 pounds ; the fastenings weigh 6 J pounds per set. It is horizontal at top and bottom, but at each rail seat there is a depression 8-3% inches wide and about One-fourth inch deep on the outer side, forming a groove for the rail flange and having an in- ward slope of 1 in 26. This depression is an objectionable feature, as it is almost certain to cause cracks to start in the sharp angles, and this has been found to be the case. Experience in other countries has shown that proper fastenings are in themselves amply suiflcient to hold the rails in place and prevent spreading of the track, so that this fopm of rail seat is therefore unnecessary. The expense and extra labor ex- pended on this part may be dispensed witli and a better and more dur- able tie obtained which will be fully as efficient in service as the tie with the depressed rail seat. The fastenings consist of two clips and one patent Ibbotson " twin " or U bolt for each rail. The horizontal part of the bolt rests inside the tie, under the rail seat, and the two ver- tical parts pass up through the top table and clips ; these vertical parts are threaded and a nut is screwed down on each clip. The bolts are 4i| inches long, center to center of the vertical parts, which are three- fourths inch diameter; the horizontal part is three-fourths inch wide and five-eighths inch deep, with the upper face flat, to bear against the under side of the top table. The clips are 2J inches long on the rail, 2f inches wide, and five-eighths inchthickat the middle. A groove is made inthe outer clip and on the top of the outer side of the bolt, so that the track inspectors, when walking along the track, can see that the bolts and clips have been put in correctly. The ties are spaced as follows : For a rail length of 21 feet 2 inches, the joint ties are 1 foot 11 inches apart, center to center, the ties next to the joints 2 feet 4 inches, and the inter- mediate ties 2 feet 11 inches apart. For a rail length of 18 feet 5 inches, the joint ties are spaced I foot 11 inches apart, the next ones 2 feet 5 202 inches, and the intermediate ties 2 feet 11 inches apart. On curves they are laid radially. At switches and frogs, wooden ties are used; they are 8 inches by 4 inches section, and 6 feet inches to 13 feet long. The rails are fast- ened by steel spikes one-half inch square, 4^ inches long, with heads 1 inch long by IJ inches wide. The rails are of steel, of flange section, weighing 41 pounds per yard. They are 3J inches high, 3^ inches wide over the flange ; the head is 1| inches wide, with a top radius of 6 inches arid three-eighths inch ra- dius of top corners. They are mostly 21 feet 2 inches long (20 feet lOJ inches for short rails on curves), and some of them (not more than 5 per cent, of the contract lots) . are 18 feet 5 inches long. The joints are suspended and are fastened by splice plates 15 inches long, with four bolts three-fourths inch diameter, spaced 3^ inches center to center. The outer plate is flat, five-eighths inch thick, with bolt holes seven-eighths inch square. The inner plate is of a deep pattern, having a vertical web projecting below the flange of the rail, being 4^ iuchesdeep over all, and having the ends of the lower web cut to fit the slope of the sides of the ties ; it is five-eighths inch thick in the upper web, and three-eighths inch thick in the flange and lower web ; the bolt holes are seven-eighths inch diameter. The bolt holes in the web of the rails are oval, seven- eighthsinch vertical by li^jinches horizontal. A space of three-sixteenths inch is left between the rail ends at thejoints. The ballast is of broken stone or clean gravel ; it is 6 inches deep under the ties, 7 feet 6 inches wide on top, 10 feet 6 inches wide over the bottom ; between the rails it is level with the tops of the ties, but outside it is nearly even with the level of the rail head, rounded down alongside the rail to the underside of the head. The minimum quantity of ballast, for single track, is 1,480 cubic yards per mile. The height from subgrade to top of rail is 12 inches. There has not yet been sufScient experience to enable positive opin- ions to be given as to the value of these steel ties, but it is thought that they are rather too light, as they are found to crack slightly at the rail- seats and bolt-holes. The following particulars respecting the line are extracted from a report of the resident engineer, Mr. James : The steel ties are exceedingly strong, they staucl well in the track and keep a good Hue. When traveling on an engine the road seems as elastic as if the line were laid with wooden ties. The contractors are highly pleased with them. They give no trouble when laid, and the cost for maintenance ia very much lighter than with wooden ties. The climate is tropical but it can not be said yet whether it will have any effect upon the ties. 203 QUEENSLAND. Queensland Government Eailways. — The lines in this colony- are divided into ten divisions, and the condition of the railway system at the end of 1887 was as follows: Open for tratfic, 1,895 miles; under construction, 208 miles; proposals invited for construction, 38 miles; plans approved, 197 miles; total, 2,338 miles. The gauge of the rail- way is 3 feet 6 inches. The average cost for construction has been about $32,070 per mile, and the average cost for maintenance for the years 1884-'85-'86 was $704 per mile per annum. The lines are laid principally with steel flange rails weighing 41J or 60 pounds per yard. There is said to be an abundant supply of iron-bark timber for ties. In September, 1886, a contract for 12,000 wooden ties for the Northern line was let at $8,250, or about 69 cents per tie. Sawn wooden ties cost from $65 to $90 per 100, and last from ten to fifteen years. The railway commissioner has condemned the further cutting of timber for ties, fences, etc., and has recommended the home manufacture of steel ties. Some years ago (about 1882) 1,000 wrought-iron cross-ties of the Livesey pattern were laid on the Sandgate branch ; they were 5 feet 6 inches long, made of metal three-sixteenths of an inch thick, and had closed ends. They lasted for five years under moderate traffic, but generally fractured under the rail seats, owing to defective fastenings of the rails. The oxidization was not serious. They were laid in ordi- nary broken stone ballast. In October, 1887, a contract for stamping 80,000 ties of the Phillips type was let to the Toowoomba Foundry Company, of Queensland, at $35,833.30. In December, 1887, a con- tract for 2,000 iron ties for the Southern and Western line was let at $4,156.25. In June, 1888, 100,000 ties of the Phillips improved type, weighing 84 pounds each, were being manufactured by the Toowoomba Foundry Company for the first section of the Normanton and Cloncurry Eailway. The ties designed by Mr. George Phillips, superintending engineer, late inspector of railway surveys, are intended especially for up- country lines ; they dispense with ballast, the ground being plowed and the soil tamped into and around the ties. They are made of steel, and are of inverted trough section, with open ends (see Plate Ko. 19). These ties were first tried on the Harrisville branch of the Fassifern line, 80,000 being ordered. Of this first lot the plates were rolled in England and shipped flat, and were pressed cold to shape in the col- ony, as Mr. Phillips wished to inspect the work. They were imported by the Government at a cost of about $30 per ton, and the Toowoomba Foundry took the contract to do the shaping at 43 cents per tie. The work was to be done under very strict specifications, but after a time the contractors claimed that the plates were not delivered to them in a workable condition, and they applied for extra compensation. It was 204 said tLat owing to careless iaspection in Bnglaad the plates were sent out warped, twisted, and sometimes so unevenly cut that they would not go into the pressing machine. Two dippings in tar were specified, but the contract was modifled to permit the contractors to make one dipping only, on condition that they would forego their claim for extra compensation. The first ties for the experimental line weighed 60 pounds; those now made weigh 84 pounds. Mr. W. A. Cross, engineer of existing lines, in his report dated April 9, for the year 1887, stated as follows : A.n experimental line 65 ciiains 71 links long 1.4,336.86 feet if the English chain of 66 feet is used. — E. E. E.T.] was laid down iu Jiiue last on the Han-isville branch, upon Mr. George Phillips's system, viz, a surface line liaviug*netal ties and without ballast, and has been tested by the whole of the traffic for the district having been worked over it for a period of ten months, with the result that a fair measure of suc- cess had been obtained for this description of light lines. The system merits consid- eratioQ in opening up the vast plains of the interior of the colony. In October, 1888, when the question of extending the Croydon branch railway from mile No. 13 to mile No. 42, from Normanton, a length of 29 miles, came before the legislature, there was quite a heated discussion as to the proposed use of metal ties. The contract for building a part of the line had been let by a previous administration to Mr. Phillips, who was to use his metal ties; as might be expected, the new adminis- tration disapproved of what had been done by the opposite party when in power, and this gave rise to considerable discussion. As shown fur- ther on, however, the line is being laid with these ties. In May, 1889, the following particulars were furnished by the com- missioner of railways in regard to the Phillips ties. They were laid on the Fas^fern branch of the Southern and Western Railway, and on the first section of the Normanton and Croydon Railway. The length of track laid was 37 miles 1,980 feet, including sidings, and the laying of GO miles more had been authorized. The maximum grade was 1 in 66 and minimum curve 660 feet radius. The ties were laid in 1887-'88 under the supervision of Mr. George Phillips and Mr. W. A. Cross, engineers. The traffic was mixed, passenger and freight, and the max- imum of trains was six per day. The engines weighed 34f tons, with 9 tons on the driving-wheels. The ties were transverse, of trough sec- tion, 5 feet 6 inches to 5 feet 9 inches long, 5 inches to 6 inches deep, and weighing from 60 to 84 pounds each. They were of wrought-iron and steel, and were manufactured by Springall & Frost and the Too- woomba Foundry Company in the Colony, from imported plates. They were dipped in a composition of coal tar and asphaltum, and cost $ 1.99 J to $2.50 each. The cost of maintenance was about $350 per mile per annum. They had not been done long enough to test their durability. The fastenings consisted of one riveted and one bolted clip to each rail. No special arrangement was made for curves. The lines are purely surface lines, with the exception of a few banks, the longest of which is only 1,980 feet in length ; the ties are laid directly in the earth, no other 205 ballast being used ; the ballast behaves excellently under the tie. The rails are of flange section, 41^ pounds per yard, with suspended spliced joints. The ties were adopted for economy in constructiea and main- tenance, and so far the results had been perfectly satisfactory. There had been no trouble with the rail attachments, with maintenance, or from breakages. Passifern Railway. — The following information relating to the flrst experimental line is condensed from a pamphlet issued by Mr. Phillips. The Government having consented to lay down a short length of rail- way with wrought-iron ties (see plate No. 19), in order to test the practicability of working and maintaining railways laid on the surface of even country, without ballast or drainage of any description, the ex- perimental line was laid in the form of a deviation near Harrisville, on the Fassifern branch of the Southern and Western Eailway, upon a piece of even, black soil, melon-hole country, liable to be flooded after heavy rains to a considerable extent. The actual length of the experi- mental track was 4,336.86 feet, and on it were laid 1,988 wrought-iron ties. The ties were made for plates 66 inches long, 19 inches wide, and one-eighth inch thick ; they were 5 feet 6 inches long, 6 inches wide on top, 9J inches wide on the bottom, and 6 inches deep. At each rail seat a wrought-iron tie-plate, 12 inches by 8 inches by three-sixteenths inch thick, was fastened to the tie ; on the outer side of the rail it was fastened by a three-fourths inch rivet which also held the clips for the outer side of the flange of the rail, and on the inner side by a three- fourths inch bolt which also held the loose clip for the inner side of the flange of the rail. The ends were open, and the ties were tamped from the ends. The rails were of steel, of flange section, weighing 41J pounds per yard. The total cost of the deviation, including the ap- proaches (total length, 4,898.52 feet), was $10,350.25, of which $2,000 was due to the excessive price of the ties, which were manufactured (under contract) in the colony, at a cost of $2 each, or about $77.50 per ton, or about 100 per cent, of the value if they had been imported from England ; steel ties were then, it was said, being manufactured in England for India at $22.76 per ton. The line was opened to trafiic on June 11, 1887, and up to June 11, 1888, it had carried a gross traffic of •150,000 tons. It had been repeatedly submerged and in one instance trains were run over it at a speed of 25 miles an hour while the flood waters were running across the rails. The results were so satisfactory that the Government let a contract in June, 1888, to the Toowoomba Foundry Company for 100,000 ties of a heavier pattern for the ISTorman- ton and Oloncurry Eailway. These ties were made from steel plates 5 feet 9 inches long by 18 Inches wide and three-sixteenths inch thick ; they were 5 feet 9 inches long, 7 inches wide on top, 10 inches wide at the bottom, and weighed 84 pounds each, complete. After the bending and riveting, they were dipped vertically, for about twenty minutes, 206 into a caldron containing a composition of refined Trinidad asplialtum and coal-tar at a temperature of about 300° Falir. It has been shown that this experimental surface line can stand the test of recurring heavy rain-falls without its stability being seriously aifected. Croydon and Noemanton Railway. — The ties for this line are made from steel plates 6 feet long, 18 inches wide before bending to shape, and three-sixteenths inch thick, with a strip 6 inches wide along the middle three-eighths inch thick ; this extra metal may be on the upper or under side of the plate, at the option of the manufacturer (see plate No. 19). The tie is 6 feet long, 7 inches wide on top (or G inches if the extra thickness is on the upper side) ; 10 inches wide at the bottom, inside ; 5 inches deep (or 5-^ inches if the extra thickness is on the upper side). The top corners are 1 inch radius, and the sides flare slightly outward. The top table of the tie is horizontal and the cross-section is uniform throughout. The rails are of flange section, of steel, weighing 41J pounds per yard ; the flange is 3^ inches wide. The outer flange of the rail is held by a riveted clip 4^ inches long, 2-^ inches wide, three eighths inch thick, projecting seven-sixteenths inch over the flange. This clip is fixed at the exact place, with regard to the flange of the rail, to give the correct gauge, and it is secured by two five-eighths inch rivets, 2^ inches apart. The inner flange of the rail is held by a loose clip, 2J inches square, seven-sixteenths to nine-sixteenths inch thick, projecting one-half inch over the flange ; the outer part has a rib on the under side which rests on the tie and so keeps the top of the clip horizontal. The bolt hole is thirteen sixteenths inch diameter. The bolt hole in the tie is kite-shaped, the point being turned toward the middle of the tie ; it is ^f by l^V inches. The bolt is If inches long under the head, three-fourths inch diameter, with the Whitworth thread, and has an eccentric neck 1 inch long, fitting into the narrow part of the bolt hole so as to prevent the turning of the bolt. In January, 1889, Mr. Phillips sent. the following report of his ties, and his statement, together with the other information given, shows that under certain circumstances, at least, steel ties are adapted not only to replace woodeu ties ou the main lines with heavy traffic, but also for an economical construction of railways with small traffic in even country : I have just returned from North Queensland, where I have been constructing a seo tion of railway 36 miles in length on my system. The country I am dealing with is between the port of Normanton, in 17° 45' south latitude and 141° 10' east longitude, and a new gold iield by the name of Croydon, situated about 85 miles east-southeast from Normanton. The country is almost uniformly even, and the Norman River is the only important river crossed. The first 4 miles are over gravel ridges, when a descent of 1 in 70 for half a mile brings the line down to the level of the river flats; the BoW is dark clay with a slight admixture of alluvial sand. This description of coun- try extends to 14 miles, wljere the river is crossed with a low, level timber bridge (principally 30-foot spans) qu a 8q,ndstone-roclt bottom. Thence to Croydon the country is very uniform in oharaoter^-flno sandy soil, covered with a more or less f,^J9l? fQ|:?Bt o|' jiffefipr ^i^d 8t.ij;ited tiipber, soujetjifles ^ense enoujgh to Ije pftlle4 207 brush or scrub. There is no forest timber of sufficient dimensions in the district available for ties or bridge work, neither is there any stone for ballast, except by quarrying below the surface, and that is sandstone of an inferior and very soft de- scription. The country is almost uniformly even, except at the 4-mile peg, where there is a cutting of about 5 feet and an embanUmont of equal height. I commenced track laying July 7, and completed 32 miles on December 29 ; fully seven weeks were lost through non-delivery of ties, so that the average rate of progress was IJ miles per week of six working days. The number of men emplpyed in (a) clearing track 66 feet wide, (6) grubbing central width of 10 feet, (c) plowing, harrowing, and rolling the same, (s ar§ 4ippe(J |n ^ black-varnish solution. They are not patented, • 22893— Bull. 4-™-15 226 For the 5 feefc 6 inches gauge, the ties are made from plates 9 feet long and 15 inches wide, with the middle thirteen thirty-seconds inch" thick for a width of 4J inches, and the sides about seven thirty-seconds inch thick (specified to be of such thickness as will make the tie weigh 120 pounds). The finished tie is 8 feet 9 inches long ; at the rail seat it is 9^ inches wide at the bottom and 4^ inches deep; at the middle it is 45 inches deep and 8J or 9 inches wide at the bottom, while at an intermediate point it is 4J inches deep and 9 inches wide ; the ends are 13 inches wide. The lugs are 3 inches long and the keys 8 inches long. The tie weighs 120 pounds and the keys 1 pound each, making a total of 122 pounds for each tie, complete. The rails are of flange section, 4^1 inches high, 4 inches wide over the flange, and weighing 75 pounds jjer yard. For the meter gauge the tie is made from a plate 5 feet 9 inches long and 14 inches wide, with the middle part three-eighths inch thick for a width of 4 inches, and the sides about three-sixteenths or one-fourth inch thick (specified to be of such thickness that the tie will weigh 69 pounds). The finished tie is 5 feet 6 inches or 5 feet 7 inches long ; at the middle it is flat on top for a width of 4 inches, and the bottom width is 9 J inches ; at the middle it is of arched section, 8J inches wide at the bottom and 5 inches deep. The ends flare out to a width of 13 inches. The lugs are 3 inches long, spaced 2^ inches apart in the clear, and the keys are 6 inches long. The tie weighs 69 pounds and the two keys 1.25 pounds, making 70.25 pounds for the tie com- plete. The rails are of flange section, 3J inches high, 3| inches wide over the flange, and weighing 41^ pounds per yard. The price of the broad-gauge ties is said to be about 6 rupees ($2) each in India. It has been stated (The Indian Engineer, March 31, 1888) that after two or three years' experience the general opinion was that these ties were too thin, especially for the northwest provinces, where the soil and the ballast are of a peculiarly corroding character. Sir A. M. Rendel, con- sulting engineer in England for the state railways and guaranteed lines, who introduced these ties, prefers them to the cast-iron plates. In February, 1888, there were over 3,000 miles of this track (including Mexico), on lines of all descriptions as regards grades, curves, etc. They had been laid during the past ten years, but principally during the previous four years. The traffic was not then very heavy. The weight of the broad-gauge locomotives was up to 45 tons in all and 36 tons on three pair of wheels, which would be increased to 42 tons ; the engines of the meter gauge lines had a weight of 24 tons on six coupled wheels. The ties are spaced about 3 feet apart center to center, or eleven to a rail length of 30 feet. The cost was then about $20 per ton delivered at a port in England, and the expense of maintenance had been very low. As to durability, it is known that steel ties in an^ other form have lasted for sixteen years on the Oude and Rohilkund Eailway without injury. All kinds of ballast are used, but gravel or 227 fine sand is the best ; the behavior of the ballast under the tie is very good, particularly during floods and rainy seasons. The road-bed is of ordinary type, generally well ballasted. There is no trouble with maintenance of track nor with the rail attachments, nor from break- ages. The following statement, showing the quantities and various descrip- tions of metal ties which have been sent to India for the state railways since 1874, by the India office, was furnished me in September, 1889, by Mr. Abercrombie Jopp, director-general of stores, India oflice, London. Statement of iron and steel ties sent to India iy the India office during years 1874 to 1889. Description of ties. Xumber supplied. Miles of single track. Meter gauge: DeBergue's system ; cast-iron bowls pairs Vautheriu ; wrought-iron cross-ties - number Cast-iron bowls pairs WrOQght-iron bowls A do. Wrougbt-irou cross-ties ■ number Steel cross-ties do .. Denham-Olpbert'a cast-iron plates pairs Total ties for meter gauge Indian gauge (5 feet 6 incbea) : Cast-iron bowls pairs Steel cross-ties number t)onlLam-01pb6rt's cast-iron plates pairs Total ties for 5^-foot.gauge Total of complete cross-ties-- 7,040 6, 332 39,018 36. 000 286, OUO 723, 829 347, 000 1, 445, 219 364, 361 1,941,398 • 245, 347 2,5,51,106 3, 996, 325 4 4 20 18 143 361i 173i 724i. 183J ■988i 122J 1, 294i 2, 0181 East Indian Railway. — The line was originally laid almost entirely with wooden ties, but cast-iron plate ties are now extensively used. The Sinhgharon branch is laid partly with Greaves cast-iron bowls and jjartly with creosoted fir ties. Oreosoted fir and sal ties are used gen- erally on the other branches. Cast-iron bowls have been used, but sev- eral years ago they were found unsuitable for a line with high speed and heavy loads, and they were afterwards only used in sidings. In 1877 Mr. Benedict, in a paper on " Metal sleepers for railways," read before the Society of Engineers and Ship-builders, Glasgow, Scotland, stated that thus far the bowls had not done well, but that a further trial would be made. The steel cross-ties have been used, but the stand- ard metal tie on this road isjthe Dehham-Olpherts cast-iron plate tie. In the company's report for the half year ending December 31, 1889, it was stated that the lavish expenditures during the past few years upon renewals of the line, replacing iron rails with steel rails and wooden ties by metal ties, were then taking effect, as there was no longer the heavy maintenance which had formerly burdened the road, and it was predicted that these maintenance expenses would continue to decrease with the gradual extending of the improvements, 228 The length of this system opea for trafBc ou December 31, 1888 (ex- clusive of sidings), was as follows : Miles. Feet. East India Railway, proper 1,513 2,376 Tarakeshwar Railway 22 1,214 Patna-6ya State Railway 57 1,056 Ghazipur-Dildarnagar Prov. State Railway 11 5,239 Sindia State Railway 74 4,657 Total 1,677 3,982 The standard type of track consists of double-headed steel rails 30 feet long, weighing 75 pounds per yard, laid on Denham-Olpherts cast- iron plate ties weighing 227 pounds each ; eleven ties to a rail length. The total number of these ties had increased from 413,000 at the end of 1882 to 1,311,000 at the end of 1887, the latter amount representing about 680 miles of track. At the prices of iron in April, 1888, the cost of track laid with these ties was less than that of a track on wooden ties. The breakages since 1885 averaged about .84 per cent, per annum. These ties are described in full farther on. (See plate So. 23.) In January, 1888, the Government called for an exhaustive report on the behavior of the Denham-Olpherts plate-ties on various sections of the line, and also for the opinions of the engineers who had such ties in their districts. During the half-yearly inspection made in January and February, 1888, very careful examinations were made in order to form an opinion as to the relative merits of the track on cast-iron and on wooden ties, and in April, 1888, Major W. H. Coaker, deputy consulting engineer for railways, presented his report. He stated that the ex- cessive oscillation complained of on some sections was due to the rounded shape of the head of the new rails and not to irregularity in gauge caused by the use of the metal ties, as had been alleged. On the whole he was of opinion that these plate-ties make an excellent track, and notwithstanding the use of stone ballast, which is generally un- suited for cast-iron ties, the track was fairly elastic, owing to the rail being suspended by its' head : he advised the use of twelve ties instead of eleven to a 30 foot rail length, and this has been adopted in some cases where the- rails are laid to break joint. As to irregularities in gauge, there is little difference between track on cast-iron and on wooden ties, as will be seen by the following summary of a number of gauge tests made early in 1888 and included in Major Coaker's report : Denham- 01phert*fi. Wooden. Tight... Slack.... Correct. Varied. . 14 6 4 7 Total. 30 In regard to the question as to the reported diflficulty in insuring ac- curacy of gauge with the" cast-iron ties, Mv, Dunham, chief engineer of 229 the railway aud one of the inventors of the tie, stated that this was due, First, to letting separate contracts to different parties for the cast- iron and wrought-iron work ; Second, to faulty packing or tamping, as if tamped too much on the outside the plates will dip inwards and nar- row the gauge, or if tamped too much on the inside the gauge will widen; this trouble can be avoided by having the work carefully done; Third, to the difiiculty in manufacturing the pieces so as to render the gauge exact at all times, although careful work has reduced this source of trouble to a minimum. Mr. Denham, as one of the patentees, pre- ferred not to make a statement of his opinions as to the merits and de- merits of the tie, but sent in a number of reports from the district en- gineers. While differing in opinion aud as to details, the impression given by these reports is that the ties are very satisfactory ; rather frequent packing is required ; but as there is not the trouble with the fastenings that there is with the wooden ties, the track-men have more time to attend to the packing, and the net result is a reduction of the maintenance expenses. The number of renewals is also very consider- ably reduced below that of wooden ties, effecting an economy of over 6^ per cent, per annum. The saving in maintenance on the Allahabad division is estimated at 821 rupees ($273.80) per mile per annum in favor of cast-iron over sal ties; on this division there were in January, 1888, 276f miles laid with these ties; on 103 J miles the rails rest on wooden cushions, and on 173^ miles they are suspended in the jaws of the chairs; the ties were first laid on this division in 1880 for a length of 5 miles. The following table is taken from the report of the chief engineer, Mr. Denham, for the half year ending December 31, 1888, and shows a record of the tie work during that period : Ties in track, in- cluding sidings. Kemoved. Laid. Eemoval on total. Total remov- al of eaoh class. July 1, 1888. Decem- ber 31, 1888. Defect- ive. Other causes. Total. Defect, ive. Other causes. "Wooden transverse : Fir (10 ft. by 10 by5in.)..No.. Sal (10 ft. by 10 by5in.)..No.. Others do.. 423, 793 1,597,021 896, 372 394,346 1,560,852 892, 009 19, 622 34, 868 11,726 12,773 39, 787 10,422 32, 395 74, 655 22, 148 3,948 38,486 18, 685 Per cent 4.63 2.18 l.M Per cent 3.01 2.49 i:i7 Percent 7.64 4.67 2.47 Total do.. 2, 917, 186 1,451,076 82, 695 237,592§ 34,448 2, 849, 107 1, 524, 999 82, 621 238,095i 34,444 66, 216 62, 982 129, 198 61,119 80, 983J 62 1,722 *2.26 .39 .09 .48 .01 *?.16 .09 .07 .03 '4.42 Iron: D e n Ii a m-Ol - phert's plate lies (227.37 lbs. eacb) ..pairs.. Denbam's plate ties ... pairs.. Bowlties(2231bs. each) . . pairs. . Others No... 5,747i 78 1,147 4 1,313 58 72 7, oaoi 136 1,219 .48 .16 .51 .01 Total 1, 805, BUii l,8g0,159i 6, 976i 1,443 8,419J 82, 767i *.38 *.08 •1.36 Grand total . . . 4,722,997^ 4, 729, 26Ci 73, 192J 64,425 137, 617} 143,888 *1.55 *2.91 *Average. 230 The next table shows the total length of single track laid with vyooden and iron ties ou December 31, 1888 : Wootlen. Iron bowl. Iron plate. Wood and iron and tim- ber inter- mixed. MUes. Feet. 1,294 4,148 101 1,320 Miles. I'eet. 79 2,903 Milee. Feet. 735 1,630 26 5,o;i Miles. Feet. 265 5 030 69 3, 231 Total 1, 396 197 79 2,903 762 1,401 325 -2,981 As already stated, the company has undertaken the manufacture of cast-iron-plate ties at its Jamalpur works, and early in 1888 the Bur- rakur Iron Works were turning out 10,000 of the same class of ties per month for this road. The following is the substance of a detailed statement in regard to the Deuham-Olpherts cast-iron-plate ties, which was sent to me in Feb- ruary, 1888, by Sir A. M. Eendel, consulting engineer. There were about 900 miles in all on the Bast Indian, Eastern Bengal, and branches, and further supplies had been ordered. The divisions laid with these ties were, as a rule, level and straight ; the traffic was heavy and slow, hauled by engines weighing 40 to 44 tons, with 14 tons on each pair of wheels, say 28 tons on two pair and 40 tons on three pair of coupled wheels. A detailed description of these ties is given further on. They are spaced about 3 feet apart center to center of tie -bars. The plates, with their jaws, weigh 109 pounds each, or 218 pounds per pair ; the tie-bar and accessories weigh 28 pounds. The cost for one tie com- plete, including tie-bar and fastenings, was then about $2.16, de- livered at an English port. The labor of maintenance was normal and the breakages were not serious. The results as to durability have been good. Various kinds of ballast have been tried,_including broken stone, brick, sand, and kunker (this latter is a kind of nodular limestone, commonly burnt for lime in India; it is rather soft). The road-bed is of ordinary construction, well ballasted, and the ballast be- haves well under the ties. The rails are of double-headed sections, weighing 75 pounds per yard; the joints are suspended. The reason for adopting metal ties was that native hard or soft woods cost too much and were not obtainable in sufScient quantities, while imported creosoted pine was cheaper but not so durable. The general results are satisfactory, and there is no particular trouble with maintenance. As compared with wooden ties they are more durable but less elastic. Various kinds of wooden ties are used, but the tropical climate is very bad on timber, A good sal wood tie, which is the best to be got in India and is sometimes very good, costs 5 rupees to 5 rupees 5 annas ($1.61 to $1.83.) Mr. Eendel prefers the steel cross-ties. A cast-iron-plate tie designed by Sir Bradford Leslie, formerly chief engineer of the road, was used on a short branch line crossing the 231 Hooghly Eiver and proved quite a success; it could be easily and quickly laid and had but few brealf ages. The plate is 24 by 17 inches, the greater length being parallel with the rail. There are two fixed jaws on the outer side of the track and a loose jaw on the inner side; this loose jaw has a projection which passes through a slot in the plate and straddles the tie-bar; it is held iu place by a iiat taper key driven through it and through webs on the rail chair. The plate has a seg- mental rib on the lower side with two transverse ribs or webs on each side. The tie-bar is 2 inches deep; it is set on edge and is under the plate, passing through a slot in the longitudinal rib ; at each edge is a notch in the upper edge which engages with a downward projecting flange on the outer edge of the plate. Double-headed rails are used, and are supended in the jaws, as in the Denham-Olpherts ties. PatnagtTA Railway. — This line is now operated as a part of the East Indian railway system. Cast-iron bowls were in use in 1877. (See 'State Railways and Bast Indian Railway). Rajpxjtana-Malwa Railway.— This Hue is leased by the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway Company and forms a part of its system. Wooden ties of deodar and creosoted pine were origiually used, but as the latter perished very rapidly they were replaced with deodar. The Fazilka Branch (50 miles long) of the Rewari-Ferozepore section is laid with steel rails on Molesworth's and Denham-Olphert's iron ties. (See State Railways.) Beng-al-Nagpue Railway.— This road is to be about 800 miles long, and at a meeting of the company in London in June, 1889, it was stated that 294J miles were then open for traffic ; track had been laid on 260 miles more, of which 45 miles were ready to be put in operation as soon as the rainy season was over. Some of the older sections of the line, built about 1880-1881, were of 1-meter gauge, but the Indian gauge of 5 feet 6 inches having been adopted, these lines are being converted to the broad gauge. ^ The type of track adopted consists of steel flange rails on steel cross- ties, except in those places where tiniber can be readily obtained from neighboring forests. In April, 1888, there were 180 miles laid with steel ties (See plats No. 25). These ties are of the type now adopted for the State railways (already described). They are 8 feet 9 inches long, beut to give the rails an inclinatien of 1 in 20, and have the ends curved down with a radius of 9 inches and flared out to a width of 13 inches. They weigh 120 pounds each or 122 pounds, with two keys. The rails are secured by clips stamped up out of the top table of the tie; for the meter-gauge sections two sets of clips are made, one set for each gauge, the object being to permit of converting the gauge of the line, while keeping the meter-gauge open for traffic. The rolled section from which the ties are made is of trough shape, ,9 feet long, flat on top for a width of 5J inches, llf inches wide at the bottom, 3|f inches deep ; the thickness is seven-thirty-seconds inch, with the middle part of the 232 top table three-eighths inch thick for a width of 4J inches ; the cor- ners are bent to a curve of 1 inch radius. At the middle the cross- section is 4| inches deep, 8 inches wide at the bottom ; the top is curved to a radius of lOJ inches, and the corners to a radius of 1} inches ; the distance between the centers of the corner curves is 3f inches, and the sides flare outward slightly towards the bottom. At the rail seats the top is flat, giving a width of 4J inches ; the section at the inner rails (meter gauge) is 8J inches wide at the bottom and 4f inches deep ; at the outer rails (broad gauge) it is 10 inches wide at the bottom and 4| inches deep. The clips are 3 inches long and the keys 8 inches and 6 inches long for the broad and narrow gauges respectively. The adjust- ment of the gauge is effected by driving one or both of the keys on the inside instead of the outside of the track. The ties are steeped while hot in linseed oil and tarred. They were manufactured by Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., of England, and cost $24.54 pei? ton, or about 4 rupees 8 annas ($1.48) each in India. The ties are spaced 3 feet center to cen- ter, 1,760 to the mile. They are laid in ballast of broken stone 1^ inches size ; this behaves well under the ties, does not crush, and is elastic and clean. It has also been proposed to lay some Denham Olpherts cast- iron plate ties as an experiment. These steel ties were adopted on account of the low cost of steel and because timber was not procurable in suflBcient quantity. Wooden ties last about five years; they soon split from the intense heat, and rot during the rainy season. The climate has no effect on the metal ties. Wooden ties are used to some extent, and the rails are secured to them by spikes five-eighths of an inch square in the shank and 5 inches long under the head, with a notch cut in the sides at a distance of if inches from the point. The meter-gauge line was laid with 40-pound rails on teak, sS-l, and creosoted pine ties. One advantage of the steel ties is that the number of separate pieces is small and the fastenings are simple, which makes t*e track-very easy to lay with rapidity and accu- racy. It is said that rust is liable to form at the rail-seat, but the engineers have no anxiety on this account. The space between the clips being narrower than the flange of the rail, the rails have to be canted when being put in or taken out, and this causes a good deal of extra work when tie renewals are to be made. It is said by outside au- thorities that the ties are of too light section, the finished thickness be- ing about three-sixteenths of an inch. The road being new, there has not yet been time to ascertain their durability or the expense of main- tenance, but up to the date of the reports received (April and May, 1888), the general results have been satisfactory ; not one tie had been damaged and the engineers were well satisfied with them. Mr. T. K. Wynne is chief engineer and Mr. P. T. Large is superintending engi- ■ neer. The rails for the meter-gauge weigh 41| pounds per yard. They are 3f| inches high, with ahead 1|| inches wide (having inward flaring 233 plane sides), and a flange Sj^ inches wide ; the clear distance between the clips for these rails is 2f inches. The rails for the broad gauge weigh 75 i^ouuds per yard ; they are 4|| inches high, with a head 2|^ inches wide (having Inward flaring rounded sides), and a flange 4 inches wide ; the clear distance between the clips for these rails is 3f inches. The joints are suspended and are spliced by angle splice-bars 26 inches long, with a very narrow horizontal flange; there are six bolts, the inner ones spaced 6 inches and the outer ones 4 inches, center to center. The ruling grade is 1 in 150 and the sharpest curve 1,000 feet radius. The engines are all of one class with six coupled wheels; total weight, without tender, 45 to 50 tons ; weight on a pair of wheels, 11 J to 12 tons. In addition to the passenger traffic there is a heavy traffic in grain ; also- in hides, salt, timber, and bamboos. Southern Mahbatta Railway. — Steel cross-ties of the state rail- way type are now being substituted for the creosoted pine ties. In the report for the half year ending June 30, 1888, it was stated in regard to the renewals of ties that some part of the line was built as a famine relief work by the Government before the railway company came into existence, and the Government provided also some of the tract, which the company laid do'wn. On the older state lines of meter-gauge half-round creosoted pine ties had been largely used, but they proved a failure and had to be renewed. The greater portion of this line, about 80 per cent., is laid with teak or steel ties, and it was hoped that the rfenewals would be less expensive than on other roads. About 10 per cent, of the ties in the line were then of creosoted pine. The num- ber would be about 200,000, and 27,000 had been renewed during the half year. Mysore section. — The track is laid with 41J-pound rails, on teak and creosoted pine ties. Bellary-Kistnah section. — Early in 1888 reports on the new type of steel ties (state railway type) were made by thfe district engineers to Mr. La Touche, the engineer-in-chief, who reported to the director-gen- eral of railways in September, 1888. The old pattern of tie, of some- what similar form, but with gib and cotter fastenings, was objection- able on account of the number of small pieces — eight to each tie — while the metal was so thin as to be easily broken by derailed cars or split by driving the keys home. There was no adjustment for curves. The close spacing of the clips of the new ties was objected to. In stone or clean gravel ballast they do very well, but in soil banks the edges cut down into the material and a good deal of extra raising and pack- ing was required. The increased thickness of the top table greatly in- creased the strength and eflficiency of the tie. (See State Eailways.) Indian Midland Railway. — The older parts of this line are laid with double-headed rails, weighing 75 pounds per yard, on Denham- Olpherts cast-iron plate ties. The remainder of the main line and branches are laid with steel flange rails weighing 80 pounds per yard, 234 on cast-iron bowl ties (See plate No. 23,) Tbese bowls are an improve- ment upon those of the state railways. They are oval in plan, 25 inches long by 20 inches wide, and 2-^g inches deep under the rail. In the top there are two holes 2J inches in diameter, for tamping. The tie bar is of wrought iron 7 feet 7 inches long, 2 inches deep by one-half inch thick; it is secured to each bowl by a cotter on the outer side and a gib on the inner side of the track. There are eleven pairs of ties to a rail length of 30 feet ; they are spaced 2 feet 9| inches center to center of tie bars, and 1 foot If inches at the joints. The spacing of the ties is slightly modified with a rail length of 29 feet 7^ inches, but the three middle ties are spaced as above — 2 feet 9^ inches — for the reason that holes are drilled in the outside flange of the rail and at the tie on each side of the middle tie, for a pin five-eighths inch diameter and If inches long ; these pins are to prevent the creeping of the rails. The rails are of flange section, resting on a piece of felt packing on the rail seat; the rail seat has an inclination of 1 in 24. The outer flange of the rail is held by a projecting lug, cast on the bowl. The inner flange is held by a cast-iron clamp 4 inches long, the upper part of which has a pro- jection which bears on the rail flange, the lower part being dovetailed so that there is no vertical motion. This key is dropped into place, the lower part fitting into a pocket or recess in the bowl, and a wrought iron taper key 6^ inches long is driven between it and the jaw of the chair ; the split end oL this key is then opened out to prevent the key from slacking back. The bowls weigh 92 pounds each and the rails 80 or 82 pounds per yard. The desirability of using the creosoted felt under the rails in a hot country like India, is an open question and practically the method has fallen into disuse. The adjustment of the gauge is effected by means of the tie bar fastenings ; with both cot- ters on the outer side and both gibs on the inner side of the track, the gauge is 5 feet 6 inches ; if the gib on one bowl is placed on the outer side of the track the gauge -will be widened one-eighth inch ; if both cotters are placed on the inside and both gibs on the outside, the gauge will be widened one-fourth inch. The ballast used is of stone broken very small, and there are about 15J cubic feet of ballast per foot run of tract. The rail joints are suspended, and are spliced with ordinary flat-fish plates and five bolts; the ends of the webs of the rails are notched to admit the middle bolt, which thus keeps the ends of adja- cent rails at the same horizontal plane, and thus reduces the pound- ing. of the joints by the wheels of trains. It has been reported to me that the track is one of the smoothest in the country; so smooth that on passing over the line the-joints are scarcely perceptible, even before the bowls are finally tamped. Denham-Olpherts cast-iron plate ties were laid on the Cawnpore and Jhansi Eailway, which is now a part of the Indian Midland system. V1LT.TJPUKAM-DHAKMAVARAM EAILWAY. — The State railways steel cross-tie has been tried on the Cuddapah-Nellore line, now a part of this 235 system. Mr. Bull, superintendent, in a letter to the director-general of railways in February, 1888, stated that the ties are lighter than those of the JDenham-Olpherts type, and the simplicity and small number of parts makes the track-Iayiug very easy. The trough shape of the tie renders the track more difficult to align, but once in line it also pre- vents its moving. It is difiicult to pack but may be considered self- packing; a hole might be punched at each end so that it can be seen if the tie is properly packed. Pebble or coarse saud ballast should be used. He considered it on the whole an excellent tie and superior to the Deuham-Olpherts type. Dhond-Manmad Railway. — The track of this line, which is operated by. the Great Indian Peninsula Eailway Company, consists of double- headed steef rails weighing 70 pounds per yard laid on ties of cast-iron bowls weighing 94 pounds each. . Bhopal-Itabsi Eailway. — This line is also operated by the Great Indian Peninsula Eailway Company. The rails are of steel weighing 62 pounds per yard, and the ties are partly of steel and partly of creo- soted pine and other kinds of wood. NoKTHWESTERN EAILWAY. — This System includes the Sind, Pun- jab and Delhi, the Punjab Northern, the Indus Valley^ the eastern sec- tion of the SindSagar, and the southern section of the Sind-Pishin railways, on which different kinds of wooden and metal ties are used. These lines have all been amalgamated into one system under the name of the Northwestern Eailway, with a total length of nearly 2,500 miles. Three types of metal track are used, viz, cast-iron bowls, Denham-Ol- pherts cast-iron plates, and the state railways steel cross- tie (See Plate No. 24). Mr. F. E. Upcott, the engineer-in-chief, has furnished me with a detailed statement, dated in July, ] 889, in regard to this line, refer- ring principally to the steel ties, as they are to be the future standard, the cast-iron bowls and plates becoming obsolete. The types of track include double-headed and bull-hea,ded rails on wooden ties, flange rails on wooden ties, double-headed and bull-headed rails on cast-iron bowls. These are beirfg gradually replaced by the 75-pound rails on steel ties. There are about 600 miles laid with these steel ties ; of this length 400 miles are in easy country, the remainder being on grades of 1 in 40 and 1 in 25, with' curves of 800 feet radius and upwards. They were laid in 1886 and 1887 under the supervision of Mr. Upcott. -The traffic is light; on the level plains the trains are hauled by engines weighing about 50 tons, and on the heavy grades by engines weighing 62 tons, with 14 tons on the driving axle. The ties are of the type adopted on the state railways, but are of two patterns, one of which has the ordi- nary form of clips, while the other has clips strengthened by a corruga- tion lengthwise of the tie, forming a rib and reducing any tendency to force open the clip or split the tie; it is not, however, thought to be an advantage. They are 8 feet 9 inches long, of rounded trough section, bent up at the rail seats to give an inward inclination to the rails, and 236 having closed ends rounded and dished. The ties with corrugated clips are 4J inches deep and 8J inches wide at the middle, 3§ inches deep and 9^ inches wide at the rail seat, and 12 inches wide at the end. They are made from plates 1 foot IJ inches wide, 9 feet long, one- fourth inch thick at the sides, and one-third inch thick for a width of 4J inches at the middle, but the thickness is increased gradually. The other ties are 4f inches deep and 7J inches wide at the middle, with the top table 12 inches radius and top corners 1^ inches radius ; the width is 10 inches at the rail seats and 13 inches at the ends, which are closed by a vertical curve of 7 inches radius. The top table has an extra thickness for a width of 4J inches. The sizes of the clips and keys are the same as on the state railways, and the adjustment of gauge is made in the same way as on those lines. In the track the ties are laid 3 feet apart, center to center. Their durability so far has been good. Some have been laid in very saline soil, which has stripped off the preserva- tive coating, but the steel has not suffered much in the two years it has been in the track. Experiments are being made as to corrosion, etc. The ties are manufactured by the principal steel-making firms in Eng- land, and are dipped in Dr. Angus Smith's composition at the works. The cost is from $23.75 to $25 per ton. As regards expense for main- tenance, for ordinary roads the average is 2J men per mile of single track, costing 7 rupees ($2.33) per man per month; for frontier and hilly roads, 3 to 4 men per mile, costing $3.30 per man per month. The rails are of steel flange section, weighing 75 pounds per yard; 4^ inches high, 2^ inches width of head, 4 inches wide over the flange. For 200 miles the ballast is of sand covered with 3 inches of broken stone or brick ; at the rails it is 12 inches deep and covers the flanges of the rail ; in the middle of the track it is 9 inches deep, leav- ing the top of the tie exposed ; the side slopes are 2 to 1, and the width of the ballast at sub-grade is 15 feet. This method answers very well where the rain-fall is small and high winds do not prevail. Stone, either in a natural state or broken up by hand, is also used, and answers very well after the track has been laid for some months;" at first a good deal of packing is required to get the ballast up into the hollow of the tie. The steel ties were adopted for reasons of economy and progress, track with wooden ties not being satisfactory in India. The general results may be said to be satisfactory, but the element of durability has not yet been fully established. There is no trouble with maintenance except that more attention has to be given to keeping the middle of the ties free. In laying for the first time the rails have to be canted to get them into the seat between the lug, and it is difficult to take out any single tie without unduly pinching back the lip of the lug. The key never shifts after driving and opening out the split end. As to breakages, Mr. Upcott says he has only seen half a dozen broken ties out of half a million, but they get crumpled up under an engine derail- 237 ment, especially if not well backed up. A steel die is used to bring these distorted ties into shape. The wooden ties cost about 3 rupees ($1) each; they are mostly of deodar or pinus excelsior, growing in the Himalaya; it lasts from ten to fifteen years, if properly managed. The steel ties cost about 6 rupees ($2) at a mean distance from the port, and they are better able to stand the climate than the wood- Mr. Upcott is satisfied that the only point to be urged against the ties is possibility of fast corrosion. His three years of experience with them leads him to think that the mild steel of which they are made will not corrode so fast as the wrought-iron and cast-iron now corrodes on the worst places on the line, where the soil is saturated with chlorate of sodium. In a report to the director-general of railways in March, 1888, Mr. Upcott stated that the new type of steel ties (state railway pattern) laid in sand ballast "on the Sind-Sagar line, answered very well ; they were easy to pack, and the keys held quite tight, even when not split at the ends. Only one or two cases of hogging had been reported, which were due to the tie riding on hard material at the middle. The rusting was slight, and no breakages had occurred. The rails did not creep, and this was attributed to the absolute fixture of the rail on the tie and to the latter being anchored in the ground by its sides. The cast-iron bowls used are of oval form, 25 inches long by 21 inches wide, the greater length being parallel with the track; the thickness was about seven-sixteenths to one-half inch. The rails are of double- headed section resting on two wooden cushions, and fastened between the jaws of the chair by a wooden key. The tie-bars are 2J inches deep by five-eighths inch thick, passing through both bowls and secured by a gib on the inner side and a cotter on the outer side of each bowl. The ballast is sand covered with 3 inches of broken brick or stone ; the bowls are imbedded nearly up to the chairs. The depth of ballast is 14 inches under the rails, decreasing to 12 inches at the top of the side slopes of IJ to 1, and 8 inches between the rails. The width of ballast bed over the toe of the slopes is 13 feet 6 inches. The Denham-Olpherts cast-iron plate ties are of the type adapted for double-headed rails, the rails being suspended by the head in the jaws which form the chair. The plates are 2 feet 10 inches long and 12 inches wide, the greater length being transverse to the track ; a rib runs across the middle of the plate on the bottom side, thus giving a hold in the ballast to resist lateral motion of the track. The rail chairs are 7--^ inches long. The tie-bars are 2 inches by one-half inch, 7 feet long. They are secured by a gib on the outer side of the track, and a large cotter on the inner side, this cotter passing through the webs which run from the chair to the edges of the plate, and holding the loose jaw of the chair in its place. The webs are transverse to the track, 3 inches high at the rail-seat and tapering down to the edges of the plate. Mr. Groudace, superintendent of way and works of the Sind section, wrote me in May, 1889, that be thought the Denham-Olpherts plate-tie, 238 with the cast-iron jaws supporting the upper head of the rail, to be the most satisfactory, in spite of its having a tie-bar passing through aflat cast-iron table. The pressed steel ties he considered are difficult to pack, but have the advantage iu simplicity aad a minimum number of parts ; there is, however, a leverage of the rail to break the clips. The report of the director- general of railways for the year ending March 31, 1888, makes mention of about 630J miles of metal track on the Punjab section, out of a total of l,489f miles ; this includes 259 miles of steel ties, about 242 miles of oval bowls, 85 miles of round bowls, 39^ of bowls (not described), and 5 miles of old bowls (on a branch). On the Sind section the same report -mentions about 400 miles laid with Denham-Olpherts plate-ties ; the length of this section is 895 miles. The Sind, Punjab and Delhi Railway, now a part of the J!forthwest- ern Railway, is still laid with cast-iron bowls for a considerable dis- tance, but it is said that they are not now considered so favorably as formerly in that part of the country. Bowls were used on this line more than twenty-years ago. In 1877 it was stated by Mr. Ernest Benedict, in his paper on " Metal sleepers for railways," read before the Society of Engineers and Ship- builders, at Glasgow, Scotland, that the general opinion of the engineers, based upon the experience of ten years, was decidedly favorable to iron bowls in preference to wooden ties, though some thought that they should only be used in certain kinds of ballast. The former cose about 86^ rupees ($28.75) per ton, and the latter 4 rupees ($1.33) each. Owing to the use of sand and earth ballast (which when boxed with bricks broken fine came to 2,950 rupees ($983.33) a mile, as against 12,040 rupees ($4,013.33) for the ballast of broken brick throughout, used with wooden sleepers), the" cost of the iron road com- pares favorably with the wooden one, being 37,000 rupees ($12,334) a mile for the wood and 34,000 rupees ($11,334) for the iron. SiND-PiSHiN Railway. — On this line the steel ties of the state pattern are used. Mr. F. L. O'Oallaghan, engineer in chief of the northern section, made a report on these ties to the director-general of railways in April, 1888. He gav^e the following comparison of the weights and numbers of parts of different ties : (a) Steel tie (&) Deodar (c) Teak (d) Denham-Olpherts ■ (e) Bowl Weight/ Part*. Pounds. No.. 120 3 143 5 160 5 229 9 180 9 a, tie and 2 keya; 6 and c, tie and 4 spikes; d, 2 cast-iron plates, 2 cast-iron Jaws, 1 wronght'-iron tie-bar, 2 wrought-iron gibs, and 2 wrought-iron cotters ; e, 2 bowls, 1 tie-bar,. 2 gibs, 2 cotters, 2 keys. The track, he stated, is easily and rapidly laid, but somewhat dififl- cult to pack up in the first instance. The practice was to put the ballast in two parallel heaps al?Qut 6 feet apart center to center, and about 18 239 inches high ; the ties spanned these two stacks and were forced down into them by the first passage of an engine ; the space under the rail was thus solidly filled and the space between the stacks of ballast was then filled in with sand, as any hard material under the middle of the tie is liable to cripple it. The narrow space between the lugs was complained of, but it was stated that if made wide enough to admit the rail flange horizontally, four keys would be required ou curves instead of two ; and '^ the remedy, by introducing special parts, seems worse than the disease." The turned down ends of the ties hold the ballast so firmly that very little is required beyond the ends. Some cases were reported in which the lugs were cracked off, and an increase in the thickness of the top table, by adding metal to its under side, was recommended. As to the strength of the ties, it was stated that under ordinary circumstances they are as strong as timber ; a heavy derail- ment distorts them, but under similar circumstances wooden ties are generally smashed up, and any kind of cast-iron ties so broken as to be useless, the tie-bars only being repairable. Other reports, made about the same time, suggested the use of a loose-bolted clip on one side of each rail, and also that the lugs should be made stronger. A num- ber of objections were urged against the old form of steel tie (state railways pattern, 1885). OuDH AND EoHiLKUND Bailway. — This road is laid with metal track throughout. In March, 1888, there were 432 miles 6f cast-iron oval bowl-ties, 75 miles of wrought iron saddle-ties, and 182 miles of. MacLellan and Smith's patent Bessemer steel corrugated bowl-ties. The Oawnpore branch, 45^ miles long, of which 42 miles were built in 1867, was originally laid with 36-pound rails, ou corrugated iron bearing plates, but has been relaid with the cast-iron oval bowl-ties and the 60- pound flange rails used on other parts of the line. The corrugated or embossed steel bowl-tie made by P. & W. MacLellan, of Glasgow, is said to be the standard type of tie now for this line, and it was of these that Sir A. M. Eeudel, consulting engineer for state railways, wrote in 1888 that they had lasted sixteen years without injury. These bowls are also in use on the Calcutta Port Railway. At the beginning of 1875, as stated by Mr. Ernest Benedict in his paper on " Metal sleepers for railways" (already referred to), 1877, there were 444 miles laid with oval cast-iron bowls, having recessed pocket for wooden cushions; 60-pound flange-rails were used, secured by iron keys ; the principal defect was in the jaw which held the key, 75 per cent, of the breakages occurring at this point. A bowl and fastening, exclusive of tie-bar, weighed 87-^ pounds. In the discussion of this paper Mr. J. E. Wilson stated that the wrought iron saddle-tie had been adopted on this road in 1869, and notwithstanding its weak form it had given such satisfac- tion that its use was continued, 25 miles being laid in 1876. After a series of tests the use of iron for ties had been abandoned and em- bossed steel ties adopted; these were only three-sixteenths inch thick, 240 as it had been found that there was no danger of corrosion. A pair of these steel bowls would weigh about 90 pounds, while a pair of cast-iron bowls would weigh not much less than 224 pounds. The steel bowls could be struck out of a steel plate at one blow. Jammu anb Kashmir Railway.— In the report for the year ending March 31, 1888, of the director-general of railways, it was stated that the track was to be of the most improved type in use on the North- western Railway (presumably 75-pound flange-rails on steel cross-ties of the state railways type.) Eastern Bengal Railway. — The report of the director-general of railways, for the year ending March 31, 1888, mentioned 34 miles laid with cast-iron bowls, 20 miles with Denham-Olpherts cast-iron plate-ties, 10 miles with Denham's plate-ties, and one-fourth Inile with Greaves' cast-iron bowls; also Vautherin wrought-iron and De Bergue cast-iron ties (length of track not stated) on the northern section (see State Rail- ways); and Denham Olpherts plate-tips on the Assam-Behar section. On the Groalundo extension, opened about 1871, 8 miles of the main line were laid with spheroidal cast-iron bowls, packed with the ordinary sand of the country. Mr. Ernest Benedict, in his paper on '' Metal sleepers for railways" (1877), already referred to, stated that they were laid in sandy earth packing and the grass allowed to grow over it, ex- cept within 6 inches of the rails, thus protecting the sand from being washed away by the rain or blown away by the wind. This was ex- pected to save the cost of burning clay or brick for ballast, about $7,500 per mile, and to effect a great economy in maintenance. These views were found in practice to be correct. There were eight pairs of bowls to a rail length of 20 feet, as compared with seven wooden ties; they were first laid on brushwood and packed with sand, but later the ordi- nary sandy loam only was used, packed from below by wooden beaters and then tamped through the holes on top. The bowls were 22J inches in diameter, nine-sixteenth inch to 1 inch thick ; the tie-bars were 2^ inches by ^-inch section, 7 feet 4J inches long, and weighing about 31 J pounds; they were secured by cotters on the outside and gibs on the inside of the track. The rails were of double-headed section, weighing 74 pounds per yard. Particular attention was paid to the drainage; besides the ordinary trench between the rails, four cross drains were cut to each pair of rails, two to the right and two to the left between alternate ties ; the embankment itself was rounded off and there was not a square foot of level surface upon its top. There were seven trains each way per day, with four-wheel freight cars weighing 16 tons (10 tons of freight) and heavy engines with four coupled wheels. Mr. Bene- dict gives the following figures in regard to renewals: In the half year ending June 30, 1876, 14,130 wooden ties wern renewed, or at the rate of nearly 10 per cent, per annum of the main line ties, bringing the total renew- als, which have been mostly on the main line, to 34.33 per cent, of the whole number of ties, and leaving 40 per cent, of all the ties in the line fifteen and ouo-half years old; bnt these are mostly in sidings. Talring, then, that nearly all the renewalg 241 have been on the main line, the yearly average so far (1877) has been 3.44 per cent.; but it may also be taken as certain that another 33 per cent, of the total number of wooden ties will have to be removed from the main line during the next two years (to 1879). This would give a yearly average of 6 per cent., or a life of sixteen and one-half years to the old ties now in the track, of which two years passed before the line was open for traffic. Against this we have 364 or 1.25 per cent, of bowls renewed in the half year, making a total of 6.17 per cent., all on the main liue, and giving a yearly average of a little over 1 per cent., or a life o£ eighty-nine years to the bowls. TiEHOOT Kailway. — 111 1878, Sir Guilford L. Molesworth designed some cast-iron bowls for this line (See State Railways). There are now in use the Deuham-Olpherts and Denham's cast-iron plate-ties; also sal and deodar wood ties. JoKHAT Railway. — Fowler's patent portable track, with 14-pouud steel flange-rails on corrugated steel cross-ties, is laid for 3 miles ; the rest of the line is laid with 18-pound rails on wooden ties. Oherea-Companyganj Railway. — On this line 7J miles are laid with 25-pound steel flange-rails on Fowler's patent steel ties for light railways. The ties are flat, with a middle corrugation forming a deep groove along the upper surface of the tie. The outer flange of the rail is held by a clip secured to the tie by two bolts ; the inner flange is held by the hooked end of a bolt which lies in the groove under the rail, with a nut screwed up against the end of the tie. The ties are 45 inches long, and there are eight to a rail length of 21 feet. This part of the line is worked by locomotives. On the mountain inclines, worked by steel wire ropes, wooden ties are used. BuRMAH Railways. — Until very recent years the ties used in Bur- mah were almost exclusively of iron- wood, or teak. The former is an excellent timber, impervious to white ants, and little troubled wijih dry- rot.' The teak is softer, and lasts eight or ten years. Steel ties, how- ever, have been experimented with, and are now being introduced, as they economize in the expense of spikes, and are claimed to last forty or fifty years. Recent low prices have greatly aided the introduction of steel rails and steel ties. Madras Railway. — The track of this road is laid almost entirely with cast-iron bowls, carrying rails weighing 65 to 84 pounds per yard. The southwest section was originally laid with ties of indigenous woods, but as early as 1853 the then chief engineer, Mr. G. B. Bruce, suggested that an experiment should be made by using stone blocks 2 feet by 2 feet by 1 foot. The Government acceded to the proposal and sanctioned the purchase of 60,000 stone blocks. Apparently, however, only about 800 yards were laid in this way, and, as the experiment proved to be unsatisfactory, the blocks were all removed in 1857. Jungle-wood ties were found to be very short-lived, and in 1861 it was decided to replace them by Grea ves'.s patent cast-iron bowls. This alter- ation has proved to be economical and satisfactory. The northwest section, 308 miles long, and the Bangalore Branch, 87 miles long, are laid with iron ties. In 1877 it was seated by Mr. Benedict, in his paper ^8893— Bull, 4 16 242 on " Metal Sleepers for Railways," already referred to, that nearly the entire line was laid with the bowls, except about 70 miles laid in later- ite rock-ballast, and in that part trenches were being made in the bal- last to be filled with sand, so that the bowls could be put there also. "When the bowls were carefully packed they made a smooth track, easy to ride over, and safe for high speeds. At one time tie-bars were only used to every alternate pair of bowls, but now they are used for every pair. The cost of maintenance, as compared with jungle- wood ties, was found in five years to be as 3 to 1 in favor of the bowls. Greosoted pine ties have been tried, but are not preferred to the iron. About 1886, there was a period in which this form of tie, however, fell into disfavor, but it has survived up to the present time. From a paper, with illustrations, by Mr. E. W. Stoney, chief engineer, on " The Creep of Rails on Double Lines of Railway," published in The Indian Engineer, Calcutta, October 29, 1887, the bowls were of the Greaves pattern (See State Railways); they were about 24 inches in di- ameter, arranged in pairs, and connected by transverse tie-rods; the ties were spaced 2 feet 6 inches apart, center to center of tie-rods, at the rail-joints, and 3 feet 6 inches apart intermediate. The dis- tance between the near rails of the two tracks is 6 feet. The rails are of double-headed section, weighing 75 pounds per yard ; they are 20 feet long, connected by splice bars and four bolts, the joints being even and suspended. The ballast is of sand. The taper of the keys and the jaws of the bowls was in the direction of the trafQc for the outside rails of each track, and in the opposite direction for the inside rails. The creeping of the track in the direction of the traffic, therefore, tended to tighten the keys of the outside rails and to loosen those of the inside rails ; consequently, the creeping of the inner rails was much greater than that of the outer rails. In regard to this creeping, which is a matter of importance to railway engineers, Mr. Stoney states that it is in the direction of the trafilc; the joints are sometimes drawn out as much as 5 inches, when the fish-plate came against the jaws of the bowl; but even then the force was sufficient to pull the bowl through the ballast, sometimes bending the tie-bars, shearing or breaking three- fourths inch splice bolts, and breaking the jaws of chairs which were immovably fixed on girder bridges. South Indian Railway.— This line was formerly the Great South- ern of India Railway. It was commenced in 1859, and was built to the Indian gauge of 5 feet 6 inches, but during the years from 1875 to 1879 it was converted to meter gauge. Cast-iron bowls were made for this road in 1877 (as described under State Railways). In that year the road had 86 miles laid with these ties in sand ballast; they were laid with seven pairs to a rail length of 21 feet. At first tie-bars were only used at every alternate pair of bowls, but now at every pair. Each bowl had a teak cushion on which the rail rested. On the broad-gauge line, about half was laid with iron and half with wooden ties. As the 243 latter decayed they were replaced with iron. The track was laid with 40-pound rails and light ties, but it is being rapidly relaid with 50 pound rails and heavier ties. In October, 1889, the consulting engineer. Sir Douglas Fox, informed ine that there were about 140 miles laid with cast-iron bowls, and extensions aggregating 300 miles were being laid with steel ties of the State Eailways pattern for meter-gauge, large numbers of which were sent to India. In his opinion, the cast-iron tie is by far the best under most circumstances. The grades and curves of the road are easy. The engines have a weight of about 3J tons on the driving wheels, and they haul the trains at a speed of about 25 miles per hour. The bowls are 20 inches long at the bottom, at right angles to the rail. The thickness of the metal averages eleven-thirty-seconds inch, and the weight is 70 pounds each. The height from the bottom of the bowl to the top of the jaws, forming the rail-chair, is 7| inches, and 7| inches for the inner and outer jaws respectively. The tie-bar is of wtought-iron, 1| by three-eights inch section, 5 feet 6| inches long, and weighs 1 1 pounds. It is placed on edge, and passes through the bowls, being secured on the outer side of each bowl by a split cotter, and on the inner side by a gib. The cotters weigh 43J pounds per hundred, and the gibs 17 pounds per hundred. The rails are of steel, of bull- headed section, weighing 50 pounds per yard. The lower table rests on a wooden packing-piece, or cushion, and a compressed oak key, or wedge, is driven between the web of the rail and the outer jaw of the chair, the jaw being corrugated so as to bite into and hold the key. The rails have an inward inclination of 1 in 20. The ballast is of a stone called laterite. The cost of construction of the road is said to have been about $33,500 per mile. A special feature of some of the steel ties used (not the state rail- ways pattern), was that the clips were not stamped out of the metal of the tie, but two wrought-iron plates with jaws were secured to each tie by four rivets, each rail resting on a plate. They were laid in April, 1885, to replace creosoted pine ties, and in October, 1888, Mr. David Logan, chief engineer, reported that some had been found cracked rountl the plates, the weight of the traffic appearing to have a tendency to punch the plates through the tie. The cracked ties weighed about 62 to 64 pounds each, while the average weight of ties of this .class was about 70J pounds. The rails were of flange section, weighing 40 pounds per yard, and were secured by wooden keys in the same way as a dou- ble-headed rail in a chair. Gebat Indian Peninsula Railway. — On this line, cast-iron bowls are extensively used. They have been adopted for the standard track of the road as a form of bowl which gives good satisfaction, arrived at by gradual improvement. They are of oval shape, and are spaced 2 feet 9 inches apart, center to center. They are being usgdnot only for maintenance and renewals, but also on the double tracking of 244 the lines. As laid iu 1877, there were eight pairs of bowls to a rail length of 24 feet. The rails were of iron, and weighed 68 pounds per yard. The rails now used are of steel, and weigh 69, 82, and 86 pounds per yard. At a meeting of the company in June, 1889, the president, in presenting the report for the half year ending December 31, 1888, made the following remarks in regard to the ties used : When the railway was first worked wooden sleepers were very largely used. We found in very early days that it would be advantageous to introduce iron sleepers in substitution for wood. It was done in some degree tentatively, but with some ra- pidity after a little while. In 1872, just after the railway had been completed through- out, our road cousisted of 1,110,000 iron sleepers and 1,638,000 wooden sleepers. Many of the wooden sleepers have been replaced, and we have now 2,190,000 iron sleepers as compared with 977,000 of wood ; and the advantage of this is that while one represents the renewal of iron sleepers per hundred, it takes 5.09 of teak wood sleepers and pine sleepers to do as advantageously as the iron does, and the eftVct is that you get done with Iper cent, that which takes more than 5 per cent, in the case of the teak sleepers, which are the next durable we have. Bombay, Baroda and Central India Eailway. — In September, 1889, Mr. J. M. Sleater, the chief engineer, forwarded me a statement in regard to this road. There were then 77.48 miles laid with the cast- iron bowls ; they were laid at different dates, under the supervision of the late Mr. A. F. W. Forde and the late Mr. F. Matthews, who were successively chief engineers of the road. The steepest grade is 1 in 100 ; ruling grade, 1 in 500 ; sharpest curve, 1,500 feet radius. There is a heavy traffic, with freight trains of fifty cars. The total weight of en- gine and tender is about 62 tons, with 14 tons on the driving wheels. The bowls are oval in plan, about 21 inches by 26 inches, the major axis being parallel with the rail ; the depth of the bowl (inside) is about 5 inches, and the total depth from the top of the jaws which fonii the rail chair to the bottom of the bowl is about 9J inches. The thickness varies from about one-half inch to three-fourths inch. At the middle, between the jaws, the top is flat for a width of 6 inches ; on this the rail does not bear, resting on two wooden cushions about 5J inches long, 2J inches wide, and 1 inch thick, in sockets of the casting, one on each side of the flat portion. There are two tamping holes 2^ inches iu diameter in the top of the bowl. They weigh 87 pounds each and cost 53 rupees 1 anna 8 pice ($17.25) per ton, delivered in Bombay; ten years ago the price was 64 rupees 2 annas 8 pice ($21.15) per ton. The tie-bars are 7 feet 7^ inches long, 2 by ^ inch section, placed on edge ; they pass through the bowls and are secured by a cotter on the outer side and a gib on the inner side of each bowl. The ties are spaced about 3 feet 5 inches apart, center to center of tie-bars. The rails are of double-headed section, of steel, weighing 69 pounds per yard; they are secured in the chairs by wooden koys or wedges. The rail joints are suspended and ^re spliced by deep splice bars, the lower part curved to clear the lower head of the rail. The ballast is of stone and gravel, but must not be more than 1 inch in size. - The width of the ballast bed is 14 feet at the bottom^ or ati subgrade j ^ fee|i 90 top, witU si(}e slopes pf 1 to 1 ; the 245 top surface is flat, and is level with the under side of the rail heads. The width of embaukments at subgrade is 18 feet. The ballast behaves fairly well under the ties. The reason for adopting metal ties was their supposed cheapness, and the general results have been fairly satisfac- tory ; there is no trouble with the rail attachments, nor with main- tenance ; breakages, however, occur where the stone ballast is larger than 1 inch in size. Mr. Sleater considers the track not as good as that on wooden ties. The wooden ties used are of creosoted pine, cost 2 rupees 8 annas (80 cents) apiece, and have a life of about eight years. The following table shows the quantities and weights of the metal track per mile : Material and weight, metal track. Material. 1 Actual require- ments. Allow- ance for waste. Weight Unit weiglit. Number. per mile. Kails (30 feet long) Bowls Tie-bars Cotters Gibs rish-plates Bolts and nuts '. pounds - . do... do... ounces.. do... pounds . . do... • 690 87 20 105 3* 10 14 352 3, 108 1,684 3,168 3,168 704 1,408 Pr. et. 2 f, 6 6 Tons. 108. 42 125. 50 18.39 .97 .32 3.30 .99 Total 257. 89 ounces.. potinda . Oak cushions Wood kej-s 10 1 6.336 3,168 6 S 1.85 1.48 In his paper on "Metal Sleepers for Railways" (1877), already re- ferred to, Mr. Ernest Benedict stated that on this line some thought that bowls were superior to wood whert-ver coarse sand or tolerably firm gravel was procurable, while others said that they should only be used where durable timber can not be obtained at a moderate cost. There were six pairs of oval bowls or seven wooden ties to a rail-length of 24 feet, giving about the same bearing surface, and, taking the cush- ions into account, about the same distance between the points of sup- port. This very nearly equalized the original cost of the tracks, and it was found that the track on metal ties could be kept in order at about the same cost as that on the ordinary wooden ties. With broken stone, coarse shingle, or any ballast that cakes or hardens, the bowls were liable to be broken. In this respect circular bowls, ribbed, were found stronger than oval bowls. On the Nagpoor district there were many breakages, through allowing the track to run '• hard," while in other districts, in sand ballast, the breakages did not exceed 2 percent, per annum. Tarakeshwar Eailwat. — This line is operated as a part of the East Indian Eailway system, and is laid with Denham-Olpherts cast- iron plate ties of the latest type. (See East Indian Eailway.) 246 Delhi, Umballa and Kalka Kailway, — This is a new line .now iiruler construction, on which the Denham-OIpherts cast-iron plates are to be used, but up to June, 1889, no track had been laid. The rails will be of steel, double-headed section, weighing 75 pounds per yard. The ballast will be partly of brick and partly of stone, and the general type of track throughout will be in accordance with the standards of the East Indian Eailway. The southern division of 130 miles is over easy country, with a ruling grade of I in 300, while the northern division has a ruling grade of 1 in 40. The minimum radius of curves of the two divisions is one-half mile and one-fourth mile, respectively. Mr. K. A. Way is chief engi- neer and Mr. William DuS' Bruce is consulting engineer. The cost is estimated at $32,500 per mile, exclusive of rolling stock. The cost of the East Indian Eailway, including equipment, is given as about $110,000 per mile, and that of the Sciude, Punjab and Delhi Eailway as about $80,000 per mile. The State will provide all rolling stock and will operate the line for 50 per cent, of the gross receipts. It will be worked by the East Indian Eailway Company under a contract with the State. Thaton-Duyinzaik Eailway. — The track of this road consists of steel flange rails on steel and wooden ties. H. H. THE Nizam's Eailway. — Some cast-iron bowls of a type used on the state railways were in use on this' road in 1877. At the end of March, 1888, 109f miles were laid with 66i-pound steel rails on steel cross-ties of the state railways pattern, 87 miles with 68-pound rails on cast-iron bowls purchased from the South Indian Eailway, 6 miles with 66^-pound flange rails on Bessemer-steel ties, and the remainder with 60-pound flange rails on creosoted pine and jungle-wood ties. Mr. W. A. Lyle, chief inspector of maintenance, who has had nearly thirty years' experience with metal and wooden ties, wrote me in September, 1889,. stating that, in his opinion, cast-iron ties were not reliable; wooden ties, he thought, cost too much to preserve, and even when pre- served they were not reliable, as the gauge spreads under the lateral pressure of the wheels of trains, and the ties split and rot. In August, 1889, Mr. Lyle made a report to Sir A. M. Eendel, the consulting engi- neer, upon the State Eailways type of steel tie, of which he had six years' experience, three years having been with the new pattern. He found this latter pattern superior to anything else he had ever tried, for the following reasons : (1) It is easily handled and laid in the track. (2) It holds well in line and surface. (3) The gauge can be easily and uniformly adjusted on curves. (4) The lugs are not too rigid, and the key is kept in place when once properly driven. (5) The maintenance is easy when the track has become consolidated. (6) If damaged by a derailment the tie can be repaired and made serviceable at a small cost. 247 He had not found the preservative coating to come off or the ties to rust except in a few rare cases, due to the use of bad ballast, impreg- nated with saltpeter, etc. Sand ballast he considered best, while broken stone he thought scratched the preservative coating and con- solidated to too hard a bed, like macadam. To lessen the labor of pack- ing and tamping he suggested the makingof a packing hole If inches in diameter at each end of the top of the tie, the holes to be so punched as to leave a rib or burr around them. The cost would be small, and he estimated that he could carry on the maintenance with five men less for ev^ery 4 miles of line. He thought the ballast should be only level with the tops of the ties, not covering them. In February, 1889, Mr. W. (J. Purnivall, chief engineer, reported to the director-general of railways that his experience with the im- proved pattern of the State Kailways steel ties was very favorable to their use. They can be easily and quickly laid, are preferable to tim- ber in diversions on rough temporary roads, except only where stone and rock occur, and then only a sand packing must be employed. A line laid with these "pea-pod" ties is cheaply maintained; the ties keep their position well, and do not oxidize where the ballast is good. The slight friction caused by the passage of trains pressing the sand in stone ballast against the under side of the tie sufflces to brush off any particles of oxidation which might otherwise exist. In cases of derail- ment he had found the ties easy to repair. Khamgaon Railway. — The track of this line is laid with 60-pound flange rails on oval bowls. The road is operated by the Great Indian Peninsula Eailway Company. Amkaoti Kailwat. — This line is laid with 68-pound rails on iron ties. It is operated by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway Company. H. H. THE Gaekwae's Railway.— The Viramgam-Mehsana- Vadna- gar Railway is laid with 414-pouud steel rails on steel cross-ties. The line is owned by the Gaekwar of Baroda, and is oj)erated by the Bom- bay, Baroda and Central India Railway Company. The other line, known as the Gaekwar's Railway, is laid with wooden ties. Bhavnagak, Gondal, Junagarh and Poebandae Railway. — The extension to Porbandar will be laid with 41^-pound steel flange rails on steel cross-ties; this line will be 69 miles long. Of the 259| miles in operation, 193^ miles are laid with similar rails on half-round pine ties, and 66J miles with similar rails on jungle- wood ties from a local forest. MoEVi Railway. — Part of this line runs along a highway. The track is laid with about 90 miles of 19-pound steel rails on Kerr and Stuart's patent steel ties, which are similar to the state railways type. (See Kerr and Stuart, England.) JoDHPOEB Railway. — The Pachpadra extension, 59| miles long, is laid with 36-pound rails on steel cross-ties. The main line is laid with similar rails, 19 miles on creosoted pine ties, and 45 miles on jungle- wood ties. 248 Calcutta Poet Railway.— This is a line of 5 feet 6 inches gauge, owned by the port commissioners. The following report was kindly prepared for me by Mr, E. Desbruslais, assistant engineer, at the in- stance of the commissioners : The line is in three sections : No. 1, from Chanpal Ghat, Calcutta, to the govern- ment gun foundry. Ghat, 4085 miles, laid with three tracks; No. 2, from Chanpal Ghat to Kidderpore docks, including the dock lines, 7.25 miles; No. 3, from the Kid- derpore Docks to hrick iields at Akra, 3.50 miles. Sections No. 1 and No. 2 are laid with steel bowls ; No. 3 is only a temporary line. On section No. 2 the curves are very slight and the lines run generally level, except on each side of the level crossing at the approach road to the Hooghly floating bridge, where the grades are 1 per cent, for 600 feet. On No. 2 the sharpest curve is of 1,000 feet radius,-and the line is nearly level. No. 1 was laid in 1875 with iron rails, which were replaced in 1885 with steel rails 30 feet long. No. 2 was laid in 1885-1886. Mr. William Duff Bruce was the engineer to the port commissioners when these works were carried out. No. 1 was intended to do away with as much as possible of the cart traffic on the Strand roarf and at the jetties,; there is quite a heavy freight traffic. No. 2 is principally for conveying materials for the construction of the docks. The engines are tauk engines, with four wheels, all coupled ; wheel base, 6 feet ; they were built by Diibs & Co., of Glasgow, and weigh 20 tons empty or 23 tons with tanks and bunkers full, giving llj tons on each pair of wheels. Each tie consists of two of MacLellau's patent steel em- bossed bowls, connected by .a tie-bar; the bowls are of rectangular form, with all sides fluted; they weigh 33 pouuds each (See plate No. 25). Thej' are spaced 3 feet apart, center to center, and the rails are laid with suspended joints. The cost was £14 (f70) per ton delivered, and the average cost of maintenance (labor only) on sec- tion No. 1 is 26 rupees ($8.22) per mile ot single track. The rails are of flange section and rest directly on the bowls, to which they are fastened by two bolted clips on the outer side aud one clip on the inside; the outer bolts are seven-eighths inch in diam- eter and the inner bolts 1 iuch in diameter. At curves a larger number of tie-bars is put in and the gauge is left one-half inch slack. The tie-bars are of angle-iron with adjustable clips and bolts at each end ; they are spaced 6 feet apart, center to center. Ordinary freight cars are used, but the speed does not exceed 6 miles per hour. The materials appear to be wearing satisfactorily, but there has not been time enough to judge of their durability. Section No. 1 is ballasted with cinders, which are easily procurable and answer remarkably well for packing the bowls; the cinders are walled in by the curbstone of the road, the rails being level with the top of the curb ; all rain-water drains througli the cinders and is carried away in the roadside surface drain, so that the road-bed is well drained. Section No. 2 is ballasted with old bricks, broken to pass in any direction through a 2-inch ring ; being rather soft they answer very well, but hard burut brick would not be suitable. The cinders do not cake or harden into a mass under the bowls, but the brick ballast seems to be doing this. The suspended rail-joints ou section No. 1 being very springy, Mr. Desbruslais designed a joint tie, which has been laid throughout this section with satisfactory- results. The joints on section No. 2 are suspended. The general results of this track have been satisfactory so far, and there is no trouble with maintenance or with the rail attachments. When once the clips are fastened and the bolts tightened up they do not require any further looking after, as they get jammed up in a few weeks, aud a difficulty is experienced if the bolts are required to be nuscrewed. The fish-plate bolts, however, constantly require tightening. There is no trouble from breakages on the main line; it is only at switches and frogs that engines or cars get derailed, and, as the speed is slow, little damage is done. The switches aud frogs are laid on wooden ties, with the ordinary cast-iron chairs; some of the chairs get broken and occasionally a switch rail and coupling-rod bent. The cost of the track laid 249 complete, including the cinder ballast, is about 18 rupees ($6) per yard. The speed being only 6 miles per hour, the results that may be obtained on this line can not be assumed as similar to those that will be obtained from the use of this description of track on lines where high speeds are attained. The rails are of steel, of flange section, and weigh 60 pounds per yard ; they are 4^ inches high, 4 inches wide over the flange, with a head 2^ inches wide, having top corners of one-half inch radius. The bowls are about 30 inches long, 18 inches wide, and 4J inches deep ; the greater length is in the direction of the track. The rail joints are even and come between the bowls. The joint support designed by Mr. Desbruslais consists of a cast-iron plate and chair under each joint, without tie-bars. (See plate No. 25.) The plate is 24 inches by 13 inches, the greater length being transverse to the track. The bottom is flat, but at the middle of the upper surface is a support 6 inches high^ forming the rail-seat. From each side of this two webs run to the edge of the plate. The splice-plates are double angle-bars, having a vertical web below the horizontal flange ; on the inner edge of the bottom of this lower web is a rib, so that when brought together by the splice- bolts these ribs fit under the projecting top of the rail-seat and thus pre- vent vertical motion of the rails at the joint. The splice plates are 18 inches long, with four bolts. The tie-bars are of angle-iron, 2J by 2i by J inch ; they are placed between the pairs of bowls and connect the rails instead of the bowls, the latter being left quite independent of each other. At each end of the bar are two lugs, one fixed at the ex- tremity of the bar, the other loose ; the tops of these lugs are bent over to hold the rail-flange ; when the rails are in place the lugs are held together by a horizontal bolt passing under the flange. In the middle of and between the tracks the ballast is level with the top of the rails, sloped down at the rails to the under side of the head. The space between the rails of adjacent tracks is 7 feet. Miscellaneous Lines. — The following railways are laid with wooden ties : Dildarnagar-Ghazipur; 6opound steel rails, on bearing plates and creosoted pine ties. Bengal Central ; 62-pound flange rails, on creosoted pine ties. Wardha Coal ; creosoted pine, teak, and sal ties. Toungoo-Mandalay (Burmah) ; flange rails, on teak and pyingado ties. ^" Bareilly-Pilibhit ; ij pound flange-rails, on deodar and sal ties. Nalhati ; 31 and 41^ pound flange-rails, on teak, sal, and pine ties. Lucknow-Sitapur-Sihraman^ 41:^-pound steel rails. Amritsar-Pathankot ; 62-pound rails. Darjeeling-Himalayan ; 30 and 40 pound rails, on wooden ties. Deoghur; 36 pound steel rails, on wooden ties. Dibru-Sadiya; 41-^-pound steel rails. Bengal and Northwestern ; 41 i -pound steel rails, on sal and creosoted pine ties. 250 Eohilkund-Kumaon ] 41^pound steel rails, on sal and jungle-wood ties. Pondicherry ; 40.3-pound rails, on wooden ties. West of India Portuguese; 62-pound rails, creosoted pine, sal, and teak ties. H. H. the Gaekwar's ; 30-pound flange rails, on wooden ties. Eajpura-Bhatiuda; 68-pouud steel rails on deodar ties. TIES. Denham-Olphert's cast-iron plaie ties (See plates Nos. 21 and 23).— This tie consists of a pair of east-iron plates, each having a chair for one rail, with a wrought-iron tie- bar connecting them. It is Interesting to note the extent to which cast-iron has been employed with successful results — as on the East Indian Railway. On the gnaranteed railways of 5 feet 6 inches gauge the plates are oblong, 34 inches by 12 inches, the greater length being transverse to the track. The thickness at the middle is three- fourths inch, tapering to three-eighths inch near the edges, while at the edge it is five-eighths inch. On the bottom, parallel with the rail, is a segmental rib 1^ inches deep at the middle. At the middle of the plate are the jaws which form the rail chair, from each of which run two ribs 'Afe inches high at the jaw and curving down to the edge of the plate. The rails are of double-headed section and are suspended in the chair by the under side of the head resting on the jaws of the chair. The outer jaw is a part of the plate casting, but the inner jaw is loose and is held in place by a flat taper key or cotter driven horizontally through slots in the plate ribs, the tie-bar and a web projecting from the back of the jaw ; the rotter is 10 inches long, 2 inches and If inches wide, and three-eighths inch thick. With this fastening no wooden keys are used to fasten the rail, which is au important feature in hot countries. The tie-bars are flat, 2i inches deep by one-half inch thick; they rest on the upper surface of the plates and pass under the rails through both jaws of each plate. They are se- cured on the outside of each plate by a gib, and on the inner side by the cotter, which holds the several parts together and brings the loose jaw firmly home against the rail. The height from the top of plat£ to the top of the jaw is 7| inches, and the metal in the jaw is about five-eighths inch thick. For the meter-gauge lines the plates are 24 inches by 10 inches, with a tie-bar 1^ by i inch; the plates are nine-sixteenths inch thick at the middle, three-eighths inch at the sides, and one-half inch on the edges. The rails being of flange-section, the chairs are of different shape from the above ; the outer side of the chair has two lugs which hold the rail flange, while the loose jaw on the inner side is of J" form, the hori- zontal portion bearing on the rail flange ; the jaw is held in place by a key, as above described. The weight is as follows : Cast-iron : Pounds. Two plates ; 89i Two jaws .5J Wrought-iron : Tie-bar Hi Two cotters 2^ Two gibs i In another form of the tie for meter-gange lines each rail rests on a block of wood 5 inches long, 7 inches wide, and 2^ inches thick. The top is cut to give the rail an inward cant of 1 in 20. The rail is fastened by two bolts ; the heads are on top, with washers, which hold the rail flange, and the iiuts are on the under side of the plate, being prevented from turning by lugs on the plate. The boltris screwed down through the nut. The tie-bars are only 2 feet 7|- inches long, resting on the inner side of the plate and having a notch which engages with a projection on the plate. On the 251 inner edge of each plate is a lug with a slot, through which the tie-bar passes, and a taper key placed on edge is driven into this slot aloug the top of the tie-bar. The " Deiihain-Olpherts-Molesworth " tie for raeter-gauge lines is similar to the first type described for this gauge, but has the corrugated wedge fastening designed by Sir 6. W. Molesworth and described under the heading of the Indian State rail- ways. Another modification in these ties is the mode of adjusting the gauge by means of the tie-bars. Under the raised rail seat are two studs in the plate. They are placed side by side and are of different dimensions. The end of the tie-bar pro- jects under the rail and has a notch on the lower edge to fit over the projections or studs. When the tie-bar is placed with its ends fitting on one diagonally opposite pair of studs the gauge is 3 feet 3| inches for tangents. When the ends fit over two opposite studs the gauge is 3 feet SJ inches for easy curves. When the ends fit over the other diagonally opposite studs the gauge is 3 feet 4^ inches for sharp curves. The weight is as follows: 2 plates, 100 pounds; 2 jaws, 5 pounds; 2 wedges, 4 pounds; 1 tie-bar, 10 pounds ; total, 119 pounds. This type is also suitable for broad- gauge lines. The ties take the same depth and level of ball.ast as the wooden ties, so that by inserting a plate tie whenever a wooden tie is removed the renewal cau be carried out gradually without closing the liue iu sections or in any way interfering with the traffic. The ties have a very long life, and some have been exhibited at Calcutta over which 16,000,000 tons of traffic had passed without causing appreciable wear or injury. The percentage of breakages is very small, and when broken or worn out the plates have still the value of scrap iron, about 30 rupees ($6) per ton at any large foun- dry. The price in India, when imported, is about 6 rupees 8 annas ($2,16), but when of home manufacture the price will be about $2 per tie complete. The ties are said to make a very smooth and easy riding track, with no jolting or rattling with trains traveling at high speed. Some of the ties on a broad-gauge line, with 74-pouud rails, were carefully examined after three years' service and found to be in perfect condi- tion, though about 12,000,000 tons of traffic had passed over them at various speeds. As regards maintenance, it has been stated that during the first year the amount of l3,bor is slightly greater for track laid with " Deuliam-Olpherts" ties than for a good track on wooden ties ; during the second year it is about equal, or a little iu favor of the metal track, while during subsequent years it is much less for the track on metal ties than for that on wooden ties. The following are stated to be the com- parative proportions of the cost of renewals per mile per annum: Creosofed pine |750 Deodar 625 sai 500 Denham-Olpherts 40 The breakages in handling are said to be less than one-eighth of 1 per cent., and one-half of 1 per cent, per annum in the track, against 2 or 3 per cent, for bowl ties. The ties are generally laid eleven to a rail length of 30 feet; the bal- last is usually 2-inch to 4-inch hard stone, but broken brick, ashes, gravel, dirt, etc., are used. The ties are found to be sufQcieutly elastic for smooth running of trains at high speeds. The weight of the ties for broad-gauge lines laid with 75-pound rails is about as follows : Pounds. 2 cast-iron plates ...'. 175 2 cast-iron jawS 22 2 wrought-iron cotters . j. 2i 2 wrought-iron gibs f 1 tie-bar 22i Total 222i 252 The followiDg is an abstract of a statement submitted to me in June, 1888, by Mr. Browning, the London agent for the patentees; Ml'. C. H. Denham is the engineer-in-ohief of the East Indian Railway and Mr. Olpherts was a district engineer on the same line. Several years ago large quantities of cast-iron bowls were sent out from England for use on the East Indian Railway, having been already used with success on the Egyptian railways and in parts of India where the ballast was of sand or light gravel. The East Indian Railway was bal- lasted for a great part of its length with hard red iron stone mixed with clay. This ballast soon shaped itself under the bowls and became hardened into solid concret- cakes, so that it was found that the bowls were constantly getting broken by cone onssion with the solid blocks of ballast on which they rested. To obviate this trouble Mr. Denham designed a cast-iron tie of aboutequal weight with tbe bowls, but formed of flat plates with vertical ribs so arranged on the upper surface as to strengthen the plate and form a seat for a wooden oushion'to which the ordinary chair was bolted. Such plates laid in pairs connected by wrought-iron tie- bars were tried, with satis- factory results. The under side of the plate being ■flat admitted of easy and solid packing, and the proportion of breakage in the track was at once reduced to about one- one- tenth of that of the bowls, while the trains were found to run more smoothly. The principle of a flat iron plate tie having been thus established, improvements in de- tail rapidly followed. The formation of the outer jaw on the plate and the keying up of a loose inner jaw against the rail by a cotter passing through it and the webs of the rail seat were designed by Mr. Olpherts, and finally the wooden cushions upon which the rails rested were abandoned and the rails were suspended by the under side of the head resting upon the tops of tlie jaws. In this form the tie had, in June, 1888, been in use for about seven years on the East Indian Railway and other railways in India. The tie is also adapted for flange rails and has been used on the meter-gauge railways of India, which are laid with steel flange rails weighing 41i pounds per yard. Up to June, 1888, more than 3,000,000 pairs of plates for double- headed rails, and about 600,000 pairs for flange rails had been made, and their use was extending rapidly. The saving in cost of maintenance on the main track of an Indian railway laid with 75 or 80 pound double-headed steel rails on these ties as compared with the same road laid on the best wooden (sal) ties has been found by experience, extending over several years, to be about |400 per mile per annum. Some engineers still prefer the original form of the plate ties on the ground that the wooden cushions give elasticity to the track, but the general opinion is in favor of the latest pattern, in which the rail is suspended and which is free from the serious de- fects due to the shrinkage and rapid destruction of wood in hot climates. No trouble is experienced in maintaining a good track, and the difficulty of preserving an ac- curate gauge, which is unavoidable in a track laid with wooden ties, hardly exists in a track carefully laid with the metal ties. Actual renewals are reported to be rare. The plates require rather more frequent packing than wooden ties, but the ballast to be moved is much less.'^ It is generally concluded that the economy found to result from the use of these plates is due to the renewals being so much less frequent than the renewals of wooden ties, and to the fact that a broken cast-iron tie is worth about three-fourths of its original iralue, while a worn-out wooden tie is almost worthless. About 9u0 miles of track are now laid with these ties. Moore's cast-iron ties.— Mr. George E. Moore, deputy consulting engineer for rail- ways, has designed some forms of cast-iron plate ties, the special feature of which is that the ends of the tie-bar support the rails on the inside of the track, the gauge depending on the accuracy of the length of the tie-bars instead of upon the accuracy of the casting. The plates for broad-gauge lines are rectangular, about 33 inches by 12 inches, the greater length being transverse to the track. The tie-bars are of X sectipn, resting between lugs on the plate and secured by keys driven through tbe lugs and bar. With double-headed rails the end of the bar abuts against the web ; with flange rails the end is cut to fit the web and flange. The plates for double- 263 headed rails have a grooved depression, forming a seat for the lower head, and a jaw on the plate holds the rail on the outside ; for flange rails there is a flat seat with a cast clip to hold the outer flange of the rail. No arrangements are made for altera- tions of the gauge. For light-meter gauge lines the tie may consist of the plates and tie-bar only, dispensing with all loose pieces. These ties are placed diagonally to the track, with the rails in place ; the plates are then shifted to bring the tie-bar at right angles to the rails, when the notches and lugs engage and make the fastenings. A suggested form of cast-iron tie somewhat resembles the steel tio of the state rail- ways; it is of shallow inverted-trough section, deeper at the ends, and with a rib under each rail. The middle of the top table is cut away to reduce the weight and facilitate packing. Another suggested form consists of two plates shaped like tennis rackets, but with parallel sides. On the top of the end of the narrow part, or "handle," is a lug, and when brought together these ends abut against one another and are secured by a bolt passing through the lugs. No loose fastenings are used, each plate having two clips for the rail flange; the plates are put diagonally in the track, with the rails resting between the clips ; they are then swung around till at right angles to the track, bringing the narrow ends together and causing the clips to overlap the rail flanges. For light lines the narrow part of the plates may be dispensed with and a tie-bar used to connect the plates. It has been suggested that ties of this kind might be made of pressed-steel plates, but Mr. Moore is in favor of cast-iron, as the ties can then be of home manufacture. The plan of using a tie made in two pieces connected in the middle of the track is not new, although Mr. Moore's designs may have some originality ; such ties were patented in the United States as early as 1878 (Nos. 207.320, 254802,312881). (See Preliminary Report, Bulletin III, ForestryDivision.) Mr. Moore's latest form of tie (March, 1889) is a cast-iron cross-tie of shallow inverted-trough section, with closed ends, and having a deep corrugation along the middle of its length, and making a groove on top and a rib below. The tie is 10^ inches wide on the bottom, 9 inches wide on top, and 1| inches deep at the sides and middle groove; the groove is 1 inch wide. The sides and groove are one-fourth inch . thick and the top three eighths-inch thick. At each end of the tie are two rigid rail clips, no loose pieces being used, and the fastening being effected through a certain amount of spring in the rail. This plan is claimed to be particularly suited to light railways of narrow gauge, as the rails can be easily sprung into place by the use of a bar. For broad-gauge lines with heavy and stiff rails one of the two lugs at each end of the tie must be made to turn to some extent round a bolt or rivet, but here, also, the locking is to be done by springing the rail. The movable nlip has a pro- jection on the side opposite to the rail to enable a claw-bar to be used to move the clip on or off the rail flange. Arrangements may be made for adjusting the gauge at curves, but Mr. Moore does not consider that this is necessary in ordinary country. For heavy lines it is proposed to use an outer fixed clip 2i inches square clear of the rail, with a lip one-half inch by on e-half inch projecting over the rail flange ; the inner clip is of the same size, fastened by a three- fourths- inch rivet with a one-eighth- inch washer under the tie; this clip'turns slightly on the rivet. An oval hole for tamping is provided on each side of the rail. Bell's cast-iron tie.— The tie designed by Mr. Horace Bell is a flat cast-iron plate tie, intended for meter-gauge lines with flange rails. The plates are 24 inches long and 10 inches wide, the greater length being transverse to the track; the thickness is five-eighths inch at the middle, tapering to three-eighths inch, and on the under side of the plate are two ribs ti inches apart, parallel with the rail. The rail rests on an elevated seat with a projecting lug on each side ; a key of malleable cast-iron of r- seotion, tapered 1 in 100, is driven between the Ing and flange on one or the other side of the rail according to the gauge ; the vertical web of the key rests in a notch in the rail seat and tie-bar. The tie-bar is of J. section, 1^ inches deep, 1 inch wide, and one-half inch thick ; it rests above the plate, passing through lugs and under the fail ; when in position the lower leg of the key engages with a notch in the upper 254 edge of the bar. In another of Mr. Bell's ties there is but one rib on the bottom, and on the top are four ribs running from the raised rail seat, one to each corner of the plate. The tie-bar is flat, H by i inch. Denkam'a east-iron tie. — This consists of two cast-iron plates, 34 by 12 inches ; a wronght-iron tie-bar 4 feet 6 inches by 2 inches by i inch ; two ordinary rail chairs weighing 27 pounds each, and a wooden cushion 14 inches by 7 inches by IJ inches. The' usual wooden keys are used for fastening the rails, and instead of spikes two bolts (with the nuts on top) pass through the plate, ciishion, and chair. The tie- bar passes through a lug in each plate and fits over a small stud cast on the plate ; it is kept from shifting by means of a split pin. Of 4,000 ties, only one breakage oc- curred during three years, and that was owing to bad drainage. Stone, grdvel, and dirt ballast has been used. These ties are said to give better results than the " Denham-Olpherts " ties for lines where good ballast is not attainable, owing ap- parently to the use of the wooden cushion between the chair and plate. SUMMAEX FOB INDIA OF METAL TRACK. Bailway. Bowls. Cross-ties. Denham- Olpherts plates. Total Miles. 2365 79i Miles. 1, 497J Miles.' 290 5 160 ) Miles. 2, 0)8| Kast Indian 1, OOli 50 Bajputana'Malwai 5545 500 5515 500 Indian Midland 300 145J 211 514 Dhond-Manmad 1455 6 Bhopal-Itarsi . . . . 6 600 370 692 34, 40 1,010 692 Eastern Bengal _ 30 64 Jorhat 3 3 Cherra-Comnanvffani 7J 800 ■ 800 140 622 774 South Indian _ .... 300 440 632 Bombay, Baroda and Central India 775 162 Delhi, TTmballa and Kalka 162 H. H. the Nizam's ■ 87 7i 5§ 176i 50 Amraoti 50 69 90 59| •69 90 Jodhpore 59J 12 12 Total 3,598 3,912i l,7)4i 9,2245. These figures are most probably considerably below the actual mile- age, owing to the lack of complete returns and to the fact that the re- turns received do not always give the latest mileage laid. The 160 miles of the East Indian Eailway are estimated as the proportion of 325J miles laid with iron and wooden ties intermixed. FARTHER INDIA. In Selangor, one of the protected States of the Malay Peninsula, the native hard-wood ties have not worn well, and in 1888 it was proposed to try some wrought iron or steel ties. The colonial secretary at Singa. pore wrote me, however, in June, 1889, that no metal ties had then beien laid on the Selangor Government Eailway. In 1887, 20 miles of lino were completed p^ the State j the meter gauge (xovernment railway 255 was opened for light traffic iu September, 1886, and for regular traffic in January, 1887. Tliere are railways in others of these States (Perak and Sunjei-Ujong), but no returns as to the ties used have been received ; probably they are of wood. CEYIiON. Mr. F. J. Waring, chief resident engineer, wrote in October, 1889, that no metal ties are used. All the ties are of Baltic fir or native or Australian hard woods. SUMATRA. On the railway of this island, which is a Dutch possession, steel cross- ties are used. They are of the " Post type" (Netherlands State Eail- way), and are imported from Holland. At first they were laid only upon the rack-rail section of 16.42 miles, but are now being laid over the entire length of the line 90.20 miles. Early in 1889 a contract was reported to have been made with a firm at Oberhansen for 121,000 ties (4,750 tons) at 2.55 gulden ($1.02) each, free on board, at Rotterdam or Am- sterdam, but the agent of the manufacturers of these ties in a list of sales up to September, 1889 (see " Holland "), gives only 100,000 for Sumatra. The railway is of meter gauge, and was built to develop an extensive coal basin in the interior. The rack-rail section crosses a range of mountains, and has grades of 4 and 5 per cent. The engines on this section weigh 20 tons each, and two engines (one at each end of the train) can take a train load of 250 tons over the section at a speed of 6^ to 7^ miles per hour. The sharp curves on the line necessitate a widening of gauge of .90 inch, which is obtained by the use of three sizes of bolts with eccentric necks. CHIKA. The only railway at present existing is the line from Kaiping to Tient- sin, 85 miles, which is owned by the China Railway Company. It is a standard gauge road (4 feet 8J inches), with maximum grades of 1 to 300 on the main line and curves of 3,000 feet radius. The track is laid with rails of the Sandberg standard sections, 60 and 70 pounds per yard, with angle-bar joints. The ballast is of broken limestone 2 to 3 Inches in size and 9 inches to 12 inches deep under the ties. The ties are of chestnut, costing 60 cents each, and haying a life of abont seven years. The engines have a weight of 6 tons on each driving-wheel. The traffic is general passenger and freight. The climate is reported to be like Canada. In October, 1888, Mr. C. W. Kinder, the chief engineer, stated that a few steel cross-ties were to be imported from England and tried as an experiment. They were of the type adopted on the Indian State Railways, of inverted-trough section with closed ends, and hav- ing two clips stamped up out of the metal for each rail ; a serrated steel 256 key holds the rail, being driven between one lag and the flange. The steel is five-sixteenths inch thick, and the weight of the tie 80 pounds. They were coated with tar-paint. The cost was $1.20 each at the works and $1.70 in China. They were thought to be too light for the traffic, and were only to be placed on trial. They were manufactured by Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughan, of England. A few steel ties of the Tozer type (See " England ") were reported as being sent out for trial. In 1887, when there was considerable talk of American companies in- tending to build railways in China, a form of track was suggested con- sisting of metal ties of "Berg-aud-Mark" section (See "Germany"); they were to be 6 inches wide on top, 1) inches at the bottom, 2J inches deep, with the sides vertical for 1 inch from the bottom ; top table one- half inch thick, with a rig one half inch thick at the middle, sides one- fourth inch thick. The fastening was to be an adaptation of the Fisher rail-joint fastening; it consisted of a y-bolt with the horizontal part inside the tie and the lugs projecting through it, one on each side of the rail-flange, with washers bearing on the rail-flange and secured by nuts. At joints the washers would hold the flange of the angle-bars, the joints being supported on a tie. JAPAK. In May, 1888, Mr. 0. A. W. Pownall, chief engineer of the imperial Government railways, stated that a few cast-iron bowl ties were laid when the first lines were built, about seventeen years previous, but they have nearly all been taken up again and hardly any remain in the track. For new lines; timber ties are used exclusively. SUMMARY OP METAL TEACK FOR SECTION i. Bowls. Cross-ties. Denham- Olptaerts plates. Total. India Milet. 3,598 . Milet. 3, 912i 90 Miles. 1, 714i Miles. 9,224i 9U Sumatra '. Total 3,598 4,002J 1, 7144 s,3l^ Section 5.— SOUTH AMERICA, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND MEXICO. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. General Remarks, — Metal track is the standard form of track in this country, owing to the difficulty of obtaining suitable timber in sufficient quantities. The most generally used type consists of cross- ties composed of cast-iron bowls arranged in pairs and connected by a transverse tie-bar. Within the last few years, however, steel cross- ties have been introduced. Since 1888, about 700,000 steel ties of the "Post" type (See "Holland") and about 20,000 tons of the Tozer steel ties (See "England") have been contracted for. Mr. Griswold, writing from Buenos Ayres in July, 1888, said in regard to metal ties: "We use nothing else here, except in the far north and west. " The timber ties used in the northern part are principally of " quebracho Colorado," which is a very hard timber ; the spike holes are bored, and square spikes with rounded ends are driven in. It is almost impossible to draw these spikes. The timber, however, is very inflammable, and the ties are therefore covered over with the ballast. Suitable material for proper ballast not being available, the surface soil is generally used, being well tamped and packed into and around the bowls, and with, ample provision made for drainage. Between the rails it is about 1 inch below the top of the rail head, and outside the track it is nearly level with the top of the rails. The want of proper ballast is especially felt in the rainy seasoiis, when the earth soil ballast is frequently saturated or washed out, entailing considerable expense for repairs. The usual gauge of the railways is 5 feet 6 inches. Buenos Ayres Great Southern Eailwat (See plate Fo. 26).— The following particulars are taken from a full and complete repo^rt, accompanied by drawings, furnished in May, 1888, for the purpose of this report by Mr. Sam. Abbott, general manager, and Mr. Henry G. Sketchley, chief resident engineer : The road has 13.75 miles of double track and 819.50 miles of single track laid with metal ties. The steepest grade is 1 in 91 for a length of .77 mile approaching Buenos Ayres. Generally the ruling grade is 1 in 200, but by far the greater portion of the railway is either level or has very flat grades. The sharpest curve has a radius of 920 feet, but this is quite exceptional, and is close to a station. Generally the curves are extremely easy, being of very long radius. The embankments and cuttings are 22893— Bull. 4 17 257 258 generally small, owing to the extreme flatness of this country ; the highest bank is 21 feet and the deepest cut 13 feet. The various sections of the line were opened to trafSo as follows : From— To- Opened. LoDgtb. Buenos Ayres Jeppener Altamirano ... Kanchos Salado Cliascomus ... Laa I'lores Dolores Azul AyacuGlio Olavarria La Gama Xandil Juarez Maipu Hinojo Hinojo Jeppener Chaacomus — Kanchos Salado Las Flores Dolores Azul Ayacucho Olavarria Tandil La Gama El Puerto Juarez Tres Arroyos . Mar del Plata. Sierra Chica... Sierra Baya Aug. 14, 1865 Deo. 14 1865 Mar. 1,1871 May 19,1871 July 1,1872 Kov. 10, 1874 Sept. 8,1876 Dec. 7, 1880 Mar. 15, 1883 Aug. 19, 1883 Oct. 2, 1883 May 7,1884 Feb. 1, 1885 Apr. 2,1886 Sept. 26, 1886 June 1,1887 do MUes. 47.85 22.60 14.88 19.84 40.17 65.71 67.93 79.50 27.10 39.10 58.00 162. 00 53.00 66.12 79.76 4 21 3.48 There is considerable passenger traffic, especially on the double track. The freight traffic consists chiefly of wool, hides, grain, stone (the latter from the Sierras of Tan- dil and Hinojo), cattle, horses, and sheep. The locomotives are of various types and weights; the heaviest are built by Beyer & Peacock, of England, and weigh 162,080 pounds, with a weight of 24,808 pounds on the driving-wheels. Mr. Henry G. Sketohley, is the engineer in charge. The ties consist of cast iron bowls on the Livesey system (See "England"): they are of the forms patented in 1870 and 1882. The new pattern is a great improvement upon the old one, which had not sufficient lateral bearing surface, the outer jaws cutting into the flange of the rail and in some places eating it away right up to the web. In the old form of bowls there were recesses carrying hard-wood cushions for the rails to rest on ; these became rotten in course of time, and the rail then bore upon the edges of the recess, which cut into the under side of the flange of the rail. The sectional area of the rail being then reduced in two places, the rail became unfit for use much sooner than it otherwise would have done. The iuuer jaws(for the keys), also being made of .cast-iron, frequently broke. All these weak poiuts have bgen remedied in the new pattern of bowls. The bowls are of cast-iron and weigh 82 pounds each. The joint ties are spaced 3 feet 4^ inches ai)art, center to center of tie-bars, and intermediate ties 3 feet 7J inches. No preservative treatment is considered necessary; cast-iron rusts very slowly and the metal is pretty thick. They are manufactured by the An- derston Foundry Company, of Glasgow, Scotland, and the cost in 1886 was |18.50 per ton, delivered free on board at Glasgow. For curves the adjustment of gauge is effected by having the holes in the tie-bars punched a little farther apart to give a vridening of from one-quarter to one-half inch, according to the radius of the curve. The tie-bars can be bent, but this is a bad practice. It is certain that the ties have a very long life, but there is not sufficient data at hand to say how long. The ballast is of black earth, on which the grass is allowed to grow. During the times of floods the grass is a great protection ; and during dry weather it also re- duces the dust, which is a great annoyance to travelers. Theballast becomes very highly indurated by the compression and vibration of the passing trains, so much so that during floods the earth under the bowls stands up like small pillars, all the in- termediate and surrounding earth having been washed away. It becomes nec- essary, however, to pack the rails with hard-wood ties at such times, as nothing can be done with the earth that has become saturated with water. The rails are of steel, of flange section. As the 58-pouud rails become too much worn to allow of their re- maining in the track they are being replaced with 70-pound rails. The rail-joints are suspended. 259 The reasons for adopting metal ties were the difficulty of procuring good hard-wood ties iu sufficient quantities, and their greater expense ; also, because a more rigid and more satisfactory construction can be made with iron ties. The general results are considered to be most satisfactory. In very wet weather there is certainly trouble with the maintenance of track, but so tiiere would be in the case of wooden ties ; the reason being tliat the earth when wet can not be used for paoliing in either case. There is no trouble with the rail attachments. Brealsages seldom occur. The iron ties are considered more efficient than wooden ties, but as none of the latter are used on this line there is no certain data for a definite conclusion. Wooden ties of "quebracho Colorado" cost about |2.25 each. The climate is very variable and humid; consequently wood, especially pitch pine, soon becomes rotten. The rails are certainly too light for the heavy traffic that passes over them, but this will be generally remedied by the introduction of a heavier section of rail. Generally speak- ing, the road is considered a good one. The drawings show bowls oval on plan, 26 inches long, parallel with the rail, and 18J inches wide transverse to the track (See plate No. 26). The length on top is 21 J^ inches, and the middle is depressed like a saucer. The thickness is five-eighths inch on top, five-sixteenths inch on the sides and eleven thirty-seconds inch in the middle. The rail is secured on the outer side by two lugs which hold the rail-flange ; the inner flange is held by a cast-iron taper corrugated key, which bears on the web and flange of the rail, and is driven between the rail and a corru- gated steel jaw which is let into a socket in the bowl and is inclined toward the rail. This jaw was formerly of iron, cast on the bowl. The tie bar is of wrought iron, 1-^ inches deep by one-half inch thick ; it passes through the upper part. of the bowl and is secured by a curved cutter If inches wide, five-sixteenths inch thick, 6^ inches long on the arc and about 5f inches radius. The cotter is under and parallel to the rail, and lies iu the saucer-shaped depression in the middle of the bowl. There are eight pairs of bowls to a rail length of 25 feet. The rails now being used are of steel, flange section, weighing 70 i^ounds per yard ; they are 25 feet long, but are to be 30 feet in future ; they are 5- incbes high, head 2.4inches wide, 3.45 inches wide over the flange, radius of top table 15 inches, and of top corners one-half inch. The splice plates are of steel, of deep pattern, having a vertical web projecting below the flange of the rail, and being ^ inches deep over all. The plates are 18 inches long, and have four bolt-holes, spaced 4J inches cenW to cen- ter ; the inner plate has the holes yf inch by Inr inches to fit the shape of the neck of the bolt ; the outer plate has holes fifteen-sixteenths inch diameter ; the holes in the rail are oval, 1^ by 1 inch. The Tbbotson patent bolt and nut is used ; a bolt seven-eighths inch diameter, with hexagon nut and round washer 1^ inches diameter. The rail joints are even and suspended. The older rails were of steel, and of similar form ; they were 4^ inches high, with a head 2-j\- inches wide, and a flange 3J inches wide. The joints are as above described, but the splice plates are only 4| inches deep. The material necessarily used for ballast requires that great care be taken to dispose it so as to drain easily and rapidly. On the outer side 260 of the track it is level with the under side of the rail head, and is then gradually sloped off by three planes at different angles to a width of about 18 feet at subgrade. Between the rails the ballast, at a distance of about 6 feet from the ends of the rail, forms a ridge across the track level with the under side of the rail head ; from this ridge it slopes down- ward in all directions to the drainage channels at the middle and ends of the rails. The channels at the ends are cut right across the road- bed, but those at mid-rail length only run from the middle 6t the track to one side, being to right and left alternately. In this way a form of surface is given which tends to throw off water and drains rapidly. The greatest depth of ballast, from under the rail heads, is 18 inches; sloping down to 15 inches at the center line of the track, with channels about 6 inches deep. At the rail ends the ballast is about 12 inches deep under the rails. Centeal Argentine Eailway (See plate ISTo. 26). — In 1889, the consulting engineer. Sir Douglas Pox, of London, stated that about 640 miles were then laid with metal track. The line is almost entirely laid with ties composed of cast-iron bowls of Livesey's pattern. The exten- sions which were under construction in April, 1888, were being laid with these ties. There is no ballast proper, the bowls being packed with the black loam of the country. The grades and curves are easy. Speed of trains, about 30 miles per hour. Weight on driving wheels of locomotives, about 6 tons to each wheel. The gauge is 5 feet 6 inches. The following particulars are from a statement furnished in January, 1889, by Mr. Malcolm Graham, the resident engineer: The line is from Eosario to Cordoba, with, branches under construction from Canoda de Gomez to Pergamino and Las Yerbas. The total length was 245.52 miles. The line is very straight and level, having maximum grades of .5 per cent, and curves of 6,560 feet radius. Construction was commenced in 1864 and finished iu 1870, the work being done under the supervision of Mr. Graham. The traffic consists of passengers and general freight. The locomotives weigh about 60 tons. The ties are of cast-iron bowls, on Livesey's system, weighing 90 pounds each. They are manufactured in England, are not treated with any preservative process, and cost delivered $1.05 (gold). They are spaced 5 feet 8i inches apart, cen'er to center ; no special arrange- ments are made for curves. They are spaced :! feet 9 inches apart, center to center of tie bars, giving eight ties to a rail length. Ttieir durability is very good. The ballast is of black earth, which is good except iu wet weather. The rails are of steel, of bull-headed section, 30 feet long, and weigh 66 pounds per yard ; the joints are suspended, and are fastened by straight splice-plates 18 inches long, with four bolts three-fourths inch diameter. The reason for using metal ties is the difficulty of ob- taining wood ; the general results of the metal track are satisfactory. The climate has no perceptible effect. There is more trouble with maintenance of the metal track than of track on wooden ties, especially in wet weather. Breakages occur in ship- ment and in cases of derailment. The track on wooden ties is considered to be better if the wood was only obtainable. The difference in cost depends upon the distance the material has to be carried. Each bowl is 19^ inches long, at right angles to the rail, and the depth under the rail is 5 inches. (See plate No. 26.) The tie-bar is of wrought iron 2 inches deep, one-half inch thick, and 7 feet long; it is secured by a flat, curved cotter, IJ inches wide and one-fourth inch 261 thick, driven parallel with the rail through the bowl and a notch in the lower edge of the tie-bar. No more bull-head rails are being used, but the extensions are being laid partly with steel flange-rails weighing 80 pounds per yard (on the suburban portion near Buenos Ayres), and partly with similar rails weighing 67 pounds per yard; the latter are 4^ inches high, with a flange 3^ inches wide; they have an inward incliua- tion of 1 in 20. The track was being relaid in 1887-'88 with steel rails 25 feet long, replacing the old iron rails. With this work an extra pair of bowls was put in for every rail length. The outer flange of the rail is held by a lug on the bowl ; the inner fastening consists of two pieces, a loose steel jaw and a cast-iron key. The steel jaw is 3J inches square, three- eighths to flve-eighths inch thick; the inner face is corrugated vertically and there are two verticalribs on the back ; this jaw is let into a socket in the bowl and inclines inward at an angle of about 55 degrees, the top being about 1 inch from the web of the rail. The cast-iron key is driven between the jaw and the rail, bearing on the web and flange of the rail. The weight of the ties is as follows : Unit weight. Total. Cast-iron bowls witli ateel jaws . Cast-iron keys Wrought-irou tie-bar Wrougbt-iron cotters Pounds. 90.00 5.00 23.00 0.84 Pounds. 180. 00 10.00 23.00 1.68 Total weight per tie . 214 68 The dimensions of the cross section of the line on double track are as follows : Width at subgrade, 29.50 feet ; outside of this at each side is a ditch 18.4 inches deep, 14 inches wide at the bottom, and 22 inches wide on top. The distance between the inner rails of the two tracks is 7.31 feet, and the distance center to center of outer rails is 18.66 feet ; the ballast is 12 inches deep between the rails and 18 inches outside, sloping down 3 to 1 to form a drain between the tracks ; and on the outer sides it slopes down 3 to 1, the slope being 3 feet 6 inches wide, and leaving a strip 12 inches wide between the toe of the ballast and the ditch. In regard to the earth ballasting, Mr. Walter Morrison, president of the company, made the following remarks at the annual meeting in London, in May 1889 : You know that in this country there is no ballast. The sleepers (ties) are just put down on the soil, and when it rains the soil, saturated with water, works up into a puddle, and it is impossible then for the permanent-way (track) men to do anything with the line. It is no use to put more soil under the sleepers to pack them up, be- cause the soil becomes a puddle; and I am afraid that when the rain stops we shall have a heavy bill to pay for damages to the line at the time of the rain-fall. The rain-fall of the season of the early part of 1889 was said to have been extraordinary in its persistence. Allowance must be made for Mr. Morrison being unacquainted with railway construction when he said 262 that " the sleepers are just put up down on the soil." This might con- vey the idea that the line was very roughly and cheaply built ; but, as has been shown in the description of the Buenos Ayres Great Southern Eailway, great care is generally taken to make the best possible road- bed with poor material. Prom the particulars giveu above it is proba- ble that similar care has been taken on this line, and Mr. Morrison was only unfortunate in his manner of expressing himself. Buenos Ayees and Pacific Railway. — This is one of the railways which is to connect with the Chilian railways and form a transconti- nental line. The gauge is 5 feet 6 inches. It is about 42G miles long; for the first 18.6 miles wooden ties (of quebracho-colorado) are used, and the remainder is laid with cast iron bowls. The bowl, or "copa," is oval on plan , 26 inches long by 18 inches wide across the track, 8 inches deep, and about five-eighths inch thick ; they are spaced 4 feet 8 inches apart, center to center of tie-bars. The rails are of double-headed sec- tion ; the outer side is supported by two lugs, and on the inner side is a wrought-iron lug with a key driven between it and the web of the rail ; they are spliced in the usual way. The following notes are from letters from Mr, F. L. Griswold, pub- lished in the Railroad Gazette, New York, May 1 and August 28, 1885. February 15, 1885. — Track-laying under good organization can be done a third more rapidly than with wooden ties, at least I think so. The rail weighs 56 pounds per yard and is 4 inches high and 3 inches base ; it has a bearing of 16 inches on each tie and is clamped at each end of the bearing on the outside and at the middle on the inside. The wrought-iron lug that holds the cast-wedge is corrugated on the inside and the wedge or key on the outside. The tie-rods are put in and keyed up on the ground. Between Buenoa Ayres and the foot of the Andes the location is easy; there is one tangent 211 miles long. There are no bridges. The deepest cut is about 3.28 feet and the highest fill about 6.56 feet. The grades are, say, 0.5 per cent., or 26 feet per mile as an outside maximum. Only 96miles are as yet completed and in operation. June 29, 1885. — We are using a 50-pound English steel rail, with Livesey's patent iron bowls, which give 21 inches of support to 28 inches of suspension, or, in other words, the supports are 21 inches long, and the clear distance between supports is 28 inches ; all loam ballast. Over this track we are using engines of about 40 tons on a wheel-base of about 18 to 20 feet as an average of the different styles. The east eud of the road has been iu use for about twenty months and shows good track and the rails in good condition. In a personal letter to me in July, 1888, Mr. Griswold stated that he had a deep interest in the movement for forest protection and in the metal tie question. He gave as his opinion that iron or steel ties will supersede wood in nearly all countries, and that a track may be built with them that will possess equal efficiency in all respects with a track on wooden ties. East Argentine Railway.— The following particulars are from a report sent to me in August, 1889, by the president of the Argentine Republic Society of Civil Engineers : The line runs from Concordia to Ceibo, a distance of 99.20 miles. There are 12,500 metal cross-ties in use, 2,500 being of iron and 10,000 of steel ; metal ties are also used in renewing old wooden-ties. The ties have been laid at different times since 1830 and. 263 the work has heen done uudor the supervision of Mr. Oliver Bndgo, chief engineer of the railway. The locomotives weigh 30 tons each, and. have a weight of 11 tons on the driving-wheels. The iron ties are made by the Le Grange Works in France, and weigh 81.4 pounds each. The steel ties are of the type adopted on the Indian State Railways and are manufactured by theEbbw Vale Iron and Steel Company, of Eng- land ; they are 8 feet long by 8 inches by 4 inches; three-eighths inch thick; they weigh 90 pounds each, and 92^ pounds with fastenings. Tliey are spaced 3 feet apart, center to center. They are given a coat of coal tar, and the cost at the works is |1.35 each in gold. On curves eight ties are used to a rail length of 21.32 feet. There is little expense for maintenance, and the ties laid in 1880 are still in good condition. The ballast is of gravel, which becomes consolidated under the ties. The width at subgrade is 16 feet. The rails are of flange section, 4 inches higli and 3|^ inches wide ; they are spliced by fish-plates and 4 bolts. For 37.20 miles the joints are suspended, and for the remaining 62 miles they are supported on the ties. The metal ties were adopted on account of their greater durability than wood, and the results have been very satisfactory. There is no trouble with the rail fastenings, and breakages are very rare. The steel ties effect a saving of 4 inches of ballast. Hard- wood ties ara also used, and cost $1.20 (gold) each. The climate is mild and has very little de- structive effect on the ties. The line is 4 feet 8^ inches gauge, has a maximum grade of 1 in 80 (1.25 per cent.,) and a minimum curve of 1,640 feet radius. The rails are se- cured to the ties by riveted and bolted clips, the inner clip of one rail and the outer clip of the other rail being riveted ; the holes aire punched cold. Santa F6 and Cardova Great Southern Railway.— This line, which will run from Villa Constitucion to La Oarlota, a distance of 186 miles, is now under construction. The track will consist of steel rails of flange section, weighing 65 pounds per yard, laid on steel cross-ties ; 21,000' tons of rails and 20,000 tons of steel ties were ordered in 1889, The ties are of inverted trough section, weighing 120 pounds each, and tiie rails are secured by lugs apd keys. They are spaced eleven to a rail length of 32 feet. The rail joints are suspended. The ballast is of earth. Schultz, Tozer & Co., of London, supplied the 365,000 steel ties (20,000 tons), which are for mixed gauge. The two outer rails, for the gauge of 5 feet 6 inches, are of flange section, and are secured to the tie in the same way as on the Indian state railways; the middle rails, for the meter gauge, are of bull-headed section, secured to the self-fasten- ing chairs patented by this firm (See " England"). The steel used is of the quality generally used for the Indian ties ; it is equal to a tensile strain of between 26 and 31 tons to the square inch, with a contraction of 40 per cent, at the point of fracture. Mr, B. H. Woods is the en- gineer, Buenos Ayrbs and Ensbnada Port Railway,— This line is 37 miles long, 5 feet 6 inches gauge, and the track consists of steel rails weighing 68 pounds per yard, carried on cast-iron bowls, which are bal- lasted with the black earth of the country. The line connects the city of Buenos Ayres with the new docks and port at Ensenada ; the cost was about $95,000 per mile, there being some expensive works on the first 5 miles and at the crossing of the Riachuelo Kiver, It passes through agricultural and grazing country, and has a large passenger traffic ; from Buenos Ayres there is a large trafhc of suburban trains. The following note on the respective merits of steel cross-ties and cast- 264 iron bowls (or pots) is taken from tbe report of Mr. A. E. Brown, gen- eral manager, made In October, 1889 : Main line. — This is in good running order throughout. It is interesting to note the superiority of the new transverse steel sleepers that jou have sent for the double line over the " pots." I have laid half a kilometer (.31 mile) of the new rails and ties between Barracas and General Mike ; they have been down since April, and have hardly required any touching. It is difficult to estimate the enormous saving that may be effected by the use of these sleepers in the personnel of the permanent way ; they are especially adapted to the mud ballast of this country, as after rain there is beneath them a tie composed of dry earth, which forms a very rigid road. Their great superiority over the pot is in that they do not sink on one rail which is invari- ably the case with the pots, which carries a nasty oscillating movement to the train ; also that they are not so easily broken." Buenos Ayres and Eosaeio Railway. — On this line cast iron bowls are said to be used as far as Sanchales, a distance of '341 miles, beyond which ties of " quebracho Colorado " wood are used. Buenos Ayres Northern Railway.— This line has 5-Jf miles of single track laid with metal track, which was put down between 1877 and 1886. There is ordinary passenger and freight traffic, hauled by locomotives weighing 26 to 48 tons in working order. Mr. T. E. M. Marsh, of England, is consulting engineer. The line has now been ab- sorbed by the Central Argentine Railway. The ties consist of a pair of cast-iron bowls of oval shape 27 by 20 inches, weighing 100 pounds each. They were manufactured by the Anderston Foundry Company, of Glasgow, Scotland, and are treated with Dr. Angus Smith's preserva- tive solution. There are eight pairs of bowls to a rail length of 23 feet. The bowls are connected by transverse tie- bars, with a gib and cotter fastening to each bowl; the gauge can be adjusted or widened by transposing the gibs and cotters. Up to August 15, 1889, the date of Mr. Marsh's commnnication, no breakages had been reported. The parts of the line where these ties are used are badly provided with good ballast for ordinary wooden ties, and the metal ties are adopted because the ballast is soft and bad for wooden ties of ordinary dimensions. Where wooden ties are used they are of native hard wood, which is good and durable. The rails are of steel, of flange section, weighing 68 and 75 pounds per yard ; they are secured by patent cast-iron corrugated keys. The rail joints are suspended, and are spliced by fish-plates 16 inches long, with four bolts. Western of Buenos Ayres Railway. — This line is about 620 miles long, 5 feet 6 inches gauge. There are Barlow iron rails weighing 88.5 pounds per yard ; double-headed rails weighing 64.38 pounds per yard, and steel flange rails weighing 56.34 pounds per yard. The track now used consists of steel rails 26.24 feet long, carried on nine cross-ties of hard wood (quebracho or urunday), or upon seven pair of Livesey's cast- iron bowls. Andine Railway.— This line is 476 miles long, 5 feet 6 inches gauge. The track consists of rails weighing about 54 pounds per yard, carried on cast-iron bowls. 265 Santa Fi^ and Northern Colonies Railway. — This line is 62 miles long, 1 meter gauge. The rails are of steel, weighing 46 pounds per yard. Some of the ties are of the " quebracho-colorado " wood, brought from the Chaco and from Corrieutes, but the majority arc of cast-iron bowls. Northern Central Eailway. — This line is about 548 miles long, 1 meter gauge. Iron ties are extensively used. SUMMARY OF METAL TEA.CK FOR THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Railways. Cast-iron bowls. Cross-ties, Buenoa Ayres Great Southern Central Argentine Buenos Ayres and Pacific, East Argentine Santa F6 and Cordoha Great Southern. Buenos Ayres and Ensenada Port Buenoa Ayres and Rosario Buenoa Ayres Northern Western of Buenos Ayres (eatinaated). Andine Santa E6 and Northern Colonies Northern Central (estimated) Total . Miles. 833. 25 640. 00 407. 40 36. 6B 341. 00 5.81 250. 00 476. 00 60.00 300. 00 7.10 186. 00 0.31 CHILI. General Remarks. — In November, 1889, " Industries," and some other European engineering journals, reported that the Chilian Govern- ment, through its legation at Paris, France, was negotiating for 739,400 metal ties 9 feet long, and 725,100 ties 4.25 feet long. Mr. Henry Budge, chief engineer of the State railways, has stated that there must have been some mistake, no such proposals having been asked for by the Government. Mr. C. M. Seibert, secretary of the United States legation at Santiago, stated in January, 1889, that there were 679.52 miles of lines owned by the Government, and 965.96 miles owned by private parties or companies, a total of 1,645.48 miles. Some new lines are being built. He also stated that Chili possesses abundance of forests in the southern part of her territory, suflBcient for supplying railway ties for many years. CoQUiMBO Kailway. — In a letter dated August 4, 1888, Mr. Henry A. Vivian, chief engineer, stated that in 1887 he received from England sufficient steel ties to lay one mile of track, but so far very few had been put in. They were steel cross-ties, of the type adopted for the Indian State Railways, 9J inches wide at the bottom, and having an extra thickness of metal on the top. They were for a gauge of 6 feet 6 inches, and weighed 120 pounds each. They were not what he wanted, and as their weight made them very expensive he decided not to ask for any more. They cost $8 each, in Chili currency, while timber ties, having an average life of about five or six years, could then be bought for $1,30. Cypress ties are used. 266 BRAZIL, General Eemaeks. — In this country, metal ties have only been tried to a limited extent. Mr, Jason Kigby, chief engineer of the Great Western of Brazil Kailway, in a letter dated May 17, 1889, stated that there were two reasons for the non-employment of metal ties : First, because the Government, wishing to encourage the use of native ma- terial, has objected to their use ; second, because the native hard wood can be obtained at a very low price. Mr. O'Meara, of the Brazil Great Southern Railway, stated that no iron or steel ties are in use on that road, as native timber of good quality is obtainable at moderate ijrices along the Uruguay Eiver. The following table of the mileage of Brazilian railways is from the official returns for December 31, 1887: Kailways. State lines General Governnrent, guaranteed lines. . . Provincial government lines Provincial government gaaranteed lines Companies without guarantee Total In opera- tion. Mites. 1, 24S. 06 1, 602. 70 58.90 962.24 1, 337. 34 5, 209, 24 Under con- struction. Miles. 155. CO 118. 42 301.32 288. 44 Surveyed. , 403. 82 13. 02 93.00 475. 54 ■ 184. 76 2, 230. 14 Great Western op Brazil Railway.— Mr. Rigby, the chief en- gineer, stated as follows in a letter dated May 17, 1889 : A short time since, when bnildiug an extension of this line, I thought of introduc- ing Hteel ties as even the best native hard wood only lasts in this climate from six to seven years. I got some samples of different systems sent ont, but all were, in my opinion, objectionable either from complication of the rail-fastenings or want of sufficient length outside the rail to give stability in the very soft sand ballast which is all we can obtain here ; and then the price, with freight and duties, put their use quite out of the question. I pay here 50 cents for a squared tie, 7 feet by 9 inches by 5 inches, all hard wood, delivered on the line. Southern Brazilian Rio Grande do Sul Railway.— The fol- lowing particulars are from a statement furnished in December, 1889, by the consulting engineer, Mr. Charles Neate, of London : The line has curves of 328 feet to 6,560 feet radius, and grades from ;? per cent, to .025 per cent. About .62 mile of metal track was laid between 1880 and 1884. Mr. A. Dnprat is the general manager and Mr. Baras de Holleben is resident engineer. The engines are of two classes : (1) ten-wheel engines with tenders, with six coupled wheels and a four-wheel leading truck ; 23 tons total weight with 5,930 poundson each driving-wheel; (2) eight- wheel engines, with tenders, with six coupled wheels and a two-wheel leading truck ; 23 tons 448 pounds total weight, with 7,504 pounds on each driving-wheel. The ties are of steel, of the Indian State Railway pattern, for 1 meter gauge. They are 5 feet 6 inches long, 8J- inches wide, with closed ends 4^ inches deep ; 12 inches wide, 1| inches thick on top ; the weight is 70 pounds per tie. The rails are secured by lugs and keys. The ties are spaced 24 inches apart, center to center, at joints, and 31^ inches apart, intermediate. There are 5,000 ties manufac- tured by the Darlington Steel Company, England ; they are given a coat of paint and cost about $1 each. The rails are of flange section, weighing 40 pounds per 267 yard ; the jointa are suspended, and are fastened by splice bars and four bolts. The ballaat is of coarse sand, and occasionally graall stone ; no gravel proper is to be had ; it is about 13 inches deep. With wooden ties It is very liable to be washed away by the tropical rains, but there is no sufficient experience yet with the hollow metal ties. The steel ties were tried ou account of the early decay of native hard-wood ties, the life of which rarely exceeds five years in the northern provinces, and eight to ten years in the southern provinces. The general results are satisfactory, so far as is known, especially for preserving the gauge on sharp curves, but the time of the test has not been long enough to enable any definite opinions to be formed. Careful maintenance is necessary, but there is little trouble with the rail fastenings. Native hard- wood ties cost 60 to 72 cents each, delivered. Although the forests of Brazil undoubtedly fnrnish hard wood of the finest quality, ties from which would be very durable, the cost of obtaining such ties for the whole line would be almost prohibitory ; whereas with metal ties nniformity of quality can be obtained at a moderate cost, and it is expected that the steel ties will prove dura- ble. Cast-iron bowl-ties will undoubtedly last well, but on railways of 1 meter gauge, where the rolling-stock is necessarily wide in proportion to the gauge, cross-ties are found to give more lateral stability than bowl-ties. The Indian pattern of steel cross-ties admits of a certain widening of gauge round curves, if necessary, by shift- ing the keys to the outer side of the rails, or by the use of special keys. OoNDE d'Exj Railway. — The following particulars are from a state- ment furnished in December, 1889, by the consulting engineer, Mr. Charles Neate, of London. (For general notes see the preceding para- graph on the Southern Brazilian Eio Grande do Sul Eailway.) The line has a maximum grade of 2.22 per cent., and the minimum curves of 328 and 394 feet radius. There are about 20.46 miles of metal track, laid between 1880 and 1884, under the supervision of Mr. I. H. P. Dunsmure, general manager and residout engineer. There are three classes of locjpmotives : (l)new tank engines, four coupled wheels and a four-wheel truck, 26 tons weight in working order, with a maximum weight of 4J tons on each wheel; (2) tank engines, with four coupled wheels and a Bissel or pony truck, 21 tons in working order, with 4 tons on each coupled wheel ; (3) eight- wheel engines with tenders, four coupled wheels and a four- wheel truck, 21 tons in working order, with 3J tons on each coupled wheel. The ties consist of a pair of cast-iron bowls weighing 65 pounds each ; each bowl is oval, 22J inches long, 18i inches wide, 4f inches deep, with a metal three-eighths inch and one- half inch thick on the sides and three-quarters inch on top. The tie-bar is secured by a gib on the inner side and a cotter on the outer side of each bowl. The rails are of steel, of flange section, weighing 50 pounds per yard, they rest on two wooden cushions ou each bowl; the inner side of the flange is held by a lug, and on the outer side an elm key is driven between the web of the rail and a high lug on the bowl. The ties are spaced 3 feet 10 inches apart. The bowls are manufactured by Head, Wrightson & Co., of Stockton-on-Tees, England, and cost about 68 cents each. They were used by the contractors owing to the scarcity of native timber. Donna Thbeeza Christina Eailway.— The following particulars are from a statement by Mr. Charles Neate, of London, the consulting engineer, furnished in December, 1889. (See also the two preceding railways.) The line has minimum curves of 328 feet to 392 feet, and maximum grades of 2.22 to 1.66 per cent. About 2.48 miles were laid with metal track between 1880 and 1884, under the supervision of Mr. E. J. Brown, general manager and resident engineer. The en- gines are eight-wheel tank engines, with six coupled wheels and a two-wheeled lead- ing truck with radial axle boxes; they weigh 22 tons in working order, with 2J tons 268 on each coupled wheel. Two patterns of cross-ties have been used ; in the first in- stance, 1,000 steel ties manufactured by Howard & Company (See " England") were sent out, and snbsequeutly 5,000 steel ties of the Indian pattern, as already described for the Southern Brazilian and Rio Grande do Sul Railway. The "Howard "ties were 5 feet 6 inches long, 10 inches wide on the bottom, and 3 inches deep with metal three-sixteenths of an inch thioli ; they weighed 40 pounds each and cost |1.20 each. The spacing weight, maker, and cost of the Indian pattern ties are as already de- scribed. The rails are of flanged section, weighing 40 pounds per yard. The reasons for trying metal ties were the same as on the Southern Brazilian line. The Howard tie was not of the heavy type for main lines; a corruga- tion or rib was formed along the top of the tie, and pressed down at the rail- seat to allow the flange of the rail to rest on the flat portion of the top of the tie; the sides of the rail-seat formed clips for the rail flanges, and the rails were secured by steel keys driven between one clip and the rail flange. Recife and Sao Peancisco Pernambuco Railway. — Ties of iron and native hard wood are used on this line. DoM Pedko Segundo Eailwat.t— On this line (now known as the Central Railway of Brazil, since the change of government from an empire, to a republic) some wrought-iron or steel cross- ties of inverted trough section, similar to those of the original Vautherin section, were in use as an experiment near Rio, in 1888, and were there noticed by Mr. Rigby, of the Great Western of Brazil Railway. San Paulo Railway. — This line runs from Santos to Jundiahy, about 62 miles, and has two grades of 2J per cent., and curves of 984 feet radius. The traffic iS chiefly heavy freight; the, engines weigh 44 tons, with 11 tous per axle. Mr. John Barker is the engineer. The ties used are of the old form of Greaves's cast-iron bowls, arranged in pairs and connected by tie bars. The bowls are 22 inches in diameter, with metal one-half inch thick, and weigh 176 pounds per tie. They are coated with tar. They are spaced 2 feet 9 inches apart and are con. nected by tie bars 2 inches deep by three-eighths inch thick. They are manufactured in England and cost $22.50 to $24 per ton. Their aver- age life is twenty-five years, and the expense of maintenance is small. There is no trouble with the rail attachments, nor from breakages, and the efQciency is said to be five times as great as that of wooden ties. The rails are of bull-headed section weighing 66 pounds per yard and have suspended joints. Metal ties were adopted on account of the economy resulting from their use, aud the general results have been sat- isfactory. They make a rigid but very economical track, although the first cost is double that of wooden ties. iMinas'and Rio Railway.— In a letter dated May 27, 1889, Mr. F. E. Penn, general manager, stated that there were no metal ties then in use, but that an experiment was about to be made with steel ties. Messrs. Brunlees & McKerrow, of London, the consulting engineers, report that these ties will be of the type adopted on the Indian State railways, and will be laid for a length of about .62 mile. 269 STTMMAKT OF METAL TEACK POE BRAZIL. Baiiwaya. Sonthera Brazilian Kio Grande do Sul... Condfi d'Eu Donna Tliereza Christina San Paulo Minas and Rio Great "Western of Brazil* Recife and Sao Francisco Peruambuco* Dom PodroII* Total. Bowls. Miles. ""62.00 Cross-tiea. Miles. .62 2.48 ".'62 8.72 ♦Experimental trials. VEKBZUEXiA. GrEiSERAL Eemauks. — The contractors who built the Puerto Ca- bello and Valencia Railway and the Bolivar Railway (Messrs. Perry, Outbill, and De Lungo, of London), and who have bad large experience in railway construction in South America, state that their general im- pression is that track constructed with iron ties is more expensive to keep in order, but at the same time iscertainly more durable than track with wooden ties. The engineer of this firm considers that for sharp curves heavy wooden ties are the best, if of hard and durable timber. Steel he considers better than creosoted pine, but inferior to vera, jarrah, and similar hard woods. His opinions as to the comparative work of maintenance with track on metal and wooden ties difi'er from those usually expressed. Mr. James T. Mctrawran, resident engineer for railways being built by a French company, stated in August, 1889, that while he had not been connected with any railway using metal ties, he considered that they would prove useful where timber is scarce (as in the Argentine Republic), or in places like Veni zuela, pro- vided that lignum-vitse and one or two similar timbers can not be obtained, where the white ant fcomaheu) will make short work of any ordinary wooden tie. He is fortunate in being able to get a wood (cu- rarire) which lasts from twenty to thirty years. It is true that each tie has to be bored, but as the system of track-laying is that adopted ex- tensively in Europe, the rails being secured by screw-spikes, this makes no difference, as the holes would have to be bored in any case. Puerto Cabello and Valencia Railway. — On this road (also known as* the Venezuela Central Railway), which is 34 miles long, steel cross-ties are used on an incline 2^ miles long, with a grade of 8 per cent, and curv.es of 500 feet radius. This incline is operated on the Abt rack-rail system ; the rack-rail being carried in chairs fastened to the ties. The trafflc consists of passengers and freight, and the trains are hauled by locomotives weighing 40 tons, with a load of 13 tons per axle. The ballast is of broken stone. The rails weigh 56 pounds per yard. Metal ties are used to avoid renewals, and the general results 270 have been satisfactory. There has been no trouble with the rail attach- ments, nor from breakages, but there has been trouble with the main- tenance. It is reported that the track with wooden ties is more easily kept in condition, but the difiference is not very great. I| BoLiVAK E41LWAY. — This line (known also as the Quebrada Eail- way) was built in 1875; it is 55 miles along, with generally very easy grades and curves. The trafflc is heavy, principally mineral; the en- gines weigh 20 tons and have a load of 7 tons per axle. The steel cross- ties originally laid are reported to be still in good condition. There is no proper ballast. The rails weigh 30 pounds per yard. No trouble has been experienced from breakages or with the rail attachments. There has, however, been trouble with maintenance, and it is reported that the track is more easily kept in order with wooden ties, but the difference is not great. The line is of 24 inches gauge. The ties were made by Kerr and Stuart, and have riveted clips which support the outer side of the rail head like rail braces. (See " England.") La Guayra and Caracas Railway. — This line is 23 miles long. It has been stated that cast-iron bowls are used for ties ; but no returns have been received, no reply has been made to requests for informa- tion, and no reliable or definite information on this point has been ob- tained. As Mr. James Livesey is the consulting engineer, it is quite probable, in view of the statement above referred to, that the Livesey system of track with cast-iron bowls is employed. (See " England.") Summary for Venezuela. Eailways. Bowls. Cross-ties. Miles. Miles. 2 25 23 23 57.25 UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. General Eemarks. — Mr. P. J. Oisneros, an engineer who is con- nected with the Bolivar Railway of Colombia and a number of other railways, stated in May, 1888, that he was an advocate of metal ties and had thought of employing them, but so far he had no experience with them. Panama Railway. — Metal ties have not been used, as hard and long lived wooden ties are available. An engineer who has been over the road remarked that in such a climate, and with the class of labor available, there would probably be trouble with the maintenance and fastenings of metal ties for the first few years, owing to the indolent and careless nature of the trackmen. It may be remarked, however, that after the first few years the maintenance is generally found to be 271 considerably less with metal ties than with wooden ties. Mr. W. P. Dennis, acting general superintendent, wrote as follows in June, 1889 : On our road, 47 miles, we liave never had either steel or iron ties under our track. Onr main line has lignum-vitse ties about 6 by 8 inches in sections, which are sup- plied from the surrounding countries at a cost to us of from |1.50 to $1.80 gold each. These ties are so hard as to necessitate boring holes for spikes, but after the prelim- inary difficulty is overcome they make an extremely solid and durable track. It is difficult to' get exact information as to the life of these ties, but it is a common say- ing among trackmen that these ties are good for twenty-five years, and there are in- stances where ties have been recently taken up which have been in track a long time ; it is even claimed that they have been in use since the opening of the road, nearly thirty-five years ago. Ordinary timber, such as pine and oak, when subjected to exposure, is not good for more than three years at the utmost. GUATEMALA. Guatemala Central Eailway. — Under the ownership of Mr. 0. P. Huntington it had been proposed to try metal ties, but no definite steps were taken, and the road having now passed into other hands it is not probable that any such steps will be taken in the near future. The fol- lowing are extracts from a detailed communication from Mr. William Nanne, general manager, dated in May, 1889 : The subject to which you are applying your energies certainly deserves the atten- tion of all true railroad men, not only on the continent but all over the world, be- cause it is only a question of time everywhere when the time-honored wooden sub- structure will have to give place to the iron age. We Central American railway con- structors, in tropical jungles, with any amount of hard or soft wood ties presumably at our disposal, make a poor show in this important question of economical construction and operation, and nowhere, perhaps, has the adoption of metal cross-ties been more seriously considered than on our lines, but we have not as yet arrived at the practical application, for reasons given later. For these reasons I have held back from the experiments suggested by Mr. Huntington and Mr. Mahl. We are using about half California redwood ties, 8 feet by 8 inches by 7 inches and 7 feet by 7 inches by 6 inches ; and the balance native hardwood ties 6 feet by 7 inches by 6 inches, and 6 feet by 8 inches by 6 inches. All of these have an average life of six years under new track. On the mountain division we are rising on our present location 2,600 feet in 12 miles, with curves of 15 degrees and on several trestles 150 feet high. By great care we have operated this without the slightest accident, but it is such costly oper- ation that we are now lengthening the division to 16 miles, with a maximum grade of 3 per cent. ; we are about two-thirds through with the work. In preparing for this work the question of the use of metal track was seriously considered, and Mr. Huntington seemed to favor the use of steel cross-ties. But much as I appreciate the "Post" system (See " Holland") as the best so far brought out, I have objected to even an experiment on our crooked line and heavy grades, which in many places are on the borders of tremendous precipices. In none of the metal ties do I see how the proper widening of the gauge or curves is to be carried out, and this is the main obstacle I see to our adopting metal ties. Another consideration is that the cost of transportation of material to our Central American lines, via Cape Horn, comes to about 200 per cent, on the original invoice, with heavy landing expenses of $10 to $20 per ton at onr Pacific terminal station ; bringing the cost of a Post steel tie, placed on our line, to about |3 to $4 silver (35 per cent, discount on United States gold). You will agree with me, as our board has agreed already, that under these circumstances, when we can get good wooden ties for about $1 silver per tie (or say 272 75 cents United States gold), lasting six years on an average, we arenot yet up to the metal track question. Nevertheless the question is watched very closely by me and I am always open to conviction if I can see ray way clear. So far I shall stick to the • time-honored wooden ties for elasticity and safety generally. The road is 75 miles long, with maxim um grades of 3 per cent. auA minimum curves of 15 degrees. The ties are spaced 24 inches apart, center to center, and are laid in broken stone and blue gravel ballast. The rails are of steel, weighing 54 pounds per yard ; the joints are even and suspended, spliced by angle bars 20 inches long. Ajax steel braces are used on curves. The engines weigh 45 tons. Mr. Albert J. Scher- zer is the engineer in charge. In regard to the question of adjustment of gauge I have already referred to the importance of this matter, and it will be seen that a wide range of adjustment combined with very secure fastenings is required on such a crooked road. Probably the Ruppel system of fastening, as used in the Prussian state railways (See '' Germany") would meet the requirements. COSTA EICA, Gbneeal Ebmabks. — Mr. Manne, of the Guatemala Central Eail- way, states that he believes that steel lies are being used on these lines. Over 100 miles of railway are in operation, and several lines are under construction. SAN SALVADOR. Gbnekal Remarks. — It has been reported that it is proposed to use steel ties of American design and manufacture on a new railway to be built. MEXICO. General Ebmarks. — Metal ties have been tried and have given such good results that their use is being extended. Mexican Eailavay.— The Mexican Eailway (Vera Cruz line) has now in service several miles of track laid with steel ties of the type designed by Sir A. M. Eendel, and adopted f )r the Indian state railways. The length of the main line is 265 miles. At the end of June, 1888, there were 46| miles laid with steel-ties, and at the end of June, 1889, there were 77 miles laid with them. While they have not been in service long enough to test their dnrability they have given great satisfaction, par- ticularly by their behavior in times of flood. In regard to breakages, I am credibly informed that in one case a Baldwin consolidation engine left the rails and traveled about 100 yards over the ties without break- ing a single one ; some were bent, but were easily put into shape at the shops. The line has grades of 2 per cent. The locomotives are Fairlie (double- boiler, double steam-truck) engines, weighing 80 tons, and Bald- win consolidation engines. The ties are made in Wales, weigh 112 273 pounds each, are treated with a coal-tar preservative composition, and are spaced in the track 2,000 to the mile. The rails are of flange sec tion, weigh 62 and 82 pounds per yard, and are secured by steel keys, as on the Indian state railways. The joints are supported on the ties, and are spliced by ordinary fish-plates. The general results have been satisfactory, the efilcieucy being much higher than with wooden ties there has been no trouble with maintenance of rail attachments nor from breakages. In August, 1889, proposals were opened at the Lon don office of the company for 10,000 of these ties, to be used with 62 pound rails. Mr. J. F. O'Brien, general manager of the Mexican National Railway {since resigned), stated in August, 1889, that no experiments had been made on his road, but that on the Mexican Railway the results of the steel-ties seem so very satisfactory that it has been decided to substitute them for wood entirely. He has been over the line several times, and states that the track on metal ties seems to be very smooth and perfect, even in the rainy season, and he sees no reason why they should not be a success after the experience of this railway. There is said to be even less noise and greater smoothness in riding over the track with steel ties than the track with wooden ties. The following is taken from a paper on "The Railways of Mexico," by Mr. W. B. Parsons, read at the annual convention of the American Society of Civil BngingS'rs in June, 1889 : The most interesting thing in connection with the track is the use of metal cross- ties. Wooden ties, expensive in first cost, were found to last only four or five years, so that metal was adopted for economy. The ties are of mild steel, and weigh 110 pounds each. The rail is held hy clamps punched up from the tie, and is secured by a key weighing 1 pound; so that a tie and two keys weigh about 113 pounds. In section they are channel-shaped, with an extra thickness of metal on the top. The ends are splayed and turned down so as to retain the ballast, wliile the tie is bent up- wards toward the ends so as to give the rails an inward cant. Their price varies with the price of steel, but is now about 5 shillings (English), or say |1.25 per tie, free on board, at English ports. The ballast is of sand and gravel, and in places on the heavy grade an attempt at broken stone is found. The ballast is laid flush with the top of the tie. The results of experience have been most gratifying. The track is found to remain in better surface and line than when wooden ties are used, aud certainly the track in best condition to-day is that portion where metal ties are laid. Practically it has been found that the track thus laid requires so much less work that section gangs on metal tie sections have been reduced about one-half. The Mexican Railway is therefore laying the steel ties as fast as possible, there being enough on hand to finish about 150 miles of road. The following is the statement of Mr. George Foot, the general man- ager, furnished in 1887 : Our experience with these ties, of which some 30,000 have been in the line since September, 1884, is so satisfactory in every respect, that we arenow about to lay down 40,000 more, and our intention is to gradually relay the entire line with metallic sleepers. The type of tie we are about to lay do wn is about the same as that employed on the State Railways of India for both the 5 feet 6 inches and 1 meter gauges, but arranged for our gauge, which is 4 feet BJ inches. The price of the new ties under contract in England is 4s. id. ($1.05) each, including steel keys, free on board in Cardiff, and their weight with keys 112 pounds each. The metallic ties in use here 22893— Bull. 4 18 274 for the last two years are almost of the same pattern, excepting the fastenings, which are much more complicated and expensive. The tie represents the latest improve- ments in steel sleepers suggested by experience on railways in India, where millions of them are employed, and I think that the tie in question leaves little to he desired eittier in general form, simplicity of fastenings, weights, or price. The metal is thickened where strength is most required, and the rail clips are formed from the solid plate, the rail being kept in place by a simple steel key which can be driven either on the inside or outside of the rail when increased width of gauge is required on sharp curves. So far we have no disadvantage to record, but many and very im- portant advantages, which are as follows : (1) No spikes are required. (2) The rails are kept to gauge with almost mathematical accuracy and the result is that the oscillation of a train running at high speed over this track is reduced to a minimum, and is very marked when it runs on to a length laid with ordinary timber sleepers. (3) The difference in the cost of maintenance is enormous, because a track once properly laid with these steel ties and well ballasted requires no permanent road gangs and can be maintained in good order by a traveling gang going over it once or twice a year. This is our experience here, but it must be remembered that on this railway we have no frost or snow to contend with and very light trafSc. In the United States these conditions would of course be altered, but I see no good reason why these ties should not bear frost well ; they are extensively used in Germany, and I am not aware that frost has proved an objection to their use. From personal experience I can not say how metallic ties behave in cases where trains run off the line, as we very seldom on this line have such accidents, and have had^one on the portions of track laid with them. In India the experience is that in a bad run-off a great number of ties are bent and injured, but that very few are so badly damaged as to be past re- pairs, and that, as a general rule, they are repaired in the shops and replaced in the line. I must add, however, that metal sleepers require a very solid and perfect road- bed, and a much larger quantity of ballast than timber ties. The Mexican Railway is laid throughout with 62-pound steel rails, except on the Cumber 4 per cent, incline, where we are now laying down 82-pound rails. Our metal ties are laid under the 62- pound rails, the number being 2,000 per mile, but we find that this number is not necessary, and in future we propose to lay only 1,850 per mile. I may say in con- clusion, that in my opiuion the steel tie is the tie of the future, and that our experi- ence here points with their use to substantial economies in repairs and maintenance and at the same time to a very perfect track. The following notes are from The Mexican Financier. The first one refers to the serious and disastrous floods of 1887 : The management of the Mexican Railway has reason to congratulate itself on the _ success which has attended the introduction of steel ties on its line. The recent washout, caused by the bursting of a water-spout on the track, afforded a test of the utility of metal ties than which nothing could have been more satisfactory. On the section where the spout burst there were both wooden and metal ties. The wooden ties were completely washed away and the track badly torn up, but on that portion having the steel ties the bursting spout was unable to do any harm to the track, the ties retaining their place and the line of rails remaining at their original level. Gen- eral Manager Foot, who made a personal inspection of the washed track, could not find that the section having the metal ties had been sensibly damaged ; only the gravel between the ties had been carried away, leaving them in their original place and preserving as has been said, the level of the track just as it was before tons of water had swept down iipon it. The bursting spout carried much debris on the track and loaded an iron bridge with bowlders, some weighing fully 6 tons, in fact so 275 heavy that they had to be blasted to accomplish their removal, and this fact ■will in- dicate the tremendous force of the waters and demonstrate convincingly the merits of the Eendel steel ties which kept the submerged track in wich good order. The road began using steel ties in 1884, and has now some 20,000 of them on its bed. So satisfactory has the experiment been that 40,000 more have been ordered from England for use this year, and it is proposed to put in from 40,000 to 50,000 per year hereafter. The "life" of a steel tie is considered as indefinite, but it may safely be set at from thirty to fifty years, the former being an American estimate by a compe- tent metallurgist. The steel tie is now produced in England where the manufact- ure has been so extended as to make the product for 5s. apiece, or $1.25 gold, or very much cheaper than formerly. By chartering its own vessels the company can land its steel ties at a cost which permits their extensive use. It may be set down that the outside cost will not exceed |2 each, Mexican silver. The wooden ties which the steel ties are replacing on the Vera Cruz line range in price, according to the quality of wood, from 90 cents to $1.62, silver. The latter price is paid for the zapote tie, a very hard and durable wood. The best white-oak ties last from five to six years, the red oak about three years. — (1889). The policy of the management has, for a long time past, been directed toward making the road-bed exceptionally solid, and a large amount of money has been in- vested in steel ties which have proven well suited to the requirements of the line, known to be one of the most difficult of maintenance in the world, on account of its tremendous gradients. The good results of this wise building up of the line will be seen when the competition of the Interoceanic Railway begins, for then it will be made evident that, by having got its road-bed into a condition where it can be kept in repair at a comparatively small expense, the line can susfeiu a sharp rivalry. — (1889). Mexican Central Eailway.— In February, 1888, Mr. Max E. Schmidt, then chief engineer of the Tampico division, wrote me as follows : We have not yet used metal cross-ties on this line, but are considering the advisa- bility of Introducing them on our mountain division. In that case we will probably adopt the steel tie of the Indian State Railways lately introduced on the Vera Cruz Railway. This tie has the advantage of a most simple mode of fastening the rail to the tie, the rail being placed between two clips turned up from the bearing surface of the tie itself, only one wedge being required to hold each rail in place. Steel ties have two main advantages: (1) They last much longer than wooden ties; (2) they keep the track in perfect gauge. The question not yet settled is the kind of ballast which will keep the tie immovable in place. SUMMAET OF METAL TRACK FOE SECTION 5. Countries. Bowls. Cross-ties. Total. Miles. 3,350.15 Miles. 193.41 1.00 3.72 57.25 Miles. 3, 543. .56 1.00 86.18 80.25 chur..^!.!:. .;:::::::::;::::::::::;::::;::::::::::::;:::;;:; Brazil 82.46 23.00 MfiTi#>.n , , 77.00 77 00 Total 3,455.61 332.38 3, 787. 99 Section 6.— NORTH AMERICA. UNITED STATES. General Kemarks. — In this country very little practical attention has been paid by railway men to the use of metal track until within the last few years. The indifference displayed has been largely due to the increased first cost for metal and the apparently inexhaustible sup- ply of timber. But with the steady improvement in the tracts of the principal lines and with the knowledge, as disseminated by the For- estry Division, of the actual condition of the timber resources there is a noticeable increase in the attention paid to this matter, and this will probably continue to increase. The metal track question, however, has been extensively considered by inventors, and much time, energy, and money have been spent in demonstrating, on paper, the positive effi- ciency of numerou* new designs of track. The list of patents given with my preliminary report, in Bulletin No. 3, was surprisingly large, showing a total number of about two hundred and sixty patents from 1839 to 1889.* Yery few of these patented tracks have been designed by railway men or men experienced in railway work, and the number of those which have practical merit is very small. Many of them are utterly impracticable, complicated, and costly, while others are carried to the opposite extreme of simplicity, with the result of sacrificing such efficiency as they might otherwise possess. The natural result of all this, combined with the large claims made from time to time in be- half of some of these impracticable systems, has been' to render engi- neers, managers, and railway men generally somewhat doubtful as to the final solution of the metal track question. While some of the sys- tems tried in actual service have not yet proved entirely satisfactory, it should be thoroughly understsood that no such system can be ex- pected to give satisfactory results until it has been tested by trial and modified in accordance with experience obtained. Practical trial alone can show the actual results of any system of metal track. The following remarks are taken from the report for 1888 of the rail- way commissioners of Connecticut: We have in former reports mentioned the experiments made in the use of metal ties, and we refer to the subject now not as one requiring legislative action, but simply as a matter of practical and scientific interest. The supply of wood has so far continued so abundant in this country that the first cost of ties has not very materially in- creased, but the average life of a tie has considerably decreased, both because of in- ferior quality and greater wear upon them. We are not aware that experiments with ' The list of patents appended to this report contains 491 numbers. 876 277 metal ties of any account have been made in this country, but on the continent of Europe, ■where experiments began nearly twenty-five years ago, their use may be said to have passed the experimental stage, some companies having practically adopted this kind of tie and using them in all renewals. The most thorough experiments were marie on the Netherlands State Railway, and the adoption there has been the most complete. In England, though used to some extent, they have not been at all generally adopted, as they do not seem to be well adapted to the double-headed rail so much used in in that country. The material found to be best adapted for this use is steel of a mild type, and the advantages claimed, apparently with reason, are such as to make it worth while for the managers of our principal roads to consider whether the adop- tion of this kind of tie would not be advantageous, even at the present price of wooden ties. The crowding outward of the spikes in wooden ties and the cutting of the spikes by the rail flanges on sharp curves constantly affects the gauge, and the cut- ting of the outer flange into the tie often seriously changes the position of the rail on wooden ties and requires constant watchfulness and respiking and readzing of old ties and the substitution of uew ones. As traiific increases the loss of time thus oc- casioned in itself becomes a very serious item of expense. This is avoided by the use of metal ties, as the bolts do not out like the spikes and the bolt-holes do not en- large, neither do the ties wear or cut under the rail flange; so that the expense of maintenance is very much lessened, and instead of increasing as the road-bed gets set- tled it is said to decrease. The most approved form for the tie is like an inverted trough, and when the ends are closed there is very little lateral displacement of track, even on the sharpest curves. The first cost of metal ties and their fastenings is, of course, very much more than that of wooden ties and spikes, but their durability in itself, it is believed, far more than compensates for the additional cost. New York Central and IIudson River Eailwat (See plate Ko. 27). — The chief engineer of this road, Mr. Walter Katt6, having recognized the importance of the metal track question to the great trunk lines of railway, became desirous of obtaining some reliable data based upon experiments made under his own supervision. The company authorized an expenditure of $2,500 for the purpose of procuring such ties and testing them upon its own track. Various forms of ties used in foreign countries were examined, none of which, however, were con- sidered to meet entirely and satisfactorily the conditions of American railway practice. The " Hartford" tie, with certain modifications to be made at his suggestion, seemed to Mr. Katt6 the best suited of any he had examined, and as it could be made in this country under his own observation as to manufacture; test of material, etc., he concluded it was the best one he could get, at least to start with, in investigating practically the question of metal ties. It is intended to conduct a close investigation of the comparative cost of maintenance, expenditures, re- newals, etc., as compared with ordinary wooden ties. About eight hun- dred of the steel ties were purchased and were laid in double track on the main line. The company's standard system of track is used, con- sisting of good broken-stone ballast, with SO-i^ound flange rails, three- tie supported joints, and six- bolt angle-bar splices 40 inches long. The rails are laid to break joiut. As stated in my preliminary report (Bul- letin No. 3), it was expected to have these ties laid in April, 1889 ; owing to delays in manufacture, etc., they were not put in the track until November, 1889. They are laid for about a quarter of a mile on the 278 main line, just south of Garrison's Station, Hudson Eiver division. They are of two lengths, 8 feet and 8 feet 6 inches. They were at first laid in gravel ballast of mediocre quality, but this has been replaced with broken stone, in accordance with the company's approved form of track. The flanges of the angle-bars are notched to allow the clamps to bear on the rail flanges. The following particulars are from a statement and drawings fur- nished in January, 1890, by Mr. Katte : The ties were laid in November, 1889, on an experimental section of double track about a quarter of a mile long. The section is level and straight. The line has the heaviest kind of freight and passenger traffic. Passenger engines, with a weight of 36 tons, on four driving-wheels and a driving-wheel base of 6 feet, pass over these ties at speeds of 40 to 55 miles per hour. The ties have not been in use long enough for the expense of maintenance to be determined. Apparently, however, it is thus far no greater than with wooden ties. The arrangement for curves is the same as for tangents, any adjustment of gauge being effected by the fastenings. The rails weigh 80 pounds per yard and have supported joints. The reason for using tliese ties was the desire to secure economy over wooden ties and to obtain a superior at- tachment of the rails to the ties. The results have so far been quite satisfactory. There has been no trouble with maintenance nor with the rail-fastenings. No break- ages have occurred. The attachment of the rails to the ties is much superior to the ordinary system of spiking. The wooden ties are of Southern yellow pine. They cost 55 cents each, delivered in New York, and have a life of from seven to ten years. The climate is variable, humid, with extremes of temperature. There is no record of the effects of the same on metal or wood. I am of opinion that the rolled metal tie is essentially a requisite for first-class per- manent way in this country. Having investigated the relative economy of metal and wooden tie systems for a term of fifty years, I am led to believe as the result thereof that upon the basis of 55 cents for a wooden tie and |3 for a steel tie, and under the conditions of traffic and maintenance expense existing on this line the relative economy is from 8 to 12 per cent, in favor of the metal system. The general advantages which I recognize in the metal system are : (1) Superior and more ef- fective fastening of rail to tie. (2) Better hold of metal cross-tie with curved ends in the road-bed ballast, thereby preserving alignment both in straight line and curves much more effectively than with wooden ties. (3) Increased and eflective resist- ance to tangential pressure on curves, with overturning tendency, and resistance to creeping of rails, especially on steep grades. (4) The clip and bolt fastening to the tie avoids the necessity of double-spiking the rail braces on curves. (5) Immu- nity from destruction of wooden ties by fire •from coals dropped from locomotives and other causes. (6) The greater commercial value of the scrap material when worn out. The ballast is about 24 inches deep ; it consists of a 6-inch bottom course of rough quarry spawls, 4 to 6 inches diameter, and an 18-inch upper course of crushed rock 2 inches diameter. The ballast is brought up level with the tops of the ties. From the center of the rail to the outer edge of the ballast is about 6 feet 6 inches. The drawings show the rail joints spliced with plain splice-bars 22 inches long, with four bolts. Angle-bars are actually used, as already stated. Pour arrangements of spacing of the ties are being tried ; the rails are laid to break joint in all cases, with supported joints : (1) Thirteen lengths of 30-feet rails, with twelve ties to a rail length ; the three-joint ties are spaced 18 inches, 279 center to center, and the intermediate ties 3 feet. (2) Fourteen lengths of 30-feet rails, with twelve ties to a rail length ; uniform spacing of 30 inches center to centerj^. (3) Fourteen lengths of 30 feet rails with fourteen ties to a rail length; the three joint ties are spaced 18 inches, center to center, and the intermediate ties 2 feet 4^ inches, (4) Four- teen lengths of 30feet rails, with fourteen ties to a rail length ; uniform spacing of 2 feet lyg^ inohes, center to center. The close spacing of the ties at the rail joints is considered necessary for the existing severe conditions of trafQc. The cast-iron bowls designed in 1885 by Mr. John M. Toucey, general superintendent of the road, were intended for yard service and are still in use at the Grand Central station, New York City. (Description of the Hartford and Toucey ties will be found a few pages farther on.) Chicago and Westebn Indiana Railway (See plate No. 28). — About 1,000 feet of track near Chicago, 111., have been laid with the " Standard" steel tie for experimental purposes, and up to the end of 1889 they had been in service about three months. It was then re- ported that they appeared to be satisfactory, but that it was too soon to express a decided opinion in regard to them. The traffic is about eighty trains per day ; all in one direction. The locomotives weigh 96,000 pounds, and have a weight of 15,000 pounds on the driving, wheels. The track is as firm as could be expected for the open winter that has been experienced. It makes very easy riding and causes very little noise. The ballast is of light gravel. The ties are spaced 23^ inches apart, center to center. They are 7 feet long and 3 inches deep ; joint ties, 10 inches wide ; intermediate ties, 7 inches wide. There had been no trouble with the rail fastenings, but a little rust had been no- ticed where the bolts come in contact with the clamp. The rail joints are square (or opposite), and are supported ; they are spliced with plain splice-bars weighing 18J pounds per pair ; angle-bars could not be used as the flange would interfere with the rail clamp. The company which is introducing this tie claims that the clamp fastening will obviate the necessity for the use of splice bars and bolts, the clamps holding the rails firmly by the flange. Many railway men, however, consider that it is not sufficient to hold the rail by its base. In view of the fact that rails are not always vertical in the web, and are liable to bend, especi- ally under heavy traffic, it may be found inadvisable to dispense gen- erally with the use of splice-bars, which serve to keep the rail ends in line. Particulars of the " Standard " tie will be found a few pages fur- ther on. The following is a letter written to the Standard Metal Tie and Con- struction Company of New York, in January, 1890, by Mr. J. W. Clarke, roadmaster of theChicago and Western Indiana Eailway Company and the Belt Eailway Company of Chicago : Answering your inquiry as to the condition of the Standard steel ties now in our track on main line, north of Seventy-first street, I beg to say that these ties were laid on the Ist of October, 1889, and, as you are aware, they were put in at the above lo- 280 cation on south-bound track for the reason that at this point the ballast is very light gravel, which wofflM make the test much more severe than if they had been put in at another location of the road. The traffic on this section is eighty regular trains in one diiection every twenty-four hours; the heaviest engine weighs 96,000 pounds, with 15,000 pounds on each pair of drivers. So far the ties have given perfect satisfaction, requiring but slight attention, and that only when first laid. There are no loose bolts, clips, or nuts, and so far there have been none. It would be impossible for me to estimate correctly at the present time the saving in maintenance, as the ties have not been in service long enough. 1 believe, however, that there will be a great saving in maintenance, as the only things to need attention are the bolts and clips, and so far they have shown no indi- cation of weakness in any particular. There has been no upheaval of the ties where the ground is frozen, and from present indications, I hardly believe that such will occur. The ties are in good line and surface, and hold the rails in an upright rigid position, so that the wear on the rail head seems to be more uniform and even than where wooden ties are used. I am free to say that the ties have so far surpassed all my expectations. There seems to be no possibility of spreading of the rails. Should a rail break there would be less liability to accident, for the reason that the fastenings hold the rail absolutely firm and rigid. I believe that the saving in maintenance that will eventually be shown, and the absolutely safe, permanent way which these ties make, to say nothing of their greater life, will show greatly in their favor. Delaware and Hudson Eailway. — Steel ties are to be tried on this road. An order for 1,500 " Standard " ties was given in April, 1890, to the Standard Metal Tie and Construction Company, of 1 5 Oort- laudt street, New York, and they will be laid north of Ballston on what was originally a part of the old Saratoga and Schenectady Eailroad. The ties are to be 7 feet long and 7 inches wide; they will be in gravel ballast and will be spaced 2 feet, 2 feet 6 inches, and perhaps 3 feet apart for experimental purposes. The rails weigh 67 pounds per yard and rest on blocks of compressed wood. The joint is of a new type ; a channel-bar 4 inches deep is placed under the rail ends, and a clamp on . each side takes hold of the rail flange and the bottom of the flange of the channel. Four bolts, with the Harvey grip-thread, pass through the clamps and channel-bar under the rail. No ordinary splice-bars are used, the rails being held by the flanges only. The joint ties are spaced 2 feet apart, and the channel-bar and clamps are as long as the distance between these ties. The order for the ties was given through Mr. H. G-. Young, second vice-president of the road, and Mr. A.. J. Swift, chief engineer. The Standard ties are in experimental use on the Chicago and Western Indiana Railway, and are described further on. Pennsylvania Eailway ( See plate No. 29 ).— Mr. William H. Brown, chief engineer, stated in February, 1889, that the iron ties tried on this line had not been satisfactory. Fouror five different kinds had been tried but there was not one that gave any satisfaction, and they had all been taken out with the exception of the steel ties obtained from the London and Northwestern Eailway, England; and it was sup- posed that these also would be taken out in a year or two. In October, 1889, Mr. Brown stated that a few metal ties had been in service for about nine years, but that they had all been taken out of the main 281 track, with the exception of small lots. They were made of channel iron, from designs prepared by the engineer, and cost $4 each. As will be noticed by the description given further on, the construction of these ties involved considerable shop-work. One bolt on each side of the track might, however, be dispensed with. Some of these ties were laid on the Filbert street extension in 1880, and in 1885 about 400 or 500 were laid on the 4J-degree curve in the West Philadelphia yard, where 134 fast passenger trains passed over them in 24 hours. They had no elasticity and were very hard to keep in line. It was concluded that as long as good oak ties could be procured at a price not exceeding $1 each, it would be cheaper to use wooden than iron ties. The price be- ing paid for oak ties in October, 1889, was 65 cents per tie, delivered on the line of the road. In a letter published in 1886, Mr. Brown stated that the iron ties gave perfect satisfaction and were no more trouble to keep in line and surface than wooden ties, but in October, 1889, he stated as follows : In our experience a metal tie is not worth half as much as a wooden one, and as long as we can get first-class white-oat ties at our price of 65 to 75 cents each, it wonld be very foolish for us to use ruetal ties that cost $3 and $4. This road has two sections of track laid with the standard metal track of the London and Northwestern Eailway (See " England"), con- sisting of steel cross-ties with steel rails of bull headed section, weigh- ing 90 pounds per yard, secured in the chairs by steel keys. This track is said to be more easily kept in line than track on the company's own iron ties, in spite of the English ties having open ends. This is attrib- uted to the greater stiffness of the rails. One of the sections of track is near Bfarrisburg, Pa,, the other is on the New York division, west of the station at Menlo Park, N. J. On the latter location they are laid on the most southerly of the four tracks, which is the track for east-bound freight trains. There are about eight hundred ties in all, spaced 3 feet, center to center, giving ten ties to a rail length of 30 feet. The track is on tangents, one curve and one short bridge ; on the bridge the ties are placed on wooden cross-ties having beveled edges. The rails are laid to break joint, and the joints are spliced by deep bars with four bolts. The ballast is of broken stone; and fine -broken stone is filled in, cov- ering the ties. This covering is not used on the other tracks, which are laid with wooden ties. I examined this section of track in November, 1889. Chicago, Santa FjS and Oalijpornia Eailway (See plate No, 30). — On the Illinois division of this line the Taylor tie (described fur- ther on) has been in use on a few rail lengths for over two and one half years. They are reported to have been laid in poor ballast, and to have carried heavy traffic. Official reports made to me in February, 1890, speak unfavorably of these ties. There are twenty-two of them at Streator, 111., in the yard west of Main street, between the crossings of the Wabash Eailway and 282 the Chicago and Alton Eailway. They were laid in August, 1887, and are on a length of about 40 feet on a level and straight track. Mr. E. R. Coalman was the engineer in charge. There is a train every hour. The locomotives weigh 85,000 pounds. The "bowls of the joint ties are 8 inches by 19 inches; those of the intermediate ties are 8 inches by 14 inches. They are of steel, five-eighths inch thick, and weigh 50 pounds. The joint and second ties are spaced 20 inches, center to center ; the others are spaced 24 inches, center to center. The fastenings consist of lugs on the bowls and on the ends of the tie-bars as described further on. The expense of maintenance is said to be 50 per cent, more than with ordinary ties, and the* durability is " not very good." The rails are of flange section, weighing 70 pounds per yard; the joints are sup- ported, and are spliced by angle-bars. The ballast is of cinders and gravel, and does not behave well under the tie. The general results are not satisfactory. There is trouble with maintenance of track and with the rail attachments, but no trouble from breakages. In January, 1890, when the ties were examined for the purpose of this report, the track was found to be 2 inches lower than the other part of the track; it had been raised 3 inches above the level of the other ties, but would not stay up. The ties were hard to tamp and the gravel worked out from under them. From the experience witli these ties it is thought that they will not last any longer than good wooden ties, while the cost for maintenance is much greatef. LoN& Island Eailway (See plate No. 30).— A few ties of the " Inter- national " type, described further on, were sent by the inventor for trial, and up to the end of 1889 had been in service for about two years. They were laid for a length of about 40 feet, and were spaced 2 feet apart, center to center. The rail joints are suspended. The track is ballasted with cinders, filled in level with the tops of the ties. The track is said to be not more firm than that with wooden ties, and its length is too short to enable its riding qualities to be determined. The ties are 8 feet long. The average amount of trafBc is 100 trains per day. The heaviest locomotives weigh 146,050 pounds with a weight of 59,000 pounds on the driving-wheels. The number of ties is too small and time of trial too short for any definite conclusions to be drawn as to maintenance, but it is thought it would cost as much as, or more than, the track with wooden ties to keep in good line and surface, and for maintenance. The rail fastenings have ^iven no particular trouble. Several ties have cracked under the rails. On the whole, the results are not considered to be very satisfactory, but, as already stated in the "general remarks," a few pages back, the metal tie question is quite in its infancy in this country, and ties which have not thus far met the re- quirements and conditions to be fulfilled may be improved in the light of actual experience so as to be ultimately efficient. These remarks apply also to the ties described in the previous paragraph. Boston and Maine Eailway (See plate No. 30).— A few steel ties of the " International " type have been tried on this line. They 283 were laid at Somerville, Mass., in July, 1885. Different patterns were used, most of them in two pieces, riveted together at the middle rib or web ; others in one piece with riveted angle-pieces to whith the rail clamps were bolted. They all had the top table crowned at the middle. Some had only half the width of each end closed ; others had a part of the side at each end cut away. This was to facilitate tamping. I vis- ited the track in September^ 1889, but the ties had all been taken out (and piled near the line), as the notch in the rib was not wide enough for the flange of the new rails which are being put in. Some were cracked at the rail-seats. The section- master in charge of this section spoke well of the ties ; he considered that there was but little more trouble in tamping, especially with the ties having a part of the sides cut away. The ties gave a bearing of 14 inches for the rail, and were spaced 28 inches, center to center. Maine Central Eailway — (See plate No. 30). — On this line also a few " International " ties have been tried, and have been in service since 1885. I examined them in September, 1889. There are only fifteen ties, or one rail length, and they are laid in the freight-yard at Portland, Me. They were put in at the request of the inventor. The ties liave half of each end open. In a freight track, where a good deal of switching is carried on, the rib would be bad in case of derailment, as it might strip the trucks from a car which otherwise might have been got back on the rails without injury. As the rib would also be danger- oiis to brakemenin coupling cars, etc., being likely to trip them up, the space between the rails is filled in with gravel. The yard-master stated that these ties had not been touched since they were laid, which could not be said of any of the wooden ties during the same time. Denver and Eio Grande Eailwat. — A very limited trial of metal ties has been made on this road. In October, 1889, Mr. E. E. Briggs, chief engineer, stated that there had never been a trial made of a char- acter to afford information of value. A few years ago a few iron ties (probably a dozen) were laid in the track near Denver, but were taken out after a short time, and no record of them has been kept. From an- other source I learn that the ties were probably of trough section with a wooden block under each rail, and that probably a larger number was tried than above noted. Philadelphia and Baltimore Central Eailwat.— On this line, which is now a part of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Eailway, trials of the Travis iron ties were being made in 1879. The following is from the Eailroad Gazette, New York, of March '28, 1879 : At the meeting of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia on March 15, 1879, C. E. Buzby exhibited a model of the Travis iron tie, which was then being tried on the Philadelphia and Baltimore Central Railway, near Lamokln. It dispensed with all spikes, bolts, nuts, or fish-plates, and drilling or punching rails. Each tie was re- cessed under the rails, and along the bottom of the recess wedge-shaped pieces were oast transversely. At the sides of each recess are creosoted blocks, which form a cushion and a fulcrum for two clamps, which grasp the flange and web of the rail above, bearing upon opposite faces of the wedge below. The weight of the train 284 forces the clamps upon the wedge, spreads them out at the bottom, and causes the upper part to grip the rails. The first cost was somewhat greater than that of the wooden ties, but it was said to offset this in durability. In January, 1890, Mr. H. F. Kenney, general superintendent of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railway, wrote me as follows : In 1878 one hundred iron cross-ties of the Travis pattern were placed in the track, on our Maryland division, and were removed after having been in use for a period of four years and seven months. The results obtained were not at all satisfactory, the expense of surfacing and lining amounting to considerably more than with wooden cross-ties. A number of these cross- ties, of a similar pattern, were laid on the Chester Creek branch, on our central division, during 1879. These ties, like those in use on the Maryland division, failed to give satisfactory results and were removed from the track after a period of about four years' service. Delaware, Lacicawanna and Western Eailwat (See plate No. 30). — On this line six ties, of a type designed by Mr. Hicks, of New York, have been in use for some months in the yards at Hoboken, under heavy drilling and switching trafflc. Mr. Keafle, the roadmaster, states that they behaved well; better, in fact, than had been expected. The tie as at present made is not considered suitable for main tracks, as the wooden blocks are liable to split, the grain being parallel with the rail. In dry weather, too, the wood would shrink and might become loose. The ties are in cinder ballast. (See " Hicks' " system.) Mr. Neafle has designed a metal tie especially for use at road crossings. Two pieces of old rail with a chair secured at each end, form the tie. There is no intention of applying this plan to ordinary track, but it is intended especially for the crossings as above mentioned. Southern Pacific Eailwat. — It is reported that trials of metal track are likely to be instituted on the Southern Pacific system. Lookout Mountain Railway.— On this standard-gauge road up Lookout Mountain, near Chattanooga, Tenn., some metal ties are to be tried .in special places. (See " Scofleld " tie.) TIES. The Hartford Tie (See plate No. 27).— This is a rolled Bessemer-steel cross-tie, of in- verted-trough section, with a channel or groove along the middle of the top table for the entire length of the tie. The dimensions are as follows : Length, 7 feet 6 inches to 8 feet 6 inches ; width on top, 8 inches ; width at bottom, lOJ inches ; depth, 2i inches. The metal is three-eighths inch thick at the sides and five-sixteenths inch on top. The channel or groove is 2i inches wide and five-eighths inch deep. The ends are closed by curving the whole tie to a depth of 5^ or 6 inches. The weight is 150 pounds, including the fastenings. The ties are treated with Dr. Angus Smith's asphaltum process, .applied at a temperature of 300° Fah. The fastening for each rail consists of two clamps five-eighths inch thick ; the clamps are wedge-shaped in plan and lie under the rail in the channel of the tie. At the broad end of each clamp is a hooked projection or lug, which hftlds the flange ~of the rail. A bent bolt, seven-eighths inch diameter, with its head at au angle of 53 degrees with the body, is used on each side of the rail ; the head is on the under side of the top table of the tie, and the body passes up through the tie and clamp. The neck is oblong, i by 1-^ ' inches. The nut screws down on the inclined face of the end of the clamp. ' At first the clamp had a hole for the bolt, but as now made it has a slot to receive the holt • 285 by this means the clamps can be shifted, so that the track may be adjusted accurately to gauge, with any variation in the width or thickness of the rail flanges. The gauge can also be thus easily widened at curve or contracted at frogs and switches, and rails with worn heads may be shifted in to maintain, a uniform gauge. The bolt being at an angle, a strong grip is secured. Lock-nuts are not used, bat the bolts have the Harvey grip-thread, which in itself forma a nut-lock. Powerful wrenches must be used, as the security depends upon the upsetting of the threads within the nut. Under exceptionally severe conditions of traffic, however, nut locks may be used as an extra precaution. This is the fastening as improved in accordance with sugges- tions made by Mr. Walter Katt6, chief engineer of the New York Central and Hud-« son River Railway, who is now conducting a careful trial of these ties, as already noted. The ties cost P each, including fastenings. They are manufactured by the Pennsylvania Steel Company, of Steelton, Pa., for the A. J. Hartford Steel Railway Tie Company, of Temple Court, New York city. Their life is estimated at fifty years. Ties of this type, but flat on top, without the groove or channel, have been de- signed. The special object is to permit of shimming up the track, which becomes necessary 'with the disturbance of the ballast by frost in certain sections of the country. The impossibility of shimming has been an objection to metal ties, which has frequently been urged by practical track men. The Standard Tie (See plate No. 38). — This is a steel cross-tie of channel section ({ I), stamped to shape from a plate. The intermediate or ordinary ties are 7 feet long, 7 inches wide over all, and SJ inches deep over all. They weigh 82 pounds each and cost $2.50. The joint ties (for supported rail joints) are 7 feet long, 10 inches wide, and SJ inches deep. They weigh about 105 pounds, and cost |3.50 each. The metal is three-eighths inch thick throughout. The bottom of the channel is cut loose from the sides at the middle portion of the tie, and the parts bent up at an angle, so as to offer resistance to lateral motion, the ends of the tie being open. The tie is intended to be filled with ballast. Each rail rests upon a block of pre- served and compressed wood placed with the grain vertical. It is expected that this block will give a firm support to the rail, will not be cut by the flange, and will be durable. Each block is 4^ inches wide by 6| inches long (or 9^ inches for joint ties) and 2f inches deep. The rail rests only on the block, the sides of the tie being put away to a depth of one-half inch for the width of the rail flange. The fastenings consist of 2-shaped clamps, the upper rib holding the rail flange, while two projec- tions forming the lower rib pass through holes in the bottom of the tie and take a bearing against the under side of the bottom. The upright web is nearly vertical, but curved so as to grip the wooden block. The clamps are as long as the inside width of the tie. At intermediate ties the clamps are screwed up to a bearing on the rail flange by a bolt three-fourths inch diameter, passing horizontally under the rail through both clamps and the wooden blocJi. The center of the bolt is one-half inch below the top of the block. At joint ties two bolts are nsed. It is claimed that this fastening will obviate the necessity for the use of splice-bars and bolts, but as already noted, in view of the fact that rails are not always vertical in the web and would have a tendency to be bent at unsupported ends, it may be that the use of splice- bars will be found desirable, especially for track with heavy traffic. These ties are said to be especially adapted for roads with a narrow width of ballast, as the re- sistance to lateral motion is at the middle instead of at the ends of the tie. They are also claimed to be suitable for bridge floors and elevated railways. In the letter case, the bottom of the channel would be cut away entirely between the v/ooden blocks, so as to offer as little obstruction to light as possible ; they would in them- selves form the cross-bracing of the structure. The ties are manufactured at the Homestead Steel Works of Carnegie, Phipps & Co., at Homestead, Pa. They are stamped from steel plates by a hydraulic press designed by Mr. Aiken, of Pittsburgh, and built by the Scaife Foundry and Machine Company of Pittsburgh. They are being intAduced by the Standard Steel Tie and Construction Company, of 15 Cort- 286 landt street, New York City. They are being given a, trial on the Chicago and Western Indiana and on the Delaware and Hudson Railways. The Pennsylvania Railway Tie (See plate No. 29).— The channel tie designed by the engineer of the Pennsylvania Railway consists of an ordinary channel-iron ( | |), 8 feet 6 inches long, 7 inches wide, 2i inches deep, weighing 13^ pounds per foot. Each end is closed by an angle-iron 3i inches by 5 inches, 7 inches long, weighing 7 pounds per foot. The shorter leg rests on the top table of the tie and is secured by two rivets. A piece of angle-iron 3 inches by 3 inches, 5i inches long, weighing 6 pounds per foot, is also riveted inside of the channel just under the flange of the " rail. The fastenings for each rail consist of a riveted brace on the outer side and a bolted clamp on the inner side. The brace on the outer side is a piece of angle-bar 7 inches long, secured to the tie by the two rivets which hold the angle-iron in the interior of the tie ; this angle-bar or brace bears on the flange and under side of the head of the rail. The clamp on the inner side is a flat piece of iron 7 inches long, secured by two bolts ; one bolt may be dispensed with in some cases. This clamp bears on the tie and flange of the rail. The Toueey Tie (See plate No. 29).— This tie was designed by Mr. John Toucey, general superintendent of the New York Central and Hudson River Railway, ex- pressly for laying in the Grand Central Station, New York City, where it was desired to pave. Each tie consists of a pair of cast-iron "bowls" of H-section, with outward, flaring sidesi. The bowls are connected by a tie-rod five-eighths inch diameter, the ends of which are bent down at right angles to fit into a hold in the middle web, the rod passing through the side of the bowl. The bowls are 18 inches long, 9} inches wide on top, 16J inches wide at the bottom, and 8^ inches deep. The thick- ness is from one-half to 1 inch. The upper part of the bowl is fitted with an oak block, to which the rail is secured by a pair of Bush interlocking bolts. The ties are laid 3 feet apart, center to center of tie-rods, giving 18 inches clear between the bowls. The weight of each bowl is about 100 pounds. The track was laid in 1885, and no breakages have occurred. There is a distance of about 3,000 feet laid with these ties. They are economical in that the track has not to be dug up and disturbed for renewals of ties. The wooden block is not vulcanized, creosoted, or otherwise tre'ated ; but it is considered that Georgia pine would last a long while, as it is away from dampness. The ties were also laid at the same time for several rail lengths at the entrance of the yard. Mr. Touoey"stated in January, 1890, that these also are still in service. There have been no renewals or breakages. The International Tie (See plate No. 30). — This is a rolled-steel tie, the cross section of which resembles a printer's "brace" ('"*-'''-'^). Originally it was made in two pieces riveted together at the upper flanges, but it is now made iu one piece. Some of the earlier ties were in one piece, but had not the upper flauge, a short piece of angle-iron being riveted at each side of each rail seat ; tlie rail clamps were bolted to these angle pieces. To facilitate tamping, half of each end was left open or a piece of the side cut away at each end. As now made, however, the ends are open, and a transverse p'.a,te inside the tie, nearly under the rail seat, is secured by a rivet to each side. The usual dimensions are now as follows : Length, 8 feet ; width, 10 inches ; side flanges, 3 to 3i inches deep ; middle flange, 2 inches high. The thick- ness is from three-sixteenths inch at the bottom of the side flanges to three-eighths inch on top. At first the top table was slightly curved at the middle, but it is now made horizontal for its entire width. The middle flange is cut away in two places to admit the rail flanges. The weight of the tie is about 100 pounds. The price is abont |1.50 to |2.50, according to length, etc. The fastenings consist of flat wrought-iron clamps bolted to the middle flauge of the tie, one on each side of each rail. These clamps have projections which bear upon the flange of the rail, and these projections are so made as to give four different clearance heights between the tie and the clamp; this allows for rails with flanges of different thickness, and also for some amount of shimming. Some of these ties have been tried, as already noted, on the 'Long Island 287 Railway, Boston and Maine Railway, and Maine Central Railway. They are manu- factured by the Cambria Iron Company, of Johnstown, Pa., for the International Railway Tie Company (of which the inventor of the tie, Mr. Higley, is treasurer), 45 Broadway, New York City. The Taylor Tie (See plate No. 30). — This is an iron or steel cross-tie on the " bowl " system, each tie consisting of a separate piece under each rail, connected by a third piece forming a tie-bar. The bowls or rail-bearers are of inverted-trough section, placed lengthwise of the- rail, and having a vertical transverse slot through which the deep flat tie-bar passes. At rail joints (supported joints) the rail-bearers are of extra length and two tie-bars are used, one to each rail end. With this system, as with the Standard system, the use of splice bars and bolts is intended to be avoided. The inner side of the rail flange is held by lugs stamped up from the metal of the top table of the bowl ; the outer side is held by the hooked end of the tie-bar. No bolts or other loose parts are used. The rail-bearers areof sheet steel 14 inches long, 9 inches wide, 7 inches deep, five-sixteenths inch thick. The tie-bar is 6 feet long and one-half inch thick. The weight of the tie complete is about 90 pounds. With ballast that is fine or of poor quality it is proposed to use a tie-bar of J_ section (as shown on plate No. 30 (instead of the flat bar ; the J, bar would be 3 inches by 3 inches, vertical web three-eighths inch thick, horizontal flange five-sixteenths inch thick. The object is to give additional bearing surface. These ties (with flat bars) have been tried on the Chicago, Santa F6 and California Railway, as already noted. The inventor is Mr. E. L. Taylor, of 682 Brooklyn street, Philadelphia, Pa. He stated in January, 1890, that he had received several inquiries from foreign countries, and hoped soon to make arrangements for manufacture. The Hides Tie (See plate No. 30), — The ties already noted as being tried on the Del- aware, Lackawanna and Western Railway are composed each of two angle-irons, so placed as to form an inverted channel. At each end two angle-pieces are riveted across the top of the tie ; between_ these two pieces rests the oak block to which the rail is secured by spikes. The angle-pieces are not as high as the block, and as the latter has the grain parallel with the rail, it is liable to be cut by the rail and to be split by the spike^. The block is also liable to become loose in dry weather. The tie weighs about 100 pounds. Mr. Neafie, the road-master, suggests that it wonld be an improvement to make the angle-pieces as high as the wooden block, with the upper edges bent over. The block would be driven to a tight fit and would not be liable to be split. The ties are spaced 15 inches apart in the clear, or 27 inches cen- ter to center. Mr. Hicks proposes several modifications of the tie as now in use. One plan is to have the wooden blocks only 4 inches thick and long enough to reach from tie to tie, forming a continuous support for the rail, and the ends of the adja- cent wooden blocks being on the ties. With this form .of track an improved clamp fastening of simple form would be used instead of a spike. Another system designed by the same inventor consists of longitudinals carrying cross- ties, which are placed di- agonally instead of at right angles to the rails. The ties are of channel section, with a wooden block under each rail. The object of placing the tie diagonally is to in- crease the length of bearing of the rails on the blocks. ThQ cross-tie was invented by the late Capt. H. O. Cook, and has been modified and improved by the present owner, Mr. James M. Hicks, 19 Park Place, New York City. ♦ The Durand Tie. — This tie is of inverted-trough section, somewhat resembling the " Post " tie (See " Holland "). It is narrow and deep at the middle. Lengthwise corrugations ou the top table of the tie at the railseat are intended to give addi- tional strength ; vertical corrugations may also be made in the sides. The width of the railseat is 10 inches on top and 12 inches at the bottom. The thickness may be either three-sixteenths inch, giving a weight of 65 pounds per tie, or five-sixteenths inch, giving a weight of 100 pounds per tie. The cost is claimed to be $1 or f 1.35, respectively. The ends are open, but can be closed by a special cap, which is to be put on after the tie is laid, and which can be removed to permit access to the bolts. 288 etc. Experience has shown the advantages of closed ends for ties, and the proposed movable ends are not likely to be introduced. The fastenings consist of four bolts, ■with the heads welded to the under side of the top table of the tie. The nut-lock consists of a washer of soft metal ; au indentation fits into a recess in the tie, pre- venting the washer from turning, and when the nut is screwed down one side of the washer is turned up against it. Various other fastenings are also proposed by the inventor in connection with his ties. It is proposed to roll old rails into sheets, from which the tie would be stamped by special machinery ; any special arrangement of tie for curves, switches, etc., would be effected by interchangeable pieces in the ma- chinery. The plant for rolling and stamping is estimated to cost $5,000, and the cost of manufacture is estimated at 30 cents per tie. The ties have been tried on a pri- vate trial line in the French Alps. The inventor is A. Durand, of Alexandria, Va., and Atlantic Building, Washington, D. C. (Patent No. 386,389; July 17, 1888.) The Moloney Tie. — This is a cross-tie of cruciform section, the upper vertical flange being cut away in two places to allow the rail to rest on the horizontal web. The dimensions are as follows : Length, 6 feet 6 inches ; width, 9 inches ; top and bottom flanges each IJ inches high. The thickness is one-fourth inch, increased to one-half inch at the rail seats. The rails are fastened by flat clamps, which are bolted to the top flange of the tie. The ties are to be rolled, the cutting for the rails and holes for bolts being made during the operation, so as to turn oat a finished tie from the rolls. The four clamps for each tie weigh about 3 pounds, and the fastening of the rail is claimed to be very efficient. This tie was invented by Mr. M. Malouey, of Ironton, Ohio. He reported in January, 1890, that he was -negotiating for its manu- facture, and hoped to have it in service during the present year. (Patent No. 395,447 ; January 1, 1889.) The Flower-Heller Tie.— This is a cross-tie in the form of a hollow box of rectangular section, with a wooden block inside under each rail. The top of the box is cut away to allow the rail flange to rest on the wooden block, and the rail is spiked to this block as to a wooden tie. For curves the tie is made shallower at the middle than at the ends, so as to form shoulders to resist lateral shifting in the ballast. The pat- ents for these ties are owned by the American Metallic Railway Tie Company, 230 South Fourth street, Philadelphia, Pa. (Patents Nos. 386,119, July 17, 1888, and 370192, September 20, 1887.) Phomix Iron Works. — In June, 1889, Mr. Amory Coffin stated that metal ties were being used on all the new track being built around the works. There are several miles of narrow-gauge track, and as fast, as the wooden ties give out they are re- newed with metal. Chanuel-bars are used 6, 8, or 9 inches wide ; of ordinary weight per yard, say 40 to 60 jjounds. The Price system. — This system consists of a longitudinal under each rail, made of a strip of steel bent or corrugated to form a series of troughs, open alternately at top and bottom. The sides of the troughs are flaring, the open parts being widest. The strip has a rib on each- edge. The rails are secured by bolted clamps. The length of each stringer or longitudinal is about 30 feet. Light steel cross-ties are placed at intervals. .The ballast is intended to be filled in to the top of the longi- tudinal. This system is owned by Mr. James M. Price, 1719 North Eighteenth street, Philadelphia,*Pa. The Moffmeier system. — This system consists of cross-ties with' arms at each end. The arms of adjacent ties dovetail together, forming a continuous stringer or longi- tudinal under each rail. The ties and longitudinals may be of various sections, and various forms of fastenings may be used. The inventor is Mr. A. K. Hoffmeier, of Lancaster, Pa. The Holland system. — This consists of rouijd or elliptical castings, with a dome- shaped diaphragm in each. The space above the diaphragm is filled with concrete or asphalt. The castings are not placed opposite one another in the track, but are staggered. They are connected by tie-bars. The system is the invention of Mr. 289 Robert M. Holland, of Philadelphia, who also has a patent on a cross-tie. (Patent No. 66711; July 16, 1867.) The Schofield Tie (See plate No. 30). — This cross-tie is of iron or steel, of deep in- verted-trough section, with horizontal flanges on the bottom edges. Each rail is fastened by two clamps three-eighths inch by 3J inches, fastened by two five-eighth- iqch bolts each. The tie is 5 feet 6 inches long, one-fourth inch thick, and weighs 50 pounds. It is estimated to have a life of fifty years and to be worth 50 cents when worn out. It is proposed to tise three iron ties to a rail length of 30 feet, replacing three wooden ties, in order to increase the safety of ordinary track at small expense. It is reported that they are to be used in some special places on the Lookout Mount- ain Railway, near Chattanooga, Tenn. These ties are being manufactured by the Schofield Metal Cross-Tie Company, of Chattanooga, Tenn. (Patent No. 230,826 ; August 3, 1880.) CANADA. Metal track has not been introduced, and, in fact, has probably never been considered with a view to its introduction or a practical trial. A prominent engineer, Mr. Thomas 0. Keefer, writes as follows: I do not believe metal ties have been used in Canada. We have not even creosoted ties yet. With white oak ties at 50 cents, and tamarack and cedar at 20 cents, our railways, always living from hand to mouth, have never thought of anything else. 22893— Bull. 4 19 N, Y, State College ot Agricultura, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. Department of Forestry. TABULAR SUMMARY OF METAL TRACK. The following is a table giving a summary of the figures presented in the first parts of the report, showing that of the total length of rail- ways in the world (exclusive of the United States and Canada) about 13.21 per cent, of the mileage is laid with metal track. The figures of the totals given can only be approximate, in consequence of omissions, incomplete data, and lack of figures brought up to the same recent date. The totals are, in all probability, considerably below the actual mileage, as shown by the figures for Germany and Switzerland. In the jatter case the total compiled from data relating to the several railways, as given in my report, is nearly 100 miles below the actual total of&cially reported. It must also be borne in mind that the use of metal track is being continually extended. Section 1 . — Europe. Countries. Great Britain " Franco ■ Holland Belgium Germany* Austria and JTnng.ary . Switzerland Spain Portugal Italy Sweden and Norway .. Denmark Kusaia Turkey Houmania SeiTJa Greece Totals of Europe 3,037.39 Longitudi- Uowls and i ^t j: „ nals. plates. | C-rossties. MiZex. 1.06 , 562. 52 66.56 .25 Mites. 251. 68 Miles. 70.00 52.12 321. 36 lis. 50 5, 21i. 12 56.37 303. 98 7. 10 .02 .50 18.10 Total raotal track. Miles. 70.00 52.12 329. 42 115. 50 8, 786. 64 122. 93 *397. 40 258. 78 .02 .50 18.10 70.68 *0f&cial statement of totals. Section 2. — Africa. Total track. Miles. 20, 000 21, 700 3,216 3,544 25, 144 14, 942 1,810 5,772 1,120 7,292 5,544 1,248 17, 682 865 1,491 321 380 231.68 j- 6,239.85] 10,222.09 j 132,071 Countries. Es.ypt-' Algeria Tnuis. Abyssinia rortiiguese Territory (South Africa) . Niital (.'apn Colony Soutb African Kepiiblic (Transvaal).. Keunion Senegal Mauritius Totals for Africa . 290 Bowla and plates. Miles 851.73 80.00 62. 65' 993. To Croas-ties. Miles. . 35.25 120. 00 14.25 47.75 36.50 40.50 2.50 206. 75 Totalmetal track. Miles. 887. 00 120. 00 '"14.25 47.75 116.50 40.50 62.00 2.50 1, 290. 50 Total track. Miles. 1,228 [ 1, 538 14 56 217 1,736 45 78 [ 290 5,202 291 Section 3. — Australasia. Countries. Cross-ties. Total metal track. South Australia — Queensland .... — New South Wales. , Victoria. "West Australia . . . !New Zealand Tasmania Miles. 146 40' 146 40 Totals for Australasia.. 186 Section 4. — Asia. Countries. Bowls and , plates. Cross-ties. Total metal track. Total track. Miles. 5, 312, 25 Miles. 3,912.25 MUes. 9, 224. 50 MUes. 15,245 182 90.00 90.66 90 720 Malay States 31 85 896 372 Asiatic Russia - 960 525 Totals for Asia 5, 312. 25 4, 002. 25 9, 314, 50 19, 106 Section 5. — /South America, Central America, and Mexico. Countries. Bowls and plates, Cross-ties. Total metal track. Total track. Miles. 3, 350. 15 Miles. 193. 41 MUes. 3,643.56 Miles. 4,650 90 c^ .\v.v.:"/^:v:.":::::"'.'.[:["v.:::\::v.::::: 1.00 1.00 1 650 837 V43 Brazil 82.46 3.72 86.18 6,070 22 23.00 57.25 80.25 162 United States of Colombia 164 25 115 32 105 37 77.00 77.00 5,000 Totals 3,455.61 332. 38 3,787.99 Section 6. — North America. Countries. Cross-ties. Total metal track. Total track. United States Miles. 2.00 MUes. 2.00 Miles. Canada - _ 13, 165 Totals of M"orth America 2.00 2.00 174,165 292 Summarii of totals. Section. Longitudi- nals. Bowls and plates. Cross-ties. Total metal track. So 1 Miles. 3, 637. 39 Miles. 251.68 993. 75 MiUs. 6,239.85 296. 75 186. 00 4, 002. 25 332.38 2.00 Miles. 10,222.09 1,290.50 186. 00 Ifo. 2 No. 3 No. 4 5, 312. 25 3,455.61 9,314.50 3 787.99 No. 5 No. 6 2.00 Total 3,637.39 10,013.29 11, 059. 23 24,803.08 Note.— The use of longitadinaU is being abandoned. The bowls and plates are mainly in service in hof countries, Tpitb s^iecial conditions of traffic, as in India and South America. The cross-ties are used under conditions oi climate, traffic, etc., most nearly according to the conditions obtaining in this country. Percentage of metal track mileage. Total metal track. Total track. Percent- age of metal track. Section : No 1 MiUs. 10, 222. 09 1, 290. 50 186. 00 9, 314. 50 3, 787. 99 2.00 Miles. 132, 071 5,202 10, 640 19, 106 19,461 174,165 1,241 7.74 No 2 . 24 80 No. 3 1.75 No. 4 48.75 No 5 -. 19.46 No 6 "West Indies . . Total 24,803.08 361, 886 6.85 Total mileage of railway with metal track miles.. 24,800 Total mileage of railways of the world (excluaive of United States and Canada). — miles.. 187.721 Percentage of railway with metal track (excluaive of "United Statesand Canada) .per cent.. 13. 21 I'^RT II. GENERAL REVIEW OF THE METAL TRACK QUESTION. General Eemarks. — In view of the information and statistics pre- sented in this report, there can be no doubt that the use of metal track for railways has reached a stage beyond that of mere experiment, and that satisfactory results may be obtained with such track under certain conditions. Experience (under various conditions) has conclusively demonstrated the fact of the practicability of employing metal as a sub- stitute for wood, for supporting the rails of railways. JS'ot only has the practicability of using such track been shown, but also its advan- tages in economy, efficiency, aqd safety. That the experimental stage has been passed is shown by the extent to which this kind of track is in use, and its steadily increasing introduction. It remains now for us to profit by the experience already on record, making use of the im- provements, modifications, and warnings suggested thereby in our act- ual practice. The main advantages presented by a good system of metal track are as follows : (1) Eeduced expenses for maintenance and renewals, owing to the solid construction and the greater durability of the parts ; (2) a better class of track, owing to improved fastenings, etc., and the fact that the road-bed is not torn up. (as with wooden ties) forfrequent renewals, so that it gives the bestroad with the least amount of work for maintenance ; (3) increased safety for trafflc, owing to the superiority of the fastenings over those used with wooden ties. Metal tie-plates and improved fastenings are being introduced in this country and abroad, to increase the efficiency of track on wooden ties, but the standard track of the future, for main lines with heavy traffic at least, will probably be laid with metal ties. It has been pointed out that the use of metal ties would have a beneficial effect on the iron trade, as the ties (except, perhaps, some lots imported for experiment) would be manufactured in this country. In nearly all the principal countries of the world, and in many of the smaller countries, experiments have been made on a sufficiently large scale to enable reliable conclusions to be drawn as to the merits and demerits of the numerous systems of track which have been experi- 293 294 mented with. It may be noted as of special significance that in Hol- land, a country without home manufacture of metal ties, but possess- ing ample resources of native and foreign timber at cheap rates, all the railway companies have used metal ties for a number of years, and that without pressure from the Government; the companies having consid- ered this step to be in their own interest. Mr. Bricka, in his report to the minister of public works, France, in 1885, stated that the progress in this direction had been such that already some railways in Germany.. Holland, and Switzerland had decided to abandon the use of wooden ties. In connection with the favorable opinions expressed by engineers in these countries, it is to be considered that in Switzerland and some parts of Germany where metal ties are used there are no iron or steel works, and, therefore, the fostering of a local industry had no influence on the opinions expressed, while Switzerland especially has plenty of timber. Mr. Post, in a paper written in 1885, stated that if, in compar- ing the costs of different systems of track, account was taken in each case of the different details (first cost, transportation, laying, mainte- nance, renewals, interest, selling price of old material, etc.) it would be seen that there are few countries where the exclusive use of wood for ties is really economical in the broad meaning of the word. This is specially evident as to hot countries where insects and atmospheric in- fluences effect a rapid destruction of wooden ties. In this country, railway men are very generally indifferent to this matter, or are waiting for a perfect tie to be brought to them. Among the reasons for this indifference has been the apparent abundance of our timber resources. But attention has now been drawn, especially by the Department of Agriculture, to the great destruction of these re- sources and the serious results of the denudation of large tracts of forest land. Other reasons have been the greater first cost of metal ties and the need of cheapness in railway construction. These considerations have some weight still, but on main lines, with heavy traffic, ecojiomical construction has become the main consideration rather than cheap con- struction. A few practical experiments with different forms of cross-ties have been made and are now in progress. Other trials have also been made from time to time with a small number of ties, but these experiments are on too limited a scale to allow any definite conclusions and are gen- erally conducted without much regard to practical results. If a metal tie could be designed and codstructod that would meet at once all the requirement^and answer all the objections, it would have a fair chance of being adopted. But it must be remembered that engineering is to a great extent the science of development. As the metal rail has been developed from the wooden rail, so has the metal tie been developed from the wooden tie. These developments have been by " trial and error," and it is practically an impossibility for a metal tie to be devised at ouce that will be successful in every way. 295 The ties that are now used with success in other countries are modi- ficationvS and improvements of those first tried, and thus by degrees a really efficient tie has been obtained. In this country there have been discussed in the technical press various claims made by inventors for forms of ties existing only on paper or in miniature. It is probable that few of the ties designed and patented here have much real merit, as so many are invented by persons unacquainted with the requirements to be met or the conditions to be considered. Of the few that possess merit it may be said with reasonable certainty that actual trial will result in considerable modifications being made of the original design. Such trial may show that an apparently poor type of tie may be made valuable by some modifications, or that a tie of apparently good type is a failure in practice. Among the requirements for a successful tie may be enumerated the following: (1) Heavy enough to hold the rails down well and make a firm track ; (2) light enough to be of reasonable cost ; (3) metal enough to stand wear and tear and give ample strength; (4) easy of manu- facture, and requiring a minimum of shop-work ; (5) not liable to lateral motion in the ballast ; (G) easy to be laid, removed, or ballasted ; (7) fast- enings simple and efficient, with as few parts as possible, capable of adjustment for widening the gauge at curves etc. ; (8) price such as to enable an actual ultimate economy to be shown to the engineers and financial officers ; (9) proper quality of metal to sustain shocks with- out injury; (10) elasticity enough to give an easy-riding track. The following is a partial summary of the conclusions of the report made by Mr. Bricka in 1885 : (1) The ties should he of mild steel, to the exclusion of wrought iron. (2) Ties of the original Vautherin type may he employed for sand and fine gravel hallast, but for coarse gravel or broken stone they should be without the bottom flanges. ■ The Post and Berg-and-Mark ties are the best modifications of this type. (3) They should be at least fi,2 feet long and 8.8 or 9.2 inches, wide. The ends should be closed, but the use of extra cross-pieces inside is not necessary. . (4) The thickness should not be less than .28 or .32-inch, and should he at least .40 inch under the rail ; it may be reenforced by alongitudal rib under the top liable, or,hetter, by the Post system of rolling the rail-seat of extra thickness. The extra thickness must not involve unreasonable expense. The ties are rolled and punched. (5) For flange rails the inward inclination is best given by an extra thickness of metal at the rail-seats ; the use of tie-plates is considered preferable to bending the tie at the rail-seats. (6) The weight should not be less than 110 pounds, but it has been proposed to reduce it below this reasonable minimum. A weight of about 121 or 132 pounds, or even more, is preferable for main lines. (7) The best systems of fastenings for flange rails are the Kuppel system, used on the Prussian State Railways, and the Heindl system, of the Austrian State Railways; nearly all the bolt systems have given good results. (8) The use of metal ties does away with use of the chairs for double-headed rails, and the combination of flange rails on these ties is simpler and less expensive. (9) The price of the ties should n ot exceed $32 to |34 per ton, aud that of the small material |50 to $70 per ton. (These prices are for France, 1885.) 296 (10) The life of metal ties is at least thirty years, or double that of oak ties. It caa be shown that the use of steel ties weighing 121 to 132 pounds is not more expensive than oak ties when the latter cost fl.lO each and the former $32 per ton. (11) The track on metal ties is as stable as but no harder than that on wooden ties, and it behaves better in case of derailment. When the track is established in good condition the labor of maintenance does not cost rcore than with track on wooden ties ; it is probably more economical. (12) The ties may be laid in ballast of any permeable material. A good splicing of the rail-joints is necessary with this form of track. Mr. Bricka considered that engineers should make themselves thor- oughly acquainted with results already obtained before introducing metal track for themselves. For careful comparisons of maintenance expenses he suggested trial sections of 6 or 9 miles, with varying condi- tions of alignment, profile, ballast, etc.; the expense of such trials would be small in comparison with the end to be attained. Elasticity is necessary to make an easy-riding track and prevent any additional wear of the rolling-stock. Ties of polygonal or trough sec- tion, such as those of the Post and Vautherin types, are said to be especially elastic. The track on metal ties on the Central Eailway of Switzerland is said to be even more elastic than that on wooden ties. It has been stated that a metal track would be too severe on the rolling- stock and too rigid for rapid traffic, but experience does not support this statement. ' In England trains run at a speed of nearly 60 miles an hour on metal track ; on the European continent the speed varies from 37 to 45 miles per hour. Eust is only experienced to a comparatively limited extent with wrought-iron ties and hardly at all with mild steel. It is mainly pro- duced, as with rails, in damp tunnels or in cinder ballast, owing to the sulphuric acid and carbonic acid in the smoke and ashes. Wearing at the rail-seats, and longitudinal cracks -at the same place, are no.t expe- rienced with mild steel as with iron. The greatest probable trouble is from the wear of the holes for the fastenings, but this may be reduced to a minimum by proper construction. Simplicity in design, manufacture, fastenings, and the arrangement of parts is especially to be aimed at, with due regard to practical re- quirements for strength, etc.; and the simplest system designed with such regard will probably give the best results in economy and efQ- ciency. In some systems, however, this principle of simplicity has been carried too far, allowing no loose parts at all ; the rails are either held by tie-bars with hooked ends or are sprung into place between fixed lugs or the ties are laid diagonally to let the rail fit onto its seat and are then shifted to their proper position, bringing the lugs to over- lap the rail flange. Such methods may do for very light rails, but are hardly adapted for heavy traffic. With some forms of track special ties are required at curves ; this is a very serious objection, as it not only increases the shop-work and expenses, but also makes more work and is likely to cause continual trouble In track-laying. All the ties, 297 except those at frogs and switches, should be of precisely the same size and form, and adjustment of the gauge should be effected by means of the fastenings of the rails. In same European countries this question of simplicity appears to be a very secondary consideration, and there is a growing tendency towards the greater complication of the track by various forms of tie-plates, clamps, etc. The steel cross-ties of the Indian State Eailway and the local railways of Belgium, however, make a track which is very simple in construction and which has shown its efficiency in actual service. Metal ties will have a much longer life than wooden ties, and the old material will have a considerable market value. The actual life of metal ties has not been determined, as the older forms were not adapted to the conditions of modern traffic and rolling stock, and the newer forms have, as a rule, only been in service from five to ten years. Some of the older ties have been in service for fifteen to twenty-five years, as in Holland and Algeria. In Germany their life is estimated at between thirty and forty years, although on the Elberfeld division of the Prus- sian state railways it is not considered that they will last more than fifteen years, or the saime time as the best oak ties. A life of fifty years is sometimes estimated, and it is possible that ties of good design and material and under favorable conditions may come up to this estimate. The steel ties now being tried on the New York Central Eailway are estimated to have such alife. The life of rails, however, is said tobeless when laid on metal ties than on wooden ties, owing to more rapid wear. Mr. Couard, of the Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Eailway, Prance, has compiled statistics showing this result, and similar results, but to a less extent, have been noted on the Northern Eailway of Austria. The quality and character of the material of the rails, however, is a point of very great importance in consideration of this question. The question of metal track was among the subjects considered at the International Eailway Congress, in 1885 and 1887. The conclusions of the congress held at Brussels, Belgium, in 1885, were as follows: (A) The congress is of opinion that tracks oa metal cross-ties, considered from a technical point of view, can compare favorably with traclss on wooden ties, both for lines with heavy traffic and for lines with light traffic. The congress is also of opin- ion that the tracks on metal ties can also compare favorably with those on wooden ties from a financial point of view; but it is well in each particular case to make a comparison between the two types of tracks, taking into account the cost of mate- rials, the cost of labor for maintenance, and the probable durability of the materials ; the result of the comparison will show which type of track should be adopted. (B) The congress is of opinion : (1) That for main lines with continuous and heavy traffic, and for strategic lines, it will be well to adopt a stronger tie than that for secondary lines, or lines with lighter traffic, at least for such of the latter tracks as are not likely to become main lines within a short time. For lines which are only secondary provisionally, the resistance of the track may be diminished until the line becomes a main line, by increasing to a certain extent the spacing of the ties. (2) That for secondary or light lines, it is well to employ ties lighter and less expensive than those adopted for main lines, lines with heavy traffic, or strategic lines. 298 (C) As to the most favorable form and dimensions to be adopted for a metal cross tie, the congress is of opinion that the results of experience, so far, are not suffi- ciently conclusive to allow of the recommendation of one type to the exclusion of others.. The opinions of the congress held at 'Milan, Italy, in 1887, were as follows : (A) The opinion expressed by the congress of 1883, as to the relative merits of metal and -wooden ties from a technical point of view, is not weakened by the expe- rience of the last two years; and the use of metal ties is increasing. (B) As to the relative cost of the two systems, taking into account the net cost and the durability, the result is a question of the type of tie, and depends entirely upon local circumstances and the state of the metal market. (C) As to the maintenance expenses, for lining and surfacing, the question does not appear to be sufficiently demonstrated for lines with heavy traffic and fast trains. For lines with moderate traffic and slow trains the opinion of the majority is that the metal ties present advantages, especially after sufficient time has elapsed for the earthwork and road-bed to have settled to a good bearing and for the fastenings to have become well consolidated. (D) For ties of the Vautheriuor inverted trough type, it appears well to state that the use of a homogeneous metal is desirable. The congress held at Paris, France, in 1889, arrived at the following conclusions : While metal ties present many favorable and advantageous points, the experience with them has not been sufficient to justify any final decision in their favor against wooden ties. Eecommendations were made that each management should select two trial sections, 1,640 to 3,280 feet in length, and lay one with metal ties and the other with wooden ties ; both sections to have as nearly as possible the same condi- tions of grade, alignaaent, road-bed, ballast, and traffic. The trials should last long enough to enable definite conclusions to be arrived at. The special points to be con- sidered and reported upon would be as follows: First cost ; cost of maintenance ; cost of renewals; approximate life of ties ; effect on the rails; best types or forms of ties; general cost, taking renewals into account. Mr. Bricta, chief engineer of the French state railways, estimated that at the end of 1884 there were 12,400 miles of metal track through- out the world, of which 6,200 miles were in Europe. The tables which I have compiled for this report show a total of 24,800 miles of metal track. While the general adoption of any one form of tie can not be pre- dicted with any certainty, yet the combination of heavy steel flange rails and steel cross- ties may be considered as the standard type of track of the future for main lines at least. At a.meeting of the Cleve- land Institution of Engineers (England), in June, 1889, Mr. Jeremiah Note. — In a paper on "The Improvement of Eailway Track," presented at a meet- ing of the American Society of Eailway Superintendents iu April, 1889, I called at- tention to the importance of the metal track question, and also suggested that the committee on roadway should consider, among other matters, the question of the advantages of steel ties for main lines with heavy traffic and for prairie lines, with the desirability of making any recommendations on this point as also on the question of metal tie plates on wooden ties. I have also discussed this question in a paper on "The Improvement of Eailway and Street Eailway Track," read at the annual con- vention of the American Society of Civil Engineers at Seabright, N. J., in June, 1889. 299 Head, M. Inst. 0. B., the eminent engineer, prophesied that the stand- ard track of the future would consist of 100-pound rails, laid on steel cross-ties. Apart from its use for ordinary railway purposes, however, metal track is very extensively used for military railways ; for light railways for general purposes, sach as feeders to main lines, etc. ; for street railways ; for portable railways on plantations, etc. ; and for con- tractors' temporary lines. Metal ties are also used in mines and col- lieries. Types of Track. — In considering the results obtained by past ex- perience with metal track, the various forms already tried may be divided into three classes, as follows : 1. Cross-ties. 2. Longitudinals. 3. Bowls or plates, arranged in pairs and connected by tie-roda transverse to the tracli:. (1) Gross-ties. — This is by far the most extensively used of any of these types, and it has been more rapidly and more widely introduced and extended than either of the others.. From this and from the re- sults attending the trials under varying conditions, it may be consid- ered that this is the most advantageous type, and will be the standard type for metal track. In saying this, it must be clearly understood that it is the type only which is referred to, as there are innumerable forms and patterns of cross- ties, with which various results have been ob- tained, as will be seen from this report. Track of this type has been tried in many countries and has proved satisfactory under conditions of the most widely varying character, from European railways with good road-beds and heavy rails, carrying heavy traffic, to prairie and hill country lines. It is especially signiiieant that it has given excel- lent results and has been widely introduced under conditions of track, traffic, etc., which are practically similar to the conditions which would obtain in service in this country. This type of track has been so widely used that the various forms of ties can not well be summarized here, but some notes are given further on, and full particulars are given in the descriptions of the experiments made on different railways, as shown in Part I. (2) Longitudinals. — This type of track is only used to a limited ex- tent, and, as shown by special reports and other information, their use is not increasing. The construction of the track is more difficult and requires more labor than that with cross-ties. Maintenance, renewals, and repairs are less easily managed, and greater care must be paid to the ballasting and drainage. On the other hand, it has the advantage of giving the rails a continuous support, and, consequently, with a well-" packed road-bed, would make a very smooth-riding track, but probably at a higher cost than an equally good track of another type. The con- struction of the road-bed and arrangement of the ballast involves con- 300 siderable care and cost, as, owing to the difficulty of drainage, special means have to be taken, by the use of courses of large rough stone or drain-pipes, to carry water away quickly. Longitudinals have been adopted for the city railway of Berlin, Germany, having been proved the best for reducing the noise of passing trains on this viaduct line connecting main lines of railway. It was originally thought that longi- tudinals would make a better and cheaper track, avoid shocks at the rail-joints, and, by their long bearing in the ballast, require less work of maintenance. Also, that lighter rails could be used with the con- tinuous bearing. It is, however, difficult to maintain the ballast so as to keep a continuous and even bearing inside the longitudinal. The economy in material by the use of longitudinals is reduced or neg- atived by the necessity of using transverse connections of ties or tie- rods to hold the track together and maintain the gauge. This system is awkward on curves, and renewals are difficult. Each piece must be bent hot at the works, or have the holes for the rail fastenings made to lit a certain radius of curve. In a rex)ort on a derailment accident, in May, 1889, on the East Somerset Divisiou of the Great Western Eail- way (England), the track of which was laid with bridge rails on longi- tudinal timbers connected by transoms, Colonel Eich, the government inspector, stated that it is difficult to know if longitudinals are thor- oughly packed until the trackmen watcli an engine passing over the places which have been under repair, as the stiffness of the rail and longitudinal keeps the latter level when it may not be properly packed with ballast underneath. (3) Bowls and plates have been extensively used and have given good results, but only under certain conditions. They have been used In India, South America, South Africa, and Egypt. The bowls were originally designed for sand ballast, which answered very well ; in India trouble was experienced from the sand flying up through the tamp- ing holes and causing injury to the running gear and journals of the rolling stock, but a few inches of broken stone or brick reduced this trouble. With broken-stone ballast, however, this track did not answer well. In the Argentine Eepublic, where the surface soil or black loam is the only material available for ballast, the bowls have been used with' great success; but even there steel cross-ties are now being intro- duced. The objections to the bowls in India led to the designing of a form of plates (Denham-Olpherts system) with which good results have been obtained. It is not likely that this type of track will be adopted to any extent. The type, however, is said to be the most economical in material, giving ample bearing to each rail and eliminating unneces- sary metal between the rails. This may be correct under certain con- ditions, as with very light traffic, but under even moderately heavy traffic such track can not be as firm or stable as track in which both rails are securely attached to the same piece of metal. The transverse connection is necessarily imperfect, and does not insure the correct re- 301 lation of level of the two lines of rails. The track is relatively cheap, easily laid and maintained ; the latter are important features in coun- tries where skilled labor is not plentiful. Bowls were first designed by Mr. Greaves, and early experience showed that care was necessary to have the holes and attachments cast accurately as to size and position, and the holes in the tie-bars also accurately placed ; carelessness in this respect has caused serious troubl*^ on some roads in India. Material. — The question of the material to be used for metal track is one of very great importance. Cross ties were at first made of wrought iron, but with the introduction of processes for making mild steel at a low cost this material began to be used, and has now practi- cally superseded iron. The engineer of the Great Central Eailway of Belgium, however, considers iron preferable. The steel used is made by the Bessemer, Thomas, or Siemens-Martin processes, and must be of a mild grade. This material possesses the qualities of homogeneity, malleability, and ductility. (As several translators have erred on this important point, I may mention here that " flusseisen" is the German technical term for " mild steel.") Mr. Post, of the Netherlands state railways, considers that the metal should be capable of resisting a ten- sile strain of 25.4 to 28.6 tons per square inch, with a minimum contrac- tion of 30 to 40 per cent. The steel for ties of the Indian State Eail- way pattern, for India, for the Mexican Eailway, and for the Santa Fe and Cordoba Great Southern Eailway in the Argentine Eei^ublic, is specified to be equal to a tensional strain of between 26 and 31 tons per square inch, with a contraction of 40 per cent, of the tested area at the point of fracture. Mr. P. L. Delano, of the bureau of rail tests, Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Eailway, states that he considers that the kind of metal which it would be safe to use depends considerably upon the shape of the tie ; whether from its shape it sustains much flexure in use or is pretty stiff and rigid ; for the shapes which appear likely to come into general use he thinks that a .25 per cent, carbon Bessemer steel would answer the purpose well, but that for ties which are liable to considerable flexure a milder steel would probably have to be used. Mr, Bricka, in his report to the minister of public works (Prance) in 1885, stated that the tendency to fracture, which was for a long time considered as one of the fundamental objections to metal ties, had dis- appeared since the employment of mild steel; the ties do not break even in cases of derailment. In some such cases the damaged steel ties were straightened out to proper shape and put back in the track where they continued to give good service. As showing the malleability and ductility of the steel, he quotes a clause generally inserted in German specifications for mild steel ties, which explains the facility with which certain forms of ties requiring bending of the metals are made in Ger- many. Some engineers consider that the operations mentioned do not 302 affect the strength of the tie, but Mr. Bricka thinks it doubtful if the metal does not suffer. The clause referred to is as follows : A tie is to be flattened out cold under a steel hammer, and then bent double at the middle, so that the diameter of the circle at the part bent shall not exceed three inches. During the operation the metal must not show any break, crack, or lami- nation, but muslrremain intact. In a note appended to his report and dated October, 1886, Mr. Bricka gives some interesting particulars of tests made on ties manufactured from hard steel, suitable for rails, -showing that mild or soft steel is not so necessary as is generally believed. The tests were made at the St. Isazaire Works, with ties of the latest type for the Northeastern Eail- way of Switzerland, but with the top table .4 inch thick throughout. The drop tests were made with a tie resting on supports 3.508 feet apart, which sustained without breaking or cracking, successive blows of a ram of 660 pounds with heights of drop of 10 inches to 6 feet 6f inches ; the final bends were only 6.08 inches. The pressure tests were as follows : (1) Tie resting flat on an iron surface, the load applied through the flange of a rail. The tie sustained no sensible permanent deformation up to a load of 33,000 pounds; then the deformation began and con- tinued steadily up to a load of 63,800 pounds ; when the load reached 77,000 pounds the tie was flattened, but the metal showed no signs of failure. (2) The tie rested on supports 19^^ inches apart and was loaded at the middle as before, but with the head of the rail ; the load was raised to 35,000 pounds without permanent set; then the bending began, and ■with 44,000 pounds was .20 inch; under a load of 45,100 pounds, de- formation began and continued until the tie was flat at the middle, the arrangement of the apparatus not permitting a bend of more than 6 inches. The upper table was then put into shape in a press and the sides bent till the tie assumed somewhat its original shape; the metal showed no cracks or other signs of injury. These tests show that ties of hard steel will support, like those of mild steel, the shocks of engine and car wheels in a derailment without breaking and without being made unfit to be continued in use, except temporarily. Hard steel would have the advantage of increased rigidity and would give, if proper care were taken in piercing the holes for the fastenings, almost a complete guarantee against distortion of the holes by wear. In regard to the injury to mild steel ties in case of derailment, at least one railway in India has put up an hydraulic press for the purpose of bending to shape any ties that may be bent or distorted by such acci- dents. A thickness of .52 inch for the top table is considered to be suflicient to withstand the blows of derailed wheels. A cast-steel tie, known as the Sampan tie, has been patented in England. For longi- tudinals, wrought-iron is used almost exclusively, though perhaps mild steel may be employed to a small extent. Bowls are usually of cast- iron, but pressed steel has bpeo used in Indj.^, The plates used in India 303 are of cast-iron. Wrought-iron plates, bent to form practically bowls, have been used in Egypt. Cast-iron is generally considered unsuitable for such work, but it has been very extensively employed for bowls and plates in India, South America, and elsewhere, with satisfactory results and a low percentage of breakages. Form and Dimensions. — Different methods have been tried for giv- ing the inward inclination of 1 in 17 to 1 in 26 of the rails, in accord- ance with the very general practice in most countries. Cross-ties were at first bent to a curve, but that resulted in a tendency of the track to rock if the ballast was packed too hard in the middle or not hard enough under the rails; the tie also tended to straighten, which thus widened the gauge. To obviate these objections, the ties were then made with the middle part horizontal and then bent up towiird the ends, which bend- ing could easily be done with steel ties: this was a great improvement, but the ties still had a tendency to rock under the trains. The hori- zontal tie gives the best results in stability of the track, and to allow it to be used, while avoiding the necessity for tie-plates, the Hosch Licht- hammer plan was designed in Germany, in which advantage was taken of the malleability of mild steel, and the top table of the tie pressed to the desired inclination at the rail seat. In the Post tie, extra metal at the rail seat gives the inclination and adds to the strength. In the steel ties for the Indian state railways, which are stamped to shape, the top table is bent up at the rail seat in the operation of stamping. Mr. Bricka suggested, in his report, that it would be simpler to modify the shape of the rail-flange to give the rail the desired inclination. This idea has been suggested by other engineers at various times. Ties with the top table horizontal and with tie-plates to give the rail this inclina- tion are used in Holland, Germany, and Austria, but generally add to the complicated character of the track. With longitudinals the incli- nation is usually given by tie-plates, or by tilting the longitudinal by means of packing pieces or saddles on the cross-tie connections. With bowls the rail seat is cast at the required inclination. In this country, where the rails are laid without such inward inclination, no bending or tie-plates would be required for this purpose. The cross-section of nearly all the cross-ties employed to any extent is derived from the type invented by the French engineer, Vautherin, the lirst trials of which were made about twenty-five years ago, on the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean Eailway (France). This type has a flat-top table, inclined sides flaring outward from the top and with nar- row horizontal flanges on the bottom edges; it formed with closed ends an inverted trough filled with ballast. The flat-top table furnished a good seat for a rail flange, tie-plate, or chair, but the lower flanges were objectionable, reducing the stability of the track by preventing the proper settling of the tie in the ballast and not being wide enough to give any bearing in the ballast; this objection was not felt with fine sand ballast, To obviate this difficulty some engineers, including those of 304 the Alsace-Lorraine railway and Wurtemburg state railways, in Ger- many, modified the original plan by substituting for the flange a rib of triangular section ; this did not diminish the moment of inertia of the tie, but it protected the edges from damage by blows when being tamped. Another modification, forming what was known as the Berg- and-Mark type of tie (Prussian state railways), consisted in abandoning the bottom flange or rib, and bending the lower part of each side to a vertical position ; this answered very well, the tie bedding itself well in the ballast and having less tendency to shift than if the sides were inclined for their whole depth. This again was modified by inclining the vertical part of the side slightly outward, the change in direction being made by curves instead of angles, and adding a rib to the bottom edges. In the Haarmann system the top table is comparatively narrow and the sides nearly vertical, with wide flanges at the bottom ; the edges of these flanges are turned down slightly to retain the ballast. The ends are closed by riveted plates. Mr. Bricka, in his report, stated that the objections were, the difficulty of ballasting the raised part, the chance of breakage, and the less height for equal weight than ties with inclined sides. The Hilf type has a middle flange or rib along the under side of the top table. The Post type has the sides flaring out in two planes, the cross-section being a portion of a polygon. The Indian type is rounded, having a flat top and curved sides at the rail seat, and an arch section at the middle. The ties of these types on different rail- ways vary of course in details of section, thickness, etc. The tie of the Standard Metal Tie Company, New York, and one tried on the Eastern Eailway of Prance, are channels laid in the normal position with the open side upward ; the bottom is flat and the sides are vertical in each case. The Bernard, Severac, Lavalette, and some other cross-ties are built up of angles, channels, beams, and plates. The system of metal longitudinals includes the Macdonnell, in Eng- land ; the Hartwich, Haarmann, Hilf, and Ehenish, in Germany ; and the Hohenegger and Serres-and-Battig in Austria. In regard to the thickness of the metal, this has been too often re- duced so much, in order to reduce weight and cost, that the tie cracks or splits after being in service for a comparatively short time. It has been customary to make the metal of uniform thickness throughout thb length of the tie, but Mr. Post's tie (Holland) has been designed to give an economical distribution of metal ; the rail seats are of extra thick- ness to insure ample strength, additional metal is added at the holes for the fastenings, and the middle of the tie is made only thick enough to give the necessary strength and stiffness ; these variations of thick- ness are given during the operation of rolling. Mr. J. W. Jones, of the Indian state railways, writes as follows in regard to this point : Railway engineers woulcl do well by refusing to have anything to do with ties which are only three-eighths inch thick; one-half inch thick givQ much better rq-. suits and are cheaper in the end, 305 A thickness of 0.52inch is now very generally used in Germany for the middle portion of tbe top table of the cross-ties. Experience on the Wurtemburg state railways (Germany) is said to have shown that an iron cross-tie with metal one-half inch thick stood an ordinary derail- ment very well without alteration of the gauge or any serious deforma- tion, while ties in which the thickness of the body had been reduced to eleven-thirty-seconds inch, with strengthening rib, were so badly de- formed by the same derailment as to require to be renewed. In his re- port of 1885, Mr. Bricka (France) stated that the thickness averaged about 0.32 or 0.36 inch,l3ut was as low as 0.24 inch in the parts subjected to the least strain ; at the rail seat it was rarely less than 0.32 inch, and was sometimes as much as 0.40 inch. The tendency h^s been to increase these dimensions, as it has been observed that under the passage of trains there is less vibration and noise with the heavier than with the lighter ties; and this stability, which causes greater economy of main- tenance, is attributed largely to the extra thickness of the .metal. Special advantages in stability and in maintaining a good bed or ballast under the rail seats are claimed for the Post and other systems in which the tie is made narrow and deep at the middle. Weight. — This is too frequently saciificed to mistaken ideas of economy, with expensive results, In the first place, the metal must be thick enough to stand the shocks and vibration to which the ties are subjected in service without cracking. In the second place, the tie muet be strong enough as a beam ; otherwise it will give way and become distorted under the traffic. In the third place, the tie must have weight enough to hold the track down firmly, making it solid and stable. In several designs of ties the metal is very thin, the metal being strength- ened by corrugations. The designers probably lost sight of the third requirement above mentioned or did not understand its significance. It is probable that the corrugations might in themselves be the cause of failure of the tie, cracks starting at the angles of the corrugations, as has been found to be the case in South Australia and elsewhere. The cause of these attempts to reduce weight is the eagerness of in- ventors to produce a cheap tie which will appeal to the financial side of railway companies. If the reduction in weight is carried too far, and a very little may be too far, the tie will be a dear one, as, even if it does not crack or otherwise fail, it will make a loose track, requiring continual attention and tamping, instead of effecting a reduction in maintenance. This point is briefly discussed in my remarks on Mr. Post's paper on "Steel Ties" (Bulletin No. Ill, page 35). It may be noted with advantage that in Germany it has been found generally de- sirable to use ties of greater weight than those first adopted, as the cost of maintenance was thereby reduced. In England too it has been found that a certain weight is necessary in order to give the tie a hold- ing or anchorage in the ballast. This is the general experience else- where. These results of experience show that the various attempts g3893— Bi;ll. 4-^^30 BOG made by inventors to reduce the material and weight to a minimum, without considering some imperative conditions, are not steps in the way of improvement, but tend to throw discredit on metal track in general and to render inefficient some forms of ties which might other- wise be of some merit. A very large number of failures of metal ties are dne to too light weight. The engineers of the Bavarian state railways consider that a weight of 139 pounds should be the minimum for ties for lines with ordinary traffic. Mr. Heindl, the inventor of the ties used on the Austrian state railways, considers 175 pounds the minimum under heavy traflflc on main lines. In view of experience elsewhere, however, this seems to be too heavy. Both Mr. Post and Mr. Bricka consider that the steel ties of the Post type in use on the Belgian State Railways are too heavy, but I am informed that they were adopted on account of the great weight of some enormous locomotives which haul over these lines the "'overland" train between Ostend and Brindisi. In a paper pub- lished in the bulletin of the society of civil engineers, France, April, 1885, Mr. Post stated that some engineers sent to England to examine the railways attributied too great an influence (o the weight of the track, and arbitrarily condemned metal ties because they calculated that the wooden ties were heavier. But in order to give the correct value of this argument, it is necessary to know the actual weights of ties of different ages, and some lots of oak ties, taken at random from the tracks of the Belgian state railways and the Netherlands state railways, were therefore weighed. The new ties showed a variation of 42 per cent., the heaviest weighing 173.8 pounds and the lightest 99 pounds, or 11 l)ounds lighter than the 110-pound steel ties which had been in service for some years. Of the old wooden ties at the end of their service there was a variation in weight of 32 per cent., the heaviest weighing 114.4 pounds and the lightest 77 pounds, or 33 pounds less than the steel ties. The weight of the wooden ties diminishes materially with age, by losing the sap, etc., by which the width of the tie and the bearing of the rail are reduced, and the average weight is only 129.8 pounds for new and 99 pounds for old ties. These figures show the weakness of the argument in favor of wooden ties on account of their weight. Mr. Bricka, iu his report of 1885, stated that at first cross-ties had a weight of only about 77 to 88 pounds, owing to a desire for cheapness, but experience showed this to be insuflflcient. German and Dutch en- ginei;rs have estimated that the work of maintenance is less with heavy ties than with light ones, and have increased the weight to 99 or 110 pounds. Ties weighing 129.8 pounds have been used on the Wiirtem- berg state railways, 138.6 pounds on the Bavarian state railways, and 132 to 154 pounds on the Austrian state railways. According to the opinion of many engineers, flange rails on llOpound steel ties make a very satisfactory track ; superior to track on wooden ties. The standard weight might be between 110 and 132 pounds, and even the latter fig-= 307 ure might be exceeded in exceptional cases of heavy and fast traffic. He comments upon the heavy Heiudl ties used on the Austrian state railways, that the noisy, destructive, and unpleasant vibrations are not experienced with ties of sufficient weight. This is an important point, as the absence of such vibration tends to lessen the disturbance of the track and consequently the work of maintenance. According to an article in the Indian Engineer, of Calcutta, August 1, 1888, ten ties — the usual number for a rail length of 30 feet — weigh- ing 120 pounds each, will cost, at $30 per ton, or $1.68 each, $16.80; while by increasing the weight to 168 pounds per tie the ten ties would cost, at the same rate per ton, $22.50 ; but if the latter will last thirty years under conditions of traffic which will wear out the former in twenty years, the cost of material for the heavier track for sixty years will be $45 against $50.40 for the lighter track, or a saving of nearly $1,000 per mile, besides the saving in renewals and the advantage of a more stable track by the use of the heavy ties. Ties open at the top and filled with or buried in the ballast have their weight in the track very largely increased. Of this type are the fSeverac, Bernard, and "Z" ties in Belgium ; the channel tie of the Eastern Rail- way of Prance, and the " Standard" tie now being tried in this country. Manxtfacturb of Okoss ties. — Cross-ties of trough sectiou are either rolled or stamped to shape. The wrought-iron and many of the steel ties are rolled, but large numbers of steel ties are stamped to shape in hydraulic presses from flat or bent plates. The steel ties of the Indian state railways pattern are made ot plates rolled to the rounded channel section, which are cut into lengths; each length is then put into one press which shapes the ends, and then into another press which stamps the lugs for rail fastenings. The Phillips steel ties used in Queensland are stamped to shape from flat plates. Of the steel ties now being used in this country the "Hartford" and "International" ties are rolled, while the " Standard " ties are stamped by hydraulic presses. There should be as little working of the metal as possible, as all such working tends to disturb the molecular construction of the metal and to reduce its strength. Annealing has been tried on the Netherlaods state railways with success from a technical point of view, but the operation is generally too expensive. In designing a tie its manufacture should be taken into account, as all handling and all additional shop- work adds considerably to the cost of its manufacture. Ties in which much riveting is required, as in the Webb tie in England, the Severac and Bernard ties in Belgium, etc., are not likely to come into general use. As has already been stated, the ties of the simplest form have the best chance. In Germany and Holland, and probably in other countries, the con- tracts for metal ties contain a " guarantee" clause similar to the Euro- pean contract system sf guarqiuteping rails, This clause requires the 308 manufacturer to replace all ties which break or show defects during a certain term of years ; generally three or five. This helps to secure better material and more careful manufacture, and any hidden defects which escape notice during inspection will almost certainly show them- selves within the guaranty term. Peeservatite Treatment. — In some cases the ties are used as they come from the rolls or press ; in other cases they are dipped in or painted with tar, oil, or some composition. The object of this treat- ment is to prevent rust or corrosion. In open line and in ordinary bal- last there is not much danger of corrosion, but it is liable to occur in tunnels or damp places, and in slag or cinder ballast ; this is due largely to the sulphuric acid and carbonic acid in the ashes, slag, and smoke. In a paper on " Steel Ties," by Mr. Munday, A. M. InSt. C. E., read be- fore the Civil and Mechanical Engineers' Society (London), in Jan- uary, 1888, it was stated that all ties should, if possible, be dipped while hot in a preservative solution. But as this can not be done with rolled ties without reheating them, the solution should be kept at boiling point by a steam coil. Rapid drying is an advantage obtained by dip- ping hot, as wet, dirty freight and the smell of the wet solution are objected to on board ship (for export), while in some cases the dock laborers have refused to handle the slimy metal sent down from the works. Pressed ties can be taken hot from the press to the bath, care being taken not to set fire to the inflammable mixture. If dipped cold it should be done some time before shipping, so that a suflicient quantity for a cargo may be stacked and dried. A solution recommended for ties and rails is as follows : Two gallons of boiled tar, one-half gallon of mineral turps, 1 gallon of vegetable oil. The tar is boiled first, and the other ingredients then well mixed in. The turps constitute the drier, and the larger the proportion of this the quicker the drying is effected ; but as it is highly inflammable great care must be taken in dipping hot metal. The composition invented by the late Dr. Angus Smith (England) and well known by his name, is a solution of coal pitch in coal tar naphtha; it may be used as a paint or bath, and the metal should be hot. There is also a composition consisting of pitch and tar with a little tar oil and dry lime; rock asphaltum melted up and mixed with this gives body and sets hard like enamel. A black varnish solution is used for the steel ties of the Indian state railways pattern. The " Hartford " ties, on the New York Central Eailway, are treated with Dr. Angus Smith's asphalt composition, applied at a temperature of 300 degrees Fahrenheit. Fastenings.— In any system of track it is desirable to have as few separate parts, and as few different or special kinds of parts, as possi- ble. An increase in the number not only increases the labor and cost of track-laying and maintenance, but it is the general experience of the perverseness of things that the right pieces are not at hand when wanted. The forgetting or delaying tP send a keg of special bolts, 309 clamps, etc., such as are sometimes required at curves or in other places, may seriously interfere with the work. In this respect the steel track of the Indian state railways, and of the local railways of Belgium, pre- sents many advantages ; the ties and two steel keys to each tie being all the material required on any part of the line. Where different degrees of adjustment of the gauge are effected by different sizes of clamps, washers, etc., the system is still more troublesome and compli- cated, but at the same time it must be remembered that with metal ties the fastenings are supposed to require far less attention than those with wooden ties. With a proper fastening there should be no vibration to cause noise, rattling, and wear; and experience has shown that such fasteoings can be made. Where double-headed rails are used, they may be carried in special chairs, as on the London and Northwestern Railway (England), and the Western Eailway (France,) or in ordinary chairs, as on the Midland Eailway (England), the state railways, (France), etc. Little need be said on this point, as the double-headed or bull-headed sections of rails are never likely to be introduced into tliis country for regular service, and their use in other countries is com- paratively limited. The ordinary flange rails may b^secured direct to the ties by differ- ent forms of fastenings, as follows : 1 . Bolts and clamps. 2. Bolts, rivets, and clamps. 3. Keys. 4. Gibs and cotters. 5. Rivets. (1) Bolts and clamps. — Withmany systemsof metal track thefastenings consist of bolted clamps. The heads of the bolts are usually tee-shaped (J.), so that they can be inserted from above, through a slot in the top table of the tie. The bolt passes through a loose clamp which holds the flange of the rail, and the nut is screwed down upon the clamp; a washer or nut-lock is usually interposed, but by the use of a grip thread on the bolt the nut-lock may perhaps be dispensed with, except under severe conditions of traffic, making four pieces less to each tie. The bolts are usually seven-eighths inch or 1 inch in diameter, and the nuts should be of ample depth, so as to give a large thread- bearing. Various forms of clamps are used ; in some cases the clamp bears on the rail and the top of the tie, leaving the bolt to resist the thrust of the rail ; in other cases, as in the Euppel system, widely used in Germany, a lug on the clamp fits into the bolt hole in the tie, and so relieves the bolt. In the Eoth-and-Schuler system, used on the Baden state railways and with the latest form of tie on the Netherlands state railways, a rectan- gular washer rests on the tie and transmits the thrust of the rail to the bolt, and a clamp holds the rail and keeps the washer in position. The advantage of a bolt fastening is that it gives a firm hold and can be easily slackened or tightened. 310 (2) Bolts, rivets, and elamps.~In some systems of metal track one side of the rail is held by a riveted clamp and the other by a bolted clamp, the latter being generally on the inner side of the track. This plan is in use in Queensland, Australia. (3) Keys.— A fastening which has been found very efficient consists of a taper steel key driven horizontally between the rail flange and a lug on the tie or on a chair carrying the rail. The other side of the flange is held by a lug. The end of the key or wedge is split, so that it can be opened out or expanded by a chisel after it has been driven to a bearing, and so prevented from slacking back. This fastening is used with steel ties in Belgium, India, Africa, and Mexico, and has given excellent results as to security and noiselessness. A similar style of fastening is used with cast-iron bowl ties in South America, an iron, wooden, or coiled steel key being driven between the rail and a lug cast on the bowl ; as the lug was liable to be broken, a loose lug of wrought iron or steel is now used, being inserted in a socket in the bowl; a cast-iron key is used and bears against the web and flange of the rail. (4) Oibs and cotters, — Gibs held up to the rail by a vertical cotter driven into a slot in the top of the tie, were among the earliest forms of "fastenings used in Germany ; they did not then prove satisfactory, as the vibration jarred the parts sufficiently to loosen them, so that there was considerable noise and rattling under passing trains, while the jar- ring frequently resulted in the cracking of the tie. In India, fastenings of this pattern sometimes rusted together, so that they could not be moved without breaking them off; a fastening with cast-iron gibs was designed there, but never introduced to any extent. In Germany and Switzerland, improved fastenings are now used, with an extra gib to give a good bearing for the back of the cotter, and as the metal of the tie is thickened at the holes for the fastenings, there is no trouble from breakage ; these improved gib and cotter fastenings are reported to give satisfaction. With the Denham-Olpherts plate tie, used in India, there is a fixed lug or jaw on one side of the rail and on the other side is a loose jaw which is held in place by a horizontal cotter which secures the tie-bar. Rivets. — Riveting the rails direct to the ties is only practicable for portable railways, but some systems of metal track have been designed in which riveted clips are used, the rails being sprung into position. A fastening described in " Les Annales des Travaux Publics," Paris, April, 1888, consisted of two rail clamps of eccentric form, riveted to the tie in such a way that they could turn on the rivet. The rail being put in place the clamps are turned round by a special wrench or bar, bringing the projecting parl^ver the rail flange ; when in position, a pro- jection on the outer side of the clamp fits into a notch in a horizontal spring on the top of the tie. A somewhat si milar plan of loose riveted clips has been designed by Mr. Moore for use with cast-iron ties in India. 311 Tie Eods. — With bowl or plate ties, transverse tie-roils or tie-bars are required, to hold the parts together and to maintain the gauge. Flat wrought-iron bars are generally used, placed on edge and passing into or through the bowl or plate ; they are secured by gibs and cotters or by cotters only. These are used in India, Africa, and South Amer- ica. In the De Bergue system, used in Spain, (and tried in India) the tie bar is underneath the bowls, being held by lugs and U-bolts. In the plate ties used in India, the bars pass through the upper part of the plate which forms the rail seat, and are secured by a horizontal flat cotter. On the Calcutta Port Eailway, India, the tie bars are fastened . to the rail flange by bolted clamps, being quite independent of the bowls. With metal longitudinals, the two liues of longitudinals have to be tied together, and various forms of cross-tie connections have been used in Germany and Austria. In some cases f or angle-irons are used, while heavy cross-ties of the same section as the longitudinals have been used at the joints of the latter. These heavy connections, however, have been found to make the track too rigid, causing a bat- tering of the rails at the joints and an increased wear' of the rolling- stock. Tie rods are also used to maintain the gauge; they are tapped into or passed through the webs of the rails and secured by nuts; in some cases they are of round iron and in other cases flat with round ends. Metal Contact.. — A common objection is that metal track will be noisy and unpleasant to ride over, owing to the metal contact of the rails and ties. Various methods have been tried and suggested to ob- viate this, but where good fastenings which will keep tight are used, there is not found to be any necessity for such precaution. Mr. George E. Moore, deputy consulting engineer of railways, India, states that wooden packing, asbestos sheets, tarred canvass, etc., have been tried and found of no value. The Great Indian Peninsula Railway, after several years of experiment, has gone back to iron on iron, and finds the results quite satisfactory. It is principally a matter of getting the fastenings tight and keeping them so. Linoleum has been suggested in Belgium. With the steel ties of the London and Northwestern Rail- way, England, tarred paper, forming a tough leathery material, is used between the riveted plates. Some of the bolt-fastenings used are found to keep sufficiently tight, and with the key fastenings of the Indian State Railway steel ties and the Z-iron ties in Belgium, the fastening is found to be very efficient in this respect. On a section of the liforthern Rail- way, Austria, where one track was laid with wooden ties and the other with metal ties, it is reported that the noise of the passing of trains was no more disagreeable with one system than with the other ; showing that with m^tal ties and fastenings of good shape and proper weight no trouble from noise or vibration need be experienced. In several cases it is specifically reported that there is no trouble from noise or uneasy riding of the cars. 312 Adjustment op Gauge. — Where metal ties are to be applied to any- great length of track it is necessary to provide some means for widen- ing the gauge at curves, etc. With bowls this widening is effected by the use of different sizes of cotters in the ends of the tie bars ; this has the objection of increasing tlie number of separate pieces required, but to obviate this Mr. Sch warz, of the Burrakur Iron Works, India, proposes to use cotters or keys made of different widths in " steps " or " offsets," so that one set of cotters will give the required variation in gauge. With longitudinals the adjustment is effected usually by means of the rail fastenings. With cross-ties, where bolts are used, the adjustment is effected either by eccentric necks on the bolts, as on the Netherlands state railways ; by eccentric washers, as on the Baden state railways and Netherlands state railways ; or, where the clamps have lugs fitting into holes in the tie, by means of rail clamps with different sized lugs, as on several German railways. With the first plan mentioned two sets of bolts are required, one for tangents and on curves, and the other at the extremities of curves, etc. The bolts are marked on the ends, so that the ordinary and special bolts can be easily distinguished, and in such a manner that the inspector walking along the track can see if the proper bolts are used and are properly placed. With the clamp fasten- ings on some of the German railways six sizes of clamps are used, and are distinguished by stamped figures : No. 0, on the outside of the rail, has no projection on the lug in the bolt-hole^ No. 1, has a projection of one-twelfth inch ; No. 2, one sixth inch; No. 3, one-fourth inch ; No. 4, five-sixteenths inch ; No. 5, five-twelfths inch. This makes a very com- plicated arrangement, and can only be successfully carried out where the trackmen and section bosses are carefully instructed and trained. In this country, with the class of labor frequently employed, it would almost-certainly be a failure. Even with skilled labor such a system is not to be recommended, as under any circumstances the simplest ar- rangement possible, with due regard to efficiency, is the most desirable. With gib and cotter fastenings the adjustment is effected by using gibs of different widths. It is usually the outer gib and the small gib at the back of the cotter which are made in dif&erent sizes. On the Elberfeld division of the Prussian state railways the outer gib is either ||, 1,^6, or 1^ inches wide, and the small gib either i, |, or f inch wide. The above remarks as to complication apply almost equally to this plan. With key fastenings the adjustment is effected by putting one or both of the keys on the outer side of the rail. Closed and Open Ends.— In regard to the question of open or closed ends for cross-ties, the general and most approved practice is to close them. Tiie reasons for this are apparent; a wooden tie when buried in the ballast presents an end area of about 5 by 8 inches or G by 10 inches, equal to 40 or 60 square inches, to resist the lateral motion induced by the passing of trains, especially on curves. Metal ties with closed ends offer a similar resistance, but an open-ended tie presents 313 ouly its thin cross-section, say one-half inch by 14 inches, or 7 square inches, to resist this movement. Trough ties with closed ends offer in fact a much greater resistance to lateral motion, as not only has the outer end to push against the thickness of ballast beyond it, but the other end has to pull against the.ballast within the tie and drag the en- tire core of ballast inside the tie over the ballast below it, which would require very considerable force, especially with broken stone. The ends of metal ties frequently project below the bottom of the body of the tie. Well packed and tamped ties of this kind will keep the track in good line. The open-end ties of the London and Northwestern Railway, Eng- land, are said to give no trouble in this respect ; these ties are dipped in tar and then in sand, to give them a rough surface to increase the friction in the ballast, but it does not seem as though such a method would be very effectual. It seems only reasonable, however, that closed ends should give the best results. They may make tamping more diffi- cult at first, but when once thoroughly tamped the track is very sub- stantial. With some of the "International" ties used in this country, only half the end was closed, in order to facilitate tamping. The " Hart- ford" tie, on the New York Central Railway, has its ends bent below the bottom of the tie. The channel tie used on the Eastern Railway, France, has the bottom bent down, the channel itself being open at the ends. The " Standard" tie, on the Chicago and Western Indiana Rail- way, has the bottom cut loose from the sides at the middle and bent up inside the tie, which is filled with ballast, so that the resistance to lat- eral motion is at the middle instead of at the ends of the tie, a feature which is claimed to be advantageous on tracks with narrow width of ballast. The ends may be closed by a riveted plate, by stamping to shape while hot, or by cutting the top corners and bending the top table and sides cold. Mr. Postjinhispaperin the Bulletin of the Society of Civil Engineers, France, April,"1885, gives the following account of trials made to deter- mine the efficiency of closed ends : A certain number of ties with closed ends were divided into three compartments, by .riveting two plates on the inside of the trough; the two outer compartments were well bal- lasted, while the middle one was simply filled. An equal number of ties with closed ends were put in service at the same time. It was soon ascertained that the intermediate plates were superfluous, the ends affording all necessary resistance. Cost. — As to the cost of ties, while prices are given in several cases in this report, yet the prices of foreign ties are not of much practical value in considering the use of such ties in this country, as the condi- tions of the various foreign metal markets may differ so much from one another and from the conditions prevailing in this country. Mr. Post stated in 1885 that the cost of a good steel tie should not be more than 125 or 150 per cent, of that of a wooden tie. According to Mr. Meyer, of the Prussian state railways, iron ties weighing 110 pounds and cost- 314 ing $1.73 eacli, must last twenty-live years, in order not to involve an annual charge of more than 9.8 cents,* wliicli is the average annual charge for wooden ties on German railways. Economy. — The economy effected by the use of metal ties lies in the great life of the ties, the reduction in maintenance expenses, and the higher value of Avorn-out metal ties over wooden ties. The economy of the metal longitudinals may be doubted, on account of the extensive preparation of the road-bed to secure proper drainage, and of the work of maintenance required to maintain free drainage. The Mexican rail- way "will feel the good results of its track with steel ties when the com- petition with the Interoceanic Railway begins, as the track will be kept in first-class condition at comparatively small cost, enabling the road to sustain a close competition." Mr. Katt6, chief engineer of the New York Central Railway, estimates that the use of the steel ties now being tried on that line will effect an economy of 8 to 12 per cent, in renewals, repairs, and maintenance. (See also " Maintenance" and " Conclusion." Efficiency. — That metal ties act efficiently in making a good track has been conclusively and satisfactorily proved, while by the firm seat and secure fastenings the danger of accident from spreading of the track or overturning of the rails is very considerably reduced. The gauge is also maintained more accurately and the track is kept in bet- ter line and surface than track on wooden ties. Spacing op Ties. — The question of the spacing of the ties is one which should be given careful consideration, and the distance will depend to a considerable extent upon the character of the trafflc. On a busy main line with fast and heavy traffic, the ties should be spaced closer than on a line with lighter traffic. The average is about 30 to 30 inches. To secure the best results and the most easy riding track, the ties should be spaced farthest apart at the mid-length of the rail and closest to- gether at the rail-joints. Different arrangements of spacing of steel ties are being tested on the New York Central Railway. Track- Laying-. — This work is generally very simple, except in the case of systems with complicated fastenings. The ties are sent out on the cars, with the fastenings in kegs, or in some cases where bolts are used, the bolts are put into the holes and the nuts screwed on, so that when the tie is put in the track the fastenings are all ready to be adjusted to the rail. With many forms of track the work can be efficiently done by unskilled labor, but it is of course always better to have experienced trackmen, or at least an experienced foreman to see that the work is done carefully and correctly. Careless or inaccurate work will cause subsequent trouble, which will tend to create a prejudice against the track. Poor work will reduce the good results which would otherwise * This charge is figured even too low. See table for computing annual charges on p. 39 of this report. The metal tie, to be within an annual charge of 9.8 cents on first cost alone, must not cost more than $1.40.— B. E. P. 315 be obtained. A point to be considered is the grade of track labor avail- able. In Europe the grade is, ou an average, pretty high. An engi- neer who has made an inspection of the Panama Railway stated that if wooden ties had not been available and metal ties had been used, there would have been trouble with the fastenings and attachments, owing to the indolent and careless nature of the negro trackmen. It is well to issue to the section men printed instructions as to track- laying and maintenance, illustrated, if necessary, by diagrams prepared with the special aim to make them clear and readily understood. The instructions should be clear, concise, and to the point. BALL4STING, — Various materials for ballast are used for metal track on different roads. In Queensland, the Phillips tie is intended to be used without ballast, being packed with the surface soil of the coun- try, and in South America the road-bed is carefully built up with the surface soil or black loam as ballast. For ordinary circumstances, such as would obtain in this country, gravel, slag, or broken stone may bo used, but care must be taken to consider whether the material, espe- cially slag, is likely to cause corrosion. (Seepage26.) The ballast must be clean and free from clay, allowing free drainage. It is essential that the ballast should be thoroughly packed into the tie, and a little work with the tamping bar in the first place will save a good deal of subse- quent work in maintenance. The material should only be packed hard at the ends and extending some inches in beyond the rail-seats, leav- ing the middle of the tie only loosely filled ; if the middle is packed hard and the ends not carefully attended to, the tie will have a tendency to bend or " hog," and cause an unstable track. In some cases the ballast is laid in two rows of heaps; one tie is put across each pair of heaps and an engine run over the track forcing them down into the ballast, which is then packed and tamped and loose ballast filled in between the rails. The ballast should generally be flush with the top of the tie ; in some cases it is filled in over the tops of the ties, and this practice is carried out with the London and Northwestern steel ties on the Pennsyl- vania Railway, which are covered with fine broken stone, Particular attention siiould be given to keeping up the road bed for the first few months, until the ballast under the ties becomes well consolidated ; this work should be charged to construction rather than maintenance. The objection has been made that it is difQcult to tamp and pack the hollow ties generally used; experience has shown, however, that while it presents some difficulty at first, yet the ballast, being confined within the tie, is soon compacted by the passage of trains, and requires little subsequent attention. The saving in the quantity of ballast required is shown by the official figures given for the Western and Simplon Rail- way, Switzerland. Renewals. — With cross-ties, bowls, or plates, renewals are as a rule easily effected, but with longitudinals the work is more difficult. In most cases the fastenings of any one tie can be removed, the ballast 316 dug away, the tie dropped from the rail and removed, and a new tie pat in place. Where, however, as on some railways in India, the rails have to be tilted to get the flanges under the lugs when being laid, all the fastenings and both joints of one rail must be removed and the rail tilted and taken out; the free end of the tie can then be raised until the opposite end can be slipped off the rail. In some cases the lugs can be pried back to free the rail flange, and in other cases both rails may be required to be taken out. Renewals of mild steel ties are ex- pected to be very few; the material does not rust to any extent, does not wear under the rail, and is not liable to crack at the holes. Of ties laid on the Netherlands State Railways in 1865, the renewals up to 1887 were only 5 per cent. One of the great advantages of a metal track is that it is not disturbed frequently by renewals, and is thus left in good condition for running. Maintenance. — It is generally found that the work of maintenance for metal track, daring the first two to four years, is as much as, if nob more than, that for track in wooden ties; after that period, however, the work becomes less and less, as the track gets well settled together, the fastenings firm, and the ballast consolidated, while with wooden ties the work increases year by year until renewals are necessary. The fastenings being secure, do not require constant watching and frequent attention as with spikes in wooden ties ; and an occasional surfacing of the ballast and inspection of the ties and fastenings is all that will be required; nor will, as stated, the frequent disturbance of track for re- newals be occasioned, as is the case with wooden ties. It is estimated that on the Algerian lines of the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean Rail- way, the adoption of metal ties has effected a saving of one-fourth of the maintenance work, or $62 per mile per annum. According to Mr. Post, the cost per mile allowed on some of the German secondary rail- ways in 1885, for the renewal of steel ties, was only about one-sixth of the sum for replacing old wooden ties per mile per annum. The amounts were deduced from the statistics of the Rhenish Division of the Prussian State Railways, which has been using metal ties since 1868. One of the division engineers of the Netherlands state railways, in his annual report tor 1884, stated that in order to make a test of the metal track (Post ties), he left one of the trial sections, having a grade of 1 in 83 and a curve of 2,460 feet radius, near Grlons, Belgium, for twenty-two months (February, 1883, to December, 1884) without lining or surfacing, only employing one man for thirty-four days' work to in- . spect and tighten the nuts ; the traffic over the line was very heavy, but the track was in good condition at the end of the test. On this division the cost of maintenance per mile of track on steel ties, after three and one-half years' service, was the same as of track on oak ties, but at that time the maintenance expenses of the former commenced to decrease, the track being by that time firmly settled, while it would begin to increase with the oak ties. In Germany the cost of main- 317 tenauce has been found to vary from $38 to $360 per mile with longi- tudinals, and from $47 to $107 per mile with cross-ties ; the road-bed, ballast, and class of track cause these great differences. On the Ehenish division of the Prussian state railways, the work of maintenance per 100 miles in 1879, was two hundred and seventy-one days' work for track on wooden ties, two hundred and nine days' work with metal longitu- dinals (23 per cent, less), and 164.5 days' work with metal cross-ties (35 per cent. less). For the calculation of the annual cost for maintenance and renewals, the following points must be considered : (1) Annual interest on first cost. (2) Annual sum laid aside for depreciation. (3) Value of old material, lessening the depreciation. (4) Cost of labor in renewals. (5) Cost of rail fastenings. (6) Cost of maintenance of the road-bed. (7) Influence of the track upon the life and repairs of rolling stock. Progs and Switches. — With metal track, wooden ties are very generally used at frogs and switches, but metal ties can as well be used and will give a safer track. These metal ties will cost rather more than the ordinary metal ties, on account of their greater length and weight, and the extra number of holes required. The work of track laying will also be more expensive than the mere spiking of rails, guard-rails, and frogs to wooden ties. But when once well laid and tamped, the track put in good line and surface, and the fastenings tightened up a few times until they take a good bearing, the maintenance of such parts of the track will be light, while the safety will be very considerably in- creased. Metal ties are in use at frogs and switches in Germany and Switzerland, and their use is to be specially recommended, as at these points the track requires to be kept in excellent condition. Eecords. — It is very desirable, wherever metal ties are placed, either for a small experiment or with a view to general adoption of the sys- tem, that careful records should be kept of the date of laying, construc- tion of the track, amount of traffic, amount of work done and money spent, notes of inspection, results observed, etc., so that it may be seen if the track is satisfactory and economical. In this way an intelligent idea may be obtained as to the general results of the experiments, from a financial and technical point of view. For convenience in keeping notes, some plan of numbering the ties might be adopted, reckoning between mile-posts, by which individual ties could be located and iden- tified in case of breakage, renewals, tests of different fastenings, etc. Ties made from Old Bails. — Several devices have been patented for the utilization of old rails for ties, but it does not seem probable that they will be used to any extent. In the first place, it is doubtful that the supply of old rails would be at all adequate to the demand, as rails rejected from main tracks may be safely used for side tracks, and 318 are often so used until very badly worn. The uneven wear of the rails would be an objection in some of these devices, and in others the amount of shop work is quite considerable, entailing an expense which is per- haps overlooked when economy is claimed. Oross-ties of this class have been tried in France and Grermaiiy, and longitudinals rolled from old rails have been tried on the Northwestern Kailway of Austria. Old rails are proposed for the manufacture of the Duraudtie in this coun- try. Where the rails are to be worked and submitted to such treatment as rolling into plates and stamping into shape, it may be doubted if the metal would stand this working successfully, or make a safe and durable tie. It would be especially likely to crack at any corrugations, corners, etc., and at any welded parts ; this has been the experience in Austria. There might be a limited field for the use of such ties on lines with light traffic, but it is not probable that they would prove efficient, safe, or economical on main lines and under heavy traffic. Any apparent cheapness in first cost would probably be entirely cov- ered by additional work upon the track. Combinations of Wood and Metal. — A very large number of ties have been invented in which blocks of wood are placed under the rail as bearing-blocks, and many inventions of this kind will be found in the list of United States patents accompanying this report. The object is, of course, to combine the elasticity of the wood with the strength and dura- bility of the metal; but the weight of experience seems to show that the combination, or the method of obtaining it, is unnecessary or undesirable. Metal ties can be made which will be in themselves sufficiently elastic, and fastenings can be made which will hold the metal surfaces of rail and tie rigidly together. The use of wooden bearing-blocks has been found unsatisfactory in France, Holland, and India. In regard to the metal ties with \yooden bearing-blocks tried on the Eastern Railway, France, Mr. Bricka stated in his report, in 1885, that results obtained with or- dinary fastenings did not justify the interposition of a block of wood be- tween the rail and the tie, and that it was probable that there would be a play of the pieces after a time. The " standard " steel tie, in this coun- try, in experimental service on the Chicago and Western Indiana Rail- way, is of this class ; but it differs from the ordinary plan in using blocks of preserved wood, which are compressed before being used, and are placed with the rails resting on the end grain. The claims made are that the preservative process will prevent rotting of the wood, while the compressing and manner of placing will prevent flange cutting. By this compression, the block of wood would be practically as rigid a,s the metal, but it is of course less vibratory. Tib Plates. — A method extensively employed in Europe, and re- cently in this country, to increase the durability of wooden ties, is to use metal plates between the rail and the tie. This method is exten- sively adopted in Germany. The use of met^l tie-plates with met^l ties Htids considerably to the 319 cost, aud while they may be of some benefit for ties of light section, yet as a general thing, with ordinarily heavy ties, it is found better to place the rail directly upon the tie, as this plan with good fastenings is less liable to cause noise and rattling. Tie-plates on metal ties are used in Germany and Austria. Glass Ties. — Glass ties were made by Dr. Siemens in Germany some years ago, and were reported to have given excellent results as to strength. At a meeting of the Cleveland Institution of Engineers, England, in June, 1889, during a discussion on rails and railways, the president stated that some years previous a number of glass ties had been put down, and the inventor had recently informed him that they were still in service. The reason w by they do not generally find favor, he stated, is not that they fracture, but because they were very expen- sive aud there was a difliculty in attaching the rails to the ties. BACK RAILWAYS. For rack railways which are to carry ordinary traf&c, and which form part of through lines of railway and are not merely lines for excursion travel, steel ties are generally used, as they give a more secure and stable track. Mr. Einecker, M. Am. Soc. O. B., of Germany, who con- tracts for the construction of rack railways on the Abt system, stated as follows in a letter acknowledging the receipt of Bulletin III, with my preliminary report : I fully concur with. the views expressed by Mr. Tratman. Being engaged in the construction of rack railways, I am using only steel ties, on account of their relia- bility in keeping gauge aud of their better hold in the ballast against sliding down grade. Where steel ties fail it is on account of errors in shape or size. MILITARY RAILWAYS. Light railways for the conveyance of supplies, etc., are much used in Europe at arsenals,^fortiflcations, etc. The majority of these lines are of the portable type, made in sections, so as to be readily and rapidly laid, removed, and relaid. In France very heavy cannon are transported over such tracks; special cars being used to distribute the weight over a number of wheels. In Germany tracks of this kind are used in field-work and manoeuvring. The English army in the Soudan campaign had a light railway at Suakin, and the Italians have also a line, but of a more permanent type, in Africa. In the Turkestan war of 188-3 the French army had 66 miles of portable railway, 20 inches gauge, with steel rails, weighing 14 pounds per yard ; the track was of the Decauville type.^ In the Tunis war of 1883 the French army had 43 miles of similar track, but with 24 inches gauge aud with rails weighing 19 pounds per yard; this was found to be the more suitable and ef&cient track for the purpose, 320 LIGHT AND POKTABLE RAILWAYS. A class of railway with metal ties which is much used in Europe and in countries where work is carried on by European engineers, is thatpf light and portable railways. They are of various classes, from the per- manent line of 42 inches gauge, operated by locomotives and adapted for country railways, feeders to main lines, etc, down to the really portable lines of 12 inches gauge, operated by horse, mule, or bullock power, and adapted for plantation and contractors' work, etc. Railways of this kind would not only be beneficial by means of the advantages pos- sessed, but would also effect an appreciable saving in wooden ties of the small and cheap kind. The track is made in sections of conven- ient length, built up at the manufactory, which have merely to be car- ried by one or two men to the required site, laid end to end, and con- nected, to form a track capable of carrying considerable trafQc, One man can carry a section of the lighter portable class. For the more permanent lines some amount of grading and ballasting is desirable. Curves, switches, etc., are all made in sections, as well as the straight track, and the lines can be laid by unskilled labor. Several firms In Europe have extensive works engaged in the manufacture of track, appurtenances, and equipment for this class of line. English pricesa few years ago varied from $1,450 to $1,550 per mile of single track, straight line, of 16 and 24 inches gauge, suitable for animal traction ; and from $2,500 to $2,700 per mile for lines of 18 and 30 inches gauge, suitable for locomotive traction. In the well-known system of the De- cauville Works, Prance, light steel flange rails were riveted to steel ties of channel section. (See France.) In England various forms and modi- fications of this class of track are manufactured by the following firms: Dick, Kerr & Co., Kerr, Stuart & Co., Boiling & Lowe, J. Fowler & Co., W. (t. Bagnall, J. & T. Howard, the Darlington Steel and Iron Com- pany, and others. (See England and France.) A form of the Post steel cross-tie is manufactured by the Hoerde Works, Germany, for light railways of 24 inches gauge. The ties are of the usual form, except that the lower part is horizontal and the increased depth at the middle is obtained by bending up the top table. They are 33 inches long, 4 inches wide, and 1 inch deep at the ends, 2.24 inches wide, and 2.3 inches deep at the middle ; the thickness is .16 inch, and .24 inch at the rail seats. Some of the ties are of uniform section throughout. The rails are of flange section 6.56 feet long ; they are secured to the ties by hook-bolts, the nut being inside the tie. Projecting, splice plates are riveted to one end of each rail. Each section of this track consists of two rails, three ties, and four splice-plates ; the weight of the section complete is 88 pounds. For further particulars of these railways, see an article of mine on " Light and Portable Eailways," in Engineering News, ISeyr York, September 6, 1884, ' 321 STREET RAILWAYS. In European practice the use of wood in street railway, or tramway, tracks has been very generally abandoned, especially in the cities. For city streets, the track usually consists of grooved steel rails resting on cast-iron chairs or steel cross-ties or longitudinals. A concrete founda- tion is almost invariably used for such streets, and quite frequently for suburban and country roads. This system of construction is also adopted by English engineers in other countries, as at Honolulu, Hong- Kong, and Buenos Ayres. Similar systems are being introduced in this country, but to a comparatively limited extent, the style of track with flat rails spiked to wooden stringers resting on wooden cross-ties being still the ordinary practice. I^otes on street railway tracks and descrip- tions of different American and foreign systems of construction will be found in my paper on "The Improvement of Eailway and Street Rail- way Track," read at the convention of the American Society of Oivil Engineers, in June, 1889. CONCLUSION. In this report information has been given, as shown by the tabular summary, covering experience on nearly 25,000 miles of metal track on railways in foreign countries, or 13.21 per cent, of the total mileage (187,721 miles) of the world, exclusive of the United States and Canada. This percentage is steadily iucreasiug, as indicated by the reports from several railways, in which it is stated that metal ties are being substi- tuted for wooden ties, either in large sections of track or by replacing wooden ties with metal ties as renewals are required. In the face of such figures, based upon offlcial returns and statements, it can no longer be claimed that the metal track question is still upon an experimental basis. The offlcial returns from some countries — Germany, Switzer- land, and India, especially — show, that the results of experience extend- ing over several years have led in several cases to the adoption of metal track, and that this is becoming the standard track of railways in those countries. In regard to the statements which have appeared in print from time to time, to the effect that the use of metal ties in Germany has been un- satisfactory and is being abandoned, I may refer to the offlcial state- ments in this report from the leading railways in that country. These statements show that the results have been sufficiently satisfactory to lead to the entire adoption of metal ties on some lines and their con- tinued and extended use on other lines. The only instance in which they have been abandoned is on the Altona division of the Prussian state railways, and there, as stated in the official return, the reason has been in the nature of the road-bed, etc., rather than in the ties. The agitation made a few years ago by the iron industries in Germany, asking for the increased use of metal ties, only showed that the Govern- 22893— Bull. 4 21 322 ment was not putting in these ties on its lines in sufficient quantity to suit the iron trade people, and not that the use of metal ties was being discontinued.* The most extensive introduction of metal track has been in Germany, India, and South America. In the first two countries steel cross-ties are practically the generally adopted type, although different forms of this type are in use in Germany. Cast-iron is still extensively used in India. In South America the metal ties used are mainly composed of a pair of cast-iron bowls connected by a tie bar, but even there steel cross-ties are being introduced. The weight of evidence and the results of experience point towards the steel cross-tie, as making the best track and giving the best results in other ways, for heavy service at least, and therefore are destined to become the staudaid tie for first class track. As to the weight of these ties, it may be considered that for lines with heavy traffic it should be between 120 and 150 pounds, ac- cording to traffic and other conditions. The following brief synopsis will give a general idea of the wide- spread use of metal track : England. — Steel cross-ties are being tried on a practical scale on the London and Northwestern Railway and the Northeastern Railway. Experiments on a, small scale have been made on other roads. France. — Trials with dififerent forms of cross- ties are in progress on the state rail- ways. Five of the principal companies have also made exporim ents, and some of the trials are still in progress. Holland. — Extensive trials of iron and steel cross-ties have been made ou the Netherlands State Railway. The use of the Post steel tie is being extended. Other roads are also using metal ties. Belgium. — The State has directed the carrying out of extensive trials of metal ties, and the trials are now in progress. The Northern Railway and Great Central Railway ^re also using metal ties. They are being adopted on some of the local and narrow-gauge lines. Germany. — Ou the several state railways extensive trials with metal ties and lon- gitudinals have been in progress for several years, and several hundred miles of metal track are now in service. The use of longitudinals is being abandoned, but the use of cross-ties is rapidly extending, and on some lines they have been entirely adopted. On the whole the results have been very satisfactory. Austria and Hungary. — Two principal systems of metal track are in service. The Heindl system of cross-ties and the Hohenegger system of longitudinals. Switzerland. — Metal ties are in service to a considerable extent. The results have been satisfactory and the use of these ties is being extended. Spain. — Steel cross-ties are in service on a narrow-guage railway, and oast-iron bowls on a broad-gauge railway. Portugal. — An experiment on a small scale has been made on the state railways. Italy. — No metal ties are in regular service, but a few have been imported for ex- periment. * Objections to the use of metal ties in Germany come also from the forest adminis- tration, for the reason that the market for one of its staple products, beech railroad ties (creosoted), which have been grown in excess, lias been limited by the substitu- tion of metal, and hence an unfavorable showing on the balance sheet of many for- est districts. Unlike the cohditions in our country, in Germany a proper forest policy does not require this substitution. — B. E. F, 323 Sweden. — A few steel ties are in service for experimental purposes on the state railways. Norway. — No metal track has been tried. Denmark. — Steel ties are iu service on tlie state railways. The results are fairly satisfactory. Russia. — Experiments have been made on a small scale, but have apparently been abandoned. Turkey. — Several miles of track near Constantinople are laid with metal ties. Africa. — In North Africa cross-ties are in use in Algeria and Egypt, and bowls in Egypt. Bowls and cross-ties are in use iu South Africa. Steel cross-ties are reported as to be used ou the projected Congo Railway. Australia. — Steel ties are being used quite extensively in South Australia and Queensland., In the latter colony the track is of a type designed especially for cheap construction of railways in even country. Neiv Zealand and Tasmania. — No metal track is used. India. — Metal track is in very extensive use and is beiug constantly laid. Cast- iron bowls are becoming obsolete, but cast-iron plates (in pairs, connected by tie-bars) are largely used and with satisfactory results. A special form of steel cross-tie is in extensive service on the state railways and other lines, and seems likely to become the standard form of track. It has given very good results. China. — A few metal ties are to be tried as an experiment. Japan. ^Metal ties were used some years ago, but they have all been taken out. South America. — In the Argentine Republic cast-iron bowls are very extensively used and with satisfactory results. Steel cross-ties are also beginning to be iuiro- duced. Limited trials have been made in Brazil. Mexico. —Steel ties similar to those now adopted in India for the state railways are in service on the Mexican Railway. The results have been very satisfactory. The principal point of view from whicli the metal track question is considered in this country, and the one which was of course specially taken by the Department of Agriculture in calling for the preparation of this report, is that whicli considers it in relation to forest conserva- tion and the reduction of the consumption of timber. But there are other points of view, from which the subject will be presented in rather different relations. Leaving out of consideration the necessity for reducing the timber consumption, metal track will still present many advantages, which will be especially apparent to railway men. In the first place, it has been proved, to be more economical in maintenance than track on wooden ties, and there can be no doubt as to the superi- ority of a well designed system of metal track in regard to efficiency and safety. A better track may be made, and with such secure fasten- ings as are in general use, there will be a minimum of danger with a minimum of track work for the running of trains. The overturning or spreading of the rails, which causes so many accidents, can scarcely occur with a well designed system of metal track. There need be little if any extra noise with the passage of trains, and the riding of trains may be as smooth and quiet as ou track with wooden ties. In general it may be stated, that steel ties should be adopted as the standard for first class track on lines with heavy traffic. Steel ties should be intro- duced as an advancement in railway engineering, and as a step towards practical economy. A good metal track, when once well laid and set- 324 tied, is ia itself a measure of safety and a source of economy in main- tenance and operation. This is in relation to the main line, but metal track presents also special advantages for use at stations and yards. A metal track at such places, when once well laid and settled, is practically permanent, and there is a great reduction in disturbance and expense for repairs and in the chances for derailments, which are specially troublesome at terminals, yards, stations, etc. Metal track is also adapted for light and portable railways, street railways, etc. As regards the relations of first cost and economy, Mr. Walter Katt6, chief engineer of the New York Central and Hudson Eiver Eailway, has estimated and closely calculated that if the steel ties now being tried on his line last for fifty years, which he estimates as their life, there will be a relative economy of from 8 to 12 per cent, in favor of these ties. The economy is in renewals, repairs, and general mainte- nance. I have examined Mr. Katte's figures, and have calculated that even if the life be taken as only thirty-three years, there will still be a material saving per mile per annum. I am particularly pleased to be able to show in this report that this subject IS being practically considered and tested in this country, some fairly extensive trials being now in progress. From the results of sev- eral years' experience in foreign countries, it can not be doubted that it is entirely practicable to successfully introduce metal track into the United States. American ingenuity and skill will probably produce ties of equal or greater efliciency than those in use in other countries. This report will show, I think, to railway financiers as well as to practical railway men, the advantages attending the use of metal track. In regard to the desirability of introducing such track, I quote as fol- lows from an interesting letter to me from Mr. C. P. Huntington, of the Southern Pacific Eailway Company, in January, 1890 : I have for several years advocated the use of metal ties along the timherless regions of our lines, and while none of them have as yet been put in use, I think they will he given a trial in the near future. You have no douht experienced that time and considerable patience is necessary to direct the minds of men into fields of investiga- tion differing from those in which they have been educated, and in the practice of which they have spent a large part of their lives. To this fact I attribute much of the apathy manifested in giving metallic ties a trial ; but now, as their merits and those of the various designs in use are being discussed by American writers and engineers, there will be a quickening of opinion about them, which is likely to make them in the next few years a factor of some importance in the discussion of railroad economies. This report certainly shows the practicability of the matter and its desirability from several points of view. It may fairly be reasoned that what has been successfully accomplished abroad may be accomplished with equal success in this country, I have reported with pleasure that more and more attention is being paid to this matter, and that since the presentation of my preliminary report in February, 1889, really prac- tical trials have been instituted. It is my wish that the present report 325 may prove of some service in keeping alive and increasing the present interest in the matter, and that it may prove instrumental in furthering the practical work in this important direction. Finally, while I can not predict any general or extended movement in this direction in the near future, I can certainly state that there has been a marked advance within the last year or two, and that this ad- vance appears likely to continue. I think it highly probable that the question of the use of metal ties for railways as a substitute for wooden railways will gradually, steadily, and surely become one of the live problems of railway economics. PATENTS RELATING TO METAL RAILWAY TRACK. By E. E. Russell Tratman. The following list of Unitea States patents relating to metal railway track and other substitutes for wooden ties will be found useful by persons interested in the subject. It could not practically be made any- thing more than a descriptive index, giving sufficient information to enable any one who wishes to investigate more fully to form some idea of the different types patented, and to find the specifications. No. 1262; date, July 26, 1839; J. Stimpsou. — Transverse frames resting on longi- tudinal timbers, with inclined braces to hold them in position, and sockets at th« top to receive the web of a rail with a very narrow flange. No. 7799 ; date, November 26, 1850 ; H. H. May. — A cast-iron column under each rail; broad circular base ; top formed to make a chair for a double-headed rail, and having a projecting arm forming half of a transverse tie-bar. No 16898; date, March 24, 1857; H. Carpenter.— A short hollow post under each rail, connected by a tie-plate ; T-shaped fastening fitting into hollow of post. (See Nos. 35198, 99531.) No. 18494 ; date, October 27, 1857 ; S. A. Beers.— Continuous longitudinal structure, with transverse tie-bars. Saddle-rail of _f\_ section. No. 19704 ; date, March 23, .1858 ; S. H. Long. — Cross-ties of channel | ) section or T section (the latter made of two angle-irons.) Continuous flat plate under ordi- nary rail. No. 20620 ; date, June 22, 1858 ; W. Bryent. — Combined longitudinal grooved rail and iron pavement. No. 29693; date, August 21,1860; Alexander Hay.— A deep support to be driven into the earth under each rail ; either flat or twisted into a spiral ; flat head, with chair to support rail. No. 32794; date, July 9, 1861; B. C. Smith. — Wide longitudinal channel sleeper and rail combined, with transverse rods. A raised rib lengthwise of the sleeper forms the rail. (See No. 36579.) No. 35198 ; date. May 6, 1862 ; H. Carpenter. — A cylindrical casting with a wide rectangular base is under each rail ; the pairs connected by transverse tie-bars. The flauge rails are held in chairs, the bottom of which fits into the cylindrical casting or embraces it like a cap. (See No. 16898.) No. 35879 ; date, July 15, 1862 ; Herman J. Lombaert. — A continuous metal stringer is laid on wooden cross-ties ; the flange rails rest on metal tie-plates with one end bent to a hook to hold one side of the fiange of the rail. The other side is hejd by a gib and cotter. Object, to sepai'ate the wearing and bearing parts of the rail. No. 36579 ; date, September 30, 1862 ; B. C. , Smith. — Longitudinal cast-iron con- tinuous bearing, of channel section, connected by transverse tie- rods. Rail secured to chairs. (See No. 32794.) No. 38274 ; date, April 28, 1863 ; J. Anthony. — Metal chair and tie-plate for flange rails on wooden ties. 326 327 No. 53507 ; date, Marcli 27, 1806 ; Franz Vester. — Flat cross-tie, with two deep cor- rugations along its whole length. Ends turned down. No. 58563; date, October 2, 1866; Swain Winkley. — A corrugated plate of "S>,^\/\X shape under each rail, connected by a tie-bar. No. 59112; date, October 23, 1866; Swain Winkley. — A corrugated orbnckled iron plate under each rail, connected by a tie-bar ; rails held by clamps and keys. No. 63161 ; date, March 26, 1867 ; B. B. Hotchkiss.— A combined track and pave- ment. Cast-iron frames the width of the track are fitted to receive wooden blocks, to which flat rails are spiked. No. 66711 ; date, July 16, 1867 ; E. M. Holland. — Cross-tie of A section. Flange cut away for rails. Hinged wedge fastening. No. 70731 ; date, November 12, 1867; Henry McCau. — Broad flat transverse base- plates, witlx longitudinal girders held together by tie-rods. Eails resting on top of girders. No. 71063 ; date, November 19, 1867 ; Leonard Repsher. — Wrought-iron cross-tie, bent up at ends to embrance flange and web of rail, angle-clamp bolted to tie on in- side of rail. Bolt through clamp, web of rail, and end of tie. No. 79016; date, June 16,1868; William F. Serjeant. —Deep flat tie-bars connect the rails, which rest on, but are not spiked to, wooden ties. At each end of the bars are jaws to hold the base of the rail. No. 83880; date, November 10, 1868 ; J. Potter. — Flat transverse base-plate, with two uprights which support continuous stringers, to which flangeless T-rails are bolted. No. 84023; date, November 10, 1868; A. Van Guysling.—AhoUow iron column under each rail ; the rail is secured to a chair keyed to the top of the column. The columns are connected by tie-bars at the top ; or they may be cast in combination with a hol- low transverse base, in one piece. No. 92874; date, July 20, 1869; W. J. CockburnMuir (England).— Hollow inverted bowls, connected by transverse tie-bars ; the rails are secured by lugs and keys. No. 94856; date, September 14, 1869; C. G. Wilson. — Two channel irons placed back to back form a continuous stringer, and rest on wooden stringers. The web of a flangeless T-rail rests between the channel irons. The iron stringers are connected by tie-bars. No. 97020; date, November 16, 1859; A. Van Camp and M. M. Hodgman.— For street railways. A deep rail with flat head and a web corrugated longitudinally is bedded in asphaltic or concrete composition. A groove is made in this composition along the side of the rail. No. 97224; date, November 23, 1869; John H. Phillips. — Inverted bowls or sau- cers, having a chair for the rails and being connected by tie-bars. No. 99531; date, February 8, 1870; H. Carpenter. — A hole is bored at each end of a wooden tie for the stem of a T-shaped metal support ; the rail rests on a T-shaped plate, having lugs to hold the flanges of the rail and a stem underneath to fit into the hollow stem of the seat. (See No. 16898.) No. 101751 ; date, April 12, 1870; Edward G. Markley. — A cast-iron column, in the form of a truncated cone, is under each rail. On top is a chair for the rail. Tie-bars connect the pairs of columns. No. 107643; date, September 20, 1870; C. H. White.— Fiat transverse bed-plates laid on wooden stringers or cross-ties. The rails are of fl or bridge section, and rests on tic-plates having a rib which fits into the rail. No. 109504; date, November 22, 1870; C. Fisher. — Cross-tie of in verted, trough section, with closed ends. Two pockets for wooden bearing blocks. Kail fastened by flat plates resting on tie and rail flange, screwed to the wooden blocks. No. 112805; date, March 21, 1871; S. M. Guest. — A railway joint eliair, combined with an iron cross-tie of T section. 328 No. 118260; date, August 22, 1871; Klijali Myriok. — A ring-sliaped tie-plate, with three studs or pins to he driven into the wooden tie. No. 1219.j6 ; date, Deoemher 19, 1871 ; J. Newton. — A rail fastening for iron ties. Flat tie with end turned up, wooden wedge hetween rail aud end of tie, vertical jih and cotter fastening (vrith serrated cotter) on inside of rail. No. 123526 ; date, Fehruary G, 1872 ; L. E. Towne.^Cylindrical cross-tie with a flat base-plate at each end, secured by a strap passing round the tie. No. 124521; date, March 12, 1872; E, M. Upjohn. — Longitudinals under each rail, of J^ section, with very high vertical web. The rail is of _0_ section, aud rests upon the flanges of channel irons bolted to the vertical web of the longitudinals. No. 1275,)3 ; date, Jnuo 4, 1872 ; aud No. 130010 ; date July 30, 1872 ; John L. Boone.— Ties made of a composition of fiber or other material, saturated with asphaltum and shaped under pressure. No. 128120; date, June 18, 1872; Joseph H. Connelly. — A longitudinal of concrete is laid under each rail aud covered with a continuous iron plate. The rails rest on wooden tie plates and are supported by chairs. No.l3141S; date, December 31, 1872; James Calkins. — The continuous longitudinals of channel sections have lugs to hold the outer flange of rails; transverse plates pro- ject over the inner flange and are bolted to the longitudinals. No. 135667 ; date, February 11, 1873 ; Alexanderl). Bock. — Castings of "frying-pan " shape ; the rail is secured to a chair on the bowl, and the " handle " forms half of a transverse tie-bar ; the ties are connected by diagonal rods. No. 136037 ; date, Fiebruary 18, 1873 ; J. W. Kern. —A continuous road-bed of A sec- tion, with the rails laid on the horizontal flanges. Transverse base-plates at inter- vals. The bed to be of J-inch boiler iron. No. 139031 ; date. May 20, 1873 ; William H. Sterling.— Ties of a compressed asphaltio or other composition, with wooden plugs embedded in the material to receive the rail spikes. No. 139518; date, June 3, 1873; W. Peck and H. C. Elchman.— Two chairs con- nected by a horizontal flat tie-plate. Wooden bearing-blocks iu the chairs. No. 140411 ; date, July 1, 1873 ; C. W. Gulick.— A flat wrought-irou cross-tie with ribs, to form a channel for the flange of the rail. Fastenings of iron ^ inch diameter under tie, passing up through holes in the same, with ends bent over rail flange. Ties about 5 inches wide and i inch thick. No. 142668 ; date, September 9, 1873 ; J. R. Beckett.— Street railways. Transverse rods forming tie-plates for the rails and braces for the wooden stringers. No. 143407 ; date, October 7, 1873 ; P. S. Devlan.— A cross-tie made of two iron plates on edge, fastened together at the middle and widening out to hold a wooden block at each end. No. 144207; date, November 4, 1873; George Keeoh.— Longitudinal plates under each rail, with lugs to hold outside of rail flange. Transverse tie-plates project over the inner flange and are secured by horizontal bolts passing through lugs on the base plate. No. 145250; date December 2, 1873; T. R. Timby.— Bowls of different forms cast on the ends of a deep flat steel or wrought-iron tie-bar. In the end of the bar are holes through which the metal flows and thus secures the casting of the bar. (The method is similar in principle to that of the Chappge tienow being tried on the Western Railway of Franco.) (See the report.) No. 145991 ; date, December 30, 1873 ; II. L. De Zeng.— Wrought-iron crosa-tie of I J I U U. or other section. A clip stamped out of the metal holds outer flange of rail; loose clip, secured by vertical key or cotter holds inner flauge. (See Nos. 155369; 334696; 380623; 400643.) No. 146376; date, January 13, 1874; G. H. Blaisdell.— A cast-iron cross-tie of A - section, with wide flat deep ends, having sockets for wooden blocks. A bolt passes through both blocks and the whole length of the tie. 829 No. 147563; date, February 17, 1874; P. Kendriok and J.Stokes. — A cross-tie made of two old rails laid parallel, with a wooden block between them at each end, and baae-plates if desired. No. 148242 ; date, March 3, 1874 ; George Potts. — Continuous bearing of wood held between two continuous iron stringers of X section, the top of the web being bent over to hold the rail flange. Bolts pass through the three pieces. No. 152469 ; date June 30, 1874 ; Abram Dehuff. — The rails are spiked at the tops of short wooden piles or stakes, and are connected by iron tie-bars. No. 155369 ; date, September 29, 1874 ; H. L. De Zeng. — A cross-tie of inverted trough Section, with open ends, but with projecting wings at ends to prevent lateral dis- placement. (See No. 145991.) No. 158437; date, January 5, 1875; S. L. Porter and Duane Peck. — Kite-shaped metal bowls, with the pointed ends between two diagoual tie-bars which form an X. The rails are held by lugs, keys and screws. . No. 161153 ; date, March 23, 1874 ; S. L. Porter and Duane Peck. — Modifications of the previous patent. No. 158437. No. 163187; date. May 11, 1875; S. H. Hamilton. — An iron or steel cross-tie of square hollow section throughout or only at ends. Fixed lugs hold the inner flange of rail, and bolted plates hold the outer flange. No. 163254; date. May, 1875; H. Reese.— -A rolled iron cross-tie of T section; lugs stamped oat while hot from the rolls. Bent clip and horizontal wedge fastening for outer flange of rail. (See Nos. 214193; 215675 ; 272477 ; also July 13, 1880.) No. 164793; date, June 22, 1875; Ramon Bafiolas. — Cross-ties of 1 section, carrying longitudinal stringers of i section, to which flangeless rails of 1 section are bolted. No. 166625 ; date, August 10, 1875 ; R. E. Nichols. — A continuous hollow bearing, section similar to lower half of letter A ; bottom closed ; top open with horizontal flanges to carry the rail flange, cross-ties of ( | section. Longitudinals and cross- ties filled with broken stone. No. 171422 ; date, December 21, 1875 ; John Quigley. — A cast-iron cross-tie with chair combined, for street-railway track. No. 172041; date, January 11, 1870; E. E. Lewis. — A cross-tie of -|- section, with the top vertical flange cut away for the rails, which are secured by wedges. (See Nos. 183,766; 198,464.) No. 176213; date April 18, 1876; George D. Blaisdell. — A cast-iron cross-tie, with wide ends and loose bearing-blocks, all held together by a bolt running through the whole length of the tie. No. 182984 ; date, October 3, 1876 ; Leonora Yates. — Cross-ties of 'I |~, '\y- , or '\J~ section, the latter being semi-cylindrical, with flanges. The rails are fastened by bolted clamps. No. 183766; 183767; 183768; date, October 31, 1876; E. E. Lewis. —A cross-tie of + section; rails of different forms. Also a joint tie of _U_ section. (See 172041.) No. 185808; date, December 26, 1876: D. S. Whittenhall.— A cross-tie of /\/\/\ section ; the rails resting in notches in the top ridges. (See No. 227602.) No. 186710 ; date, January 30, 1877 ; George W. Chandler. — Clay, stone, or concrete ties in two or more pieces; a flat iron strap is laid in a groove along the top and another along the bottom ; these plates are bolted together. The rails are held by clamps screwed to the iron plates. No. 187652; date, February 20, 1877; Walter MacLellan and John P. Smith (Scot- land). — Fluted, corrugated, or embossed rectangular howls, connected by tie-bars; the rails are held by bolted clamps. (These ties are manufactured in Scotland and are iu use in India and Australia.) (See the report.) No. 188087 ; date, March 6, 1877; H. S. Wilson.— A cross-tie of I section, with fixed and movable rail-clips. No. 188710 ; date, March 20, 1877 ; N. S. White. — A continuous bed-plate under each rail, with cross-ties. 330 No. 190739; date, May 15, 1877; A. H. Campbell. — A east-iron cross-tie, with sock- ets for wooden bearing-blocks. No. 192842; date, .July 10, 1877; A. W. Serres.— A continuous bearing of Y bec- tiou (in two pieces) under eaoli rail with transverse tie-bars. The web of a flangeless rail lies between the two vertical webs. (This track has been used in Europe ; see Engineering News, New York, January 28, 1887, page 73 ; also Railroad Gazette, New York, August 19, 18B7. See report ; " Belgium" and " Austria.") No. 197300; date, November 20, 1877 ; John Turner. — Street railways. The wooden stringers are connected by tie-i'ods which have flat plates or washers, held tight against the stringers and rails by nuts. No wooden cross-ties are used. No. 198060; date, December 11, 1877; John B. Ward. — A longitudinal pipe (for conveying water) under each rail ; the bottom of rail curved to fit pipe. No. 198370 ; date, December 18, 1877 ; Josiah Foster. — Hollow box castings, with top and bottom flanges, are bolted to stone blocks ; the rails rest on spring plates and are held by hook bolts to the top flanges of the castings. No. 198464; date, December 25, 1877; E. E. Lewis. — A cross-tie consisting of an old rail with two notches cutto the level of the flange to admit the track rails. Two rails with wooden bearing-blocks used at joints. (See 172041.) No. 198618; date, December 25, 1877; D. Horrie. — A transverse truss of cast or wrought iron. Horizontal hoot bolt fastenings. No. 200737 ; date, February 26, 1878 ; Gustav Lehlbach. — Street railways or ordi- nary railways. Deep foundation columns under each rail. No. 201667; date, March 26, 1878; H. A. Haarmann. — Continuous bearing for each rail, with cross-ties. This track has been extensively used in Europe. (See En- gineering News, New York, January 29, page 74.) (See No. 219856.) (See Report, "Germany.") No. 206647 ; date, July 30, 1878 ; T. W. Travis.— A hollow cross-tie, with boxes at the ends open on top. The rails are held between two C clips ; the groove holds the flange rail ; the upper web lies against the rail web, and the lower web is wedged into the box. See Nos. 214208 and 224808. (Tried on the Philadelphia and Balti- more Central Railway.) (See Report, "United States.") No. 207242; date, August 20, 1878; J. A. Bonnell. — An inverted trough cross-tie with closed ends and corrugated top. Bolted clips or angle-bar fastenings for rails. No. 207320 ; datw, August 20, 1878 ; J. H. Thompson. — A cross-tie made in two pieces, dove-tailed together in the middle. The rails rest on wooden blocks. No. 210681; date, December 10, 1878; George F. Folsom.— A continuous cast-iron bearing under each rail, connected by iron ties and having sockets for round wooden blocks. No. 207719; date, Septembers, 1878; W. E. Curtiss.— A wrought-iron cross-tie of inverted trough section with flaring sides, having a brace of the same section inside under each" rail. The ends are open. Rails secured by bolted clips. No. 210774; date, December 10,1878; F. B. Freudenberg. — A wrought-iron cross- tie of somewhat similar section to the preceding one. Hooked clips are riveted on for inside aud outside flauge on alternate ties, the rails being sprung into place. Long ties for double tracks. Patented in Germany, January 18, 1878. No._ 211697; date, January 28, 1879; Hamilton L. BucknaU (England).— Glass bowls, cross-ties, and stringers. No. 212127; date, February 11, 1879; James Buckner, jr.— For street railways. Metal saddle plates on the stringers, to carry the rails, and metal tie-bars. No. 214182; date, Aprils, 1879; George P. Osborne.— Safety plates to keep spikes from working loose when driven into sound-deadening material, to be used for ele- vated railways. No. 214192 ; date, April 8, 1879 ; H. Reese.— A cross-tie of T-seotion, with the ends of the horizontal table turned down at an angle. Clip and wedge fastening. (See No. (163254.) 331 No. 214208; date, April 8, 1879; T. W. Tiuvis. — A oast-irou box under each rail, with broad rectangular base. Tie-bar connections. The rails rest on and are held by vertical wedge clamps. (See No. 206647.) No. 215675; date, May 20, 1879; H. Reese.— Improvements upon No. 214192. No. 216846 ; date, June 24, 1879 ; L. A. Gouch. — A cross-tie of — |— section, the longitudinal web being the widest and haying its edges turned up or down. No. 218442 ; date, August 12, 1879 ; John Keller. — The wooden ties are spaced far apart, and at intermediate points there are bolted to the rail angle-plates with wide flaring flanges which project below and beyond the rail-flange, forming a sort of bowl. No. 218559 ; date, August 12, 1879 ; S. NichoUs (of England.) — A continuous broad bed-plate under each rail, for street railways. The rail is formed of two channels, leaving a space between for the wheel-flange D C. No. 218603; date, August 12, 1879; A. P. Whiting.— A. cross-tie of w section, the top flange cut away for the rails. Bolted clips hold the inner flanges of rails. No. 218648; date, August 19, 1879; C. F. Wagner (of Austria). — A cross-tie com- posed of two parallel pieces of T-section, fastened together by cross-strips. Bolted clip rail fastenings. No. 218878 ; date, August 26, 1879 ; C. Haushaw. — A cross-tie made in two pieces lengthwise ; on oue piece are clips for the inner flange of one rail and the outer flange of the other, and on the other piece are clips for the outer and inner flanges, respect- ively. The two pieces are held together by a flat horizontal key driven between other clips in the middle of the tie. No. 219856; date, September 23, 1879;H.A. Haarmannof Prussia— (See No. 201667).— A cross-tie of inverted trough section with flaring sides, and a flat or grooved top table. The rail fastenings are C shaped, with a bolt passing under the rail. No. 220026; date, September 30,1879; H. T. Livingston. — A tubular cross-tie of oval section with a flat surface under each rail. Rails fastened by bolts screwed into the tie. Interior of tie packed hard with straw, grass, etc. No. 221596 ; date, November 11, 1879 ; O. E. MuUarky. — A cross-tie of channel sec- tion I 1 with wooden bearing-blocks wedged inside under the rails. The rails are fastened by bolted clips. No. 223187; date, December 30, 1879 ; J. R. Sullivan. — Two separate cast-iron bear- ing pieces connected by a tie-bar. Each rail is seonred by a cast-iron wedge. No. 224808 ; date, February 24, 1880 ; T. W. Travis.— A bridge support is placed between the ties, the top supporting the rail and the ends resting on adjacent ties. The object is to enable ties to be spaced farther apart than usual. See No. (214208). No. 2283U8 ; date, April 6, 1880 ; A. Greig (patented in England, March 25, 1879).— Flat cross-ties, with one or two grooves along the whole length. A brace or clip is riveted to hold the outside of the rail, and the rail is held against it by a hook-bolt, the body of which lies in the groove and has a nut at the end of the tie. (This sys- tem is much used for portable railways manufactured in England.) No. 227602 ; date. May 11, 1880 ; D. S. Whittenhall.— Improvements ou No. 185808. No. 9292 (re-issne); date, July 13, 1880; H. Reese.— (See No. 214192.) No. 230816; date, August 3, 1880; William Rainbow.— Cast-iron bowls of different forms, of approximately conical shape ; they are connected by tie-bars. No. 930826; date, August 3, 1880; Lewis Scofield. — A cross-tie of J^ section. Riveted and bolted clips for rail fastenings. (See Report ; " United States.") No. 231755; date, August 31, 1880 ; William Brown.— A hollow cross-tie of rectan- gular section, with concave bottom and open ends. A rib at the ends keeps the rail in position, and is fastened down by hooked bolts with nuts inside the tie. No. 233528 ; date, October 19, 1880 ; W. C. Lntz.— A cross-tie of J. section, with the rails secured by flat hooked clips bolted to the side of the vertical web. (See No. 241389.) No. 235078; date, December 7, 1880 ; G. H. Gilman. — A cast-iron cross-tie of rect- angular section, with grooves to reduce the weight. The rails are held by fixed and movable lugs. 332 No. 235321 ; date, Decemljer 7, 1880 ; F. A. Williams.— The two broad bearing plates, on whio li the rails i est, are connected by two transverse tie-plates, placed on edge. No. 235706 ; date, December 21, 1880 ; S. F. Seely.— Metal longitudinals of rectan- gular form, -with flaring sides and ends. Flangeless Trails are used, with the web bolted against the leg of a T-iron on the longitudinal. No. 239511 1 March 29, 1881 ; Joseph Kindelan.— Eail brace and tie-bar for curves. No. 240511; April 26, 1H81; D. E. V. Goetohins.— A flat tie-bar with wide ends is bolted on to a wooden tie ; the ends have lugs for the rail flanges. No. 240987 ; date, May 3, 1881 ; I. W. Fleck.— A cross-tie made of an ordinary rail, head down, with strengthening sections and a broad base-plate bolted to it. It is curved into an arched form, high in the middle, with the ends level for the track rails. No. 241389; date. May 10, 1881 ; W. C. Lutz.— A cross-tie of cylindrical form, with flat bearing surfaces for the rails ; or with a vertical web on top, with notches for the rails. (See No. 233528.) No. 241724 ; date. May 17, 1881 ; J. C. Eupp.— The tie consists of a block under each rail, with a connecting tie-bar. (See No. 245222.) No. 242850 ; date, June 14, 1881 ; H. Thielsen.— Cross-tie of T-section ; in two halves, one under each rail. Bent clips formed out of the metal of the tie. The two pieces keyed together at the middle. (See No. 317244.) No. 244003 ; date, July 5, 1881 ; George W. Vroman.— Each tie is in two pieces, each of which consists of a rectangular plate and half a tie-bar. Lugs are placed diagonally on the plates. The plates are put under the rails, so that the latter will rest between the lugs ; the plates are then swung round, bringing the ends of the rods together, and bringing the lugs over the rail flanges. (This is similar to the ties pro- posed by Mr. Moore in India. (See Eeport.) No. 245222; date, August 2, 1881 ; J. C. Eupp.— The block under each rail is of I- section; and each pair ts connected by two tie-rods, forming an X. (See No. 241724.) No. 245440; date, August 9, 1881; Thomas Breen.— A cast-iron chair or support is placed under each rail, and the pairs are connected by tie-bars. The rails are se- cured by bolted clamps. (See Nos. 272850 and 294191. ) No. 246888; date, September 13, 1881 ; G. A. Jones. — A cross-tie of 1 section, with the ends formed into a chair. The rail is held in the chair and spiked to a wood block. No. 247248 ; date, September 20, 1881 ; Levi Haas. — A cross-tie made of an old rail with the ends resting on wood blocks ; the track rails are secured to the top of the tie. (See 253374, 257572, 282309, 315771, 389464, 391704, 406346, 420299.) Nos. 249270 and 249271 ; date, November 8, 1881 ; E. H. Tobey.— Crossrties of 1 | or V section ; the rails are held in chairs resting on wooden blocks. No. 249503 ; date, November 15, 1881 ; J. Clark. — A cross-tie of semi-circular section •^ ^ . the bottom fastened to a flat bed-plate the whole length of the tie ; the top of the arch cut away for the rail. (See 256199, 259095, 270637, 358144, also August 5, 1884.) No. 251251 ; date, December 20, 1881 ; C. F. Kreuz. — A flat cross-tie with thickened ends to hold the outer flanges of the rails and a flat cross-tie with another flat piece resting on it to hold the inner flanges of the rails. These ties are placed alternately. (See No. 263919.) No. 251625 ; date, December 27, 1881 ; William Morris (England).— Concrete chairs and blocks for railways and street railways. No. 253374 ; date, February 7, 1882; Levi Haas. — Iron ties in two pieces, connected by a tie-bar. It is designed to be made of old flange rails. (See No. 247248.) No. 253381 ; date, February 7, 1882 ; Charles F. Herbst. — Cast-iron bolts, rectangu- lar and pyramidical; each pair of bowls is connected by a tie-rod, having a nut on each side of each bowl. The rails are held by wedged and bolted clamps. No. 254802; date March 14, 1882; J. Conley. — Aflat cross-tie in two pieces, with 333 the inner end o^ach turned up so as to be bolted together. Under the rails the sides are turned down. Clips are stamped oat of the metal. (See No. 332384.) No. 255554; date, March 28, 188i ; F. A. Williams. — A cross- tie of shallow inverted trough-section, with broad ends. The rails are held against fixed clips by plates the whole length of the tie, placed on edge, underneath, with a hooked end to hold the rail flange. These plates are secured by a horizontal key in the middle of the tie. No. 256199; date, April 11, 1882; J. Clark.— Improvements upon No. 249503. No. 257437 ; date, May 2, 1882 ; H. Do Zavala. — A cross-tie of ./\. section, with U -bolts passing nnder the rail and having nuts screwed down on the rail flange. No. 257572; date. May 9, 1882; Levi Haas. —A cross-tie consisting of two cast-iron bed-plates, with bearing-blocks to which the rails are bolted. A tie-bar connects the two bed-plates. See Nos. 247248, 282309, 31.W71, 389464, 406346, and 420299. No. 259095 ; date, June 6, 1882; J. Clark.— Further improvements on No. 249503. No. 259726 ; date, June 20, 1882 ; Daniel Smith. — A transverse tie-bar with wide flat ends, having lugs to hold the rail flange ; but the rails have to be slipped into these chairs, there being no loose or adjustable parts. Each end rests on a wooden block of white oak, 8 inches square and 2 inches thick, which rests on a stone block. No. 259823; date, June 20, 1882; A. L. Cubberlery. — A flat cast-iron cross-tie, with concave bottom, and dovetail grooves on top, for sliding rail fastenings into place. No. 259891; date, June 20, 1882; J. H. Meacham. — A cross-tie of ± section, with end boxes for wood blocks, to which the rails are secured by hook-bolts. No. 260231 ; date, June 27, 1882 ; J. Parr. — A cast-iron cross-tie with fixed and mov- able lugs for the flanges of the rails. (See No. 277333.) No. 260724 ; date, July 4, 1882; A. L. Withers, jr. — Each rail rests in a groove on a metal block ; the blocks have dovetailed recesses for rail-clamps and tie-bars. No. 263078; date, Angust 22, 1882; Francis Tunica.— The rails rest in T shaped chairs, secured to circular blocks of metal resting on a concrete base. Each block has two tie-rods, which run not to the opposite block, but to the blocks to the right and left of the opposite block; so that the rods form horizontal triangular bracing or trussing. No. 263919; date, September 5, 1882; C. F. Kreuz. — A cross-tie of h section, the rails resting on the web and secured by wedges. An improvement on No. 251251. No. 265543; date, October 3, 1882 ; E. D. Samain. — A flat tie-bar with lugs on the ends, and a bolted plate with lugs to hold the inner side of the rail flange. No. 265760 ; date, October 10, 1882 ; M. I. Cortright.— A cross-tie with two grooves or corrugations in its length, and with notches to receive the flange of the rails. No. 267930 ; date, November 21, 1882 ; G. L. Putnam.— A cross-tie of square-section, hollow or solid, with hooked spikes put in place from the bottom aud tapering up- wards. (See No, 285842.) No. 269442; date, December 19, 1882; E. B. Meeker. — Cross-ties of T section, with broad table. Flat horizontal bars with turned up ends, used alternately with the ties. The rail to be of extra height, bolted to chairs. No. 270637; date, January 16, 1883; J. Clark.— A flat cross-tie with arched bearing- plates and chairs. (See No. 249503.) No. 272477 ; date, February 20, 1883.; Henry Reese.— A cross-tie of inverted trough sections, having flaring sides and a middle interior rib ; carries longitudinal plates of similar section to which the rails are se'cured by gibs. The gibs are held in place by a horizontal screw and nut placed between the gib and counter-gib. (See No. 163x^54.) No. 272850 ; date, February 27, 1883 ; T. Breen.— A flat cross-tie, twisted spirally in the middle and having the ends turned up. (See No. 245440.) No. 274309 ; date, March 20, 1883 ; W. H. Gibbs and George Snook.— A cross-tie of J. section, with supports for a rail-chair of inverted trough sections, with a wooden block, to which the rail is secured by hooked clamps. No. 276414 ; date, April 24, 1883 ; E. B. Hungerford. — A cross-tie of nhallow chan- 334 nel section | | . The flanges are cut away and notched to hold the rail-flange, and the rail rests on a loose bed-plate with a clip to hold the other flange; the plate being held in place by a horizontal key driven through holes in the tie-flanges. No. 277000 ; date, May 8, 1883 ; T. J. Bronson and A. Armstrong. — The rails rest in grooves on separate blocks, and are held together and in place by tie-bars and bolted clamps. (See No. 289806.) No. 277333; date. May 8, 1883 ; J. Parr. — A hollow cast-iron croas-tie. The rails are secured to loose chairs having long projections which ran nearly through the tie and are secured by a vertical bolt at the middle of the tie. (See No. 260231.) No. 279^80; date, June 12, 1883; Fridolf Schaumann (Euglaud). — Concrete blocks with prepared cork tie-plates. Chairs are secured by bolts; or flange rails resting direct on the cork plates are secured by clamps held by bolts passing through the concrete block. No. 280110; date, June 26, 1883; S. B. Wright. — A cross-tie of inverted trough sec- tion, with the inside of the top arched. (See No. 298539.) No. 280200; date, June 26, 1883 ; J. Mahouey and D. W. Shockley.— A cro.ss-tie of I I section, with wooden bearing blocks. (See No. 370634.) No. 281806; date, July 24, 1883; A. E. Spaulding. — A cross- tie of channel section I 1, to which the rail is fastened by a series of flat horizontal keys or wedges in dove-tailed grooves. No. 282309; date, July 31, 1883; Levi Haas. — Heavy cast-iron chairs, connected by tie-bars. (See No. 247248.) No. 283076; date, August 14, 1883; J. L. Chapman. — Cross-ties of shallow chan- nel [ |, or of two flat plates, one above the other, separated by distance-blocks. Each rail is secured by bolted clips to a bed-plate. No. 283230; date, August 14, 1883; H. F. Flickinger.— A cross-tie of I section, to which the rails are secured by fl bolts, with the nuts on the under side of the top flange of the tie. No. 284157; date, August 28, 1883; J. W. Young. — A hollow open-sided, elastic cross-tie of 1 section ; to be filled with ballast or earth on surface lines. Two or more of these plates to be placed inside one another, with one side open, or to form a closed tie. It is claimed to be adapted to elevated roads. No. 285833; date, October 2, 1883; John Newton.— Channel-iron stringers | ] with flat cross-ties fastened to the top. No. 285842 ; date, October 2, 1883 ; George L. Putnam. — A cross-tie of T section, depressed in the middle to hold a water trough for supplying locomotives. The rails are secured by bolted clips. (See No. 267930.) No. 285986; date, October 2, 1883; Clark Fisher.— A bent plate cross-tie of U sec- tion in the middle with flat ends. A U bolt passes under the rail, and washers are screwed down on the rail-flange by the nuts. No. 286651 ; date, October 16, 1883; E.L. Taylor.— Separate rail bearers or bowls connected by tie-bars. Lugs or clamps on the bowl hold the inner flange of the rail, and a lug on the end of the tie-bar holds the outer flange. (See report '' United States.") Wooden or stone blocks may be used. (See No. 371993 and No. 382470.) No. 287418 ; date, October 30, 1883 ; J. J. Clarke (of Peru).— A flat plate tie for port- able railway track, with special joint fastenings. (Assigned to A. W. Colwell, New York.) No. 289806 ; date, December 11, 1883 ; T. J. Bronson and" A. Armstrong.— An iron or steel cross-tie of approximately semi-cylindrical section fl, with lugs struck up by means of dies. (See No. 277000. ) No. 290793 ; date, December 25, 1883 ; L. O. Orton.— A flat inverted trough cross- tie, with wedge-shaped boxes projecting above and below to hold the bearing blocks and fastenings. No. 291514; date, January 8, 1884; H. E. Holbrook.- A hollow cross-tie of oval section with thickened portions under the rails; vails secured by bolted clips. No. 291523; date, January 8, 1884 ; John G. Krichbaura. — Large, deep castings con- nected by tie-bars ; rails held by bolted clamps. No. 292421 ; date, January 22, 1884 ; J. J. Du Bois. — A cross-tie with dove-tailed groove for rail and a wedge fastening. No. 293194; date, February 5, 1884 ; J. Keveu. — A. flat tie-bar to keep rails from spreading; one end bent up to hold rail, the other end having thread and nut with movable clamp. No. 293302 ; date, February 12, 1884 ; George W. Bloodgood.— Bolted clips for fast- ening rails to ties of inverted-trough section. No. 294191; date, February 26, 1884; T. Breen. — A cross-tie made in two pieces, lengthwise ; placed side by side, holding the rail chairs aud fastenings between them. (See No. 245440.) No. 296725 ; date, April 15, 1884 ; W. T. Carter.— A hollow cross-tie, with flat top and bottom and concave sides. No. 298539; date. May 13, 1884; S. B. Wright. — Fastening rails to inverted cross- ties by clips and T-headed bolts. (See No. 280110.) No. 299345 ; date. May 27, 1884 ; Joseph Chater (India). — Cast-iron plates with jaws forming a rail chair ; the plate-! are connected by tie bars. The general design is similar to that of theDenham and Olpherta ties, used in India. (Patented in India, December 8, 1883 ; England, January 8, 1884 ; France, February 1, 1884 ; Germany, February 7, 1884.) No. 299557; date June 3, 1884; J. Lookhart. — A clamp or tie-rod, to be used in connection with wooden ties. A tie rod, running across the track, has clamps to hold the rail flanges, the inner clamps being held by set-screws. It is claimed that soft wood ties can be used, as there will be no tendency for the rails to spread. (See No. 32728^.) No. 302664; date, July 29, 1884; Joseph Monier (Prance). — A metal skeleton or framework covered with concrete, artificial stone, etc. No. 302965 and No. 302966 ; date, August 5, 1884 ; C. S. Westbrook.—A cross-tie of I 1 section, with parts of the horizontal table cut away. The rails are held by riveted and keyed angle-plates. Nos. 10504 and 10505 (re-issues) ; date, August 5, 1884 ; J. Clark. — Improvements in No. 249503. No. 303373; date, August 12, 1884; E. G. Holtham (of England).— Patented in Eng- land December 22, 1883. — Broad longitudinals under each rail, with transverse tie- rods, and with additional side plates to increase the bearing oh the ballast. No. 303540 ; date, August 12, 1884 ; W. G. Olpherts (India).— The tie consists of cast-iron plates connected by a tie-bar. The rails are held by jaws secured by cot- ters driven through the plate, tie-bar, and jaw. Patented in India, Jnly 24, 1877 ; England, February 17, 1879. (See report " India.") No. 304622 ; date, September 22, 1884 ; Charles H. Denham (India). — Somewhat similar to No. 303540, but having the rail or chair bolted to a wooden block. Pat- ented in India, November 6, 1876 ; England, June 28, 1877. (See report " India") No. 304746; date, September 9, 1884 ; G. W. B. Neal. — A cross-tie made of triangular section, with the rails carried in and bolted to chairs fastened to the apex of the tie. No. 305156; date, September 16, 1884 ; A. N. D. Delffs.- A concrete tie, with wooden blocks to which the rails are spiked. No. 306090; date, October 7, 1884; Robert MofBy. — A cross-tie made of three pieces the full length of the tie, bolted together so as to form a i-slot along it, in which the rail fastenings slide. No. 306139; date, October 7, 1884; B. W. De Courcy.— A cross-tie of r'\ Q section, with the rails resting on the top, and secured by hooked clamps bolted to- gether below the rail. No. 309428; date, December 16, 1884; J. H. Williams.— A cross-tie of U-si'ction, with wooden blocks to which the rails are spiked. 336 No. 310269; date, January 6, 1885; Abraham Gottlieb. — A croas-tie of inverted trough section, with a groove along its top table. The rail is fastened by bolted clips or a special form of locking plate or chair. No. 310794; date, January 13, 1885; John K. Clark. — Each tie consists of two J. (tee) shaped supports, with triangular wings; the supports are connected by a tie- rod. (See Nos. 323275, 350478, and 362608.) Xo-310878; date, January 20, 1885 ; John T. Campbell. — Metal longitudinals, with ribs on top forming aohannel for the webof aflangelessT-rail. Transverse tie-bars. No. 312566 ; date, February 17, 1885; W. H. Knowlton.'— Cross- ties of different sec- tions. No. 312717; date, February 27, 1885 ; E. N. Higley. — A flat cross-tie, with sides and ends turned down and with a vertical rib along the middle. This rib cut away for the rails, which are fastened by boUed clips. General section thus / — * — ^ . (See Nos. 334228 and 353028.) Manufactured by the International Railway Tie Com- pany, of New York. (See report, " United States.") No. 312881 ; date, February 24, 1885 ; W. McVey.— A metal cross-tie in two pieces, mortised together at the middle and secured by a bolt. No. 313072; date, March 3, 1885; A. A. Harrison.— A combined flat longitudinal and cross-tie ; the cross-tie having plate at right angles, and being laid so that these plates of adjacent ties meet. No. 313260; date, March 3,1885; L. O. Vanderbilt and M. E. Company.— Each tie consists of a pair of hollow inverted bowls, connected by a tie-bar. The rails are held by bolted clamps. No. 313512; date, March 10, 1885; A. J. Moxhara.— Cross-ties of inverted trough, section, with riveted angle-irons on top, to which rail (principally girder street rails) are bolted or riveted. (See Nos. 319010 and 355778.) No. 313778 ; date, March 10, 1885 ; C. M. Seltzer and O. T. Moook.— For street rail- ways. Improvements in rail fastenings and stringers. No. 314158; date, March 17, 1885; CM. Van Orman. — A cross-tie of semi-circular section ^ \ with a cast-iron saddle at each end ; the saddle has a lug fitting into a hole in the tie and two diagonal holes for rail spikes. No. 314757 ; date, March 31, 1885 ; C. H. Van Orden.— A cross-tie of T section, with a rail chair at each end, the rails being secured by bolts which have hooked ends passing through the top of the tie. No. 315047 ; date, April 7, 1885 ; M. A. Martindale.— Longitudinals of inverted trough section, with rails forming a part oior bolted to the top table. Connected by trans- verse tie-plates. Claimed to be adapted for laying along highways. No. 315771 : date, April 14, 1885 ; L. Haas.— A cross-tie made of two pieces the full length of the tie, with the section of figure 1, having wooden bearing blocks, to which the rails are spiked. iSee No. 247248.) No. 317244 ; date May 5, 1885 ; H. Thielsen.— A cross-tie of T section, the sides of the top table being turned down. (See No. 242850.) No. 317763; date. May 12, 1885; M. A. Glynn (of Cuba).— Cross-ties of S\. or T section ; also longitudinals of inverted trough section. No. 317988 ; date, May 10, 1885 ; T. H. Gibbon.— Longitudinals with short spaces between them and connected by transverse tie-bars. The rails are held by clamps and lugs. (See Nos. 320869 and 347236.) No. 319010; date, June 2, 1885; A,. J. Moxham.— A .cross-tie made of two angle- irons, with distance plates at the ends and middle | ] ; the rails are bolted to high chairs. The tie is intended for street railways, and is shown with a center- bearing girder-rail. (See No. 313512.) No. 319813 ; date, June 9, 1885 ; G. C. H. Hasskarl — ^A hollow box cross-tie, with a Y-shaped web inside; the small middle space receiving the T-heads of the track-bolts. It is also to be used as a longitudinal sleeper for street railways, the two large side spaces being used as conduits for telegraph wires, etc. 337 No. 320231 ; date, June 16, 1885 ;- E. D. Dougherty and George B. Bryant.— A cross- tie of rectangular section, with an opening in the top table to receive a smaller cross- tie to which the rails are fastened, and which rests on springs placed in the larger box. No. 320869 ; date, June 23, 1885 ; Thomas H, Gibbon. — A modification of former patent ; adapted for street railways. (See Nos. 317988, 347236, 363513, 403465.) No. 322621; date, July 14, 1885; Petherick Davey. — A tie composed of two plates and chairs connected by a tie-bar. The rails are held by keyed clamps. No. 323275; date, July 28, 1885 ; John K. Clark. — Separate rail supports of T form, connected by a broad flat tie-bar, having the ends turned up and bolted to tlie rail support. (See No. 310794.) No. 323356 ; date, July 28, 1885 ; G. Murray. — A flat cross-tie thickened under the rail, and having a rib at the bottom under each rail and in the middle ; the rails se- cured by bolted plates. No. 323430; date, August 4, 1885; J. K. Lake.-^A combined metal stringer and chair for street railways. No. 323809; date, August 4, 1885; William B. Henning. — A longitudinal plate lies under each rail ; with cross-ties having deep ends, with T slots to receive the web and flange of the rails. (See No. 376i84.) No. 325020 ; date, August 25, 1885 ; K. E. Shepard. — A cross-tie of channel" section I I with one outer and one inner lug for each rail, and two | slots for clips of I shape with eccentric heads. No. 326874; date, September 22, 1885 ; P. Kirk (of England).— A cross-tie with in- creased thickness at the rail seats, and with two lugs or cli ps punched up to hold the flange of each rail ; the rail being secured by a wedge driven between the flange and one of the lugs (patented in England, France, Belgium, and Spain in 1885). No. 327285 ; date, September 29, 1885 ; J. Lookhart. — An improvement upon No. 299557. No. 327667 ; date, October 6, 1885 ; P. H. Dudley. — Separate rail supports connected by tie-bars. Each support consists of a hollow rectangular box, open on top, set on a wide rectangular base or bowl. The box has a partial filling of sahd, upon which rests a block of compressed wood or wood-pulp ; the rail rests on this block and is secured by bolted clamps. The heads of the bolts are inside the bowl. One object is to enable the rails to be raised or "shimmed" without disturbing the ballast. At the joints the bowl is long enough to carry two or three "boxes," according to whether the rail-joint is suspended or supported. Nos. 327745 and 327843 ; date, October 6, 1885 ; L. E. Whipple.— A cross-tie of X section, made of two curved plates placed back to back and having flat plate across top and bottom. No. 328632 ; date, October 20, 1885 ; J. S. Ammon. — A cross-tie of A section with rail chairs secured to the top ridge. No. 329429 ; date, November 3, 1885 ; G. E. Baldwin.— A pair of rail chairs of J~\_ shape, resting on wooden blocks and tied together by a rod. The top table has a groove to receive the web of a rail of T section, having no bottom flange. Intended especially for city railways. No. 329821 ; date, November 3, 1885 ; P. Davey. — A cross-tie of channel section, lo which the rails are secured by keys and Z -shaped clamps, the lower part of the latter lying inside the tie. No. 332384; date, December 15, 1885 ; J. Oonley. — A fastening for attaching rails to metal ties, which have lugs to hold the outer flange of rail. The fastening is a bar inside the tie, with a hook at one end projecting through a hole and holding the raij. flange, while the other end is bent up against the end of the tie. (See No. 254802.) No. 332707; date, December 22, 1885; .Taoob Prysinger. — Wooden stringers are con- nected by metal cross-ties of I section, having tjip web put away at the ends to adtfliti 32893— Bull 4 — -33 338 the stringers. The rails are secured by bolts passing through the stringers and the flanges of the ties. (See No. 400558.) No. 333015 ; date, December 22, 1885 ; J. Howard and E. T. Bonsfield (of England).— A cross-tie \ cross-ties with pieces punched out of the top and bent to embrace the flange and web of the rail. No. 344185 ; date, June 22, 1886 ; W. Kilpatrick. — A cross-tie of '^, / section with a slot along the flat top to receive the bottom of the rail chairs. No. 344826; date, July 6, 1886; I. F. Good. — A flat cross-tie thickened and widened at the ends to form rail chairs, and having flanges projecting down under the chairs. The rails secured by keys. No. 345054 ; date, July 6, 1886 ; Samuel Hyman. — Hollow columns, with caps form- ing rail-seats. For street railways. No. 345733; date, July 20,1886; C. Sailliez.— A cross-tie of channel section | \, with lugs to hold the rail flanges. The flanges are cut away at the ends to allow of wooden stringers being used under the rails. J^o, 346998; date, August XO, 1886 1 D, ^^ufms^n,— flat pross-tje^ wit}^ cjjairs att^9 339 ends, and longitudinal continuous flat plates beyond the chairs. The space between the rails ia covered by a continuous arched plate. No. 347236; date, August 10, 1886; Thomas Gibbon.— Hollow inverted trough stringers. For street railways. (See No. 317988.) No. 348877 ; date, September 7, 1886 ; Henry P. Adams.— Each tie consists of two rectangular plates, connected by a tie-bar. Alternate ties have lugs on the outer and inner sides of the rails. (See No. 361199. ) No. 349524 ; date, September 31, 1886 ; E. Schmidt (of Prussia). — A cross-tie made of two old flange rails laid flat, head to head, forming a tie of H H section. The rails rest on the web and are fastened by bolted clips. (Patented in Germany.) No. 349846 ; date, September 28, 1886 ; Edward Jones.— Hollow irou boxes, with high raised seats for the rails, and connected by deep plates set on edge. No. 350478 ; date, October 12, 1886 ; John K. Clark. — Separate rail-supports, con- nected by flat tie-bars. (See No. 310794.) No. 350692 ; date, October 12, 1886 ; T. L. Mumford and H. Moore.— A cross-tie of inverted trough section, wider at the ends, with fixed lugs and movable clamps for fastening the rails. No. 351002 ; date, October 19, 1886 ; A. T. Stevens. — A hollow rectangular box tie, with bottom flanges at the ends, and the top flanges along the sides; the rail clamp's are bent to take hold of these flanges. Nos. 361498 and 351499 ; date, October 26, 1886 ; E. C. Davis.- A cross-tie made of two old rails placed side by side. Each track rail rests on a bearing-block in two pieces, with a lip at the end to engage the rail flange. The blocks are slid into place between the tie rails and bolted through the tie. No. 351996; date November 2, 1886; Charles Netter.— Cross-ties of LJ section, with hook bolt fastenings ; the hook of the bolt fits into a hole in the side of the tie, and the nut is screwed down on a rail clamp. (See No. 372864.) No. 352002; date, November 2, 1886; E. P. Reynolds.— A cross-tie of lAAAl sec- tion. The rails rest in notches cut in the top, and are held by hinged clips and lock- ing clips. No. 353028 ; date, November 23, 1886 ; E. N. Higley.— Improvements upon Nos. 334228 and 312717. No. 353691 ; date, Deoeinber 7, 1886 ; S. D. Locke. — A channel cross-tie | |, with inclined ends and a transverse rib in the mldd.le. The rails are fastened by bolted clips. . (See No. 356002.) No. 354147 ; date, December 14, 1886 ; P. G. Johnson.— Cross-ties of | 1 section, with the bottom edges turned in to retain a concrete filling or a filling made of loose stone with melted iron poured over it, the casting being done inside the tie. The rails are held by bolted clamps ; the clamp having lugs which fit into the holes in the ties, and these lugs as well as the bolts are long enough to enable the rail to be shimmed up when necessary. The shims extending under the rails and clamps. No, 354)450; date, December 14,1886; E. S. Sea. — A cross-tie of T section with en- larged ends forming rail chairs. (See No. 375005.) No. 354433; date, December 14, 1886 ; R. Morrell. —A cross-tie made of a plate bent to form a hollow rectangular box, with the top and bottom cut away at the middle. The rails are fastened to wooden bearing-blocks placed inside the tie. (See No. 365932. ) No. 355778; date, January 11, 1887; A. J. Moxham.— For street railways. A steel plate, 24 inches long 6 inches wide and one-fourth inch thick, is twisted spirally, and is embedded in concrete. Angle-irons are riveted to the top to form a rail-seat, and the two columns are connected by a tie-bar. (See No. 313512.) No. 356002; date, January 11, 1887; S. D. Locke.— An improvement on No. 353691. No. 357301 ; date, February 8, 1887 ; J. J. Anderson.- Metal chairs with one fixed jaw, and one loose jaw for supporting the rails. Adapted for street railways. No. 358144; date, February 22, 1887; J, Clarl^.^A pro^Hie Of cbftopel §ectipp, vjtlj eJ,ftir9fQi:tU«i?»U9> (See No, 849503,; 340 No. 358981; date, March 8, 1887; J. C. Laue. — Au iron bridle-rod, made in two pieces, bolted together at the middle, to prevent rails from spreading at the curves. No. 359115 and No. 359117 ; date March 8, 1887 ; W. Wharton, jr.— A cross-tie of X or L section, with the bottom flange bent up to make a chair for the rails. To be used on street railways with girder rails. No. 359440; date, March 15, 1887; T. Gleason.— A cross-tie of trough section i I, -with interior cross-pieces or webs to which the rail clamps are fastened. No. 359854; date, March 2a, 1887; Henry C. Draper. — A compound tie, consisting of two channel irons placed back to back with a wooden tie between them. The three pieces are bolted together, and one end of the bolt is bent np and over so as to hold the rail flange. No. 360397; date March 29, 1887; M.Y. Thompson.— A flat cross-tie, with a U- shaped depression at each end to receive a wooden bearing-block. The rails are fastened by keys. Np. 361199; date, April 12, 1887; H. P. Adams.— A cross-tie of T section, with chairs keyed to it. (See No. 348877.) No. 361330; date, April 19, 1887; P. J. Severac (of Paris).— A cross-tie of I section, with the horizontal flanges bent at the ends. In some cases a broad plate is riveted to the bottom flange. The rails are fastened by \. wi*li opeu ends. Shoulders pressed out to prevent spreadings. Bails fastened to saddles or straps. (See No. 375996.) No. 375005 ; date, December 20, 1887; E. Sea.— A cross-tie of channel section, with closed ends. A strengthening plate is bolted to the under side of the top table, and the side flanges are deeply notched to give elasticity. A metal block is bolted under each rail, and the rails are secured by bolted plates. (See No. 354250.) No. 375763; date, January 3, 1888; T. B. Moore.— A cross-tie of inverted channel section \ 1. The rails are held by clamps and hook-bolts ; the hook end is inside the tie, aud the nut is screwed down on the clamp, which has a lug fitting into the bolt hole. No. 375856; date, January 3, 1888; E. T. White.— A cross-tie of X section, with high chair at each end to receive the web of a girder rail. Intended for street rail- ways. (See Nos. 385395 aud 386420.) No. 375996 ; date, January 3, 1888 ; W. P. Hall.— A hollow cross-tie, made of a plate bent almost cylindrical, but with the bottom open and flat on top. The rails are fastened to saddle straps. (See No. 373656.) No. 376214; date, January 10, 1888; J. W. Smith.— A hollow rectangular cross-tie, witli holes in the top to admit the rail chairs, which rest on coiled springs inside the tie. No. 376250; date, January 10, 1888; N. M. Marks.— The two rail-bearers are of I I section, with ratchet teeth on the outer faces ; over the upright leg fits a sad- dle n, also with ratchet teeth, so that the height of the rail can be adjusted. The rails are secured to the saddles, which are connected by flat tie-bars. No. 376884; date, January 24, 1888; William B. Henning. — A flat bar,- bent up at the ends to embrace the flange and web of rail. Loose angle clamps on inside of rail. (See No. 323809.) No. 377162; date, January 31, 1888; G. Kelton. — A cross-tie of channel section I 1, with a separate bottom, having projections on its inner side to give a hold to the pulp with which the tie is to be filled. The rails are fastened by hooked bolts, with nuts inside the tie, cavities being left in the pulp filling. No. 378133; date, February 21,1888; Jam6s M. Gibberson. — Stone or other blocks with flat tie-bars, having lugs which can be bent over the flanges of the rails. No. 378280 ; date, February 21, 1888 ; F. L. Barrows.^-A cross- tie of inverted trough section, with clips struck up on the outside of the rail to hold its flange, and clips lengthwise on the inside of the rail to hold a rail fastening. No. 378930 ; date, March 6, 1888 ; J. Hill. — A flat cross-tie, corrugated lengthwise top and bottom. The rail is keyed to a chair. The inventor proposes to use a double- headed rail. No. 379312 ; date, March 13, 1888 ; S. B. Jerome. — A hollow rectangular cross-tie, madeof a bent plate. It is to be filled with straw, sawdust, etc., and has a narrow bearing-block along the underside of the top, to which the rails are spiked. The ends are closed by wood or cement blocks. No. 379399; date, March 13, 1888 ; J. Jacobs.— A cross-tie of channel section I I with closed ends ; a top plate is bolted on by side clamps to form a rail seat. The tie is to be filled with concrete, etc. No. 379574; date, March 20, 1888 ; C. P. Hawley.— A cross-tie of I section, with the top flange bent to make a rail brace. A longitudinal bridge is used under the rail at joints. No. 379575 ; date, March 20, 1888 ; C. P. Hawley.— A combined metal and wooden tie, consisting of a metal beam of 1 section, resting on a wooden tie or plank. No. 379576 ; date, March 20, 1888.— A cross-tio of 1 section, with slots for the web of a T girder, forming a rail seat, or which can be made a longitudinal bearing. 343 No. 379612 ; date, March 20, 1888 ; C. G. Singer. — A cross-tie of + crncifdrm section, with the top flange cut away at the rail seats. The rails are held by horizontal U clamps, the end being iu a hole in the fop flange of the tie, with the two legs resting on the rail flange. A key or plug, driven horizontally through the tie, holds the clamp down on the rail. No. 380274 ; date, March 27, 1888 ; George E. Blaine and Edward Hill.— Anchor- blocks or bowls of terra eotta or earthenware, of frusto-conoidal or frusto-pyramidal form, connected by metal tie-bars. The rails rest on wooden plates. No. 380623 ; date, April 3, 1888 ; H. L. De Zeng.— Improvements upon No. 145991, etc. No. 381059 ; date, April 10, 1888 ; W. H. Donaldson.— A cross- tie of m section. The rails are held by gibs with long ends within the tie, which are to be secured by a cotter driven through the tie parallel with the rail. No. 381125; date, April 17, 1888 ; F. X. Georget.— Improvements upon No. 365511, No. 381860; date, April 24, 1888; E. R. Stiles. -A cross-tie of channel sectioni I, with a wooden block under each rail. No. 382134; date. May 8, 1888; W. H. Britton.— A cross-tie of T section, with the vortical web corrugated vertically. The rails are secured by lugs and clamps. No. 382394; date, May 1, 1888 ; J. B. Sutherland. — A cross-tie of approximately Y section ; curved like the section of a yacht, and with the top edges bent in to form horizontal flanges for the rail-chairs. No. 382470 ; date, May 8, 1888 ; E. M. Hunter.— A modification of the Taylor pat- ents. (See Nos. 286651 and 371993.) No. 382855 ; date. May 15, 1^88 ; F. Barhydt. — A hollow box cross-tie, with closed ends. There is a wooden block the full size of the face of the tie at the top, and another at the bottom ; both inside. Coil springs are interposed between the top and bottom eeotions, No. 383118 ; date. May 22, 1888 ; M. Fitzgerald. — A cross-tie of channel section I I, with solid ends. Fixed lugs and hooked spikes are the rail fastenings. No. 384785; date, June 19, 1888; Jacob Eeese. — A cross-tie of f) section, with a groove along its top table ; rail seat bolted on top. The rail is secured by a bolt passing under it and through the chair, having P washers to hold the rail flange. It is to be rolled from a plate of No. 7 steel 24 inches wide ; bedded iu ballast. No. 385395; date, July 3, 1888; E. T. White.— A channel cross-tie of U section, with rails secured to saddles by bolts and clips. (See No. 375856.) No. 385492; date, July 3, 1888; D. Y. Wilson. — A cross-tie made of two angles _J L_, with a base plate and channel plate for rail seat at each end. Eails bolted through top and bottom plates. No. 3860C4 ; date, July 10, 1888 ; H. T. Ferris.— Eails, ties, etc., of a composition of 500 parts of paper pulp, 25 parts of silicate soda, and 10 parts of barytes. No. 386119; date, July 17, 1888; E. W. Flower, jr., and S. L. Wiegand.— A hollow cross-tie of rectangular section, with part of the bottom cut away and.turned down to prevent lateral movement. The rails are spiked to wood blocks inside the tie. (See No. 420485. See Eeport ; "United States.") No. 386156; date, July 17, 188S; J. A. Ogden. — A cross-tie of channel section [ |, wide at the bottom, with bearing blocks and hook-fastenings for the rails. Nos. 386356 and 386357 ; date, July 17, 1888; H. Shultzen.— A channel tie | (, with the middle part of the bottom cut away and turned up to prevent lateral move- ment. The rail is fastened to a wooden block by Z-clips and a longitudinal bolt under the rail, or by diagonal bolts. (Now being manufactured by the Standard Steel Tie Company, of New York.) (See Eeport ; " United States.") No. 386389 ; date, July 17, 1888 ; A. Durand.— A cross-tie of inverted trough section, with clips and channels stamped in it. (See Eeport ; " United States.") No. 386420 ; date, July 17, 1888 ; E. T. White.— Hollow box cross-ties of different sections, made of bent plates. Cross-section intended to give elasticity. (See 385395.) 344 No. 387602; date, Augnst 7, 1888; Peter Seraonin.— Cross-ties of inverted trough section. The rails are held by a fixed lag on the outer side and a gib and cotter with serrated faces on the inner side. (See No. 421769.) No. 388266; date, August 7, 1888; George Cowdery and E.E. Thomas, (Australia).— A cross-tie of inverted cross-section, with closed ends, and with lugs stamped up at each rail seat. Each rail rests on a bed-plate placed between the lugs, and is secured by a split key. (Patented in England, June 30, 1886.) (See Report; "Australia.") No. 388277 ; date, August 21, 1888 ; A. J. Hartford. — A flat cross-tie, with end turned up, and a bent plate tie bridge, arched in the middle, bent to form a shoulder for inner flange of rail; the rail rests on this plate and the end is turned over the outer flange and secured by a bolt through both plates. (See No. 401949.) No. 388296; date, August 21, 1888; James E. Millhouse. — A cross-tie made of a sheet of metal, forming a deep tie-bar on edge, and bent to form a box or frame under each rail. No. 389464; date, September 11,1888; L. Haas. — A cross-tie of rectangular section ; top cut away at ends and middle. Wooden block under each rail. (See No. 247248.) No. 390014; date, September 25, 1888; K. P. Faddis.— Wooden stringers, with flat iron tie plates across top and under rail, with U bolts embracing the stringers. For street and steam railways. (See No. 391131 and No. 398037.) No. 390370 ; date, October 2, 1888 ; I. G. Howell. — A cross-tie of channel section | 1, with blocks under the rails. The top is cut away for the rail, and the rail clamps are fastened by hooks. , No. 391131 ; date, October 16, 1888 ; E. P. Faddis. — Four or more short pieces of ties in a frame with distance pieces and bolts. These sections are held together by tie-bars. (See No. 390014.) No. 391492 ; date, October 23, 1888 ; W. J. Stifler.— A flat cross-tie with diagonal grooves on the under side near the ends to receive the heads of the bolts of the two plates, each with a lug, which form one rail seat. No. 391704; date, October 23, 1888; L. Haas. — A cross-tie of channel section | |, higher at the rail seats, with notched flanges for the rails. (See No. 247248. ) No. 391999 ; date, October 30, 1888 ; A. H. Ames.— A flat cross-tie, with flaring ends of channel section | |, having riveted and bolted clips for rail fastenings. No. 392849 ; November 13, 1888 ; J. Cabry and W. H. Kinch, (of England).— A rolled steel cross-tie of inverted trough section, with lugs stamped out. Rails secured by keys driven between flange and lug. (In use on the Northeastern Railway, in England.) (See report, "England.") No. 393515 ; date, November 27, 1888 ; D. M. McBae. — A wooden or iron tie, with m»tal sockets at ends forming rail seats. No. 394426 ; date, December 11, 1888 ; David Wilson, (England).— A tubular tie of concrete or other composition cast round a core of wire netting^. Blocks of wood are placed inside. Patented in England, May 15, 1885, and February 17,1886; France, March 16, 1886 ; Belgium, March 17, 1886 ; Spain, July 20, 1886. No. 394738; date, December 18,1888; 6. W. Thompson. —A hollow cross-tieof rec- tangular section, with a metal bearing-block inside under each rail. Bolted clip rail fastenings. No. 395134 ; date, December 25, 1888 ; M. Hagarty.— A cross-tie made of two chan- nels placed back to back 3 C, inner lug on one, outer lug on the other. The bolt holes in vertical web are elongated to allow the channels to beshifted to let rail in. No. 395304; date, December 25,1888; C. F. Yarbrough.-HoUow cross-ties of rect- angular section, with open ends and openings at sides. Wood blocks may be deed, or the ties may be filled with ballast. No. 395447^ date, January 1, 1889 ; Michael Maloney.— A cross-tie of cruciform ■Sec- tion, -J-. Upper web cut away at rail seats to let rails rest on horizontal web. Eail clamps bolted to upper web. No. 396160; date, January 15, 1889; H. Hipkins, (of England).- A stamped metal 345 cross-tie of /- — '*^— > section, with lugs and rib stamped out of top table. (Patented in England, 1888.) No. 396473 ; date, January 22, 1889 ; C. P. Espinasse, (of France).^A cross-tie of X section, with vertical web out away for rail chair to which rail is secured by wooden wedge. Ifo. 398004; date, February 19,1889; S. U. Smith. — A cross-tie of channel section I I, with closed ends. The rails rest on ihe ends of a separate cross-plate, with fixed lugs inside, and bolted plates outside. No. 398037 ; date, February 19, 1889 ; E. P. Faddis.— Short pieces of ties connected and braced together to form a sort of crib. (See Nos. 390014 and 391131.) No. 400558 ; date, April 2, 1889 ; Jacob Prysinger. — A cross-tie of 1 section in three pieces. The web is short and the flanges embrace a wooden stringer at each end, and are secured by bolts. (See No. 332707.) No. 400643; date, April 2, 1889; II. L. De Zeng; — Cross-ties of channel section | 1 ; with T a-iron bolted inside under each rail, forming an anchor plate. The rails are secured by bolted clamps. (See No. 145991.) No. 401949 ; date, April 23, 1889 ; Arthur J. Hartford.— A rolled cross-tie of inverted trough section, with a longitudinal channel on the top table. Eails secured by bolts and clamps. (See Report; " United States " ; see No. 388277.) No. 402818; date, May 7, 18b9; Karl L. Gocht (Germany). — A cross- tie of inverted trough section, with bottom horizontal flanges. A rail chair is secured to lugs on the tie. No. 403464; date, May 14, 1889; E. J. Devens. — A cross-tie of channel section | 1. The rails are held by bent clamps, which hold the flange of the rail and the sides of the tie. No. 403465 ; date. May 14, 1889 ; Thomas H. Gibbon. — For street railways. Stringers having one side higher than the other I , to fit the shape of a special side-bearing rail ; the rail has a vertical web on its under side, to fit into the stringer, where it is held by the tie-bars. (See No. 317988.) No. 403741 ; date. May 21, 1889; Eobert Dansinger.— For street railways. Sepa- rate blocks connected by tie-bars. The rails are secured by cotters and keys. No. 404043; date. May 28,1889; Pierre Kolgraf (Belgium).— Cross-ties, formed of two bars of Z section, with a rail chair riveted between them at each end. The rails are held by keys driven between the rails and the lugs on the chairs. (See Eeport " Belgium.") (Patented in Belgium December, 1885 ; France, January 5, 1886 ; Eng- land, March 16, 1886; Italy, July 12, 1886.) No. 404401; date, June 4, 1889; Jacob Haish.— Cross-ties made of old rails laid head down. The track rails are to be of bridge section and secured by lugs. No. 406129 ; date July 2, 1889 ; T. E. Dunning.— A hollow box cross-tie of rectangu- lar section, with the top projecting beyond the sides forming flanges to which the rails are fastened. An iron block is placed inside under each rail. No. 406346; date, July 2, 1889; Levi Haas. — A cross-tie of channel section I f The rails rest in notches cut in the sides, and are secured by springs and clamps. (See No. 247248.) No. 408255; date, August 6, 1889; C. B. Palmer. — A cross-tie of l section. The rails are held by —- 1 clamps, the lower part of which straddles the web of the tie, and is secured by a pin and split key. No. 409860; date, August 27, 1889 ; A. C. Niokloy. — A cross-tie of rectangular box section, made by coiling a steel plate spirally. No. 410176; date, Septembers, 1889 ; John E. McCartney. — A broad shallow cross- tie of \,^_^^ section, with horizontal flanges. The rails are secured by clips made by turning up a strip of the flange of the tie, or by bolted clamps. No. 410236; date, September 3, 1889; A. B. Fitch. — A cross-tie of inverted trough section, similar to the Haarmann type (Germany), having a narrow upper part and wider lower part. The upper part is cut away at each rail seat to let the rail rest 346 on the lower part. The rails are secured by dove-tailed keys or wedges driven hori- zontally, one side being in a notch in the tie, and the other side bearing on the rail flange. No. 410684 ; date, September 10, 1889 ; B. W. Ellicott.— A cross-tie of channel action, I I, with rail chairs of C shape; the rail is bolted to the upper leg, which is prolonged so that the legs of the two chairs meet and are secured by bolts. The chairs are bolted to the tie. No. 410933 ; date, September 10, 1889 ; Edward Samuel.— A cross-tie of I section, with the top flanges cut and bent to form lugs between which the. rail flange is held and secured by keys. A flat bar or plate, as deep as the web of the ties, is laid be- tween the the ties at the middle, parallel with the rails. No. 411959; date, October 1,1889 ; Robert Forsyth. — A cross-tie of rectangular box section, with a rib or flange under the lower side ; it is made by bending a plate to the required form and riveting together, the ends turned down to form the longi- tudinal rib. No. 412000; date, October 1, 1889; John M. Robbins.— Longitudinals of I I section, with a continiious stringer of wood placed inside. No. 412260 ; date, October 8, 1889 : E. A. Jenks.— A flat tie-bar, with the ends bent up to hold the outer flange of the rails ; used with a metal plate under each rail, hav- ing lugs to hold the inner side of the rail. The object is to maintain the gauge of track and prevent spreading of rails. No. 416050 ; date, November 26, 1889 ; C. F. Z. Oaracristi. — A cross-tie of I section, fitting into a chair of box shape, with concave sides at each end. No. 416081 ; T. F. Thomas. — A cross-tie in two pieces, spliced at the middle by plates and bolts. The inner end of one piece has a semi-circular groove, which receives a semi-cylindrical rib on the end of the other piece ; forming a horizontal hinge joint. No. 417426 ; date, December 17, 1889 ; Richard Jones. — A cross-tie having a deep recess at each end to receive the rail up to its head ; the rails are held by jaws secured by keys driven horizontally through the tie. No. 4180.52 ; date, December 24, 1889 ; William Partridge and James McCutcheon, jr. — A hollow cross-tie of triangular section, laid with the apex downward. A brace of similar form is placed inside the tie under each rail. The ends are closed by blocks of preserved wood. The rails are secured by bolted clamps. No. 418158 ; date, December 31, 1889 ; B. Boyer. — A cross-tie of cruciform section -1-, with the top web cut away at each rail-seat, and sloping away from the rail-seat to the middle and ends of the tie. The rails are held by angle-bar clamps and keys. No. 419101 ; date, January 7, 1890 ; William H. Bagby. — A cross-tie of shallow channel section | |, with lugs on the sides to hold the inner flanges of the rails. A loose block or seat, secured by bolts, is under the rail, and has lugs for the flanges. No. 420299; date, January 28, 1890; Levi Haas. — ^A cross-tie of inverted trough section. The rails are fastened by bent clamps, with the ends secured inside the tie. (See No. 247248.) No. 420352 ; date, January 28, 1890 ; William MacManes and George E. Lum. — ^A cross-tie made of two plates of < section (thus <», with a wooden block of hexagonal section at each end. Bolts pass through the plates and blocks. Between the two blocks the plates have longitudinal flanges, to form a closed bottom. No. 420485; date, February 4, 1890; S. L. Wiegand.— A cross-tie of inverted trough or channel section, with roughened top and corrugated sides. The rails are held by hook-bolts ; the hook end hdlds one flange, and at the other end is a nut and clamp for the other flange of the rail. (See No. 386119.) No. 420674 ; date, February 4, 1890 ; Isaac Brown.— A cross-tie of | | section, either in one piece or in two pieces bolted together at mid-length. The rails are held in chairs. No. 420895; date, February 4, 1890; J. B. Wilson.— A cross-tio of i section, with a chair and lug for each rail. A loose clamp is put on the inner side of each rail and 347 Becared by the head of a long spike-shaped rod driven through the tie into the grouud. No. 421769; date, February 18,1890; Peter Semomin. — Cross-ties of inverted trough or channel section, with a depression in the top at each end to form a rail seat. The rails are secured by bolted clamps. (See No. 387602.) No. 422830 ; date, March 4, 1890 ; M. H. Pierce. — A cross- tie of X section, with a saddle-chair under each rail. No. 423447 ; date, March 18, 1890 ; Percy W. Ross. — A cross-tie of channel section |__J, with corrugated bottom. At both ends an angle-iron is secured on the outer side of each side. Each rail rests on a block of wood. No. 423586; date, March 18, 1890 ; John M. Bailey.— A cross-tie made of a plate, bent to approximately a double tubular section CX), of different forms. The rails are secured by bolted clamps. No. 423852 ; date, March 18, 1890 ; Lewis Barnes. — A cross-tie of flat channel or curved section, with the ends bent to form a brace for a woodeu stringer. An angle- iron is riveted to the tie at the inner side of each stringer. Total number of patents from July, 1839, to March, 1890 : 491. Patents for cross-ties or track of concrete, clay, compositions, etc.: Noa. 127553, 130010, 186710, 251625, 279280, 302664, 305156, 380274, 386064, 394426. -Patent for glass ties : No. 211697. TIMBERS USED FOR TIES IN SOME FOREIGN COUNTRIES. The following notes are extracted from the correspondence of Mr. Tratmaa on the species of wood used in some foreign countries. iSome further particulars will also be found in the special returns of the vari- ous railways in the foregoing report : - Twlcey. — Smyrna, and Cassaba Railway. Oak and Pine. Egypt. — Early in 1889 the Government was negotiating for 500,000 ties from Australia; probably of jarrah wood. India. — The principal woods used are the native sal and deodar and imported creosoted pine. It is stated that there is always a market for good wooden ties, the cost of which is not much affected by the extensive introduction of metal. They appear to be used at frogs, switches, sharp curves, bridges, etc., and one writer estimates that 6 per cent, of the mileage would still be laid with wooden ties, even if all the railways should introduce metal ties as rapidly as possible and discard wooden ties except where their use is "imperative" (?). Deodar is a soft wood, with which accurate gauge can not well be maintained, and with which the risk from fire in dry seaisons is 50 per cent, more than with sal ties. Curves of 1,000 to 1,500 feet radius, laid with deodar ties, require to be respiked about every three months, and under very heavy ' traffic the gauge has been one-half inch wide in three months with new ties. Under similar traffic the gauge is only one-eighth to one-fourth inch wide in two years where sal Is used, and remains correct under ordinary traflSc. Sal wood weighs about 53 to 70 pounds per cubic foot. The best ties are of good sound Nepal sill well matured, and not cut out of small trees with a great proportion of sap-wood. The writer mentioned above states that he has tried deodar, teak, asna, iron-wood, jarrap, and red gum from Australia, English oak, creosoted fir, yellow pine, etc., and has not found any, except the oak, to approach the durability of sill, the life of which is esti- mated at eighteen years. The creosoted fir ties are liable to dry-rot. The Kohilkund and Kumaon Railway has tried j ungle- wood, but with very nnsatisfactory results. The wood answers well for buildings, but rapidly rots in the track. At the beginning of 1887 there were 70,000 in use, and in eighteen months 38,000 had been replaced with siil, while the rest were being gradually replaced. The jungle- wood was to be had for the cutting when the road was built, but though cheap it was not economical. Ceylon. — Owing to the weight of the native woods and the difficulty of hauling to the railway, etc., it has been found to be cheaper to import ties from Europe. There seems to be a movement now, however, in favor of utilizing the native supplies or for the forest department to turn its attention to the propagation of suitable trees. At the beginning of 1889 there were 182^ miles of railway, 5 feet 6 inches gauge, laid with 72-poand flange rails. The ties are of creosoted Norway pine, buried in the ballast, to protect them from the direct heat of the sun. They are 9 feet 9 inches long, 10 inches by 5 inches section, spaced about 3 feet apart. Nem Zealand. — According to the ofiicial report of Mr. J. P. Maxwell, M. Inst. C. E., general manager of the government railways, there were 1,758 miles of railway, 13 348 349 feet 6 iuohes gauge, in operation in Marcli, 1888. The rails are of iron, 40 and 52 pounds per yard, and steel, weighing 5a and 53 pounds per yard. Several native tim- bers are used. The contract prices for wooden ties are 72 cents, or by other contracts 56 to 60 cents, hewn or sawn, for birch and black pine ; 36 to 46 cents for Kamai, 46 to 52 cents for totara, 59 cents for silver pine. There are about 2,100 l^es per mile or 3,518,238 in all. The renewals during the year ending March 31, 1888, were 122,0^7 ties. Tasmania. — The track consists of 43-pound steel flange rails on ties of stringy bark, iron bark, blue gum, or peppermint. The ties are 6 feet 6 inches long, 9 inches wide, 4i inches thick ; laid 2,450 to the mile, 24 inches apart at joints. They are in 6 feet of bottom ballast, with 4^ inches of boxing and top ballast. Argentine Bepublic. — East Argentine Railway, handerbay ; Western of Buenos Ayres Railway, quehacho and urunday. Uruguay. — Uruguay Northwestern Railway, creosoted pine. Brazil. — Herobo and native hard woods. . Chili. — Antofagasta Railway, Chili oak; Copiapo Railway, Chili oak; Coquimbo Railway, cypress ; Taltal Railway, white oak. Peru. — Pisco and Yea Railway, California redwood. Venezuela. — La Guaira and Caracas Railway, lignum-vitaj United States of Colombia. — Lignum- vitoe. Mexico. — Merida and Progreso Railway, iron-wood. Cuba. — Jequi and native hard wood. Hawaii. — California redwood. NORTHEASTERN RY. — ELNGLAND. — PLATE! N? I. ENGLAND. PLATE N^Z. LONDON & NORTH WESTER. N RY. - .. »/? H ^a? .Ul- IRATMAN MIDLAND RY plate: n?3. — ENGLAND , - '1' 03 ^ A. _ k- - - -3 C. C. RUBSKLL TlfhTKAM. z < O / \ KtRR «c STUART TIE. TOZEIR TIEl. FOR PUANfrE. nAtLS. FOR DOUBLE- HCADCD Rim LS. WOOD Tie. BANKART TIE.. 5^^a^^^ J BAGNAUL TIE.. SAMPAN TIEL. ^m^r^ IHTERMEDIATE TIE. . M^W JOIMT TIE, E. E. Ru»ct.i.TnATMAN. STATE RAILWAYS. FRANCE!. - - 4' 8/1" E.UE.VATION. plate: N2 5. r^^ k i.oooo; I^ ^ PAULET- LAVALETTE TIE! VAUTHERIN TIE ^UNIFORM SECTION.) — 4' 8'A" Grauife. ELE.VATION . ■ffffff/f,,f^f,rf,ff,J//t/fJJ///ff^^^^^,^, r C C. RusacLu Tratmam. P LAN. STATE RAILWAYS FRANCE: . PLATE N?6. •#' r/i" Thi'ckntss A to B, •40 to --l^ inck; Thickness be""l""f' PLATE N?I2, - ->i ^s^ss^ss K - -v8"--'i i«- . - la" — — -ii HARTWICH. HAARMA.NN. MILT. R15HT-BANK- OF-THt- RHINE. RY. IS.- 8 - HAAKMANN. __ 62$ f+. I.k^ TS" ft long „ _ BAVARIAN STATE RYS. JOINT AND transverse; tie— haarman and rhelnish types. h-- ' ' 20 CROS5 Tl ES 8-2. ftloiq :^ 5^ VAUTHEfMN (ORI&I N AL S ECT 10 N ). — i M Al N - N ELCK AR RY. r-87 f(. loxq C ^ f V«I at 7 -9i - ^ VAUTHEIRIN (modified SE.CTIOn"). — A LS AOt - LO R R Al N E RYS . . ,„ o-t" . w-4'»»% .c-3»" — ■■ lHHJ}/^?i?HIII» * — III ■■'■ .jli^ - 7-8f ft. l.n,. HAARMANN. RIGHT BANK OF THE. RHINE. RY I.-- S-2" ,1 D ^ 9-36 BCR& AND MARCHE. (original and MODIFIED SECTl ONs").— E.LBERFE.LDR1 E, E.. Rii»»Ei-i- Tratman', E. E, RUSSH-l-THATMl AUSTfM A. NORTHWESTERN RY PLATE N?I4. HOMtNE-GfttK SYSTELM. W I. N' 3. STATE RY. HEINDL SYSTEIM , (EZ . T.t TST ft. Ig. LON&ITUDINAL SECTION. END .VIEW. E^. E. RUMtLL TkATMAN, zr SWIT2 ERLAND. PLATE N°IS. - RuksruL Trmtman. SPAIN PLATE N2I6. BILBAO & LAS ARENAS RY . 1 mc^»-c SECTION AT RAIL SEAT "^m LON&ITUDINAL SE.CT10N. ALMANSA .VALENCIA 8c TARRAGONA RY CROSS SECTION. 16^ — C3 _ 6'6aft. Ion, )^- jar uiv-^-i ] ULJ] ^ E E, RussEi-i- Tratman tLEVATION. |«r IS'-iL''- T =/ H J_ AFRICA. plate: N^\r. DELAGOA BAY & EAST AFRICAN RY. SECTION AT P L.8c M- RY. CO.(rRXNcE). ALGERIAN RAILWAYS. +'-8/4" )>■ E-e' •*• 1-4" -H LONGITUDINAL SECTION. T^ ^ y ^imia-si: AGRICULTURAL RAILWAYS, CROSS SECTION . PLAlN OF TRACK - 00^ t- I rS= E.. E. Ru«EU_ Tra-vm^n. AUSTRALIA . SOUTH AUSTf=^ALIAN G PALME OVT. RSTON PLATE N» 18. RAILWAYS i, PINE CREEK. LINE. AUSTRALIA PLATE N2 19. QUEENSLAND GOVT. RAILWAYS NORMAMTON LINE.. r Width of p I ote befote l>endinc| , Ig'' CROSS SE.CTION OF TIE.. SECTION AT FASTENINGS. PLAN. ^ r - «- __-__. . . _ _ _ _6' O" Un^j 1 — - - — — — 3 6 ^aucjC o o G> - -11 K- ** -: . FASSIFELRN LINE. .\^-^ C. C. RUSSKLL Tn^TMAN. INDIA . STATE RAILWAYS PLATE N?-eO. DEL BtROUfS TIC VAUTHELRIN'S TIE.. BOWL Tit. Ji^ ^i^ [3=e= I ^etft corrugateld plate saddle: tie.. LIVE15tY'S TIE.S. H !•■ --Hi PLATE N?21. NDIA. 5TATL RAILWAYS. 'DENHAM-OLPHERTS PLATE! TIE.S. E.LE.VAT10N K-- O-O PLATE WITH MOtESWORTHS WEDSE FASTENING. L, £., RW4SSLU, TrkTMAN. INDIA PLATE! N£2a. SXATE. RAILWAYS '^ a-!i."~r\ .■ " STANDARD TYPE: OF STEEILTIEI. SE.OTION AND PLAN OF KAIL AND FASTCNINSS. .^S'. 9" I." S', 6" Ocu.e longituoinAl section. -t- , PLAN. :„i>i„„i„>ii>j>it»ii>iiirrr. ■,r.„„^////A't!^ y////////////mmr. ' /fffJ I /»PJfIf^IfJ/fI^^9f^/ffjJ////f7^ffM ^ — — IS" r- H SECTION or PLATE. . INDIA . I 1 NORTHWLSTERN RY plate: n?24. . , a«.-''Pi^ ... >■ • =ljfr-^ ^ -'H if Si*"''-' ■ o iK/Vk . ■ . ■> 1- o J^^^'-'^i' 1) c a^w^?■.■'^'.'"'■. m rCfcijPv .'"■J'. - ,'• ,- z ^^i^ft'"-"' ' ■' UJ o J llW/ f ji^.:." :>"■'■-■. o: '.'""■" --,':. ID f'\ 1 f l;>\:,>'/, ^.' O r 1 , . r ;!" ■ ■■ " > '^■.■' in t, ; *'- ■' :. ? \\ ; ^ fi. ■■:■: ■■:.' ro \ 1 1 i'';;V'^:. T Kr- te"^^ h < i V\\ K;':'' ■•• n M nr IB,^'":*/?'"/-' ■ - '-■■. ■ iJ jUK"*^ .' ■ ' -' ' 1 ■ ' ' - ■ > Vk,'-"" ■ ■ ' " ■ ■ ' ■ ' o C*.c7i ■ ■ ' ■• ■ V ; ', u A^""i"-' -'•'• ' ■' a VC ^' '.' ■■,.' < S ^Jj,;'-'.'. .',•■■,';■:-- i/i ^I;-;;.;.; 'tfj. ^ ;.;•.',;.■•.'■:■■-" ^2 Sj^V ' .',-„', ' in S>^ ^.t ,, xS,7L0NS lOlbsperfl "^ I '1 Q C/iOSS SECTION. NEW YORK -CENTRAL & HUDSON RIVER RAILWAY. (toucly's tie..) £. E. RUUELL TitMMAN UNITED STATES PLATE N?50. "INTLRNATIONAL"TIEL. -r.-,,-^ 1% v II IP 1 \ LU ^ rROSS SE.CTION. ■ R.A11_ CLAMP. TAYLOR'S TIE Joint Tie: . Intermediate. Tit. Tie. Bar COOK AND H ICKS T I E - 3'^'^ ^.;''.- cVN.^:fcr^ ^ = B •a\-X AST,- :^ CROSS SECTION iXI C £. RusscluTratman. CROSS SECTION INDEX. [All referencoa in regard to Metal Track and Wooden Ties are found onder these two captions. For reforencoa to Countries see Hallways, under Metal Track,] The letter (d) denotes that description is found on the page which it follows. Abt system of rack railways, 149, 175 (d.), 269, 149, 319. Annual charges, how compated, 37 ; table of, 40. Ballast influencing durability of ties, 23, 24. Cars made of metal, 15. Circular of inquiry regarding metal track, 57. Color indicating; durability of woods, 17, Consumption of timber for railroads, 7,13,16; Summary, 43; tables, iZ ff. ; for re- newal, 41, 42; kinds and amounts for ties, 14. Cost of various tie systems, how to calculate, 10, 35, 37. Culling, effects on forest growth, 7. Durability of timber, color a criterion, 17; how influenced, 23; time of felling influ- encing, 19 ; list of durable timbers, 19 ; table of duration of tie tim- bers, 25. Economies in use of wood suggested, 17. Financial calculations, 10, 35, 37. Forest administration needed, 14, 15. Fuel, use of wood not objectionable, 16. Glass ties, 319. International Railway Congress opinions on metal track, 67, 101, 297. Life of timber. (See Durability.) Light and portable railways. {See Tramways, under Metal Track.) Metal vs. wood. {See under Metal Track.) METAL TRACK. (293, General Review), (322, brief synopsis). Advantages, (see also Objections, and Comparison with wooden ties), 131, 134, 164, (207 for prairie country), 213, 215, 274, 275, 278, 293. Ballast, 24 (66; effect on ties), 70, 80, 85, 113, 116, (126, influencing cost), 127,130, 136, 141, 145, 159, 166, (174, better class needed), (179, volume needed), (185, effects on maintenance), 195, (204, none), (212, for bowls), (214, behavior), 227, (240, 258, grass cover), (245, 247, influence of), (248, cinders advantageous), (257, 260, surface soil), (263, saving), 274, (65, 68, 159, 184, 280, 285, effects of frost on). Ballasting, 64, 82, 83, 85, (88, expensive), 99, 104, 142, 150, (159, longitudinals), 164, (170, instructions for), (196, bowls), 200, (212, difficult with bowls), (213, saving labor), 221,233,234,236,238,247,260,(261, surface soil), 282, 283, (315, summary). Bowls. {See Types of ties.) Breakages, (see also Wear and Rust), 61, 66, 69, 71, 74, 83, 84, 88, 98, 100, 110, 113, 115, 127, 139, 146, 148. 178, 184,190,194,202,203,213,219,228,237.239,242, 245, 248, 251, 260, (272 !), 274, 278, 282, 283, 296. 351 352 METAL TRACK— Continued. Chairs, (see ako Tie-Plates), 59, 60, 64, 66, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 79, (80, not needed), 83, 84, 89, 117, 250, 263, (295, unnecessary). Coatings, (66, tar and oil), 84, (105, tar), 201, (204, tar), 206, (225, varnish), 232, (236, Smith's), 247,263,264,273, (284, Smith's), (232, oil and tar), 256, (308, summary). Comparison of wood and metal ties. {See Metal v. Wood.) Composite ties, (wood and metal). (See Wooden Blocks.) Contact, metal avoided. (See also Wooden Blocks), (64, paper or tarred canvas), (66, felt), (87, 107, not objectionable), (124, gravel), (234, creosoted felt). Cost of ties and track, (See also Maintenance), 72, 73, 80, 81, 83, 84, 89, (95, price and section), 96, 100. Ill, 112, 115, 118, 119, 126, 130, 137, 142, 147, 159, 162, 204, 205, (207, specified), 213, 238, 256, 258, 268, 273, 275, 295, 298, (313, summary). —Compared with wooden ties, 62 (63, tabular), 67, 79, 106, 114, 122, 156, 171, 185, (216, specified), (218, bowls vs. wood), 238, 324. Countries using metal track. (iSee Railways.) Cross-ties. (See Types.) Creeping, 242. Curves, Methods on, (See also Gauge), 80, 98, 146, 147, 150, 195, 239, 248, (269, wooden ties preferred). Drainage, 124, 142, 144, 240, 259. Durability. (5ee Life, Wear, Kust.) Economy, 121, 217, 268, 278, 294, 314, 324. Fastenings, (61, 88, 191, wear), (95, with Post-ties d), (98, comparative tests;, (159, with longitudinals), (164, importance of), (259, with bowls d), (295, best), "(308, 309, 310, summary). Bolts and clamps, 82 (d), 84, 95, 111, 123, 140, 279, 283, 284, (285, advantages of). Heindl system, 99, 295. Koth & Schuler (Baden) system, 95 (d), 99, 101, 133, 138, 142, 168, 173. Ruppel system, 99, 106, 110, 111, 123, 128, 129, 131, 136, 146 (d), 155, 167, 172, 177, 182, 183, 192, 295. Bolts and nuts, 68, 84, ( 101 , with gauge washers), (95, 201,259, Ibbotson's bolt), (97,98,99, nut-locks), 133, 140, (111,241, hook-headed bolt). Clips, 235, (243, of different metal). Gib and Cotter, 72, 82, (84, superior to clamps), 104, 125, 162, 190, 191, 250, (310, summary). Keys, wooden, 61, 64, 72, 73, 88, 118; with clips, 62, 71, 72, 236, 243 ; with lugs, 76, 87, 115, 117, 119, 225, 253 ; (74, with half-hoop), (75, Bankart), (92, with clamps), (118, Coblyn with- cap), (242, particulars in plac- ing), (310, summary). Eivets, 92, 118, 310. Screws, 92. Plates, 88, 117. Form and dimensions, 164, 298, (303, general discussion). Frogs and switches, 153, 167, 168, 174, 202, 297, 317. Frost, effects of, 65, 68, 159, 184, 280, 285. Gauge, adjustment, 72, 76, 112, 125, 130, 131, 133, 140, 141, 147, 169, 170, 173, 192, 197, 213, (226, maintenance, comparative tests), 232, 234, 251, 252, 253, 255, 258, (272, importance), 278, 285, 297, (312, summary.) Guarantee by manufacturers, 107, 126, 307. Joints, 59, 60, (75, special ties), 84, 87, 100,' 104, 106, 123, 128, 129, (248, special ties), (249, Desbruslais support), (256, Fisher fastening, d), 278, 279, 280, 285, 296, 353 METAL TRACK— Continued. Lateral motion, {see also Open Ends), 65, 104, 117, 267. Life, (see also Wear and Bust), 68, 86, 102, 120, 127, 131, 145, 159, 178, 190, 217, 226, 268, 282, 296, 297. Light railways. (5ee Tramways, etc.) Longitudinals, (see Types), (148, compared with cross-ties). Maintenance, (83, precautions in), (85, extra labor), (97, labor involved), (103, re- duoedneed), (141, by contract), (166, 185, 191, 227, 240, effects of ballast on), (213, reduced labor), (269, expensive), (270, troublesome), (278, no trouble). —Cost of, 62, 81, 82, (96, 97, tables), (103, 104, comparative labor days), 114,116, 119, 126, (130, days of labor), 141, (147, specified), 167, 182, 185, 204, (229, specified), (236, labor needed), (247, labor), (252, specified), 269, 270, (273, reduced), 274, 282, 296, (316, summary). Maijufacture, (See also under Types), (61, in England), (62, stamping ties), (66, 73, 74, 89, 113, 205, 225, method of ), (218, in India), 231, 295, (307, summary). Manufacturers : Australia. Springall & Frost, 204— Toowoomba Foundry Co., 203, 204, 205. Austria. Teplitz EoUing Mill and Bessemer Works, 158. Belgium. Angleur Steel Worlis, 100, 112, 114, 115— Cockerill Works, 111— Cou- illet Works, 111— Louvifere, 111- Caramin & Co., 113. England. Bagnall, 75— Bolckow & Vaughan, 62, 232, 256— Chair and Sleeper Co., 71, 76— Cockerill Works, 66, 112— Darlington Steel and Iron Co., 70, 266 -Ebbw Vale Iron and Steel Co., 263— Fowler & Co., 189— Hea, Wrightson & Co., 267— Howard & Co., 73, 268— Ibbotson Bros. 74, 201— Kerr & Stuart, 72, 270— MacLellan (Clutha) Ironworks, 76— & Co., Moss Bay Hematite Co., 194— -Patent Nut and Bolt Co., 76 — Railway Sleeper and Tie Co., 75— Sohnltz, Tozer & Co., 263— Trede- gar Iron and Coal Co., 70, 75. France. Chappee, 89— Fraisant Works, 86, 190, 196— LeGrange Works, 263— Soci^tfi anomyme des Hants Foumeaux, 80 — Soci6t6 de Denaiu et d'Anzin, 81, 82, 191. Germany. Aachen Mills, 130 — Bochum Works, 178 — Burbach Forge Co. , 147 — DeWendel Works, 145—Gutehoffnung (Good Hope) Works, 128, 130, 17.3— Hoerde Steel Works, 100, 134, 145, 173— Hoesch Iron and Steel Works, 134, 145 — Koenigin Marie Works, 134 — Kraemer Bros. Works, 139 — Laurahntte Works, 137 — Luxemburg Metal Works, 147 — Max- imilian Works, 1.39 — Phoenix Company of Laar, 130 — Ehenish Steel Works of Euhrort, 130 — Saarbruck Iron Works, 147 — Union Iron and Steel Co. of Dortmund, 130, 182. India. Burrakur Iron Works, 230 — Jamalpur Works, 212, 230. Italy. Tardy & Benech, 192. Scotland. Anderson Foundry Co., 258, 264 — MacLellan, P. & W. (Clutha Iron Works), 239. United States. Cambria Iron Co., 287 — Homestead Steel Works, 285 — Interna- tional Railway Tie Co., 287 — Pennsylvania Steel Co., 285 — Schofield Metal Cross-tie Co., 289 — Standard Metal Tie and Construction Co. (New York), 279, 280, 285. Material, 66, 104, 113, 117, (219, 239, 296, iron jjs. steel), 284, 295, 300. Metal vs. wood, 122, 123, 127, 130, 133, 134, 141, 214, 242, 260, 269, 277, 297, 298, 348. Mileage, 9, 56, (120, in Germany), (121, Prussian State R. R., tables, 298), (290, summary). Noise, 107, 114, 116, 118, 124, 158, 172, 177, 273, 279, 311, Objects of metal tie defined, 117, 156, 295, 22893~Bull. 4 23 354 METAL TRACK— Continued. Objections to, 271, (60, in England), 266, 271. Old rails, 79, 110, 153, 160, 284, 317. Open ends, 62 (65, objections), 74, 106, 132, 190, 203, 287, 295, (312, summary). Patents, list of, in United States, 326. (See also List of Patentees on page 361.) Plate ties. {See Types.) Preservative treatment. (See Coatings.) Prices. (See Cost of Ties.) Rack railways, 149, 151, 174, 175, 269, 319, 320, 321. Rails, (258, 297, wear), (259, sufficient section), (274, various -weights), (60, 264, Barlow bridge rail), (60, 68, Brunei), (60, 81, 85, double-headed, adap- tation), (60, 61, 72, 85, 91, 100, flange), (123, Haarman compound), (72, 81, girder), old, for ties (79, 110, 153, 160, 317). Railways and countries mentioned : AFRICA, 187. Summary of metal track, 198. Abyssivia, Massana arid Sahati Railwa.y, 192. Algeria, 190. Algerian Railways (Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Railway), 190— B6ne and Guelma Railway, 192. Cape Colony, Cape Government Railways, 194. Congo Free State, Congo Railway, 196, Egypt, 187; 348, timbers used. Egyptian Agricultural Railways, 189. Egyptian Railways, 187. Suakin Railway, 189. Island of Beunion, 197. Natal, Natal Government Railways, 196. Senegal, 197. South Africa (Portuguese territory), Delagoa Bay and East African Rail- . way, 193. South African Bepublic (Transvaal), 196. ASIA, 210. Summary of metal track, 256. Ceylon, 255. 348. China, 255. Farther India, 254. India, Railway mileage, 210 — General Remarks, 212, (221, contracts for metal ties), metal ties, number and kinds laid,- 227, summary of metal track, 254. Railways : Amraoti, 247 — Bengal-Nagpnr, 231 — Bhavnagar, Grondal Junagarh and Porbandar, 247 — Bbopal-Itarsi, 235 — Bombay, Baroda and Central India, 244 — Burmah, 241 — Calcutta Port, 248-Cherra- Companyganj, 241 — Delhi, Umballa and Kalka, 246 — Dhond-Manmad, 235 — Eastern Bengal, 240 — East Indian, 227 — Great Indian Peninsula, 243— H. H. the Gaekwar's, 247— H. H. the Nizam's, 246— Indian Mid- laud, 221, 233— Indian State, 221— Jammn and Kashmir, 240— Jodh- pore, 247 — Jorhat, 241 — Khamgaon, 247 — Madras, 241 — Morvi, 247 — Miscellaneous Lines, 249 — Northwestern, 235 — Oudh and Rohilkund, 239— Patna-Gya, 231— Rajputana-Malwa, 231— Sind-Pishim, 238— Siud, Punjab and Delhi, 238 — Southern Mahratta, 233 — South Indian, 242— Tarakeswar, 245— Thaton Duyinzaik, 246— Tirhoot, 241— Vill- upuramDharmavaram, 234. AUSTRALASIA (Australia), 199— Summary of metal track, 209. Neio South Wales, 208. Nmv Zealand, 208, 348. Queensland, 203 : Railways : Fassifern, 205— ^roydon and Nor;n3,nton, 206— Queensland Government, 203, 355 METAL TRACK— Continued. Kail ways and oonntries mentioned — Continued. AUSTRALASIA (Australia)— Continued. South Auairalia, 199. " Tasmania, 209, 349. Victoria, 208 : Victoria Government Railway, 208. EUROPE, 59 : Summary of metal tracli, 186. Austria and Bungarn, 154 : Summary of nietal track, 164 Railways : Aussie; and Teplitz, 158— Austrian State, 155 — Galician (Carl Louis), 158— Heitzing and Pertchtoldsdorf Stoam Tram-way, 162 — Hungarian State, 162 — Nortliern State, 157 — Northwestern, 158. Belgium, 109: Summary of metal track, 119. Railways: Belgian State, 110 — Great Central, 113 — Lifege and Luxem- bourg, 115 — Lifege and Seraing, 115 — Local, 115 — Northern, 114. Denmark, 182 : Danish State Railways, 182. England, Scotland, and Ireland: England, 59 — England, Summary of metal track 77 — Scotland and Ireland, 77. Railways : Bristol and Exeter, 60, 68 — Furness, 70 — Great Eastern, 70 — Great North of Scotland, 77 — Great Northern, 67 — Great Western , 68 — Highland, 77 (Scotland)— London, Chatham and Dover, 69 — London and Northwestern, 64 — London and Southwestern, 69 — Mersey, 70— Metropolitan District, 70 — Metropolitan, 70 — Midland Great Western, 77 — Midland, 66 — Northeastern, 61, 74— Northstaffordshire,71 — South- eastern, 59. France, 78 : Summary of metal track, 93. Railways : Eastern, 87 — Northern , 9 1 — ^Paris and Orleans, 91 — Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean, 78, 86, 190 — Southern, 91— State, 79 — Western, 89. Germany, 119 : Summary of metal track, 154 — First trials in Germany, 134 — Mileage of railways on various kinds of ties, 120 — Ties, of wood and iron in Germany, number, 122. Railways: Alsace-Lorraine State, 143 — Baden State, 140— Bavarian State, 137 — Berlin City, 123 — Halberstadt and Blaukenberg, 149 — Hesse- Louis 146 — Hollenthal, 151 — Lower Palatiiie (Pfalz), 148 — Lubeck and BnChen, 149, — Main-Neckar, 145 — Mulhausen, Ensisheim and Wit- tenheim, 150 — Prussian State, 121 : [Altona Division, 135 — Berlin Division, 123 — Bromberg Division, 137 — Cologne Division, right bank Rhine, 128— Cologne Division, left bank Rhine, 129— Elberfeldt Di- vision, 124— Erfurt Division, 133 — Frankfort-on-Main Division, 131— Hanover Division, 136 — Magdeburg Division, 136] — Wurtemburg State, 143. Holland, 93 : Summary of metal track, 108 — Mileage of railway track, 93. Railways: Dutch Central, 106— Dutch-Rhenish, 106— Holland, 104— Netherlands State, 93. Italy, 180. Portugal, 179: Royal Railways, 179. Sunaia, 184 : Moscow- Kursk Railway, 184. Spain, 176: Summary of metal track, 179— Almansa, Valencia and Tarra- gona Railway, 178 — Bilbao and Las Arenas Railway, 177. Steeden and Norway, 181 : Swedish State Railways, 181. Switzerland, 165 : Summary of metal track, 176. Railways : Burgenstock, 175 — Gotthard, 165 — Jura, Berne and Lnzerne, 173— Mt. Pilatus, 174— Northeastern, 167— Swiss Central, 174— United Swiss, 173 — Western and Simplon, 168. Turlcey, 184 : (348, timbers used). Eastern Railway, 184. 356 ME^Aii TRACK— Continued. Eailways and countries mentioned — Continued. NORTH AMERICA, 276: Canada, 289. Untied Stales, 276. Eailways : Chicago, Santa Fe and California, 281 — Chicago and Western Indiana, 279 — Delaware and Hudson, 280 — Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, 284 — Denver and Elo Grande, 283 — Long Island, 282 — Maine Central, 283 — Pennsylvania, 280 — Philadelphia and Baltimore Central, 283 — New York Central and Hudson Eiver, 277. SOUTH AMERICA, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND MEXICO, 257: Summary of metal track, 275. Argentine RepnoUc, 257; summary, 265; timhers used, 349. Eailways: Andine, 264 — Buenos Ayres Great Southern, 257 — Buenos Ayres and Enseda Port, 263 — Buenos Ayres and Pacific, 262— Buenos Ayres and Eosario, 264 — Buenos Ayres Northern, 264 — Central Argen- tine, 260 — East Argentine, 262 — Northern Central, 265 — Santa F6 and Cordova Great Southern, 263— Santa F