1) CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY FROM Mr S.J. 3. Trevor Date Due i€C 2 9 tSf'. ©COfjUlf ' Cornell University Ubrary D 21.P72 1915a 3 1924 028 328 510 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924028328510 PLOETZ' MANUAL OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY FROM THE DAWN OF CIVILIZATION TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT WAR OF 1914 TRANSLATED AND ENLARGED BT WILLIAM H. TILLINGHAST WITH ADDITIONS COVERING RECENT EVENTS BOSTON NEW TOEK CHICAGO HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1S85, 1905, AND I9II, BY WILLIAM HOPKINS TILLINGHAST COPYRIGHT, 1914 AND I915, BY HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED /\7/ff^J PREFACE TO THE NEW REVISED EDITION The present edition of Ploetz's Epitome brings the record of events down to the outbreak and early days of the European war of 1914. The revision owes its completeness in great measure to several his- torical workers, notably Mr. David M. Matteson, who supplied most of the material for the years 1883-1903. The recent death of the trans- lator, Mr. William H. Tillinghast, has thrown the responsibility of the latest revision entirely into the hands of the Publishers, who, besides having the record brought down to August 15, 1914, in text and in- dex, have added a Supplement covering in detail the events of the great war from its beginning to the time of going to press. BoiiOH, Jantuiy, 1916. TABLE OF CONTENTS. a** Sections marked with an * have been added by the translator ; those marked vlth a t haTe been considerably enlarged or changed by the translator, iNTRODBCnON. ix t DiTisions of uniTerBal history 1 I. ANCXBITT HISTOR7. A. EASTERN PEOPLES. Hamitio. 1- Egyptians S Semitic. 2. Jews (Hebrews, Israelites) .... . . 7 3. Babylonians and Assyrians ....... 12 4. Fhcenicians and Carthaginians 16 5. Iiydians. * Phrygians 20 Aktak. t 6. Indians 22 7. Baotrians, Medea, Persians 21 Turanian. • 8. Farthians 29 • 9. Chinese 30 • 10. Japanese 32 B. WESTERN PEOPLES. Abtans. , * I. Celts 34 ' a. Continental Celts. Gauls 34 h. Celts of the British Isles 36 Britain 36 Ireland 38 • 3. Grecian history 39 Geographical survey of ancient Greece 39 * Religion of the Greeks 41 First Period (x— 1104). Mythical Period .... 43 Second Period (1104-500). To the beginning of the Persian Wars 47 Third Period (600-338). To the battle of Ohieronea . . 56 Fourth Period (338-146). Greeco - Macedonian or Hellenistic Period 73 iv Table of Contents. FAOX 3. Boman history 81 Geographical survey of ancient Italy 81 * Religion of the ancient Romans 84 Ethnographical sketch of Italy 85 First Period (X— 510). Mythical epoch of the kings . . 87 Second Period (510-264). To the beginning of the Punic Wars . 93 Third Period (264-146). Epoch of the Punic Wars . . 109 Fourth Period (146-31). Epoch of the Civil Wars . . .123 Fifth Period (31 b. 0.-476 A. v.). The Roman emperors to the fall of the Western Empire 147 * 4. Teutons 162 * 5. Blavg and liithuanians 168 n. IMEDIiEVAI. HISTOS7. FIRST PERIOD. (375-843.) 1. Migrations of the If orthem Tribes ...... 170 * 2. Teutonic kingdoms in Britain (449-828) .... 176 3. The Franks under the Merovingians 181 4. Mohammed and the Caliphate 182 5. The Franks under the Carolinglans 183 * 6. IS ew Persian empire of the Sassanidae 187 SECOND PERIOD. (843-1096.) 1. Italy and Germany (Carolingian, Saxon, Franconian or Salian em- perors) 193 t 2. France (Carolingians and early Capetians) 301 t 3. England (West Saxon kings) 203 * 4. The 19'orth. Denmark 207 Sweden, Norway • . 208 5. Spanish Peninsula 209 6. TheSiast. Eastern Empire 210 * India 210 » China 211 * Japan 212 THIRD PERIOD. (1096-1270.) 1. Crusades 213 2. Germany and Italy 218 I 3. France 226 t 4. England 229 * 5. The Iforth. Denmark 235 Sweden 237 Norway 238 6. Spanish Peninsula 240 7. The East. Eastern Empire. The Mongols 240 * India. * China 241 * Jaoan . . . <> 342 Table of Contents. v VAOI FOtJRTH PERIOD. (1270-1492.) 1. Germany to Mazimjlian 1 244 Origin of tlie Swiss Confederacy 245 Leagues of the cities 249 t 2. Franoe to Charles Vm. 254 3. Italy 262 t 4. England to Henry VH 263 5. Spanish Peninsula 276 6. The North and Eaat. Scandinavia. Russia . . . .276 Poland, Prussia, Hungary . . . 277 Turlts, Mongols, Eastern Empire I • China. • Japan 5 ' ' '*'" ni. MODERN HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. (1492-1648.) 1. InventionB, discoTeries, and oolonies 279 * 2. America. Discovery 280 a. English colonies : South Virginia 291 Plymouth Company .... 293 b. Dutch colonies 298 c. Swedish colonies 298 d. New France and the Arctic region 299 3. Germany to the Thirty Years' War. Beformation . . 300 4. Thirty Tears' "War 308 1. Bohemian Period, 1618-1623 308 2. Danish " 1625-1629 310 3. Swedish " 1630-1635 311 4. French " 1635-1648 814 t 5. France 318 6. Italy 326 7. Spanish Peninsula and the Ifetberlands .... 328 t The Netherlands 328 * 8. Enfiiland and Scotland 333 9. The Iforth and East 351 Sweden, Denmark and Norway, Poland, Russia . . . 352 Turks. * India 353 • China 354 * Japan • . 355 SECOND PERIOD. (1648-1789.) A. THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTUBT. * 1. America. British, Dutch, and Swedish colonies . . . 357 French settlements and discoveries .... 363 t 2. France nnder Iiouls XIV 365 3. Germany under Iieopold 1 371 4. The North and East. Sweden 373 Denmark, Poland, Russia .... 374 n TaMe of Gontetas. tan * S. England . • • 375 * 6. India 389 * 7. China • . 390 B. THE EIGHTEEHTH CENTURT TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1. The War of the Spanish Succession 390 2. The Northern War 394 3. Germany to the Revolution of 17S9 397 4. The Worth. Denmark (Norway), Sweden 409 Russia, Poland 410 5. Spain and Portugal 414 6. Italy. Savoy, Genoa, Venice 415 (Tuscany, Papal States) Two Sicilies .... 416 * 7. America. British colonies 417 War of Independence 426 * 8. Great Britain 433 * p. The Sast. India , , . . 442 The British in India 4^3 China 444 Japan 445 t 10. France to the Bevolution Of 1789 445 THIRD PERIOD. (1789-1815.) First French Bevolution and Napoleonic Wars . . . 447 Causes of the Revolution 448 Constituent assembly 449 Legislative assembly 451 War of the First Coalition. Uational Convention . . . 452 Directory , 457 War of the Second Coalition 4Q0 The Consulate , , 461 First French Empije 465 War of the Third Coalition 467 (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia 468 Peninsula War 471 (Fifth) War with Austria . 471 (Sixth) War with Russia ........ 474 The War of Liberation 475 Congress of Vienna 482 The Hundred Days (War of 1815) 483 FOURTH PERIOD. (1815— x.) 1. Inventiona. Steam Engines. Steam Navigation. Railroads. Tele- graph 485 2. Continental Europe 487 War of Grecian Independence ....... 438 Revolution in Belgium 489 Revolution in Poland , , 490 Revolt of Mehemet Ali ••«...,. 49I Table of Contents. vil FXOE Civil war in Switzerland 492 Confusion in Germany ; attempts at union .... 492 Revolt of the Hungarians 494 Crimean War 499 Kingdom of Italy 503 War of Austria and Prussia with Denmark .... 505 Austro-Prussian War 607 Austro-Italian War 610 North German Confederation 611 Franco-German War 513 German Empire 519 Turco-Bussian War 522 Congress of Berlin 524 t 3. Franoe (1815-1882) 526 July Revolution of 1830 529 February Revolution of 1848. Second Republic . . . 530 Second Empire 531 Third Republic 532 •4. Oreat Britain 1(1783-1882) 535 The British in India (1785-1836) 541 Great Britain (1837-1882) .542 The British in India (1836-1882) 546 • 6. The TTnited States of America 1(1789-1883) . . . .547 War of 1812 651 War with Mexico 654 The Civil War ' .... 567 • 6. China (1796-1882) 660 • 7. Japan (1787-1882) 562 Restoration of the Mikado 663 APPENDIX. (1883— X.) • 8. Great Britain ' (1883-1903) 566 South African War 670 • 9. Contiueutal Europe 2 (1883-1903) 573, Armenian Massacres 679 Cretan Revolt aud Turco-Greek War 681 Drevfus AfEair 582 • 10. United States 2 (1883-1903) 586 Spanish War 690 Philippine Insurrection 592 • 11 Asia' (1883-1903) 594 Chinese-Japanese War 595 Boxer Rising 697 Russo-Japanese Crisis 699 Iieading Bvents (1904-1914) 699 Supplement 81^ • Index , 1 1 Contributed by Edward Channlng, Fh. D. * Contributed in part by D. M. Matteson. INTEODUCTION. Prof. Dr. Carl Ploetz, well known in Germany as a veteran teacher, is the author of a number of educational works having a high reputation, among which none has better approved its usefulness than the " Epitome of Universal History." ^ The admitted excellence of the book renders an apology for its translation unnecessary, but an extract from the author's preface respecting the nature and purpose of the work may not be out of place. " The present ' Epitome,' which now appears in a seventh edition, enlarged and improved, is intended, in the first place, for use b^ the upper classes in higher educational institutions, as a guide or handbook in the historical class- room. The handy arrangement of the book and the elaborate index are in- tended to adapt it for private use, and to facilitate rapid acquisition of informa- tion concerning historical matters which have, for the moment, escaped the memory. " I Have endeavored to give everywhere the assured results of recent histor- ical investigation, adding, as far as possible, references to my authorities. " The exposition of ancient history is based upon the works of Duncker, Curtius, Mommsen, and Peter. "Mediteval history, which was treated somewhat too briefly in the earlier editions, has been made proportionately full since the fourth, and has been, moreover, enlarged, as has modem history, by the addition of a number of genealogical tables. " In modern history the treaties of peace have been brought into especial prominence, and the principal conditions of the great treaties, through which alone one can get an insight into the historical formation of the present system of European states, have been stated with all possible accuracy. " Recent history has been brought down to the present day. The purpose and the compass of the book alike permitted nothing more than a compressed narrative of facts, as far as possible, free from the expression of personal opin- ion. This limitation of itself excludes the possibility of offending, whether in a religious or a political sense. " All are probably now agreed that it is unadvisable for scholars to write out the lecture of the instructor in full, which, however, should not prevent them from taking notes here and there. No one denies the necessity of a guide as a basis for instruction ; but widely differing ideas prevail concerning the arrange- ment and extent of such a work. " The author of this 'Epitome,' who was for a number of years historical in- structor of the first and second classes in the French Gymnasium at Berlin, holds the opinion that even the best handbook can in no way take the place of an animated lecture, and that any guide which gives a connected narrative in 1 Auszug aus der alien, mittleren wad neueren GescMchte von Karl Ploetz. Siebente verbesserte und stark vermehrte Auflage, Berlin. A. G. Ploetz, 1880. The preparation of this edition was confided to Prof. Dr. O. Meltzer, author of Geichichte der Karthager, i. 1880. X Introduction. some detail necessarily detracts from the value of the teacher's lecture, if in ths hands of the pupils in the class-ruom. " 1 am persuaded that such a work should place before the pupil facts only, in the wider sense of the word, and these grouped in the most comprehensive man- ner. The task of animating these facts by oral exposition ought to be left to the instructor." The translator has enlarged the book in no small degree, with the hope of increasing its general usefulness and of giving it especial value iu this country. Under ancient history an attempt has been made to bring the ethnographical relations of the early peoples into prominence ; but believing that the uncertainty of our knowledge in this respect can hardly be dwelt upon too strongly, the translator has tried to speak guardedly. Even the Indo-European fainily is far from being satis- factorily uiiderstood; the details of the relationship of its constituent groups are not clear ; the theory of a primitive Asiatic home and a Vave-like series of westward migrations is but pne, though perhaps the be$t, among many speculations. Becent text-books have delighted us with minutely ramified tables of Indo-Eur Phrygia conquered by Lydia about 560. (Eawlinson.) § 6. INDIANS. Aryan. Geography : India, the central peninsula of the three which pro- ject from the southern coast of Asia into the Indian Ocean, is a vast triangle, having a base and a height of about 1900 miles, bounded on the N. by the Himalaya Mountains, on the E. by the Bay of Bengal, on the W. by the Gulf of Arabia. It falls into three geo- graphical divisions : I. The region of the Himalayas. The central range forms an almost impassable barrier between India and the Mongol tribes of central Asia (Mt. Everest, 29,000 ft.). On the E. this region is separated from Burmah by the lower ranges of the Ndgd, Patkoi, and Yomas (Aeng Pass), which are pierced by the Brahmaputra. On the W. the Sufed Koh, Suldimdn, and the Hdlas separate India from Afghanistan and Baluchistan, but are pierced by the Indus River, the Khaibar Pass (3373 ft.), and the Boldn Pass (5800 ft.). This region includes Nepal and Kashmir. II. The fertile valley of the great rivers, which receives the drainage of the northern as well as of the southern slopes of the Hima/- layas. River systems: Indus, Sutlej (provinces of Punjab, i. e. the five streams,! Sind); Ganges (provinces of Bengal, Oudh, Rdjpu- tdna ; cities : Calcutta, Benares, Delhi, Allahabad) ; Bramaputra (province of Assam). Deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. III. The Deccan, or southern plateau, separated from the Ganges valley by the Vindhya mountains (5000 ft.), and bordered by the East Ghats (1500 ft.) and West Ghats (3000 ft.). Rivers: Goddvari, Krishna, Kdveri, aU flpwing through the East Ghats into the Bay of Bengal. Provinces : Madras, Bombay, Mysore, etc. Religion : The religion of the early Indians, as portrayed in the Vedic hymns, was a worship of Nature : Dyaush-pitar, Father of Heaven; Varuna, the sky; /n^ra, the rain-vapor; Agni, fire; Maruts, gods of the storm. After the settlement in the Ganges valley, this primitive faith underwent a change. History : The Indians (Hindus) migrating from the northwest, came at first to the valley of the Indus and the Punjab, and thence elowly pushed their settlements down the valley of the Ganges, 1 Indus, Ihelum, Chencmb, Ram, Sutlej (modern names). B. c. Indians. 23 where they were probably established as early as 1500 b. c. The native tribes whom they found in the country they either enslaved or Eushed into the Himalayas on the N., and on to the Deccan in the . (^Dravidians). At a later date the Hindus spread along the coasts of the Deccan and reached Ceylon. Foundation of numerous despotic kingdoms. In the conquered district strict separation of the Aryan conquerors from the subjugated aborigines. L»evelopment of the royal power and of the priestly in- fluence. Four principal castes: Brahmans, priests; Kahattriyas, warriors; Vaisyas, agricultural settlers. These three were of pure Aryan descent. The Siidras, or servile caste, were of aboriginal descent, the Dasas, "slaves." Transformation of the ancient faith into the religion of Brahma : Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the pre- server; Siva, the destroyer and restorer. Spiritual tyranny of the Brahmans, accompanied by a high development of philosophy, gram- mar, etc., by the Brahmans, in connection with the explanation of the Vedas ("revelations"), or services for the various religious cere- monials: Rig-Veda, the simplest form; Sama-Veda ; Yayw-Veda (black and white), Atharva-Veda. To these were in time attached prose treatises composed by the priests and called the Brahmanas, one being attached to each Veda. A second series of additions were the Sutras ("sacred traditions"). Poetry, the epics: Maha-bharata, Ramdyana. Regulation of the entire thought and life in accord- ance with strict prescriptions, which were afterwards (about 600 ?) gathered together into the book of the laws of Manu, being, as it was claimed, a divine revelation to him, the tribal ancestor of the whole race. Complicated system of rites and ceremonies. Pre- scriptions concerning cleanliness. Terrors of the doctrine of the second birth. Magnificent monuments of Indian architecture, especially the Cliff' Temples, which were excavated in the rock, both upon and be- low the surface of the earth. Later, Pagodas. In the sixth century, appearance of the reformer Buddha, i. e. "the enlightened" (623 to 543), properly Gautama, afterwards Sid- dhartha (i. e. " he who has fulfilled his end "), sou of prince Svd- dhodana. Buddhism, called after its founder, was originally a. philosophical system, without creed or rites, having for its object the attainment of moral perfection. Through its doctrine of the essen- tial equality of all men, it was directly opposed to Brahmanism. The progress of Buddhism produced, along with certain changes in the old system, a strong Brahmanistio reaction. The war of the re- ligions ended with the expulsion of Buddhism from India. It main- tained itself in Kashmir and Ceylon only, but the loss was offset by great gains in central and eastern Asia, where it has to-day over 300,000,000 devotees in Thibet, China, Japan, etc. 327. Invasion of the Punjab by Alexander the Great (p. 715). 317-291. Formation of great empires of short duration (empire of Magadha, under Chandra-gupta (Greek, Sandra^kottos), and his grandson, 263-226 (?). Acoka, the friend of Buddhism. After the reign of Ayo- ka the Punjab fell under the supremacy of the Grseco-Bactrian 24 Ancient History. B. C. empire in central Asia, and thus some tincture of Greek civ- ilization was imparted to this part of India. The Bactrian rulers were finally expelled by Scythian invaders, several dy- nasties of whom appear to have reigned in the Punjab and along the Ganges. Wars of the native prince Vihramaditya against the Scythians (57 B.C. ?). Kanishka, Gr. Kanerke, was the founder of the last dynasty of Scythian kings,- who were succeeded by an unknown people, the Guptas. Another branch of the Indo-Scythians making their way down the Indus came into conflict with the Guptas, and with a general league of the Hindus of the south. In the 78 A. D. (?) Battle of Kahror the invaders were utterly defeated and are henceforward not mentioned. The Guptas reigned in Oudh and northern India until they were overthrown by foreign invaders (Tatars ?) in the latter half of the fifth century A. D. § 7. BACTEIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS. Arym. Geography: The Bactrians, Medes, and Persians inhabited the plateau of Iran,^ between the Suldimdn range on the E. and the val- ley of the Euphrates and Tigris on the W., between the Caspian Sea on the N., and the Erythraean Sea (Indian Ocean) on the S. On the western border of this highland: Media (Edbatana, Med. Hangma- tana, i. e. " place of assemblies ") ; on the southern border along the Persian Gulf, Persis (Pasargadce, PersepdHs), Carmania; on the Ery- thraean sea, Gedrosia; on the eastern border, Arachosia, the land of the Paropanisadm, at the foot of the Paropanisus (Hindu Koosh) ; ^ on the northern border, Bactria or Bactriana (Baktrd), Parthia and Hyr- cania on the Caspian Sea; in the centre, ^na and Drangiana; between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, Sogdiana (Maracanda). East of the lower course of the Tigris, in the lowlands: Susiana (the ancient Elam) with Sma, tho principal residence of the Persian kings. Within this broad plateau, a widely accepted theory locates the primeval home of the Aryan or Indo-European or Japhetic race, from which in prehistoric times successive colonies wandered away to the south and west. About 1000 (?)• Zoroaster (Zarathustra) whose doc- trine, a spiritual reform of the old Iranic superstitions, was contained in the 21 (?) books of the Avesta, of which one only has come down to us: the Vendidad, i. e. "delivered against the DaSva," the bad spirits. The pith of the doctrine as set forth in the Avesta ' is the conception of a continuous war- fare of the good spirits, whose leader was the good god Ahura- mazda or Auramazda (in modern Persian Ormuzd), and the evil spirits, or Daeva, whose leader was Angromainyu, in mod- ern Persian Ahriman), over the life and death, welfare or in- 1 Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. II. 2 Kiepert, Manual of Ancient Geography, p. 39. 8 Avesta is the law itself, Zend the later commentary on tlie law; hence Zend- Veesta, and the expressions Zend-language, Zend-people. B. c. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 25 jury, of matt and his soul after death. In this new doctrine Mithra the sun-god, originally the highest of the Iranian gods, appeared as a creature of the creator Ahuramazda, but never- theless the equal of the latter in dignity and divinity. Worsh^i of flre, whose blaze scared away the evil spirits of the night ; reverence paid to water, and the fertile earth, the daughter of Ahuramazda. The priests, called Athrava (from atkao, fire), by the Bactrians, and Magians (Maghush) by the Medes, formed a distinct hereditary class ; an institution which was copied by the ancient priestly families of Persia, after the general acceptance in that country of the reformed faith, which came to them from Bactria, tibrough Media. About 1100. Formation of a powerful Empire in Bao tria, mythical reminiscences of the deeds of whose kings are perhaps contained in the Shahnameh of the poet Firdusi (about 1000 a. d.). As early as the ninth century, the Assyrians imdertook expedi- tions against the plateau of Iran, and in the middle of the eighth century, the western portion of this plateau, Media, and Persia, be- came permanently subject to Assyria. 640. Revolt of the Medea from the Assyrians. 640-558. Median Empire. The first prince of a Median dynasty mentioned was 708-655. Dejoces (ATjidmjs, old Pers. Dahyauka), to whom is as- cribed the foundation of the capital Ecbatana. He does not appear, however, to have reigned over the whole of Media, or to have been independent, but rather to have continued to pay tribute to the Assyrians. His son, 655-633. Phraortes (paopTr;s, Pers. Fravartis) , was the first who united the whole country under one ruler and established the independence of Media. He made the Persians tributary, although their native ruler Achcemenes (Hakhamanis'), who was raised to the throne after the revolt of the Persians from As- syria, retained his crown under Median supremacy, and be- queathed it to his descendants. After Phraortes had fallen fighting against the Assyrians (p. 15) his son, 633-593. CyaxSres (Kva|(ip>);, Pers. Uvahksathra) succeeded him and continued the war with Assyria successfully. Inroad of the Scythians. After their departure (about 626 ? see p. 15), Cyaxdres subjugated Armenia. War with Alyattes king of Lydia (p. 21). 606 (625?). Cyaxares, in alliance vrith Ndbopolassar of Babylonia, captured Nineveh and destroyed the Empire of Assyria (p. 15), whose territory on the left shore of the Tigris fell to the Medians. He also conquered eastern Iran. Media at the death of Cyaxares was the most powerful monarchy of Asia. His son, 593-n558. Astyages ('AirTi>ii7>js), last king of the Medes. Cyrus, of 26 Ancient History. b. c. the family of the Achcemenidce in the Persian tribe of the Pa- sargadoe, which reigned in Persia under Median supremacy, deposed Astydges. The supremacy passed (558) from the Medes to the Persians. Herodotus (I. 107, etc.) reports a tradition of the Median descent of Cyrus through his mother Manddne, daughter of Astydges, which is adorned after tlie Oriental manner, with the dream of Astydges, the interpretation of the Magi, the exposure, miraculous rescue and rec- ognition of the boy Cyrus., the cruel punishment of Harpdgus, his treachery, etc. This story is evidently an invention of the Medes, who would not admit that they were conquered by a stranger. According to Ctesias, the daughter of Astydges was named Amy- tis, and was the wife of a Mede, Spitamas. After the deposition of Astydges and execution of Spitamas, Cyrus made her his consort. 558-330. Persian Empire founded by 558-529. Cyrus (KCpos, Pars. Kurics). Cyrus strengthened the Persian power over those peoples of Iran which were formerly subject to the Medes, and over the Armenians and Cappadocians. War against Croesus of Lydia (p. 21). After the indecisive battle of Pteria (554 ?), Cyrus advanced on Sardes, defeated Croesus in a second battle on the Hermus, stormed Sardes, captured Croesus, and deprived him of his kingdom, but otherwise treated him as a friend and ad- viser (554).^ The Grecian story told by Herodotus (I. 86) of Cyrus' intention to burn Croesus, who, on the pyre, calls to mind his interview with Solon, of his consequent pardon by Cyrus, and the miraculous quenching of the flames by the Delphic Apollo, who had formerly re- ceived vairaable presents from Croesus, betrays a purpose of bringing Grecian wisdom into strong relief (proverb of Solon, that no mortal is to be called fortunate before death), and of vindicating the Grecian god. It is inconsistent with the command of the Persian faith, not to contaminate the sacred Are. Probably Crcesus wished to appease the anger of the gods against his people and country, according to Semitic usage, by burning himself; according to the Lydian story, the surt^god Sandon does not accept the offering, but puts out the flames with rain. Cyrus returned to Ecbatana. A revolt of the Lydians was quickly repressed. Mazdres and Harpdgus made the Grecian coast cities tributary to the Persians. A portion of the Phocmans migrated to Corsica; driven thence (see p. 19) they went to Elea {Velia) in southern Italy. Harpagus conquered Caria and Lyda. 539-538. War of Cyrus against the Babylonians. After a siege of nearly two years (diversion of the Euphrates) Babylon was captured. The Babylonian Empire -was in- corporated Twith the Persian; the Phoenicians and Cilicians 1 The date of the fall of Sardes is disputed. Suncker (Book viii., chap. 6), gives 549, B. C. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 27 retained their native rulers under Persian supremacy ; the Jews were sent from Babylon back to Palestine (p. 11). 529. Cyrus, who was occupied during the last nine years of his reign with wars against the eastern peoples, fell in one of these expeditions. The story of his death, lUce that of his birth, has been poetically adorned and variously related. According to one tradition, probably of Median origin {Herodotus, 1. 202-214), Cyrus fell in battle against Tompris, the queen of the Massagetce, whose son he hjid overcome by deceit. She thrust the dissevered head of the Persian monarch into a skin- bag of blood that he might " drink his fill of blood." Ac- cording to Ctesias, Cyrus died, on the fourth day, of a wound which he received in a victory over the Derhices. The son and successor of Cyrus, 529-522. Cambyses (Ka/u/SiJoTjc, Pars. Kamhujiya), con- quered Egypt by his victory at Pelusium (p. 7). 625.1 Capture of Memphis. Expedition up the Nile toward ^Ethiopia; failure of provisions in the desert compelled him to turn back. 'The tyrant ot Cyrene acknowledged the supremacy of Cam- byses, but a projected attack upon Carthage by sea was pre- vented by the refusal of the Phoenicians to lend their ships (p. 19). Destruction of the army corps dispatched against the temple of Jupiter Ammon (Oasis Sivah). Cambyses slaughtered the bull Apis in Memphis ^ (?), and mani- fested in all ways a choleric and bloodthirsty disposition. On the way back from Egypt, he died in Syria, either from an accidental wound, or by his own hand. A Magus seized the sceptre and pro- claimed himself the brother of Cambyses, 622. Bardija (Gr. 2,atpSis), who had been murdered at Cambyses' command. After a short reign the usurper was put to death by the princes of the seven Persian tribes, the most influential of whom, 521-486. Darius (Aapeto<;, Pars. Darayavus), son of Hys- taspes (Vistagpa), was made king. The father of Darius, Hystaspes, was the head of the younger line of the AchcemenfdcB (the elder became extinct with Cambyses and Bardija') and the rightful heir to the Persian throne. The son, Darius, however, was recognized by the other princes as king. Later his accession was ratified by the production of auguries. (Anecdote of the neighing horse in Herodotus, III. 85.) Revolt of the Babylonians. The city of Babylon recaptured only after a siege of more than 20 months. (Self-mutilation of Zopprus, in order to deceive the Babylonians.) 518 (?). Afterwards Darius suppressed revolts which had broken out in other parts of the empire (in Media, Persia, Parihia, etc.), and conquered the right bank of the Indus. 1 Accordinff to Brugsoh, 527. '■* See on this point Brutrsoh, Bist. of Egypt, II. 289 fE., who, by the genealogy of the Api, showed the improbability of the story. 28 Ancient History. b. c. B13 (?). Unsuccessful expedition of Darius against the Scythians with a land force of 700,000 men. The fleet of the Greeks of Asia Minor was conducted by the tyrants of the Ionian cities. Bridge of boats across the Bosphorus. Bridge over the Ister (Danube). After an aimless advance, lack of provisions in- duced a retreat (Herodotus, IV. 130 seq.). Darius rescued by the faithfulness of Histicms of Miletus (against the advice of Miltiades of Athens, tyrant in the Chersonese). Thracia made subject to Persia. Cyrene conquered by a force sent from Egypt. Susa, in Susiana, since the time of Darius the principal residence of the " Great King " (/BairiAeiJr tUv fiaaiKiwv, /aiyas ^acnXeis, Pars. Khshayathiya-Khshayathiyandm, whence the modern Persian Shahirt- shah). Ecbatdna in Media was the summer residence. Erection of a new royal palace at PersepoUs in Persis, where ruins with inscrip- tions and sculptures have been discovered, as well as at Susa. At Persepolis, too, the tombs of the kings. Divine worship paid to the king, the satisfaction of whose wants was the final purpose of the state. Maintenance of a costly court, with an elaborate ceremonial. Construction of great military roads. Completion of the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, which RaTnessu II. had begun and Neku had continued (p. 5). Establishment of postal stations, of course only for the carriage of royal messages. Division of the empire into 20 (?) satrapies, each under a satrap (Persian Khshatra-pati, i. c. " lord of the province "), with regal acconmiodation in palaces surrounded by extensive gardens (Para- disice). Subject cities or tribes, and indeed whole nations, enjoyed their own laws and separate administration, under native though de- pendent princes. 500-494. E«volt of the Ionian Greeks, incited by His- ticEus of Miletus, who had been accused to Darius and sum- moned to Susa, and his son-in-law Aristagoras. With the assistance of Athens and Eretria, Sardes was captured and burned. The lonians, defeated by the Persian army, were abandoned by their allies from Athens and Eretria; their fleet was defeated at Lade, opposite Miletus. The lonians were again reduced to subjection, and the Milesians, by command of Darius, were settled about the mouth of the Tigris. 493-490. "War of Darius agamst the European Greeks (p. 66). Great preparations for a new expedition against Greece. Re- volt among the Egyptians. 485. Death of Darius. He was succeeded by his son, 485-465. Xerxes I. (He/)|r)s, Pars. Khshayarsha). 480. War against Greece (p. 58). Xerxes and his eldest son mur- dered by Artahanus, captain of the body-guard. The second son of Xerxes, 465-424. Artaxerxes I. (Pers. Artachshatra), called yiaicp6xeip, Lcm- gimanus, succeeded to the throne. 462-455. Second revolt of the Egyptians under InarOs, assisted by B. c. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 29 the Athenians, suppressed by the satrap Megabyzun (Amyr- tmus alone maintained himself about the mouths of the Nile). Wars with the Greeks (p. 63). Beginning of the internal de- cay of the Persian empire. Revolts of the satraps. Merce- nary troops. The sou of Artaxerxes, 424. Xerxes II., after ruling one month and a half, was murdered, by his brother, Sogdianus, who after six and a half months, was murdered by his brother Ochus, who reigned under the name 424r-405. Darius II., Noihus. He was under the influence of his wife Parysalis. Third revolt of the Egyptians, who maintained their independence for sixty years (414-354). 405-362. Artaxerxes H., Mnemon. Revolt of his brother, the younger Cyrus, who, assisted by Grecian mercenaries, attacked the king in the neighborhood of Babylon. 401. Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa in personal combat with his brother. 400. Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, Xenophon {Anabasis). 362-338. Artaxerxes III. Revolt of the Fhcenicians and Egyptians suppressed. Artaxerxes poisoned by his favorite, the Egyp- tian Bagoas, who placed on the throne the king's youngest son, 338-336. Arses, whom he likewise murdered, in order to put a great-- grandson of Darius Nothus in his place. 336-330. Darius m., Codomannus. Bagoas executed by poison. War with Alexander of Macedonia ; Darius murdered by the satrap Bessus while fleeing, after the battle of Gaugamela (331). 330. Destruction of the Persian Umpire. See Grecian history, 4th period, p. 74. § 8. PARTHIANS.i Turanian? "i Geography: The Parthian empire extended from the Euphrates to the Indus, from the Caspian Sea and the Araxes to the Indian Ocean, covering nearly the same ground, and having in the main the same divisions, as the Persian empire, of which it was, indeed, in many ways an avowed imitation. Parthia proper, the region between the Jaxartes, and the desert of Iran, the Caspian Sea and the province of Aria, was a satrapy of the Persian empire. About 250. The Parthians revolted under the lead of Arsaces, the chief of a tribe of the Daha: (Scythians). The revolt succeeding, 250(?)-247. Arsaces I. was raised to the throne. He was suc- ceeded by his brother Tiridates as 247-214. Arsaces II., who firmly established the independence of Parthia. His sou, 214-196. Arsaces III., successfully resisted Antiochus the Great. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius) and Arsaces V. {Phraates I.) accom- plished but little of importance. The son of the latter, 1 Bawlinson. 2 The use of this name mupf not he understood as implying helief in the racial unity of all the peoples to whom it is applied. It denotes merely the mass of Asiatics who belonged neither to the Semitic nor to the Aryan family. 30 Ancient History. B. C.-A. D. 174-136. Mithridates I., founded the Empire of the Par- thians, extending his sway over Media, Susiana, Per- sia, Babylonia, Bactria. Subject nations were permitted to retain their native kings in subjection to Parthia. The Parthian civilization was rude and of a low order. 136-127. Phraates II. (Arsaces VII.) repressed a revolt of Baby- lonia, but fell fighting against the Turanians. The incursions of these nomadic tribes became more frequent under Artabanus (Arsaces VIII.'), 127-124, who likewise fell in battle against them. They were, however, effectually checked by Mith- ridates II. (Arsaces IX.), 124r-87, who also extended the power of Parthia in other directions, until towards the close of his reign he was defeated by Tigranes of Armenia. Under Phraates III. (Arsaces XII.), 69-60, the Parthians first be- came embroiled with B.ome, war with this power breaking out in 54. Under Orodes I. (Arsaces XIV.), 54^-37, Expedition of Crasaus (p. 140). Expedition of Antonius, 36, against Phraates IV. (Arsaces XV.). From 37 b. o. to 107 a. d. Parthia was ruled by a series of ten monarchs, whose reigns were mostly occupied with struggles for the succession. Volo- geses I., 50-90 ; Armenia lost. An attempt made by 107-121 A. D. Cbosroes (Arsaces XXV.) to recover Armenia brought about the successful Parthian expedition of Trajan, whose conquests were, however, abandoned as soon as made. Vologeses III. (Arsaces XXVII.), 149-192 A. d., became in- volved in a war with M. Aurelius, which terminated in the complete svibmission of the Parthian. • His successor, Vologsses IV., 192-213 A. D., lost northern Assyria to Rome. £15-226 A. D. Artabanus in. (Arsaces XXX.), last king of Par- thia. In his reign Parthia suffered severely at the hands of Caracalla, but, after his death and the defeat of Macrinus, had regained its former power, when the empire was brought to an end by the success of an insurrection of the Persians under Artaxerzes, son of Sassan, who defeated and slew the Parthian monarch. The Tatar empire was replaced by the Aryan king- dom of the Sassanidse, or the Ne-w Persian Empire (226- 652 A. D. (p. 187). § 9. CHINESE. Turanian. Geography: China in the broad sense, or the Chinese Empire, embracing Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet, as well as China proper, is bounded N. by Asiatic Russia, E. by the Sea of,Iapan, the Yellow Sea, and the Sea of China, S. and S. W. by the Sea of China, Cochin China, Burmah, W. by Kashmir and East Turkestan. China (land of the Seres among the ancients, Cathay in the Middle Age), comprises less than half of the Chinese empire, Being about 1474 miles long by 1355 wide. Vast alluvial plain and delta in the N. E. Mountainous and hUly in south. Rivers: H-wang-ho (Yellow River); Yang-tsze- Keang; Se-keang. Provinces: 1, Chih-li (or Pe-chih-li), with Peking, B. c. CTiinese. 31 the capital of the empire; 2, Keangsoo, the most populous and best watered of the provinces, with the cities, Nartr-king, Shang-hai:3, Gan^ hvuy; 4, Keangse; 5, Che-keang, with the city Ning-po; 6, Fuh-keen, comprising the island of Formosa (Taiwan); 7, Hoo-pih; 8, Hoo-^an; 9, H(Hnan; 10, Shan-tung Tprith the Taishan mountain; 11, Shan^se; 12, Shense; 13, Kansuh; 14, Sze-chuen; 15, Kwang-tung, with the cities. Canton, Macao, Hong-Kong (properly Hiang-kiang) ; 16, Kwang- se; 17, yura-nan; 18, Kwei-chowj 19, Shing-king. Beligion: Uncertainty concerning the oldest religion of the Chi- nese. By some writers it is considered little higher than fetichism, while others see a monotheistic belief in the worship »i Ti. Their religion embraced a worship of ancestors, of deiiied rulers, and of spirits generally, classed in antitheses of opposing qualities (yang and yin), heaven and earth, male and female, from whose interaction all created beings sprang. Ideas of future life indistinct, no system of rewards and punishments. System of offerings; never human sac- rifices. In the fifth century B. c. appeared the philosopher Con- fucius (E^ung-foo-Uze, 551-478), who taught no new theology, and did not remodel the old religion, but whose ethical code and personal influence secured for him an enthusiastic following. It was a revi- val, rather than a reformation, of the ancient faith. Enunciation of the Golden Rule.^ Contemporary with Confucius was Lao-tsze, the author of a system of ethical philosophy, Taoism, the " way or method of living which men should cultivate as the liighest and purest devel- opment of their nature" (Legge). At a later time there grew up a system of gross and mystical superstition, which took the name of Taoism, deified Lao-tsze, and became one of the recognized religions of the empire. Budrlliism introduced into China about A. D. 65, where it has degenerated into alow superstition, but still numbers many dev- otees and has deeply affected the older religions. Begging priests. Mohammedanism has also its adherents. The common religion of the lower classes is the old ancestor and spirit worship, complicated by the introduction of elements from all the sects above mentioned. Ko state religion; toleration of all faiths. Chronology. The Chinese regard themselves as aborigines. For- eign scholars derive them from wandering bands of Tatars, or from the peoples of Tibet and Farther India. It is probable that the first settlements were made in the valley of the Hwang-ho. The Chinese possess an intricate system of chronology which ear- lier writers trusted almost implicitly, but which modern scholars have severely criticised. The dates assigned before 800 B. c. are probably wholly untrustworthy. Chinese annalists place the creation between two and three millions of years before Confucius, and divide the inter- vening space into ten epochs. In the eighth of these are placed the fa- mous emperors Yew-ehaou She (" nest builder "), Suy-jin She, the dis- coverer of fire, Fuhi, Chirwnung, inventor of the plough, and Yaou, who first drained the vaUey of Hwang-ho. These sovereigns are to be regarded as largely mythical, as are the dynasties of Hia (2205-1766) and Shang (1766-1123). 1 Iiegge, Religions of Chma, 137-139. 32 Ancient History. b. C.-A. d. 1123-255. Chow Dynasty. During the time of this dynasty we reach historic ground. Development of a feudal system. The imperial domain- lay in the middle of the empire, whence the name applied to the empire, " Middle Kingdom." Un- der Sing-wang, birth of Confucius, 551 B. c. 255-206. Dynasty of Tsin, famous for the energetic monarch Che-wang-te (246-210), who ejctended the empire to the sea, defeated the Mongols, built the Chinese Wall (1400 miles long, 15-30 feet high, 15-25 feet broad); 213, Chi- jvang-te ordered the destruction of many thousand historical and philosophical books. 206 B. C.-221 A. D. Dynasties of Bast and West Han. Brilliant period of Chinese history. The power of the feudal lords limited, the empire consolidated and strength- ened, and extended westward to Rmsian Turkestan. Conquest of northern Corea (109 A. D.). Annexation of Hainan. This period was succeeded by one of great confusion. 221-265 A. D. Epoch of the Three Kingdoms: Wd, in the north; Wu, in the east; and Shuh, in the west. Wuti, 265 A. D., re- united a large part of the empire and founded the dynasty of Tsin, but the country soon relapsed into a divided state, which continued until 590 A. D. Yang-Kian, prince of Suy, in the northern king- dom of Wd, extending his conquests southward, united the whole empire under his sceptre and founded the dynasty of Suy. § 10. JAPANESE. Turanian. Geography: The Japanese > empire, Dai Nippon, is a chain of isl- ands which skirts the eastern coast of Asia opposite Corea, Man- churia, aad Amur. It comprises four large islands: Kiushiuj Shiko- hU; Hondo,^ or Honshiu, the principal island; Yezo; and some three thousand small islands.' Nature of the country, rocky, mountainous, volcanic. Highest mountain, Fusiyama (12,000 ft.), in the centre of the east coast of Hondo. Kivers numerous but small; among the largest: Tone-gawa, Skinano-gawa, Kwa-gawa, Ti-gawa. Lake Biwa in Hondo. Principal cities: Kioto, Yedo, or Tokio, Yokohama, Osaka. Religion: The most ancient religion of Japan bears the native name of Kami-no-michi, " the way of the gods," but is better known abroad by the Chinese term Shinto. It consisted of a theology which comprised the gods of heaven, the mikados, many deified mortals, ani- 1 Japan (Zipnnffu in the Middle Age) is a name given to the empire by foreigners. It is probably of Chinese origin. 2 This is the name recently applied to the main island by the Japanese gov- ernment; previously the Japanese had no name for this island. Nippon, the name frequently given it bv foreijjners, is the name of the whole empire. ' Saghalin was given to Russia in 1875 in exchange for the Kurile islands. B. c.-A. D. Jfapaneie. 33 mals, plants, and natural objects, and of a ritual for the worship of these deities. The chief command of the religion was implicit obedi- ence to the gods, especially to the mikado. It had no moral code. It was emphatically a state religion, and was often used as a political engine. In 552 A. D. Buddhism was introduced into Japan, where it spread rapidly. Development of a score or more of sects. (Among others Shin-shu, which teaches salvation by faith in Buddha.) Bud- dhism for a time overshadowed ihe older religion, but the present government has fully reinstated the Shinto faith. Chronology: The origin of the Japanese is uncertain. They in- vaded the islands from Asia, and conquered them from the savage Ainos, whom they found there. The present Japanese are certainly a mixed race, containing Turanian and Malay elements. While the mythical history of Japan comprises a dynasty of gods, followed by a dynasty of rulers descended from the sun-goddess, and who are sometimes assigned reigns of hundreds of thousands of years eaeh, the earliest date of what is believed in Japan to be authentic history is 660 B. C; the dates are probably imtrustworthy until much later. 660-585 B. c. Jimmu Tenno,^ the first Mikado,'' beine the 5th in descent from the sun-goddess. He was leader of the invasion, and conquered Kiushiu, Shihoku, and a part of the main island. Jimmu is regarded by many foreign scholars as a mythical character. He was the founder of an unbroken dynasty, of which the reigning mikado, Mutsu-Hilo, is the 122d (123d counting Jingu) sovereign. The 10th mikado, Sujin (97-30 B. c.) introduced reforms, reorganized the administrar- tion of the empire and generally advanced the civilization of the people. Intercourse opened with Corea. Succeeding em- perors continued the war with the native Ainos, who were pushed further and further to the north. Especially famous is the reign of the 12th mikado, 71-130 A. D. Keiko, whose more famous son, Yamato-Dake, " the warlike," conquered the great eastern plain, the KoantO. The 14th mikado, Chinai, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his wife the renowned 201-269 A. D. Jingu-Kogo, sometimes called the 15th mikado, al- though never formally crowned. She suppressed a rebellion in Kiushiu, and herself led au army to Corea, which she re- duced to submission. Diplomatic relations with China. Her son and successor, 270-310 A. D. Ojin, was a great warrior, and is stiU worshipped as 1 His true name was Kan-yaTnato^ware-hiko-no-milcoto. After the introduc- tion of Chinese characters, the long native names of gods and emperors were transcribed into the shorter Chinese equivalents. It also became customary for the mikados to receive after death a different name from that which they had borne while living. The first mikado received the name Jimmu, " spirit of war," to which was joined one of the officialtitles of the mikado, Tetmo, " lord of heaven." 2 Mikado, the most general title of the emperors, is derived either from Mi, " honorable," and Kado, "gate " (compare "Sublime Porte," and "Pharaoh " p. 1, note 3), or from Miha, "great," and to, "place." 8 S4 Ancient History. b. c. the god of war. Introduction of Chinese literature and civil- ization, which at this date was far in advance of the Japanese. From this time to the sixth century the annals of Japan are marked by no great events. B. WESTERN PEOPLES. § 1. CELTS. Aryan. Celts, or Kelts, is the name given to that race which, at the dawn of authentic history, occupied the extreme west of Europe. They be- longed to the Indo-European family, and, if the Asiatic origin of that family be accepted,^ were the first branch to enter upon the westward migration. a. Continental Celts. Gauls. Geography: At the time of the Roman conquest (59-51), Gaul, or that part of Europe occupied by the Celts (KcAtoQ or Gauls (riiA\oi), was divided among three great groups of tribes: Belgians, dwelling between the lower Rhine, the forest of Ardennes, the Mame, and Seine. This people have been claimed as Teutons, but the weight of evidence assigns them to the Celts.^ Tribes : Remi, Suessiones, Neniii,^ Menapii. Gauls,* dwelling between the Seine, Mame, middle Rhine, Rhone, and Garonne. Tribes : In the valley of the Seine (Sequana): Parisii (with the city Lutetia Parisi- orum, now Paris), Senones ; in the valley of the Loire (Liger) : Namnetes, Turones, Camutes, Boii, j^Edui, Avemi; W. of the Seine : Treviri; in the valley of the Saone Sbwi Rhone : Sequani, Allohroges. The Aquitanians, between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, were not Celts, but Iberians. In Switzerland: Helvetii, Vindelici. Religion : Sooh after the conquest the theology of the Gauls was largely superseded and corrupted by the introduction of the Roman gods. Little is therefore known of the pure Celtic religion, whose nature has consequently become a favorite subject for dispute. It was a pantheism, which had. its cycle of great gods, its local divin- ities, its deifications of forests, rivers, and fountains. Among the great gods are the following, with their Roman equivalents : Bormo, Grannus (Apollo"), with his companion the goddess Damona ; Segomo, Cannulus (Mars), with the goddess Nemetonia; Belisama (Minerva ?); Taramicus (Jupiter). Complicated and imposing ceremonial, con- ducted by the Druids, or priests, who were accorded at least equal honors with the nobles. They did not form an hereditary class, but were recruited from the people. Exemption from military service ^ See Introduction. 2 The Belgians are also claimed as non-Aryans, of the same race as the Aquitanians. » Dahn, Urgesch. d. Germ. III. 26, note 9. * In spite of Cassar's statement that the Gauls were called Celts in their own language, the two names are not considered synonymous. It is probable that the Gallic tribes formed a division distinct from the Celtic tribes {using Celt in the narrow sense of inhabitant of Gaul). The attempt has even been made to draw the geographical boundary between them. B. c. Celts. 35 and taxes. Use of writing, with Greek alphabet. Exercise of juris- diction. Human sacrifices. Civilization : That the Celts of Graul had reached quite an ad' vanoed stage of civilization ^ is clear from the readiness with which they accepted the higher civilization of Rome, and from the fact that their social state as depicted by Csesar exhibits a degeneracy which was not seen again in northern Europe until the decay of the Neus- trian state under the Merowingians, in the fifth and sixth centuries A. D. Chronology: Before the conquest the history of the Celts of Gaul is the history of their collisions with the southern nations. The Celtic migration was slow, and large bodies were left behind at various points, as in Bohemia and throughout Germany, where many traces of Celtic occupation survived the Teutonic conquest. According to some writers the Celts immigrated in two bands, the Goidelic or Gadhelic Celts being the more northerly, and the Bry- thonic or Cymric Celts the more southerly ; this is but a surmise. Not earlier than 2000. The Celts reached the western shores of Europe. Their principal settlements were made in central France. They here attained their highest culture, and from this point detachments went forth to conquer new lands. There were four principal emigrations. 1. To the British Isles. Date unknown. See p. 36. 2. To Spain, where they mingled with the Iberian inhabitants and formed the Celtiberians. Celts in Spain were known to Herodo- tus in the fifth century B. c. 3. To Northern Italy. The legendary history of Rome places this event in the reign of Tarquinius Prisons, or about 600 b. c. Tribe followed tribe until the whole of northern Italy was occupied (Gallia Cisalpina'). Tribes : Bituriges (Milan), Cenomani (Brescia and Verona), Boil (Bologna), Senones (coast between Rimini and Ancona). 390. Conquest of Rome by the Senones under their Brennus, i. e. milibiry leader. 283. Extermination of the Senones by the Romans ; defeat of the Boii on the Vadimonian lake. 238. General league of Cisalpine Gauls against Rome. Defeat of the league at Telamon, 225. Capture of Milan by Scipio. Formation of Roman colonies at Placentia, Cremona, Mutina. In the second Punic War, Hannibal induced the Gauls to take up arms, but in the 193. Battle of Mutina, the last resistance of the Boii was broken and northern Italy was rapidly Romanized. 4. To Greece and Asia Minor. In 278 a band of Gauls under a Brennus ravaged Macedonia and Greece. After a futile attack upon Delphi, the survivors made their way by land to Asia Minor, where they settled in the interior, and gave their name to Galatia. ' The stape of development in civilization attained by ancient peoples must be largely determined by the degree of complexity found in their social and political systems. In our day, when material comforts and conveniences form a so mucfi larger part of the popular idea of civilization than they ever did before, it is well to remember this in judging the civilizations that are gone. 36 Ancient History. b. c. Of the Celts of Graul little is known until the Koman conquest. Some time before this, it is probable, the pressure of the Teutonic migration had made itself felt in the west, but the details of the conflicts are unknown. Celts and Teutons became here and there interspersed, but in general the Khine was the boundary. About 125-121, the Romans conquered Southern Gaul and made it a province (Gallia Narbonensis). While the Celtic origin of the Cimbri may not be admitted without question, it is certain that GaUio tribes played a considerable part in that great invasion of Italy (113-101). 58-51. Conquest of Gaxil by Csesar (p. 138), after which the history of Gaul belongs to that of Borne. b. Celts of the British Isles. BEITAIK. Geography : The island of Britain forms an irregular triangle, and is bounded E. by the German Ocean, S. by the Straits of Dover and the English Channel, W. by St. Georges Channel, the Irish Sea, North Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean. It falls into three geographical divisions, corresponding somewhat to the later political divisions. I. The extreme north, beyond the deep indentations of the Frith oj Clyde and the Frith of Forth, is mountainous and barren, with numer- ous small lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Tay, Loch Lomond), and sharply cut coasts on the west. II. The southern and eastern portion : hilly in the N. and W. ; on the E. a broad plain, well watered and fertile. Eastern rivers : Huniber (Ouse, Trent), Witham, Wetland, Nen, Ouse, running through a broad fen-land into the Wash, Thames. Western rivers : Severn, Mersey. Island of Wight. In early times the greater part of this plain, the modern England, was covered with forests, of which scanty traces remain. The Andredsweald covered a large part of the counties of Surrey and Sussex ; north of the Thames a huge forest extended nearly to the Wash, of which Epping and Hainr- ault forests formed a pai't. The feus about the Wash were much more extensive than now. III. The broad western promontory of Wales, mountainous with small rivers. Island of Anglesea. Religion and Civilization : The Celts of Britain were ruder than their brethren of Gaul, and never reached the same stage of civiliza- tion, but they seem to have resembled the continental Celts in cus- toms and religion. Druids. Bards. History, a. Mythical: Inordinate pride of ancestry, a fertUe im- agination, and an acquaintance with Biblical and classical history en- abled the British bards and priestly historians to compose for their race a mythical past, unique in its extent, its detail, and its disregard of time and space. Gaul was colonized by Meschish, son of Japhet, son of Noah, about 1799 (Anno Mundi) under the name of Samothes. Meschish ruled Galul 109 years, when he conquered Britain in 1908 (a. M.) and reigned over both countries 47 years. He was followed by six sovereigns of his race, but on the accession of the seventh, Lucius, 2211 A. M., Britain was wrested from his rule by Albion, a descendant of Ham. He and his successors reigned over Britain B. C.-A. D. Celts. 37 until 2896 A. M. or 1108 B. c, when the line of Japhet recovered the island in the person of Brute, great-grandson of jEneas of Troy. Brute built 2'roynouant, afterwards Lud's Town, London. He was followed by his descendants, among whom we may mention Bladud, founder of Bath, Leir (841-791), Ferrex and Porrex (496-491), with whom his line expired. Britain for a time divided into Ave king- doms, was finally reunited under MalmuoMS Dunwall, the son of Cloten king of Cornwall (441-401), whose son Brennus left his island home to sack Home, assault Delphi, and found the kingdom of Galatia.^ Among the successors of Malmueius were CoUl (160-140). Pyrrhus (66-64), and Lud (who in some mysterious manner began to reign in 69) Cassivelaunus (expedition of Csesar), Cymbeline (19 B. C.-16 A. D.), Caractacus, Vortigem (445-^5 (485) a. d.). Arthur (508-542). Finally the list merges in the historical line of the king^ and princes of Wales. b. Probable. The Britons of historic times were Celts who came to the island from Gaul at two periods. The first invasion was very early, and the invaders were Celts of the Goidelic (Gadhelic) or northern branch. From the testimony of sepulchral monuments it is conjectured that the Celts found two races in Britain : a small, dark-haired race, perhaps of Iberian stock, and a large light-haired race of Scandinavian origin. The Goidelic Celts conquered without exterminating the previous inhabitants, and held the land many cen- turies, until a new invasion of continental Celts occurred. This time it was the Brythonic or Cymric Celts of the southern stock, who crossed the channel, probably not very long before the expedition of Csesar, and dispossessed their kinsmen of the southern and eastern portion of the island. Tribes : Caniii, the most civilized, Attrebatii, Beiges, Damnonii, Silures, Trinobantes, Iceni, Brigante.1, etc. The ancients received their first direct knowledge of Britain from Fytheas of Massilia, who landed on the island in the third century B. c. That the Phoenicians ever visited Britain is doubted by English scholars, who contend that they obtained their tin either from the rivers of Gaul, or from the GtaUio tribes who imported it from Britain. With 55-54 B. c. The two expeditions of Csesar, the actual history of Britain begins. The efEect of the invasions was transitory. 43 A. D. Claudius began the conquest of Britain in earnest, and his generals reduced the country south of the Avon and Severn. 58. Revolt of Boadicea, leader of the Iceni ; her defeat. 78-85. Agricola, under Vespasian and Domitian, carried the Roman arms far into Scotland and built a wall from the Frith of Forth to the Friih of Clyde as a defense against the wild tribes of the north. Henceforward Britannia formed a tolerably quiet part of the Roman empire. Roman fortresses, towns and villas covered its soil in profusion. 121. Hadrian built a wall from the Tyne to the Solway. In 1 Brennus killed himself after the repulse from Delphi ; his army settled iu Galatia. 38 Ancient History. b. C. 139. Antoninus strengthened the wall of Agricola. In 210 Severus added new defenses to that of Hadrian. 180. Legendary conversion of Lucius, king of the Trinobantes, to Christianity, after which tlie new religion spread through- out the country, a church was organized and bishoprics founded at Canterbury and York (f). With the decay of the empire its power in Britain declined. Troops were withdrawn to assist in defending the continental borders, or in supporting the claims of rival aspirants for the crown. During the third century the attacks of the Picts and Scots in the north grew more and more severe, while the southern and eastern coasts suffered from the ravages of the Frank and Saxon pirates. Count of the Saxon Shore,^ the officer in charge of the coast between the Wash and Southampton water, which was most exposed to these ravages. From 286-294 Britain was independent under Cerausius, who proclaimed himself emperor of Britain. 360. Scots from Ireland ravaged the western shores. 410. HonoriUB renounced the sovereignty of Britain. The with- drawal of the legions left Britain to her own resources. A period of civil dissension and exposure to foreign inroads fol- lowed, broken by the 411. " Alleluia Victory " of the Britons accompanied by St. Ger- manus, over the Picts. Finally the king of the Damnonii, Vortigern (Guorthigen), either by usurpation or election, ob- tained the sovereignty over a large part of the island, and, as the story goes, invited the invasion of the Teutonic conquer- ors (p. 176). IRELAND. Geography : Lying W. of Britain, Ireland is bounded on the E. by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and vri'). 9. Arcadia, the mountainous region in the interior, with the ranges Cyllene and Erymanthus on the borders of Achaia; Mantinea, Tegea, Megalopolis, the latter founded in 370. B. Central Greece,' also divided into nine districts: 1. Megaris, since the Dorian conquest, belonging ethnographically and politi- cally to Peloponnesus: Megara, and its harbor Niscea. 2. Attica ("ATTiitij) with the mountains Pames, Brllissus (Pentelicus), Hymettus, and the promontory of Sunium, the rivulets Cyihissus and Jlissus. Athens {'Aerjyat) with the Acropolis (PropyUea, Parthenon, Erech- theion), the fortified harbor of Pirceus (netpaievs), connected with the city by the Long Walls (to fiaxpii relxn ; rck (r/ce^ij), the two unimportant Iiarbors Munychia and Zea and the open bay of Phaleron, which served as a roadstead. Attic demes : Eleuais, Marathon, Decelea, Phyle, etc. 3. Boeotia, with Mts. Helicon, and Cithceron, Lake Copais, traversed by the Cephissus; Thebes (eTrrcfiruAos), with its citadel the Cadmea; Thespim ; Leuctra ; Platcece, which separated itself very early from the Boeotian league and allied itself with Athens ; Haliartus, Coronea, Orchomenos. On the coast/ Aulis, Delium, and, not far distant, Tan^ agra. 4. Phocis: At the base of Mt. Parnassus, Delphi (i^fKipoi); with the oracle of the Pythian Apollo, Crissa, with its harbor, Cirrha; Elatea. 5. Eastern Locris : (Aoicpol V?oi), for a time di- vided by a part of Phocis into the southern region of the Opuntian Xiocrians with the town Opus, and the northern of the Epicne- midian Locrians (i. e. they who dwell on the mountain of Cnemis) with the town Thronium. 6. Western Locris (Aoicpol eairepioi, called by the other Grecians AoKpol 6f((A.ai, " the stiiiking "). Arnphissa, Naupactus. 7. Doria {i^apls), between the mountains (Eta and Par- nassus, the country of a small body of Dorians, who at the time of the Dorian invasion remained in the north, called from its four unim- portant villages, the Tetrapolis. 8. .Stolia, CalydOn, Pleuron, and Thermum (afterwards the place where the assembly met at the time of the iEtolian league). 9. Acarnania, with the promontory Actium; Stratus, near the river Achelous, ('AxeA^Jos) which separates Acarna- nia from ^tolia. C. Thessaly, watered by the Peneus (valley of Tempe), with the mountain range of Pindus in the W. on the border of Eplrus; in the S. Olhrys; in the E. Pelion, Ossa; in the N. Olympus and the Cambu^ nian mountaius.8 Five divisions from S. to N. : 1. Phthiotis, in the most southern part, Malis, on the Sinus Maliacus was the Pass of Thermopylae, i. e. " gate of the warm springs ; " Lamia. 2. Thessa- liotis, Pharsalus. 3. Pelasgiotis, Pherce, Crannon, Larissa on the 1 The expression Efellas propria first ajipears in tlie Roman period ; the Greeks never used Hellas for the name of this particular part of the country. 2 But see Kiepert, Lehrb. d. a. Geogr., § 210, note 1. B. C. Greeks. 41 Peneus. 4. Hestlaeotls. 5. The eastern coast land, Magnesia, Jolcos, on the jSinus Pagasceus, Demetrias. D. Epirus. lu historic times inhabited by Illyrian tribes not of pure Grecian blood. Principal tribes: Molossians, in whose terri- tory was Amhracla, not far from the Ambracian gulf, and Dodona (oracle of Zeus); Tbesprotiaiis, Pandosia on the Acheron, Chao- nians. In Macedonia, which lay north from Thessaly, the following places are to be noted: Pydna, Pella, the royal residence since the reign of Aichelaus (formerly ^gae or Edessa enjoyed this distinc- tion). On the peninsula Chalcidice : OZyn^Aus, Poftdcea, iStogilrMS. In Thrace: Amphip&is near the mouth of the Strymon, Philippce, Abdera, Perinthus (Heradea), Byzantium. In the Thracian Chersonese: Sestos, opposite Abydos in Asia Minor. Most important islands : In the iEgjean sea ; 1, Crete (Kp^Ti), licoTiJ/tjroXis) : Cnosiis (Gnossus), and Gortyn(a); 2, Thera, a colony of Sparta, itself mother city of Cyrene iu Africa (p. 49), Melos; 3, the 12 Cyclades: Paros, Naxos, to the north the small De- los (Mt. Cynthus, sanctuary of Apollo), Cythnos, Ceos, Andros, Tenos, etc. In the Saronic gulf: 4, .^glna {Atyifo) ; 5, Salamis. In the sea of Eubcea; 6, Eubcea with the promontory of Artemisium in the north, Chalcis, Eretria. In the Thracian sea: 7, Lemnos; 8, Samo- thrace; 9, Thasos. On the coast of Asia Minor from N. to S.: 10, Tenedos, not far from Ilium or Troy, in the district of Troas; 11, Lesbos : Mitylene, Methymna; 12, Chios; 13, Samoa opposite the prom- ontory of Mycale; 14, Cos; 15, Rhodes. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean the island of Cyprus, (K^irpos), cities (originally Phoenician, afterwards Greek): Salamis (Sckalem), Paphos and Amathus, centre of the worship of AphrodUe (Venus Amathusia). In the Ionian sea from S. to N. : 1, Cythera, south of Laconia, with temple of Aphrodite; 2, Zacynthos; 3, Cephallenia, called by Homer Samos; 4, Ithaca; 6, Leucas; 6, Corcyra (Kcpicvpa), perhaps the Scheria of Homer. REOGIOJf OF THE GREEKS.^ The religion of the early Greeks was a pantheistic nature-worship, distinguished among others by the multiplicity of its deities, and their intricate gradation, as well as by the wealth of biographical detail which the imagination of the poets provided for them. The great gods, Olympic deities, were 12 in number. Male divinities : Zeus " the God," lord of the sky, and ruler of all other gods as well as of men; Poseidon, god of the sea; Apollo, probably originally the highest god of some local district, the divinity of wisdom, of healing, of music and poetry, but not until later the sun-god; Ares, god of war; Hephcestus, god of fire, and of work accomplished by the application of fire, set apart from the other gods by his lameness; Hermes, god of invention, commercial skUl, cunning, bravery. Female divinities: Hera, con- 1 Rawlinson. Religioiis of the Ancient Wnrld. Also Grote, Bist. of Greece. vol. I.; Curtius, (Jriech. Gesch. I. 543-60; 456-S49 passim. 42 Ancient History. b. c. sort of Zeus; Athena, the maiden goddess sprung from the head of Zeus, the emhodiment of wisdom and of housewifery; Artemis, god- dess of himting, afterwards connected with the moon, as her brother Phoebus Apollo, with the sun ; Aphrodite, goddess of sensual love, prob- ably introduced from the East; Hestia, goddess of iire, especially of the hearth-fire ; Demeter, " earth-mother," presiding over agriculture. In the lower rank of gods may be mentioned: Dicmysius, god of wine and drunkenness; Hades, god of the lower world, the Graces, the Muses, the Fates, the Furies, etc. The fields and forests, the ocean and the rivers were crowded with Nymphs and Hamadryads, Naiads and Nereids, while creatures of a lower order. Satyrs (among whom Pan rose to the level of a god of the second rank) and monsters (^Cyclopes, Gorgons, Centaurs, etc.) abounded. Reverence was also paid to the heroes, ideal representations of fa^ mous men, real or imaginary. Such were Cadmus (Thebes), Theseus (Athens), and Heracles, the mostly widely known of all (see p. 45). The gods were worshipped by invocation, and by sacrifices offered in accordance with a rigid ritual at altars which could be im- provised anywhere. There were, however, permanent altars for all divinities, in temples where the statue of the divinity was also en- shrined. These temples were frequently erected on lofty and com- manding sites, and upon their construction and decoration was lav- ished the highest skill in architecture and sculpture. Brilliant coloring was also employed upon the temples. Each family, tribe and race, each city, district and coimtry had its recurring fes- tivals of special honor to the gods (Panathencea at Athens). Re- ligious festivals of all Greece: Olympian (Zeus) every fifth year, in July or August, at Olympia in Elis; Pythian (Apollo), every fifth (9th) year, at Delphi; Isthmian (Neptune), every five years on the Isthmus of Corinth; Nemean, every third year, at Nemea in Argolis. These festivals were the centre of Grecian national lite. Amphyctio- nic Council, the most important of the Amphyctionies (p. 61), a reli-. gious conference which met at Delphi, and represented the political side of the Pan-Hellenic religion. Consultation of oracles, for obtain- ing the counsel of the gods, especially at Delphi. Mysteries, or rites of secret religious societies, the most renowned at Eleusis. No hierarchy of priests; yet those who had charge of the sacrifices, and more espe- cially of the oracles, often attained great influence. Ideas of future life vague and unsatisfactory. The more advanced minds among the Greeks undoubtedly attained to the idea of the es- sential oneness of divinity. GKECIAN HISTORY CAN BE DIVIDKD INTO FOUK EPOCHS. x-1104 (?). I. Mythical period down to the Thessalian and Dorian migration. 1104 (?)-500. II. Formation of the Hellenic states. Period of con- stitutional struggles down to the Persian wars. 500-338. III. Persian wars and internecine strife for the hegemxmy down to the loss of independence at the battle of Charonea. 338-146. IV. Grseco-Macedonian or Hellenistic period down to the subjugation of Greece by the Romans. Destruction of Corinth. B. C. Greeks. 43 FIRST PERIOD. Mythical time, down to the Thessalian and Borian migration (x-1104?).! The Greeks,' or as they called themselves the Hellenes ("EXXTjj'es), belong to the Indo-European or Aryan family. The Greeks state that the original inhabitants of their country were the Felasgians. The meaning of this name is much disputed. According to some scholars it denotes the band which afterwards divided into the Italians and Hellenes. Another view regards the Felasgians and Hellenes as the same people, but holds that the latter name is applied to those tribes which, " endowed with peculiar abil- ities and inspired with peculiar energy, distinguished themselves above the mass of a great people, while they extended their power within the same by force of arms," * so that their name became in historic times the one generally accepted. Others, again, regard the name Pelasgian as Semitic, and so applied originally to the Phoenician in- habitants of the coast, especially to the Minyoe of Orchomenos, and afterwards erroneously transferred to the Illyrian aborigines of Epirus, Acadia, etc. Dodona, in Epirus, with the oracle of Zeus, the god of the sky, was the oldest centre of the Pelasgian life and religion. Kemains of Pelasgian buildings, called by the Greeks Cyclopean, are found in Tiryns in Argolis, and in Orchomenos in Bceotia. Our earliest historical information shows the Hellenes divided into various tribes. Of these the Ach8eahs were most prominent during the heroic times, and their name was therefore used by Homer to denote the entire race. In historic times, on the contrary, the Dorians and lonians occupy the foreground; the other tribes are then classed together under the name .Siolian, and the dialects which were neither Dorian nor Ionian are known as jEolian. The following mythical genealogy seems to have been invented at a very late period, and to have originated at Delphi. Hellen (son of Deucalion) * .Xolus (i. e. the many-colored) Dorus Xuthus (i. e. the exUe) r- ' , Ion Achasus. We have no authentic information about the manner of the Hel- lenic migration into Greece. According to one well-founded theory, a part of the inunigrants, and among them the ancestors of the Do- rians, forced their way over the Hellespont into the mountainous region of northern Greece, where they established themselves as shepherds and tUlers of the land. Other bands, among whom were the ancestors of the lonians, having descended from the highlands of Phry- 1 According to Dunoker, Hist, of Antiq., TOO years later. 2 Graken (Grseci, TpaiKot) was the name given to the Greeks by the people of Italy; it was the name of a tribe in Epirus, or the Illyrian name for the Hellenes n general. * CurtiUB, Gritchische Geichicltte, I. 29; Bltt. of Greece, N. Y. 1876, 1. 41 44 Ancient History. b. c, gia, by way of ,the valleys, to the coast of Asia Minor, were there transformed into a race of seamen, and gradually spread themselves over the islands of the Archipelago to the mainland of Greece.* (The former formed the western, the latter, the eastern Greeks). Remembrance of the fact that western Greece received its civiliza- tion from the East gave rise, at a later period, to stories about un- authentic immigrations.^ Cecrops (K€'icpoi)(), according to the original story autochthonus king of Attica, and builder of the Ceeropia (Acropolis of Athens), was afterwards, in consequence of that identification of Grecian and Egyptian mythology which is illustrated by the conception of Neith, goddess of Sais, as Pallas Athena (p. 2), falsely represented as an Egyptian immigrant from Sais. The truth seems to be that the cliffs by the Ilissus, which were called the Ceeropia, formed the first fortress of the inhabitants of the region, upon which their altars and sanctuaries found protec- tion, and around which the first beginnings of political life in Attica grouped themselves. Afterwards the Ceeropia was per- sonified under the name Cecrops. According to the legend Cecrops was succeeded by Erichthonios, the latter by Erechtheus, the two becoming soon united into one person, in whom the Erechiheiorc, the temple of Poseidon Erechtheus, on the Acropolis, is personified. The legend makes Erechtheus the founder of the festival of Pari- athencea and conqueror of Eumolpus (i. e. sweet singer) of Eleusis, the centre of the worship of Demeter (story of her daughter Core, in the lower world Proserpina; the Eleusinian mysteries'). Eleusis was united with Athens into one community. Erechtheus, according to the legend, was succeeded by CEneus, the latter by JEgeus, the father of Theseus, the national hero of the lonians (p. 46). A later legend tells how Danaus, brother of ^gyptus, came from Upper Egypt to Argos. He, too, with his fifty daughters, the Dan- aides, who, with the exception of Hypermnestra, murdered their hus- bands, the sons of ^gyptus, and were for this crime condemned to fill the bottomless tub, belongs to the native mythology. The Dan^ aides are the springs of Argos, which, in the summer time, exert themselves in vain to satisfy the soil ; the water which gushes from them being dried up in the chalky earth. According to the legend the descendants of Lynceus and Hypermnestra ruled in Argos. On the other hand the legend of the migration of the Felopidae from Lydia to Greece seems to have a historical foimdation. Pelops, son of king Tantalus, who ruled the country about the Sipylus, came to Elis in Peloponnesus. His sons Atreus and Thyestes, with the help of Achceans from Phthiotis, made themselves masters of Tiryns and Mycenm, which had been founded by Perseus. Of the sons of Atreus, Agamemnmi reigned over the whole of Argolis, while Menelaus became king of Sparta and Messina. The buildings and sculptures in Mycense, which are ascribed to the Atridm, resemble Assyrian art, and Assyrian art could have come to Greece earliest by way of Lydia. 1 Curtlus, I., Griech. Gesch., I. 29 Pnq.; Hist, of Greece, I. 41. 2 Cf. Dunoker, G6sch. des Allh., III. (2 Auflage), 1 Kap. 4-6. Curtius, Griech. Gesch., I. 58; Sist. of Greece, I. 73. B. C. Greeks. 45 Cadmus, the mythical founder of the Theban state, is the per- sonification of Phcmician colonization, or at least of that ciTilization which Hellas had received from Phfflnicia (p. 18). The national heroes of Grecian legend. The myth of Heracles ('HpoKXfls, Hercules), son of Zeus and Alc- mena, grew up out of the union of various religious, historical, and ethical elements. Heracles was in the beginning an actual divinity whom tradition, in the course of time, degraded to a demi-god. In him are united the Phoenician Melkart (p. 17) and Sandon, the sun- god of Asia Minor, and his heroic deeds are for the most part adapta- tions of the deeds ascribed to these two divinities. Heracles is at the same time the popular symbol brought by the Phoenicians to the eastern Greeks, and &om them to the western Greeks, of the pioneer activity of the ancient settlements. A portion of the mass of legends connected with Heracles after his transformation into a Greek is ex- plained by later historical relations. The Dorians adopted him as their tribal hero. Their kings called themselves his descendants, Heraclidse ; from him they derived their rights to the Peloponnesus. Hence his rights, in the legends, not only over Mycenae, in opposition to Eurystheus, but also over other parts of the peninsula (^Auglas in Elis, Tyndareos in Sparta). The poetry of a later time, regarding Heracles as an ethical conception, presented him as the model of heroism, moral force, and renunciation, especially of willing obedi- ence (the 12 labors at the behest of Eurystheus; the choice of Her- cules). Theseus (0ri(reis), son of ^geus, the descendant of Cecrops, is the family hero of the lonians, and of the Athenians in particular. He cleared the road from Troezen, where, according to the legend, he was bom, to Athens (especially the isthmus), of robbers (Periphetes, Sinnis, Sciron, Damastes or Procrustes'), so that the lonians of the Peloponnesus and of Attica thenceforward could assemble on the isthmus at the sacrifices to Poseidon. Theseus put to death the Minotaur in Crete, and rescued the Athenian youths and maidens sent as a sacrifice to him. He conquered at Marathon the wild bidl which is said to have likewise come from Crete. He repulsed the Amazons who made an attack upon Athens for the purpose of avenging the rape of Antidpe. These three myths express the historical fact of the liberation of Attica from the tribute which it owed to the Phcenicians of Crete and the smaller islands, who offered human sacrifices to their god Moloch. The origin of the story of the Amazons is to be found in the virgin servants of the Phoenician goddess Astarte, who, at the religious ceremonies, executed dances in armor. The legend, moreover, ascribes to Theseus the imion of the inhabitants of Attica into one state, and the separation of the people into the three orders: Eupatridce (nobles), Geomori (peasants), and Demiurgi (artizans), whereas the arrangement of the four ancient classes (Phyla) : Geleontes (nobles), HoplUes (warriors), Argadeis (artizans), Mgkoreis (shepherds) was referred by the Athenians to the mythical tribal ancestor of the Ionian tribe, Ion (p. 43). 46 Ancient History. B. C, The Grecian legends adopted Minos (yitvm), also originally of Phoenician origin, and transformed him into a Hero of the Dorians who dwelt in Crete since 1000, and a wise legislator and suppressor of piracy. Advanced civilization existed in Crete before 1500. Concerted enterprises of the heroic time. Expedition of the Argonauts. The golden fleece. Phrixos, son of the king of the Minyae, Athamas of lolcos, in Thessaly, whom his father was about to sacrifice to Zeus in order to obtain rain, fled with his sister Helle, on the ram with the golden fleece, who was given them by their mother Nephele. Helle during the journey fell into the sea, which is now called Hellespont (" sea of Helle "), near Abydos. Phrixos reached Colchis, on the Pontus Euxlnus, and king /Eetes. The ram was sacrificed, the golden fleece preserved in a grove of the god Ares, guarded by a dragon. Jason, from lolcos, in- cited by his uncle Pelias, sailed in the ship Argo to Colchis at the head of a band of heroes consisting, according to the original myth, of Minyae alone, but according to the later legends accompanied by Heracles, Theseus, Castor, PoUux, Orpheus, etc. They gained pos- session of the fleece \)j the aid- of the enchantress Medea, daughter of ^etes. Return to lolcos. Pelias murdered at the instigation of Medea. According to a later continuation of the legend, flight of Jason and Medea to Corinth, where Jason fell in love with Glauca, the daughter of the king. Medea poisoned Glauca, and killed her own children. Medea went to Athens and became the consort of ^geus. This myth seems to have been originally purely symbolical. The golden ram, which Nephele, that is, the " cloud," sends, is a repre- sentation of the fertilizing power of rain-clouds. The cloud-ram de- parts to his home, the land of the sun-god. His fleece, a pledge of blessing, is brought back by Jason (the " healer," the " bringer of blessings "), with the help of the daughter of the son of the sun, JEetes, who is learned in magic. This myth was afterwards expanded and localized in a manner which hints at the early voyages of the Pelasgic (p. 43) Minyae. The principal site of the wealth and power of the Minyse was Orchomenos in Boeotia; but the gulf of Pagdsce, on which lolcos is situated, is the scene of their early inteiv course by sea. War of the Seven against Thebes. The story of CEdipus appears in its simplest form in Homer, and was expanded by the Attic tragic poets. CEdipus (oiShovs), son of Jocasta, and Ldios king of Thebes, a great-grandson of Cadmus, is exposed, in infancy, in consequence of an oracle which prophesied injury to his parents. He was rescued and brought up by Polpbos in Corinth. At Delphi he kills his father, without recognizing him, solves the riddle of the Sphinx (What creature is there which goes on 4, 2, and 3 feet 7 Man, in childhood, in manhood, in old age), becomes king of Thebes, and marries his own mother. When his crime is made known to him, he puts out his eyes. His daughters Antigone and Ismme. Quarrels of his sons Etedcles ('EtcokX^s) and B. 0. Greeks. 47 Polynices (noKwelieiis). Folynices attacks Thebes with his allies : Adrasttts, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Hippomedon, Parihenopceus. The hostile brothers fall in personal contest; of the other princes all perish but Creon, the uncle of the brothers, who becomes king of Thebes. War of the Epigoni. Ten years later, expedition of the Epigoni (sons of the Seyen). Thebes captured and plundered. Thersander, son of Polynlces, made king of Thebes. 1193-1184. Trojan War. Priam was king of Troy, or Ilium, in Asia Minor; his consort was HecUba (Hecabe). Of his fifty sous the following appear in the legend : Hector ("EicTv\al), were untouched by the reform of Clisthenes, but they were reduced to the condition of religious corporations for keeping lists of births, marriages, and deaths, but without political impor- tance. The council (Bou\fi') was increased from 400 to 500 members, fifty for each tribe; and each of these sets of fifty presided in the councU for the tenth part of a year (prytany, Tpuravela); the members of these presiding committees of fifty were called prytanies. Instead of four popular assemblies in a year, as formerly, ten were held hence- forward. 608. The Athenian nobility, headed by IsagSras, with the help of a Spartan army under Cleomenes, brought about a short re- action. Clisthenes fled; the Acropolis was delivered to the Spartans by a treacherous archon. A revolt of the Athenian populace compelled Cleomenes to make a disgraceful capit- ulation : withdrawal of the Spartans without arms, and sur- render of the leaders of the aristocracy. The latter were put to death, and Clisthenes was recalled. 606. An expedition of the Spartans against Athens under their kings, Cleomenes and Demeratus, at the head of their Feloponnesian allies, was broken up by the sudden withdrawal of the Corin- thians and the lack of harmony between the Spartan kings. The allies of the Spartans, the Boeotians and the Chalcidians from Euboea, were defeated by the Athenians. The latter con- quered a part of Euboea, and apportioned 400C peasant holdings among Attic farmers, who retained their Athenian citizenship. The Athenian democracy derived an accession of strength from a reduction in the powers of the archons. The place of holding the popular assembly was changed from the market-place (oyopi), where, according to a custom sanctified by its antiquity, the first archon presided, to the rocky hill of the Pnyx ; and the duty of presiding in the popular assembly and in the council was fixed upon an offi- cer (^irwTTciTris), who was chosen by lot from the prytany, for the time being, and who was changed every day. This officer also held the keys of the Acropolis and of the archives. It is uncertain how far Clisthenes had introduced the use of the lot, in selecting state offi- cials (of course, only from the numbers of qualified candidates). Election of ten Strategi, one from each tribe, each of whom had by turns the chief command of the army, which formerly belonged to the archon polemarchus. The right of appeal from the decision of the thesmothetsB to the heliasts, which had been introduced before Solon for certain cases, was now extended to all oases. Establishment of the ostracism (l>)(os in Phrygia). Antigonus fell, his son Demetrius fled and led for many years an adventurous life as a pirate. In Europe the war still lasted. After the death of Cassander (297), his two sons quarreled about the succession. Demetrius took the opportunity to seize the supreme power in Macedonia and Greece. He lost his power indeed through arrogance and desire for conquest after a reign of seven years, but his son Antigonus Gonatas after a changeful career gained permanent possession of Macedonia (277). Thus after many divisions and the formation of many sovereignties of but short duration, there grew up out of the Macedonian-Persian universal empire, five monarchies, of decidedly Hellenistic character, in which Greek was the language of the court and the government, of inscriptions and coinage, and of the educated classes, and in some of which Grecian art, literature and learning reached a high develop- ment. Nevertheless, these five monarchies, from their formation to their fall, bore the imprint of the deepest moral decay. These five states, to which we must add the repubUc of Rhodes and the Grecian Cantons, were : 1. Egsrpt under the Ptolemies or Lagidse with its capital at Alexandria. Ptolemceus I. (323-285), called Soler, i. e. saviour, because he sent aid to the Rhodians, or Lagi, i. e. son of Lagus, founder of the king- dom. Ptolemceus II. (285-247) called PhUadelphus from being the husband of his sister Arsinoe; foundation of the museum with the Alex- andrine library. Ptolemceus III. (247-221), called Euergetes, i. e. benefactor, by the priests, temporary conquest of Caria, Lycia, Cilicia, Cyprus. Ptolemceus IV., Philopater (221-205), decline of the power of the monarchy. Ptolemceus V., Epiphanes (205-181); Egypt be- comes dependent on the Romans. 2. Syria, under the Seleucidae. Capital at first Seleuoia, on the Tigris, afterwards Antiocbia on the Orontes. Seleucus I. Nicator (312-281), founder of the kingdom. Antiochus I. Soter (281-261). Antiochus II. Theos (261-246). Seleucus II. (246-226). Seleucus III. (226-222). AntiSchus III. the Great (222- 187). Defeated at Magnesia (190) by the Romans, AntiSchus was 78 AncieiU History. b. c. compelled to accept a peace, whicli struck the kingdom of the Seleu- cidae from the roll of the great powers. The following states separated themselves from the Syrian realm of the Seleucidffl, and did not belong to the Hellenistic system of states. 278. a. The confederacy of the Galatiana (p. 35) in Asia Minor, between Bithynia, Phrygia, Lycaonia and Cappadocia, founded by Gallic tribes, who, during the wars of the Diodochi, had ravaged Macedonia and Greece, crossed the Hellespont and in 278 settled in Asia Minor. They consisted of the three tribes of Trocmi, Tectasages and Tolistobcni (each under four Tetrarchs) with the three capitals Tavia, Ancyra and Pessinus. In the first century before Christ, Deiotarus became king of all Galatia, which Augustus made a Roman province. 250. b. The Parthians (p. 29) who under the Arsacidae (250 B. c. to 226 A. D.) conquered all lands between the Euphrates and the Indus, and formed a dam, in the east, first against the Hellenistic and afterwards against the Koman power. 167. c. The Jews under the Maccabees (p. 11). The two following countries were never dependent on the empire of the Seleucidse. a. Fontus, which had, it is true, submitted to Alexander the Great, but was recognized as independent imder its own kings of Persian descent (of the Achsemenidse it was claimed, p. 25), by the victors at Ipsus (p. 77). The last kings were Mithridates VI. the Great, and his sou Phamaces (see Roman History, Fourth Period, p. 129). b. Armenia, although kings of Armenia first appear after the battle of Magnesia, (190). 3. The kingdom of Pergamon under the Attalidee, Capi- tal, Pergamus in Mysia. Founded by Phileicerus (283-263) who had been appointed gov- ernor by Lysimachus. EumSnes I. (263-241). Attalus 1. (241-197). Eumenes II. (197-159), founder of the library of Pergamus. Atta- lus II. (159-138). Attalus III. (138-133), who bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans. 4. Bithynia. Capital, Nicomedia. Founded by iVTicomed'es/. (277-250?). .^ei'Zas (250-228?). Pnt- sias I. (228-183), with whom Hannibal took refuge. Prusias II. (183-149). Nicomedes II. (149-91). Nicomedes III. (91-75), who bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans. 5. Macedonia under the descendants of Demetrius Poli- oroetes. Capital, Peflla. Antigonus Gonatas (277-239). Demetrius II. (239-229). Antigonus Boson (229-220). Philip V. (Ill), (221-179) defeated by the Romans at CywoscepAate (197). Perseiw (179-168). After the battle of Pydna (168) Macedonia became a dependency of Rome, in 146 it was made a Roman province (p. 122). 6. The island of Rhodes ('PdSos), since the battle of Ipsm (301) an independent state ; since the sec- B. c. Greehs. 79 ond century (b. c.,) dependent ally of the Romans ; made a province by the Emperor Vespasian, 71 a. d. 7. The Greek cantons, under the lead of Athens, made a futile attempt, immediately after the death of Alexander the Great, to throw off the Macedonian yoke. From the city of Lamia in Thessaly, in the neighborhood of which the war was principally waged, it was known as the 323-322. Iiamian War. The Greeks were at first successful under Leosthenes, and defeated Leonnaius, but were defeated by Antipdter and Craterm at Crannon, south of the Peneus. The cantons submitted one after another. The Athenians were compelled to receive a Macedonian garrison in Munychia and to give up their democratic constitution. {Phocton and Demades, the political leaders). Citizenship was regulated by a property census. Demosthenes fled and took poison on the island of Calauria (Argolis). During the war between Cassander and Polys- perchon (p. 76) the democratic party regained its supremacy in Athens, and Phocion was executed ; later, however, Demetrius of Phaleron, the political companion of Phocion, became under Macedonian su- premacy, the ruler of the Athenian commonwealth (317-307). In the course of the wars of the Diadochi Demetrius Foliorcetea gained possession of Athens several times and made the Acropolis the scene of the greatest debauchery (307-295). The last attempt to throw ofB the Macedonian yoke and regain its old importance in Greece was made by Athens under Glaucon and ChremorMes in 263 B. c. but it was defeated after a three years' war and continued to be tributary to the Macedonians. Thenceforward Athens had no political influence in Greece ; it retained, however, its autonomy as regarded its municipal administration, and continued to be the seat of culture and learning. Thessaly, during this period, was a Macedonian province ; Epirus was for a time a separate state, afterwards it was allied with Mace- donia. Most of the cantons of central Greece and Peloponnesus became allies, more or less dependent, of the Macedonian sovereigns. The complete subjugation of Greece by Macedonia was prevented by the 280. ^tolian League founded about 280, and the Achaean League which was renewed at the same time. The latter grew to considerable power and acquired the hegemony in Peloponnesus after it was joined by Sicyon (251) which was freed from its tyrants by Aratus, and by Corinth (243), which ArS^ tus had freed from the Macedonian garrison. Jealous of this hegemony the .Sltolian League and Sparta, which had completely lost her ancient simplicity of life, and was in the hands of a wealthy oligarchy, joined forces against the Achsean League. The young king Agis IV. paid with his life for his attempt to induce a reform of the Spartan state (241 ?). A similar at- tempt made by King Cleomenes III. had better success, though for a time only : he caused the ephors to be surprised and put to death, 80 Ancient History. b. c. banished eighty oligarchs, and established a reformed constitution. Cleomenes conquered Argos and Mantinea, and waged successful war against the Achssan League. Aratus sought aid against Sparta from the Macedonian king Antigdnus Doson, and delivered the Acropolis of Corinth into his hands. The Spartans were defeated in the 221. Battle of Sellasia (in Laeonia). Cleomenes escaped by flight and died in Egypt (220). The Macedonians entered Sparta, restored the oligarchy and forced upon the Spartans an alliance with the Achsean League, now under Mace- donian Supremacy. The latter was immediately afterwards in- volved in a war with the iEtolian League, during which the Spartans took sides against the Aohseans, and Peloponnesus was horribly rav- aged (220-217). About this time the Italian League formed an alliance with the Romam against Philip V. (HI-), of Macedonia, who was allied with Hannibal. (^First Macedonian war, see Roman history, third Period, p. 116). Fhilopcemen, who has been called " the last of the Greeks," be- came Strategus of the Aohsean League in 207, and defeated the Spartans under their tyrant, MachanXdas, in the 206. Battle of Mantinea, and slew the tyrant. In the second Macedonian war (see Roman history, p. 118). the Achaan League likewise jomed the Romans against Philip V. {HI-), who, after the battle of Cynoscephalm (197), was forced to abandon the hegemony of Greece. The Romans proclaimed the freedom of all the Grecian cantons, but they gave support everywhere to that party which devoted itself to the advance- ment of Roman interests, and caused themselves to be fre- quently appealed to as arbitrators. After the death of a second Tyrant of Sparta, the cruel Nairn, PhUopmmen humbled the Spartans again, and forced them to reenter the Achsean League, but was soon after taken prisoner and put to death in a war against the Messinians, who had revolted at the in- stance of Deinocrates (183). After the death of Philopcemen, decline of the povirer of the Achcean League, which made a final exertion in the so-called Achaean war against the Romans, which ended with the Defeat of the Greeks at Leucopetra, on the isthmus, and the 146. Capture and destruction of Corinth, The Corinthians were sold as slaves; a part of their land was given to Sicyon; the rest became the property of the Roman state. The remaining Greek cantons were treated with kind- ness, and for the most part retained their owia administration and jurisdiction, but were subject to the Roman governor of Macedonia. It was not until later (27) that Peloponnesus and Central Greece seem to have become a Roman province under the name of Achaia. B. C. Soman History, 81 §3. ROMAN HISTORY. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OP ANCIENT ITALY. (See Kiepert, Atlae Antiqms, Tab. VII., VIII., and IX.) Italia was first used as the general name of the larger part of the peninsula, which is traversed hy the Apennines and extended to the Macro and Rubicon, since the middle of the third century before Christ; as applied to the whole peninsula, as fax as the Alps, Italia was first employed in scientific usage by Polyhius (about 160) ; it was not used officially and in a political sense, until after the time of Au- gustus. It was divided into Upper Italy, Central Italy, and Lower Italy. I. Upper Italy, traversed by the Padus (Po), and the Athesis or Atdgis (Adige, Etsch), and containing the lakes, Lacus Ver- bdnus (Lago Maggiore), Lacus Larms (L. di Como), and Lacus Bena- cus (L. di Garda), comprised the following three districts which, be/ore Augustus, were not reckoned a part of political Italy: 1. Liguria, Vercellm (Vercelli), Taurasia, later Augusta Taurinorum (Torino, Turin), Genoa (Genova); 2. Gallia Clsalpina, also called togata, in distinction from transalpine Gaul, which was known as Gallia bra- cata, divided by the Padus (Po) into: a. Gallia transpadana, Co- mum (Como) ; Mediolanum (Milano, Milan) ; Tidnmn (Pavia), on the Ticinus, a branch of the Po; Cremona, on the Po; Mantua, on the Mincius, a branch of the Po, near which was the village of Andes, the birthplace of Virgil; Verona, on the Athesis. b. Gallia cispa- dana: Placentia ^Piacenza), at the junction of the Trebia and the Padus, Mutina, (Modena), Parma, Bononia (Bologna), Ravenna, in ancient times a seaport. 3. Venetia: Patavium (Padua), birthplace of Livius, Aquileia. II, Central Italy, lying between the little rivers Macra and Rubicon in the N., Sildrus and Frento in the S., was usually divided into six districts : Etruria, Latium, Campania, on the Mare Tyrrhe- num, or Inferum; Umbrla, Picenum, Samnium, on the Mare Ad- riaticum or Superum. The Tiber, running from N. to S., divided Etruria on the right, from Umbria and Latium on the left bank. The name of Samnium is, however, more correctly applied to the southern inland district of Central Italy, so that the Sabellic tribes, who were related to the Samnites and Picentes, formed geographically a sepa^ rate seventh group, under which were included the Vestini, Marruclni and Frentani, extending to the Adriatic coast, and the inland districts of the Sabines, Pcdigni, and Marsi. 1. Etruria, inhabited by the Etruscans (Rasenna), or Tuscans, in twelve communities under kings or Lucumos. These formed a con- federacy, whose federal constitution seems to have been exceedingly loose. The most important places in Etruria were, from N. to S.: Pisa, VolaterrcE, Arretium (Arezzo), Cartona, Perusia (Perugia, west of which Lake Trasimenus), Populonia, on the coast, Clusium (Chiusi)) VoUinU, Tarquinii, Falerii, Ccere, Veii. 6 82 Ancient History. B. c. 2. Latium. In the smaller district of the Latini: Roma, on the hft bank of the Tiber (a part of the modern city, Trastevere and Borgo, is on the right bank, but the principal part of the city is still on the left bank), traditionally said to be built on seven hills (montes: Capitolinus, Palatinus, Aventinus, Ccdms, EsquUirms; coUes : Vminalis, Quirinalis). ^ On the southern summit of the Mons Capitolinus the CapUolium with the temple of Jupiter Capitol- inus, and the Tarpeian Rock; on the northern summit, separated from the southern by the Intermontium, the Arx with the temple of Juno Moneta. At the foot of the Capitol, the Forum Romanum ^the market-place), consisting of the Forum proper, and the Comitium, with the speakers' platform (Rostra, named from the prows of the ships from Antium) between the two. In the last century of the republic the forum was surromided by temples and basUicas (e. g. Basilica Julia). The imperial forums were not open places, but masses of buildings and columned porticos. The Palatinus with the palaces of the emperors; E. of this, the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum, for 80,000 spectators). N. from the Capitolinus to the Tiber lay the field of Mars, Campus Martivs, during the republic an open field used for military practice, athletic sports, and political gatherings, after Caesar and during the imperial period covered with splendid buildings, now the centre of the modern city. The buildings on the right bank of the Tiber did not belong to the Urbs proper. They were situated partially on the Mons Janiadus, par- tially on the Mons Vaticanus, where the Vatican and tne church of St. Peter now stand; eastward stood, by the Tiber, the Mausoleum Hadriani, where the Castle of St. Angela now stands. Finally must be mentioned the island of the Tiber. Sixteen great artificial roads ran from Rome ia various directions : Via Appia and Via Latina to the S., Via Valeria to the E., Via Flaminia to the N., Via Aurdia to the W., etc. Ostia, the harbor of Home, on the left bank of the Tiber, existed at the time of the kings; under the emperors a second harbor, Partus, on the right bank of the Tiber. Laurentum, Lavinium, Ardea, Suessa Pametia, Arida (on the Via Appia), Velitrce not far distant, Alba Longa on the slope of Mt. Albanus, near the lake of Albania, Tusculum (near the present Frascati), Gabii, Tibur (Tivoli) on the Anio, a brauch of the Tiber; Fidence, north of Rome, south of the brook Allia. In the land of the j^qui, Prceneste (afterwards a Latin city again. In the land of the Hemicm, Anagnia. In the land of the Valscii, Fregellw, Arpinum, the birthplace of Marius and Cicero ; on the coast, Antium and Tarracina (Anxu^, south of the Pomptine marshes. In the land of the Aruncii : Formice, MinturruB, on the Liris (Gari- fliano) ; Suessa (Aurunca), near the Mans Massicus and the Ager ''alemus (famous wines). 1 The expression " seven-hilled city " applies properly to old Rome, the pala- tine city. Its transfer to the Servian and republican Rome is the result of a later misunderstanilinf;. The description of the citv of the time of Con- stantine, leaves out the two coUes, Quirinalis and Viniinalis, and increases the number of montes to 7 by adding the Vaticarms and the Janiculus, which lay outside of the city proper. See Mommsen, Hist, of Borne, I. 116, note. B. c. Roman HiUory. 83 3. Campania, traversed by the Voliumus (Volturno), with the mountains Gaurus and Vesuvius near Naples. Two bays separated from one another by a rocky isthmus: Sinus Cumanus (Bay of Naples), and Simis Poestanus (Bay of Salerno). Along the coast: Litemumj Cumce (Ki/iii, founded by a colony from Chalcis in Euboea in 1050 ?) ; Misenum near the promontory of similar name ; Puteoli (Puzzuoli) ; Bairn near lake Lucrinus, famous as a watering place ; Parthenope or Palmopolis, the oldest part of Neapolis (NerfiroAis, Napoli, Naples); Hercvlaneum and Pompeii, buried in 79 A. D. by lava and ashes from Vesuvius ; Salemum on the Sinus Paestanus, the chief city of the Picentes who had been transferred thither. Inland: Capua (not the modern Capua, but Santa Maria Maggiore), with an immense amphitheatre; Nolo, 4. Umbria. On the coast: Ariminum (Rimini), Pisaurum, Sena Gallica (Sinagaglia). Inland: Sentlnum, Iguvium, Spoletium. 6. Ficenum. Ancona on the coast; Asadum Picenum. 6. Samniiuu (in the wider sense, see p. 81). In the land of the Sabini : Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust ; Cures, Reate. In the land oi the Pisligni : Corfinium; Su/mo, birthplace of Ovid. In Samnium proper: Bovianum; ^semia; Beneventum (Benevento), former Mal- ventum; Caudium, in the neighborhood of the Caudine Pass (Furculm CaudincE). III. Lower Italy, also called Greater Greece, Magna Grseca Qzwhs v /icydKn), was divided into four districts : Apulia, Calabria in the east, Lucania and Bruttium > in the west. 1. Apulia : Lueeria, A(u)sciUum ApuLum, Cannes, Venusia, birth- place of Horace, near Mt. Vultur. 2. Calabria : Brundhium (Briudisi), the port of departure for Greece; Tarentum (Topoi, see p. 51). 3. Lucania: Pvestum (Posidom'a, XloaeiSaivla), with notable ruins of temples; Metapontum; Heraclea (^HpdKKeia). 4. Bruttium: Syhdris (Siflapis), destroyed in 510, by the Crotonians ; Thurii afterwards bmlt in its neighborhood (see p. 64); Croton (Rpdroji/), not far from the promontory of Lacinium; Locri Epizephyrii (Aoicpol 'Eiri(e(pipioi) ; Rhegium ('Pfiyiov, i. e. rent, from ji'tiyvni, tie present Reggio). Consentia (Cosenza on the river Busento). Italian Islands. Sicilia (2iKe\(a), separated from Italy by the Fretum Siculum (Strait of Messina), formerly called Sicania, also Trinacria, with its three capes, or promontories: Pelorum in the north, Pachynum in the south, and Lilybcmm in the west. On the eastern coast from north to south : Messana (formerly Zaticle, p. 61), Tauromenium (Taormina), Catana (Catania) at the base of iBtna, Syracuse (ivpdKovaat, Siragossa, see p. 51), at the time of its greatest extent comprising five cities: Ortygia, situated on an island, and hence also caUed Nasos, which now forms the whole city, with the spring of Arethusa, Achradina, Tycha, Neapolis, and Epipoloe, at first a suburb. 1 This form (instead of Bruttii, Bruttius Ager) has, however, no ancient authority. The Byzantines after the tenth century, A. D., gave Bruttium the name Calabria, after the Normans had dispossessed them of Calabria proper, and the eastern peninsula was known after that tiraa as Apulia. 84 Ancient History. b. c. On the south coast: Camafina, Gela, Agrigentum CAxpdyas, now Girgenti), between Gela and Agrigentum the promontory of Ecnomos, not far from the mouth of the (southern) river Himera / Selinus (SfAicoSs). On the west coast: Libyhoium, Drepdnum, Eryx. On the north coast: Panormus (Tidvopnos, now Palermo, see p. 17), Himera, Mylce. In the interior of the island: Henna. Sardinia (^apSd): Caralis (Cagliari). Corsica (Kiipvos): Alalia, later the Koman colony of Aleria. Of the smaller islands the following are noteworthy: 1. Melita, now Malta, and Gaudos, now Gozzo, south of Sicily. 2. The Insulca jEgates, on the west of Sicily, not far from the promontory Lilybseum. 3. The Insulm JEoliiE (now the Liparian islands) the largest, Lipara, north of Sicily. 4. Caprece, now Capri, and ^naria, now Ischia, at the entrance to the Bay of Naples. 5. The Pontian islands, Pontia, Pandataria. 6. Ilva, now Elba. RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS.^ The Romans possessed an ancient religion entirely distinct from that of Greece. It was a common inheritance of the Italians, though probably early receiving Etruscan and Grecian elements. In the last centuries of the republic the theogony of Greece was imported into Roman literature, and to some extent into the state re- ligion. At a still later time, under a policy of tolerance, all forms of faith and superstition were represented in the great capital. The religion of the Romans was a polytheism, but their deiftcs/- tion of nature was not so detailed, nor were their deities so human as was the case among the Greeks. Their faith had a sterner aspect, the practical side of religion was more natural to them than the poetic side. They honored and utilized their gods, but they wove few fancies about them. The great gods were: Jupiter, god of the sky, "father of gods and men; " Juno, his wife, goddess of maternity; Minerva, goddess of intellect, presiding over the arts; Mars, god of war, the most representative of the Italian divinities; Bellona, goddess of war; Vesta, patron of the Roman state, goddess of the national hearth; where burned the sacred fire; Ceres, Saturnus, goddess and god of agriculture; Ops, goddess of the harvest and of wealth; Her- cules, god of gain, preoiding over the sanctity of contracts; Mer- curius, god of traffic; Neptimus, god of the sea. Venus seems not to have been one of the original Italian divinities. She first appears as a goddess of agriculture, but was soon identified with Aphrodite, the Grecian goddess of love. Of the lesser gods there were many, watching over every act of individuals and of the state, and over every stage of growth and development. Such were Tellus, Silvanus, Terminus, Quirinus, Janus, the god of the beginning and end, represented with a double face. (Gate of Janus in the comiturm, open in time of war, closed in time of peace). Lares and Penates, presiding over the family and the home, Sol, Luna, etc. 1 Bawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World, chap. VIII, MomiDBen, Mist, oj Rome, Book I. chap. XII. Leighton, flist. qf Rome, chap. lY. B. C. Roman History. 85 Worship. The worship of the Romans consisted of a round of ceremonies, — prayers, sacrifices, games, — of strictly prescribed form, with the object of securing the good-will, averting the anger or ascertaining the intentions of the gods. In private life these ceremonies were performed in the family and were conducted by its head, the ■paterfamilias; in matters affecting the whole people, the state, which was a larger family, conducted the worship. In early times the king presided at the ceremonies. Under the republic a rex sacrificulus was appointed to perform those religious acts which were formerly the exclusive right and duty of the king. The state maintained at public cost : 1. " Colleges of sacred lore " having general supervision over religion and all matters connected therewith. The most important were: The college of Foutlfices, four in number (afterwards nine and sixteen), the highest religious power in the state. With them rested the decision as to which days were suitable for the transaction of business, public or private, and which not (dies fasti et nefasti). Hence they controlled the calendar, whereby they, with the augures, became important instruments in the hands of the government. The pontifices also decided upon the ac- tion made necessary by the auguries. At their head stood the pontifex maximus, who appointed the rex sacrificulus, the flamines and vestales. College of Augures, originally four, then nine and sixteen, who con- sulted the will of the gods, as revealed in omens, by the observation of the flight, cries, and manner of feeding of certain birds. College of Fetiaies, twenty (?) in number, presiding over the relations be- tween the Romans and other peoples. They conducted the conclu- sion of treaties, acted as heralds, and performed the ceremony of de- claration of war, by throwing a blood-tipped spear into the hostile territory.! Duumviri Sacrorum, having the charge of the Sibylline books. The haruspices exercised the art of interpreting the will of the gods from the examination of the entrails of slaughtered victims. They were an Etruscan institution. 2. Colleges of officiating priests: Flamines, who presided in va- rious temples with chapters of assisting, priests. Salii, or dancing priests, of Quirinus and Mars, the latter having charge of the sacred shields of Mars (ancillce). Vestal Virgins, guardians of the sacred fire of Vesta, six maidens who had taken the vow of virginity. Lu- perci, Fratres Arvales, etc. Besides the observance of sacrifices and the offering of prayers, the priests had charge of conducting various public games: Lupercalia, (Feb. 15th), Ferice Latince, Saturnalia (Dec.) and others. ETHNOGKAPHICAL SKETCH OP ITALY.' At the extreme south the lapygians. Their descent is not certainly established, though they undoubtedly belong to the Indo-European family and probably to the Illyrian race. In historic times the rem- nants of the tribe appear, in striking contradistinction to the true Italici, in process of rapid Hellenization, 1 When the growth of the Roman dominion had made tiiis a matter of di/B- culty, a plot of ground in Rome was set apart to represent hostile territory, and into this the spear was hurled. 2 Mommsen, Hist, of Some, I. chap. 2. 86 Ancient History. b. c. To the Indo-European family belonged likewise the inhabitants of central Italy, the Italic! proper, who were divided into the Latin and the Umbro-Sabellian (Oskan), tribes. They were the next of kin of the Hellenes. The Italici entered Italy by land. The Latini occupied the western lowlands (Latium, connected with latus),^ the Umfyro-Sabellian tribes spread themselves over the eastern part of Central Italy (Umbrians, Picentes, Sabines, Marsi, Hernici, Vohcii). A main division of this group, the Samnites, occupied the mountain region which was named after them, and drove back the lapygians. From the Samnites several tribes branched off; so the Campanians, called after the plain (Campus) which they settled along the Tyr- rhine sea. Peculiarly distinct from the Latin and Sabellian Italici, in language, religion and customs were the Etruscans (in their own language, Rasenna). Up to the present time all attempts to establish their ethnographical position, have failed to reach settled conclusions. The attempt recently made, to prove them members of the Indo- European family and the Etruscan language closely related to the Latin, must, it would seem, be regarded as a failure.^ Perhaps the Etruscan people were formed by the union of two dif- ferent tribes, one of which came to Italy over the Rsetian Alps, while the other came by sea. Before the invasion of the Celts, Etruscans dwelt north of the Apennines, on both sides of the Po, between the territory of the Veneti (as far as the Adige), and the Ligurians. The whole of Upper Italy was occupied by Celtic tribes (about 500 B. c.?), which gradually forced the Etruscans and Umbrians south- ward. Besides all these migrations into Italy from the north by land, colonization of no mean extent began very early on the part of the Hellenes, in Sidly and Lower Italy, by sea. (The Dorians, Chaldd- ians (i. c. lonians), and JEolians were principally engaged therein). Roman History can be divided into five periods. 753(?)-510(?) I. Mythical time of the kings. 510-264. II. Development of the constitution by struggles between Patricians and Plebeians. Subjugation of Italy proper (Cen- tral and Lower Italy), down to the beginning of the Punic wars. 264-146. III. Epoch of the Punic wars, and beginning of the univer- sal rule of Kome, down to the destruction of Carthage and Corinth. 146-31. IV. Firm establishment of the universal supremacy of Kome, by the conquest of the East, Spain, and Gaul. Epoch of the dvil wars, down to the beginning of the absolute rule of Octavian, in consequence of the battle ofActium. 1 The Ausonii (Atimnci, in Campania) probably belonged to the Latin race, as well ; also, perhaps the Italiai in the narrower sense, who dwelt originally in the western part of lower Italy, and the SicuH. 2 "W. CorBsen, Ueber die Sprache der Etrusher, 1874. "W. Deecke, Etruskische Forschungen, is of the contrary opinion, as is E. O. Miiller, Z)te Etrusher, ed. by W. Deecke, 2 vols., 1377. B. c. Roman History. 87 31 B. C.-476 A. D. V. Sway of the Roman Caesars, down to the fall of the Roman Empire of the west. The last period extends into Mediseval History. FIRST PERIOD. Mythical Epoch of the Kings (753 1-510). Foundation of Rome according to the Roman legends. King NuitiUor of Alba Longa, the descendant of ^neas, who had settled in Latium with some Trojan refugees, was deprived of his thione by his brother Amvlius, who put his son to death, and caused his daughter Rea Silvia to become a vestal virgin, in order that the line of Numiior should perish. The twins, Romulus and Remus, the sons of Rea Silvia and Mars, the god of war, were, by command of the king, thrown into the Tiber, then overflowing its Isanks. Their cradle being caught by the roots of a fig-tree, the children were rescued from drowning, were suckled by a she-wolf, and brought up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. As they grew up, Romulus and Remus led other shepherds on the hunt and in forays for booty. At the festival of the Lupercalia, they were surprised by robbers ; Romulus was taken prisoner, brought before Numitor, and accused of having plundered his fields. Numitor recognized his grandsons. The latter thereupon attacked the usurper Amulius at the head of their band, slew him, and placed the rightful king, their grandfather Numiior, again on the throne of Alba Longa. With the king's per- mission, the twins founded a city on that place on the bank of the Tiber where they had been exposed. (Festival of Palilia or Parilia, April 21, celebrated as the anniversary of the foundation.) In a quarrel as to who should give his name to the city, Remus was killed. Romulus, being now the only king, called the city after himself, Roma.' Surmises about the real origin of Rome. The results of mod- em scientific investigations leave not the least doubt that the Ro- man story of the foundation of the city is not historical, but an invention, having not the slightest basis of fact. It is perfectly clear that in reality Rome and the Romans did not derive their name from the founder of the city, but that, on the contrary, the name Romulus was formed by the inventors of the legend from the name of the city and the people.' Ail tribal heroes are of divine origin ; that those of the Romans should be sons of Mars, the god of agriculture and of war, needs no explanation. The legend of the exposure of the twins and of their miraculous pi'eservation and recog- nition bears a striking resemblance to the story of the youth of Cyrus (p. 26). The fabulous descent from the Trojan .zEneas as- cribed to the family of the founder of Rome was an invention of 1 According to Varro's era 753, according to Cato's 751 ; but to change years of the city into years before Christ, ■/ 54 or 752 must be used as the minu- Bid. Both dalJes belong to the conventional chronology. See pp. 88 and 89. 2 Livlus, I. 1-7. ' Compare besides Mommsen, Sohwegler, Bom. Gesch., and Peter, Rim, Gesch., I. S6. 88 Ancient History. b. c. Grecian writers (Stesichorus in the sixth century, Timceus in the third century, B. c). The tale of the building of Rome by emigrants from Alba, under guidance of two princes of divine birth, was a naive attempt to explain the growth of a city in the barren and unhealthy Roman Campagiia by connecting it with the common metropolis of Latium. Nothing can be considered historical except that Rome was, as regards the greater- part of its population, a Latin settlement. The city was founded, or rather gradually arose, at a wholly unknown time and under wholly unknown circumstances. The settlement was formed very near the border of Latium, and just at the head of navigation (for small vessels) of the Tiber, the natural highway of commerce for Latium, without regard to the sterile char- acter of the immediate neighborhood. This gives probability to the supposition that Rome in its earliest days " was a border trading-post of the Latins." ^ Not that Rome was ever a mercantile city, after the manner of Corinth and Carthage ; it was merely a trading village, where the imports and exports of Latium, which was essentially an agricultural district, were, exchanged. The opinion that the Roman people was a mixed race cannot be maintained, when it is considered that the development of the Roman language, political institutions, and religion, was free and individual to a degfree seldom equalled. Of the three tribes or townships (^Gauen) which seem to have united to form Rome (the Ramnen (identical with Romam), the ^{(ens)^.?, and the Luceres),th.e first was certainly, the third in all probability, Latin ; the second was, it is true, Sabine, but it was soon completely blended with the Latin ele- ments, as the Roman language shows. The Royal Epoch, according to the Roman Legend.^ 753-716. Romulus, warrior king. Establishment of a retreat on the Capitolinus. Ap- pointment of 100 Senaiores or Patres (fathers), whose descendants are called Patricians. The three centuries of knights : Ramnes, Titi{ens)es, and Luceres. Rape of the Sabine women; war with the Sabines fol- lowing, their king, Titus Tatius, seized the fortress on the Capitol through the treachery of Tarpeia. Battle between the Romans and Sabines intemipted by the Sabine women, who had been carried off. Union of the Romans and Sabines in one double state under the common rule of Romulus and Tatius, until the latter's death. War of Romulus with Fidence and Veii. Romulus is translated during a tliunder-storm, and henceforward worshipped as the god Quirinus. 715-673. Numa Pompilius of Cures, elected, after a year's interregnum, by the Romans from among the Sabines. Peaceful king; arranges the religious services of the Romans according to the advice of the Camcenas (prophetess) Egeria, his consort. Temple of Janus. Appointment of the five Pontifices, the first of whom -is the Pontifex Maximus, the Flamtnes, 1 Mommsen, IJlst. of Rome, Book I. Cliups. 2 and 4. 2 Liviua, I. 8 foil. B. C. Soman History. 89 Fetiales, the four Augures, the four vestal virgins, afterwards increased to six. 673-641. Tullus Hoatiliua, warlike king. War with Alba Longa; contest of the Horatii and Curatii decides in favor of Rome, to which Alba is obliged to submit. War with Veil and Fidenoe; treachery of the dictator of Alba, Mettius Fuffetius, who is torn in pieces. Destruction of Alba Longa; the in- habitants are transferred to Rome. 641-61G. Ancus Marcius, grandson of Numa, at the same time peaceful and warlike (" et Numse et Romuli memor"). Development of the institution of the Fetiales. Successful war with four Latin towns, the inhabitants of which are settled on the Aventine. For this reason Ancus Marci'is is represented in the traditional story of the kings of Rome, as the f oimder of the class of the plebeians.^ Fortification of Janiculum, con- struction of a bridge of piles (^pons sublicius) over the Tiber. Foundation of the harbor of Ostla. 616--578. Tarquinius Priscus, who with his wife TanaquU emigrated from the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, and for whom Cfrecian descent from the Bacchiadce of Cor- inth was afterwards invented. He became guardian of Ancus' son, and was elected to the throne. Commencement of the construction of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill. Construction of the cloacce. The Senate increased to 300 members ; the number of equites doubled. Circus Maximus. Successful wars with the Sabines, Latins, and Etrus- cans. After the murder of Tarquinius by the sons of Ancus, 678-534. Servius TuUiu3 becomes king through the cunning of TanaquU. He was the son of the slave woman Ocrisia and a god, was educated like a prince by Tanaquil in consequence of the utterance of an oracle, and became the son-in-law of Tarquinius. Wars with Vdi. Rome joins the Latin league. Construction of the wall of Rome. Establishment of the census and the division of the centuries (p 92). Servius Tullius murdered by his son-in-law, 634-510. Tarquinius Superbus, represented by tradition as a cruel despot. Tarquinius Superbus (i. e. the haughty) subjugates the Latin league, conquers Suessa Po- metia, completes the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and gains posses- sion of the city of Gahii by the deceit and treachery of his son Sextus. Tradition ascribes to him the acquisition of the Sibylline books. Embassy of Titus and Aruns Tarquinius, the king's sons, to the oracle at Delphi. They are accor/ipanied by their cousin, L, Junius Brutus, who represents himself as feeble-minded, in order to protect his life against the cruelty of the king; a story which was invented to explain the name of Brutus. Siege of Ardea. The rape of Lucretia, wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus (i. e. from CoUatia), by the king's son, Sextus, leads to the expulsion of the Tarquins and the abolition of monarchy. The insurrection is headed by L. Junius Brutus, whom the legend makes Tribunus CelSrum, although he was commonly considered an imbecile. Over the body of Lucretia, who died by her own hand, he 1 Peter, Rai... Getch., 1.8 3a Compare, on the oth'jr hand, p. 90. 90 Ancient History. b. c. called the people to arms, and incited the army against the king, who found the city gates closed upon him, and went into exile (Livius, I., 57-60). Historical Facts of the Epoch of the Kings.i There is no doubt that the constitution of the oldest Roman state was a patriarchal monarchy ; and that, after the new settlement had become an independent community, the highest power in Rome was exercised by a line of sovereigns elected for life (rex, from the same stem as regere, to govern). But neither the number nor all the names of the traditional kings, nor yet the deeds ascribed to the reign of each, still less the chro- nology of their reigns, can be considered historically authentic. The artificiality of the first four reigns, which are alternately warlike and peaceable, is self-evident. Doubtless the extension of the Roman ter- ritory and Rome's hegemony over the Latin league was not acquired without severe contests and brilliant deeds of arms; but the story has come down to us in a fabulous form and has been arbitrarily revised. The destruction of Alba, the ancient metropolis of Latium, is an his- torical fact ; the contest of three Roman against three Alban broth- ers, their cousins, is probably only a personified designation of a war between two closely related towns, with similar political divis- ions. As regards the last three reigns, it can be considered historical that the royal family of the Tarquins was of Etruscan origin ; that under its rule Rome made an important advance in power and civilization ; that the division of the people into classes, the erection of the so-called Servian wall, portions of which are still in existence, and the construc- tion of the iirst cloacse date from their reigns. At the commencement of the actual history of Rome there is found to exist a sharp division of the population into Patricians, or citizens with full political rights, and Plebeians, or free inhabitants ■without political rights (like the Lacedaemonian Periaeci and the Athenian Metoeci; see pp. 60 and 52). The traditional legend gives no explanation of this important fact, but only two hints at one, and those contradictory.' The citizens having full rights are evidently the de- scendants of the original settlers, the victors and later conquerors. Since, according to Roman usage, marriages of equals in rank con- ferred the rights of citizenship on the children, those having such rights called themselves Patricii, i. e. "Children of the fathers." The people who were not included in these families, but stood under their protection, who were compelled to have a protector (Patrouus), were disting-uished by the name Clientes (from cluere). Their de- scendants, increased by the former citizens of Latin towns conquered in war, formed gradually a second Roman community, whose mem- bers were not citizens. These were called the Plebeians, the Plebs (or 1 See Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 4. Peter, Bom. Gesch. P 54-56) likewise ascribes but a limited historical value to the traditional history of the liings. ■ 2 See paRe 88 the reisn of Romulus, and p. 89, that of Ancus Marcius. Comp, lILommben, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 5. B. C. Soman Histoi-y. 91 plebes, connected with pleo, plenus) ; i. e. the masses, the great mob. As the majority of the population of conquered cities were compelled to enter the plebeian class, whether they were settled in or near Kome or remained in their old homes, it is incorrect to imagine the plebs composed of poor people entirely; there were from the beginning many wealthy and respected families among them. Under the oldest constitution of Rome, which is commonly called, from the legend, the Constitution of Romulus, the Patricians alone formed the municipality and the military force, the populus (con- nected with populari, to ravage), since they alone performed military service. They were divided into curiae, districts, at first 10 in num- ber, after the union of the Titles and Luceres with the Ramnes 30 (p. 88), each curia being divided into ten families or genles. The assembly (populus) of the citizens or patricians, called by the king when he had an aimouncement or an inquiry to make, formed the comitia curiata. To this body citizens under sentence had the right of appeal for pardon (provocatio) ; only, however, with the consent of the king. The comitia elected the king, who, after elec- tion, exercised absolute power, having to consult the community only when changes of the existing law or the commencement of an offen- sive war were in question. The Senate (council of the elders, seniores, senatores) was an advisatory body, named by the king, but representing the gentes after a manner. This oldest form of the community was essentially altered by a reform conducted during the reign of the last dynasty, and which tradition has coupled with the name of Servius Tullius. Military service and payment of the tributum was thereby made obligatory on all land-owners, whether they were citizens or merely inhabitants of the class of metoeci. Every freeholder between seventeen and sixty years of age was now liable to service. The cavalry, composed of citizens, continued as before, but there was added to it a force of double its strength, which consisted wholly, or in great part, of ple- beians. The wealthiest land-owners were drawn upon to furnish the cavalry. No regard at all was paid to political or class differences in making up the infantry, but the kind of armor to be furnished by the warriors was regulated in accordance with a property classifica- tion. This is the Servian classification,^ for military service and taxation, of Patricians and Plebeians according to their property (Cen- sus). A. Cavalry (Equites). 6 pure (?) patrician, 12 plebeian (and patrician) centuries ; in all 1800 horse, all of the first class. 1 The censas was not expressed in money until the time of Appim Claudius (E. o. 312). lieigbton. Mist, of Rome. p. 22, n. 5. [Trans.] 92 Ancient History. B. a Class. B. Foot-Soldiers (Fedites). Number of Centuries. Property in Asses.^ Armor. Weapons. 1. ■D 80 C. with20iugera 100,000 galea, clipeus, oc- & '*'2 reae, lorica rt 2. 20 C. with 1 as much 75,000 galea, scutum, ■o ocrese 2 3. 1 20 C. with i as much 50,000 galea, scutum 9 4. t^ 20 C. with 1 as much 25,000 scutum 5. 28 C. with i (1-10) as . much 12,000 fundss It appears from the number of centuries (i. e. companies) in the different classes, that the division of the land at that time was such that more than half the farms contained 20 jugera or more, and a farm of that size was considered the standard. In the five classes : 168 centuries of foot-soldiers, each of 100 men = 16,800 men ; i. e. 4 legions of 4200 men each, 2 legions j'uniores (first levy, 17-^6 years old, for service in the field) and 2 legions seniores (second levy, 47-60 years old, for garrison service). To be added are 3 centuries of fabri (pioneers), tuhidnes and comucines (musicians), 2 centuries accensi velati (unarmed substitutes), 2 centuries prole- tarii and capite censi, making, with the cavalry, 193 centuries. Aa the population increased the number of centuries was not enlarged, but the separate divisions were strengthened by the addition of new recruits, without doing away entirely with the standard number. This new military body, arranged in classes and centuries, was henceforward consulted by the king in regard to offensive wars as the army had been when divided into curiae. This was at first the only privilege which the new citizens shared ; all other rights were reserved to the comitia curiata, which consisted exclusively of patricians. It was not until later (at the beginning of the Republic) that the new arrangement of the community acquired political importance, and that a new popular assembly, the cotuitia centuriata, de- veloped out of the new military organization. The reform ascribed to Servius had originally a purely military character. It gave the Plebeians at first scarcely any rights, but only burdens ; it opened the way, however, whereby they became true citizens. The inhabitants who were not land-owners, be they clientes or f oreim metoeci, were henceforward distinct from the land-owning plebs. The inhabitants who owned no land were called, after the money which they had to pay for protection, Berarii.^ For purposes of conscription the city and township were divided into four wards (Tribua), so that each legion contained the same number of recruits from each ward. Every 4, later every 5 years a new census was taken, which closed with a sacrifice for purification (lustrum), whence in later times lustrum denoted a space of flv9 years. 1 Mommsen, ffkt. nf Rome, Rnolc I. chap. 6. Iiivius, I., 42 and foil. 3 Mommsen, Hist, of liorne, Book 1. chap. 6. B. c. Roman History. 98 SECOND PERIOD. Struggles between Patricians and Plebeians, Subjugation of Italy Proper, to the Beginning of 'the Funic Wars (510-264). 510 (?). Expulsion of the Tarquins, Rome a Republic. According to Roman tradition, the consuls for the first year of the republic were 509 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius CoUatinus. The latter, it is said, being related to the exiled royal family, soon fell under suspicion, and was replaced by L. Valerius Popli- cola, the first Consul suffectus, to whom tradition ascribes the lex Valeria de provocatione (Ne quis magistratus civem Romanum adversus provooationem (p. 91) neoeret neve verberaret). On the same authority, the first dictator (p. 94) was Titus Lartius (501, against the Sabines). The Grecian historian Polybius calls the consuls of the first year 609 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and Marcus Horatius.^ We know absolutely nothing which is historically authenticated about the details of this revolution. This alone is certain, that the arbitrary rule of the last king brought about his expulsion and the banishment of the whole gens Tarquinia. (The family sepidchre has been discovered in Caere, in Etraria). The fear lest the common- wealth should be transformed into a tyranny seems to have united the patricians and plebeians for a short time. We are better informed about the nature of the constitutional change, since on this point inferences can be drawn from the institu- tions which we find in existence in historic times. The change in the constitution was, as far as this is possible in a revolution, conservative in character. The sovereign reigning during life was replaced by two rulers holding ofQce for a year, taken from the patricians. They were called at first Praetores, Judices, or Consules ; later, the lattei name only was applied to them." They exercised, generally, regal power: Imperium (i. e. sovereignty in war and ^eace) ; auspida publica (i. e. supplication of the gods in behalf of the state) ; convening the popular assembly and the senate; taking the census; appointment of senators and the two patrician quaestors. The latter, whose office was established during the time of the kings, exercised the fiinctions of criminal police, and soon acquired the administration of the state treasury under the supervision of the consuls. The consuls were assigned 12 liclores as a public indication of their official power. 1 Polybius, III. 22. The statement of Polybius, that the first treaty be- tween Rome and Carlhap;e fell in the first year of the Republic, ie disputed by Mommsen (ItJm. Chrc/wlogie bia auf Cmcr, 2 Ed. p. 320), but is strongly defended by Kissen {Jahrbilcher filr Philolugie, 1867), and others. ■^ The derivation of conml and prcetar is doubtful. Consul denotes either "administrator of the state " {quiajnsulttreipublicce), or merely colleague. Prce^- tor denotes "general" (qui prait exercitui, like the German Herznr/), or one who presides over the state {quipraeit, praeett reijmbUcae). See Mdrquardc- Uommsen, Eim. AUerthiimer, 11. p. 71 f. 94 Ancient History, B. c. According to the lex Valeria de provocatione ^ (509), all citizens had right of appeal from sentences of death pronounced by the con- suls, which were not delivered according to military law, to the peo- ple, even against the will of the consuls; and this appeal was not to the old " populus," composed of patricians, but to the comitig centuriata, the assembly of the new military and political com- munity founded by the Servian constitution (p. 92). The comitia centuriata acquired, moreover, in consequence of the violent alteration of the constitution, the right to elect the consuls, or rather, according to old Roman interpretation, the right of desig. nating them to the consul who presided over the election, who there- upon appointed them (creare). The comitia centuriata acquired also the right of accepting or rejecting bills laid before it, but the six patrician centuries of equites retained the important right of voting first on any proposed measures. The Senate, formerly consisting of patricians exclusively, was now enlarged, or rather brought up to its legal number, by the ad- mission of plebeians from the equites, i. e. the wealthy. Hence the formula: Patres [ei] conscripti. The nature of the changes which the comitia curiata (p. 91) underwent in -consequence of the revolution is much disputed; it is certain only that it soon sank into complete insignificance. According to the view which is most commonly received, it retained at iirst the right of approving the elections or resolves of the comitia centuriata, a privilege expressed by the formula patres (i. e. patricii) auc- tores iiunt.2 Others understand the expression patres to apply to the senatores, and claim the right of approval mentioned above for the Senate.^ At a time of special danger the consuls were replaced by an ex- traordinary official, the dictator, or magister populi, who was not elected, but appointed by one of the consuls . (dictatorem dicere) without the participation of the citizens. (Practically, however, the Senate commonly played an important part in the selection.) As soon as danger was over the dictator resigned his office (dictatwa se abdicare), which he could not hold longer than six months in any event. The dictator appointed his magister equitum (master of the horse) ; the sign of his power, which was thoroughly royal, was 24 (?) lictors. Appeal from his decisions was allowed only in cases where it had been permitted against the king (p. 91). 1 "The habeas corpus act of the Romans." Leighton, Eist. of Rome, p. 53. [Tbanb.] 2 Backer, Sam. Allh. II. 3, p. 183, u. SchwoEler, Riim. Gesch. II. 160. 8 Acconlins to Mommsen {Hist, of Rome, I. 264), all new citizens, that is, all limd-owning plebeians were in consequence of the revohition (510) admitted to tlie comitia curiata, and the old body of citizens, or the patricians, thereby lost the right of debating and deciding ior political purposes, in an assembly apart from the rest of the citizens. This opinion is opposed by other scholars, who main- tain that plebeians were first admitted to the comitia curiata toward the end of tha Kepublic. Mommsen thinks that the right of approval belonged to the smaller, purely poiricinre senate, while the larger senate, increased By the addition of plebeian coMCiipti, was, during the iirst years of the Kepublic, an advisory council for the consuls. B. c. Roman History. 95 509. According to the Eoman legend a conspiracy of young pa- tricians was discovered in Rome, wliicli purposed the restora^ tion of the monarchy. Execution of Brutus' son. 508. Unsuccessful war of the Romans against the Etruscan king Porsena of Clusium. The Romans were defeated, and com- pelled to purchase peace by a surrender of territory and com- plete disarming. Roman story of Horatius Codes, the brave defender of the bridge over the Tiber, of the heroic courage of Mucins SccEvola (i. e. left-handed ; the well-known story is probably only an attempt to explain the name), and Clcelia, in Livius II. 9-13. When the Etruscans advanced further into Latium they were defeated by the Latins and their allies from lower Italy before Aricia, and could not maintain themselves on the left bank of the Tiber. In consequence of this Etrus- can defeat, Rome seems to have freed itself from the dis- graceful peace imposed upon it, and to have gradually re- gained its former powerful position. 496 (?). Tradition of a great victory of the Romans over the Latins by the small lake Regillus, near Tusculum, won by the dictator, Aulus Postumius, with the aid of the Dioscuri (Livius II. 19). The inner history of the Roman community for this period deals with two contests, one political and one social. I. Contest of the patricians, who gradually developed into an hereditary nobility, against the new citizens, or plebeians. The latter, who could, it is true, become senators (conscripti), but were excluded from the offices of state and from the priesthood, aimed at complete political equality. Since the offices of state in Rome, as among the ancients generally, were administered without pay (hence, honores, officers of honor), it was essentially the wealthier plebeian families alone who were inter- ested in this contest. II. The social contest between the well- to-do property-ov^ners and the owners or renters of small farms, who were growing poorer, or had been deprived of their pos- sessions. The use of the ager publicus, i. e. the public land, acquired by conquest (comprising both cultivated land and pasture), belonged legally to the patricians oidy. In fact the senate made exceptions in favor of the rich plebeian houses which had become members; the small plebeian land-owners and renters were strictly excluded from the privilege. Very seldom, on occasion of new conquests, a dis- tribution of land was made among the poor plebeians, but the greater part of the state domain was leased to the patrician land-owners for a moderate rent, which was, probably, hardly ever regularly collected, and these estates were soon treated as private property. Gradually the tillage of the large farms was given over to slaves, and the pie." beian tenants were thereby driven from their holdings. The plebeian owners of small peasant holdings sank into a condition of the great- est misery, through frequent military service, taxation, excessive in- terest on loans, and the cruel Roman law of debt, which placed the person and property of the debtor in the creditor's hands. In conse- quence of this there were repeated uprisings and refusals to perform military service, which, in 495, was overcome only by the appointment 96 Ancient History. b. c. of a dictator. Finally, when the patricians refused to grant the prom- ised alleviations, and continued their ill treatment of those who be- came their slaves through debt (nexi), the plebeian soldiers in the victorious army, as they were returning home, turned aside, under the leadersliip of plebeian military tribunes, to a small hill on the Anio (later called Mons Sacer), and threatened to found a plebeian city in that fertile region (three miles from Rome). This is the so-called 494 (?).^ Secession of the Plebeians to the Sacred Mount (secessio plebis in montem sacrum), which compelled the patricians (Menenius Agrippa, fable of the belly and the members) to make sincere concessions. After abrogation of the oppressive debts, 494 (?)• Creation of the tribunate (tribuni plebis) and the plebeian sediles. The tribunes of the people (at first 2 (?), then 5, finally 10), were always chosen from the plebs.^ They were inviolable (sacro- sancti). They had the right of protection (jus auxilii) for every plebeian against injustice on the part of an official. This privilege developed into an extensive right of intercession (_/iw intercession^) against every administrative or judicial act, with the exception of the imperium militare, — that is to say, against the dictator and against the consul when he was more than a mile from the city. From the first the tribunes of the people exercised judicial functions, convened the assemblies of the plebeians, and proposed criminal sentences for their consideration. Later (448), the tribunes were admitted to the senate, where, by their veto, they could deprive any resolution of the senate {senatits consuUm) of its legislative force, and reduce it to a mere ex- pression of opinion (senatus auctoritas). The two aediles of the people (cedUes plebis) assisted the tribunes, and superintended the business of the markets. Their name was probably derived from the temple (cedes) of Ceres, where they preserved the official docu- ment which decreed the establishment of the plebeian magistracy. During this time (according to some authorities, not imtil later) occurred the establishment of the important comitia tributa. In this assembly the citizens voted according to wards or tribus; not, however, the four wards of the Servian constitijtion (p. 92), but ac- cording to a later (perhaps 495) division into- 20 tribus, to which was added the Crustuminian trihits (494), making 21, and the num- ber gradually rose to 35. It is probable that, down to the time of the legislation of the decemvirs, plebeians only, after that time, however, the whole body of land-owning inhabitants, both patri- cians and plebeians, voted in the comitia tributa.' In this comitia 1 Cf. Mommsen, Mist, of Rome, I. 279. 2 It is commonly assumed as probable that up to .he lex Publilia (472) the tribunes were elected in the comitia centuriata, and approved by the comitia curiata. According to the testimony of Sionyslus {DC. 41) and Cicero (pro (Mm.), they were chosen by the curiata; according to Mommsen's view (p. 94, note ), tliis denotes that they were at first elected by the plebeians assembled by curice. ' See the different opinions in Becker, Mm. Alther., II. 1, p. 175 and 399. B. C. Roman History. 97 •ach tribm had one vote, which was decided by the majority of voters in the tribms. Compared with the comitia centuriata, therefore, the ascendency of the wealthy was done away with, as was also the privi- lege, eiyoyed by the nobility, of throwing their votes first. 493. In the consulate of Spurius Cassius, renewal of the eternal alliance between Rome and the Latin league on a basis of equality. Only gradually did Rome acquire again the he- gemony over the Latins. Continual disputes with Etruscans, Sabines, ^qui, Volscians. Continuation of the contests be- tween patricians and plebeians ; the institution of the tribu- nate proving to be the org'anization of civil strife and anarchy. An attempt was soon made to abolish the tribunate by the patrician 491. Cn. (C. ?) Marcins, called Coriolanus (from the storm of Corioli), who, during a famine, proposed to grant the plebeians grain at the expense of the state, only on condition that they gave up the tribunate. When summoned by the tribunes be- fore the comitia tributa, Coriolanus declined to appear; being banished in his absence, he went to the Volscians, and, accord- ing to the story, led their troops against Rome, but, at the rebuke of his mother, Veiuria, and the entreaties of his wife, Volumnia, gave up the war against his native city (Livius, II. 40). 487. The Hemici invaded the Roman territory. Being defeated by the consul Aquillius, and, in the next year, by the consul Spu- rius Cassius, the 486. Hernici joined the Latin league. 486. Spurius Cassius Visceliinus (Vecellinusf), consul for the third time, brought forward the first agrarian lavr. He pro- posed to divide a part of the public lauds among neeiy plebeians and Latins ; the rest to be actually leased for the profit of the public treasury. The patricians and wealthy plebeians joined forces against Spurius Cassius ; the lower classes were dissat- isfied that the Latins should also receive land and abandoned him. After the close of his term of ofQce he was sentenced and executed. 479l Withdrawal of the gens Fabia and their 477. destruction by the Etruscans at the brook Cremera. 473. Murder of the tribune of the people, Gnceus Genucius, who had ventured to call two consuls to account. 471. Law carried by the tribune of the people, Volero Publilius, to the effect that the plebeian magistrates should, in future, be elected by the comitia tributa (lex publilia: ut magistratus plebei comitiis tributis creentur, p. 96). 463. Plague in Rome and throughout Italy. 462. Motion of the tribune of the people, C. TerentUius Arsa, for the appointment of a body of ten men to reduce the laws to a written code. Violent opposition of the patricians. 460. Surprise of the Capitol by Herdonius at the head of some polit- ical refugees (Livius III. 15). Renewal of civil discord. In order to satisfy the plebeians, the num- 7 98 Ancient History. B. c. ber of tribunes of the people was raised from 5 to 10 (457) ; in the following year the Mons Aventinm was divided into building lots, which were distributed among the poor citizens. Dictatorship of L. Quinctius Cinannatus, who rescued an army which had been sur- rounded by the iEqui (Livius III. 26). A compromise was reached in regard to the codification of the laws, whereby three ambassadors were sent to Greece to bring back copies of the Solouian laws and others (454). After their return ^51. Decemvirs, a body of ten men, were chosen from the patricians {Decemviri consulari imperio legibus scribundis), and the consulate, tribunate, and right of appeal were for the time suspended. The code of laws drawn up by the decemvirs was accepted by the people, engraved on copper tables, and set up in the forum. As an appendix seemed necessary, 450. Secemvirs were appointed again, three being plebeians, who added two more tables. Henceforward the law of the city and county of Rome, acoordmg to which the consuls were to ex- ercise their judicial functions, was known as the la^ws of the twelve tables (Leges duodecim tabularutn). By their exposure the patrician admmistration was henceforth sub- jected to the control of public judgment. Instead of giving place to the regular magistrates after the completion of the two supplementary tables the decemvirs remained in office during the succeeding year (449). An attempt of the mod- erate aristocracy, headed by the Valerii and Horatii, to compel the abdication of the decemvirs, was imsuccessful. The latter, under Appius Claudius, the head of the extreme party of the nobles, acquired the preponderance in the state. At first the people submitted and acquiesced in a levy for the war against the Sabines and Volsciaus. The oppression of the decemvirs, especially of Appim Claudius: murder of the former tribune of the people, Siccius Dentatus, and the attack on the liberty and honor of the betrothed of the former tribune L, Icilius, Virginia, whom her own father Virginiua stabbed in the forum, brought about an uprising (Liv. III. 44 foil.). The plebeian soldiers occupied the Aventine and th6 Sacred Mount. Valerius and Horatius managed a compromise, ac- cording to which the decemvirs abdicated. Appius Claudius and Spurius Oppius disembowelled themselves in prison, the others were sent into exile. It is impossible to decide what part of this romantic story is historical. It seems certain that the consulate and tribunate were reestablished. The power of the nobility was further weakened by the 448. Laws of the consuls Valerius and Horatius (leges Horatimyr 1. The resolves (plebiscUa) of the comitia tributa were given equal force with those of the comitia eenturiata (ut quod tribu- tim plebs jussuset populum teneret). 2. Every magistrate, in- cluding therefore, the dictator, was obliged, in future, to allow appeals from his decision (ne quis ullum magistratum sine prooo- catione crearet,qui crcasset,eum jus fasqueessetocddi). 3. Keoog- B. C. Roman History. 99 nition of the inviolability of the tribunes of the people, and ex- tension of the same privilege to the aediles (ut qui trihunis plebis, cEdilibtis nocuisset, ejus caput Jovi sacrum esset). About the same time (447) two quaestors were appointed whose pe- culiar charge was the military treasury (making in all 4 qusest- ors, see p. 93) ; they were patricians, but were appointed by the comitia tributa, wherein both patricians and plebeians voted henceforward, if not before (p. 96). In 421 the qusestorship was opened to the plebeians. Moreover, the tribunes of the people acquired the right of taking auspices, and were admitted to the senate, though at first required to occupy a bench near the door. 445. La-w of the tribune Canuleius legalizing marriage between patricians and plebeians (lex Canuleia de conubio : ut conubia ple- bei cum patribus essent). The children inherit the rank of the father. The motion brought forward by this tribune that the consuls might be chosen from the plebeians (ut populo potestas esset, seu de plebe seu de patribus vellet, consules faciendi), was vio^ lently opposed by the nobility. A compromise was effected, and it was decreed that instead of consuls 444. military tribunes (6) with consular power (tri- buni militum consulari potestate) should be appointed, and that to this ofBce plebeians could be elected. At the same time creation of a new patrician office, that of censor. The two censors were elected in the comitia eerUuriata, at first for 5 (4 ?) years, after 434 for 18 months, but every fifth year only, so that the office was vacant 3J years out of every five. Functions of the censors : 1. Taking the census every 5 (4 ?) years (after every lustrum), and compiling the lists of citizens and taxes; appointment of senators (lectio senatus) and the equites (recognitio equitum). 2. Preparation, and publication of the budget, management of the state prop- erty, farming the indirect taxes (vectigalia), superintendence of the public buildings. 3. Supervision of the public morality (regimen morum). The duties and privileges included under the latter head gave the office great moral and political im- portance in the next century (Notatio censoria). 439. Spurius Mcelius, a rich plebeian, who, during a famine, distrib- uted grain at a low price, was accused of aiming at royal power, and was slain by C. Servilius Ahala, the master of the horse of the octogenarian dictator, L. Quinctius Cincinnatus. 405-396. Siege of Veil, the history of which, like that of the previous wars with the Etruscans, has been much ornamented by tradition. The long continuance and obstinacy of the war with Veil is proved by the fact that then for the first time the campaigns were not interrupted during the winter. The result was, that the citi- zens who served in the army now for the first time received pay from the public treasury (i. e. out of the taxes on the public lands).! Capture and destruction of Veli by the 1 Iieighton, Hist, of Rome, p. 70, note 1. [Tkass. 100 Ancient History. B. c. dictator, M. Furius Camillus. The fall of Veil marks the begiiuuiig of the decline of the Etruscan power, which was hard pressed at the same time by the Latins in the south, Cells (Gauls) from beyond the Alps in the north, and from the sea by the Sicilian and Italian Greeks, especially the Syracusans, whose attacks had endured upward of a century. 391. Camillus went into exile in consequence of a complaint of in- justice in the division of the booty from Veil. Latium invaded by the Gauls in consequence of Roman ambas- sadors having taken part, in the war of the Etruscans of Clusium, against the Gauls. The Gauls demanded that the ambassadors (the three Fabii) should be delivered to them, to which the senate agreed. The proposal was, however, rejected by the citizens. 890 (July 18). Battle of the AHia, a brook, which falls into the Tiber eleven miles north of Kome. Utter defeat and rout of the Komans on the right bank of the Tiber, whereby the city was left defenceless. Abandoned by the citizens (the Mons Capitolinus alone contin- ued to be occupied), Rome was taken, plundered, and burnt by the Gauls under their Brennus, 1. e. military ruler. Slaughter of the senators. Unsuccessful attempt to surprise the Capitol. The geese of Juno. M. Manlius Capitolinus. After a seven months' siege of the fortress, the withdrawal of the Gauls was purchased with gold. Legend (a later invention) of an expul- sion of the enemy by a victory of Camillus, who surprised the haughty Brennus (Vce victis .') in the forum, while the gold was being weighed (!). Return of the inhabitants. The plan of emigrating to Veil broken up by Camillus. Hasty, but irregu- lar, reconstruction of the city, which soon regained its old power, after the jEgui, the Volscians, and the Etruscans, who had taken up arms again, had been defeated by Camillus. Equalization of the old orders. Origin of the new nobility. Recommencement of the civil contests against the patricians: 1, by the plebeian aristocracy to get admission to the consulate; 2, by the poor, indebted plebeians to obtain a reform of the laws of debtor and creditor, and a share of the public lands. The exertions of those tribunes who were friendly to the poorer classes were often neutral- ized by the opposition of their colleagues who represented the inter- ests of the plebeian aristocracy. The patrician M. Manlius Capi- tolinus, who had released plebeian debtors at his own expense, was accused of aiming at royal power, declared guilty of high treason, and thrown from the Tarpeian rock (384). A compromise was finally agreed upon between the plebeian aristocracy and the plebeian com- mons, whose results were seen in the 376. Laws proposed by C. Licinius and Lucius Seztius, trib- unes of the people (rogationes Licinim). The first two were designed to secure the poorer classes a material alleviation; the third to give the plebeian aristocracy the long-wished-foi equality with the patricians. B. c. Roman History. 101 I. Relief of the debtors by the deduction of interest already paid from the principal; the rest to be paid within three years in three installments (ut, deducto eo de capita quod usuris pemumeratum esset, id quod superesset triennio mquis portionibus persolveretur). II. No one should possess more than 500 jugera of the public leuids (ne quis plus quam quingenta jugera agri publici^ possideref). HI. Abolition of the tribuni militum consulari potestate. One, at least, of the two consuls must be chosen from the plebeians (ne tribunorum militum comitia Jierent consulumque utique alter ex plebe erea- retur). . After a long contest, and after the appointment of Camillus to the dictatorship had failed to accomplish anything, 367. The Iiiciuian laws Tvere passed. 366. L. Sextius Lateranus, colleague of the tribune Licinius, first plebeian consul. At the same time one of the three great colleges of priests (decemviri [formerly diwviri] sacris fadundis) was opened to the plebeiaus. In order to retain at least the administration of the judicial de- partment in the hands of their order, the patricians procured the establishment of a new patrician magistracy, the preetorshlp. The praetor (since 243, one praetor urbanus, and one prsetor inter cives et peregrinos; since 227. fourj since 197, six prfetors) had the jurisdiction (dare se. judicium, dicere, sc. seiitentiara, addicere, sc. rem), and was the vicegerent of the consuls during their absence. At the same time a new cedile was appointed, called, to distinguisli him from the plebeian officer of that name, the curule aedile ; this office was, however, soon (probably since 364; certainly since 30 1) made accessible to the ple- beians, and patrician and plebeian curule fediles were elected for alternate years. The duties of the two sediles curules were: 1. to manage the ludi Romani; 2. to supervise the markets and the street- police, and to preside in the police cooirts connected therewith. Although after the passage of the Licinian laws the patricians contin- ued their opposition to the political equalization of the orders, and even succeeded several times in electing two patrician consuls in open violation of the third Licinian law, aU public offices were, neverthe- less, opened to all Roman citizens, in rapid succession: the dictatorship 356 (the office of magister equitum before the adoption of the Lici- nian laws 368), the censorship actually 351, legally 338, the pr(Btorship 337, the colleges of pontifices and augures (the number of members in each being increased to nine) 300, by the lex Ogulnia. The patrician order thereupon ceased to exist as a legally privileged caste, and con- tinued only as a social order or rank, A new nobility (optimates, nobiles) was gradually developed in political life, composed of those patrician and plebeian families which had for the longest time retained possession of the chief public offices (summi honores). These families regarded every citizen who obtained office, but did not belong to theii' set, as an upstart (homo novus). The 1 The woripublici is lacking in the text of Livius (VF. 35). But it is cleat that the law could have referred to public land on'iy. Cf. Niebuhr, Hist, oj Borne III. 11; and Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. 304 foil. 102 Ancient History. b. c. new nobility could not, however, separate itself so sharply from the common people as the patrician order had done, but increased its ranks constantly from the most promising portion of the lower classes. Through the equalization of the plebeian aristocracy with the pa- tricians, the office of tribune, which was generally in the hands of the most distinguished plebeian families, lost, for a time at least, its revolutionary and anarchic character. The tribunes of the people soon obtained not only seats and votes in the senate, but also the right to convene it. Growing importance of the senate, which from this time on was the principal executive body governing the state. Since the establishment of the republic the senators had represented both orders (p. 94). They acquired their membership neither by the accident of birth, nor by the direct choice of the people. The censors (p. 99) filled vacancies in the senate principally from-the numbers of those citizens which had occupied the office of qusestor (p. 99) or a higher office. Their age was at least 30 years ; prob- ably a property qualification was soon required. Being appointed for life, but subjected every four (5) years to a new lectio of the censors, who could expel unworthy members, the Roman senators were independent of a fickle public opinion. To the wise and ener- getic conduct of the senate Rome chiefly owed the great growth of her power which took place in the near future. As formerly, the cmnitios exercised the rights of sovereignty proper, especially the comitla centurlata and the comitla tributa, in which all citizens, patricians and plebeians alike, were included (p. 96), while the right of approval vested in the patrician comitia curiata (or the narrower patrician senate, p. 94) became an empty form. Here belong tvro of the three Iscwa of the plebeian dictator, Pub- lilius Fhilo (leges PublilicB), of the j'car 338 : 1. A vote of the comitia tributa shall have the force of law without having been ap- proved by the comitia curiata (ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent). 2. Laws presented to the centuries shall be approved beforehand (ut legum, qurn comitiis centuriatis ferrentur, patres ante initum suffragium auctores fierent). 3. One censor must be a plebeian (ut alter ubique ex plebe censor crearetur). The same Publilius PhUo became the first plebeian praetor in 337. In the year 312 the censor Appiiis' Claudius included the inhab- itants of Rome who were not freeholders in the tribes which they pre- ferred, and in the centuries according to their property. This far- reaching and actually revolutionary change in the comitia centuriata and tributa was altered in a conservative sense by the censor Q. Fa- bius Rullianus (Maximus') in the year 304. As regards the comitia tributa, those freemen who were not freeholders, and those freed- men (libertini) whose property in land was valued at less than 30,000 sestertes (about $1500^, were divided among the four city wards (tribus urbance), which now became the last in rank instead of the first. The country wards (tribus rusticm), the number of which had by the year 241 risen from 17 to 31 (making the whole number of the tribes 35, p. 96), were reserved for freemen who were freeholders, and for freedmen having larger landed properties. In the comitia B. C. Roman History. 103 centuriata, where the wealthy members had already acquired many privileges, equality of the freemen who were and those who were not freeholders was secured ; but the freedmen, with excep- tion of those of the first two classes, were entirely shut out from the centuries.! The Licinian laws had naturally only ameliorated, not radically cured, the desperate condition of the poor and indebted plebeians. The law of the consul Poetelius (lex Pcetelia), passed in 326 or 313, secured to every insolvent debtor who should transfer his prop- erty to the creditor his personal freedom (ne quis ceris alieni causa nectatur, utique bona tantummodo obnoxia sint). By these and other ameliorations, and by the ever-increasing foundation of colonies of citizens and division of public lands among the poor, in consequence of successful wars, the social question was for a short time forced into the background. At this time occurred the alteration in the Servian constitution of the army.^ Division of the new legion into 30 maniples, each con- taining 3 centuries. Arrangement in order of battle in three lines (hastati, principes, triarii). The assignment of arms according to property olassiJScation was abolished. Long lances (hasta) were re- served for the third line, the first and second line receiving in their stead the pilum, a short spear, adapted both for thrusting and hurl- ing. A short cut and thrust sword was used by all. 367-349. Four wars with the Gauls who had permanently settled in upper Italy (henceforward known as Gallia Cisalpina), and thence made frequent inroads into central Italy. In the Jirst war single combat between T. Manlius Torquatus and a gi- gantic Gaul ; in the second, the first triumph of a plebeian consul. The fourth war was ended by a great defeat inflicted upon the Gra.uls in the Pomptine region by the consul M. Fu- rius Camillus, the younger. Single combat of M. Valerius Corvus with a Gavd. 362. Story of a chasm opened in the forum closed by the sacrifice of M. Curtius. 362-358. War with the Hernici and the revolted Latin cities (especially Tibur), ending in the renewal of the old league between Rome on the one part and the Latins and Hernici on the other; whereby both people were more strictly subjected to the Romans than before. 358-351. Wars with the Etruscan cities Tarquinii, Caere, and Federii (victory of C. Marcius Rutilius, the first plebeian dicta- tor, 356), which led to the reduction of the whole of south- ern Etruria under Roman supremacy. 348. (First ?) treaty of commerce between Rome and Carthage,' the text of which has been preserved by Polybius (III. 22). 350-345. War with the Volscii, who were defeated in 346 at Satri- cum, and the Aurunci. The power of both peoples was com- pletely broken. The Roman legions forced their way south- 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book II. chap. 3. a Mommsen, Hist, oj Some, Book II. chap. 8, and Peter, 1.8 222 foil. 3 See v>. 93, note 1. 104 Ancient History. b. c. ward without stay. This great development of Bonie's power brought about the 343-266. wars with the Samnites, the other Italians, and the Greek cities of Italy. Result : Subjugation of all Italy to the Rubicon and Macra, undei the supremacy of Home. 343-341. First war with the Samnites. Cause : The Sidici in Teanum and the Campanians in Capua, both Samnite tribes who had emigrated from their home, asked aid of the Romans against their relatives, the Samnites of the mountains, who had formed a confederacy in Samnium proper, whence they con- tinually ravaged the plain (Campania), with new swarms. According to the Roman tradition,^ their armies gained three vic- tories in Campania over the Samnites : victory of M. Valerius Cor- vus on Mount Gaurus (near Cumse) ; victory of A. Cornelius Cossus, after his army had been rescued by P. Decius Mus, a military trib- une ; finally, victory of both Roman armies at Suessula. The war was ended by a' treaty, whereby Rome received Capua, the Samnites Teanum. The Samnites were induced to conclude this treaty by a war with Tarentum, the Romans by the 340-338. Great Latin War. The Latins rebelled against the hegemony of Rome and demanded complete equality with the Romans. One consul and half the senate were to be Latins. Capua (in spite of the opposition of the optimates) and the Volscii were allied with the Latins. Victory of the (Roman and Samnite ?) armies over the Latins and Campanians in the neighborhood of Vesuvius under the consul T. Manlius Imperiosus. Execution of the young son of the consul, who against his father's command had fought with the Latin commander and defeated him. P. Decius Mus sacrificed his life for the safety of his army. Decisive battle at Trifanum (between Mintumoe and Suessa) ; victory of the consul Manlius over the Latins and Campa^ nians. Dissolution of the Latin League, which became a mere relig- ious association for the celebration of festivals. Isolation of the Latin cities from one another. Commercium and connuhium between them were prohibited. Most of the cities received Roman citizen- ship without suffrage, i. e. they became subjects. Several were obliged to cede land, which was divided among Roman citizens ; others were converted into Roman colonies (p. 109), e. g. Antium. The orator's stand in the /ontra Rcmumum was ornamented with the bows of the old ships of this city (hence rostra). The Roman power in the territories of the Volscii and in Campania was strengthened by the settlement of colonies of Roman citizens. Capua and other cities became dependent Roman communities (p. 109). 1 Livius, VII. 29 foil. See this tradition criticised by Mommsen, Hia. (S Borne, I. 365, note. B. c. Soman History. 103 326-304. Second wax with the Samnites and the other Italians. Cause : Encroachments of the Romans on the Liris, especially the transformation of Fregellce into a Roman colony, and the capture of Palmopolis (tvrin city of Neopolis), by Q. Publilius Philo, the first pro-consul. Alliance of the Romans with the Apuliam and Lucanians and, in the course of the war, with the Sabellian cities south of the Volturnus (N^ola, Nuceria, Herculaneum, Pompeii), who at first sided with the Samnites. The Romans had the advantage in the first years of the war, and crossed Samnium to Apulia, plunderir^g as they went ; but in 321 the consuls Sp. Postumitis and T. Veturius, hastening from Campania to the assistance of the Apulian city Luceria, were surrounded by the Samnites under Gavius Pontius in the Caudine Pass (furculcB Caudince), near the present Arpaia, and compelled to capitulate, swear to a treaty of peace, and give 600 Roman equites as hostages. The whole Roman array w^as sent under the yoke. The Roman senate refused to approve the treaty, and delivered the consuls to the Samnites, who refused to receive them. The Samnites conquered Luceria in Apulia and Fregellm on the Liris. By desperate exertions the Romans got the upper hand again. In 319 the Roman consul L. Papirius Cursor reconquered Luceria, released the Roman hostages, and sent the Samnite garrison under the yoke. The war went on during the succeeding years with chang- ing fortune ; nevertheless, the Romans subdued their revolted allies and subjects, and punished the leaders in the revolt with death. They defeated the Samnites at Capua, drove them out of Campania com- pletely, and reconquered Fregellce. Settlement of new colonies (p. 109). Construction of a great military road from Rome to Capua, through the Fomptine marshes, the Via Appia, part of which stiU remains. (Begun under the censor Appius Claudius, 312). After 312, when the 40 years' peace with the Etruscans expired, the Etruscan cities took part in the war against Rome. Soon the whole of Etruria, which was still independent, was in arms against the destroyer of Italian liberty. Siege of the Roman border fortress, Sutrium. The victorious advance of the consul Q. Fahius Rullianus through the Ciminian forest, and his victory at the Vadimonian lake (310) caused the powerful cities of Perusia, Cortona, Arreiium, to withdraw from the coalition against Rome, and effected after 308 a provisional truce throughout Etruria. The Umbrians, Pi- centini, Marsians, Frentanians, Pcdignians, who had joined the Ital- ian coalition, continued the war, and were ultimately joined by the Hemicans. The fortune of war for a short time favored the Sam- nites and their allies, but the Romans soon acquired a decided ascen- dency. L. Papirius Cursor defeated the Sanmites in a great battle (309). Nuceria, the last Campanian town in alliance with the Sam- nites, was attacked by the Romans by land and sea, and forced to surrender. First appearance of a Roman vrar fleet. The con- sul L. Postumius invaded Samnium from the Adriatic Sea ; another 106 Ancient History. B. C. Roman army advanced from Campania. A decisive victory of the Romans and the capture of Bovianum (305), the capital of the Samnite league, ended the war. The Samnites begged for peace, and with their Sabellian allies obtained a renewal of the old treaties and equality with Rome. Foundation of numerous Roman colonies and several military roads ; the Hemican league was dissolved ; the Volscians and ^quians were obliged to receive Roman citizenship without suffrage. Construction of two great military roads from Rome : the northern (later called Via Flaminia) extended to Namia (Nequinum) ; the southern (later Via Valeria) extended by way of Carsioli to Alba Fucentia (i. e. on lake Fucinus), the key to the territory of the Marsi. 298-290. Third war against the Samnites and the other Italians. Cause: The Samnites succeeded in bringing men of their party into ' power throughout Lucania, and concluded a league with the Lucanians in order to risk a final struggle for the independence of Italy. New I'ising among the Etruscans. The consul L. Cornelius Scipio (whose sarcophagus, with an old Latin inscription,^ discovered in 1780, is still to be seen in the Vati- can Museum) forced the Lueanians to abjure their alliance with Sam- nium. 297, victory of Rullianus at Tifernum; victory of P. Defiius Mus at Maluentum. In 296 the desperate exertions of the Samnites en- abled them to place three armies in the field : one to defend their own country, one for Campania, while the third was conducted by its commander Gellius Egnatius through the Marsian and Umbrian lands to Etruria. This prevented the Etruscans from concluding the peace which they had negotiated with Rome and conjured up the old coali- tion of the Italians, which was now joined by Gallic tribes. Great prep- parations in Rome. The consuls Q. Fabius Rullianus and P. Decius Mus advanced to Umbria with 60,000 men, where in 295 the deci- sive battle of Sentinum was fought, and by the devotion of P. De- cius Mus (Livius, X. 28) after a long contest ended in favor of the Romans. Dissolution of the army of the coalition, the Gauls scat- tered, the Samnites returned to Samnium, the Umbrians submitted, the Etruscans asked for peace in tlie next year (294). The war lasted in Samnium four years longer with varying fortune. In 293 the Sam- nites suffered a severe defeat at Aquilonia from L. Papirius Cursor and Spurius Carvilius. In 292 the Samnites gained their last victory under the command of Gavius Pontius the younger. Finally the Sanmites concluded peace with the consul M'. Curius Dentatus, as it seems, without ceding territory ; but the Romana 1 This inscription, whioli it is conjectured from linguistic reasons, was en- graved some time after tlie death of Scipio, was : — CoTTieliils Lucius Bcipid Barbdtus Gnaivdd pntre prognaius fdrtis vir sapiensque guoi&sf&rma virtutei pmHsuma ( parisRima)yuii co'nsdl censdf aidills queifuit apud vos Taurdsid Cisauna Sdmnio cepit subigit omne Loucdnam opddesque abdoucii. B. c. Roman History. 107 thereby gained a chance to strengthen their power in the rest of Italy. This was accomplished by the foundation of new colonies which should serve as checks on the Italians, especially Mintumos and iSJ»i- uessa in the territory of the Aurunoans, Hatria in Pioenum, Venusia in Apulia. The Sabines were obliged to become subject to Rome, after a short and feeble resistance. At this time, after the Samnite wars, the 286 (?). Hortensian la-w (lex Hortensia) was passed. Thereby it was settled that all decrees of the comitia tributa Bhould be binding on all citizens. This was accomplished by the dictator Hortensius after a dangerous uprising of the plebeians, who had been unable to come to terms with the opposite party in regard to a reduction of debts, and had withdrawn to the Janictdus (last secessio plehis). About this time questions of peace and alliance began to be submitted to the comitia tri- buta. By the lez Maenia the second FublUian law (that the curiae, or the narrow patrician senate, should assent beforehand to the resolves, see p. 102) was extended to the elections which took place in the comitia centuriata. Nevertheless, the real importance of the public assemblies was declining ; they became more and more instruments in the hands of the presiding officers. After a short truce in Italy, in consequence of the peace with the Samnites, there broke out a 285-282. war between Rome and a new Italian coalition. Cause : The inhabitants of Thurii being attacked by the Lucanians and Bruttians, sought help from the Romans. Alliance of the Lucan- ians and Bruttians with the Etruscans, Unibrians, and Gauls of north- em Italy. The annihilation of a Roman army at Arretiwm by Senonian mercenaries of the Etruscans was terribly avenged by the Romans. The Grallic tribe of the Senones was in part slaughtered, in part driven from its home in Umbria. A victory of the Romans over the north Italians and their Gallic allies by Lake Vadimonium (283), and another at Fopulonia (282), inclined the Gauls to peace. After a victory of the consul C Fabricius over the Lucanians at Thurii the non-Dorian Greek cities joined the Romans. Loeri, Croton, and Thurii received Roman garrisons. This advance of the Romans led to the 282-272. War with Tarentum. Special cause: Old treaties with Tarentum prohibited Roman ships of war from passing the promontory of Lacinium. A Roman war fleet on its way to the Umbriaa coast anchored in the harbor of Tarentum. The people, incited by demagogues in the assembly, at- tacked the vessels, and captured five, whose crews were either put to death or sold into slavery. A Roman embassy which demanded rep- aration in Tarentum was insulted. A Roman army advanced into the Tarentine territory. The Taren- tines called to their assistance Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, a renowned general and leader of mercenaries, who had long meditated the plan of conquering for himself and the Hellenic nation a new empire in the 108 Ancient History. b.- c. west. Pyrrhus at first sent Milan with 3000 Epirotes to Tarentum (281) ; he himself landed in Italy, the following year, with an army of 25,000 men {Epirotes, Macedonians, Greeks, etc.) and twenty ele- phants. The war between Pyrrhus and the Romans was a contest of an army of mercenaries against militia, of a military monarchy against the government of a senate. Strict discipline maintained by the king in Tarentum ; the theatres were closed, the death penalty imposed on evasion of military service. Great preparations at Rome ; even the proletarii, generally free from military service, were enrolled. One Roman army was sent to Etruria, the main army to lower Italy. In the 280. Battle of Heraclea, near the Siris, the Romans were defeated, after a struggle whose result was long doubtful, by the phalanx and the elephants. Great losses of Pyrrhus. The Bruttians, Lucanians, and Samnites joined the king. The offer of peace made by Pyrrhus to the Romans through Cineas was haughtily rejected by the senate. Speech of the blind consular Ap- pius Claudius. Pyrrhus advanced as far as Anagnia in Campania, but there halted and returned to lower Italy, as two Roman armies took the field against him, and the allies of the Romans remained faithful. Roman embassy (C. Pabricius) sent to Pyrrhus to treat for an ex- change of prisoners. In the following year the two armies, ea<;h numbering with the allied troops 70,000 men, met in the bloody 279. Battle of A(u)sculum, in Apulia, which lasted two days, and in which Pyrrhus was victor, but again suffered enormous loss. The Syracusans, who, since the death of Agathocles (289, p. 20), «had been hard pressed by the Carthaginians, called for aid upon Pyrrhus, who gladly gave heed to the request, but left a garrison in Tarentum. Offensive and defensive alliance of Rome and Car- thage (279) ; a Carthaginian fleet appeared off the coESt of Italy, but soon returned to Sicily. The Roman's conduct of the war in Italy was at first feeble, owing to their great losses, but they soon captured all the cities on the south coast excepting Tarentum and Rhegium. After two years' absence (p. 20), Pyrrhus again landed in Italy. He started to assist the Samnites, who were hard pressed by the Romans, but was completely defeated in the 275. Battle of Beneventum. 1300 prisoners and 4 elephants fell into the hands of the victors. Despairing of success against Rome, Pyrrhus re- turned to Epirus, leaving a garrison in Tarentum. Not until after the death of Pyrrhus, which took place in 272 at Argos, did Milan surrender the city and fortress of Tarentum to the Romans, on condition of free departure. The Taren- tines were obliged to deliver up their arms and ships, and destroy their walls, but retained their own municipal admin- istration. After the fall of Tarentum, subjugation of the Lucanians, Satri' nites, and Bruttians. All were compelled to cede portions of their ter- ritories and to receive colonies (see below). In 270 capture of Rhe- B. c. Soman History. 109 gium, which had been for ten years in the hands of Campanian muti- neers, who were now punished with death. In 268 the Picentini were defeated and a large number of them transferred to Campania. The subjugation of Italy to the Rubicon and Macra was completed by the defeat of the Sallentini in Calabria, 266. As regards the relation of the conquered towns to Home we must distinguish: I. Municipal cities (munidpia), i. e. communities having Koman citizenship without suffrage and with no claim to a public office at Rome (sine suffragio etjure honorum). They had the burdens but not the privileges of Roman citizens. Some places were permitted to keep the administration of their municipal affairs under officials of their own choosing ; in others the municipal constitution was entirely abolished. II. Colonies (colonics), i. e. Roman strongholds and fortresses. Many conquered towns had to cede a part of their land, which was then divided among poor Roman citizens, who retained all their rights of citizenship, and thenceforward formed the ruling class in the col- onies, like the patricians, while the old population was reduced to inhabitants having no political rights. The Latin colonies are to be dis- tinguished from the Roman colonies; the former owed their establish- ment to the Latin League, but had been further developed after its dissolution, in that the senate distributed lands among Latin or Roman citizens, who renounced their ^lis suffragiiet honorum. In the municipalities, as in the colonies, the jurisdiction was in the hands of a prefect (prcefectus iuri dicundo) appointed by the prcetor urbanus (p. 101). III. Allies (socii, civitates fcederatm), whose relation to Rome was regulated by treaty, who had for the most part their own administra- tion and jurisdiction, and were freed from service in the legion, but were obliged to furnish auxiliary troops or ships. THIRD PERIOD. Funic TVars. From the Beginning of Rome's universal Em- pire, to the Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. (264-146). 264-241- First Punic War. Contest over Sicily. For the earlier history of the Punic people (Carthaginians) see p. 16, etc. Cause of the war: The ill-feeling which had long existed between Rome, the first land power, and Carthage, the first sea power, of the west, and which had only been waived for a moment during the at- tack of Pyrrhus, who represented the Hellenic states which were hostile to both powers (pp. 76 and 108). Since 311 the Romans had endeavored to form a fleet of war. About this time establishment at Rome of two commanders of the fleet (duumviri navales), later (267) of 4 quaestors of the fleet (quoestores classici). Special cause : The Mamertines, i. e. men of Mars, formerly Campanian mercenaries in the pay of Agathooles (p. 20), had seized the city of Messana and put the male population to death. They were ilO Ancient History. B. c. besieged by king Hkto II. of Syracuse. Part of their number sought aid from the Carthaginians, another part from the Romans. The Roman senate hesitated ; the assemblies resolved to grant the assist- ance asked (265). A Roman fleet, consisting principally of the sliips of the south Italian allies, and the advance guard of the army, arrived in Rhegiimi. Meanwhile the Mamertines had admitted Carthagin- ian ships to the harbor and received a Carthaginian garrison in the citadel. The Roman advance guard crossed the strait, occupied Mes- sana, and drove the garrison from the citadel. The Carthaginians declared war. 264. A Carthaginian fleet besieged the Romans in Messana. The consul Appius Claudius Caudex crossed the strait with the main body of the army and relieved Messana. Unsuccessful attempt to take Syracuse. The consul returned to Italy, leaving a garrison in Messana. 263. Two Roman armies crossed to Sicily. Victory of the consul M. Valerius Maximus, called Messalla, over the Carthaginians and Syracusans. Hiero, king of Syracuse, deserted the Carthar- ginians and joined the Romans, who advanced to the south coast of Sicily. 262. Agrigentum captured by the Romans after defeat of a Carthaginian army under Hanno, advancjng to its relief. The Romans resolved to construct a large fleet. They built the first five-decker^ (^penteris^ after the model of a stranded Carthaginian ship. 260. First naval expedition of the Romans against Lipara, with 17 sliips, had an unfortunate end, the whole squadron with the consul Cn. Cornelius Scipio being captured by the Carthagin- ians. Immediately afterwards, however, 260. First naval victory of the Romans under C. Duiliue at Mylse, west of Messana. Boarding bridges. Special hon- ors paid to Duilius. Columna rostrata in the Forum. The war was continued in the following years with changing fortune ; the Carthaginians under Hamilcar maintained themselves in the western portion of the island. 257. Drawn battle at sea, off the promontory of Tyndaris. The Roman senate decided to attempt a landing in Africa. A fleet of 330 ships under the consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Man- lius Volso sailed for the southern coast of Sicily, where, at the mouth of the Himera, the troops were taken on board. A Carthaginian fleet of 350 vessels attempted to stop the expedition, but in the great 256. Ncval battle of Ecnomus (south coast of Sicily) it was completely defeated. What was left of the Carthagin- ian fleet took up position before Carthage to protect the city. The Roman consuls landed to the east of the city at Clwpea and laid waste the Carthaginian territory. Maulius returned to Italy with half the army, Regulus remained with 15,000 men. The Carthaginians being defeated sued for peace. Regulus demanded the cession of Sicily and Sardinia, surrender of prisoners and all vessels of war except one, 1 Not the first ship of war ; the Romans had long had vessels of war and three-deokers, see pp. 105, 107, lO'J. B. C. Roman History. IH and acknowledgment of Rome's supremacy. Stung by these inso- lent demands, the Carthaginians resolved upon most energetic prepa- rations, and levied troops in Greece, whence numerous bands of mer- cenaries, and among them the Spartan Xanthippus, went to Africa. The Carthaginian army beiag thus greatly strengthened (the ele- phants numbered 100), 255. Regulus was defeated at Tunes and captured. A part of the Koman army escaped to Clupea. The senate at once sent a fleet to Africa, which, after gaining a naval victory over the Carthaginians at the promontory of Hermes, took on board the Roman army, which was surroxmded at Clupea ; but on the return voyage three fourths of the ships were lost in a storm. The Carthaginians reopened the war in Sicily, landing in Lilybaeum under Hasd- ubcd, son of Hauno. The Romans built a new fleet. 254. Capture of Fanormus by the Romans. In the following year (253) the Roman fleet crossed to Africa and laid waste the coast. On the return voyage from Sicily to Italy it was almost annihilated by a storm. The Roman senate declined to continue the naval warfare. On land the Romans gained the 251. Victory of Panonnus over Hasdrubal under the consul Caecilius Metellus, who at his triumph in Rome exhibited over 100 elephants. The story of the embassy of Regulus to Rome falls in the period subsequent to this victory. It is, like the story of the cruelties inflicted upon hJT" by the Carthaginians, probably an invention oi a later time. The Romans renewed the naval war. They besieged LUybmum in vain. The consul P. Claudius Pulcher in the 249. Sea-fight at Drepanum defeated by the Carthaginians. Capture of a great number of Roman ships. After two more Roman fleets had been destroyed by storms on the south coast of Sicily, the Romans, for the second tune, abandoned naval warfare. 248-242. Campaign by land on the south side of Sicily. The Car- thaginian general Hamilcar, called Barak or Baicas (i. e. lightning) not only defended himself for 6 years successfully against the Romans, first on Mt. Eircte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), then on Bryx, but also annoyed the Italian coasts by privateers. Through the contributions of rich patriots at Rome, a new fleet was finally built entirely at private cost. With this fleet the consul C. Lutatiua Catulus won the decisive 241. Victory at the .ffigatian lalands (opposite LilybsBum), over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno. Peace: I. The Carthaginians gave up aU claims to Sicily. II. They paid 3200 talents ($4,000,000) war indemnity in ten years. The larger western part of Sicily became the first Roman prov- ince ; the smaller eastern i part continued mider the supremacy of Syracuse, which was allied with Rome. 1 The territory of Syracuse, Acrts, Leontini, Meg&ra. Hdorum, Netum, Tauromenium. Comp. Marquardt-Mommsen, R&m. Auk., IV. 91. 112 Ancient History. B. c. 24] (?). In this period, probably, occurred the democratic reform of the constitution of the centuries, conceming the de- tails of which but little is known with certainty. Only this is clear : that the right of first vote was taien from the centuries of equites and that henceforward the century which should cast the first vote (centuria prcerogadva) was determined by lot. It is probable that the centuries from now on formed a subdivision of the wards (tribus'). It is further probable that the number of centuries was increased; per- haps an equal number of centuries (i. e. voting bodies) was estab- lished for each class (p. 92), and in this maimer the preponderance of the first class was abolished.-^ 238. The Romans made use of an insurrection of the mercenaries and Libyan subjects against Carthage to extort from the Car- thaginians the cession of Sardinia. This island was at a later time united with the island of Corsica (formerly Etruscan, afterwards conquered by the Romans) to form one province. For the present the Romans were satisfied with the occupation of the coasts. 229-228. "Wax ■with the Illyrians of Scodra, brought about by the piracies and acts of violence committed by these tribes, and their refusal to make the reparation demanded by the senate. A Roman fleet of 200 ships soon brought the Illyrian pirates to terms, and compelled the queen Teuta, the guardian of her son, to accept the following conditions : release of all Grecian cities from her sway, abandonment of piracy, limitation of navigation, and payment of a tribute. The Greeks attested their gfratitude to the senate by admit- ting all Romans to the Isthmian games and the Eleusinian mysteries (p. 44). The lasting result of the war was the firm establishment of Roman superiority in the Adriatic Sea and supremacy over Corcyra, Apollonia, Epidamnus, and some neighboring tribes. In 219 the re- newal of the war led to the subjugation of a part of Illyria by L. JEmilius Paidlus. 225-222. Subjugation of Cisalpine Gaul brought about by a dangerous invasion of the Gallic tribes inhabiting the plains of the Po (except the Cenomani) joined by numerous bands of transalpine Gauls. The Celts entered Etruria 70,000 strong and advanced upon Rome. The Romans sent two consular armies against them, which were reinforced by a third. Surrounded by these forces the Gauls were defeated and annihilated in the 225. Battle of Telamon, south of the mouth of the Umbro. The consul C. AtUim Regulus fell, 10,000 Gauls and one of their military leaders were captured, nearly all the rest fell or killed themselves. The Romans entered Gallia Cispadana, and the inhabitants, the Bern, submitted. The Romans crossed the Po, with severe losses (223), and defeated the Insubres. After two more victories in the following year (222) the consul Cn. Scipio captured Mediolanum, the capital of the In- subres, and Comum. To strengthen their power the Romans founded the fortresses of Placentia, Cremona, and Mutina. The military 1 Beoker, Rom. AlteHh. II.8, p. 9, foil. B. c. Soman History. 113 road to Spolelium was extended across the Apennines to the Adri- atic Sea, and along the coast to Ariminum (ViaFlaminia). Further measures for the flrmer establishment of their power in Cisalpine Gaul were interrupted by the 218-201. Second Ptinio War.i Causes : Envy of the Romans, excited by the new prosperity of Carthage, springing from her recent acquisitions iu Spain, and the eUorts of the party of the Barcse to take revenge on Rome. Special causes : The conquests of Hamilceu: Barcas in south- ern and western Spain (236-228) being successfully pursued after his death by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, the Romans concluded a treaty with the Grecian cities Zacynthus or Saguntum, north of Valencia, and Emporice, now Ampurias, at the foot of the Pyrenees, and com- pelled the Carthaginians to promise to neither attack these cities nor cross the Ebro with the purpose of making further conquests. After the miu'der of Hasdrubal (221) the army chose the son of Hanulcar Barcas, Hannibal, then 28 years old, for their general. In order to make war unavoidable even against the will of the Carthaginian government, Hannibal conquered and destroyed Sagvn- tum (219) after a brave resistance of the inhabitants for eight months. A refusal to deliver up Hannibal as demanded by a Roman embassy in Carthage was followed by a declaration of war on the part of the Romans. , The plan of the Romans to land their main army in Africa, while a second army shoidd engage the Carthaginian troops in Spain, was thwarted by 218. Hannibal's daring expedition to Italy by land.'' Leaving a sufficient number of troops in Spain, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees with 60,000 foot, 9000 horse, and 37 elephants, traversed Gaul not far from the coast by way of Narbo (Narbonne) and Nemausus (Nimes). The Roman consul P. Cor- nelius Scipio, who had stopped at Massilia on the voyage to Spain, heard of Hannibal's march, but his attempt to prevent the Cartha- ginians from crossing the Rhodanus (Rhone) with a division of his army came too late ; the Carthaginian army had already passed the river above j4 uenio (Avignon). Cavalry skirmish. The Roman consul sent his brother Cn. Scipio with the main part of the army to Spain, while he himself returned with a small force to northern Italy (Pisce). Hannibal marched up the Rh6ne to Vienna, then turned eastward through the territory of the Allobroges and Centrones, where he forced a way with great loss, crossed the Alps, still fighting, by the pass of the Little St. Bernard, and after indescribable exertions and severe losses reached the valley of the Dora Baltea with about 26,000 men and a few elephants. In upper Italy a small Roman army was engaged with the revolted Gauls. Hannibal defeated the consul Scipio, who had gone on before with the .cavalry and light- armed foot soldiers, in the 1 Also called the Hannibalic War (Bellmm ffaunibnlieumr). 2 See Kiepert, Atlas Ant. Tab. VII. and X. The topographical quea* tions have been settled by the Englishmen WicHhaim and (Sramtr, 8 114 Ancient History. b. c. 218. Cavalry engagement on the Ticinus, a northern branch of Sept. the Po. The wounded consul was rescued by his seventeen- years-old son, the future "Africanus." Reinforced by the Gauls, Hannibal defeated in the 218. Battle of the Trebia, a southern branch of the Po, the other Deo. consul, Tib. Sempronius Longus, who had been hastily recalled from Sicily before the commencement of his African expedi- tion, and now commanded the united Roman armies ; the remnant of the Roman force threw itself into the fortresses Placentia and Cremona. In northern Italy Hannibal organized the national insurrection of the Cisalpine Gauls ; over 60,000 joined his army. In Rome two new consular armies were placed in the field for the next campaign. One under Cn. Servilius took the Via Flamiuia to Ariminum in Um- bria, the other under C. Flaminius the Via Cassia to Arretium in Etruria, to meet a possible attack by the Carthaginians. After Han- nibal had released without ransom all prisoners belonging to the Roman allies, and by their influence had incited all Italy to desert Rome, he crossed the Apennines, and marched, unexpectedly to the Romans, through- the swampy rerious about the Amo. Severe losses. Hannibal himself lost an eye. By this march he flanked the Roman defensive position. The consul Flaminius followed him in all haste, and allowed himself to be decoyed by Hannibal into a narrow pass. In the 217. Battle of Lake Trasimene, between Cortona and Perusia, the Roman army was partly slaughtered, partly made pris- oner (in all 30,000 men). Terror at Rome. Preparations for the defence of the city, destruction of the bridges over the Tiber. Ap- pointment of Q. Fabius Mazimus as dictator. Hannibal, how- ever, did not march upon Rome, but passed the fortress of Spoletiwm after an imsuecessful attempt to surprise it, traversed Umbria across the Apennines to Picenwm and the Adriatic Sea. There he rested his army, reorganized it after the Italian system, and established com- munication with Carthage by sea. Then he advanced southward. His hope that the Sabellian tribes would join him was not ful- filled ; most of the cities closed their gates upon him. After the dictator Q. Fabius Maximus had united his 2 new legions with the army of Ariminum, he followed, at a discreet distance, the Carthaginian army, which went through Samnium to Apulia, and passed by Luceria to Arpi. Fabius avoided a pitched battle (hence his nickname Cunctator, delayer), but tried successfully to weaken the Carthaginian army by numerous skirmishes. Hannibal crossed the Apennines again, and went through Samnium to Capua, which he tried in vain to seduce from Rome. The dictator followed and obstructed the Carthaginian march on the Voltumus, where Hannibal gained the pass by a stratagem only (Livius, XXII. 16). After he had severely harried the Sabellian tribes, Hannibal returned to Apulia. Meantime the military conduct of Fabius Maximus had so dis- pleased the Roman populace that they entrusted one half the army to the independent command of M. Minudus, master of the horsey B. c. Soman History. 115 who had had a forttmate skirmish with the Carthaginians, as a second dictator^ The new dictator attacked Hannibal, but was defeated, and only saved from complete annihilation by tlie first dictator, Fdbius Maocimus. The consuls for 216 were the veteran general L. iEmilius Panl- lus, elected by the optimates, and the incompetent C. Terentiua Varro, elected by the popular party for the purpose of taking the offensive against Hannibal with an army of 86,000 Romans and allies. On the day when he had the decisive vote in the council of war, Varro imprudently attacked the Carthaginians, who held an advantageous position. The Romans suffered in the 216. Battle of Cannae (in Apulia, on the Aujidus), the most terri- ble defeat they ever experienced ; 70,000 fell (among them more than eighty men of senatorial rank and the consul L. Mmilius PauUus) ; the rest were captured or dispersed. Varro, with a small troop, escaped to Canusium. In the same year the legion which had been sent to Cisalpine Gaul was almost entirely destroyed. The secession of Capua, the Sam- nites, Lucanians, and many cities of lower Italy from the Roman alliance was the immediate consequence of the battle of Cannse. Admirable conduct of the Roman senate. The time of mourning for the families of the fallen was limited to thirty days. Hannibal's ambassadors, who offered to exchange prisoners, were refused entrance to the city. A new army was formed by a levy of the youngest men and all who could bear arms, even slaves; they were armed in part out of the ancient spoils from the temples. M. Claudius Marcel- lus, who had approved himself in the Gallic war, was placed in com- mand of the new army, which joined the remnants of tlie army of Cannse. A second army was conducted by the dictator M. Junius. The Romans successfully defended Naples, Cumm, and Nola. Carthage formed an alliance with Philip V. (III.) of Ma^iedonia, and Hieronymus, the grandson and successor of Hiero, of Syracuse. Hannibal went into winter quarters at Capua. 215. The fortune of war turned in favor of the Romans. Q. Fabius Maximus, Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the consuls, and M. Clau- dius MarceUus, pro-consul, led three Roman armies. In the 21S. Battle of Nola, MarceUus defeated Hannibal, who retired to Apulia. Hannibal was obliged to assume the defensive, since, with the exception of 4000 men, he received no support from Carthage. The dispatch of rein- forcements from Spain was prevented by the successful 218-211. War of the Romans against the Carthaginians in Spain. The Romans, under P. Scipio and Cn. Scipio, defeated Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, on the Iberus (Ebro), crossed this river, and pene- trated the Carthaginian territory as far as the Bceiis (Guadalquivir). There they defeated the Carthaginians in two encounters at Illiturgi 1 Established by an in^icription found in 1862. See Momraaen, BSm. Gesch., I.«, p. 699, note. 116 Ancient History. b. c. tind Intibili, and maintained themselves in southern Spain, until 212, in spite of varying fortune. At the same time they were pressing the Carthaginians in Africa through their ally, Syphax, king of western Numidia. The alliance with Philip of Macedon likewise brought no help to Hannibal. The 214-205. First Macedonian 'war was successfully conducted by the Komans with scanty forces. The irresolute Philip did not dare to fulfil his promise to Hannibal of landing in Italy. In 211 the Komans brought about a league of Ore- dan states against Philip, under the lead of the .Sitolians, which was joined by Illyrian and Thracian chiefs, and even by King Attains of Pergamus. The war was, on the whole, unfavorable to Philip. In 206 peace was concluded between Philip and the Romans, against the wishes of the latter; but it was, nevertheless, accepted by the senate. The alliance with Syracuse proved also of no use to Hannibal, as the 214-210. War in Sicily (Siege of Syracuse) was decided by Marcellus in favor of the Romans. After the destruction of the Carthaginian army of relief under Hamilcar, by defeat and disease in the swampy lowlands of the Anapus, 213. Syracuse was captured and plundered, in spite of a brave resistance (Archimedes). In Italy Hannibal gained possession of Tarentum through treachery (212), and laid siege to the citadel of that city by land and sea. Death of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus in Samnium. Hannibal advanced to Campania and compelled the Romans to raise the siege of Capua, after which he defeated two Roman armies in Lucauia and Apulia, but retired to Tarentum. The Romans again laid siege to Capua. In Spain the war took an unfavorable turn for Rome in tMs same year, 212. Both Sclpios were defeated and killed by the Carthst- ginians and their aUy, Massinissa, son of the king of eastern Nu- midia (king himself in 208). The Romans were driven back over the Ebro. 211. Hannibal attacked the Roman army before Capua. He was repulsed, and in order to force the Romans to raise the siege he marched through Samnium to the territory of the ^qui on the later Via Valeria, past Tibur, across the Anio, directly upon Rome, and encamped a mile from the city (Hannibal ante portas .'). Finding the Romans prepared for defence, he retired, after ravaging the neigh- borhood, to lower Italy, without having gained his end. 211. Capua surrendered to the Romans, who visited a terrible punishment upon the city. Fifty-three citi- zens were beheaded, many sold into slavery ; the community was de- prived of the right of self-government. Hannibal's attack on Rhe- gium and on the citadel of Tarentum having miscarried, his Italian allies abandoned him, and tried to make their peace with the Romans. 210. P. Cornelius Scipio, son and nephew of the brothers who feU in Spain, and now 25 years old, was sent to Spain with procon» •ular powers (Livius. XXVI. 18). B. C. Soman History. 117 In Italy Hannibal gained a victory over the proconsul Cn. Pulvius at Herdonea. In Sicily the Romans captured Agrigentum, slaugh- tering the Carthaginian garrison and selling the populace as slaves, and reduced the whole island under their power. In Spain Scipio crossed the Ebro (209) and conquered New Carthage. 209. M. Marcellus, having been defeated in an encounter with Han- nibal, gained a victory over him in a second battle on the fol- lowing day. Q. Fabius Maximus captured Tarentum ; 30,000 Tarentines were sold as slaves. Hannibal retired to Meta- pontum. 208. Marcellus fell in a cavalry skirmish at Vemisia. Great ex- haustion of Rome and its allies in consequence of the war in its own country, now in its tenth year. In Spain Scipio (208) pressed victoriously southward, but fought a drawn battle at Bcecula with Hasdrubal, and was unable to prevent him from crossing the Pyrenees on his way to his brother Hannibal. Arrived in upper Italy (207), Hasdrubal was successful in inciting the Cisalpine Gauls to arms. Great preparations in Rome (23 legions) to prevent his union with Hannibal, who was advancing to meet him through Lucania and Apulia. The consul M. Livius Salinator was sent against Hasdrubal, the consul C Claudius Nero against Hannibal. Drawn battle at Grumentum in Lucania, between Nero and Hannibal y the latter broke through the enemy, marched to Apulia, and encamped by Canusium. Nero, who had followed him, left a part of the army to watch Hannibal, while with the rest he joined his colleague by means of forced marches. The two consuls defeated Hasdrubal in the bloody 207. Battle of Sena gallica, not far from the river Metaunis. Death of Hasdrubal. On receipt of the news of this defeat (the Romans threw the head of Hasdrubal among the Cartha/- ginian pickets), Hannibal retired to Bruttium. In Spain victory of Scipio at Bcecula over Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo. 206. After completing the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Spain by the capture of Gades (Cadiz), and after concluding a secret alliance with Massinissa, P. Cornelius Scipio returned to Rome. For the following year 205. Scipio was elected consul, and made preparations in Sicily for an African expedition. Mago, the youngest brother of Hannibal, landed at Genoa with the remnants of the Spanish army of the Carthaginians, and called the Ligurians to arms. At once, the Romans levied three armies against him. 204. Scipio landed in Africa. Massinissa, who had been driven from his throne by the Carthaginians, and by Syphax, husband of Hasdrubal's daughter Sophonisbe, now their ally, joined Scipio. 203. Scipio defeated Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, and Syphax by a night attack, and threatened Carthage. Unsuccessful negotiations for peace. The Carthaginians recalled Hannibal and Mago from Italy. The latter died on the passage. Hannibal em- barked at Croton, having previously massacred the Italian sol- diers who refused to accompany him. After fruitless personal negotiations between Scipio and Hannibal the 118 Ancient History. B. C. 202. Decisive battle of Zama was fought, wherein the Carthaginian anny was defeated and annihilated. Hannibal escaped to Hadrumetum. 201. Scipio granted the Carthaginians peace on the following con- ditions : 1. Surrender of their Spanish possessions and of all Mediterranean islands still under their control. 2. Transfer of the kingdom of Syphax to Massinissa. 3. Payment of a yearly tribute of 200 talents ($250,000) ioT fifty years. 4. Surrender and destruc- tion of all ships of war except ten. 6. No war to be undertaken without the permission of Rome. P. Cornelius Scipio, who received the cognomen of Africanus, celebrated his triumph in Rome with a splendor never before witnessed (^Syphax). The Italian allies of Hannibal were in part sentenced to cede large portions of their territory, in part reduced to subjects of Rome, de- prived of their independence and their right to bear arms (peregrini dediticii). Foundation of numerous Roman colonies in Lower Italy. In consequence of another general rising of the Cisalpine Gauls and the Ligurians, 200-191. Upper Italy was again subjugated after a severe strug- gle. Although the peoples of Transpadane Gaul retained their tribal constitutions they soon became, with few exceptions, com- pletely Latinized. This took place still more quickly among the Cis- padane Gauls after the leading tribe, the Boii, had been almost exter- minated in war. Numerous colonies were in part founded, in part reorganized. Via .Similia from Ariminum to Placentia. Spain was regarded as a Roman province after 205. It was divided into : 1. Hispania citerior, later Tarraconensis ; and 2. Hispa^- nia ulterior, or Bcetica and Lusitania. The country was, however, dur- ing this period, and a part of the next, commonly in a state of war. In 195 the consul, M. Porcius Cato, gained a great victory over the Spaniards, and decreed a universal disarmament. The insurrections soon began again. A victory of the prsetor L. jEmilius Paullus (189), and another, still more important, gained by the praetor, C. Calpur- nius, over the Lusitanians (185), induced quiet for a time in Hispania ulterior. The victories of Q. Pulvius Flaccus (181) and Tiberius Grac- chus (179-178) partially subdued the Celtiberians of Hispania citerior. 200-197. Second Macedonian War. Cause: A Macedonian force of mercenaries sent, as the senate maintained, by king Philip, had fought at Zama against the Romans. King Attalus of Pergamus, the inhabitants of Rhodes and Athens be- sought assistance from the Romans against King Philip V. (III.) of Macedonia, who, in alliance with Antioehus III. was warring with Egypt and also grievously troubling the supplicants. In the autumn of 200 the Romans landed at Apollonia, in Illyria, under P. Sulpicius Galba. The Roman fleet guarded PirEeus and threatened Euboea. Philip was repulsed before Athens, and driven from Central Greece. The Romans, who were joined in 199 by the Italians and afterwards by the Achceans, carried on the war with varying fortune, but without result, until (198) the consul, T. Quinc< B. c. Roman History. 119 tiuB Flamininus, took command of the army. He subdued Epirus, got into the rear of Philip's strong position, and defeated the king in the 197. Battle of Cynoscephalae (Kui/os Ke<^aAat, in Thessaly). Peace : Philip was obliged to give up the hegemony of Greece, and in general all possessions outside of Macedonia proper, and to pay 1000 talents ($1,250,000) in ten years. He was to maintain no more than 5000 soldiers and five ships of war, and not to carry on war beyond his own borders without the consent of Rome. During the Isthmian games, T. Quinc- tius Flamininus proclaimed, under general rejoicing, the de- cree of the Koman senate declaring the Greek states free and independent. The majority joined the Achaean league. The Romans limited, without destroying, the power of Nobis, tyrant of Sparta, hoping thus to counterbalance the Aohsean league. 195. At Carthage a democratic reform of the constitution was car- ried out by the influence of Hannibal. The oligarchs defamed Hannibal before the Roman senate, which demanded that he be delivered to the Romans. Hannibal fled to the East. 192-189. War with Antioohus III., of Syria. Cause : Interference of the king of Syria in Grecian affairs, and of the Romans in Asiatic politics ; reception of Hannibal at the court of Antioohus. Antiochus, deceived by the iEtolians who had fallen out with Rome, and promised to join him with all the Greek cantons as allies, began the war, without listening to the advice of Hannibal, by landing in Thessaly on the Gulf of Pagasse, whence he went to Euboea. Most of the Greeks, especially the Achjeau league, remained true to the Ro- mans, who were also joined by Philip of Macedon, Eumenes of Perga- mus, and Rhodes. Antiochus occupied the pass of Thermopylae. Landing of the consul, Manius Acilius Glabrio, in Epirus (191) and march to Thessaly. The former consul, M. Porcius Cato, conqueror of the Spaniards, who served as military tribune in the Roman army, surprised the JEtolians on the mountain path of Ephialtes, while the consul captured the pass itself and scattered the army of Antiochus, who escaped to Chalcis with a few soldiers, and there took ship for Ephesus. The Romans besieged the .ZEtolians in Naupactus; their fleet, under C. Livius, defeated that of Antioohus at Chios. In the following year (190) a fleet from Rhodes defeated a fleet of the king, under the command of Hannibal, at the mouth of the Ewymedon, and somewhat later the Roman fleet, with that of Rhodes, won a naval victory at Myonnesus. A Roman army, nominally under the command of the consul, L. Cornelius Scipio, but really under his brother, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, marched through Macedonia and Thrace, crossed the Hel- lespont, and defeated Antiochus in the 190. Battle of Magnesia on the Sipylus, not far from Smyrna, whereupon the king concluded peace in 120 Ancient Histwy. b. c. the following year : 1. Surrender of all European possessions, and of his Asiatic possessions as far as the Taurus. 2. Payment of 15,000 Eubcean talents ($19,125,000) within twelve years. 3. Surrender of Hannibal, who, however, escaped. This peace struck the kingdom of the Seleucidae from the list of great powers. The Koman senate having resolved, for the present, not to acquire any immediate pos- sessions in Asia, divided the ceded territory among its allies, Eumenes of Pergamus, and Rhodes, and proclaimed itself the protector of the Greek cities of Asia against the Galatians (189, Expedition of Cn. Manlius Volio), and regulator of the political relations of Asia. In Greece the ^tolians were conquered and subjugated, the other can- tons retained, for the present, their independence. Internecine quar- rels continued among the |Greeks, and the Roman senate was in all cases appealed to as arbitrator. Philip of Macedonia received but scanty remuneration for his services in the war against Syria. 183 (?). Death of Hannibal. He poisoned himself at the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia, by whom he saw himself betrayed. Death of his conqueror, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, at Linlemum, whither he had retu'ed after he and his brother, Lums, had been ac- cused by M. Poreius Cato of having been bribed by Antiochus. 180. The lex aunalis of the tribune, L. Villius, established, besides a military service of ten years, a fixed age for all the curule offices : eediles, 37 years ; prsetor, 40 ; consul, 43. Since the first Punic war the expenses of the great games were no longer borne by the pubKc treasury, but by the sediles, which at once closed the office to all who were not men of property. The higher offices of state, and the position of senator, became more and more decidedly privi- leges of the nobility (p. 102). 171-168. Third Macedonian war. Destruction of the Macedonian monarchy. Cause : The plan of Philip V. (III.), to revenge himself on the Romans, and to regain the old borders of Macedonia, was carried forward by his son and successor, Perseus, the murderer of his brother Demetrius, who favored Rome. King Eumenes of Pergamus informed the senate of the preparations of Perseus. During the first three campaigns, weak and unsuccessful conduct on the part of the Roman generals, combined with injustice and cruelty against the allied Acliseans and Epirotes, who were thereby forced to actual desertion. At last L. .Similius Faullus, son of the consul who fell at Cannae (p. 115), obtained the chief command. He restored dis- cipline in the Roman army, drove back the Macedonians, and defeated Perseus in the 168 Battle of Pydna. Sept. 11,000 Macedonians were captured, 20,000 perished. Perseus fell into the power of the Romans (in Samothrace). Splendid triumph of .Similius PauUus. The spoils brought to Rome were so im- mense that henceforward the citizens were relieved from the tributum. Dissolution of the kingdom of Macedonia, which was transformed into 4 confederacies dependent upon Rome, neither the right of emi- ^- CI- Roman History. 121 gration nor of intermarriage (commerdum et cnnnubiuni) being allowed them. Genthlus, king of Illyria, who had been an ally of Perseus, be- ing soon conquered (168), that country was divided into 3 tributary districts with federal constitutions. Epirus was cruelly punished, 70 towns being plundered and destroyed, 150,000 Epirotes sold as slaves. Tlie Greek cantons, friend and foe alike, were reduced to the condi- tion of subject clients. 1000 Aclijeans of high standing, among whom was the historian Polyhius, were carried to Rome for examination (167), and detained without trial 16 years in Italian cities under sur- veillance. The old allies of the Romans, Eumenes of Pergamus and Rhodes, who had attempted to hold the position of mediators during the war, were chastised and all the possessions of the latter on the mainland taken away. In a war which broke out between Syria and Egypt the senate interfered as guardian of both powers. The Ro- man ambassador, C. PopilUus Lcenas, arrogantly and insultingly or- dered Anliochus I V., king of Syria, to retire from before Alexandria. He drew a line around the king with his staff, and bade him decide before he stepped from the circle. (Polybius, xxix. 27.) 149-146. Third Punic "War. Cause : The Carthaginians, whose commerce and maritime power had begun to increase, having been unable to procure from Some any reparation for several losses of territory which they had sustained at the hands of Massinissa, finally took up arms themselves. The Roman senate, on the instigation of M. Pordus Cato (" Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam ") declared this a breach of the peace. Two Roman armies landed at Utica. Humble submission of the Carthaginians, who at the command of the consul delivered up their war-ships and weapons. But when ordered to abandon their city and make a new settlement ten miles from the sea, the Carthaginians re- solved on a desperate resistance. With the greatest sacrifices on the part of all the inhabitants of Carthage, without regard to rank, age or sex, new equipments were provided. Weapons were manufac- tured day and night. A new fleet was built in the inner harbor. An attack of the Romans was repulsed. Siege of Carthage. 147. P. Cornelius Scipio .Smilianus (son of iEmilius PauUus, adopted son of P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (Major), assumed the command. He shut off the city completely on both the laml and sea side. 146. Capture and destruction of Carthage. Street fight lasting six days, and a conflagration which lasted seventeen days. The remaining inhabitants were sold into slavery. The coast land from the river Tusca, opposite the island of Galatha {Galita), to Thence, on the S3rrtis minor, was made a Roman province under the name Africa, with the capital at Utica. The rest of the country fell for the present to vhe allied kingdom of Numidia. Splendid tri- umph of Scipio, who received the name of Africanus (Minor). 148-146. Fourth Macedonian "War, 1Z2 Ancient History. B. G. against Andriscits, who gave himself out as PhUippus, brother of Per- seus (Pseudo-PhUippus), and incited the Macedonians to rise against the Roman rule. He was defeated in two battles and captured by Q. Cceeilius Metellus. Macedonia became a Roman province (146). 146. Aohsean War. Cause : Keturn of 300 Achseans from Italy, after an imprisonment of 16 years (p. 121). The anti-Roman party was thereby strengthened in all cities. Incited by Critolam and Dicms, the Aohsean league be- gan war with Sparta, with whom the Romans took sides. The senate pronounced the dissolution of the League. Victory of Metellus over Critolam at Scarphea in Locris. Dicms summoned all who could bear arms together on the Isthmus, and Sirmed 12,000 slaves. He was defeated by the consul L. Mummius in the 146. Battle of Leucopetra. Corinth, the chief city of the Aohsean league, was occupied by Mummius without a blow. The art treasures were sent to Rome, and the inhabitants were sold as slaves. The territory of the city was in part given to Sicyon, in part transformed into Roman public land. Corinth destroyed at the command of the senate. The other Greek cities were, for the most part, mildly treated, and allowed to retain their autonomy (their own administration and juris- diction), but in suoh a way that they were subordinated to the governor of Macedonia and had to pay tribute to Rome. Not until later (p. 80), it seems, did Greece become a Roman province with the name Achaia. At the close of this epoch Rome possessed eight provinces 1. Sidlia (241). 2. Sardinia (238), with Corsica. 3. Hispania dte- rior (205). 4. Hispania ulterior (205). 5. Gallia Cisalpina (191?), 6. Illy ricum (168). 1. Africa (140). 8. ilfacerfonia (14fi), and Greece (Achaia). The first four provinces were at first governed by praetors, so that, counting the proetor urbanus and the proetor inter dves et peregri- nos (p. 101) who always stayed in Rome, there were six prsetors elected every year. Later, however, it was decreed that all six (after Sulla, 8) prsetors should remain in Rome during their year of office, 4 (6) to preside over the standing courts (qucestiones perpetum). Of these the first, for cases of extortion (de repetundis), was established in 149 by the lex Calpumia ; to this were added down to the time of Sulla (p. 132) courts having jurisdiction over fraud in obtaining office (de amhitu), over high treason (de maiestate), over embezzle- ment (de peculatu). Sulla created courts for the trial of oases of murder and poisoning (de sicariis et venefciis) of forgery of wills and of counterfeiting (defalso). For the year succeeding their year of ofBoe the prsetors went as pro-preetors to the provinces which had fallen to them by lot. The proprsetors received, as a rule, however, only those provinces ■• 0. Roman History. 123 which were considered quiet, and which could be administered with- out any considerable military force. Those which were still the scene of warfare were assigned to one of the consuls in office, or to a proconsul, the consul of the preceding year having his term of command prolonged for the prosecution of the war (imperhm proro- gare) or an ex-consul {oir consularis) or an ex-prsetor {vir prcBtorius) being appointed proconsul. Thus the provinces were at a later period distinguished into proconsular a,iii proprcetorial. The organization of a province was commonly entrusted to the gen- eral who had conquered it, and a commission of ten senators. Many cities in the provinces retained their own jurisdiction and municipal government (civitates liberce), in consequence of a treaty concluded with the Roman people (foedus, hence civitates fcederatce), or of a law (Zea;) or decree of the senate (senatus conmltum). The taxes of the provinces were generally let to tax-farmers (publicani), mostly Ro- man citizens of the equestrian order (ordo equester) many of whom also did business in the provinces as bankers (negotiatores).^ In 153 the term of service for the consulate began in January for the first time, and this soon became the rule. Especially noteworthy in this epoch is the practical disappearance of the dictatorship. The last dictator with military power was appointed after the battle of Cannse (216), and the last nominated for municipal business was in 202. After this, in times of peculiar danger, the senate conferred dictatorial power on the consuls, by the formula : " The consuls shall take measures for the public good according to their discretion." (Videant consules ne quid detrimenti respublica capiat), which some- what resembles a modern proclamation of martial law or state of siege. FOURTH PERIOD. Firm Establishment of the Universal Power of Rome. Pe- riod of the CivU VTars (146-31). 143-133. Numantine War. Continuance of hostilities in Spain. War in Lusitania against Viriathus, 147-139, ended only by the latter's murder. The war in northern Spain centred around the fortified city of Numantia,' which was vainly besieged by Metellus, and then by several incapable generals, who utterly neglected the discipline of the army. Finally P. Cornelius Scipio JEmuianus Africanus (Minor) received the com- mand. He restored discipline, and, after an investment of fifteen months' duration, starved the city into submission. Desperate de- fence. 133. Surrender and destruction of Numantia. Scipio ^milianus received the surname of Numanticus. After the fall of Numantia all Spain, excepting the mountain tribes of the north, was reduced under Roman government. 135-132. First servile war. Insurrection of the slaves in Sicily, who were terribly ill- treated, under the Syrian Eunus, who called himself king Antiochus, 1 Marauardt-Mommsen, Bom. Alt. IV. 338 foil, and 377 foil. 2 The present Garrat/, an hour's walk north of Soria on the Buero. 124 Ancient History. B. c. and fought a long time successfully against the Roman armies, main- taining himself in Henna and Tauromenium, but was finally captured and executed, together with a great number of the insurgents. 133-121. Civil disturbances under the Gxaoohi, excited by the political and social refiyrms urged through revo- lutionary means by the brothers Tiberius Gracchus and Caius Gracchus. Constant increase in the number of great estates worked by slaves (Latifundia). The number of slaves in Italy was immensely mcreased by the successful wars, and by a most extensive slave trade, especially with eastern Asia. The order of free peasants and renters was thereby greatly reduced, while there was formed in the capital a numerous rabble without property or occupation, who lived on bribes and gifts of grain. Bad government of the optimates (p. 101). Fam- ily cliques which took exclusive possession of all public offices and places in the senate. Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (163-133), son of the plebeian con- sul of the same name (through his mother, Cornelia, grandson of the victor of Zama, p. 118), when tribune of the people proposed the reenactment of the Licinian agrarian laTW (p. 101) which had long been forgotten, with this alteration, that besides the 500 jugera, 250 jugera of pubUo land should be allowed for every two sons, and that damages should be paid for all buildings erected on land which had to be given up. Opposition of the tribune M. Octavius, who had been gained over by the senate, and whom Tib. Gracchus caused to be deposed by an unconstitutional popular decree. The agrarian law was accepted by the people ; its execution was entrusted to Tib. Gracchus, his father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother C. Gracchus. 133. Death of Attahts III., Icing of Pergamus, who left his. kingdom and his treasures to the Romans. Tib. Gracchus proposed in the popular assembly, contrary to the common usage, according to which the senate had the disposal of this inheritance, to divide the treasures of Pergamus among the new land- owners, in order that they might procure the necessary equipment. Preparation of further popular laws of political tendency; shorten- ing of the time of military service ; extension of the right of appeal, etc. Tib. Gracchus tried, contrary to the constitution, to secure the election to the tribunate for the following year. The election was forcibly stopped by the senate. Tib. Grraochus and 300 of his followers were killed by the optimates, armed with clubs and chair-legs, and led by the consul, P. Scipio Nasica. 129. After the defeat of Aristonicus, a pretender to the throne of the Attalidae, by Perpcma, Pergamus became a Roman prov- ince under the name of Asia. 133-129. The division of the public lands was partially carried out as decreed. The struggle between the democracy and the optimates continued. The leader of the latter party, P. Scipio ^milianus, husband of Sempronia, the sister of the Gracchi, B. c. Soman History. 125 who had successfully opposed the proposals of the democratic 129. tribune, C. Carbo, found dead in his bed (murdered ?). 125. The democratic consul, M. Fulvius Flaccus, who had unsuc- cessfully proposed to gi^e the right of citizenship to all Ital- ians, was sent by tlie senate, which wished him out of the way, to assist the MassUiotes against the Gauls, by whom they were hard pressed. He laid the foundation of Roman supremacy in Transalpine Gaul. The immediate purpose of this occupation was the establish- ment of communication by land, between Italy and Spain. In 123 the proconsul, Sextius, founded the colony of AqucE Sextice (Aix). Gallia Narbonensis, so called after the colony Narbo Marlins founded in 121, a Roman province. In 123 the Balearic Islands were sub- jected to Rome. 123. Caius Sempronius Gracchus, for two years quasstor in Sardinia, returned to Rome against the will of the senate, and was elected tribune of the people. Surpassing his brother in talent, force of character, and passionate energy, C. Gracchus not only took up again the latter's social reforms, but also brought forward, one after another, a series of proposals looking to a revolutionary alteration of the constitution. Had they been completely adopted, these innovations would perchance have substituted for the existing aristocratic republican government the rule of one man under the form of a democracy. Whether C. Grac- chus desired such a power for himself is, however, very doubtful. By the regular distribution of grain, at the expense of the state, C. Grac- chus attempted to make the proletarii of the capital his willing tool in coercing the comitae. He was able to secure in 122 his election to the tribunate for the second time. The lex judiciaria transferred the jury-duty from the order of senators to that of the equites, and made the preexisting separa- tion between these two parts of the Roman aristocracy still more abrupt. The designation, " ordo equester,'' which belonged originally to those citizens only who actually did cavalry service, had been gradually extended to all who, in consequence of having property to the amount of at least 400,000 sesterces, were liable to such service. Since 129 the senators were obliged, according to law, on entering the senate, to leave the centuries of equites. Hence " equites " denoted especially the members of the aristocracy of wealth, who were not members of the senate ; yet the young men of senatorial families continued to serve regularly in the centuries of equites. Encroachments of C. Gracchus on the administrative privileges of the senate by means of resolves of the popular assembly. The lex provocatio reenacted. Colonies sent out by decrees of the people in- stead of by decrees of the senate. C. Gracchus himself established the colony of Junonia on the site of Carthage. The absence of the all-powerful tribune from Rome was utilized by the senate, to secure him a dangerous opponent in the person of the tribune, M. Livius Drusm. The proposals of this tribune, in the interests of the lower classes, were constantly approved by the senate, with the view of undermining the popularity of Gracchus. 126 Ancient History. B. C. 122. The motion of C. Gracchus and his eolleafifue, M. Pulvius Flac- cus, to grant the Latins all the rights of citizenship, and the other Italians Latin rights, was defeated by the united opposi- tion of the senate and the lower classes of the capital. C. Grac- chus was not elected tribune for the following (third) year. 121. Civil strife in the city, occasioned by a murder committed by one of the supporters of Gracchus. The democratic party oc- cupied the Aventine, which, being poorly defended, was stormed by the optimates. C. G-racchus and M. Fulvius were slain, along with several hundred of their supporters. Of the prisoners about 3000 are said to have been strangled in prison.^ Restoration of the power of the senate, and the former condition of things. After M. Livius Drusus had removed the ground rent, and repealed the law prohibit- ing the alienation of assignments of public land, and thereby given the optimates opportunity to repurchase their confiscated lands, a decree of the people. 111, converted all pnbUc lands in possession of citizens into the private property (not subject to taxation) of those who had formerly enjoyed the usufruct. 111-105*^ Jugurthine war. Cause: Midpsa, Massinissa's eldest son, had decreed in his will that after his death his sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, should reign over Numidia in common with his nephew and adopted son, Jugur- tha. Quarrels of the kings. Attempt to actually divide the king- dom. Jugurtha murdered Hiempsal and expelled Adherbal, who sought protection in Rome. A commission of the senate, which was bribed by Jugurtha, arranged a division of the kingdom entirely in Jugurtha's favor. The latter attacked Adherbal anew, defeated him, and besieged him in Cirta, his capital. Without heeding the interven- tion of the Roman senate, Jugurtha captured Cirta, and put to death Adherbal and the whole male population of the city, including many Italians. Indignation at Rome, and, finally, at the instance of the tribune, C. Memmius, declaration of war against Jugurtha. Jugurtha bought from the consul, L. Calpumius Bestia, a peace, which the senate, upon the motion of Memmius, refused to ratify. Invitation of the king to Rome. Jugurtha appeared in the city upon guarantee of safe conduct, and gained partisans for himself by his money. When, however, he connived at the murder of Massiva, a third grandson of Massinissa, in Rome itself, he was banished from the eity, and the war was renewed. 110-109. The war was imsuccessfuUy conducted by the Romans. Jugurtha defeated a Roman army, sent it under the yoke, and dictated a peace which was repudiated by the senate. 109. Q. Metellus, entrusted with the command, defeated Jugurtha on the river Muthul. The Romans occupied Numidia with two armies, one under Metellus, the other commanded by his legate C. Marius (son of a day laborer from the vicinity of ArpinunC). 1 Mommsen, Bisl. of Rome, III. 101-130. 2 Concerning the chronology of this war, see Mommsen, III. p. 153, note. B. c. Roman History. 127 108. After fruitless negotiations, another Roman victory. Jugnrtha withdrew to the oases of the desert and induced the nomads of those parts (GrostoZcE) to take up arms against the Romans. Pursued into the desert, he joined forces with his father-in- law, Bacchus, king of Mauritania. 107. Marius, in spite of the opposition of the aristocrats, received the consulate and chief command. He conquered the Gsetu- lians, repulsed a combined attack of Jugurtha and Bocchus at Cirta, entered into secret negotiations with Bocchus through 106-105. his quaestor, Ii. Cornelius Sulla, and secured the deliv- ery of Jugurtha into his hands. The captive king was led in triumph at Rome and died of hunger in prison. Numidia was divided between BoccAm and Gauda, the last living grand- son of Massinissa. 113-101. War against the Cimbri and Teutones. The Germanic, or, according to others, Celtic, tribe of the Cimbri (Chempho, i. e. warriors ?) made their way from the 113. north into the Alpine regions, defeated at Noreia, in Corinthia, the consul Cn. Papirius Carbo, turned afterwards westward towards the Rhine, which they crossed, and defeated a Roman 109. army under M. Junius Silanus, who had hurried to the aid of the Allobroges. Helvetian bands pressed into Gaul, and 107. defeated the consul L. Cassius Longinus on the Garonne. The Cimbri traversed Gaul in various directions, defeated and an- nihilated two large Roman armies under Q. Servilius Ccepio 105. and Cn. Mallius Maximus at Arausia (Orange) on the Rh6nei Terror at Rome. Violent proceedings of the democratic leaders against the incapable generals of the optimates. Ccepio, Maximus, and others condemned. 10-t-lOO. Marius elected consul five times in succession. The Cimbri meantime had crossed the Pyrenees and were wan- dering aimlessly about among the Spanish tribes. Defeated by the Celtiberians, they recrossed the Pyrenees, traversed western Gaul, and gave Marius time to reorganize the Roman forces in ih&Provincia Narbonensis (Provence). Defeated by the Belgians, the Cimbri united with the Germanic tribes of the Teutones and with Helve- tian tribes (Tougenes and Tigorini). These three peoples resolved to enter Italy in two separate bands. The greater part of the Cimbri and the Tigorini were to invade Italy from the north, while the Teutones with the Ambrones, the best among the Cimbri, and the Tougenes were to force their way into Italy through southern Gaul (102). Marius attempted to intercept the latter band. By his posi- tion at the junction of the Isfere and the Rh6ne, he covered the two military roads which at that time alone connected Gaul and Italy (Pass of the Little St. Bernard, and the shore road). Futile attempt of the barbarians to storm the Roman camp. They passed the camp on their way down the Rhone. Marius, following them, defeated and annihilated their army in the 102. Battle of Aquae Sextise (Aix in Provence, see p. 125). The king of the Teutones, Teutobod, was captured. Thereupon 128 Ancient History. B. c. Marius crossed the Alps to the assistance of his colleague Catulxjbs, whom the Cimbri, having reached Italy by way of the Brenner Pass, had discomfitea upon the Adige and driven behind the Po. The two consuls, having joined forces, ad- vanced across the Po and annihilated the Cimbri in the 101. Battle of Vercellae (in campis Raudiis). Triumph of Marius, who was hailed by the multitude, " the third Romulus," " the second Camillus." At the time of the Cimbrian war occurred the complete abolition of the Servian military organization, according to which military service was principally a tax on property, but which had already- been several times altered. This had also long been the principle upon which the military service of the Italian allies was regulated. Hereafter the system of a. citizen levy was supplemented by a re- cruiting system, principally of course from the idle and lazy portion of the population, and by a system of reinforcements, whereby cavalry and light-armed troops were drawn henceforward from the cou^ tingents of subject and vassal princes. A separate military order was formed, which was distinct from the civil order and opposed to it. The organization of the army, the strength and divisions of the legions (henceforward 6000 men in 10 cohorts), also underwent im- portant changes. 103-99. Second servile insurrection (in Sicily) under Tryphon and Athenian, which was put down by the consul, Manius Aquillius,a£teT a hard struggle. 100. Marius, for the sixth time consul, aiming at the royal power, joined the leaders of the people, the praetor C. Servilius Glaucia and L. Appuleius Saturninus, with the purpose of overthrow- ing the constitution. Saturninus, having gained the tribunate by murder, procured by violent means a division of lands among the veterans of Marius. The consul Q. Metellus went into voluntary banishment. The murder of C. Memmius, who had been nominated consul for the year 99, led to an actual contest in the forum between the optimates and the popular party. Saturninus and Glaucia being betrayed by their accomplice, Marius, were killed, with many of their followers. 99. Q. Metellus recalled to Rome. Marius, hated by both parties on 98. account of his equivocal conduct, went for a time to Asia. 91. Three bUls brought forward by the tribune M. Livins Dru- sus: 1. Reform of the judicial department {lex judiciaria), which re- stored to the senate the places on the juries which had been taken from it, at the same time enlarging the senate by the addition of 300 eqnites. 2. A new division of lands (lex agraria). 3. Bestowal of the right of citizenship on the Italians (de civitate sociis danda). The first two proposals were adopted by the comitise, but declared null and void by the senate ; as he was on the point of bringing the third before the people, Drusus was assassinated. The disappointment of the Italian allies who had fixed their hopes upon Livius caused the revolt of nearly all the Italians excepting the Latins, most of the Etruscans and Umbrians and some southern cities, and led to the B- c. Roman History. 129 91-88. Marsian or social war. The Italians formed a federal republic under the name Italia, gov- erned by a senate of 500 senators from all Italian tribes. The capital was Corfinium. They appointed two consuls and twelve praetors. The terrible danger reconciled for the moment the parties at Rome, and caused the adoption of energetic measures : repeated levies of citizens, and enrollment of freedmen in the army. The best generals of both parties offered to serve under the consuls. 90. At the seat of war in the north, Marius fought against the Marsians and the other Sabellian tribes, for the most part, successfully. The Roman consul, Rutilim, fell; Cn. Pompeim Strabo, defeated at first, was afterwards victorious. At the southern seat of war {Campania, Samnium, Lucania), the allies got so decidedly the better of the Roman consul, L. Julius CcEsar, in spite of the dashing forays of Sulla, that the Etrus- cans and Umbrians, in the north, who had before remained faithful, were encouraged to revolt. In order to prevent this a law was passed Granting the tight of citizenship to the Latins and to all districts among the above peoples which had remained faithful {lex Julia). 89. Successful conclusion of the war in the north. Superiority of the Roman arms in the south, especially under Sulla. By the lex Plautia-Papiria Roman citizenship was given to all Ital- ians who applied for it ; they were, however, included in 8 tribes only which were especially designated. The towns of Cisalpine Gaul which had municipal organizations received Latin rights {lex Pom- peia). 88. By this concession the war in the south was also in the main brought to a close. 88-84. First Mithridatio war. Caiise : Mithradates or Mithridates VI., king of Pontus (120- 63), had extended his power over the eastern shore of the Black Sea {Colchis) and along the Cimmerian Bosphorus {Crimea, and southern Russia). Kingdom of the Bosphorus. He had conquered Paphlagonia and Cappadoda and had provoked the interference of the senate by his encroachments on the client cities of Rome in Asia Minor. Already had Sulla, who was then proconsul in Cilicia, in 92, taken arms against him, and reinstated a king in Cappadoeia. A second expulsion of this king, and quarrels of Mithi-idates with the king of Bithynia, who was supported by the Roman consul M. Aquil- lius, led to war. 88. Mithridates defeated Nicamedes, king of Bithynia, on the Am- nias, a branch of the Halys, defeated the Roman generals, Op- pius, Cassius, and Aquillius (the latter being cruelly put to death), and drove them out of Asia Minor. The Grecian cities of Asia joined him, and upon an order issued from Ephesus, put to death in one day all the Italians within their walls (80,000, or according to others 150,000). 130 Ancient Historu. b. c, Sulla, the consul for 88, was on the point of starting for Asia to attack Mithridates, when there broke out the S8-82. Civil war between Sulla (optimates) and Ma- rius (democrats). Direct cause : the revolutionary proposals of the tribune P. SuU pidus, which were carried by the most violent means, and particularly designed to secure the division of the new citizens, Italians and f reed- men, among all the 35 tribes (ut novi cives libertimque in omnes tribus distribuerentur) . 88. The populace under the control of demagogues deprived Sulla of the chief command and gave it to his opponent Marius, with proconsular power. Sulla marched with his army from Nolo upon Rome and took the city by storm. Sulpicius and eleven other outlaws were killed upon the flight. Marius escaped by way of Min- tumcE to Africa. SuUa restored the old order of voting in the centuries as it had existed under the Servian constitution, but had been given up in 241 (p. 112), and decreed that in future the popular assemblies should not vote upon any measure which had not previously passed the senate. 87. An optimate, Cn. Octavius, and a democrat, L. Cornelius Cinua, were elected consuls. Sulla, as proconsul, took the command in the Mithridatic war. During Sulla's absence Cinna endeavored to renew the laws of Sulpicius by violence. After a bloody struggle in the forum he was driven out by the optimates. He formed an army in Campania of armed bands of dissatisfied Italians, liberated slaves, etc., and uniting with the aged Marius, who had returned from Africa, with Q. Sertorius and Cn. Papirius Carlo, advanced upon Rome, which was compelled to surrender. Revolutionary reign of terror in the city. Five days' slaughter at Marius' command of all optimates who had not fled (among others L. and C. Cossar, M. Antonius, P. Cras- sus, Q. Catidus), confiscation of their property, plundering and out- rages of the armed bands. 86. Marius (for the 7th time) and Cinna, consuls ; Sulla deposed in his absence. Death of Marius, over seventy, years old. L. Valerius Flaccus was made consul in his stead and appointed by the popular party to the command of the Mithridatic war. 87-84. Tyrannical government of Cinna at Rome, regardless of the newly restored democratic constitution. Meantime the outlawed Sulla was conducting the war against Mithridates. The latter had sent his general Archelaus with an army and fleet to Greece, where most of the cities joined him at once, par- ticularly Athens under the government of Aristion. 87. Sulla landed with 30,000 men in Epirus, advanced to Bceotia, drove Archelaus and Aristion out of the country and besieged the former in Piraeus, the latter in Athens. He defeated an 86. army of relief from Pontus, and after a tedious siege captured March. Athens. Sulla defeated Archelaus, who had voluntarily evacuated PirEeus, gone by sea to Bceotia, and joined the rein- forcements sent by Mithridates, in the B. c. Roman History. 131 86. Battle of Chseronea and in the next year in the 85. Battle of Orchomenus, after which he went into winter quar- ters in Thessaly. In the following year Sulla, supported by a fleet of ships, collected from Asia Minor and Syria by Lucullus, marched through Macedonia and Thrace, crossed the Helles- pont to Asia, and through the mediation of Archelaus concluded 84. Peace Tvith Mithridates in Dardanos. I. Evacuation of the Roman province of Asia, restoration of all conquests made by Mithridates, and reinstatement of the kings of Bithynia and Cappa- docia. II. Mithridates surrendered 80 ships of war and paid 3000 talents. After the conclusion of peace, SuUa turned his attention to the Roman army of the democratic party which had gone to Asia in 86 under the consul Flaccus, and, after his murder, had fought suc- cessfully under Fimbria (victory over the yoimger Mithridates at MUetopolis). A part of the army having gone over to Sulla, Fim- bria committed suicide, whereupon the rest of his army joined Sulla. After leaving these troops behind (milites Flaviani, two legions) under Licinius Murena, and inflicting upon the Grecian cities of Asia Minor the immense fine of 20,000 talents (^26,000,000), which Lucullus was to collect, Sulla sailed from Ephesus to Pirceus, went by land to Patrce, and thence by sea to Italy. 83. Sulla landed with 40,000 men in Brundisium. After the death of Cinna (84), during a mutiny in Ancona, where he intended to embark against Sulla, his colleagues Carbo, the younger Marius, and Sertorius were the leaders of the democratic party ; never- theless for the year 83 neither of them, but instead two incapable men, L. Scipio and C. Norbanus, were elected consuls. Sulla, who upon landing was joined by the 23-year old Ca. Pompeius with an army of volunteers, formally guaranteed their rights to the Ital- ians and marched against the consuls. He conquered Norbanus on Mt. Tifata and opened negotiations with Scipio, in the course of which the entire army of the latter went over to Sulla. 82. Sulla rested for the winter in Capua, and fought during the fol- lowing year against the younger Marius and Carbo, who had been appointed consuls. At Sacriportus Sulla defeated Marius, who retired to Prasneste, where he was surrounded by a division of the army imder Q. Ofdla. Sulla perceived this, and passed rapidly through Rome to attack the democrats in Etruria, whither also a part of his army under lUletdlus, Pompeius, and Crassus had already forced its way from Picenum and Umbria and were pressing Carbo hard. On receipt of the news that strong Samnite bands were advancing to the relief of Prseueste, Sulla went back to Latium, prevented the relief of Prseneste, and repulsed an attack of the Samnites upon Rome (Nov. 82). More than 3000 prisoners were slaughtered at Sulla's command. Prseneste surrendered, the younger Marius was put to death by his slaves at his own command. The party of Marius in northern Italy had already been completely defeated at Faventia. Carbo and Sertorius fled. Sulla took terrible vengeance upon the con- quered cities and towns of Italy. The party of Marius in Spain was defeated at a later time by C. Annius and Valerius Flaccus ; in Sicily and Africa it was defeated by Pompeius, whom SuUa allowed to tri- umph, and saluted with the surname of Magnus. 132 Ancient History. B. 0. 82. Sulla had himself 'appointed dictator in Rome for an un- limited time, for the sake of reorganizing the commonwealth (^dictator reipublicce constituendoe, a power analogous to that of the de- cemvirs). Reactionary Reign of Terror. Proscription lists of the eoil minded (lex de proscribendis malis civibus). The number of the out- lawed, on whose death a reward was set, and whose property was confiscated amounted to 4700. Allotments of lands to the veterans of Sulla and establishment of military colonies with full right of citizenship in the territories of cities of the hostile party, whose right of citizensliip was abrogated. Liberation of 10,000 slaves be- longing to the proscribed citizens, and bestowal upon them of the right of citizenship (the so-called Cornelians). 83-81. Second Mithridatic TWar, conducted by the propraetor Murena (p. 131), who occupied Cappadoeia, which Mithridates, in spite of the peace, had not com- pletely evacuated, and invaded Pontus, where he was defeated by Mithridates and obliged to withdraw. The war ended in a treaty which was a renewal of the iirst peace. Attempt at a conservative aristocratic reform of the government in Kome, by a series of laws originated by Sulla (leges Comdice). Keorganization of the senate which had suffered severely from the proscriptions of the civil wars. It was now enlarged in an unprece- dented manner by the addition of 300 members to be chosen by the comitia tributa. Admission to the senate became a prerogative of the qusestorship. Henceforward 20 qucestors were annually elected by the comitia tributa. Abolition of the censors' privilege of revising the roll of the senate every five years, and consequently introduction of the irremovability of the senators. Thus the senate, for a short time, was indirectly chosen by the people, and acquired a representa- tive character. The places in the juries which C. Gracchus had transferred to the equites (p. 125) were restored to the senate. The privileges of the senate were further increased ; it acquired, in particular, the right of prolonging the term of office of proconsuls and propraetors, and of removing them. The comitim lost the power of electing the priests, which had been given them in 104, the priestly colleges receiving again the right of filling their own vacan- cies. On the other hand Sulla gave up the Servian order of voting, the restoration of which had been attempted in 88. Powers of the tribunes of the people reduced, misuse of the right of interpellation punished with heavy fines, the right of the tribunes to initiate roga- tions subjected to the approval of the senate ; it was also decreed that acceptance of the tribunate conveyed incapacity for accepting higher offices. Reorganization of the department of justice, increase of the perpetual courts (qucestiones perpetum). Henceforward 8 praetors. Criminal legislation (lex de sicariis, defalso, etc.). 81. Sulla permitted the election of consuls, but continued to conduct the government under the title of dictator. For the year 80. He caused himself and his companion in arms, Q. Metell-uts, to to be elected consuls, and so bridged the way to constitutional government. B. C. Roman History. 133 79. Sulla voluntaiily abdicated the dictatorship and retired to private life. 78. Death of Sulla, probably in consequence of a hemorrhage.^ 78-77. Attempt of M. ^mUius Lepidus (consul with Q. Lutatvus Catulus, 78) and the Marian M. Junius Brutus, to violently overthrow the work of Sulla. Lepidus, on his way from Etruria to Rome at the head of an army, was defeated on the Campus Martius by Catulus; defeated a second time at Cosa, he fled to Sardinia, where he fell sick and died. Brutus was forced by Pompeius to sur- render at Mutina, and was afterwards put to death. 80-72. "Wax against Sertorius, who in 83 had been allotted Lusitania and Spain as Ais prov- ince. He had been driven out (82) by Sulla's generals, and, after leading a roving life as an adventurer along the coasts of Spain and Africa, returned to Lusitania. Here this party leader, alike distin- g^iished as statesman and general, had founded an independent sov- ereignty. Q. Metellus and even Cn. Pompeius waged for a long time unsuccessful war against him. He formed an alliance with Mithn- dates, but was murdered, in 72, by hi^ subordinate Perpema. The latter was defeated and executed by Pompeius. 73-71. "War of the Gladiators and (third) Servile War. Bands of gladiators who had escaped from a gladiatorial school at Capua occupied Vesuvius under command of two Gauls and the Thraciau Spartacus, and from this vantage-ground plundered and burned throughout the neighborhood. Reinforced by numerous slaves they grew to an army, and defeated four Roman armies in succession. Spartacus, who wanted to leave Italy, was forced by his companions to remain. He marched upon the capital. Terror in Rome. The prsetor M. lacinius Crassus received the chief com- mand. The insurgents refrained from attacking Rome and wandered about Italy ravaging and plundering. Crassus defeated them in two battles, in the second of which, on the Silarus, Spartacus fell, fight- ing valiantly. The remnants of the bands were annihilated by Pom- peius, who was returning from Spain. In 70 the consuls M. Llcmius Crassus and Cn. Pompeius Mag- nus restored to the tribunate the privileges whiok it had lost under Sulla (p. 132). The Aurelian law (lex Aurelid), passed during their consulate, repealed the enactment of Sulla that the jurors should be taken exclusively from the senators ; henceforth one third should be senators, two thirds men of the equestrian census (of these one half should be taken from the so-called tribuni^cernrii). Already, in 72, the privilege of the censors, of revising the roll of the senate, which Sulla had abolished, had been restored (p. 132), and probably five years became again the length of the censors' term of office. 64 senators were expelled from the senate by the censors GelHus and Len- lulus. 1 He did not die of the so-called PhthiriasU, C£. Mommsen, BUt. of Some, III. p. 390. 134 Ancient History. B. o. 78-67. War against the pirates. The result of the neglect of the Roman marine since the destruc- tion of Carthage, and of the oppression of the Roman governors in Asia was a constant increase of piracy. There gradually grew up an organized pirate-community, whose principal seats were Crete and Cilicia. The pirates controlled the entire Mediterranean as far as the columns of Hercules, and captured the vessels which were convey- ing grain to Rome. 78. War had been waged with the pirates since 78, at first under the proconsul of Asia, P. Sermlius, who destroyed many pirate 75. cities, and in the year 75 took possession of Isauria, Pamphylia, Pisidia, for Rome, under the name of Cilicia, and afterwards 74. under the prsetor M. Antonius, who possessed most extensive powers, but accomplished little, and in 71 died at Crete after being defeated by the Cretans. 68. Metellus after a long contest, subdued Crete (province since 67), whose inhabitants lived for the most part, upon piracy. As piracy still continued, 67. Pompeius received, on the motion of Gabinius (lex Gabinia), for three years unlimited command over the whole Mediterra^- nean and its coasts for fifty miles inland ; the public treasuries and resources of all the provinces and client states were placed uncondi- tionally at his disposal. In three months Pompeius, in two short cam- paigns, completedly cleared first the western, then the eastern, Mediterranean of pirates, captured 3000 vessels, put to death 10,000 pirates, destroyed their fortresses, captured 20,000 men, and settled them in the interior of the country. (Construction of Pompeiopolis in Cilicia.) 74-64. Third Mithridatio war. Cause : Strained relations between the Romans on the one side, and Mithridates of Pontus and his son-in-law, Tigraues of Armenia, on the other. The latter took possession of the kingdoms of Cappadoda and Syria. When Nicomedes III., of Bithynia, Ukewise son-in-law of Mithridates, bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, and Bithynia was made a Roman province, Mithridates declared war and occupied Bi- thynia. 74. The conduct of the war was entrusted to the two consuls L, Lu- cuUus, who was to enter the kingdom of Pontus through Phry- gia, and M. Aurelius Cotta, who sailed with the fleet for the Propontis. Mithridates defeated the latter by land and sea at ChcUcedon and laid siege to Cyzicus, which was relieved by Lu- cuUus, who hastened from the south. 73. Mithridates was forced to retreat with great loss. LucuUus as proconsul conducted the war successfully at sea ; then took the offensive on land, crossed the Halys (Kisil Irmak), traversed Pontus, defeated Mithridates at Cabira, and drove the king completely out of his kingdom. He took refuge with his son- in-law, Tigranes, while LucuUus, after a, tedious siege, cap- 72-70. tured the trading cities Heraclea, Sinope, Amisus, and occupied Armenia Minor. B. c. Soman History. 135 Without waiting for authority from the senate, Lucnllus opened wax upon Tigranes, crossed the Euphrates into Armenia proper, de- feated Tigranes in the famous 69. Battle of Tigranocerta, captured that city, and then turned against the two kings who had now joined forces. LucuUus forced the passage of the Euphrates (68) by a second successful encounter with the enemy, crossed the river here in its upper course for the second time,^ marched through the Armenian plateau toward Artaxata, the residence of Tigranes, but was compelled by a mutiny among his soldiers (P. Clodius, broth- er-in-law of Lucullus) to begin a retreat over the Tigris to Mesopo- tamia, long before he had reached Artaxata.^ Lucullus took Nisibis by storm, but was obliged to cross to the right bank of the Euphrates again to rescue a division of the army which had been cut off (67). Meantime Mithridates returned to Pon- tus and defeated a Roman force under Triarius at Zela (Zield). New mutinies in the army of Luculliis, who was at the same time in- f onned that he was slandered at Rome, that he had been recalled, and the consul M. Acilius Glabrio appointed in his stead. Glabrio went to Asia, but in consideration of the difficult position of affairs, did not assume command. Luacllus conducted the Roman army by a mas- terly retreat back to Asia Minor. Mithridates, having not only reconquered Pontvs, but also com- menced to ravage Bithynia and Cappadocia, a law was passed at the instance of the tribune of the people, C Manilius (Cicero's oration, pro imperio Cn. Pompeii, ot pro lege Manilia), entrusting 66. Cn. Pompeius 'with the command in Asia 'with unlimited powers. Unfriendly meeting of LucuUus and Pompeius at Danala in Galatia. After concluding a treaty with the Parthians, whom he guaranteed possession of Mesopotamia, Pompeius opened the campaign partly with new troops, drove Mithridates out of Pontus, and defeated him in the 66. Battle by night on the Lycos (Teshil Irmak), near the future Nicopolis in Armenia minor. Abandoned by Tigranes, Mithri- dates fled to Colchis. Pompeius followed as far as the Phasis, return- ing then to Armenia, where his ally, the king of the Parthians, had meantime made an inroad. At Artaxata Tigranes gave himself up to Pompeius, who permitted him to keep Armenia proper for his own kingdom, but took from him all his conquests, Syria, Phcmtaa, Cappadocia, and imposed upon him a fine of 6000 talents. 65. After an expedition northward, where he fought successfully with the Caucasian tribes, Pompeius for the second time aban- doned the pursuit of Mithridates, who had taken refuge in the Tauric Chersonese (Crimea), and went to Pontus, and thence to Syria. 1 Cf. Klepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. HI. . ^ nt 2 The second victory of LucuUus was not gained near Artaxata. Cl Mommsen, Eitt. of Rome, IV. p. 70. 136 Ancient History. B. c. 64-63. Organization of the Eoman possessions in Asia, under Pom- peiua. New Provinces : 1. Pontus, comprising Bithynia (already treated as a province since 74), the coast of Faphlagonia, and the western part of Pontus proper, along the coast. The rest of the kingdom of Mithridates was given to vassal kings. 2. Syria, comprising at first only the coast from the gulf of Issus to Damascus, afterwards considerably enlarged. 3. Cilicia, reorganized by Pom- peius, although it had been a province in name since 75. It included Pamphylia and Isauria (p. 134). These Asiatic provinces were much cut up, and surroimded by : (a) territories of autotwrnous cities ; (6) princely and priestly sovereignties under Koman supremacy. The most distinguished of the vassal kings of Borne in the east were the king of Cappadocia, and Deiotarus, king of Galatia (p. 78). In Palestine, after the capture of Jerusalem and the Temple, Fompeius restored Hyrcanus, who had been driven out by his brother, as high- priest and civil governor, but made him tributary to Rome. 63. Mithridates, who had busied himself with gigantic schemes of a land expedition to Italy, killed himself at Panticapaum, in the Tauric Chersonese, in consequence of the revolt of his son, Pharnaces. Upon receipt of this news Pompeius returned to Pontus. He confirmed Pharnaces in possession of the kingdom of the Bosphorus. 61. Return of Pompeius to Italy. He dismissed his army at Brun- disium, and entered Rome as a private citizen. Magnificent triumph, lasting two days. 66-62. Conspiracy of Catiline. Union of the democrats and the anarchists. Leaders of the demo- crats: M. Crassus and C. Julius Caesar (bom 102 ?, son-in-law of Cinna, outlawed by Sulla, afterwards pardoned, 67 qusestor in Spain, 65 asdile, 63 pontifex maximus). Leader of the anarchists: L. Ser- gius Catilina, ex-prsetor, one of Sulla's executioners. The demo- crats dreaded the reconciliation of Pompeius, whose military dictator- ship was the work of their own hands, vnth the optimates. Hence they sought to overthrow the existing government before the return of Pompeius, by a violent revolution, while the anarchists, in part pro- letarians, in part young men of honorable families who were sunk in debt, hoped for plunder and confiscation of property. Ihejirst conspiracy, in 66, according to which the consuls for 65 were to be murdered, and Crassus made dictator, and Cmsar, master of the horse, failed of execution through the indecision of some partici- pants. At the close of the year 64, it was again renewed for the pur- pose of securing the election of L. Catilina and C. Antonius (also a former follower of Sulla) at the consular elections for 63, by the in- fluence of Ccesar and Crassus, who were to remain in the background. Antonius alone was, however, actually elected; his colleague for 63 was M. TuUius Cicero, a favorite lawyer and orator, belonging to no party unreservedly (born 106, 75 qusestor in Sicily, 70 prosecutor of Verres, 69 sedile, 66 prsetor urbanus). The latter resigned before- hand to Antonius, who was deep in debt, the lucrative governorship of Macedonia, thereby detaching him from the conspirators. B. C. Soman History. 137 Formation of an insurgent army in Etruria, under C. Manlius, a comrade of Catiline ; at Rome organization of the conspirators, who, at a given signal, were to fire the oity, and thereby produce universal •ionfusiou. Plaji of Catiline to murder his competitors at the con- jular election for 62, and the consul, Cicero, who would preside over the eleetion. Cicero, informed of this by his spies, denounced the conspiracy in the senate, appeared on the day of the election sur- rounded by numerous armed guards, and defeated the election of Catiline. The latter's plan of having Cicero surprised and murdered in his own house was also betrayed and failed. 63. Nov. 8. First speech of Cicero against Catiline delivered in the senate. Catiline left the city, and betook himself to the army of Manlius in Etruria. Nov. 9. Second speech of Cicero against Catiline, to the people. The accomplices of Catiline, Lentulm, Cetkegm, Gabinius, StatUius, and Cceparius, were taken into custody on the strength of written proofs of guilt obtained by Cicero. Dec. 3. Third speech of Cicero against Catiline, to the people. Dec. 5. Fourth speech of Cicero against Catiline, in the senate. De- cree of the senate that the traitors be strangled in prison with- out trial and sentence (^Ccesar opposed the resolution ; Cato's speech determined the vote), executed by the consul Cicero. Cicero greeted as pater patrim. The consul Antonius was entrusted with the conduct of the war against Catiline. His lieutenant defeated Catiline at Fistoria (62). CatUiue and 3000 of his followers fell on the field. 62. Caesar administered the prsetorship in Rome. A part of his large indebtedness having been paid by Crassus, he went for 61. the year to Hispania Ulterior, as proprsetor, where he laid the foundation of his military fame, and where he found means to discharge his debts. He returned bearing the honorary title of " imperator," but refused to triumph, in order that he might become a candidate for the consulship. The refusal of the senate to grant the allotment of lands requested by Pompeius for his veterans, led to a complete break between Pompeius and the government, and resulted in the so-called 60. First Triiimvirate, a reciprocal agreement of the three statesmen Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus. They secured the election for the next year of 59. Caesar as consul. As his colleague, the optimate M. Bihulus, and the senate op- posed the proposals brought in by Caesar for an agrarian law, espe- cially in the interests of Pompeius' veterans {lex Julia de agro cam- pano : ut ager campanus plebi divideretur), and the ratification of the organization of Asia, these measures were submitted to the popular assemblies and passed by them, without the approval of the senate. Violence offered Bihulus and M. Porcius Cato. Bibulus did not dare leave his house again during his year of office. Intimate 138 Ancient History. b. c. friendship and close family ties between Cassar and Fompeius. Csesar's daughter, Julia, 23 years old, given to Pompeius in marriage. On the motion of P. Vatinitis, tribune of the people, Caesar received by a popular decree the government of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyri- cum for 5 years, with extraordinary powers. At Pompeius' motion the astounded senate added Gallia Narbonensis (p. 126) to Csesar's province. A. Gabinius, a friend and military companion of Pompeius, and L. Piso, father-in-law of Csesar, were elected consuls for the following year. The execution of the agrarian law was en- trusted to Pompeius and Crassus. Before Csesar departed for his province, 68. The absence of Cato and Cicero from Kome was procured by P. Clodius, tribune of the people, who had secured this ofBce at the saerilice of his patrician rank by hasty adoption into a plebeian family. Cato was appointed by a popular vote to take pos- session of the kingdom of Cyprus, which had been left to Rome by will. Cicero was driven to flight by the decree, " Whoever shall have caused the execution of a Roman citizen without legal sentence shall be punished with outlawry " (lex Clodia : ut qui civem Romanum in- demnatum interemisset ei aqua et igni interdiceretur'), and then banished by a second lex Clodia to a distance of 400 Roman nailes from Rome. Clodius caused Cicero's house on the Palatine to be burned, and his Tusculan and Formean estate to be ravaged. 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Ceesar. Results of Csesar's eight years of brilliant warfare, and its meaning in the history of the world. 1. Annihilation of the Celts, as a nation, for whose lasting Romani- zation Csesar opened the way. 2. Creation of a dam which for four centuries protected the Romano-Hellenic civilization against destruction by the German bar- barians. 3. Enlargement of the boundaries of the old world, not only by the immediate conquest, but also through the information obtained by Csesar's expeditions to Britannia and Germania. 4. Acquirement of the means for accomplishing the change, now become necessary, of the Roman republic into a monarchy : the vet- eran legions and troops of the allied states, who had become at- tached to their general and expert in war. 58. Victory of Csesar over the Helvetians, who had invaded Gaul, at Bibracte,! and over the German prince Ariovistus, N. E. of Vesontio (Besan9on) in the vicinity of MuUkausen in Alsace 2 (Csesar, Bellum Gallicum, I.). 57. Subjugation of the Belgii. Annihilation of the Nervii in Hen- negau by a terrible battle on the Sambre, not far from Bavay (B. Gall. III.). In the southeast, occupation of Octodurus (Martigny), to secure the Alpine pass of the Great St. Bernard S6. Subjugation of the Veneti in Armorica (Bretagne) by Csesar, 1 On the site of the modern Autun, according to v. Qoler ; two miles west of Autun according to Wapoleon III. (Vieae Cesar.) ^ See Mommaeu, Hist, of Borne, TV. p. 241, note. B. 0. Roman History. 139 after hard fighting on land and sea, and of the Aquitani by his lieutenant P. Crassus, son of the triumvir. In the north- east, successful war with the Morini and Menapii (B. Gall. III.). 55. Csesar drove the Grermanic tribes of the Usipetes and Tenchteri back across the Khine. Passage of the Rhine on a bridge of piles, between Cohlence and Andemach. After a stay of fifteen days on the right bank, Caesar recrossed the stream. (B. Gall. IV.) First expedition to Britain with two legions. Departure from two ports, one of which was Itius partus, E. and W. of Cape Grisnez, landing between Dover and Deal, probably at Walmer Castle.^ {B. Gall. IV.) 54. Second expedition to Britain, with five legions. Cassivelaumts, leader of the British Celts. Csesar crossed the Stour and the Thames (between Kingston and Brentford), while Cassivelau- nus attacked the Roman camp where the ships lay. Retreat and embarkation of Csesar after he had received hostages. (5. Gall. V.) 53. Insurrection of the Eburanes under Ambiorix, and of other tribes. Csesar crossed the Rhine a second time. (B. Gall. VI.) 52. General insurrection of the Gauls under the Arvernian, Veroin- getorix. Siege and capture of Auaricum (Bourges) by Cse- sar, occupation of Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) by Labiemts. Unsuccessful siege of Gergovia, near Clermont in the Auvergne ; Csesar, compelled to retreat, united with Ldbienm. Siege of Alesia (Alise Sainte-Reine at Semur in the Ddp. C6te d'Or, between ChStillon and Dijon) by Csesar, while the Roman army was in turn surrounded and besieged by the insurgent army of relief ; after a hard fight, complete victory of Csesar. Vercingetoriz forced to surrender himself. He was exe- cuted at Rome, five years later (5. Gall. VII.). 51. Completion of the subjugation of Transalpine Gaul (cruel pun- ishment of the insurgents). Ten legions located in detach- ments throughout the country held it in obedience to Csesar. While these ma^iificent feats of war were placing the older mili- tary fame of Pompeius in the shade, the latter was trying vmsuccess- fully to master the anarchy at Rome. Leader of the ultra^demo- crats, the former tribune, P. Clodius (pp. 135, 138). In opposition to hitn the recall of M. Tullius Cicero was procured in 57, by the efforts of the tribune T. Annius Milo. In the same year M. Porcius Cato returned to Rome. The aristocratic reaction opposed the armed bands of Clodius, which patrolled the streets and forum, with the armed bands of Milo. The attempt of the republicans in the senate to free themselves from the influence of the rulers, and the resolution to revise the agrarian law passed during the consulate of Csesar, resulted in a renewal of the alliance of the three statesmen. 1 Compare Heller, Ccesar's Expedition, nnch Brittanien, in the Zeitechrift far aUg. Mrdhunde, 1865. According to v. Goler, tiie Jlrat expedition started from Wistant near Cape Grimez, the second from Calais. 140 Ancient History. b. c. In 56 a meeting of the triumvirs Caesar, Pompeius, and Crassus, and their followers (200 senators) took place in Luca. In conse- quence of agreements there concluded, the election of Pompeius aaid Crassus as consuls for 55 was carried by the use of force. A decree of the people (lex Trehonid) then assigned to Pompeius the government of both Spains for. five years, and to Crassus that of Syria, while Caesar's command in Gaul was prolonged for Jive years more, and the payment of those troops which he had recruited on his own authority was assumed by the state. The Roman aristocracy was obliged to submit to these decrees. After the close of his year of office as consul Crassus went to Syria in 54, where he imdertook in 53 an expedition against the Par- thians. He suffered a terrible defeat at Carrhse in Mesopotamia, and was shortly after killed by the Parthians during an interview with one of their satraps. Pompeius remained in Home, and dele- gated the administration of his provinces to his legates. In 52 Clodius and MUo happening to meet on the Via Appia, a flght sprang up between their followers, during which Clodius was wounded, and then, at Mile's command, put to death. Clodius' corpse was carried to the Curia Hastilia, near the forum in Bome, and there burnt, together with the building. To put an end to the disturbances of the mob which followed this event, Pompeius was appointed "consul without a colleague" by the senate, and clothed with dictatorial power. Trial of MUo, who was condemned by the jurors, in spite of Cicero's oration ^ in his defence,' to be banished. Cicero proconsul in Cilicia. Breach between Caesar and Pompeius, whose connection had been previously weakened by the death of Jidia (54). Pompeius selected his new father-in-law, Metelhis Scipio, for his colleague in office, caused his governorship in Spain to be prolonged for five years, and deprived Caesar of two legions, urging the impor- tance of the Parthian war, which a victory had already ended. Pompeius openly reassumed the leadership of the republican aris- tocracy (lex de vi et ambitu). Cassar remained leader of the democ- racy, which under a constitution without representation led of neces- sity to monarchy. Demand of the senate that Csesar should resign his command before the expiration of the term which had formerly been granted him. Refusal of the senate to permit Csesai to stand for the consulship during his proconsulship, as had been allowed by the citizens. This brought about the 49-46. Civil war between Caesar and Pompeius. The senate declared Csesar a public enemy (hostis') should he not disband his army within a given time. The tribunes of the peo- ple who favored Csesar fled to him at Ravenna. 49. Csesar, with one legion, crossed the brook Rubicon, the boundary of his province, and thereby opened the civil war. Great con- sternation at Rome. Pompeius, who had only commenced his prepa- rations, and the greater part of the senate, fled to Brundisium. Csesar, 1 Not the one which we have. This was written for the occasion, but the tumult and fear prevented its delivery. B. c. Roman History. 141 reinforced by a second legion which had overtaken him, marched through Umbria, Picenum, where Domitius, at Corfinium, was obliged to surrender, and Apulia to Brundisium, to which he laid siege, after a third legion of veterans had joined him, and he had levied three new legions. Pompeius succeeded in conveying his troops, by two expeditions, to Greece, before the capture of the city. Csesar, unable to follow him from lack of vessels, commenced the construction of a fleet, and went to Rome. There he quieted the apprehensions of a return of the horrors of the first civil war. Magnanimous behavior toward his foes (Cjesar, Bell. Civ. 1-33). 49. Csesar went by land to Spain to subdue Pompeius' legates, Spring, leaving Trebonius to besiege Massilia. The legates of Pom- 49. peius, Afranius and Petrdus, were compelled to surrender at Aug. Ilerda (Lerida), N. of the Ebro, and their army was dis- banded (Cffisar, Bell. Civ. I. 34-87). Varro, who commanded in Hispania uUeriora, threw himself into Gades (Cadiz), but most of the cities joining Caesar, he capitulated. On Csesar's march back to Italy, Massilia, which was suffering from starvation, surrendered on being threatened with a storm (Caesar, Bell. Civ. II. 1-22). Meantime Caesar's legate Curia had reduced Sicily to subjection. He then crossed to Africa, where he was at first victo- rious at Utica, but was afterwards defeated at the Bagradas by Jvha, king of Numidia, who had declared for Pompeius, and fell in the battle (Caesar, Bell. Civ. II. 23-44). Caesar, during his absence, was proclaimed dictator at Rome by the praetor M. ^mUius Lepidus (on the authority of a new lex de dictatore creando), but abdicated the office after eleven days, and had himself appointed consul, with P. Servilius, for the year 48. while that part of the senate which had participated in Pom- peius' flight to Greece prolonged the term of office of Pom- peius and all the officials of the previous year. Caesar landed in northern Epirus, at Oricum, not far from the promontory of Acroceraimia, with a part of his army. The trans- ports which returned for the rest of the troops were mostly captured by the fleet of Pompeius; and the coasts of Italy being sharply watched, Caesar was placed in a situation of great difficulty, as M. Antonius was able to transport the second half of the arra.y only after several months. His army being at last imited, Csesar inclosed the army of Pompeius at Dyrrhachium by a long chain of military posts. Daily skirmishes, for the most part favorable for Csesar. At last however, Pompeius broke through Caesar's line. Csesar, defeated and compelled to retreat, went to TJiessaly, whither Pompeius fol- lowed him, leaving Cato in Dyrrhachium. In the Thessalian plam was fought the 48. Decisive battle of Pharsalus. Aug. 9. Cffisar, with about 22,000 men, defeated and completely scat- tered the army of Pompeius, which had more than twice that strength; 20,000 men laid down their arms. Pompeius fled to the coast, and took ship for Egypt by way of Lesbos. At the command 142 Ancient History. B. c. of the minister of the young king, Ptolemseus, he was murdeiped upon landing. Caesar followed Pompeius and landed iu Alexandria with 4000 men (C^sar, Bell. Civ. III.). Especial honors paid to Csesar in Rome (consulate for five years, tribunate for life, dictatorship for one year). Csesar having taken it upon himself, at Alexandria, to decide between the ten-year old Ptole- mceus and his followers and his sixteen-year old sister Cleopatra, there broke out the so-called 48-47. Alexandrine vrar, an uprising of the whole population of Alexandria, sup- ported by the Roman army of occupation, which had been in garrison there since the restoration of the ^mg Ptolemceus Auletes (55). Csesar, besieged in the royal palace, was in the greatest danger, from which only his reckless daring rescued him. He caused the Egyptian fleet to be set on Are, whereby the famous library of Alexandria (p. 77) was also burned. Csesar, with the help of an army of relief which arrived from Asia, defeated the Egyptian army on the Nile. The young king Ptolemseus was drowned on the flight. The government was given to Cleopatra and her younger brother, under Roman su^ premacy, and a Roman garrison was left in Alexandria. Csesar went to Asia Minor, and in a five days' campaign {veni, vidi, vici) ended the 47. War against Pharnaces, son of Mithridates (p. 136), who had occupied Pontus, Arme- nia Minor, and Cappadocia. Csesar defeated him at Zela and forced him to fly. Pharnaces feU iu battle against a revolted governor. Arrangement of the Asiatic relations. Deiotarus, who had fought against Csesar at Pharsalus, lost thp greater part of his kingdom. Return of Caesar to Rome. After he had subdued a mutiny of the tenth legion, he undertook the 47-46. War in Africa against the adherents of Pompeius, Sextus Pompeius, Scipio, Cato, Ldbienus, Petreius, king Juha. Csesar landed at Hadrumetum, where he was in great danger, since the larger part of his force did not arrive till later in consequence of a storm. After several unim- portant encounters Csesar defeated and annihilated the republican army, which far outnumbered his own, in the 46. Battle of Thapsus, during and after which 50,000 of the enemy were slaughtered by Csesar's embittered soldiers. Scipio killed himself on the flight, Cato committed suicide in Utica, Petreius and Juba agreed to kill one another, in a personal contest. Juba struck Petreius down; and being himself but slightly wounded, had himself killed by one of his slaves. Ldbienus and Sextus Pompeius escaped to the latter's brother, Cn. Pompeius, in Spain. A part of Numidia was united with the province of Africa by Csesar; the rest was given to Bocchus, king of eastern Mauritanisi. Return of Caesar to Rome, where he celebrated four triumphs, fo( B. c. Soman History. 143 Gavl, Egypt, Phamaces, Africa. Entertainments for the people, splen- did games, distribution of gold and grain. Caesar was appointed dic- tator for 10 years, and censor without a colleague, under the title proefectus morum, for 3 years. Correction of the Calendar, by an extraordinary intercalation of 67 days in the year 46; thereafter there was a solar year of 365^ days (a leap-year every four years without exception). 46-45=, War against the sons of Pompeius, Cnceus and Sextus, and the rest of the Pompeian party. Al- though repulsed before Corduba by Sextus Pompeius, Csesar by great exertions defeated both brothers in the 45. Battle of Munda, north of Ronda, between Cordova and Gibraltar, in which he was obliged to lead the legions against the enemy in person. Over 30,000 Pompeians were slain, and among them Lahienus, Varus, Cn. Pompeius ; Sextus es- caped. After Caesar had returned to Rome he caused the senate to appoint him at first (45) consul for 10 years, afterwards (44) dictator, and censor /or life. Since 48 he had borne the new official title Impera- tor, which denotes the possessor of the imperium, the concept of civil and military official power.' This included full control of the finances and the military power of the state, and also the right of coining money with the portrait of the ruler of the state. As prcefectus morum (censor) Csesar had the right of enlarging the senate ; as pontifex maximus he possessed the control of religious affairs ; as possessor since 48 of a power resembling that of the tribunes, he had the ini- tiative in legislation, and was the inviolable {sacrosanctus) protector and representative of the people. Accordingly the position and powers of the new democratic monarch were almost exactly analo- gous to those of the old Roman kings. The people retained, nevertheless, at least in form, a share of the sovereignty, all laws affecting the constitution requiring, as under the republic, to be ratified by the comitise, which were, however, easily controlled. The senate became again, what it had been under the kings, an advisatory council only. Csesar brought the number of members up to 900 and increased the number of qusestors from 20 to 40. Election to this office, it will be remembered (p. 132), admitted the holder to the senate. The democratic monarch, however, exercised to the utmost his right of appointing senators, and thereby gravely offended the nobility. Ex-centurions, Spaniards, Gauls, sons ot f reed- men, etc., found through him admission to the senate. The monarch had an extensive right of nomination at the elections of magistrates. Restoration of the old royal jurisdiction exercised by decision of the monarch alone, from whose sentence there was no appeal, — a right which, of course, was but rarely exercised (trial of Ligarius and of Deiotarus). In general the ordinary judicial system was retained. Pr£etors increased to 16. Reorganization of the military system. Creation of legati legionis 1 Cf. Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, IV. 468, note. 144 Ancient History. B. c. proprceiore, appointed by the iraperator. Reform of the financial ad- ministration. The system of tax-farming was exchanged for the im- position of direct taxes. Allotment of the Italian domains, particu- larly among the veterans. Wide-spread colonization in the provinces with the view at once of Latinizing the provinces, and of diminishing the number of proletarians in the capital. Commencement of mag- nificent buildings in Rome. New system of provincial administration for the protection of the provinces against the extortions of the gov- ernors. Sumptuary laws. Criminal legislation. Arrangement of the relations of debtor and creditor. Project of a war against the Parthians, to revenge the Roman de- feat under Crassus (p. 140) and add to the security of the eastern boundary of the empire. Conspiracy of some 60 republican aristo- crats against Csesar's life (M. Junius Brutus, C. Cassius. Longinus, C. Trebonius, Decimus Brutus, Tillius Cimher, etc.). 44. Assassination of Caesar during a session of the March 15. senate, which on that day was held by chance in a hall in the theatre of Pompeius. Csesar fell, pierced with 23 wounds, at the foot of a statue of Pompeius. For a moment the senate took the reins of government again, and decreed that Csesar's laws should continue in force, and offered an amnesty to his murderers. But the populace of the capital, incited by iHas funeral oration of M. Antonius, violently assaulted the conspira^ tors. The leaders of the conspirators departed for the provinces which the senate had assigned them : M. Brutus to Macedonia, Cassius to Syria, Decimus Brutus to Gallia cisalpina. In Rome M. Antonius (consul with Dolabella), having possession of Csesar's papers, assumed an uncontrolled power under pretext of executing the will of the dictator, and caused Macedonia, the prov- ince of M. Brutus, to he assigned to himself with five of the six legions which Csesar had dispatched thither for the Parthian war. Dolabella received Syria, the province of Cassius, while the provinces of Crete and Cyrene were assigned to M. Brutus and Cassius. Anto- nius, moreover, procured from the popular assembly the province of Gallia cisalpina, which the senate had refused him. In the hope of balancing the usurped power of Antonius, the senate entered into negotiations with the eighteen-year-old C. Octavius, Csesar's grand- nephew and adopted son, henceforward known as C. Julius Csesar Octavianus. The latter, who was beloved by his soldiers, took com- mand of two legions. Antonius, endeavoring to eject Decimus Bru- tus from his province of Gallia cisalpina, there broke out the so-called 44-43. War of Mutina. As was advocated by Cicero in the Philippics, Hirtius and Pansa, consuls for 43, and the young Octavianus as proprsetor, were sent against Antonius, who was besieging Decimus Brutus in Mutina (Modena). Pansa died at Bononia of a wound received in the first encounter ; Hirtius fell as victor in the 43. Battle of Mutina against Antonius, who was now declared an enemy of the state B- C. Roman History. 145 (^hostis). While Decimus Brutus followed him to Gallia cisalpina, Octavianus, now sole commander of the army which was originally the army of the senate, marched to Rome, and extorted his appoint- ment to the consulship, the repeal of the amnesty extended to the conspirators, and their sentence (lex Pedia). This accomplished, he took the field, in appearance, against Antonius, with whom he already had had secret negotiations. Meantime Decimus Brutus was abandoned by his troops, captured upon liis flight, and put to death at Antonius' command. At a meeting near Bononia, 43. The Second Triumvirate was formed Nov. avowedly for the " Organization of the State " (triumviri rei- publicos constituendoe) by Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepi- dus, the former maffister equitum of Csesar. This new assumption of power was ratified by a decree of the people for a period of five years. New proscriptions ; several hundred senators and 2000 equites outlawed and their property confiscated. Murder of Cicero. The triumvirs began 43-42. War against the republican party and crossed to Greece, where they were opposed by M. Bru- tus, who, despite the senate's decree, had taken possession of his province, and C. Cassius, who had defeated Dolabella in Syria and driven him to commit suicide. In the 42. Battle of Philippi in Thrace, Antonius, who coramanded the right wing, de- feated the left wing of the republican army under Cassius, while Brutus with the right wing of the republicans drove back Octavia- nus. Hearing a false report of the defeat of Brutus, Cassius caused one of his slaves to put him to death. Brutus, being defeated by Antonius in a second battle, killed kimself . Antonius ravaged the provinces of Asia and Syria, and then fol- lowed Cleopatra (p. 142), whom he had ordered to meet him at Tarsus, to Egypt. Meantime Octavianus, in Italy, was carrying out the promised allotments of land aicong the veterans. Quarrels between himself and the followers of Antonius led to the so-called 41-40. Civil war of Perusia between Octavianus and Lepidus on the one side and Lucius Antonius, the brother, and Fulvia, the wife of the triumvir, on the other. L. Antonius was compelled to surrender in Perusia. Octavia- nus, now supreme ruler of Italy, assumed the administration of Gaul and Spain, while Lepidus was put off with the government of Africa. Another civil war threatened, but was avoided by a compromise, which the death of Fulvia facilitated. Antonius married Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. The administration of the empire was divided between the triumvirs, so that 40. Octavianus received the west, Antonius the east, and Lepi- dus Africa. 39. In the following year, however, the triumvirs were obliged to make terms with Sextus Pompeius, who had created a naval 10 146 Ancient History. B. c. empire, with Sicily as the base, and had cut ofB the grain supplies from Rome. By the treaty of Misenum Sextus Pompeius received Sicily, • Sardinia, Corsica (?) and Peloponnesus, with the promise of a reim- bursement for the loss of his paternal property. Antonius went to the east, where he lived for the most part with Cleopatra in Egypt. He carried on, however, a war with the Par- thians, at first through his legate Ventidius (39), and afterwards in person (36), but without much success. New quarrels led to the 38-36. Sicilian war between the triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius. Ootavianus, aban- doned by both his colleagues, was obliged to conduct the war alone at first, and suffered great loss at sea. A difference between Octa^ vianus and Antonius was made up at a meeting in Tarentum, and Octavianus gave Antonius two Italian legions for the Parthian war, while Antonius placed 100 ships at the service of Octavianus against Sejctus Pompeius. By means of this reinforcement, Octavianus got the upper hand of Sextus, especially since M. Vipsanius Agrippa commanded his fleet. Sextus Pompeius, defeated by Agrippa at Mylm, fled to Asia and died in Miletus. In the mean time, Lepidus, who had landed in SicUy, demanded this island for himself. Aban- doned by his men, he was forced to surrender to Octavianus, who permitted him to retain the dignity of Pontifex Maximus, and sent him to Circeii. The administration of Africa was assumed by Octa- vianus. 35-33. Campaigns of Octavianus against the Alpine tribes, the Dal- matians, and the lUyrians. Antonius defeated Artavasdes, king of Armenia, captured him, and led him in triumph at Alex- andria. New disputes between Octavianus and Antonius. The latter pre- sented Cleopatra with Roman territory, and sent his wife Octavia, the sister of Octavianus, papers of separation. Octavianus procured a popular decree removing Antonius from his command and declaring war upon Cleopatra. 31-30. War between Ootavian and Ajitonius, also called Bellum A ctiacum. During the long delay of Antonius and Cleopatra in Ephesus, Athens, and at Patrce in Achaia, Octavianus completed his preparations and transported his army to Epirus. His fleet of 250 ships, under the command of Agrippa, defeated the fleet of Antonius and Cleo- patra, which outnumbered it, in the 31. Battle of Actium, Sept. 2 Cleopatra fled before the battle was entirely decided, and was followed by Antonius. The army of Antonius surrendered to Octavianus without a blow. 30. Octavianus went to Asia, where he entered upon his fourth con- sulship, returned for a short time to Italy by sea to repress a revolt, and then returned to his troops and marched through Syria to Egypt. Antonius, abandoned by his troops, Idlled himseU on hear- B. C. Soman History. 147 ing a false report of Cleopatra's death. The latter, when convinced that Octavian spared her only that she might grace his triumph in Rome, poisoned herself. Ootavianus made Egypt a Roman province. Ootavianus sole ruler, after the manner of Caesar (p. 143). 29. Octavianus celebrated three triumphs in Rome, and the temple of Janus was closed for the third time in Roman history .^ FIFTH PERIOD. Reigns of the Roman Emperors down to the Fall of the Western Empire.^ 31 (30) B. C.-476 A. D. B. C. A. D. 31-68. The five Jalii, or the descendants of Caesar's adopted son, 31-14. Caesar Octavianus Augustus. The surname Augustus (the Illustrious, the Sublime), which was given Octavianus by the senate in 27 B. c, is the name by which, as sole ruler of the Roman world, he is most commonly known ; it also became, like Princes,' Ccesar, Imperator (p. 143), the title of the Roman sovereigns. In later times Ccesar became a peculiar designa- tion of the appointed successor of a reigning Augustus. Augustus reduced the senate to 600 members and made a high census (one million sesterces) the necessary condition of admission. The consular office was retained in name, but was sometimes held for a series of years by the imperator ; sometimes granted, as a special distinction, to some one else for a short time (two months). The prcefectus urhi, having police and criminal jurisdiction, and the prcefectus prcetorio, commander of the standing body-guard of nine (afterwards ten) prsetorian cohorts, became the most important of- ficers. Division of Rome into 14, of Italy into 11, regiones. B. C. 27, new division of the provinces into senatorial, comprising those quiet provinces which could be administered without an army (Africa, Asia, Achaia, Illyricum, Macedonia, SicUia, Creta, with Cy- renaica, Bithynia, Sardinia, Hispania Baetica), and imperial, including those where an army was maintained, and which were administered by legates in the name of Augustus (Hispania Tarraconensis, Lusi- tania ; the four provinces of Gaul : Narbonensis, Lugdunensis, Aqui- tania, and Belgica ; Germania superior et inferior, Mcesia, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, ^gyptus").* Aerarium &nd Fiscus. Period of the highest development of Roman literature. Mcece- nas (t B. c. 8), friend of Augustus, patron and protector of the poets : P. Vergilius Maro (70-19 B. c), Q. Horatius Flaccus (65-8 b. c.) ; 1 Once under Numa, and once in 235. [Trans.] 2 Peter, Bom. Gesch. III.s, 1871, and Edm. Gesch. in Mrzerer Fasmng, 2d ed. 1878, p. 475 foil. s Frinceps was, it is true, not an ojfficial title. About the meaning of this de- signation and its relation to the dignity of the Princep) senatus, see Mar- quardt-Mommsen, -Kom. Mth. 11.^, 2, p. 750 foil. 1 Later many changes were made in this division. All provinces created after 27 B. c. were assigned to the emperor. 148 Ancient History. b. c. the elegiac poets, C. Valerius Catullus (87-S^ b.'c), Albius Tibullus (54^19 B. c. ?), S. Tropertius (49-15 B. c. ?) ; P. Ovidius Naso (born 43 B. c, 9 A. D. banished to Tomi on the Pontus Euxinus, f 17). The historian T. Livius (59 B. C.-17 A. D.) Family of Augustus. C. Julius Ceasar Octavianus Augustus, b. 63 b. c, f 14 A. D. Married : ' 1. Claudia. 2. Soribonia. 3. Livia. Tiberius and Drusus, Sons of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. Julia, t A. D. 14. Married : 1. Marcellus, 2. M. Vipsanius Agrippa. 3. Tiberius, son of Octavia. f B. o. 12. t B. c. 23. I I i i I I Gains Caesar. Lucius Csesar. Agrippina. Julia. Agrippa Posturiius. t A. D. 4. t A. D. 2. t A. D. 33. t A. D. 28. t A. D. 14. Julia (the elder) was banished to the island of Fandataria because of her excesses. Gains Ccesar and Lucius Ccesar were adopted by Augustus B. c. 17, and designated as his successors. Agrippina (the elder) married Oermanicus, son of Drusus, and became the mother of the younger Agrippina, the mother of Nero (p. 150). Agrippa Postumus, almost an idiot, was adopted, but afterward banished to the island of Planasia. Julia (the younger) was also banished. Tiberius, son of Livia by her first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, was adopted by Augustus, A. D. 4. 29. Mcesia subjugated (made a province in 16 B. c. ?). 27-25. Expedition of Augustus against the Cantabri and Astures, the operations against whom he was obliged, on account of sick- ness, for the most part to leave to his legates. 25. Expedition to Arabia, without results, conducted by C. jEUus Gallus, prefect of Egypt. Subjugation of the Alpine tribe of the Salassi. Foundation of Augusta Prcetoria (Aosta). 23. Augustus caused the senate to confer upon him for life the dig- nity of the tribunate, and the proconsular imperium in general. 22 and 21. Successful war against the Ethiopians, conducted by Pe- tronius, the successor of Gallus in Egypt. 20. Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians, whose king Phra- ates, upon hearing of the arrival of Augustus in Syria restored the Roman standards which had been taken from Crassus. Tigranes was reinstated in the kingdom of Armenia by Tibe- rius. 19. Subjugation of Spain completed by the conquest of the Cantabri and Astures. 15. After the subjugation of the tribes from the northern boundary of Italy to the Danube, Raetia was made a, Roman province, along with Vindelicia (Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg) and Noricum, B. o.-A. D. Roman History. 149 12-9. Starting from the left bank of the Rhine (Germania superior and Germania inferior, which had been constituted provinces in 27), Drusua undertook four campaigns in Germany proper, and led the Roman armies to the Weser and the Elbe. Drusus died upon the way back. 8-7. Tiberius, the brother of Drusus and his successor in the com- mand, after he had subjugated Pannonia (12-9), compelled a portion of the Germanic tribes on the right bank of the Rhine to recognize the supremacy of Rome. Birth of Christ (four years before the commencement of our era ?). 6-9. An attack made by Tiberius upon the Suevian kingdom of Mar- bod was interrupted by an insurrection of the Illyrian and Pan- nonian tribes, which were reduced to subjection only after a severe contest. 10. Pannonia (the S. W. portion of Hungary) made a Roman prov- ince. 9(?). Three Roman legions under Quintilius Varus annihilated in the Teutoburg forest, by Armiuius (Hermann ?), a leader of the Cherusci, and husband of Thusnelda. Lex Papia Poppcea and Lex Julia directed against celibacy. 14. Augustus died at Nola, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. 14-37. Tiberius {Claudius Nero), step-son of Augustus, by whom he had been adopted, a sus- picious despot. The (formal) right of ratifying laws transferred from the comitice to the senate. The law against high treason (de maiestate) was extended to include the most trivial offences offered the sover- eim. Rewards given to informers (delatores). Revolt of the legions on the Rhine, quelled by Germanicus, son of the elder Drusus, and of the legions in Pannonia quelled by the younger Drusus, son of Tiberius (Tacitus, Annates. I. 16-49). 14r-16. Three expeditions under Germanicus against the Germans. On the third attempt, which was made by sea, Drusus landed at the mouth of the Ems, and crossed the Weser. Roman victory in the battle on the Campus Idistaviso (according to Grimm, Idisiaviso, " meadow of the elves ") over Armiuius, between Minden and Hameln. In spite of the success of the Roman arms the right bank of the Rhine remained free (Tac. Ann. II. 5-26). 17. Grermanicus recalled from Germany, through the envy of Tibe- rius, and sent to the East, installed a king in Armenia, made Cappadocia a Roman province, and died (19) in Syria (of poi- son, administered by Piso ?). •23-31. Rule of the abandoned Sejanus, Tiberius' favorite. By uniting the prfetorian cohorts in one camp near Rome, Sejanus laid the foundation of the future power of tho prmtorians. 23- Sejanus poisoned Drums, son of Tiberius. 27. Tiberius took up his residence in Caprece (Capri). 29. Banishment of the elder Agrippina (f 33). — Livia f. 150 Ancient History. A. d. 31. Trial of Sejanus, who was executed in company with many others (accomplices ia the conspiracy ?). Macro succeeded Sejanus in the favor of Tiberius. 37-41. Caligula (properly, Gaius Ccesar Germanicus), youngest son of Germanicus, called by the soldiers Caligula (bootling), a cruel, half -crazy tyrant (fiderint, dum metuant 1). Selfi adoration. Bridge over the bay of Puteoli. Childish expedition with an immense army to the coast of Gaul (39-40), which ended with the collection of mussels (spolia oceani). After his murder the prsetorians proclaimed as imperator his uncle, 41-54. Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Nero), son of Drusus, younger brother of Germanicus, a weak- minded, vacillating prince, ruled by miserable favorites (the freed- men Nardsbiis and Pallas) and his wives: 1, the shameless Messalina, and, after he had caused her to be killed, 2, the ambitious Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus (Tacitus, Annales, XI. and XII.). 43. Commencement of the conquest of Britain under the command of A. Plautius and his legate, T. Flavins Vespasiamts ; the southern part of Britain became a Koman province (Tacitus, Agricola, 13, 14 ; Ann. XII. 31^0). During Claudius' reign the following provinces were incorporated : in Africa, Mawelania, Tingitana, and Mauretania Ccesariensis (42); in the east Lycia (43), Thracia (46), Judtsa, which had been a de- pendent kingdom 41^44, became m 44 a province again. Agrippina persuaded Claudius to adopt L. Domitius, her son by Cn. Domiiius (he took the name of NerO at his adoption), and to appoint him his successor in place of his own son by Messalina, Britannicus, whose sister Octavia was the promised wife of Nero. As Claudius showed signs of repenting of the adoption of Nero, Agrippina poisoned him. 54-68. Nero (Nero Claudius Ccesar Augustus Germanism), proclaimed imperator by the praetorians, was for the first five years of his reign under the guidance of the proefectus proeto- rio Burrus and his teacher L. Seneca, who prevented the iafluence of his mother Agrippina from becoming predominant. Law against informers. With Nero's passion for the freedwoman Acte, and afterwards for Poppcea Sabina, the opposition between himself and his mother grew stronger and stronger, and the list of his crimes began. He poisoned (55) his step-brother Britannicus, whom his mother had threatened to make imperator, had Agrippina put to death (59), drove from him his wife Octavia, whom he afterwards executed (62), and married Poppcea Sabina. Excesses and mad cruelty of Nero. He appeared in public as chariot-driver in the races, actor, and singer. Crawling servility of the senate (Tac. Ann. XIII.-XVI.). 61. Revolt in Britain, suppressed by Suetonius Paulinus. 58-63. War with the Parthians and Armenians. After the capture and destruction of Artaxata, Domitius Corbulo forced King Tiridates of Armenia to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. ■*■■ D. Roman History. 151 64. A fire of six days' duration, followed by another lasting three days, destroyed a large part of Rome (set by Nero's command, in order that he might rebvuld the city more beau- tifully ?). Nero accused the Jews and the communities of Christians of setting fire to the city. 64. • First persecution of the Christians.^ Re-building in Rome, on a large scale. The palace of Nero (domus aurea) occupied the entire Palatine and extended to the Esquiline. 65. Conspiracy of Piso discovered (Seneca f). 68. Revolt in Gaul (C Julius Vindex) and in Hispania citerior, where the governor Sulpicius Galba, then 73 years of age, was proclaimed and acknowledged imperator. Nero fled and killed himself on the estate of one of his freedmen in the neighbor- hood of Rome. 68-69. Galba {Servius Sulpicius Galba), June-nJan. whose avarice soon gained him the hatred of his soldiers (Tao. Hist. I.), and who became the victim of the revolt of 69. Otho (Marcus Salvius Otho Titianus), Jan.-Apr. once a favorite of Nero's (Tac. Hist. I. II.) The legions on the Rhine had already proclaimed as imperator 69- YiteUius .(Aulus Vitellius), Apr.-Dec. who defeated Otho in the neighborhood of Cremona, entered Rome and made the city the scene of his senseless gluttony and extravagance. (Tac. Hist. II., III.) 69-96- The three Flavian emperors. 69-79. Vespasianus {Titus Flavius Vespasianus) proclaimed imperator through the influence of Licinius MmA- anus, governor of Syria, at first in Alexandria, afterwards by his own legions and those of Syria in Palestine, where he was conducting the war against the Jews who had been in revolt since 66. Vespasianus transferred the military command to his son, Titus, and went to Rome, after a long stay at Alexandria, to find that his adherents had already put Vitellius to death. Restoration of discipline in the army and order in the finances. Reorganization of the senate. 69-71. Revolt of the Batavians under Julius (Claudius ?) C3ivilis (Tac. Hist. IV.), one of their leaders of royal descent. The insurgents at first declared that they took up arms not against the Roman empire, but against Vitellius, and for Vespasianus. Thus they gained the assistance of a large part of the Roman soldiers in those parts. Claudius Civilis repeatedly defeated the Romans, and, reinforced by Germans from the other side of the Rhine, thirsting for booty, he advanced far int^ Gaul. A great part of the GraUic tribes joined I But see Orerbeok, Studien z. Gesch. d. alien Kirche, Pt. 1, p. 93 foil. 152 Ancient History. A. Di him, and for a moment he dreamed of founding an independent Grallic Empire. When once Vespasian's power in Kome was secure, however, Cerealis, favored by the quarrels which had broken out between the allied Batavians, Gauls, and Germans, put an end to the revolt, and again reduced all Gaul under the Roman supremacy. 70. Capture of Jerusalem by Titus (p. 12). Triumphal arch of Tatus in Borne. Erection of the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Col- osseum). 78. Agricola, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, made prepara- tions for the complete subjugation of Britain. Vespasianus was succeeded by his son, 79-81. Titus {Titus Flavius Vespasianus), called, because of his admirable qualities, aTnor et delicioe gen- eris humani. Punishment of informers. 79. Eruption of Vesuvius. Herculaneum buried by mud, Pompeii by ashes and mud. Death of the elder Plinius, the leader of the Roman fleet at Misenum. 80. Fire and plague in Rome. Titus was succeeded by his brother, 81-96. Domitianus (Titus Flavius Domitiarius) , a cowardly, cruel despot. He undertook a campaign against the Chatti (83), but returned without having seen a foe, notwithstand- ing which he celebrated a triumph. During his reign the construc- tion of the Roman boundary wall between the Rhine and the Danube was commenced. It was guarded by soldiers, who were settled upon public land along its course {agri decumates). 81-84. Successful campaigns of Agricola in Britain, whereby the Roman power was extended as far as Scotland. Agricola recalled by Domitian through envy. 86-90. Unsuccessful wars against the Dacians. Domitian bought peace of Decebalus by a yearly tribute. 93. Death of Agricola (poisoned by order of Domitian ?). Cruel persecution of the Jews, Christians, and philosophers. 96. Domitianus murdered by the freedman Stephanus, the empress, who was in fear of her own life, and the prsef ectus prsetorio, Petronius Secundus, being cognizant of the crime. 96-192. Nerva and his adopted family. 96-98. Nerva (Marcus Cocceius Nerva), a senator 64 years of age, was raised to the throne by the mur derers of Domitian. He repealed the law of treason, re called the exiles, and reduced the taxes. He adopted and appointed as his successor 98-117. Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus), governor of the province of Germania inferior, born in the Roman colony of Italica in Spain, the first occupant of the throne of the Csesars who was not an Italian. Excellent ruler and general. Magnifleent buildings in Rome (i^oruBl Traianutn) and throughout the empire. A. D. Soman History. 153 101-102. First war against the Dacians, in consequence of Trajan's refusal to pay the tribute promised by Domitian. Trajan crossed the Danube, captured the fortress of the king Deceba- lus and forced him to make peace and cede a portion of his territory. 105-107. In the second war against the Dacians Trajan built a stone bridge across the Danube (at Tumu Severinu), crossed the stream, defeated and subdued the Dacians. Decebalus- killed himself. Magnificent games at Rome, wherein 10,000 gladiators are said to have appeared. Dacia, that is Wallachia, Moldau, Eastern Hungary, and Transyl- vania {Siebenbiirgen), made a Roman province. Settlement of nu- merous colonists in Dacia, from whom the present Koumanians de- rive their descent. It would be more correct to say their language only, the Roumanian or Daco -Romanic, which prevails in Wal- lachia, Moldau and a part of Transylvania. The column of Trajan at Rome completed in 113. The governor of Syria took possession (105) of the region E. and S. of Damascus and of Judasa to the northern end of the Red Sea, as the Roman province of Arabia.^ 114-116. Wars of Trajan with the Parthians. Chosroes, nephew of the Partliian king, driven from Armenia. Armenia, Meso- potamia, Assyria, including Babylonia, made Roman provinces. Trajan, favored, as it seems, by internal troubles in the Parthian monarchy, conquered Seleucia and Ctesiphon on the Tigris, and sailed down the river to the Persian Gulf. Trajan, having appointed a king over the Parthians, started upon his return, but died at Selinus (Trajanopolis) in Cilicia. 117-138. Hadrian (Fublitis ^lius Hadrianus), adopted by Trajan (?). A lover of peace, an excellent ad- ministrator, learned and vain. Hadrian abandoned the new provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, so that the Euphrates formed the eastern boundary of the Roman empire. He restored quiet in MoEsia, and strengthened his power by the execution of those who conspired against him. 121. Hadrian began his progress through all the provinces of the em- pire, with a visit to Gaul. Magnificent buildings : in Rome the Moles Hadriani, on the site of the present Castle of St. Angelo, and the double temple of Venits and the goddess Roma, and the Athenceum ; in Athens, the city of Hadrian (the Olympieum completed). Magnificent vUla at Tibur (Tivoli). In Britain a wall of defence was built against the Picts and Soots. Collection of the edicts of the pra;tors (edictum perpetuum) com- menced by the jurist Salvius Julianus. 132-135. Revolt of the Jews on account of the foundation of the colony of jElia Capitolina (p. 12). Hadrian had adopted, during a fit of sickness, L. JElius Verus, and I That is, Arabia Fetrcea, so called from its capital, Petra, not the whole peninsula of Arabia. Kiepert, Atlas. Ant, Tab. XII. 154 Ancient History. A. D. appointed him Cmsar (p. 147) ; but as Vems died before him he adopted T. Awelius Antoninus under the condition that the latter should adopt in place of a son his" nephew, the young M. Annius Verm, under the name of Marcus Aurelius, and L. Commodus Verus, the son of the deceased Csesar, ^lius Verus. 138-161- Antoninus Pius {Titus Aurelius Antoninus Pius). Peaceable reign, during which the borders were, however, vigorously defended against the attacks of the barbarians. Antoninus had his adopted son, M. Aurelius, educated by phil- osophers of the Stoic school. 161-180. Marcus Aurelius {Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), a wise and active sovereign, highly educated (pupU of Corne- lius Fronto), a Stoic philosopher. Until 169 he reigned in common with his brother by adoption, the dissipated Iiucius Varus. 162-165. War against the Parthians under the command of L. Verus, who, however, soon gave himself up to dissipation in Antiochia, while his legatees carried on the war with success, conquered Artaxaia, appointed a king in Armenia, and burned Seleucia and Ctesiphon. A part of Mesopotamia was again made a Koman province. 166. Plague and famine in Italy. 166-180. War with the Marcoramani and Quadi. Marcus Aurelius fought with various fortune against the barbarians, who con- stantly made new attacks. During a short peace with the bar- barians, conquest of the rebel Avidius Cassius in Syria, 175. Triumph in Rome, 176. The senate erected an equestrian statue in his honor, which stiU adorns the Capitol. Before he had succeeded in making the boundaries of the empire along the Danube secure, he died in Vinddbona (Vienna). He was succeeded by his degenerate son 180-192. Commodus, who bought peace of the Germans at the price of a tribute, entrusted the government for the most part to the prsef ectus praetorio, abandoned himself to his inclination for dissipation and cruelty, and was finally murdered by his intimates. 193-284. Imperators for the most part appointed by the soldiers. 193. Pertinax, strict and economical, murdered after three months by the prsetorians, who placed on the throne in his stead 193. Didius Julianus, who, among aU competitors, promised them the largest present. The lUyriau legions proclaimed 193-211. Septimius Severus, who was recognized by the senate and maintained himself A. D. Roman History. 155 against the other pretenders (Pescennim Niger in the East, Clodius Alhinus in Craxii). Successful campaigns in Mesopotamia. Improve- ments in the administration of Justice through the Jurist Papinianus. In 208 expedition to Britain against the Scots. Restoration of the Roman wall, which had been partially destroyed. Septimius Sev- erus died in Eboracum (York). His son, 211-217. Caraoalla (Antonimts Bassiamis) murdered his half-brother and co-regent Geta along with thousands of his adherents, among whom was Papinianus. By the Constitutio Antoniana Roman citizenship was conferred upon all inhabitants of the provinces, /or the sake of the higher taxaticm which could then be imposed. Systematic plundering of the provinces, unsuccessful wars against the Goths (wrongly called Getce) in Dacia, cruel treatment of the inhabit- ants of Alexandria. Plundering expedition against the Farthians. Murder of Caracalla. His successor, 217. Macrinus, purchased peace from the Parthians. The soldiers proclaimed as imperator the fourteen-year-old 218-222. Elagabalus (the form Heliogabalus is a corruption), priest of the sun at Emesa in Syria, who was put forward as the son of Caracalla. He gave himself up to the most infamous de- bauchery ; the government was conducted by his mother and grandmother. He adopted his cousin, the young Bassiamis Alexianus, who succeeded to the throne after the murder of Elagabalus by the praetorians, under the name of 222-235. Severus Alexander. Excellent ruler, advised by the jurists Domitius Ulpianus and Julius Paullus. His strictness with the soldiers led to several mutinies, in one of which Ulpianus was murdered. 226. In consequence of the dissolution of the Parthian monarchy of the Arsacidse and the foundation of the ne'w Persian em- pire of the Sassanidae by Artakshatr (Artaxares, corrupted into Artaxerzes, new Persian, Ardeshir), a descendant of Sassan, a new war broke out in the East, which Severus Alexander carried on, ac- cording to the Roman historian Lampridius, with success ; according to the Grecian Herodian, unsuccessfully. At all events there seems to have been an armistice in 233. After the murder of Severus Alex- ander on the Rhine the soldiers raised to the throne 235-238. Maximinus Thrax, a Thracian of extraordinary size and strength. Expedition across the Rhine ; German townships laid waste. Meanwhile the legions in Africa proclaimed the senator, 237. Gordianus I., then eighty years old, imperator. He appointed his son, Gor- dianus II., co-regent. They were both defeated by the prsefect of Mauretania: the son fell in the battle, the father put himself to death. 156 Ancient History. A. d. The senate at Borne, which had already taken sides against Maximi- nus Thrax, elected the senators Pupienus Maximus and Cselius Bal- binus, Augusti, to whom was added, at the people's demand, the thirteen-year-old grandson of Gordianus I. Maximirms Thrax was killed by his own soldiers at the siege of A quUeia. The praetorians at Rome murdered the two imperators appointed by the senate, Piir- pienus and Balbinus, so that the young 238-244. Gordianus III. was left sole imperator. A new war with the Persians (241). The young imperator married the daughter of the veteran Mieitheus (Timesitheus),-whoia he made praefectus prsetorio, and whose guidance he followed. After the death of his father-in-law Gordianus was murdered by the new prsef eotus prsetorio, 244-249. Philippus Arabs, whom he had been obliged to accept as co-regent in 243 at the demand of the soldiers. Peace with Persia. Philippus returned to Rome (became a Christian in secret ?). 248. Celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the f omidation of Rome. Revolt of the Mcesian and Pannonian legions, which proclaimed one of their officers imperator. 249-251. Deoius, whom Philippus sent to quell the mutiny, was compelled by the legions to assume the title of imperator. He defeated and killed Philippus in the battle of Verona. 250. General persecution of the Christians. Martyrdom of Fabianus, bishop of Rome. Decius defeated the Goths, who were plundering Thrace, but fell in battle after he had followed them across the Danube. The legions elected 251-253. GaUus, who soon had his co-regent, Hostilianus, son of Deoius, put to death. Destructive pestilence in almost all parts of the em- pire. GaUus was deposed by the conqueror of the Goths, 253. .^milianus, who after four months was killed by the soldiers. He was succeeded by 253-260. Valerianus, the general of the legions in Gaul and Germania. He ap- pointed his son, Gallienus, co-regent, and both carried on the war with the German bands, who were constantly making new inroads, espe- cially the Franks in Gaul, the Alamanni, who invaded northern Italy but were driven back at Mediolanum, and the Goths on the Danube. Unsuccessful expedition of Valeriamis against the Persians ; defeated at Edessa, he was captured, and at the age of seventy carried about as the slave of King Artaxerxes. His reign and that of his son, A. D. Roman History. 157 260-268. GaUienus, was disturbed by the appearance of a great number of pretend- ers to the throne, and by the invasions of the barbarians, particularly of the Goths, who came in ships from the Black Sea. Confusion tliroughout the empire ; the so-called "time of the thirty tyrants." Two pretenders only maintained themselves for any length of time, Tetricus in Gaul and Spain, and Odenathus (of Palmyra) in Syria. The latter wrested Mesopotamia from Persia, and was recognized by Gallienus as co-regent for the East. After the murder of Odenathus (267) his consort, Zenobia, ruled in Palmyra. Gallienus laid siege to Mediolanum, which had been occupied by the pretender Aureolus, and was there murdered by contrivance of the latter. Aureolus was put to death by 268-270. Claudius II.. whom the soldiers raised to the throne. He defeated the Al»- manni and the Goths, and was succeeded by 270-275. Aurelianus. He concluded peace with the Goths by the sacrifice of the province of Dacia. The Danube was henceforward the boundary of the empire ; the greater part of the Roman colonists were transported to Moesia, a part of which was now called Dacia (^Aureliana). Aure- lian repulsed the Alamanni and Marcomanni, who had made an inroad into Italy (victory on the Metaurus), and began the erection of a new wall around Rome, which included the enlarged imperial city (271, completed in 276). He defeated Zenobia in two battles, at Aniiochia and at Edessa, subdued Syria, besieged and destroyed Palmyra, cap- tured Zenobia, and reconquered Egypt (273). Having thus subdued the East, he turned against Tetricus in Gaul, whom he defeated and captured at Chalons (274). Aurelian, rightly called "Restorer of the universal Empire " (Restitutor Orbis), was murdered on an expedition again.st the Persians. At the request of the army the senate elected the senator 275. Tacitus imperator. He defeated the Alani, who had invaded Asia Minor, but died after three months. His brother Florianus, who attempted to secure the succession, was defeated by 276-282. Probus, who drove back the Franks, Burgundians, Alamanni and Van- dals, entered Germany, and strengthened the wall between the Rhine and Danube (p. 152). He enrolled a large number of Germans as mercenaries in the Roman army, and employed the soldiers in drain- ing swamps and building canals and roads, for which reason he was murdered by them. The praefectus prsetorio, 282-288. Carus, succeeded. He appointed his sons Carinus and Numerianus Ciesars, and afterwards Augusti, conquered the Sarmatians, and per- 158 Ancient History. a. d. ished (struck by lightning ?) on an expedition against the Persians, after having captured Ctesiphon; 284. Numerianus, who had accompanied his father to the East, was murdered by his father-in-law. 284. Carinus, who had remained in the West, fought at first with success against 284-305. Diocletianus, who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. Carinus was ultimately murdered by his own troops. Diocletian, who created an oriental court at Nicomedia in Bithynia, and thence ruled the East, entrusted the administration of afEairs in the 285. West to the brave Maximianus, as his co^egent or Augustus, who took up his residence for tlie most part in Mediolanum (Milan). 292. Diocletian appointed two more Vcesars : 1. Constantius Cblorus, who was obliged to divorce his wife Helena and marry the step-daughter of Maxindanus, received the government of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, and dwelt commonly in Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), while Maximianus was appointed to the fovernment of Italy and Africa. 2. Galerius, who became •iocletian's son-in-law, and received the government of Illyri- cum, including Macedonia and Greece. 296. Diocletian subdued the revolt of Egypt. Constantius sup- pressed a revolt in Britain. Galerius fought against the Persians, unsuccessfully in the first year, but in the second (297) he gained an important victory, and extended the frontiers to the Tigris again. Mazimianus suppressed an insurrection in Africa. Con- stantius defeated the Alamanni. 303. General persecution of the Christians, which Constantius discouraged in his province. 305. Diocletian abdicated and retired to SaloncE in Dalmatia, after he liad obliged Maximianus also to resign his dignity. Constantius and Galerius were raised to Augusti. At the desire of Galerius, the claims of Constantinus, son of Constantius, and of Maxentius, son of Maximianus, being passed over, Severus and Masiminus were appointed Csesars, the iirst receiv- ing Italy and Africa, the second Syria and Egypt. 306. After the death of Constantius in Britain, his son (by Helena), Constantine, assumed the administration of his father's prov- inces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the title of Caesar. He fought successfully with the Franks and Bructeri. Meanwhile the prsetorians at Rome chose Masentius imperator, where- upon his father, Ma:siniiauus, reassumed the dignity he had imwillingly resigned. The empire had thus six rulers, three Augusti and three Caesars. 307. The Caesar Severus, having been created Augustus by Gale- rius, went to Italy to attack Maxentius, but was deserted by his soldiers and put to death at Ravenna. Galerius appointed Licin- *• ^' Roman History. 159 ius co-regent and Augustus in his stead, and Conatantine therefore assumed the same title, so that there were now six Auqusti in the empire. 310. In the struggle that followed, the aged Maximianus was cap- tured m Massiliaand put to death by command of Constantine. Galerius died of disease (311). War between Maxentius and Constantine. The latter issued edicts ^ j°^S^ *'^^ Christians. Maxentius was defeated at Turin 612. and at Saxa rubra, four miles from Rome, by Constantine (Hoc signo vinces !), and perished by drowning as he attempted to cross the Tiber. Constantine became the protector of the Christians, but re- ma,med up to his death a catechumen. 313. Alliance between Constantine and Licinius, who married Constantine^s sister. Constantine took the field against the Franks, Licinius against Maximinus, who was defeated, and killed himself in Tarsus ; so that now 313-323. Constantine and Licinius were the only rulers in the empire, the former in the West, the latter in the East. In 314, however, they were embroiled in conflict. Licinius, defeated in two encounters, was obliged to cede Illyricum, Macedonia, and AcTiaia to Constantine. 323. Second war between Constantine and Licinius. The latter, de- feated at Adrianople and Chalcedon, surrendered in Nicomedia, and was executed (324) by Constautine's command. 323-337. Constantine (the Great) sole ruler. Christianity recognized by the State and favored at tho expense of paganism. 325. First general (oecumenic) Council of the Church at Nicaea, in Bithynia. Arianism, i. e. the doctrine of Arius ('Apeios), formerly a presbyter in Alexandria, according to which Chiist was not of the same nature, but of like nature only (i/toio^o-ioy), with God the Father, was rejected, and the doctrine of Atkanasius of Alexandria, according to which Christ was of the same nature (ifiooiaLos, consub- stantialis) with God the Father, was declared a dogma of the Church by the Symbolum Niccenum. 330. Constantine selected Byzantium (Nova Roma, Constantino- polis) for the capital. The empire was redistricted. The four great prefectures, Oriens, Illyricum orientale, Italia, Gallia, were divided into 13 dioceses, these into 116 provinces.^ New hierarchy of officials, 7 superior court offices. Council of state (consistorium pririn cipis). New arrangement of the taxes. Cruelty of Constantine in his family. His eldest son, Crispus, and one of his nephews executed through the plots of his wife, Fausta, who was herself put to death. Constantine, before his death, divided the administration of the empire among his three sons as Augusti, and two nephews as Ccesars. After his death, in Bithynia, the two Caesars were put to death by Constantius. The three sons of Constantine redivided the empire at Constantinople. 1 Klepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. XII. 160 Ancient History. A. i\ 337-340. Constantinus II. received the "West (the prefecr tures of Italia, Gallia, and a part of Africa). 337-361. Constantius received the East, the prefecture 337-350. Constans received the prefectures of Illyricum orientale and a part of Africa. Constantius carried on a long and indecisive war with the Persians. Constantinus II. attacked his brother Constans, and fell at Aquileia. In 350 Constans also died, so that Constantius, after the conquest of the usurper Magnentius (353), again united the whole empire. Julianus, a cousin of the emperor, who was appointed Caesar, fought success- fully with the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks, and assigned the Salian Franks lands in northern GaiU. Constantius died on an expe- dition against 361-363. Julianus, who had been proclaimed Augustus by the legions. He is known as the apostate (apostatd), because he was an adherent of the heathen philosophy and abandoned Christianity, hoping to bring about a reaction in favor of the heathen cult, which he wished restored in a purified form. Julianus defeated the Alamanni and the Franks, re- stored the fortresses which had been erected against them along the frontier, and defeated the Persians at Ctesiphon, but died of a wound on his return. The soldiers raised the Christian 363-364. Jovianus, to the throne. He ceded the greater part of Mesopotamia to the Persians. Christianity reinstated in the privileges which Con- stantino had granted. After the sudden death of Jovianus the legions raised 364^375. Valentinianus I. to the throne. He appointed as co-regent first his brother, 364-378. Valens, an Arian, who governed the East from Constantinople, and afterwards, for the West, his son, 367-383. Gratianus, who, upon his father's death, acknowledged as co-regent for the administration of the West Ms four-year-old half-brother, 375-392. Valentinian II., who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. 375. Beginning of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes (p. 170). 378. After the death of Valens at Adrianople in battle against the West Goths, Gratianus created the heathen A. D. Roman History. 161 379-395. Theodosius co-regent, and entrusted him with the administration of the East. Theodosius became a Christian after his recovery from a severe iUness, fought successfully against the West Goths, but was obliged to accept them as allies (foederati) in their abodes in Mcesia and Thrace. Gratianus fell in battle against the imperator proclaimed by the legions in Britain, 383-388. Cilemens Maximus, whom Theodosius' recognized as co-regent under the condition • that he should leave Italy in the hands of the young Valentinian II. In 387 Maximus drove Valentinian from Italy. He fled to Theodo- sius, who, returning with him, captured Clemens Maximus at Aqui- leia, and executed him. 390. Insurrection in Thessalonica, cruelly punished by Theodosius (7000 executions). On this account bishop AmbrosiuB of Milan, eight months later, excluded the emperor from Christian com- munion, until he had done penance. 392. After the murder of Valentinian II. by Arhogastes, and after the new imperator, Eugenius, whom Arhogastes set up, had 394. fallen at Aquileia in battle with Theodosius, and Arhogastes had put himself to death, the -whole empire was, for the last time, reunited under 394-395. Theodosius. After his death the division of administration into an eastern and a western section, which had existed for a himdred years, became a permanent division of the empire. 395-1453. Arcadius received the Eastern empire, also called the Byzantine or Grecian empire. Imperial vicar, Rujmus. Capital Byzantium or Constantinople.. The 395-476. Western empire, capital Rome, Ravenna im- perial residence after 402, mider 395-423. Honorius. Guardian and chancellor, the Vandal Stilicho, murdered in 408 by command of Honorius to whom he had been defamed. After the death of Honorius the usurper 424. Joannes reigned for a short time, but was finally over- thrown with the assistance of the Eastern empire and the six- year-old 425-455. Valentinian III. made imperator, the government being conducted at first by his mother Pladda, sister of Honorius, in his name. Valen- tinian was murdered by 455. Petronius Maximus, who married Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian, but was killed shortly before the capture of Rome by the Vandals (p. 173). 11 162 Ancient History. A. d. The throne was usurped by 455-556. Avitus who was soon deposed by Recimir, a military leader of the German mercenaries in the Roman army. Recimir placed upon the throne 457-461. Majorianus, whom he afterwards deposed in favor of 461-465. Libius Severus, after whose deposition (?) 465-467. Recimir conducted the government without the pretence of an imperial figure-head until 467 when he placed 467^72. Anthemius upon the throne, who was succeeded by 472. Olybrius. Recimir and his sovereign dying this year, the Eastern court interposed and placed 473. Glycerius on the throne of the West, who was succeeded by 473-475. Julius Nepos, also by appointment of the emperor of the East. In 475 Orestes, a leader among the mercenaries, placed his son 475-476. Romulus Augustulus upon the throne, who, combining in his name that of Rome's first king and first emperor, became the last of the imperial line in the West, being deposed by 476. Odovaker {Odoacer), military leader of the Heruli and Rugii, who made himself ruler (not king) of Italy, and was recognized by the Eastern emperor Zeno as patricius of Rome and prefect of Italy (p. 173). § 4. TEUTONS. Aryan. Geography: The Teutonic race has occupied three regions in Europe. I. Germany comprises Central Europe, the slope from the Alps N. to the sea. It may be roughly bounded as follows : N. German Ocean, Baltic ; E. a vague line indicated by the Vistula, and the Car- pathian Mts. ; S. the Alps ; W. the Rhine. This region falls into three physical divisions : 1. The broad and lofty chain of the Alps divided mto the Swiss Alps on the W. and the Tyrolese Alps on the E., whose deep valleys fostered the rise of small independent communities (p. 245 ). Mont Blanc (14,748 ft.), Monte Rosa, Jungfrau, etc., Laie <3e«e»a. Lake Constance, Lake of Lucerne (VierwaldsttUtesee), etc. 2. A broad upland extending two thirds of the way from the Alps to the sea, and embracing the present Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Bohemia, Sax- B- c.-A. D. Teutons. 163 ony, Saxon duchies, Hesse, etc. 3. A low plain reaching to the sea, and including the present Holland, Hanover, Prussia, etc. Modern Germany comprises 2 and 3. The peninsula of Denmark has belonged, in historic times, politically to Scandinavia and Germany. Tlirough the middle of Germany a range of low mountains extends from S.E. to N.W. from the Jura in France to the Carpathians in Hungary. This range, known to the Romans as Hercynia siloa, in- cludes the Jura, Vosges, Schwarzwald (Black Forest) Taunm, Thuringer Wnld, Erz Gebirge, Riesen Gebirge, Sudetes, and forms an arc whose convex side is turned toward the W. and N. The valley of the Dan- ube S. of this range; and the depression on its northern base extend- ing from the Lahn to the middle Elbe (the old commercial route be- tween Frankfort o. M. and Leipsic), are the two natural roads which give the East access to western Europe. Other mountain groups : Bohemian Forest, forming the S.E. border of Bohemia, Harz, N. of the Frankfort road. Rivers : S. the Danube, flovring into the Black Sea ; N. the Rhine, with its branches Neckar, Main, etc., Enis, Weser, Elbe, flowing into the German Ocean ; Oder, Vistula flowing into the Baltic. The Roman provinces Rcetia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, occu- pied the Alps and the southern bank of the Danube. Germania superior and inferior were Gallic provinces on the left bank of the Upper and Lower Rhine. To Germany proper, which was never a province of the empire, the Romans applied the name, Germania magna. II. ScandinaTia, the great peninsula jutting W. and S. from the north of Europe. It falls into two divisions : 1. A rugged, moun- tainous region on the W., with deeply indented coasts (Norway). 2. On the E. a less mountainous region with numerous rivers flowing into the Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia (Sweden). The southern part of Scandinavia was known to the Romans imder the name Scandia, and was thought to be an island. III. The British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176. Iithnology : I. According to the theory of the Asiatic origin of the Aryans, the Teutonic migration followed the Celtic and preceded that of the Slavs. The Teutons, or Germans, appear to have taken the northern route and to have first settled along the coast, on the plain, and in the northern portion of the plateau. The valley of the Danube and Bohemia were early occupied by Celtic tribes, and it was only gradually that these were dispossessed by the invading Ger- mans. Whether the Teutons entered Germany in two bands, is not clear ; certain it is that from a very early time a radical difference has existed in language and customs among the Germans, whereby tbey are divided into High Germans, inhabiting the inland plateau, and Low Germans, dwelling on the coast. The Romans divided the Germans (Germaniy either into two sec- tions, the Sueui and the non-Suevi (Csesar), or into three branches which were named after the sons of " Mannus, the son of the earth-born god Tuisco," Istoevones, Ingasvones, Herminones. The former division 1 The origin of this name is doubtful. See the disputed passage in Taoitua, Germania, 2. 164 Ancient History. b. c.-a. d. is thought to coirespond to that of High (Sumi) and Low Germans ; the latter answers territorially to the fusions of tribes which later formed the Franks, Saxons, and Thuringians. Of the separate tribes may be mentioned: I. Non-Suevi: Istsevones, Vbii, Usipii, Tencterii, Sugavfibri, Marsi, on the right bank of the Rhine where we find later the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks; lugaevones, Batavians, Fri- sians, Saxons, Chauci, Cimbri, along the coast from the Rhine to the right bank of the Elbe. II. Suevi, Chatti, in Hessen, Cherusci on the Upper Weser, Hemmnduri in Thuringia, extending as far as the Danube (these three were included under the Herminones), Marc- omanni in Bohemia (see below), Qmdi on the Danube, Semnones, the centre of what seems to have been a very loose political organization of the Suevi, between the Elbe and Oder, Langdbardi, Rugii in the northeast toward the Vistula, Burgundktnes on the Oder, Guttmes (later Goths) extending beyond the Vistula, Vandali, Alani (7). In Denmark dwelt the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, until the fifth century A. D., when a large part of these tribes migrated to England, and their place was taken by Danes from the islands on the E. II. Scandinavia was occupied by Finnish tribes (^Sitones), from the TS., and by invading Germans from the S. at an unknown time : OautCB (Goths), Sueones (Swedes) in Sweden ; Northmen in Norway. III. British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176. Keligion : The religion of the Teutonic race was a pantheistic nature worship. I. Germans : Beyond the unsatisfactory passages in Csesar (Bell. Gall. VI. 21) and Tacitus (Germariia 9, 10, etc.), aU our knowledge of the ancient religion of the Germans before the introduction of Roman civilization and of Christianity is derived by inference from later sources, or from the younger but much fuUer mythology of Scandinavia. Among the great gods (Ases) of the Germans were: Woden (Odin in the north), the "all-father"; Donar (Thor), his son, at once the storm-god, and the god of agri-. culture ; Zio or Thiu (Tyr) also a sou of Woden, god of war ; Pro (Freyr), god of love ; Paltar (Baldur), god of justice ; Nerthus or Hertha (Frau Bertha), the earth ; Frau'wa (Freya), sister of Pro ; Priga (Fria), wife of Woden ; Helia (Hel) goddess of the lower regions. Below the Ases were the Giants, the Nomes or fates, the Walkyres or messengers of the gods. In the realm of lower mythology the German imagination was remarkably fertile. Fairies, cdbolds, elves, nixes, abounded, and still live in childrens' tales, and the many popular fancies which the modem study of folk lore has revealed. The Germans had no corporation of priests like that of the Druids, though the priests and priestesses of certain divinities stood in high honor. Their worship consisted in the repetition of formal invocations, and in the offering of sacrifices, prisoners being often immolated to the gods. Woods and trees were held in special reverence and often devoted to the performance of worship beneath their branches. Cer- tain days were set apart for the worship of certain deities, whose names have come down to us in the names of the days of the week. Tuesday (Thiu'sdag), Wednesday (Woden'sdag), Thursday (Thor's- dag, Donnerstag), Friday (Freya'sdag). Some of the customs of B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 165 these reonxring festivities were afterwards impressed into the service of Christianity. Such was the decoration of trees with flower- wreaths and candles, now a part of Christmas rites,* and such the colored eggs in a " hare's nest," now an Easter custom, but originally an offering to some heathen divinity. Divinations by flight of birds, neighing of horses, throwing sticks, etc. n. Scandinavia : The faith of the northern Teutons was one of the most remarkable of the heathen religions, and one of the last in Europe to yield to Christianity. After bemg long transmitted by hearsay the northern mythology was first committed to writing in. the poem of the Elder Edda m the twelfth, or as, some scholars hold, in the thirteenth century. The poem is supplemented by the com- mentary known as the Younger Edda, viritten bv Snorri Sturluson (117S-1241). In the beginning existed the All-Father. In chaos (Ginungagap) he created two worlds, Niflheim, the ice-world, in the north, and Muspelheim, the flre-world, where sat Surt with the flaming sword, in the south. Midway of the two their opposing influences produced the giant Ymer, who became the progenitor of the evil race of frost- giants (Hrymthurses). Ymer was fed by the nulk of the cow Avd- humbra, who licked the ice-blocks and set free the god Bure, to whom a giant's daughter bore three sons, Odin, Vile, and Ve. These three slew Ymer, in the deluge of whose blood perished aU the frost-giants, save two, who became the ancestors of a new race of frost-giants. Of the body of Ymer the gods formed the universe, the earth, the sky and the stars. Dwarfs were the earliest inhabitants of the earth. After- wards the first man and woman were created from two trees. The universe thus formed comprised nine worlds. Of these the highest was Muspelheim, in whose highest part was Gimle, the abode of the blest. Below Muspelheim was Asaheim, or Godheim, where dwelt the great gods (Asa) in their capital, Asgard, with its lofty halls, the fairest of which was Valhal, the hall of Odin. Below Godheim was Mannaheim, or Midgard, the earth, a disk of land sur- rounded by the ocean and held together by the Midgard-serpent which lay at the bottom of the ocean, its tail between its jaws. Across the ocean was Jotunheim, the world of the giants, whose one purpose was the aimoyance of mankind, on which account they were perpetually at war with man's defenders, the gods of Godheim. Be- low the earth was Helheim, the world of the dead, and, lowest of all, Niflheim, with the fountain Hvergehner. Bif roust, the bridge between Godheim and Mannaheim. Gjallar-bridge between Helheim, Jotun- heim and the worlds above. These worlds were, in the fancy of the north, surrounded and united by a mighty ash-tree, YggdrasU, with three roots reaching to Godheim, Jotunheim, and. Niflheim. The great gods were Odin and his sons : Thor, Vali, Haimdall, Yidar, Baldur, Braga, Tyr, Hodur, besides Aller, Forsete, and Njord, 1 In Germany the tree is simply decorated, (he presents to be exchanged are piled around the support of the tree or placed on an adjacent table.. The ex- change of gifts was not a part of the old German custom, but is perhaps a sur- vival of a practice observed by the Romans during the Salwnalia (p. 85). 166 Ancient History. B. c.-A. d. Freyr, sea gods, and Loke. Of the goddesses the chief were Frigga, wife of Odin, Freyja, goddess of love, Saga, goddess of history. Above all the gods were the Names, or fates. Below the gods were elves, trolls, witches, etc. Exploits of the gods. Especially famous were the dealings of Thor with the giants. After the creation fol- lowed a, golden age when all was well in Godheim, but after a time evil crept in personified as Loke. Death of Baldur, killed through the contrivance of Loke by his brother Hodur with a sprig of mistle- toe, Frigga having bound all other created things not to hurt Baldur. Lake's children were the Fenris^walf, chained until the coming of Ragnarok, the Midgard-serpent, and Hel. Biuding of Loke. Finally comes the end of the world, Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods. Battle of the Asa^gods with the Midgard-serpent, Loke, and the Fenris-wolf, who have broken their chains. The good and the bad alike perish in the combat. Surt consumes Yggdrasil and the whole world in flames. Vidar, Vale, Hodur, Baldur, and the sons of Thor survive. A new earth and a new heaven are created. According to the belief of the Northmen, all good men and all who died in battle crossed over the bridge Bifroust (the rainbow) to Yalhal, where they spent their days feasting and fighting, until Ragnarok when they passed to Gimle. Cowards and evil-doers were punished in Helheim, and after Ragnarok in Naostrand.^ CiTilization : It is probable that the Germans had not completed the transition from a pastoral to an agricultural people, when they arrived in central Europe. They were certainly in a low stage of civilization when they became known to the Romans, a stage not un- like that reached by the most advanced of the American Indians, the Iroquois. Cities were unknown to them ; they seem to have settled for the most part each individual apart, each tribe separated from the other by a broad strip of mark-laud.^ Orders : 1. Nobles, who derived their descent from the gods, but were entitled to no political privileges because of their nobility. 2. i^j-€e»ne», that is, land-owners, men born to arms, the work upon whose land was done by their bondmen; out of this class developed later the lower nobility. 3. Freedmen {liti, lasseri), or half -freemen, renters bound to military service, but excluded from the ownership of land, from the popular assembly, and from the courts. 4. Servants or bondmen, in part sej^s bound to the, soil (yZeJcE adscripti), in part actual slaves. The latter two classes formed the majority of the population. Custom of comradeship {gasindi leades), out of which the feudal system developed after the occupation of the Roman provinces and the division of land among the faithful (f deles'), and under the in- fluence of the Christian religion. Feudal superior (suzerain). Vas- seii, vassals, or men- fief (feudum or beneficiurri), held on tenure of service, distinct from alladium, property in fee simple. 1 The relation of these myths to Christianity, the extent to which they have been influenced by acquaintance with the Scriptures, is a subject of active in- quiry, but nothing can as yet be said to be definitely determined. See Bugge, EntsteJiung der Nordiscliin Goiter. 2 Whoever desires to become involved in that most hopeless of all historical questions, the social and political organization of the ancient Germans, is re. ferred to 'Waltz, Verfassungsguchichie, where references will be found. B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 167 History : I. The date of the first arrival of Teutons in Europe is wholly unknown. Pytheas of Massalia, who visited the amber coasts of the Baltic about 350 B. c, met with German tribes. From that time on only the bare introduction of the word Germani in the Roman annals for 225 B. c. hints at any knowledge of the Teutons mitil the close of the second century B. c, when the tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones left their homes at the base of the Danish peninsula (driven from them by a flood?) and, after humiliating the Roman arms in Gaul, found their death on the fields of Aquse Sextise and Vercellss (102, 101, B. c, p. 127). The terrors of the invasion died away, but the Romans did not come again into contact with the Germans until CiEsar's invasion of Gaul brought on a contest with the Suevian prince Ariovistus which ended in the latter's defeat (58 B. c). Sub- jugation of the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine. Cffisar's two expeditions across the Rhine (58, 55, p. 139). Under Augustus, systematic attempt to subjugate Germania magna. Conquest of Rcetia and Noricum by Drusus (15), of Pannonia and Vindelicia. Expeditions of Drusus from the Rhine : 1. With the fleet on the Ems (12) ; 2. Against the Cherusci on the Weser, foun- dation of the citadel Aliso (11) ; 3. Along the Main to the Werra and Elbe (9). Legend of the " white woman." Death of Drusus. His successor Tiberius, reduced all the tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe to submission and began the active construction of fortresses and colonies. The foUy of Tiberius' successor, Varus, alienated the Germans and led to revolt. Under Arminitis, one of the nobles of the Cherusci, three Roman legions were annihilated in the three days' battle LQ the TeiUoburg Forest > (9 a. d. ?). Augustus gave up the hope of subjugating the Germans, and later emperors did not revive it. Expeditious of Germanicus in revenge for the Teutoburg massacre, 14, 15, 16. Thenceforward the Romans were contented with maintain- ing their borders against the free tribes, and with colonizing the land south of the Main and the Danube. Line of fortifications from Aschaffenburg, on the Main, to Regensburg, on the Danube {Pfahl- graben, Teufelsmauer). Along this line Roman soldiers were settled on land for the rent of which they paid a tenth of the produce, hence agri decumates. Foundation of colonies : Curia Rcetorum (Chur) in Rietia ; Juvenum (Salsburg) in Noricum ; Vindobonum (Vienna) in Pannonia ; Augusta Vinddicorum (Augsburg), Castra regina (Re- gensburg) in Vindelicia. Active intercourse between Rome and Ger- many. Germans served both as privates and as officers in the Roman army (so Amiinius'). Traffic in amber. Of the internal affairs of the free Germans we are but scantily informed. Li the first century B. c. a portion of the Hermunduri, the Marcomanni, had invaded Bohemia, driven out the Celtic Boii (who took refuge in Pannonia, where they were gradually exterminated by the Roman arms) and established a state which, under Marbod (Maroboduus), gi'cw to formidable proportions. Intended expedi- tion of Tiberius against Marbod fmstrated by the Pannonian revolt (8). Feuds between the German tribes fostered by the Romans. Arminius expelled Marbod from his kingdom, but was himself mur- 1 The locality has not been satisfactorily made out. 168 Ancient History. b. c.-A. d. dered under suspicion of aiming at supreme power. The Cherusd, Hermunduri and Bructeri were nearly exterminated in internecine strife. Kevolt of the Batavians vinder Civilis (p. 151). War of Marcus AvjreEus with the Marcomaimi (p. 154). In process of time a change came over the political organization of the Germans. The multitude of small tribes disappeared and we find in their stead a smaller number of more extensive tribes. At the same time the Slavs began to press upon the eastern Germans and urge them westward. The Germans increased in power and popula- tion, and became better and better trained in the arts of war and political intrigue as they came more and more into intimate connec- tion with Rome. The provincial armies were largely G«rman ; Ger- man officers rose to high distinction and great influence in Rome- So Rome grew weaker and her foes stronger until at last the im- pulse of the invading Huns in the east set all the tribes in motion. II. Scandinavia: Northern annalists present an historical Odin, probably no less mythical than Odin the god. According to these tales (which, like some other mythical history, may have greater his- torical value than the present credits them with), Odin was the leader of the Asas who dwelt in Asia between the Black Sea and the Caspian. Attracted to the falling fortunes of Mithridates, he was driven from his kingdom by Pompeius. He conducted the Asas westward to Scandinavia where he subdued Denmark, Sweden and Norway, and gave these countries to his sons ; Denmark to Skjold, Sweden to Yngave, Norway to Seeming. Odin ended his days in Sweden. . The history of Scandinavia as far as ascertained . belongs to the next period, and will be found on page 207. III. British Isles. For the history of the Teutonic invasion of England see p. 176. § 5. SLAVS AND LITHUANIANS. Aryan. These closely related peoples belong to the northern branch of the European Aryans, and their westward migration followed that of the Teutons. The Slavs were known to the late Roman geographers imder the name Venedce (hence Wends') as inhabiting the region beyond the Vistula, which bore the general name of Sarmatia, from the nomadic Sarmatians who inhabited it, interspersed with the Slavs, from whom they differed in language and descent. In the fifth century A. D. the Slavs occupied the country between the Baltic and the Black Sea, between the Carpathians and the Don. They dwelt in the steppes of Russia as far north as Novgorod on the Volga, and their westernmost limit lay between the Vistula and the Oder. In the sixth century the Slavs began to extend them- selves south and west, a movement which resulted in the permanent occupation of Bohemia and of the Balkan peninsula, while their settlement extended east to Tyrol. In 623 a. d. temporary formation of a Slavic monarchy of great extent under Samo in Bohemia, which endured thirty-five years. The conquests of the Slavs came to an end with the seventh century, and the separate kingdoms of Poland, Bohemia, Russia, were gradually formed. A.D. Slavs and Lithuanians. 169 Of the religion of the Slavs little is known with certainty, owing to the diversity of nomenclature among the various divisions of this wide-spread people, and to the lack of trustworthy authorities. Among the Slavs of the Baltic, who had a class of priests and buUt temples, occur the names Svaiovit or Svantovit, god of light or of the air, with a temple at Arkona ; Triglatk, the three-headed god, worshipped in Pomerania (Stettin) ; Radigost, Rugevit or Ranovit (in Riigen), Jarovit, all gods of war ; Zcemeboh, " the black god," an evil deity. The Russians worshipped Khors, Volos, or Veles, god of the herds (St. Blaise) ; Koupalo, god of the harvest ; Jarylo, god of generation ; Stribog, god of the winds ; Lqda, goddess of love and passion. The gods were worshipped by ofEerings of fruit and animals, seldom by human sacrifices. The Slavs were- a pastoral and agricultural people. All inhab- itants of the same district were kinsmen, bearing a common name, liv- ing under the rule of an elected elder, and holding property in com- mon. A union of such districts formed a tribe ; a union of tribes formed a people. The Lithuanians play no part in history before the thirteenth- century. In the -wider sense the name includes the Letts and the ajicievt Frussiajis, who were known to the Romans as JEstui. In the naiTower sense it is limited to the inhabitants of the region between Storm of Jerusalem. July 15. Terrible massacre ; pilgrimage to the Church, of the Itesurrection. Establishment of a feudal kingdom of Jerusalem, chiefly French, with vassal counties : Edessa, Antiochia, and afterwards TripoUs (Assises du royaume de J&usalem). Three chief officers : Senechal, Conn^table, Marshall. Two patriarchs, at Jerusalem and at Antiochia. Godfrey of BouUlon, Protector of the Holy Sepulchre, defeated the Sultan of Egypt at Ascalon or Gaza. Godfrey died 1100. His brother, Baldwin I,, Idng of Jerusalem. Acre, Trioplis, Berytus (Beirut), Sidon, conquered with the aid of Pisa and Genoa. Baldwin I. (died 1118) was succeeded by Baldwin II. (died 1131), Fxdco of Anjou (died 1143), under whom the kingdom of Jerusalem reached its greatest extent, Baldwin III. (died 1162), Amxilric (died 1173), Baldwin IV. (died 11%^), Baldwin V. (not of age, died 1186), Veil (Guy) of Lusignau. A.. D. Crusades. 213 1147-1149. Second Crusade. Without result. Cause : Conquest of Edessa by Emadeddin ('Imad-fed-Deen) Zenki, Emir of Mossul (1144). Second conquest and destruction of the city by his sou Noureddin (Noor-ed-Deen) (1146). Bernard, ab- bot of Clairvaux, preached the Crusade. Conrad HI. of Germany and Louis VII. of France started for Palestine ; the former from Regenshurg (Ratisbon), the latter from Metz, somewhat later. Both armies passed through Hungary to Asia Minor j the German army, being far in advance, entered Phrygia, where it was almost annihilated by want and by the opposition of the Sultan of Iconium, but few regaining Nicsea. With this scanty fol- lowing Conrad joined the expedition of the French army along the coast, but returned from Ephesus to Constantinople, on account of ill health. Louis and the French nobility took ship from Pamphylia for Antiochia. The common soldiery continued by land to Cilicia, and were completely annihilated by hunger and the enemy. Conrad went from Constantinople to the Holy Land by sea (1148), and iu conjunction with the French made an unsuccessful attack on Da/- mascus. 1189-1192. Third Crusade. Conquest of Acre {St. Jean d'Acre), or Ptolemais. Cause : Capture of Veit (Guy) of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, at Tiberias on the sea of Genezareth. Conquest of Acre and Jerusa- lem by Saladin (Salah-ed-Deen) (1187), the founder of the dynasty of the Ayoubites in Egypt. He treated the Christians magnani- mously. The emperor Frederic I., who in his youth had taken part in the second Crusade, undertook in his old age an expedition from Regens- hurg (Ratisbon) in the spring of 1189, passed through Hungary, spent the winter iu Adrianople, crossed (1190) to Asia Minor, con- quered Iconium, and went to CUicia, where he was drowned in the Calycadnus (Seleph). His son, Frederic of Swabia, led a part of the pilgrims, many having turned back, by way of Tarsus, Antiochia, and Tyrus to Accon (Ptolemais, St. Jean d'Acre). He died (1191) during the siege of this city, which was conducted by the king Guy of Lusignan, who had gained his freedom. Richard the Lion-Hearted {Cceur-de-Lion), king of England, but French in nationality and language, and Philip H., Augustxis (French Auguste, a title of respect which was given him later), king of France, went by sea to the Holy Land (1190), — Richard from Mar- seilles, Philip from Genoa ; participation of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. After a long stay in Sicily and many quarrels the two kings reached Acre, which Lusignan had already besieged for nearly two years. The city was now soon forced to surrender (July, 1191)- Philip having quarrelled with Richard, returned to France (1191). Heroic deeds (and cruelty) of Richard, who, however, was tvrice obliged to turn back from before Jerusalem. Armistice with Saladin. The strip of coast from Joppa to Acre given to the Christians ; pil- grimages to the holy places permitted. Richard gave Cyprus, wluch 216 MedieevcJ, History. A. d. he had conquered in 1191, as a fief to Vmt (Guy) of Lusignan (au- tumn of 1192), who transferred his title of "King of Jerusalem " to Henry of Champagne. Richard on his return suffered a shipwreck at AquUeia, was recog- nized in Vienna, detained by Leopold, duke of Austria, at the com- mand of the emperor Henry VL, kept a prisoner by the emperor thirteen months in Trifels (near AnnweUer in the county Palatine) and in Worms, and released only upon payment of a ransom and ren- dering homage.* 1202-1204. Fourth Crusade. Latin empire (1204-1261). At the instance of Pope Iimocent III. (preaching by Fulco of Neuilly) a Crusade directed originally against Egypt was undertaken by powerful French barons, assisted by Baldwin, count of Flanders, and Boniface, marquis of Montf errat. The Crusaders undertook the siege of Zara in Dalmatia, which the king of Hungary had seized, for the Venetians (Doge Henry Dandolo), partly in payment for transport. At the urgent request of Alexius, son of the Eastern emperor Isaac Angelus, who had been dethroned by his brother, a request strongly supported by Philip of Sioabia, the Crusaders went to Constantinople with the Venetian fleet of 480 sail, captured the city, and replaced Alexius and his father on the throne (1203). The emperor was un- able to fuliill his compact with the Crusaders. (Union of the Greek Church with that of Rome ; large payments in money.) Contention, during which the city caught fire. Revolt of the Greek populace. (Isaac died.) After the murder of Alexius by the Greeks, second capture of the city, pillage, new conflagration, which consumed many works of ancient literature. Establishment of the Latin empire {Baldwin, emperor) ; many coast districts and islands fell to the Venetians; the marquis of Mont- f errat became king of Thessalonica ; French dukes in Athens, Achaia, etc. VUlehardouin, historian of the expedition. Establishment of a Gfreek empire at Niccea by Theodore Lascaris, and a second, the empire of Trebizond on the coast of the Pontus Eu- xinus, by a descendant of the Comnenes. Michael Palmologus, of the Nicsean empire, put an end to the Latin empire in 1261. 1212. The children's Crusade. Thousands of German and French boys started for the Holy Land. Many died on the way, many were sold into slavery. 1217. Crusade of Andrew II., king of Hungary, without result. 1218-1221. Unsuccessful attack upon Egypt under John of Brienne, " king of Jerusalem." 1228-1229. Fifth Crusade. Jerusalem regained for a short time. Frederic 11, emperor of the West, who was under the papal ban 1 It is probable that the story of the Austrian banner having been trodden In the filth at Acre bj' Richard's command is not a fable (ct. Tceche, Kaiser Meinrich, VI. pp. 256, 558), but the imprisonment of Richard had doubtless higher political motives, and is sufficiently explained by the alliance of Richard with the Welfic party in Germany, see p. 223. k. Dv Crusades. 217 for not having fulfilled his promise of undertaking a Crusade, went to Acre by sea, and received Jerusalem (where he crowned himself), Nazareth, and a strip of land reaching to the coast, together with Sidon, from Sultan Kameel (El Kdmil), on condition of a ten years' armistice. Jerusalem was lost again, and finally, 1244. 1248-1254. Sixth Crusade. Without result. Louis IX., king of France (St. Louis), went to Cyprus and passed the winter there. In order to destroy the Saracen power in its stronghold of Egypt, he went in the spring of 1249 to Damietta and captured the city. On the expedition which he undertook in November against Cairo, Louis was defeated by the Ayoubite Sultan Toordn-shdh (Almoadan), cut off from Damietta, and captured with the entire French army (April, 1250). The execution of the treaty of peace, whereby the king was to be liberated on condition of evacu- ating Darmietta and paying a heavy ransom, was delayed by the over- throw of the Ayoubites by the Mamelukes. Louis coasted along Palestine, fortified Acre and other cities of the coast, in the course of a residence of almost f ovir years, and returned to France in 1254. 1268. Antiochia lost to the Mohammedans. 1270. Seventh Crusade. "Without result. Louis IX. went to Tunis, where he and the greater part of the army were carried off by sickness. 1291. Acre (Ptolemais) stormed by the Mamelukes ; the Christians abandoned their last possessions in Palestine (Tyre, Berytus, Sidon). The Crusades were the greatest events of the Middle Age. In spite of the excesses and cruelties of many of the Crusaders they lend to the time to which they belong an ideal, a religious character. Results of the Crusades : 1. Increased power and authority of the Church and the Papacy. 2. Increase of the personal power of princes, owing to the reversion of many feudal holdings which became vacant. 3. Bise of independent communities, who bought their freedom from their overlords who needed funds for the pilgrimage. 4. Devel- opment of commerce. The Italian republics at the height of their power. 6. Intellectual growth resulting from the new ideas brought back from the East ; especial advance in the knowledge of geography and natural history. 6. Perfection of the institution of knighthood (chivalry) ; the three Religious Orders of Knighthood. 1. Knights of St. John, or Hospitalers; i. e. knights of the hospital of St. John in Jerusalem, founded by merchants from Amalfi, 1070. The brotherhood was enlarged after the first Crusade (Gerhard), and converted into an order of knighthood after the manner of the Templars (Raimund Dupuis). Black mantle, white cross. The order was transferred to Cyprus (1291), to Rhodes (1310), whence they were called Knights of Rhodes. Rhodes lost, 1522 ; in 1626 the order received a gift of Malta from the emperor Charles V., thence called Knights of Malta. 2. Knights of the Temple or Templars (from the temple of Solomon, 218 Mediteval History. A, n. on Whose site stood the house of the order in Jerusalem), origu inating in a union of nine French knights in 1118 (Hugo de Pay ens). White mantle, red cross. In 1291 the order was transferred to Cyprus; in 1312 dissolved by Pope Clement V. at the Council of Vienne. S. The Order of Teutonic Knights, originally brotherhood of the German hospital founded in 1190, was in 1198 raised to an order of knighthood by Frederic of Swdbia before Acre, dur- ing the third Crusade. White mantle, black cross. Seat of the order at Acre. Under the grand matter Hermann of Salza a band of knights went to Prussia, then occupied by the heathen Wends, in 1226. Hermann of Balk, first Landmeister in Prus- sia, which was subjugated by bloody wars (1226-1283). In 1291 the seat of the grand master was tranferred to Venice, 1309 to Marienburg, I'^T to Konigsberg. The land of the order was secularized in 1625. Those knigibts who remained Catho- lic maintained possession of the Grerman estates. Residence of the grand master at Mergentheim at Franconia. The or- der was dissolved in 1809. In all three orders, blights, priests, brothers in service. § 2. GERMANY AND ITALY. (Seep. Wl.) 112S-1137. Lothar of Saxony, supported by his son-in-law Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, of the house of Welf, whom he later appointed duke of Saxony as well, and Berthold, duke of Z&hringen. Lothar fought (until 1135) against the two powerful Hohenstaufens, Frederic, duke of Swabia, and Conrad, nephew of the last emperor, Henry V. Their father was Frederic of Biiren and Stauf en, son-in-law of the emperor Henry IV (p. 200). 1132-1133. On his iirst Roman expedition Lothar was crowned by Pope Innocent II., and accepted the allodial possessions of Matilda of Tuscany as a flef from the Pope. 1136-1137. On his second Roman expedition Lothar attacked the Norman Roger IX., who had assumed the title of king of the tuio Sicilies, and drove him for a short time to Sicily. On his return Lothar died at Breitenwang in upper Bavaria (Dec. 3-4, 1137). Under Lothar's reign German influence made great advances in the North and East. The Danish king Magnus recognized anew the overlordship of the Emperor ; Bohemia did feudal homage. The Wends were driven back, and in increasing numbers converted to Christianity. Holstein given to Adolf, count of Schaumbuig, the margravate of Meis- sen to Conrad of Wettin, the Nordmark or Altmark, at the mouth of the Havel and on the left bank of the Elbe, to Albert the Bear, of the house of Ballenstddt or Askania (1134), who had done Lothar im- portant service on the iirst Roman expedition. Albert crossed the Elbe and conquered almost the entire Mittelmark, which then received the name of Brandenburg, from its chief city; A.. D. Germany and ItcHy. 219 1138-1254. House of Hohenstaufen (Staufer),* so called from the castle of Staufen in Swabia. 1138-1152. Conrad III., elected by the party opposed to the Saxon house, without par- ticipation of the Saxons and Bavariatis. War of the Ghibellines (Italian corruption of Waiblingen, the name of a castle of the Hohenstaufens) and the Welfs, or Guelfs (ef. the genealogical table). Conrad put Henry the Proud under the ban, and gave Saxony to Albert the Bear, and Bavaria to Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. 1139. During the changing fortunes of the war Henry the Proud died. The claims of his ten-year-old son Henry (afterwards called the Lion) to Sajcony were maintained by the latter'a mother and grandmother and their connection. Bavaria was claimed by Welf VI., brother of Henry the Proud. Welf ad- vanced to the relief of the city of Weinsberg, which Conrad besieged. In the 1140. Battle ' of Weinsberg Conrad conquered, and the city was com- pelled to surrender. (« The Faithful Wives of Weinsberg," poem by Biirger.) After the death of Leopold of Austria (Oct. 18, 1141), Bavaria fell to his brother, Henry Jasomirgott,^ who married Gertrude, Henry the Proud's widow (1142). Her son, Henry the Lion, received Saxony. Albert the Bear gave up his chum, to Saxony ; the mark of Bran- denburg, which was a fief held directly from the emperor (reichsun^ mittelbar), and his other possessions, which his enemies had occupied, were restored to him. Conrad's Crusade (p. 216). Conrad, whose eldest son, Henry, who had already been elected king, died before him, appointed as his suc- cessor not his second son, a minor, but his nephew, Frederic of Swabia, who was unanimously elected by the princes. Conrad died .Feb. 11, 1152, at Bamberg. 1152-1190. Frederic I., Barbarossa, one of the most heroic figures of the Middle Age. Diet at Merseburg. Frederic settled the disputed succession to the Danish crown. Sven became king of Denmark as a vassal of the empire (1152). Frederic's main object was to make good the imperial authority, and in particular to restore the imperial rights in northern Italy, which had become narrowed by neglect. Hence war with the power- ful republican cities of Lombardy. Six expeditions to Italy. 1154-1155. First eocpedititm. Frederic destroyed some small places which opposed him, and was crowned king of Italy in Pavia, 1 V. Baumer, Gesch. der Hohenstaufen u. ihrer Zeit ; Jti,S4, Gesch. des d. S. unter Konrad III. ; Prutz, Geachickte Friedrichs I. 2 Recent investigators deny tliat the cry of Hie Welf! Hie Waiblingen I was beard here for the first time. ^ So called from his favorite oath. 220 Mediaval History. A. D. .2g C3 ■5 g o «tti 2a 'CJ a. ■a^ ■>^- ■■S"M >1 13 O (> r'? K .9 ■w gn .» h P-i O . u 't o I ■& s •gg^ pica p E^ OS"SW 11 S ::g .2 ■ B fS -Q II a aq -•g i » JZ ^ 1 ^ fM II ^6 >" s . -li OH- 6 o ii A. D» Germany and Italy. 221 and emperor at Some by Hadrian IV., who had appealed to him for aid against the Romans. Arnold of Brescia, scholar of the schoolman Abelard, a popular preacher, who inveighed against the secular power of the clergy and possession of estates by the church, was condemned and burnt. 1153. Convention of Constance between Frederic and the Papal See. 1156. Henry the Lion received Bavaria again. Austria was sep- arated from Bavaria, and raised to a duchy, hereditary in the female as well as the male line. 1157. Diet at Wiirzburg. Nearly all the states of the West did homage to the imperial power (Holy Roman Empire). In Besan9on the Burgundian nobles submitted again to the em- pire. The Bohemian duke Vladislav received from Fred- eric the royal crmvn. 1158-1162. Second expedition to Italy. The Lombard cities, including Milan itself, submitted. At the diet on the Ron- calian Fields the rights of the emperor were defined as against the cities. Jurisdiction in the cities transferred from the consuls to an officer of the empire, the Podesta. Prohibition of the right of pri- vate war between the cities. The Milanese revolted. Quarrel be- tween the Pope and the emperor. Tedious war with Milan, which surrendered after a two years' siege. At the emperor's command 1162. Milan -was destroyed by the inhabitants of the neighboring cities. 1159-1177. Schism in the Church. Alexander III. elected by the majority of the cardinals, Victor IV. by the minority (who favored the emperor), and recognized by the council which Frederic convened at Pavia. Alliance between Alex- ander III. and the Lombard cities. 1163. Third Expedition without an army. After the death of Victor IV. (Apnl, 1164), a new anti-pope. Paschal III, was elected by the imperial party. New disturbances in Italy soon broke out. 1166-1168. Fourth Expedition. Paschal III. conducted to Rome by Frederic. 1167. Lombard League between the cities of Lombardy (Cremona, Bergamo, Brttscia, Mantua, and Ferrara) and the cities of the Veronese March (Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso), which had united in 1164. Union of Guelfs with Ghibellines. They rebuilt Milan, built Alessandria (so called after their ally, Pope Alexander III.), and occupied the passes of the Alps. The emperor, whose army was almost annihilated by a plague which broke out in Rome, with difficulty escaped to Germany. In Germany a great feud had been raging since 1166 between Henry the Lion and his enemies, the archbishops of Magdeburg and Bremen, Albert the Bear, Otto of Meissen, etc. The emperor put an end to the strife at the Diet of Bamberg (1168). Henry the Lion undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (1172). 1174^1177. Fifth Expedition. The emperor entered Lombardy over Mont Cenis. He besieged Alessandria in vain. Henry 222 Medieeval History. a. d. the Lion deserted him and returned to Germany. The em- peror attacked the Lombards, but in spite of his heroic cour- age, at the 1176. Battle of Legnano, was completely defeated. Negotiations and armistice with Alexander III. and the Lombard cities. 1177. Reconciliation between the emperor and the Pope at Venice. 1183. The definitive peace with the Lombard cities was concluded at Constance. The emperor renounced all regal privileges which he had hitherto claimed in the towns ; acknowledged the right of the confederated cities to levy armies, to fortify themselves, and to exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction. By the popvdar nomination the consuls acquired the rights of imperial vicars. The extension of the confederacy for the purpose of maintaining these rights was authorized. The cities agreed to maintain all just rights of the emperor, a recognition of the overlordship of the emperor, which, how- ever, they were allowed to redeem by an annual payment. Henry the Lion humbled in Germany. After his neglect to appear at four diets, he was put under the ban of the empire and his flefs declared forfeited (1180). He defended himself bravely and de- feated the archbishop of Cologne. Upon the approach of the em- peror Henry's vassals gradually deserted him. Henry threw himself at the emperor's feet in Erfurt (1181), but was allowed to retain his allodial estates only, Braunschweig (Brunsmck) and Liineburg. Divis- ion of the old duchy of Saxouy. Part of Westphalia was given to the archbishopric of Cologne. Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen became in the course of time free cities, owing allegiance to the empire only. The archbishop of Magdeburg and Bremen, the bishops of Halber- stadt, Hildesheim, Lubeck, etc., the counts of Holstein and Oldenburg, etc., became immediate vassals of the empire. Eastern Saxony and the ducal title were given to Bernard of As- kania, son of Albert the Bear. Otto of Wittelsbach received Bavaria. Henry the Lion was obliged to leave the country for three years. He went to the court of Henry II. of England, his father-in-law. 1184. Brilliant court festival at Mainz. 1184-1186. Sixth expedition to Italy (peaceful). The emperor gave his son Henry, who was now twenty-one, but had long 1186. been king elect of Germany, in marriage to Constance, daughter of Roger II., aunt and heiress of William II., the last Norman king of Naples and Sicily. 1190. Frederic's crusade and death (p. 215). His son, King Henry, whom he left behind as vicegerent, was obliged to take the field against Henry the Lion, who, upon the emperor's departure, had been sent out of the empire for another three years, but had since re- turned from England. The death of William II. of Sicily in Nov- ember, 1189, led Henry to come to an understanding with Henry the Lion. In the mean time came the news of the emperor's death. 1190-1197. Henry VI., a highly educated statesman, but stern and relentless. 1191. First expedition to Italy. Henry received the imperial crown at A. D. Germany and Italy. 223 Kome, after lie had abandoned Tusoulum, which had ever been true to his father, to the fiomans. The city was destroyed ; Frascati grew up near its site. Henry went to Naples to rescue the inher- itance of his wife, Constance, fxani Tancred of Lecce, whom the native party in Palermo had elected king. Unsuccessful siege of Naples for three months. Sickness in the army compelled the emperor to return to Germany. 1192-1194. New war with Henry the Lion, who had not kept the first treaty. The war ended in a compromise, the conclusion of which was assisted by the liberation of the brother-in-law of Henry the Lion, Richard Coeur-de-Lion of England (p. 216), and by a marriage between Agnes, daughter of the emperor's uncle, Conrad, count palatine of the Rhine, with Henry, son of Henry the Lion. 1194. Second expedition to Italy, where Tancred had died. War with his widow and his son William. The emperor subju- gated the kingdom of the two Sicilies, and punished with severity the participants in a conspiracy against himself. 1194. Henry threatened with exeommuuioation for withholding the estates of Matilda (p. 200) from the Pope. 1196. Diet at Wiirzburg. Henry's plan of making Germany (united with the Sicilies) an hereditary monarchy, on condition that all fiefs should become hereditary, even in the female line, failed in consequence of the resistance of the princes and the lesser nobiUty. 1197. Third expedition to Italy. Henry suppressed a second con- spiracy with cruel severity. In the midst of his great plans (conquest of the Eastern Empire, Crusade), he died suddenly in Messina, thirty-two years old (28 Sept. 1197). Double election in Germany. 1198-1208. Philip of Swrabia, youngest son of Frederic Barbarossa. 1198-1215 (1218). Otto IV. of Brunswick, son of Henry the Lion. 1198-1215. War for the crown between the house of Hohenstaufen and of Welf. Otto IV., recognized by Pope Innocent m., was defeated by Philip and his power reduced almost to the limits of Brunswick. In the midst of preparations for a last and decisive combat Philip was assassinated at Bamberg by the count palatine Otto of Wittelsbach. Otto IV. was universally recognized and crowned at Rome by Innocent III. (1209), after having abandoned the estates of Matilda to the papal chair and made other concessions. He was soon involved in a quarrel with the Pope, however, and the latter put forward his ward Frederic, son of Henry VI., as anti-emperor (1212). Otto IV., in alliance with England, was defeated at Bouvines (near LiUe) by Philip II. Augustus (1214), and returned to his own do- mains. Died at the Harzburg (May 10, 1218). 1212-1250. Frederic II. also king of the two Sicilies, n prince of remarkable gifts, but passionate, more Italian than German, having been born in Sicily and educated by his Italian 224 Medioeval History. A. D. mother. He was an energetic opponent of the spiritual supremacy, having indeed but little lilmig for the church ; in his hereditary estates he favored the Saracens. 1215. Frederic went to Germany, was crowned German king in Aachen, where he promised to undertake a crusade, and 1217. gave Swabia to his young son Henry, and 1220. had him elected king of Kome (the title given to the Ger- man king elect). Frederic left Germany for fifteen years. Expe- dition to Rome. After renewing the promises which he had for-, merly made to Pope Innocent III. (feudal supremacy of the papal chair over his hereditary domain, which should never be united with Germany, crusade), he was crowned by Houorius III. at Rome. 1222. The emperor's son Henry, solenmly crowned king at Aachen. His chief adviser and chancellor was Engelhert, archbishop of Cologne (murdered 1225). 1225. Frederic took us his second wife, lolanthe, daughter of John of Brienne, titulary king of Jerusalem. Promise of a crusade renewed. 1226. Diet at Cremona ; quarrels with the Lombard cities. 1227. The Crusade which had been commenced was broken up by a contagioiis disease. The successor of Pope Honorius III., the octogenarian Gregory IX., placed the emperor under the ban. 1227. Battle of Bornhovede. The Danes, who under Waldemar II. had extended their power over the coasts of the Baltic, were decisively defeated. 1228-1229. Crusade of Frederic II. (p. 216). 1229. Frederic drove from his dominions the papal (key) troops, who had invaded them. 1230. Peace with the Pope at S. Germano. Removal of the ban. 1230-1240. Legislation of Frederic in his Sicilian kingdom. Regulation of feudal relations. Representation of the cities. 1234. Revolt of the young king Henry, in alliance with the lower German nobility and the Lombard cities, against his father, sup- pressed by Frederic with the aid of the princes of the empire and the imperial cities. Henry submitted, was kept in strict confinement, then sent to Italy, where he died, 1242. Reconciliation with the Welfs. Erection of a new duchy, Brunsudck-Liinehurg, for Otto the Child, Third marriage of the emperor at Worms with Isabella, sister of Henry III. of England. Diet at Mainz. Enactment of a public peace (^first publication of a law in German as well as in Latin). 1236. Victorious campaign against the Lombards. In Germany Frederic the Warlike of Austria, a follower of the rebel Henry, deposed and put under the ban. 1237. Frederic II. in Vienna, which was proclaimed an imperial city. Afterwards Frederic the Warlike received Austria and Styria again. 1237. Diet at Speier. Election and coronation of Conrad, the sec- ond son of the emperor as German king. 1237. Brilliant victory of Frederic over the Lombards at Corte- Nov. nuova. Frederic's obstinacy in pressing his demands too A. D. Germany and Italy. 225 far, prevented ihe complete subjugation of Lombardy. Interference of the Pope, who had claims on Sardinia, and was ofEended at the assumption by Frederic's natural son Enzio (an Italian corruption of Heinz), the husband of Adelisa, heiress of a part of the island, of the title of king of Sardinia. 1239-1260. War of Frederic II. with the Popes Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. 1239. Frederic accused of heresy by Gregory and excommunicated anew. Ancona conquered by Fnzio. 1241. Naval victory of Enzio at Elba over the Genoese fleet which was conveying some ecclesiastics to the council at Rome. Death of Gregory. His successor. Innocent IV. (1243-1264), fled to Lyons. G«rmany threatened with a Mongol invasion (p. 240). Innocent IV. called a council at 1246. Lyons, renewed the ban against the emperor, formally de- posed him, summoned the German princes to a new election, and urged all subjects of the emperor to revolt. In Ger- many the spiritual princes elected 1246-1247. Heinrich Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, who, though at first victorious, was defeated by Conrad, Frederic's son, at Ulm, and died (1247) at the Wartburg. The house of the landgraves of Thuringia ending with Heinrich Raspe, the eastern part of that state was joined to the margravate of Meissen, while the western part became the landgravate Hessen. 1247-1266. William of Holland, second anti-king, attained no authority in Germany. 124S. Frederic, at first successful in Italy, was repulsed before Padua. His son Emio was captured by the Bolognese in the 1249. Battle of Fossalta (died after an imprisonment of twenty-two years in a dungeon). Treason (?) of Peter of Vinea (Vineis), Frederic's chancellor. 1260. Frederic died in Fiorentino in the arms of his son Manfred (Dec. 19). He was succeeded by his son. 1250-1254. Conrad IV. (anti-king: WilUam of Holland) fought since 1262 for his hereditary realm only, in Italy. 1266. William of Holland fell in battle with the Frisians (twenty- seven years old). 1256-1273. Interregnum in Germany. Club-law, Fans- trecht. ■ Richard, Earl of Cornwall, younger son of King John (Lack* land) of England, elected by a part of the princes, and crowned a( Aachen, was recognized along the Rhine only (died 1272). Alphonsa X. of Castile, grandson of Hulip of Hohenstauf en, son of Frederic Barbarossa, elected by the other princes, never came to Germany. In the kingdom of the two Sicilies the brave Manfred, son of Frederic II., was at first chancellor for the minor king Conradin, son of Conrad IV., afterwards (1268) king. Charles ofAnjou, brother 15 226 MedicBval History. A. D. of Louis IX. of France, to whom the Pope gave the crown, defeated Manfred, who was betrayed by his barons, at Beneiientum (1266), and made himself king of Naples and Sicily. Manfred fell on the field. Conradin went to Italy with Frederic of Baden, also called Fred- eric of A\jistria (being the son of the Babenberg heiress of Austria). He was defeated between Scurcola and Tagliacozzo on Lago ai Celano (1268), and executed at Naples. 1282. Sicilian vespers, so called because the conspiracy broke out on Easter Monday at vesper time. Slaughter of all the French in Sicily. John ofProcida. Peter of Aragon, king of Sicily, Charles of Anion limited to the kingdom of Naples. (See pp. m, ^6^-) § 3. FKANCE.1 (Seep. SOS.) The royal domain of the Capetians was at first limited to the duchy of France (Isle de France and Orleanais). The great vassals, who were, in the beginning, almost independent, were gradually reduced to submission in this and the following period. 1060-1108. Philip I. Quarrel with Gregory VII. First Crusade. A long reign, in which the Mug accomplished nothing. 1108-1137. Louis VI., the Fat, an able and good king, who had, moreover, the good sense to avail himself of the talents of Suger, abbot of St. Denis, whom he made minister. Perceptible growth of the royal power. Marriage of the king's son, Louis (VII.'), with Eleanor, daughter of William of Aquitaine, heiress of Foitou, Guyenne, and Gascony. 1137-1180. Louis VII. Second Crusade (p. 215). Louis was a weak king, a favorite with the clergy, whose reign was less disastrous than might have been expected, because of the influence of Suger, who administered the kingdom during Louis' absence in the East. After his return Louis obtained a divorce from Eleanor, who married Henry of Anj'ou, conveying to this prince, who soon became king of England, Foitou, Guyenne and Gascony, for which Henry did homage to Louis. In this transfer lay one germ of the hundred years' war. 1180-1223. Philip H, Augustus, one of the ablest of the kings of France ; unscrupulous, cold, but of great political sagacity. (Tfird) Crusade with Richard Coewr- de-Lion. After Philip's return in 1190 he attacked Normandy, but made little headway during the lifetime of Richard. (Erection of the Ch&teau Gaillard by Richard, on the Seine, above Rouen.) After Richard's death (1199) Philip took up the claims of Arthur, son of Richard's brother Oeoffrey, who had been passed over in Nor- mandy in favor of Richard's younger brother John, but he was hin- dered from prosecuting them by his quarrel with Innocent III. in relation to the divorce which Philip had secured from his wife^ Ingeborg of Denmark, in order that he might marry Agnes ofMeran, Submission of Philip (1200). After the death of Arthur (1203) Philip moved upon Normandy » Kitchin, Bistoiy of France. A. D. France. 227 anew. Rejection of the Pope's claim to arbitrate between the kings. The fall of the Chateau GaUlard was followed by the submission of Normandy (1204). John having refused to obey the summons of Philip to appear for trial on account of the murder of Arthur, Philip declared his flefs forfeited. Crusade against the Alhigenses, Waldenses and Cathari, rationalist sects protected by Raymond, count of Toulouse, and the viscount of Beziers and Carcassonne (1207-1244). Storm of Beziers (1207. " Slay all, God will know his own."). Conquest of the county of Toulouse by Simon of Montfort (1211-1215). Death of Simon at the siege of revolted Toulouse (1218). War in Flanders with the feudal lords, supported by John of Eng- land and Otto of Grermany. Philip, assisted by the cities, victorious in the 1214. Battle of Bouvines : Aug. 29. Unsuccessful expedition of Philip'a son Louis to England (1216). 122S-1226. Iiouis Vm. New crusade against the count of Tou- louse, whose lands had been declared forfeit. 1229. Establishment of the Inquisition as a regular tribunal by Pope Gregory IX., inquisitors having existed since 1203 under in- noeent III. 1226-1270. LouiB IX., St. Louis. During the king's minority regency of his mother Blanche, who repressed a revolt of the barons. The war with the Albigenses ended by the extermination of the sect (1244). (Sixth) Crusade of St. Louia (p. 217). Blanche regent during his absence. After the king's re- turn, 1254, wise government. Surrender of Perigord, the Limousin and southern Saintonge to Henry of England, whereupon Henry re- nounced his claim to Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, northern Saintonge. Prohibition of wager of battle. Limitation of feudal jurisdiction. Establishment of right of appeal to the king from the feudal courts in all cases. The Pragmatic Sanction attrib- ated to St. Louis is probably a forgery, but Louis' attitude toward Rome was one of assertion of all regal rights. During this reign the domain of the crown received the following additions : The part of the county of Toulouse between the Rhdne, the sea and the Pyrenees (1229), Chartres, Blois, Sancerre, ceded by Theobald of Champagne and Navarre (1234) ; Macon, by purchase (1239) ; Perche (1257) ; Aries, Forcalquier, Foix and Cahors (1262). Second (seventh) Crusade and death of St. Louis (1270). (Seep. S54.) 228 Mediceval History. A. ix ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS FROM ECGBERHT TO HENRY IIL AlfGIiO-SAXON. Scgberht, 802-837. Charles the Bald. Emperor. .aithelwulf = (1) Judith, who 837-858. I afterwards m. (2) iEthelbald. (3:)- FIiAlTDEBa : Baldwin 1 ^thelbold. .^thelbeTht. .^tbelred. MSitcoi. 858-860. 860-866. 866-871. 871-901. Xiadward 1 son, 2 dau. the Elder. 901-925. .ailfthryth : I t 879. ^=: Baldwin II. t918. NOBMAlTDir. Bollo. .Sithelstan. Eadmund. £!adred. 925-940. 940-946. 946-955. I Arnulf I. t 965. William | Longsword. Baldwin (III.) I t 962. Eadwig. 955-959. Eadward the Martyr. 975-978. 1 Badgar. 969-975. !_ .S!thelredII.=2Ei Richard the Fearless. 978-1016. Imma. Richard the Glood. Godwine Earl of Mercia. I Eadmund Ironsides. 1016. Arnulf II. t 988. I Baldwin IV. t 1036. Baldwin V. Eadward ) I I Badward Robert Harold. Eadgyth = the Confessor, the Magnificent t 1067. 1066. 1042-1066. or the DevU. I ■William the Conqueror = Matilda. 1066-1087. Eadgar i£theling. Margaret = Malcolm king of Scots. Eadgar king of Scots. r i ^1 1 Robert. William Ruf us. Henry I. Adela 1087-1100. 1100-1135. m.Stephea Ma^.^ll^n • c. of Blols. Matilda = Geoffrey of Anjou, Stepnen I Plantagenet. 1135-11S4. Henry H. 1154-1189. Henry. Biohard Geoffrey. Coeur-de-Lion. | 1189-1199. Arthur, t 1203. John Lackland. 1199-1216 Henry in 1216-1272. A. D. England. 229 § 4. ENGLAND. (Seep.S06.) 1066-1154. Norman kings.^ 1066-1087. William I., the Conqueror, completed the subjection of the Anglo-Saxons, who were robbed of their estates and terribly ill-treated. Two nationalities and two languages existed for a long time side by side in England, English, or Anglo-Saxon, and French. The king and the nobility were French Normans or Frenchmen. The submission of 1066 was partial, Mercia and Northnmbria re- maining aloof. 1068. Revolt in the north, incited and aided by a Danish fleet under Swegen. Returning from Normandy WUliam bought ofB the Danes, and crushed the insurgents by a masterly winter campaign. Northumberland ravaged with fire and sword. 1071. Revolt of the English under Eadwin and Morkere, which ended with the defeat and death of Eadwin, and the capture of Ely in the fens where Morkere had taien refuge with the outlaw Here- ward. 1075-76. Rebellion of the Norman barons in England easUy crushed. Revolt of the conqueror's son Robert in Normandy (1077-1080). Imprisonment of William's brother, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, for trouble- some and intriguing conduct. A threatened invasion from Norway and Denmark averted, 1085. William met his death by accident while engaged in a struggle with Philip of France about the Vexin (Sept. 9, 1087). After the revolt of 1071. the four large earldoms were abolished, and the shire became the largest political division. Sheriffs appointed by the king in each shire. William introduced feudalism in its continental form, placing Norman barons over the lands of the English nobility, who gradually sank to the position of a middle class. In 1086 the power of the barons was weakened by the exaction of an oath of fealty from all under tenants to the king direct. The same year saw the completion of the great survey whose results were inscribed in the Domesday Book, an inventory of all lands " burthened with special dues to the crown." The lower local courts were pre- served, but their subordination to the king's court was strongly in- sisted on. WUliam reformed and reorganized the English Church, assisted by Iianfranc, abbot of St. Stephen at Caen, whom he appointed arch- bishop of Canterbury. Homage to the Pope, however, William ex- pressly refused to render. He kept the appointment of bishops in his own hands. No papal letter could be received, no papal synod held in England, no English bishop appeal to Rome without the king's consent. 1 AuguBtin Thierry, Eistoire de la conquettde VAngleterre. Qreen, Bi»- tory of the English People. 230 MedicBval History. A. d. 1087-1100. William II., the Bed, second son of William I. obtained the English crown, while Robert, the eldest son, succeeded in Normandy. A revolt of the Nor- man barons in favor of Kobert was suppressed by help of the English in 1090. Death of Lanfranc, 1089. Ascendency of Ranulf FlanXard. Extortions of William. Formation of the New Forest. 1093. Anselm, abbot of Beff, appointed archbishop of Canterbury. He was soon involved in a quarrel with the king on the ques- tion of investitures and on other matters. In 1097 Anselm appealed to Kome and left England. 1097. Edgar, son of Margaret (sister of Eadgar Aetheling), ob- tained the Scottish crown, thus closing the civil war in Scotland between the Celtic and English parties. William was found dead in the New Forest, Aug. 2, 1100 (murdered ?). 1100-1135. Henry I., Beavdere, on learning of the death of William II., hastened to England and secured the crown in spite of the opposition of those barons who pressed the claim of Robert of Normandy, then returning from the Crusade. Issue of a charter, wherein the exactions and abuses of William the Red were prohibited and the " Law of Edward the Con- fessor " restoTed. Henry married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, and Margaret, sister of Eadgar Aetheling. Recall of Anselm. 1101. Invasion of Robert of Normandy, with the connivance of many of the Norman barons on both sides of the Channel, ended by treaty without a battle. Punishment of the rebel barons. Robert of Belesme, earl of Shrewsbury, driven from England. In 1104 Henry invaded Normandy. Robert was defeated at the 1106. Battle of Tinchebrai and kept in captivity until his death (1134). Henry took poss ssion of Normandy. Quarrel with Anselm in regard to investitures, ending, after the exile and return of Anselm, in a compromise (1106). Introduction of the Cistercians in England. Suppression of the great feudatories and substitution of a class of lesser nobles. Death of Henry's son William by the sinking of the « White Ship " in the Channel (1120). Marriage of Henry's daughter Matilda to Geoffrey, sou of Fulk the Black, count of Anjou (1128). Normandy and Maine definitely se- cured by Henry. Henry died 1135. 1135-1154. Stephen of Blois, son of Adela, daughter of William I., and the count of Bids, seized the crown in defiance of the rights of Matilda and her son Henry, and was elected at London principally by the citizens. Char- ter of Oxford (1136). (Second) invasion of the Scots repulsed in the 1138. Battle of the Standard, at Cowton Moor in Yorkshire. Arrest of Roger of Salisbury and the bishop of Lincoln (1139). In the same year Matilda landed A. D. England. 231 in England. Stephen defeated and captured at the lattle of Lincoln (1141). Matilda was elected Lady of England by the clergy. Her severe and impolitic government soon alienated her followers. Fin- ally Stephen, having been exchanged, took up the war again, which went on with varying success until 1147 when Robert of Gloucester died and Matilda left England. In 1153 Henry of Anjou landed in Eng- land to make good his claim. Without a battle an understanding was reached and Henry was recognized as the heir of the crown (Treaty of Wallingford 1153). The reign of Stephen was one of the darkest periods in English history. His wealmess, and the confusion of civil war had given the feudal nobles full liberty. Castles were erected in great num- bers throughout England, and each was the home of oppression and cruelty. Stephen died 1154. 1154-1399. House of Anjou (Plantagenet)^ in the di- rect line. 1154^1189. Henry H. Outside of England Henry possessed : 1. Normandy and the suzerainty over Brittanyj as the heir of the Norman kings. 2. Anjou and Maine, inherited from his father. 3. Foitou, Guyenne and Grascony, acquired by marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine (1152) ; in aU more than half of France. The reign of Henry is the period of full amalgamation of the Eng- lish and the Normans. The accession of Henry (at 21 years of age) was welcomed as the beginning of a better time.' Banishment of the mercenaries main- tained by Stephen. Demolition of the castles. Resumption and res- toration of estates, which was attended with difficulty, some of the new nobles requiring to be dislodged by force. 1158. First Welsh war not successful. 1162. Thomas Becket, the chancellor, made archbishop of Canter- bury. Reestablishment of the excAfegtier, a bureau for assessing and collecting the taxes. Introduction of scutage, a commutation in money for personal service in the army permitted to the lower ten- ants. 1163. Second Welsh war. As chancellor, Becket had been the king's servant and friend ; as archbishop, he became at once his opponent, resisting his wishes even in financial matters ; an opposition which seems to have led to the abolition of danegeld (p. 205). Becket bitterly opposed the king's reform of the ecclesiastical law relating to the punishment of eccle- siastics for criminal offenses. Henry demanded that after ecclesias- tical punishment had been administered the offender should be handed over to receive the punishment of the civil law. The wishes of the king in this respect and on other points involving church and state were formulated in the 1 So called from the bit of broom (genet) which Geoffrey of Anjou, son of king Fulk of Jerusalem (p. 230), was wont to wear in his helm'. 232 MedicBval History. A. d< 3.164. Constitutions of Clarendon. The jurisdiction of secular courts over clerical offenders was affirmed, appeal to £ome in such cases was prohibited, the election of bishops in the presence of royal officers, and with the king's con- sent, was insisted on, as was the investiture of the bishop or abbot elect with his secular lands by the king. At first Becket accepted the constitutions ; but afterwards he withdrew his acceptance and appealed to Rome. Brought to trial and condemned on some mat- ters connected with his chancellorship, Becket fled to France. 1165. Third Welsh war. 1166. Assize of Clarendon. Reestablishment of Frank-pledge, or mutual responsibility of the inhabitants of a village. In each shire criminals were to be presented by twelve men from the shire and four from each town (grand jury) ; abolition of compurgation (proof of innocence by oath of neighbors) for which the ordeal or judgment of God was substituted. 1170. Henry under threat of interdict was reconciled with Becket, who returned to England. He soon became embroiled with the king, and was murdered by four knights of Henry's court, in consequence of Henry's passionate outbreak against him (December 29, 1170). Establishment of itinerant or circuit judges. Court of appeal, afterwards the great and privy council. 1171. Expedition of Henry to Ireland. A bull of Adrian IV. in 1157 had given this country to Henry, but no use had been made of the authority until Demwd, king of Leinster, fled to Henry, did him homage, and sought aid in his wars. Aid was sent in 1169, and in 1171 Henry went in person. Richard of Clare (Strongbow), son-in-law of Dermod,, made earl of Leinster. The southeastern part of Ireland submitted to Henry. 1172. Absolution of Henry. Penance at Becket's tomb, 1174. 1173. Rebellion of Henry's eldest sou Henry, and general league of French and English lords, Louis VII. and WUliam the Lion of Scotland against the kiifg. Defeat of Louis. Capture of William who was released only after acknowledging Henry as his suzerain (1175). Death of Henry the younger, 1183. 1181. Assize of arms. Restoration of militia service. 1189. Conspiracy of Henry's sons, Richard and John, with Philip of France. Humiliation and death of Henry II. 1189-1199. Richard I., Cceur-de-Lion,. His reign was passed almost entirely away from England, Crusade (p. 215). On his return Richard was captured by Leopold of Austria, delivered to the emperor, and detained thirteen months in captivity, being released at last for a, heavy ransom. During his absence Eleanor, his mother, was regent. Persecution of the Jews. The intrigues of Philip of France and the king's brother John resulted in war in England, which was quickly suppressed after the return of Richard (1194). For the rest of his reign Richard was in France at war with Philip. Erection of the Chateau Gaillard on the Seine. Death of Richard before the castle of Chalus-Chabrol (1199). A. D. England. 233 During his absence England was governed by Hubert Walter, and after his resignation in consequence of a refusal of money by the great council, by Geoffrey Fitz Peter. 1199-1216. John LaoUand. John was recog^zed in England without opposition and secured Normandy, but Anjou, Maine and Touraine acknowledged the claim of Arthur son of Geoffrey. 1203. Death of Arthur while in John's power. Philip at once secured the sentence of John and the forfeiture of his fiefs. Nor- mandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine and a part of Aquiiaine were at onoe lost to John. Henceforward John was restricted to his English king- dom. The death of Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury (1205) was followed by a disputed election. A reference to Kome resulted in the election of Stephen Iiangton by command of Innocent IIL (1207). John refused to receive him and the kingdom was visited with an interdict (1208). Moved by fear of deposition, John finally yielded, received Langton, and accepted his kiiigdoiu as a fief of the papacy (1213). John's exactions and misgovemment had embroiled him with the barons since 1199. Refusal of the barons to follow John to France (1213). 1214. Defeat of John at Bouvines in Flanders (p. 227). On John's return negotiations were opened with the barons, but failed, and the confederated lords occupied London. 121 5- Magna Charta granted by John at Runnymede. June The provisions of this charter applied to the commons 15-23. as well as to the nobles and clergy, and directed that its benefits should reach the lower tenants.' Principal provisions : 1. Ratification of Henry's charter. 2. Security for personal freedom; no freeman should '>be taken, imprisoned or damaged in person or estate, but by the judgment of his peers " or " by the law of the land" (Ai't. 39).' 3. Regulation of feudal dues and obligations. 4. Regulation of national taxation ; limitation of the aid (aux- ilium) which could be collected without the consent of the gi-eat council to the three ancient and well known cases (ransom of the lord ; knighting of his eldest son ; marriage of his eldest daughter). 5. Specification of members of the great council, and of the cases for which, and manner in which it should be convened. The charter declared null and void by the Pope. Suspension of Langton. War soon broke out ; the French party among the barons, declaring the crown forfeited, bestowed it upon Louis, son of Philip 1 Stubbg, Early Plcmtagenets, 149. ^ Nallus liber homo capiatar vel imprisonetar aut dissaisiatnr aat utlaghetnr ant exuletnr aut aliquo modo destruatur, nee super eum ibimns, nee super eum mittemus, nisi per legale judicium parium suorum vel per legem terrse. 234 MedicBval History. A. D. of France, who in 1216 came to England. Death of John (October 19, 1216). 1216-1272. Henry III., of Winchester, son of John. The death of John was fatal to the hopes of Louis. The English party which secured the coronation of the nine-year old Henry, though small at first soon outnumbered the French. The de- feat of the French fleet off TJianet determined Louis to give up the contest and return to France. Kegency of William Marshall (1216- 1219). The Magna Charta was twice reissued in a modified form. After the death of William Marshall, England was governed by Peter des Roches, Pandulf, the papal legate, Hubert de Burgh, the justiciary, and archbishop Langton, who had returned and soon super- seded Pandulf as legate (1221). Second coronation (1220). Third reissue of the charter (1223). Henry's personal government began in 1227, and soon involved the country in difficulties. Heavy taxa- tion necessitated by the demands of the Pope and by the foreign policy of the king. Fall of Hubert de Burgh (1232) ; of Peter des Roches (1234). Marriage of Henry to Eleanor of Provence (1236). Struggle over the money grants in the great council, which hence- forward was called Parliament. Papal exactions of enormous sums of money. Of the French possessions of the Angevines Henry had retained only Aquitaine and Oascony. 1253. Return of Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester (son of Simon of Montfort, who had led the crusade against the Albi- genses), to England from the government of Gascony. Simon soon took a prominent part in the parliaotnentary struggle which now as- sumed formidable proportions. 1258. Parliament of Oxford. The barons presented a list of griev- ances, the Provisions of Oxford, the reforms demanded in which were to be carried out under a commission of twenty-four barons. Permanent council of fifteen barons to meet three times a year. 1263. Outbreak of war between the king and the barons. Arbitra- tion of Louis IX. of France (1264). Provisions of Oxford annulled. This decision resulted in a renewal of the war. The king and his son Edward were defeated in the 1264. Battle of Lewes. May 14. Treaty (Mise of Lewes) between the parties. Native coun- selors presented and a new council arranged by a parlia- ment in which four knights from each shire were added to the clergy and nobility. Council of Nine. 1265. Parliament of Simon of Montfort, the first Parliameni Jan. 20. to which representatives of the boroughs were called (jei this did not become a legal custom until in the next reign). Edward released. Arms were again taken up. In the 1265. Battle of Evesham, Aug. 4. Earl Simon was defeated and fell on the field. Death of Henry (Nov. 16, 1272). In this reign the begging friars came to England. Revival of A. D. The North. 235 scholasticism. Fame of Oxford. Roger Bacon, author of Opus Magnum, "the enoyclopsedia of the thirteenth century." Maihew Paris. Revival of Welsh literature. Mabinogion. Geoffrey of Mon- mouth. Romances of Arthur. (See p. S6S.) § 5. THE NORTH. Denmark. {Seep. 208.) 1134r-1397. The extinction of the direct line of Estridsen (p. 208) was followed by a period of confusion and wars over the succession (Erik Emun, 1134^1137, Erik Lamb, 1137-1147) untU, 1167-1182. Waldemar I., the Great, was elected to the throne. Subjugation of the Wends, who had long harassed Denmark. Capture of Ancona on the island of Rugen. Suppression of a revolt in Skaania, caused by the severity of bishop Absalon. Waldemar's son 1182-1202. ICnutVI. was even more successful than his father, and refused to acknowledge the suzerainty of the emperor, Frederic Barbarossa, as Waldemar had done. Defeat of a naval expedition of the Wends, who received aid from the emperor, by bishop Absalon (1184) ; Hither Pomwerania submitted, as did a part of Mecklenburg. Knut, " King of the Slavs." Expedition to Esthonia. War with the count of Holstein and other German princes; Conquest of Liibeck and Ham- burg. Capture of Adolf of Holstein. Quarrel with Philip Augustus of France over his treatment of Ingebord (p. 226). Knut was suc- ceeded by his brother, 1202-1241. "Waldemar II., the Conqueror, the first portion of whose reign forms one of the most bril- liant epochs of Danish histo(ry. Adolf of Holstein released on condi- tion of ceding all Holstein to Waldemar, who granted it as a fief to his nephew, Albert of Orlamund. Unsuccessful interference in Nor- way and Sweden. Conquest of Oesel and of a large part of Prussia. In return for his recognition of Frederic II. over his rivals as em- peror, Waldemar obtained a cession of all conquests in Germany, north of the Elbe and the Elde (Holstein, Lauenburg, part of Meck- lenburg'). Expedition to Esthonia. The Danneborg, or national standard (1219). Waldemar's power fell more rapidly than it was acquired. In 1223 the king and his son were treacherously captured by Henry, count of Schwerin, and imprisoned in the castle of Danne- borg, in Hanover, for three years. Waldemar obtained his release by the payment of a heavy ransom, and the renunciation of all his con- quests south of the Elbe, and in the Slavic countries. Holstein ceded to Adolf the Young (1225). This renunciation was annulled by the Pope, and Waldemar tried to regain Holstein, but was defeated in the battle of Bornhoeved (1227). The rest of his reign was passed for the most part in peace. He died in 1241. Of all bos con- 286 MedicBVal History. A. d. quests only Riigen, some places in Mecklenburg, Prussia, Estho- nia,, remained to Denmark. Waldemar's code of laws. Waldemar was twice married : 1. Margrete of Bohemia, a well-beloved princess (Dagmar). 2. Berengaria of Portugal, by whom he had three sons who mounted the throne in succession. Waldemar committed the political blunder of dividing the kingdom among his sons so that the nominal king possessed only a small part of the monarchy ; Schleswig was conferred on Ahd. This led to disputes, so that the following period was one of civil strife, wars of succession, murder, and exile of kings. Erik (1241-1250). Ahel (1260-1252). In this reign the towns began to send representatives to the council (^Danehof). Christopher (1252-1259). War about SMesivig, the king claiming that it had been granted to Abel as a personal fief, while the descen- dants of Abel declared that it was an hereditary fief. Conflict with the archbishop Jacob Erlandsen. Erik GUpping (1259-1286). Oc- cupation of Schleswig. Erik Menved (1286-1319). Regency of the queen mother. Miserable condition of Denmark. The larger part of the kingdom granted out to Danish and German nobles. Chris- topher II. (13iO-1334). The nobles and clergy extorted from the king certain capitulations, which materially weakened the power of the crown for 340 years. Confirmation of privileges of the clergy. No ecclesiastic could be tried in a secular court, neither could the tenants of ecclesiastical foundations. No bishop could be imprisoned without the consent of the Pope. The property and persons of the clergy were free from all taxation. The nobles could not be com- pelled to follow the king beyond the limits of the kingdom ; if they were captured in war the crown was obliged to ransom them within a year, or lose the right of holding them to military service. The king could declare war only with the consent of the nobles and clergy. No person could be imprisoned without having been tried and con- demned in a local court and in the king's court, whence an appeal lay to the national Diet. Laws could be made, repealed, and amended, only upon the motion of the nobles in the annual Diet, and with the consent of the whole nation. Peasants must not be unjustly treated by the king's agents, nor compelled to carry the king's baggage be- yond their own township. Commerce should be free and not bur- dened with extraordinary dues. War with Geert, count of Holstein, who invaded the kingdom, and with the aid of discontented nobles drove Christopher from the kingdom. Election of Waldemar, duke of Schleswig ; soon after, Christopher, by great concessions, acquired the crown again. Eight years of anarchy (1332-1340). Skaania, Hal- land, Bleking attached themselves to Sweden. After the death of Geert, the youngest son of Christopher, 1340-1375. Waldemar III., Attadag, was made king, and devoted himself to acquiring, by pur- chase or by force, the alienated crown lands, in which he met with success. In 1359 Waldemar regained Skaania, Hcilland, and Bleking from the Swedish king, Magnus Smek, and af&anced his daughter Margaret to Hakon, son of the Swedish king. Denmark restored to her boundaries as they had been under Waldenw/r L A. D. 27ie North. 237 This success was followed by a general war with Sweden, Mecklen' hurg, the Hanseatic League, etc., which in spite of the sack of Copen- hagen ended disadvantageously for the Hanse towns, 1363. In 1368, however, the Hansa, in alliance with Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Sweden, began war again, and in 1370 obtained from the Danish es- tates a treaty which secured for them the most extensive commercial privileges. In 1372 Waldemar accepted this peace of Stralsund. In 1375 Waldemar died. Passing over the claim of Albert, duke of Mecklenburg, the son of Waldemar's eldest daughter, the estates elected the sou of his youngest daughter Olaf, (1376-1387), then six years of age. In 1380 Olaf succeeded his father Hahon as king of Norway, and both lands were weU governed by his mother Margaret, the regent, who, after Olaf's death, 1387, was elected queen in both countries. In 1388, Sweden revolted against the king, Albert, and Margaret accepted an offer of the crown. In the battle of Falkos- ping (1389), Albert was defeated and captured. In 1397, the three kmgdoms were united by the ITiiion of Calmar. (5ee p. 376.") Sweden. {Seep. SOS.) 1066-1397. After the death of Stenhil (p. 208), the country was distracted by wars between the Svea and the Gauta, which lasted, with slight inter- ruptions, for two hundred years ; whereby the people suffered greatly, the free peasants disappeared, and a nobifity of warriors arose which was exempt from taxation and possessed its own juris- diction. These nobles acquired supremacy in the Diet, and re- duced the power of the kiiig to a shadow. Under Erik IX., the Saint (1150-1162), Christianity was introduced throughout the king- dom. Establishment of the archbishopric of Upsala (1163). The family of the Bonder, which began with Erik the Saint, became ex- tinct with Erik Eriksson Lcespe (1223-1250). Under this family the power of the clergy had so increased that in 1248 they were forbid- den to take the oath of allegiance to the king. At the same time celibacy was introduced. The Bonder dynasty was succeeded by that of the Folkunger, which came to the throne with Waldemar (1260- 1275), son of Birger Jarl, who continued until his death (1266) the actual ruler of Sweden, as he had been under Erik Lcespe. Founda- tion of Stockholm (1255). Birger assigned his other sons large duchies in Sweden, thereby planting the seeds of future discord. In 1275, Waldemar was imprisoned by his brother Magnus, duke of Sodermanland, and remained a captive until his death (1302). Mag- nus (1279-1290) proved a good ruler and left a prosperous kingdom to his son Birger (1290-1319). The regent Torkel governed wisely until his fall in 1306, when war broke out between Birger and his brothers Erik and Waldemar. In 1317 Birger made his brothers pris- oners and starved them to death. This caused a popular revolt which expelled Birger and placed on the throne the son of Erik, Magnus Smek (1320-1363). During the regency Norway fell to Magnus, through his maternal grandfather Hakon, and Skaania, 238 Mediceval History. A. d. Halland, and Bleking, which belonged to Denmark, but had been pawned to Holstein, submitted to Magnus, who paid the mortgage. Magnus, after he became of age (1333) made a poor ruler. In 1360, he surrendered Skaauia, Halland, Bleking to Waldermr Attadag of Denmark, and betrothed liis son Hakon to Waldemar's daughter Margaret. In 1365 A Ibert of Mecklenburg was proclaimed king, and in the battle of Enkceping (1365) captured Magnus who was released in 1371 upon making renunciation of the crown of Sweden. AlbeH (1366-1388) was king in name only, the power being in the hands of the nobles. In 1388 the nobles deposed the king and offered the crown to Margaret of Norway and Denmark, by whom it was ac- cepted. At the battle of Falkceping Albert was made prisoner ajid, after an imprisonment of six years, renounced the crown. In 1397 Sweden joined Norway and Denmark in the Union of Calmar. (Seep.Sre.) Norway. (Seep. 209.) 1103-1397. After the death of Magnus Barfod in Ireland (p. 209), his three sons Ejsten, Sigurd, and Olaf, reigned in conjunction until the death of Ejsten and Olaf left Sigurd sole ruler. Sigurd made a pilgrim- age to Jerusalem. He was followed by his son Magnus the Blind, who in 1134 was obliged to cede half the kingdom to Harald Gille, who came from Ireland and claimed to be a son of Magnus Barfod. There followed a wretched period of civil war ; strife between the Birkebeneme, or national party, and the Bagleme, or clerical party, in which the former finally got the upper hand. Magnus V. (1161- 1184), Sverre (1177-120^), Hakon III. (1202-1204), Gnttorm the child (1204), Inge Baardsm (1204-1217). 1217 (1223)-1262. Hakon IV. sou of Hakon III., grandson of Sverre. He crushed his rivals, weakened the power of the clergy, restored quiet to the country, and raised Norway once more to an influential position among European nations. Conquest of Iceland (1260) and submission of Greenland. Hakon died in 1262, after suffering a defeat at the hands of the Soots in an expedition which he had undertaken against Scotland. He was followed by his son Magnus Lagaboster (1262-1280) who ceded the Isle of Man and the Hebrides to Scotland. Collection and publication of a new code of laws (1264^1279). Erik Priest-hater (1280-1299). . War with Deimiark over the dowry of his mother, Ingeborg. War with the Hanse towns, wherein the king was worsted and obliged to frant the towns full privileges in Norway, and to join the league. )eath of Margaret (" The Maid of Norway "), daughter of Erik, and granddaughter on her mother's side of Alexander III. of Scot- land, while on her way to claim that crown after the latter's death. Hakon V. (1299-1319). War with Sweden and Denmark. Dying without male issue, he left the crown to his daughter's son, Magnus, king of Sweden, who ascended the throne in 1320. In 1350 Magnus bestowed the crown of Norway on his son Hakon VI. (1350-1380), who in 1362 beea;me co-regent for Sweden. In 1363 Hakon married A. D. The North. 239 lib g& 2.0 -- a I W ^ = !§-? •a CO ft ,_, n S, H a C3 S H S.S. B M * P] qs fcoo Eo O CD »-n& C CD L S Oq CO « , r:;W I- ato COS ^ coco 003 wg M. S I Q g o a Sj CO-4 J' 00- 80 "PEP 5 o- ■ to?- ft ?s. ?3W. Ss'B CD S ■ p 1 M O R ■~rb El 03 S M 240 Medieeval History. A. D Margaret the heiress of Denmark. Hahm was succeeded by his minor son Olaf (1380-1387), whose mother Margaret administered the kingdom of Norway as she had done that of Denmark, which Olaf had inherited in 1376. After Olaf's death in 1387 Margaret (1387- 1412) was recognized as queen of both Norway and Denmark. The vmion of the two monarchies was completed by the Union of Calmar and endured until 1814. At the XTuiou of Calmar (1397) Sweden was united with the two kingdoms. (See p. S76.) § 6. SPANISH PENINSULA. (See p. SOD.) Arabic Spain was conquered from the Morabethes or Almoravides (p. 209) by the Almohades about the middle of the twelfth century. Since the defeat at Tolosa (1212) steady decline of the power of the Arabians, who since the reign of Alfonso X. of Castile were con- fined to the kingdom of Granada. 1095. County of Portugal, between the Duero and Minho, granted as a Castilian flef to the Burgundian count Henry, whose son liberated himself from the overlordship of Castile, and called him- self King of Portugal (1140). Aragon and Catalonia (county of Barcelona) united (1137). Leon and Castile separated again (1157) ; finally definitely united (1230). About 1150. Origin of the three orders of knighthood which took their names from the cities guarded by them : 1. San Jago di Crnnpostella (Gralioia), 2. Alcantara (on the Tajo), 3. Calatrava (on the Guadiana. (See p. 275.) § 7. THE EAST. Eastern Empire. (See p. ^10.) 1057-1185. Eastern emperors of the houses of the Ducas and the Comnenes. 1185-1204. Dynasty of Angelus. 1204^1261. Latin empire (p. 216). (Seep. «7«.) The Mongols. 1206. The Mongols elected on the Amur, Temuchin, their chief. He took the honorary title Jenghiz Khan, under which, rather than under his true name, he is known in history. The Mongols con- quered a part of China, destroyed the empire of the Chowaresmians, which reached from India to the Caspian Sea, and subjugated south- ern Russia. Temuohin's grandson Batu made plundering expeditions through Russia, defeated the Poles and fought the 1241. Battle of Wahlstatt, against the Germans under Henry the Pious, duke of Liegnitz. The Mongols, although victorious, retired to the East, and ravaged Hungary. A Christian army under Wenzel, king of Bohemia, cut them off from Austria. A. D. The East. 241 The greater part of the Mongols went back to Asia, but Russia was under their sway till 1480. 1258. The Mongols conquered Bagdad and destroyed the Caliphate. Their immense empire separated into Khanates, (China, Khan- ate of Kaptchah on the Volga, Jagatai in Turkestan, Iran, etc.) (See p. 278.) India. (See p. 211.) 1206-1500. The Afghan empire broke up after the death of Muhammad Ghori (p. 211), and the vicegerenoy of the Punjab and Hindustan became an independent sultanate under Kitah-^-din, sultan of Delhi (1206- 1210), who was originally a slave, and founded the slave dynasty (1206-1288). He ertended the Mohammedan rule as far as the Brahma-pulra. Under his successors the sultanate suffered from Mon- gol invasions. AUah-^ud-dm, viceroy of Oude, who had made daring expeditions into the Deccan, murdered the sultan JeldL-ud-din, his imcle, and made himself sultan. Conquest of Ouzerat. Capture of Chitor in RajptUana (1300). Conquest of portions of the Deccan. After the death of Allah-tid-dtn (1316) revolts occurred which were suppressed by the Turkish governor of the Punjab, Tughlak, who mounted the throne of Delhi, and founded a new line of sultans, who transferred their residence to Tughlakahad. Tuglath was succeeded by his son Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), who was obliged to pur- chase the retreat of the Mongols from the Punjab. A terrible famine induced tiim to remove the population of Delhi to Deoghur, and the misery of those who survived the journey of 700 miles induced him to send them back again. Large issue of copper coinage, followed by financial panic. Rebellions broke out everywhere, and the Mo- hammedan empire separated into numerous small states. Firuz-Shah (1350-1388). 1398. Invasion of Hindustan by Timiir Shah. Allah-ud-dm had ex- tended his power over a large part of the south, but the Hindu revolt of 1316 had shattered it. The southern part of the peninsula was comprised in the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar (Narsinga), about 1300. In 1350, on the death of Muhammad Tughlak, the Moham- medan army in the. Deccan had set up a sultan of its own, whose capital was at Kvlbarga. These Bahmani sultans were soon in- volved in a series of horrible wars with the empire of Vijayanagar. The Bahmani empire endured until 1500, -when it was broken up into five kingdoms. (Seep. 353.) China. (Seep. Sll.) 1101-1398. The Khitan Tatars having established themselves firmly in Leacm- tsung, Hwy-tsung (1101-1126) conceived the idea of inviting the Neu-che Tatars to take the field against them ; they did so and ex- pelled the Khitan, but occupied the province themselves, and thence spread over Chili-li, Shen-se, Shun-se, and Ho-nan. Under Kaou- 16 242 MedicBval History. A. D. tsung (1127-1163) the Neu-che Tatars, or as they now called them- selves, the Kins, reached to the Yang-tse-Keang. The new empire of the Kins invited attack from the Mongol Tatars, who experienced at this period a wonderful development of power. In 1213 Jeugbiz Khan invaded the Kin province of Leaou-tsung; ninety cities were razed to the ground. After the death of Jenghiz, (1227) his son Ogdai (1227-1241) continued the work of conquest. 1232. Fall of the Kin dynasty, brought about by an alliance of the Mongols with the independent kingdom of Sung, in the south. Mangu (1248-1259), son of the warrior Too-le, was succeeded by his brother, 1259-1294. Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor. The complete fall of Sung in 1280 left Kublai lord over all China, as well as ruler of almost all the rest of Asia, excepting Hindustan and Arabia. China was never more illus- trious or powerful. Visit of Marco Polo, the Venetian, to the court of Kublai. Unsuccessful attack upon Japan (1281, p. 243). The immediate successors of Kublai were men of little note : Yv£n- cJiing (1294-1307), Woo-tung (1307-1311). Jin-tsung (1311-1320) endeavored to blend the two races, and admitted many Chinese to official positions. After his death matters went from bad to worse, until Shun-te (1333-1368) was driven from the empire by Choo- yuen-chang, the son of a Chinese laborer, who, in 1368, proclaimed himself emperor under the name of 1368-1398. Hung-woo, the founder of the Ming dynasty. Subjugation of Tatary. (^Seep.SrS.) Japan. (See p. aiS) 1166-1392. 1156. The wars of Gen and Hei, which began in this year, are very famous in Japanese annals. In the first battle (1156) the Taira (Heishe) were victorious, under Kiyomori, and obtained control of the royal palace. Exiled from Kioto, the Minamoto (Genji), under the enterprising brothers, Yoritomo and Yoshitsune, founded a power in the plain of the Koanto, with Kamakura as their capital. The death of Kiyomori (1181) was the signal for the downfall of the house of Hd. Kioto was captured by the Minamoto. The final struggle occurred in the 1185. Naval battle of Dan no ura, near Shimonoseki. The Taira were utterly defeated, many perished in the fight, and the family was exterminated throughout the islands, save a few who, escaping to Kiushiu, transmitted their name to the present day. Secure in victory, Yoritomo left the Mikado and the kuge in Kioto undisturbed, while he strengthened his power at Kamakura. Five men of his family were appointed governors of provinces, an office previously filled only by civilians. A special tax was levied tlirougb- out the empire for the support of standing garrisons in all the prov- A. D. The East. 243 inces, and these troops were under military rulers of his own race, who shared the government of the province with the civil governor, and were subordinate to Yoritomo himself. In 1192 Yoritomo was appointed Sei-% Tai Shogun, or generalissimo. He was henceforward known as the Shogun. With the death of Yoritomo (1199) fell the power of the Minamoto. 1200-1333. Supremacy of the family of Hoj'o. The founder of the Hojo ascendency was ToHmasa, father-in-law of Yoritomo, who exercised absolute control over the degenerate descendants of that able Shogun. None of the Hojo ever held the office of Shogun, but, vassals of a vassal, they ruled the Shogun and the Mikado as Yoritomo had ruled the Mikado alone. The line of Yoritomo ended in 1219, when the Shogmiate was transferred to the Fujiwara, who held it until 1251, when their vassal-masters handed it over to one of the sous of the reigning Mikado, in whose family it remained until 1333. Since the conquest of China by the Mongol-Tatars, the victors had kept the subjugation of Japan steadily in view. Embassy after em- bassy had demanded submission and been repulsed ; the last, in 1279, was beheaded. 1281. Invasion of Japan by the Mongol Tatars. Destruction of the armada by a typhoon ; defeat and massacre of the survivors upon the island of Taka. By this repulse Hojo Tokmmni -vion great praise; he was, indeed, a man of great capacity and good sense. After him, however, the Hojo grew more and more outrageous in their treatment of the Mikado until a revolt broke out, headed by Kvsunoki-Masashige and Nitta Yoshisada, which ended in the 1333. Capture and destruction of Kamakura, and the exter- mination of the Hojo family. For a time (1333-1336) the Mikado Go-Daigo (1319-1338) was monarch in fact as in name, but his weakness cost him his newly found authority. Ashikaga Takauji, one of the leaders in the revolt against the Hojo, revolted against his new master, seized Kioto, and set up a rival Mikado who. appointed him Sei-i Tai Shogun. 1336-1392. "War of the Chrysanthemums, between the false Mikado at Kioto and the true Mikado at Yoshino, each displaying the imperial emblem, the chrysanthemum. Peace was concluded in 1392 under the condition that the imperial throne should be occupied by mikados taken alternately from the rival houses. The northern branch died out after a few generations. During this period (since the establishment of the Shogun at Kioto') feudalism reached its full development. The country was divided among the soldiers of the Shogun, who held their estates as fiefs from the Shogun, to whom they owed service. Gradually the agricultural and other classes became attached to certain of these military lords, daimios, and received their lands from them as fiefs. The taxes which supported the Mikado and the court were absorbed by the daimios, and the kuge was left to abject poverty. (See p. STS.) 244 Medieeval History. a. d. FOURTH PERIOD. FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE CRUSADES TO THE DIS- COVERY OF AMERICA. 1270-1492. § 1. GERMANY. (See p. 1126.) 1273-1347. Kings and Emperors of various houses. 1273-1291. Rudolf I., count of Hapsburg and Kyburg, landgrave in Alsace, the most powerful prince in Helvetia, was elected by the three archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier and the count Palatine of the Khine, through the influence of his cousin, the burggrave Frederic of Hohenzollem. Strict enforcement of the public peace. War with Ottocar, king of Bohemia, who had taken possession of Austria, after the extinction of the Babenberg line (1246), had reconquered Styria from the Hun- garians, and had inherited Carinthia and Camiola. Ottocar was put under the ban and his flefs proclaimed forfeited. Rudolf took Vienna, and was on the point of crossing the Danube when Ottocar agreed to a treaty (Nov., 1276), whereby he abandoned Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Camiola, but received Bohemia and Moravia again as fiefs of the empire. Ottocar however soon renewed the war. 1278. Victory of Rudolf on the Marchfeld (near Vienna). Death of Ottocar. Peace with the guardian of his sou Wenzel who received Bohemia and, later, Moravia. Development of the famUy power of the Hapsburgs. Austria, Styria, Carinthia, given as imperm fiefs to Rudolf's sons, Albert and Budolf . Carin- thia was given to Meinhard, count of Tyrol, Rudolf's brother-in-law. Campaigns of Rudolf in Burgundy and Swabia, particularly against Eherhard of Wiirtemberg. In Swabia since the fall of the Hohen- staufens the most powerful princes were the counts of Wiirtem- berg, and the margraves of Baden. The ducal title in Swabia de- scended to Rudolf's son Rudolf, and from him to his son John (Parricida), but this title designated only authority over the Haps- burg estates in Swabia. Formation of a great number of fiefs held immediately of the empire in Swabia. Through the exertions of the archbishop of Mainz, Rudolf's son Albert was not elected his succes- sor, but the choice fell on a relative of the archbishop, 1292-1298. Adolf of Nassau, whose reign was devoted to the attempt to establish a dynastic power by the acquisition of Thuringia and Meissen ("in opposition to the brothers Frederic ^ and Diezmanri). Adolf was deposed at the Diet of Mainz, by the influence of his former patron, the archbishop of Mainz, 1 The title "with the bitten cheek" appears to have been a later invention ; his contemporaries called this Frederic, son of Margaret, daugliter of Frederic II., by the surname " the Cheerful." See Wegele, Fried, der Freidige, 1868. A. t). Germany. 245 ■without the approval of the archbishops of Cologne and Trier and the count Palatine. He fell at OBllheim, in personal con- flict with 1298-1308. Albert I., of Austria, son of Rudolf I. who had been elected king by the opposing party. Alliance with Philip the Fair, king pi France, against the Pope. Albert tried in vain to recover Holland as a vacant fief of the empire. Alliance of the three ecclesiastical electors and the count Palatine against the Mng, who was victorious (1301), and reduced the princes to obedience (siege of the castle of Bingen). Unsuccessful wars with Bohemia, and with Frederic and Diezmann of Meissen, who defeated the im- perial army under the burggrave of Nuremberg at Lucka, not far from Altenburg (1307). Albert was murdered by his nephew John (Parricida) between the Aar and Reuss, near the Hapsburg. His widow Elizabeth and his daughter Agnes took terrible vengeance for this murder. Through the influence of the archbishop of Trier the princes elected as king his brother 1308-1313. Henry VII., count of Liitzelnburg or Lux- emburg, a haJf-Frenchman. 1309. The Swiss Cantons received from Hem'y VII. doc- June 3. umentary confirmation of their immediate feudal re- lation to the empire. Origin of the Svdss Confederacy. Of the inhabitants of the cantons, those dwelling in Schwyz seem to have been, for the most part, free peasants ; while in Uri and Unter- walden the majority were in a condition of servitude, as regarded either their persons or their estates. The most extensive landowners were monasteries (e. g. the Fratienmiinster in Zfirich), and nobles re- siding out of the country, like the counts of Lenzburg and those of Hapsburg. After the extinction of the former (1172), at any rate since the thirteenth century, the counts of Hapsburg exercised, under various legal titles as landgraves or advocates, full jurisdiction and presided in the assemblies. Under the imperfectly developed admin- istration of that time, the holder of these privileges was considered the actual ruler of the country. As early as the first half of the thirteenth century the cantons had resisted the efEorts of the Hapsburgers to develop their stewardship into an actual sovereignty over them ; indeed they had even attempted in part to withdraw themselves from the stewardship of the Haps- burgers. In 1231 Henry, regent for his father Frederic II. in Ger- many (p. 224), granted the people of Uri a charter which removed them from under the protection of the Hapsburgers and replaced them under that of the empire. In 1240 Frederic II. gave the peo- ple of Schwyz a charter which promised them an immediate tenure from the empire. After the middle of the thirteenth century, the Hapsburgers were nevertheless still in possession of their office 246 Mediceval History. a. d. of steward or advocate (Vogf) for the cantons. Rudolf I. seems to have recognized the charter of Uri, hut not that of Schwyz. Imme- diately upon his death, on Aug. 1, 1291, the cantons Uri, Schwyz, and Nidwalden (which was afterwards united with the towns of Obwalden under the name Unterwalden) concluded a perpetual league. Al- though intended only to insure the maintenance of existing condi- tions, this league is to be regarded as the beginning of the Con- federacy. By making shrewd use of the confusion that followed in Germany, but not without many changes of fortune (after the battle of Gollhmn (p. 245) the cantons were obliged to recognize the su- premacy of the Hapsburgers), the confederates in 1309 attained the object for which their ancestors had striven. The Swiss narrative, to which the popular poetry has added many ornaments, and which condenses the facts of the gradual acquirement of an immediate relation to the empire into a short space of time, and exaggerates their effects, can no longer be regarded as historical in view of the results of modem investigation.^ It is first found in chronicles which were written between two and three hundred years after the events, and is often contradicted by the documents.^ Neither J;he Oath on the Riiili (1307, Werner Stauffacher, Walther FUrst, Ar- nold Melchthal), nor the expulsion of the bailiffs on the 1st of January 1308, is historically authenticated. ' The Swiss confederacy was not formed by the exertions of three or of thirty individuals, but was the result of many historical events which united in powerfully assisting the energetic and enduring efforts of the inhabitants of the cantons to free themselves from all foreign su- premacy. As regards the story of Tell, it is now esta,blished that neither the shooting of the apple from the head of liis son, nor the murder of the bailiff Gessler in the hollow way at Kiissnacht can be in any way re- farded as an historical event. It has been proved that among the [ussnacht bailiffs of that time there was no Gessler. The legend of the shooting of the apple occurs five times outside of the cantons, agreeing almost to the wording of the answer which the archer gives the tyrant : in Norway, in Iceland, in JDenmark, in Holstdn, and on the middle Rhine, and, with an altered motive, a sixth time in Eng- land. Hence it is tolerably certain that we have here to do with a common Germanic tradition. Moreover, the resemblance of the Swiss version to the elder narrative of Saxo Grammaticus (twelfth century) of the shot of Toko, the Dane, who is said to have lived in the tenth century, is so striking as to render it probable that the Swiss chroniclers had that historian before them. Whether a man of the name of Tell ever lived in Uri is a question which cannot be answered with certainty either in the affirmative or tho negative.' It is one, moreover, which has but little interest when 1 A. Huber : die Waldstatte Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, 1861 ; and Boch- holz, Tell und Gessler in Sage und Geschickte, 1877. 2 The honor of having first used this fact after a true scientific fashion to dis- prove the tradition belongs to the Swiss historian Kopp ( Urhanden zur Ge- tchichte der eidgenossischen BOnde, 1835 and 1857 ; Reiehigeschichte, 1845-1858). 8 According to the investigations of Kopp, who examined all the archives in Uri, and Bochholz (p. 257. note), the latter is almost certainly the case. A. D. Germany. 247 it is admitted that the main features of the legend are unhistorical. It is noteworthy that Tell, even in the legend, plays no part at all in the conunon insurrection, after the murder of the bailiff. It was not until later, when the Swiss had actually worked out their freedom, that his deed was invented, and surrounded by the halo of popular belief, his name made a symbol of Swiss energy S,nd love of freedom The Tell chapels and the memorial festivals are no proof that Tell was an historical personage, since the erection of the former and the estab- lishment of the latter can be shown to date from a time when the tradi- tion was already fully developed. The document concerning a public meeting of 1388, when more than a hundred people are said to have declared that they knew Tell, is evidently a later interpolation. 1310. Henry's son, John, was placed on the throne of Bohemia by the national assembly, in spite of the claims of the Hapsburg- ers, whereby the Liitzelnburgers acquired a family power. 1310-1313. Henry's Koman expedition. He was crowned king of Italy in Pavia, and emperor in Rome (1312). 1314-1347. Ludwig of Upper Bavaria at war with 1314-1330. Frederic of Austria, son of Albert. 1315. Victory of the Swiss confederates in the pass between lake Nov. 15. Ageri and the mountain Morgarten over Leopold of Aus- tria, Frederic's brother. The flower of the Austrian chivalry (1500 in number) slaughtered. Deo. 9. Renewal of the league between Uri, Schtvyz and Unterwalden at Brunnen. 1316. Recognition of the immediate dependence of the cantons upon the empire, by king Ludwig. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the people generally bought ofB the ever di mi nishing rights of the landed monasteries. Rapid growth of the league of the confederates, which was joined by one alter another of the remaining districts, who thus withdrew themselves from the control of the territorial lords. At the close of the fifteenth century Austria had been entirely driven out of the lands south of the Rhine. After 1340 no imperial bailiff is mentioned in the cantons, which in conse- quence of the weakness of the imperial power soon became republics, so that the proclamation of the independence of Switzerland in the Peace of Westphalia (1648) was only the legal recognition of a, state of things which had long existed in fact. 1322. Battle at Ampfing near Miihldorf. Frederic of Austria de- feated and captured (^Schweppermann ; the story is probably tmhistoric). 1324. Ludwig gave the mark Brandenburg, which had reverted by the extinction of the Askanianline, to his son Ludwig, whom he afterwards married with Margaret MauUasch, the heiress of Tyrol and Carinthia. 1325. Frederic set at liberty upon renouncing his claim to the throne. He surrendered himself again as prisoner, was made co-regent by Ludwig, died 1330. 1327-1330. Ludwig's Roman expedition. Crowned emperor in Roma (Anti-pope Nicholas V.) 248 Mediceval History. A- D. The Electoral meeting at Rense (1338) declared every legally elected German king to be thereby constituted Roman emperor, even without papal coronation. The violent ineans adopted by Ludwig to increase his domestic power led, a year before his death, to the election of Charles, son of John, king of Bohemia (f 1346 ui the battle of Crecy). Charles was pot universally recognized until after Ludwig's death. 1347-1437. Emperors of the Luxemburg — Bohe- mian line. 1347-13T8. Charles IV. A prince with nothing knightly in his character, but wise in statecraft, and shrewd in calculation ; a scholar (he studied at Paris and Bologna, spoke and wrote Bohemian, Grerman, Latin, French, Italian). War vrith the Bavarian party. In opposition to Ludwig there appeared in Brandenburg Has false Waldemar (1348-1350), who was assisted by Charles. The emperor's first care was his hereditary kingdom, Bohemia (whence he was styled by Maximilian I., "Bohemia's father, the Holy Koman Empire's arch-step-father "). The emperor in 1348 founded a university, after the pattern of that in Paris, at Prague, the first ia Germany. The Bavarian party elected in opposition 1349. Giinther of Schwarzburg, king of Germany, but he died in Jan. June of the same year (poisoned ?). Plague (Black Death) in Germany, and throughout nearly all Europe. Persecutions of the Jews. Flagellants. 1353. Berne joined the Swiss confederacy which now included Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and BemCf the so-called eight old cantons. 13o4r-1355. Charles's first expedition to Rome. He was crowned emperor at Rome with a humiliating ceremony. Silesia and Lower Lusaiia (Niederlausitz) imited with Bohemia. 1356. Golden Bull.* Fundamental law of the empire. The election of the emperor was definitively intrusted to the seven electors, who had practically exercised this right for a long tims;^ three ecclesiastics: 1. Archbishop of Mainz (arch-chancellor of Germany) ; 2. Archbishop of Trier (arch-chancellor of Burgundy) ; 3. Archbishop of Cologne (aroh-ehancellor of Italy) ; four secur- lar: 4. King of Bohemia (arch-seneschal); 5. Count Palatine of the Rhine (arch-steward); 6. Duke of Saxon-AWittenberg (aroh-mar- shall); 7. Margrave of Brandenburg (arch-chamberlain). Estab- lishment of the indivisibility and inalienableness of the electoral states, which were made hereditary in the male line and received cer- tain regalia (privilegium de nan appeliando, etc.). The electoral vote went with the land. 1 So called from the gold case which contained the seal. 2 The electoral vote had benn disputed between the two Saxon lines and the two lines of Wittelsbach. It was now assigned to Saxon- Wittenberg and %he County Palatine, but refused to Saxon-Lauenbarg and Bavaria. ^- D- Germany. 2'19 1363. Austria acquired Tyrol. The heiress of Tyrol, Margaret Maultasch, who outlived her hushand, the Bavarian Ludwig, elector of Brandenburg (p. 247), and her only son, Meinhard, gavo her county after the ktter's death to duke Rudolf of Austria. 1368. Second expedition of Charles to Italy in alliance with the Pope against the Visconti. 1373. By the treaty of Furstenwalde, Otto the Finne Gazy), the last Bavarian margrave of Brandenburg, transferred the mark to Charles IV., in return for an annuity. Leagues of the Cities. The Hanseatic League. The imion of several seaports and trad- ing cities, between the Baltic and the Elbe, formed in the thirteenth century (between 1255 and 1262 ?), was the beginning of this league.^ Separate alliance between Liiheck and Hamburg. In the fourteenth century the league attained wide extent and great power. After this time the name Hansa (i. e. trade guild) was commonly applied to the league. Since 1350 over ninety cities ex- tending from the mouth of the Schelde to Esthonia, besides many inland cities (e. g. Magdeburg, Berlin, Thorn), belonged to the Hansa. Object of the alliance : common defense, security of sea and land routes, settlement of disputes between members by arbitration, ac- quirement and maintenance of trading privileges in foreign countries. Capital of the league : Liibeck. Division of the league into three, afterwards four, quarters : 1. Prussian and Livonian; principal town, Dantzig ; 2. Wendic, including also the cities of Mecklenburg, Pom- merania, and the Marches ; chief town, Lubeck; 3. Saxon; chief town, Brunsvcick ; 4. Westpholian ; chief town, Cologne. Principal trading ground, all northern Europe. Principal trading stations : NoBgorod, Stockholm, Wishy (in Gothland), Bergen, Bruges, London. Ships of war {Orlogschiffe). 1361. War with Waldemar TV., king of Denmark, under the conduct of the burghermaster of Liibeck, John Wittenborg, who captured and plundered Copenhagen, but was afterwards defeated before Hel- eingborg, and, in consequence, beheaded at Lubeck. 1367-1370. Second war with Waldemar IV. The king compelled to fly. Copenhagen, Helsingor, and other cities conquered. A glorious and advantageous peace for the Hansa, concluded at StraU sund, ended the war. The League of Rhine cities, founded about the middle of the thirteenth century (league of Worms and Mainz), to insure stricter enforcement of the public peace, comprised at various times more than seventy cities, not all upon the Rhme (e. g. Bremen, Regensburg, Nuremberg) ; both temporal and spiritual princes joined the league. The Swabian city league concluded in 1376, particularly as a de- fense against the counts of Wiirtemberg. Eberhard the Grdner (i. e. Quarreler), also called Rauschebart. (Uhland's ballads.) 1 Unions of German merchants in foreign countries under this name had long e^sted, the oldest being in Loudon. 250 Medieval History. A. D. Associations of Nobles founded by members of the middle nobility, the imperial knights, particularly in Swabia, Franconia, and on the Rhine, to maintain their independence against the cities on the one hand and against the higher nobihty, the princes of the empire, who were everywhere trying to acquire territorial sovereignty on the other. The princes of the empire were either spiritual (archbishops, three of whom were electors (p. 248), bishops, abbots), or secular (dukes, counts- palatine, margraves, hurggraves). The following associations of nobles deserve mention : the Martinsvogd (named after the day of their union), the Schlegler, the Lowenbund. 1377. Beginning of the wars between the cities and the nobles. Battle of Reutlingen. Brilliant victoiy of the Swabian league (Ulm, the capital) over Ulrich, son of Eberhard. The Swabian league recognized by the emperor. 1378. Death of Charles IV., after he had so divided his lands among his three sons that Wenzel received Bohemia and Silesia (Lux- emburg fell to him afterwards also), Sigismund, the mark of Branden- burg, John, Lusatia. In Moravia two nephews of Charles, Prokap and Jobst, were margraves. The election to the German throne had already fallen upon 1378-1400. Wenzel, Charles IV.'s oldest son. 1381. The Swabian league united with that of the Rhine, and after- wards entered into alliance with a part of the Swiss confed- eracy. 1384. Wenzel proclaimed a new public peace, the so-called Heidel- berger Stallung (Stallung = preserve of game, etc.), for four years, which, however, was broken after the king had returned to Bohemia. Leopold of Austria, who, in the division of Hapsburg estates had re- ceived the western lands, attacked the Swiss confederacy in alliance with the south Grerman nobility. In the 1386. Battle of Sempach (Arnold von Winkelried ?),' he was defeated and lost his life. His second son, Leopold, renewed the war and was defeated in the 1388. Battle of Nafels, by the men of Glarus and Schwyz. The war with the cities broke out anew. Eberhard the Greiner defeated the Swabian cities at Doffingen, where his son Ulrich fell. Rupert, count Palatine, defeated the Rhine towns at Worms. These victories restored the superiority of the princes over the cities. 1389. New public peace for eight years proclaimed by Wenzel at the council of the princes at Eger. Wenzel, who was hated in Bohemia for his cruelty and indolence, and had been several times made a prisoner in civil quarrels, was de- posed by a section of the princes of the empire (1400). He died 1419 as king of Bohemia. 1 See O. Eleiasner, die QueUen zur Sempacher Schlacht und die Wirikelried- sage, 1873. A. D. Germany. 261 1400-1410. Rupert, Count Palatine, who was barely able to make the royal authority respected within his own party. 1401. Unsuccessful expedition to Italy. The German army was de- feated at Brescia by John Galeazzo Visconti, whom Wenzel had appointed hereditary duke of Milan (1395 V 1409. In consequence of the Hussite troubles (p. 252) in Prague and a change in the university statutes, all Germans, profes- sors and students alike (5000 in number), left the university of Prague and went to Leipzig, where Frederic the Warlike of Meissen founded a university. The council of Pisa, convened to restore papal unity (Pope Gregory XII., against Pope Benedict XIII.), elected Alexander F. as a third Pope, not having been able to induce the former two to abdicate. 1410-1437. Sigismund, brother of Wenzel, in right of his wife, daughter of Ludwig the Great, king of Hungary, margrave of Brandenburg since the death of Charles IV. Sigismund was at first elected by the votes of Trier, the County Palatine, and Brandenburg, whose vote he himself cast through hM plenipotentiary Frederic, burggrave of Nuremberg. The other princes elected Jobst of Moravia (f 1411). By the skillfid management of his plenipotentiary, and the recognition of the successor of Alexander V., John XXIII., Sigismund gained the votes of the opposition at a second election, went to Italy, fought unsuccessfully with Venice and Milan, but induced Pope John XXIII., who was hard pressed by Naples, to summon an oecumenical council in German territory. 1414-1418. Council of Constance (Kostnitz). At once a council of the empire and, in a certain way, a Euro- pean congress, visited by Italian, German, French, English, and after- wards by Spanish prelates (5 patriarchs, 33 cardinals, 200 arch- bishops and bishops), and by numerous princes with imposing trains, so that at times there were as many as 80,000 strangers in the city. The council had three objects : 1. Suppression of heresy (causa fidei). 2. Healing of the schism {causa unioms). 3. Reformation of the church (causa reformationis').^ The pari^ of reform secured the adoption of the plan of voting by nations, Germans, French, English, Italian, having each one common vote. Pope John XXIII., who appeared in person, was first induced to public abdication, but afterwards escaped to Schaffhausen with the help of Frederic, duke of Austria, who being put under the ban was forced to submit. Upon the motion of Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris, the council proclaimed its superiority over the Pope, but proceeded to take up the causa fidei next. Condemnation of the doctrine of the Englishman Wiclif (1327-1384) (opposition to confession, transubstantiation, and absolution), and the chief mis- sionary and developer of this doctrine, John Hus (a Bohemian of Czechish descent, bom at Hussinec, 1369 ; 1398, professor ; 1409, rec- l Cf. Hiibler, die Komtamer Beformaiion, 1867. 252 Mediceval History. A. d. tor of the University of Prague ; since 1412 under the ban), who, re- lying upon a safe conduct from the emperor, had appeared in Con- stance. Hus burnt (July, 1415, his friend Hieronymus of Prague, 1416). After the execution of Hus, the causa unionis was again taken up. John XXIII. was deposed ; Gregory XII. abdicated voluntarily. Sigismund went to Spain to secure the abdication of Benedict XIII. During the long absence of the emperor, discussion of the causa ref- ormationis. After Sigismund's return (1417) Benedict XIII. was deposed by the council. It was now demanded by the party of reform that a thorough re- form of the church in all its parts should precede the election of a new Pope ; the Ultramontanes (i. e. the Italians'), reinforced by the Spaniards as z, fifth nation, succeeded in bringing about an immediate election, so that the reform fell through. Martin V. elected Pope, Nov. 1417 (although with the condition : de fienda reformatione post electionem), dissolved the councU 1418, as an agreement could not be reached. The three concordats which were concluded with the Ger- mans, the English, and the Bomans, brought about no real abolition of abuses. At Constance in 1415 Sigismund invested Frederic burggrave of Nuremberg with the mark Brandenburg, the electoral vote, and the office of archchamberlain, as a reward for the important services he had done him (especially at his election), and the empire. The cere- mony of investiture took place in 1417.^ 1423. After the extinction of the Askanian house, Sigismund in- vested Frederic the Warlike, of the house of Wettin, margrave of Meissen, with the electoral duchy of Sazony CWitteii' berg). 1419-1436. Hussite War. Terrible indignation of the Bohemians at the execution of Hus. His followers, the Hussites, also called Utraquists, because they demanded communion in both kinds, bread and wine (sub utraque spede), for the laity as well as for the clergy, attempted to spread their doctrine, which the council had rejected, by force. Re- volt in Prague. Zisialeader of the Hussites. After the death of king Wenzel (1419), Sigismund was heir to the Bohemian throne. He was crowned m Prague, but was soon obliged to leave the country. The imperial troops were driven back as they entered Bohemia (1421). Sigismund was disgracefully defeated (14S2) at Deutsch-Brod. The Hussites ravaged the neighboring countries (skillful use of gun- powder and clumsy cannon ; ramparts of wagons). The coun- cil of Basel (1431-1449) concluded a treaty with the moderate Hus- sites (Calixtiniansi), (compact of Prague 14i33) ; the Taborites, whose leaders (the two Prokops) fell in battle, were defeated and annihilated at Bohmiseh-Brod (1434). 1420-1460. Epoch of the greatest power of the secret tribunals of Westphalia (Vehmgerichte). 1 The mortgaging the mark for a sum of money was onlv a form. There was no »a/e, only a "remunerative present." Cf. Biedel, Heech. del Preuss. , KSnigshmuet, II. 269> A. D. Germany. . 253 1438-1740. Emperors of the House of Hapsburg. 1438-1439. Albert H., son-iii-law of Sigismund, whom he succeded in Bohemia and Hungary as well, died after returning from an expedition against the Turks. 1440-1493. Frederic III. (IV.),i cousin of Albert, the last emperor who was crowned in Home (1452). He was powerless both in Germany and in his own lands, and involved in war with his brothers. ^neas Silvius Piccolomini (when Pope, Pius II.'), his adviser. Civil war in Switzerland ; Zurich allied with Austria (1440-1446). The troops of Ziirich defeated by the confederates. Zurich besieged. At the request of Frederic, Charles VII. of France sent the Dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.), with the unbridled bands of the Armagnacs, against Basel, to raise the siege of Ziirich. Heroic death of 1600 Confederates at St. Jacob (1444). Peace with France. Since their victory at Ragaz (1446) over the German troops, the Swiss con- federacy was practically independent. Native kings elected in Hun- gary and Bohemia (1457) whom Frederic was obliged to recognize. The reforms resolved upon in the Council of Basel (1431-1449) were abandoned by the Concordat of Vienna concluded with Pope Eugenius IV. (1446). About 1450 John Gutenberg ' practised (at Mainz) the art of printing. {Johann Fust, Peter Schoffer). Frederic, obliged to give up parts of the duchy of Austria to his brother and his cousin, besieged by them in Vienna, and released by George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia (1462). The marriage of Frederic's son, archduke Maximilian, with Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy (f 1477), caused several wars with France, and, after the death of Mary (1482), with the revolted Netherlands. Maximilian, however, succeeded m keeping the Burgundian inheritance for his son by Mary, the arch- duke Philip. Only the duchy of Burgimdy (la Bourgogne, capital Dijon), fell to France. Frederic III., involved in a war with Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, was driven out of Austria and restored by Maximilian (only after the death of Corvinus, 1490). Maximilian, after the extinction of a branch line, received Tyrol, which the house of Hapsburg had acquired in 1363 (p. 249), and at Frederic's death was in possession of all the Austrian lands. (Seep. SOO.) ' If Frtderic of Austria, opponent and co-regent of liUdwig of Bmarvi, be counted, he was Frederic IV. 2 His famil}' name was Gensjleiich ; the name Gutenberg was that of his mother's patrician family. The claim brought forward in the Netherlands that Lorenz Janieon ( Corter) in Haarlem was the true inventor of printing (1423) has been proved by Van der Iiinde to rest upon a forgery. His investigations assign Fiat and especially Schoffer a much less important position than has been commonly attributed to them. 254 MedicBval History. A. D. § 2. FRANCE. (See p. m) 1270-1286. Philip III., le Hardi, the Rash. A quiet reign whose troubles were mostly from outside. Sicilian Vespers (p. 226). % Philip married his son, 1285-1314. Philip IV., le Bel, the Fair, with Johanna, heiress of Navarre. Systematic introduction and development of the Civil (Roman) Law. Increased importance of parliament, from which ecclesiastics were removed in 1287 ; in 1302 it was fixed at Paris. (The French parliament was a court, not a legislature). Agreement between Philip and Edward I., of England, Edward renouncing his claims upon Normandy and receiving from Philip 10,000 livres and a guarantee of non-forfeiture for the rest of his French fiefs. 1292-1293. Conflicts between English and Norman sailors ; sack of La Rochelle. Edward I. of England, summoned before the court of his suzerain, sent instead his brother, earl of Lancas- ter, who surrendered Guienne to Philip as security for a satis- factory arrangement. Pliilip, hereupon, declared Edward's flefs forfeited, by reason of his non-appearance. 1294-1297. War between France and England, cairied on in Gas- cony and in Flanders, Philip being successful in both fields. 1299, June 19. Peace was concluded between France and England at Montreuil-sur-Mer, on the basis of present possession as re- garded territory. Marriage of Edward I. and Margaret, sister of Philip IV. (see below). 1296-1304. Quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII. The strife originated in the king's need of money, owing to the growing central- ization of government, which led him to tax ecclesiastical property. Bull, " Clericis laicos," forbidding the clergy to pay taxes to the secular government without consent of the Pope (1296). Philip replied by an ordinance prohibiting the exportation of money or valuables from the kingdom without the king's permission. From these extreme positions the princes gradually retreated until a, reconciliation was patched up. As a private man the Pope became arbitrator between Philip and Edward, and secured two thirds of Aquitaine to France, which was, however, again transferred to England by a marriage treaty, wherein Edward was betrothed to Philip's sister Margaret, and his son, Edward (II.) to Philip's daughter Isabelle. Flanders an- nexed to France. The quarrel between the king and the Pope broke out afresh in 1301. The bull " Ausculta fXi," wherein the Pope asserted his su- premacy over all kings, was burned by Philip's order. Remonstrance of the estates of France with the Pope (1302). Revolt of Flanders. The French army of feudal barons was totally defeated by Flemish citizens in the 1302. July 1. Battle of Courtrai {Day of the Spurs). Four thousand gilt spurs were captured by the victors. So many flefs were vacated that Pliilip saw the royal power considera- bly strengthened. A. D. France. 255 Publication of the decretal " Unam Sanctam " (Nov. 18, 1302) claiming the supremacy of the spiritual power over the temporal ; this was followed by a threat of excommunication. In France the last bull was seized, and violent measures taken against the Pope. On Sept. 7, 1303, Boniface VIII. was seized at Anagni by the king's adviser, Nogeret, and Sciarra Colonna, and treated with indignity. He was shortly released by a popular uprising, but finding Rome on his return in French hands, fell ill and died. PhUip recognized the independence of Flanders (1305, June 5). Benedict XI. dying, after nine months Philip secured the election of a Frenchman as Clement V. Reconciliation of the church with the king. 1309. Removal of the papal residence to Avignon (1309-1376). 1307. Arrest of all Knights Templars in France. Trial of the knights on various charges of immorality and heretical doctrines and practices. By the free use of hearsay evidence aud of torture, their condenmation was secured, and flfty-f our were burned. Abolition of the order (1312) by the Pope. Execution of the grand master, Jacques de Molai, confiscation of the lands of the templars. Annexar- tion of Lyons, hitherto independent through the very number of her claimants, to France (1312). Death of Philip, Nov. 29, 1314. 1314-1316. Louis X. le Hutin, the Quarrelsome, through his mother heir of Navarre. His uncle, Charles of Valois, was the true nder. Execution of Philip's minister, De Marigni. Serfs per- mitted to purchase their freedom. (Comme selon le droit de nature chacun doit naisire franc). Louis died June 6, 1316. His brother 1316-1322. Philip V. le Long, the Tall, was appointed regent for the queen, who was with child. On the death of the queen's son, soon after birth, Philip proclaimed him- self king, and to put aside the claims of Jeanne, daughter of Louis X., he decreed that on the basis of ancient Frankish law,' no female could succeed to the throne of France (the Salic laiw). Excesses of the Pastoureaux suppressed by force. Attacks upon the lepers and the Jeios. Acquisition of Douay, Orchies, Ryssel from Flanders. Philip died Jan. 3, 1322, and was succeeded by his brother, 1322-1328. Charles IV., the Fair, Died January 31, 1328, without male issue. Jeanne, daughter of Lmds X., received Navarre. In France, according to the Salic law, the ^ Lea Salica, tit. 42, 6. De terra rero salica in mulierem nulla portio transit, ted hoc virilii seams acquirii. This applies strictly to allodial possessions, and not to fiefs or to the crown. 256 MeditBval History. A. n, ■3 > o CO i. a I P4 O OT i s "- S3 I- CD 'I! 00 a CO § (Q W (D O O n 10 eg I la fe3 CO H i § s -§- I ■g" rt ■u.S 3 >- 5> -r3 o ^ "I I ■5 ° n g ^ .t5 o ^ fcT ^ C p< o ^ ■s ^ w o Gd •*-< o 3 DO C3 V la -T rf5 .s o 5= S « B « p •a * o g S I -1- J i A. D. France. 257 1328-1498 (1589). House of Valois, a younger line of the Capets, succeeded. LouU VIII., 1223-1226. IiOUis TX.; St. Louis, Charles, count of Anjou and ProTenci, 1226-1270. ancestor of the kings of Naples. Philip in., le Hardi, Robert (6th son), count of Clermont^ 1270-1285. ancestor of the Bourbons. I Fmlip rV., le Bel, Charles, count of Valois, Louis, count of £v- 1285-1314. ancestor of the house of reux. ! Valois. I I i i ^1 I tionisX., FhiUpV., Charles tV., Isabelle | le Hutin. le Long. le Bel. m. Ed- Philip VI., 1314-1316. 1316-1322. 1322-1328. ward II. 1328-1350. I I of England. I daughters, daughter. ] | Sdward m., John II., I of England. le Bon, Jeanne, John, 1350-1364. queen of 1316. Navarre. lived seven days. 1328-1350. PhUip VI., nephew of Philip IV. Philip was the choice of the feudal harons, who had reg^ained somewhat of their old power since the death of Philip the Fair, hut his tyranny alienated his vassals, while his oppressive exactions ham- pered trade and deprived him of the hearty support of the cities. Quarrel with Edward IH. of England, springing out of the claim of the English sovereign to the French crown through his mother, Isa- bdle, i£,ughter of Philip IV. (see the genealogy). Alliance with Scotland. Outbreak of the 1339-1453. Hundred years War between France and England. (Froissart 1337-1410 Q), chronicler of the war.) Naval victory of the English and their allies, the Flemish (Jacob van Artevelde), at Sluys (1340). Contested succession in Brittany ; John de Montfort, one claimant, obtained the aid of Edward, and recognized him as king of France. (Heroism of Marguerite, countess of Montfort.) Landing of Edward in Normandy (1346). 1346. Battle of Crecy, in Picardy. August 26. Victory of the English. Use of cannon (?). Death of the blind king, John of Bohemia, the father of Charles IV.* 1347. Capture of Calais (story of the intercession of Queen PhUippa). 1 Kecent investigators reject the story that the fifteen-year-old Prince of Wales (the Black Prince), took from the helmet of the fallen king John, the devise "Ichdien." 17 258 MediiBval History. A. n. J.347-1349. Black Death in France. Acquisition of Montpellier from James of Arragon, and of the Daupldne of Vienne from the last Dauphin, Humbert II. (who went into a monastery) by purchase. Vienne was given to Charles, son of John of Normandy, grandson of Philip. He took the title of Dauphin, and on his accession to the throne decreed that the Dauphine should never be united with the crown. Hence Dauphin became the title of the heir of the French crown. Origin of the practice of selling offices and titles. First imposition of the gabelle, a tax in the form of control of all salt works by the gov- ernment. Death of Philip, Aug. 22, 1350 ; he was followed by his son, 1350-1364. John II., le Bon. Feud with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre ; arrest and im- prisonment of Charles (1356). 1356. Battle of Poitiers (properly Maupertuis'). Sept. 19. Victory of the Black Prince with 10,000 men, over John with 50,000. Capture of John (a prisoner for four years). Meanwhile confusion reigned in France where the young Dau- phin, as regent, was unable to suppress the terrible civil con- flicts. 1357-1358. Insurrection of the bourgeoisie of Paris, led by Btienne Marcel, the provost of the traders (prevSt des marchands), who entered into treasonable connection with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre. Meeting of the estates ; abolition of abuses. Truce with England for two years. Murder of the marshaUs of Champagne and Normandy in the regent's presence, by order of Marcel. The government in the hands of Marcel and a com- mittee of thirty-six. 1358. Peasant war, accompanied by horrible cruelties, known as the Jacquerie, under the lead of OuiUaume Caillet, called Jacques Bonhomme, which afterwards became the nickname for the lower class in general, in France. Murder of Marcel in Paris. 1360. Peace of Bretigny (near Chartres). Edward received Poitou, Guienne, and Gascony, in full sover- eignty, but renounced his claim to the French crown, and re- nounced also all other fiefs in France. Release of John, for a ransom. 1363. Burgundy occupied by John on the death of the queen and her son by her former marriage, Philip, duke of Burgundy, pass- ing over the claim of Charles of Navarre. The duchy was given to the king's son, Philip the Bold, founder of the Burgun- dian branch line of Valois. By his marriage with the heiress of Flanders, the new duke laid the foundation of the power of the house of Burgundy in the Netherlands. Return of John to captivity. He died April 8, 1364, and was followed by his son, 1364-1380. Charles V., le Sage, the Wise. In the war between Peter the Cn^ei, of Castile, and his brother, Henry of Trastamara, Charles favored the latter, while tlxe for- A. D. France. 259 mer was allied -with the Black Prince. Expelled by Bertrand du Guesclin, Pedro was restored by the Black Prince (Battle of Najara, 1367). In 1369 Pedro was kiUed in personal com- bat with his brother. Reform of the coinage in France. 1369. Charles declared war on Edward. Du Guesclin (1313-1380), constable of France (1370). Most of the English possessions in France were again united with the crown of France. Death of the Black Prince (1376). Death of Charles, Sept. 16, 1380. He was followed by his son, 1380-1422. Charles VI., then eleven years old. Quarrels of his uncles, the dukes of Anjou, of Burgundy, of Bourbon, and of Berry. 1386. Threatened invasion of England comes to naught. Revolt in Ghent under Philip van Artevelde. Crushed by Charles (De Clisson, constable) at the battle of Roosebec (1382) ; slaughter of the Flemings. Death of Van Artevelde. 1392. Charles being seized with madness, the regency was assumed by the dukes of Burgundy and Berry, setting aside the duke of Orleans, the brother of the king. Civil strife between the parties of Burgundy and Orleans (Armagnacs '). 1407. The duke of Orleans murdered by order of John, duke of Bur- gundy. Cabochians (from one Caboche, a butcher) in Paris, overthrown by the Orleanists under the Dauphin. 1415. Henry V. of England, landing at Harfleur, captured that city Oct. 15. (Sept. 22), and in the Battle of Azincourt (^Agincourt), hi totally defeated a vastly superior French army. Capture of the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. Death of the Dauphin, of the king's second son, John, and of the duke of Berry. The queen, Isa- beau, of Bavaria, took refuge with the duke of Burgundy. Massacre of the Armagnacs at Paris, 1418. Rouen captured by the English. John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, murdered at the bridge of Montereau by the followers of the Dauphin (Tanneguy Duchatel). John's son, Philip, hereupon concluded, with the consent of the queen, the Treaty of Troyes with the English (1420). Henry V. married Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and became regent and heir of France. Under John the Fearless (1371-1419) and his son, Philip the Good (1396-1467), the house of Burgundy reached the summit of its power. Philip made himself master of the inheritance of Jacqueline, daughter of William, count of Holland, although the emperor, Sigismund, had declared her lands to be vacant fiefs of the empire. Death of Henry V. of England (at Vincennes, Aug. 31, 1422), and of Charles VI. of France (Oct. 21, 1422). The latter was succeeded by his son, 1422-1461. Charles VII., who, for the present, was recognized south of the Loire only ; in the north Henry VI., infant king of England, was acknowledged 1 From Bernard, count of Armagnac, father-in-law of the duke of Orle«n8, who became head of the Orleanists about 1410. 260 MedicBval History, A. D. lord. Duke of Bedford, regent in France, allied with the dnhe of Burgundy. Siege of Orleans (1428). 1429. Jeeuine d'Arc (more properly, Dare), bom in Domremy, on the left bank of the Meuse, convinced that she was chosen by Heaven to be the deliverer of France, succeeded in obtaining from the king permission to relieve Orleans, the accomplishment of which feat (April 29-May 8) earned for her the name Maid of Orleans (La Pucelk). The English driven back. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. Intrigues against Jeanne at the French court. Captured by the Bur- gundians at Compiegne (1430), she was delivered to the English, and, after a mock trial, condemned for sorcery, and burnt in Rouen (1431). 1435. The duke of Burgundy recognized Charles YII., on condition of receiving Auxerre, Macon, Peronne, Montdidier, and the towns on the Somme, and being released from feudal homage. Death of the duke of Bedford. 1436-1449. Period of inaction, utilized by Charles VII., for the in- troduction of reforms : establishment of a permanent tax to be levied by the king without the cooperation of the estates ; aboli- tion of the " free companies," and institution of regular companies, the beginning of Btandiug armies (ordinance of Orleans, 1439). 1449-1461. Renewal of the war. After some fluctuations of fortune (Talbot in Guyenne ; his death, 1453) the English lost all their possessions in France except Ccdais. 1453. Fall of Constantinople. End of the Eastern Empire. Introduction of Grecian scholars and Grecian writers into Eu- rope (p. 278). Death of Charles VII., July 22, 1461. He was succeeded by his son, 1461-1483. LoTiisXI., who by his shrewdness and perfidy annihilated the power of the great barons and laid the foundation of absolute monarchy. Revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII. (issued in 1438 by the council of Bourges : declaration of the rights of the Galilean church ; limitation of the power of' the papacy m France ; appeals to Rome forbidden). 1462. Acquisition of Romsillon and Cerdagne by mortgage. Re- demption of Amiens, AbbeuUle and St. Quentin from Bur- gundy. 1464. League of the Public Weal (Ligue du bien publique), a conspiracy of the dukes of Brittany, Bourbon, Lorraine, Alengon, Berry, and the count of Charolois. Battle of Montl'Mry. Louis broke up the league by the concessions of the treaty of Conflans (restoration of the towns on the Somme, Normandy granted to the duke of Berry), the execution of which he evaded. Death of Philip of Bur- gundy ; accession of his son Charles the Bold (le Temeraire'). Con- flict between the duke and the king. Meeting at Peronne (Oct. 1468). Storm of Li^ge. 1475. Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England in alliance with Burgundy. Meeting at Pequigny (near jlmiens) between A. D. France, 261 Ill SB'S So" MP S "> l! 4r- Its- ^ iifa& Us- i PS Si I"! SE I— -^ -i|-||- 3 ^ o W c! W lid 30- r s |i_|J -^9|- en 8 -.« i I .a 262 Mediceval History. A. D. Louis and Edward. Betrothal of the Dauphin Charles to Edward's eldest daughter. Peace between France and Burgundy. War of Charles the Bold with the Swiss cantons. Defeat of the duke in thfe 1476. Battle of G-ranson, in the March 1. June 22. Battle of Murten, (Morat) and in the 1477. Battle of Nancy, where Charles was slain. Jan. 6. The duchy of Burgundy united with the crown of France, as was likewise Anjou, Provence, and Maine through the extinction of the house of Anjou (1480). Annexation of Alengm, Perche, Guyenne, during this, reigh. The Mng's servants : Olivier le Dain, Tristan I'Hermite. Death of Louis XI., Aug. 30, 1483. He was succeeded by his son, 1483-1493. Charles VIII. Death of the duke of Brittany (1488). The coalition of the emperor, Spain, and England to preserve the independence of the duchy bore no fruit. In 1491 Charles married Anne, daughter of the duke of Brittany. Peace of Senlis with the emperor (1493) ; peace of Etaples with Englajnd. Cession of Roussillon and Cerdagne to Spain. 149S. Rapid conquest of tjie kingdom of Naples which Charles claiined by inheritance through his father from Charles, count pf Maine and Provence (see the genealogy), which, however, he was soon forced to abandon in consequence of a league between the Pope, the emperor, the duke of Milan, Venice, and Spain. (See p. 318.) § 3. ITALY. (Seep. 2Se.) Itlilan : since the time of the emperor Henry VII. (1308-1313) under the Visconti as imperial viceroys ; since 1395 as dukes. After the extinction of the line of the Visconti (1447) Milan became for a short time a republic. The condottieri Francesco Sforza, hus- band of a daughter of the last Visconti, who served in the pay of Milan, soon seized the power and became duke of Milan (1450). Venice : since 697 one state under a doge (dux) ; from about 1000 A. D., ruler of the Adriatic, increased in power and influence throughout the period of the crusades. Partjcipatipn in the so-called fourth crusade (p. 216), under the doge Henry Dandolo, then ninety^ four years of age. After the crusades and the war with Genoa, which lasted 125 years, Venice was mistress of the Mediterranean and the trade with the Bast, during the thirteenth and fourteenth eenturi^s. Acquisition of Corfu 1387, of Cyprus by gift of Catharine Comaro, 1489. The republic at the height of its power in the iirst half of the fifteenth century. Constitution strictly oligarchical. 1172. Establish- ment of the Great Council, with 450-600 members, followed by that of the Small Council (Signoria), which limited the power of the doges BtUl more. 1298. Closing of the Great Council. Golden book of the nobility (1315). Conspiracies — among others that of the doge Marino Faliero (executed in 1355) — led to the creation of the power- ful Council of Ten. Since 1439 the three terrible state inquisitors. A. D- ISngland. 263 Grenoa, since the reestablishment of the Greek empire in the East a powerful state, especially since the final victory over Pisa in Italy (Sardinia and Corsica) ; weakened by the war with Venice and by civil disturbances in the second half of the fifteenth century ; sub- jected now to Milan, now to France. In Florence, after long civil contests, democracy and' tyranny having ruled the city in turn since 1282, the family of Medici ac- quired princely rank, about 1400, and brought the city to its highest point of power. Giovanni de' Medici, a rich banker, founder of the power of his family. His son, Cosimo (Cosmus), the father of his country (died 14G4). Under his grandson, Lorenzo (died 1492), de- velopment of the arts in Florence. Kenovatiou of the sciences, advanced by Grecian scholars, who had fled from the Eastern Empire before the Turks. Dante AUghieri, author of the " Divine Comedy," born 1265, at Florence, where he played an important part in the political complications, banished 1302, died at Ravenna, September 14, 1321. Francesco Fetraroa, the " father of the revival of learning " (1304-1374). Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), author of the " De- camerone." The Fapal States, founded by the presents of Pipiu and Charles the Great (p. 184) ; in the twelfth century increased by the bequest of the countess Matilda of Tuscany (p. 200) and other acquisitions ; since Innocent III. completely independent of the empii'e. Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) at variance with Philip IV. of France (p. 264). His successor, Clement V. (a Frenchman), transferred the papal residence to Avignon. Kesidence of the Popes at 1309-1376. Avignon. (" Babylonish captivity.") At Rome the visionary tribune Cola di Rienzi (1347, -papal senator 1354). Comtat Venaissin in the thirteenth century, Avignon in the fourteenth century, became the property of the papacy. From 1378 on there was one Pope at Rome, elected by the Italian cardinals, and one at Avignon, elected by the French cardinals, to which number the Council of Pisa (1409) added a third, until the Council of Constance restored the unity of the church (p. 251). (Great Schism, 1378-1417). At Naples, the house of Anjou : the elder line until 1382 (death of Queen Joan I.); the younger (jDurazzo') until 1435 (death of Joan II.). (See the genealogy, p. 261.) SicUy, 1282-1295 united with Aragon; 1295-1409 under a branch of the house of Aragon ; after 1409 again tmited with Aragon, whose king, Alphonso V. (1416-1458), conquered Naples in 1435. After his death (1458), Naples, but not Sicily, descended to his natural son (Ferdinand I.) and his successors ( — 1501). {Seep. 326.) § 4. ENGLAND. (Seep. SS5.) 1272-1307. Edward I., LongsJianks. The great events of this reign were the annexation of Wales to England and the introduction of financial, legal, and legislative reforms. 264 MedteBval History. A. d. Edward -was returning from the (seventh) Crusade, when he heard of his accession at Capua. Devoting a year to Gascony, he reached England and was crowned in 1274. During the barons' wars Wales had become practically independ- ent, and Ue^velyn, prince of North Wales, refused even nominal submission to Edward until 1276-1284. Conquest of Wales. 1277. Edward led an army into Wales, and forced the prince to cede the coast district as far as Conway, and do homage for the rest. 1282. Insurrection of Llewelyn and his brother David. After hard fighting, the death of Llewelyn (Dec, 1282) and the cap- ture of David (hanged, drawn, and quartered, Sept. 1283) led to the complete submission of the country. (No " Massacre of the Bards.") 1284. Annexation of Wales to England. After this the title " Prince of Wales " was generally given to the heir of the crown. 1289. Keturn of the king from a three years' absence in Gascony ; punishment of the oppressive judges. 1290. Expulsion of the Jews from England (over 16,000). 1291. Death of the queen, Eleanor (daughter of Ferdinand III. of Castile). Erection of crosses along 5ie route by which the body was carried from Lincolnshire to London ; those at Northamp- ton and Waltham still exist. 1292. Baliol, whom Edward had decided to be the rightful heir to the Scottish throne, did homage for the fief and became king of Scotland. After the death of Alexander III. of Scotland the crown passed to his granddaughter Margaret, the Maid of Norway, to whom Edward had betrothed his son ; but she died on the voyage from Norway (1290), and thirteen claimants for the crown appeared. The Scottish estates being unable to decide between the two strongest claimants, Baliol and Bruce, referred the case to Edward. (See the gene- alogy.) 1293. Hostilities between English sailors from the Cinque Ports {Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Hythe, Romney) ^ and French mariners resulted in a naval battle. PMlip IV. of France summoned Edward to Paris to answer for the occurrence. As a step in the negotiations the fortresses of Guyenne were temporarily placed in Philip's hands, whereupon he declared Edward contumacious and his fiefs forfeited. 1294. Bebellion of Modoc in Wales suppressed. 1294. War with Prance followed by war with Scotland, which joined France. 1296. Capture of Berwick ; massacre of the inhabitants. Defeat I These towns, to which PTmcAcfeea, Rye, and Sen/ord were afterwards added, possessed peculiar privileges. They were under the care of the Warden of the Cinque Parts ; their representatives in Parliament were known as barons. The towns were fortified under William I. A. D. England. 265 ro t3 MM >^a rI h-4 ^ a >^ - Ada, m. Floris ;ount of H S .3 ■1- ^1 i ^ w § CO 1 a 1 Hastings, of Aber- yenny. II- -r 1 ■S SM t. 6 03 3 1 1 , Earl of Hun t 1219. Isabella, Robert Bruce Annandale. 1 - 3 ^1 -fi 1 H 03 3 tury. 3. The " Skeleton in Armor," discovered in the early part of the present century at Fall Eiver, Mass., is now admitted to have been that of an Indian. 282 Modem History. A. D. visited Iceland in 1477, it is not probable that he had heard of them ; it is evident, from his own writings, that he had no suspicions of the existence of a continent southwest of Iceland.^ Christoforo Colombo (he called himself and signed himself, after he became a Spaniard, regularly Cristobal Colon), born (1435 ?, 1446 ?) at Genoa, of plebeian origin, a saUor from his earli- est youth, wished to try a western route by sea to India (by which name in his day, the whole East was meant), and especially to Zipangu, (Japan) the magic island, which the Venetian Marco Polo (travels 1271-1295) had described in the book Mirabilia Mundi. Starting from the erroneous calculations of Ptolemy and Marinus concerning the size of the earth and the length of the habitable region (the Eas- tern Continent), Columbus made the circumference of the earth too short by a sixtii, thus locating Zipangu in about the position of the Sandwich Islands. His plans having been rejected by Portugal (after the failure of an expedition secretly despatched westward to discover land), Columbus in 1486 accepted the service of the crown of Castile (Isabella). Delayed in the execution of his project by the Arabian war and the lack of money at the court, he was about to offer his services at the court of France or England, when the cap- ture of Grenada promised the necessary means for the expedition.* Contract with Columbus, who received nobility, the hereditary dignity of admiral and viceroy, and one tenth of the income from the newly discovered lands. 1492, Aug. 3-1493, March 15. First Voyage. Departure from Polos with three small vessels on the 3d of August, from the Canaries on Sept. 6. On Oct. 12, landing on Guanahani,^ one of the Bahama islands. Discovery of Cuba (called by Columbus Juannd) and Hayti (Espafiola, St. Domingo). Ship* wreck off Hayti, foundation of the first colony (Navidad) on that island. 1493, May 3. Bull of Alexander VI. establishing the line of parti- tion, which divided that part of the world not possessed by any Christian prince between Spain and Portugal by a meridian line one hundred leagues west of the Azores. All W. of that line to fall to Spain, all E. of it, to Portugal. This compromise between the claims of the Spaniards based on the discoveries of Columbus, and those of the Portuguese based on their dis- coveries in the Atlantic, was afterwards revised so that the line was extended 270 leagues further west (1494). 1493, Sept 25-1496, June 11. Second voyage of Columbus from Cadiz, with seventeen vessels and 1500 persons. Discovery of the Lesser Antilles (inhabited by Caribs, which Colum- 1 See Fesohel : Gesch. d. Zeitalters d. Entdechungen, 2d ed., p. 84 2 That Columbus laid his plans before Genoa is unhistorical (Peschel, 2d ed. p. 120). « The chief claimants for the honor of having been the first landing place of Columbus are Cat Island, Turk's Island, Watling's Island, Samana. The latter claim was first advanced, and ably advocated by Capt. G. V. Fox in his " Attempt to solve the Problem of the First Landing Place of Columbus in ihe New World." Wash. 1882. (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.) A. D. America. 283 bus misunderstood, Canibs, whence Cannibals) and the island of Jam-, aica. Voyage along the southern coast of Cuba to within a short dis- tance of the western end. Foundation of Isabella in Hayti (Dec. 1493), of San Domingo on the same island by Bartholomew Columbus. 1497, May-Aug. Voyage of John and Sebastian Cabot from Bristol with two vessels. Discovery of land {Prima Vista, Cape Breton Island (?), Newfoundland (?) June 24, 1497 (not 1494). They explored the coast N. to 67^° N. and S. for an uncer- tain distance, probably not so far as Florida, as has been claimed. 1497. First (alleged) voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. Discovery of the continent of South America. This voyage is doubtful, though many give it credence. 1498, May-July (?). Voyage of Sebastian Cabot ; doubtful re- sults (68° N. to 36° N. ?). 1498, May 30-1500, Nov. 25. Third voyage of Columbus. Dis- covery of Trinidad (July 31), the continent of South America (Aug. 1) ; discovery of the mouth of the Orinoco. Exploration of the (pearl) coast as far as Margarita Island. Return of Columbus to His- paniola. Dangerous revolt of Roldan, with whom the admiral was obliged to conclude a treaty. Columbus, who was disliked by the set- tlers on account of his foreign birth, and his avarice, — a vice from which he cannot be absolved,* — was accused at court. Bobadilla, sent out as judge with especial powers, sent Columbus and his brother in chains to Spain (IdOO). Columbus was at once released upon his arri- val and treated with distinction ; he retained the dignity of admiral, but as viceroy was superseded by Ovando. 1499, May-1500, June. Voyage of Alonzo de Hojeda and Ame- rigo Vespucci. Discovery of Surinam, Paria, Venezuela, and the coast of South America from 3° N. {Brazil f) to Cape Vela. This is often called the second voyage of Vespucci, but the first voyage, which he is said to have made in 1497, when he reached the continent of South America, is doubtful. Vespucci was a learned Florentine (1451-1512) who participated in two Portuguese voyages to South America, entered the service of Castile in 1605, and filled the position of Royal PUot from 1608 until his death, a post in which he rendered important services to science, particularly in the construction of maps. The new world was called after him, not by him, America. The originator of this name was Martin WaltzemiUler (Hylacomylus) from Freiburg in the Breisgau, professor at St. Die in Lorraine(1507). The name of America spread at first only in Germany and Switzerland, and did not come into gen- eral use until the close of the sixteenth century.^ 1 Peschel, 2a ed., p. 272. 2 Humboldt, Examen critique de Vhistoire et de la gengrnphie dit nnuveaa continent; Fescbel, Gesch. d. Zeitalter d. Enldeckungen, cap. XIII., Abhand- lungen zur Erd-und Volkerkunde, 1877. Two attempts have been recently made to derive America from a native word : Jules Marcou, in the Atlantic Monthly (3875, March), and T. H. X^ambert, in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Soc. for 1883, p. 45. According to the former, America is a cor- ruption of the Indian name of a range of mountains In Nicaragua; the latter derives it from a native name of the empire of the Incas in Peru. The first dated map to bear the name " America " was that in the edition of Solinua uf 1520 hv Apianus. 284 Modern History. A. D, 1499, Dec.-1500, Sept. Voyage of Vincent Tafiez Finzon from Falos. Discovery of CapeS- Augustin (Feb. 28), of the Amazon. Pas- sage of the equator. This voyage traced the South American coast to 8° 20' S. 1500, AprU. Pedro Alvarez Cabral, bound for the East Indies, was accidentally(?) carried westward until he reached the coast of Brazil, in about 10° S. He called the country Terra Sanctce Crucis, and took possession of it for Portugal. 1500. Gaspar de Cortereal, a Portuguese, discovered Newfoundland (Conception Bay), the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and the coast of Labrador. 1501. Cortereal sailed again in the hope of finding the passage to the East Indies, a hope which inspired the continuous efforts of nearly all the early explorers. He was lost upon the voyage. 1501. Second voyage of Vespucci under a Portuguese commander. 1502, May 11-1504, Nov. 7. Fourth (and last) voyage of Co- lumbus. Discovery of the Bay of Honduras, Veragua, Porto Bella. Shipwreck at Jamaica. Columbus died in Valladolid (1506) without a suspicion that he had discovered a new continent, and in the firm belief that his discoveries were parts of Asia. His son, Don Diego Columbus, viceroy and admi- ral. A grandson and great grandson of the discoverer retained the hereditary title of admiral. De Bastidas traced in 1500-1502 the coast of Panama to Pt. Manzanilla. Hojeda (1602), Vespucci (3d voyage, 1503), Juan de la Cosa (1505), etc., examined more minutely the coasts already dis- covered, while in the Spanish possessions the work of settlement and conquest was being pushed forward. Cruelties inflicted on the Indi- ans of the West Indies, whose race disappeared with frightful rapid- ity. It is probable that more was learned of the coasts of both Amer- icas in this period than has been divulged ; the rivalry of Spain and Portugal leading to a careful secrecy regarding all discoveries. The exact historical value of the D'Este map, just made public by M. Har- risse, cannot be known as yet, but seems to have clearly established the fact that the coast of North America from Florida to beyond Cape Cod was well known to the Portuguese in 1502. 1.504. French fishermen at the banks of Newfoundland. 1506. Jean Denys of Honfleur, and Camart of Rouen, examined (and sketched) the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 1506. Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincent Yanez Pinzon discovered Yuca- tan. In 1508 they coasted South America to 40° S. 1508. Circunmavigation of Cuba, by Ocampo. Aubert in the St. Law- rence. Importation of negroes from Africa to the Spanish possessions in the West Indies, where they were employed in the mines. 1511. Conquest of Cuba by Diego Velasquez. 1512. Discovery of Florida by Juan Fonce de Leon, governor (since 1510) of Porto Rico. 1513. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Bal- boa, who crossed the isthmus irom Antigua on the Gulf of Ura- A- D. America. 285 ba (Keats' sonnet). Balboa was put to death in 1514 by Davila, governor of Darien, Carthagena, and Uraba (Castila del Oro). 1515. Voyage of Juan Diaz de Soils in search of a passage to the East Indies. Discovery of the Rio de la Plata, on the banks of which river Soils was killed by the natives. 1517. Alleged voyage of Sebastian Cabot and Sir Thomas Pert. It is very doubtful if tliis voyage was made, or if made, what part of America was reached. Bartholome de Las Casas (1474^1566) went to the Indies in 1502 with Columbus, bishop of Chiapa (in Mexico), advocate and pro- tector of the Indians. 1517. Francis Hernandez Cordova rediscovered T'uoatan (Cape Ca^- toche) ; advanced civilization of the inhabitants (Mayas), who were under the supremacy of the Aztec empire in Mexico. 1518. Juan de Grijalva coasted from Yucatan to Panuco, and brought back tidings of the Mexican empire of Montezuma. Name of " New Spain " given to the region which he ex- plored. 1519. Alvarez Pineda, by order of the governor of Jamaica, Garay, coasted from Cape Florida to the river of Panuco. 1519-1521. Conquest of Mexico by Hernando Cortez (1485-1547), whom Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, had appointed to the eonnmand of a small force of 600 foot, sixteen cavalry, thirteen cross-bowmen, fourteen cannon, but immediately removed. Cortez sailed against the wUl of the governor. Capture of Tabasco (March). Landing at St. Juan de Uloa (April 21). Negotiations with Monte- zuma, who ordered the invaders to leave the kingdom. Cortez, elected general by the troops, dispatched one ship to carry a report to king Charles of Spain, and beached (not burned) the rest. Foun- dation of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. In alUauce with the Tlascalana Cortez marched upon Mexico, the capital of Montezuma (Monteouh- cuma), who admitted him to the city (Nov. 8). Daring seizure of the king in his own house. Cortez was obliged to march against Narvaez whom Velasquez had sent to chastise him. He defeated Narvaez, and strengthening Ms army with the soldiers of his opponent, returned to Mexico (1520, June). Revolt of the Mexicans, storm of the temple, death of Montezuma of wounds inflicted by his subjects, who were indignant at his submission to the Spaniards. The Spaniards, leaving the city (July 1), were furiously attacked on one of the causeways through the lake and suffered terrible loss {Noche triste). Reinforced, Cortez defeated the Mexicans in a pitched battle near Otompan (July 8). Occupation of Tescuco (Dec. 31). Conquest of Iztapalapan (1521). After having built a fleet of thirteen vessels which were transported by land and launched in the lake of Mexico, Cortez laid siege to the capital. After a long investment, accom- panied with an almost daily storm (May-Aug. 13, 1521) the city was taken. Capture of the king Gmtemozin, who was tortured and 286 Modern History. A. D. finally executed. Submission of the country. Cortez, at first gov- ernor of New Spain with unlimited power, was afterwards restricted to the chief command of the military forces. Prosecuting the search for a western passage he discovered California (1526). Cortez re- turned to Spain in 1540, and died at Seville in 1547. 1520. Nov. 7-Nov. 28. Passage of the Straits of Magellan by MagalhSes, see p. 280. 1520. Voyage undertaken for slaves at the suggestion of Lucas Vasquez d'Ayllon, exploration of the east coast of North America to 32° or 34° N. Cabo de Sta Helena, "Chicora." 1522. Discovery of the Bermudas. 1524. Alleged voyage of Giovanni de Verrazzano in the service of the king of France. The letter of Verrazzano which gives the only existing account of the voyage ascribes to the writer the discovery of the east coast of North America from 34° (39°) N. to 60° N. It has been thought that many places mentioned can be identified. The truth of the whole story has been disputed, but present opinion seems to be in favor of its acceptance (?). 1524., Geographical congress of Badajos, to settle the boundary be- tween Spain and Portugal in the eastern hemisphere, which should correspond to the line of Alexander VI. in the western ; after a stormy session the council separated without reaching an agreement. 1525-1527. Exploration of the coast of Peru by Francisco Pizarro (1478 (?)-1541), as a preliminary to the conquest of that king- dom, of which he had heard on Balboa's expedition (p. 284), in accordance with an agreement made by Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, and Hernando de Luqxj,e. Repulse of Pizarro and Almagro. 1525. Voyage of Estevan Gomez, a Spaniard, along the east coast of North America, 34° N. to 44° N. 1526. Voyage of Sebastian Cabot in the service of Spain. Ex- ploration of the Rio de la Plata, Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay, The English had taken but little part in the discoveries since the time of Cabot, although traces enough of intercourse re- main to show that the New World was not entirely neglected. 1527. Voyage of John Rut, who coasted north to 53° N. and returned by way of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the coast of Maine {Norumbega'). 1528. Unsuccessful expedition of Pamphilo de Naroaez to Florida, under a grant of all the country between Cape Florida and the River of Palms. After visiting Apalache (June 5) Nar- vaez sailed westward and was lost in a storm (Nov.). Of the survivors, four, one of whom was Caheca de Vaca, made their way by land to the Spanish possessions in Mexico (1536). 1528. Settlement of Germans at Caro, between St. Martha and Maraoapana ; presented to the family of WeUer by Charles V. 1531-1532. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro. The undertaking was favored by a civil war which was raging A. D. America. 287 at the time in the empire of the Incas. Foundation of St. Michael on the Piuro in Peru. Capture of the Inca, Atahuallpa, before his army (Nov. 16), who, after the extortion of an immense ransom, was put to death (1533). March of Alvarado from Puerto Viego to Quito. Occupation of Lima, the capital of the Incas (1534). Feuds between the Spanish leaders. Almagro defeated (1538) and executed by Pizzaro. The latter was afterwards killed, with his brother. The Spamsh crown assumed the administration of the country (1548). 1534. First voyage of Jacques Cartier, a French sailor, from St. Malo. Discovery of the west coast of Newfoundland (May 10), Prince Edward's Island, Miramichi Bay, Anticosti, coast to 50° N. 1535. May-1536. July. Second voyage of Cartier; discovery of the Bay of St. Lawrence, River of St. Lawrence (Hochelaga), as far as the site of Montreal. Information received about the great lakes. Foundation of the modern city of Lima. Unsuccessful invasion of Chili by Almagro. 1537. Discovery of Lower California by Cortez. 1538. The west coast of South America explored to 40° S. by Valdivia. 1539. May-1543, Sept. Expedition of Ferdinando de Soto, gover- nor of Cuba, for the conquest of Florida, with nine vessels and over 900 men. After toilsome marches in Florida, with no result but disappointment, De Soto led his men westward to the Mississippi, where he died (at the jimcture of this stream and the Guacoya) and was buried in the stream. The remains of the ejroedition (311 men) reached Panuco Sept. 10, 1543. According to Dr. Kohl, De Soto reached 30° 40' N. in Georgia, and explored the Mississippi to the Ohio (38° N.) 1539-1540. Alonzo de Camargo coasted from the Straits of Magellan to Peru, completing the exploration of the coast of South America. 1540. Expedition of Alarcon in search of the passage to the Indies (Straits of Anian). Exploration of the coast of California to 36° N. Voyage up the Rio Colorado. Lower California, pre- viously held to be an island, was thus shown to be a peninsula. Early maps so represent it ; afterwards the conviction that it was an island spread anew and late into the next century the best maps of America contained this error. 1540-1542. Expedition of Francisco Vasquez Coronado, sent out by the Spanish viceroy, Mendoza, in search of the seven cities of Cibola, concerning whose wealth the Spaniards had derived extravagant ideas from the reports of the Indians. Coronado reached Zuni May 11. Discovery of the Moqui canon of the Colorado. Reports of a city, Quioira. Coronado wintered at Zuni among the Pueblo Indians. In 1541 he marched north- east to 40° N. and returned to Mexico (bisons). 1540. Expedition of Cartier to the St. Lawrence, with five ships, Roberval (Jean Francois de la Roche, lord of Roberval), ap- pointed governor of Canada and Hochelaga and all countries 288 Modern History. A. D. north of 40° N. (New France), failed to take part in this voyage. Cartier founded the fortress of Charlesburg and explored the St. Lawrence. 1541. Gonzalo Pizarro, governor of Quito, crossed the Andes and ex- plored the river Napo for 200 leagues : his subordinate, Fran- cisco Orellana sailed down the Napo to the Amazon, and down that river to the sea (Aug. 6). Orellana returned in 1543 to conquer the country, but died in the search for the Napo. 1542. Roberval reached Newfoundland, where he met Cartier, who, against the will of the governor, returned to France. Rober- val built a fort not far above the island of Orleans, but the en- terprise was soon abandoned. Rodriguez de Cabrillo, sent in search of the passage to the In- dies, discovered Cape Mendocino in 42° N. on the west of North America, and explored as far as 44° N. 1545. Mines of Potosi claimed for Spain. 1647. Pedro de Oasca, president of Peru. Organization and pacifica- tion of the country. 1547. Bishopric of Paraguay established. 1548. First act of the English Parliament relating to America (2 Edw. VI. : regulation of the fisheries at Newfoundland). 1555-1560. First attempt of the admiral de Coligny to found a Protestant settlement in America. The chevalier Nicolaus Durand de Villegagnon led two ships to Brazil, and founded a colony at the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Geneva sent fourteen missionaries to the colony. Villegagnon now joined the Cath- olic church, and his defection ruined the colony ; many set- tlers returned to France (1557), some of the rest were mur- dered by the Portuguese (l558), and in 1560 the colony was entirely broken up by the Portuguese government. Andre Thevet, who accompanied Villegagnon, on his return to France coasted along the east coast of North America to the Bacallaos (Newfoundland), and on his return described his voyage in a gossipy, untrustworthy book. 1558. Last Spanish expedition to Carolana ; no settlement made. 1560-1561. Expedition of Pedro de Urana in search of the empire of the Ormaguas, and of the scoundrel Lope de Aguirre in search of El Dorado in South America. 1562. Second attempt of admiral de Coligny to establish a Huguenot colony in America. Expedition of Jean Rihault. Erection of Charles Fort near Port Royal in South Carolina. The settlement was soon abandoned. 1563. First slave voyage made by the English to America. John Hawkins with three ships brought 300 negroes to the West Indies. 1564. Third attempt of Coligny to establish a Huguenot Colony in America. Rene Laudonniere, sent to carry aid to Ribault's colony, finding the settlers gone built Fort Carolina on the St. John's river in Florida (June). Arrival of Ribault (1665, Aug. 28). A. D. America. 289 1565, Sept. 20. Storm of Port Carolina by the Spaniards under Meuendez de Aviles ; massacre of the garrison (" I do this not as to Freucluneu, but as to Lutherans "). RibauU, having put to sea, was wrecked, captured, and slain with mauy of his company. Construction of three Spanish forts (Castle of St. Augustine). 1568. Expedition of Dominique de Gourges to avenge the mas- April, sacre of the French at Fort Carolina. Capture and destruc- tion of the Spanish forts, massacre of the garrison (" I do this not as to Spaniards, nor as to mariners, but as to traitors, rob- bers and murderers"). 1572. First voyage of Francis Drake to South America. Attack upon Nombre de Dios, Carthagena, etc. 1576, First voyage of Martin Frobisher in search of a northwest June-Aug. passage. Discovery of Frobisher's Strait and Meta In- cognita on the north coast of North America (60°). Supposed discovery of gold. 1577, May-Sept. Second voyage of Frobisher. 1578, May-Sept. Third voyage of Frobisher. 1577, Dec. 13-1580, Nov. 3. Voyage of Francis Drake around the world. Touching the west coast of North America he dis- covered " Drake's Port," and claimed the country between 38° N. and 42° N. for England under the name of New Albion. 1578. Unsuccessful voyage of discovery of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, un- der a patent from queen Eh'zabeth. 1583. Second voyage of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Landing at New- foundland he took formal possession of the island for England in right of the discovery of the Cabots. On the return voyage Sir Humphrey Gilbert was lost in a storm. 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh having secured a transfer to himself of the patent granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, his half-brother, dis- patched Amidas and Barlow to explore the coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements. They landed on July 13. the island of Wocokon and took possession of the country for the queen. Exploration of Roanoke. On their return the explorers gave glowing accounts of the country, which received the name of Virginia. 1585. Colony of 180 persons under Sir Richard Grenville sent to Roanoke Island ; suffering from destitution they were re- moved in 1586 by Drake. Grenville arriving with supplies immedi- ately after their departure left fifteen sailors to hold possession ; they had, however, all disappeared before the arrival (1587) of 117 new colonists. " Borough of Raleigh in Virginia," governor, John White. Virginia Dare, first English child bom in America. This colony met an unknown fate. White returned to Virginia in 1590, but could not find the colony. In 1589 Raleigh sold his patent. 1585. First voyage of John Davis to the north. Exploration of Davis Straits to 66° 40'. Discovery of Gilbert Sound and Cumberland Straits. 19 290 Modem History. A. d. 1586. Naval expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the Spanish West Indies. Sack of St. Domingo and Carthagena. Rescue of the colony of Virginia. 1587. Third voyage of John Davis (the second was to Labrador in 1586). He reached 72° 12' N. and discovered the Cumber- land Islands, London Coast, Lundey's Inlet (Frobisher's Strait ^). 1592. Alleged discovery of the strait of Juan de la Fuca on the west coast of North America in 48° N. by Apostolos Valerianos, a Greek, who had been in the service of Spain under the name of Juan de la Fuca. Peschel (fiesch. d. Erdkunde, I. 273) regards the story as apocryphal. 1595. Expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh to Guiana. Capture of the city of St. James. Search for El Dorado. Voyage up the Orinoco for 400 miles. 1595. Expedition of Drake and Hawkins to the West Indies. Death of Hawkins. Drake died 1596. 1598. The Marquis de la Roche obtained from Henry IV. of France a commission to conquer Canada. He left forty convicts on the Isle of Sable, made some explorations in Acadia, and re- turned to France. After his death his patent was granted to Chauvin, who made two successful voyages to Tadomsac, and left some people there (1600). 1602. Voyage of Bartholemew Gosnold from Falmouth. Taking due westerly course he first saw land in 42° N. Discovery of a cape which Gosnold named Cape Cod (May 15). Discovery of Buzzard's Bay (called Gosnold' s Hope). Erection of a fort and storehouse on Cuttyhunk (called by Gosnold Elizabeth Island, a name now applied to the whole chain of islands of which this is the most westerly). Keturn of the whole party to England. 1603. Voyage of Martin Pring from Bristol along the coast of Maine from the Penobscot River to the Bay of Massachusetts. 1603. Voyage of Samuel Champlain, a Frenchman, from Brouage, up the St. Lawrence. 1604. Foundation of Port Royal (the present Annapolis) in Nova Scotia by the French. In 1603 Pierre du Oast, Sieur de Monts, obtained from Henry IV. of France a grant of all lauds in North America from 40° N. to 46° N. (from Pennsylvania to New Brunswick), under the name of Acadia. (This name was afterwards restricted to the present New Brunswick, and the French possessions in N. America were designated generally as Neiv France.) In 1604 De Monts associated himself with M. Poutrincourt and sailed for America with two vessels. Foundation of Port Royal by Poutrincourt. Discovery of the St. John River by Champlain, De Monts' pilot. De Monts built a fort at St. Croix, but in the following year joined Poutrincourt at Port Royal. 1 See Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, I. 299, for a discussion of the errors oi the early Arctic navigators. A. D. America. 291 1605. Voyage of George Weymouth (who had made a trip to tahrador in 1602) to the coast of Maine. Santa F^ in New Mexico founded. Over a hundred years had elapsed since the discovery of America, and thus far South America and Central America had alone been the scene of active and successful colonization. In North America, a few scattered Spanish settlements in the south and one French colony in the north were the only representatives of European civiliza^ tion. The next few years witnessed a mighty change. England, which for all her voyages had not a foot of land m America, entered on a course of settlement and conquest which ultimately gave her the fairest portion of the New World. English, Dutch, and Swedish Colonies in North America (1606-1638). A. linglisb Colonies. 1606. April 10. The patent of Sir Waller Raleigh becoming void by his attainder for treason, James I. issued a, patent dividing Virginia into two parts : 1. The First Colony, embracing the country from 34° N. to 38° N. with the right to settle as far as 41° N. if they were the first to found their colony : this southern colony was granted to a number of gentlemen, residing principally in London {Richard Hakluyi), and known as the London Company. 2. The Second Colony, embracing the country between 41° N. and 45° N. with the right of settUng as far as 38° N. if they were the first to establish their colony ; this northern colony was granted to gentle- men residing chiefly in Bristol, Plymouth, etc., and hence known as the Plymouth Company. Each company was to become owner of the land for fifty miles on each side of the first settlement, and one hun- dred miles inland. The nearest settlements of the two colonies should be one hundred miles apart. The government of each colony was vested in a council resident in England and nominated by the king ; the local government was intrusted to a council resident in America also nominated by the king, and to conform to his reg^ations. Imports from England free of duty for seven years ; freedom of trade with other nations, the duties for twenty-seven years to go to the colonies. Right of coinage and of self-defense. Establishment of a Council of Virginia in England for the superin- tendence of both colonies. Colony of South Virginia. 1607. May 13. Foundation of Jamestown in the southern colony by a band of one hundred colonists sent out imder Christopher Newport. It included Bartholomew Gosnold and John Smith. Dissension in the council. Explorations by John Smith who was captured by the Indians, and presented to the chief, Powhatan, but in the end released (story of the rescue of Smith by Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan^"). In 1607 1 This story has been relegated to the realm of fable, on the insafGcient ground that no mention of it appears in Smith's first accouut of his captivity. 292 Modern History. A. d. Smith explored the Chesapeake. During the first years the colony suffered severely from extremes of heat and cold, as well as from dissensions and bad provision by the company. Laborers were scarce, the colonists being either gentlemen or criminals. 1609. Second charter of the company of South Virginia, increase of privileges and of members. Lord Delaware (^Thomas West) appointed governor for life. Smith returned to England. 1610. The distress in the colony was so great (^The Starving Time) that it was on the point of abandounxent when Lord Dela- ware arrived with supplies. 1611. Delaware returning to England, Sir Thomas Gates was sent out as deputy governor. 1612. Third charter of the company of South Virginia. Inclusion of the Bermudas within their possessions. 1613. The French having established the colony of St. Saviour at Mount Desert on the coast of Maine, the governor of Sonth Virginia sent Samuel Argal to dispossess them. Argal de- stroyed St. Saviour and razed Port Royal. On his return he received the submission of the Dutch settlement at Hudson's River (?). 1614. Sir Thomas Dale deputy governor of South Virginia. 1615. Land, which had hitherto been held of the company by farmers as tenauts-at^will, was now made private property ; fifty acres being now granted to every colonist and his heirs. 1617. Samuel Argal succeeded Sir George Yeardley as deputy gover- nor of South Virginia ; reduced state of the colony. In the 1618. following year Lord Delaware sailed with supplies and colonists for Virginia, but died on the voyage. Rigorous government of Argal. At this time there were 600 persons and 300 cattle in the colony ; the only exports were tobacco and sassa- fras, and the London company was indebted £5,000. 1619. First General Assembly in South Virginia convoked (June 19) by Sir George Yeardley, governor general, con- sisting of the burgesses of the colony, representing eleven " bo- roughs ' ' or plantations. The burgesses sat with the council and governor. Introduction of negro slaves (20) into Virginia by a Dutch vessel. 1620. The colony, numbering 1000 persons, received an accession of 1200 new settlers. Introduction of women who were sold as wives to the colonists for from 100 to 150 pounds of tobacco. Free trade with the colony established. 1621. Sir Francis Wyatt, governor, brought over a new constitution for the colony, wherejby its government was vested in a governor, a council of state, and a general assembly, to which two bur- gesses were to be chosen by every town, hundred, and planta- tion. The governor had the veto power, and every enact- ment of the colonial legislature required the ratification of the company in England to become binding. All ordinances of the company were without effect unless accepted by the assembly. A. D. America. 293 1622. March 22. Massacre of 347 colonists by the Indians. 1624. Comiuission of inquiry into the afBairs of Virginia appointed by the crown. In spite of the answer of the general assembly wherein the rights of the people were defined, the court of king's bench in England, before which the cause was tried, de- cided against the company. The charter was annulled. The company had sent out more than 9000 persons to the colony, of whom not more than 2000 now remained. Sir Francis Wyatt was appointed governor, with a council of eleven mem- bers appointed by the king. This plan of government was continued by Charles I., who announced that the colony should immediately depend upon the crown, which should appoint the governor and council and issue patents and legal processes. Commercial restrictions. 1630. Grant of (JaroLana (the region south of the Virginia colony be- tween 31° N. and 36° N.) to Sir Robert Heath, being the first instance of a proprietary grant by the crown. No settlement seems to have been made, on which account the grant was subsequently declared void, and a part of the territory granted out under the name of Carolina, a proceeding which resulted in much ill-feeling. 1632> Grant of Maryland (the region between the Potomac and 41° N.) to Cecil Calvert, the secoud lord Baltimore, son of Sir George Calvert, to whom the grant was originally made, but who died before putting it to use. The grant was met by a protest from Virginia which was of no avail. In 1634, the first colony reached Maryland ; being about two hundred persons. Gift of fifty acres of land to each emigrant as pri- vate property. The Calverts being Roman Catholics, no men- tion of religions establishment appeared in the charter beyond the recognition of Christianity as established by English com- mon law. The proprietary, or grantee holding directly of the crown, was subject to no corporation or company, appointed the dep- uty governor and the executive officers, regulated the legisla- tion, and received the taxes. The general assembly of the colonists possessed an advisory power, and the right of express- ing non-approval. 1636. Grant of New Albion (including New Jersey) from the vice- roy of Ireland to Sir Edward Plowden. This New Albion, which was not settled, must not be confounded with the tract of like name discovered by Drake on the western coast of America (p. 289). The Plymouth Company. Immediately upon the receipt of the charter the company had dis- patched two explorers to the region of their grant (^Challons, Hanam), and in 1G07, George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert led 120 colonists to the 294 Modem History, A. D. northern colony. They built Fort St. George on Parker's " Isl- and" (peninsula), at the mouth of the Kennebec River in Maine (Aug. 11). The death of George Popham and of Sir John Popham in England (1608) so disheartened the colonists that they returned to England. No further attempts at settle- ment being made for some time, the French (who had also a claim to these regions (see 1604) planted several colonies within the territory of the Plymouth Company. 1614. Exploration of the coast of the northern colony by John Smith from Penobscot to Cape Cod. On his return he wrote an ac- count of his voyage and published a map of the district explored, to which the name of New England was given. Trouble with the Indians, springing from the action of Thomas Hunt, who carried off twenty-seven natives to the West Indies for slaves, discouraged settlement. After the frustration of an attempt at colonization by Smith in 1615 through adverse circumstances, the company itself meide no more attempts at settlements, and the colonies that grew up in its territories were founded by companies or individuals under its charter but in- dependent of its action. One of the most important settlements, in- deed, was made without any authority from the company. In 1620 the company was reorganized as the Council at Plymouth for New England with territory from Philadelphia to Chaleur Bay (40° N. ti) 48° N. across tde continent). 1620. Settlement of Plymouth in New England by- English separatists from Holland. This religious sect, a sort of left wing of the larger body of Puritans, had left England in 1607-8 on account of the intolerance with which they were treated, and settled at Leyden in Holland (1609) to the number of 1000 or more, under their minister, John Rob- inson. After several attempts to secure a patent from the London company (South Virginia), and a promise of toleration from the king, they succeeded in the former endeavor in 1619, but not in the latter. Procuring two ships (Speedwell, Mayflower), apart of the con- gregation, and some others, set sail Aug. 5, from Southampton (hav- ing left Leyden in July) for the vicinity of Hudson's River. Twice driven back by stress of weather the Pilgrims (a name applied much earlier to the whole body in Holland) finally left Plymouth in the Mayflower, Sept. 6. On Nov. 9 they sighted Cape Cod, but instead of running southward they were induced by fear of shoal water, by the late season, and perhaps by the cunning of the shipmaster, to anchor at the Cape. On Nov. 11, the company signed a compact of govern- ment (they being beyond the limits of the London Company), and elected John Carver governor. For some weeks they explored the coast, landing at various places. (Birth of Peregrine White, the first European child bom in New England). Toward the close of De^ cember they fixed on the site of Plymouth, and landing, began the erection of a house and portioned out land among the settlers (nine- teen families, 102 individuals).^ I The date is disputed ; that of the landing of the whole body can hardly be A. D. America. 295 1621. Intercourse of the colonists (Capt. Miles Standish) with the In- dians (Samo.iet, Massasoit, chief of the Indians in that vicin- ity). Upon the death of Carver, 'WiUiam Bradford was elected governor. Arrival of a new patent from the Plymouth Company, also made out in the name of the London merchants, with whom the Pilgrims had formed a partnership before sail- ing. Over fifty of the orio^inal settlers died this year. Trouble with the Indians 1621-23. Meantime the territory of the Plymouth Company was being par- celed out among various adventurers by often conflicting grants. In 1621 jStr William Alexander obtained a patent for the whole of Aca- dia, under the name of Nova Scotia, from the crown of Scotland (confirmed, 1625). The region from Salem River to the Merrimac was granted to John Mason and called Mariana. In 1622 Sir Fernando Gorges and John Mason obtained a grant of all lands between the Merrimac and the Kennebec, wliich region was called at first Lacimia, afterwards, Maine. In 1622 settlements were made on the site of the present Dover {Cochecho) and Portsmouth. In 1624 a few Puii- tans from England settled at Cape Ann ; the colony afterwards re- moved to Naumkeag (Roger Conant, 1626). In 1625 Captain Wollas- ton settled at Mount Wollaston, near Boston. 1623. The Plymouth Company sent out Frands West as " Admiral of New England," Robert Gorges as "Governor-General," and William Morrell as " Superintendent of Churches " but nothing came of this assertion of authority. 1627. The colony at Plymouth succeeded in buying off the London merchants in whose name their charter had been issued. Growth of the colony ; friendly intercourse with the Dutch. 1628. The Plymouth Company issued a grant of the land between three miles south of the Charles River, and three miles north of the Merrimac, reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, to a company which sent John Endicott as governor and colonists who joined the others at Naumkeag. In 1629 the name of the colony was changed to Salem. The colony at Plymouth obtained a grant on the Kennebec. Suppression of the settlement at WoUaston (" Merry Mount ") by Endicott. Morton, who after Wollaston's departure had ruled the colony and sold firearms (?) to the Indians, was seized by Standish from Plymouth and sent to England. 1629. Establishment of the company of Massachu- setts Bay (" The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England ") by a charter issued directly by the crown to the company, enlarged by new associates, which haid settled Salem. The company was permitted to elect a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen assistants yearly, and to make laws not repugnant to those of England. The first governor of the company was Matthew Cradock. ascertained ; the landing of the first exploring partv seems to have taken place on Dec. 11, O.S., or Dec. 21 (22), N S. (confusion here also). See Gay, " When did the Pilgrim Fathers land at Plymouth?" — Atlantic Monthly, Novembtir, 1881, p. 612. 296 Modern History. A. d. A number of influential men soon becoming interested in the enter- prise, the governing council or court of the company in England (that is to say, " The Governor and Company ot' Massachusetts Bay in New England") consented that the charter and government should be transferred to the colony (Aug. 29), under which agree- ment John Winthrop was chosen governor, and in 1630 sailed for New England with a large number of settlers, who landed at Charlestown, where an ofiPshoot from the Salem colony was already established. Here a church was founded and two courts of assistants held. 1629. Mason and Gorges dissolving their connection, a new grant was made to each. Mason receiving the territory between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, a region afterwards called Nevr Hampshire.' Gorges received the region between the Pis- cataqua and the Kennebec, under the name of New Somerset- shire. 1630. Third and last patent of the Plymouth colony, whereby it was assigned the district between the Cohasset River and the Nar- raganset, extending westward to the limits of Pokenakut or Sowamset. " The colonists were allowed to make orders, or- dinances, and constitutions, for the ordering, disposing, and governing their persons, and distributing the lands within the limits of the patent." 1630. Settlement of Boston, on the peninsula called Shatmnut by the Indians, but Trimountain by the English, and then inhab- ited by an episcopal minister, William Blachstone. On Sept. 7, the court at Charlestown changed the name of Trimountain to Boston. First general court of Massachusetts held at Boston, Oct. 19. It was enacted that the freemen should elect the assistants, who were to choose out of their own num- ber the governor, but the next court decreed that the governor, deputy governor, and assistants should be elected directly by the freemen. Only church-members were freemen, so that the freemen formed a minority of the population. In 1631 a fortified town was begun on the Charles and called Newtoum (afterwards Cambridge). Colony of Connecticut. The Dutch (^Adrian Block, 1614) were the first to explore the coast of Connecticut and the river of that name, when they built a fort near Hartford. In 1630 the council of Plymouth granted to the earl of Warwick the land 120 miles S. E. from the Narraganset Kiver, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In 1631 Warwick transferred this grant to the viscount Say and Seal, lord Brook, and others. In 1633 the colonies of Plymouth and Boston conferred on the question of settling the Connecticut valley ; as the Massachu- setts colony declined the enterprise a company was sent out from 1 The " Deed from four Indian sagamores to John Wheelwright and others, 1629," long accepted as the foundation of the history of New Hampshire, is now generally accounted a forgery. Holmes, Annals, 1. 199, note 2. ■Win- throp, Journal, ed. by Savage. Fogg, Gazvteer of N. H. A. D. America. 297 Plymouth, which disregarded the prohibition of the Dutch and set up a house on the Connecticut. The rival claims of the Dutch and English were discussed without effect by the colonies. 1634. The growth of the colony of Massachusetts Bay preventing the attendance of all freemen at the general court, it was en- acted that whereas four courts should be held in a year, the whole body of freemen should be present at that court only in which the elections were held ; at the other courts the freemen in the towns should send deputies. 1635. Surrender of the Charter of the Council of. Plymouth to the crown in consequence of the hostility of the govern- ment and church. 1635. Foundation of the Connecticut colony by emigrants from Mas- sachusetts (Windsor, Wethersfield, Hartford), and by John Winthrop, son of Governor Winthrop of Massachusetts, who built a fort at Saybrook, under commission from the proprie- tors. In 1636 a large part of the inhabitants of Newtown (Cambridge) migrated to Connecticut and settled at Hart- ford. 1636. A code of laws (the General Fundamentals) established at Plymouth. 1636. Foimdation of Providence by Roger 'Williams, who had been expeUed from Salem in 1634 for holding heretical doc- trines subversive of church and state. 1637. War of Connecticut (first general court at Hartford) and Mas- sachusetts against the unruly tribe of Pequnts in Connecticut. Extermination of the Indians (Capt. John Mason). 1638. Foundation of the colony of Rhode Island by John Clark and others, who left Massachusetts on account of religious difierences. Purchase of the island of Aquedneck (afterwards Isle of Rhodes) from the Indians. Foundation of the colony of New Haven in Connecticut under Davenport and Eaton. In this year another attempt was made by quo warranto pro- cess to rescind the charter of Massachusetts, but it failed of success. In consequence of a bequest of £779 17s. 2d. from John Har- vard, of Charlestown, the public school which the colony had enacted in the previous year should be established at Newtown received the name of Harvard College, while the name of the town was changed to Cambridge. 1639. Windsor, Hartford, Wethersfield, on the Connecticut, united to form a separate government. The constitution (Jan. 14) placed the executive, legislative, and judicial powers in the general assembly, composed of the deputies of the towns in the ratio of numbers of freemen, meeting twice a year. All could vote who had taken the oath of allegiance to the con- stitution. The grant of Sir Fernando Gorges was confirmed to him by the crown under the title of the Province of Maine. A general assembly of the deputies of the towns in Ply- mouth colony met for the first time (June 4). 298 Modern History. A. D. 1641. The Body of Liberties, a code of 100 laws established by the general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay. 1643. Creation of the United Colonies of Ne-w England by the alliance of Connecticut, Nb'ot- Haven, Plymouth and Mas- sachusetts Bay (May 19) for mutual defense. B. Dutch Settlements. 1609. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in Dutch service, coasted from Newfoundland to the Cheswpeake, and entered Hudson's River. Trading voyages of the Dutch (1610-1613). 1613. Establishment of a Dutch trading post on the island of Man- hattan at the mouth of the Hudson, or North River (so called to distinguish it from the South River, or Delaware). Alleged submission of the Dutch to Argal (p. 292). 1614. Establishment of the United New Netherland Company in Holland with a grant in America of territory from 40° N. to 45° N. Fort biult at Manhattan, another, Fort Orange, near the present Albany (1615). Voyage of Adrian Block through Long Island sound (Block Island). 1621. Creation of the Dutch West India Company to take the place of the New Netherland Company whose charter had expired. 1626. Peter Minuit, having purchased Manhattan Island for twenty-four dollars, founded the settlement of New Amsterdam. Settlements were made under the charter of the company in Con- necticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, as well as in New York. Many of these were founded under an enactment of the com- pany which gave the title of patroon to any person who should bring over a certain number of colonists under certain conditions ; the title represented a certain relation of suzerainty between the founder and the colonists. The council for New England had opposed what it regarded as the Dutch invasion in 1620-21, and the remonstrances of the English grew stronger after the foundation of New Amsterdam (1627, 1632). The settlement of Connecticut from New England (1632-1638) was opposed by the Dutch in vain, and the entire region was wrested from them. (Protest of Kieft, governor of New Netherlands against the foundation of New Haven.) The Dutch drove a flourishing trade with the Five Nations of the Iroquois in central New York, whom they supplied with firearms. O. Swedish Settlements. 1638. Foundation of Fort Christina on the Delaware by a colony of Swedes and Finns. The colony was called Nevr Sweden, and was followed by other settlements. The Dutch considered this an invasion of their rights, but the disputes that followed led to no result until 1655, when New Sweden was annexed to New Netherlands. A. !>• America. 299 D. New France and the Arctic Region. It must be remembered that France claimed, by right of the dis- coveries of Verrazano, the whole of North America north of Spanish Florida and Mexico, although settlements had been made only in Nova Scotia and on the St. Lawrence, nothing having come of the projected settlement between Spanish Florida and English Virginia. It was with the French in the north that the Fnglish settlers had to deal ; it was to Canada that they applied the name of New France, as that of Acadia was restricted to Nova Scotia. From the north the French afterwards made the great discoveries in the west which gave them new claims to the larger part of America. 1606. An attempted settlement on Cape Cod repulsed by the Indians. 1608. Foundation of Quebec (July 3) by a colony sent out by De Monts, under Champlain. 1609. Champlain, joining a war party of the Algonqnins against the Iroquois, discovered Lake Champlain. 1610. Discovery of Hudson's Bay by Henry Hudson, who was searching for the northwest passage, in the service of an English company. On the return the crew mutinied and Hudson was put to sea in a small boat, and not heard of again. 1610. English colony sent to Newfoundland 46° N. to 52° N. (Con- ception Bay). 1612. Voyage of Thomas Button in search of the Northwest Fassagfe. Discovery of New South Wales and New North Wales, Button's Bay. 1613. Madame de OuerchevUle, having secured the surrender of De Monts' patent, and the issue of a new patent from the crown for all New France between Florida and the St. Laiorence (except Port Royal), sent Saussage with two Jesuits, who took possession of Nova Scotia and founded a colony (^St. Saviour) on Mt. Desert, which was immediately broken up by Argals expedition from Virginia. All the French settlements in Acadia were also destroyed. 1615. Expedition of Champlain to Lake Hviron. 1616. Voyage of Bylot and Baffin in search of the Northwest Pas- sage. Discovery of Wolstenholme's Sound, Lancaster Sound, ' Baffin's Bay (78° N.). 1621. Grant of Acadia under the name of Nova Scotia, to Sir William Alexander hy the crown of Scotland. An attempt at settlement was unsuccessful and the French continued in pos- session. Grant of a part of Newfoundland to Sir George Cal- vert (Lord Baltimore) who resided there until 1631. 1627. Transfer of the colony of Quebec to the company of a hun- dred associates under Cardinal Richelieu. 1629. Conquest of Quebec by Louis and Thomas Kertk, under a commission from Charles I. for the conquest of New France. An attack of David Kertk in 1628 had been repulsed by Champlain. 300 Modem Histwy. A. d. 1630. St. Estienne of La Tour, a Hugnenot, bought from Sir William Alexander his patent for Nova Scotia, on condition that the colony should remain subject to Scotland. 1631. Voyages of Fox and James in search of a Northwest Passage. Fox explored the west coast of Hudson Bay from 65° SC to SS'^l©' in vain, but discovered Fox's Channel and reached Cape Peregrine. James discovered James Bay, where he passed a terrible winter. 1632. Treaty of St. Germain between France and England. Ces- sion of New France, Acadia, and Canada to France. 1635. Seizure of the trading post established at Penobscot by the Plymouth colonists by the French. Plymouth sent a vessel against the French, but failed to recover the place. Death of Champlain. 1641. Maisonneuve appointed governor of Montreal ; in 1642 he brought over several families and took possession of the island. {Seep.S57.) § 3. GERMANY TO THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. THE REFORMA- TION. (See p. SSS.) 1493-1519. Maximilian I., who first took the title of " Roman Emperor elect.'' 1495. Diet at Worms. Perpetual public peace. Imperial Cham- ber {Reichskammergericht), first at Frankfort, then at Speier, after 1689 at Wetdar. At the diet of Cologne (1512), establishment of ten circles for the better maintenance of the public peace (Land- friedenskreise): Circle of : 1. Austria; 2. Bavaria ; 3. Swabia; 4. Frart- conia; 5. the Upper Rhine (Lorraine, Hesse, etc.) ; 6. the Lower Rhine, or the Electorates (Mainz, Trier, Cologne) ; 7. Burgundy (1556, ceded to the Spanish line of Hapsburg) ; 8. Westphalia ; 9. Lower Saxony (Brunswick, Liineburg, Lauenburg, Holstein, Meck- lenburg, etc.) ; 10. Upper Saxony (Saxony, Brandenburg, Pomer- ania, etc.). In all comprising 240 estates of the empire, exclusive of the imperial knights. Bohemia and the neighboring states, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia, with Prussia and Switzerland, which was already completely independent, in fact, were not included in the circles. Establishment of the AuUc Council, a court more under the control of the emperor than the Imperial Chamber, and to which a large part of the work belonging to the latter was gradually diverted. Maximilian was obliged to invest Louis XIl. of France with Milan, 1508. League of Cambray between Maximilian, Louis XII., Pope Julius II., and Ferdinand the Catholic, against Venice. Maxi- milian took possession of a part of the territory of the republic, but besieged Padua in vain (1509). The Poj)e withdrew from the league, and concluded with Venice and Ferdinand the Holy League (1511) against France, in which they were finally (1513) joined by Maximilian (p. 319). The following genealogical table shows the claim of the house of Hapsburg to Spain, and its division into a Spanish and German line. A. D. Germany. — Reformation. 301 Maximilian I., . Mary, Ferdinand, ,/ Isabella, emperor, t 1519. of Burgundy, king of Aragon, queen of Castile; t 1482. t 1516. t 1504. d. of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Philip the Fair, =^=:^=i^=^= Joanna the Insane, archduke of Austria, t 1506. SPANISH. queen of Aragon and Castile, t 1556. GSBKAir. Charles I. (V.), t 1558. Ferdinand I., f 1564. m. Isabella of Portugal. m. Anna of Hungary. I I Philip II., king of Spain, Maximilian II., t 1598. emperor, t 1576. Maximilian's son Philip married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand (king of Aragon and Naples^ and Isabella (queen of Castile), hence heiress of the three kingdoms and the American Colonies. Philip him- self inherited from his mother, Mary, the heiress of Burgundy, the Bur- gundian Lands ; from his father, Maximilian, all the possessions of the Hapsburgs ( Western Austria on the upper Rhine, Austria, Carinthia, Camiola, Tyrol, eta.\ All these lands descended to Charles, the eldest son of Philip and Joanna, the ancestor of the elder, Spanish, line of the Hapsburg house. His younger brother, Ferdinand, ancestor of the younger, German, line of the house of Hapsburg, married Anna, sister of Louis II., last king of Bohemia and Hungary (whose wife was Mary, Ferdinand's sister) .i 1517. Beginning of the Reformation. Luther. Martin Luther was born 1483 at Eisleben, son of a miner, became master of arts and instructor 1505 ; monk in the Augustine monastery at Erfurt; 1507 priest; 1508 professor at Wittenberg; 1511 sent to Rome on business connected with his order ; 1512 doctor of theology. On Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed upon the door of the court church at Wittenberg his ninety-five theses against the misuse of absolution or indulgences (especially by the Dominican monk Tetzel). 1518. Beginning of the reformation in Switzerland by ZwIngU at Ziirich. Zwingli fell in battle at Kappel 1531. , Summoned to Augsburg by Cardinal de Vto of Gaeta (Cajetanus), Luther could not be induced to abjure (1518), but appealed to the Pope.' Mediation of the papal chamberlain v. Miltitz. After the discussion at Leipzig 1519 (Bodetistein, called Carhtadt, against Eck), the latter secured a papal bull against forty-one articles in Luther's writings. 1 These fortunate marriages of the house of Austria were celebrated in the following couplet : Bella gerant alii, tufelix Austria, nube ! QiuB dat Mars aliis, dat tibi regna Venus. * Dt Papa male informato ad Papam meUus iaformandum. 302 Modern History. A. d. Luther burnt (1520) the papal bull and the canon law ; whereupon he was excommunicated. In the mean time the German electors, in spite of the claims of Francis I. of France, had chosen the grandson of Maximilian I. in Spain, Charles I., as emperor. 1519-1556. Charles V. He came to Germany for the first time in 1520, for the pur- pose of holding a grand diet at 'Worins (1521). There Luther defended his doctrines before the emperor, under a safe-conduct. The ban of the empire being pronounced against him, he was carried to the Wartburg by Frederic the Wise, of Saxony, and there protected. The edict of Worms prohibited all new doctrines. Luther's transla- tion of the Bible. Hearing of Carlstadt's misdoings he returned to Wittenberg, arid introduced public worship, with the liturgy in Ger- man and communion in both kinds, in electoral Saxony and in Hesse (1522). The spread of the Reformation in Germany was favored by the fact that the emperor, after the diet of Worms, had left Germany and was occupied with the war with Francis I. Franz von Sickingen and Ulrich von Hutten advocated the Reforma- tion. Sickingen stood at the head of an association of nobles directed against the spiritual principalities. He laid siege to Trier (1522) in vain, was besieged in Landstuhl, and fell in battle. Hutten fled the country and died on the island of Ufnau in the Lake of Zurich (1523). 1524-1525. The Peasants' War, in Swabia and Franconia, ac- companied with terrible outrages. The Twelve Articles. The peasants defeated at Konigshof en on the Tauber and cruelly punished. Anabaptists in Thuringia. Thomas MUnzer captured at Franken- hausen and executed. Reformation in Prussia. Grandmaster Albert of Brandenburg duke of Prussia under Polish overlordship. Luther's marriage with Catharine of Bora, formerly a nun. Cate- chism. Ferdinand of Austria, the emperor's younger brother, edu- cated in Spain, to whom Charles had intrusted since 1522 the gov- ernment of the Hapsburg lands in Germany, formed an alliance in 1624, at the instigation of the papal legate Campeggio, with the two dukes of Bavaria and the bishop of Southern Germany, in order to oppose the religious changes. To counteract this move the league of Torgau was formed (1526) among the Protestants (John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, Luneburg, Magdeburg, Prussia, etc.). They pro- cured an enactment at the diet of Speier, favorable to the new doctrine (1526). 1521-1526. First war of Charles V. with Francis I. Charles advanced claims to Milan and the duchy of Burgundy. Francis claimed Spanish Navarre and Naples. The French (under Lautree) were driven from Milan, which was given to Francesco Sforza (1522). The French Canndtdble, Charles of Bourbon, transferred his allegiance to Charles V. Unfortunate invasion of Italy by the French 1523-24, under Bonnivert. The chevalier Bayard (" sans peur et sans reproche ") fell during the retreat. Imperial forces invaded southern France. Francis I. crossed Mt. Cenis, and recaptured Milan. A. D. Germany. — Reformation. 803 1525. Battle of Pavia. Francis defeated and captured. 1526. Peace of Madrid. Francis renounced all claim to Milan, Genoa, and Naples, as weU as the overlordship of Flanders and Artois, assented to the cession of the duchy of Burgundy, and gave his sons as hostages. 1527-1529. Second war between Charles V. and Francis I., who had declared that the conditions of the peace of Madrid were extorted by force, and hence void. Alliance at Cognac between Fran- cis, the Pope, Venice and Francesco Sforza against the emperor. The imperial ai-my, unpaid and mutinous, took Rome by storm under the constable of Bourbon, who fell in the assault (by the hand of Ben- venuto Cellini f) ; the Pope besieged in the Castle of St. Angelo (1527). The French general, Lautrec, invaded Naples, but the revolt of Genoa (Doria), whose independence Charles V. promised to recognize, and the plague, of which Lautrec lilmself died, compelled the French to raise the siege of the capital and to retire to France. 1529. Peace of Cambray (Paix des Dames). So called from the fact that it was negotiated by Margaret of Austria, Charles's aunt, and Louise of Savoy, duchess of Angouleme, mother of Francis. Francis paid two million crowns and renounced his claims upon Italy, Flanders and Artois; Charles promised not to press his claims upon Burgundy /or the present, and released the French princes. 1529. Second diet at Speier, where, in consequence of the victorious position of the emperor, Ferdinand and the Catholic party took a more decided position. The strict execution of the decree of Worms (p. 302) was resolved upon. The evangelical estates protested against this resolution, whence they were called Protestants. 1526-1532. VTar with the Turks. Louis II., king of Hungary, having fallen in the battle of Mohacs (1526), one party chose Ferdinand, Charles's brother, the other John Zapolya. The latter was assisted by the Sultau Soliman (^Suleiman), who besieged Vienna in vain (1529). 1530. Charles crowned emperor in Bologna by the Pope. This was the last coronation of a German emperor by the Pope. 1530. Brilliant Diet at Augsburg, the emperor presiding in per- son. Presentation of the Confession of Augsburg (Confes- sio Augustana) by Melanchthon (true name Schwarzerd, 1497-1560), the learned friend of Luther. , The enactment of the diet commanded the abolition of all innovations. 1531. Schmalkaldic league, agreed upon in 1530, between the ma- Feb. 6. jority of Protestant princes and imperial cities. Charles caused his brother, Ferdinand, to be elected king of Rome, and crowned at Aachen. The elector of Saxony protested against this proceeding in the name of the Evangelicals. In consequence of the new danger which threatened from the Turks, 1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg. The Augsburg edict was revoked, and free exercise of their religion permitted the Protestants until the meeting of a new council to be called within a year. 304 Modem History. A. d. Soliinan invaded and ravaged Hungary. Heroic defence of Giinz. A great imperial army was sent to the aid of Hungary, and Soliman retired. 1534-1535. Anabaptists in MUnster (Johann Bockelsohn, from Ley- den). 1534. Philip, landgrave of Hessen, restored the Lutheran duke, Ulrich of Wurtemherg, who had been driven out (1519) by the Swabian league of cities. The emperor had invested Fer- dinand with the duchy, but the latter was obliged to agree to a compact, whereby he was to renounce Wiirtemberg, but should be recognized as king of Kome by the evangelical party. 1535. Charles's expedition against Tunis (Chaireddin Barbarossa, the pirate). Tunis conquered ; liberation of all Christian slaves. 1536-1538. Third war, between Charles V. and Francis L, about Milan ; Francis I. having renewed his claims upon that duchy after the death of Francesco Sforza II., without issue. Charles in- vaded Provence anew, but fruitlessly. Francis made an inroad into Savoy and Piedmont, and accepted the alliance of Soliman, who pressed Hungary hard, and sent his fleet to ravage the coast of Italy. The war was ended by the 1538. Truce of Nice, which was concluded on the basis of posses- June 18. sion, at the time of its formation, for ten years. July. Meeting between Charles and Francis at Aigues Mortes. 1539-1540. Charles V. crossed France, for the purpose of suppress- ing a disturbance in Ghent, and was received by Francis with special distinction. Ghent punished by deprivation of its privi- leges. 1540. The Order of Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola (1534), approved by Pope Paul III., successfully opposed the spread of the Reformation. 1541. Reformation introduced into Geneva by Calvin (Jean Cau- vin, from Noyon in Picardy; born 1509; Catholic pastor in his eighteenth year, resigned his office ; studied law at Orleans and Bourges ; came forward as a reformer at Paris in 1532, finding pro- tection from Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I. Exiled from France, Calvin went to Basel, published the Institutio christianm relig- umis 1535 ; 1536-1538 in Geneva ; 1538-1541 in Strasburg, after- wards head of the state in Geneva, f 1564). From Geneva the Reformation spread to France and Scotland (John Knox). 1541. Charles's unsuccessful expedition against Algiers. 1542. Henry, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, driven from the country by the Schmalkaldic League. 1542-1544. Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., occa^ sioned by the investiture of Charles's son, Philip, with Milan. The fact that two secret agents, whom Francis had sent to Soliman, were captured in Milan, and when they resisted, put to death, served as a pretext. A. D. Germany. — Beformntion. 305 Francis in alliance with Soliman and the duke of Cleve. The allied Turkish and French fleets bombarded and plundered Nice. Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII. of England, conquered the duke of Cleve, and advanced as far as Soissotis. Soliman invaded Hungary and Austria. 1544. Peace of Crespy ; Francis' second son, the duke of Orleans, Sept. 18. was to marry a princess of the imperial family and receive MUan. He died in 1545, however ; Milan continued in the possession of the emperor, who gave it, nominally, to his son Philip, as a flef . Francis gave up his claims to Naples, and the overlordship of Flanders and Artois; Charles renounced his claims to Burgundy. 1545-1563. Council of Trent, not attended by the Protestants. Reforms in the church. Establishment of a number of dog- mas of the Catholic church. 1546, Feb. 18. Death of Luther at Eisleben. Charles V., who, since the peace of Crespy, was unhindered by foreign complications, sought to crush the independence of the estates of the empire in Germany, and to restore the unity of the clmrch, to which he was urged by the Pope, who concluded an alli- ance with him, and promised money and troops. 1546-1547. Schmalkaldio War. The leaders of the league of Schmalkalden, John Frederic, elector of Saxony, and Philip, landgrave of Hesse, placed under the ban. Duke Maurice of Saxony concluded a secret alliance with the emperor. Irresolute conduct of the war by the allies in upper Ger- many. The elector and the landgrave could not be induced by gen- eral Schartlin of Augsburg to make a decisive attack, and Anally re- tired, each to his own land. John Frederic of Saxony reconquered his electorate, which Maurice had occupied. Charles V. first reduced the members of the league in southern Germany (Augsburg, Nurem- berg, Ulm, duke of WUrtemberg, etc.) to subjection, then went to Saxony, forced the passage of the Elbe, and defeated in the 1547. Battle of Mahlberg, on the Lochau Heath, near Torgau the 24 April, elector of Saxony, captured liim, and besieged his capital, Wittenberg. Treaty mediated by Joachim II. of Branden- burg. The electoral dignity and lands given to the Albertine line (duke Maurice). The Ernestine line retained Weimar, Jena, Ehenach, Gotha, etc. The elector was kept in captivity. Philip of Hesse surrendered, and was detained in captivity, although Maurice and Joachim II. of Brandenburg had pledged themselves for his liberation. Interim of Augsburg (1548), not generally accepted by the Protestants. The city of Magdeburg, the centre of the opposition, placed under the ban. Maurice of Saxony, intrusted with the exe- cution of the decree, armed himself in secret against Charles V., and 1552. Surprised the emperor, after the conclusion of the treaty of Friedevialde (1551) with Henry II. of France, and forced him to liberate his father-in-law, Philip of Hesse, and to conclude the 1552. Convention of Fassau. Free exercise of religion for the 806 Modem History. A. D. Ang. 2. adherents of the confession of Augsburg until the next diet. Maurice defeated Albert, margrave of Brandenburg-Culmbach at Sievershaitsen (1553), but was mortally wounded. 1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg. Sept. 25. The territorial princes and the free cities, who, at this date, acknowledged the confession of Augsburg, received freedom of wor- ship, the right to introduce the reformation within their territories (/ms reformandi), and equal rights with the Catholic estates. No agreement reached as regarded the Ecclesiastical Reservation that bishops and abbots who became Protestant should lose their offices and incomes ; but this provision was inserted by imperial decree. This peace secured no privileges for the reformed religion (Genevan). 1552-1556. War between Charles V. and Henry H., who, as the ally of Maurice, had seized Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Charles besieged Metz, which was successfully defended by Francis of Guise. The truce of Vaucelles left France, provisionally, in possession 'of the cities which had been occupied. 1556' Abdication of Charles V. in Brussels (Oct. 25, 1555, and Jan. 15, 1556). The crown of Spain with the colonies, Naples, Milan, Franche- Comte, and the Netherlands, went to his son PhUip; the imperial office and the Hapsburg lands to his brother Ferdinand I. (p. 302, 303). Charles lived in the monastery of St. Just as a private individual, but not as a monk, and died there in 1558. 1556-1564. Ferdinand I., husband of Anna, sister of Louis II., king of Bohemia and Hungary, after whose death he was elected king of these countries by their estates. Constant warfare over the latter country, which he was obliged to abandon, in great part, to the Turks. His son, 1564-1576. Maximilian II., was of a mild disposition and favorably inclined to the Protes- tants, whom he left undisturbed in the free exercise of their religion. War with Zapolya, prince of Transylvania, and the Turks. Sultan SoUman II. died in camp before Sigeth, which was defended by the heroic Zriny. By the truce with Selim II. (1566) each party retained its possessions. The imperial knight, Grumhach, who had broken the public peace by a feud with the bishop of Wiirzburg, had plundered the city of Wiirzburg (1563), and had been protected by John Fred- eric, duke of Saxony, was placed under the ban, and after the cap- ture of Golha, cruelly executed (1567). The duke was kept in strict conflnemeut in Austria until his death. Reaction against Protestantism. Anti-Reformation. 1676-1612. Rudolf II., son of the Emperor Maximilian II., a learned man, an astrologer and astronomer {^Kepler, f 1630t IL. Jf. Germany. 307 §-|3 c 5 BOCD O O ^ I Si 53 » ss BS 2,0 'T^W = 2; §1- ^< « r+ 3 W -^ -is? i.E- £:|-p.gB CD ►-■ — ^ .Bg3 W C3 Wo-' O c* o ftp" S o 3 a n' {> §- ^ IB ^ ^T* OS • coo g) SJ ra CO O W CD d o o CD !B M c 308 Modern History. A. D. was appointed imperial mathematician by him), but incapable of gov- erning. New quarrels over the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306). The imperial city of Donauworth, placed under the ban by the emperor, because a mob had disturbed a, Catholic procession, was, in spite of the prohibition of the emperor, retained by Maximilian of Bavaria, who had executed the ban (1607). These troubles led to the forma- tion of a 1608. Protestant Union (leader, Frederic IV., elector Palatine), which was opposed by the 1609. Catholic League (leader, Maximilian, duke of Bavaria). Both princes were of the house of Wittelsbach. Rudolf, from whom his brother, Matthias, had forced tiie cession of Hungary, Moravia, and Austria, hoping to conciliate the Bohe- mians gave them the 1609. Royal Charter (Majestatsbrief), which permitted a free exer- cise of religion to the three estates of lords, knights, and royal cities. 1609. Beginning of the quarrel about the succession of JUlich-Cleoe on the death of John William, duke of Cleve. The elector of Brandenburg and the prince of Neuhurg were the principal claimants. Kudolf, toward the close of his life, was forced by Matthias to ab- dicate the government of Bohemia. 1612-1619. Matthias, being childless, and having obtained the renunciation of his brothers, secured for his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria, Carin- thia, and Carniola, who had been educated by the Jesuits in strict Catholicism, the succession in Bohemia and Hungary, in spite of the objections of the Protestant estates. § 4. THE THIKTY YEARS' WAB. 1618-1648. The Thirty Years' War is generally divided into four periods, which were properly as many different wars. The first two, the Bo- hemian and the Danish, had a predominant religious character ; they developed from the revolt in Bohemia to a general attack by Catholic Europe upon Protestant Europe. The latter two, the Swedish and Swedish-French, were political wars ; wars against the power of the house of Hapsburg, and wars of conquest on the part of Sweden and France upon German soil. 1. Period of war in Bohemia and the County Palatine. (1618-1623.) Occasion : Closing of a Utraquist ^ church in the territory of the abbot of Braunau, and destruction of another in a city of the arch- bishop of Prague, that is, in the territory of ecclesiastical estates, which 1 Utraquist, that is, favoring communion in both kinds. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Tears' War. 309 according to the view of the Protestants ought to be regarded as royal estates, in accordance with the Bohemian constitution.! The irri- tation of the Bohemian Protestants (Utraquists) was increased by the transference of the administration of the country to ten governors, seven of whom were Catholics. Meeting of the defensors, and revolt in Prague, headed by count Matthias of Thum. The governors, Mar- tinilz and Slawata, and the secretary, Fabriciits, thrown from a win- dow in the palace of Prague, seventy feet into the ditch, but escaped with their lives (May 23, 1618). Thirty directors appointed by the rebels. The Protestant Union sent count Mansfeld to the aid of the Bohemians. Prom Silesia and Lusatia came troops under mar- grave John George of Jagemdorf. The imperial forces were defeated by Mansfeld and count Thurn. The emperor Matthias died 1619. Count Thurn marched upon Vienna. The Austrian estates, for the most part Protestants, threatened to join the Bohemians, and made rough demands upon Ferdinand, who, by his courage and the arrival of a few troops, was rescued from a dangerous situation. Thurn, who arrived before Vienna shortly afterwards, was soon obliged to retire by an unfavorable turn of the war in Bohemia. " Ferdinand went to Frankfort, where he was elected emperor by the other six electors. 1619-1637. Ferdinand II. Meantime the Bohemians had deposed him from the throne of Bohemia and elected the young Frederic V., elector palatine, the head of the Union and of the German Calvinists, son-in-law of James I., king of England. (" The Winter King "), Count Thurn, for the second time before Vienna, allied with Beth- len Gahor, prince of Transylvania (Nov. 1619). Cold, want, and an inroad of an imperial partisan in Hungary, caused a retreat. Ferdinand leagued himself with Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, head of the Catholic League, the friend of his youth, who helped him sub- due the Austrian estates, with Spain (Spinola invaded the county palatine; treaty of Ulm, July 3, 1620; neutrality of the Union se- cured^, and with the Lutheran elector of Saxony, who re-subjugated Lusatia and Silesia. Maximilian of Bavaria, with the army of the League commanded by Tilly, marched to Bohemia and joined the imperial general Buquoy. They were victorious in the 1620. Nov. 8. Battle on the White Hill ever the troops of Frederic V., under the command of Chris- tian of Anhalt. Frederic was put under the ban, and his lands confis- cated ; he himself fled to Holland. Christian of Anhalt and John George of Brandenburg-Jiigerndorf, also put under the ban. Sub- jugation of the Bohemians, destruction of the Royal Charter, ex- ecution of the leading rebels, extirpation of Protestantism in Bohemia. Afterwards, violent anti-reformation in Austria, and, with less vio- lence, in SUesia. Dissolution of the Protestant Union and transfer of the seat of war 1 Cf. Oindely, Gesch. d. dreisdgjakr. Knegs, vol. i. (1869), chap. 2. * Gindely, ii. (1878), chap. 2. 310 Modern History. A. D. to the palatinate, which was conquered in execution of the baa by Maximilian's general, Tilly (Jan Tzerklas, baron of Tilly, bom 1559, in the Walloon Brabant), with the help of Spanish troops under Spinola. Tilly, defeated at Wiesloch by Mansfdd (April, 1622), de- feated the margrave of Baden-Durlach at Wimpfen (May), and Christian of Brunswick, brother of the reigning duke and administra- tor of the bishopric of Halberstadt, at Hochst (June, 1622), and again at Stadtlohn in Westphalia (1623). 1623. Maximilian teoeived the electoral vote belonging to Frederic V. and the Upper Palatinate ; Saxony obtained Lusatia for the present in pledge. 2. Danish Period. Seat of War in Lcwer Saxony. 1625-1629. Christian IV., king of Denmark and duke of Holstein, was the head of the Lower Saxon Circle, and the leader of the Protestants. Albert of Wallenstein (Waldstein, born 1583, in Bohemia, of an utraquist family, but educated in the Catholic faith, 1617 count, 1623 prince of the empire, 1624 duke of Friedland) became the imperial commander of an army, recruited by himself, which was to be provi- sioned by a system of robbery. Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld at the Bridge of Dessau (1626), pursued him through Silesia to Hungary, where Mansfeld joined Bethlen Gabor. Mansfeld died in Dalmatia (Nov., 1626). Christian of Brunswick had died in June of the same year. Tilly defeated Christian IV. at Luther am Barenberge, in Bruns- wick (Aug., 1626). Tilly and Wallenstein conquered Holstein (1627). Wallenstein alone conquered ScUeswig and Jutland, drove the dukes of Mecklenburg from the country, forced the duke of Pommerania to submission, but besieged Stralsund (1628) in vain, the citizens de- fending themselves heroically for ten weeks. 1629. Peace of Lubeck May 22. between the emperor and Christian IV. The latter re- ceived his lands back, but promised not to interfere in German afEairs, and abandoned his allies. The dukes of Mecklenburg put un- der the ban. Wallenstein invested with their lands. 1629, March 29. Edict of Restitution: 1. Agreeably to the ecclesias- tical reservation (p. 306), all ecclesiastical estates which had been confiscated since the convention of Passau should be restored. This affected two archbishoprics: Magdeburg and Bremen ; twelve bis- hoprics: Minden, Verden, Halberstadt, Lubeck, Ratzeburg, Meissen, Merseburg, Naumburg (the latter three were, however, left in the pos- session of the elector of Saxony), Brandenburg, Havelberg, Zebus and Camin, besides very many (about 120) monasteries and foundations. 2. Only the adherents of the Augsburg confession were to have free exercise of religion ; all other " sects " were to be broken up. Be- ginning of a merciless execution of the edict by Wallenstein's troops and those of the League. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Tears' War. 311 1630. Blectoral Assembly at Regensburg (Ratisbon). The party of Bavaria aud the League was hostile to Wallen- stein and took up a position of determined opposition to the too pow- erful general. An excuse was found m the loud and well founded complaints of all estates of the empire, particularly the Catholics, over the terrible extortion and cruelty practiced by Wallenstein's army. The emperor consented to decree the dismissal of the general and a large part of the army. 1627-1631. War of succession over Mantua by the houses of Nevers and GuastaUa. The former, supported by France (Richelieu himself took the field) obtained the duchy in the peace of Cherasco (April 6) although the imperial forces had been victorious and cap- tured Mantua. 3. Swedish Period (1630-1635). 1630. Giistavus II., Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed on July, the coast of Pomerania. Object and grounds of his interference : protection of the oppressed Protestants ; restoration of the dukes of Mecklenburg, his relatives ; the rejection of his mediation at the peace of LUbeck ; anxiety in regard to the maritime plans of the emperor. Political position of Sweden : Finland, Ingermannland, Esthonia, Livonia, belonged to the kingdom of Gustavus ; Curland was under Swedish influence. An ambitious monarch might easily dream of the acquisition of Prussia and Pomerania, which would have almost made the Baltic a Swedish sea. Gustavus concluded a subsidy treaty with France (Richelieu). Gustavus Adolphus drove the imperial forces from Pomerania and marched up the Oder, where Tilly came against him (1631). The king went to Mecklenburg. Tilly retired to the Elbe, and laid siege to Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus captured Frankfort on the Oder. Negotiations with his brother-in-law, George William, elector of Bran- denburg (1619-1640), who was under the influence of Schwarzenberg. Spandau was at last surrendered to him. Negotiations in regard to the surrender of Wittenberg, with Saxony, which endeavored to main- tain the position of a third, mediatory, party in the empire, a sort of armed neutrality (diet of princes at Leipzig, 1631), aud was with difficulty brought to form an alliance with an enemy of the empire. Meanwhile 1631. Capture of Magdeburg by Tilly. The storm was conducted May 20. by Pappenheim. Terrible massacre and sack of the city by the unbridled soldiery of Tilly, who did what he could to check the outrages. Fire broke out suddenly in many places far removed from one another, and the whole city with the exception of the cathe- dral was consumed (Not by Tilly's command).'' Tilly took possession of Halle, Eisleben, Merseburg, and other cities ^ Probably the fire was set by previous agreement of the more determined portion of tlie defenders (Falkenberg). Cf. Wittioh, Magdeburg, Guatav Adolf u. TiUy, vol. ii. 1874. 312 Modern History. A. d. and burned them. John George, elector of Saxony, formed an alli- ance with Gustavns Adqlphus, who crossed the Elbe at Wittenberg. Leipzig occupied by Tilly. The imperial army and that of the Swedes and Saxons, each about 40,000 strong, were face to face. 1631. Battle of Leipzig or Breitenfeld. Sept. 17. The Saxons were at first put to rout by Tilly, but after a bloody fight Gustavus Adolphus won a brilliant victory. The Saxons entered Bohemia. Gustavus crossed Thuringia and Franoonia to the Rhine by way of Erfurt, Wiirzhurg, Hanau, Frank- fort, Darmstadt, crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim, and occupied Mainz. Winter quarters. Meantime Prague was captured by the Saxons under Amim (Boyt~ zenhurg), a former subordinate of Wallenstein. The emperor held fruitless negotiations with the Saxons. At the urgent request of Ferdinand, Wallenstein collected an army, over which he received uncontrolled command. He recaptured Prague, and drove the Saxons from Bohemia. Their eagerness for the war and the Swedish alliance was already chilled. 1632. Gustavus advanced to the Danube by way of Nuremberg to meet Tilly. Conflict at Rain, near the confluence of the Lenz and the Danube. Tilly, mortally wounded, died at Ingolstadt. He was seventy-three years old. Gustavus went to Augsburg, vainly besieged Maximilian in Ingol- stadt, but forced Munich to surrender. Wallenstein summoned to the assistance of Maximilian. 1632. Fortified camp near Nuremberg. July-Sept. (Burgstall). Gustavus and Wallenstein face to face for eleven weeks. Wallenstein declined battle. Reinforced by Bemhard of Saxe- Weimar, the Swedes attacked Wallenstein's in- trenchmeuts, but were repulsed with heavy loss. Gustavus advanced to the Danube. Wallenstein turned upon Saxony, now defenseless, Arnim having marched through Lusatia to Silesia with the Saxon and Brandenburg troops. Terrible ravages committed by the bauds of Wallenstein. At the call of the elector of Saxony, Gustavus hastened back by way of Kitzingen and Schweinfurt, joined Bem- hard of Saxe-Weimar in Amstadt, marched upon Naumburg, and hearing that Wallenstein had dispatched Pappenheim from I eipzig to the Rhine, attacked the imperial forces (18,000 against 20,000 Swedes). 1632. Battle of Liitzen. Death of Gustavus Adol- phus/ Nov. 16. Pappenheim, recalled in haste, took part in the battle with his cavalry, after three o'clock ; he was mortally wounded. The victory of the Swedes was completed by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. Bemhard, Gustavus Horn, and Baner took command of the Swedish forces. The conduct of foreign affairs was assumed by the Swedish 1 The suspicion that the king was murdered by Francis Albert, duke of Lau- enburg, is totally unfounded. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Tears' War. 313 chancellor, Azel Ozenstierna (bom 1583, councillor since 1609). League of Heilbronn between the cii-cles of Swabia, Franconia, Upper and Lower Rhine, on the one part, and Sweden on the other. 1633. Expedition of Bemhard of Saxe-Weimar to Franconia. He took Bamberg and Hdchstadt, drove back the Bavarians under Aldringer, and joined iieldmarshal Horn. Bernhard received from the chancellor the investiture, with the bishoprics of Wurzburg and Bamberg, under the name of the Duchy of Franconia, and occupied the upper Palatinate. Feb. After Wallenstein had tried and punished with death many of his ofQcers in Prague, and had flUed their places with new recruits, he marched to SUesia, fought with the Saxon, Brandenburg, and Swedish troops, and negotiated frequently with Arnim. Nego- tiations with Oxenstierna. Oct. Capture of a Swedish corps at Steinau-on-ihe-Oder. Wallenstein invaded Brandenburg, sending raiders as far as Berlin, and then plundered Lusatia. Nov, Regensburg (Ratisbon) captured by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. Wallenstein found himself unable to go to the assistance of the elector of Bavaria, as the emperor urged, and went into winter quarters in Bohemia. Growing estrangement between Wallenstein and the imperial court. The Spanish party and the league wished him removed from his com- mand. Wallenstein conducted secret negotiations with the Saxons, the Swedes, the French. He intended to create, with the help of the army (declaration of the generals Piccolomini, Gallas, and Aldringer, at PUseri), an independent position for himself, whence he could, with the aid of the two north German electors, liberate the emperor from the control of the Spanish party, and, if necessary, compel him to make peace and reorganize the internal affairs of the empire (on the basis of a religious peace?). He had resolved upon open revolt if the hostile party continued in power. Whether he harbored a wish for the crown of Bohemia, along with other fantastic plans, it is hard to decide. The court of Vienna succeeded in detaching the principal generals (Piccolomini, Gallas, Aldringer, Marradas, Colloredd) from his cause, llow, Trzka, Kinski, remained faithful. 1634. Imperial proclamation : " Friedland was concerned in a con- Jan. 24. spiracy to rob the emperor of his crown." The chief officers of the army commanded to no longer obey him. Feb. 18. Secondproelamation, formally deposing Wallenstein. On the 24th Wallenstein went to Eger, where he was to he met by Bemhard of Saxe-Weimar, and Arnim. There occurred the Feb. 25. Assassination of Wallenstein by captain Devereux, at the instigation of the Irish general, Butler, after his intimate friends had been treacherously massacred. The emperor had not commanded the murder, nor had he definitely desired it ; but he had given rein to the party which he knew wished " to bring in Wallenstein, alive or dead," and, after the deed was done, he rewarded the murderers with honor and riches. 1634. Victory of the imperialists under Ferdinand, the emperor's son, and Gallas and the Bavarians (John of Werth), over the Swedes at NdrcUingen. 314 Modem History. A. d. 1635. Peace of Prague, May 30. between the emperor and the elector of Saxony. 1. The elector received Lusatia permanently, and the archbishopric of Magdeburg for his second son, August, for fife. 2. Those ecclesiastical estates, not held immediately of the emperor, which had been confis- cated before the convention of Passau (p. 305), should remain to the possessor forever ; all others should remain for forty years (from 1627), and in case no further understanding was rea^shed before the expiration of that period, forever, in the condition in which they were on Nov. 12, 1627. 3. Amnesty, except for participants in the dis- turbances in Bohemia and the Palatinate ; common cause to be made against Sweden. The Lutherans alone to be allowed freedom of wor- smp. Brandenburg and the majority of the other Protestant estates accepted the peace. 4. Swedish-French period (1635-1648). The policy of Sweden was determined by Oxenstiema, that of France by Richelieu (f 1642), and afterwards by Mazarin. France fought at first in the person of Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar only, with whom subsidy-treaties had been concluded, and who was trying to conquer himself a new state in Alsace, in place of the duchy of Frauoonia, which he had lost by the battle of Nordlingen. Capture of Breisach, 1638. After his death (1639) France took control of his army. 1636. Victory of the Swedes under Baner at Wittstook over the imperialists and the Saxons. Death of Ferdinand II. His son, 1637-1657. Ferdinand III., was desirous of peace. The ducal house of Pomerania became extinct (1637). After the. death of Baner (1641) Torstensou became commander- in-chief of the Swedes. 1640. Death of George William. Frederic William, elector of Brandenburg. (The great elector, 1640-1688). 1641. Discussion of the preliminaries of peace in Hamburg. A con- gress agreed upon. 1642. Second Battle of Leipzig (Breitenfeld). Torstenson defeated the imperialists under Piccolomini. Torstenson threatened the hereditary estates of the emperor. These Swedish successes aroused the envy of Christian IV. of Denmark. Hence 1643-1645. War between Denmark and Sweden. 1643. Torstenson hastened by forced marches through Silesia, Sax- Sept, ony, Brunswick, to the north, conquered Holstein and Sehles- wig, and invaded Jutland. Meanwhile the French iu South Germany, under Marshall Giidbriant, had penetrated to Rottweil (Wiirtemberg). Gudbriant fell in tattle. Shortly afterwards the French, under Hantzau, were surprised at Duttlingen by an Austro-Bavarian army under Mercy and Werth, and totally defeated. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Tears' War. S15 1643. Opening of the negotiations for peace in Osnahrikh with the Swedes j 1644 in Munster with the French. Marshal Turenne and the twenty-one-year-old prince of Bourhon, duke of Enghien, afterwards Prince of Conde, appointed commanders- in-chief of the French troops. They forced the 1644. Bavarians under Mercy to retreat. Condd captured Mann- heim, Speier, and Philippsburg. Turenne took Worms, Oppen- heim, Mainz, and Landau. Meanwhile an imperial army, under Gallas, had been sent to the aid of the Danes, who were hard pressed, both by land and by sea (by the Swedish admiral, Gustavus Wrangel). The im- 1645. perial force was repulsed by Torstenstm and KSnigsmark, pur- Jan, sued into Germany, and almost annihilated at Magdeburg. March. Brilliant victory of Torstenson over the imperialists at Jan- kau, not far from Tabor, in Bohemia, whereupon, in union with the prince of Transylvania, Rakoczy, he conquered the whole of Moravia, and advanced hard upon Vienna. May. Turenne defeated hj John of -Werth at Mergentheim, ia Fran- conia. Aug. Turenne, at the head of the French and Hessians, defeated the Bavarians at Allersheim. Peace between Sweden and Denmark at Bromsebro (p. 352). After a futile siege of Briinn, the plague having broken out in his army, Torstenson returned to Bohemia. He resigned his commiand on account of illness, and was succeeded by Wrangel. 1646. Wrangel left Bohemia, united to his own force the Swedish troops under KSnigsmark in Westphalia, and joined Turenne at Giessen. Swedes and French invaded Bavaria and forced the elector Maximilian to conclude the 1647. Truce of Ulm, and to renounce his alliance with the emperor, after Turenne had been recalled, from envy at the Swedish successes, and Wrangel had gone to Bohemia, Maximilian broke the truce and joined the imperialists again. 1648. Second invasion of Bavaria by the French and Swedes ; terrible ravages. A flood in the Inn prevented the further advance of the allies, who returned to the upper Palatinate. The Swedish general Kbnigsmark captured that part of Prague on the right bank of the Moldau (Kleinseite'). Terrible condition of Germany. Irreparable losses of men and wealth. Reduction of population ; increase of poverty ; retrograda- tion in all ranks. 1648. Peace of Westphalia. Oct. 24. Negotiations from 1645-1648. Imperial ambassadors, count Trautmannsdorf anA. Dr. Volmar. French, count d'Avaux and count Servien. Swedish, count Oxenstiema, son of the chancellor, and baron Salvius. France and Sweden, against the will of the emperor, secured the participation of the estates of the empire in the negotiar tiona. 316 Modern lEstory. A. D. Conditions of the Feaoe.^ A. Indemnifications. 1. Sweden received as a fief of the empire the whole of hither Pomerania and Riigen with a part of farther Pomerania (Stettin, Garz, Damm, Gollnow, Wollin, and Usedom), the city of Wismar, formerly belonging to Mecklenburg, and the bishoprics Bremen (not the city) and Verden as secular duchies, and five million rix dollars. Sweden became a member of the diet with three votes. 2. France received without reservation of the feudal overlordship of the empire, hence with absolute sovereignty : the bishoprics and cities of Metz, Toulf and Verdun, which had been in French hands since 13S2 ; Pignerol, the city of Breisach, the landgi-avate of upper and lower Alsace, which belonged to a branch of the Austrian house, and the government of ten imperial cities in Alsace (praefeo- tura provinoialis decern civitatum imperialium), with express acknowl- edgment of their previous freedom. The other imperial estates in Alsace (particularly Strasburg) retained their immediate relation to the empire and their freedom. France also received the right of gar- risoning PhUippsburg. 3. Hesse-Cassel : abbey of Hersfeld, Sehaumburg, the fiefs of the foundation of Minden, and 600,000 rix dollars. 4. Brandenburg : as indemnification for Pomerania which be- longed to Brandenburg by the law of inheritance, but of which it re- ceived the larger part of farther Pomerania only, the bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden, and Camin as secular principalities, the arch- bishopric of Magdeburg as a duchy, with the reservation that it should remain in possession of the administrator August of Saxony, during his life (t 1680). 5. Mecklenburg : the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg as principalities. 6. Brunswick : alternate presentation to the bishopric of Osna- briick, where a Catholic and evangelical bishop were to alternate. B. Secular Affairs of the Empire. 1. General amnesty and return to the condition of things in 1618. 2. The electoral dignity and the upper Palatinate were left in the hands of the Wilhelmian line (Bavaria) of the house of Wittels- bach, while a new electorate (the eighth) was created for the Eu^ dolfian line (Palatinate). 3. The territorial superiority (LandeshoheiC) of the whole body of estates, as regarded their relation to the emperor, was recognized, which involved the right of concluding alliances with one another and with foreign powers, if they were not directed against empire or emperor. (Afterwards, since 1663, the standing diet at Regensburg developed the German constitution more in detail.) 4. The republics of the United Netherlands and of Switzerland were recognized as independent of the empire (p. 247). 1 E. F. Eichhorn, Deutsche Staats- u. Rechtsgeechichte, iv. § 522 foil. A. D. Germ/any. — Thirty Years' War. 317 C. Ecclesiastical Affairs (Gravamina ecclesiastica). 1. The Convention of Passau and the Peace of Augsburg (p. 305) were approved and extended so as to include the Calvinists. 2. Catholic and Protestant estates were to be on an entire equality in all affairs of the empire. 3. January 1, 1624, was adopted as the norm (annus normalis) by which questions of ownership of ecclesiastical estates and exercise of reUgion should be settled. As things were upon that date, so they were to remain forever ; that is, the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306) was acknowledged to be binding for the future. The subjugated Pro- testants in Austria and Bohemia obtained no rights by the peace, but those evangelical states which had been gained by the anti-reformation during the war (the Lower Palatinate, Wurtemberg, Baden, etc.) were allowed to resume the exercise of that religion which had been theirs in 1618. The jus reformandi, the privilege of deciding by flat the re- ligion of those subjects to whom the year 1628 did not secure free ex- ercise of religion, was retained for the future by the territorial lords. The right of emigration was, however, reserved to the subjects in such cases. The imperial court (Reichskammergericht) was restored, and its members were to be equally divided between Protestants and Catholics. France and Sweden guaranteed the peace. (See p. 371.) 318 Modern History. A. D. § 5. FRANCE. (Seep. S6S.) 1498-1589. Houses of Orleans and AngoulSme. Branch line of the house of Valois (since 1328, p. 257) whose relation to the main line is shown in the following genealogical table : Charles V. (third king of the house of Valois). 1364-1380. Charles VX 1380-1422. Charles VII. 1422-1461. liouis XI. 1461-1483. Charles VHI. m. Anna of Brit- tany. 1483-1498. died without male issue. Charles, duke of Orleans. 1 1467. Louis, duke of Orleans, t 1407. m. Valentine Visconti. I Iiouia XII. 1498-1516. m. (2) Anna of Brittany, died without male issue. John, count of AngoulSme. f 1467. Charles, count of AngoulSme. t 1496. m. Louise of Sayoy. Claudia = Henry H. 1547-1559. m. Catharine of Medici. (2) Francis I. 1516-1647. I Francis II. 1569-1560 m. Mary Stuart. Elizabeth m. Philip II. king of Spain. Charles IX. 1660-1574. I Henry III, 1574-1589. duke of Anjon ; king of Poland. Francis, duke of Alenfon and Anjou, 1 1584. Margaret m. Henry IV. see p. 323. 1498-1515. Louis XII. obtained a divorce from Joanna, daughter of Louis XI., and married Anna of Brittany, widow of Charles VIII., in order to keep this duchy for the crown ; as grandson of Valentina Visconti he laid claim to MUan, drove out Ludovico Mora, who was imprisoned when he ventured to return to Milan (1500). 1501. Louis XII. in alliance with Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Ar- agon, conquered the kingdom of Naples. The Spaniards and French soon falling out, the latter were defeated by the Spanish general Gonzalvo de Cordova on the Garigliano (1504). Louis XII. gave up his claims to Naples. 1508. Louis a party in the League of Cambray, p. 300. In 1511 the Pope, Ferdinand the Catholic, and Venice, concluded the Holy League, with the object of driving the French out of Italy. The lat- v. D. France. 319 ter, under the young Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, nephew of Louis XII., were at first successful in the war, taking Brescia (1512) by storm (Bayard, " without reproach or fear "), and defeating the united Spanish and Papal armies at Ravenna, with the aid of 5000 German mercenaries, in the same year ; they were, however, compelled by the Swiss to evacuate Milan. In 1513 the French formed a new alliance with Venice, but were defeated by the Swiss at Novara and withdrew from Italy. Henry VIII. of England, who had joined the Holy League in 1512, and the emperor Maximilian who had joined in 1513, invaded France, and defeated the French at 1513. Cruinegate, called the " Battle of the Spurs " from the hasty Aug. 17. flight of the French. France concluded peace with the Pope, with Spain (1613), with the emperor, and with Henry VIII. (1514). Anna of Brittany having died, Louis took, as his third wife, Mary the sister of Henry VIII. He died soon after the marriage (Jan. 1, 1515). He was succeeded by his cousin, the Count of Angouleme, who had married Clavdia, daughter of Louis XII. and Anna, hence heiress of Brittany, which, however, was not actually incorporated with France until 1598. As king the count of Angouleme is known as 1515-1547. Francis I. Courageous, fond of display, dis- solute. 1515. He reconquered Milan by the brilliant victory of Marignano Sept. 13-14. over the Swiss, who fought most bravely. Peace and alliance between France and Switzerland. Treaty of Geneva (Nov. 7, 1515) ; treaty of Pribourg (Nov. 29, 1516). The lat- ter (la paix perpetuelle) endured till the French Revolution. 1516. Increase of the royal power by a Concordat with the Pope which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 and placed the choice of bishops and abbots in the hands of the king ; the Pope on the other hand received the annates, or the first year's revenue of every ecclesiastical domain where the king's right of presentation was exercised. Francis also abandoned the principle of the Council of Basle, that the Pope was subordinate to an cecumenical council. 1520. Meeting of Francis and Henry VIII. of England in the neigh- borhood of Calais. " Field of the Cloth of Gold." The wars of Francis with Charles V. (p. 302, etc.) occupied the rest of Francis' reign. Restrictions upon the political rights of the Parliaments. Cultivation of literature and the arts. Rabelais (1483-1553). Perse- cutions of the Protestants. Francis died March 31, 1547. He was succeeded by his son 154T-1569. Henry XL Growing power of the house of Guise {Fronds, duke of Guise and Charles, " Cardinal of Lorraine "). 320 Modem History. A. a HOUSE OF LORRAINE AND GUISE. Een^ le Bon, d. of Anjou and titular king of Naples and Sicily, m. Isabella, d. of Lorrame. I Margaret, ra. Henry TI., k. of England. John II., Yolande, d. of Lor- d. of Lorraine, rame and m. Ferri II., c. of Bar. Vaudemont, Guise, etc. I. Nicolas, . of Lorraine and Bar. t 1473. no male issue. Antoine, d. of Lorraine and Bar. t 1544. Een^ II., d. of Lorraine and Bar, c. of Vaudemont, Guise, etc. t 1608. I Francis L, d. of Lorraine and Bar. I Francis, d. of Guise, mur- dered 1S63. Charles, Card, of Lorraine. Claude I., c. of Aumale, d. of Guise (1527). Claude, d. of Aumale. Louis, Mary, m. Card, of James V. Guise, of Scot- land. Mary, queen of Scots. Charles H., d. of Henry, d. Charles, d. of Louis, Cardinal Lorraine and Bar. of Guise. Mayenne. of Guise. t 1608. t 1888. t 1588. Henry's mistress, Diana of Poitiers, duchess of Valentinois, ruled him almost absolutely. Montmorency, constable. Persecution of the Protestants in France ; assistance to German Protestants. 1547. Final union of Brittany -with the French crown. DESCENT OF BRITTANY. Francis II., d. of Brittany, t 1488. Charles Vni. = (i) Anne (2) = Louis xn., k. of France. k. of France. I Claude = Francis I. I Francis the dauphin. t 1536, without male issue. Heniy II., k. of France. A. D. France. 321 1552. "War with Charles V. (p. 306.) Seizure of the three bishop- rics, Tout, Metz, Verdun. 1556-1559. War -with Philip II. of Spain. The French defeated by the Spaniards with the aid of the EngUsh at 1557. St. Quentin (on the Sonune), and by count Egmont at Grave- lines (1558). 1558. Calais and Guines, the last English possessions in France, Jan. captured by Francis, duke of Guise. 1559. Peace of Cateav^Camhresis : the French restored all their con- April, quests except Calais and the three bishoprics {Metz, Tool and Verdun). Henry II., who died of a wound received in a tourney, was succeeded by his three weak sons. 1559-1560. Francis II. (sixteen years old), the first husband of Mary Stuart of Scotland, a niece of the Guises. Persecution of the Protestants (chambres ardentes). Cruel executions. The king's mother, Catharine de' Medici, struggled for power and influence against the Bourbon princes, Anton (king of Na- varre) and Louis of Conde, descended from Louis IX. The Guises, at first rivals of the queen and then in alliance with her, conducted all affairs of state and surpassed in influence their opponents, the Catholic constable Montmorency, and his nephews, the three brothers ChaiUlon : Gaspard, admiral de Coligny (1517-1572), Francois d'Andelot, Cardi- nal Chatillon, afterwards leaders of the Huguenots. De I'Hopital, chancellor. Conspiracy of Amhoise (La Renaudie) against the Guises defeated (1560). Death of Francis II. 1560-1574. Charles IX., ten years old, under the influence of his mother, Catha^- rine de' Medici. 1562-1598. Wars of the Huguenots.* Cruel persecutions compelled the Huguenots to take up arms. At the same time they became apolitical party opposed to the Catho- lic ^art^. The wars of the Huguenots were therefore not simply religious wars, but also political civil wars, in which the leaders of hoth parties were endeavoring to take advantage of the weakness of the king and get control of the government. The first three wars form properly one war, interrupted by truces called peaces (Amboise, 1563, Longjumeau, 1568, St. Germain, 1570), which were without result. The conditional freedom of religious worship permitted the Hugue- nots was to be guaranteed by the surrender to them for two years, of the four strong towns La Rochelle, Cognac, Montauban, La Charitd. 1572. Night of St. Bartholomew. Aug. 23-24. Murder of admiral Coligny and general massacre of Hu- guenots, under the conduct of Henry of Guise and Tavannes, on the occasion of the marriage of Henry of Bourbon, king of 1 Huguenots is said to be a nickname derived from King ffugOj a spectre which, in the belief of the people, nightly haunted the streets of Paris; whence the Protestants, from their nocturnal gatherinKs, were called Huguenots. Others derive the name from a corruption of Eidgenoeten, confederates. ai 32^ Modern History. A. D- Navarre (son of Anton, king of Navarre) with the sister of Charles IX., Margaret of Valois. Henry of Navarre saved his life by a pre- tended conversion to Catholicism. Over 3,000 Huguenots were slain in the capital, in the whole of France about 30,000. This bloody deed led to the 1572-1573. Fourth Civil "War. La Rochelle, besieged by Henry, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., made a brave defense. The election of the duke of Anjou to the crown of Poland brought about a compromise. Edict of Boulogne (July 8, 1573) ended the war favorably to the Huguenots. Charles IX. died May 30, 1574. His brother, who fled from Po- land, became king. 1574-1589. Henry III., a debauched wealding. The fifth civil war, during which Henry of Navarre re-as- sumed the Protestant faith, was concluded (1576) by conditions more favorable to the Huguenots than those of any previous peace. Peace of Chastenoy ( Paix de Monsieur, after the duke of Alen9on) May 6, 1576. Hence dissatisfaction among the Catholics. Origin of the Holy League (1576) which in alliance with Philip II. of Spain purposed the annihilation of the reformed party, and the elevation of the Guises to the throne. The king, out of fear of the League pro- claimed himself its head and forbade the exercise of the Protestant religion throughout France. The Protestants and moderate Catho- lics had joined forces in 1575 by the confederation of Milhaud (po- litique-Huguenot). Sixth Civil War, wherein the Huguenots were defeated, but ob- tained favorable terms at the peace of Bergerac (or Poitiers, Sept. 17, 1577), as the king was unwilling to let the League become too powerful. In spite of the renewal of the treaty of peace, not one of its articles was executed. This caused the Seventh Civil ^War {La guerre des amoureux) (1580), which was ended in the same year by the treaty of Fleix (near St. Foy), Nov. 26, in which the conditions granted the Huguenots in former treaties were confirmed. The death of Francis, duke of AlenQon (since the accession of Henry III., duke of Anjou), the younger brother of the king, in 1584 rendered the extinction of the house of Valois certain. As it was the intention of the League to exclude from the throne Henry of Navarre, who belonged to the reformed religion, and to give the crown to the latter's uncle, the Cardinal of Bourbon, and as the League meantime induced the king to revoke the concessions granted to the Huguenots, there broke out the 1685-1589. Eighth Civil "War called the War of the Three Henrys (Henry III. of Valois, Henry of Navarre, Henry of Guise). The Catholic party triumphed in spite of the victory of Coutras (Oct. 20, 1587), gained by Henry of Navarre. Formation of the League of Sixteen at Paris, which purposed the deposition of the weak king. Guise entered Paris, was received with ac- clamation ("ICing of Paris ") ; the timid resistance of the -king was broken by a popular insurrection (day of the Barricades, May 12, A. D. f t France. fill Ed* Lj S S p » 323 as* "M_J^ ! P. s B.S I a* P3 la Bo B VI ® o » o i^ ^1 Pa Sis ='='^ lag ?g o 5-1 gS &:*» -* -* t-"? If Is. W o a 'I -a ?* Sms' lill. B- 11-^- 2,(0 -II- P-. 5" So o3p. ff- ■ ■- gundian circle of the empire. 1516-1556, Charles L (as emperor, Charles V. p. 302). 330 Modern History. A. D, After smpresslng a revolt in Castile he founded the absolute num- orc%,the Cortes henceforth having no importance. In- America con- quest of Mexico, Peru, Chili, New Granada (p. 283, etc.). Upon his B.bdication the Spanish lands and the colonies, the Netherlands, rranche-Comte, Naples, and Milan, descended to his son 1556-1598. Philip II., who married four times :. 1. Mary of Portugal, mother of Don Carlos ; 2. Mary the Catholic, of Eng- land (p. 336); 3. Elizabeth of Valois (p. 318); 4. Anne, daughter of Maximilian II. War with France (p. 381). Bloody persecution of the Moors and the Protestants in Spain. Inquisition, autos da Je (i. e. acts of the faith). Conflict between the king and his heir, Don Carlos ; the lat- ter was arrested and died in prison (1668). Don John of Austria, a, natural son of Charles I. (V.), gained over the Turks the 1571, Oct. 7. Naval battle of Lepanto (on the Gulf of Corinth). 1568-1648. War of Liberation in the Netherlands. Cause: The provinces of the Netherlands, which fell to Spain after the abdication of Charles I., rejoiced in the possession of ancient and important privileges. The estates (Staaten, etats) granted taxes and troops. The Spanish garrison, the penal edicts against heretics, the dread of the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition, led, during the rule of the regent Margaret of Parma (1559-1567), the natural sister of king Philip II., and her adviser, bishop Oranvella, to a league of the nobles (the Compromis de Breda'), headed by Philip Marnix of St. Aldegonde. Presentation of a petition by 300 nobles ( Gfueux, Beggars, a party name, originating in the contemptuous exclamation of the ■ tount of Bariaimont : Ce n'est gu'un tas de gueux"). Insurrection of ihe lower classes. Destruction of images, and sack of the churches. These disturbances were opposed by Lamoral, count of Egmont (b. 1522, fought under Charles v. in Algiers, Germany, France ; led the cavalry at St. Quentin, and Gravelines, 1558 ; appointed governor of Flanders and Artois by Charles V. ; executed June 5, 1568), and William of Nassau, prince of Orange, the leaders of the higher nobil- ity in the Netherlands, who were soon no longer masters of the move- ment. Separation into a Catholic and a Protestant party. Although quiet was finally restored Philip sent the 1567. Duke of Alva with 20,000 Spaniards by way of Genoa, Savoy, and Franche Comtd to the Netherlands. William of Orange and many thousand Netherlanders left their native land. Margaret resigned her regency and left the country. Creation of the " Council of Blood." The counts of Egmont and of Hoorn and many others were executed (1568). Tlie estates of those who did not appear be- fore the tribunal were confiscated, including those of William of Orange. The latter and his brother, Louis qf Orange, invaded the Netherlands, but were repulsed by Alva. The arbitrary taxes imposed by Alva (the tenth pfennig from the price of every article sold, the one hundredth part of every income), produced a new revolt. Capture of Brille, on the mouth of the Meuse by the Water Beggars (1572). Rapid spread of the insurrection, particularly in the northern provinces. A. D. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 331 1573. Alva recalled at his own request. His successor, Luis de Re- quesens y Zuniga, gained a victory 1574. At Mookerheide, where two brothers of the prince of Orange fell, but could not suppress the revolt, and died (1576). The sack of the cities of Antwerp, Mastricht, Ghent, etc., by the royal troops brought about the 1576. Pacification of Ghent, a treaty between all the provinces, whereby they united, without regard to national or religious differences, to drive the Spanish soldiers from the country. The new governor, Don John of Austria (p. 330), was not recog- nized by tlie majority of the provinces. In spite of the new disputes which had broken out among them he was unable to quiet the country, and died, 1578. He was succeeded by Alexander Famese, duke of Farina (1578-1592), a, shrewd statesman and an excellent general. He reduced the southern Catholic provinces, which form modern Bel- gium, to submission on condition of the restoration of their old politi- cal freedom. The seven northern provinces, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland, G-roningen, Friesland, OveryEsel, cop eluded 1579. The Union of Utrecht, proclaimed their complete independence of Spain (in 1581) and settled the hereditary Statthaltership upon "Williani of Orange (the Silent, b. 1533, inherited the principality of Orange, 1544, ap- pointed commander-in-chief of the Netherlands and governor of Hol- land, Zealand and Utrecht, by Charles V., resigned his offices 1567, converted to Protestantism, elected commander-in-chief by the rebels, 1572, relieved Leyden, Oct., 1574, murdered by Balthazar Gerard, 10th July, 1584). After his murder at Delft, his son, the seventeen- year-old Maurice of Nassau, became the head of the seven provinces. Successful campaign of Alexander of Parma ; capture of Antwerp. The help furnished the Hollanders by the English {Leicester) induced Philip to fit out the Great Armada, which was destroyed by terrible storms and the bravery of the English (1588). After a long contest with changing fortunes, there was concluded under 1598-1621. PhUip III. 1609. The tvrelve years' truce, on the basis of possession at the time. Under the weak king, who was controlled by his fa/- vorites, the dukes of Lerma and Uzeda, father and son, the power and the prosperity of Spain declined, exhausted by constant war, the demoralization consequent on the discovery of America and the intro- duction of American gold, and the expulsion of 800,000 Moors, the most learned and industrious inhabitants of the peninsula. After the expiration of the truce with Holland the war was resumed until under 1621-1665. PhHipIV. The Republic of the United Provinces obtained the 1648- recognition of their independence from Spain and the empire at the Peace of Westphalia. 332 Modern History. A. D. Under Philip III. and IV. (minister OUvarez), decline of the Spanish power. Insurrection of the Catalonians, lasting twelve years. Revolt of Portugal. Portugal, under the illegitimate house of Burgundy (1385- 1680), descendants of John the Bastard (f 1433), son of Peter the Cruel, who was a descendant of Robert, duke of Burgundy, grandson of Hugh Capet. John, the Bastard, son of Pedro the Cruel. Edward. I Ferdinand. ( Smanuel. I Isabella m. John III. Lewis. Henry. Edward. Beatrice, m. Charles V. | Charles III. d. of Savoy. Philip II. = Maria. John. Tlte Prior k. of Spain. I I qf Crato. Don Carlos. Sebastian. Alfonso. Fernando^ Fernando. I James. Emarmel Tbeodosius. PJiilibert, d. of Savoy. Maria m. Alexander of Parma. Catharine = - John. Tbeodosius. John IV. Ranuccio of Parma. Kings of Portugal in heavy type. Claunants (except Philip II.) in italics. 1495-1521. Emanuel the Great. Golden age. Acquisitions in the East Indies, South America (Brazil), and Northern Africa. Under his successors, decline of the Portuguese power. Sebastian fell in the unfortunate 1578. Battle of Alkassor in Morocco. After the death of his succes- sor, Henry, 1581-1640. Portugal became a Spanish province. Four (?) false Sebastians.^ An almost bloodless revolution raised to the throne of Portugal the duke 1640. John of Braganza, as John IV. (descended through his mother from the legitimate, through his father from the illegitimate son of John the Bastard). (See pp. 390, Jj.H.') 1 After the death of Henry (1580) there were five claimants for the crown of Portugal A. D. ESngCand and Scotland. § 8. ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. (Seep. S75.) 1485-1603. House of Tudor (pp. 273, 275). 1485-1509. Henry VH. Henry's first act was to imprison the Earl of Warwick, son of the duke of Clarence. The first parliament (1485) secured the crown to Henry and his heirs. Five checks on the crown : 1. imposi- tion of new taxes and 2, the enactment of new laws without the consent of parliament prohibited ; 3. no man could be imprisoned without legal warrant ; 4. trial should be before twelve jurors in the coimty where the offense was committed, and there should be no ap- peal ; 5. officers of the crown were liable to trial for damages before a jury in case any person were injured by them, and no authority from the king could be pleaded. Violation of these checks. Rees- tablishment of the king s court (Star Chamber ? 1488), which took cognizance of forgery, perjury, fraud, libel, conspiracy, etc., gave sen- tence without the use of a jury, and inflicted fines and mutilations. 1487. The pretended earl of Warwick (Simnel) landed in England, but was defeated at Stoke (16 June, 1487), and became one of the king's scullions. 1488-1499. Attempts of Parkin Warbeck, a Fleming who person- ated the duke of Tork, to overthrow Henry. Disavowed by Charles VIII. in the peace of Estaples (Nov. 9, 1492) which ended the war in which Henry had engaged on account of the annexation of Brittany by Charles VIII. (1491), Perkin found a warm reception in Flanders from the duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. Expelled from Flanders by a provision of the commercial treaty with England (1496 Magnus intercursus), Perkin fled to Scotland, where his claim was recognized. Perkin and James IV. of Scotland in- vaded England in 1496. In 1497 a formidable insurrection broke out in Cornwall on occasion of an imposition of a tax by parliament. It was suppressed by the defeat at Blackheath (June 22, 1497), and the leaders executed (Ftammock'). Peace with Scotland (Sept. 1497). Warbeck was soon taken and imprisoned in the Tower, where ho escaped, but was recaptured. Plotting another escape with the earl of Warwick, both Perkin and Warwick were executed (1499). 1495. Statute of Drogheda (Poyning's law). 1. No Irish parliament should be held without the consent of the king of England. 2. No bill could be brought forward in an Irish parliament without his consent. 3. All recent laws enacted in the Eng- lish parliament should hold in Ireland 1502. Marriage of Henry's eldest daughter, Margaret, with James IV., king of Scotland. Henry's distinguishing characteristic was his avarice ; by various extortions (Empson, Dudley, "Morton's Fork") he accumulated a for- tune of nearly £2,000,000. During this reign occurred the discovery of the West Indies by Columbus (1492) and that of North America by the Cabots. 334 Modern History. A. D. 1509-1547. Henry VIII., of a cruel disposition and variable temperament. He was six times married : 1. Catharine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, mother of Mary the Catholic (married June 3, 1509, divorced March SO, 1533). 2. Anne Boleyn, mother of Elizabeth (married Jan. 25, 1533, beheaded May 19, 1536). 3. Jane Seymour (married May 20, 1536, died after the birth of her son Edward VI., Oct. 24, 1537). 4. Anne of Cleves (married Jan. 6, 1540, divorced June 24, 1540). 5. Catharine Howard (married Aug. 8, 1540, beheaded Feb. 12, 1542). 6. Catharine Parr, widow of lord Latimer (married July 10, 1543, outlived the king). Henry united in his person the claim of both Lancaster and York. Execution of Empson and Dudley. 1511, Henry a member of the Holy League (p. 300), received from the Pope the title of " Most Christian King." Henry having laid claim to the French crown sent troops to Spain, which were unsuccessful (1512). In 1513 the king went to France in person and with Maximilian, the emperor, won the bloodless victory of 1513, Aug. 17. Guinegate, the « Battle of the Spurs " (p. 319). 1513, Sept. 9. Battle of Flodden Field. Defeat and death of James IV. of Scotland who was allied with France. 1514, Aug. Peace with France {Tournay ceded to England, after- wards (1618) bought by France for 600,000 crowns) and with Scotland. 1515, Thomas Wolsey, the king's favorite, chancellor (b. 1471, ap- pointed almoner and dean of Lincoln by Henry VII., member of the council 1510, bishop of Tournay 1513, bishop of Lin- coln and archbishop of York 1514, cardinal and chancellor 1515, papal legate 1517, surrendered the great seal 1529, f Nov. 28, 1530). 1520, June 7. Meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France near Calais ("Field of the Cloth of Gold "). 1621. Execution of the duke of Buckingham, on a charge of high treason. Buckingham was descended from Edward III. (p. 277). 1521. Henry wrote the " Assertion of the Seven Sacraments " in re- ply to Luther, and received the title of " Defender of the Faith " from Pope Leo X. After the battle of Pavia the relations between Henry and the emperor, which had been weakened by the double failure of the em- peror to secure the promised election of Wolsey as Pope, became so strained that war seemed inevitable, and a forced loan was assessed on the kingdom, which brought in but little. In 1523 an attempt to force a grant from parliament met with no success, but a rebellion was provoked which was suppressed only by abandoning the demand. 1527. Henry, desiring to divorce his wife in order to marry Anne Boleyn, alleged the invalidity of marriage with a deceased brother's wife, and appealed to Rome. The delays of the Pope and the scruples of Wolsey enraged the king, who deprived the latter of A. D. England and Scotland. — Henry VIII. 335 the great seal and gave it to Sir Thomas More (1529). Sentence and pardon of Wolsey, who, however, diod in disgrace (1530). At the suggestion of Cranmer the question was referred to the univer- sities of England and Europe, and a number deciding in the king's favor Henry married Anne Boleyn. Henry also broke with the Church of Rome. Confiscation of the annates, followed by the res- ignation of Sir Thomas More (1532). Tlio Pope excommunicated Henry and annulled his divorce from Catharine, which Cranmer, now archbishop of Canterbury, had pro- nounced. After the birth of Elizabeth parliament confirmed the divorce, recognized Elizabeth as heir to the throne (1534), and se- cured the succession to other children of Anne in case of the death of the princess. 1534. Act of Supremacy, appointing the king and his succes- sors " Protector and only Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy of England" (1531). Refusal to take the oath of supremacy was made high treason, under which vote Sir Thomas More was condemned and beheaded (1535). Thomas Cromwell, a former servant of Wolsey, and his suc- cessor in the favor of the king, now vicegerent in matters relating to the church in England, issued a commission for the inspection of monasteries which resulted in the suppression, first of the smaller (1536), and afterwards (1539) of the larger monasteries, and the confiscation of their property. Abbots now ceased to sit in parlia^ ment. 1536. Execution of Anne Boleyn on a charge of adultery. Princess Elizabeth proclaimed illegitimate by parliament. The crown was secured to any subsequent issue of the king, or should that fail, was left to his disposal. 1536. Publication of Tyndale's translation of the Bible, by Coverdale, under authority from the king. 1536. Suppression of the Catholic rebellion of Robert Aske, aided by Reginald Pole, son of Margaret, countess of Salisbury, daughter of George, duke of Clarence. 1539. Statute of the Six Articles, defining heresy; denial of any of these positions constituted heresy : 1. Transubstantiation ; 2. Communion in one kind for laymen ; 3. Celibacy of the priesthood ; 4. Inviolability of vows of chastity ; 5. Necessity of private masses ; 6. Necessity of auricular confession. 1540. Execution of Cromwell, on a charge of treason. Cromwell had fallen under Henry's displeasure by his advocacy of the king's marriage with Anne of Cleves, with whom the king was ill pleased. 1542. Ireland made a kingdom. 1542. War with Scotland. James V. defeated at the Nov. 25. Battle of Solway Moss. James V. died shortly afterward. Henry proposed a marriage between his son, Edward, and James's infant daughter, Mary, 336 Modern History. a. d. but the Scottish court preferred aa alliance with France, whereupon Henry concluded an alliance with the emperor. 1544. Parliament recognized Mary and Elizabeth as heirs to the crown, in the event of the death of Ed-ward without issue. 1545. Invasion of France. Coin debased ; property of guilds con- fiscated. 1547. Execution of the Earl of Surrey, on charge of high treason. Henry VIII. died Jan. 28, 1547, leaving a will, wherein the crown was left to the heirs of his sister, Mary, duchess of Suffolk, in the event of failure of issue by all of his children. 1547-1553. Ed-ward VI., ten years of age ; his uncle, earl of Hertford, was appointed lord protector and duke of Somerset, and assumed the government. Kepeal of the six articles (1547). Introduction of reformed doc- trines. 1549. Execution of lord Seymovir, brother of the duke of Somerset, who wished to marry the princess Elizabeth. Establishment of uniformity of service by act of parliament ; introduction of Edward VI.'s first prayer-book (second, 1553). Fall of the protector, Somerset, who was superseded by lord Warvrick, afterwards duke of Northumberland (1550). Exe- cution of Somerset (1552). 1551. Forty-two articles of religion published by Cranmer. 1553. Edward assigned the cro-wn to Lady Jane Grey, daughter of his cousin, Frances Grey, eldest daughter of Mary, daughter of Henry VII., to the exclusion of Mary and Elizabeth, daughters of Henry VIII. Lady Jane was married to the son of the duke of Northumberland. Death of Edward VI , July 6, 1553. 1553-1558. Mary the Catholic. The proclamation of Lady Jane Grey as queen by Northumber- land meeting with no response, Northumberland, Lady Jane, and others were arrested. Execution of Northumberland (Aug. 22, 1553). Restoration of Catholic bishops. Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, author of the Six Articles, lord chancellor. 1553. Marriage treaty between Mary and Philip of Spain, son of Charles V., afterwards Philip II. Plulip was to have the title of king of England, but no hand in the government, and in case of Mary's death could not succeed her. This transaction (" The Spanish marriage ") being unpopular an insurrection broke out, headed by Sir Thomas Carew, the duke of Suffolk, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. The sup- pression of the rebellion was followed by the execution of Lady Jane Grey (Feb. 12, 1554), and her husband. Lady Jane was an ac- complished scholar (Roger Ascham) and had no desire for the crown. Imprisonment of Elizabeth who was soon released on the intercession of the emperor. 1554, Jidy 25. Marriage of Mary and Philip. 1565. Cruel persecution of the Protestants (Bonner, bishop of Lon- A. D. Mghnd and ScaHland- 337 CO CO § o p< w H i CO W o H W «)=1 o rr H 338 Modern History, a. d. don). Oct. 16, Ridley and Latimer; March 21, 15S6, Cranmer burnt at the stake. About 300 are said to have been burnt during this per- secution. Cardinal Pole, archbishop of Canterbury and papal legate (1556). 1557. England drawn into the Spanish war with France. Defeat of the French at the hattle -0/ St. Quentin (Aug. 10, 1557). 1558. Jan. 7. Loss of Calais, which was captured by the duke of Guise. Death of Mary, Nov. 17, 1558. 1558-1603. Elizabeth. Sir William Cecil (baron Burleigh, 1571), secretary of state. Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord privy seal. Repeal of the Catholic legisla- tion of Mary; reenactment of the laws of Henry VIII. relating to the church ; act of supremacy, act of uniformity. Revision of the prayer- book. 1559. Treaty of Cateau-Cambresia with France. Calais to be April 2. ceded to England in eight years. On the accession of Franeii II. king of France, Mary, his wife, as- sumed the title of Queen of England and Scotland. Conformity exacted in Scotland. Treaty of Berwick (Jan. 1560), between Eliza- beth and the Scottish reformers. 1560. Treaty of Edinburgh between England, France, and Scotland. July 6. French interference in Scotland withdrawn. Adoption of a Confession of Faith by the Scotch estates. 1561. Return of Mary to Scotland after the death of Francis II., where she was at once involved in conflict with the Calvinists. (John Knoz, b. 1505, the friend of Calvin at Geneva, d. 1572.) 1563. Adoption of the Thirty-Nine Articles, in place of the forty- two published by Cranmer. Completion of the establishment of the Anglican Church (Church of England, Episcopal Church) ; Protestant dogmas, with retention of the Catholic hierarchy and, par- tially, of the cult. Numerous dissenters or nonconformists (Presbyte- rians, Puritans, Brownists, Separatists, etc.). Parker, archbishop of Canterbury (1559). 1564. Peace of Troyes with France. English claims to Calais re- nounced for 220,000 crowns. In Scotland Mary married her cousin Darnley, who caused her fa- vorite Rizzio to be murdered (1566) and was himself murdered (Feb. 10, 1567) by Bothwell (earl of Hepburn), apparently with the knowl- edge of the queen.i Marriage of Mary and Bothwell May 15, 1567. The nobles under Murray, Mary's natural brother, revolted, defeated Mary at Carhury Hill near Edinburgh, and imprisoned her at Looh- leven Castle. Abdication of Mary in favor of her son, James VI., July 24, 1567. Miirray, regent. In May, 1568, Mary escaped from captivity ; defeated at Langside, May 13, she took refuge in England, where,' after some delay, she was placed in confinement (1508). 1 Oaedeke, Maria Stuart, 1879. The cause of Maiy and Bothwell has been recently defended by John Watts De Pejster. A. D. JEngland and Scotland. — Elizabeth. 339 1575. Elizabetii declined the government of the Netherland prov- inces of Holland and Zealand, offered her by the confederates. 1577. Alliance of Elizabeth and the Netherlands. 1583-84. Plots against the queen. (Arden, Parry) ; Spanish plot of Throgmorlon ; execution of the earl of Arundel for correspond- ing with Mary. Bond of Association. 1685. Troops sent to the aid of the Dutch republic under the earl of Leicester. Victory of Zutphen (Sept. 22, 1586), death of Sir Philip Sidney. 1686. Expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies, sack of St. Domingo and Carthagena • rescue of the Virginia colony (p. 290). 1686. Conspiracy of Savage, Ballard, Babington, etc., discovered by the secretary of state, Walsingham ; execution of the conspirators. The government involved Mary, queen of Scots, in the plot. She was tried at Fotheringay Castle, Oct. 1586, and convicted on the presentation of letters which she alleged to be forged. She was convicted Oct. 25 and executed Feb. 8, 1587. 1588. War with Spain. Construction of an English fleet of war. The Spanish fleet, called the invincible armada (132 vessels, 3,165 cannon), was defeated in the Channel by the English fleet {Howard, Drake, Hawkins'), July 21-29, and destroyed by a storm off the Hebrides. 1697. Bebellion of the Irish under Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone ; the failure of the earl of Essex to cope with the insurrection led to his recall, and his successor lord Mountjoy quickly subju- gated the country (1601). Capture of Tyrone, flight of the earl of Desmond. A rebellion of Essex in London was followed by his execution (1601). 1600. Charter of the East India Company. Death of Elizabeth, March 24, 1603. ■William Shakespeare, 1664^1616 ; Sir Philip Sidney, 1564^1586; Edmund Spenser, 1563-1699 ; William Tyndale, 1485 ?-1636 ; Ben Jonson, 1574^1637. 1603-1649 (1714). The Hoiise of Stuart. Personal Union of England and Scotland. 1603-1625. James I., as king of Scotland, Jam^s VI., son of Mary Stuart. The Scotch had brought him up in the Protestant faith. He was learned but pedantic, weak, lazy, and incapable of governing a large king- dom. Divine right of kingship, divine right of the bishops ("no bishop, no king "). In this century the after-effects of the Reformation made themselves felt in England as on the continent, and in both places resulted in war. In England, however, owing to the peculiar circumstances of the Reformation these effects were peculiarly condi- tioned ; the religious questions were confused and overshadowed by political and constitutional questions. 1603. James I. was proclaimed king March 24 ; he entered London tJ40 Modem History. A, T>. on the 7th of May, and was crowned July 25. Presentation of the millenary petition immediately after James's arrival in London, signed by 1,000 (800) ministers, asking for the reform of abuses. The Main and the Bye. The " Main " was a plot to dethrone James in favor of Arabella Stuart (see geneal. table, p. 337), con- cocted by lord Cobham, Grey and others. Sir Walter Baleigh was also implicated and imprisoned until 1616 ("History of the World"). The " Bye " or the " Surprising treason " was a plot to imprison the king. Alliance with France, negotiated by Rosny (Sully). 1604. Jan. Hampton Court Conference between the bishops and the Puritans, where James presided. The Puritans failed to obtain any relaxation of the rules and orders of the church. The king issued a proclamation enforcing the act of uniformity (p. 338), and one banishing Jesuits and seminary priests {Goodmn and Fortescue). 1604, March 19-1611, Feb. 9. First Parliament of James I. The king's scheme of a real union of England and Scotland unfavorably received. Appointment of a commission to investigate the matter. 1604. Convocation (ecclesiastical court and legislature at first established [Edward I.] as an instrument for ecclesiastical tax- ation ; afterwards convened by archbishops for the settlement of church questions ; since Henry VIII. convened only by writ from the king, and sitting and enacting [canons] only by permission of the king) adopted some new canons which bore so hardly upon the Puri- tans that three hundred clergymen left their- livings rather than con- form. Peace with Spain. James proclaimed " King of Great Britain, France and Ireland " (Oct. 24). Punishment of many recusants (under the recusancy laws of Elizabeth, whereby refusing to go to church, saying mass or assisting at mass was severely punished). 1605. Nov. 5. Gunpowder Plot, originating in 1604 with Robert Catesby, after the edict banish- ing the priests. Other conspirators : Winter, Wright, Percy. Prep- arations for blowing up the houses of Parliament with thirty-six barrels of gunpowder. Disclosure of the plot through an anonymous letter to Lord Monteagle from one of the conspirators, his brother-in-law, Tresham. Arrest of Guy (Guido) Favrkes, in the vaults on Nov. 4, the day before the meeting of parliament. Trial and execution of the conspirators. Parliament met Nov. 9. 1606. Penal laws against papists. Plague in London. Bpisco- pacy restored in Scotland. James urged the union anew but in vain. Impositions. The grant of customs duties made at the begin- ning of every reign (tonnage and poundage, established by Edward III.) proving insufficient to meet James' expenditure, he had recourse to impositions without parliamentary grant, which Mary and Elizabeth had used to a small extent. Trial of Bates for refusing to pay an imposition on currants. Tha court of exchequer decided in favor of the king. A. D. England and Scotland. — James I. 341 1607. Settlement of Jamestown (p. 291). 1608. Establishment of new impositions. 1610. The Great Contract ; in return for the surrender of some feudal privileges the king was to receive a yearly income of £200,000. The agreement was frustrated by a dispute over the impositions. Dissolution of parliament (Feb. 9, 1611). 1611. Plantation of Ulster, which was forfeited to the crown by the rebellion of Tyrone. Creation of baronets, an hereditary knighthood ; sale of the patents. 1611. Completion of the translation of the Bible, which was authorized by the king and had occupied forty-seven minis- ters since 1604. Imprisonment of Arabella Stuart. 1613. Robert Carr, the king's favorite (viscount Rochester in 1611), created duke of Somerset, and lord treasurer, on the death of the earl of Salisbury (Robert Cecil). Death of Henry, prince of Wales (Nov. 1612). First English factory at Surat. 1613. Marriage of the princess Elizabeth (" queen of Bohemia ") to the elector Palatine. Death of Sir Thomas Overbury, who was imprisoned in the Tower by the malice of Somerset. Mar- riage of Somerset and the countess of Essex. 1614. Apr. 5-Jime 7. Second Parliament of James I. Three hundred new members, among whom were John Pym (Somer- setshire), Thomas Wentworth (Yorkshire), John Eliot (St. Ger- mains). The whole session was spent in quarrelling vrith the king over the impositions, and parliament was dissolved without making an enactment, whence it is called the addled parliament. 1615. Kenewal of the negotiation for the marriage of James's son to a Spanish princess (opened in 1611). Imposition of a benevo- lence, which was resisted by Oliver St. John and condemned by the chief justice, Sir Edward Coke, who was afterwards dismissed from office. Death of Arabella Stuart. Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to the Great Mogul. 1616. Condemnation of the duke and duchess of Somerset for the poisoning of Overbury. Rise of George Villiers in the king's favor ; viscount Villiers, earl, marquis, duke of Buckingham. 1617. Sir Walter Raleigh, released from the Tower, allowed to sail for the Orinoco, where he hoped to discover a gold mme. Failing in this he attacked the Spanish towns on the Orinoco. 1618. Proclamation allowing sports on Sunday after church in Scot- land (Articles of Perth). Francis Bacon, lord Verulam, vis- count of St. Albans, lord chancellor. In this year Sir Wal- ter Raleigh, returning from his expedition, was executed under the old sentence, as reparation to Spain. 1619. Commercial treaty with the Dutch respecting the East Indies. 1620. Settlement of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, m New England (p. 294). 1621. Jan. 30-1622, Feb. 8. Third Parliament of James I. The parliament granted a supply for the prosecution of the war io 342 Modern History. A. D. the palatinate (p. 310), in which James was half-hearted, and then took up the subject of grievances. Impeachment of Mompesson and Mitchell, who had bought monopolies of inn-licensing and the manu- facture of gold and silver thread; they were degraded, fined, and ban- ished. Impeachment of Francis Bacon, the chancellor, for bribery. Bacon admitted that he had received presents from parties in suits, but denied that they had affected his judgment. He was fined £40,- 000 (which was remitted) and declared incapable of holding office in the future. Petition of the commons against popery and the Spanish marriage. The angry rebuke of the king for meddling in affairs of state (" bring stools for these ambassadors ") drew from the parliament 1621, Dec. 18. The Great Protestation : " That the liberties, fran- chises, privileges, and jurisdictions of parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthnght and inheritance of the subjects of England, and that the arduous and urgent affairs concerning the king, state, and defense of the realm . . . are proper subjects and matter of council and debate in parliament." The king tore the page containing the protestation from the journal of the commons. 1622, Feb. 8. Dissolution of parliament. Imprisonment of Southampton, Coke, Pym, Selden. Earl of Buckingham made duke of Buckingham. 1623, Charles, prince of Wales, and the duke of Buckingham, went to Spain and negotiated a marriage treaty, the provis- ions of which were so favorable to the Catholics as to excite great dissatisfaction in England; finally, being imable to secure any help from Spain in regard to the palatinate, Charles and Buckingham returned in anger. Massacre of English residents on the island of Amboyna by the Dutch. 1624, Feb. 12-1625, Mar. 27. Fourth Parliament of James I. The Spanish marriage was broken off, but even the anger of Buckingham could not drive the parliament into a declaration of war with Spain. Supplies voted for defense. Mansfeld raised 1,200 men in England who reached Holland but nearly all perished there from lack of proper provisions. Marriage treaty with France for the marriage of Prince Charles with Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII. 1625, March 27, death of James I. at Theobalds. 1625-1649. Charles I. 1625, May 11. Marriage of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria. Ships sent to Louis XIII. secretly engaged not to fight against the Huguenots. 1625. First Parliament of Charles I. (Assembled Jime 18 ; adjourned to Oxford July 11 ; dissolved Aug. 12.) Grant of tonnage and poundage for one year only, and of £140,000 for the war with Spain. Proceedings against Montague Q'appello Ccesarem" 1624). Unsuccessful expedition of Wimbledon against Cadiz. A. D. England and Scotland. — Charles I. 343 1626, Feb. 6-Jnne 16. Second Pzirliament of Charles I. Charles had hoped for a more pliable parliament, as he had appointed several of the leaders of the first parliament sherifBs, and so kept them out of the second. But this parliament, under the lead of Sir John Sliot, was more intractable than the last. Lord Bristol, to whom no writ had been sent by order of the king, received one on the interference of the lords, but was requested not to appear. He took his seat and brought charges against Buckingham, on which that lord was im- peached (May). Imprisonment of Sir John Eliot and Sir Dud- ley Digges, who were set at liberty upon the refusal of parlia^- ment to proceed to business without them. War declared against France (1626-1630). 1627, Inglorious expedition of Buckingham to the relief of Bochelle (Isle of Rhe). Exaction of a forced loan to raise money for the French war, and for the subsidy which Charles had agreed to supply to Chris- tian IV. of Denmark. Five persons, who were imprisoned for refusing to contribute, sued out a writ of habeas corpus, but, having been committed by the king's order, though without distinct charge, they were remanded to prison. 1628, March 17-1629, March 10. Third ParUament of Charles I. May. Passage of the Petition of Right : 1. Prohibition of benevo- lences, and all forms of taxation mthout consent of parliament. 2. Soldiers should not be billeted in private houses. 3. No com- mission should be given to military officers to execute martial law in time of peace. 4. No one should be imprisoned unless Mf on a, specif ed charge. Assent of the king (June 7). Grant of five subsidies. Suppression of the royalistic sermons of Main- waring. Charles having, after the first year of his reign, continued to levy tonnage and poundage, the commons drew up a remonstrance against that practice. June 26. Prorogation of parliament. Seizure of goods of merchants who refused to pay tonnage and poundage. Aug. 23. Assassination of Buckingham by Felton. 1629, Jan. New session of parliament. Oliver Cromwell spoke, for the first time, in this parliament. The commons at once took up the question of tonnage and poundage ; claim of privi- lege in the case of Rolfe, one of the merchants, whose goods had been seized, and who was a member of parliament. Adjournment of the house of commons. March 2. Meeting of parliament. Turbulent scene in the house of commons ; the speaker held in the chair while the resolutions of Eliot were read : Whoever introduced innovations in relig- ion, or opinions disagreeing with those of the true church ; whoever advised the levy of tonnage and poundage without grant of parliament ; whoever voluntarily paid such duties, was an enemy of the kingdom. 344 Modem History. A. D. March 5. Arrest of members ; imprisomnent of Eliot (f Nov. 1632). March 10. Dissolution of parliament. For eleven years Charles governed ■without a parliament, raising money by illegal levies of taxes, sale of monopolies, and many other ways. Charles' advisers : William Laud (b. 1573, president of St. John's college, 1611-1621; dean of Gloucester, 1616; in Scotland as James I,'s chaplain, 1617; bishop of St. David's, 1621; chaplain to Buckingham, 1622 ; bishop of Bath and Wells, dean of the chapel royal, 1626 ; privy councillor, 1627; bishop of London, 1628 ; chancellor of Oxford, 1630 ; ill Scotland with Charles I., 1633 ; archbishop of Canterbury, 1633 ; commissioner of the treasury, 1634 ; impeached, 1641 ; at- tainted (by bill) and executed, 1645), Thomas Wentworth (b. 1593; in parliament, 1614, 1621-1625 ; sheriff, 1625 ; imprisoned for refus- ing to comply with the forced loan ; in parliament, 1628 ; baron Went- worth, lord president of the council of the north, viscount Wentworth, 1628 ; privy councillor, 1629 ; lord deputy of Ireland, 1633 ; went to Ireland, 1633 ; earl of Strafford, and lord lieutenant of Ireland, 1639 ; impeached, 1640 ; attainted (by bill) and executed. May, 1641), Weston, lord treasurer. 1630, April. Peace with France. 1629. First charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony (p. 295). 1630, Nov. Peace with Spain. 1632. Predominant influence of Wentworth. 1633. June. Charles crowned at Edinburgh with ceremonies distaste- ful to the Scots. Government of Laud and Wentworth. Energetic enforcement of conformity. The declaration of sports (p. 341) reissued. Inrailment of the communion table. William Prynne, author of Histrio-Mastix, an attack on players, which was thought to reflect on the queen, pilloried and deprived of his ears. Wentworth, governor of Ireland. " Thor- ough." 1634. First writ for ship-money, a war tax levied only on seaboard towns, issued at the suggestion of Noy, attorney-general, and extended over the whole kingdom. 1635. Second writ for ship-money. 1637. Prynne, Bastwich, Burton, pilloried. June 23. An attempt to read the English liturgy in Edinburgh, in compliance with the order of Charles, produced a popular tumult at St. Giles. June. Trial of John Hampden, for refusing to pay his allotment of ship-money (twenty shillings). The court of exchequer de- cided against him, which created a strong popular excitement. Shortly after, Hampden, Pym, Cromwell, were prevented from sailing for America by a royal prohibition of emigration. 1638, Feb. 28. Signing of the Solemn League and Covenant (based on that of 1580), at Greyfriar's church in Edinburgh, for the defense of the reformed religion and resistance to inno- vations. 1638, Nov. 21. General assembly at Glasgow; abolition of episcopacy, the new liturgy, and the canons ; the lark declared independent of the state. 4. D. England and Scotland. — Charles I, 345 1639. The first bishops' war. The Scots seized Edinburgh castle, and raised an army. Charles marched to meet them uear Berwick, but an agreement was reached without a battle. 1639, June 18. Pacification of Dunse (or Berwick). The armies were to be disbanded, and differences referred to a new general assembly and parliament. The general assembly at Edin- burgh confirmed the acts of the assembly of Glasgow, and the parlia/- ment proved intractable. The king's necessities were now so great that he took the advice of Wentworth, now made earl of Streifford, and summoned 1640, April 13 -May 5. The fourth Parliament of Charles I. (" The Short Parliament ") at Westminster. As no supplies could be obtained without a redress of grievances, the parliament was soon dissolved. Popular tumults; attack on Laud's palace ; assault upon the court of high commission (created 1559, by Elizabeth, to try ofEenses against the ecclesiastical supremacy of the crown). 1640. Second bishops' war. Defeat of the royal troops at Newbum on the Tyne (Aug. 28). The king summoned a council of peers at York (Sept.). Treaty ofRipon (Oct. 26). A permanent treaty was set in prospect; meanwhile the Scottish army was to be paid £850 a day by Charles. Acting upon the advice of the peers, Charles now summoned 1640, Nov. 3. The Fifth and last Parliament. The Long Parliament (Nov. 3, 1640-March 16, 1660). First Session. Nov. 3, 1640-Sept 8, 1641. The fact that the Scotch army was not to be disbanded until paid, gave the commons an extraordinary power over the king, which they were not slow to use. Lenthall, speaker. Nov. 11. Impeachment of the earl of Strafford, followed by the im- peachment of Laud. Both were committed to the Tower. 1641, Feb. 15. The triennial act passed, enacting that parliament should assemble every three years even without being sum- moned by the king. March 22. Commencement of the trial of Strafford. The result of the impeachment being uncertain, it was dropped and a bill of attainder introduced, which passed both houses (commons, Apr. 21, lords, Apr. 29). BUI to prevent clergymen from holdii^ civil office introduced but thrown out by the lords (June). Introduction of a bill for the abolition of bishops (" root and branch bill "). May 10. Charles with great reluctance signed the bill of attainder against Strafford, and also the bill to prevent the dissolu- tion or proroguing of the present parliament without its own consent. C" Act for the perpetual Parliament."') 346 Modem History. A. D, 1641, May 12. Execution of Strafford. July. AboUtion of the Star Chamber and the High Commis- sion. Aug. Treaty of pacification with Scotland. The Scotch and Eng- lish armies were paid with the proceeds of a poll-tax. Charles went to Scotland. First interview of Edward Hyde, lord Clar- endon (1609-1674 ; " History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England)," with the king. Sept. 8. Parliament adjourned, but each house appointed a commit- tee to sit during the recess ; Pym chairman of the commons' committee. Attempt of the king to conciliate the " moderates " in parlia- ment by giving offices of state to their leaders (Lucius Cary, lord Falkland). Oct. In Scotland the marquis of Montrose formed a plot for the seizure of the duke of Argyle, the leader of the Presbyterians, in which the king was thought to have a share. The drsoovery of the plot (" the incident ") threw Charles into the hands of Argyle, and an agreement was concluded whereby Charles gave the state offices to Argyle and his party, and the latter agreed not to interfere in the religious affairs in England. Oct. 20. Parliament assembled. Early in Nov. came news of the Irish massacre in Ulster ; the lowest estimate of the number of Protestants slain was 30,000. Great indignation in England. Yet the parliament was unwilling to trust Charles with an army. 1641, Dec. 1. The grand remonstrance, which had passed the house of commons in November, after a long and exciting de- bate, by a majority of eleven, presented to the king. It was a summary of all the grievances of his reign. On Deo. 14 the remonstrance was ordered to be printed. Several of the bishops having declared their inability to attend parliament on account of the conduct of the mob, and protested against the action of parliament in their absence, they were committed to the Tower for breach of privilege (Dec. 30). The petition of the commons for a g^ard under the earl of Essex rejected by the king. 1642, Jan. 3. Impeachment of lord Kimbolton, and of Pym, Hampden, Haselrig, Holies, Strode, members of the com- mons, for treasonable correspondence with the Scots in the recent war. As the commons declined to order their arrest Charles resolved to take matters into his own hands. Jan. 4. Attempt to seize the five members. Charles visited the house of commons in person, with five hundred troops, but finding that the five members were absent he withdrew quietly. The accused members, meanwhile, were in Loudon. The commons immediately followed them, and formed themselves into a committee which sat at the Guild- hall, under the protection of the citizens. Jan. 10. Charles left London. The five members returned to par- liament on the following day. Jan. 12, rising at Eiugstoa A. D. England and Scotland. 347 The freeholders of Buckinghamshire sent a remonstrance to the king. The commons made sure of several places and hastened to lay before the king a bill excluding the bishops from the house of Lords, which he signed, and a bill securing to the parliament the command of the militia, which he re- fused to sign. Charles at York (March), where he was joined in April by thirty-two peers and sixty-five members of the lower house. The king also obtained the great seal. At- tempt on Hull. Henceforward the parliament at Westminster passed ordinances which were not submitted to the king. By an ordinance passed in May they assumed control of the militia. June 2. Submission of nineteen propositions by parliament to the king, demanding that the king should give his assent to the militia bill ; that all fortified places should be entrusted to officers appointed by parliament ; that the liturgy and church government should be reformed in accordance with the wishes of parliament ; that parliament should appoint and dismiss all royal ministers, appoint guardians for the king's children, and have the power of excluding from the upper house at wiU all peers created after that date. The propositions were indig- nantly rejected. July. Appointment of a committee of public safety by parliament. Essex appointed captam-general of an army of 20,000 foot and 4000 cavalry. Siege of Portsmouth. Aug. 22. Charles raised the royad standard at Nottingham. 1642-1646. The civil war ; the Great Rebellion. Oct. 23. Drawn battle of EdgehiU. (Prince Rupert, son of the elector palatine and Elizabeth of England.) The kingmarched upon London, but being confronted at Brentford by Essex and Nov. 12. the trained bands of London under SHppon, he retired without fighting. " Affair of Brentford." Dec. The associated counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, Hertfordshire, and Huntingdonshire raised a force which was en- trusted to Oliver CromTvell (bom April 25, 1599 in Hunting- don), who made them a model band, " the Ironsides." 1643, Feb.-Apr. Fruitless negotiations at Oxford, followed by a re- newal of the war. In Feb. the queen landed in Yorkshire, bringing assistance from Holland. Apr. 27. Capture of Reading by Essex. May. Royalist rising in Cornwall ; defeat of the parliament at Strat- ton Hill (May 16). Defeat of Waller at Lansdowne Hill, and at Roundway Down (July). Jmie 18. Hampden wounded in a skirmish with Rupert at Chal- grove afield, f June 24. July 1. Westminster assembly (continued until 1649), for the settlement of religious and theological matters. July 25. Capture of Bristol (the second city in the kingdom) by Rupert. Discouragement of the supporters of the parliament. Sept. Essex relieved Gloucester, which was gallantly defended by Massey. 348 Modern History. A. D. 1643, Sept. 20. First battle of Newbury. Death of lord Falkland. Sept. 25. Signature of the Solemn League and Covenant by twenty-five peers and 288 naembers of the commons. Parlia- ment thus agreed to make the religions of England, Ireland, and Scotland as nearly uniform as possible, and to reform re- ligion " according to the word of God, and the example of the best reformed churches." All civU and military officers and all beneficed clergymen were compelled to sign the covenant (nearly 2000 clergymen were thus deprived of their livings). Thus the assistance of the Scots was secured. Sept. Charles concluded peace with the Irish insurgents, and took the fatal step of enlisting a force from their numbers for the war in England. Dec. 8. Death of Pym. 1644. Jan. A Scotch army crossed the Tweed. Parliament con- vened at Oxford by the king. Jan. 25. Battle of Nantwich. Defeat of the Irish by Sir Thomas Fairfax. Feb. 15. Joint committee of the two kingdoms. March. Trial of Laud. York besieged by Fairfax and the Scots. Siege of Oxford by Essex and Waller. Siege of Latham House (countess of Derby) raised by Kupert (May). July 2. Battle of Marston Moor. Prince Rupert, who defeated the Scots, was in turn totally de- feated by Cromvyell at the head of his picked troops (Ironsides). Hitherto the king had held the west and north of England, while the parliament was supreme in the east. This victory gave the north to parliament. Surrender of York July 16, of Newcastle Oct 20. This success was partially offset in the south by the de- feat of Waller at the June 29. Battle of Copredy Bridge, and by the Sept. Surrender of Essex's infantry in Cornwall to Charles. Es- sex escaped to London by sea. 1644, Aug.-164S, Sept. Campaign of Montrose in Scotland. Montrose entered Scotland in disg^se, Auig. 1644. Victory of Tlppamuir Sept. 1 ; sack of Aberdeen (Bridge of Dee) Sept. 13 ; capture of Perth ; Montrose retired to Athole (Oct. 4) ; Fyrie castle (Oct. 14) ; Montrose retired to Badenach (Nov. 6) ; harrying of Argyleshire (Dec-Jan. 18) ; march from Loch Ness to Inverlochy at Ben Nevis (Jan. 31-Feb. 1). Battle of Inverlochy, Feb. 2. Surren- der of Elgin, Feb. 19. Montrose at Aberdeen (March 9) ; Stone- haven (March 21). Victory of Auldearn (May 4) ; victoiy of Alford (July 2) ; of Kilsyth (Aug. 15) ; court at Bothwell (Sept. 3) ; Kelso (Sept. 10) ; Leslie crossed the Tweed (Sept. 6). De- feat of Montrose at Fhiliphaugh (Sept. 13). 1644, Oct. 27. Second battle of Newbury fought between the king and Essex, Waller, and Manchester. Dec. Promulgation of a directory instead of a liturgy. Christmas made a fast. 1645. Jan. Attainder and execution (Jan. 10) of Laud. A. D. England and Scotland. 849 1645, Jan.-Feb. Truce known as the treaty of Uxbridge; the pro* posals of the parliament rejected by the king. Dissensions within the parliament. Rise of the sect of indepen- dents (advpcates of religious liberty) who formed a growing opposi- tion to the Presbyterians. Crom'well fast becoming the leading man in England since the victory of Marston Moor. Quarrel with Man- chester. April 3. The Self-denying Ordinance passed by both houses (the commons had passed a similar bill Dec. 1644) preventing mem- bers of either house from holding military command. Estab- lishment of Fresbyterianism, with some reservations in favor of the independents. Fairfax superseded Essex as captain-general. Cromwell, Ueuteuant-general (suspension of the self-denying ordinance in his case). Introduction of reform in the army after the plana of Crom- well ; the new model. June 14. Battle of Naseby. Complete defeat of the king, followed by the general ruin of his cause. Capture of his private letters. Surrender of Lei- cester (June 18), Bridgewater (July 23), Bristol (Sept. 11), Carlisle, Winchester, Basing House (Oct.), Latham House (Dec.). March 26. Defeat and capture of lord Ashley at Stow-on-the-Wold ; last battle of the civil war. 1646, May 5. Charles surrendered himself to the Scots. July 24. Parliamentary propositions submitted to Charles at Newcastle. Parliament to have control of the militia for twenty years ; Charles to take the covenant and support the Presbyterian establishment. Charles rejected the propositions, preferring to await the result of the impending breach between parlia- ment, representing Fresbyterianism, and the army, comprising the independents. The independent opposition, the " tolera/- tion " party in parliament, grew constantly in strength. 1647, Jan. 30, The Scots surrendered Chaxles to the parliament on payment of the expenses of their army (£400,000). Charles was brought to Holmby House in Northamptonshire. Contention between parliament and the army. The commons voted the disbandment of all soldiers not needed for garrison purposes or in Ireland. Fairfax appointed commander-in- chief. The self-denying ordinance re-enacted. The new model, however, refused to disband until its claims for arrears were satisfied. May 12. Charles accepted a modified form of the parliamentary prOT)ositions. It was too late. June 4. Cfharles seized at Holmby House by cornet Joyce and carried to the army. On the same day Cromwell, having heard of the intention of the Presbyterians to seize him in parliament, fled to the army at Triptow Heath. Here the army had taken an oath not to disband until liberty of conscience was secure, and 850 Modern History. A. D. had adopted a new organization ; appointment to a council of adjudicators. 1647, June 10. The army at St. Albans. " Humble representation " addressed to parliament. June 16. The army demanded the exclusion from parliament of eleven members who were peculiarly obnoxious to it (Holies'). July 26. The house of commons mobbed by London apprentices on accoimt of a change in the commanders of the London militia which the army had requested. The two speakers, fourteen lords, and one hundred commons fled to the army. July 24. Proposals presented to the king by the army. Belief and worship should be free to all ; parliament to control the mili- tary and naval forces for ten years, and to appoint officers of state ; triennial parliament ; reformation of the house of commons, etc., rejected by the king, who was invited to Lon- don by that part of the parliament still sitting at Westmin- ster. Aug. 6. The army entered London and restored the members which had taken refuge with it. Charles removed to Hampton Court. Sept. 7. Parliament again offered Charles a, modified form of the nineteen propositions ; on its rejection a new draft was pre- pared, but before its presentation Nov. 11. Charles escaped to the Isle of Wight, where he was detained by the governor of Carisbrooke Castle. Dee. 24. " The four bills " presented to the king by parliament : 1. Parliament to command the army for twenty years ; 2. All declarations and proclamations against the parliament to be recalled ; 3. All peers created since the great seal was sent to Charles to be incapable of sitting in the house ; 4. The two houses should adjourn at pleasure. Charles, who was only playing with the parliament in the hope of securing aid from Scotland, rejected the four bills (Dec. 28), after he had already signed Dec. 26. A secret treaty •with the Scots (" The Engagement"). Charles agreed to abolish Episcopacy and restore Presbyte- rianism ; the Scots, who looked with horror on the rising tide of toleration in England, agreed to restore him by force of arms. 1648. Jan. 15. Parliament renounced allegiance to the king, and voted to have no more communication with him. 1648. Second Civil War. At once a war between Scotland and England, a war between the Royalists and the Roundheads, and a war between the Presbyterians and the Independents. Committee of safety renewed, sitting at Derby House. March. A meeting of army officers at Windsor resolved that the king must be brought to trial. April 24. Call of the house. 306 members. The Presbyterians having returned to their seats, now regained control, and mani- A. D. The North and East. 351 fested a desire to come to an agreement with the king. Vir- tual repeal of the non-eommunication resolution. 1648, May 2. Ordinance for suppression of blasphemies and heresies, aimed at the independents, especially at Cromwell, Ireton, etc. July 20-29. Parliament resolved to open negotiations with the king. Aug. 14. Holies resumed his seat. Koyalist outbreaks in Wales, Cornwall, Devon, Kent; riots in London. July 25. The duke of Hamilton led a Scotch army into England. Cromwell having suppressed the rising in Wales met the Soots in the Aug. 17-20. Three days' battle at Preston Pans, and annihilated their army. Aug. 28. Surrender of Colchester to Fairfax. End of the second civil war. Sept. 18-Nov. " Treaty of Ne'virport " negotiated between the king and the parliament, without result. Nov. 16. Grand remonstrance of the army. Dec. 1. Charles seized by the army and carried to Hurst Castle. Dec. 4. The army entered London (19 peers, 232 commons). Dec. 5. Parliament voted that the king's propositions formed a basis on which an agreement might be reached. This vote was the last straw ; the army took matters into its own hands. Dec. 6-7. Pride's Purge. Colonel Pride, by order of the council of officers, forcibly excluded the Presbyterian members (96) from the parliament. The " Rump " Parliament (some 60 members). Dec. 13. Bepeal of the vote to proceed with the treaty. Vote that Charles should be brought to trial. The king conveyed to Windsor (Dec. 23). 1649, Jan. 1. Appointment of a high court of justice (135 members) to try the king ; as this was rejected by the lords (Jan. 2) the commons resolved Jan. 4. That legislative power resided solely with the com- mons. Jan. 6. Passage of the ordinance without the concurrence of the lords. Jan. 20. Agreement of the people, a form of government drawn up by the army. Jan. 20-27. Trial of Charles I. before the high court (67 members present, Bradshaw presiding) ; the king merely denied the jurisdiction of the court. He was sentenced to death. Jan. 30. Execution of Charles I. at Whitehall in London. (^Seep.srS.) §9. THE NORTH AND EAST. (Seep. ^6.) The Union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, weakened by the action of Sweden, since the election of 1448. Christian I. of Oldenburg, as king of the Union, was com- pletely dissolved in consequence of the cruelties of Christian II, 352 Modem History. A. d. 1520. Massacre of Stockholm. Kevolt of the Dalecarliam un- der the conduct of Grustavus Vasa (b. 1496, hostage in Den- mark, 1518, fled to Dalecarlia, 1519, concealed himself under dis- guises and worked in the mines). He defeated the Danes, and became first administrator of the kingdom, then king (1523). Sweden. (Seep. S76.) 1523-1654. House of Vasa. 1523-1560. G-ustavus I., V(tsa. Introduction of the Reformation. The throne ma;de hereditary. Gustavus I. was succeeded by his eldest son Erik XIV., who, being insane, was deposed and mur- dered. His successor was the second son of Gustavus, John III., whose son Sigismund was Catholic, and king of Poland (1587), and hence displaced in Sweden by his uncle Charles IZ. the youngest son of Gustavus I. Charles's son, 1611-1632. Gustavus II. Adolphus, conducted successful wars with Poland and Russia. For his participation in the Thirty Years' War and his death see p. 311. He was followed by his daughter 1632-1654. Christina, who was well educated, but averse to affairs of government. She abdicated in 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles Gustavus of Pfalz-Zweibriicken, son of a sister of Gustavus Adolphus. Christina became a Catholic and died at Rome, 1689. (Seep. 373.) Denmark and Norway. (See p. 276.) These countries remained united. Under Christian II. the Refor- mation began to spread into Denmark. Christian was displaced by his uncle, the duke of Schleswig-Holstein, who ascended the Danish throne as 1523-1533. Frederic I. and favored the Reformation. After his death (1533), the so-called Feuds of the Counts (JUrgen Wullenwever, burghermaster of LvbecK). Frederic's son 1536-1559. Christian III. completed the introduction of the Refor- mation. For the participation of Christian IV. in the Thirty Years' War, see p. 310. After a 1643-1645. War with Sweden, Christian was obliged to surrender the islands of Gottland and Oesel at the Peace of Bromsebro (p. 315). (Seep. 373.) Poland. (See p. 277.) 1386-1572. Jagellons. The kingdom reached its greatest exteni (Baltic, Carpathians, Black Sea), but already the germ of de cay was forming in the privileges of the numerous nobility. 1572-1791. Poland an elective monarchy. Introduction of the liberum veto. Elected kings : Henry of Anjou (p. 322); Ste- phen Bathory of Transylvania, followed by three kings of the house of Vasa ; Sigismund III., Vladislas IV., John Casimir (to 16683. '^ ^ (Seep. 374.) Eussia. (See p. 276.) After the extinction of the house of Rurik (1598), and a war of succession lasting ten years (the false DemetriusJ A. D. The Nwth and East. 353 1613- The house of Komanow succeeded to the throne, which it occupied until 1762. (See p. S74-) Turks. (Seep. S78.) The empire of the Ottoman Tui-ks reached its highest development under Soliman II. (1520-1566), the Magnificent, the contemporary of the emperor Charles V. (p. 303). Under his successors began the decline, caused especially by the in^ueuce of the Janizaries. India. (See p. SJ^l.) 1497. CovUham reached Calicut by land from Portugal. 1498. Portuguese vessels under Vasco da Gama reached Calicut by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. The Muhammedan power which the sultans of Delhi under various dynasties had extended over almost all India, broke up in the latter half of the fourteenth and during the fifteenth century. When the Portuguese gained a foothold in the peninsula, its political constitu- tion was as follows : At Ddhi, Muhammedan sultans of the Afghan dynasty with greatly reduced dominion ; iu Bengal (1340-1576), Afghan (Muhammedan) kings; in Guzerat (1391-1573) a Muham- medan dynasty had its capital at AAmeddbdd ; iu the Deccan the Muhammedan empire of the Bahmani (1347-1525) had separated into five kingdoms : Bijdpur (1489-1686), Golcmda (1512-1687), Ahmednagar (1490-1636), Ellichpur (1484^1572), Bidar (1492- 1609[57]. The southern part of the peninsula was still in the hands of the powerful Hiudu kingdom, Vijayanagar (1118-1565). Da Gama was followed iu 1500 by Cdbral (on the voyage acciden- tal discovery (?) of Brazil) ; in 1502 a papal bull created the king of Portugal " Lord of the navigation, conquests, and trade of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India." First Portuguese governor and viceroy of India, Almeida (1505). In 1509 Alfonso d' Albuquerque was ap- pointed to this office ; capture of Goa (1510), and of Malacca. 1526-1761 (1857). Mughal (Mogul) Empire in India. The founder of the Mughal empire was Babar, a descendant of Tamerlane (1494 king of Ferghana on the Jaxartes, 1497 con- queror of Samarkand, seized Kdbul, 1504), who in 1526 invaded the Punjab and defeated the sultan of Delhi in the 1526. Battle of Panipat.i Defeat of the Rajputs of Chittor (1527) . Under Bihar's son Hu- mdyun (1530-56) the Mughals were driven from India by Sher Shah, the Afghan ruler of Bengal; but they returned in 1556 and under Humiyiin's son Akbar (Bairdm the real commander), defeated the Afghanis at Fanipat (1556). 1556-1605. Akbar the Great whose reign is a long series of conquests. 1 The first of the three great battles which decided the fate of India on thaV same plain ; viz. in 1526, 1556, 1761. (Hunter, Indian Empin, p. 234.) 23 354 Modern History. A. D, 1565. Battle of Talikot. Destruction of the Hindoo empire of Vijayanagar by a union of the Muhammedan kingdoms of the Deccan. Conquests of Akbar : 1561-68, Rajputs of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Chit- lor; 1572-73, Guzerat (revolted 1581, reconquered 1593); 1586-92 Kashmir ; 1592, Sind ; 1594, Kandahar, Akbar's empire now comprised all India north of the Vindhyax Mts. ; in the Deccan he was not suc- cessful. Akbar organized the administration, reformed the military and financial system, and conciliated the Hindus. Akbar was suc- ceeded by his son Salim, Jahangir (1605-27). His reign was much troubled by rebellions, and his wars in the Deccan were without last- ing success. Shah Jahan (1628-1668). Kandahdr, several times lost and recovered between the Mughals and the Persians, was finally lost by the Mughal empire, 1653. Shah Jah^n won some successes in the Deccan ; submission of Bijdpur, Ooloonda, Ahmednagar. The empire was at the height of its power and magnificence (peacock throne). Shah Jahdn deposed by his son Aurangzeb, and imprisoned (died 1666). From 1500 to 1600 the Portuguese had enjoyed a monopoly of the trade with India ; with the close of the sixteenth century, the Dutch and English appeared as their rivals. The Sast India Company of London was incorporated in 1660, and various others similar com- panies were established at different times ; but all were ultimately incorporated with the original company. (" The Governor and Com- pany of Merchants of London trading to the East Indies," 1600 ; Courten's Association [" Assador Merchants "] 1635-1650 ; " Com- pany of Merchant Adventurers," 1655-1657 ; " General Society trad- ing to the East Indies " [" English Company "], 1698-1709, united with the original company as " The United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies "). The first twelve voyages ■were separate ventures ; after 1612 voyages were made for the com- pany. Opposition of the Portuguese. Battle of Swally. Defeat of the Portuguese. Establishment of an English factory at Surat, 1614. Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to Jdhdngir (Great Mogul), 1615. Treaty with the Dutch, 1619, without lasting effect. Massacre of English on the island of Amboyna (1623) followed by the withdrawal of the Eng- lish from the Indian Archipelago (1624). Presidency of Bantam, 1635. Foundation of Madras {Fort St. George), 1639. Dutch East India Coinpany, 1602. French East India Companies 1604, 1611, 1615, 1642 (EicheUeu's). {Seep. 389.) China. {See p. 278.) 1506-1522. Ching-tih. Kebellion of the prince of Ning suppressed after a severe war. About 1522 the Portuguese established themselves at Macao. 1542. Tatar invasion under Yen-ta, in the reign of Kea-tsiug. Coast of China ravaged by a Japanese fleet. 1567-1573. Lung-king. His reign was troubled by the Tatars, to relieve the country of whom he resorted to bribery. 1573-1620. Wan-leih. The Tatars continuing their disturbances the emperor gave Yen-ta lands in the province of Shen-se. A. D. China. — Japan. 355 1592. The Japanese invaded Corea, but were defeated and compelled to sue for peace. 1597. The Japanese renewed the attack and defeated a Chinese fleet and army, but suddenly evacuated the peninsula. 1603. Ricci, the Jesuit, at the Chinese court ; he preached Christian- ity in China (f 1610). 1604. IJutch in China ; also the Spanish. 1616. Invasion of China by Manchoo Tatars who defeated the Chinese, and returning in 1619, Conquered and settled in the province of Leaour-tung. 1620. Teerir^ing, the Manchoo ruler, threw oft' the pretense of alle- giance to the Chinese and proclaimed his independence. He established his capital at San-Koo. Wen-leih was succeeded by Tai-ohang (1620), who was followed by Teen-ke (1620-1627). In 1627, Tsung-ching, the last sovereign of the Ming (1368-1643) dynasty ascended the throne. Rebellion of Le Tsze-ching and Shang Ko-he. The emperor, being hard pressed, applied for aid to the Manchoo Tatars. These allies defeated the rebels, but refused to abandon the fruits of their victories. Seizing Pekin they raised to the throne of China a son of Teen-ning, the Manchoo ruler, who, as the first of the 1644— X, Ta-tsing or Great Pure dynasty, took the name of 1644. Shun-che. Capture of Nan-king. Period of confusion wherein the lin- gering resistance of the Chinese was gradually crushed out, and the shaved head and pig-tail, signs of Tatar sovereignty, became more and more common. (See p. S90.) Japan. (See p. S78.) The period of the Ashikaga shoguns (1344-1573) contains few events of importance, especially after the end of the dual dynasties in 1391, by the act of the southern emperor, who resigned his power on the condition that the imperial office should henceforward alternate between the two Unes. The violation of this agreement was the cause of much fighting. 1558-1588. Oki-Machi, mikado. This reign saw the fall of the Askikagas, and the rise of three of the most renowned men of Japan ; Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, Tokugawa lyeyasu. Introduction of cannon. The development of feudalism had weakened the power of the shoguns, as they had formerly destroyed that of the mikado. Ota Nobunaga was a feudal lord who acquired fame in a war with the head of another powerful family, Yoshimoto (1560). To him the mikado entrusted the task of pacifying the un- happy country, whUe his aid was also sought by Yoshiaki, the rightful shog^n, who had been dispossessed by Yoshikage. By the battle of Anagaiiva (1570), where Tokugawa lyeyasu fought under Nobunaga, Yoshiaki was restored to power, but in 1573 he was deposed by In o- bimaga, whom he had plotted to murder. 356 Modern History. a. d. 1573-1582. Government of Nobunaga. Nobunaga appointed no successor but letained the power in his own hands. He was a determined opponent of the over- powerful Buddhist priests, and took Christianity (the Jesuit Xavier at Kioto) under his protection. Slaughter of the Bud- dhist priests and capture of their fortified temples. Death of Nobunaga in a revolt (1582). 1582-1598. Government of Hideyoshi. The rebel was suppressed by the general Hideyoshi, who after considerable fighting reduced the whole country to subjection (1592). War with China; invasion of Corea (p. 355), Hideyo- shi was unfavorable to Cliristianity. 1688, publication of a de- cree ordering the expulsion of the Jesuits ; this, however, was not obeyed. In 1593 nine missionaries were burned at Naga- saki. Hideyoshi, the Taiko. He was succeeded by an infant son, under the regency of Tokuga'wa lyeyasu, whose govern- ment was popular but who was involved in political troubles that led to war. 1600. Battle of Sekigahara. lyeyasu defeated his enemies, and in 1603 was made Sei-i-tai-shogun, bemg the first of the 1603-1868. Tokugawa Shoguns, some of whom subse- quently took the title of Tai-kun (Tycoon) " high prince." The rule of lyeyasu was distinguished by the revival of learning and the growth of foreign intercourse (Dutch, English). lyeyasu re- signed his office in 1605 to his son but retained his power until his death. lyeyasu died 1616, leaving the "Legacy of lyeyasu," a code of laws. Redistribution of land. Those vassals of the crown who re- ceived a revenue of 10,000 measures of rice were called daimios and numbered 245, eighteen of whom were governors of provinces (kokur- shiu). Next to the daimios stood the samureti, to whom the daimios leased their farms in return for military service. The shogun (who was the first of the daimios) was surrounded by the hatamoto, " house-carls," from whom he selected his officials. They are said to have numbered 80,000. Below the hatamoto were the gokenin, also attached directly to the shogun as private soldiers, comprising the Tokugawa elan. lyeyasu removed the capital of the shogun from Kamakura to Yedo. The successor of lyeyasu, Hide- tada, sent a messenger to Europe to study Christianity, but his report not being considered favorable, the shogun forbade the introduction of that religion. 1630-1643. Too-Puku-no-in, daughter of the mikado, Go-mino-o, and the daughter of the shogun, Hidetata, followed the former on the throne as Miosho-Tenno. lyemitsu, who succeeded to the shogunate in 1653, was an excel- lent ruler, but ordered the vigorous enforcement of laws against the Christians, and closed Japan to all foreigners except the Chinese and the Dutch, who were allowed to trade at Nagasaki. 1637. Revolt of the Christians at Shimabara finally suppressed; A. D. America. 357 massacre of the survivors. Persecution throughout the empire. Extirpation of Christianity. Death of lyemitsu, 1649. (Seep. 44s.) SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1648-1789. A. The second half of the seventeenth century. § 1. AMERICA. (See p. SOO.) British, Dutch, and Swedish Colonies. 1644. Union of Providence and the Rhode Island towns (New- port, Portsmouth) under one charter, obtained by Roger WiUiams. Union of Sayhrook and Connecticut under the latter name. The colony contained eight taxable towns ; that of New- Haven numbered six. Separation of the general court of Massachusetts Bay into two houses. April 18. Three hundred colonists massacred by the Indians in Vir- ginia. 1645. Kebellion of Clayhome and Ingle in Maryland ; they seized the government, but were put down in 1646. 1646. In Massachusetts John Eliot commenced his missionary labors among the Indians at Nonantum. (Translation of the Bible into Massachusetts dialect, 1661-63). Act of parliament freeing merchandise for the American colonies from aU duty for three years, on condition that colonial pro- ductions should be exported only in English vessels. In New Netherlands Kiefl was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesant, as governor, who immediately formulated a claim to all the region between Cape Henlopen and Cape Cod. 1648. Tie petition of Rhode Island 1 to be admitted to the union rejected, as that colony would not submit itself to the jurisdic- tion of Plymouth. 1649. Incorporation in England of the " Society for Propagating the Gospel in New England." Grant of the land between the Rappahannock and Potomac to lord Culpepper and other royalists. Massacre of the Hurons at St. Ignatius by the Iroquois. 1650. Agreement between New Netherlands and the United Colonies establishing the boundary between the Dutch and English at Oyster Bay, on Long Island, and Greenwich Bay, Connecticut. 1 "Where Khode Island is mentioned, before the charter of 1663, it is prob- able that the Island aoij is meant." Holmes' Annals, I. 287, note 2. 358 Modern History. A, D. 1651. Passage of the Navigation Act in England (p. 376). 1652. The province of Maine joined to Massachusetts. The parliament in England assumed control of Maryland, and suspended the goverimieut of Rhode Island, but the latter order did not take effect. 1655. Stuyvesant, governor of Ne^vir Netherlands, seized the Swed- ish forts on the Delaware, and broke up the colony of New Sweden. 1659. Virginia proclaimed Charles II. king of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Virginia, and restored the royal governor, Sir William Berkeley. Execution of two Quakers in Massachusetts. 1661. Penal laws against Quakers suspended by order of the king. 1662. Charter of Connecticut granted by the king. New Haven refused to accept it. The assembly was composed of the gov- ernor, deputy-governor, twelve assistants, and two deputies from every iown. / 1662. Lord Baltimore confirmed in the government of Maryland. 1663. Grant of Carolina (all land between 31° N. and 36° N.) to the earl of Clarendon and associates. Charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 1664. Grant of New Netherlands, from the Connecticut to the Delaware, to the king's brother, James, duke of York and Albany. The grant included the eastern part of Maine, and islands south and west of Cape Cod. The region between the Hudson and the Delaware {Nova Ccesarea, or New Jersey) was granted by the duke to lord Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret. Aug. 27. Surrender of Nevr Amsterdam to the English ; name of the colony changed to New York. Sept. 24. Surrender of Fort Orange, whose name was changed to Albany. 1665. Maine restored to the heirs of Sir Fernando Gorges. Union of Connecticut and New Haven. The royal commissioners empowered to hear complaints in New England, after conferring with the general court of Massachu- setts, left the provinces in anger, as the court would not ac- knowledge their commission. 1666. Depredations of the buccaneers in the West Indies. 1667. Grant of the Bahamas to the proprietors of Carolina. 1667. Treaty of Breda between England and France. Acadia sur- rendered to France ; Antigua, Monserrat, and the French part of St. Christopher surrendered to England. 1668. Massachusetts reassumed the government of Maine. 1669. Adoption of the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina, which were drawn up by John Locke. Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company. (Governor and company of adventurers of England trading into Hud- son's Bay.) 1670. Foundation of Charlestown in Carolina. A. D. America. 859 Treaty of Madrid between Spain and England, settling th( boundaries of their respective territories on the basis of pos- session. 1672. The Spaniards at St. Augustine endeavored to dislodge the settlers in CaroUna, but were repulsed. 1673. War having broken out between England and Holland, the Dutch captured New York and received the submission of that colony, of Albany and New Jersey. In the peace of 1674 these places were restored to England. The grant to lord Culpepper was converted to a lease for thirty one years. 1675. Edmund Andros, governor of New York, attempted to secure the land west of the Connecticut by force of arms, but was foiled by the energy of the colonists. 1675-1676. King Philip's "War. This was the most extensive combination which the natives had formed against the foreign invaders. King Philip was the son of Massasoit and chief of the Wampanoags. He lived at Mount Hope, near Fall River, Mass. He formed a league comprising nearly all the Indians from Mame to Connecticut. War broke out in June, 1675. and raged with peculiar violence in Massachusetts. Deerjield burnt (Sept. 1). Attack on Hadley (Sept. 1) repulsed by Gaffe, one of the judges of Charles I. (?). In the fall (Sept.-Oct.) the United Colonies took the war upon themselves and raised 2,000 troops. Capture of the fort of the Narragansetts by Winslow (Dec. 19). Assaults more or less severe on Waruyick, Lancaster, Medfidd, Weymouth, Groton, Rehoboth, Providence, Wrentham, Sudbury, Scituate, Bridgewater, Plymouth, Hatfield, and other towns (1676, Jan.-June). Defeat of the Indians near Deerjield (May 19, Fall Fight). Surprise of Philip by captain Church ; capture of his wife and son (the latter was sold into slavery), Aug. 2. Philip shot (Aug. 12). 1676. Rebellion of Nathaniel Bacon in Virginia. Jamestown burnt. The rebellion came to an end with the sudden death of Bacon. In the following year royal troops arrived to repress the rebel- lion, but found all quiet. New Jersey divided into East and West Jersey. East Jer- sey was governed by Carteret; West Jersey was held by the duke of York. (Hence, " the Jerseys.") 1677. The dispute between Massachusetts and the heirs of Sir Fer- nando Gorges over Maine being decided in favor of the latter by the English courts, Massachusetts bought the province of Maine, which henceforward formed a part of that colony. 1680. New Hampshire separated from Massachusetts by royal charter. The king appointed the president and council, and retained the right of annulling all acts of the legislature. Foundation of a new settlement in Carolina, called, like the first, Charlestovm (the present Charleston). West Jersey restored to the proprietors, the heirs of lord Berkeley. 1681, March 4. Grant of Pennsylvania (the repon betwee.i 4T'-, 360 Modern History. a: d, and 43° N. lat. running 5° west from the Delaware River) to William Penn. Establishment of a settlement. 1682. Penn brought a colony to Pennsylvania (Aug.). Publication of a frame of government and a body of laws (April-May). Treaty with the Indians. Foundation of Philadelphia. 1683. First legislative assembly in New York ; two houses. Only two sessions are known to have been held before the revolu- tion of 1688. 1684. The troubles between Massachusetts and the crovm cul- minated in the forfeiture of the charter. These troubles were of old standing, dating from the restoration of Charles II. The favorable reception of Gaffe and Whalley, two " regicides," in Boston, at the opening of that monarch's reign, was no favorable omen ; and almost the first news received from the col- ony brought complaints of ill-treatment from Quakers who had suf- fered under the rigorous laws. In 1 661 Charles sent a letter to Mas- sachusetts prohibiting the colony from proceeding further in the prosecution of imprisoned Quakers, and ordering their release ; he subsequently withdrew his protection. Further controversy led to the dispatch of agents to England. The confirmation of the char- ter obtained by tliem was conditioned in a way peculiarly aggra^ vating to the colonists : all laws derogatory to the royal authority should be repealed ; the oath of allegiance should be imposed ac- cording to the directions of the charter ; freedom and liberty of conscience in the use of the Book of Common Prayer should be allowed ; the sacrament should not be denied to any person of good life and conversation ; all freeholders of competent estates and good character, and orthodox in religion, should be admitted to vote. These demands being evasively met, the king, in 1664, appointed commissioners (JNi/)olls, Carr, Cartwright, Maverick) to hear com- plaints and appeals in New En^and, and settle the peace of the country, who, barely touching at Boston, proceeded to the seizure of New Netherlands. Returning to Boston in the spring of 1665 their demand for a recognition of the commission was met by the excuse that the general court would plead his majesty's charter, whereupon the commission returned to England in anger. The court, however, acknowledged the conditional right of freeholders to vote, and agreed to permit the toleration of Quakers and churchmen for a time. A long period of controversy followed, and agents were sent back and forth with very little effect. In 1671 the colony was " almost on the brink of renouncing any dependence on the crown." The original causes of dispute became complicated by the controversy with the heirs of Gorges in regard to Maine, and by the evasion and disregard of the navigation laws practiced by the colony (1663). In 1676 the royal governors were commanded to insist on strict compli- ance with the commercial laws, both the navigation laws, and those imposing duties on iLtercolouial trade (1672). John Leverett, gov- ernor of Massachusetts, refused compliance, and in 1679 the general court voted " that the acts of navigation are an invasion of the rights and privileges of the subjects of Ins majesty in this colony, they not being represented in parliament." The agents then in London to de' A. D. America. 361 fend the colony in the snit of the heirs of Gorges were sent home with the demand that the Maine purchase be undone and new agents sent to answer the complaints against the colony. Edward Randolph was sent over as collector of customs for Boston, where, however, he was sturdily opposed. The new agents giving no satisfaction, a writ of quo warranto was issued against the colony in 1683 ; in 1684 a suit of scire facias was brought and the court of chancery declared the charter forfeited (16841. The king appointed colonel Kirke governor of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, and Plymouth, but before he received his commission Charles died, and James II. appointed Joseph Dudley president of New England. He took office in 1686. 1686. Issue of a quo warranto writ against Connecticut and Carolina. New York deprived of an assembly and other liberties. Appointment of Sir Edmund Andros as president of New England. He arrived at Boston Dec. 20. Randolph was now deputy postmaster in New England. Andros assumed the government of Rhode Island. Establishment of an Epis- copal society in Boston, for the use of which Andros forcibly seized the Old South Church. 1687. Quo warranto against Maryland. Oct. Sir Edmund Andros assumed the government of Connecticut and attempted to secure the charter, but it was carried ofE from the hall of assembly and hidden in the famous Charter Oak. 1688. Tyranny of Andros in Massachusetts. New York and New- Jersey placed under his government. Erection of King's Chapel, as an Episcopal church, in Boston. 1689. On the receipt of news of the revolution in England, and the landing of William of Orange, Sir Edmund Andros was seized in Boston (AprU 18) and thrown into prison. Restora- tion of the old government. " Council of safety of the people and conservation of the peace." Assembly of representatives at Boston. Provisional resumption of the charter ; proclama- tion of William and Mary. ReestabUshment of the former governments in Rhode Island and Connecticut. New York, Virginia and Maryland proclaimed William and Mary. 1689-1697. " King WiUiam's "War " with the French, a part of the universal war against Louis XIV. The French were assisted by the Canadian Indians and those of Maine, while the Iroquois took the war path against the French. 1690. Surprise and destruction of Schenectady (Feb. 8), of Salmon Falls (March 18), and of Casco (May 17), by three bands of French and Indians. AprU, Seizure of Port Royal by Sir William Phips, who afterwards made a futile attack upon Quebec, by vote of a congress of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New York. The failure imposed so large a debt on the colonies that Massa- chusetts was obliged to issue paper money for the first time. 1692. New charter for Maasacbusetts. Sir William Phips ap- 362 Modern History. A. d. pointed governor. Under this charter were included the colony of Plymouth, the provinces of Maine, Nova Scotia and all land north to the St. Lawrence ; also the Elizabeth Islands, Nantasket, and Martha's Vineyard. The new charter gave the appoint- ment of the governor to the crown, and vested in hirn the right of calling, proroguing, and dissolving the general court, of appointing military officers and officers of justice (with the consent of the council), of vetoing acts of the legislature and appointments of civil officers made by the legislature. The electoral franchise was e3ctended to all freeholders with a yearly income of forty shillings, and aU inhabitants having personal property to the amount of £40. KeUgious liberty was secured to all except Papists. 1692, Feb. Commencement of the Salem -witchcraft frenzy. Be- fore October twenty persons were executed. Construction of Fort William Henry at Pemaquid in Maine by Sir William Phips. Rhode Island and Connecticut were allowed to retain their charters. Charter of the " College of William and Mary " in Vir- ginia. Sir Edmund Andros appointed governor of Virginia and Mary- land. 1693. Government of Pennsylvania taken from Penn by the crown. An English expedition against Canada was plaimed but failed of execution. 1694. Penn reinstated. Fletcher, governor of Nevr York (and now of Pennsylvania), having been entrusted with the command of the militia of Connecticut, went to Hartford Oct. 26 to assert his authority, but was repulsed by the assembly, and by Wadsworth, senior captain of the militia. French expedition of Frontenac against the Iroquois. 1696. Capture of the fort at Pemaquid by the French under Iberville. An expedition of count Frontenac against the Iroquois resulted in little more than the destruction of their harvests. 1697. The Peace of Ryswiok (p. 371) prevented the exe- cution of a French attack upon Newfoundland. Restoration of conquests by both combatants. Thira expedition of Frontenac against the Iroquois, with little effect. 1699. The French settled in Louisiana. The French claimed control of the fisheries on the north coast, and of the territory from the Kennebec eastward. Foundation of a Scotch settlement at Darien in the hope of acquiring great wealth by the command of commercial transit (Paterson). The first expedition (1,200 men, besides women and children) perished from starvation, or returned to Scot- land ; the second was broken up by the Spaniards who con- sidered the settlement a breach of the treaty of Ryswiek. 1100. Iberville took, possession of the Mississippi for France. 1701. William Penn gave a new charter to Pennsylvania. ^- !>• America, 363 1701. Foundation of Yale College at New Haven in Connecticut. 1702. Joseph Dudley, governor of Massachusetts. Quarrel with the general court over the proposed salaries to be paid the governor, lieutenant-governor, etc. An expedition projected by governor Moore of Carolina against St. Augustine resulted in failure. The debt thus in- curred was discharged by an issue of paper money. 1702-1713. " Queen Anne's War " with the French. 1703. Pennsylvania province separated from the territories, or lower counties (Delaware) ; separate assemblies. 1704. DeerfieM in Massachusetts destroyed by French and In- dians. This was avenged by an expedition under colonel Church, which ravaged the French settlements on the east coast of New England. EstabHslunent of the Church of England in Carolina. The complaints of dissenters against some details of ecclesiastical administration led to the issue of a quo warranto against the colony, but nothing came of the matter. 1706. Invasion of Carolina by the French and Spanish in assertion of the Spanish claims to that country as a part of Florida. They were repulsed and defeated on land and sea with great loss by William Rhett. 1707. TSevT England sent an expedition against Port Royal, which returned without effecting its capture. 1708. Surprise of Haverhill by French and Indians. 1709. An expedition was planned against Canada and Acadia to which the colonies were to contribute 2,700 men. The project was abandoned by the English government after the men had been raised, and Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey were obliged to issue paper money to cancel their debts. 1710. Capture of Port Royal by a fleet from England. Change of the name of the city to Annapolis. 1711. An expedition against Canada numbering 68 sail and 6,463 sol- diers, largely raised by the colonies, met with disaster and was abandoned. 1712. A massacre of colonists in Carolina by the Tuscaroras and other tribes was followed by the dispatch of Barnwell against the Indians. After a difficult march he succeeded in almost anni- hilating the Tuscaroras, many of whom fled to the Iroquois. 1713. Treaty of Utrecht, between Grreat Britain and France (p. 393). Cession of Hudson Bay and Straits, of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and St. Christopher (in the West Indies) to England. French settlements and discoveries. In the earlier part of the century the French had established a claim to Canada and Acadia, extending to the Kennebec in Maine, although the English claimed as far as the Penobscot, From this 364 Modem History. A. Du vantage ground they extended their discoveries south and west. Jes- uit missionaries labored among the Hurons in the country between lakes Erie, Ontario, and Huron, planted the missions of St. Mary (1668) and Michillimachinac, died with their flocks when the undying enmity of the Iroquois annihilated the Hurons (Brebceaf, Lallemonf), or sought torture and death at the hands of the Five Nations (^Isaac Jogues, 1640-1654). 1656. Acadia and UTova Scotia granted to St. Etienne and others by Cromwell.^ 1656-1658. French colony in western New York, soon broken up. 1659. Francois de Laval, bishop of New France. 1662. The hundred associates of Quebec reconsigned their rights to the king, who soon after granted New France to the French West India Company. 1665. Courcelles, governor of New France. The colony was more than doubled by the transportation of many emigrants from France. 1666. Expedition of Tracy and Courcelles against the Mohawks. 1666. Allouez founded the mission of St. Esprit on the southern shore of lake Superior. 1668. The peace of Breda ended the war between England and France which had broken out in 1666. England restored Aca- dia to France, and obtained from France Antigua, Montser- rat, and St. Christopher. This was followed by a peace between the French and the Five Nations. In this year Foundation of Sault Ste. Marie, at the entrance of lake Superior by Dablon and Marquette. 1672. Tour of Allouez and Dablon in Wisconsin and Illinois. 1673. Discovery of the Mississippi by Marquette and Joliet (June 17) who descended the stream for an uncertain distance. Count Frontenao, governor of Canada, completed a fort at On- tario called after himself. Construction of a fort at Michilli- machinac. 1678. Robert Cavalier de La Salle began his career of discovery in the great west. Launching in the Niagara, the Griffin, a ves- sel of forty-flve tons, the fltrst ever seen on the great laies, he sailed Aug. 7, 1679. He passed through lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan, and landed at the extreme southern end of the latter lake in October. He built a fort on the St. Joseph and crossed the portage to the Illinois. Not hearing from the Griffin he returned on foot to Canada. Obtaining fresh sup- plies he retraced his route to the Illinois only to imd the fort which he had there erected deserted. Again he returned to Canada ; again he obtained aid, and again undertook his enter- prise. 1680. Discovenr of the Mississippi by Hennepin, a priest in the com- pany of La SaUe. He ascended the river to 46° N., but the claim which he later advanced that he had explored the Mis< sissippi to the sea is probably false. I The southern houndaTy of Acadia in the grant of Henry IV., 1630, was 40° N. ; the southwestern hmit of Nmn Scotia in the grant of James I.. 1621, ■was the river Si. Croix. Holmes, Annals, I. 307, note 4. A. D. America. 865 1682. La Salle, reaching the Misaissippi by way of the St. Joseph and the Illinois, descended the great river to the sea and took possession of its valley for Louis XIV., April 9, under the name of Louisiana. 1684. Expedition of De la Barre against the Iroquois, which failed of success. La Salle having announced his discovery in France was sent out at the head of four vessels and a number of settlers to estab- lish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. Contention be- tween La Salle and the commander of the vessels, who was jealous of the discoverer, resulted in disaster. The squadron missed the mouth of the Mississippi and landed at Matagorda Bay (St. Louis), four hundred miles to the west. Here La Salle built a fort, but privation and disease soon greatly re- ducing the numbers of the colony he undertook to go on foot to Canada for relief. On this expedition 1687. La Salle was shot by one of his own men. The settlement of Mar. 19. St. Louis soon perished. 1687. Expedition of De DenonvUle against the Senecas. At this time there were about 11,000 persons in New France. 1689-1697. 'War of William and Mary, see p. 361. Expeditions of Frontenac against the Iroquois (1693, 1696, 1697). 1699. The French and the English both attempted to found a col- ony in Louisiana. The iSrench colony was sent out by Louis XIV. under Lemoine d'Iberville, who entered the Mississippi March 2, and also founded a colony at Biloxi. The English attempt was made by Coxe, a claimant of the old grant of Carolana, who entered the Mississippi, but, finding himself an- ticipated, retired {Detour avx Anglais). 1700. An expedition from Biloxi ascended to the falls of St. An- thony, in searcli of gold. Iberville returning from France took possession of Louisiana anew for the. crown. Erection of a fort, i^'oundation of Kaskaskia in Illinois. Foundation of Cahokia in Illinois. Fort at Detroit (1701). 1702-13. Queen Anne's war, see p. 363. Iberville brought new settlers from France and transferred the colony of Biloxi to Mobile in Alabama. Iberville f 1706. 1705. Foundation of Vincennes in Indiana. 1712. Grant to Sieur Antoine Crozat of the whole commerce of fif- teen years of all the " king's lands in North America lying be- tween New France on the north, Carolina on the east, and New Mexico on the west, down to the gulf of Florida j by the name of Louisiana." (See p. 417.) §2. FRANCE. (Seep.SSe.) 1643-1715. Louis XIV. (five years old), under the guardianship of his mother, Anne, daughter of Philip III., king of Spain, called by the French Anne ofAwtria, i. e. 866 Modem History. A. D. of Hapsburg. The government, even after Louis' arrival at ma- jority, was conducted by cardinal Mazarin. 1648-1663. Disturbances of the Fronde (cardinal Retz; prince of Conde ; resistance of the parliament of Paris), the last at- tempt of the French nobility to oppose the court by armed resist- ance. Conde, ai first loyal, afterwards engaged. against the court, fought a battle with the roySJ troope under (Henri de la Tour d'Avr- vergne, vicomte de) Turenne, in the Faubourg Saint Antoine, and took refuge in Spain. The first conspiracy, the old Fronde, ended in 1649, with the second treaty of Ruel ; the second conspiracy, the new Fronde, which involved treasonable correspondence with Spain, failed in 1650. A union of the two was crushed in 1653. (Gaston of Orleans, and his daughter, "Mademoiselle.") 1648. Acquisitions of France in the Peace of Westphalia, p. 316. The war with Spain, which sprang up during the Thirty Years' War (victory of Conde' at Rocroy, May 18, 1643 ; alliance with Eng- Tand, 1657 ; Cromwell sent 8,000 men of his army to the assistance of \TuTenue) was continued till the 1659. Peace of the Pyrenees: 1. France received a part of Roussillon, Conflans, Cerdagne, and several towns in Artois and Flanders, Hainault and Luxembourg. 2. The duke of Lorraine, the ally of Spain, was partially reinstated ■^France received Bar, Clermont, etc., and right of passage for troops) ; the prince of Condd entirely reinstated. 3. Marriage between Louis XIV. and the infant Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of Philip IV. of Spain, who, however, renounced her claims upon her inheritance for herself and her issue by Louis forever, both for herself before mar- riage and for herself and her husband after marriage, in considera- tion of the payment of a dowry of 600,000 crowns by Spain. 1661. Death of Mazarin- Personal government of Louis XIV. (1661-1715), absolute, arbitrary, without etats Jen^raux, without regard to the remonstrances of the parliament of 'aris (L'etat, c'esi moi). Colbert, controller general of the finances, from 1662-1683. Reform of the finances ; mercantile system. Con- struction of a fleet of war. Louvois, minister of war, 1666-1691. Quarrel for precedence in rank with Spain. Negotiations with the Pope concerning the privileges of French ambassadors at Rome. The ambition of Louis for fame, and his desire for increase of terri- tory were the causes of the following wars, in which these generals took part : Turenne, Conde, Luxembourg, Catinat, Villars, Vendome, Vauban (inventor of the modern system of military defense). 1667-1668. First war of conquest (war of devolution) on account of the Spanish Netherlands. Cause: After the death of his father-in-law,. Philip IV. of Spain, Louis laid claim to the Spanish possessions in the Belgian provinces (Brabant, Flanders, etc.), on the ground that, being the personal estates A. D. France. 367 of the royal family of Spain, their descent ought to be regulated by the"^ local " droit de devolution," a principle in private law, whereby in the event of a dissolution of a marriage by death, the survivor enjoyed the usufruct only of the property, the ownership being vested in the children, whence it followed that daughters of a first marriage inher- ited before sons of a second marriage.* The renunciation of her^ heritage which his wife had made was, Louis claimed, invalid, since the stipulated dowry had never been paid. 1667. Turenne conquered a part of Flanders and Hainault. By the exertions of Jan de Witt, pensioner of Holland, and Sir 1668. William Temple, England, Holland, and Sweden, concluded the Jan. 23. Triple Alliance, which induced Louis, after Conde had, with great rapidity, occupied the defenseless free county of Burgundy {Franche Comte) to sign the 1668. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. May 2. Louis restored Franche-Comie (the fortresses having been dismantled) to Spain, in return for which he received twelve fertified towns on the border of the Spanish Netherlands, among others, Lille, Toumay, and Oudenarde. The question of the succession was not settled, but deferred. 1672-1678. Second war of conquest (against Holland). The course of Holland in these transactions had inflamed the hatred of Louis against her, a hatred made still stronger by the refuge given by the provinces to political writers who aimoyed him with their abus- ive publications. To gain his purpose, the destruction or the humilia- tion of Holland, Louis secured the disruption of the Triple Alliance by a 1670. Private treaty with Charles II. of England (p. 380), and be- 1672. tween France and Sweden. Subsidy treaties with Cologne and MUnster; 20,000 Germans fought for Louis in the following war. 1672. Passage of the Rhine. Rapid and easy conquest of southern Holland by Turenne, Conde', and the king, at the head of 100,000 men. The brothers De Witt, the leaders of the aristocratic republican party in HoUand, were killed during a popular outbreak (Aug. 27), and William III. of Orange was placed at the head of the state. The opening of the sluices saved the province of Holland, and the city of Amsterdam. Alliance of Holland with Frederic William, elector of Brandenburg (1640-1688), afterwards joined by the emperor and by Spain. 1673. Frederic William concluded the separate peace of Vossem (not far from Louvaine), in which he retained his possessions in Cleves, except Wesel and Rees. 1674. Declaration of war by the empire. 1 " Secundam artiquas Meklin. constitutiones et fere per universam Braban- tiam superates altero conjugb mortuo usufructuarius redditur suorum bonarum, eorum proprietate statim ad liberos proximos vel qui haeredes futuri sunt devo* lata." Comm. to the customs of Mechlin. Banke, Franz. Getch. III., 226. 368 Modern History. A. D, Peace between England and Holland. Louis XIV. conquered Franche-Comte in person ; Conde fought against Orange (drawn battle at Senef) in the Netherlands. Brilliant campaign of Turenne on the upper Rhine (first ravaging of the palat- inate) against Monteeuculi, the imperial general, and the elector of Brandenburg. The latter, recalled by the inroad of the Swedish allies of Louis XIV. into his lands, defeated the Swedes in the 1675. Battle of Pehrbellin. In the same year Turenne fell at June 18. Sasbach, in Baden (July 27). The French retreated across the Bhine. 1676. Naval successes in the Mediterranean against the Dutch and Spanish. Death of De Ruyter. 1677. Marriage of William of Orange with Mary, eldest daughter of the duke of York. 1678. Surprise and capture of Ghent and Ypres by the French. Negotiations with each combatant, which had been for some time in progress, resulted in the 1678-1679. Peace of Nimwegen. Holland and France (Aug. 10, 1678) ; Spain and France (Sept. 17, 1678) ; the Emperor, with France and Sweden (Feb. 6, 1679) ; Holland with Sweden (Oct. 12, 1679). At Fontainebleau, France and Denmark (Sept. 2, 1679). At Lund, Denmark and Sweden (Sept. 26, 1679). 1. Holland received its whole territory back, upon condition of preserving neutrality. 2. Spain ceded to France, Franche-Comte, and on the northeast frontier, Valenciennes, Canibray, and the Cam- bresis. Aire, Poperingen, St. Omer, Ypres, Conde, Bouchain, Maubeuge, and other towns ; France ceded to Spain, Charleroi, Binche, Oude- narde, Ath, Courtray, Limburg, Ghent, Woes, etc. ; and in Cata- lonia, Puycerda. 3. The Emperor ceded to France Freiburg in the Breisgau ; France gave up the right of garrison in Philippsburg ; the duke of Lorraine was to be restored to his duchy, but on such con- ditions that he refused to accept them. Louis XIV. forced the elector of Brandenburg to conclude the 1679. Peace of St. Germain-en-Laye, whereby he surrendered to STveden nearly all of his conquests in Pommerania, in return for which he received only the reversion of the principality of East Friesland, which became Prussian in 1744, and a small indemnifica- tion (exclamation of the elector : Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor, Virg. JEn. IV. 626). Louis " the Great " at the height of his power. His boundless am- bition stimulated by the weakness of the empire led him to establish the 1680-1683. Chambers of Beuuion at Metz, Breisach, Be- sani;on, and Tournay. These were French courts of claims with power to investigate and decide what dependencies had at any time belonged to the territories and towns which had been ceded to France by the last four treaties of peace. Tlie king executed with his troops the decisions of his tri- A. D. France. 369 buuals, thus adding to violence in time of peace, the scoS of a legal formality. Saarbriick, Luxembourg, Deuxponts (^Zweibrilcken), and many other towns were thus annexed to France. 1681, Oct. Capture of Strasburg by treachery. 1683. Invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, occupation of Luxembourg, and seizure of Trier (1684). Lorraine permanently occupied by France. To the weakness of the empire, the wars with the Turks, and the general confusion of European relations since the peace of Nimwegen, it is to be attributed that these outrageous aggressions were met by nothing more than empty protests, and that 1684. A truce for twenty years was concluded at Regensburg between Louis and the emperor and the empire, whereby he retained everything he had obtained by reunion up to Aug. 1, 1681, including Strasburg. Louis' mistresses : Louise de la Valliere ; Madame de Montespan ; Madame de Maintenon {Francoise d'^ufti^me), a narrow bigot whose influence over the king was boundless. Maria Theresa died 1683. Louis privately married to Madame de Maintenon. War upon heresy. The dragonnades in Languedoc. Wholesale conversions. 1685. Oct 18. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The exercise of the reformed religion in France was forbid- den, children were to be educated in the Catholic faith, emigration was prohibited. In spite of this more than 50,000 families, including military leaders {Schomberg'), men of letters, and the best part of the artiflcers of France, made their way to foreign countries. Their loss was a blow to the industry of the country, which hastened the approach of the revolution. The exiles found welcome in Holland, England (Spitalfields), Brandenburg. The Protestants of Alsace re- tained the freedom of worship which had been secured to them. 1689-1697. Third War. (War concerning the succession of the palatinate.) Cause : After the extinction of the male line of the electors palatine in the person of the elector Charles (f 1685), whose sister was the wife of Louis XIV.'s brother, the duke of Orleans, the king laid claim to the allodial lands of the family, a claim which he soon extended to the greater portion of the country. Another ground for Frederic V. (king of Bohemia). t 1632. ! i I Sophia m. Charles LouiB, dimeat Augustus, t 1680. of Hanover. QeorRe I. Charles, Charlotte' Elizabeth, of England. t 1685. m. Philip, duke of without Orleans, brother of male issue. J^uia XIV. 24 370 Modern History. A. d. war was found in the quarrel over the election of the archbishop of Cologne, which Louis was resolved to secure for Von Fiirstenburg, bishop of Strasburg, in place of prince Clement of Bavaria (1688). Meantime the unfavorable impression produced throughout Protes- tant Europe by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes had contributed to the success of the plans of William of Orange, and 1686. The League of Augsburg, directed against France, was signed July 9. by the Emperor, the kings of Sweden and Spain, the electors of Bavaria, of Saxony, and the palatinate. In 1688 occurred the revolution in England which placed William of Orange on the throne of that country, and added a powerful kingdom to the new foes of Louis. The exiled James II. took refuge with the French monarch (court at St. Germain, p. 385). 1688. Invasion and frightful devastation of the Palatinate, by Oct. order of Louvois, executed by Melac (Heidelberg, Mannheim, Speier, Worms, and the whole country as far as the borders of Alsace ravaged and burnt). The military successes of the French on tiie Khine were vmimportant, especially after 1693, when prince Louis of Bavaria assumed the chief command against them. 1689. The Grand Alliance, between the powers who had joined the League of Augsburg and England and Holland (Savoy had joined the league in 1687). The principal scene of war was in the Ketherlands. 1690. June 30. Battle of Fleurus, defeat of the prince of Waldeck by Louis' general. Marshal Luxembourg. The French expedition to Ireland in aid of James had but a temporary success. 1690, July 1. Victory of William III. over the adherents of James II. at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland (p. 387). French successes in Piedmont ; Catinat reduced Savoy ; de- feat of Victor Amadeus at Staffarda. 1692, May. Defeat of the French fleet under Tourville by the Eng- lish and Dutch at Cape La Hogue. The mastery of the sea passed from the French to the English. Death of Louvois. 1692, July 24. Battle of Steinkirk (Steenkerken) in Hainaiilt. Victory of Luxembourg over William III. Fall of Namur. (June). . 1693, July 29. Battle of Neerwlnden. Victory of Luxembourg over William III., who in spite of his many defeats still kept the field. In Italy Marshal Catinat defeated the duke of Savoy at Mar- saglia. Rise of prince Eugene (" Eugenio von Savoye," " the little abb^," son of Maurice of Savoy-Carignan, count of Soissons and Olympia Mancini, niece of Mazarin, b. 1663 at Paris ; refused a commission by Louis XIV., he entered the Austrian service in 1683 ; died April 21, 1736). On June 30, the English fleet was defeated at Lagos Bay by Tourville. Failure of the English attack upon Brest (1694), not by the treachery of Marlborough. Death of Luxem- bourg (Jan. 1696) ; he was succeeded by the incapable Villeroy. A. D. France. 371 1695, Sept. Recapture of Namur by Williain III. 1696, May 30. Separate Peace with Savoy at Turin. All con- quests were restored to the duke (Pignerol and Casale), and his daughter married Louis' grandson, the duke of Burgundy. Savoy promised to remain neutral. 1697, Peace of Ryswiok, a village near the Hague. Treaty Sept. 30. between France, England, Spain, and Holland. 1. Confirmation of the separate peace with Savoy. 2. Restoration of conquests between France and England and Holland ; 'William m. acknowledged as king of England, and Anne, as his successor, Louis promising not to help his enemies. 3. It was agreed that the chief fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands should be garrisoned with Dutch troops as a barrier between France and Holland. 4. France restored to Spain all places which had been " reunited " since the peace of Nimwegeu, with the exception of eighty-two places, and all conquests. 5. Holland restored Pondicherri in India to the French East India Company and received commercial privileges in return. 1697, Oct. 30. Treaty between France and the emperor (and em- pire.) 1. France ceded all the " reunions " except Alsace, which hencefor- ward was lost to the empire. 2. Strasburg was ceded to France. 3. France ceded Freiburg and Breisach to the emperor, and Phillips- burg to the empire. 4. The duchy of Zweibriicken was restored to the king of Sweden, as count palatine of the Rhine. 6. Lorraine was re- stored to duke Leopold (excepting ScMrlouis). 6. The claims of car- dinal FUrstenburg to the archbishopric of Cologne were disavowed. 7. The Rhine was made free. Brilliant period of French literature in the age of Louis XIV. Comeille (1606-1684) ; Racine (1639-1699) ; MoUgre (Jean Baptiste Poquelin, 1622-1673) ; La Fontaine (1621-16^5) ; Boileau (1636- 1711); Bossuet (1627-1704); Flechier (f 1710); FAielon (Franfois de Salignac de Lamothe, 1651-1715). Louis' court at Versailles (after 1680) was the pattern for all the other courts of Europe. Buildings, luxury, mistresses (La Valliere, Montespan, Fontange). After the death of his wife, Maria Theresa of Spain (1683), Louis made a secret marriage with Frantoise d'Aubigne, widow of the poet Scarron (1610-1660), whom he made Marquise de Maintenon. (See pp. 390, 445.) § 3. GEEMAin!'. (Seep. S17.) 1658-1705. Leopold I., son of Ferdinand III. After 1663 permanent diet at Kegensburg, consisting of the representalhes of the eight electors, the sixty-nine ecclesiastical, the ninety-six secular princes, and the imperial cities. [A miracle of te- dious le^lation, often degenerating into a squabble for precedence. " A bladeless knife without a handle."] Corpus Catholicorum and Cor- pus Evangelicorum; [the corporate organizations of the Catholic and the evangelical estates, the latter being the most important. This oi>- 372 Modem History. A. D. ganization of the Protestant estates had existed, in fact, since the latter half of the sixteenth century, but it was legally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia, where it was decreed that in the diet matters relating to religion and the church should not be decided by a majority, but should be settled by conference and agreement between the Cath- olic and Protestant estates, as organized corporations.] 1661-1664. First war with the Turks ; caused by a dispute con- cerning the election of a prince in Transylvania. The Turkish successes at last enabled the emperor to obtain help from the empire and from the French. Victory of the imperial gen- eral Montecuculi over the Turks at St. Gotthard on the Raab (1664). A truce for twenty years, favorable to the Turks, was, nevertheless concluded. War of the empire against Louis XIV. (see p. 367). 1666. Settlement of the contested succession of Cleve-Jiilich : Cleve, Mark, Ravenstein, and half of Ravensberg given to Bran- denburg ; afterwards, the whole of Ravensberg instead of Ra venstem. 1682-1699. Second war with the Turks. Conspiracy of Hun- garian magnates detected and punished. Count Tiikoly ap- pealed to the Turks for aid. Invasion of Hungary by the Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha and 1683. Siege of Vienna. ' Heroic defense conducted by Rudiger von Stahremberg. Sue. cessf ul relief by a united German and Polish army under Charles of Lorraine and John Sobieski, king of Poland. Henceforward active participation of the German princes in the war, assisted by Venice. After the victory of Charles of Lorraine over the Turks at Mohacs (pron. Mohatch) Aug. 12, 1687, the diet at Pressburg conferred the hereditary succession to the throne of Hungary upon the male line of Austria. The war continued with varying fortune until Prince Eugene, by the 1697. Victory ofZenta, brought about the 1699, Jan. 26. Peace of Carlowitz : 1. The Porte received the Banat Temesvar ; Austria, the rest of Hungary and Transylvania. 2. Venice received Morea (the Peloponnesus, p. 416). Toward the close of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century, several German princes obtained an elevation in rank. 1692. 1. Hanaoer became the ninth electorate. 1697. 2. The elector of Saxony (Augustus II.), after the death of John Sobieski, became king of Poland, and adopted the Cath- olic faith. 3. Frederic III., elector of Brandenburg (1688-1713), son of the Great Elector, assumed, with the consent of the emperor, the 1701. title of king in Prussia (Frederic I.) and crowned himself at Jan, 18. Konigsberg. {See p. 397.) A. D. The North and East. 373 § 4. THE NORTH AND EAST. Sweden. (Seep.SSS:) Sweden, whose possessions almost surrounded the Baltic Sea, was the first power of the North after the Thirty-Years' War. 1654-1718 (1751). Dynasty of the counts palatine of Z-weibrucken (p. 352). 1654r-1660. Charles X., Gustavus, undertook a war with Poland, because John Casimir (of the house of Vasa) refused to ac- knowledge him. He invaded Livonia and Poland, captured Warsaw and drove John Casimir into Silesia. Frederic William, elector of Bran- denburg, who had come with an ai-my to the defense of East Prussia, was obliged, by the treaty of Eonigsberg (1656) to receive his duchy in fee from Sweden, as he had heretofore held it from Poland. He received also the bishopric of Ermeland. Uprising in Poland against the Swedes. Charles Gustavus and the elector Frederic William, who had become a still closer ally by the treaty of Marienhurg, gained the 1636. Three days' battle of Warsaw over the Poles. In order to further secure for himself the aid of the elector of Brandenburg, Charles Gustavus granted him, in the treaty of Labiau (1656) the sov- ereignty over East Prussia and Ermeland. Nevertheless, Russia, Den- mark and the emperor, declared war upon Sweden, and they were soon joined by the elector of Brandenburg, who received from Poland in the treaty of Wehlau (1657) recognition of his sovereignty over East Prussia, but not over Ermeland, for which he received compensation elsewhere. The Swedes were soon driven out of Poland, retaining a hold on Polish Prussia only. Charles Gustavus attacked Denmark which he soon conquered (crossing of the frozen Belt, Jan. 1658), and compelled to make important cessions in the peace of RoesiM (1658). In the same year Charles Gustavus invaded Denmark a sec- ond time, purposing the annihilation of the monarchy. Courageous defense of Copenhagen. The Danes received assistance > from all sides. Raise of the siege. Sudden death of Charles Gustavus (1660), Under his minor son 1660-1697. Charles XI., the 1660. Peace of Oliva (monastery near Danzig) was con- cluded with Poland. John Casimir abandoned his claims upon the throne of Sweden, at well as upon Livonia and Esthonia. Restoration of the duke of Cur- land. The sovereignty of Prussia ratified by Sweden and Poland. This was followed immediately by the Peace of Copenhagen with Denmark, which surrendered forever the southern part of the Scandinavian peninsula, which had been ceded already by the peace of Roeskild, but retained Drontheim and Bomholm. Peace between Sweden and Russia at Kardis (1661) ; reciprocal surrender of conquests. 374 Modern History. A. n War between Sweden, as the ally of France, and Brandenburg ; battle of Fehrbellin, p. 368; peace of St. Germain-en'Laye, p. 368. {See pp. 394, 409.)/ Denmark. (See p. 35^ Immediately after the peace (1660) the third estate (burghers), im- patient of the rule of the nobility, and the clergy, conferred upon the kiug, Frederic III. (1648-1670), an absolutely uncontrolled authority. Lez Regia. In the same way the Swedish estates, weary of the over-great power of the royal council, conferred almost unlimited power upon king Charles XI., who was now of age. (5ee p. 4^9.') Poland. (See p. S32 ) In Poland, on the contrary, the royal power had become a mere shadow at this period, and the state was, in fact, a republic of nobles. The diet, composed of the senate (bishops, woiwods, castellanes), and the elected representatives from the country (representatives of the nobility) exercised every function of government. The liberum veto, that is, the right of each individual member of the diet to defeat a resolution by his protest, and thus to break up the diet, led to bribery, violence, and, in the end, to absolute anarchy. After the abdication of John Casimir (1668), there followed a bloody contest for the throne ; then John Sobieski (1674-1696), the liberator of Vienna (p. 372), and finally Augustus II. of Saxony (1697-1733), under whom the war with the Turks was ended by the Peace of Carlo'witz (p. 372). {See pp. 397, 410.) Russia. (Seep. 3oS.) Under the house of Romanow Russia developed in strength and influence. The son of the founder of the dynasty, Alexis, reconquered Little (White) Russia from Poland, and began to introduce European civilization into Russia. After the death of his eldest son, Feodor (1682), his brothers, Ivan and Peter (son of the Czar's second wife, Natalia Narischkin), proclaimed Czars under the guardianship of their elder sister, Sophia, by the Strelitzes, the noble body-guard of the emperor. Peter in Preobaschensk, under the guidance of Le/ort, a Swiss. Playing soldiers : origin of the later guard. His half-sister, Sophia, endeavored to exclude him from the throne, but was sent to a cloister by Peter (1689). 1689-1725. Peter I., the Great, reigned as sole monarch, his weak minded brother, Ivan, con- tinuing until his death (1696) without the least authority. Peter began his reforms with the assistance of Gordon, a Scot, and Le/ort. Conquest of Azoff (1696). After cruelly punishing a revolt of the Strelitzes, Peter undertook lois first journey (1697-1698), for his instruction, through Grermany to Holland, where he worked as a ship's carpenter in Saardam {Zaandam), and afterwards to England (en- gagement of foreign artisans, artists, and military officers). Peter intended to visit Italy, but was recalled by a new revolt of the A.. D. England. 375 Strelitzes (1698). Bloody punishment ; dissolution of the Strelitzes, who were replaced by an army after the European pattern (1699). 1699. Peace with the Turks at Carlomtz. Acquisition of Azoff. {See pp. a94, 410.) § 5. ENGLAND. (Seep. S51.) 1649-1660. England a republic; the Common-wealth. The government was actually in the hands of the army of inde- pendents under Oliver Cromwell (b. at Huntingdon, April 25, 1599, where he met prince Charles, 1603 ; admitted to Sidney-Sussex College, 1616 ; death of his father, 1617 ; mar- ried Elizabeth Bourchier, 1620 ; M. P. for Huntingdon, 1628 j his first speech, Feb. 1629 ; removed to St. Ives, 1631 ; re- moved to Ely, 1636 ; affair of Bedford-Level, 1638 ; M. P. for Cambridge, 1640 ; removed to London ; resided at the Cock- pit [Westminster], 1650 ; at Whitehall, 1654 ; died Sept. 3, 1658. Children : Oliver, Richard, b. 1626 ; abdicated May 25, 1659 ; died, 1712 ; Henry, b. 1628 ; Bridget, married Ireton, 1646 [Fleetwood, 1651] ; Elizabeth, married Mr. Claypole ; died, 1658 ; Frances, married Richard Bich, grandson of Waiv wick, 1657; Afary, married lord JP'ouconfter^), but theoretically the legislative department was in the hands of the Biunp par- liament, consisting of some fifty members of the commons (in- dependents), while the executive was entrusted to a council of state numbering forty-one members (three judges, three mili- tary commanders, five peers, thirty members of the commons). Abolition of the title and office of king, and of the house of lords. Charles II. proclaimed in Edinburgh (Feb. 6). New great seal. Rising in Ireland in favor of Charles II., under the marquis of Ormond. Expedition of Cromwell to Ireland (Aug. 15). 1649, Sept. 12. Storm of Drogbeda ; massacre of the garrison, followed by the storm and massacre of Wexford. Cromwell returned to London, May, 1650, leaving Ireton in Ireland. The "rebellion" was not thoroughly put down until 1652, when three out of four provinces were confiscated. 1650, Montrose landed in Scotland, was defeated at Corbiesdale (April 27), betrayed, captured, and executed at Edinburgh May 21. June 24. Charles II. landed in Scotland, and after taking the cov- enant, was proclaimed king. Cromwell appointed captain-general in place of Fairfax. He led 16,000 men to Scotland, and totally defeated the Scots under Leslie at the Sept. 3. Battle of Dunbar. Surrender of Edinburgh and Glasgow. 1651, Jan. 1. Charles II. was crowned at Scone and marched into England (July) at the head of the Scotch army while. Crom- weU took Perth (Aug. 2). The latter followed the king, and at the Sept. 3. Battle of Worcester totally defeated the royalists. Charles in disguise escaped to France. 376 Modem History. A. d. 1651, Oct. 9, First navigation act, forbidding the importation of goods into England except in English vessels (but goods might be conveyed to England in vessels belonging to the country producing the goods). This measure was aimed at the Dutch, and resulted in the 1652, July 8-1654, April 5. Dutch War. Naval actions in the Channel ; English commanders, Blake, Monk ; Dutch, Van Tramp, De Ruyter. English victory in the Downs before the declaration of war. May. Defeat of Van Tramp and De Ruyter, Sept. 28 ; defeat of Blake, Nov. ; de- feat of Van Tramp off Portland, Feb. 18, 1653 ; off the North Foreland, June 2, 3. Death of Ireton (Nov. 1651). Between the army and the Rump there had been growing contention since the death of Charles I. A new parliament was desirable, but the members of the Rump wished to retain their seats in any new parliament. The negotiations for ransom of confiscated royalist estates led to bribery of members. 1652, Feb. Act of indemnity and oblivion. Aug. First act of settlement for Ireland. 1653, April 20. Cromwell turned out the Rump and dissolved the council of state. Establishment of a, new council and nom- inatian of July 4. A new parliament (" Barebone's parliament," also called the "Little parliament ), consisting of about 140 members. July 31. Victory of Monk off the Texel ; death of Van Tromp. Sept. Second act of settlement for Ireland. Dee. 12. The Cromwellians in parliament resigned their powers to Cromwell ; an act subsequently approved by the majority. 1653, Dec.-1659, May. Protectorate. 1653, Dec. 16-1658, Sept. 3. Cromwell Lord Protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. " The instrument of government," a written constitution. The executive power was vested in the lord protector, who was pro- vided with a council of twenty-one, which filled its own vacancies. A standing army of 30,000 men established ; parliament was to be triennial, and to consist of 460 members, and when once summoned could not be dissolved inside of five months. Between sessions the protector and council could issue ordinances with the force of laws, but parliament alone could grant supplies and levy taxes. 1654, April 5. Peace with the Dutch. Sept. 3. New parliament. As the course of the assembly did not suit the protector, he ordered an exclusion of members (Sept. 12), After voting that the office of protector should be elec- tive instead of hereditary the 1655, Jan. 22. Parliament was dissolved. April. Blake chastised the deys of Alters, Tunis, Tripoli. March-May. Rising of Penruddock at Salisbury suppressed. Execu- tion of Penruddock. England divided into twelve military districts, each imder a *• ^' England. 377 major-general, with a force supported by a tax of ten per cent, on royalist estates. May. Perm and Venables, sent to make reprisals in the Spanish West Indies, captured Jamaica. 1655, Oct. Pacification of Pinerolo concluded with France. The duke of Savoy to stop the persecution of the Vaudois. Charles to be expelled from France. Nov. AngHcan clergymen forbidden to teach or preach. Priests ,«.„ ordered out of the kingdom. Censorship of the press. 16o6-1659. War with Spain. Sept. 9. Capture of Spanish treasure ships off Cadiz. 1636, Sept. 17-1658, Feb. 4. CromweU'a third parUament. Another exclusion of members. Oct. Reduction of the power of the major-generals. " 1657, Jan. Plot against the protector (" Killing no Murder "). Pun- ishment of Nayler. March-May. Humble petition and advice altering the constitu- tion, adopted by parliament. Establishment of a second house ; the council of state reduced in power ; the protector deprived of the right of excluding members ; fixed supply for the army and navy ; toleration of all Christians except Episcopalians and Roman Catholics. The title of king was offered to Cromwell but rejected by him (May 8). April 20. Victory of Blake off Santa Cruz. Death of Blake, Aug. 17. June 26. Second inauguration of Cromwell. -1658, Jan. 20. New session of parliament, including "the other house." Feb. 4. Dissolution of Cromwell's last parliament. May. Siege of Dunkirk by the English and French. A Spanish force advancing to the relief of the town was defeated in the June 4. Battle of the Dunes, which was followed by the surrender of Dunkirk (June 17). In the peace of the Pyrenees (1659, p. 366), England received this town. Sept. 3. Death of Oliver Cromwell. 1658, Sept. 3-1659, May 25. Richard Cromwell lord pro- tector. 1659, Jan. 27. A new parliament met, and was soon involved in a dispute with the army, which induced Richard to April 22. Dissolve the parliament (" Humble representation and advice of the officers "). May 7. The Rump parliament reassembled under Lenthall as speaker. May 25. Richard Cromwell resigned the protectorate. Aug. Insurrection of Booth crushed at Winnington Bridge (Lam- hertY Oct. 13. Expulsion of the Rump by the army (Lambert). Appoint- ment of a military committee of safety. This assertion of authority did not meet with approval even within the army. Dec. 26. Restoration of the Rump. Monk, who was in Scotland, led his army to London and assumed control of affairs (Feb. 3, 1660). Monk captain-general. 378 Modem History. A. D. 1660, Feb. 21. Bestoration of members excluded in 1648. Be-estab- lishmeut of the Long Parliament. March 16. Final dissolution of the Long Farliameut.^ 1660, Apr. 14. Declaration of Breda. Charles proclaimed am- nesty to all not especially excepted by parliament, promised liberty of religious belief, and the settlement of confiscated estates in the hands of the possessors. 1660, Apr. 25-Dec. 29. Convention ■ Parliament ; chosen without restrictions and numbering 556 members. The parliament re- ceived the declaration of Breda favorably and returned a loyal answer to the king (May 1). May 8. Charles proclaimed king ; on May 29 he entered London. 1660-1685, Charles II., extravagant, dissipated, careless of the duties of his position. Charles's restoration was hailed by an outburst of loyalty which en- abled him to neglect many of the promises of the declaration of Breda. The king's brother, James, duke of York, appointed lord high admiral and warden of the Cinque ports ; Monk captain-general ; Sir Edward Hyde (earl of Clarendon) chancellor and prime minister. .Abolition of the feudal rights of knight service, worship, a.n6. purvey- ance in consideration of a yearly income for the king of £l,2OO,O0O. Bestoration of the bishops to their sees and to parliament. Act of in- demnity for all political offenses committed between Jan. 1, 1637, and June 24, 1660 ; the regicides were excepted from this act. AU acts of the long parliament to which Charles I. had assented were declared in force. The army was disbanded (Oct.), excepting some 5,000 men. Declaration for the settlement of Ireland. 1660, Dec. 29. Dissolution of the Convention parliament. 1661, Jan. Bising of the ffth monarchy men in London (Venner). Bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, Bradshaw, disinterred and treated with indignity. Boyalist parliament in Scotland. Abolition of the Covenant. Bepeal of all enactments of preceding parliaments for the last twenty-eight years. Apr.-July. Savoy Conference of Episcopalians and Presbyterians. Apr. 23. Coronation of Charles II. 1661, May 8-1679, Jan. 24. New parUament. « Cavalier " or " pen- sion " parliament. Solemn league and covenant burnt. 1661, May 27. Execution of Argyle in Scotland. 1 Eeoapitulation of the history of the Long Parliament : — 1640, Nov. 3. First assembled. 1648, Dec. 6, 7. Pride's Purge. The Eump. 1653, April 20. The Kump turned out by Cromwell. 1B59, May 7. The Rump restored. 1659, Oct. 13. The Bump expelled by the army. 1659, Dec. 26. The Eump restored. 1660, Feb. 21. Members excluded by Pride's Purge, restored. 1660, March 16. The parliament dissolved. ^- !>• England. 379 Nov. 20. Corporation act : all magistrates and municipal officers obliged to take the sacrament according to the Church of Eng- land, to abjure the covenant, and to take an oath declaring it illegal to bear arms against the king. James Sharpe, created archbishop of St. Andrews, attempted to introduce episcopacy in Scotland. 1662, May 20. Marriage of Charles II. with Catherine of Braganza, daughter of John IV. of Portugal. Aug. 24. The act of uniformity (adopted May 19), went into oper- ation. AU clergymen, fellows, and schoolmasters were required to assent to eveiything in the book of common prayer. Nearly 2,000 (?) non-conformists lost their livings (dissenters). Declaration of indulgence promised. 1662, June 14. Execution of Sir Henry Vane. l>lov. Sale of Dunkirk to France for £400,000. Act of settlement for Ireland. 1603. An insurrection of fifth monarchy men in the north was fol- lowed by the passage of the 1664, May. Conventicle act, forbidding the meeting of more than five persons for religious worship, except in the household, or in accordance with the established church. Repeal of the triennial act (1641). Aug. Capture of New Amsterdam in America. 1665, Feb. 22-1667, July 21. War with Holland. 1665, April. The plague in London. June 3. Naval victory of Lowestoft over the Dutch. Oct. The five mile act : all who had not subscribed to the act of uniformity were ordered to take the oath of non-resistance, to swear never to imdertake any alteration in church or state ; and those who refused were prohibited from coming within five miles of any incorporated town, or of any place where they had been settled as ministers. 1666, Jan. 16-1667, July 21. War with Prance. June 1-4. Defeat of Albemarle (Monk) by the Dutch (De Ruyter, De Witt) ofB the North Foreland. Defeat of the Dutch, July 25. Sept. 2. Great Fire of London ; lasting over a week and burning a region of 450 acres. The Monument. St. Paul's rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren. Nov. 28. Battle of Pentland Hills in Scotland. Defeat of the Cov- enanters, who had revolted under their persecutions, by Dalziel. 1667, June. The Dutch fleet burnt Sheerness, entered the Medway, and sailed to within twenty miles of London. July 21. Treaties of Breda between England, Holland, France, Denmark. England received from France, Antigua, Mont- serrat, English St. Christopher's ; France received Acadia. England and Holland adopted the status quo of May 20, 1667; England retaining New Amsterdam, and Holland, Surinam. It was agreed that goods brought down the Rhine might be trans- ported to England in Dutch vessels. Aug. Fall of Clarendon, on whom the most unpopular acts, of the 380 Modern History. A. d. government were fathered ; he was deprived of the great seal, impeached, and banished for life (died at Rouen, 1674). The chief officers of state, whose councils determined the course of government, began in this reign to be looked upon as a distinct (uncon- stitutional) council, although they did not, for some time to come, stand and fall together. Accession of a new ministry called the " Cabal " * {Clifford, Arling- ton, Buckingham, Ashley, Lauderdale). 1668, Jan. 13. The triple alliance between England, Holland, and Siveden negotiated by Sir William Temple and John He Witt as a cheek upon the aggressions of Louis XIV. (p. 367). 1670, May 22. Secret treaty of Dover between Charles II. and Louis XIV. negotiated by Charles's sister, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans. Charles agreed that he and the duke of York would openly join the Church of Kome as soon as expedient, that he would support Louis in his wars with Spain and Holland. Louis promised Charles £200,000 a year while the war lasted, and the assistance of 6,000 men in case of an insurrection. Louise la Querouaille, Charles's mistress, created duchess of Portsmouth. The duke of York at once professed his be- lief in Home. 1670. Second Conventicle act, more stringent than the first. 1672. Charles being in want of money closed the exchequer, thus seiz- ing £1,200,000 which had been advanced to the government by bankers. A general panic followed. 1672, March. Declaration of indulgence ; under the pretense of lightening the burden on non-conformists, the proclamation really aimed at securing toleration for papists. Parliament compelled the king to withdraw the indulgence in 1673. 1672, March 17-1674, Feb. 9. "War with Holland. Invasion of Holland by Louis XIV. Revolution in the Nether- lands. Murder of John and Cornelius De Witt. 'William of Orange stadtholder. May 28. English naval victory at South-wold Bay. Nov. Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper), lord chancellor. 1673, March. Test act. . All persons holding office under government were compelled to take the oaths of allegiance and of supremacy, to abjure tran^ substantiation, and to take the sacrament according to the estab- lished church. The duke of York, Shaftesbury, lord Clifford, resigned office, being superseded by prince Rupert, Sir Thomas Osborne (earl of Danby, viscount Latim£r, marquis of Carmarthen, duke of Leeds), and Sir Heneage Finch (earl of Nottingham). Buck- ingham out of office. Nov. 21. Marriage of the duke of York with Mary d'Este, princess of Modena. 1674, Feb. 9. Treaty of 'Westminster. End of the Dutch-Eng- lish war. 1 This word did not originate from the initials of the ministers, although tho coincidence of their happening to spell the word gave a zest to its application. A. D. England. 381 1677, Nov. 4. Marriage of Mary, daughter of the duke of York, with ■William of Orange (afterwards William III.)- Treaty with Holland ; secret treaty with France. Abolition of the writ de haretico comburendo. Aug. 10. Peace of Nimeguen. 1678, Sept. The Popish Plot. This famous scare began with the information given by Titus Oates, concerning an alleged plot for the murder of Charles and the establishment of Roman Catholicism in England, devised by Don John of Austria, and the father confessor of Louis XIV., Pere la Chaise. Death of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey. Upon the meeting of parliament five Catholic lords (Powys, Bellasis, Stafford, Petre, Arundel) were sent to the Tower. Conviction and execution of Coleman, confessor of the duchess of York. Bedloe swore to the plot, moved by the favors showered on Oates. Passage of the papiste disabling act (repealed 1828) excluding Roman Catholics from parliament. Dec. Impeachment of Danby, on a charge of criminal correspond- ence with France. 1679, Jan. 24. Dissolution of the " Pensioned " Parliament. Danby dismissed from the office of lord high treasurer. The duke of York left the kingdom after procuring from Charles a statement that he had never had any other than his present wife (this to dispose of the claims of the duke of Monmouth, natural son of Charles and Lucy Walters). 1679, March 6-1679, May 27. Third Parliament of Charles n. The impeachment of Danby was resumed ; and he was com- mitted to the Tower, where he lay until 1685. Adoption of the council of thirty, in accordance with the scheme of government sketched by Sir WUliam Temple. Being found cumber- some in practice it was soon superseded by a new cabinet council, com- posed of Sir William Temple ; Savile, viscount Halifax ; Capel, earl of Essez ; Spencer, earl of Sunderland ; Shaftesbury, president, afterwards in opposition. Introduction of a bill to prevent the duke of York from succeeding to the crown, he being a Roman Catholic. (" Exclusion bill " passed to a second reading in the conmions, 207 to 128.) 1679, May. The habeas corpus act signed by the king : judges were obliged, on application, to issue to any prisoner a writ of habeas corpus, directing the jailer to produce the body of the prisoner, and show cause for his imprisonment; prisoners should be indicted in the first term of their commitment, and tried not later than the second ; no person once set free by order of the court could be again imprisoned for the same offense. May 27. Prorogation of parliament (dissolved in July). May-June. Covenanters in Scotland cruelly persecuted hyLauder- dale. Murder of archbishop Sharpe, May 3, 1679. Defeat of Claverhouse by the Covenanters, under Balfour, at Drumclog, June 1. June 22. Battle of Bothwell-Brigg ; defeat of the Covenanters by the duke of Monmouth. Cruelties of the duke of York in Scotland. 382 Modern History. a. d. Oct. 7. The fourth parliament of Charles II., prorogued immediately upon its meeting without the advice of the council : Sir W. Temple, Essex, and Halifax resigned, and were succeeded by Sidney Godolphin, earl of Godolphin, and Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester (son of Clarendon). " Meal tub plot," an alleged papist conspiracy against the king, disclosed by Dangerjidd. (Papers in a tub of meal.) Meeting of parliament demanded by the opposition (Shaftesbury). Petitions sent up, asking that parliament be called. The court party retorted by sending addresses expressive of their abhor- rence at this interference with the king. Hence PetUioners (the opposition) and Abhorrers (the government), afterwards ■Whigs and Tories. ( Whig, name of a Scotch, Tory, of an Irish faction.) 1680, Oct. 21-1681, Jan. 18. Fourth parliament of Charles II. The exclusion bill, passed by the commons, was thrown out in the lords by the influence of Halifax. 1681, March 21-28. Fifth parliament of Charles n., at Oxford. A new exclusion bill being introduced, parliament was dis- solved, March 28. July-Aug. Execution of Plunkett, archbishop of Armagh, for high treason (July 1); of College (Aug. 31). Nov. Shaftesbury, accused of high treason, committed to the Tower. "■ The bill being ignored by the grand jury he escaped to Hol- land (died 1683). Continued persecution of the Covenanters, Conventiclers, and Came- ronians (so called after a popular preacher, f July 20, 1680), in Scot- land. Passage of a test act against the Presbyterians, which, however, also caused the resignation of some eighty Episcopal clergymen. Trial and condemnation of the earl of Argyle (Dec); his flight. 1682, William of Orange in England. The duke of York, accom- panied by John Churchill (b. 1650, served under Turenne in France ; general under James II. ; married Sarah Jenningi ; baron Churchill, 1685 ; earl of Marlborough, 1689 ; duke of Marlborough, 170^ ; died, June 16, 1722), slipwreoked on the voyage to Scotland. Monmouth made a progress in the north- west counties, and was arrested and held to bail. Deo. Death of the earl of Nottingham (Finch) ; Sir Francis North made lord keeper. Sunderland, secretary of state (Jan. 1683). 1683, June. Judgment given against the city of London on a quo warranto ; forfeiture of the charter, which was ransomed. This process was successfully repeated with other corporations. Cdhfederacy oi Monmouth, Essex, Russell, Gray, Howard, Sidney, Hampden; tov securing a change in the proceedings of the gov- ernment. This was supplemented by a plot of a different set of persons for the assassination of the king, known as the Rye House plot, from the place where the king was to be shot. Both plots Vere revealed. Suicide of JEssea:, execution of Russell and Sidney ; Monmouth was pardoned, and retired to Holland. Sept. ■ Jeffreys, lord (jhief justice of" the king's bench. The duke of A- D. England. 383 York was reinstated in ofBoe. Danhy liberated : Dates fined (1684). 1685, Feb. 6. Death of Charles II., who accepted Roman Catholi- cism on his death-bed. 1685-1688. James XL, a cruel, revengeful, deceitful despot. He was twice married : 1. Anne Hyde, daughter of lord Clarendon (daughters, Mary, mar- ried William of Orange ; Anne, married George of Denmark). 2. Mary d'Este (son, James Edward). Halifax, president of the council ; Sunderland, secretary of state ; Godolphin, chamberlain of the queen. Clarendon, lord privy seal, Rochester, treasurer. 1685, May 19-1687, July 2. ParUament of James n. Trial and condenmation of Richard Baxter. Dariby and the popish lords discharged. May. Trial of Oates and Dangerfield, who were sentenced to be whipped. (^Dangerfield died from the punishment.) 1685. Expedition of Monmouth and Argyle. May. Argyle landed in Scotland, where he was coldly received ; June 17 he was captured, and executed June 30. June 11. Landing of Monmouth in Dorsetshire. He proclaimed himself king, as James II. Gathering a force of some 60,000 men he was defeated in the JnlyS. Battle of Sedgemoor (the last battle iu England). July 15. Execution of Monmouth on Tower Hill. " Kirke'a Lambs" quartered on the people in the western counties. Jeffreys sent on a circuit in the west to try the rebels and those who had aided them. " The Bloody Assizes " (Lady Alice Lisle). Jeffreys made lord chancellor. Halifax dismissed from the presidency of the council and super- seded by the earl of Sunderland (who became a Roman Catholic). Parliament met Nov. 9, but as they would not repeal the last act they were prorogued Nov. 27. Arrival of many refugees from France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 1686, June. Sir Edward Hales, a papist, appointed to office by Jaones under a, dispensation. In a suit brought to test the legality of the act judgment was procured in the king's favor, by the appointment of judges favorable to the court. Catholic worship allowed. Protestant clergymen forbidden to preach doctriiutl sermons. Compton, bishop of London, refused to remove the rector of St. Giles who had disobeyed this order. He was therefore tried before a 1686, July. Ne-S7 court of ecclesiastical commission and sus- pended. Camp of 13,000 men at Hounslow Heath. Rochester dis- missed from office. 1687. Clarendon superseded by Tyrconnel (Richard Talbot) as lord lieutenant of Ireland. The fellows of Magdalen College having refused to accept Farmer,^ a papist, whom the king had ap- 384 Modem History. a. d. pointed president, were expelled from their college. This was only a, part of the attempt made by the king to secure the universities. April. First declaration of liberty of conscience published by the king in England and Scotland, granting liberty of con- science to all denominations. July. Parliament dissolved. Father Petre, the king's confessor and chief adviser, admitted to the privy council. 1688, April 25. Second declaration for liberty of conscience ordered to be read in all churches. Saneroft, archbishop of Canterbury, and bishops Ken, Lake, Lloyd, Turner, Trekmmey, White, were committed to the Tower for having petitioned the king not to insist on their reading an Ulegal order. June 10. Birth of a prince. June 29, 30. Trial of the bishops for having published a false, malicious, and seditious libel. The bishops were acquitted, a verdict which was received with wild enthusiasm throughout the country. On the same day an invitation was dispatched to William of Orange to save England from a Catholic tyranny ; it was signed by the " Seven eminent persons " or " seven patriots," the earl of Dev- onshire, earl of Shrewsbury, earl of Danhy, Compton (bishop of London), Henry Sidney, lord Lumley, admiral Russell. James declstred his intention to call a parliament. Last meet- mg of the ecclesiastical commission. Sept. 30. Declaration of William to the people of England, ac- cepting the invitation for the purpose of securing the religious and civil rights of Englishmen. Doubts thrown on the birth of the prince. William's army was under Sdkomherg, his fleet was under admiral Herbert. James's land force was led by Feversham, while Dartmouth commanded the fleet. The declaration frightened James ; he endeavored to retrace his steps and dismissed Sunderland from the council. William sailed from Helvoetsluys Oct. 19, with 14,000 men, but was driven back by a gale. Starting again Nov. 1, 1688, Nov. 5. William landed at Torbay. Risings occurred in various parts of the kingdom, and WUliam was joined by the duke of Grafton and lord Churchill (Nov. 22). Princess Anne fled from Loudon in company with lady Churchill. James is- sued writs for a new parliament and sent commissioners to treat with William. Dec. 10. Queen and prince sent to France. Dec. 11. Plight of James, who tore up the unissued writs for par- liament and took with him the great seal, which he threw into the Thames. 1688, Dec. 11-1689, Feb. 13. Interregnum. Riots in London. Flight of Sunderland and Father Petre ; cap- ture of Jeffreys (f in the Tower April 18, 1689). A. D. England. 385 Dec. 12. Provisional govermnent under the presidency of Halifax, established by the peers in London. Dec. 17. James, who had been stopped at Sheemess, was brought back to London. Dec. 18. James retired to Rochester. Dec. 19. William entered London. Dec. 22. James escaped to France, where he received a pension from Louis XIV. 1689, Jan. 22-1690, Jan. 27. Convention parliament, summoned by the advice of the peers. On Jan. 28 the commons declared : " That king James II. having endeavored to subvert the constitution of the kingdom by breaking the original contract between king and people, and by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, has abdi- cated the government, and that the throne is vacant." Also : " That it hath been found by experience to be inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a popish prince." The lords objected to the use of the word " abdicated," and to the declaration of the "vacancy" of the throne, but an agreement being reached in a conference of the two houses, the crown was offered to Mary and the regency to William ; this being refused, 1689, Feb. 13. Parliament offered the crown to 'William and Meury jointly, accompanying the offer by the presentation of the Declaration of rights, asserting the " true, ancient, and indubitable rights of the people of this realm." 1. That the making or suspend- ing law without consent of parliament is illegal. 2. That the exercise of the dispensing power is illegal. 3. That the ecclesiastical commis- sion court and other such like courts are illegal. 4. That levying money without consent of parliament is illegal. 5. That it is lawful to petition the sovereign. 6. That the maintenance of a standing army without the consent of parliament is illegal. 7. That it is law- ful to keep arms. 8. That elections of members of parliament must be free. 9. That there must be freedom of debate in parliament. 10. That excessive bail should never be demanded. 11. That juries should be impaneled and returned in every trial. 12. That grants of estates as forfeited before conviction of the offender are illegal. 13. That parliament should be held frequently. " William and Mary were declared king and queen of England for life, the chief adminis- tration resting with Wilham ; the crown was next settled on William's children by Mary ; in default of such issue, on the princess Anne of Denmark and her children ; and in default of these, on the children of William by any other wife." The crown was accepted by William and Mary, who were on the same day proclaimed king and queen of Great Britain, Ireland, and France. 1689-1702. WiUiam III. and Mary (until 1694). Privy councillors : earl of Danhy (marqxds of Carmarthen), presi- dent ; Nottingham, Shrewsbury, secretaries of state ; marquis of Halifax, privy seal ; Schomberg (duke of Schomberg) master-general 386 Modem History. a. d. of ordnance ; Bentinch (earl of Portland), privy purse and groom of the stole. Burnet, bishop of Salisbiiry, author of " History of my own Times." Feb. 22. Convention parliament transformed by act into a regular parliament. Settlement of the coronation oath. March 1. Oaths of allegiance and supremacy taken by the houses, the clergy, etc. A few peers, some members of the lower house refused them. Six bishops and about 400 clergy- men were finally (1691) deprived of their holdings for refus- ing to take the oaths, and became known as non-jurors. March 14. Landing of James at Kinsale in Ireland ; joined by Tyr- connel ; entered Dublin March 24. Irish parliament, May 7. Meeting of the estates of Scotland. Reversal of Russell's attainders (later of Sidney's"). First mutiny act to punish defection in the army ; this act, which was necessitated by the declaration of rights, was made for a year only, and was henceforward passed annually. April 11. Coronation of William and Mary. William and Meury were offered and accepted the crown of Scotland. April 20-July 30. Siege of Londonderry by James (Walker); raised by Kirke. 1689, May 7-1697, Sept. 20. War with Prance (p. 361). May 24. Toleration act exempting dissenters (who had taken the oaths of allegiance and supremacy) from penalties for non-at- tendance on the services of the established church. Titus Oates pardoned and pensioned. July. Episcopacy abolished in Scotland. Graham of Claverhouse, now viscount Dundee, enlisted High- landers and raised the standard for James. At the July 17. Battle of Killiecrankie he defeated general Mackay, but fell on the field. July 30. Battle of Newtown Butler in Ireland ; defeat of the Catho- lics. Schomberg in Ireland. In voting supplies parliament assumed as a right the practice which had grown up during the reign of Charles II. of requiring estimates and accounts of supplies needed and used, and intro- duced the system of passing appropriations for specified objects from which they could not be diverted. 1689. Dec. 16. Bill of Rights, a parliamentary enactment of the declaration of rights, repeat- ing the provisions of that paper, settling the succession as de- tailed (p. 385), and enacting that no papist could ■meax the crown. 1690, Feb. 6. Dissolution of parliament. 1690, March 20-1695, May 3. Second parliament of William HI. Tories in the majority. Act of recognition, affirming the legality of the acts of the convention parliament. Settlement of the civil list. William was offended at not receiving so large an income as had been granted either to Charles II. or James II. A. D. England. 387 1690, May 20. Act of Grace, giving indemnity to all supporters of James II., except those who were in treasonable corres- pondence with him. Resignation of Shrewsbury and Halifax. May 23.^ Prorogation of parliament. Appointment of a council of nine to advise Mary during the king's absence (four Whigs, five Tories). June 14. William went to Ireland. With 36,000 men he met James at the head of 27,000, and at the July 1. Battle of the Boyne totally defeated him. Death of Schoniberg. James fled to France. Capture of Dublin, Waterford, etc. June 30. Battle of Beaohy Head ; defeat of the English fleet under lord Torring^on by the iSrenoh. ' Torrington was tried by court martial and acquitted, but dismissed the service.. Aug. First siege of Limerick by William repulsed {SarsfAd). Marlborough in Ireland. Capture of Cork and Kinsale. 1691, William went to Holland. Congress at the Hague. TUlotson, archbishop of Canterbury. July 12. Battle of Aughrim, in Ireland. Defeat of the French general St. Ruth and the Irish Sarsjield, by Cfinkell (death of St. Kuth). Death of Tyrconnel. Aug.-Oct. Second siege of Limerick ; the town surrendered Oct. 3, under the conditions known as the Oct. 3. Treaty, or pacification, of Limerick. Free transportation of all Irish officers and soldiers desiring it to France. {The Irish Brigade.) All Irish Catholics to have that religious lib- erty which they had under Charles II. ; to carry arms, exer- cise their professions, and receive full anmesty. The English parliament confirmed the treaty, but the Irish par- liament which met 1695 (consisting entirely of Protestants) refused to ratify it. Enactment of severe laws against the Catholics. 1692, Jan. 10. Marlborough detected in correspondence with James, and disgraced. 1692, Feb. 13. Massacre of Glencoe. Indemnity and pardon having been offered to all Highland clans who took the oath of allegiance before Dec. 31, 1691, that condition was fulfilled by all except the MacDonalds of Glencoe. The chief, Mac /an, however, took the oath on Jan. 6. This fact was suppressed by the foe of the MacDonalds, Dalrymple, secretary of Scotland, and William III. signed an order for the extirpation of the elan. It was faithfully exe- cuted by captain Campbell ; Mac Ian, and some forty others were slain. May 19. English victory of La Hague ; Russell and Tourville. July 24. Defeat of William at Steinkirk. The " Junto " ministry of Whigs ; Somers, lord keeper; Russell, Shrewsbury, Thomas Wharton, secretaries of state ;■ Montague, chan- cellor of the exchequer. Sunderland returned to parliament. 1693, Jan. Beginning of the national debt. £1,000,000 borrowed on annuities at 10 per cent. S88 Modem History. A. d. 1693, July 19. Defeat of "William at Neerwinden (Landen). 1694, July 27. Charter of the Governor and company of the Bank of England, a company of merchants who in return for certain privileges loaned the government £1,200,000. Bill for preventing officers of the crown from sitting in the commons (Place Bill). Unsuccessful attack on Brest. (Treachery of Marlborough f) Dec. 22. The triennial bill signed by the king. Dec. 28. Death of queen Mary. Bribery in the parliament ; expulsion of the speaker of the commons. Sir John Trevor. Hzpiration of the licensing act, which was not renewed ; hence abolition of the censorship of the press. 1695, July 2-Sept. 2. William recaptured Namur. Oct. 11. Dissolution of pailiament. 1695, Not. 22-1698, July 5. Third parliament of "WUliam m. (first triennial parliament). Whigs in majority. Recoinage act. Isaac Newton master of the mint. 1696, Trials for treason act; two witnesses required to prove an overt act of treason. Plot for the assassination of William, execution of congpirators. One of these, Tenwick, was condemned by bUl of attainder, being the last person so condemned. Formation of a loyal association. Suspension of the habeas corpus act. Sunderland, lord chamberlain ; Somers, lord chancellor. 1697, Sept. 20. Peace of Ryswick (p. 371). Dec. Sunderland retired. WiUiam acknowledged by Louis XIV. 1698, Jan. Peter the Great of Russia in England. 1698. Spanish succession, see p. 390. 1698, Dec. 6-1700, Apr. 11. Fourth parliament of WilUam HI. 1699, Feb. Disbandrng act, reducing the army to 7,000 men, exclusion of the foreign (Dutch) troops ; annoyance of William. Act for the resumption of forfeited Irish estates, aimed at Wil- liam's Dutch favorites; the bill was fastened to a bill of supply, Act for preventing the growth of papacy ; all persons refusing to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy forfeited their estates for life. Catholic school-teachers and priests were liable to imprisonment for life (repealed 1778). 1700, March. Miserable end of Darien settlement (founded 1698). 1700, April. Somers dismissed from office. Bombardment of Co- penhagen by Booke. July. Death of the duke of Gloucester, the last of Anne's children. 1701, Feb. 6-June 24. Fifth parliament of WUliam III. Tories in the majority. Robert Harley, speaker. Portland, Somers, Oxford (Russell), Halifax, impeached (April-June). Earl of Marlborough commander-in-chief of the English forces. June 12, 1701. Act of settlement. The crown was settled on Sophia, princess of Hanover, grand< daughter of James I., and her issue. A. D, India. 389 The sovereigns of Great Britain should be Protestant and not leave the kingdom without consent of parliament ; the country should not be involved in war for the defence of the foreign possessions of the sovereigns ; no foreigner should receive a grant from the crown, or hold office, civil or military ; ministers should be responsible for the acts of their sovereigns ; judges should hold office for life unless guilty of misconduct. 1701, Sept. 7. The grand aUiance, p. 391. Sept. 16. Death of James II. James Edward proclaimed king of Great Britain and Ireland by Louis XIV. 1701, Dec. 30-1702, July 2. Sixth parliament of William HI. Attainder of the pretended prince of Wales. Oath of abjura- tion. 1702, March 8. Death of 'WUUam m. Chief authors of this period : Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) ; John Bunyan (1628-1688); Daniel Defoe (1661-1731); John Dryden (1631-1700) ; Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon (1608-1674) ; John Locke (1632-1704); John MUton (1608-1674); Isaac Newton (1643- 1727). (Seep. 433.) § 6. INDIA. (See p. S54.) 1658-1707. Aurangzeb, Mughal emperor. The first years of Aurangzeb's reim were occupied in subdu- ing and putting to death his brothers. When freed from their ri- valry he took up the conquest of the Deccan. Bidar, Ahmednagar, Ellichpur, he had conquered whUe his father reigned. For twenty- five years his generals warred unsuccessfully against Bijiipur and Gol- conda, but when Aurangzeb placed himself at the head of his troops those kingdoms quickly fell. Bijdpur and Golconda were annexed to the Mughal empire in 1688. It was not with the Muhammedan powers alone that Aurangzeb had to contend ; a new power, the Hin- du kingdom of the Mahrattas, had arisen in the Deccan. It was founded by a imion of Hindu tribes of the Deccan under Sivaji (1627-1680), son of a Mahratta soldier of fortune who had fought under the Deccan kingdoms a^inst the Mughals. SiTaji, by alter- nately levying tribute on the Deccan kingdoms and assisting them against the Mughals, raised the Mahratta confederacy to be the ruling power in the Deccan. In 1664 he assumed the title of Rdj4. He carried on a war with Aurangzeb, who captured and killed his son Sambhaji (1680-1689), and imprisoned his grandson Sahu, until his own death, 1707. Aurangzeb, however, was far from subduing the confederacy, which had driven him almost to despair at the time of his death ; the emperor was not more successful in Assam (1662), nor against the revolted K^jput states in the west (1677-1681) where he ravaged Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Uddipur without subduing them. Aurangzeb's total revenue amounted to eighty million pounds. 1661. Bombay ceded to England as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza, but it was not delivered until 166S. In 1668 it was granted to the East India Company. 1670. Foundation of the Danish East India Company. 168L Bengal separated from Madras. 390 Modem Histovy, A. d. 1686. Foundation of Calcutta. 1687. Seat of western presidency transferred to Bombay. {Seep.U!^.) § 7. CHINA. (Seep. 355.) 1661-1721. Kang-he conquered Thibet and Formosa and carried on war with Knssia (1684-1689). His reign was renowned for wise administration and for the cultivation of science and literature. French and English set- tled at Canton. (^See p. 444~) B. The eighteenth century to the French Revolutiou. § 1. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.i 1701-1714:. '•^^ ^' ^^^' ^''^■^ The famUy relations which led to the war will be made clear by the following genealogical table. Philip III., king of Spain, t 1621. Anna, m. Philip IV. Maria Anna. Louis XIII. I m. Ferdinand III. Iiouis XIV. = Maria Tlieresa. Charles II. Margaret Theresa =< Iieopold I. I t 1700. I Louis the dauphin. Haria Antoinette, m. I Max. Emmanuel of I Bavaria. Philip of Anjou, I as king of Spain, Philip V. Joseph Ferdinand. electoral prince of Bavaria. Leopold I. had, besides his daughter Maria Antoinette, two sons: by his second marriage, Joseph I., emperor from 1705-1711; by his third marriage, Charles VI., emperor from 1711-1740. Charles II., king of Spain, was childless ; the extinction of the Spanish house of Hapsburg in the near future was certain ; hence the question of the Spanish succession formed the chief occupation of all the European cabinets since the Peace of Ryswick. The question had two aspects: a. The legal, according to which there were three claim- ants: 1. Louis XIV., at once as son of the elder daughter of Philip IIL and husband of the elder daughter of Philip IV. The solenm renun- ciations of both princesses were declared null and void by the parlia- ment of Paris. 2. Leopold I., the representative of the German line of Hapsburg, as son of the yourejrer daughter of Philip III., and husband of the younger daughter of Philip IV. Both princesses had expressly reserved their right of inheritance. 3. The electoral prince of Ba- 1 Schlosser: Geschichte des 18 Jahrhunderts ; V. Ifoorden: Euryaaische Geich. im 18 Jahrhlmdert, vols. I. and II. A. D. War of the Spanish Succession. 391 varla, as great-grandson of Philip IV., and grandson of the younger sister of the present possessor, Charles II. h. The political aspect with regard to the balance of power in Europe ; in consideration of which the naval powers, England and Holland, would not permit the crown of the great Spanish monarchy to be united with the French, or to be worn by the ruler of the Austrian lands. On this account Leopold I. claimed the Spanish inheritance for his second son Charles only, while Louis XIV.'s claim was urged in the name of his second grand- son, Philip ofAnjou. 1698. First treaty of partition. Oct. 11. Spain, Indies, and the Netherlands to the electoral prince of Bavaria; Naples and Sicily, seaports in Tuscany, and the prov- ince of Guipuzcoa, to the dauphin ; the duchy of Milan, to arch- duke Charles. The negotiations of the powers in regard to the succession, and the conclusion of a treaty of partition without the participation of Charles II., provoked that monarch. In order to preserve the unity of the monarchy he made the prince elector of Bavaria, then seven years old, sole heir of the whole inheri- tance ; a settlement to which the naval powers agreed. 1699 (Feb. 6). Sudden death of the prince elector. New intrigues of France (JIarcourt ambassador, Cardinal Parrtocarrerd) and Austria at Madrid, while both parties were negotiating a new treaty of partition with the naval powers. 1700. Second treaty of partition. Mar. 13. Spain and the Indies to archduke Charles ; Naples and SicUy and the duchy of Lorraine to the dauphin ; Milan to the duke of Lorraine in exchange- Finally Charles II., although originally more inclined to the Aus- trian succession, signed a new will, making Louis' grandson, Philip of Anfou, heir. Immediately afterwards 1700. Charles II. died. Nov. 1. Louis XIV. soon decided to follow the will rather than the treaty with England. The duke of Anjou was proclaimed as Philip v., and started for his new kingdom. (" II n'y a plus de Pyrenees.") Death of James II., 1701 ; Louis recognized hia son as kmg of England. 1701. Grand Alliance of the naval powers with the emperor Sept. 7. Leopold I., for the purpose, at first, of securing the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy for the Austrian house, while France allied herself with the dukes of Savoy and Man- tua, the electors of Bavaria and Cologne. The other estates of the empire, especially Prussia, joined the emperor. Portugal afterwards jouied the grand alliance, and in 1703 Savoy did likewise, deserting France. Three men were at the head of the grand alliance against France : Eugene, prince of Savoy, imperial general; Marlborough, English feneral, formerly John Churchill; A. Heinsius, after the death of Tilliam III., 1702, pensionary of Holland. Spain, the real object of the war, bad but little importance in the 392 Modern History. A. D. campaigns, the chief seat of war being Italy, the Netherlands, and Oermany. Philip of Anjou was recognized in Spain as king Philip V. His strongest support was in Castile. 1701. Commencement of the war by Eugenes invasion of Italy. Victory over Catinat at Carpi, over Villeroi at Chiari ; the lat- ter was captured at Cremona (1702). Eugene and Vendnme fought a drawn battle at Luzzara (1702), after which the French had the advantage in Italy until 1706. 1702. March 8. Death of William III. Anne, queen of England. 1703. The Bavarians invaded Tyrol, but were repulsed. Eugene went to Germany, along the Rhine. Marlborough invaded the Spanish Netherlands. The archduke Charles landed in Portugal, and invaded Catalonia. The English captured Gibraltar (1704). 1703. Victory of the French imder Villars at Hochstadt over the Ba- varians. 1704. Battle of Hochstadt and Blindheim (Blenheim), Aug. 13. (between Ulm and Donauworth), Bavarians and French (Tallard) defeated by Eugene and Marlborough. 1705. Leopold I. died. His son, Joseph Ii, emperor. 1706. Charles conquered Madrid but held it for a short/time only. 1706, May 23. Victory of Marlborough at Ramillies over Villeroi. Submission of Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend, etc. Sept. 7. Victory of Eugene at Turin, over Marsin and the duke of Orleans with help of the Prus- sians under Leopold of Dessau. Submission of all Lombardy. Charles III. proclaimed at Milan. The French permanently excluded from Italy. 1708, July 11. Victory of Marlborough and Eugene at Oudenarde over Vendome and the duke of Burgundy. Siege and surrender of LUle. Severe winter in France. Negotiations for peace. Demands of the allies : surrender of the Spanish monarchy to Charles of Austria, and of the border fortresses of the Netherlands to the Hollanders ; restoration of all matters re- lating to the empire and the emperor to the state prescribed in the peace of Westphalia, i. e. the cession of Strasburg, Brisach, etc. Eng- land insisted on the recognition of Anne and the Protestant succes- sion (p. 388) and the banishment of the Pretender. These terms Louis was willing to accept, but when the demand was added that he should drive his grandson from Spain with French weapons, it was too much. The negotiations were broken oS, Louis made a successful appeal to the people of France, and the war was continued. 1709. The French were again humbled by the victory of Sept. 11. Eugene and Marlborough at Malplaquet over Villars. The bloodiest battle of the war. The allies lost 20,000 men. New approaches on the part of Louis. Capture of Douai, Mom, etc. (1710). In Spain Philip, by the aid of Vend6me, had the advantage of Charles. The Spanish people favored A. D. War of the Spanish Succession. 393 Philip. Renewal of the negotiations at Gertruydenburg. Louis offered to pay subsidized troops against his grandson. The al- lies demanded that he should send his armies against Philip. Renewal of the war. Victories of Venddme over the Eu^ish (Brihuega, 1710) and the imperialists (Valla-vioiosa, in Spain). 1710. Aug. Pall of the VSThig ministry in England, and accession of the enemies of Marlborough. 1711. Death of the Emperor Joseph, whereby Charles became heir of all the Austrian possessions, so that the monarchy of Charles V. would have been restored had the Spanish inheritance also devolved upon him. These events completely altered all the political relations, in favor of Louis XIV. Marlborough removed from command, the Grand Alliance dis- solved, preliminaries of peace between England and France. Death of the dauphin, of Adelaide of Savoy, her husband and their son, the duke of Brittany. 1712. Victory of the French commander Villars at Denain over lord Albermarle. Recapture of Dauai, Le Quesnoy, and Bouchain. Opening of the congress at Utrecht. Each of the allies pre- sented his demands separately. Dissensions between the allies caused the conclusion of separate treaties of peace, which are compre- hended under the name of the 1713. Peace of Utrecht. AprU 11. 1. England : Recognition of the Protestant succession in England; confirmation of the permanent separation of the crowns of France and Spain. France ceded to England Newfoundland, Nova Scotia (Acadia), and Hudson Bay territory; Spain ceded to England Gibraltar, the island of Minorca, and the Asiento, or contract for sup- plying the Spanish colonies with African slaves. 2. Holland : Surrender of the Spanish Netherlands to the republic of Holland, in order that they should be delivered to the Austrians, after the conclusion of a Barrier Treaty, in regard to the fortresses along the French border from Fumes to Namur, which were to be garrisoned by the Dutch. Lille restored to France. Demolition of the fortifications of Dunkirk. 3. Savoy received the island of Sicily as a kingdom, and an ad- vantageous change of boundary in Upper Italy, renounced its claims upon Spain, reserving, however, its right of inheritance in case the house of Bourbon should become extinct (p. 397). 4. Prussia received recognition of the royal title, and possession of Neuchatel and the upper quarter of Gvddres. Prussia's claim upon the principality of Orange on the Rh6ne, was transferred to France. 5. Portugal obtained a correction of boundaries in South America. Philip V. (founder of the Spanish branch of the Bourbons) was recognized as king of Spain and the colonies. Reservations in the peace: 1. for the emperor, the possession of the appanages of the Spanish monarchy, the Netherlands, Milan, Naples, Sardinia, but not Sicily ; 2. for the empire the status quo of the peace ef Ryswick, only. 394 Modem History. A. d. The emperor and the empire continued the war. Unsuccessful campaign of Eugene, who was wretchedly supported (1713). £an- dau and FreJburg taken by VUlars. After these losses the emperor concluded peace with France, in his own name at Rastadt, in that of the empire at Baden (in Switzerland). 1714. Peace of Rastadt and Baden. March-'Sept. Austria took possession of the Spanish Netherlands, after the Barriere for Holland had been agreed upon, and retained Naples, Sardinia, and Milan, which she had already occupied. For the empire : ratification of the peace of Kyswick ; the electors of Bavaria and Cologne who had been plaxied under the ban of the empire, were rein- stated in their lands and dignities. Landau was left in the hands of France. No peace between Spain and the emperor, who did not recognize the Bourbons in Spain. (See p. 414-) § 2. THE NORTHERN WAR. 1700-1721. 1689-1725. Peter I. the Great, Czar of Russia (p. 374). 1697-1718. Charles XII., king of Sweden. In character the two monarchs formed a strong contrast: both were of unusual ability and power, but Peter, though passionate and of irregular life, was, in his political actions, governed by reason and calm reflection. Charles, in his private life passionless and of rigid mor- ality, was under the control of passion and senseless obstinacy in all public relations. The steady purpose of Peter, who civilized his sub- jects by force, made Kussia one of the great powers of Europe, Charles' blind obstinacy caused the decline of Sweden's power. The causes of the northern war were : 1, the firm determination of Peter to make Russia a naval power, and to get possession of the harbors of the Baltic ; 2, the attempt of Augustus II., elector of Sax- ony and king of Poland, to unite Livonia witii Poland (Patkul) ; 3, the quarrel between Frederic IV., king of Denmark, and the duke of Hol- ttein^Gottorp,the early friend and brother-in-law of Charles XII. The youthf ulness of Charles, who had assumed the care of gov- ernment at the age of fifteen, led all three monarchs to think it an easy task to regain possession of those lands which Sweden had taken from them. Secret alliance of Kussia, Denmark, and Saxony against Sweden. The war opened with an invasion of Schleswig by the Danes, while the Saxons attacked Livonia. Unexpected landing of Charles XII. in Zealand ; he threatened Copenhagen and extorted from the Danes the 1700 (Aug.). Peace of Travendal. 1. Indemnification of the duke of Holstein. 2. Denmark promised to abstain from hostilities against Sweden for the future. Meantime the Saxons were besieging Kiga (in Livonia) in vain, A. D. The Northern War. 395 while Peter was besieging Narva (in Ingermannland) with like result. Landing of Charles XII. with 8,000 men and hrilliant 1700. Victory of Narva, Nov. 30. over the Russians. Charles's hatred of Augustus led him to neglect his more dangerous opponent, the Czar, and to seek revenge upon the king of Poland. Meeting and closer alliance of Augustus and Peter. Charles crossed the Diina and 1701. defeated the Saxons at Riga. Charles invaded Lithuania. The republic of Poland was drawn into the war ; alliance of the party of the Sapiehas with the Swedes. The city of Warsaw sur- rendered at the first summons. Victory of Charles XII. over the Poles and Saxons at Klissow (1702) and at Pxdtusk (1703). Charles rejected all overtures of peace, caused Augustus to be deposed by that party among the Poles which had joined him and his adherent, the Woiwod 1704-1709. Stanislaus Lesczinski to be elected king. Meanwhile Peter had founded his capital, St. Petersburg, in the marshes of the Neva (1703), and captured Narva (1704). Continuance of the war in Poland and Lithuania. Victory of Charles at Punitz (1704 Schulenburg's masterly retreat) and of his general Rhenskjold at Fraustadt (1706). Charles invaded Saxony and compelled Augustus to sign the 1706. Peace of Altranstadt (near Leipzig). 1. Augfustus II. abdicated the Polish crown, recognized Stanislaus LesczinsH aa king of Poland, and sent him a written expression of good will. 2. Augustus abjured his aUiance with the Czar, and delivered the plenipotentiary of the latter, Pathul, to Charles who had. him executed with cruelty. 3. Saxony furnished provisions and pay for the Swedish army during the winter. In Sept., 1707, Charles took the field against Peter, who had well employed the interval in making conquests and establishing his power on the Baltic, and in forming a trained and veteran army. The ap- proach to Moscow cut off by devastation of the country. Charles allowed himself to be misled by the Cossack hetman Mazeppa, who had deserted Peter, crossed the Dnieper (1708) into the Ukraine. Futile siege of Pultowa. Peter hastened to raise the siege and by force of numbers completely defeated the Swedes, who were exhausted by long marches and lack of food, in the 1709, July 8. Battle of Pultowa, which established Peter's new creations on a firm basis, and destroyed at one blow the ascendency of Sweden. The Swedish army was completely broken up, and a large part of it captured. Charles took refuge with the Turks. 1709-1714. Charles XII. in Turkey, endeavoring to induce the Porte to declare war against Peter. He was successful in 1711. Peter, allied with ihe princes of the Moldau, crossed the Dniester, was surrounded on the Pruth, and was obliged to buy the 1711. Peace of the Pruth from the Turks by bribery, upon the advice of his wife Catherine. 396 Modern History, A. J>, 1. Azqff given back to the Porte. 2. The king of Sweden allowed to return to his realm unmolested. Charles XII., indignant at this peace, refused to depart, and for three years more misused the patience and hospitality of the Turks at Bender, Bessarabia, now belonging to Russia, and in Demotika. Senseless defense of his camp against a whole army, when the at- tempt was made to force his departure (1713). Meantime his enemies were making good use of the time. Augustus II. drove king Stanis- laus from Poland ; the Danes tried to reconquer the southern prov- inces of Sweden, but were repulsed. Peter the Great occupied all of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland, Carelia, Finland. The Convention of the Hague (1710), in order to keep the war away from the German boundaries, had established the neutrality of all the German provinces of Sweden, as well as of Schleswig and Jutland. Charles XII., how- ever, having from his retreat in Tvirkey protested against this treaty, the Danes took Schleswig away from the duke of Holstein-G-ottorp, and conquered the Swedish duchies of Bremen and Verden (1712), which they afterwards (1715) sold to Hanover upon condition that that state should take part in the war against Sweden. The Swedish general Stenbock defeated the Danes and burnt Altona, but was cap- tured by the Russians at Tonningen (1713). The Danes and Poles invaded Pommerania, the Prussians occupied Stettin. 1714. Charles XII. at last returned to his kingdom. Adventurous journey through Hungary and Germany. The king reached Stralsund. Alliance between Prussia, Saxony, Denmark, Hanover, Russia, against Sweden. Stralsund and with it aU Pomerania lost (1715), Wismar soon captured also (1716). 1716. Peter I. made a journey to Denmark, Holland, France. Charles XII. negotiated with Peter I. through Baron von Gorz, who, in spite of the hatred borne him by the Swedish nobles, was placed in control of the internal administration of Sweden. Three expeditions of the Swedes to Norway ; on the third, 1718. Charles XII. was shot in front of FriedrichshaU, prob- Dec. 11. ably by an assassin. After limits had been set on the royal power in the interests of the royal council, Charles's nephew was passed over, and his youngest sister, 1719. Ulrica Eleanora, raised to the throne. She soon placed the control of the government in the hands of her husband, 1720-1761. Frederic of Hesse-Cassel. Execution of the Baron von Gorz, Charles's intimate. The north- em war was ended by a series of treaties concluded at Stockholm and liHedrichsburg. 1. With Hanover (1719), which retained Bremen and Verden, and paid Sweden one million thalers. 2. With Prussia (1720), which received Stettin, western Pomerania as far as the Peene, the islands of Wollin and Usednm, and paid two million thalers. 3. With Den- A. D. Germany. 397 mark, which restored all its conquests. In retnrn Sweden paid 600,000 rix dollars, gave up its freedom from custom duties in the Sound and abandoned the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, whom Denmark deprived of his share of Sohleswig. 4. With Poland the truce of 1719 was continued. 1721. Aug. 30. Peace of Nystadt between Sweden and Russia. 1. S'vreden ceded to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland, part of Carelia, and a number of islands, among others Oesel, DagS. 2. Russia restored Finland and paid two million rix dollars. (See p. i09) § 3. GERMANY. (Seep. 372.) 1705-1711- Joseph I., son of Leopold. He was succeeded by his brother 1711-1740. Charles VI., War of the Spanish Succession, p. 390. 1713-1740. Frederic WilUam I., son of Frederic I., king of Prus- sia, by wise economy, a military severity, and the establish- ment of a formidable army, laid the foundation of the future power of Prussia. Maintenance, of a standing army of 83,000 men, with a population of two and a half million inhabitants. Prince Leopold of Auhalt-Dessau (" the old Dessauan"). 1714-1718. War of Turks with Venice, and after 1716 with the emperor. Easy conquest of Mcrrea by the Turks ; the Vene- tians, however, kept Corfu. In Hungary the war was brilliantly con- ducted by prince Eugene. Victory of Feterwardein (1716). Victory, siege, and capture of Belgrade (1717). 1718. July 21. Feace of Fassarowitz (JPoshafewaiz). 1. Austria received the Banal of Temesvar, a part of Servia, with Belgrade and Little Wallachia. 2. Venice retained her con- quests in Dalmatia, but ceded Morea to the Porte. The seizure of Sardinia (1717) and Sicily (1718) by Spain, where Elizabeth of Parma, the second wife of Philip V., and her favorite the minister and cardinal Alheroni, were planning to regain the Spanish appanages lost by the Peace of Utrecht, brought about the 1718. Quadruple alliance for the maintenance of the Peace of Aug. 2. Utrecht, between France, England, the emperor, and (since 1719) the Republic of Holland. After a short war and the fall of Alberoni, who went to Rome (t 1752), the agreements of the quadruple alliance were executed in 1720. 1. Spain evacuated Sicily and Sardinia, and made a renunciaf tion of the appanages forever, in return for which the em- peror recognized the Spanish Bourbons. 2. Savoy was obliged to exchange Sicily (p. 393) for Sardinia. After this time the dukes of Savoy called themselves kings of Sardinia. The emperor Charles VI. was without male oifspring. His prin- cipal endeavor throughout his whole reign was to secure the various 398 Modern History. A. D. lands which were united under the sceptre of Austria against division after his death. Hence he established an order of succession under the name of the Pragmatic Sanction, which decreed that: 1. The lands belonging to the Austrian empire should be indivisible ; 2. That in ease male heirs should faU, they should devolve upon Charles's daughters, the eldest of whom was Maria Theresa, and their heirs according to the law of primogeni- ture ; 3. In case of the extinction of this line the daughters of Joseph 1. and their descendants were to inherit. To secure the assent of the various powers to this pragmatic sanc- tion was the object of numerous diplomatic negotiations. A special alliance between Austria and Spain (1725), in regard to this measure, produced the alliance of Herrenhausen, in the same year, between England, France, and Prussia in opposition. Prussia soon withdrew from the alliance and joined Austria by the Treaty of Wusterhausen. The alliance between Austria and Spain was also of short duration. 1733-1735. War of the Polish Succession, after the death of Augustus II. Cause : The majority of the Polish nobles, under the influence of France, elected Stanislaus Lesczinski, who had become the father- in-law of Louis XV., king, a second time. Russia Sind Austria in- duced a minority to choose Augustus III., elector of Saxony (son of Augustus II.), and supported the election by the presence of troops in Poland. France, Spain, and Sardinia took up arms for Stanislaus. The seat of war wa3 at first in Italy, where Milan, f^aples, and Sicily were conquered, and the Austrians lost everything except Milan, and afterwards on the upper Rhine, where the old prince Eugene fought unsuccessfully, and Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, the future -husband of Maria Theresa, alone upheld the honor of the imperial arms. Lorraine occupied by the Trench. Kehl captured Preliminaries of peace (1735), and, after long negotiations, 1738. Nov. 18. Peace of Vienna. 1. Stanislaus Lesczinski made a renunciation of the Polish throne, receiving as compensation the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, which at his death should devolve upon France. Stanislaus died 1766. 2. The duke of Lorraine, Francis Stephen, received an indemnifica^ tion in Tuscany, whose ducal throne had become vacant by the ex- tinction of the family of Medici, 1737 (p. 416). 3. Austria ceded Naples and Sicily, the island of Elba and the Stati degli Presidi to Spain as a secundogeniture for Don Carlos, so that these lands could never be united with the crown of Spain, receiving in exchange Parma and Piacenza, which Don Carlos had inherited in 1731 upon the death of the last Farnese, his great-uncle. 4. France guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. 1736-1739. Unsuccessful war with the Turks in alliance with Russia (p. 411). By the Peace of Belgrade Orsowa, Belgrade, Servia, and Little Wallachia wero restored to the Turks. 1740, May. Death of Frederic William I. of Prussia. A. D. Germany. 399 400 Modern History. A. D. 1740-1786. Frederic II. the Great (twenty-eight years old). Bom in 1712, received a French education under Madame de Rocmdles and Duhan de Jandun ; musical (^Quans). After the frus- tration of the projected marriage with a daughter of George II. of England, estrangement between the king and the crown prince. Frederic attempted flight, was captured, and sentenced to Kilstrin as a deserter (execution of KaUe) where he found employment in the Chamber of War and of Domain. Marriage with a princess of Bruns- wick-Bevern (1733). Correspondence with Voltaire. Kesidence at Rheinsberg and Ruppin until 1740. From his accession to his death he was himself the ruler. 1740, Oct. With the death of Charles VI. the male line of the Hapsburgs was extinct.^ 1740-1780. Maria Theresa, queen of Bohemia and Hungary, archduchess of Austria, etc., married Francis Stephen of the house of Lorraine, grand duke of Tuscany (co-regent). 1740-1748. War of the Austrian Succession. Cause : The following claimants for the Austrian inheritance appeared: 1. Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, who had never rec- ognized the Pragmatic Sanction, a descendant of Anna, the eldest daughter of Ferdinand I. He based his claim upon the marriage con- tract of Anna, and will of Ferdinand I., whereby the Austrian inheri- tance was (he claimed) secured to the descendants of Anna, in case the male descendants of her brother should become extinct. (The original will, however, read, in case the legitimate descendants of her brother became extinct.) 2. Philip V., king of Spain, relying on a treaty between Charles V. and his brother Ferdinand on occasion of the cession of the German lands, and upon a reservation made by Philip III. in his renunciation of the German lands. 3. Augustus III. of Saxony, the husband of the eldest daughter of Joseph I. The claims adv£.need by Frederic II. to a. part of Silesia, and his de- sire to annex the whole of Silesia to his kingdom, the rejection of the offer which he made at Vienna to take the field in favor of Austria if his claims were recognized, brought about, before the commencement of hostilities by the other claimants, the 1740-1742. First Silesian War.^ Legal claims of Prussia to a portion q/" Silesia : ^ 1. The princi- pality of Jdgerndorf was purchased in 1523 by a younger branch of the electoral line of HohenzoUern, and the future acquisition of Ratibor and 1 See the genealogical table, p. 399. 2 A supplement to the Prussian view of the relations of Frederic and the courts of Vienna and Paris will be found in the papers by the Due de Broglie in the Ke.vue des Deux Mondes, published separately as Frederic II. and Maria Theresa. B £}ichhorn, Deutsche StaatS'und RechtS(jetchichte, iv. § 583. A. D. Germany. 401 Oppeln secured at the same time, by an hereditary alliance. In 1623 duke John George was placed under the ban by the emperor Ferdi- nand II. (p. 309), as an adherent of Frederic V., the elector palatine, and in spite of the Peace of Westphalia (p. 316, B.) neither he nor his heirs had been reinstated. 2. The elector Joachim II. had made an hereditary alliance in 1537 with the duke of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau, which Ferdinand I. had forbidden as king of Bohemia and feu- dal superior of the duke. After the extinction of the ducal house (1675) Austria took possession of the inheritance. In 1686 Frederic William, the Great Elector, renounced the Silesian duchies, in return for the cession of the circle of Schxaiebus. The latter, however, was secured to Austria by a secret agreement vnth the prince elector, and was restored by him, as elector Frederic III., in 1696. 1740. Occupation of Silesia by Frederic's troops. Capture of Glo- gau. 1741, April 10. Victory of MoU-witz (Schwerin). 1741. Secret alliance of Nymphenburg > against Austria concluded May. by France, Bavaria, and Spain, afterwards joined by Saxony, and lastly by Prussia. The allied French (Belle-Isle) and Bavarian army invaded Austria and Bohemia. Prague taken in alliance with the Saxons. Charles Albert caused himself to be proclaimed archduke in Linz, while Frederic II. received homage in Silesia. Charles Albert was elected emperor in Frankfort as 1742-1745. Charles VII. Meantime Maria Theresa had gone to Hungary. Diet at Presburg ; enthusiasm of the Hungarian nobility ; ^ two armies raised ; alliance concluded with England. An Austrian army conquered Ba- varia where Maria Theresa received the homage of Munich; a second besieged the French in Prague. 1742. The victory of Frederic at Czaslau and Chotusitz, and Maria May 17. Theresa's desire to rid herself of a dangerous enemy led to the separate 1742, June and July. Peace of Breslau and Berlin between Aus- tria and Prussia : 1. Frederic withdrew from the alliance against Maria Theresa. 2. Austria ceded to Prussia upper and lower Silesia and the county of Glatz, retaining only the principality of Teschen and the southwestern part of the principalities of Neisse, Troppau, and Jagemdorf, the Oppa forming the boundary. 3. Prussia assumed the debt upon Silesia held by English and Dutch creditors, to the amount of 1,700,000 rix dollars. Austria prosecuted the war against the allies with success, driving 1 J. Ot. Sroysen, Abhandhtngen (zur neueren Geschichte) 1876, claimed that the document which was published as the Traite de Nymphenbourg was a forgery ; Sctalosser and L. v. Banke consider it genuine. Be that as it may it is certain that new engagements (according to JElasaan, Hist, de la dipt, "a formal Traite d'aUiance offensive) were entered into at Nymphenburg by Bar varia and France, and also that a treaty was concluded between France and Spain. 2 The truth of the well-known tale of the exclamation Moriamurpro rege nos- tra Maria Theresa is, however, disputed, on good grounds. 402 Modern History. A. d. them entirely out of Bohemia, in 1742, and Bavaria (1743) ; the prag- matic army (English, Hanoverians, Hessians), under king George II., defeated the French in the 1743. Battle of Dettingen. The emperor Charles VII. was a ref- Juue 27. ugee in Frankfort. These Austrian successes and the treaties with Sardinia and Saxony in 1743 made the king of Prussia anxious about his new ac- quisitions. He concluded a second alliance with Charles VII. and France, and began the 1744-1745. Second Silesian War, by forcing his way through Saxony with 80,000 men (" impe- rial reinforcements "), and invading Bohemia. He took Prague, but, deserted by the French, was soon driven back into Saxony, 1744. 1744. East Friesland, upon the extinction of the reigning house, fell to Prussia (p. 368). 1745. Alliance between Austria, Saxony, England, and Holland Jan. against Prussia. The French and Bavarians took Munich. Charles VII. died (1745, Jan.). His son Maximilian Joseph concluded the 1746. April. Separate Peace of Fiissen, with Austria. 1. Aus- tria restored all conquests to Bavaria. 2., The elector of Bavaria surrendered his pretensions to Austria and promised Francis Stephen, the husband of Maria Theresa, his vote at the imperial elec- tion. The French under marshal Maurice of Saxony, son of Augustus II. and the countess Aurora of Konigsmark, defeated the pragmatic army in the 1745,. May U. Battle of Fontenoy (Irish Brigade), and began the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands. Frederic the Great defeated the Austrians and Saxons under Charles of Lorraine in the 1745, June 4. Battle of Hohenfriedberg, in Silesia, and the Austrians alone in the Sept. 30. Battle of Soor, in northeastern Bohemia. By the election of the husband of Maria Theresa as emperor, the 1745-1806- House of Lorraine-Tuscany (p. 399) ac- ceded to the imperial throne in the person of the emperor, 1745-1765- Francis I. After a victory of the Prussian general, Leopold of Dessau, over the Saxons at Kesseldorf, Dee. 16, the 1745- Dec. 25. Peace of Dresden was concluded between Prussia and Austria (Saxony). 1. Eatiflcation of the Peace of Breslau and Berlin in regard to the possession of Silesia. 2. Frederic II. recognized Francis I. as em- peror. 3. Saxony paid Prussia one million rix dollars. After the flower of the English army had been recalled to England, where they were needed in the contest with the pretenders (p. 438), Marshal Saxe obtained at Raucous (1746) a second victory A- D. Germany. 403 over the allies of Austria and completed the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands. At the same time, the naval war between France aud England, and the war in Italy between Spain, France, and Austria, were carried on with varying fortune. Sardinia had concluded peafe with Austria as early as 1743. At last the empress of Russia, Elizabeth (p. 411), joined the combatants as the ally of Austria and sent an army to the Khine. Congress, and finally, 1748, Oct. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1. Reciprocal restoration of all conquests. 2. Cession of Parma, Piacenza, and Ouastalla to the Spanish Infant, Don Philip, makuig the second secundogeniture of the Spanish Bourbons in Italy. The following guaranties were given : that Silesia should belong to Prussia ; that the pragmatic sanction should be sustained in Austiia; that the house of Hanover should retain the succession in its German states and in Great Britain. Change in the relations of European states induced by the rise of Prussia to the rank of a great power. Envy between Prussia and Austria j the latter seeing a disgrace iu the loss of Silesia to a smaller power, and intriguing for the recovery of the lost province. Tims began the 1756-1763. Third Silesian, or Seven Years' War. Cause : Before the peace of Aix-la^Chapelle Maria Theresa had concluded a defeusive alliance with Frederic's personal enemy, Elizabeth, empress of Russia (May, 1746). Secret articles of tlus treaty provided for the reunion of Silesia with Austria under certain specified conditions. In Sept. 1750, &eorge II. of England, moved by anxiety for his principality of Hanover, signed the main treaty, the secret articles being excepted. Saxony (minister, count Briihl) signed the treaty unconditionally. Prince Kaunitz (until 1753 Aus- trian ambassador in France, then chancellor of the empire in Vienna) succeeded in promoting a reconciliation between the cabinets of Ver- sailles and Vienna, and securing the Marquise de Pompadour in favor of an Austrian alliance. Formation of a party inimical to the Prus- sian alliance at the French court. Maria Theresa and Kaunitz induced England to conclude a new subsidy treaty with Russia in 1755. In June of the same year, how- ever, hostilities broke out between England and France in North America vrithout any declaration of war. Conflict at Newfoundland. Dreading a French attack upon Hanover, George II. concluded, in January, 1756, a treaty of neutrality with Frederic at Westminster, which caused a rupture between England and Russia. Kaimitz made skillful use of the indignation at Versailles over the treaty of West- minster. In May, 1756, conclusion of a defensive alliance between France and Austria. In June, 1756, war broke out between France and England, in Europe. Frederic, well informed concerning the alliances of the powers, and knovring that Russia and France were not in condition to take the of- 404: Modem HUtory. A. d. fensive against him in 1756, decided to take his enemies by surprise.' 1756. Frederic invaded Saxony with 67,000 men. Capture of Dresden (Aug.). Oct. 1. Victory over the Austrians at Lohositz. Surrender of 18,000 Saxons, who were compelled to serve in the Prussian army (Oct. 16). 1757. War declared upon Frederic in the name of the empire. He was threatened with the ban. Hanmer, Hesse, Brunswick, and Gotha, however, continued in alliance with Prussia. Treaty between Austria and Russia (Jan.) concerning the partition of the Prussian ■ monarchy. Offensive treaty between Austria and France (May), also looking to the division of Prussia. Sweden joined the alliance against Frederic upon receiving the province of Pommerania, but her part in the war was unimportant. Alliance between Prussia and England (Jan. 1767) extended into a subsidy treaty (April, 1768). 1757. The Prussians invaded Bohemia in four columns. May 6. Victory of Frederic at Prague over the Austrians. Death of Sch'werin. Frederic besieged Prague and attacked Dawn, who was coming to the relief. June 18. Defeat of Frederic at KoUin. Evacuation of Bohemia. The French reached the Weser. June 26. Victory of the French at Hastenbeck over Frederic's allies (duke of Cumberland, second son of George II.). Aug. 30. Victory of the Russians (Apraxin') over flie Rnissians (Lehwald), whom they outnumbered, in the battle of Gross- j ggerndorf. The Russians withdrew from Prussia and did not utiUze their victory. Sept. 8. Treaty of the Monastery of Zeven (duke of Cumberland and Richelieu), according to which the Irench occupied Han- over. The treaty was, however, rejected by the English gov- ernment. Ferdinand, duke of Bruns'wick, brother of the ruling duke, re- ceived the command against the French. A second French army under Soubise joined the imperial army with the purpose of liberating Saxony. Nov. 5. Victory of Frederic at Rossbach over the French and the imperial army (Seydlltz). Frederic led his victorious army to Silesia, where the Austrians had defeated and captured the duke of Brunsmck-Bevern in the Nov. 22. Battle of Breslau. Deo. 5. Victory of Frederic at Leuthen over the Austrians (Charles of Lorraine and Daun). 1758. Frederic in Af (wauia; unsuccessful siege of OZmitiz. Advance of the Russians under Fermor, to join the Austrians. In the west, Ferdinand of Brunswick drove the French back across the Rhine, and defeated them in the 1 Cf. A. Scb&fer, Gesch. des Siebenjiihngen Krieges, 2 vols. 1867-1874. Duncker, in v. Sybels, Sist.-Zeits. 18U8, aud JCi. v. Bauke, Der Ursprung des debenjahrigen Kiieges. 1871. A. D. Germany. 405 1758. June 23. Battle of Crefeld. After the conquest of Prus- sia as far as the Mark the Russians advanced. Bloody Aug. 25. Victory of Frederic (Seydlitz) at Zorndorf (not far from Kiistriri) over the Russians. Austrians advanced upon Lusatia. The king hastened to the aid of his brother Henry and was defeated in the Oct. 14. Battle of Hochkirch (near Bautzen) by Dauu. Never- theless he maintained himself in Saxony and Silesia. 1759. Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated by the French (duke of Broglie) April 13. In the skirmish of Bergen near Frankfort-on-the-Main. Broglie was joined by a second French army under Contades, but they were both defeated by Ferdinand in the Aug. 1. Battle of Minden. The Russians advanced anew and defeated general Wedell July 23. (appointed dictator by the king) at Eay. The king was unable to prevent their union with the Atistrians under Laudon, Severe Aug. 12. Defeat of Frederic at Kunersdorf (Frankfort^ on-the-Oder) by the Austrians and Russians, who were at first defeated. Dresden captured by the imperial army. Nov. 20. The Prussian greneral Fink surrounded by Daun at Mazen and captured with 13,000 men. 1760. Foaque defeated and captured in the June 23. Battle of Landahut, by the Austrians. Futile siege of Dresden. Aug. 15. Victory of Frederic at PfafTendorf (Liegnitz) over the Austrians under Laudon. The king prevented the union of the Austrians and Russians. Oct. Berlin surprised and burnt by the Russians ( Tottleben), who r&treated upon the approach of the king. Bloody Nov. 3. Victory of Frederic at Torgau (JZiethen) over the Aus- trian! under Daun. 1761. Frederic encamped at Bunzelwitz (near Schweidiiitz), op- posite the imited Austrians (Laudon) and Russians (Bnturlin), who did not venture on a decisive battle. Separation of the imited armies. Schweidnitz captured by the Aus- trians, Kolberg by the Russians. Frederic, who was deprived of the English subsidies by the accession of George III. (1760), was in great distress. The 1762. Jan. 5. Death of Blizabeth of Russia was the salvation of Prussia. Her successor Peter III., an admirer of Frederic, concluded March 16. The truce of Stargard with Prussia, and soon after the May 5. Peace of St. Petersburg : Russia restored her conquests ; both parties renounced all hostile alliances. This peace caused the May 22. Peace of Hamburg with Sweden : status quo ante helium. The alliance between Russia and Prussia was soon broken off 406 Modern History. a. d. by the deposition of Peter III. (July 9). His successor, Catharine II., recalled her troops from Frederic's army ; nevertheless their iuactiv- ity upon the field contributed to the 1762. Victory of Frederic at Burkersdorf (Reichenbach) over July 21. the Austrians (Daun). After Pionce Henry in the Oct. 29. Battle of Freiberg had defeated the Austrians and the imperial forces, and the preliminaries of the peace at Fontaine- bleau (p. 439) between England and France had made it certain that the French armies would be withdrawn from Germany, Austria and Prussia concluded the 1763. Peace of Hubert (u)sbiirg. Feb. 15. 1. Ratification of the peace of Breslau and Berlin, and that of Dresden, i. e. Prussia retained Silesia. 2. Prussia promised her vote for the archduke Joseph at the election of the king of Rome. Saxony (restoration to the status quo) and the empire were included in the peace. Frederic's endeavors to heal the wounds inflicted by the war upon his kingdom. Distribution of the magazine stores. Remission of taxes for several provinces. Establishment of district banks, of the Bank (1765) and the Maritime Company (1772) at Berlin. Afterwards, however, introduction of an oppressive iiiiancial administration; tobacco and coffee were made government monopolies. Drainage of the marshes along the Oder, Werthe, and Netze. Canal of Plauen, Finow, and Bromberg. Reform of the jurisdiction. Codification of the common law by grand chancellor von Carmer, a part of which was published in 1782. 1765-1790. Joseph II., emperor, for the Austrian lands co-regent only, with his mother Maria Theresa, until 1780, and without much influence. 1778-1779. "War of the Bavarian Succession.' • Cause: Extinction of the electoral house of Bavaria with Maximilian Joseph (1777). Charles Theodore, elector palatine, the legal heir of the Bavarian lands, as head of the house of Wittelshach, and in consequence of various treaties, was persuaded by Joseph II. to recognize certain old claims of Austria to lower Bavaria, and a part of the upper Palatinate. Treaty of Vienna (1778, Jan.). Occupation of lower Bavaria by Austrian troops. Charles Theodore was childless; his heir presumptive was Charles Augustus Christian, duke of the pala- tinate of Zweibrucken (Deux-ponts). Frederic II. opened secret ne- gotiations with this wavering and irresolute prince through count Eustachius von Gorz and encouraged him, under promise of assistance, to make a formal declaration of his rights against the Austrian claims. Saxony and Mecklenburg, also incited by Frederic, protested as heirs presumptive of a part of the Bavarian inheritance. As direct nego- tiations between Austria and Prussia were without result, Joseph and Frederic joined their armies, which were already drawn up face to face on the boundary of Bohemia and Silesia. Saxony allied with Prussia. No battle in this short war. Frederic ^ Cf. Monso, Geach. d. preues. Staats seit dem Hubertsb. Fricden. A. D. Germany. 407 and prince Henry invaded Bohemia (July, 1778). Impossibility of forcing Joseph from his strong position along the upper Elbe, or of getting around it. The armies maintained their positions of obser- vation so long that want began to make itself felt. In the autumn prince Henry retired to Saxony, Frederic to Silesia. Unimportant s kirmi shes along the frontier. A personal correspondence between Maria Theresa and Frederic, commenced by the former, led in the following spring, with the help of Russian and French mediation, to a truce and a congress, and soon after to the 1779. May. Peace of Tesohen. 1. The treaty of Vienna with Charles Theodore was abro- gated. Austria retained only the district of the Inn, in Bavaria, i. e. the part of lower Bavaria between the Inn, Salza, and Danube. 2. Austria agreed to the future union of the margravates of Ansbach and Bairevih, with the Prussian monarchy. 3. Sazony obtained some hitherto disputed rights of sovereignty and nine million rix dollars; Mecklenburg the privilegium de non appellando. 1780-1790. Joseph II. Period of his reign alone and of his attempts at reform.^ The peaceable and prudent government of Maria Theresa (f 1780), with its carefully matured scheme of reform, was succeeded by the essentially revolutionary reign of Joseph II., whereby the ancient forms were shaken to their foundations, and their substance, reluctant and stiff from lack of change, forcibly subjected to experiments made in sympathy with the enlightenment of the century. Joseph II. is the best representative of the contradictions of the eighteenth century, of its philanthropy and its devotion to right, and agaiii of its severity and lack of consideration, where there was question of executing some favorite theory. Filled with dislike of the clergy and the nobility, and entertaining the ideal of a strong, centralized, united state, Joseph pursued his reforms with the purpose of breaking the power of the privileged classes mentioned above, of destroying all provincial inde- pendence, and of establishing unity in the administration (central- ization). Despite of all his failures, despite of the fact that, with the exception of the abolition of serfdom and the edict of tolerance, not one of his reforms outlived him, Joseph's reign regenerated the Austrian monarchy, lending it mobility and vitality. Edict of tolerance (1781). Within eight years 700 monasteries were closed and 36,000 members of orders released. There still re- mained, however, 1,324 monasteries with 27,000 monks and nuns. For those which remained a new organization was prescribed. The conaection of the ecclesiastical order with Rome was weakened, schools were established with the property of the churches, innova- tions in the form of worship were introduced, nor did the interior organization of the church escape alteration. Futile journey of Pope Pius VI. to Vienna (1782) undertaken to prevent these changes. Beform of the jurisdiction. The feudal burdens were reduced to fixed norms, and attempts were made to completely abolish personal servitude among the peasants. 1 Hausser , Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode FriedHchs d. Grossed. 408 Modem. History. a. d. Disputes between Joseph and the Dutch ; the emperor arbitrarily annulled the barrier treaties (p. 393) (1781). He demanded that the Schelde, which had been closed by the 'irea.tj of Westphalia to the Spanish Netherlands, in favor of the Dutch, should be opened. Finally, after four years of quarreling, French mediation brought about the Peace of Versailles (1785). Joseph withdrew his demands in consideration of ten million florins. Joseph attempted to improve the legal system of the empire. His encroachments in the empire. Violent proceedings in the case of the bishop of Passau (1783). The endeavors of Frederic the Great to conclude a union of German princes (1783), which should resist the encroachments of the emperor, and to strengthen Prussia in her political isolation by a " combination within the empire," were at first but coldly supported by his own min- isters and the German princes. Frederic's plan was not taken into favor until news was received of 1785- Joseph II.'s plan of an exchange of territory, according to which Charles Theodore was to cede the whole of Bavaria to Austria, and accept in exchange the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), excepting Luxemburg and Namur, as the kingdom of Burgundy. France maintained an attitude of indifference. Kussia supported the project and endeavored by persuasion and threats to induce the heir of Bavaria, the count palatine of Zweibrucken (Deux- ponts) to consent to the scheme. The latter sought help from Fred- eric the Great, who, a year before his death (f 1786, Aug. 17), suc- ceeded in forming the 1785, July. League of the German Princes between Prussia, the electorate of Saxony, and Hanover, which was afterward joined by Brunswick, Maim, Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Meck- lenburg, Anhalt, and the Thuringian lands. Opposition to Joseph's reforms in the Austrian Netherlands and in Hungary. The removal of the crown of Hungary to Vienna pro- duced so great a disturbance that the emperor yielded and permitted its return. The revocation of the constitution of Brabant caused a revolt in the Belgian provinces (1789). War with the Turks (p. 414). Death of Joseph II. (1790). 1790-1792. Leopold II., emperor. Joseph's brother and successor. He suppressed the Belgian insur- rection, but restored the old constitution and the old pri\Tleges. A conference at Reichenbach prevented a war with Prussia, which (Jan. 31, 1790) had concluded a treaty with the Turks, in order to procure more favorable conditions for the latter from Austria and Bussia (p. 414). (i,ee pp. U7, 487.) A. D. Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland. 409 § i. DENMARK, SWEDEN, RUSSIA, POLAND. (Seepp.S75,S97.) Denmark (and Norway). Since the close of the northern war, Denmark held complete posses- sion of Sohleswig and enjoyed under Frederic IV., Christian VI., Frederic V., Christian VII. {count Bemstorff, minister), a long interval of peace at home and abroad. Under the weak Christian VII. revo- lutionary attempts at reform after the manner of Joseph II, by the German Struensee (born in Halle, physician in Altona, traveling companion of the king, instructor of the crown prince, favorite of the queen, Caroline Matilda, first minister, count, who was overthrown in 1772 by a conspiracy (queen dowager Juliana Maria') and be- headed along with his friend Brandt. The disputes with the line of Holstein-Gottorp were brought to an end in 1773 by the cession of Oldenburg to the younger line in exchange for their share of Holstein, which was in consequence entirely incorporated with the Danish monarchy. Sweden. Until 1751 Sweden was under the rule of Frederic of Hesse-Cassel (p. 397). Decline of the royal power in the midst of the dissensions of two parties of the nobility, HUte, " hats ; " (French) and Mutzen " caps ; (Russian). Unsuccessful war with Russia (1741-1743), ended by the disgraceful 1743. Peace of Abo. 1. The Cymen made the boundary between Sweden and Russia, whereby the position of St. Petersburg was made more secure. 2. The succession to the crown of Sweden was guaranteed to Adolf Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp. 1751-1818- The house of Holstein-Gottorp in Sweden. Under Adolf Frederic (1751-1771) the royal power underwent such reductions at the hands of the royal council that Sweden was rather an aristocracy than a monarchy. Inglorious participation in the Seven Tears' War. Adolf Frederic's son, Gustavus m. (1771- 1792), crushed the power of the royal council of nobles by a blood- less revolution (1772), and reduced it in the new constitution from a co-regent to a simple council ; the estates, however, retained the right of veto against an offensive war. 1788-1790. War with Russia. Drawn battle at the island of Hogland (1788). Gustavus invaded Russian Finland, where the officers of his army refused him further obedience. He foimd support among the people (Stockholm and Dalecarlia). The estates granted him (against the will of the nobles) the right to declare even an offensive war. In spite of brilliant deeds of arms Gustavus con- cluded the war by a peace (at WereloB) which was without advantage to Sweden. 1792, March. Gustavus III. murdered by James of Ankarstrom. CSeepp.UT,487.y 410 Modem History. A. D. RUSSIA AND POLAND. (See pp. 375, 397:) Alexis, t 1676. Feodor nx t 1682. Iran till 1689. I Sophia. Catharine, duchess of Mecklenburg- Schweriu. Anna, duchess of Brunswick. Ivan IV. till 1741, t 1764. Feter the Great. 1 1725, m. Catharine I, t 1727. Anna, t 1740. Alexis, t 1718. Peter H., t 1730. Anna, duchess of Holstein- Gottorp. Peter HI., t 1762. m. Catharine II., t 1796. Xilizabeth, t 1762. The son of Peter the Great (p. 374 and 394), Alexis, who favored the Russian reaction, was condemned to execution by his father, and died in prison (?) 1718. Peter was succeeded, in consequence of a law which he had issued in 1722 (afterwards repealed by Paul I.) which allowed the reigning sovereign to appoint his own successor, by his wife 1725-1727. Catharine I., who was governed by prince Menschikoff, the favorite of Peter I., who had risen from the lowest rank to be the first minister of state. After the sudden death of the empress there followed, under her wUl, 1727-1730. Peter II., twelve years old, grandson of Peter I. He was for four months under the influence of Menschikoff, who at the end of that time was overthrown by the family of Dol- goruhy and sent to Siberia, where he died two years later. Upon Peter II.'s early death, 1730-1740. Anna Ivanovna, younger daughter of the elder brother of Peter the Great, was proclaimed empress. She was ruled by Munnich, Ostermann, and her favorite Biron (properly Biihren). The latter soon obtained complete control, and toot un- bridled vengeance on his enemies, particularly the Dolgoruky. In 1737 he was appointed duke of Curland, at the desire of the em- press, by Augustus III., king of Poland (1733-1763). Russia's in- fluence in Poland established by the war of the Polish succession (p. 398). In the war against the Turks, brilliantly conducted, in combination with Austria (p. 398), by the general Munnich (1736- 1739), Azoff'was the only acquisition. The empress Anna was suc- ceeded by her grand-nephew, the minor A. D. Denmark, Sweden^ Russia, Poland. 411 1740-1741. Ivan IV. (or VI.), whose mother, Anna of Bruns- wick, conducted the government for a short time after Miin- nich had accomplished the fall of Biron, who was sent to Siberia. A military revolution placed upon the throne 1741-1762. Elizabeth, the youngest daughter of Peter the Great. Ivan was imprisoned, the leaders of the preceding government, including Miinnich, were sent to Siberia, Biron returned. Capricious rule of women and favorites ; Lestocq, a friend of Prussia, to whom the empress was chiefly indebted for her throne, was over- thrown by Bestushef, friendly to Austria, and sent to Siberia. War with Sweden, see p. 410. Participation of Russia in the Seven Years' War, p. 404. According to Elizabeth's direction she was succeeded by the son of her sister, Peter, duke of Holstdn-Gottorp. 1762 — X. House of Holstein-Gottorp in Russia. 1762. Peter III., after a six months' reign, which he began with the imprudent introduction of reforms, was deposed (July 9) and imprisoned by his wife (princess of Anhalt-Zerbst), the energetic and immoral 1762-1796. Catharine n. The two brothers Orloff caused the emperor to be strangled, whether with the knowledge of Catharine or not, cannot be stated. The fact that she overwhelmed the murderers with rewards tells against the empress. Catharine asked and received from Augustus III., king of Poland, the restoration of Curland, for Biron, who administered the duchy under Russian influence, until 1772, and bequeathed it to his son. After the death of Augustus III. (1763), Catharine, in alliance with Frederic II., procured the election of her prot^g^ 1764r-1795. Stanislaus Poniatowski (f 1797), as king of Poland. At the request of Russia and Prussia the dissenters, adherents of the Greek church, and protestants received equal rights with catho- lics. In opposition to this change, formation of the Confederacy of Bar (1768), which made an unsuccessful attempt to abduct the king. In the civil war that followed the king was successfully supported by a Russian army against the confederacy. The Turks, allies of the confederacy, declared war upon Russia. Russia's success in this war aroused the envy of Prussia and Austria, which led to an attempt to secure an equal aggrandizement of the three powers by the 1772. First division of Poland. 1. Russia received thff region between the Duna, Dnieper, and Drutsch, i. e. the eastern part of Lithuania. 2. Austria : East Gallicia and Lodomeria. 3. Prussia : Polish Prussia ( West Prussia, with the exception of Danzig, Thorn, and Ermeland), which the Teu- tonic order had ceded to Poland in 1466 (p. 277), and the Netze dis- trict. The assent of the Polish nation to this high-handed proceeding was extorted by force. Exertions of the powers who had shared in the 412 Modern History. A. d. division to preserve the Polish constitution, which was another name for anarchy. 1768-1774. Catharine's first war against the Turks was successfully conducted. The Turkish fleet was defeated and burned by the Russians off the island of Chios (Tschesme, 1770). During the war revolt of the Cossack Pugacheff, who gave himself out as Peter III. The success of Romanzoff, who surrounded the Grand Vizier at Shumla, brought about the 1774. July 12. Peace of Kutschouo Kainardji. 1. Russia received Kinhum; Yenikale, a,nd Kertch in the Crimea, and their districts; and obtained the right of free navigation in all Turkish waters for trading vessels. 2. The Tatars in the Crimea, and along the Kuban, became " independent." 3. Ke.storation of con- quests in Moldavia and Wallachia to their princes, whose interests, as opposed to the Porte, were henceforward represented at Constantinople by Russia. ["Permanently important provisions of the treaty of Kutschouc Kainardji : I. The Tatars were released from allegiance to Turkey and brought under Russian influence. II. Russia obtained a firm footing on the north coasts of the Black Sea ; pushing back the Turkish frontier to the river Boug. III. The frontier line between the two powers in Asia was left'much as it was before the war. IV, Russia stipulated for an embassy at Constantinople and for certain privileges for Christians in Turkey. V. Russia exacted promises for the better government of the principalities, reserving a right of re- monstrance if these were not kept. VI. Russia obtained a deelara^ tion of her right of free commercial navigation in Turkish waters. All subsequent controversies between the Porte and Russia may be referred to one of these six heads." — T. E. Holland : Treaty rela- tions of Russia and Turkey from 1774^1853.] Prince Fotemkin, Catharine's favorite, soon became all-powerful and conducted all state affairs according to his humor and his arbi- trary will. 1780. Armed neutrality at sea, at first introduced for the protection of commerce during the North American war (p. 428). The subject was broached by Rus- sia, and the idea gradually found support from Denmark, Sweden (1780), Prussia, Austria (1782), Portugal (1783); Spain, and France recognized the principle. England prevented the addition of Holland to the league by a declaration of war. Demands of the Armed Neutrality. 1. Free passage of neutral ships from port to port and along the coasts of combatants. 2. Free- dom of an enemy's goods in neutral ships (le pavilion couvre la marcharuMse), with the exception of such goods as were contraband of war. 3. Exact definition of a blockaded port ; a merely nominal (" paper ") blockade, that is, one not enforced by a sufficient number of ships of war in the vicinity of the specified harbor, was declared to be inadmissible. Plan of Catharine and Potemkin to drive the Turks out of Europe, A. D. Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland. 413 and to restore the Greek empire, as a seeondogemture of the 1783. imperial house of Russia, under grand-duke Constantine. The 1787. Crimea (Tauria) incorporated with Russia. Catharine's jour- ney through southern Russia to Kherson. Shameless represen- tation of a flourishing condition of the country by Potemkin the Taurian ! Meeting with Joseph II. 1787-1792. Catharine's second war with the Turks {Potemkin and Suvaroff), in alliance with Austria (Laudon and the prince of Coburg). Potem- kin stormed Otchakoff (1788), victory, in union with the Austrians at Fokchany and on the Rimnik, Potemkin conquered Bender (1789), Su- varoff stormed Ismail (179^. Victory at Matchin. Peace between Austria and Turkey at Sistova (1791). Austria received Old- Orsova only. Potemkin died 1791. Between Russia and the Porte 1792- Jan. 9. Peace of Jassy. Russia received Otchakoff and the land between the lower Dnieper, Bug, and Dniester, the latter river becoming the boundary. 1793- Second division of Poland. The Poles had attempted to improve the war of Russia and Austria with the Turks, and the seemingly friendly aspect of Prussia, by putting an end to their dependence upon the neighboring states, and to the anarchical condition of a£Fairs at home. Alliance with Prussia (1790), which promised to help the Poles if foreign nations should attempt to interfere in their internal affairs. The new con- stitution of 1791, drawn up by Ignaz Potocki and his friends, 1. converted the elective monarchy into an hereditary monarchy, appoint- ing the elector of Saxony successor of the king Stanislaus Poniatowski and making the throne hereditary in the house of Saxony ; 2. con- ferred the executive power upon the king and a council of state, the legislative power upon a diet of the kingdom in two houses, with abolition of the liberum veto, and 3. made some concessions to the mid- dle classes and the peasants, permitting, for example, admission to the rank of the nobility, all of whose privileges, however, were con- firmed. In opposition to this constitution there was formed the Confederacy of Targotoitz {Felix Potocki), under the protection of Russia, which had guaranteed the old constitution. A Russian army invaded Poland. Brave, but futile resistance under prince Poniatowski and Kosduszko, who were defeated at Dubienka. The king joined the confederacy of Targowitz ; the new constitution was repealed. Under pretense of suppressing Jacobinism, Prussian troops entered Poland. Annexa- tion of Danzig (1793). Russia and Pinissia issued a common procla- mation which announced to the Poles that Russia and her former allies had already come to an understanding. At the diet of Grodno, the consent of the nation to the new cessions, was extorted. Russia took the larger part of Lithuania, being all that remained, and Volhynia and Podolia ; Prussia took Danzig and Thorn, and the whole of Great Poland (now called South Prussia). Besides all this, 414 Modern History. A. D. Russia enforced a treaty of union, whereby she received : 1. free entrance for her troops into Poland ; 2. the conduct of all future ■wars ; 3. the right of confirming all treaties made by Poland with foreign powers. 1794. Revolution in Poland, under the lead of Kosciuszko. The Russians in Warsaw, under Igelstrom, were in part massacred, in part driven from the city. The Prussians entered Poland, defeated Kosciuszko at Szczekoziny (pr. Shtchekoziny), took Cracow, but be- sieged Warsaw in vain. The Russians were victorious at Brzesc and at Maciejowice (pr. Matchevitz). Kosciuszko captured.i Storm of Prague by Suvaroff; massacre in the city. 1795. Third and last partition of Poland. At this partition, the three powers took possession of the fol- lowing parts of Poland : Prussia : Masooia with Warsaw, the region between the Vistula, Bug, and Niemen (New East Prussia), part of Cracow (New Silesia) ; 2. Austria: West Galicia as far as the Bug. 3. Russia : all that remained towards the east. The powers obtained, by the three parti- tions, about the following increase of territory : Russia, 181,000 square miles, with 6,000,000 inhabitants. Austria, 45,000 " " « 3,700,000 Prussia, 57,000 " " " 2,500,000 « 1795. The annihilation of the kingdom of Poland led to the incor- poration of Curland with Russia. Curland, legally under the overlordship of Poland, had been practically under Russian supremacy since 1737, when the empress Anna (411) had obtained the duchy for Biron against the claims of the Marshal Saxe. (See pp. ^^7, 4^7.) §5. SPAM AND PORTUGAL. {See p. 394.) 1701-1808 (1814-x). The House of Bourbon in Spain. Philip V. (1701-1746). Bloody punishment of the adherents of the archduke Charles of Austria ; particularly in Aragon and Cata- lonia. Suppression of all old constitutions and rights (Fueros) which remained. The quadruple alliance against Spain, see p. 397, the par- ticipation of Spain in the war of the Polish Succession and the estab- lishment of a secuudogeniture in Naples, see p. 398. Under Philip and ms successor Ferdinand VI., 1746-1759, par- ticipation ia the war of the Austrian succession, see p. 401. Ferdi- nand was succeeded by his halt-brother Charles III., 1759-1788, previously king of the Two Sicilies, p. 417. Participation of Spain in the Seven Years' War between Eng- land and France (Peace of Paris), see p. 441, and in the war of American Independence (Peace of Versailles), see p. 433. A popu- lar revolt against Italian favorites of the king, was made the pretext 1 Eosciuszko never made use of the well-known expression " Finis Po- lonicB," as he himself openly and with indignation declared. A. D. Portugal. — Italy. 415 for the banishment of the Jesuits from Spain (1767), which was exe- cuted by the minister Aranda. Portugal. Since 1640 Portugal was again independent of Spain, had again reached a certain degree of power under the first kings of the house of Braganza, but was then impoverished by a miserable administra- tion, and brought into complete dependence upon England by a com- mercial treaty with that power. Li the reign of Joseph I. Emmanuel (1750-1777), his minister Carvalho, marquis of Fombal, endeav- ored to introduce revolutionary reforms, in the spirit of the century, in the same direction as the later attempts of Joseph II. (p. 408). After the terrible 1755. Nov. 1. Earthquake of Lisbon, in which 30,000 people lost their lives, Pombal caused the mined portion of the capital to be splendidly rebuilt. An unsuccess- ful attempt to assassinate the king (1758) formed a pretext for ban- ishing the Jesuits from Portugal (1759), and a welcome chance for the minister to rid himself of his enemies. The death of the king was followed by the fall of Pombal and the undoing of his reforms. The order of the Jesuits was dissolved in 1773, see p. 416. Pombal sen- tenced to death, but pardoned. ^.'i'ee pp. 447, 487.) § 6. ITALY. (Seep. S28.) Savoy. The dukes of Savoy and Piedmont, kings since the peace of Utrecht, since 1718 kings of Sardinia (p. 397), understood how to increase their territory, in the eighteenth century as well as before, by skillful use of political relations. During the war of the Austrian succession they acquired a. considerable extent of land from Milan (p. 400). Genoa. The republic of Genoa was constantly obliged to defend her free- dom and independence against powerful neighbors, who coveted her territory (Savoy, France, Austria'). In 1730 the inhabitants of the island of Corsica, which had been under the supremacy of Genoa, revolted. After a long and fluctuating contest, during which a Ger- man adventurer, Baron JVeuhof of Westphalia, appeared for a time as King Theodore I. of Corsica (1736), the Genoese called in the assistance of the French, who after great exertions and bloody bat- tles (particularly against Paoli), succeeded in subjugating the island, which the Genoese ceded to them in 1768. Venice. The republic of Venice, by consequence of its obstinate persis- tence in the old aristocratic forms, politically immired, sank into an irremediable decline. Its last laurels were gained in the seventeenth 416 Modern History. A. D. century in the glorious wars against the Turks. The latter surprised Candia and conquered a part of the island (1645-1647). The Vene- tian fleet under Grimani and Riva repeatedly defeated the much stronger Turkish fleet. Brilliant victory of the admiral Mocenigo, 1651, and Morosini, 1655. Marcello annihilated the Turkish fleet by the Dardanelles (1656), Mocenigo defeated the Turks at Chios, but was himself defeated in a second combat. New naval victories over the Turks in 1661 and 1662. The Venetians received aid from Germany and France, but were obliged, after courageous fighting, to leave the island of Candia under Turkish supremacy. After an alli- ance between the republic of Venice, the emperor and John SobiesH of Poland (1684), renewal of the war against the Turks. The Vene- tians under Morosini, supported by German mercenaries, began the conquest of the Peloponnesus (Mored) in 1685. Count Konigsmark landed at Patras (1687) and completed the subjugation of the penin- sula. Morosini captured Athens; a Venetian bomb bleTV up the Par- theuon on the Acropolis. Morosini, who had been elected doge, landed in Negroponte (Euboea^, hut the plague in the army (Konigs- mark f ) frustrated the expedition. In the peace of Carlowitz, 1699 (see p. 372), Morea was given to the Venetians, who repopulated the peninsula with Greek colonists, but soon earned the hatred of their new subjects by the rigor of their administration. Tuscany. Tuscany declined in power after the seventeenth century, as the influence of the clergy steadily increased. In 1737 the family of the Medici became extinct ; the later members of this house, sunken in dissipation, were sadly unworthy of their great ancestors. After 1737, the rulers of Lorraine were dukes of Tuscany (see p. 398) ; Leopold II., upon his accession in Austria (1790) gave Tuscany to his second son Ferdinand Joseph. Tuscany was an Austrian secundogeniture from 1765-1859. Parma, Fiacenza, and Guastalla were secundogenitures for the Spanish Bourbons from 1731-1735, and again 1748-1859. Modena, since 1597, was ruled by an illegitimate branch of the house of Este. Papal States. In the Papal States, prosperity, industry, and intellectual life stead- ily declined. After the sixteenth century the papal chair was occu- pied by Italians only, who were for the most part members of the great families of the nobUity. Among the Popes of the eighteenth century Clemens XIV. (Ganganelli) must be mentioned, who in 1773 yielded to the demands of the Catholic courts and dissolved the order of the Jesuits, whose general, Ricci, would not entertain the idea of reform {sint ut sunt, aut non sint), by the bull Dominus ac redemptor noster. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. After 1738 this kingdom was a secundogeniture of the Spanish Bour- bons, and was given to Ferdinand, third son of Charles III., when the A. D. America: British Colonies. 417 latter ascended the Spanish throne in 1759. Naples and Sicily were governed by this branch of the Bourbon family solely in the interest of their house, and not in that of the people, for whose intellectual and material welfare little or nothing was done. {See pp. ltli.7, ^57.) § 7. AMERICA: BRITISH COLONIES. (See p. 365.) 1713. Treaty with the eastern Indians at Portsmouth. Rectification of the boundary between Massachusetts and Connecticut by the cession of over 100,000 acres of land by the forioer to the latter. 1715. An Indian war in Carolina undertaken by the Yamassees and allied tribes. The Indians were defeated and driven across the Spanish border by governor Craven. 1718. Captain Woods Rogers, appointed governor of New Providence, suppressed the buccaneers in the 'West Indies ; extirpation of the pirates on the coast of Carolina by the governor of that colony. 1719-1729. Oveithrov7 of proprietary government in Carolina. In 1719 the people of Carolina, having for some time chafed under the arbitrary government of the proprietors, formed an association for the overthrow of the proprietary government. The assembly prov- ing imruly was dissolved by governor Johnson, but refused to obey the proclamation ; they elected a new governor and council, and op- posed the armed demonstration of governor Johnson with an armed defiance. A threatened attack by the Spaniards only served to show more clearly the determined spirit of the colonists. (The Spanish expedition never reached Carolina, being repulsed from New Provi- dence, and overwhelmed by a storm). The late events being reported by the agent for the colony in England, the royal council declared the charter of the proprietors forfeited, and forthwith established a pro- visional royal government ; governor Nicholson (1721). In 1729 an agreement with the proprietors was reached and confirmed by act of parliament. Seven of the proprietors sold their titles and interest in the colony ; the eighth retained his property but not his proprietary power. The crown assumed the right of nominating governors and councils. The province was divided into North and South Carolina. 1720. William Burnet, governor of New York. Prohibition of trade between the Indians and the French. 1722. In Nevir York, governor Burnet continued his efforts to ob- struct the French in their policy of hemming in the English sea^coast colonies on the west. Erection of a trading-house at Oswego ; negotiations with the Six Nations at Albany. (The Tuscaroras had been admitted to the Iroquois confederacy aa a sixth nation). 1724. Indian hostilities in New England. War with the Abinakis, who were incensed by the rapid extension of the English settle- ments, and further provoked by the advice of Basics, a French Jesuit at Norridgewock. Futile attempt of the English to seize Basics was answered by the destruction of Berwick, whereupon war was declared, Norridgewock burnt and Basics killed. 418 Modem History. a. d. 1725. The Yamassees, though living under the protection of the Span- iards in Florida, continued their assaults on the English colony in Caroliaa. Expedition of Palmer to St. Augustine, upon which he chastised the Indians. 1726. The general court of Massachusetts having become involved in a controversy with governor Shute, the latter obtained from the crown an explanatory charter which gave him power to suppress debate, and limited the time for which the house of representatives might adjourn, to two days. Treaty of peace between Massachusetts and the eastern In- dians, which was long kept. In New York, a treaty with the Senecas, Cayugas, and Onon,- dagas added their lands to those of the Mohawks and Oneidas, wmoh were already under English protection. 1728. £MTOe£ governor of Massachusetts. He was at ouce involved in a wrangle with the legislature over the question of a fixed salary for the governor, which the court refused to grant, " be- cause it is the undoubted right of all Englishmen, by Magna Charta, to raise and dispose of money for the public service, of their own free accord, without compulsion." The boundary between Virginia and North Carolina was sur- veyed and settled, running through the Dismal Swamp. 1729. Division of Carolina into North and South Carolina (p. 417). 1731. Settlement of the disputed boundary between New Yort and Connecticut. 1733. Settlement of Georgia, the last of the old thir- teen colonies (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- nia, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia). It being thought desirable that the government should secure for England the western part of Carolina in order to prevent the French or the Spaniards from Louisiana or Florida from laying hold of it, a charter for the lands between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers ex- tending to the Pacific, under the name of Georgia, was granted to James Oglethorpe and associates, not as proprietors but as trustees (twenty-one in number), for twenty-one years for the crown, at the expiration of which time the colony was to revert to the crown, which should then determine on the manner of its future goverment. Lib- erty of conscience and freedom of worship were secured to all inhab- itants of the colony except papists. James Oglethorpe, the moving spirit in this projected colony, desired to establish within its limits a chance for reformation for English prisoners, and a home for poor and oppressed Protestants of all nations. Oglethorpe brought the first colonists in 1733, and settled at Savaunai ; conciliation of the Indians by just purchase of lands and by kindness. Oglethorpe re- fused to allow the importation either of rum or of slaves into Georgia. Many Scotch Presbyterians as well as Moravians from Austria came to the new colony. One of the first enactments of the trustees de- clared that male issue only could inherit land in the colony. A. D. America: British Colonies. 419 1734. In Ne-w York arrest of Zenger, printer of the Weekly Jour- nal, for libel on the governor (Cosby). Trial and acquittal 1735. 1738. Foundation of a college at Princeton, in New Jersey. 1739-1748. Great Britain at war with Spain. 1740. Unsuccessful expedition of Oglethorpe to Florida at the head of 1,200 men from Georgia, Carolina, and Virginia. Siege of St. Augustine. Settlement of the boundary dispute between MassachusettB and New Hampshire in favor of the latter colony. Expedition of Vernon with 27,000 men against Carthagena, broken up by disease. 1741. The colonies participated in an attack on Cuba. 1742. Expedition of 3,000 Spaniards to Greorgia repulsed by Ogle- ihorpe by stratagem. Li this year Oglethorpe went to England and never returned to America. 1744-1748. War between Great Britain and France, known in the American colonies as King George's War, in reality a part of the war of the Austrian Succession (p. 400). The strongest French fortification in America outside of Quebec was Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, a part, as the English claimed, of Acadia ; the French, however, had refused to surrender it with that province, asserting that only Nova Scotia was comprised under that name. 1745. Apr. 30-June 16. Siege and capture of Louisburg by 4,000 colonial troops under William Pepperell, aided by a few English vessels. 1746. Projected conquest of Canada, by a united effort of all the colonies prevented by the arrival of a large French fleet at Nova Scotia under D'Anville, which spread consternation throughout the English colonies, but which, by the death of D'Anville, the suffering of the troops through pestilence and the loss of vessels by storm, was prevented from accomplishing anything. 1747. Nov. 17. An attempt of the English commander, Knowles, to press men for his vessels in Boston, caused an uprising of the people ; the governor withdrew to Castle William, and the dis- turbance was only quieted by the release of most of the men seized. 1748. Treaty of Aiz-la-Chapelle between England, France, and Spain. In the reciprocal surrender of conquests. Cape Breton was restored to the French (p. 404). Formation of the Ohio Company under a charter from the English crown, which gave great offense to the French. 1760. In spite of the confirmation of the cession of Acadia to Eng- land by the treaty of Aix-la^-ChapeUe, hostilities sprang up be- tween the French and English there, owing to disputes over the boundaries. 420 Modem History. A. D^ 1761. Governor Clinton, of New York, in association with South Carolina, Massachusetts and Connecticut, concluded a peace with the Six Nations. 1752. The trustees of Georgia finding that the colony did not flourish under their care, gave up their charter, and the crown assumed control, and placed Georgia on the same footing with other royal colonies. The English parliament adopted the reformed or G-regorian calendar for England mid the colonies (p. 438). 1753. The growth of the British colonies extending more and more westward caused the disputes between England and France to grow to a head. The French claimed the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence, and all the region between from the Appalachians to the Spanish settlements in the west, and were intent on securing this re- gion by a line of forts directly back of the English colonies. Accord- ing to the English aU French settlements within the territory of the colony of Plymouth (p. 293) were illegal ; they also claimed the whole region occupied by the Iroquois. The settlement of Georgia and the foundation of the Ohio Coiupany were attempts to counter- act the progress of the French, and these moves in their turn were a cause of uneasiness to the French, who seized traders within the limits of the Ohio Company. As the lauds of the company were within the territory of Virginia, Robert Dinvnddie, governor of that colony, dis- patched George Washington to the forts on the Alleghany and the Ohio to remonstrate with the French (Oct. 31-Dec. 12). The com- mander of the Ohio forts promised to lay the remonstrance before the governor of Canada. 1754. Virginia immediately sent a force to the Ohio, two companies of which were under Washington. In the advance upon Fort Du Quesne, at the juncture of the Alleghany and Monongahela, he captured a small French party, but was besieged in Fort Necessity, which he had erected, and forced to capitulate under condition of free withdrawal (July 4). June 19. Conference of colonial delegates at Albany with the Six Nations. By the advice of Benjamin Franklin the conference also drew up a plan of a union of all the colonies under a president appointed by the crown, with a grand council of delegates elected by the colonial assemblies, with a right of legislation subject to the veto of the president and the approval of the crown. Connecticut, object- ing to the veto power, refused to sign the proposal, which was after- wards rejected both by the colonies and the crown. 1755-1763. War between England and France, called in the American colonies " The Old French and In- dian War ; " being a part of the Seven Years' War, in Europe, which was fought in Asia and Africa as welL War was not declared until the following year, but it is reckoned from 1755 (p. 404 and 438). 1755. While a conference of the colonial governors with general Braddock, who was sent from England to take chief command, A. D. America : British Colonies. 421 decided on three expeditions: 1. against Fort Du Quesne; 2. against the fort at Niagara ; 3. against the French fort at Crown Point in New York; a band of 3,000 Massachusetts troops under Winslow and Monckton captured forts Beausejmir and Gaspereaux in the disputed dis- trict in Nova Scotia (June 16-17), and dispersed among the British colonies about 7,000 of the inhabitants who refused to take the oath of allegiance to England (" Evangeline "). Meantime general Braddock took the offensive at the head of the British regulars against Fort du Quesne, and fell into an ambuscade, in consequence of neglecting the advice of the provincial officers (WaBhington), and suffered a complete defeat and great loss in the 1765, July 9. Battle of Fort du Quesne or " Braddock 's defeat." Death of Braddock. Attack on Crown Point : Construction of Fort Edward on the east of the Hudson (Aug.). Sept. 8. Battle of Lake George ; defeat of the French under Dies- kau (f), by the provincial troops under Johnson. Construction of Fort William Henry at the south end of Lake George by the English. Fortiiication of Ticonderoga, between Lake Greorge and Lake Champlain, by the French. The expedition to Niagara was subjected to so many delays that it was for the time abandoned. 1756, Great Britain declared war on France. Earl of Loudoun com- mander-in-chief of forces in America. Aug. Forts Oswego and George captured by the marquis of Mont- calm, commander-in-chief of the French armies in Canada, and destroyed. This disaster occasioned the abandonment of the projected enter- prises against Niagara, Crown Point, Fort du Quesne and Eastern Canada. Fortifications of Georgia and Carolina (Fort Loudoun on the Tennessee river). The French constructed a system of forts in the region of the Illinois. 1757, August 9. Capture of Port Williani Henry by Montcalm, massacre of the garrison, whose retreat to Fort Edward was guaranteed, by the Indians in Montcalm's army. In Massachusetts, controversy between the governor, Lord Lou- doun and the general court over the quartering of troops. In Pennsylvania, controversy between the governor and the as- sembly over a scheme of taxation ; the governor refusing his assent to the bill, the assembly demanded the assent as their right. 1758, July 8. Repulse of Abercrombie before Ticonderoga. Expedition against Louisburg (May 28-July 26). Cap- ture of the fortress (Amherst and Wolfe, July 26). Aug. 27. Capture of Fort Frontenac by Bradstreet. Nov. 25. Capture of Fort du Quesne by General Forbes. The fort was named Ft. Pitt (Pittsburg). 1769, July 25. Capture of Fort Niagara by Sir William Johnson. July 26. Capture of Ticonderoga by Major-General Amherst. Expedition of Major-General Wolfe from Louisburg against Que- bec. Repulsed at the Montmorency ; Wolfe conducted his force by 422 Modern History. A. d. night to the elevated plateau behind Quebec called the Plains of Abraham, where in the 1759. Sept. 13. Battle of the Plains of Abraham the French under Montcalm were completely defeated. Death of Wolfe and Montcalm. Surrender of Quebec (Sept. 18). 1760. Sept. 8. Montreal and all Canada surrendered to the Eng- lish. 1761. The vrrits of assistance in Massachusetts. The English government (Board of Trade reestablished 1695) having for some time adhered to a course of commercial restrictions and duties upon the colonies (all molasses charged with duty except that imported from the British West Indies, 1733 ; erection of rolling mills prohib- ited, 1750 ; the slave trade favored in spite of the opposition of the colonial legislatures of Virginia and Carolina, etc.) had roused a spirit of resistance throughout the colonies based on the perception that such duties were a form of taxation without representation. Hence so much evasion was practised that finally the custom house officials in Boston applied to the superior court of judicature (Thomas Hutch- inson, chief justice) for the issue of writs of assistance such as were granted by the exchequer in England. The case was argued for the colonists by Thacher, and especially by James Otis, (1725-1783), who urged the dangerous character of the writ as being servable by any offloer against any person for any length of time, and accused the acts of trade as infringements of the charter. The court deferred its decision ; it would seem that the writs were ultimately granted, but that the officers did not venture to use them. 1762. Expedition against Martinique, by the royal and provincial troops ; surrender of this island, of Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and of all the other French West Indies. War between England and Spain (p. 439). July. Storm of Havana, which was surrendered to the English. 1763. Feb. 10. Peace of Paris, between Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal. (Preliminary articles 1762, Nov. 3, at Fontainehleau, p. 439). 1. France ceded to England, Nova Scotia, or Acadia, Canada, Cape Breton, and all other islands in the gulf and river of St. Law- rence, reserving the right to fish and dry fish on a part of Newfound- land, and of fishing in the Gulf of St. Lawrence three leagues from the shore, and at a distance of fifteen leagues from Cape Breton • also the river and harbor of Mobile and everything on the left of the mid- dle of the Mississippi, the Iberville, and lakes Maurepas and Ponchar- train, except New Orleans, the navigation of the Mississippi to be free for both England and France ; also Grenada, St. Vincent, Do- minique, Tobago. In all ceded districts certain civil and religious rights were secured to the French inhabitants. England ceded to France the islands of St. Peter and Miquelon in the Gulf of St. Lawrence for fishing stations, not to be fortified, and Guadalowae, Marigalante, Desirade, Martinique, BeUeisle, St. Lucia, in the West Indies. A. D. America : British Colonies. 423 2. Spain ceded to England Florida, and all other possessions east of the Mississippi ; Spain also gave up her claims to the Newfound- land fisheries ; England restored Havana to Spain and destroyed all English fortresses in Spanish America ; right to out and transport dye wood reserved. 3. France ceded to Spain the whole of Louisiana and New Or- leans by a previous treaty of Nov. 3, 1762. The English acquisitions were divided into the four governments of Quebec, East Florida, West Florida and Grenada. The numher of inhabitants in the old thirteen colonies at this time was about two millions. 1763. The conspiracy of Fontiac. Fontiac was the chief of the Ottawas, a firm friend of the French ; relying on the vain hope of assistance from whom, he resolved to wrest from the English the border fortresses. To this end he formed an alliance of almost all the tribes of the Algonquin race, with the Wyandots and Senecas. The other nations of the Iroquois were with great difficulty kept quiet by the influence of Sir William Johnson. Pontiaxj had planned to open the attack by the treacher- ous seizure of the fort at Detroit on May 7. Foiled in this by the coolness of Gladwyn, the English commander, who had been previ- ously informed of the plot, the era'aged chief opened the siege of the fort (May 9) and war broke out along the whole line from the Mississippi to Canada. In a short time Fort Pitt, Niagara, and De- troit, of all the border fortresses, alone remained in the hands of the English. In July Boquet forced his way, under severe fighting, to Fort Pitt, which he relieved. Fontiac maintained before Detroit the longest siege which the Indians ever executed, but on September 3, the garrison was relieved by a schooner from Niagara, and with the approach of winter the Indians withdrew. The western tribes were not subdued before 1765, but the danger was over. Fontiac did not long outlive his failure. 1763, Paxton boys in Fennsylvania ; massacre of converted Indians. The peace gave to Great Britain time to enforce more vigorously that system of repression and taxation which the ministers thought the fitting method of dealing with the too independent colonists, while it gave the colonists time to reflect upon and to resent such a pro- cedure. 1763-1765. Greorge GrenvUle, prime minister. 1764, March. Farliament voted that they had a right to tax the American colonies, though the colonies were not represented. Fassage of the sugar act (" it is just and necessary that a reve- nue be raised in America ) and of an act for increasing the effi- ciency of the revenue service. Fublication at Boston of " The Rights of the British Colonies as- serted and proved," by James Otis. Adoption of a resolution not to use British manufactures. 1765, March. Fassage of the Stamp Act; prescribing the use of stamped paper for legal documents, pamphlets, and news- papers throughout the colonies. (Speech of Colonel Barre.) 424 Modem History. A. D. The news was received in America with the greatest indigna- tion. Eesolutions of the house of burgesses in Virginia de- 1765. May 30. nying the right of taxation, introduced by Patrick Henry (1736-1797). Oct. 7. Meeting of a congress of twenty eight delegates from Mas- sachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, South Carolina (Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia were not represented, but were in sympathy with the colonies) at New York in accordance with the proposition of Massa^ chusetts. The assembly drew up petitions and memorials to the king and parliament, and adopted a "Declaration of rights and liberties " (Oct. 19). The arrival of stamp officers led to riots in various cities, as in Bos- ton; where the officer (Andrew Oliver) was burnt in effigy, his house and that of lieutenant-governor Hutchinson sacked, in New Y'ork, etc. Non-importation and non-consumption agreements. 1765-1766. Hockingham prime minister. 1766. March. Repeal of the Stamp Act, which had brought in no revenue (JPilt, Burke) ; examination of Benjamin Franklin (b. Jan. 17, 1706 ; d. Apr. 17, 1790) ; agent of Pennsylvania, before the commons. The repeal was accompanied by a de- claratory act, asserting that "parliament has power to bind the colonies in all eases whatsoever " (March, 1766). 1766-1770. Duke of Grafton prime minister (Earl of Chatham privy seal). 1767. Duty imposed on glass, paper, painters' colors, and tea introduced into the colonies (this measure followed the defeat of the min- istry on the land tax in England, which cost the revenue a large sum). Out of the revenue thus collected Jixed salaries were to be paid royal oiBcials. New York having refused to make provision for troops quar- tered upon the colony, the legislative power of the assembly was suspended by parliament until compliance. Creation of a custom house and board of commissioners for America. 1768. Petition of Massachusetts to the king ; circular letter to the other colonies. The British ministry demanded that the court rescind the circular letter ; the court refused to do so (92 to 17), whereupon governor Bernard dissolved the assembly. Similar proceedings occurred in other colonies. June. The seizure of John Hancock's sloop Liberty, for a false en- try by the custom house officials in Boston, caused a riot, and the officials fled to Castle William. Oct. Arrival of British troops at Boston. The selectmen refused to provide quarters for the men. First settlement made in Tennessee. 1769. Parliament adopted a resolution looking to the trial of acts of treason committed in the colonies in England. Resolutions of the house of burgesses in Virginia denouncing this position. The governor dissolved the assembly. Similar resolutions were adopted in other colonies. A- !>• America : British Colonies. 425 The general court of Massachusetts, refusing to do business while a guard was stationed at the state-house, was adjourned to Cambridge. Refusal to provide for the troops. Submission of the assembly in New York. 1770-1782. Lord North prime minister. 1770. The Boston massacre. In a broil between the populace March 5. and the British soldiers in King (State) street, three men were killed and eight wounded. The officer in command (Preston) was brought to trial, but acquitted (defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy). March. Act repealing the duty on paper, glass, and painters' colors, but retaining that on tea. 1771. Insurrection of the " regulators " in North Carolina sup- pressed by governor Tryon. Thomas Hutchinson (formerly lieutenant-governor) governor of Massachusetts (went to England, 1774). 1772. Destruction of the British revenue schooner Gaspee, which June 10. had made itself very obnoxious to the people of Rhode Island, and now ran aground in pursuit of a packet. In spite of a large reward offered, no information concerning the offenders was ever given. Settlement of the boundary between North and South Caro- lina. 1773. The Virginia assembly appointed a committee of correspond- ence for intercourse with the other colonies. The resolution of the colonies having caused a diminution both in the revenue and in the sale of tea, the British government agreed to relieve the East India Company of exportation duty if the company would transport its teas to the American col- onies. Cargoes were therefore sent to New York, Philadel- phia, Charleston, Boston. New York and Philadelphia sent back the ships ; at Charleston the tea was stored in damp cel- lars, where, as there was no demand for it, it soon spoiled. At Boston, as the return of the ships could not be obtained, 1773, Dec. 16. They were boarded by citizens disguised as Indians, and 342 chests of tea were emptied in the water (Boston Tea Party). Daniel Boon settled in Kentucky, English settlement near the Natchez. 1774, Mar. Passage of the Boston Port Bill, closing Boston to the importation and exportation of all goods except food or fuel ; and of " an act for the better regiUating the government of Mas- sachusetts," which was a virtual revocation of the charter, giving the governor great increase of power. Another act de- creed that persons accused of murder or any capital crime in aiding government should be tried in England, or in some other colony than that wherein the crime was committed. General Gage, commander-in-chief of the royal forces in North America, was appointed governor of Massachusetts. June 1. The port act went into operation in Boston. County conventions throughout Massachusetts protested against the acts (Aug.-Sept.). 426 Modern History. A. D. Sept. The Suffolk convention resolved : "That no obedience is due from the province to either or any part of the said acts, but that they should be rejected as the attempts of a wicked ad- ministration to enslave America." The project of a congress of the colonies, moved in 1773 by Franklin, was taken up by Rhode Island, Virginia, Mas- sachusetts, and the other colonies (except Georgia). 1774. Sept. 5. Continental Congress at Philadelphia. Peyton Randolph, president. Among the members were : Samuel and John Adams (Massachusetts), John Jay (New York), George 'Washington, Patrick Henry (Virginia). An address was prepared to the king, memorials to the people of British America, and to the people of Great Britain, to Canada, Florida, Georgia, etc. A declaration of rights, was drawn up. The congress also concluded Oct. 20. The American Association ; an agreement to prevent all importation and exportation from and to Great Britain until the acts were repealed. On Oct. 26, the congress separated with a resolve to meet the next year if justice had not by that time been done. In the meantime more British troops had been concentrated at Boston, and the town had been fortified. The town was the recipient of much sympathy and many generous gifts from the other colonies. Oct. The house of representatives in Massachusetts having been dissolved by the governor Sept. 28, met, and voting them- Oct. 26. selves a provincial congress, proceeded to organize the militia (minute-men) and collect stores and ammmiition. 1775. Fruitless attempt of the opposition in parliament under lord Chatham to procure the repeal of harsh measures toward the colonies. Acts for restraining the trade of New England and the southern colonies. A " conciliatory " measure iutroduced by lord North exempting from taxation any colony which would undertake to raise the quota assessed upon it. The act met with no re- sponse. Feb. 26. A British expedition to Salem, to seize some cannon stored there, was opposed by a few militia under colonel Pickering, but finally withdrew without bloodshed. 1775-1783. War of Independence. April 19. Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord. A body of 800 British soldiers, detailed to destroy stores at Concord, fired" upon a number of provincials assembled on the green at Lexington, killing eight men ; an inefEectual flre was returned. Proceeding to Concord, the British destroyed the stores, but were obliged to retreat {fight at the bridge) ; the retreat became a rout before they reached Lexington, where lord Percy with fresh troops met them. The further retreat to Boston was much embarrassed by the constantly increasing number of provincials. The British lost 273 men : the Americans 103, A. D. America: British Colonies. 427 In Massachusetts a large army was raised and encamped near Boston. May 10. Capture of Ticonderoga by the provincials under Ethan Allen. May 12. Capture of Crotm Point by Seth Warner. May 10. Meeting of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia. May 31. The county convention of Mecklenburg Co., North Carolina, declared the colonial charter suspended, and the government vested in the provincial and continental congresses. The troops before Boston were adopted as the American continental army ; and George Washington (born Feb. 22, 1732 ; died Dec. 14, 1799) was appointed commander-in-chief of the provincial forces (June 15). June 17. Battle of Bunker's (more properly Breed's) Hill, opposite Boston, where the Americans had thrown up intrenchments. The provincials were finally driven from their intrenchment, after their ammunition gave out, but not before they had in- flicted a loss of 1054 men on the British, themselves losing about 450 men (^ Warren f). July 3. Washington took command of the American army at Cam- bridge. 1775, July-March 17, 1776. Siege of Boston. 1775, Aug. Georgia joined the other colonies. An expedition against Canada being resolved upon, general Montgomery took Montreal (Nov. 12), but was defeated and killed before Quebec (Dec. 31), where Benedict Arnold had joined him after an ar- duous march. Fruitless siege of Quebec by Arnold. 1776, March 4. Occupation of Dorchester Heights by Washington. March 17. Evacuation of Boston. 1776, April 23. North Carolina authorized its delegates to join in a declaration of independence. May 15. Congress voted " that the exercise of every kind of authority under the crown should be totally suppressed," and extended to all the colonies its advice that they should set up govern- ments for themselves. Virginia directed its delegates to introduce a resolution an- nouncing the independence of the colonies. June 7. In congress it was moved by Richard Henry Lee of Vir- ginia, and seconded by /oAra .4 (iaj?M of Massachusetts, "That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and indepen- dent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." The resolution was referred and a committee appointed to draft a declaration, which accepted one prepared by Thomas Je&erson, of Virginia. Reported June 28. Debate July 1. The resolution was adopted by all the colonies except Neiv York, whose delegates were not instructed on so grave a matter, July 2. June 18. Evacuation of Canada by the Americans. June 28. Repulse of the British before fort Sullivan (Moultrie) off Charleston, S. C. 428 Modern History. A. d, 1776, July 4. Adoption of the Declaration of Indepen- dence. (Signed Aug. 2 and later.) To have taken up a position of independence was a moral gain for the colonies, but the act was followed by a period of military disaster. After the surrender of Boston, Washington went to New York, which was soon attacked by the two Howes with some 30,000 men. The British commanders brought offers pf peace, but they were not acceptable. Aug. 27. Battle of Long Island ; defeat of general Putnam. Re- treat of the Americans to New York. Sept. 15. Occupation of Nevr York by the British. Washington retreated to the Harlem heights. Sept. 22. Captain Nathan Hale, sent to reconnoitre the British force on Long Island, was captured and immediately executed by order of Sir WUliam Howe ; the attendance of a clergy- man was denied him, and his last letters to his mother and friends were destroyed. Disaster also overtook the colonists in the North. Oct. 11-13. Defeat of Arnold in two naval engagements on Lake Champlain. Occupation of Crown Point by the British. Oct. 28. Battle of White Plains, near New York. Defeat of Washington. Nov. 16. Capture of Fort Washington by the British. Nov. 20. Evacuation of Fort Lee by the Americans. Nov. 28. Washington retreated across New Jersey, and passed into Pennsylvania. Dec. 26. Battle of Trenton ; Washington having crossed the Dela- ware by night, surprised and captured about 1,000 Hessians at Trenton ; two days afterward he occupied the town in force, and defeated the British in 1777, Jan. 3. The Battle of Princeton. The Americans overran New Jersey, and several skirmishes occurred with the enemy during the spring. The army was in a very bad condition, owing largely to lack of money, which congress could supply only by the issue of paper money which soon depreciated largely. Even the ar- rival of the marquis of Lafayette, who was appointed major-general (July 31, 1777) brought orJy temporary encouragement. Burgoyne's and St. Leger's campaign from Canada. The summer of 1777 saw a change of fortune. The British had planned to cut the colonies in two by an expedition under general Burgoyne from Canada, which should be met by a northward move- ment of the army in New York. (Capture of forts Clinton and Montgomery, Oct. 6.) Burgoyne took Ticonderoga July 6, and de- feated the Americans at Huhhardton July 7. As Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, Schuyler, who had but half his force, retired to Saratoga. Meantime St. Leger, who was to cooper- ate with Burgoyne from Lake Ontario, besieged Fort Schuyler and de- feated Herhmar (Aug. 6), but returned to Montreal on the approach of Arnold with reinforcements. A. D. America : British Colonies. 429 Hearing of provisions and stores at Bennington in Vermont (then called New Hampshire Grants) Burgoyne sent colonel Baum to seize them, who was defeated hy general Stark in the 1777, Aug. 16. Battle of Bennington. Schuyler succeeded by Gates. Sept. 19. Burgoyne fought the battle of Stillwater (first battle of Bemis's Heights, or battle of Freeman's Farm), retaining the field, although he suffered a heavier loss than the Americans. On Oct. 7, a second battle was fought at Still^water (second battle of Bemis's Heights or Saratoga), in which the British were defeated. Being now surrounded and finding retreat impracticable, 1777, Oct. 17. Burgoyne surrendered his entire force (about 6,000 men) to Gates. Howe's Campaign. In the south events were less fortunate. On Aug. 25 general Howe disclosed his purpose of attacking Philadelphia. Washington immediately offered battle, but in the Sept. 11. Battle of the Brandywine the Americans were defeated, although they retired in good order (general Greene). Sept. 27. Howe occupied Fhiladelpbia. Washington attempted to surprise the camp at Germantown, but was defeated in the Oct. 4. Battle of Germantown. Capture of Fort Mifflin (Nov. 16) ; evacuation of Fort Mercer (Nov. 20) ; loss of the Delaware. Winter. Washington at Valley Forge. Sufferings of the army. Nov. 15. Articles of confederation and perpetual union agreed upon in congress between the states of New Hampshire, Mas- sachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. The confederacy was to be called "The United States of America." These articles were laid before the legislature of the separate states for ratification. This process proved a long one. June 14. Congress voted "that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white ; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. The people of New Hampshire Grants declared themselves an independent state under the name of Vermont (Jan.) 1778. Treaties with Prance ; recognition of the independence of Jan. 30-Feb. 6. the United States. Tliese treaties were negotiated by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee. Feb. Parliament renounced the right of taxing the colonies except for the regulation of trade, and appointed a commission to ne- gotiate for the submission of the colonies. The proposals of the commissioners were rejected by congress (June 17) and by the separate states. June 18. Evacuation of Philadelphia by Sir Henry Clinton. Washington intercepted Clinton's march, and in the 430 Modern History. A. D. 1778, June 28. Battle of Monmouth turned a retreat begun by geneial (Charles) Lee into a victory. The British decamped by night. Amval of Count d'Estaing with eighteen vessels and 4,000 troops off Virginia. An attack on Newport having been resolved on, the French fleet sailed to that port. Instead of cooperating in the attack D'Estaing sailed to Boston Aug. 22, to refit (in accordance with his strict orders), and iu spite of a victory at Quaker Hill on Rhode Island (Aug. 29) the Americans under Sullivan were obliged to give up the siege and retire from the island before Sir Henry Clinton who brought reinforcements. July 4. Massacre at Wyoming in Pennsylvania by colonel Butler, a Tory, and Brandt. Sept. 14. Benjamin Franklin minister plenipotentiary to France. Nov. 11. Massacre of Cherry Valley. Dec. 29. Savannah captured by the British under colonel Camp- bell. 1779, March 3. Defeat of general Ashe at Briar Creek by the British. Loss of Greorgia, where the provincial government was re- stored. . General Lincoln, being placed in command of the southern army, marched upon Augusta, while the British leader, Prmiost, threatened Charleston but retired before determined resistance. D'Estaing reaching Savannah with the French fleet, an assault was made on the town (Oct. 9), but repulsed; after which D'Estaing left the dangerous coast (death of Pulaski). May. Coasts of Virginia plundered by an expedition from New York. July 5. Plunder of New Haven in Connecticut by Tryon ; followed by the sack of other towns. July 16. Storm of Stony Point on the Hudson by the Americans under Anthony Wayne ; destruction of the fortifications. July 19. The Americans fortified West Point. John Paul Jones, who had in 1778 surprised White Haven, sailed this year from a French port, and after a successful cruise iu the English seas, fought a most desperate Sept. 23. Naval battle with the Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough (Bonhomme Richard, Jones's vessel), in which he was victorious. 1780, May 12. Capture of Charleston by Sir Henry Clinton. Sub- jugation of South Carolina by Clinton and lord Cornwallis. The brave resistance of Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion was seconded by the approach of the American army under De Kalb and Gates. But in the Aug. 16. Battle of Camden, Gates, though superior in numbers, was totally defeated by Cornwallis (DeKalb f ). Aug. 18. Sumter's force dispersed by colonel Tarleton. Marion re- treated to North Carolina. July. Arrival of Rochambeau at Newport with 6,000 men. Benedict Arnold having been placed in command of West Point, negotiated with Sir Henry Clinton for its surrender ; his treachery *•• D. America : British Colonies. 431 was exposed by the capture (Sept. 23) of the agent, major Andre, by three privates of the New York militia, John Paulding, David Williams, Isaac Wirt, who, refusing his bribes, detained him and seized his papers. Arnold escaped to the British lines. Andr^ was declared a spy by a board of 14 of&cers, on his confession, and by order of Washington 1780, Oct. 2. Andr^ was hung as a spy. Oct. 7. Battle of King's Mountain in North Carolina. Defeat of the British under major Fergusson. General Greene appointed commander of the southern army. Adoption of a constitution by Massachusetts, with a bill of rights, which was held by the supreme court to have abolished slavery. Abolition of slavery in Pennsylvania. 1781, Jan. 17. Battle of the Cowpens; defeat of the British cav- alry under Tarleton by Morgan. Comwallis in pursuit of Greene, was twice prevented from over- taking him by the unexpected rising of the rivers {Catawba, Yadkin^. March 15. Battle of Guilford • bloody victory of the British. April 25. Battle of Hobidrk's Hill near Camden ; Greene defeated by lord Rawdon. June 5. Capture of Augusta by the Americans. June 19. Greene forced to raise the siege of fort Ninety-six in North Carolina. Sept. 8. Battle of Eutaw ; defeat of Greene followed by the re- treat of the British to Charleston. Meantime British forces under lord Comwallis, were concentrated in Virginia, where they fortified themselves at yorktown and Gloucester (Aug.). In Sept. Lafayette, Washington, and Rochambeau met at WilliaTOsburg, while a French fleet under count de Grasse eu- t<;red the Chesapeake. Sept. 30-Oct. 19. Siege of Yorktown. Expedition of Arnold against Connecticut ; burning of New London. Oct. 19. Surrender of lord Comwallis with 7,000 men at Yorktown in Virginia. 1782, Feb. 27. The commons resolved, on motion of general Conway, that " the house would consider as enemies to his majesty and the country all those who should advise or attempt the further prosecution of ofEensive war on the continent of Ncrth America." 1782, March 20. Resignation of lord North. Ministry of the mar- quis of Rockingham (f July 1 ; succeeded by lord Shel- burne, 1782-1783). July 11. Evacuation of Savannah. Nov. 30. Preliminary articles signed at Paris between Great Britain and the United States. Dec. 14. Evacuation of Charleston. 1783, Jan. 20. Cessation of hostilities between Great Britain and 432 Modern History. a. xx. the United States. Signature of preliminaries of peace be- tween Great Britain, France, and Spain at Versailles ; between Great Britain and the United States at Paris. April 11. Cessation of . arms proclaimed by congress. Independence of the United States recognized by Holland, April 19, 1782 ; Sweden, Feb. 5, 1783 ; Denmark, Feb. 25 ; Spain, March 24 ; Russia, in July. April 19. Peace proclaimed by the commander of the army. 1783, Sept. 3. Definitive Treaty of Peace between Great Britain and the United States signed at Paris ; be- tween Great Britain, France, and Spain signed at Versailles, (p. 441.) 1. 1. Kecognition of the independence of the United States, and establishment of boundaries. (From the intersection of a line due N. from the head of the St. Croix river in Nova Scotia, with the highlands S. of the St. Lawrence ; along the highlands to the head of the Connecticut ; along that river to 45° N., thence W. to the river Iroquois, thence through lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, Superior, Long Bake, and Lake of the Woods ; thence W. to the Mississippi and along that river to 31° N. ; from this point E. to the Apalachicola or Catouche, along this river to the Flint; thence direct to the head of St. Mary's river, and so to the Atlantic : east, from the mouth of the St. Croix river to its source, and due north to the highlands, includ- ing all islands within twenty leagues of the coast, except such as be- longed to Nova Scotia.) 2. Bight of fishery secured to the United States on the Grand Bank and all other Newfoundland banks, and in the gulf of St. Lawrence, as well as on the coast of Newfoundland ; right to cure fish on all unsettled parts of Nova Scotia, Labrador, and Magdalen islands as long as they should remain unsettled. 3. All good debts heretofore contracted should be considered binding. 4. Restitution of confiscated estates to be recommended by con- gress to the states. 6. Navigation of the Mississippi to be open to both Great Britain and the United States. II. Great Britain ceded Tobago to France. III. Great Britain ceded Florida to Spain. Establishment of the Society of the Cincinnati by officers of the army. Nov. 2. Washington's farewell address to the army. Nov. 25. Evacuation of New York. Dec. 23. Washington resigned his commission. 1784. Partial abolition of slavery in Connecticut. Erection of a temporary government for the western territory (April). Or- ganization of the state of Franklin or Frankland by the west- em counties of North Carolina (Dec.) ; it was given up in 1788. 1786. Insurrection in Massachusetts and in New Hampshire, springing from financial complications. 1787, Jan.-Eeb. The insurgents in Massachusetts, numbering A. D. America ■ Great Britain. 433 about 1,100, under Dsiniel Shays, met the troops of the state under general Shy>herd, but were dispersed by the mere sight of artillery. Three men were killed {Shays' Rebellion). The restricted powers of the congress approving themselves totally insufficient for the proper government of the country (failure to estab- lish a revenue by an impost tax ; infraction of treaties by the states), Virginia proposed a convention for forming a better Constitution (1786). The recommendation meeting with favor, after much delay 1787, May 25. Delegates from seven states met in convention at Phil- adelphia, and elected Washington president. Delegates from other states came in, until all were represented except Rhode Island. The debates were long and warm, and more than one compromise (tacit recognition of slavery ; equal representation ■ of all states in the senate ; in the house representation accord- ing to population) was necessary before the delegates Sept. 17. Signed the Constitution of the United States, which was forthwith laid before the separate states. 1787. Ordinance for the government of the territory north- July 13. ■west of the Ohio, which was ceded, or to be ceded, to the United States by the states, and bought of the Indians. Slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime, were forbidden within this region. 1788, Sept. 13. All the states except Rhode Island and North Carolina having accepted the Constitution, congress appointed days for elections under the same. {See p. BJfl.) §8. GREAT BRITAIN. {Seep. 389.) 1702-1714. Anne, second daughter of James II., wife of Prince George of Den- mark. In the first part of her reign the queen was under the influ- ence of the Whigs {John Churchill, duke of Marlborough and his wife). 1702, May 4. War declared upon France by the grand alliance, in- cluding England. For the war (of the Spanish Succession) see p. 390, Marlborough was captain-general of all the land forces ; Godolphin, lord high treasurer ; Nottingham, secre- tary of state. Halifax and Somers not in the privy council. July 2. Sixth Parliament of William m. dissolved. The campaign of this year resulted in the capture of Venloo and L&ge and the loss of the lower Khine to France. Sir George Rooke failed to take Cadiz, but seized a number of treasure ships at Vigo Bay (Oct.). 1702, Oct. 20-1705, March 14. First parliament of Anne.i Harley speaker of the house of commons. Marlborough made a duke. Dec. Bill to prevent occasional conformity passed by the com- mons but rejected by the lords (High church and Low church), 1703. Severe laws in Ireland against Irish Catholics. 1 The dates are those of the actual meeting and separation of the parliaments, nut of the proclamations summoning and dissolving them. 28 434 Modern History. A. D. 1703, Methuen treaty between England and Portugal. England agreed to admit the heavy wines of Portugal at one third lower rate than the light French wines, while Portugal prom- ised to import all her woolens from England. Sept. Archduke Charles assumed the title of Charles III. of Spain. Nov. Establishment of Queen Anne's Bounty ; a grant of the first fruits and tithes which Henry VIII. had confiscated for the crown, in trust for increasing the income of small benefices. In this campaign (1703) Marlborough took Bonn and Huy, Limburg and Guilders. 1704, Mar. Case of Ashhy and White (right of electors to vote). July 24. Gibraltar taken by Sir George Roohe and Sir Cloudesley Shovel. Aug. 13. Victory of Blenheim or Hochstadt (p. 392), Naval vic- tory off Malaga ovei the French. Attempt to pass the occasional conformity bill by tacking it to a money bill (lackers). The scheme was defeated in the com- mons. 1705, Oct. 4. Capture of Barcelona by Charles Mordaunt, lord Pe- terborough. 1705, Oct. 25-1708, Apr. 1. Second Parliament of Anne. Whigs in majority. 1706, May 23. Ramillies ; conquest of Brabant (p. 392) ; Turin, Sept. 7; conquest of Italy (p. 392). The allies in Madrid. 1707, Apr. 25. Battle of Almanza; defeat of the allies by the duke of Berwick. Spain lost to the allies. 1707. May 1. Union of England and Scotland under the name of Great Britain went into effect. This measure, which was made necessary by the omission of Scotland from the act of settlement, provided : 1. that Sophia, princess of Hanover and her Protestant heirs should succeed to the crown of the united kingdom. 2. There should be one parliament, to which Scotland should send sixteen elective peers and forty-five members of the commons. No more peers of Scotland to be created. Scotch law and legal administration to be unchanged ; the Episcopal church in England and Presbyte- rian in Scotland to be unchanged. Adoption of the Union Jack (Crosses of St. George and St. Andrew) as the national flag of Great Britain. 1707, Oct. 23. First Parliament of Great Britain.^ The influence of Marlborough and his wife had been gradually weakened by Harley and by the influence of the queen's new favorite, Abigail HUl, now Mrs. Masham. Marlborough, however, was stUl so strong that a hint at resignation secured the dismissal of Harley and St. John from the cabinet, and the substitution of Boyle and Robert VTalpole (secretary-at-war). Last Royal veto. 1 Not a new parliament, but the second parliament of Anne revived by pro- clamation. Henceforward parliaments are numbered without regard to reigns, ■but here the distinction is retained. The number as a parliament of Great Britain is indicated by a Roman numeral in parenthesis. A. D. Great Britain. 435 1708, Maxoh. James Edward (Ch&ialier de St. George, the Old Pretender) landed in Scotland. A French fleet sent to assist him was repulsed hy Admiral Byng, and the Pretender soon returned to France. July 11. Battle of Oudenarde (p. 392). 1708, Nov. 16-1710, Apr. 5. Third Parliament of Anne (II.). Whig majority. Somers president of the council. Leaders of the whigs (Junto) : Somers, Halifax, Wharton, Oxford, Sunderland. 1709, Sept. 11. Battle of Malplaquet (p. 393). Oct. Townshend's barrier treaty. Copyright act. 1710, Feb.-Mar. Trial of Dr. SachevereU for preaching sermons of an ultra Tory cast. He was convicted and thereby secured great popularity in the kingdom. Harley chancellor of exchequer. St. John, secretary of state. Sept. Charles III. in Madrid driven out by Vendome. 1710. Nov. 25-1713, July 16. Fourth Parliament of Anne (III.). Tory majority. Dismissal of Godolphin ; resignation of all the Whig ministers. South Sea Company established. 1711. Mrs. Masham superseded the duchess of Marlborough as keeper of the privy purse. The duke retained his office. At- tempted assassination of Harley by the marquis of Guiscard. Harley created earl of Oxford and Mortimer and lord high treasurer. Sept. 13. Marlborough captured the fortress of Bouchain. Oct. Charles III. left Spain ; elected emperor Charles VI. Nov. Philip V. entered Madrid. Passage of the occasional conformity bill. Marlborough, who had returned to England, was accused of peculation (Nov.) and dismissed from all his offices. Duke of Ormond, commander-in-chief. Dec. 30. Qualification act (repealed 1866). 1712. Creation of twelve Tory peers to secure a majority in the lords. July. Henry St. John created viscount Bolinghrohe. 1713. Apr. 11. Peace of Utrecht (p. 393). Articles affecting Great Britain. Great Britain and France : Renunciation of the Pretender; recognition of the Protestant succession in Great Britain ; crowns of France and Spain not to be united under one head ; fortifications of Dunkirk to be leveled and its harbor filled up ; cession of Hudson's Bay and strait, Nova Scotia (Acadia.), Newfoundland, St. Christopher to England; Great Britain and Spain, cession of Gibraltar and Mi- norca to England; grant of the Assiento (el pacto de el asiento de nigros), or contract for supplying slaves to Spanish America, to the subjects of Great Britian for thirty years (Royal African Company). 1714. Feb. 16-1714, Aug. 25. Fifth Parliament of Anne (IV.). 1714, May 28. Death of princess Sophia of Hanover. Schism act. July 27. Earl of Oxford dismissed, and succeeded as lord high treasurer by the earl of Shrewsbury (Talbot). 436 Modem History. A. D. Aug. ]. Death of Anne. Alexander Pope, 1688-1744 ; Jonathan Swift, 1667-1745 ; Daniel Defoe, 1661?-1731; Joseph Addison, 1672-1719; Sir Richard Steele, 1671-1729. Periodical literature ; Tatler, 1709, Apr. 12-1711, Jan. 2; Spectator, 1711, Mar. 1-1714, Deo. 20. 1714 — X. House of Hanover or Brunswick. None of Anne's seventeen children having survived her, the crown, according to the act of succession, descended to the protestant house of Hanover, the catholic line of the Stuarts being excluded. James I. (Stuart) t 1625. 1 3. Eliz8 m. Fred elector beth eric v., )alatine. hia, est IS el. ver. d 6. Charles I. 1 1649, m. Henrietta Maria, of Henry IV. of France. 12. Sop m. Em August of Hanc Charles H. I 1 168S. m. Will ofC lary iam IL range. James H. deposed 1688, d. 1701. by Anne Hyde by Mary of Este. QeorBe I. Willia 1 1727. 1 1 m. Sophia Dorothea, d. of duke of Brunswick and Zell. 1 mill. 702. Mary Anne James tl694. tl7U. Francis Edward, the Old Pretender, t 1766. 1 1 1 George H. Sophia Dorothea, | I 1 1760, m. Frederic Charles Edward Henry, m. Caroline William, elector the young Pretender, cardinal of Anspach. of Brandenburg. without issue. York, 1 1 1788. without issue. Frederic Louis, Freder c II., 1 1807. t 1751, king of Prussia, m. Augusta, d. of duke of Saxe Coburg. and Gotha. Qeor tl m. Chat Meek Str( gem. S20, lotte of enburg ,litz. 1714-1727. George I. 1714, Sept. 18. The king landed in England. George I. favored the Whigs in the formation of the first government ; Lord Townshend see. of state ; Shrewsbury resigned, and Halifax was made first lord of the treasury (Shrewsbury was the last lord high treasurer) ; Sunderland lord lieutenant of Ireland ; lord Camper chancellor ; earl of Nottingham president of the council ; Marlborough conmian- der-in-chief. A. D. Great Britain. 437 1715, Mar. 17-1722, Mar. 7. First ParUament of George I. (V.). Impeachment of Bolingbroke, Ormmd, Oxford. Flight of Bol- ingbroke and Ormond; Oxford committed to the Tower. Jac- obite riots. Riot act. 1715-1716, Sept. Jacobite rising in Scotland under the earl of Mar. Battles of Sheriffmuir and Preston. Arrival of the Pretender in Scotland (Deo.) As his friends dispersed upon the approach of the duke of Argyle, the Pretender abandoned Scotland (Feb. 5, 1716) and returned to France. Barrier treaty (in 1781 Joseph II. dismantled the fortresses). Impeachment of the Jacobite leaders. Execution of DerwenU water and Kenmure (Feb. 24). Act creating septennial instead of triennial parliaments. 1717, Jan. 4. Triple alliance between England, France, and Holland in consequence of the intrigues of the Pretender, Charles XII. of Sweden, and Spain (Alberoni). Feb. 20, 1722-Mar. 7. First Septennial Parliament. Convocation ceased to meet for business (revived under the present reign). 1718, Aug. 2. Quadruple alliance between England, France, the emperor, Holland (p. 397). 1718, Dec. 17-1720. War between England and Spain. 1718, Jan. Repeal of the occasional conformity act and the schism act. 1719, Abortive Spanish expedition to Scotland in favor of the Pre- tender. Nov. 20. Treaty of Stockholm; Sweden ceded Bremen and Ver- den (p. 397) to George I. for 1,000,000 rix dollars. 1720, Jan. Spain joined the quadruple alliance. Bursting of the south sea bubble, from a panic originating in the niilure of Law's scheme in France. 1721-1742. Administration of Walpole (1726-1742, administra^ tion of Fleury in France). 1722, Oct. 9-1727, July 17. Second parliament of George I. (VI.). 1725, Sept. 3. Treaty of Hanover between England, France and Prussia (alliance of Herrenhausen). 1727, June 11. Death of George I. 1727-1760, George XL Walpole continued in office. The king governed by his wife, Wilhelmina Charlotte Caroline, of Anspach. 1728, Jan. 23-1734, Apr. 16. First Parliament of George H. (vn.). 1729, Nov. 9. Treaty of Seville with Spain; restoration of con- quest ; confirmation of the assiento. Giibraltar ceded to Eng- land. 1731, Mar. 16. Treaty of Vienna : dissolution of the Ostend East India Co. which had been formed as a rival to the English East India Co. by the emperor. 1735, Jan. 14-1741, Apr. 25. Second Parliament of George II. (VIII.3. 438 Modem History. A. D. 1736. Porteous riots in Edinburgh. 1739-1748. War with Spain. 1739, Nov. 22. Capture of Porto Bello in Darien by admiral Vernon. 1740. Futile attack upon Carthagena by Vernon and Wentworth. Disease in the army. 1740, Sept.-1744, June. Voyage of commodore Anson to the coast of Chili and Peru and around the world. 1741, Dec. 1-1747, June 17. Third Parliament of George n. (IX.). Fall of Walpole (succeeded by the earl of Wilmington, Feb. 1742). 1743-1754. Administration of Henry Felham, who succeeded the earl of Wilmington (f ), July 1743, as first lord of the treasury. 1740-1748. Wax of the Austrian Succession. England took part with Austria (pragmatic army); for her share in the war see p. 400. Nov. Ministry of Pelham, Pitt, Newcastle, Harrington (Stanhope), Bedford. (" Broad Bottom Ministry.") 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy (p. 402); Saxe defeated Cum- berland. Louisburg taken from the French (p. 421). 1745, Second Jacobite rebellion. The young Pretender, Charles Edward, landed in Scotland (July 25), and proclaimed his father (f 1766) as James VIII. of Scotland and III. of England. Sept. 11. The Pretender entered Edinburgh with some 2,000 men. Sept. 21, Jacobite victory at Prestonpans. Deo. 4. Pretender at Derby (about 6,000 men). Dec. 18. Jacobite victory at Penrith. 1746, Jan. 17. Jacobite victory at Falkirk Moor, over general Hawley. April 16. Battle of Cullodeu ; victory of the duke of Cumberland over lord George Murray and the Pretender. Execution of Jacobite lords. Escape of the Pretender to France (Sept. 20). 1747, Nov. 10-1754, Apr. 6. Fourth Parliament of George II. (X.). 1748, Oct. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (p. 403). 1752. Adoption of the reformed (Gregorian) calendar in Eng- land and the colonies. The year was to begin Jan. 1 instead of March 25 ; eleven days were omitted between Sept. 2 and 14. 1754. The duke of Newcastle succeeded his brother, Mr. Pelham (f March), as prime minister. Fox secretary of state. 1754, May 31-1761, Mar. 19. Fifth Parliament of George II. (XI.). 1755-1763. Land and naval war between England and France (Seven Years' War), originating in boundary disputes in North America, carried on by land in America (and Ger- many), by sea in all parts of the world. The English had the advantage of the French almost everywhere. (War in AmeiN. ■• ica, p. 420 ; in Europe, p. 403 ; in India, p. 443.) A. D. Great Britain, 439 1753. Foundation of the British Museum. 1756. Black Hole at Calcutta, (jj. 443.) 1757-1761, Oct. 5. Coalition ministry of the duke of Newcastle, first lord of the treasury, and the elder Pitt (William Pitt, b. 1708; member of the commons 1735; vice-treasurer for Ireland 1746; privy councillor and paymaster-general, secretary of state 1756; retired 1761; in opposition 1761-1766 ; privy seal 1766- 1768; earl of Chatham July 29, 1766 ; died May 11, 1778), secretary of state. 1759, Sept. 13. Battle of Quebec, death of Wolfe. 1759, Nov. 20. Naval battle of Quiberon Bay ; defeat of the French by Sir Edward Hawke. 1760, Oct. 25. Death of George II. 1760-1820. George III., first part of his reign, to 1783. 1761, Aug. 15. Bourbon family compact, between France and Spain with the assumption of the accession of Naples and Parma, for reciprocal guarantee of all posses- sions and an ofEensive and defensive alliance. Pitt, insisting that war ought to be declared upon Spain, resigned (Oct. 5). Lord Bute, the true adviser of the king; " the king's friends; " the " power behind the throne." 1761, Oct. 5-1762, May 29. Ministry of the duke of Newcas- tle. Egremont and Bute, secretaries of state ; George GrenviUe leader in the commons. 1761, Nov. 3-1768, Mar. 10. Krst Parliament of George HX (Xn.). 1762, Jan. War declared against Spain. 1762, May 29-1763, Apr. 1. Ministry of lord Bute ; GrenvUle, secretary of state. 1763, Feb. 10. Peace of Paris between Great Britain, France, and Spain. 1. Prance ceded to England: in North America, Canada, and Cape Breton Island; the Mississippi was recognized as the boundary between Louisiana and the British colonies; in the West Indies Granada; in Africa the French possessions on the Senegal. England restored to France Goree iu Africa, and all conquests in India. 2. Spain ceded to England Florida, as indemnification for which France had already ceded Louisiana to Spain ; Spain received from England all con- quests in Cuba including Havana. In consequence of this peace and her acquisitions in India (p. 443) Great Britain reached the summit of her extent and power; the North American colonies had gradually developed into states under gover- nors, with liberal constitutions, modeled after that of Great Britam. 1763, April 1-1765, July. Ministry of George GrenviUe; Halifax and Egremont, secretaries of states; i^ox created lord Holland. No. 45 of the North Briton containing insulting remarks concerning the king by John 'Wilkes, general warrants for the apprehension or the authors, printers, and publishers, were issued. Wilkes was ar- rested and expelled from the commons. General warrants declared illegal by the chief justice. Wilkes outlawed. 440 Modern History. A. d. 1765, Feb. Stamp act (p. 425). 1765, July-1766, July. Ministry of the marquis of Rockingham ; general Conway secretary of state and leader of the commons. 1766, March. Repeal of stamp act (p. 423). 1766, April 22. General warrants declared illegal by resolution of the commons (a declaratory bill to this effect was thrown out by the lords). Aug. 1767, Dee. Ministry of Chatham; Grafton. 1767, Dec-1770, Jan. Ministry of the duke of Grafton ; Towns- hend chancellor of the exchequer ; general Conway, lord Shel- bume, secretaries of state. Pitt (earl of Chatham) lord privy seal. Lord Hillsborough, first colonial secretary. 1768, May 10-1774, June 22. Second Parliament of George III. (XIII.). ■WUkes member for Middlesex. 1769, Feb. VTilkes expelled the house for an alleged libel on lord Weymouth. He was thrice elected and thrice rejected ; at the last election his opponent, colonel Luttrell, who received a small minority, was declared elected. 1769-1772. Letters of Junius, containing bitter attacks upon the duke of Grafton, lord Mansfield (.Murray), and other mem- bers of the government, appeared in the " Daily Advertiser." The author is still unknovni, though the letters are attributed by many with great confidence to Sir Philip Francis. 1770, Jan.-1782, March 20. Ministry of lord North (first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer). 1770, May. Remonstrance of the lord mayor and aldermen of London with the king. 1771. Abortive attempt of the commons to prevent the publication of speeches. Complaint of colonel Onslow; arrest of the printers ; commitment of Crosby, lord mayor, and Oliver, alder- man of London, for granting bail. 1774. Boston Port Bill (p. 425). 1774, Nov. 29-1780, July 8. Tbird Parliament of George HI. (XIV.). Wilkes, lord mayor, and member for Middlesex ; motion to expunge the resolution rejecting him. (On the sixth motion, May 3, 1782, he was successful, and the resolutions were ex- punged " as subversive of the rights of electors.") 1775-1783- "War of independence of the British col- onies in North America, see p. 426. 1778-1783. War between Great Britain and France. 1778. Repeal of penal laws against papists in England. 1779-1783. War between Great Britain and Spain. 1779-1782. Gibraltar besieged by the French and Spanish in vain ; bravely defended by Elliott. 1780. No popery riots, caused by the intended relief of papists in Scotland. Protestant associations; lord George Gordon, president. June 2. Presentation of a no popery petition ; riot in London lasting five days. Executions. A. D. GrecA Britain. 441 The armed neutrality (p. 412) formed to resist England's assumption of the right of search. 1780, Oct. 31-1784, Mar. 24. Fourth ParUament of George ni. (XV.). 1780, Deo. 30-1783. War between Great Britain and Holland. 1781, Oct. 19. Surrender of Cornwallis (p. 431). In this year the English lost Pensacola, Tobago, St. Eustachius, Demerara, Essequibo, St. Christopher, Nevis, Momerrat, Minorca (1782), 1782, Feb. Motion of general Conway " that the house will consider as enemies to the king and country all who shall advise, or by any means attempt, the further prosecution of offensive war, for the purpose of reducing the revolted colonies to obedience by force." March 15. Motion of Sir J. Rous " that the house could no longer repose confidence in the present ministers," lost by nine votes. On a threat of renewal of the motion lord North resigned. 1782, March 20-July 1. Ministry of the marquis of Rocking- ham (t July 1, 1782) ; lord Shelbume, and Charles James Pox (b . 1749, son of Henry Fox, lord Holland; entered the commons 1763 ; lord of the admiralty 1770, of the treasury 1773; 1774 in opposition ; 1782 in the cabinet ; 1784 in opposition to Pitt; died Sept. 13, 1806), secretaries of state ; lord Thurlow, lord chancellor; Edmund Burke (b. 1729? in Dublin, entered par- liament 1765, paymaster of the forces 1782, in opposition with Fox 1784, mitil the French revolution; died July 9, 1797), paymaster of the forces ; Richard Brinsley Sheridan (b. 1751 at Dublin, entered parliament 1780, died July 7, 1816), under-seeretary of state. April 12. Battle of Martinique, naval victory of Rodney and Hood over De Grasse. Reduction of the pension list ; establishment of the legislative independence of Ireland ; exclusion of contractors and rev- enue officers from parliament. 1782, July 1-1783, Feb. 24. Ministry of lord Shelburne following the death of Sockingham. William Pitt (b. 1759, entered parliament 1781 ; chancellor of exchequer 1782 ; prime min- ister 1783 ; retired 1801 : returned to ofBce 1804 ; died Jan. 23, 1806), twenty-three years old, chancellor of the exchequer ; Fox, Burke, Sheridan, resigned. Nov. 30. Secret treaty of Paris ■with America (p. 431). 1783, Jan. 20-Sept. 3. Peace of Versailles and Paris (p. 432). 1. Kecognition of the independence of the thirteen United States (the Americans retained the Western territory ; the navigation of the Mississippi was in common). 2. England surrendered to France in the West Indies Tobago ; in Africa the region of Senegal. 3. Spain retained Minorca in Europe, and Florida in America. 1783, April 2-Dec. 13. Coalition ministry of the duke of Port- land ; Cavendish, chancellor of exchequer ; lord North and Foz, secretaries of state ; Burke, paymaster. 442 Modern History. A. D. 1757-1784. War of the English in India, see p. 443. In the epoch of the Seven Years' War, the English East India Company (at once sovereigns and merchants) began the foundation of an extensive empire in place of the existing factories. The vic- tories of lord Clive gave the English the upper hand of the French, and secured for them Bengal. War with the Mahrattds, who were allied with the sultan of My- sore, Hyder All (f 1782, his son, Tippu Saib), with the Nizam of Goliconda and the French. From the war this company came out vic- torious and with greatly increased strength. Under the ministry of the younger Pitt (1783-1801) the company was subordinated by the East India BUI (1784) in political and military affairs to a royal commission (board of control). 1768-1779. Voyages of James Cook (b. 1728; under Wolfe at Quebec, 1759; d. 1779). 1. Aug. 26, 1768, to June 11, 1771 : discovery of Cook's strait and of the strait between Australia and New Guinea. 2. July 13, 1772, to July 30, 1775: touching at New Zealand, Cook discovered many islands in the Pacific, penetrated to 71° S. latitude and rounded Cape Horn. 3. July 12, 1776, investigation of Behring's strait ; on the re- turn Cook was killed by the natives on Hawaii, one of the Sandwich islands, Feb. 14, 1779. {Seep. 535.) § 9. THE EAST. India. (Seep. 390.) Decline of the Mughal empire of Delhi. Bahadur Shah (1707-1712), Jahandar Shah (1712-1713), son and grandson of Aurangzeb, both under the control of the general Zul-fikar Khdn. Successful revolt of Farrukhsiyyar (1713-1719) ; oppression, revolt, and punishment of the Sikhs in the Punjab. 1715. Rajputana practically independent of the empire. The Sayyid chiefs, Husdin AK&toA AbduUd, placed two boy em- perors on the throne, who were followed, after four months, 1719-1748. Muhammad Shah. 1720-1748. Independence of the Deccan established under the Nizam ul Mulk, or governor. 1732-1743. Practical independence of Oudh. 1739. Invasion of India by Nadir Shah, of Persia ; sack of Delhi. 1748. Death of Muhammad Shah; from this time the emperors were but puppets, with a shadow only of power. 1748-1754. Ahmad Shah. 1748-1761. Five invasions of India by Ahmad Shah Durani, Afghan ruler of Kandahar : 1748 ; 1751-1752 ; 1761 (sa«k of Delhi) ; 1759 ; 1761. 1754-1759. Alamgir n. ; capture of Delhi by the Mahrattds (1759). 1759-1806. Shah Alam II. 1761. Battle of Fanipat ; defeat of the Mahrattds by the Afghans A. D. The East: India. 443 under Ahmad Shah Durani. The Mahratta power was following fast in the footsteps of the Mughal emperors. Under Saku, grand- son of Sivaji (p. 389), the real power fell into the hands of his chief minister, a Brahman with the title of Pesh-wa ; this man and his successors {BdLaji, 1718-1720 ; Bdjl Rao, 1721-1740; Bdlaji Bdji Rao, 1740-1761 ; Madhu Rdo, 1761-1772) built up a confederacy at Poona while the true sovereigns sank into the petty princes of Sd- tdra and Kolhapur (the latter still exists). Under the first three Peshw^ their armies prospered, they conquered the Deccan and ex- torted tribute from Bengal (1751). After the defeat of Panipat (1761), the power of the Peshwa of Poona rapidly declined, and the confederacy split up into five divisions : the Peshwds (Poona), Bkonslds (Ndgpur), Sindhia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), Gdekwars (Baroda). The British in India. When the eighteenth century opened, the British were established at Bombay, Madras, and in Bengal (Calcutta). The French had a factory at Pondicherri, south of Madras. Tliis eastern coast land, the Kamatic, was under the Nawdb (Nabob) of Arcot, a subordinate of the Nizam of Haidardbdd (Deccan). 1744-1748. War between France and England in Europe ; fol- lowed by war between these powers in India. Dupleix, gov- ernor of Pondicherri. 1746. Capture of Madras by the French ; it was restored in the peace of Aix-la^Chapelle. 1751-1754. War between French and British in India. De- fense of Arcot by Clive (Robert Clive, b. 1725, clerk in Madras 1743, ensign 1744, paymaster 1748 ; in England 1753- 1755 ; governor of Bengal 1768 ; Irish peer, baron Clive of Plassey, 1760 ; governor of Bengal 1765-1767 j committed suicide Nov. 22, 1774). 1756-1763. Seven Years' War in Eiurope (p. 403) and Amer- ica (p. 420). War between the British and French in India. 1756, June 29. " Black Hole of Calcutta." The young Nawdb (Nabob) of Bengal, Sirdj-ud-Dauld {Surajah Dowlah), hav- ing quarreled with the English, seized Calcutta and imprisoned 146 persons in the military prison of Fort William, a room some eighteen feet square. In the morning but 23 of the 146 were alive. Clive recaptured Calcutta, took the French fac- tory at Chandamagar and defeated a much more numerous force under Swrajah Dowlah in the 1757, June 23. Battle of Plassey. Mir Jafar was placed on the (viceregal) throne of Bengal ; Suror jah Dowlah was soon put to death. 1768. Clive governor of Bengal ; defeat of the Dutch (Nov. 1759). Establishment of British influence as superior to that of the French in the south. '444 Modern Sistory. A. d. 1760, Jan. 22. Battle of Wandewasli; defeat of the French under Lally by colonel (afterwards sir Eyre) Coote. Destruction of the French power in India. The British having deposed Mir Jafar and set up Mir Kosim as Nawib in 1761 were soon involved in a war with the latter (massacre of Patnd, 1763). Sepoy mutiny, 1764. 1764. Battle of Baxar won by major Munro over Shdh Alain, the emperor. Conquest of Oudh. 1765. Settlement of Indian relations by Clive, again governor of Bengal (1765-1767). Oudh restored to the Nawiib ; Alla- hdbad arid Kara given to the emperdr, Shdh Alain, the British re- ceived the financial administration of Bengal, Behar, Orissa, and the sovereignty over the Northern Circars. 1771. Shdh Alam submitted to the Mdhrattds. Famine in Bengal ; bad condition of the company's affairs ; its servants grew rich on eSctortioris andperquisites, but the com- pany was near bankruptcy. Failure of Olive's system of man- agement. 1772-l77f. XVarren Hastings, governor of Bengal (b. 1732; clerk in Bengal 1749 ; member of government 1761 ; in England; member of council in Madras 1765; governor of Bengal 1772, of India 1774; recalled 1785, impeached 1788, acquitted 1795, privy counselor 1814, died 1818). 1774-1785. Warren Hastings, gdvernor-geueral of India. Coun- cil of five instead of twelve, Hastings having the casting vote. Introduction of reforms in adininistr'ation ; acquirement by the British of complete control of the finances of the empire. Opposition of Philip Francis (Junius ?). Holding that the emperor had 'broken the agreement withClive by Joining the MahrattSs, HaStiugssold Allahdbdd and Kora to the gov- ernor of Oudh. The resistance of Chait Sinh, the Rdja df Benares, to the demands of Hastings was fanned into a rebellion ; Hastings charged the mother of the governor of Oudh (Beffam of Oudh) with abetting the rebel, and extorted over £1,000,000 from her. For these acts Hastings was impeached in parliament on his return to England (1788-1795 ; speech of Burke), but acquitted. War with the Mahrattds (1778-1781), and with Haidar Ali of Mysore and his son Tipu (Tippu Saib). (Seep. 541.) Cl»i°a- {Seep.S90.) 1721-1735. Yung-ching. 1735-1795. Kien-Iung. Annexation of JK._ Conqaest oi East Turkestan. Unsuccess- ful invasion of Cochin China and Burmdh. Suppression of a'Moham- niedan revolt in Kan-sah. Severe persecution of the Christians. Liter- ary labors of the emperor, who was himself a poet; foundation of four libraries. 1792. Conquest of the Gorkhas and the Nepmdese. Unsuccessful at- tempt to suppress a rebellion in Formosa. A. D. Japan, — France. 445 1793. Embassy of earl Macartney. 1795. Abdication of the emperor, who died in 1798. (Seep. 660.) Japan. {See p. SB7.) From 1654 to 1853 the history of this country is marked by few events of interest. Under the Tokugawa Shoguns, many of whom were famous for their active interest in science and literature, the people progressed in civilization and the diffusion of education. To- ward the close of the second century the country began to feel the evil effects of the long peace : wealth, luxury, enervation. lyetsuna 1650-1681 ; construction of a cooperative history of Japan, the Dai Nihon Shi, under the care of the prince of Mito; department of astronomy; growth of Yedo. Tsunayoski, 1681-1708, the friend of learning. Kaempfer in Japan, foshimune, 1717-1744, one of the ablest of the Xokugawas ; revision of the criminal code ; introduction of sugar-cane ; foundation of a free hospital at Yedo ; hygienic in- formation distributed throughout the country (population of Japan in 1744, 26,080,000).! From 1763-1770 an empress sat on the Mikado's throne. 1780-1816. The Mikado Kokaku ; the Shoguns ; lyeharu 1763- 1786 ; lyenori 1787-1837. Reformation of the administra- tion. During this reign the influence of the Dutch increased rapidly, while several attempts of the Russians to open inter- course with Japan were brusquely repulsed. (See p. 56S.) § 10. FRANCE. {Seep. 371.) 1715-1774. Lotiis XV., five years old, the great-grandson of Louis XIV., whose son (the dauphin Louis), and grandson (the duke of Burgundy') died before him. 1715-1723. Philip, duke of Orleans, regent during the minority of Louis XV. He set the country (and the king) an example of the most shameless debauchery. His favorite was cardinal DU' bois (f 1723), a man of low birth and character, but of considerable ability. Abandonment of the policy of Louis XIV. ; alliance with England (1717, p. 349) ; religious tolerance. The quadruple alli- ance, p. 397. War with Spain ; marshal Berwick in Spain ; peace, Feb. 17, 1720 (treaty of London ; the emperor received Sicily, Savoy obtained Sardinia). 1718-1720. Lavo-'s Mississippi scheme. In his financial distress the regent grasped at the dazzling plans of the Scotchman, John Law. Royal bank ; company of the west ; grant of Louisiana. Popular infatuation. Enormous infla- tion of the currency ; issue of notes to the amount of 3,000,000,000 francs, based on the land of the kingdom. Sudden collapse of the bank and the company, bringing widespread disaster (1720). See the South Sea Bubble (p. 437). 1723-1726. Administration of the duke of Bourbon. The young king married the daughter of the deposed king of Folan^ 1 Beed. i. p. 236. 446 Modern History. A. d. Stanislaus Lesczinski, having broken ofB the projected marriage with the Infanta of Spain and sent back the princess to the great indig^- tion of Philip V. Louis was under the influence of his tutor, cardinal Fleury, who overthrew the duke of Bourbon, and his favorite the mar- quise de Prie, and banished them from court. 172&-1743. Administration of Fleury. Participation of France in the war of the Polish succea- Bion, p. 398; in the war of the Austrian succession, p. 400; in the Seven Tears' War, p. 403; war with England and the peace of Paris, pp. 422, 441. Persecution of the Jansenists. Miracles at the cemetery of St. Meddrd. Convuisionnaires. Closure of the cemetery, 1732. " De par le Roi, defense h, Dieu, De faire miracles en ce Ueu." After the death of Fleury (1743), government of mistresses and of ministers whom they placed in ofQce. Senseless expenditure and re- volting arbitrary rule. Marquise de Chateauroux. 1745-1764. Marquise de Pompadour (Lenormant d'Etioles). 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy ; victory of Marshal Saxe over the allies (p. 402 and 438). Struggle between the church, parliament, and crown. The due de Choiseul, a friend of Pompadour, minister. 1766. Hostilities with England in North America led to war (p. 438). 1757, Jan. 5. Attempted assassination of Louis XV. by Damiens, who was barbarously tortured and torn by four horses. 1768. Death of the queen. 1769. Annexation of Corsica. The immorality and extravagance of the court reached its height when Louis XV., toward the close of his reign, came under the influ- ence of the shameless prostitute Jeanne Vaubemier, by marriage with a superannuated courtier, 1769-1774. Countess DuBarry. Contest with the parliament of Paris, which was abolished in 1771 by the chancellor, Maupeou, and superseded by a Conseil du Roi, virithout political privileges. The parliament was, however, re- stored under the next reign. Pacte de famine ; a company in which the king was shareholder, which had a monopoly of the corn supply. 1774, May 10. Death of Louis XV. He was succeeded by his grand- son, 1774-1792. Louis XVI., whosp moral purity and sincere good-will, neutralized by a total la«k of energy, were unable to quiet the approaching storm of the revolution by feeble attempts at reform. Restoration of the parliament. Louis, while dauphin (1770) had married Marie Ari- toinette, daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria. The queen, at fijst extremely popular, soon incurred the dislike of the people, and became an object of the grossest slanders, particularly in connection with the scandalous affair of the diam^ond necklace (1785 ; given to the A. D. I^ance. 447 queen by cardinal Rohan; countess Lamothe), Her influence was an evil one, being exerted for the maintenance of the system of favorit- ism, and for the resistance of reforms. 1774^1781. Maurepas, the king's favorite minister. 1774^1776, May. Turgot minister of marine and finance. 1777-1781. Necker, minister of iiuance ; abolition of six hundred superfluous offices. 1778. Alliance between France and the XTnited States of America (p. 429). For the participation of France in the war of American independ- ence, see p. 429, etc. 1781. Publication of the compte rendu by Necker. On the death of Maur-epas the ConUe de Vergennes succeeded to the favor of the king. 1783-1787. Caloune, a favorite of the queen, minister of finance. Great extravagance of the court ; contraction of an enormoua debt. 1787, Feb. 22. Assembly of notables summoned at Versailles. Fall of Calonne. De Brienne, minister of finance. Dissolution of the assembly (May 25). Opposition of the parliament of Paris, which re- fused to register the reform. Edicts, alleging that such changes needed the approval of the states-general. Banishment of the parliament to Troyes. An agree- ment was patched up, but on the recall of the parliament, a stiU more aggravated quarrel broke out concerning new loans. 1788, Jan. Presentation of grievances. Arrest of the leaders of the parliament. Abolition of that body, the place of which was to be taken by a cour pleniere, nominated by the king. Revolts in the provinces. Summons of a states-general for May 5, 1789. 1788, Aug. De Brienne resigned office. Necker recalled. THIRD PERIOD. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1789-1815). The revolution ran through three stages to the extreme of a demo- cratic republic, three other periods brought it gradually through a reac- tion back to absolute monarchy, after which came a time of constitutional monarchy, then a republic, then the second empire, then a republic again. 1. States General and Constituent Assembly (Constituante) ; from May 5 (June 17), 1789, to Sept. 30, 1791 (2^ years). A limited (constitutional) monarchy. Influence of the higher middle classes. 2. The Legislative Assembly (Le'gislatif) ; from Oct. 1. 1791, to Sept. 21, 1792 (almost a year). Monarchy still further limited, then suspended. Increase of the power of the lower classes. 3. The National Convention {Convention Nationale) ; from Sept. 21, 1792, to Oct. 25, 1795 (more than three years); called to frame a 448 Modem HiMory. • A., n., new eonstitution, it first abolished the monarchy and condemned the king to death ; it supported the Keign of Terror, and then overthrew it. It led the resistance to foreign foes. N. B. The left of the constituent was the right of the legisla- tive, and the left of the legislative was (at first) the right of the convention. 4. The Directory (Directoire) : from Oct. 26, 1795, to Nov. 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire, An. VIII.) more than four years. The middle classes recovered their influence. Party divisions. The army. General Bonaparte's coup d'etat. 6. The Consulate (consulat), at first provisional then definitive, from Dee. 25, 1799, to May 20, 1804 (4k years) ; civil and military rule, virtually of one man ; progress of French arms. 6. The (first) Empire; from May 20, 1804 to (April, 1814) June 22, 1815 (about eleven years). Napoleon I. made France the con- trolling power on the continent, but was finally overthrown.^ General Causes of the Revolution. 1. The spirit of the eighteenth century — a spirit devoted to the destruction or reformation of all ejdsting institutions. Attacks of French writers upon church and state. Montesquieu (1689-1755) ; Voltaire (1694^-1778) ; Rousseau (1670-1741) ; the Encyclopedia (1751-1780), the work of the Encyclopedists : Holbach (1723- 1789) ; Helvetius (1715-1771) ; Diderot (1713-1784) ; D'Alem- bert (1717-1783) ; CondiUac (1715-1789). 2. The unequal division and miserable cultivation of the land (nearly two thirds of which was in the hands of the clergy and the nobles), and the strict control exercised by the guilds, which cheeked the de- velopment of trade and industry. 3. The arbitrary government, the abuses in the administration,, the un- equal apportionment of the burdens of taxation. Since 1614, the consti- tutional assembly of the kingdom, the etats-gAieraux had not been summoned (p. 325). Control of the liberty of the subject by arbitrary warrants of imprisonment (lettres de cachet, Bastille') of their property by arbitrary taxation. In opposition to the right assumed by the parliament of Paris, to refuse the registration of edicts of taxation, the court had recourse to beds of justice (lits de justice, a despotic enforcement of registra- tion), and the banishment of members of parliament. Commissions in the army, places in parliament, and most of the higher offices, were purchasable, but as a rule, only by the nobles. Tte privileged classes (nobility and clergy) were allowed many privileges in regard to the direct taxes, although by no means exempt by them.^ Continu- ation in the country of the oppressive feudal burdens {corvdes, enforced labor on the estate of the lord and on public roads without pay), ex- actions of the feudal lords, who wasted their revenues in the capital and gave the peasants neither protection nor assistance in return. Taille, land and property tax; gabelle, tax on salt. 1 Assmann. 2 Vou Sybel, Geschichte der Eeiiolutiomzeit. First Frerich Et/oolidion. 449 Special Cause. The immense public debt and the deficit. The yearly deficit owed its origin to the wars of Loais XIV., to his costly, o£ten senseless buildings ( Versailles with its basins and fountains lying in a district totally without water), and to his extravagant court ; it grew under the profligate expenditure of Louis XV. and the cost of the North American war under Louis XVI. tiU it amounted to nearly half of the yearly income. As Turgot's (1774^-1776) attempts at reforms (removal of internal duties on commerce ; abolition of the corvee, abo- lition of many guilds), Necker's (1776-1781) economical qdministra- tion, and the assembly of notables summoned upon the advice of Calonne. (1787), brought no reUsf, the king took the advice of Necker, who had reassumed office (1788), and resolved upon the 1789, May 5. Summons of the Etats-G^eraux to Ver- sailles, with a double representation of the middle classes, the third estate (tiers etat), nobles 300, clergy 300, commons 600. Dis- pute about the manner of debating and of voting (whether votes should be cast by the orders as such, or by each member individually) which broke out during the verification of the powers of the members. The nobles and the clergy demanded a separate verification, the com- mons wished that it should take place in common. The true question was whether the legislative body should consist of a lower house of commons, and an upper house of nobles and clergy which would check the lower, or of one house in which the commons equaled in number the nobles and clergy together. Upon the motion of the abb^ Sieyes (author of the remarkable pamphlet asking, What'is the third estate?") the representatives of the third estate assumed the title of the 1789, June 17-1791. National Assembly {constituante) and invited the other orders to join them. 1789* Suspension of the meetings for three days; the hall June 20. closed to the members, who at last resorted to a neighbor- ing tennis court Q'eu de paume) and took an oath not to separate until they had given the realm a constitution. Pres- ident Bailly. Many of the clergy and some nobles joined the assembly. June 23. Fruitless royal sitting ; the king ordered the assembly to meet in three houses. Principal orator of the assembly : Mirabeau (Riquetti, count of Mirabeau, bom 1749, of remarkable talent, but dissolute, in debt, at variance with his family, elected in Provence as representative of the third estate). The representatives of the clergy and the nobility join the third estate by re- quest of the king. Concentration of troops near Paris. Rumors of a purpose to dissolve the national assembly, and the dis- missal of Necker (July 11) caused the 1789. Storm and destruction of the Bastille in Paris July 14. (murder of De Launay), Camille Desmoulins. Paris in the 29 450 Modern History. A. d. hands of the mob scarcely controlled by the electors who had chosen the deputies from Paris for the assembly and now sat at the Hotel de Ville as a provisional government. Necker recalled. Lafayette commander of the newly established National Guard. Bailly mayor of Paris. Adoption of the tricolor: blue, red (colors of Paris), white (color of France). Beginning of the emigration of the nobles, headed by the count of Artois, second brother of the king, prince Conde, Polignac. Rising of the peasants against the feudal lords in Daiiphine, Pro- vence, and Burgundy. Riots, provisional governments, guards in the provincial cities. Aug. 4.. Voluntary surrender by the representatives of the nobles (vicomte de Noailles) of all feudal rights and privileges ; abo- lition of the titles, prohibition of the sale of offices, dissolution of the guilds, etc. Aug. 27. Declaration of the rights of man. Discussion of the veto power. Oct. 5, 6. Outbreak of the mob of Paris, caused by hunger, the bribes of the duke of Orleans, and rumors of an intended reaction. March of a band, consisting principally of women, to Versailles. The royal family, rescued by Lafayette, were obliged to go to Paris, whither the national assembly followed them. 200 members re- signed. Democratic monarchical constitution : one chamber vrith legisla- tive power and the sole right of initiation. The royal veto was sus- pensive only, delaying the adoption of a measure for two legislative terms. The king could not declare war and conclude peace without the consent of the • chamber, ratifloation by which was necessary for the validity of all foreign treaties. In order to relieve the financial distress the ecclesiastical estates were declared public property. Aasignats, notes of the govern- ment, having for security the public lands, the value of which was not to be exceeded by the issue of notes (a check which was inopera- tive). The state assumed the support of the clergy. 1790, July 14. National federation in Paris ; the Constitu- tiou accepted by the king. Abolition of the old provinces and governments; France divided into eighty-three departments, named after rivers and moimtains ; these departments being subdivided into 374 districts and cantons. The communes were left unchanged (44,000) ; tax qualificatimi for the exercise of active suffrage in the primary assemblies, which chose electors (ilecteurs) who then elected the representatives (745) for a legis- lature with a term of two years. The administrative officers of the departments and districts were selected from the electors; the muni- cipal officers and the judges were taken from the great body of voters, the active citizens. Each department and each district had a local assembly. Abolition of the parliaments and the old judicial constitu- tion. Juries. Abolition of hereditary nobility, titles, and coats-of-arms. Dissolution of all ecclesiastical orders, excepting those having educa/- tion and the care of the sick for their objects. Civil organization of A. D. First French Revolution. 451 the clergy; the pastors to be chosen by the voters of the districts, the bishops by the voters of the depai-tments. Only one third of the eoelesiastios submitted to the new constitution by taking the required oath, so that henceforward there was a distinction between priests who had taken the oath (^pretres assermentes) and priests who had not (refractaires). Clubs had existed since 1789 ; the Jacobins, named after their place of assembly, which was formerly occupied by Dominican monks from the Rue St. Jacques (Robespierre), soon the greatest power in the state ; the Cordeliers, who held their meetings in a monastei-y of Franciscans {Danton, Marat, Camille Desmoulins, He'bert); the Feuillants, moderate monarchists who had separated from the Jaco- bins (Lafayette, Bailly). Reorganization of the municipality (com- mune) of Paris, in forty-eight sections ; 84,000 voters (pop. 800,000) ; genersJ councU, executive board (44). Each section had its primary assembly. 1790, Sept. Fall of Necker. Alliance between the court and Mirabeau, who endeavored to stem the revolution and prevent the destruction of the throne. 1791, April 2. Death of Mirabeau. June 20. Flight of the king. Stopped at Varennes, brought back to Paris (June 25). Unprovoked assault on a meeting in the Champs de Mars (July 17, " massacre of the Champs de Mars.") Suspended, reinstated by the moderate party (Sept.), Louis XYI. accepted the constitution as revised and com- pleted. Dissolution of the assembly (Sept. 30) after it had voted that none of its members should be eligible for reelec- tion to the next legislature. 1791, Oct. 1-1792, Sept. Legislative Assembly. 746 representatives, mostly from the middle class. Parties : the right, composed of constitutionalists, royalists, Feuillants, became weaker with every day. The left side, comprising the majority, was divided into : 1. Moderate republicans (the plain, laplaine), contain- ing the group of the Girondists (so called after its leading members from Bordeaux, the department of the Gironde), Quadet, Vergniaud, Brissot, etc., advocates of a federal republic. 2. The Mountain (la montagne, les mxmtagnards), so called from their seats, which were the highest on the left side of the hall, radicals, adherents of a united, indivisible republic (une et indivisible). They were composed of the leaders of the clubs of the Jacobins and the Cordeliers. Petion, mayor of Paris. 1791, Aug. Meeting at Fillnitz between 1786-1797. Frederic 'William II., king of Prussia {Wollner, Bisohofswerder), and 1790-1792. Leopold II., the emperor. Preliminary understanding in regard to Eastern matters, the political relations, and the French disturbances. 452 Modern History. A. D. 1791, Sept. Annexation of Avignon (massacres) and the Venaissin tc France. 1792, Feb. AEianee between Ausfyia and Prussia. Leopold was suc- ceeded by 1792-1806. Francis II. (As emperor of Austria, Fran- cis I. until 1835). 1792-1797. War between France and the First Coali- tion. A Girondist ministry (Roland, Dumouriez) took the place of the Bonstitutionalist ministry, whose fall was caused by the declaration of Pillnitz. April 20. Declaration of war against Austria. Three armies in the field. Rochamheau (48,000), between Dunkirk and PhUippe- vUle; Lafayette (52,000), between Philippeville and Lauter- bourg ; Luckner (42,000), between Lauterbourg and Basle. The fortune of war was against the French, which increased the revolutionary excitement at Paris. Dismissal of the min- istry of Koland (June 13). June 20. Invasion of the Tuileries by the mob. C?ilm behavior of the king ; the bonnet rouge. July 11. The Legislative Assembly pronounced the country in dan- ger. Formation of a volunteer army of revolutionists through- out the country. Threatening manifesto of the duke of Bruns- The municipal council of Paris broken up and its place usurped by commissioners from the sections ; the new commune (288 members). Aug. 10. {.Tenth of August). Storm of the Tuileries by the mob, in consequence of an order given by the king to the Swiss guards, who were advancing victoriously, to cease firing. Massacre of the Swiss guards. The king took refuge in the hall of the Aug. 13. Assembly, was suspended, and placed in the tower of the temple (the old house of the Knights Templars). Numerous arrests of suspected persons. The Jacobins in power. CaU of a national convention, elected by manhood suffrage, to draw up a constitution for the state. Aug. 20. Lafayette, impeached and proscribed, fled, was captured by the Austrians and imprisoned in Olmiitz (till 1796). Verdun taken by the Prussians ; battles at Grandpre and Valmy. Sept. 2-7. Jail delivery at Paris : terrible massacre, lasting five days, of royalists and constitutionalists detained in the prisons, instigated by the city council and by Danton, the minister of justice. Like scenes took place at Versailles, Lyons, Rheims, Meaux and Or- leans. 20 Sept. French (Dumouriez, Kellermann) success at Valmy against the allies (duke of Brunswick'). 1792, Sept. 21-1795, Oct. National Convention com- posed entirely of republicans (749 members, 486 new men). Parties, Girondists (right, Vergniaud, Brissot) A. p. First French Revolution. 453 and the Mountain (left ; members for Paris, Robespierre, duke of Orleans (Philip Fgalite), Danton, Collot d' Herbois). 1792. Abolition of the monarchy. France declared a Sept. 21. Republic. Sept. 22 was the first day of the year one of the French repub- lic. Citoyen et citoyenne ; decree of perpetual banishment against emigrants; tu et toi. Inglorious retreat of the Prussians through Champagne to Luxembourg and across the Rhine. The French general, Custine, took Speier, Mainz, and Frankfort on the Main. Occupation of Nice and Savoy (Sept.). 1792. Victory of the French general Dumouriez at Jemmapes. He Nov. 6. took Brussels and conquered the Austrian Netherlands. The Prussians retook Frankfort. Nov. 19. Proclamation of the convention offering French assistance to all peoples who wished to throw off their present govern- ment. Savoy and Nice annexed ; the Schelde opened to commerce (p. 408). 1792, Dec.-1793, Jan. Trial of Louis XVI. before the convention. Barrere prosecutor ; Maksherbes, Deseze, Tronchet, for the de- fense. Proposed appeal to the nation rejected. January 15, 683 votes out of 721 declared the king guilty. Jan. 16, 361 votes, exactly a major- ity (among them that of the duke of Orleans (Egalite), were cast unconditionally for death, 360 being cast for imprisonment, banisjb- ment, or deadi with respite. 1793, Jan. 21. Execution of Louis XVI. Feb. 1. War declared against Great Britain, Holland, Spain. England, Holland, Spain and the Empire, joined the alliance against France, Sardinia having been at war with the latter power since July, 1792. Annexation of Belgium. The emigrants, under the prince of Conde, proclaimed Louis ZVH., who was a prisoner in the temple. Royalistic revolt in the Vendee, upon occasion of a levy of recruits. {Charette, Stqfflet, Cathelineau, La RocJiejaquelein). The Austrians under the duke of Coburg defeated Dumouriez at ITeerwinden (March 18), and recaptured Brussels. Dumouriez went over to the Austrians with the duke of Chartres, Louis Philippe, son of Egalite'. March 9. Establishment of the revolutionary tribunal. At Paris, in the convention, struggle for life and death, between the Girondists and the Mountain. After the failure of the plan of the Orleanists, belonging to the Mountain, to make the duke of Orleans (E^litd), protector, aU power centred in the Committee of General Security and the J793. Committee of Public Safety (Comite du Salut April 6. Public). Composed of nine (afterwards twelve) members. 454 Modern History. A. d. who exercised dictatorial power. Leaders : Danton (from the first); Robespierre, St. Just, Couthon (these three in July) ; afterwards, Camot, who managed the military department only, and Collot d'Herbois (Sept.). The third, and in reality the greatest power in the state, was the commune of Paris, now reorganized on the basis of manhood suffrage, and acting through its committee, now numbering only twenty, at the Hotel de Ville, under the guidance of Chaumette, and especially of Hebert (editor of Le Pere Duchesne). Financial difficulties. New issues of assignats based on the lands of the emigrants, the sale of which was ordered. At- tempts to check the depreciation of assignats by severe penalr ties. June 2. An uprising of the mob, organized by the commniie of Paris, cofnmanded by Henriqti compelled the convention to ar- rest thirty-one Girondists (^Brissot, Vergniaud, Petiori). The second, fully democratic constitution, as passed by the conven- tion, was sent to the primary assemblies of voters for ratification, but never came to execution. 1793, July 13. Assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (executed July IS). \793-1794. Reign of Terror in France. Bobespierre at the head of the state. Revolutionary commit' Jbis throughout the country. Commissaries of the committee of public safety committed unheard-of atrocities in the large cities of the provinces. Tallien at Bordeaux, Lebon in Arras, Carrier in Nantes, Challier, Couthon, Fouche, Collot d'Herbois in Lyons. Mainz captured by the Prussians after a siege of three months (July). The allies took the fortresses of Corarfe .and Valenciennes. For this reason Custine was executed at Paris. The English laid siege to Toulon. The troops of the Republic were driven back at almost all points. Revolts in the interior, partially conducted by Girondists who had escaped from Paris. Energetic measures of the committee of public safety (Carnot). 1793, Aug. 23. Levy of the whole male population capable of bear- iiig arms. Fourteen armies were soon placed in the field. Caen, Bordedux, Marseilles, conquered by the republicans. Lyons Oct. captured after a two months' siege and partially destroyed ; Massacre of the inhabitants (Collot, Fouche ; la commune affran- chie.) Sept. 17. Establishment of a maximum price for a vast number of commodities ; also for wages. The state exacted all its labor and goods at the maximum} price and paid in assignats at the face value, the market yalue being one third of the face. • ■ Law authorizing the imprisonment of all persons suspected (loi , des suspects') pf being iinf riendly to the republic. Defeat of the Vendeaus at ChoUet (Oct. 20) and at Le Mam (Dec. .12). Revolutionary tribunal at ITantes (15,000 persons put to death in the three months of October, November, Decem- ber by Carrier J noyades, fusillades, manages republicains). A. D. First French Revolution,. 455 Oct. 16. Execution of tlie queen, Marie Antoinette. Oct. 31._ Execution of the Girondists (21). Beign of the revolu- tionary tribunal and the guillotine (Place de la Revolution, now Place de la Concorde') ; Fouquier-TinvUle, public prosecutor. Sixty executions a month; neglect of legal forms. "Execution of Bailly, Bgalit6 (Nov.), Madame Roland. Abolition of the worship of God. Cult of reason (He'bert, Chaumette, Cloots). Profanation of the royal sepulchre at St. Denis. Revolutionary calendar. Beginning of the year one, Sept. 22, 1792. The months : Vendemimre, Brumaire, Frimaire; Nivnse, Plu- viose, Ventiise ; Germinal, Flareal, Prairial ; Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidorj each month had thirty days, five intercalary days (sans cu- lottides), every tenth day a holiday. Ttansportatiou of priests. Nov. 10. Festival of reason in Notre Dame. Abolition of the old army. Creation of a new army. Capture of Conde, Valen- ciennes, Le Quesnoi by the allies (Coburg). Jourdan commander of the French forces. Oct. 11-13. Storm of the French lines at Weissenburg on the Bhine by Austrians and Prussians (Pichegru, commander of the French on the Bhine, Hoche, of the army on the Moselle.) Nov. Defeat of Hoche by the duke of Brunswick at Kaiserslautem. Deo. Pichegru defeated the Austrians under Wurmser. Betreat of the allies across the Bhine. Worms and Speier recaptured. Toulon rescued from the English. First appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte (b. Aug. 15, 1769, at Ajaccio in Corsica ; 1779 at the military school in Brienne ; 1785 Ueulenant in Valence, 1793 captain ; at Toulon, colonel ; after the cap- ture, brigadier-general ; adherent of the revolutionary movement, in close connection with the Jacobins, particularly with the two Robes- pierres, although he afterward denied it ^). 1794. Robespierre (representing the committee of public safety) crushed both parties which were opposed to him, the lUtra-rev- olutionary commune {He'bertists} and the moderate Dantonists (the Mountain), using one against the other. After an unsuccessful at- tempt at an insurrection March 24. Condemnation and execution of the Hebertists (^Chaumette, Hebert, Cloots, etc.). March 29, condemnation of the Dan- tonists. April 6. Execution of Danton, Camille Desmoulins, Herault de Sechelles, etc. April 18. Defeat of the allies by Pichegru at Turooing. April 19. Treaty of the Hague between England and Prussia ; sub- sidies for 60,000 men. Unhampered rule of the Committee of Public Safety. Eobespierre abolished the worship of reason and caused the convention to pass a resolution acknowledging the existence of a supreme bemg. June 8. Fetes de I'Etre supreme ; Bobespierre high priest. June 10. Portentous increase of power bestowed on the revolution- ary tribunal. Juries to convict without hearing evidence or ' P. I 456 Modem History. A. b. argnineBt. Enormous increase of executions, running up to 354 a month. June 25. Capture of Charleroi by the French. June 26. Battle of Fleurus, repulse of the allies under Coburg. Evacuation of Belgium. An attempt to exterminate the Vendeans (Turreau) caused a fresh ■outbreak of the war. Conspiracy of the Mountain and the moderates against Robespierre (Tallien, Freron, Fouche, Vadier, Collot d'Herbois, BUlaud-Varennes). 1794, July 27 (9th Thermidor). Fall of Robespierre, arrest of the two Robespierres, of Couthon and St. Just ; being released they were outlawed, surprised at the Hotel de VUle, and executed, with eighteen others. On the following days over eighty of his party were executed. The commune was nearly extinct. 1794-1795. The National Convention controlled by the mod- erates. Meanwhile the armies of the republic had been fortunate on the bor- ders. The Prussians, victors at Kaiserslautern in May, 1794, after a second battle at the same place in Sept., retired across the Khin@. The duke of Coburg, defeated June 26, 1794, by Jourdan at Pleurus, resigned his command. The Austrians retired across the Rhine (see above). In Paris the power of the commune, of the Jacobins, and of the mob was gradually broken by the Themddorians, or the supporters of the moderate revolution, and by the violence of the young men of the upper classes (called later the jeunesse doree). The Jacobin club closed (Nov. 12). Those Girondists who had escaped with their lives were readmitted to their seats in the convention (Dec. 8, 1794, March 8, 1795). Execution of Carrier and Fouquier-Tinville. Public misery. Repeal of the maximum (Dec. 24, 1794). New issues, increased depreciation of assignats ; in May, 1795, they were worth 7 per cent. 1795, April 1 (Germinal 12). Bread riots in Paris ; attack on the convent sinipressed ; transportation of Billaud, Collot, Barrere, Vadier. Growing reaction in the capital and the provinces. Return of emigrants. Reactionary terror (The White Tejror). May 20 (Prairial 1). Insurrection, or bread riot. Fierce attack upon the convention. Firmness of the president, ' Boissy d'Anglas. Suppression of the outbreak, May 20. Extermma- tion of the Mountain. Meantime the armies of France were everywhere successfuL Pichegru had invaded Holland in the winter of 1794-1795. The hereditary stadthalter fled to England. 1795-1806. Batavian Republic founded, wliich surrendered Dutch Flanders to France. Tuscany withdrew from the coalition and concluded peace with France. Prussia, whose iinances were exhausted and which had quarreled with Austria, concluded with the convention the A. D. First French Revolution. 437 1795, April 5. Peace of Basle (Hardenberg), which Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse-Cassel joined. Open condi- tions : 1. France continued in possession of the Prussian territory on the left bank of the Shine, until peace should be concluded with the empire. 2. A line of demarkation fixed the neutrality of northern Germany. Secret articles : Prussia consented to the absolute cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France and received the assurance of a recompense through secularization. After other notable successes of the French, Spain concluded the 1795, July. Peace of Basle. Spanish St. Domingo was ceded to France ; all other conquests were restored (Godoy, the Spanish vaimstei, prince of the peace'). In the naval war the English were for the most part in the ascend- ency. 1795, June 8. Death of the ten-year-old dauphin (Louis XVII.) in the temple, where he had been most shamefully abused.^ June 27. English and emigrants land at Quiberon (Brittany) to assist the royalists of that region (Chouans), but were defeated by Hoche (July 16-21)j and over 700 emigrants executed. Retaliatory massacre of 1,000 republican prisoners by Charette. Conclusion of the ■war of the Vende'e, defeat of the insurgent? by Hoche. Execution of Stofflet and Charette (latter March 29, 1796). At Paris adoption of a new (third) constitution. Constitution of the year HI., or 1795. The executive power was given to a directory of five persons ; the legislative to the council of elders (250), and the council of five hundred, but it was decreed that for the first term, two thirds of the members of both councils should be taken from among the members of the National Convention. Opposition to this limitation of choice at Paris and in the provinces. The royalists in the capital instigated an outbreak of the sections (city districts or wards). On the motion of Barras, general Bona- peute was placed in command of the troops of the convention. Bona- parte crushed the revolt by the bloody victory of the 1795, Oct. 5. 13th Vendemiaire, called the Day of the Sections. Cannonade from the church of St. Roch. The convention dis- solved (Oct. 26) after having voted (Oct. 25, Brumaire 3) that relatives of emigrants could hold no oiBce. 1795-1799. Government of the Directory in France. Substitution of mandats convertible into a specified amount of land for the assignats, of which 145 billion francs had been issued. In the Vendee, after a short truce, a new and bloody war, which spread to Brittany (Chouans). Hoche suppressed the revolt in the Vendue (ended March 5, 1796). By the advice of Camot the directory undertook a triple attack upon Austria. 1. The army of the Samhre and Meuse under Jourdan 1 The death of the dauphin, officially established and evidenced by many witnesfe.'), is beyond doubt. The pretenders who assumed his name later were, one and »11, impostors. 4S8 Modern History. A. D. advanced from the lower Rhine to Franconia ; 2. the army of the Rhine and Moselle under Moreau penetrated from the upper Shine to Swabia and Bavaria ; 3. the army of Italy under Napoleon Bona- parte was to attack Austria in Italy, and unite with the two former by way of Tyrol. The German campaign opened successfully for the French. Jour- dan and Moreau invaded south Germany. Baden, Wurtemberg, and Bavaria were compelled to conclude truces. Suddenly fortune changed. 1796. Archduke Charles of Austria (brother of the emperor Francis) took the offensive against Jourdan, defeated him at Amberg (Aug.^, and at Wurzburg (Sept. 3). Jourdan retreated to the Sieg, and resigned his command. The archduke then turned upon Moreau, who retired to the upper Shine (retreat through the Black Forest). 1796, Mar. 9. Marriage of Bonaparte with Josephine de Beauharnais. 1796. Brilliant campaign of Bonaparte in Italy. Starting from Nice he followed the coast, defeated the Austrians in the April. Battles at Millesimo, the Piedmontese at Mondovi, and compelled the king of Sardinia, Victor Amadeus, to conclude May. A separate peace. 1. Cession of Savoy and Nice to the French republic. 2. The French garrisoned the Piedmontese fortresses. OfBensive and defensive alliance between France and Spain, the latter declaring war on England. May 10. Pursuit of the Austrians. Storming of the bridge over the Adda at Lodi ; Napoleon entered Milan (May 15), conquered the whole of Lombardy as far as Mantua. The dukes of Parma and Modena, the Pope and Naples, purchased a truce with money ajid art treasures. Definite peace wijh the Pope at Tolentino in Feb. 1797 ; the Pope ceded the Romagna, Bologna, and Ferrara. 1796-1797. Siege of Mantua. Four attempts on the part of July. Feb. the Austrians to relieve the fortress. The Austrians defeated at Castiglione, Roveredo, Bassano, at Nov. 16-19. Arcole, and at 1797, Jan. Rivoli. Mantua surrendered (Feb. 2). 1797) March- April. Bonaparte crossed the Alps to meet archduke Charles who was advancing from Germany. The inhabitants of the Venetian territory rose against the French ; in Tyrol and Bohemia the people were called to arms. Bonaparte, in danger of being cut off, opened negotiations, which led to the conclu- sion of the 1797. Preliminary peace of Leoben, under the following condi- April 18. tions, which, however, were materially changed in the definite peace of Campo Formio (see below). 1. Austria ceded the Belgian provinces to France. 2. A congress should mediate for peace with the empire on the basis' of the integ- rity of the empire. 3. Austria ceded the region beyond the Oglio, A. D. First French Revolution. 459 receiving in return the Venetian territory between the Oglio, Po, and Adriatic (which she was to conquer for herself), Venetian Dal- matia and Istria, and the fortresses of Manttm, Peschiera, and Palma Nova. 4. Venice was to be indemnified with the Remagna, Bologna, and Ferrara. 5. Austria recognized the Cisalpine Republic which, was to be formed in northern Itsdy. 1797, May. The French declared war upon Venice, under pretext of an outbreak at Verona. Abolition of the aristocracy and establishment of popular government. Occupation of the republic by French troops ; also of the Venetian islands of Greece (Ionian). Proclamation of the Cisalpine Republic (Milan, Modena, Ferrara, Bologna, Romagnd). Transformation of the republic of Genoa into the Liguriaa Republic under French control. 1797, Sept. 4. 18th Fructidor. Coup d'Btat at Paris, Victory of the republican party over the party of reaction, which was represented in the council of five hundred, in the council of ancients, and in the directory. The tiiree republican directors, Barras, Rewbel, and La Revelliere defeated their colleagues, Bar- thelemy and Camot. The latter escaped by flight ; Barthelemy and many of his adherents, including Pichegru, were transported to Cayenne. After lengthy negotiations, France and Austria concluded the Oct. 17. Peace of Campo Formio. Open articles : 1. Austria ceded the Belgian provinces to France. 2. A congress was convened at Rastadt to discuss peace with the empire. 3. Austria received the territory of Venice as far as the Adige, with the dty of Venice, Istria, and Dalmatia. 4. Prance retained the Ionian islands. 5. Austria recognized the Cisalpine Republic and indemnified the duke of Modena with the Breisgau. Secret articles : 1. Austria agreed to the cession of the left hank of the Rhine from Basle to Andemach, including Mainz, to France ; the navigation of the Rhine was left open to Fremce and Germany in common ; those princes who lost by the cession were to receive in- demnification in Germany. 2. France was to use her influence to secure to Austria, Salzburg, and that portion of Bavaria which lay between Salzburg, the Tyrol, the Inn, and the Salza. 3. Re- ciprocal guarantee that Prussia should not receive any new acquisi- tion of territory in return for her cessions on the left bank of the Khine. 1796-1801. Paul I., Emperor of Russia, succeeded his mother Catharine II. (p. 411). 1797-1840. Frederic 'William III., King of Prussia. Wollner dismissed. Edict of religion revoked. 1797, Deo.-1799, April. Congress of Rastadt. No agreement. 1798. The French occupied Rome. Proclamation of the Feb. Roman Republic. Captivity of the Pope, Pius VI. Disturbances in Switzerland. The French entered the country. The confederacy transformed into one 460 Modern History. A. d. 1798, April. Helvetian Republic. Genetfa annexed to France. 1798-1799. Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition, prepared under the mask of an invasion of England, against whose East Indian Empire this expedition was in truth directed. Army of England at Boulogne. The opposition of the directory being overcome the fleet sailed from Toulon (May 19, 1798), with 35,O0U men, accompanied by a large number of scientists. Bonaparte, Ber- thier, Kleber,\a,tei, Desaix. Ca,pitulation and occupation of Malta (June 12), disembarkation in Egypt (July 1). Capture of Alexandria (July 2). Battle of the Pyramids won against the Mamelukes (July 21). Capture of Cairo (July 22). Desaix advances toward upper Egypt. The English fleet annihilated the French in the 1798. Battle of tlie Nile at Aboukir (Nelson), thuscut- Aug. 1. ting off the French army from France. A popular uprising in Cairo suppressed. The Porte having de- clared war upon France, Bonaparte attacked the pasha of Syria, stormed Jaffa (massacre of 1200 prisoners) but was unable to capture St. Jean d'Acre (Akko), the defense of which, was supported by the English. Bonaparte victorious over the Turks at Mt. Tabor (April 16). Pestilence in the French army. Retreat to Egypt. Arrival of the Turks at Aboukir, where they were completely defeated by Bonaparte (Murat), 1799, July 25. 1799-1801. War of the second coalition, composed of Russia, Austria, England, Portugal, Naples, the Ottoman Porte, and owing its origin chiefly to Paul I., emperor of Bussia, whom the Knights of Malta had elected grand master. Plan of the allies : 1. An English-Russian army (duke of York) was to drive the French from the Netherlands. 2. An Austrian army {arch- duke Charles) should drive them out of Germany and Switzerland, while 3. a Russian-Austrian army expelled them from Italy (Suvarojf and Melas). The war began in the latter part of 1798 by a Neapolitan invasion of the Boman Republic, under the Austrian genera,! Mack. The in- vasion was repulsed, the king of Naples fled to. Palermo, the kingdom of Naples was occupied by the French and transformed into the 1799. Parthenopaean Republic. The grand duke of Tuscany was Jan. driven from his domains. The king of Sardinia escaped from Turin and took up his residence in Cagliari in Sardinia; his for- tresses upon the mainland were placed under French control. After 1802 they were annexed to France. The directory opposed to the coalition six armies under as many com- manders. 1. Brune in Holland ; 2. Bemadotte on the middle Rhine; 3. Jourdan on the upper Rhine ; 4. Massena in Switzerland ; 5. Scherer, afterwards Moreau, in upper Italy; 6. Macdonald in Naples. 1799. Jourdan, defeated by archduke Charles at Ostrach and Stnck- March. ach, retreated across the Rhine and laid down his command. His army and that of Bemadotte were placed under Massena. April. Scherer defeated by the Austrians at Magnano. His successor, Moreau, defeated by the Austrians (Melas) and Russians (Su- varoff) at Cassano. Abolition of the Cisalpine Republic. A. D. First French Revolution. 461 1799, April 8. Dissolution of the Congress of Bastadt. Mysterious murder of the French ambassadors, Roberjot and Bonnier (fie- hry escaped), on their journey home, by Austrian hussars from Transylvania (Apr. 28). June 4-7. Massena defeated by archduke Charles at Zurich. Mac- donald being called to upper Italy, the king of Naples returned and the ParthenopEeaii Republic was abolished. Terrible ven- geauce, accompanied by massacres. Ndson, Lady Hamilton. Abolition of the Roman Republic. June 17-19. Macdonald defeated by Suvaroff on the Trebbia. Man- tua taken by the allies. The directory sent Jimbert to Italy with a new army. He was defeated in the bloody Aug. 15. Battle of Novi by Suvaroff and Melas. Joubert.f Su- varoff crossed the Alps by the pass of St. Gothard in order to unite with the second Russian army under Korsakoff, who had taken the place of archduke Charles when the latter went to the mid- dle Rhine, in Switzerland. His army however had. already been defeated at Zurich by Mas- sena. Suvaroff left Switzerland after a series of terrible battles and marches, and returned to Russia. A Russian-Turkish fleet had wrested the Ionian islands from French control in May, 1799. Erection of the Republic of the Ionian Isl- ands imder Turkish protection, and the guarantee of Russia, which occupied the same untU 1807. June 18. Revolution of 3d Prairial. Reorganization of the directory under Sieyes ; a revolution which resulted in the return of Bonaparte. 1799> Oct. The duke of York was defeated and capitulated at Alkmar. Oct. 8. Bonaparte, returning unannounced from Egypt, landed at Frejus, and in alliance with the directors, June. Sieyh and Roger-Ducos and his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, president of the council of five hundred, overthrew the direc- tory by the Nov. 9, Coup d'Btat of the 18th Brumaire, and broke up the council of five hundred upon the following day. 1799-1804, The Government of the Consulate with ITapoleon Bonaparte as regent under the title of Jirst consul for ten years, and two consuls appointed by him, Cambaceres and Lebrun, who had consultative voices only. The new (fourth) constitution (constitution of the year VUl.), ori- ginally devised by Sieyes, but essentially changed by Napoleon, and accepted by direct vote of the whole nation (3,000,000 to 1,567), pre- served the appearance of a republic but in reality established a military monarchy. A senate (80 well paid senators elected for life with but little to do), appointed, from lists of names sent in by the depart- ments, the members of the legislative department, the higher officials and the judges. Legislative power unthout the initiative: 1. tribunate 462 Modem History, A. D. (100) discussed the proposals of the govermnent witJiout voting. 2. The legislative chamber (300) could only accept or reject these proposals, without debate. The executive power was in the hands of the Jirst consul, who was aided by a council of state. The people voted for notables of the communes, who then elected a tenth of their number as notables of the departments, whence were elected a tenth portion, the notables of France, from which latter list the senate appointed the members of the legislative bodies. Establishment of prefectures (administration of the departments^ and sub-prefectures (administration of the arrondissements), and consequent creation of that centralization which still prevails in France. New system of tax-collection ; receveur-general for each department (abol- ished under the second empire), receveur particulier for each arron- dissement. Code Napol&m commenced. The overtures of peace made by the first consul were rejected. Paul, emperor of Kussia, however, was won over by Napoleon's flat- tery, and withdrew from the coalition. Defensive aUiakce between Russia and Sweden (1799), closer connection between Russia and Prussia. Paul quarreled with England in regard to Malta. Ke- newalof theprevious(1780)armed neutrality at sea (p. 636). North- ern convention (1800). 1800. Double campaign of the French in Italy under Nwpo- leon Bonaparte, in Upper Germany under Moreau. April. A. In Italy. Massena defeated at Voltri ; Melas advanced to Nice. Obsti- nate defense of Genoa by Massena (and Soult) ; after a terri- June 4. ble famine (15,000 people perished) the city capitulated to May. Ott. Meantime passage of the Great St. Bernard by Bonaparte. (The fortress of Bard, passed by a detour). June 2. Capture of Milan. Bestoration of the Cisalpine Republic. General Melas, after a brave contest, and after victory had once been in his hands, defeated by a second attack in the 1800, June 14. Battle of Marengo, by Napoleon. Desaix ■)•. According to the truce concluded with Melas, aU fortresses west of the Mindo and south of the Po were sur^ rendered by the Austrians to the French. B. In Germany : Moreau crossed the Rhine from Alsace in April, and advanced, winning victories at Engen and Stoek- ach, toward Kray (May). Moreau in Munich (July). Truce until November. Recommencement of hostilities. Moreau defeated the archduke John in the 1800, Dec. 3. Battle of Hohenlinden, captured Salzburg and advanced to the Linz. Truce of Steyer. After Brune in Italy had won a battle on the Mindo (Deo.) and had crossed the Adige (Jan. 1, 1801), a truce was conclu- ded in Treviso, which was succeeded by the 1801, Feb. 9. Peace of LunlviUe, from which the abolition of the old Holy Roman Empize practically dates. i. D. First French JRevohUion. 463 Chief conditions : 1. Ratiflcatio^of the cessions made by Austria and to her ia the peace of Campo^ormio (p. 459). 2. Cession of the grand duchy of Tuscany (Austrianssecundogeniture) to Par- ma, to be indemnified in Germany. 3. Tii\ Emperor and Empire consented to the cession of the left bank of th&^une to France, the valley of the Rhine (i. e. the middle of the riverjT^Sie boundary. The princes who lost by this operation received indemnification in Germany. 4. Recognition of the Batavian, Hel^^tian, Cisalpine, and Idgurian Republics. Germany lost by thk peace, taking the Belgic territory into account, 25,180 square mi^ with almost 3,500,000 inhabitants. The German princes received a^ increase of territory. The shameful negotiations over the indemniflca^ons lasted more than two years (p. ^5), during which time the ambassadors of German princes haunted the antechambers of the First Consul to beg for better terms, and bribed French ambassadors, secretaries and their mistresses. Tuscany was transformed into the kingdom of Etruria, for the satisfaction of Parma. Besides losing Parma, a Spanish secundogeni- ture, Spain ceded Louisiana to France, which afterwards sold it to the United States (1803). The peace of Lun^ville was succeeded, after conclusion of a truce, by the 1801, March 18. Peace of Florence with Naples. Conditions : 1. Closure of the harbors to British and Turkish vessels. 2. Cession of the Neapolitan possessions in central Italy and the island of Elba, 3. Reception of French garrisons in several Italian towns. Prussia joined the Northern Convention against England. Occupa- tion of Hanover. 1801, March 23. Paul I., Emperor of Russia, murdered. He was succeeded by his son, 1801-1825. Alexander I. Reconciliation between Russia and England (in 1801 England had attacked Denmark, the ally of Russia, and forced her to withdraw from the Northern Convention). The Northern Convention was now dissolved. 1800. Conspiracies against the life of Bonaparte. Infernal ma- chines. 130 " Terrorists and Jacobins " transported, although the attempts had originated with the royalists. In Egypt the chief command after the departure of Bonaparte had devolved upon Kle'ber, who defeated the Turks iu the battle of Heliqpolis (1800, March). After the murder of Kleber at Cairo (June), Menou became commander-in-chief. He concluded a treaty with the English at Cairo (1801), under which Egypt was to be abandoned and returned to the Ottoman Porte, and the French army transported to France by the English fleet. 1801. Union of Ireland with Great Britain under one parliament. In France restoration of the Catholic worship, and after long negotiations with the papacy, conclusion of a 1801. Concordat (executed in 1802), whereby the (10) French archbishops and (50) bishops were to be appointed and sup- ported by the government, and confirmed by the Pope. Pius VIL, elected in 1800 in Venice, was recognized in the possession of the 464 Modern ffistory. A. D, Papal States, without Ferrara, Bclogna, and the Romagna. The lib- erties of the GaJlican church v^ere strongly asserted. By the new oxganization of the " University," an incorporated body of teachers who had passed a state examination, the entire system of higher education was made dependent upon the government. The institut national was reorganized and divided into /our (later _yfi;e) academies : 1. academie frangaise (1635) ; 2. a. des inscriptions et belles-lettres (1663, 1701) ; 3. a. des sciences (1666) ; 4. a. des beaux arts (1648) ; 5. a. des sciences morales et politiques (1832). After the withdrawal of the younger Pitt from the English cabi- net, and after long negotiations, the 1802. March 27. Peace of Amiens was concluded between England and France. 1. Surrender of all conquests made by England to France and her allies, excepting Trinidad which was ceded by Spain, and Ceylon which was ceded by the Batavian Republic. 2. France recognized the Repahlicof the Seven Ionian islands. Malta must be restored to the order of the Knights of Malta. In consequence of this peace, peace was concluded between France and the Porte. Creation of the order of the Legion of Honor (May 19, 1802). As- sumption of regal state and authority. Napoleon Bonaparte caused himself to be elected by a popular vote (plebiscite, 3^ millions), 1802, August 2. Consul for life, with the right of appointing his successor. NeTw (fifth) constitution. The powers of the sinate, which was ruled by the first consul, were enlarged; the importance of the legis- lative bodies and the tribunate was very decidedly reduced. Napoleon had already become president of the Italian Ilepublic, as the Cisalpine Republic was henceforward called. Elba and Pied- mont were annexed to France. Military interference of the French in Switzerland, which was torn with civil dissensions. The act of mediation restored the independence of the separate cantons, but the country remained still so far a single state that it was represented by a landamman and a diet. As regards the internal relations of Germany, the peace of Lune- ville was executed according to a plan of indenmification established by France and Russia by the 1803, Feb. Enactment of the delegates of the empire. (Reichs- deputationshauptschluss) .^ Of the ecclesiastical estates there were left only : 1. the former elector of Mainz, now electoral archchancellor, with a territory formed out of the remains of the archbishopric of Mainz on the right bank of the Rhine, the bishopric of Regenshwrg, and the cities of Regensburg and Witzlar. 2. the masters of the order of St. John, and the Teu^ tonic order. 3. Of the 48 free imperial cities which still existed, only 6 were left, the 3 Hanseatic cities : Liibeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfort, Augsburg, Nuremierg. All other ecclesiastical estates and imperial cities were devoted to indemnifications. The electoral bish- oprics of Trier and Cologne were abolished. Four new electorates ; Hesie-Cassel, Baden, Wurtemherg, Salzburg. 1 Eichhom, Deutsche Staats u. Bechtsgeschichte, IV. § 606. A. D. First French Sevolution. 465 Principal Indemnifications : 1. The grand duchy of Tuscany: Salz- burg, and Berchtesgaden. 2. Duke of Modena : Breisgau (in ex- change for which Austria received the ecclesiastical foundations of Trient and Brixen). 3. Bavaria : bishoprics of Wwndjurg, Bamberg, Freising, Augsburg, the majority of the prelacies and imperial cities in Franconia and eastern Swabia, in return for which, 4. Baden received that portion of the Palatinate lying on the right bank of the Rhine {Heidelberg, Mannheim'). Baden also received : the portion of the bishoprics of Constance, Basle, Strasburg, Speyer, on the right bank of the Rhine, and many ecclesiastical foundations and imperial cities. 5. WUrtemberg : many abbeys, monasteries, and imperial cities, especially Reutlingen, Esslingen, Heilbronn, etc. Prusaia : the bishoprics of Paderbom, Hildesheim, the part of Thuringia which had belonged to Mainz {Eichfeld and Erfurt), a part of MUnster, many abbeys, particularly Quedlinburg, and the imperial cities, Miihlhdur- sen, Nordhausen, Goslar. 7. Oldenburg : bishopric of iJibeck. 8. Hanover : bishopric of Osnabriick. 9. Hesse (Darmstadt and Cas- sel) and Nassau divided the portions of the archbishoprics of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, which remained, upon the right bank of the Rhine. 10. Nassau-Orange : bishopric of Fulda, and abbey of Corvey. As a rule the indemnified princes gained considerably in territory and subjects. ■ 1803. New dissensions between France and England, caused by the refusal to surrender Malta and the quarrels of the journalists. The French occupied Hanover, where they nearly exhausted the resources of the state. The encampment at Boulogne threatened England with an invasion. Conspiracy against the life of the First Consul discovered (1804, Feb.). Pichegru met a mysterious death in prison, George Cadou- dal was executed. Moreau fled to America. The duke of Enghien, a Bourbon prince of the branch line of Condd, was taken by violence from the territory of Baden, condemned by a commission acting in accordance with the wishes and luider the order of Napoleon,^ with- out the observation of any of the forms of law, and shot at Vincennes on the night of March 20-21. On the 18th of May the tribunate and senate proclaimed the Consul Bonaparte, 1804-1814 (15) Napoleon I., Hereditary Emperor of the French. The succession was in the male line, the emperor having the privilege of adopting the children of his brothers, in default of which and of direct issue, the crown was to go to Joseph and Louis Bona- parte. The election was ratified by a popular election, by means of lists to which the people signed their names (3,572,329 to 2,569). The emperor was consecrated at Paris by Piiis VII. (Dec. 2), placing the crown upon his own head. (Imitation of Pepin and especially of 1 That no misunderstandings took place, as is asserted by Thiers and others, throughout the whole shameful proceeding, that Napoleon I. afterwards endeav- ored in all ways to conceal the truth, and that the guilt of this premeditated murder rests mainly upon himself, has been proved by Lanfrey, Hislmre de Napoleon I. iii. 128, foil. 30 466 Modem History, A. D. P ^ ■Hnn .,d g CD 1^ ll ;a^ -•3H0S- —ills J's _3 bos o 9 u Hi W ^ 95* LIJ ■3§S! 1^ » "■go- 3 fl i.S-1. (frig's S g .1- S N &» Mf *3 ® g s ■ + a a S s g J jj o-<- •S-S.f 0} . all- a a • a . -Ills -SS^aS ^11 _*4J 0) .^ - fsa-S n as oS giH ~E . a'Sw^ A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 467 Charles the Great, who, as Charlemagne, was transformed into a Frenchman and prototype of Napoleon). Establishment of a bril- liant court. Grand dignitaries of the empire ; eighteen marshals. New nobility. An absolute monarchy of the purest type. (Aboli- tion of the tribivnate, 1807.) 1805. Napoleon king of Italy. His stepson Eugene Beauhamais, son of Josephine, viceroy of Naples. The Ligurian Republic incorporated with France. 1805- Third coalition against France, between England, Russia, Austria, and Sweden (Gitstavus IV.), for the purpose of restoring the balance of power in Europe. Spain allied with France. The camp at Boulogne broken up. The French armies under Da- vout, Soult, Lannes, Ney, advanced toward the Rhine. The main force of the Aiistrians in Italy under archduke Charles opposed to Massena ; in Germany, under archduke Ferdinand and Mack. Napo- leon commanded in person in Germany ; relying on the support of .most of the south German states, he advanced to meet the Austriaas who had invaded Bavaria. On the upper Danube he concentrated his forces (200,000 men), reinforced by Bemadotte, who on his way from Hanover had marched through the neutral territory of Ansbach in Prussia, and by troops from BaTaxia, Wurtemberg, Baden, Hesse, Nassau. After the Austrians (80,000 men) had been de- feated in several engagements, and the main army was surrounded by the French, 1805. Mack surrendered in TTIm with the whole Austrian army Oct. 17. (30,000 men), prisoners of war. On the sea England opened the war brilliantly with the 1805- Victory of Nelson at Trafalgar Oct. 21. over the French and Spanish fleet. Death of Nelson (" England expects every man to do his duty "). This vic- tory broke the naval power of France. The French marched upon Vienna, which was taken by Murat without resistance. Archduke Charles, who had driven back Massena, returned to Germany ; a Russian army under Kutusoff, a second un- der the emperor Alexander, came to the assistance of Austria. In the 1805. Battle of Austerlitz (the battle of the three em- Dee. 2. perors). Napoleon defeated the united forces of Austria and Russia. Truce with Austria. Retreat of the Russians. Dec. 15. Treaty concluded by Prussia, which was on the point of joining the coalition, with Napoleon at Schonbrunn (Haug- witz). Prussia ceded to France the remaining part of Cleve (WeseT) on the left bank of the Rhine, Ansbach, and Neuchdtel, and was promised Hanover in exchange. Dec. 26. Peace of Pressburg, between Prance and Austria. 1. France received Piedmont, Parma, and Piacenza. 2. Austria ceded to the kingdom of Italy all that she had received of Venetian 468 Modem History. A. D. territory at the peace of Campo Formio (p. 459) ; also Venetian Isiria and Dalmatia, and recognized Napoleon as king of Italy. 3. Austria ceded to Bavaria : Tyrol, Vorarlberg, the bishoprics Brixen and Trient, Burgau, Eichstadt, Passau, Lindau, besides which Bavaria received the free city of Augsburg. 4. Austria ceded to Wiirtem- berg and Baden what remained of the western Austrian lands. 5. Bavaria and WUrtemberg were recognized as kingdoms. 6. Austria received as indemnification : Salsburg, Berchtesgaden, and the estates of the Teutonic order which were secidarized. The elec- tor of Salzburg received Wiirzburg from Bavaria as indemnification. Russia remained hostile. 1805. The Bourbons in Naples were dethroned by a proclamation Dec. issued by Napoleon from Schonbrunn (ia dynastie de Naples a eesse de regner). 1806. Joseph, Napoleon's elder brother, king of Naples. The court of Naples withdrew to Palermo. Sicily was beyond Napoleon's reach, as the English controlled the sea. Joachim Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon, created grand duke of Berg ; Marshal Berthier, prince of Neuchaiel ; Louis Bonaparte, Napoleon's third brother, king of Holland (the former Batavian Be- public). 1806. Establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine. July 12. Napoleon, protector. Prince Primate, formerly electoral areh- ehancellor ; the kings of Bavaria and Wilrtemberg ; the grand dukes of Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Berg, duke of Nassau, etc. After- wards all the German princes joined the confederation except Aus- tria, Prussia, Brunsmck, and the electorate of Hesse. Many princes holding immediately of the empire mediatized. The free city of Nuremberg assigned to Bavaria, Frankfort to the prince primas {grand duke of Frankfort). Emperor Francis, who had already assumed the title of emperor of his hereditary Austrian estates (1804), 1806, Aug. 6. Abdicated the crown of the Holy Komaa empire. End of the old German empire. 1806-1835. Francis I., emperor of Austria. 1806-1807- (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia. Grounds of the Prussian declaration of war : Erection of the con- federacy of the Rhine, annexation of Wesel, seizure of Essen and Verden, garrisoning of half of Germany with French troops ; Napo- leon's offer to England to take away from Prussia the territory of Hanover which had just been forced upon her ; the Prussians were, moreover, embittered against the French by the high-handed execu- tion of Palm, a bookseller of Nuremberg, who had published some strictures upon Napoleon. Dangerous situation of Prussia at the outbreak of war. The com- plete separation of the military and civil orders had brought it about A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 469 that the safety of the state rested on a half-trained army composed in part of foreigners, on a superannuated general, and on subordinate commanders who, full of arrogant pride in the ancient military fame of Prussia, regarded the French with contempt. No allies except Saxony and distant Russia. Dissension between Prussia and England. Want of decision in the cabinet and in the conduct of the war. 1806. Concentration of the Prussian army in Thuringia under the old duke of Brunswick. Defeat of the Prussian advance at SaaUeld (Oct. 10), prince Louis Ferdinand f. In the 1806. Oct. 14. Double battle of Jena and Auerstadt the main army was completely defeated. Dissolution of the army. The reserve under the prince of Wurtemberg was de- feated and scattered at Halle (Oct. 17). Napoleon in Berlin (Oct. 27). The prince of Hohenlohe with 12,000 men was forced to surrender at Prenzlau (Oct. 28). Bliicher after a brave defence in Liibeck was obliged to surrender his whole corps at Ralkau as prisoners of war (Nov. 7). Incredibly hasty surrender of the fortresses : Erfurt, Spandau, Stettin, KHstrin, Magde- burg, Hameln ; only Kolberg (^Gneisenau, Schill, Nettelbeck) and Grau- denz (CourJierc) defended themselves resolutely. The duke of Bruns- wick (t Nov. 10, at Ottensen) and the neutral elector of Hesse were driven out of the country. Coarse behavior of Napoleon toward the royal family (queen Iiouisa). Robbery of the museums and picture galleries. From his headquarters in Berlin Napoleon proclaimed (Nov. 21) the senseless (paper) blockade of Great Britain and the closure of the continent to British trade, a policy summed up in the title, " Continental System " (" Berlin decree "). The troops of France, Bavaria, and Wurtemberg invaded Silesia. The Poles summoned to revolt. Separate peace and alliance of Napoleon with the elector of Saxony (Dec. 11), who joined the confederacy of the Rhine as king of Saxony. Occupation of Hanover and the Hanseatic cities. 1807. Fall of Breslau, followed by that of the most of the Silesian fortresses. After several bloody engagements in the neigh- borhood of Pultusk, Prussians and Russians fought against the French, without decisive result, in the murderous 1807, Feb. 7, 8. Battle of Eylau, where the Prussians repulsed the right wing of the French under Daoout. Winter quarters. Frederic William III. went to Memel. May 26. Danzig captured after a brave defense (KalckreutH). After several engagements Napoleon was victorious in the June 14. Battle of Friedland, over the Russians. Konigsberg and the country as far as the Niemen occupied by Napoleon. Truce with Russia (.June 21), with Prussia (June 25). Meeting of Napoleon, Alexander, and Frederic William on the Niemen. 1807. Peace of Tilsit. July 7. A. Between France and Russia. July 9. B. Between France and Prussia. 470 Modem History.. A. d. A. 1. Russia recognized the duchy of Warsaw, which was formed out of SoutJi Prussia, parts of West Prussia, and New East Prussia, under the king of Saxony. . 2. Danzig restored to the con- dition of a free city. 3. A part of New East Prussia (Bialystock') ceded to Russia. 4. Russia recognized Joseph Bonaparte as king of Naples, Louis Bonaparte as king of Holland, Jerome Bonaparte as king of Westphalia, a new kingdom yet to be created ; Russia, more- over, recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and accepted the mediation of Napoleon in concluding peace with the Turks, whil& Napoleon accepted the like good offices from Alexander in regard to England. In a secret article, Alexander agreed to an alliance with France against England, in case the latter refused to accept the prof- fered peace. B. 1. Prussia ceded : (a) to Napoleon for free disposal, all lands between the Rhine and Elbe ; Q>) to Saxony, the circle of Cottbus ; (c) all lands taken from Poland since 1772 for the creation of a duchy of Warsaw, also the city and territory of Danzig. 2. Prussia recognized the sovereignty of the three brothers of Napoleon. 3. AU Prussian harbors and lands were closed to British ships and British trade until the conclusion of a peace with England. 4. Prussia was to maintain a standing army of not more than 42,000 men. In regard to the res- toration and evacuation of the Prussian provinces and fortresses, it was settled by the treaty ofKonigsberg (July 12), that Prussia should first pay all arrears of war indemnities. These indemnifications, fixed at nineteen million francs by the Prus- sian calculations, were set at 120 millions by the French, which sum was raised to 140 millions in 1808. After 120 millions had been paid the fortresses were evacuated, excepting Stettin, Kiistrin, and Glogau. Until this occurred the Prussian state, reduced as it was from 89,120 to 46,032 square miles, was obliged to support 150,000 French troops. 1807, Aug. Foundation of the kingdom of Westphalia (capital. Cosset) by a decree of Napoleon, who reserved for himself half of the domains. High-handed proceeding of the English against Denmark, which had been summoned to join the continental system. An English fleet bombarded (1807, Sept.) Copenhagen, and carried ofE the Danish fleet. Alliance of Denmark with France. Russia declared war upon England. Stralsund and Rilgen occupied by the French. Portugal, which refused to join the continental system, occupied by a French army under Junot (duke of Abrantes) Nov. 1807. The royal family fled to Brazil. Milan decree, Dec. 17, 1807. Spain invaded by 100,000 Frenchmen under the pretext of guard- ing the coasts against the English. Charles IV. (1788-1808) abdi- cated in favor of his son Ferdinand (March, 1808), in consequence of an outbreak which had occurred against his favorite, the prince of the peace, Godoy. Father and son, with Godoy, were enticed by Na- poleon to Bayonne and compelled to renounce the throne (May). Napoleon's brother Joseph became king of Spain, Murat taking the throne of Naples instead of Joseph. General uprising of the Spaniards. A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 471 1808-1814. War between Napoleon and Great Brit- ain in Spain and Portugal. (" Peninsular War.") The English landed in Portugal and forced Junot to surrender Cintra, after which he was obliged to evacuate the country (Sir Arthur Wellesley). The French were soon driven back to the Ebro. Napoleon, secured against Austria by a closer alliance with the em- peror Alexander, since the assembly of princes at Erfurt, where four kings, thirty-four princes, and other German rulers who had done him homage, hastened in person to Spain with 250,000 men, advanced to Madrid, and with Soidt drove the English from Spain (battle of Corunna Jan. 16, 1809. Death of Sir John Moore). After the de- parture of Napoleon hostilities continued in Spain. Guerrilla war- fare. The English returned. Heroic defense of Saragassa (Palafox), which surrendered in Feb. 1809. The English general. Sir Arthur Wellesley (b. 1769; ofdcer in East India 1797-1805 ; M. P. 1806; vis- count Wellington, 1809 ; duke of Wellington, 1814 ; prime minister, 1827-1830 ; d. 1852, Sept. 18), after his victory over Joseph at Tala- vera, July 28, 1809, was created viscount Wellington, and made commander-in-chief of all English troops in the Spanish peninsula. Soutt, duke of Dalmatia, at first victorious against the Spanish and Portuguese, was obliged to evacuate Oporto again. In Pnissia, meanwhile, tte state was reorganized after the dis- missal of Beymes and Zastrow, by Charles, baron of and in Stein (b. 1757 at Nassau ; since 1780, in Prussian civil service ; 1796 over- president of the chamber of Westphalia ; 1804 minister of finance, d. 1831), and Hardenberg. Regulations for the cities, liberation of industry, abolition of hereditary serfdom, reformation of the adminis- tration of the public finances. Reorganization of the army on the basis of universal military service, by Gneisenau, Grolman, Boyea, Clausewitz, Scharnhorst (b. 1765, in Hanover, son of a peasant, o£&- cer in the service of Hanover, 1801 lieutenant-colonel in Prussia, taken prisoner at Ratkau with Blucher, major-general at Eylau; d. 1813). Foundation of the university at Berlin (1810), by Humboldt, AU tenstein, Niebuhr, Schleiermacher. Fichte's addresses to the German nation. Tugendbund. Gymnastics, Jahn. E. M. Amdt. Preparatiohs for the liberation of Germany and Europe from the French yoke. Futile attempt of Austria to accomplish this liberation alone, by mak- ing use of Napoleon's entanglement in the Spanish war. 1808, July-Nov. English expedition to Walchereii (p. 537). 1809. (Fifth) War with Austria. Archduke Charles, commander of the Austrian army of Ba- varia, and archduke John, commander of the Austrian forces which were sent to Italy, summoned the German people to take part in the Struggle against the French supremacy. Tyrol alone heeded the summons, and took up arms (Andreas Hofer, Spechbacher}. Napoleon engaged archduke Charles in Bavaria, with German Apr. 19-23. troops, drove him over the Danube to Bohemia, after five days' fighting at Abensberg, Landshut, Eckmiihl and Re- May 13. gensbwrg, and captured Vienna for the second time. Na^ poleon crossed the island of Lohau, to the left bank of the Dan- ube, where in the bloody 472 Modern History. A. d. 1809, May 21-22. Battle at Aspern and Essling (on the March/eld), he was, for the first time, defeated by archduke Charles, and (Lannes f) forced to reoross the Dan- ube (^Massena), where he united with the viceroy Eugene, who had pursued archduke John from northern Italy to Hungary and defeated him at Eaab. With 180,000 men Napoleon crossed the Danube anew, defeated archduke Charles in the murderous 1809, July 5-6. Battle of "Wagram, and pursued him toward Moravia. Truce of Znaim. Oct. 14. Peace of Vienna between France and Austria, signed in the palace at Schdn- hrunn. 1. Austria ceded a territory of 32,000 square miles, containing 3^ million inhabitants, viz. : a. Salzburg and Berchtesgaden, the Inn- viertel, and half of the Hausriickviertel to Bavaria ; b. West Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw ; c. one district in East Galicia (Tarnopol) to Russia ; d. the lands beyond the Save, the circle of Villach, Istria, Hungarian Dalmatia, and Ragusa to the emperor Napoleon, who created from these cessions and the Ionian Islands, which Russia had surrendered to Viim in 1807, the new state of the Illyrian provinces un- der Marmont, duke of Ragusa, as governor. 2. Austria joined the continental system, and broke off all connection with England. The Tyrolese, left to themselves, continued the war with heroic cour- age, but were in the end subdued. Hofer captured and shot by the French at Mantua (1810). Southern Tyrol annexed to the king- dom of Italy. Bold attempt of Scbill, a Prussian major, to precipitate the war of liberation. With 600 hussars he left Berlin in the spring of 1809, and summoned the people of Germany to take up arms. The news of Napoleon's victories on the Danube frustrated the scheme. Schill fell fighting bravely at Stralsund (May 31). Eleven of his officers were court-martialed and shot in Wesel, the captured soldiers were condemned to hard labor by order of Napoleon, carried to France, and after a half year's imprisonment in the bagno, or prison for galley- slaves, enrolled among the French coast guards. 1809. Bold expedition of the duke of Brunswick across northern Ger- . many. He succeeded in transporting himself and the " Black Legion " to England. Grustavus IV., of Sweden, a bitter opponent of the Revolution and of Napoleon, but ignorant of the true interests of his country, had been since 1808 involved in war with Russia, which had conquered Finland. He fell at last by a military revolution, the victim of his obstinacy. The capital, Stockholm, being threatened by the passage of the Russians under Barclay de Tolly over the frozen gulf of Both- nia, by the capture of Tornea and that of the islands of Aland, a mu- tiny broke out in the Swedish army. The king was arrested on March 13, 1809, by generals Klingspor and Adlerkreuz, obliged to abdicate, and dismissed from the kingdom with his family. The erown was given to the uncle of the king, Charles XIII. (1809-1818), passing over his A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 473 son. In the peace of Friedrichsham with Russia, Sept. 17, 1809, Sweden sjirrendered to Russia the principality of Finland as far as the river Tomea, together with the islands of Aland. By the media- tion of Russia Sweden concluded the peace of Paris with France, Jan. 6, 1810, whereby Sweden joined the continental system and obtained the restoration of Swedish Pomerania. After the sudden death of prince Christian August of Holstein^Augustenburg, whom Charles XIII. had adopted and appointed heir to the throne, the French marshal JSemadotte (prince of Pontecorvo) was elected crown prince of Sweden. Rome had been occupied by the French in 1808. Pope Pius Vn. steadfastly refusing to enter into an ofBensive and defensive alliance with France, and to close his seaports against England, Napoleon, after the infliction of unheard-of violence for a year, proclaimed from Schonbrunn, May, 1809, that the papal states and the city of Rome were incorporated with France. Pius VII. excommunicated Napoleon in June, whereupon he was arrested and taken over Mt. Cenis to Grenoble and thence to Savona. As he still refused to yield to Napoleon's de- mands, Pius VII. was placed on prisoner's allowance, and lived for three years almost entirely upon alms (1812 taken to Fontainebleau.') In Turkey, after the deposition of Selim III., war broke out again with Russia (1809-1812). After the bloody battle at Rustchuck, the Russians retired across the Danube, and the Turkish army which pursued them was captured (1811). 1812, May 28. Peace of Bucharest : the Pruth was made the boundary between Russia and Turkey, 1810, April. Napoleon, divorced from Josephine, married Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis I. of Austria. Abdication and flight (July) of Louis Bonaparte, king, of Holland, who had refused to ruin his country by joining the continental system. Annexation of Holland, as the " alluvial deposit of French rivers," to the French empire. Annexation of the canton of Wallis, and soon after of Oldenburg, a large part of the kingdom of Westphalia, the grand duchy of Berg, East Friesland, the Hanseatic cities, so that the French empire, which now comprised 130 departments, extended on the east as far as the Trave. In Spain strenuous exertions against Napoleon ; French, Italian, and Polish troops, along with those of the confederacy of the Rhine, overran the peninsula. Conquest of Andalusia by Victor and Mortier. Unsuccessful siege of Cadiz, whither the Central Junto had fled from Seville. A special session of the Cortes called at Cadiz assumed the sovereignty and drew up a constitution (completed 1812). In Portugal struggle between Wellington and Massena. Siege and capture of Ciudad Rodrigo by the latter (July 10, 1810). Retreat of Wellington to the lines of Torres Vedras (Oct. 9). Winter quarters. 1811, March ; masterly retreat of Massena. Siege of Almeida and Badajoz by the English. Defeat and retreat of Massena from Portugal. Soidt, hastening to the relief of Badajoz, was de- feated in the blooi^ 1811, May 16. Battle of Albuera. The English returned to Portugal. 1812, capture of Ciudad Rodrigo (Jan. 19) and Badajoz (April 6). 474 Modem History. a. o. 1812, July 22. Battle of Salamanca; victory of Wellington. Cap- ture of Madrid. Loss of southern Spain to the French. 1811, March. Birth of a son to Napoleon, who received the pomp- ous title of king of Rome. Napoleon I. at the summit of his power. In the naval warfare and in the colonies France, like Holland, had met nothing but losses. Cayenne, Martinique, Senegal, St. Domingo, were lost in 1809. Gua- deloupe, Isle Bourbon, and Isle de France in 1810 ; Java (with Batama) 1811. 1812-1814. War between England and the United States of North America in consequence of commercial dissensions concluded by the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814 (p. 551 ). 1812. (Sixth) War with Russia. Cause : Napoleon's claim to rule the continent of Europe. The refusal of Russia to carry out strictly the absurd continental system, which Napoleon himself evaded by salable licenses, and which had ruined Russian commerce, roused the anger of the tyrant. The ad- dition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the "peace of Vienna, had caused Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland should be contemplated ; the deposition of the duke of Oldenburg, his near relative, offended him deeply. Alliance of Napoleon with Austria, which furnished 30,000 men for the Russian expedition, and Prussia, from which he obtained 20,000 men. Denmark, favored by its position, succeeded in main- taining neutrality during the war witii Russia. Sweden (Bema- dotte), which had been forced by the violent reproaches of Napoleon concerning disregard of the continental system to declare war upon England (1810), seized the opportunity of ihe Russian war, to shake oflE her dependence upon France, and open for herself the prospect of obtaining Norway, as a recompense for Finland. Occupation of Swedish Pomerania and Riigen by the French, Jan. 1812. Treaty of St. Petersburg between S'weden and Russia, April : Russia promised Sweden the annexation of Norway, with indemnification for Denmark ; Svireden promised Russia to make a diversion in northern Germany in union with a Russian auxiliary force. England concluded peace with Russia and Sweden at Orebro (June). The French army of invasion included Frenchmen, Italians, Swiss, Dutch, Poles, and contingents from all the German princes of the con- federacy of the Rhine , in fact, the smaller part only of the army was "French. The total number, according to Thiers, was 420,000 men, but reinforcements afterwards swelled it to 5S3,000. The Aus- trians, under Schwarzenberg, on the right wing, and Prussians, under York, on the left wing, formed separate armies, the latter being under the command, of Macdonald. 1812, June. Passage of the Niemen by the great army ; occupation of Wilna. Poland was not restored. The Russians under Barclay de Tolly retreated. The main army reached Smolensk without a battle, though suffering from skirmishes and lack of provisions, while the Prussians besieged iJi^ia, and the Austrians penetrated Volhy- A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 475 nia. Storm and destruction of Smolensk (Aug. 17, 18). The Russian general Kutusoff, obtaining the command in chief, fought the bloody 1812, Sept. 7. Battle at Borodino and Moshaisk on the Moskowa, in which both parties suffered enormous losses (French, 32,000 ; Russian, 47,000), but the Russians were forced to withdraw. Retreat in admirable order through Sept. 14. Moscow. Occupation of the city, which the inhabitants had abandoned, by the French, whose main army had already shrunk to 95,000 men.i Napoleon in the Kremlin. Sept. 15-19. Burning of Moscow {Rostopsohin). Sack of the city iu the midst of ashes and ruins. Napoleon proffered a truce, which the Russians rejected by an answer . whose delivery was purposely delayed. After remaining five weeks in Moscow, Napoleon commenced his Oct. 19. Retreat from Moscow, at first in a southwesterly direction, afterwards towards SmO' lensk. The march was disturbed by the Russian main army under Kutusoff, and by countless swarms of Cossacks. Des- perate contest of separate corps of the army at Jaroslavez, Oct. 24, and Yjazma, Nov. 3. Nov. 6. Commencement of the cold weather. Terrible suffer- ing from hunger and frost. Continuous engagements, espe- cially at Kramoy {Ney, " the bravest of the brave "), and Borissoff. Nov. 26-28. Terrible passage of the Berezina. Ney and Oudinol, with 8,600 men, forced a passage against 25,000. From this point, the disorganization of the remain- ing fragments of the army was complete, and the retreat be- came a wild flight. Dec. 3, Bulletin (No. 29), of Malodeczno. Napoleon left the army and hastened to Paris where he arrived Dec. 18. The army continued its retreat pursued by the Rus- sians until Dec. 13, when the remaining troops (100,000), crossed the Niemen. The Russians made 100,000 prisoners according to their reports. In any case this expedition cost the lives of at least 300,000 able-bodied young men on the side of the French and their allies. Dee. 30. York concluded a treaty of neutrality with the Russian general Diebitch, in the mill of Poscherun near Tauroggen. 1813 and 1814. The Great War of Liberation of the allies against Napoleon. 1813, Feb. 3. Appeal of Frederic William III. issued from Breslau, directing the formation of volunteer corps, whereupon all the young men capable of service flew to arms. Feb. 28. Alliance of Kalish between Russia and Prussia : 1. Offensive and defensive alliance, enumeration of the ausil- 1 Cf V ToU, Denkwurdicjkdiisn. 476 Modern History. A. D. iary apmies to be furnished, by either side. 2. Restoration of the Prussian monarchy according to old political relations. 3. Invitation extended to Austria and England to join the alli- ance. 1813, March 3. Treaty between England and Sweden : England paid one million rix dollars in subsidies and promised not to op- pose the union of Nortoay with Svireden. Sweden furnished the allies an army of 30,000 men under command of the crown prince Bernadotte (the inactive and suspicious conduct of this general afterwards entirely disabled the northern army). March 17. Appeal of Frederic William m. " To my people," and " to my army." Establishment of the lian&vrebx and the Landsturm. Iron Cross. March. Outbreak in Hamburg. Tettenbom occupied the city. The dukes of Mecklenburg withdrew from the confederacy of the Rhine. Great preparations on both sides. The Elbe was the boundary be- tween the combatants ; Danzig, Stettin, Kilstrin, Glogau, Modlin, and Zamosc, being, however, in the hands of the French. March 27. Occupation of Dresden by Russians and Prussians under Wittgenstein and Bliicher, after the withdrawal of marshal Da- vonit. Flight of the king of Saxony. The French army and the contingents of the confederacy of the Rhine concentrated in Franconia, Thuringia, and on the Elbe. Napoleon, after the end of April, was at the heau of 180,000 men in Germany. He was unexpectedly attacked by the armies of the aUies, numbering 85,000 men, and forced to fight the May 2. Battle of Gross-Gorschen or Liitzen. Victory remained with the French, in spite of their losses. The allies withdrew through Dresden to Lusatia. Schamhorst, severely wounded, died in Prague. Napoleon in Dresden, in close alliance with the king of Saxony, who had returned from Prague. 1813, May 18. Landing of the crown prince Bernadotte with Swedish troops, in Pommerania. May 20 and 21. Battles of Bautzen and Wurschen. Napoleon attacked the allies at Bautzen, forced them to retreat across the Spree, and completed the victory at Wurschen, with great loss to himself. Duroc f . The allies retreated to Si- lesia. May 30. Hamburg occupied by Davout, after the withdrawal of the Russians, and terribly maltreated. The combatants, exhausted, waited for reinforcements and strove to secure the alliance of Austria. June 4-July 26. Armistice of Poischwitz, afterwards prolonged until Aug. 10 (16). June 15. England concludeil a subsidy treaty with Prussia and Russia at Reichenbach. July 5 (28)-Aug. 11. Congress at Prague. Austria played the part of mediator. After futile negotiations {Metternich, Cavf A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 477 laincourt, William von Humboldt), the congress was dissolved and 1813, Aug. 12. Austria declared war upon France. The allies, supported by English subsidies, placed three main armies in the field : 1. The great Bohemian army under Schwarzenberg {Kleist, Wittgenstein), with which were the three mon- archs, Alexander, Francis, Frederic William. 2. The Silesian army under Bliicher {York, Sacken, Langeron). 3. The Northern army under the crown prince of Swe- den, Bernadotte (Bulow, Taitensien, Winzingerode). Napoleon opened hostilities with an attack upon Bliicher who re- tired behind the Katzbach. Meanwliile Schwarzenberg advanced against Dresden from Bohemia. Napoleon hastened thither, leaving Macdonald to oppose Bliicher. Before an action occurred at either of these points, Oudinot and Reynier, whose attack upon Berlin was to be supported by Davout from Hamburg, were defeated by Biilow in the Aug. 23. Battle of Grosbeeren, while the crown prince of Saxony looked on inactive. This victory saved Berlin from capture and sack. Directly afterwards Macdonald's army was defeated in the Aug. 26. Battle of the Katzbach near 'Wablstatt by Bliicher, a part being captured. Bliicher created Prince of Wahlstatt. Meanwhile the attack of the Bohemian army upon Dresden failed. Napoleon won his last great victory on German soil in the Aug. 26 and 27, Battle of Dresden. Moreau, on the side of the allies, was severely wounded by a cannon-ball, f Sept. 2. Aug. 27. Victorious engagement at Hagelherg. (Landwehr of the electoral mark.) Vandamme, in the attempt to intercept the retreat of the BoheuEiian army, was defeated in the Aug. 30. Battle at Eulm and ITollendorf near Teplitz, by Ostermann and Kleist, and captured with 10,000 men. Ney, who was to occupy Berlin, was defeated in the Sept. 6. Battle of Dennewitz by Billow and Tauenzein. Austria having already arranged the preliminaries of an alliance with Russia and Prussia, dur- ing the armistice, a fonnal Sept. 9. Alliance was concluded at Teplitz : 1. Firm union and mutual guarantee for their respective terri- tories. 2. Each party to assist the others with at least 60,000 men. 3. No separate peace or armistice to be concluded. Secret 478 Modem History. A. d. articles provided for the restoration of the Austrian and Prus- sian monarchies to the condition of 1805. 1813, Sept. 17. Napoleon repulsed by Schwarzenberg at Nollmdorf. York forced a passage across the Elbe for the army of Silesia by the Oct. 3. Battle of Wartenburg, against Bertrand. The northern army also crossed the Elbe. Oct. 8. Treaty of Ried between Austria and Bavaria, which with- drew from the confederacy of the Rhine and joined the alli- ance against Napoleon. In return the king of Bavaria was secured in all the possessions which he held at the date of the treaty. As the three main armies of the allies were attempting to unite in Napoleon's rear, the latter left Dresden in order to escape being cut ofE from France, and concentrated his troops at Leipzig. 1813, Oct. 16, 18, 19. Battle of Leipzig. ("Battle of the Nations"). Oct. 16. On the first day : 1. Indecisive battle between Napoleon and the army of Bo- hemia under Sch'warzenberg at Wachau (south of Leipzig). 2. Victory of Blticher at M ockern, north of Leipzig, over Marmont. Oct. 17. On the next day the main armies desisted from fighting. Napoleon sent offers of peace to Francis I. which were rejected on account of the extravagance of his demands. Toward even- ing union of the four armies of the allies : the grand army, the northern army, with which the array of Silesia had already united by an extraordinary march of BlUcher, and finally the Bussian reserve (100,000) under Bennigsen. The armies of the allies, forming a large half circle, largely outnumbered the French. (SOOjOOO men against 130,000). ' Oct. 18. On the third day general attack of the allies, ending, after nine hours' fighting, in a complete victory. (Struggle for Probstheide). In the evening the French array was driven back to the gates of Leipzig. The corps of Saxony and Wiir- temberg went over to the allies. Oct. 19. Storm of Leipzig and capture of the king of Saxony. After suffering a loss of more than 30,000 men, the defeated army of Napoleon comraenced the retreat. The destruction of the bridge over the Elster before the whole array had crossed caused the drown' ing of many troops in the Elster, among them prince Poniatowsld nephew of the last king of Poland. On the retreat engagement on the Unstrut between Napoleon and York's advanced guard, and at Hanau (Oct. 30, 31) with an Aus- tro-Bavarian army under Wrede. The French were victorious. Immediate consequences of the battle of Leipzig : flight of king Jerome from Cassel ; end of the kingdom of Westphalia, and of the grand duchies of Frankfort and Berg. Restoration of the old rulers Cassel, Brunswick, Hanover, Oldenburg^ The central administrar A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 479 tive bureau for Germany under baron von Stein, which had been created at the beginning of the war for the government of those dis- tricts which should be occupied by the troops of the allies, found its sphere of action limited almost entirely to Saxony. 1813, Nov. Napoleon crossed the Rhine at Maiivz. Wiirtemberg, ^ Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, and the remaining members of the confederacy of the liliine joined the allies. The cities occupied by the French feU into the hands of the allies one after another. Dres- den (Nov. 11), Stettin (Nov. 21), Lubeck (Dec. 6), Zamosc, Modlin, Torgau (Dec. 26), Danzig (Deo. 30), Wittenberg (Jan. 12, 1814, by Tauenzien), Kustrin (March 7). Glogau, Magdeburg, Hamburg (Da- vout), Erfurt, WUrzburg, Wesel, Mainz, maintained themselves until the peace. Uprising in Holland (Nov. 15), expulsion of the French ofgcials. A part of the northern army mider Biilow entered Holland, while the crown prince of Sweden, with the main body of the northern army separated completely from the allies, invaded Holstein, in a short winter campaign forced Denmark to conclude the 1814, Jan. 14. Peace of Kiel : 1. Denmark renounced the posses- sion of Norway in favor of Sweden, which guaranteed to the Norwegians the possession of their liberties and rights. 2. Sweden ceded to Denmark western Pomerania and Rilgen. At the same time peace between Denmark and England, the latter restoring all conquests except Heligoland ; afterwards peace with Russia and Prus- sia. Meantime the French, after they had already (in 1812) lost the southern part of the country, and Madrid itself for a time, were driven almost entirely out of Spain in 1813. After the French power had been weakened by the departure of Smdt with a large number of troops for Germany (Feb. 1813), 'Well- ington repulsed Soult's successor, Jourdan, and king Joseph, and defeated them in the 1813, June 21. Battle of Vittoria. Joseph fled to France. Siege of Pampeluna by the Spaniards. Soult returning with reinforcements to the relief of Pampeluna was defeated in the Pyrenees (July 28, 29), and withdrew behind the Bidassoa. At the same time marshal Suchet was driven out of Val- encia into Barcelona. After the conquest of Pampeluna (Oct. 31) by the Spaniards, Wellington crossed the Bidassoa, defeated Soult on French soil, and compelled him to retreat to Bayonne. Napoleon en- deavored to secure peace with Spain by a treaty with the imprisoned king, Ferdinand (whom he liberated from his confinement at Valen- cay), and thus to protect France against invasion from the side of the Pyrenees, but the attempt was a failure. The Cortes did not ratify the treaty, on the ground that the king had not been a free agent, and that they were unwilling to conclude a peace which did not in- clude the English. 1813. The aUies on Nov. 8 laid before Napoleon a proposal which secured to France the Alps and Rhine for boundaries, but as Dec. 1. Napoleon did not earnestly entertain it, they adopted the resolution to prosecute the war vigorously and to pass the 480 Modern History. A. d, Rhine. Napoleon obtained from the senate a new levy of 300,000 men ; the corps legislatif, in which words of blame were at last heard, was prorogued sine die. Passage of the allies across the Rhine. 1813, Dec. 21-25. The main army under Schwarzenherg, Wrede, etc., crossed the upper Khine and traversed Switzerland (Basle), whose treaty of neutrality "with Napoleon was disregarded. 1814, Jan. 1. Blucher with the army of Silesia crossed the middle Rhine, at Mannheim, Caub, and Coblentz. The total strength of the allies on their entrance into French terri- tory was not quite 200,000 men. The main army advanced through Burgundy; Bliicher through Lorraine toward Champagne. To pre- vent their juncture, Napoleon attacked Bliicher at Brieime, and drove Jan. 29. him back ; Bliicher, however, united with a part of the main army (crown prince of Wiirtemherg) and defeated the em- peror in the Feb. 1. Battle of La Rothifere, and drove him across the Avhe. The impossibility of pro- visioning the united armies, led to their separation. The grand army was to advance upon Paris by way of the Seine, while the army of Silesia followed the Mame toward the same goal. No sooner did Napoleon hear of this separation than, with aston- ishing boldness, leaving a very small body of troops behind to engage the army under Schwarzenherg, he hurled himself suddenly upon the separate divisions of the army of Silesia, defeated them iafour battles Feb. 10-15. at Champaubert (Sacken), Montmirail {York driven across the Marne), Chateau - Thierry, and Vauchamps, and forced Bliicher back to Etoges. Then, turning like a flash upon the main army, he defeated it in the Feb. 17. Engagement at Nangis CWittgenstein and Wrede), and in the Feb. 18. Engagement at Montereau (crown prince of Wiirtem- berg). Napoleon thus obliged the main army to retreat to Troyes, after which the two armies were for a short time again united on the Aube. Meanwhile ambassadors of the allies had met the envoy of Na^ poleon, Caulaincourt, in a Feb. 5-March 19. Congress at Ch&tillon (on the Seine), where Napoleon was offered the possession of France with the bound- aries of 1792, but the negotiations came to naught by reason of his haughty and dubious conduct. Mareh 1. Closer union between the allied powers at Chaumont. The deposition of Napoleon resolved upon. The two armies separated again. The main army under Schwarzenherg defeated Oudinol and Macdonald in the Feb. 27. Battle of Bar-snr-Aube. Bliicher reached Meaux, was forced to retire across the Marne and Oise, and joined the array of the north under BiUow and Winzingerode. The united armies defeated Napoleon in the A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 481 1814, March 9, 10. Battle of Laon. Napoleon now turned against the main army, which defeated him in the March 20, 21. Battle of Arois-sur-Aube. Meanwhile, Wellington had been driving back Soult with equal success. Occupation of Bordeaux (March 12), where the royal ban- ner of the Bourbons was first raised. Napoleon formed the desperate plan of throwing himself in the rear of the allies in Lorraine, summoning the garrisons of the for- tresses to his aid, and calling the entire population to arms. The allies, however, with equal boldness, advanced upon Paris, and de- feated the marshals Marmont and Mortier in the March 25. Battle of La Ffere-Champenoise. Marmont and Mortier threw themselves into the capital. The regent, Maria Louisa, fled to Blois. After a brave defense and after the March 30. Storm of Moutmartre they capitulated under condition of free departure, and left Paris to its fate. March 31. Entrance of the allies into Paris, where the senate, through the influence of Talleyrand, de- clared that Napoleon and his famUy had forfeited the throne. Napoleon, hastening to the relief of his capital, came a few hours too late. His marshals having refused to follow him in a foolhardy assault upon Paris, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son (April 6) at Fontainebleau, and, when this reservation was rejected, unconditionally (AprU 11). Napoleon made a futile attempt to poi- son himself.^ He received from the allies the island of Elba as a sovereign prin- cipality, and an annual income of two million francs to be paid by France. His wife received the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guas- tella with sovereign power ; both retained the imperial title. 1814. Wellington defeated Soult in the April 10. Battle of Toulouse. May 4. Arrival of Napoleon at Elba. Return of the Bourbons. Louis XVI.'s brother, the count of Provence, first appointed his younger brother, the count of Artois as viceregent (lieutenant du royaume), and then returned to France, as 1814^1824. Louis XVIII. where he promulgated a constitution which was an imitation of the English constitution, but with many limitations. (Charte octro- yee : chamber of peers and chamber of deputies without the initiative.) He concluded with the allies the May 30. (First) Peace of Paris. 1. France retained, in the main, the boundaries of 1792, which embraced 3,280 square miles more than those of 1790 : Avignon, the 1 According to Thiers, Histoire du Conmlat et de I'Empire, vol. xviii., the truth of this attempted suicide is very doubtful. Cf. V, Helfert, Nap. /. Fahrt von Fontainebleau nach Elba, 1874. 31 '482 Modern History. A. i). Venaissin, parts of Savoy, of the German empire, and of Belgium. 2. France recognized the independence of the States of the Netherlands, according to their future enlargement, as well as of all German and Italian states and of Switzerland. 3. England restored the French colonies excepting Tobago, Sta. Lucia, and Isle de France. England retained Malta. 4. The allies remitted all sums which they might have claimed for supplies, advances, etc. 5. France promised Eng- land to abolish the slave trade. After the peace of Paris Pius VII. returned to Rome, the king of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel, to Turin, the king of Spain, Ferdinand VII., to Madrid. In Spain the rejection of the ultra-liberal constitu- tion proposed by the cortes of 1812, was followed by the immediate out- break of a cruel contest of arbitrary power against the liberal party. Visit of Alexander ajai Frederic William III. in London (June 7-22, 1814), accompanied by their victorious generals (BlUcher') ; enthusiastic reception by the English nation. For the purpose of restoring and regulating the European relations, and particularly those of Germany, after the overthrow of the military supremacy of the French empire, the 1814, Sept.-1815. June. Congress of Vienna was assembled. The emperors of Austria and Russia, the kings of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and Wurtemherg, and a great number of German princes were present in person. phief negotiators : Austria, Metiemich ; Prussia, Hardenberg and W. V. Humboldt; Russia, Nesselrode and nasoumDffsky ; Great Brit- ain, Wellington and Castlereagh ; France, Talleyrand and Dalberg. (Baron vom Stein, prince of Ligne.^ The five powers, which had concluded the peace of Paris, and which, to avoid quarrels about rank, were henceforward named in the order of the French alphabet, Autriche, France, Grande- Bretagne, Prusse, Russie, formed a closer union at the congress of Vienna (hence after- wards called the Pentarchy of the Great Powers). For special cases this union was joined by Spain, Portugal, Sweden. These eight powers, after long negotiations and after the disputes over the Saxon and the Polish questions had for a moment threatened to lead to war (Russia and Prussia against Austria, France, and England), and after Napoleon's return from Elba (p. 483), signed the Act of the Congress of Vienna. Principal articles : ' 1, Restoration of the Austrian and Prussian monarchies : a. Austria received besides her ancient domain of Milan, Venice, which had been conferred upon her by the treaty of Campo Formio (these were now called the Lombardo-Venetian king- dom'), the Illyrian provinces (the kingdoms of Illyria and Dal- matia), Salzburg, Tyrol (from Bavaria), and Galicia. b. Prus- sia received a part of the grand duchy of Warsaw (Posen) with Danzig; Swedish hither Pomeraniq with Riigen in re- turn for Lauenburg, which was ceded to Denmark ; its old possessions in Westphalia, somewhat enlarged, as well as Neu- A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 483 ch&tel and the grand duchy of the lower Rhine, and the greater part of Saxony as an indemnification for the loss of some former possessions, as Ansbach and Baireuth ceded to Bavaria, East Friesland to Hanover, the Polish possessions to Russia. 2. Formation of a kingdom of the Netherlands, comprising the former republic of Holland and Austrian Belgium, under the former hereditary statthalter as King William I. 3. Creation of a German confederacy to take the place of the old empire, comprising 39 (at its dissolution in 1866 only 34) sover- eign states, including the four free cities ; all other princes who were formerly sovereign were mediatized. Act of confederation signed Jime 8, 1815, supplemented by the final act of Vienna, May 15, 1820. 4. Russia received the greater part of the grand duchy of Warsaw as the kingdom of Poland. Cracow became a free state un- der the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 5. England retained Malta, Heligoland, a portion of the French and Dutch colonies, and the protectorate over the Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands (the latter by treaty of 1815, Nov. 5, which was made an integral part of the peace of Vienna. See p. 482. These islands were ghren to Greece by the treaties of Nov. 14, 1863-Nov. 29, 1864. See p. 506). 6. Sweden retained Nonoay, which had been ceded to her at the peace of Kiel (p. 479), with a constitution of its own ; Den- mark was indemnijied with Lauenburg. 1. The nineteen cantons of Svtritzerland were increased to twenty- two by the accession of Geneva, Wallis, and Neuchatel (at once canton and a principality). 8. Restoration of the old dynasties in Spain, in Sardinia, which re- ceived Genoa, in Tuscany, Modena, the Papal States. The Bourbons were not reinstated in Naples until 1815, as Murat had secured possession of that state for the present by his de- sertion of Napoleon. News of the discontent in France with the government of the Bour- bons, and of the discord in the bosom of the congress of Vienna, as well as the invitations of his adherents, encouraged the deposed em- peror to return to France. 1815. Landing of Napoleon at Cannes March 1. with 1,500 men. Forced march upon Paris. All troops sent against him, even Ney with his corps, went over to him. March 13. Proclamation of the ban against Napoleon by the monarchs of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, France, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. King Louis X VIII. fled to Ghent March 20. Napoleon entered Paris. The Hundred Days, March 20 to June 29, 1815. Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, concluded a new March 25. Alliance at Vienna against Napoleon, whereby each power engaged to furnish an army of 180,000 men. All Eu- 484 Modem History. A. Dl lopean nations were invited to join the alliance. One after another all the states joined it except Sweden, which was occupied in crushing with military power the resistance of Norway to the personal union. The sum of the contingents furnished against Napoleon amounted to over a million men. May. Napoleon found himself obliged to make some apparent con- cessions to the liberal 'party in France. Champ de Mai : Acte additionel. In Belgium concentration of a Prussian army under Bliicher and an English^German under Wellington, against Napo- leon. Murat, who had declared for Napoleon, defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino (May 3). Naples captured May 22. Murat fled to France. BeinstaUation of Ferdinand as king of Naples. June 14. Napoleon crossed the boundary of Belgium. Engagement at Charleroi ; the advance guard of the Prussians under Ziethen forced back. June 15, Napoleon defeated Bliicher in the June 16. Battle of Ligny, after a brave resistance (Bliicher in personal danger), and drove him back. Bliicher marched upon Wavre. Ney defeated by the prince of Orange in the June 16. Battle of Quatre-Bras. The duke of Brunswick fell. Meantime concentration of the army of Wellington, consisting of British, Hanoverians, Dutch, and troops from Brunstvick and Nassau. Upon this force Napoleon hurled himself with superior numbers. 1815> June 18. Battle of Waterloo and Belle Alliance, called by Napoleon the battle of Mont St. Jeari. Napoleon thought he had insured the prevention of the juncture of the Prussians under Bliicher with the English under Wellington, by directing Grouchy to engage the former. By afternoon Wellington's army, though still unyielding, had suffered so heavily that the day was only saved by the arrival of the Prussians under Bliicher. Complete defeat of the French, whose army, pursued by Gneisenau, was entirely scattered. Meanwhile Grouchy, on whose help Napoleon had relied, was engaged at Wavre against Thieleman, whose corps he by some unexplained error took for the whole Prussian army.^ June 22. Abdication of Napoleon in favor of his son. July 1. Arrival of the allies before Paris. July 7. Second capture of Paris. Entrance of Bliicher and Wellington. Return of Louis XVIII. Arrival of the two emperors, and of the king of Prussia. Meantime Napoleon fled to Rochefort, where, after futile attempts to escape to America, he surrendered himself to the British admiral Hotham on the ship-of-the-line Bellerophon, who conveyed him to Eng- land. Thence, by a unanimous resolve of the allies, he was transported as prisoner of war to St. Helena, where he arrived in October (f May 6, 1821). 1 Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de I' Empire, xx. ; Hopes, Who Lost Wa- terloo t — Atlantic Monthly, June, 1881. A. D. Napoleonic Wars. — Modem Inventions. 485 Sept. 26. Foundation of the Holy Alliance upon the suggestion of Alexander, comprising at first Russia, Austria, Prussia, theo- retically an intimate union ou a basis of morality and religion, but practically soon degenerating into an alliance for the protection of absolute monarchy. Ney made his escape, but was captured, condemned, and executed on Deo. 7, 1815. Murat made a reckless attempt to recover his throne by landing in Calabria ; he was captured, court-martialed, and shot Oct. 13, 1815. Nov. 20. Second Peace of Paris. 1. France surrendered the four fortresses PhilippevUle, Ma- rienburg (also Bouillon to the kingdom of the Netherlands), Saarlouis (and Saarh^cken to Prussia), Landau, which became a fortress of the German confederation, with the surrounding region as far as the Lau- ter (to Bavaria). France ceded to Sardinia that part of Savoy which she had retained in the first peace of Paris. She was therefore brought back, generally speaking, to the boundaries of 1790, instead of to those of 1792, which she had retained in the first peace. 2. Demolition of Huningens, a fortress below Basle. 3. Seventeen fortresses on the north and east borders of France were to be garrisoned for five years at the utmost, by troops of the allies at the expense of France. 4. France paid 700 million francs for the expenses of war. Besides this the art treasures which the French had carried away from various cities, partly by treaties, and which had been left in Paris under the first peace, were now reclaimed. The desire of German patriots that at least a portion of the ancient appanages of the old empire, Lorraine, Alsace, and Strasburg, should be taken from France, which would thus be deprived of a point of at- tack against Germany, was not gratified. (Seep. 526.) FOUETH PERIOD. FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT DAY- 1815-x. §1. INTENTIONS. The universal adoption and application of four in- ventions which had been made at an earlier period, and in comparison with whose influence upon the transformation of the world that of aU political events, wars, treaties, revolutions, almost disappears, lends the modem world its peculiar character. [A century of material, intellectual, social development of the people follows a century of diplomatic intrigue and misgovern- ment. (Compare with these inventions those of the fifteenth century, p. 279.) ] 1. The first attempts to utilize steam for the production of motion were made \n the seventeenth century. Nothing, however, is eer- 486 Modem History. A. D. tainly known about either the exact date or place of the invention, or the person of the true discoverer. The French ascribe the invention to Denis Papin, of Blois (1647-1714), the English to the Marquis of Worcester (1663) and Captain Savery (1698). At all events the flrst steam engine which deserves the name seems to have been set up in England, and to have been used in mining. This was done by Ne-wcomen, in Devonshire (1705). The man who did the most to improve the Steam engine, and whose inventions first made it possi- ble to use these machines in the most various industries, was James Watt (1736-1819), of Greenock, in Scotland. 2. The priority of the idea of applying steam to navigation is disputed between the Frsnch, English, and Americans. The French ascribe the invention to the above-named Papin. In 1774 the count of Auxiron, and in 1775 Perier, ave said to have sailed the first little steamboat upon the Seine. The experiment was repeated by the marquis of Jouffroy in 1775 on the Doubs, and in 1780 on the Saone at Lyons with a vessel of larger dimensions. In England the inven- tion is ascribed to the marquis of Worcester ; it would seem, however, that the flrst steamboat in Great Britain was built in 1786 by Sym- ington at Edinburgh. To America, however, where experiments with small steamboats had been made upon the Delaware in 1783, 1785, belongs the honor of establishing the first regular steamboat service. This was instituted in 1807 by Pulton, who had already made an experiment with a steamship on the Seine in the presence of the first consul, Jf apoleon, and had in vain offered to apply steam to the French ships of war (1803). 3. Railroads were without doubt an English invention. In the second half of the seventeenth century wooden railroads were used in the mines at Newcastle on the Tyne, in imitation, it is claimed, of a, similar arrangement in the Harz mines. In 1716 the rails were covered with sheet iron, and in 1767 the wood was replaced by east iron. For a long time the roads were used only for securing an easier draught for horses. The first application of steam to rail- roads was made in 1806 by the engineer Treoithick. Gradual im- provement in the mechanical construction of the engines. George Stephenson in 1814 invented the locomotive and in 1829 an im- proved locomotive, which in 1830 ran upon the flrst great railroad for passenger traffic between Liverpool and MEinchester. The flrst road of this kind was constructed in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington. First railroad in Germany, Fiirth to Nuremberg (1835), at flrst a horse railroad ; the first larger line worked by locomotives was constructed between Leipsic and Dresden (1837). First railroad in the United States, 1827, at Quincy, Mass. ; cars drawn by horses. First roads to use locomotives : South Carolina, Baltimore If Ohio. 1830-31. After England and North America were covered with an iron network, Germany, and much later France, began the construc- tion of railroads upon a large scale. [Financial disturbances caused (especially in England) by the withdrawal of capital from other in- dustries to be sunk in construction of railroads, and by stock specula- tion.] 4. The flrst electric telegraph was invented in 1809 by Scrnmering, A. D. Continental Europe. 487 a German, in Munick. The invention was offered to Napoleon I., who dismissed it as a " German notion." After the Dane, Orsted, had discovered electro-magnetism in 1819, the Frenchmen Ampere and Ritschie conceived the idea of applying the new discovery to the tele- graph. The first electro-magnetic telegraph which was actually con- structed and used was set up in Gottingen by Gauss and Weber in 1833. Somewhat later an electro-magnetic telegraph was invented in Russia by a German, Schilling. Schilling's invention was carried to England by Cooke, an Englishman. There it was improved by Wheatstone, and this perfected telegraph was first practically worked in London, between Euston Square and Camden Town. After the invention had undergone many improvements, especially in Ger- many and America (Morse, 1844), Great Britain, the continent of Europe, and North America were covered with telegraph wires. The first submarine telegraph was laid in 1851 between England and France {Dover to Cape Gris-nez). Submarine cables were then laid from England to Ireland and Belgium (1851, 1853), and in many other locations. The gigantic undertaking of connecting Europe and America by a cable failed in 1857. A second attempt in 1858 was crowned with success, but only for a time. In 1866 the undertaking was again renewed and brought to a successful close. ( Valencia in Ireland to Newfoundland, 1,650 English nules.) Since that time, many others have been laid. In 1902 a Pacific cable was laid. § 2. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.! 1817-18S2. 1817. Jubilee festival for the 300th anniversary of the Reformation. Festival of the "Wartburg. Burning of a number of absolut- ist writings {Anciilon, Schmalz, Haller, etc.). 1818. Congress of Ai2-la-Chapelle. The great powers resolved, at the request of the French minister, the duke of Richelieu, to withdraw the army of occupation from France. 1819. " Demagogic machinations." Murder of the German writer and Russian counselor, Kotzebue (Mar. 23), by the fanatic Sand in Mannheim. Secret organization among German stu- dents (^urscAenscAo/J). Reaction in Prussia. W. v. Humboldt, Beyme, Boyen, withdrew from the service of the state. Aug. Congress of ministers at Carlsbad controlled by Metternioh. Censorship of the press. Supervision of the universities re- solved upon. The congress continued its sittings at Vienna, where the 1820. May. Final Act of Vienna was signed. In Spain rising of the liberals on behalf of the suspended constitution of 1812, which was restored. Oct. Congress at Troppau, ) 1821. Congress at Laybach, J assembled to consult about the revolutionary movements in Naples and Piedmont. 1821. Victorious campaign of the Austriaris against the Liberals in I For France see p. 526. 488 Modern Hiator'y. A., d. Naples (Pepe, Caracosa) and Sardinia (Santa Rosa, battle of Novara~). In both countries absolutism in its severest form was restored. 1822. Congress of Verona on account of the Spanish and Grecian disturbances. 1823. French intervention in /Spain under the lead of the duke of Angouleme. The French entered Madrid, forced Cadiz to capitulate, and liberated king Ferdinand Vll., who had been detained a prisoner there. Cruel reaction, numerous execu- tions (Riego). 1810-1825. Conversion of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central America and South America into independent Colombia, a republic since 1819 (Bolivar dictator), was divided, in 1830, into three republics : New Granada (now Colombia in the narrower sense), Venezuela, Ecuador. Peru a free state in 1821; La Plata, too, Uruguay, Chili, and southern Peru, under the name of Bolivia, became independent. In the Jesuit state, Paraguay, Dr. (Joseph Gaspard Roderic de) Francia (and afterwards Lopez) long governed with dictatorial power. Mexico freed from Spanish rule 1821 by Iturbide, who became emperor in 1822, but was obliged to abdicate and leave the country. Mexico a republic 1823 ; Iturbide returned, but was executed 1824. Brazil an independent empire since 1822. 1820-1834. Revolutions and civil wars in Portugal. Don Miguel, the younger son of king John VI. (f 1826), after a long civil war and unheard-of barbarities, was conquered by his elder brother, Don Pedro (since 1822 emperor of Brazil). Don Pedro (t 1834) delegated the government of Portugal in 1826 to his daughter, Donna Maria ; in 1831 he delegated the crown of Brazil to his son, Pedro II. 1821-1829. War of Grecian Independence. Secret societies (hetaries). Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, at the head of a Grecian revolt in Moldavia and Wallachia (March- June, 1821), was defeated and fled to Austria, where he was de- tained a prisoner in Munkatsch for six years. Uprising in Morea (Mainots, April, 1821). Turkish attacks upon the Christians in Con- stantinople, Adrianople, etc. ; terrible barbarities in Chios, which had revolted ; over 20,000 Greeks murdered. Canaris burned a part of the Turkish fleet and put 3,000 Turks to death (1822). Lord Byron (f Apr. 24, 1824), Eynard from Geneva. William Miiller the Ger- man poet. German Philohellenists. [Philo-hellenists in England and America (Dr. Howe)']. Brave defense of Missolonghi (1825, 1826). 1824-1830- Charles X., king of France (p. 627). 1825-1855- Nicholas I., emperor of Russia, his elder brother Constantino having renounced the crown. 1825-1827. Ibrahim Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, ravaged Morea. England, Russia, and France interfered in behalf of the Greeks, who were hard pressed and at variance among themselves. A. D. Continental Europe. 48S 1826. Massacre of the Janizaries in Constantinople by Sultan Mah- mud II., after a mutiny. The troop was entirely abolished. 1827. Battle of Kavarino. The Turkish fleet was destroyed by Oct. 20. the English, French, and Russian fleets (" untoward event "), and Ibrahim was compelled to retreat from Morea. 1828-1829. Russo-Turkish War. The Russian general, Diebitoh, crossed the Balkans (whence his surname, Sabalkanski), and took Adrianople. In Asia Kars and Erzeroum were captured by Paskevitch, who had captured Erivan in 1827 in a war with Persia, and thereby gained the name of Jirivanski. 1829. Peace of Adrianople. Russia restored almost all her conquests to Turkey, the latter power recognizing, in advance, the resolves of the London Conference which announced in 1830 the independence of Greece. Provisional administration of the count Capo d'Istria as president, who in 1831 was murdered in Napoli di Romania (Nauplia), the seat of government. The guardian powers, England, France, Russia, raised to the Grecian throne the Bavarian prince, 1832-1862. Otto I., f 1867. 1830. Capture of Algiers by the French (p. 527). 1830, July 27-29. July Revolution at Paris. Abdication of Charles X. ; accession of 1830-1848. Louis Philippe I. For the details see p. 629. This revolution was followed by liberal uprisings throughout Europe. 1830-1837. William IV. (heretofore duke of Clarence) king of England. Whig ministry. 1830. Revolution in Belgium. Cause : The kingdom of the Netherlands, created by the congress of Vienna, had been formed by the enforced union of two utterly differ- ent elements, the protestant commercial state of Holland, which was of like nationality with its sovereign, and the catholic manufacturing country of Belgium, which was divided between the Flemish and Walloon nationalities, but was pervaded by French culture. The suc- cess of the July revolution in Paris inflamed the long smouldering dissatisfaction in Brussels. 1830, Aug. 25. Outbreak in Brussels after a performance of the " Masaniello." The mediation of prince William of Orange, the eldest son of Mng William I., failed of success. Prince Frederic, the king's second son, who had occupied a part of Brussels with a division of the army, was expelled from the city during the night of Sept. 26-27. On Nov. 18, Declaration of Independence passed by the Belgian congress. Provisional government. The London Conference between the great powers procured a cessa^ tion of hostilities between Holland and Belgium and recognized the new state (Jan., 1831), which in February adopted a liberal monarch- 490 Modem History. a. d. ical constitution. After Louis Philippe had declined the honor for his second son, the duke of Nemours, upon whom the first choice fell, 1831-1865. Leopold I., of Saxe-Coburg, was elected king of the Belgians. [A man of ability and excellent disposition, he ap- proved himself an admirable constitutional monarch.] The war with Holland lasted until 1833. Peace was established in 1839. Results of the July Revolution : Revolutionary movements in Germany (in Saxony a,ni Hesse-Cassel, alteration of the constitutions). In Brunswick duke Charles (f 1873) was expelled ; duke William taking his place, in accordance with a decree of the diet of the con- federacy. Democratic transformation in many of the Swiss cantons. 1830-1832. Revolution in Poland. 1830, Not. 29. Revolt in Warsaw. The attempted assassination of the grand duke Constantine foiled. Provisional government : Lubecki (pron. Lubetski), Czartoryski (pron. Tshar — ), Chlcypicki (Klopitzki), regarded with suspicion by the democrats (LeleweT). General Chlopicki dictator untU Jan., 1831, then prince Radzivil com- mander-in-chief. The emperor Nicholas deposed by the diet Jan., 1831. Prince Czartoryski president. The Russians advanced under Diebitch. Bloody engagement at Grochow (Feb. 19-25, 1831), where the Poles with 45,000 men ofPered long and victorious resis- tance to the superior force of the Russians (70,000 men with more than twice as many cannon as the Poles possessed), but were at last forced back upon Prague. Skrzynecki commander-in-chief ; defeat of the Russians at Wawar and Bembe Wielski; the insurrection spread through Lithuania and Podolia. Diebitch defeated the Poles in the bloody 1831, May 26. Battle of Ostrolenka. Diebitch f June 10. Want of harmony among the Poles. Massacres by the Polish demo- crats in Warsaw. Czartoryski escaped and was replaced by the in- efficient Krukomecki. The new Russian general Paskevitch crossed the Vistula, captured Warsaw (Sept. 6 and 7, 1831). The Polish insurrection suppressed. The Organic Statute of Feb. 26, 1832, deprived Poland of its constitution and reduced it to a province of the Russian empire, although with a separate administration. 1831. ' Uprisings in Modena, Parma, and Romagna, quickly sup- pressed with the assistance of the Austrians. 1833-1840. After the death of Ferdinand VII., civil war in Spain. Led by Espartero, the constitutional party, which supported the claims of Isabella II., the minor daughter of the king, and her mother Maria Christina, after a bloody contest, defeated the absolutist party (Don Carlos, brother of the king, f 1855 in exile ; leaders of the Carlists : Zumalacarregui, f 1835, Cabrera, Gomez'). Espartero overthrown in 1843. Banishment of the queen dowager, Christina. 1833, The Frankfort uprising, wherein two watches were over- powered for a few hours, caused a vigorous reactionary movement throughout Germany. Frankfort received an Austro- Prussian garrison. Establishment of commissions for political inves- tigations, arrests and condemnations. Meeting of the sovereigns o£ A. D. Continental Europe. 491 Austria, Prussia, and Russia at Munchengrdtz ; ministerial conference in Teplitz (1833) and Vienna (1834), by whose resolutions the rights of the estates in Germany were still further curtailed. 1833. Foundation of the German Customs Union (Zollverein) {McMssen, Prussian minister of flnanee), which had been zeal- ously advocated by Prussia since 1818. In 1830 the union already included a population of 25,000,000 and a territory of 80,600 square miles. After 1854 it embraced 98,000 square miles and 35,000,000 inhabitants. 1835-1848. Ferdinand I., emperor of Austria. The chancellor of state, Metternich, was still the actual head of the government and the soul of the conservative reactionary policy throughout Europe. Censorship of the press. Strict system of pass- ports. Police surveillance. 1837. Upon the death of WUliam IV. of England, Hanover, where the salic law^ regulated the descent of the throne, became separated from England. Partial repeal of the fundamental statute of 1833 by the king of Hanover, Ernst August, under the pretext that the constitution had been adopted without his consent, he being at the time heir to the throne. The true reason was probably that the constitution had made the domains public property and had established a civil list. Dismissal of seven prof esSors at Gbttingen (Jacob and William Grimm, Dahlmann, Gervinus, Ewald, Albrecht and Weber), for refusal to take the oath of homage. 1837-1901. Victoria, queen of Great Britain and Ireland. 1837. Arrest of the archbishop of Cologne (Droste von Vischering), in consequence of a quarrel with the Prussian government about marriages between persons of different religious beliefs. 1840. Death of Frederic William III. of Prussia. His son and suo- June 7. cessor 1840-1861. Frederic WiUiam IV. (see p. 615). Mehemed Ali, viceroy of Egypt, in a previous victorious war (1831-1833) with his over-lord the sultan, threatened Constantinople. He was, however, compelled by the European powers to make peace, and obliged to be content with the investiture of Syria as a fief from the sultan. The attempt of the Porte (1839) to deprive him of Syria, failed. Ibrahim, son of Mehemed Ali, defeated the Turks at Nisib on the Euphrates. Through treachery the Turkish fleet fell into the hands of the viceroy of Egypt. Relying on the support of France, Mehemed Ali demanded from the young sultan Ahdul-Medjid (1839- 1861) the hereditary investiture of all lands under his government. To oppose these demands, England (lord Falmerston), Austria, Prussia, and Russia, concluded in 1840 a treaty of alliance, to the ex- clusion of France, which for a moment threatened the peace of Eu- rope. After the fall of the ministry of Thiers, however, and after 1 Cf. p. 255, note. 492 Modern History. A. D. Ouizot became president of the ministry in October, Ptanoe sub- mitted and deserted the viceroy of Egypt. The armed intervention of England and Austria in Syria forced the viceroy to take a lower tone, and he retained only the hereditary rule over Egypt under the over-lordship of the Porte. 1846. Death of Pope Gregory XVI, Attempted reforms of his suc- cessor Pius IX. (Mastai^Ferretti). 1847. Convention of the united legislature (^Landtag) in Prussia. War of the Sonderbund (separate confederacy) in Switzerland. against seven Catholic cantons (Jesuits), General Dufimr quicklj overpowered Freiburg and Luzerne. Dissolution of the Sonderbund. Transformation of the Swiss confederacy from a close alliance [Staatenbund] of sovereign cantons into a, federal nation [Bundesstaat]. The former diet, in which Zurich, Berne, and Luzerne had in turn been the chief town, was now succeeded by a confederate council which sat in Berne and consisted of 1. a council of estates (representation of the governments of the separate cantons), 2. a national council (representation of the whole Swiss people according to the density of the population). A common system of coinage ; centralized postal service and military organization. 1848. Feb. 24. February Revolution in Paris (p. 630). 1848-1851 (1852). France, for the second time, a republic. In Switzerland, complete victory of the radicals. The can- ton of Neuchatel threw o£E allegiance to its prince, the king of Prussia. 1848. Revolutionary movements in Germany, in consequence of the French revolution. Feb. 27. Popular assembly at Mannheim under the lead of Itzlein, which demanded a German parliament, jury trials, free press, right of forming organizations, societies, etc. March 11. The elector of Hesse obliged to agree to these demands. March 13-15. Outbreak in Vienna. Mettemich driven from the city, which fell into the hands of the burgher-guard and the stiuients. March 18. Conflicts in the streets of Berlin. The troops, tired but not conquered, left the city by order of the king (March 19- 20). Formation of a poorly disciplined burgher-guard. Lib- eral ministers frequently changed. Anarchy in the capital. Call of a constituent assembly at Berlin. March 20. After disturbances had occurred in Munich as early as March 6, Louis I. (f 1868) abdicated in favor of his son Maximilian II. Disturbances in Saxony, Hanover, Nassau, Mecklenburg, etc. March 31. Preliminary parliament in Frankfort opened under the presidency of Mittermaier. Four sessions. Resolve adopted to call a national German constituent assembly, for the purpose of making a constitution for the German empire. April. A republican rising in Baden (Hecker, Struve), supported by the arrival of refugees (HerwegK) and foreign republicans quickly suppressed by the troops of the German confederation. i. D. Continental Europe. 493 General Frederic von Gagem treacherously shot by the volun- teers (April 20). May 15. Second insurrection in Vienna, which compelled the con- Tocation of a constituent diet. The emperor left Vienna and went to Innsbruck. The intended dissolution of the legion of students caused a May 26. Third insurrection in Vienna, after which the troops left the city and a committee of public safety {citizens and students) controlled the city. 1848-1849. German National Assembly (Parliament) May 18. in Frankfort (Church of St. Paul) for the purpose of " har- monizing" a constitution for the German empire with the governments of the various states. The national assembly elected archduke John of Austria (66 years o\A.) administrator of the empire. He entered Frankfort June 11. The confederate council (Bundestag) dissolved itself. First imperial ministry (afterwards made more complete): Schmerling (Austria), foreign aSairs, and inteiioT ; Peucker (Prussia), war; Heckscher (Ham- burg), justice. It was soon evident, however, that the newly cre- ated central power had no real authority either as regarded foreign countries or the separate states. President of the national assembly, Heinrich von Gagem. Par- ties: right (Radowitz, Vincke, prince Lichnowsky), holding to the idea of an imperial constitution in harmony with the separate governments; left ( Vogt, Ruge, Robert Blum), proclaiming the principle of the sov- ereignty of the people, and endeavoring to establish a republican confederation (Bundestaat) by revolutionary means; right centre (Gagem, Dahlmann, Germnus, Amdt, Beseler, Bassermann, J. Grimm), which hoped to persuade the governments to recognize the estab- lishment of a constitutional monarchy for Germany ; left centre (Romer, Fallmerayer, Raveaux, etc.), which insisted upon the uncon- ditional subordination of the separate states to a central monarchy, to be created on the basis of the sovereignty of the people ; it recom- mended, however, that the views of the separate governments and such particular requirements of the states as were well founded should be respected. 1848. In Naples grant of a liberal constitution, followed by a reac- Feb. tion after the victory of the Swiss troops in the conflicts in the streets (May). War with SicUy, which was in revolt, but was subdued by Filangieri with great severity. After the murder of his minister, Rossi, Pius IX. fled to Gaeta (Nov.). Rule of the anarchists and republicans (Mazzini) in Rome. After a two months' siege Rom€ was captured by the French (July, 1849), and the papal authority was restored. The Pope did not return to Rome, however, untu 1850. (French garrison in Rome, 1849-1866.) 1848. Slavonic congress in Prague, June 2. called by the Czechs (Palacki), in order to unite the oppo- sition of the Slavonic people of Austria against the growth of German culture and influence. In order that the representatives of the different Slavonic nationalities nught understand one another, 494 Modern History. A. D, the proceedings of this anti-German congress were held in German. June 12-17. Uprising of the Czechs in Prague suppressed by Win^ dischgratz. Oct. 31. Capture of Vienna by imperial troops ( Windischgratz, Jella- chicK). Robert Blum (member of the parliament of Frankfort), Messenhauser (commander of the city), and many others were shot. Nov. 1. Commencement of the reaction in Prussia. Ministry Brandenburg - Manteuffel. General Wrangel entered Berlin ■without resistance (Nov. 10). Proclamation of a state of siege. The burgher-guard disarmed. Nov. 27. Transference of the national assembly to Brandenburg. As a quorum failed to meet there, Dec. 5. Dissolution of the national assembly and imposition of a constitution with two chambers, the second elected by uni- versal (manhood) and equal suffrage. Dec. 10. Prince Louis Napoleon elected president of the French Republic (p. 531). 1848-1849. War between Austria and Sardinia. The Austrians, driven from MUan by a revolt (March, 1848), retired to Verona. An Italian attack at St. Lucia repulsed. Ra- detzki, reinforced by Nugent (engagements at Udine and Belluno), advanced again. The troops of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, victorious at Goito (May), were completely defeated by Radetzki at July 26. Custozza. Milan recaptured by the Austrians. Truce from Aug. 9, 1848, to March 20, 1849. Radetzki, by the vic- tory of Mortara (March 21) and Novara (March 23), compelled the conclusion of peace. Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, and retired to Portugal (f July, 1849). Capture of Brescia after terrible fighting in the streets. Cruelties exercised upon prisoners (Haynau'). In Venice, after the withdrawal of the Austrian garrison (March, 1848), a. provisional government in the name of the king of Sardinia was succeeded, after the defeat of the Italian army, by a republic (president Manin). Siege and cap- ture of Venice by the Austrians (Aug. 1849). The whole of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom subjected anew to Austria. 1848-1849. Uprising of the Hungarians (Magyars). The Hungarians demanded and received a separate ministry (April, 1848). Count Batthyanyi, president of the ministry; Kossuth (pr. KdshiW), minister of finance. Diet in Pesth under the presidency of the archduke Stephen as palatine. The opposition of the Slavonic population and the appanages of the crown of Hungary (Croatia, Transylvania} to the supremacy of the Magyars, and their demand for political equality, were supported by the court of Vienna. Jella- chich appointed Ban of Croatia. Kossuth procured from the diet a levy of national troops (Honveds), and the issue of Hungarian paper money. Jellachich invaded Hungary, but was defeated at Velencze. The archduke palatine Stephen resigned his office. Count Lamberg, created imperial governor of Hungary, murdered at Pesth (Sept.), The emperor dissolved the diet. A. D. Continental Mirope. 495 After the abdication of Ferdinand I. (f 1875) his nephew mounted the throne as 1848 — X. Francis Joseph I., emperor of Austria. The Hungarian diet refused to recognize the abdication of Ferdinand I. and the accession of Francis Joseph I. Prince Win- dischgratz led an Austrian army into Hungary. Kossuth and the Magyar of&cials retired to Dehreczin. Windischgratz occupied Pesth (Jan., 1849). The Polish general Bern, to whom Kossuth had given a command, defeated the Austrians in a series of engagements. Other troops, under the Pole Dembinsfci and the Magyar princes Gorgey and Klapka, were successful against the Austrians. Dembinsld was appointed commander-in-chief of the Magyar forces, but was de- feated at Kapolna (Feb. 26, 1849) and resigned his command. MeauwhUe a bloody struggle was in progress in Transylvania: Bern, defeated by the Austrian general Puchner at Hermanstadt (Feb., 1849), after having received reinforcements, took the offensive against the Austrians and Russians, whom the former had called to their aid, with success; driving the Russians out of Transylvania. In the west^ too, fortune smiled upon the Hungarian arms. Gdrgey relieved Ko- morn. Windischgratz was driven back to Pesth, which his successor, Welden, was compelled to evacuate; an Austrian garrison remained in Ofen. In consequence of the 1849. Publication of the general constitution for Austria, March 4. which abolished the ancient Hungarian constitution, the diet, upon Kossuth's motion, pronounced the deposition of the house of Hapsburg-Lorraine. Kossuth placed at the head of the Mag- yar government with the title of governor. Divisions and lack of de- cision among the Hungarians. Instead of marching upon Vienna they laid siege to Ofen, which GSrgey captured May 21. Kossuth and the diet made a pompous entrance into Pesth. Meanwhile at a meet- ing of the emperors of Austria and Russia, Russian intervention was agreed upon, and a common plan of operations adopted for the subjugation of Hungary. Last decisive struggle of the Hungarians. Bern defeated at Her- mannstadt in Transylvania by the Russians (Liiders), who outnum- bered him three to one. Dembinsld forced to retire before the su- perior Russian force under Paskevitch. Gorgey tried in vain to break through the main Austrian army under Haynau, was defeated at Zsigard and Komom, went to the aid of Denibinski, defeated the Rus- sians under Rudiger at Waitzen, but was obliged to retire to the mountains upon the approach of Paskevitch, escaping the Russians only by a masterly retreat. Kossuth fled with the diet to Szegedin, whither Haynau marched. Denibinski, attacking him, was defeated at Szorek (Aug. 6), and at Temesvar (Aug. 9), where his army was almost entirely scattered. Confusion and discord among the Hun- garians. Kossuth laid down the chief power ; the dictatorship was conferred upon Gorgey. Two days later Gorgey concluded the 1849, Aug. 13. Capitulation of Vilagos, in which about 25,000 men laid down their arms (120 cannon enrrendered^ before the Russian general Rudiger. Most of the other 496 Modem History. A. d. corps surrendered unconditionally ; Klapka alone, who defended Ko- morn, made an honorable capitulation. Kossuth, Bern, DemMnski, found refuge in Turkish territory. Haynau administered terrible punishment to the captured leaders of the insurrection. Numerous executions (count Batthyanyi hanged), imprisonments and confisca- tions. Abolition of the Hungarian constitution. Transylvania and Croatia separated from Hungary. Abolition of the general constitution of Austria, Dec. 31, 1851. 1848-1851. Three wars of Sohleswig-Holstein against Denmark. Cause : " Open letter " of the king, Christian VIII. (July 8, 1846), which arbitrarily decreed the continuance of the union of the duchies with Denmark, in spite of the different laws of inheritance in the two states. A revolutionary movement in Copenhagen (Casino party) compelled king Frederic VII. to pronounce the annexation of Schleswig to Denmark (1848'). Hence insurrection in the duchies (March, 1848), and formation of a, provisional government of the coun- try (Beseler). 1848, First War. Prussian troops and those of the German con- April-Aug. federacy came to the assistance of the duchies, which were obliged to form a new army. General Wrangel defeated the Danes at Schleswig (April 23) and advanced to Jutland. The losses to commerce in the Baltic by the Danish blockade and the in- fluence of England and Russia produced the not very honorable truce of Malmo (26 Aug. 1848-26 March, 1849). Establishment of « com- mon government " for the duchies. Dissatisfaction with the truce throughout Germany. Angry de- bates in the national assembly at Frankfort ; contest in the streets with the populace, who were excited by the democrats. Murder of prince Lichnowsky and general von Auerswald (Sept.). 1849, March-July. Second War. Creation of a governorship (Bese- ler, Reventlow-Preetz) by the central government of Germany. At Eckemforde the ship of the line Christian VIII. was fired by can- nonade and the frigate Gefion captured (April 5). Storm of the re- doubts of Diippel by Bavarian and Saxon troops (April 13). The Prussian general Bonin, at the head of the Schleswig-Holstein army, defeated the Danes at Kolding (April 20). In consequence of the threatening attitude of England, France, and Russia, indifferent con- duct of Prussia aud other German troops in the war (general Pritt- witz). Siege of Fredericia by the Schleswig-Holstein army, which, however, suffered a considerable loss through a successful sortie of the Danes. Truce of Berlin, between Prussia and Denmark (1849, July 10), whereby Schleswig was to be occupied by Swedish troops in the north, in the south by Prussian troops, and received a new adminis- tration. The truce was converted into a peace (in the name of the Ger- man confederation as well). Bonin and aU Prussian officers were recalled from the Schleswig-Holstein army. 1850, Jan.-1851, July. Third War, conducted by Schlesmg-Holstmv- ers alone without the aid of Germany. General Willisen, for- merly in the Prussian service, assumed command of the army. He A. D. Continental Europe. 497 waa defeated at Idstedt (July 24, 25). SoMeswig occupied by the Danes. In the engagement at Missimde (Sept. 12) the Schleswig- Holstein troops were again defeated. In the storm of Friedrichstc^t (Oct. 4) they were repulsed with great loss. The chief command was transferred from Willisen to general Horst. The German con- federacy having been restored meanwhile (p. 498) enforced under Austrian influence the cessation of hostilities ; Holstein was occupied by Austrian troops with the consent of Prussia, and delivered to the Danes upon the vague promise of " respecting the rights of the duchies" (1852). 1849. Completion of the constitution of the German Empire. Diet, composed of a chamber of state, appointed half by the govern- ments, half by the popular representatives of the separate states, and a popular chamber. Monarchical power with only a suspensive veto. Formation of two parties, the great German (Qrossdeutsche) party, which wished to retain the German territory of Austria in Germany, and the small German {Kleindeutsche), which wished to exclude Aus- tria and form a narrower confederacy under the hegemony of Prussia. 1849. The offer of the crown of emperor of the Germans, by a April 3. deputation of the national assembly at Frankfort, was de- clined by the king. Frederic William declared that he could assume the imperial dignity only with the consent of all German gov- ernments. May. Uprising in Dresden (TzscMmer, Heubner, Todt, Bakunin) suppressed by Prussian assistance. Kecail and withdrawal of a great number of representatives 1849. from the national assembly at Frankfort. The Rump-Par- June. UaTtient (president Lowe-Kalbe) in Stuttgart dissolved. The administrator superseded by a central power to be executed hy Austria and Prussia alternately, "for the German confederacy" eie interim). Death of the administrator, Oct. 20, 1849. y. Bepublican uprising in the county palatine and in the grand duchy of Baden {Struve, Mieroslawsla) ; defection of the army. Prussian troops under the prince of Prussia entered Baden, de- feated the insurgents at Waghausel, besieged and captured Rastadt. The commander Tiedemann and others were shot ; many, among them the poet Kinhel, condemned to imprisonment for life with hard labor (Kinkel, 1850, in Spandan, was rescued by Karl Schurz). 1850, Feb. 6. In Prussia the king and legislature took the oath of allegiance to the revised constitution. Exertions of Prussia to create a German federal state (Bundesstaat), with exclusion of Austria (Radowitz), actively supported by the old party of the hereditary empire in the Frankfort parliament, the Gothas (so called from a meeting in Gotha). The "alliance of the three kings " (Prussia, Hanover, Saxony), concluded May 26, 1849, which was immediately joined by most of the smaller German states, was soon broken up by the withdrawal of Hanover and Saxony. Nevertheless the 498 Modern History. II. D. 1850, March 20. Parliament of Erfurt was opened, which on the 27th April coneluded the discussion of a new German XTnion. May 9-16. Congress of princes in Berlin, wherein the dislike of electoral Hesse (Hassenpflug') for the union came to light. Creation of a college of princes. Austria opposed the efforts of Prussia by the Sept. 2. Reopening of the Frankfort parliament. Contest over the constitution in the electorate of Hesse. Re- peated dissolution of the assembly of the estates by Hassenpjlug. The whole country was pronounced in a state of war (Sept. 7). Resist- ance of the officials and the courts. The prince elector left the coun- try and invited the intervention of the diet, which had been restored by Austria, but was not recognized by Prussia and her confederates; Hassenpflug ambassador to the diet. The diet granted aid to the prince elector, Prussia protesting. General Haynau appointed mili- tary dictator in electoral Hesse (Oct. 2). Almost the entire corps of ofEicers in electoral Hesse received their dismissal. Rupture between Prussia and Austria ; Nicholas of Russia took sides with the latter (two meetings in Warsaw). Meeting of the emperor of Austria and the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg at Bregenz, directed against Prussia. Execution of the decree of the confederacy by Bavarian and Austrian troops. The Prussian gov- ernment sent their troops (general GrSben) into electoral Hesse, and seemed for a moment about to oppose the execution of the decree of the confederacy (encounter of the pickets at Bronnzell, Nov. 8), but were finally satisfied with occupying the military roads of Prussia. Dismissal of the minister Radowitz, and thereby complete abandon- ment of the Prussian exertions for union. In the 1850. Conference at Olmiitz {Manteuffel and Schwar- Nov. 29. zmberg) Prussia yielded to all the demands of Austria ; Schleswig-Holstein was delivered to the Danes, the unlimited authority of the elector was restored in electoral Hesse. The ques- tion of the German constitution was settled at the 1850-1851. Conference at Dresden Dec. 23-May 15. after a lengthy discussion, wherein the influence of the emperor of Russia had great weight, by a simple re- turn to the diet of the confederaq/. Prussia herself invited the former members of the union to send representatives to that body, so that the 1851. German confederation of 1815 wa3 reestablished in its old form. 1851. First universal industrial exhibition in Lon< don. 1851. In Paris, coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon, who be- Dee. 2. came president of the republic for ten years (p. 531). 1852, May 8. Treaty of London (protocol) signed by the five great pOTwers and Sweden. In order to guarantee the in- tegrity of the Danish monarchy, a successor was appointed for the crown of Denmark and for the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, with- A. D. Continental Europe. 499 out consulting the estates of the duchies. The female line next in succession having renounced its rights, Christian of Sonderburg- Glilcksburg was proclaimed heir of the childless king Frederic VII. for the entire monarchy. This treaty was recognized by Hanover, Saxony, and Wiirtemberg, but not by the German confederation. 1852, Dec. 1. Napoleon m., emperor of the French (1852- 1870). 1853-1856. War of Hussia against Turkey and 1854-1856. War of the western powers against Btissia. Crimean War. Cause : Resuscitation of the old Russian plans of conquest (Catha- rine II. p. 411) against Turkey by Nicholas I. Thinking an alliance between England and France impossible, and believing that he had made sure of Austria and Prussia, he pressed forward vidth- out hesitation. He developed his views, concealing but little, to the English ambassador in St. Petersburg, Seymour : Servia, Bosnia, Bul- garia, and the principalities of the Danube should become independent states under Russian protection. Constantinople should be occupied promsionally, by Russian troops ; the prospect of the acquisition of Crete and Egypt was held out to England. In spite of the unfavor- able attitude of England, the emperor pursued his plans. Demand for a protectorate over all Christians of the Greek church in the Turkish empire, urged in an overbearing manner, by the Russian am- bassador prince Mentchikoff. The Porte refused to listen to the prop- osition. MentchikofB left Constantuiople with threats (May 21, 1853). 1853, A united French and English fleet was placed at the entrance to the Dardanelles, afterwards in the Bosphorus, for purposes of observation. 80,000 Russians crossed the Pruth and occupied the principalities of the Danube (July). Meeting between Nicholas and the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia in Olmiitz (Sept.), where however, he did not obtain the desired alliance, but only an assur- ance of neutrality imder certain conditions. The Porte declared war upon Russia (Oct.). Omer Pacha crossed the Danube and held his ground against the Russians at Oltenitza (Nov. 4). The Russian fleet surprised and defeated a Turkish squadron at Sinope, Nov. 4. Upon the refusal of the emperor to evacuate the principalities of the Danube, 1854, March 12. Alliance of the western nowers with Turkey, and March 28. declaration of war by England and France upon Rus- sia. Paskevitch appointed to the chief command of the Russian army which crossed the Danube, but besieged Silistria in vain (June). England and France sent troops to the aid of Turkey, which concen- trated in Gallipoli. Alliance between Prussia and Austria; these states declared the passage of the Balkans by the Russians an act of war, and soon demanded the evacuation of the principalities. The emperor Nicholas ordered the evacuation "for strategic reasons" (July). With the consent of the Porte the principalities were pro- Tisionally occupied by the Austrians. 500 Modem History. A. d. A second French and English fleet (Napier) appeared in the Baltic, but could make no impression upon the fortress of Kronstadt and calp- tured only the small fortress of Bomarsund, upon one of the Aland Islands. At the southern seat of war, the allies lauded at Varna, on the Black Sea (June). Marshal St. Amaud and lord Raglan command- ers-in-chief. The French invasion of the Dobrudsha was followed by great losses through sickness. At Varna the expedition to the Crimea was resolved upon, in order to destroy Sebastopol and an- nihilate the Russian naval power in the Black Sea. The French and English (50,000 men together) and 6,000 Turks landed at Evpatoria, on the west coast of the Crimea, Sept. 14, and defeated the Ilussians in the 1854, Sept. 20. Battle of the Alma. Marshal St. Arnaud died of the cholera. The command of the French given to Canrobert. After the English had established themselves on the bay of BalaUava, and the French on the bay of Kamiesch, the 1854-1855. Siege of Sebastopol Oct. Nov. began. The city was surrounded by new fortresses by Mentchikoff, under the superintendence of Totleben, and the harbor closed by sunken ships of war. An attack of the allies upon Sebastopol failed (Oct. 17). The Russian general Liprandi attacked the English at Balaklava (Oct. 25) and inilicted a severe loss upon them (charge of the Light Brigade). Aitei Mentchikoff hsA received reinforcements, he atta March 30. Peace of Paris was agreed upon. 1. Russia ceded the mouths of the Danube and a small portion of Bessarabia on the left bank of the lower Danube. 2. Russia re- nounced the one-sided protectorate over the Christians in Turkey (whose elevation to equality with the Mohammedan population was promised by the Porte), and over the principalities of the Danube, whose relations were to be settled later. 3. Russia restored Kars, and promised not to establish any arsenals upon the Black Sea, nor to maintain there more ships than the Porte. 4. The western powers restored Sebastopol to Russia, after having destroyed the docks, the constructions in the harbor, and the fortifications. [5. Adoption of the four rules : 1. Privateering is and remains abolished. 2. The neutral flag covers an enemy's goods, except contraband of war. 3. Neutral goods, except contraband of war, not liable to capture under an enemy's flag. 4. Blockades, to be binding, must be effective.] 1856-1867. Dispute between the king of Prussia and Switzerland, in consequence of a hasty suppression of a royalistic outbreak in Neuchatel (^Neuenburg), settled by the release of the royalistic pris- oners by the Swiss, and the renunciation of Neuchdtel by the king of Prussia. 1857-1860. French and English expedition against China. Cause : infractions of the treaty with the English (of 1842) by the Chinese led to hostilities in Oct., 1856, between the English and the Chinese officials of Canton. The French government, which purposed an alteration of the commercial treaty with China, joined in supporting the English demands. 1857, Dec. Occupation of Canton by the allies. 1858. Treaty of Tien-Tsin, which opened to European trade and the June, missionaries entrance to the interior of China, and allowed standing embassies to be established in the capital, Pekin. 1859, June. Lifraotion of the treaty of Tierii-Tsin. The English, French, and American ambassadors, who were on their way to Pekin, were turned back at the mouth of the Pei-ho. The attempt of the English and French to force their passage failed; an attack upon the forts, undertaken with bit few troops, was repulsed with great loss. 1860. Landing of a French (general Montauban) and English (gen- May, eral Grant) corps at Shang-hai; storm of the fortmed camp, while the flotilla of the allies proceeded up the Pei-ho. Negotiations commenced by the Chinese. In consequence of their 502 Modem History. A. D. dubious and faithless conduct the allies made a new advance, defeated a Tatar army of 25,000 men in the 1860. Battle of Palikao, and marched upon Pekin. Destruction of Sept. 21. the summer palace of the emperor as punishment for the cruel mutilation and execution of several persons whom the Chinese had treacherously captured. In affright prince Kong, the emperor's brother, concluded the 1860. Peace of Pekin, which ratified the treaty of Tien-Tsin and Oct. 24, 25. imposed upon the Chinese the payment of a large in- demnity. 1857. Illness of Frederic William IV. The prince of Prussia as- Oot. sumed the vice-regency, and later (Oct. 7, 1858) the regency as provided by the constitution of Prussia. The prince re- gent replaced the ministry of Manteuffel by an old liberal ministry (prince of Hohenzollem, Auerswald, Schleinitz, Bonin, Bethmann^Holl- weg, and afterwards count Schwerin). 1859. War of France and Sardinia with Austria. April-July. An Austrian ultimatum having been rejected, field- marshal Oyulay crossed the Ticino, but his inactivity gave the French time to come to the assistance of the Piedmontese. Napoleon III. assumed the chief command. An extensive reconnoitring expedition of Gyulay's led to the May 20. Engagement of Montebello ; the Austrians, after obsti- nate resistance, driven back. Garibaldi and his volunteers in- vaded Lombardy. The allies assuming the offensive, Gyulay retired across the Ticino and was defeated in the June 4. Battle of Magenta (Napoleon III., Canrohert, MacMahon). Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel entered Milan. The em- peror Francis Joseph took the chief command in person. The Austrian army was defeated by the aUies in the. June 24. Battle of Solferino. The emperor Francis Joseph in a meeting with Napoleon III. July 11, in Villafranoa was induced to accept preliminaries of peace (exchanged July 8) which were ratified and ctmpleted in the 1859, Nov. 10. Peace of Ziirich. 1. The emperor Francis Joseph ceded Lombardy (with the ex- ception of Mantua and Peschiera) to Napoleon III., who surrendered it to Sardinia. 2. Italy was to form a confederation (Staatenbund) under the honorary presidency of the Pope. 3. The sovereigns of Tuscany and Modena, who had been expelled in April and July, were to be reinstated; the revolted legations (Bologna, etc.), were to be given back to the Pope, but " without foreign intervention." Despite these enactments of the peace of Ziirich 1860. Tuscany, Parma (whose sovereigns had likewise been expelled), Spring. Modena, and the papal legations were united with the ■ mon- archy of Victor Emmanuel, who, in return, was obliged to, sur- render Savoy ani Nice to France. Descent of Graribaldi with 1,000 volunteers (soon 4,000, May 11) A. D. Continental Europe. 503 upon Sicily. He marched upon Palermo. Bombardment of tie city by the Neapolitan general Lanza, whereupon the city capitulated on condition of the free withdrawal of 25,000 Neapolitan troops (June 6). Messina evacuated by the Neapolitans, with the exception of the citadel (June 28). Garibaldi landed on the mainland (Aug. 20). Surrender of Reggio, triumphal progress through the southern half of the peninsula. King Francis II. left his capital, Naples, and retired behind the VoUumo with 40,000 men, retreating to the for- tresses of Gaeta and Capua (Sept.). Meanwhile the Piedmontese troops under Fanti and Cialdini had entered Umbria and the Marches, where the desire for annexation had long since made itself manifest. The French general Lamoriciere, who had entered the papal service, was defeated in the 1860. Zingagemeut at Castelfidardo by Cialdini. The Papal Sept. 18. States (excepting the Pairimonium Petri) were annexed by Victor Emmanud, who thereupon invaded the Neapolitan terri- tory (Oct.) and joined Garibaldi. The Neapolitan army retreated behind the Garigliano, Capua was talsen. Francis II. and his troops retired to Gaeta. 1860-1861. Siege of Gaeta. Francis II. capitulated after a brave Nov. 12-Feb. 13. defence and went to Kome. 1861, March 17. Victor Emmanuel king of Italy. With the exception of Venice and the Patrimonium Petri the whole peninsula was united under one sceptre. Death of Cavour, June 6, 1861. New expedition of Garibaldi, with volunteer bands, to liberate Bome, against the wishes of the government. He was wounded and captured at Aspromonte, the southern point of Italy, Aug. 29, 1862. Treaty between France and Italy (Sept. 15, 1864), whereby the duration of the French occupation of Rome was limited to two years, and the Italian government undertook to protect the Patrimonium Petri against any foreign invasion. Florence made the capital of Italy. 1861, Jan 2. Death of Frederic William IV. The prince regent mounted the throne as 1861-1888. WiUiam I., king of Prussia. 1861-1867. Mexican Expedition, undertaken, at first, by France, England, and Spain in common. 1861. Treaty of London between these three powers. The purpose Oct. 31. of the expedition was to force the republic of Mexico to fulfill certain treaty obligations towards these nations. 1861, Deo.-1862, Jan. Occupation of La Vera Cruz and the fort of San Juan d'Ulloa by the alUes. 1862. Treaty of La Soledad with Juarez, president of Mexico, who Feb. 19. promised to pay the indemnity and the arrears of debt, as required. Juarez did not fulfill the obligations incurred, and demanded the delivery of his opponent, Almonte, who had come to the French camp from Paris. England and Spain withdrew from the expedition. Napoleon III., acting on the expectation that the republic of the United States of America would be broken up by the war between the North and the 504 Modem History. A. d. South, resolved to create a monarchy in Mexico. Magnificent plan to check the spread of the Anglo-Germanic race by this expedition, and induce a regeneration of the Latin race. 1862. An attack upon Puebla by 5,000 French repulsed. Ketreat to May. Orizaba. The emperor sent 25,000 men as reinforcements, fol- lowed by more considerable numbers, to Mexico. After a long and bloody contest 1863. Puebla, bravely defended by Ortega, was captured by the May. French general Forey, who entered Mexico. The IVench called an assembly of notables, composed of opponents of Juarez, caused the monarchy to be proclaimed by this body, and the imperial crown of Mexico to be offered to the archduke Mazimilian, brother of the emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. This young and ambitious prince, gifted with excellent abilities, suffered himself to be inveigled by Napoleon III. into accepting the crown. 1864. June. Arrival of Maximilian in Mexico. Prolonged contest with the republican armies. The new monarchy constantly in financial difficulties. Impossibility of establishing a settled state of affairs in a land so torn with party feuds. Meanwhile the end of the civil war in the United States had com- pletely altered the political relations. The decisive demand of the United States government that the French troops should be with- drawn from Mexico, put a sudden end to the magnificent plans of the French emperor. He submitted at once to the request of the United States. 1867. Withdrawal of the French troops from Mexico. The emperor Spring. Maximilian, who refused to leave with the French, continued the war alone. After a brave resistance he was surrounded in Queretaro, captured by treachery {Lopez f), brought to trial before a court-martial at Juarez' command, and shot (June 19, 1867). In Austria, in spite of the vehement opposition of the nobility and the clergy, 1861. Publication of a new, liberal constitution for the united Feb. 26. monarchy with a close diet for the Germano-Slavonic lands, and a wider diet (only projected, however) which by the participation of Hungarian members was to represent the united mon- archy, with the exception of Venice, for which the introduction of a special constitution was promised. Resistance to the February consti- tution, not only by the Hungarians, who demanded the restoration of their separate constitution with a special ministry, but also by the national parties of the other non-Germanic peoples of the empire. 1861. Coronation of the king of Prussia, William I. in Konigsberg; Oct. 18. soon after there broke out a constitutional conflict in conse- quence of a reorganization of the army which the government had carried out. Dissolution of the house of representatives (March, 1862). Res- ignation of the Schwerin ministry. Heydt ministry. The opposi- tion majority returned from the new elections (May) with increased strength {party of progress {Fortichritt), and the left centre). Von Bismarck {Otto Edward Leopold, prince of Bismarch-Schon- liausen, born 1815, 1848 member of the united Prussian legislature^- A. D. Continental Europe. 505 1851 member of the diet of the confederation at Frankfort, after- wards ambassador at St. Petersburg and at Paris) became president of the ministry. The ministry governed without the passage of a money hill. [Especial care bestowed upon the army, in which, accord- ing to Bismarck, the hope of Prussia and Germany rested (" Blood and Iron ")]. 1862. Revolution in Greece. King Otto (f 1867) compelled to leave the country by an insurrection. Provisional government. After a long search the Greeks found in Oeorge of Denmark a prince who accepted their throne (1863). England ceded to Greece the Ionian Islands (p. 483). 1863, Jan. Uprising in Poland and Lithuania suppressed in the spring of 1864. 1863. Congress of German princes at Frankfort o. M., under Aug. the presidency of Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria, to con- sider a reorganization of Germany. The meeting was without result, Prussia refusing to take any part in the deliberations. The " Eider-Danes " in Copenhagen having brought about the 1863. Incorporation of Schles-wig with Denmark, the patience of March 30. the diet of the German confederation, so well preserved in face of the encroachments of the Danes since 1852, was ex- hausted, and an immediate execution of the decree of the confederation was decreed (Oct. 1). 1863, Nov. 15. Death of Frederic VII., king of Denmark. According to the London Protocol (p. 498), Christian IZ. suc- ceeded for the entire monarchy. In spite of this and regardless of his father's renunciation, the hereditary prince of Augustenburg pro- claimed himself duke of Schleswig-Holstein as Frederic VIII. Yielding to the pressure of the influential party of the Eider-Danes in Copenhagen, Christian IX. accepted the new Danish constitution which incorporated Schleswig with Denmark. Great excitement in Germany. Public opinion decidedly favored the complete separation of Schlesmg-Holstein from Denmark, and demanded of the German confederation at least a preliminary occupation of the duchies. On the motion of Attstria and Prussia, however, who were bound by the London Protocol, the confederation undertook nothing but the execu- tion of its decree, and caused Hanoverians and Saxons (general Hake) to enter the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, which belonged to the confederation. Frederic VIII. proclaimed duke tliroughout Holstein. 1864, Feb.-Oct. War of Austria and Prussia with Denmark. Cause: Avstria and Prussia demanded the repeal of the No- vember constitution as being inconsistent with former agreements. (Denmark in 1852, when the two powers handed over Schlesmg-Hol- stein to her, had promised " to respect the rights of the duchies," which clearly excluded an incorporation of Schleswig.) Refusal of Denmark, Advance of the Austro-Prussian army (Feb. 1, field-mar- shal V. Wrangel, prince Frederic Charles ; Austrian general v, Gah- lenz) into Schleswig. {Holstein continued in possession of the troops of the confederation.) The Austrians advanced upon the Danewerk, 506 Modern History. A. D. under heavy fighting; the Prussians, after an unsuccessful cannonade at Missunde, crossed the Schlei at Amis. The Danish commander -De Meza surrendered the Danewerk Feb. 5, 6. He was replaced by gen- eral Oerlach. The Austrians under (SaJ/enz undertook to clear North Schleswig of the Danes. (Brilliant engagement of the Austrian ad- vance at Oversee, Feb. 6.) The Prussians under prince Frederic Charles undertook the difficult operation against the entrenchments of Diippel, which had been transformed to a veritable fortress. 1864. Skirmishes and preliminary operations until the arrival of the Feb. 22-Mareh 12. siege artillery. March 15-April 18. Actual siege of the entrenchments of Duppd. April 18. Brilliant storming of Diippel by the Prussians. Cap- ture of all the entrenchments. The Danes retreated to Alsen, evacuating the fortress of Fredericia. A part of Jutland occu- pied by the allies, as a ransom. May 12-June 26. Truce, and meanwhile peace conference at Iiondon. Prussia and Aiistria seceded from the London Protocol. As no agreement could be reached either in regard to a personal union of the duchies with the crown of Denmark (Beust objecting as representa- tive of the confederation), or in regard to the division of Schleswig according to nationality, the war broke out anew. The Prussians under prince Frederic Charles (who had received the chief com- mand) accomplished the June 28-29. Passage to the island of Alsen, defeated the Danes at all points, and took a large number of prisoners. All Jut- land occupied by the allies. At sea a Prussian squadron under Jachmam had fought success- fully at Jasmund, March 17, while an Austro-Prussian fleet under Tegethoff had won a victory at Heligoland, and after the truce had captured the islands off Friesland. These misfortunes induced Chris- tian IX. to make direct applications for peace, which led to the 1864, Oct. 30. Peace of Vienna. 1. The king of Denmark renounced all his rights to the duchies of Schlesung, Holstein, and Lauenhurg in favor of the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia. 2. He agreed to recognize what- ever disposition the monarchs should make of these three states. Upon the motion of the two great powers, the execution against Holstein was declared by the confederation to be completed ; the troops of the confederation (Hanoverians and Saxons) evacuated the country. Prussia and Austria established a common government in the city of Schlesviig. While the question of the succession was zealously discussed in the diet of the confederation, in diplomatic negotiations, and in the press, and the cause of the hereditary prince was agitated in both duchies, the Austrian and Prussian commissioners became involved in a wretched conflict. In order to put an end to this, the final decision in regard to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein was postponed and the 1865. Treaty of G-astein was concluded between Prussia and AnS' Aug. 14. tria. A. D. Austro-Prussian War. 507 1. Both powers retained the sovereignty of both duchies, in com- mon ; Austria assuming the provisional administration of Holstein, Prussia that of Schleswig. 2. Rendsburg to be a fortress of the confederation, Kiel a harbor of the confederation ; the use of this harbor was to be in common, but Prussia received the chief command there ; a military road, a tele- graph and postal line through Holstein were guaranteed to Prussia. 3. The emperor of Austria surrendered aU his rights to the duchy of Lauenburg to the king of Prussia for two and a half million rix dol- lars. In execution of this treaty Prussia occupied the duchy of Schleswig (governor, v. Manteuffel) and Austria the duchy of Holstein (governor, V. Gablem). The duchy of Lauenburg, after the consent of the estates had been obtained, was joined in personal union to the crown of Prus- sia. Deep dissatisfaction with this treaty in the rest of Grermany. Be- tween the two great powers new disputes soon broke out. Austria, being determined not to agree, under any circumstances, to a real in- crease of Prussian power, returned to the attitude of the confed- eration upon this point, and entered into agreement with the middle states of Germany. Prussia, regarding the decision of the German question by war as unavoidable, entered into negotiations with Italy. 1866. The Austro-Prussian War.i June 16-July 22. The war proper lasted one month : June 22 to (Aug. 23). July 22. Allies of Prussia : the stnaMer North German states and Jtali/. Allies of Austria : Bavaria, WuHemherg, Saxony, Hano- ver, Baden, the two Hesses. Cause of the war : the desire of the German people for greater unity, and the impossibility of reaching a re-organization of Germany with a strong central government as long as two great powers con- fronted one another in the German confederation, one having a pop- ulation largely non-Germanic, with non-Germanic interests. Special cause : the quarrel about the futiu'e of the North Al- bingian duchies. Austria wished that the crown prince of Augusten- burg should be recognized as duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and join the confederation as a sovereign prince. Prussia demanded (note of Feb. 22, 1865) that in case a new small state, Schleswig-Holstein, was cre- ated : 1. its whole military force should become an integral part of the Prussian army and fleet, and its postal and telegraph systems be united with those of Prussia ; 2. that several important military posts (Friedrichsort, Sonderburg, etc.) should be given to Prussia, to enable her to imdertake the necessary protection of the new state against Denmark. Beason for the participation of Italy in the war: the favorable op- portunity of acquiring Venice. 1 Der Feldeug von 1866 t» Deuttchland (by the PraMinn General Staffl and Oesterreichs Kampfim Jahre 1866 (by the Austrian General Staff). 508 Modem lEstory, A. d. Arming of the three powers, each claiming to be driven to that step by the preparations of its opponent. The chief command of the Austrian armies in Bohemia and Mo- ravia (northern army) given to general Benedek (240,000 men), who made his headquarters at Olmiitz. The command of the army in Venice (southern army) given to archduke Albert. Prussia placed five armies in the field : — 1. First axmymLusatia (93,000) under prince Frederic Charles. 2. Second (Silesian) army (115,000) under the crown prince, Frederic William. 3. The army of the Elbe (46,000) in Thuringia under general Herwarth von Bittenfeld. 4. The reserve army at Berlin under general v. Miilbe (24,000), 5. The army of the Main not formed until later, at first divided into three corps, Vogel v. Falckenstein at Minden, Manteuffel at Sohles- wig, Beyer at Wetzlar (in all 48,000 men). Commander-in-chief of all forces, king William I. ; chief of the great general staff, gen- eral V. Moltke. The mediation of France, England, and Russia, proffered at Frank- fort, May 27, 28, was frustrated by the demand of Austria that at any peace conference which might be held there should be no refer- ence to an alteration of boimdaries. The convocation of the Holstein assembly of estates (June 2) by the Austrian governor, v. Gablenz, led to an open rupture. Prussia declared that the treaty of Gastein was broken, and general v. Man- teuffel entered Holstein (June 7) ; v. Gablenz, under protest, retreated to Altona with the Austrian brigade, and thence to Hanoverian terri- toiy. On the motion of Austria, which declared the peace of the confed- eration broken by the action of Prussia in Holstein, 1866. The diet decreed the mobilization of the whole army of June 14. the confederation, with exception of the three Prussian corps. Secession of Prussia, and dissolution of the G-erman confederation. June 15. Prussia called upon Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse to disre- gard the resolve of the confederacy, to replace their troops upon a peace footing, and join a new confederation under the lead of Prussia. Upon the rejection of these demands, the Prussians in- vaded Hanover and Electoral Hesse. King Oeorge retreated to the south ; the elector, Frederic William, was carried to Stettin a pris- oner. The Prussians invaded Sa:sony (Herwarth) ; the Saxon army, king, and government retreating to Bohemia. Dresden occupied (June 18) ; all Saxony, excepting Konigstein, in the hands of the Prussians (June 20). Prussia resolved upon an offensive war. The occupation of Saxony opened the way for a strategic march of the army of the Elbe and the first army along the line of Bautzen-Dresden. The concentration of the Austrian power about Olmiitz threatened the province of Silesia, but the Austrian army not being completely ready, the Prussians de- termined to forestall the enemy by an invasion of Bohemia. A. D. Austro-Pnissian War. 509 A. Principal Scene of War in Bohemia. June 22-25. Prussian invasion of Bohemia. June 26, 27. Prussian victories (under prince Frederic Carl and the crown prince) at Huhnerwasser, Nachod (June 27) ; victory of the Austrians at Trautenau (tfune 27). June 28. Prince Frederic Charles at Miinchengratz forced back the Austrians and Saxons. Meantime the Silesian army defeated v. Gablentz at Soor (June 28), and the crown prince occupied Trautenau. Prussian victories of Skalitz (June 28, heavy losses) and Gitschin (June 29). Capture of Koniginhof. The engagement at Schweinschadel completed the purposed ap- proach of the two Prussian armies to one another. They were pur- posely not united, but kept asunder in a manner "which, being without danger strategically considered, secured great tactical ad- vantages." Hitherto the chief movements of both armies had been directed by telegraph from Berlin. June 30. King William I. and general Von Moltke, chief of the general staff, left Berlin for the seat of war. On July 2 it was decided to attack the Austrians with the whole force on the next day, they being stationed behind the Bistritz brook, with the fortress of Koniggratz and the Elbe in their rear. 1866. July 3. Battle of Konigratz or Sadowa. The Jirst Prussian army, united with that of the Elbe (king William I., prince Frederic Charles, v. Herwarth), had a severe contest with the northern army of Austria, in an advantageous position, under Benedek; in the afternoon the second (Silesian army), under the crown prince, gained the flank and rear of the Austrians, after a fatiguing march, aud in combination with the first army secured the complete vic- tory of the Prussians. Pursuit was stopped by the Elbe and by the exhaustion of the troops. Retreat of the Austrians toward Olmiltz. Francis Joseph appealed to the mediation of France, and ceded Venetia to Napoleon III., but the truce desired by France was re- jected by Prussia and Italy. Two thirds of the Austrian southern army was transferred to the northern seat of war. Occupation of Prague by the Prussians (July 8), of Brunn (July 12). March of the main Prussian army upon Vienna. Benedek advanced to the defence of the capital, but was cut off from the direct way by the rapid advance of prince Frederic Charles, and forced to attempt the circuitous route by way of the Little Carpa- thians. A Prussian corps invaded Hungary. July 22. The engagement of Blumenau was broken off by the an- nouncement of the conclusion of a truce for five days, which was converted into July 26. The truce of Nikolsburg, after the preliminaries of peace had been signed under French mediation (p. 510). B. Western Seat of War. The entire army of the confederation was imder the command of prince Charles of Bavaria. 510 Modern History. A. D. 1866. Victory of 16,000 Hanoverians over 8,000 Prussians and June 27. troops of Cohurg-Gotha, at Langensalza ; the junction of the Hanoverians with their southern allies was, however, prevented. June 29. Capitulation of the Hanoverians at Lagensalza. July 4r-14. Victories of the Prussians at Dermbach (July 4), and in five battles on the Frankish Saale, over the south German troops (Hammelhurg, Kissingen, Friedrichshall, Hansen, WaU daschach) July 10, thus forcing the passage of the river. July 14. Engagement at Aschafienburg ; victory over the united Hessian, Austrian, and Darmstadt troops. Occupation of Frank- fart (July 16) and Darmstadt (July 17). Occupation of Wiira- burg and Nuremberg. Aug. 2. Truce. C. Seat of TVar in Italy. 1866. Battle of Custozza ; victory of the Austrians (archduke June 24. Albert) over the Italians (king Victor Emmanuel). The Italian army retreated across the Mincio, but after the Aus- trian army was transferred, in large part, to the seat of war in the north, the Italians again advanced. July 20. Naval victory of the Austrians (Tegethoff) at Lissa over the Italians (Persano). 1866. Peace of Prague Aug. 23. between Prussia and Austria. 1. The emperor of Austria recognized the dissolution of the German confederation, and consented to a reorganization of Germany without Austria, and agreed to the annexations contemplated by Prussia. A special condition secured Saxony (as a member of the new north German confederation) from an alteration of her boundary. 2. Aus- tria transferred to Prussia her rights in Schleswig-Holstein, with the reservation that the northern districts of Sohleswig should be reunited with Denmark, should the inhabitants express a desire for such re- union by a free popular vote (rescinded, 1878). 3. Austria paid twenty million rix dollars ($15,000,000) for the costs of the war. 4. At the request of Prussia Venice was ceded to Italy. Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort were definitively incorporated with Prussia, so that by this successful war the extent of the monarchy was in- creased from 111,000 square miles (over nineteen million inhabitants) to 140,000 square miles (twenty-three and a half million inhabitants). Peace between Prussia and Wurtemberg (Aug. 13), Baden (Aug. 17), Bavaria (Aug. 22), Hesse (Sept. 3), Saxony (Oct. 21). The proposed cessions of territory in the southern states were in the main given up, inasmuch as Napoleon III. showed a desire for a rectification of boundaries as regarded Germany ; conclusion of an offensive and defensive alliance between Prussia and the southern states. Reciprocal guarantee of territorial integrity. The southern states placed their entire military force under the command of the king of Prussia in the event of war. The demand of Napoleon IIL rejected. A. D- Austro-Prmsian War. 511 1866. Peace of Vienna Oct. 3. between Austria and Italy. Austria recognized the king- dom of Italy, with which Venice was united. Prussia hav- ing concluded an alliance with the North German states in August, 1866, elections for a North German diet were prescribed on a basis of manhood and direct suffrage. 1867. First diet of the North German Confederation. Feb. 24. After a short discussion the diet agreed with the govern- ments upon a constitution for the North German Confed- eration : presidency of the league united with the crown of Prussia, which represented the confederation in its international re- lations, declared war, concluded peace and treaties, and accredited ambassadors in its name. The governments were represented in the council of the confederation {Bundesrath), in which Prussia had seventeen votes, and the other twenty-one members twenty-six votes altogether. Imperial diet {Reichstag) originating from direct man- hood suffrage. Centralized military system, under the command of the ting of Prussia. Universal compulsory military service. United customs, postal, and telegraph service. Count Bismarck, chancellor of the confederation. 1867. In Austria a reorganization of the state in a liberal sense was undertaken, in consequence of the unsuccessful war. The former Saxon minister, von Beust, president of the ministry, after- wards (uutil 1871) chancellor of the empire. Agreement with Hungary. Kestoratiou of the Hungarian constitution. Solemn corona- tion of the emperor Francis Joseph in Pesth as king of Hungary. Reunion of the dependent lands {Croatia, Transylvania) with Hun- gary. Establishment of a liberal constitution in that part of the monarchy this side of the Leith {Cisleithania). (The constitution of 1861, p. 604, was suspended in 1865.) Germano-Slavonic Reichstag. 1867. Luxemburg question. Napoleon III. wished to secretly indemnify the French nation for the increased power of Prussia by a new annexation. His nego- tiations with the king of Holland in regard to the purchase of the grand duchy of Luxemburg were broken off in consequence of the objection of Prussia, whereupon Napoleon III. demanded that the Prussian garrison of Luxemburg should evacuate the fortress. Un- der the excitement which the dispute aroused in Germany and France, the outbreak of war seemed unavoidable, when the 1867. London Conference (Italy recognized as the sixth great May 7-11. power) succeeded in establishing the following agree- ments : 1. The neutrality of the grand duchy was guaranteed by the great powers in common. 2. The Prussian garrison evacuated iMXemburg, and the fortifications were razed. 1867. Italian volunteers, with the tacit favor of the Italian govem- Sept.-Nov. ment, made an attack upon the papal territory. Napo- leon III. declared the former treaty (p. 603) broken, and sent assistance to the Pope. The free troops were defeated at Mentana. Borne received a new French garrison. 512 Modem History. A. D. 1868, April. First customs parliament in Germany. 1868. Outbreak of the Spaaisb Revolution in Cadiz. The royal- Sept, ist troops under Novaliches were defeated by the insurgent troops under Serrano at Alcolea. Queen Isabella fled to France; the whole country declared in favor of the revolution. Provisional government. The Bourbons deposed from the throne. Summons of a constitutional cortes. The majority of the cortes established, in spite of the opposition of the numerous republican members, a new constitutional monarchy. Serrano provisional regent. After many negotiations with foreign princes, conducted by Prim (murdered 1870), without result, the prince of Hohenzollern (1870, p. 513) ac- cepted the Spanish croWn. After his withdrawal, during the Franco- Prussian war, the duke of Aosta, the second son of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, was elected by the cortes, and ascended the throne as 1870-1873. Amadeus I., king of Spain. 1869. In France general electiMi for the corps legislatif ; for the first time during the second empire, strong manifestation of party spirit, and a large number of votes cast. The departments, espe- cially the country population, gave the government a good majority, though weaker than formerly. In Paris and Lyons victory of the ultra radical party, and election of candidates opposed to the govern- ment and the dynasty. 1869> Nov. 16. Formal opening of the Suez Canal, which was completed by the indomitable perseverance of its projec- tor, the Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps. 1869, Dee. 8. Opening of the Vatican Council. Proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility July 18, 1870, by a vote of 547 to 2. Adjournment of the council, Oct. 20, 1870. Vacillating and 'indecisive conduct of the emperor Napoleon IIL in face of the daily increasing dissatisfaction in the country with the arbitrary character of the government, which was no longer offset by any brilliant achievements outside. Dismissal of the " vice emperor " Rouher (July). Formation of a new cabinet, composed of similar re- actionary elements ; then, as the different factions of the opposition (Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, Gambetta, Rochefort) grew more bold, forma- tion of the 1870, Jan. Ministry of Ollivier from the ranks of the moderate liberals. Dismissal of the prefect of the Seine, Hausmann. The death of a radical journalist at the hands of Pierre Bonaparte, a cousin of the emperor (self-defence or murder ?), produced an ex- traordinary excitement in Paris. Riots. Condemnation and imprison- ment of Rochefort, in consequence of his incendiary newspaper arti- cles. New riots. Arrest of many radicals. Prince Pierre Bonaparte declared not guilty by the court in Tours. April. A new liberal constitution, introduced by the government, was accepted by a decree of the senate, whereupon a vote of confidence was demanded from the people by a "plebiscite " (May), which resulted, thanks to the application of well-known methods, in a majority of more than seven million yeas to one and a half million nays, the latter being cast in Paris and the larger cities. In the A.. D. IVanco- German War. 513 army and the fleet more than 50,000 voted " no." In view of this giave dissatisfaction in the army, and of the constant agitation of the parties, which were in no wise quieted by the liberal concessions whicn had been made, a diversion, to be induced by involving the country in foreign disputes, such as had often been tried in France, seemed to be the best means of extrication. To the adoption of this means the emperor, who was anxious for the future of his dynasty, was more and more strongly urged by his intimate councillors (the empress, marshal Leboeuf, duke of Gramont, minister of foreign affairs). 1870. July 19-1871. March 3. Franco-Prussian War.* General Causes : 1. The idea entertained by a great part of the French nation, and kept alive by historians, poets, and the daily press, of the reconquest of the left bank of the Rhine (les frontieres naturelles ^). 2. The French, not understanding the long struggle of the German nation for political unity, saw in the consummation of this union only a forcible aggrandizement of Prussia, and in the victory of the latter state over Austria an unpermissible encroach- ment upon their own military fame. Special causes : 1. The internal troubles of the government of Napoleon III. (p. 512). 2. The rejection of the " compensation " de- manded, since 1866, from the cabinet of Berlin, for the growth of Prussia in extent and population. 3. News of the approaching in- troduction of an improved weapon for the north German infantry, which threatened to put in question the superiority of the French Immediate cause : The election of the prince of Hohenzollem to the throne of Spain (512), which was represented in Paris as a Prus- sian intrigue endangering the safety of France. The request made by the French ambassador Benedetti in Ems of king William I. in person, that he should forbid the prince of Hohenzollern to accept the Spanish crown, was refused. After the voluntary withdrawal of the prince, the French government looked to the king of Prussia for a distinct announcement " that he would never again permit the candi- dacy of the prince for the Spanish crown." King William refused to discuss the matter, and referred Benedetti to the regular method of communication through the ministry at Berlin. This and the tele- graphic announcement of the proceeding was represented by the duke of Gramont as an insult to France. Tremendous excitement in Paris, artificially fermented (cries of "a Berlin ! "). In the corps le'gislatif (July 15), opposition of a small minority ( Thiers : " because France is not prepared for war ") to the declaration of war, which the imperial government declared was forced upon them by Prussia (" La France oocyte la ffuerre que la Prusse lui offre "). 1 Der deuUch-frcmz. Krieg 1870-71, edited by the division of the Prus. sian General Staff on military liistory. Niemann, Derfrcmz. Feldzm^ von 1870-71, 2 vols. An English rendering of the French view of the war will be found in Jerrold's Life of Napoleon III., vol. iv. ^ The first use of this idea, which can be established, was by king Charlei VII.. 1444. 514 Modem History. a. d. In Germany quiet but decided attitude of tht. ^vermnent and the people. William I. on his return to Berlin enthusiastically received (July 15). The same evening mobilization of the north German army and convention of the Reichstag ordered. July 19. Delivery of the French declaration of war. Opening of the north German Reichstag, which imanimously voted a war credit (July 23). South Germany understood that the French attack, although ap- parently directed against Prussia alone, was in reality an attack upon the German nation, and that Napoleon's purpose was the conquest of German territory and the establishment of a new confederation of the Khine. The patriotic attitude of Louis II. of Bavaria, who on July 16 had declared that the case of war contemplated in the con- federation was at hand, and had ordered the mobilization of the Ba^ varian army, had a decisive influence upon Wiirtemberg. Patriotic attitude of Baden. The French cabinet, which had counted on the neutrality of south Germany, at the least, undeceived. Hence a new military plan. The grand army was to be divided into three groups, the two former (250,000) of which were to force neutrality upon the south Germans, and hasten the hoped-for alliance with Austria and Italy. This should be followed by an attack upon the north German army, while expedi- tions to the coasts of the German ocean should instigate an uprising in Hanover and secure the assistance of Denmark. In reality the strategic advance of the French army took place as follows : — 1. Corps under marshal MacMahon, at Strasburg. 2. Corps under general De Failly at Bitsch. 3. Corps under Marshal Bazaine at Metz. 4. Corps under general Ladmirault at ThionvUle (Diedenhofen). The corps of marshal Canrobert at Chalons, of general F. Douay at Belfort, and the Garde under general Bourbaki at Nancy formed the reserve (320,000). Commander-in-chief, Napoleon III. ; chief of the general staff, marshal Lebceuf. It appearing that most of the corps were not in readiness for war the plan of attack was exchanged for a defensive plan. The German forces moved in three great armies. I. Army, right wing, Steinmetz at Coblentz (60,000). II. Army, centre, prince Frederic Charles, Mainz (134,000, with the reserve 194,000). m. Army, left wing, crown prince Frederic William at Mann- heim (130,000). The total strength of the north German army 750,000 (of which 198,000 were Landwehr) ; of the south German 100,000. Commander- in-chief, king William I. ; chief of the general stafE, general Von Moltke. The strategic movement of the German armies was at first planned for defense simply, but as the enemy's delay gave a chance for an attack an advance of all three armies towards the boundary, from Trier to Landau, began in the latter part of July. Before the Ger- vnans could take the offensive the French made an A. D. Franco-German War. 515 i II E~ Sgg'4 S 3.?s|_ r pa ■ i frft >■ p ri* e ff- >TJ a Wg-.Bgi ill- oS- 1^ ri- 1" mS-< 4 l^|- ^a? i as a, ?=€- S:>e S— Snp ^ ffl Jl- w?l fci i^r r ■ a^ ^ §■_ B 3 'Sas-S' 11 1 3- i af ~fa|i2 gPI- ff .pi ss-ag.- Pa s s <4m S m p 000'— la|^.» g ^4 Is g I ¥ 5 i-" i 516 Modern History. A. D. 1870. Attack upon Saarbriicken. The repulse of a single bat- Aug. 2. talion by three divisions was represented in the French re- ports as an important victory. Aug. 4. Engagement at 'Weissenburg. MacMabon after a most courageous defense defeated in the Aug. 6. Battle of 'Worth {Reichshofen) by the army of the crown prince, which was numerically greatly his superior. Aug. 6. German victory at Spicheren (Saarbriicken). In consequence of these defeats the French army commenced its retreat to the Moselle. The crown prince detached a corps to besiege Strashurg and other Alsatian fortresses, and advanced upon Nancy ; the I. army marched upon Metz ; the II. army upon Pont a Mousson, with the intention of surrounding the main force of the French about Metz and cutting them off from Paris. To prevent this Bazaiue, upon whom the emperor had conferred the chief command, resolved, after some indecision, to retreat upon Chdlons-sur-Marne and join there the remnants of MacMahon's com- mand and a newly formed army. To prevent such juncture the ad- vance guard of the I. army attacked Bazaine and in the Aug. 14. Battle of Colonibey-Nouilly and the Aug. 16. Battle of Vionville (drawn battle), with great losses, prevented the retreat of the French to Verdun. Upon the arrival of the delayed corps of the I. and II. army on the next day, the French were again attacked in their excellently chosen and partially strongly fortified positions. In the Aug. 18. Battle of Gravelotte and St. Privat (Bezon- ville) the Germans under command of king William I. gained an advantageous position after eight hours' hot fighting, in spite of the desperate resistance of the French. Aug. 19. B,etreat of the French under the guns of Metz. The result of these three bloody battles near Metz was to separate the French force into two parts, and to surround their main army in and about a fortress which was not provisioned for so large a body of troops. 1870, Aug. 19-Oct. 27. Siege of Metz. Aug. 14^Sept. 27. Siege of Strasburg by general Von Werder. After the battles near Metz, advance upon Chalons. MacMahon evacuated ChSlons, but instead of retreating to Paris, as was expected at the German headquarters, he attempted to reach Metz and liberate Bazaine by a circuitous flank march to the northeast. Napoleon III. accompanied the army. On learning of this manoeuvre the Germans made a detour toward the right (north). Bazaine's attempt to break through the German lines and join Mac- Mahon frustrated by the Aug. 31 and Sept. 1. Engagements at Noisseville. MacMahon saw the impossibility of reaching Metz, and con- centrated his forces at Sedan. The Germans (240,000) far outnum- bering the French (about 100,000) decided to send a part of their A. D. Franco- German War. 517 troops over the Meuse and surround the French army. This was accomplished by the Sept. 1. Battle of Sedan, MacMahon, wounded in the morning, gave up the command to Ducrot, who afterwards transferred it to the older general Wimpffen. The victorious advance of the Germans on all sides was not cheeked by the briUiant charges of the French cavalry. At three o'clock the French army was surrounded. Napoleon III. delivered his sword to ■William I. and acknowledged himself a prisoner. Negotiations between Von Moltke and Wimpffen, and between Napoleon III. and Bismarck. The following forenoon the 1870. Sept. 2. Capitulation of Sedan was signed. The entire French army prisoners of war : 39 generals, 2,300 offi- cers, 83,000 men, 20,000 having been captured duriug the battle (3,000 escaped to Belgium). Napoleon lU. conducted to Wilhelms- hohe. In Paris the news of the first defeats, which had been long con- cealed, produced great excitement and the fall of the ministry of OUivier (Aug. 10). Montauban-Palikao, the minister of war, formed a new ministry composed of ultra-Bonapartists. Falsification of war news. Paris in a state of siege. The receipt of the news of the oa/- pitulation of Sedan caused the 1870. Fall of the Empire and Proclamation of the Sept. 4. (third) Republic. Flight of the empress Eugenie to England. Provisional gov- ernment of the " National defense." Troohu (president and gover- nor of Paris), Favre (foreign affairs), Gambetta (interior), Cremieux (justice), Simon (religion and edueation), Leflo (war), Fourichon (navy). Sept. 4^16. March of the German armies upon Paris. Defenses of Paris : continuous line of bastions and trenches, sur- rounding the suburbs ; around this on the inside a belt railroad ; six- teen detached forts, two of which, Mont Vale'rien in the west and St. Denis in the north, were actual fortresses, all connected by continu- ous entrenchments and liberally provided witli heavy artillery and military stores. Including the sailors and garrison, about 72,000 veterans ; with the mobilized guards from the provinces, the guard mobile and national guard of Paris, over 300,000 men. Extensive accumulation of provisions. The negotiations between Bismarck and Favre leading to no result (refusal of any cession of territory), the great city was invested by the IV.i army on the north and east, by the III. army on the S. and W. Headquarters at Versailles. 1870, Sept. 19-1871, Jan. 28. Siege of Paris. After the capitulation of Sedan the whole war was a struggle for Paris. Excepting the conquest of Alsace and German Lorraine, I The IV. army was formed, after Gravelotte, from corps of the I. and II. 518 Modern History. A, d. which Germany had regarded as the prize of victory, from the com- mencement of the war, all the military operations of the Germans had the object of preserving the positions and the lines of connection of the armies about Paris, and of preventing any attempt to raise the siege ; the raising of the siege was, on the contrary, the object of all the French operations. 1870. In consequence of the withdrawal of the French garrison Sept. 20. from Kome, capture of that city by the Italiaxi army and abolition of the Becular power of the Pope. Sept. 23. Capture of Toul. Sept. 27. Capitulation of Strasburg. The delegation of the French government in Tours, since Oct. 9, under the dictatorship of Gambetta, who had left Paris in a bal- loon, formed two armies for the relief of Paris : a. army of the Loire (not 30,000) ; b. northern army. The former defeated by the Ba- varian general Von der Tann in the 1870, Oct. 10. Engagement at Artenay. Occupation of Orleans. While Gambetta with the greatest energy was strengthening and arming forces for relief, Bazaine, who, as leader of the largest regu- lar army in France, had thought to play a political r61e, by means of negotiations, was forced, after several unsuccessful sorties, to the 1870, Oct. 27. Capitulation of Metz. (3 marshals, 6,000 officers, 187,000 men, 622 field artillery, 876 fortress cannon). A part of the besieging army was sent to reinforce the armies before Paris ; a part was dispatched under Manteuffel against the French army of the north ; the largest part, under prince Frederic Charles, was sent against the army of the Loire. Nov. 28. Defeat of the army of the Loire at Beaune la Rolande (by prince Frederic Charles), whereby the purpose of the French commander to force his passage to Paris was frus- trated. Nov. 27. Defeat of the army of the north at Amiens by il/are- teuffd. Nov. 30. At Paris, sortie under Trochu and Duorot, in coopera- tion with the intended advance of the Loire army. Storm and capture of Champigny and Brie. Successful defense of Vil- liers and CceuUy by Wilrtemberg troops. Further French ad- vance was checked, but they kept Brie. After great losses in the fight and through cold the French troops returned to Paris (Dec. 3). Dee. 2-4. Battle of Orleans, the name given to a number of engagements in which the Germans defeated the army of the Loire, with the following results : 1. Capture of the strong French entrenchments on the right bank of the Loire, and re-occupation of Orleans^ 2. Sep- aration of the army of the Loire into two parts. Flight of the delegation of the government to Bordeaux (Dec. 9). The larger part of the Loire army driven behind Venddme ; Frederic Charles, at Orleans, covered the besieging armies be- fore Paris from the south. A. D. Franco- German War. 519 Deo. 27. Opening of the bombardment of the forts of Paris, after the transportation of heavy artillery and munitions had been accomplished with the greatest difficulty. Bombardment of the city, Jan. 8, 1871. 1871, Jan. 12. Battle of Le Mans. Defeat of Chanzy by Frederic Charles. The French army al- most annihilated. Jan. 6-12. Sortie from Paris against Meudon and Clamart, and one against Le Bourget repulsed. In the south, Bourbaki with 150,000 men forced von Werder, who was besieging Belf ort, without giving up the siege, to take up a favor- able position along the Lisaine by a masterly retreat. In the three days Jan. 15-17. Battle of Belfort, Von Werder successfully defended his position, and forced Bourbaki to retreat. Jan. 18. Renewal of the title and oflace of German Emperor in the palace of Louis XIV. at Versailles, all the sovereigfn princes and the three free cities having offered the crown to king William I. Jan. 19. Last great sortie from Paris, with 100,000 men, imder Trochu, repulsed after severe fighting. On the same day, Jan. 19. Battle of St. Quentin, in which general Von Goben completely defeated and scattered the French army of the north. In the south Manteuffel forced the French to take refuge in the neutral territory of Switzer- land, where they were disarmed. 1871, Jan. 28. Capitulation of Paris by the convention of Versailles : 1. surrender of all the forts with munitions of war, disarmament of the city wall ; 2. all French soldiers in Paris considered as prisoners of war, with exception of 12,000 men, which, with the national guard, preserved order ; the French officials to provision the city ; 3. the city of Paris paid 200 million francs ; 4. truce (excepting the departments of Doubs, Jura, and Cote d'or) for three weeks, for the purpose of allowing a free elec- tion for a national assembly, which was to meet in Bordeaux, and de- cide between peace and war. Gambetta's resistance to this agreement was soon broken ; his resignation (Feb. 6). Elections throughout France (Feb. 8). The national assembly formed in Bordeaux (Feb. 12). Truce^ prolonged to 24th Feb., and afterwards to March 3. Thiers, elected head of the executive department, conducted the negotiations with Bismarck which resulted in the Feb. 26. Preliminaries of peace at Versailles. 1. France ceded to the German Empire : Alsace (except Belfort and territory) and German Lorraine, with Metz and Die- denhofen (ThionvUle), in all 4,700 square miles, with one and a half million inhabitants ; 2. France agreed to pay five milliards of francs for indemnification in three years, which were secured by an occupO' tion of French territory. 520 Modern History. A. D. March 1. Entrance of 30,000 German troops into Paris (addi- tional article), and temporary occupation of a small part of the city ; evacuated again on March 3d. The preliminaries of peace were rati- fied, and the details settled in the definitive 1871, May lO. Peace of Frankfort on Main. The results of the war were : 1. destruction of the niilitary power of France ; 2. acquisition of a secure military boundary for Germany on the west ; 3. the realization of the political unity of the Grennan nation. March 21-JTine 15. First imperial Parliament of the new German federal state (Bundestaat), which on April 14 'almost unanimonsly adopted the following constitution for the em- pire : presidency hereditarily connected with the crown of Prussia, whose king bore the title of German emperor, and represented the empire in international relations, declared war and peace (with the consent of the BundesratK), concluded aUianees, and had the chief command of the army and navy. The representatives of the 25 gov- ernments formed the federal council {BundesratK) under the pres- idency of the chancellor of the empire (the first : prince Bis- marck). (In all, 58 votes : Prussia 17, Bavaria 6, Sasony and Wiir- temberg each 4, Baden and Hesse eaph 3, Meckleuburg-Schwerin and Brunswick each 2, the rest each 1.) The representatives of the people formed the imperial parliament {RdchsUig), consisting of 382 mem- bers, chosen by direct manhood suffrage. Centralized military sys- tem ; universal compulsory service (3 years in standing army, 4 years in reserve, 5 years in the Landwehr), uniform postal and telegraph service, iiniform system of coinage, weights and measures. The new German empire comprised 216,770 sq. miles, and more than 41,000,000 inhabitants. 1871, July 1. Rome became seat of the government and capital of Italy, now completely united under the sceptre of Victor Em- manuel (guarantee for the Pope). Sept. Opening of the Mt. Cenis tunnel across the Alps (beernn 1859 ; 7.6 miles long). 1872, June 29. New agreement between Germany and France, which fixed the payment of the fourth milliard for March 1, 1874 ; the fifth, March 1, 1875 ; and permitted the substitution of a financial security for this last milliard for the occupation of French territory. J 873, Jan. 9. Death of Napoleon III. in Chiselhurst (England). Feb. Ainadeus 7. resigned the Spanish crown. Spain a republic. Anarchy. Civil war against the Federalists in Cartagena (cap- tured 1874), and against Dan Carlos in the north. July-Sept. The Grerman troops, after an anticipation of the indem- nity, leave the French territory. In Italy, in Switzerland, and in Prussia, struggle between the state and the Roman catholic hierarchy. In Italy, dissolution of all mon- asteries in Rome and the former papal states (May, 1873). In Swit- zerland, complete rupture with the Roman chair and establishment *■• D- Franco- German War. 521 of a catholic clergy elected by the people. In Prussia, in conse- quence of the May laws (afterwards extended), which the catholic clergy openly resisted, numerous aiTCSts and removals of ecclesias- tics. This contest led to the 1874. Introduction of compulsory civil marriage and the civil Oct. 1. registration of births and deaths, which afterwards became an imperial law (Jan. 1, 1876). Oct. International Postal Congress in Bern. The regulations agreed upon went into force July 1, 1875 (for France, Jan. 1, 1876). Dec. 29-31. Military " pronunciamientos " for Alfonso, prince of As- turia, son of queen Isabella, led to the 1875, Jan. Restoration of monarchy in Spain. 1875-1885. Alfonso XII., king of Spain. In the north, in spite of soire successes of the royal troops, the civil war continued against Don Carlos, whom the new king declared to be an usurper. 1875. Revolt against Turkish government in Herzegovina, sup- July, ported by Montenegro and Servia. March. End of the civil war in Spain. Don Carlos was obliged to leave the country, and went to England. May. The Turks proved unable to suppress the revolt in Herzego- vina. Murder of the German and French consuls in Salonica. The three northern great powers invited the other three to join in making a common representation to the Porte (memo- randum of Berlin). Great Britain refused to join. Before the memorandum could be presented a May 29. Palace Revolution occurred in Constantinople. Deposi- tion of the Sultan Abdul- Aziz, who died shortly afterwards. Murad V. succeeded. 1876, July. Servia (prince Milan) and Montenegro (prince Nikita) declared war upon the Porte. A revolt which had broken out in Bulgaria bloodily suppressed by the Turks. The Turkish troops and the Turkish militia exercised shameful cruelties, which produced the greatest indignation through- out Europe, particularly in Russia, thereby giving the Russian gov- ernment a welcome excuse to proclaim i^elf the protector of the oppressed Christians, and especially of the Slavonic population in Turkey. Military preparations in Russia. Meanwhile the war was waged unsuccessfully by Servia, in spite of the open Russian assistance, and the presence of Russian volunteers in the Servian army, which obtained a Russian commander in Tsher- aajeff, while the Montenegrins were several times victorious. 1876. New, bloodless palace revolution in Constantinople. Murad Aug. v., who suffered from an incurable mental disorder, deposed. He was succeeded by his brother. Abdul Hamid II. The Turkish army crossed the Servian frontier, and was prevented from marching further only by an ultimatum of the Russian government. The Porte agreed to a truce for two months at first, and afterward for six months. Russia being unable to induce any other power to join her iu an 522 Modem History. A. D. armed interference with Turkey, and being herself unprepared for war and hindered by the winter season, diplomatic negotiations were prolonged. Finally a conference of ambassadors of all the great powers was. arranged to meet in Constantinople. Dec. 24. Meeting of the conference. Promulgation of a constitu- tion for the whole Ottoman empire, which gave the Christians equal rights with Muhammedans and which the Porte hoped would make unnecessary any special provisions in favor of his Chmtian sub- jects, to be guaranteed by the powers. 1877. The guarantees which were still demanded by the conference in spite pf the Turkish constitution, but which had been grad- ually reduced in extent, were rejected by the Porte, after consulta^ tion with an imperial council summoned for the occasion. The am- bassadors of all the great powers left Constantinople. Peace concluded between the Porte and Servia on the basis of the itatus quo ante helium. Montenegro continued in arms. After further negotiations with the European powers, which had no result, and after completion of its preparations, the Bussian govern- ment concluded to take up arms alone against Turkey, making a formal declaration that it had no conquests in view. 1877. April-1878, March. Turoo-Bussian "War. A. Seat of vtrar in Europe : A Bussian army under the grand duke Nicholas crossed the Pruth, an understanding with Uoume" lia having been previously reached, and advanced to the Danube, which was first crossed June 22 by a corps under Zimmennann, which occupied the Dohrudsha ; the main army, which Alexander II. had meanwhile joined, forced the 1877. Passage of the Danube at Shistova. Jime 27. A flying corps under Gurko crossed the Balkan by an un- guarded pass, and drove the Turkish garrison from the impor- tant Shipka Pass, by an attack from the south (July 17-19), while one division of the main army, under the crown prince, fronted east and by hard fighting, prolonged for months about the rivers Jantra and Lom, held in check the Turkish army xmdeiAbdid Kerim (after- wards under Mehemed All, and finally under Suleiman). The other division of the Russian army captured Nicopolis (July 15), but suffered repeated repulses with heavy loss before Plevna (S. W. from Nicopolis), where Osman Pasha Imd collected Turkish troops and thrown up strong fortifications (July 20 and 30), and was forced to wait for reinforcements. Meantime Suleiman Pasha attempted in vain to storm the Shipka Pass from the south with superior numbers (Aug. 23, Sept. 17). He was now appointed commander of the Turkish army in the east on the Lom, where his troops had been sadly missed. Arrival of Roumanian troops.,and Russian reinforcements before Plevna. After the failure of an attempted storm (Sept. 7-12), a reg- ular siege was undertaken (gen. Totlehen), and Dec. 10. Plevna captured. Osman Pasha, with 44,000 men, obliged to surrender after a futile attempt to break through the Rus- _ eian lines. Return of the Roumanians to their country, of Alexander A. D. Thirco-Sussian War. 523 //. to St. Petersburg. Servia (Deo. 14) declared war upon the Porte anew. Deo.^an. A Russian division under Gurko crossed the western Bal- kans and occupied Sophia ; a second under Radetzki and Sko- JeZe/f poured through the 'Shipka Pass. Both divisions, in conjunction with the portions of the eastern army which had also crossed the Balkans, advanced by way of Pkilippopolis (victory of Cfurko over remnants of the Turkish army, Jan. 16 and 17, 1878) and Adrianople (occupied Jan. 20), close upon Constantinople. B. Seat of war in Asia (Russian commander-in-chief grand duke Michael). While the operations of a Russian division against Batoum, as well as an expedition of the Turkish fleet to the Caucas- ian coasts, were without result, the main column of the Russian army (Loris-Melikoff) forced its way to Kars, which it invested (May, 1877). Two other divisions occupied Ardaghan and Bajasid. The reverses suffered from Mukhtar Pasha, who advanced to the relief of Kars from Erzeroum (June), compelled the Russians to retreat across the frontier, abandoning almost all their conquests. In October the Russians advanced again, and after the 1877. Storm of Ears Nov. 8. pushed on victoriously to Erzeroum. The success of the Russian arms created lively apprehensions in the west, particularly in England, to whom Turkey appealed for mediation. Angry negotiations between England and Russia. Mean- while the Porte was obliged to ask for peace directly of Russia, which in the 1878. Agreement of Adrianople Jan. 31. granted a preliminary truce, and sketched the plan of a future peace. 1878, Feb. 1. Greece sent her troops into Thessaly, but was induced to withdraw them after a few days. After the Russians had drawn their lines closer and closer about Constantinople and had occupied Erzeroum in Armenia, and a part of the English fleet which was lying before the Dardanelles had entered the Sea of Marmora, the March 3. Peace of San Stefano (near Constantinople) was concluded between Russia and Turkey: 1. Montenegro and Servia received considerable additions from Turkish territory, and were recognized as independent ; likewise, Roumania. 2. Bul- garia, i. e. the larger part of ancient Mcesia, Thrace, and Macedonia (boundaries : Danube, the Black Sea and JEgean Sea, Albania and Servia) remained tributary to the Porte, but received a Christian prince, separate administration and militia ; a Russian commissary with 50,000 men was to remain two years in the country. 3. The Porte was to introduce certain reforms in the small portion of his European possessions which remained to liim. 4. Turkey paid Rus- sia 300 inillion rubles, and ceded large parts of Armenia in Asia and the Dobrudsha in Europe, Russia agreeing to give the latter to Roumania in return for the part of Bessarabia (p. 601) which she had ceded in 1856. S24 Modern History. A. D. This peace aroused great opposition in the west, especially in Eng- land, which showed herself ready to go to war with Bussia in case the latter insisted on the execution of the above conditions. Austria also began to arm. June 4. The Porte concluded a treaty with England (at first secret), wherein the latter undertook to protect Turkey in Asia against Kussianeonquest. The Porte, however, promised to introduce reforms in these parts, and gave up the island of Cyprus to England (Cyprus occupied July 11). Germany having mediated between Russia and England, to prevent war, and three powers having come to a preliminary understanding, the 1878, June 13-July 13. Congress of Berlin met under the presidency of prince Bismarck. Principal conditions: 1. Montenegro, Servia, Roumania, became independent, bat the cessions to be made to the two former states were somewhat reduced, while the territory which Koumania was to receive in exchange for Bessarabia was somewhat enlarged. 2. The principality of Bulgaria was limited to the country between the Danube and the Balkans, including, however, Sophia and its territory. (An assembly of notables elected prince Alexander of Battenberg (Hesse), a nephew of the Russian emperor, April, 1879.) 3. The southern portion of Bulgaria, with its boundaries considerably nar- rowed toward the south and west, was left under the immediate rule of the sultans, with the title Province of East Roumelia, but received a separate militia, and administration under a Christian governor-gen- eral ; only in specified cases could it be occupied by regular Turkish troops. 4. The Russian troops were to evacuate East Roumelia and Bulgaria inside of nine months, Roumania inside of a year. 6. The Porte ceded to Austria the military occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the military occupation of the Sandshak of Nmii Bazar. 6. The Porte was advised to cede a part of Epirus and Thessaly to Greece. 7. Russia received in Asia Batoum (as a free harbor), Kars, Ardaghan, and some border territories. 8. In Turkey, and all the states which had been separated from her, there should be political equality of all confessions. 1878. Death of Victor Bmmauuel, king of Italy (p. 603). Jan. 9. He was succeeded by his son, Umber'to (Humbert) I. Feb. 7. Death of pope Pius IX. He was succeeded by Leo XIH. (Pecci). May 11 and June 2. Attempted assassination of the German em- peror William I., who at the second attempt was somewhat dangerously wounded. In consequence, law against the ex- cesses of the social democrats. 1878. Entrance of the Austrians into Bosnia and Herzego- July 29. Vina, where part of the inhabitants offered armed resist- ance until autumn (1879, occupation of the Lim territory). 1879. In the German empire excited discussion of changes advocated by prince Bismarck in the tariff and economical policy (new tariff, July). Attempted reconciliation with the Pope. The A. D. Turco-Russian War. 525 Prussian minister of religion (Falk since 1872) retired ; his successor, Fon Pu<«iamer (SvXy 14). Russia assuming a hostile attitude, and attempting to form an al- liance with France against Germany, Sept. 21-24. Bismarck visited Vienna, and a defensive alliance was concluded between Prussia and Austria. Oct. 1. The new system of jurisprudence for the entire German em- pire went in force (supreme court in Leipzig). 1880. The boldness of the Nihilists in Russia continuing to increase Feb. in spite of the severe measures of the government (three des- perate attempts upon the life of Alexander II. inside of ten months), general Loris-Melikoff was clothed with a sort of dictatorial power, but endeavored to prevent the imminent dangers by conces- sions. Conflict with the papacy in regard to ecclesiastical orders and new laws relating to education in France, and still more sharply in Bel- gium (liberal ministry of Frere Orban since 1878). In Prussia, all negotiations with the papacy proving vain, certain limitations of the existing laws relating to the church (p. 620) were introduced as an attempt to reach the desired result by political leg- islation. The resolutions of the congress of Berlin had never been com- pletely carried into execution, in part because of the resistance of the Albanian league (secretly aided by the Porte ?) to the cessions made to Montenegro, and also because the negotiations relative to a sur- render of territory to Greece had been without result. Hence the June 16-July 1. Conference of Berlin was called, which delivered to the Porte certain distinct propo- sitions in regard to these questions (Thessaly and Epirus with Janina to be given to Greece), which should eventually be enforced by armed interference. The Porte still delaying, a squadron of vessels of all the great powers assembled at Ragusa (Sept.). This demonstration produced the Nov. Surrender of Dulcigno and territory to Montenegro. 1881. March 13. Alexander II, murdered in St. Petersburg. He was . succeeded by his son, 1881-1894. Alexander III. Rowmania made a kingdom. March-April. Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople. The Porte decided to carry out the surrender of territory to Greece, though to a somewhat smaller extent than was indicated by the Berlin conference. Sept. 8. Meeting of William I. of Germany and Alexander III. of Russia at Danzig. 1882. Disturbances in southern Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Bosnia. Jan. Dispatch of Austrian troops to these points. Jan. 7. Excitement created in Prussia by the publication of a royal rescript, attacking the theory of responsible ministers, and an- nouncing that all persons in government service were expected to support the govenmient at elections. 526 Modern History. A. D. 1881, Jan. 21. Passage of the electoral reform bill in Italy. Suffrage conferred on all male Italians over twenty-one years of age, who possessed either (1) a certain amount of property or (2) a certain amount of education. Adoption of the scrutin de liste ; minority representation in districts returning five or more deputies. Feb. 11. Lectures in the Czechish (Bohemian) language established in the university of Prague. Feb. 21. Trial of persons accused of being concerned in the murder of the czar of Russia. In spite of some concessions to the peasants, and of the continuance of vigorous repressive meas- ures, undaunted activity of the nihilists. March 6. Servia made a kingdom ; prince Milan king as Milan L March 10. Suppression of the disturbances in Herzegovina and south- em Dalmatia by the Austrians. Tendency in the German Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag to come to terms with Rome and the clerical party (autumn). Approaching end of the Kultwrkampf. April 10. Retirement of Gortschakoff, minister of foreign affairs in Russia ; he was succeeded by De Oiers; this change, regarded as an assurance of peaceful intentions, quieted the apprehen- sions which had been aroused by the anti-Teutonic invectives of Skobeleffia Paris and elsewhere (Skobeleff, f July 7). May 22. Opening of the St. Gothard railroad across the Alps. (Begun 1872, tunnel 9\ miles long.) June 2. Death of Giuseppe Garibaldi (b. 1807, at Nice ; conspira- tor in 1833 ; in Montevideo, in South America, 1835 ; defense of Rome, 1849 ; in North AJnerica, 1854 ; service against Aus- tria, 1859, 1860 ; unsuccessful attempts upon Rome, 1862, 1867 ; participation in the Franco- Prussian war, 1870, 1871 ; member of the Italian chamber of deputies, 1875). Rejection of the tobacco monopoly advocated by Bismarck, in the German Reichstag. 1882, June 21. Expiration of the Stort^injr in Norway. Violent royal speech rebuking the opposition. Constitutional struggle over the royal veto, and presence of ministers in the Storthing. Sept. Anti- Jewish riots, especially at Pressburg (Sept. 27-30). Sept.-Nov. New elections in Norvray. Return of an increased radical majority. (JSee p. B73.) § 3. TRANCE. (Seep. 485.) 1815-1882. 1814 (1815)-1824. Louis XVIIL First restoration, Apr. 6. Royal proclamation of a liberal constitution (charts constituHonelle), June 4, 1814 : hereditary mon- archy ; two chambers (peers nominated by the king, lower house elected by the people) ; freedom of the press ; religious liberty ; re- sponsible ministers ; judges not removable. Return of Napoleon. The Hundred Days (Mar. 20-June 22), see page 483. Fall of Napoleon. A. D. France. L27 1815, Jiily 8. Second restoration. 1815, Sept. 25-1818, Dec. 29. Ministry of the duke of Richelieu. Nov. 20. Second peace of Paris (p. 485). An ultra-royalist chamber (chanibre introuvable ; compare the " Cav- alier " parliament of Charles II. of England, p. 378). La terreur ilancAe. Parties : court (Richelieu), advocating return to the old monarchy ; legitimists (Decazes); doctrinaires (Guizoi), advocates of constitutional monarchy with strong administration ; liberals (inde- pendents, Perier, Lafayette) ; Bonapariists ; republicans. Gravitation towards a monarchy resting on the middle classes (bourgeoisie). Ministry of Dessoles-Decazes (1818, Dec. 29-1819, Nov.) ; of Decazes (1819, Nov. 10-1820, Feb.). 1820, Feb. 13. Murder of the duke of Berry, the second nephew of Louis XVHI., by Louvel. Ultra^royalist ministry. Laws re- stricting freedom of the press and of elections. Sept. 29. Birth of the duke of Bordeaux, posthumous son of the duke of Berry ; " Henry V. ; " " Europe's child." Presenta- tion of the castle of Chambord by national subscription. 1821, May 5. Death of Napoleon I. at St. Helena. 1821, Dec. 13-1828, Jan. 4. Ministry of ViUfele (ultra-royalist). 1823, French intervention in Spain ; capture of Madrid and Cadiz ; liberation of Ferdinand VII., by the duke of AngonlSme. Cruel reaction. Numerous executions (Riego). Septennial election law (violation of the charter). New chamber of ul- tras-royalists (chambre retrouve'e, 1824). 1824, Sept. 16. Death of Louis XVm. 1824-1830. Charles X. 1825, March. Grant of a milliard ($200,000,000) to returned refugees as compensation for their confiscated estates.^ Growth of the liberal party : Collaud, Constant, Perier, Broglie, Chateaubriand. Outcry against the Jesuits. 1827, April 30. National guard disbanded. 1828, Jan. Fall of the ViUele ministry in consequence of the retnm of a liberal majority at the election. 1828, Jan. 4^1829, Aug. 8. Martignao ministry (" too liberal for the royalists, too reactionary for the liberals "_). 1829, Aug.-1830, July. Polignac ministry ; reactionary, ultra^roy- alist. " No more concessions ! " 1830, March 18. Address of the 221, in reply to the king's speech ; vote of want of confidence. Dissolution May 16. July 5. Capture of Algiers by the French. Reasons for the expedition : 1. An insult offered the French ambassadors by the Dey, Husseyn. 2. The desire of the French gov- ernment to quiet the agitation and dissatisfaction which prevailed in France, by some outside success. Algeria (Afrique Frangaise) subjugated by a tedious war with the Arabs and Kabyls, constantly breaking out anew. Abdel-Eader (1827, captured by Lamoriciere and the duke of Aumale, fourth son of 1 The ruined cavaliers in England got $3,000,000 in 1661. 628 Modem History. A. D. - 2 °".S 1- w Pi Ph 3 3 — 3 3 H o •*— .b — b- 9 W So- BO bo ■g.s g (L, 1^ ^ Hi hi 3 3" = ■?§ S 03 J 3 t- j_ n6 O O poo 3 ^ o. 3 o •!— 03 >" 03 M - 19 eiT ■^ '5 - o -B- -g-' 09 CO (DOB -1- -. "S S!> '3'-' °5^SS .S! !^ — "S»- 9'"' o oT 0) S . '^ c2 -I- hi = 01.5 o- -.2 is A. D. France. 529 Louis Philippe ; 1852, released and sent to Asia Minor by Louis Na- poleon). New elections. Return of an increased liberal majority ; 202 of the 221 reelected (" aide toi "). 1830, July 27-29. The July Revolution. The Three Days of July. The Great Week. Cause : publication of the three (five) ordinauces on July 26, professedly founded on article 14. 1. The recent elections declared illegal. 2. The electoral system arbitrarily changed so as to restrict the suffrage to rich land-owners. 3. Prohibition of the publication of newspapers and pamphlets without a royal permit. This violation of the charter produced a revolt in Paris July 27. Protests (Thiers, Mignet). Barricade fights. July 28, rising of the bourgeoisie ; imper- fect military preparations, bad leadership and care of the troops, who in part deserted, resulted in the victory of the populace. Capture of the Hotel de VUle. July 29, capture of the Louvre. Retreat of the troops. Provisional government : Lqfitte, Perier, Barrot. Lafayette commander of the national g^ard. Futile repeal of the ordinances. Duke of Orleans lieutenant general of France (" the charter hence- forward to be a reality "). Charles X. (f in Gorz, in Styria, 1836), and his son, the duke of Angouleme, abdicated in favor of their grandson and nephew, the duke of Bordeaxa (who subsequently called himself count of Chamhord, p. 527). The claims of this pretender being set aside, the younger line of Bourbon (Orleans, see genealogical table, p. 528) was raised to the throne in the person of 1830-] 848. Louis Philippe, the king of the French (le roi bourgeois; monarchy of July). Alteration of the charter in a liberal spirit. Abolition of art. 14. Prohibition of the censure. The king to share the initiative with the chamber. Ministry of Bro- glie, Guizot, Lafayette (1830, Aug. 11-Nov.) ; of Lafitte (1830, Nov. 2-1831, March 13) ; of Casimir PeHer (1831, Mar. 13-1832, May). Trial and condemnation of four ex-ministers of Charles X. Rebellion of the duchess of Berry (1832). 1832, Oct. 11-1836, Feb. Ministry of Thiers, Guizot, Broglie. Insurrection in Lyons (1834, April). 1835, July 28. Fieschi's infernal machine. By this attempt upon the life of Louis Philippe twelve persons were killed and forty wounded. It was followed by the adoption of laws limiting the freedom of the press (laws of September). ' Re- tirement of Guizot, Broglie (doctrinaires) ; ministry of Feb. 22, 1836 (Thiers, progressionists). Ministry of Sept. 6 {Mole', Guizot; Thiers out). 1836, Oct. 30. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I., see the genealogical table, p. 466) made an adventurous attempt to get himself proclaimed emperor at Strasburg. He was captured without difficulty, his accomplices brought to trial, he himself sent to America by the French government on a ship of war (with an annuity of 15,000 francs from Louis Philippe's privy purse). ^ 1 Quizot, Mcmoires, vol. iv. chap. 24. 34 530 Modem History. A. d. Ministry of April 15 (1837), Mol6 without Ouizot. Union of Ouizot and Thiers in opposition. Republican insurrection in Paris (May 12, 1839). Ministry of Soult (1839, May 12-1840, Mar. 1), without Guizot, Thiers, Odilon-Barrot. Ministry of Thiers (1840, Mar. 1-Oct. 29). Diplomatic complications consequent on the revolt of Mehemet Ali (p. 491). 1840. Second adventurous attempt of Ltmis Napoleon. He sailed from Margate with only iifty adherents to Bologne, where he was captured by the national guard, tried by the court of peers, and condemned to imprisonment for life (escaped from Ham under the name and in the dress of a mason, Badinguet, 1846). The remains of Napoleon I., brought from St. Helena by the prince of JoinviUe, the third son of Louis Philippe, were solemnly entombed under the dome of the Invalides at Paris (1840, Dec. 15). Fortification of Paris. Quadruple treaty of London (1840, July 15) ; anger of France. Pall of Thiers. 1840, Oct. 29-1848, Feb. 24. Ministry of Soult and Guizot. Death of the duke of Orleans (1842, July 13). Trouble with Englaiid : Tahiti (Pritchard) ; Spanish marriages (1843-44). De- mand for electoral reform and exclusion of place-men from the chamber of deputies rejected by the government (pensee immuahle). During this reign development of the parties : Legitimists (count of Chambord) ; Orleanists ; Bonapartists ; Republicans. 1848, Feb. 22-24. The Revolution of February. Barricade fights with the troops, conducted principally by members of the secret (socialistic) societies, assisted by a section of the national guard, which was dissatisfied with the reactionary policy of the government. Partial defection of the troops. Guizot resigned (Feb. 23). Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris, son of the duke of Orleans (f 1842) and the princess Helena of Mecklenburg. Duchess of Orleans in the chamber of deputies. {L'emeute e'tait devenue une revolution^ Provisional government at the Hotel de Ville {Dupont de I'Eure, Lamartine, Ledru Rollin, Marie, Cremieux, Arago, Oarmer-Pagh, the elder). Republic proclaimed (Feb. 24), to the disagreeable surprise of the bourgeoisie of Paris. The socialist Louis Blanc became the head of a commission of laborers (afterwards called ministry of progress') with a view to the " organization of labor," but accomplished nothing prac- tical. Call of a national assembly at Paris to adopt a constitution for 'the new democratic republic. Establishment of costly public workshops (ateliers nationaux) and recognition of the " right to work." ' Establishment of the garde mobile. 1848-1851 (1852). France (for the second time) a repub- lic. June 23-26. Terrible insurrection (the days of June) in Paris in con- sequence of the closing of the ateliers. Bloody fights in the 1 It is claimed that Louis Blanc was deceived by the government, who wished his support, but distrusted his theories. The workshops, predestined to failure, were neither conceived nor carried on in accordance with the design of their pro- jector. See Ely, French and German Socialism in Modem Times, p. 113, where authorities are quoted. A. D- France. 531 streets. Murder of archbishop Affre and of general Brea. General Cavaignac clothed with, dictatorial power. The continued efforts of the troops and the national guard subdued the insurrection of the laborers. Nov. 4, constitution of 1848. Deo. 20. Proclamation of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte as president of the republic (6,327,345 to 1,879,298 votes). 1849, Apr.-Aug. Expedition to Rome. Legislative assembly (one house) with a monarchical majority. Death of Louis Philippe at Claremont (1850, Aug. 26). 1851, Dec. 2. Coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon, who, in complicity with St. Amaud, Maupas, Momy, etc., caused the leaders of the republicans and Orleanists {Cavaignac, Charras, Chan- gamier, Lamoricih-e, Bedeau, Thiers, Victor Hugo, and others) to be surprised in their dwellings at night and imprisoned, dissolved the (second) national assembly (1849-1851), annulled the constitution which he had sworn to defend, crushed (with some shedding of blood) the revolt which broke out in the streets of Paris on Dec. 3 and 4 in consequence of these measures, and summoned the whole people to a general election (plebiscite). This resulted in the election of Dec. 20, 21. Iiouis Napoleon as president for ten years by a majority, it was asserted, of more than six nullion votes. The president was clothed with monarchical power, and permitted to issue a constitution. By a decree of Jan. 9, 1852, the president arbi- trarily banished his most important opponents ; by a decree of Jan. 14 he established a constitution like that of the first empire (s^nat, corps legislatif, see p. 464). A third decree confiscated the appanages of the house of Orleans, and compelled the members of this house to sell their whole private property in land in France within a yeai-. Freedom of the press restricted. 1852, Dec. 2-1870. Napoleon III., emperor of the French. Proclaimed by a senatus consultum, Nov. 7, and rati- fied hj & plebiscite (ISTov. 21, 22), with 7,824,189 votes against 253,145. Napoleon recognized by aU European powers. Assertions of peace- ful intentions with regard to Europe, particularly in an address at Bordeaux Q'L' Empire c^est la paix "). Napoleon III. married (Jan. 29, 1853) the Spaniard Eugenie Montijo, countess of Teba. Birth of the prince imperial, 1856, Mar. 16. 1854-1856. Crimean war (p. 499) ended by the 1856, May 30. Peace of Paris (p. 501). The empire at its height of power and respect. 1857, French expedition to China (p. 601). 1858, Jan. 14. Orsini's attempt upon the life of Napoleon III. Bombs. Orsini, under sentence of death, urged Napoleon to undertake the liberation of Italy (Orsini's " Testament," published in the Monitewr). Loi de surete gdnerale, allowing the government to ar- rest and banish, in certain cases, without trial (Feb. 19). Meeting of Napoleon III. and the Sardinian minister Cavour. Marriage of the prince Napoleon Bonaparte (geneal. table, p. 466) with ClotUde, daughter of Victor EnunanueL 532 Modern History. A. d. 1859. Austro-Sardinian war (p. 502). 1860. Nov. 24. Decree allowing the address to the throne, and cre- ating ministers without portfolios. 1861. Debates permitted to be inserted in full in the Journal Officiel. 1861-1867. Mexican expedition (p. 503). 1867. Great Exposition at Paris. 1867. Luxembourg question (p. 611). 1867. Expedition to Rome (p. 511). 1869, May. New elections ; for the first time during the second em- pire active participation of the parties and a large vote. The government received a good majority. In Paris and Lyons, victory of the ultra-radical party. 1870, Jan. 2. Ministry Ollivier. Bepeal of the hi de surete. Al- teration of the constitution by senatus considtum and plebiscite, Apr. 20, May 8. (5,679,000 majority for the government, large vote of no in the army.) 1870-1871. Franco-German war, p. 513 fol. 1871 — X. France (for the third time) a Republic. During the siege of Paris the numerous socialist party had made several attempts to seize the supreme power, vf'hich had been frustrated by the troops and the national guard. After the capitula- tion the workingmen had, under various pretexts, got possession of several hundred cannon, and converted the northeastern part of the city (Montmartre and Belleville) almost into fortresses. The attempt of general Vinoy, commander of the city, to repossess himself of these arms led to a general 1871, March 18. Uprising of the Commune (murder of generals Lecomte and Thomas), and, after the defection of several regi- ments, to the March 28-May 22. Rtile of the Socialistic Commune (Blanqui, Pyat, Flourens, Delescluze, Cluseret, Rossel, etc.). Seat of the regular government, Versailles. The comite' des interna' tionalistes held a reign of terror in Paris. Spoliation of the churches Several million " advances " exacted from the Bank for the payment of the armed mob called the National Guard, whose ranks were swollen by socialists of all nations. The march upon Versailles ended in a shameful retreat, the insurgents being fired upon from Mont Valerien. Arrest of archbishop Darboy and other " hostages," after- wards murdered. Proclamation resolving France into a number of municipal republics. ^pril 6-May 22. Second siege of Paris by marshal MacMahon, commander of the troops of the na- tional assembly, on the south and west sides, the German troops pre- serving a strict neutrality in the forts which they occupied on the northeast. Bombardment of the southern forts, and the city itself, by the Ver- sailles troops from the parallels which the Germans had constructed. Meantime socialistic violence in Paris. Destruction of the house of Thiers, and overthrow of the Colonne Vendome, May 16, 1871 (re- erected 1874). A.. D. France. 533 May 21. The Versailles troops entered the city through the Porte St. Cloud, of whose unguarded condition they were «.pprised by a Parisian. - Bloody contest against barricades (May 21-28) in the heart of Paris. The commune caused the principal buildings of Paris to be set on fire. (The TuUeries, a part of the Palais Royal, the li- brary of the Louvre, the whole of the Hotel de Ville, the palace of the Legion of Honor, the building of the ministry of finance, etc., actu- ally destroyed.) 1871, May 28. Bloody suppression of the insurrection ; executions en masse; 40,000 or 50,000 socialists captured, or afterwards arrested. The leaders court-martialed, many shot, many trans- ported to New Caledonia. 1871, Aug. 31. Thiers elected president of the republic for the session of the national assembly. May 10. Definitive treaty of Frankfort (p. 520). 1873, Jan. 9. Death of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst, in England. May 24. Thiers forced to resign by a parliamentary coalition of the monarchical parties (Legitimists, Orleanists, Bonapartists). Mar- shal MacMabon elected president by the national assembly. Nov. 19. After the attempt at a restoration of the monarchy under Henry V. (count of Chambord) had faUed, marshal Mac- Mahon was entrusted with the regency for seven years (sep- tennat) imder the title "President of the Republic." 1873, Oct.-Deo. Trial of Bazaine in the Trianon at Versailles before a court-martial, the duke of Aumale (fourth son of Louis Phi- lippe') presiding. Bazaine was condemned to degradation and death, but the sentence was remitted to twenty years' imprisonment. Ba- zaine conveyed to the island of Ste. Marguerite, near Cannes, whence he escaped in the summer of 1874. 1875, Feb. After a long struggle between the parties in the national assembly a republican constitution was finally agreed upon. The legislative po'wer was exercised by two chambers : the chamber of deputies, which was elected by direct elections and manhood suffrage for four years, and the senate (300 senators : 75 for life, elected by the national assembly, and afterwards by the sen- ate itself ; and 225 elected for nine years by electoral colleges, com- posed of deputies, councils of the departments and districts, and dele- gates of the communes). The executive poTver was entrusted to a president, who, after the expiration of the septennat (above), was to be elected by the senate and chamber of deputies united in a na- tional assembly for this purpose, for seven years, and at the expira/- tion of his term of office should be again eligible. The president, who governed by a responsible ministry, exercised almost all the rights of a constitutional monarchy, but could be impeached by the chamber of deputies before the senate for high treason. 1875, Dec. After the adoption of a new electoral law (scrutin i d'ar- 1 By the scrutin d'arrondissement, the voters in each district voted for one delegate onh* ; by the scrutin de liste (favored by Gambetta), the voters of each department voted for the whole list of delegates "from that department. — Moi/- LBK, Political History of Recent Times. 534 Modem History. A. d. rondissemenf), the national assembly, which had been in ses- sion since 1871, separated. 1876, Jan., Feb. The new elections resulted in a senate composed half of republicans and half of the three monarchical parties, while in the chamber of deputies the republicans had a de- cisive majority. Dufaure ministry (March), Simon ministry (Dec). 1877, May 16. Simon ministry displaced by the arbitrary act of MacMahnn ("coup d'etat"). Broglie ministry. Protest of 363 members of the lower house against the action of the pres- ident. Sept. 4. Death of Thiers (1797-1877). 1877, Oct. New elections. Maintenance of the republic. In spite of the return of a republican majority, MacMdhon formed a royalist ministry (Rochehouet'). As the house refused to deal with such a ministry, formation of the ministry Dufaure (re- publican). 1878, International Exhibition. 1879, Jan. 16. Pardon of over 2,000 conomunists. 1879, Jan. 30. MacMahon, involved in inextricable conflict with the chamber of deputies, resigned his office, and was succeeded by Grfivy. 1879-1887. Jules Gr^vy president of the republic. Oam- ' betta succeeded him as speaker of the house. Ministry of Waddington. Amnesty for communists. Removal of the legislature from Versailles to Paris. Secularization of education ; debate and agitation over the bill introduced by Jules Ferry, minister of public instruction, limiting the influence of religious orders in education (§ 7 : total exclusion of unauthorized religious orders from giving in- struction). Ministry of Freycinet (1879, Dec). 1879, June 1. Death of prince Louis Napoleon in South Africa. In spite of the nomination in his will of prince Victor, son of Jerome (son of the king of Westphalia), the latter (" Plotir' Plan ") was generally recognized by the Bonapartists. 1880, Mar. 30. Proclamation disbanding the order of Jesuits. June. General amnesty for convicted communists. (Rochefort.") Sept. 19. Ministry of Jules Ferry. Nov. Expulsion of unauthorized orders from their religions houses. 1881, Expedition to Tunis, ostensibly to punish marauding border tribes, and to uphold the claims of the Societe Marseillaise to certain lands in Tunis,- resulting in an attempt to establish a protectorate over Tunis. Complications with Great Britain, Italy, Spain. Nov. 13. Ministry of Gambetta (Foreign Affairs) ; M. Paul Bert, minister of public worship. 1882, Jan. 30. Mimstry of M. Freycinet (Foreign Affairs) ; Leon Say (Finance) ; Jules Ferry (Public Instruction). Gambetta, having been defeated on a motion to adopt the scrutin de liste, had resigned Jan 27. Jan. Failure of the Union Generale (founded 1881). A. D. Great Britain. 535 July 29. Sesignation of the ministry Freycinet after defeat upon a question of supplies for protecting the Suez canal. Min- istry Duolero (Gambettist). French claims upon Madagascar, especially to a protectorate over the northwest coast, opposed by the native Hovas, and discussed be- tween France and England. The French protectorate over Annam (1874) being threatened by the presence of Taiping refugees (" Black Flags," p. 462) in Ton- kin, the government resolved upon energetic measures for the as- sertion of the rights of France. Dec. 31. Death of Leon Gambetta (b. 1838, Oct. 30). {Seep. 573.) § 4. GKEAT BRITAIN. (Seep. 44^.) 1783-1882. 1783, Nov. Fox brought forward a biU to reform the government of India, which was thrown out in the lords. The king, thereupon, dismissed the coalition ministry, and WiUiam Pitt became 1783, Dec. 26-1801, March 17. First lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. He introduced an India bill, which was rejected, and 1784, March 26. Parliament was dissolved. May 18. The Fifth parUament of George IH. (XVI.) Aug. 13. Pitt's India bill became law (p. 442). 1787, Thejirst convicts sent to Australia (Botany Bay). 1788, Oct. 12. The king became insane. Fox proposed that the Prince of "Wales should assume the regency as of right. Pitt, though admitting the prince's claims, insisted that the legislature had the right to make the appointment. Pending 1789, Feb. the discussion the king recovered. 1791, Representative institutions granted Canada. 1792, June. Foz's libel bill, which gave the jury power to render a general verdict of guilty or not guilty upon the whole matter in issue, received the royal assent. 1793, Jan. Alien bill. Traitorous correspondence bill. 1793, Feb. 1. The French republic declared war against Great Britain, etc. (p. 453). 1794. Spread of revolutionary principles. Suspension of the habeas cmjms act. May. Trial of Hardy, Home Tooke, and Thelwall, all of whom, Oct.-Dec. through the efEorts of ErsJane, were acquitted. 1794, Nov. Treaty with the United States (Jay's treaty, p. 548). 1795, July-Nov. Holland having joined the French against Eng- land, the latter seized the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and other possesions of the Dutch in the East. 1796, Sept. 17. Sixth parUament of George HI. (XVII.) Oct. 11. Spain declared war against England (p. 458). 1797, Feb. 27. Bank of England stopped specie payments. 1797, April 15. A mutiny broke out in the fleet at Spitbead (off Portsmouth). The demands of the sailors, which were rea- 536 Modem History. A. D, May 17. sonable, were granted and the fleet put to sea. Another and more violent mutiny broke out at the May 22. Nore (mouth of the Thames), which was finally put down June 30, by force and the ringleader hanged. 1797, Oci. 11. Victory of Camperdown (Duncan) puts an end to the danger of immediate invasion. 1798, Apr. 20. Habeas corpus act again suspended. Aug. 1. Battle of the Nile (p. 460). 1799, Failure of the expedition to the Netherlands (p. 461). 1800, Deo. 16. Armed neutrality of 1780 revived (p. 412). The United Irishmen, an association of malcontents, mainly Protestants, was formed in 1791 to secure the entire separation of Ireland from England. The French sent more than one expedition to their aid ; of these the most formidable, under 1796, Dec. Hoche, was scattered by a storm, while a smaller one 1798, Sept. 8. was defeated at Ballinamuck. 1798, June 21. The United Irishmen were beaten at Vinegar HiU, 1799. and the insurrection put down with cruel severities. These events led to the 1801< Jan- 1- Legislative Union of Great Britain with- Ireland under the name of the United Kingdom. The act of union provided, among other things, that there should be one imperial parliament, to which Ireland should send /our spiritual lords, sitting by rotation of sessions ; twenty-eight tem- poral peers, elected for life by the Irish peerage ; and one hun- dred members of the commons ; and that the churches of the two countries should be united into one protestant episcopal church. Mr. Pitt proposed to bring in a bill making certain concessions to the Roman catholics. The king being persuaded that such concessions would be a breach of the eoronatimi oath refused 1801, Feb. 3. his consent, and Mr. Pitt resigned. Mar. 17-1804, May 15. Addimgton administration. Lord Eldqn, lord chancellor. Apr. 2. Battle of Copenhagen (Nelson). Convention between Eng- June 17. land and Russia. End of the second armed neutrality (p. 463). Apr. 19. Habeas corpus act again suspended. 1802, Nov. 16. Seventh parliament of George III. (2nd impe- rial). 1802, Mar. 27. Peace of Amiens (p. 464). 1803. The English ambassador (lord Whrtworth), publicly insulted Mar. 13. by Napoleon. May. War renewed between England and France (p. 465). 1803. Emmet's insurrection in Ireland, easily suppressed, but showed the deep-seated hostility of the Irish, and led to the suspension of the habeas corpus act in Ireland. 1804. May 10-1806, Jan. 23. Pitt's second ministry. 1805. Third coalition against France (p. 467). Oct. 21. Trafalgar (Nelson, p. 467). ^- D' Great Britain. 537 1806, Jan. 23. Death of Pitt. 1806, Feb. 10.-1807, March 31. AU the Talents : Lard GrenvUle, prime minister ; Charles James Fox, foreign secretary, f Sept. 13 ; lord Erskine, lord charicellor ; lord Hawick (afterwards earl Grey), first lord of the admiralty. Not. 21. BerUn Decree (p. 469). Dec. 15. Eighth (3d imperial) parUament of George III. 1807, March 23. AboUtion of the slave trade m the British dominions. The ministry went out on the catholic question, and were suc- ceeded by the 1807, Mar. 31.-1809, Oct. 29. duke of Portland, first lord of the treasury ; Canning and Castlereagh, home and foreign secre- taries ; Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer. (George Canning, b. 1770, entered parliament 1793, under sec- retary 1796, t 1827). (Castlereagh, afterwards marquis of Londonderry, b. 1769, f 1822.) June 22. Ninth (4th imperial) parliament of George III. July 7-9. Treaty of TUsit (p. 469). Sept. 7. "Secondbombardment of Copenhagen (p. 470). Jan.-Nov. Orders in Council which declared France, and all countries under her control, to he in a state of blockade. 1807, Nov. 8. Russia declared war against England. Dec. 17. Milan decree, a supplement to the Berlin decree (p. 469). 1808, Aug. Convention of Cintra (p. 471). 1808. The failure of the Walcheren expedition sent to destroy July-Nov. the docks and shipping at Antwerp, caused a rupture be- tween Castlereagh and Canning, both of whom resigned. 1809. Su- Arthur Wellesley (b. 1769, entered the army 1787 ; As- May. saye 1803 ; entered pazliament 1806 ; commanded in the Peninsular War. Commander-in-chief 1842, f 1852), after- wards duke of Wellington, enters Spain, and the 1808-1814. Peninsular -war was 'fairly begun (p. 471). 1809, Oct. 29. Death of the duke of Portland. 1809, Dec. 6-1812, May 11. Mr. Perceval _/frsZ lord of the treasury. 1810, Oct. and Nov. Lines of Torres Vedras (p. 473). Nov. Tlie king became hopelessly insane, and 1811, Feb. 5. • The Prince of Wales was appointed re- gent. Nov. The breaking of machinery by the Luddites became so fre- quent that frame breaking was made a capital offense. 1812, May 11. Assassination of Perceval by Bellingham. 1812, June 8-^1827, Apr. 24. Liverpool ministry : Castlereagh, foreign secretary. 1812, June 18. War with the United States ended bvthe treaty of Ghent, 1814, Dec. 24 (p. 551). Nov. 24. Tenth (5th imperial) parliament of George III. 1813, June 21. Vittoria {p. 479'). 1814, May 30. Peace of Paris followed by 1815, March 25. Treaty of Vienna. England gained Cape of 538 Modem History. A. D. Good Hope, Demerara, Essequibo, Malta, Tobago, St. Lucia, and Mauritius. Hanover became a separate kingdom, with George III. first king, and descent to heirs male (p. 491)' 1815, June 15. "Waterloo (p. 484). The English national debt had grown from less than 250 mill- ion pounds in 1793 to over 850 millions ; the laboring classes found it difficult to obtain the bare necessaries of life. Consequently riots took place in the agricultural districts, while the Luddites broke out with fresh vehemence. Incited by the Weekly Political Register ( William Cobbett, 1762-1835), the cry of parliamentary reform was raised, and Hampden clubs were formed throughout the country. 1816, Mar. 3. The habeas corpus act was suspended. Mar. 10. The Blanket meeting at Manchester broken up by the military; lord Sidmouth's (Addington) circular letter. Dec. Acquittal of Hone. 1816, July. Dey of Algiers compelled to abolish christian slavery. 1819, Jan. 14. Eleventh (6th imperial) parliament of George III. 1819, Aug. 16. A meeting of the Radicals at St. Peter's Fields, Man- chester, dispersed by the military with bloodshed ; hence called the Manchester Massacre, or Feterloo. In consequence of these disturbances, the Siz Acts, strengthening the hands of government, were passed. 1820, Jan. 29. Death of George III. Chief descendants: — Gflorge m. == Charlotte of Mecklenbui:g-StTelitz. G«orgeIV. VllUamI t without issue. William IT., 1830-1837. t without issue. Frederic, Edward, d. of York. d. of Kent. tl827, n820. without issue. I Albert of Saxe-CoburE Gotha. i 1861 ET Victoria, tl901. Ernest, d. of Cum- berland ; k. of Hanover. 1837-1851. AdoIphuBj d. of Cambndge. tl850. Edward TH. m. Alexandra d. of k. of Denmark. Alice, Victoria, m. Ger- man Em- ?eror. 1901. Albert Victor, Oeorro, d. of Clarence, Prince of \v ales, 1 1892. m. Mary of Teck, g. g. d. of George III. J Alfred, . ^ , d. of Edin- d.ol burgh, 1 1900, HeBBG, and. of 1 1878. Saxe-Coburg- Gotha. Helena, Louibc, Arthur, m. pr. of m. mar- d. of Schleewig- quie of Con- Uolstein. Lome, naught. Leopold, Beatrice, d. oiAl- m. pr. banv, Henry ol t mi. Batten- berg. Louise, m. d. of Fife. Maud, m. Charles, pr. of Den- mark. Edward AltMrt. Albert. Victoria. Eeniy. George. 1820-1830. George IV. (prince regent since 1811). 1820, Apr. 21. First (7th imperial) parliament of George IV. 1820. Cato street conspiracy for assassinatiag the king's minis- ters discovered. May 1. The leader, Tliistlewood, and four accomplices executed. 1820, Aug.-Nov. The king, while prince of Wales, had been, in a manner, forced to marry his cousin. The marriage was an Unhappy one, and not long after his accession ministers brought for- A- D- Great Britain. 539 ward a bill of pains and penalties to degrade and divorce the queen on charges of misconduct. In the trial of queen Caroline which followed, Mr. (afterwards lord) Brougham and Mr. (afterwards lord) Denman so shook the evidence against her, on the cross-examination (1821, JiUy 18), that the bill was abandoned. She was, however, ex- cluded from the coronation, and not long after died. 1821. May. Bank of England resumed specie payments (p. 535). 1822. Castlereagh (lord Londonderry) committed suicide, and was succeeded at the foreign ofhce by George Canning. Mr Peel home secretary. 1823. The next year Huskisson became president of the board of trade, and Mr. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich) chancellor of the exchequer. 1825, Commercial panic; modification of the mo/iopoly of the Bank of England. 1826, Nov. 14. Second (8th imperial) parliament of G«orge IV. 1827, Aug. 8-1828, Jan. 25. Lord Goderich premier. 1827, Oct. 20. Navarino ; "untoward event" (p. 489). 1828, Jan. 26-1830, Nov. 22. Duke of Wellington prime min- ister. Mobert Peel, home secretary (b. 1788 ; M. P. 1809 ; colo- nial secretary 1810 ; f 1850). 1828, Feb. 26. Lord John RusseU (b. 1792 ; M. P. 1813 ; earl Rus- sell 1861 ; t 1878) moved the repeal of the corporation and test acts (p. 380), which was carried (May). A declaration coutaining the words " on the true faith of a christian " was substituted for the sacramental test, thus ad- mitting protestcint dissenters to office. 1828, July 15. The restrictions on the importation of breadstuffs were modified by the adoption of the sliding scale. The dnke of Wellington and Mr. Peel became convinced of the necessity of catholic emancipation. 1829, April 13. The catholic relief act substituted a new form of oath for the oaths of supremacy, allegiance, and abjuration, and there were now no offices from which catholics were excluded, ex- cept those of regent, lord chancellor of England and Ireland, and vice- roy of Ireland. The franchise in Ireland was raised from 40s. to 101., and certain regulations were made respecting the exercise of the Roman catholic religion. 1830, June 26. Death of George IV. 1830-1837- WiUiam IV. 1830, Sept. 15. Opening of the Manchester and Liverpool rail- way (Rocket locomotive), f of Huskisson. 1830, Oct. 26. First (9th imperial) parliament of 'William IV. When parliament opened earl Grey declared that, in his opin- ion, the only way to avert political convulsions was by a reform in parliament. The duke of Wellington expressed himself as opposed to reform, and being defeated on a minor question resigned Nov. 16. 1830, Nov. 24-1834, July 18. Earl Grey, prime minister. Lord Althorp, chancellor of exchequer ; lord Brougham, lord chan- cellor; lord John Russell, paymaster-general of the forces ; and lord Melbourne, home secretary. 540 Modem History. A. d. 1831, March 31. Lord John Russell introduced his reform bill. It . soon became apparent that there was no prospect of passing^ Apr. 22. the bill, and parliament was dissolved. June 14. Second (10th imperial) parliament of William IV. The reform bill again introduced; passed the commons Sept. 21, but was thrown out by the lords, and riots ensued through- out the country. 1832, Mar. 19. The reform bill, with some alterations, was again passed by the commons. In the lords an amendment was car- ried against ministers, who resigned May 7, but resumed office May 18, the king having consented to create a sufficient number of new peers to secure the passage of the bill ; but this proved umieccssary, as many tory peers refrained from voting, and the bUl received the royal assent June 7. 1832. By this, the First Reform Act, 143 boroughs lost one or both members, and the seats thus obtained w^ere given to several large towns (Manchester, Birmingham, etc.), to the larger coun- ties, and to new boroughs. At the same time the franchise was ex- tended. The Scotch reform act, July 17; the Irish reform act, Aug. 7. 1833, Jan. 29. Third (11th imperial) parliament of "William IV. Apr. 2. The Irish coercion act. In August the bill for the abolition of slavery throughout the British empire was passed. The sum of 20,000,000/. was voted to the slave-owners., 1833. Renewal of the charter of the Bank of England ; and of the East India Company for twenty years, but the trade with China was thrown open (p. 561). 1834. The question of an extension of the Irish coercion act led to the resignation of earl Grey. 1834, July 16-Nov. 14. Lord Melbourne became premier. Lord Althorp, lord John Russell, and lord Brougham retained their places. 1834. Poor la-w amendment act. Local boards abolished in favor Aug. of a central board of commissioners. Poor law unions took the place of work-houses, and the system of out-door relief was in a great measure reformjed. Nov. The king dismissed the ministry, and the duke of 'Welling- ton took control of affairs until sir Robert Peel could be summoned from Rome. 1834, Dec. 8-1835, Apr. 18. Peel's first administration. (Wel- lington, foreign secretary.) The majority in the commons 1834, Dec. 30. was against ministers, parliament was dissolved, and Peel issued the Tamworth manifesto. 1835, Feb. 19. Fourth (12th imperial) parliament of 'William I'V. The conservatives, as the supporters of Peel termed them- Apr. selves, being in a minority in the commons, ministers resigned. 1836, Apr. 18-1841, Sept. 3. Second Melbourne ministry. Palmerston, foreign secretary (b. 1784 ; M. P. 1807 ; f Oct. 18, 1865); lord John Russell, home secretary; viscount Howick, secretary of war, — succeeded in 1839 by T. B. Macaulay (b. 1800 ; M. P. 1830 ; raised to the peerage 1857 ; f 1859J. A. D. Great Britain. 541 1835, Sept. Reform of municipal corporations act, London not included. 1836, Commutation of tithes act. 1837, June 20. Death of William IV. (5ee p. 54S.) The British in India. {Seep.4U-i 1786-1793. Lord Cornwallis, governor-general. 1792. War with Tipti Sultan, ended by the cession of one half of Mysore to the English and allies. 1793. Capture of Pondicherri, sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignmouth), governor-general, succeeded by 1798-1805. lord Mornington (afterwards marquis of Wellesley). 1799. Tipu Sultan, trusting in the promises of Bonaparte, again took up arms, was killed, and his dominions were divided be- tween the English and the Nizam. 1802. Holkar, one of the Mahrattd chiefs, drove the Peshwa from Poona. By the treaty of Bassein the English agreed to assist the PeshwS provided he would surrender his independence, and maintain a body of Eui'opean troops {the subsidiary policy). Sindhia and the Raja of Nagpur imited with Holkar agaiost the English. The latter under sir Arthur Wellesley (after- wards duke of Wellington), brother of the governor-general, 1803. gained the battles of Assaye, Sept. 3, and Argaiun, Nov. 29, while another army under general (afterwards lord) Lake won the battle of Laswari, Nov. 1, and captured Delhi. The Raja of Nagpur and Sindhia, by treaties, surrendered much 1804. territory to the English. In the next year Holkar was de- feated by Lake at Furrukahad, and again near Bhartpur 1805, and made peace with the English 1806, Jan. 7. 1805. July-Oct. Lord Corn^vallis again governor-general; f Oct. ; and was succeeded by 1805-1807. sir G. Barlow. 1806. Mutiny of the Sepoys at Vellore. 1807-1813. Lord Minto, governor-general. 1809. Mutiny of the European officers at Seringapatam. 1813-1823. Lord Moira (afterwards marquis of Hastings), gov- ernor-general. 1814-1815. War with the Gurkhas of Nepal. 1817. Pindari war. 1817-1818. Last Mahratta war. The dominions of the Peshwd were annexed and the Rdjd of Nagpur was put under British guardianship, while the states of Rajputana placed themselves under British protection. 1823-1828. Lord Amherst, governor-general. 1824^1826. First Burmese war, English acquire Assam, etc. 1828-1835. Lord 'William Bentinck, governor-general. Financial reforms ; abolition of satl (suttee) or widow-burning ; sup- pression of the thagi (thugs) or hereditary assassins. 1833. Company's charter renewed for twenty years, but the trade was thrown open, and Europeans allowed to settle in the coun- 542 Modern History. A. D. try. A legal member added to the governor's council^ and a commmion appointed to revise and codify the laws. Macau- lay, first legal member, and president of the commission. The only annexation of this time was that of Coorg. 1835-1836. Short administration of sir Charles (afterwaa-ds lord) Metcalfe, memorable for giving entire freedom to the press. (Seep. 546.} Great Britain. {Seep. S4I.) 1837-1901. Victoria (only child of the late duke of Kent). Separation of Hanover from Cfreat Britain ; duke of Cumber- land, the eldest surviving son of George III., became king, 1837, Nov. 15. First (13th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1837. RebeUiou in Canada. Burning of the American steamer Car- oline. The rebels finally reduced to obedience in 1839. The two provinces, upper and lower Canada, were united in 1840, and in 1847 responsible govermnent was introduced into the colony. 1838, Aug. Meeting of working people near Birmingham. A na- tional petition or peoples' charter was drawn up. The petitioners or chartists demanded, 1. annual parliaments ; 2. tmiversal (manhood) sufErage ; 3. vote by ballot ; 4. abolition of the property qualification of members of parliament ; and 6. payment for their services. To these " five points " a sixth, that of equal electoral districts, was afterwards added. The petition was presented to the commons, 1839, June 14, and its rejection was followed by riots which were easily suppressed. 1838, Sept. The anti-corn laiw league formed at Manchester under the leadership of John Bright (b. 1811 ; M. P. 1843 ; f 1889) and Richard Cobden (b. 1804 ; M. P. 1847; f 1865). 1839, Opium war with China ended by treaty of Nanldn, 1842, Aug. 29 (p. 561). 1840, Jan. Penny postage introduced (sir Rowland Hill). Feb. 10. The queen married her cousin Albert of Saze-Coburg and Ootha. 1841, Aug. 19. Second (14th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1841, Sept. 6-1846, June 29. Peel's second administration. Duke of Wellington in the cabinet without office ; earl Ripon, board of trade, succeeded in 1843 by W. E. G-ladstone (b. 1809 ; M. P. 1832 ; f 1898). 1842. Second sliding scale adopted ; and the duties on over 700 articles either removed or reduced, the deflcieuOy so created be- ing made up by an income tax (June 22). 1844. Charter of the Bank of England renewed (Peel act). The issue department established, weekly returns to be published ; and circulation limited to 14,000,000?. 1846, Total repeal of the corn laws. The sliding scale abolished ; the duty on wheat imported at or above 53s. per qnauter to be 4s. per quarter imtU 1849, Feb. 1, after that time to be an uniform Is. per quarter on all kinds of grain im- ported into the United Kingdom j this Is. duty was repealed in 1869. A- D. Great Britain. 543 1846, June. Settlement of the Oregon bonndarv dispute with the United States (p. 554). 1846, July 6-1852, Feb. 23. Ministry of lord John Russell ; lord Falmerston, foreign secretary ; Macaulay, paymaster gen- eral. 1846. Failure of the potato crop in Ireland caused a famine 1846 and 1847. Population of Ireland 1841, 8,222,664. 1851, 6,633,982. 1847. Commercial panic in England. 1847, Nov. 18. Third (15th imperial) parliament of Victoria. This distress coupled with the excitement produced by the rev- 1848. olutious of 1848 (p. 492) roused rebeUion in Ireland, which was easily suppressed, and its leaders Smith O'Brien and Mit- 1848, April 10. chell transported ; while in England the chartists held a monster meeting on Kennington common, and presented a petition to parliament. 1849, June. Repeal of the navigation la^vs. Encumbered estates July, act (Ireland). 1850, Sept. 30. Papal bull establishing a Roman catholic hie- rarchy in England. 1851, July. Ecclesiastical titles bill, imposing a fine of 1001. on all who should endeavor to carry this papal bull into effect, passed (never executed). 1851. Telegraphic communication between France and Eng- land. 1851. Great exhibition of the industries of all nations in Hyde Park, London. 1852, Feb. 27-Dec. 18. Earl Derby's first ministry, Disraeli, chancellor of exchequer (b. 1805 ; " Vivian Grey " 1825 ; M. P. 1837 ; earl of Beaconsfield, 1876 ; f 1881). Sept. 14. Death of the duke of Wellington. 1852, Nov. 4. Fourth (16th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1852, Dec. 28-1855, Feb. 5. Aberdeen administration. W. E. Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer; lord Falmerston, home secretary ; lord John Russell, foreign secretary. End of Caffir war in South Africa. Oct. 30. The British fleet entered the Bosphoms. 1853-1856. Crimean war (p. 499). 1854, June 5. Eeciprocity treaty with the United States concluded (p. 555) ; abrogated 1866. 1855. The mismanagement with regard to the supply of food and clothing for the army in the Crimea and the feeble prosecu- tion of the war rendered the administration unpopular, and 1855, Jan. 30. lord Aberdeen resigned. 1855, Feb. 6-1858, Feb. 22. Falmerston premier. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer, res. Feb. 22. Feb. 19. Bread riots at Liverpool. 1856, Treaty of Faris ended the Crimean war (p. 501). War Mar. 30. with China. Treaty of Tim-tsin, June 26, 1859. Peace ofPekin Aug. 24, 1860 (p. 56:i). 1857, Apr. 30. Fifth (17th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 544 Modem History. A. d, Nov. 12. Great commercial panic. Suspension of the hank charter act of ISU. In consequence of the attempted assassination of Napoleon III. by Orsini, lord Palmerston introduced the conspiracy to murder bill. On its rejection in the commons the ministry resigned, and the ]858, Feb. 22-1859, June 11. Second Derby ministry took office ; Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer. 1858, June. Property qualiiication of members of parliament abolished. July. Jevrs admitted to parliament. Act for the Vetter gooernment of India. Aug. 5. The successful laying of the first Atlantic cable (ceased working Sept. 4). Aug. 26. Treaty with the tycoon (shogmi) of Japan (p. 563). 1858. The queen of England proclaimed sovereign of India. The government of the East India company ceased. The ministry, defeated on a reform bill introduced by Disraeli, Apr. 13. dissolved parliament, but being in a minority in the 1859, May 31. Sixth (18th imperial) parliament of Victoria, resigned, and the 1859, June 13-1865, Nov. 6. Second Palmerston ministry came in. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer ; earl Russell (formerly lord John), foreign secretary ; lord Campbell, lord chancellor. 1860, Jan. 23. Commercial treaty between Great Britain and France. July-Oct. The prince of Wales visits the United States and Cany ada. 1861, July 27. Rupture of diplomatic relations with Mexico. Nov. 8. Mason and Slidell taken from the British mail steamer Trent (p. 557). Deo. 23. Death of the prince consort. 1862, Second Exhibition of the industry of all nations opened in May 1. London. 1863, The Maori (native) war in New Zealand, ended in 1869. 1864, The Schleswig-Holstein question (p. 605). June. Final cession of the Ionian Islands to Greece (p. 483). July. The Thames embankment begun. 1865, June. Commencement of the Cattle Plague. Oct. Insurrection in Jamaica. Oct. 18. Death of lord Palmerston. 1865, Nov. 6-1866, June 26. Earl Russell premier. 1866, Feb. 1. Seventh (19th imperial) parliament of Victoria. Feb. Habeas corpus act suspended in Ireland. May. Failure of Overeud, Gurney and Co. (liabilities over 19,000,- OOOi.). Panic in London. July Telegraphic communication with America finally established. 1866, July 6-1868, Feb. 27. Third Derby ministry. Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer. 1867, Aug. 15. The second reform act, — "a leap in the dark," — which greatly extended the franchise, received the royal as- sent. A. D. Great Britain. 545 1867. The Fenians attempted the seizure of the arsenal at Chester (Feb.). Rising in Ireland, easily suppressed. Attempt to release Fenians confined in Clerkenwell prison, by exploding gunpowder under the walls. 1867. Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were combined into one Dominion of Canada, with power to take in new provinces. Each province retained its own legislature for local afEairs. All British America, with the exception of Newfoundland, now belongs to this confederation. 1867. Abyssinia e:spedition, Magdala. 1868, Feb. 27-Dec. 3. Lord Derby resigned, and Mr. Disraeli be- came premier. The general elections to the new parliament were so decidedly in favor of the liberals that the ministry re- signed, and 1868, Dec. 9-1874, Feb. 21. Mr. Gladstone became prime minister. 1868, Dee. lO. Eighth (20th imperial) parliament of Victoria. July 26. Disestablishment and disendowment of the Irish chtu'ch. A portion of the money so obtained given to the Roman catholic college of Maynooth, and another portion ap- plied to educational purposes. The royal assent was at the same time given to the bankruptcy bill, and to a bill abolishing imprisonment for debt. (Debtors' prisons : Fleet, Marshal- sea, etc.) 1868, Oct. 16. Opening of the Suez canal. 1870. Irish land act provided, among other things, for compen- sation to out-going tenants ; for loans to landlords for im- provements, and to tenants desirous of purchasing their hold- ings (Bright clauses). At the same session a system of 1870. national education was established by law. 1871. Purchase in the army abolished. Treaty of Washington with the United States, by which the Alabama claims were settled by 1872. Arbitration at Geneva and the so-called northwestern boun- dary dispute, decided by the emperor of Germany as arbiter (p. 560). 1872. Vote by ballot introduced. 1873. Ashantee ■wax. Coomassie taken by 1874. the British, commanded by general Wolseley. 1874, Feb. 21.-1880, Apr! 28. Mr. Disraeli (1876, Aug., earl of Beaconsfield), premier ; sir Stafford Northcote, chancellor of the exchequer. 1874, March 5. Ninth (21st imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1875. Purchase of Suez canal shares from the khedive of Egypt. 1875, 1876. Visit of the Prince of Wales to India. The queen pro- claimed empress of India. Commercial panic. 1878, July 13. Treaty of Berlin. British take possession of Cyprus July 14 (p. 624). 1879. Irish land league, supported by Pamell, Dillon, etc 1879, 1880, famine in Ireland. 1879. War with the Zulus (" Jingoism "). 35 546 Modern History. A. D. 1880, Feb. 23. Parliament dissolved. Elections in favor of liberals ; resignation of ministers, Apr. 22. 1880, Apr. 28. Mr. Gladstone, prime minister ; marquis ofHar- tington, secretary for India; W. E. Forster, chief secretary for Ireland, succeeded by lord F. Cavendish, and he by G. 0. Tre- vellyan. John Bright, chancellor of the duchy. 1880, Apr. 29. Tenth (22d imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1881, March 3. Irish coercion act. Aug. 22. Irish land act provided for a court of comirdssion to try differences between landlords and tenants ; and in a measure granted the " three P's : " 1. free sale ; 2. fair rents ; 3. fix- ity of tenure. 1882, May 6. Murder of lord Frederick Cavendish and an under-secretary in Dublin. July 11. Bombardment of Alexandria (Egypt). Kesignatiou of John Bright. July 14. A new Irish coercion act went into force. Sept. Total defeat of Egyptian rebels by the British, commanded by sir Garnet Wolseley. Capture of Tel-el-Kehir. (See p. 565.) The British in India. (Seep. 54S.) 1836-1842. Lord Auckland, governor-general. 1839. First Afghan war, occasioned by an attempt to place a ruler in Afghanistan who should be subservient to the British. Kdbid was easily occupied. Dost Muhammad taken prisoner, and Shah Shujd installed. In November, 1841, the Afghans rose, and, led by Akhar Khan, drove the British from Kabul. Terrible -winter retreat to Jalalabad. 1842-1844. Earl of Ellenborough, governor-general. Two ar- mies sent to Afghanistan. Relief of Kandahar and Jaldidbdd. Capture of Kabul. The bazar blown up. Dost Muhammad re- placed, and the British withdrawn. 1844-1848. Sir Henry (afterwards lord) Hardinge, governor- general. 1845. First Sikh war. 1848-1856. Earl of Dalhousie, governor-general. 1848, 1849. Second Sikh war ended in the annexation of the Punjab. 1852. Second Burmese war. British Burma annexed. 1856. Annexation of Oudh on the ground of misrule. 1856-1862. Earl Canning, governor-general. 1857. May 10. Mutiny of the Sepoys at Mirath (Meerut). Rising of the Muhammadaus at Delhi. Massacre at Caw^npore (Ndna SShib), June 27. First relief of Lucknow by Have- lock, Sept. 25 ; iinal deliverance of the garrison by sir Colin Campbell, Nov. 16. Siege and capture of Delhi, June-Sept. The mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, captured, deposed, and banished to Rangoon ; f 1862. End of the mughal empire. 1858. The government of India transferred to the orow^n ; gov- ernor-general to be viceroy. A. D. United States. 547 1862-1863. Lord Elgin, viceroy ; 1864-1869, lord Lawrence, ■viceroy. Famine in Orissa, 1866 ; in Bundelkhand and Upper Hindustan, 1868, 1869. 1869-1872. Lord Mayo, viceroy. Internal improvements. 1872-1876. Lord Northbrook, viceroy. Dethronement of the Mahrattd Gdekwdr of Baroda. Visit of the prinue of Wales to India. 1876-1880. Lord Lytton, viceroy. 1877> Jan. 1. The queen proclaimed empress of India. 1877, 1878. Famine in southern India. 1878-1881. Second Afghan war. Refusal of Sher Ali to admit .a British embassy. The Khaibar (Kyber), the Kuram, and tlie Boldn passes occupied by the British troops, f Sher Ali. Abdication of his son, Ydkub Khdn. Defeat of a brigade of British troops by Ayub Khdn. Brilliant march of sir F. Roberts from Kdbul to Kanda- har, and rout of Ayvb Khdn, 1880, Sept. 1. Abdurrahman Khdn, the eldest male representative of Dost Muhammad, recognized by the British as Amir, and their troops withdrawn from Kdbul and Kanda- har. 1880. Marquis of Ripon, viceroy. 1881. Population of aU India 252,641,210, an increase in ten years of over twelve millions. {See p. 56S) §5. UNITED STATES. (Seep.iSS.) 1789-1882. 1789. First congress met at New York, March 4. 1789. George Washington (Virginia), president. John Apr. 30. Adams, vice-president. Nov. 1. North Carolina accepted the constitution. 1789. Three executive departments created. Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743, f 1825), secretary of state ; Alexander Hamilton (b. 1757, f 1804), secretary of the treasury ; Henry Knox, sec- retary of war. These with the attorney general formed the cabinet. A national judiciary was also established. John Jay, chief justice of the supreme court. 1789. First ten cunendments (in the nature of a bill of rights) to the constitution proposed by congress to the state legislatures, and ratified, in the course of two years, by three fourths of the states. 1790, May 29. Rhode Island accepted the constitution. 1790. The financial affairs of the country were put on a firm basis. The seat of government to be at Philadelphia for ten years, and after that permanently located on the Potomac, where land was ceded by the states of Maryland and Virginia {District of Columbia), and the city of Washington laid out. 1790-1795. Indian war. Defeat of Harmar 1790 ; St. Clair 1791 ; and victory of Wayne 1794. 1790. Death of Franklin. Population 3,921,326 (1st census). National debt Jan. 1, 1791, $75,463,476.52. 1791, Aug. George Hammond, minister from Great Britain, received Vermont admitted (14th state). 548 Modern SRstory. A. D A national bank (United States bank) chartered for twentj 1792, Apr. 2. years, and a mint, were established at Philadelphia. 1792. Two parties now came into prominence : the republican, afterwards democratic, led hj Jefferson ; and the federalist, whose leaders were Hamilton and Adams. 1792. Kentucky admitted (15th state). Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. "Washington and Adams reelected. 1793. France declared war against Great Britain, and sent Genet as minister to the United States. He arrived at Charleston in April, and proceeded to fit out privateers, etc. Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality, Apr. 22 ; and the next year (1794) the neutrality act was passed. Genet appealed from the executive to the people, and, upon the demand of the government, was recalled. 1793. Fugitive slave act, substantially a dead letter until revived in 1850. 1794. Whiskey insurrection in -western Pennsylvania. It was caused by an internal revenue law of 1791, which laid an excise on domestic spirits, and was put down by an army com- posed of the militia of Pennsylvania and adjoining states. 1794. Eleventh amendment, securing the non-suability of states, proposed by congress, and declared ratified Jan. 1798. 1794. Peace purchased from Algiers, and from Tripoli and Tunis in the following years. 1794. The treaty of peace (p. 432) had been fully carried out by neither party. Great Britain had not delivered the posts held by her on the northern frontier. And she was accused of inciting the Indians to hostility, of impressing American seamen, and of capturing American trading vessels ; and besides, many slaves had been carried away by the British when they evacuated New York. On the other side, it was alleged that the provisions of the treaty with regard to the collection of debts due to British subjects had not been observed. To settle these differences John Jay was sent to England, and a 1794, Nov. 19. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation (Jay's treaty) was concluded. It provided for the delivery of the posts before June, 1796 ; for a commission to decide what river was the " St. Croix " (p. 432) ; for compensation in certain cases to British subjects and American citizens, to be as- certained by commissioners ; for the regulation of trade between the two countries ; for the extradition of criminals, etc. The treaty met with great opposition ; the ratifications were not ex- changed till Oct. 1795 ; and the money necessary to carry it out was not voted till 1796 (speech of Fisher Ames). 1795. Treaty with Spain established the southern boundary of the United States, and secured the free navigation oi the Missis- sippi, with right of deposit at New Orleans. 1796. Tennessee admitted (16th state). Sept. 18. Washington's farewell address. 1797, Mar. 4. John Adams (Massachusetts), federalist, 2d president. A. D. United States. 549 Thomas Jefferson, republican, vice-president. 1797. Special mission to France. Attempt on the part of the French to extort money (X. Y. Z. affair). Pinckney, one of the envoys, replied : " Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute." Hostilities actually began. Provisional army raised ; Washington, lieutenant- general ; navy department organized 1798 ; Constellation captured L'Insurgente 1799 ; but when Bonaparte came into power more pacific intentions prevailed, and a convention was concluded 1800, Sept. 30. 1797. The language of the French sympathizers became so violent that the alien and sedition lavrs were passed. They were followed by the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798-1799, in which it was asserted that a state had a right to decide for itself how far the national authority should be considered binding, 1799, Dec. 14. Death of Washington. 1800, Nov. 22. Congress met in Washington for the first time. Fopulatiou, 5,319, 7t>2 (2d census). 1801, John Marshall, chief justice of the supreme court. In the elections of 1800 the republican candidates received a major- ity of the votes, but as they had equal numbers the election went to the house of representatives, which chose 1801. Thomas Jefferson (Virginia) 3d president ; and Aaron Burr, vice-president. James Madison, secretary of state ; Albert Gallatin, secretary of the treasury. 1801-1802. Repeal of the internal revenue taxes, and of many un- popular laws. 1802. Ohio admitted (17th state). 1803f April 30. The Louisiana Purchase, by which the United States acquired : all of its present area between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, north of the then northern boundary of Mexico ; the island on which New Orleans stands ; and a claim to Texas, to west Florida, as that portion of the present states of Mississippi and Alabama south of 31° north latitude was then called, and perhaps even to territory west of the Rocky Mountains (p. 554). The price was fifteen mil- lions of dollars, and the original area of the United States was more than doubled. 1803, Dec. 12. Twelfth amendment, altering the mode of elect- ing president and vice-president, proposed by congress, and de- clared ratified 1804, Sept. 25. 1804H805. Failure of the impeachment of Chase, a justice of the supreme court. 1804, July. Aaron Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. 1801-1805. Tripolitan war. Burning of the frigate Philadelphia (Decatur), which had been captured while aground, 1804. Capture of Deme. Bombardment of Tripoli. Treaty 1805. No more tribute to be paid by the United States. 1805, Thomas Jefferson reelected president ; George Clinton vice-president. 1806, April. The British ship Leander fired on an American trad- ing sloop, killing John Pierce, the owner. The Leander ordered out of the waters of the United States. 550 Modem History. a. d. 1806, May 16. The British government issued orders in council, declaring the coast of Europe from the Elbe to Brest to be iii a partial state of blockade ; Napoleon replied (Nov. 21) by the Ber- lin decree (p. 469). Great Britain issued other orders in council (Jan. 7 and Nov. 11, 1807), followed (Dec.) by the Milan decree (p. 537), which orders and decrees practically put an end to the most profitable portion of the commerce of the United States. 1807, June 22. The frigate Chesapeake was fired into by the British ship Leopard, and four men claimed as deserters were taken out of her by the British. The president by proclamation ordered all British ships of war to leave the coast ; reparation was demanded of Great Britain, and congress laid an embargo (Jefferson's embargo) on all shipping in the ports of the United States (Dec. 22). 1806. Failure of Miranda's scheme for revolutionizing the Span- ish American colonies. 1807. Trial and acquittal of Aaron Burr, late vice-president, for treason. It is said that he had designed seizing New Orleans, detaching several states from the union, and invading Mexico. 1807. Robert Fulton made the first successful application of steam to navigation, in the steamboat Clermont (engine imported). 180& The importation of slaves into the United States prohib- ited after Jan. 1, 1808. The embargo policy was designed to compel Great Britain and France to withdraw their orders and decrees. The further history is as follows : — 1808. Supplementary acts : 1. Jan. 8, coasting and fishing ves- sels to give bonds to re-land cargoes in United States. 2. Mar. 12, boats and vessels of all kinds and land-carriages made subject to the embargo [April 17, Bayonn6 decree directing the seizure of all American vessels then in the ports of France], 3. Apr. 25, coasting trade forbidden to foreign vessels, and to be exercised by others oidy under the most stringent rules ; enforcing act of 1809 (Jan. 9), by which every attempt to avoid the embargo worked the f orfeiture of ship, boat, or vehicle, and involved ajine oi four times the value of the mer- chandise, one half to the informer, and the president was authorized to use the army and navy to enforce the embargo. Embargo repealed except as to France and England, to take effect 1809, Mar. 15. No goods to be imported from those countries after May 20. 1809. March 4. James Madison (Virginia), democrat, 4th president. James Monroe, secretary of state. 1810. Population 7,239,881 (3d census). 1810, March 23. Rambouillet decree, ordering the sale of all American vessels which had been seized for violating the French decrees. , 1810, May 1. Act known as Macon's No. 2 provided that in case either Great Britain or France should revoke its edicts the United States would prohibit trade with the other. Napoleon revoked the Berlin and Milan decrees, but not the Rambouillet decree, Aug. 6, to take effect Nov. 1, as to American vessels. This was coiisidered by the president as a sufficient compliance with the condition of A. D. United States. 551 Macon's No. 2, and a proclamation declared the non-importation act revived as to Great Britain after Feb. 2, 18H. 1811, May 16. Engagement between the American frigate Presi- dent and the British ship Little Belt. 1812. Louisiana admitted (18th state). 1812, Apr. 4. Embargo for ninety days. War declared against Great Britain. The orders in council of Jan. and Apr. 1807, revoked (June 23). 1812-1814. War with Great Britain. Events of 1812. Unsuccessful invasion of Canada, surrender of Detroit (Aug. 16), defeat at Queeustown (Oct. 13). On the water, however, the American ship Essex (Porter) captured the Alert; the Constitution (Hull), the Guerr&re; the Wasp, the Frolic (both taken by the Poic- tiers, a British 74) ; the United States (Decatur), the Macedonian ; and the Constitution (Bainbridge), the Java. In 1813 the Amer- icans were defeated at Frenchtown (Jan.) ; gained the battle of Lake Erie (Perry) ; but were driven from their posts on the Niagara. The English blockaded the Atlantic seaboard, and June 1 the British frigate Shannon captured the Chesapeake ; the Pelican, the Argus ; but on the other hand the American ship Hornet took the Peacock ; the Enterprise, the Boxer. In 1814 there was another attempt to invade Canada; the Americans captured Port Erie and won the battles of Chippevra (July 5) and Lundy's Lane (July 15), but these victories led to nothing. Battle of Lake Champlain won by McDonough (Sept. 11). Aug. 24, the British under Ross defeated the Americans at Bladensburgh ; entered Washington the next day and burnt all the public buildings ; but were repulsed in an at- tempt on Baltimore (Sept. 13) ; and with great loss at New Or- leans (Dec, Jackson). At sea the American ship Essex (Porter), after a successfid cruise in the Pacific, was captured by the Phcebe and Cherub ; the Peacock captured the Epervier ; the ^Wasp, the Reindeer and Avon. In 1815 the Constitution captured the Cyane and Levant ; and the Hornet, the Penguin; while the President sur- rendered to a British squadron. Peace, however, had been made at Ghent, December 24, 1814, by a treaty by which none of the ques- tions which led to the war were settled, but which provided for com- missions to run the boundaries, as determined in previous treaties. The eastern states had resisted the embargo, and later had taken a very lukewarm interest in the war, and had consequently been left to shift for themselves. This dissatisfaction led to the summoning of the Hartford convention, 1814, Dec- 15, which adjourned in three weeks without accomplishing anything. 1815. Squadron, under Decatur, sent to the Mediterranean, and a treaty negotiated mth Algiers. 1816. The second United States bank chartered for twenty years (charter of 1st expired in 1811). Protective tariff. In- diana admitted (19th state). 1817-1825. James Monroe (Virginia), democrat, 5th pres- ident. Era of good feeling. J. Q. Adams, secretary of state ; W. H. Crawford, secretary of the treasury ; and John C. Calhoun, secretary of war (res. 1817). 552 Modern History. A. b. 1817. Mississippi admitted (20th state). 1817-1818. Seminole war (Jackson). Invasion of Florida, then a colony of Spain. Execution of two British subjects. 1818. Illinois admitted (21st state). Pensions granted to the survivors of the revolutionary war, in needy eiroumstanees. Convention vrith Great Britain as to the fishenes ; the coun- try -west of the " Stony [Rocky] Mountains " to be occu- pied by the two powers in common for ten years, etc. 1819. Treaty with Spain. She gave up all claim to w^est Florida, (p. 432) which had been occupied by the United States since 1810, and ceded east Florida. The United States gave up all claim to Texas, and agreed to pay an indemnity of five mill- ions to its own citizens for claims which they had against Spain. 1819. Alabama (22d state). . Financial crisis. 1820. Maine (23d state). Population of the United States 9,638,453. 1820. Missouri compromise, by which it was agreed that slavery should he prohibited in the United States west of the Mississippi, north of 36° 30' north latitude, this being the 1821. southern border of Missouri, which was admitted as a slave state (24th state). 1823, Dec. 2. The president in his annual message enunciated the Monroe doctrine : " That the American continents, by the free and independent position which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects ioT future colonization, by any European power; " and that the extension of the system of the Holy alliance (p. 485) to America would not be viewed " in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." Neither of the candidates for president receiving a majority of the electoral vote, the house of representatives chose 1825-1829, John Quinoy Adams (b. 1767, t 1848) (Massachusetts), democrat, president, although Andrew Jack- son had received a plurality in the electoral college ; John C. Calhoun (b. 1782, f 1850), vice-president ; Henry Clay (b. 1777, t 1852), secretary of state. 1825. The Erie canal was finished ; the first railroad in America (at Quincy, Mass.) was completed in 1827, although steam was not used on such a road in this country until 1829. 1826. Failure of the Panama congress, and 1827 of another ap- pointed to meet near the city of Mexico. These were at- tempts to put the Monroe doctrine into practice. 1828. Tariff of abominations. 1829-1837. Andrew Jackson (b. 1767, 1 1845), (Tennes- see), democrat, 7th president; John C. Calhoun, vice-president (res. 1831); Martin Van Buren (b. 1782, f 1862), secretary of state. Inauguration of the spoils system ; about 690 office holders removed by the president during the first year of his admin- A, D. United Slates. 553 istration, in contrast with only 8eventy-four removals by all former presidents. The government was now in the hands of those who, according to senator Marcy of New York, saw " nothing wrong in the rule that to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy." 1829. The merchants of Boston protested against the tarifE acts, and were followed by the legislatures of South Carolina, Virginia, Alabama, and North Carolina. 1830. Population 12,866,020 (5th census). 1830, Jan. 27. Speech of Daniel "Webster (b. 1782, f 1852), in the senate of the United States in reply to colonel Hayne of South Carolina, who upheld extreme states-rights views. 1831. William Lloyd Garrison established in Boston a paper called the Liberator, advocating the immediate and uncondi- tional emancipation of the negroes. This led to the organization of the abolitionists. 1831. Convention with France, mutual settlement of claims. France to pay the United States 25,000,000 francs, and to be paid 1,300,000 francs, such sums to be distributed to claimants in either country. The tariff act of 1832, while containing a reduction of duties, retained the protective principle. A convention held in South Carolina reported 1832. A nullification ordinance (Nov. 1832), which de- clared that the tarifE laws of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitu- tional " and are null and void, and no law, nor binding upon this state," etc. Colonel Hayne was elected governor of South Carolina, and Cal- houn took the seat thus vacated in the senate. Dee. 10 president Jackson issued the nullification proclamation, in which the doc- trine of states-^ghts was refuted and the national theory set forth ; and he declared his intention of executing the laws of the United States. This was followed by the nullijication message, 1833, Jan. 16. This trouble was finally ended by the compromise tariff act, introduced into the senate by Henry Clay, 1833, Feb. 12. Both sides claimed the victory. 1835-1842. War with the Seminole Indians. 1836. Arkansas (25th state). 1837. Michigan (26th state). 1837-1841. Martin Van Buren (New York), democrat, 8th president. 1837. Financial crisis : causes, removal (1833) of deposits from the United States bank to the local banks ; great extension of credit, and over-issue of paper money ; contraction of the vol- ume of the currency by the (1836, July 11) specie circular, which produced a great scarcity of money. 1837. Rebellion in Canada, burning of the American steamer Car- oline by the royalists. McLeod's case. 1838-1839. The gag resolutions, by which congress declared that petitions praying for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia or against the inter-state slave trade should be tabled without being debated, referred, or pruited. 554 Modern History. A. D. 1840. Independent treasury established ; the national funds to be kept in the treasury at Washington and in the sub-treasuries established in certain cities, subject to the order of the treasurer. 1840. Population 17,069,453 (6th census). After an exciting contest was elected 1841-1845. William Henry Harrison (Ohio), whig, 9th president, f 1841, Apr., succeeded by John Tyler (b. 1790, f 1862) of Virginia, vice-president. Daniel Webster, secretary of state (res. 1843). 1842. The northeastern boundary dispute with Great Britain set- tled by the Ashburton treaty. 1842. Dorr rebellion in Rhode Island. 1844. Experimental telegraph line between Washington and Balti- more built by professor S. P. B. Morse with money appro- priated by congress. 1845. Florida (27th state). In 1821 Mexico had separated from Spain, and in 1836 Texas declared itself independent of Mexico. Houston with eight hundred Texans defeated Santa Anna at the San Jacinto (1836, Apr. 21), and drove the Mexicans across the Rio Grande ; and 1845> March. Texas was annexed to the United States. 1845-1849. James K. Polk (Tennessee), democrat, 11th president ; James Buchanan (b. 1781, f 1868), secretary of state. 1845. Texas (28th state) ; 1840, Iowa (29th state). The United States and Great Britain claimed the territory west of the Rooky Mountains from the northern boundary of Mexico, 42° north latitude, to the southern boundary of Alaska, 54° 40' north latitude. By the 1846. Oregon treaty this tract was divided between them, the 49th parallel forming the boundary, and the southern portion, which fell to the United States, retained the name of Oregon. The annexation of Texas led to a 1846-1848. War with Mexico, which was invaded by an army from the north commanded by Zachary Taylor (b. 1786, f 1850); battles of Palo Alto (May 8), Resaca (May 9). Surrender of Monterey (Sept. 24), Buena Vista (1847, Feb. 22 and 23). In March, 1847, another army under general Scott landed near Vera Cruz, which surrendered March 29th. He then set out for the city of Mexico, and won the battles of Cerro Gordo (April 18), Churubusco (Aug. 20), captured the fortress of CJiapultepec (Sept. 12 and 13), and en- tered the city'of Mexico (Sept. 14). On the Pacific the Amer- icans had been equally successful, and the war was ended by the 1848, Feb. 2. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico gave up all claim to Texas, the Rio Grande to be the boundary, and ceded to the United States the provinces of New Mexico and Upfer California, in all about 522,955 square miles, in consideration of fifteen millions of dollars. A. D. United States. 555 1848. Vrisconsin (30th state). In 1846 the Wilmot proviso, which piovided that slavery should not be permitted in whatever territory should be acquired from Mexico, was defeated ; but the agitation it occasioned led to the organ- ization of 1848. The Free soil party, the precursor of the present republican party. 1849-1853. Zaohary Taylor (Louisiana), whig, 12th presi- dent, t July 9, 1850 ; succeeded by Millard Fillmore of New York, vice-president. John M. Clayton, secretary of state ; fol- lowed by Daniel Webster 1850, July 20, f 1852 ; who was suc- ceeded by Edward Everett (b. 1794, \ 1865). 1860. Population 23,191,876 (7th census). The discovery of gold in California (1848) had led to the rapid population of that territory, and in 1850 it became the 31st state. 1850, Sept. Clay's compromises provided for the admission of Cal- ifornia as a free state ; for the payment to Texas of ten millions for her claim to New Mexico ; for the organization of Utah and New Mexico as territories without any mention of slavery ; for the prohibition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia ; and for the rendition of slaves who had escaped to free states, this last known as the 1850. Fugitive Slave Law. 1850, April 19. Clayton-Bulwer treaty with Great Britain settled certain questions with regard to communication between the Atlantic and Pacific ; which, owing to the acquisition of Cali- fornia, had become of importance to the United States. 1853-1857. Franklin Pierce (New Hampshire), demo- crat, 14th president ; William L. Marcy, secretary of state ; Jefferson Davis (b. 1808 ; f 1889), secretary of war. 1853, Dec. 30. Boundary dispute vrith Mexico settled by the Gadsden purchase ; by which the boundary was to be the Rio Grande from its mouth to 31° 20' north latitude ; thence due west to the 111th meridian of longitude west of Greenwich ; thence in a straight line to a point on the Colorado river twenty miles below the junction of the Gila ; thence up the middle of the Colorado river until it intersects the boundary of California as determined by the treaty of 1848. The price was ten millions, and the area thus acquired was 45,000 square miles. 1864. Treaty with Japan, which opened that country to commer- cial intercourse with the United States, negotiated by commo- dore Perry (p. 563). 1854. Reciprocity treaty with Great Britain secured to the Americans the right to the "fisheries ; " and certain articles were to be admitted free of duty into the United States and the British provinces. This treaty was terminated in 1866 by the United States. 1864. Kansas-Nebraska bill passed. It provided for the organ- ization of two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and left the question of slavery to those who should there settle (squatter sov- ereignty), thus repealing in part the Missouri compromise. A 556 Modem History. A. d, struggle immediately ensued between the slave-holders and the aboli- tionists as to which party should colonize these territories first. Sack of Lawrence by " border ruffians " (1856, May 21) ; battle of Ossawat- tomie {John Brown). At last the anti-slavery party proved successful. 1856. Rise of " Know-Nothingism," or secret opposition to foreign influence in national legislation. 1857-1861. James Buchanan (Pennsylvania), democrat, 15th president. 1857. In the Dred Scott case the supreme court decided that un- der the constitution neither negro slaves nor their descen- dants, slave or free, could become citizens of the United States ; and added, as a dictum, that the Missouri compromise was unconstitur- tional, and that therefore a slave did not become free by being carried to a territory where slavery had been prohibited under that compro- mise. 1857. Great commercial distress throughout the country. 1858. Minnesota (32d state) ; 1859, Oregon (33d state). 1859. John Brown with a handful of men seized the United Oct. 19. States arsenal at Harper's Ferry ; but, after half his men were killed, was captured, and hanged December 2d of the same year. 1860. Population of the United States 31,443,332 (8th census). 1860, Nov. Abraham Lincoln (b. 1809, f 1865) of IlUnois, re- publican, received the electoral votes of all the free states, — New Jersey excepted, — but none from the slave states, and was de- clared president-elect. (iVeto Jersey gave Lincoln 4, Douglas 3 votes.) 1860, Dec. 20. South Carolina seceded from the union, and was followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Lou- isiana, and North Carolina in January, 1861 ; by Texas in Febru- ary ; Virginia in April ; and by Tennessee and Arkansas in May. Missouri and Kentucky declared themselves neutral. Delegates from the seceded states met in convention at Montgomery, Alabama, 1861, f eb. 4 ; and formed a provisional government under the style of the Confederate States of America, Feb. 8. Jefferson Davis was elected president ; Alexander H. Stephens, vice-president. The se- ceding states endeavored to seize all the national property within their borders, and were successful except at Pensaeola (Florida) and Charleston (South Carolina). At the latter place the commander of the United States forces withdrew to an unfinished fort, Sumter, on an island in the harbor, Dec. 26, 1860 ; and on the 9th of January, 1861, a steamer, the Star of the West, bringing him supplies, vras fired on by the state forces, and forced to return. 1861, Jan. 29. Kansas admitted to the union as a, free (34th) state. 1861. Lincoln reached Washington in safety Feb. 23 ; and was inaugurated (16th) president of the United States on March 4 without disturbance. 'Williain H. Sevirard, secretary of state ; Simon Cameron, succeeded . Jan. 1862, by Edwin M. Stan- ton, secretary of war ; Salmon P. Chase, secretary of the treasury. The gaoemmerU of the so-called confederate states attempted to open negotiations, with the federal authorities, for a peaceful separation, A.. D. United' States. 557 but the president declined to entertain any such propositions. On the contrary, it was detednined to succour the garrison in Charleston harbor. The insurgents fired on fort Sumter 1861, Apr. 12, which surrendered Apr. 14. 1861-1865. The Civil War. Apr. 15, the president issued a proclamation calling foi 75,000 volunteers to serve for three months ; and summoned congress to meet July 4. April 18 a few companies of Pennsylvania mili- tia reached Washington ; and on April 19, the anniversary of the bat- tle of Lexington, the sixth Massachusetts regiment was attacked by a mob while passing through Baltimore. The same day the pres- ident declared the ports of the seceded states to be in a state of blockade. On May 3d he issued a call for 42,000 men to serve for three years or the war. May 13, Great Britain recognized the so-called confederate states as belligerents. June 10 the union troops were repulsed at Big Bethel, and July 21 were routed at Bull Run or Manassas. Nov. 1. George B. McClellan succeeded general Scott in command of the union forces. Nov. 8, Mason and Slidell, commissioners from the confederate states to Great Britain and France, were taken from the British mail cteamer Trent by the American steamer San Jacinto. War with Great Britain averted through the prudence and skill of Mr. Seward. The commissioners were given up, and thus was established a principle of inter- national law for which the United States had invariably con- tended. Events of 1862. Feb. 6, capture of Fort Henry (in Ten- nessee) by the union forces. Feb. 16, " unconditional sur- render " of Fort Donelson to general TJ. S. Grant (b. 1822 ; f 1885). Mar. 9, Monitor and Merrimac. Mar. 14, cap- ture of Newbern. Apr. 6 and 7, battle of Shiloh or Pitts- burgh landing (Grant) ; retreat of the confederates. Apr. 16, slavery abolished in the District of Columbia. April 24, a fleet under flag-officer (afterwards admiral) David 6. Far- ragut ran the forts below New Orleans, and received the surrender of that city the next day. March to July, Peninsular campaign (McClellan). Battle of Fair Oaks May 31 and June 1; seven days battles before Rich- mond (Mechanicsville, Gaines's Mill, White Oak swamp, and Malvern Hill July 1); withdrawal from the peninsula. The confederate army, now under the command of general Rob- ert E. Lee (b. 1807, t 1870), pressed forward toward Wash- ington. Battle of Cedar Mountain (Aug. 5); defeat of the union army under Pope at the second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 30. Lee crossed the Potomac into Maryland, but was de- feated at South Mountain, and after the battle of the Antie- tam (Sept. 17) reerossed the Potomac. McClellan superseded by Burnside, who was repulsed with great loss at Fredericks- burg (Deo. 13), and was succeeded (Jan 26) by general Hooker. 558 Modem History. A. D. Events of 1863. After the battle of the Antietam the presi- dent had issued a proclamation declaring that all slaves in states or parts of states in rebellion Jan. 1, 1863, should then be free ; and on that day he issued the formal emancipation proclamation. The army of the Potomac, under general Hooker, defeated at Chancellorsville (May 3). f Stonewall Jackson (b. 1826). Lee again attempted an invasion of the north, but was de- feated by the army of the Potomac, now commanded by gen- , eral George G. Meade (b. 1816, f 1872), at Gettysburg (July 1-3). July4,'Vicksburg surrendered to Grant. These two events were the turning points of the war. Grant assumed command of the military division of the Mississippi, and with force composed of the army of the Cumberland commanded by Thomas (b. 1816, f 1870), and reinforcements from Vicksburg under William T. Sherman (b. 1820 ; f 1891), and from the Potomac under Hooker, fought and won the battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge at Chatta- nooga, Tennessee, Nov. 24 and 25. West Virginia (loyal portion of Virginia) (35th state). Events of 1864. Grant made a lieutenant-general (March 9), and commander-in-chief (Mar. 12) of all the armies of the United States which henceforth operated on a settled plan. May 3, Grant with the army of the Potomac under general Meade crossed the Rapidan, fought the battles of the Wilderness (May 5 to 12), Spottsylvania (May 12-21), North Anna (May 21-31), Cold Harbor (June 1-3), and sat down before Petersburg, June 19. A confederate force under Early was sent to threaten Washington, and thus to secure the with- drawal of Grant. Early penetrated into Maryland and Penn- sylvania, but was defeated by Sheridan (b. 1831) at Opequan (Sept. 19), Fisher's Hill (Sept. 21), and at Cedar Creek (Oct. 19). The Shenandoah valley was then devastated, and Sheridan rejoined Grant before Petersburg. The western armies under Sherman began a campaign against the confed- erates led by general Joe Johnston (b. 1807) May 6, and after a series of engagements reached Atlanta, which was evacuated by the confederates Sept. 2. A portion of his army was then sent north under Thomas to watch Hood (the suc- cessor of Johnston), who was finally defeated before Nash- ville, Dec. 15 and 16. Meanwhile Sherman, after burning At- lanta, started on the march through Georgia. He reached the sea Dec. 12, and took Savamiah Dec. 22. On the water the Kearsarge ( Winslov;) sank the confederate steamer Ala- bama off Cherbourg (Alabama claims, p. 560) ; and a fleet under vice-admiral Farragut ran the forts at Mobile, Aug. 6. 1864, Nov. Nevada (36th state). Nov. 8. Reelection of Abraham Lincoln. Andrew Johnson, vice- president. 1865. The Thirteenth Amendment, prohibiting slav- a. D. United States. 559 ery •within the United States, was proposed by congress Feb. 1, and was declared ratified Dec. 18th. Events of 1865. Surrender of Fort Fisher to general Terry, Jan. 15. Grant had gradually drawn his lines around Lee's right flank, and on April 1st Sheridan won the battle of Five Forks, which compelled the evacuation of Petersburg April 2, and the surrender of Richmond April 3. Grant, with his whole army, under Meade and Sheridan, pursued Lee, who, being surrounded, capitulated at Appomattox Court House, April 9. Meantime Sherman had set out from Sa- vannah for the north, Feb. 1. On Feb. 17, he compelled the evacuation of Charleston, and on April 26 received the surren- der of the last confederate army, under Johnston. 1865, April 15. Assassination of Lincoln. Andrew Johnson, vice-president, succeeds. Cost of the war. National debt in 1860, $64,842,287 ; in 1866, $2,773,236,173, wliich great increase was in addition to the debts incurred by the states and municipalities. 1865, May 22. The southern ports declared open. May 29. Amnesty to all persons engaged in the rebellion, with the exception of fourteen specified classes. 1866, Apr. 9. Civil rights bill passed over the president's veto. June 16. Fourteenth amendment, securing to \hefreedmen the right of citizenship, declaring the validity of the national debt, and regulating the Jems of representation and disqualifi- cation from office, proposed by congress, and declared ratified 1868, July 28. 1866, July 16. Act to continue the freedmen's bureau, which had charge of the loyal and suffering classes, black and white, in the southern states, passed over the president's veto. 1866, July 27. Telegraphic communication finally established -with Great Britain. 1867, March 1. Nebraska (37th state). Mar. 2. Reconstruction act passed over the president's veto. It divided the ten southern states into five military districts, each commanded by an army officer, who should see to the protection of life and property. The seceded states to be restored to their place in the union, whenever a con- vention of delegates, "elected by the male citizens, ... of whatever race, color, or previous condition," except those dis- franchised for participation in rebellion, etc., should frame a con- stitution, which, being ratified by the people and approved by con- gress, should go into operation, and the legislature thereupon elected should adopt the fourteenth amendment. 1867, Mar. 4. Tenure of office bill passed over the president's veto. 1867, Mar. 30. Alaska purchase. Area 577,340 square miles; price a little over seven million dollars. 1868, Feb. 24-May 26. Impeachment of president An- drew Johnson by the house of representatives. He had op* 560 Modern History, A. l>, posed the reeonstniction measures of congress ; but the imme- diate cause of the impeachment was an alleged violation of the tenure of office act of 1867, Mar. 4. The senate acquitted him by one vote (3S to 19, the constitution requiring a two thirds majority). 1868, Dec. 25. Amnesty extended. 1869, Feb. 26. Fifteenth amendment, that the right to vote shall not he denied or abridged on account of " race, color, or previous condition of servitude," proposed by congress, and declared ratified, 1870, Mar. 30. 1869, Mar. 4-1877, Mar. 5. Ulysses S. Grant (Illinois), republican, 18th president. 1870, Population 38,5S5,983 (9th census). 1871, Mar. 3. A clause in the appropriation bill authorized the president to appoint a civil service commission to prescribe rules, etc. 1871, May 8. Treaty of Washington with Great Britain provided : 1. For the reference to the emperor of Germany of the dispute as to the Oregon boundary (decided in favor of the United States, 1872, Oct. 21). 2. For a partial settlement of the fishery dispute (Halifax award, 1877, gave Great Britain five and one half million dollars) ; this part of the treaty abrogated by act of the United States, 1883. 3. For the settlement of the Alabama claims (Geneva tribunal of arbitration awarded to the United States over fifteen million dollars). 1873. Commercial crisis. 1875. Colorado (38th state). 1876. Centennial exhibition at Philadelphia. 1876. The national elections of this year were very close, and con- gress appointed an electoral comniission (five senators, five representatives, and five justices of the Rupreme court), which declared the republican candidate elected. 1877, Mar. 5-1881, Mar. 4. Rutherford B. Hayes (Ohio), republican, 19th president. 1879, Jan. 1. Kesumption of specie payments. 1880, Population 50,155,783 (10th census). 1881, Mar. 4. James A. Garfield (Ohio), republican, 20th president. July 2, shot and mortally wounded, f Sept. 19. Succeeded by the vice-president, Chester A. Arthur, of New York, republican. 1882, May 6. Immigration of Chinese laborers suspended for ten years, in accordance with a treaty with China, con- cluded 1880, Nov. 7. 1883, Jan. 9. Civil service act (Pendleton bill) introduced the principle of compulsory competitive examination into the civil service of the United States. {Seep. 586.) §6. CHINA. (Seep.44S.) 1796-1882. 1796-1820. Kiaking. Frequent insurrections, rampant piracy. Embassy of lord • Amherst (1816). A. D. China. 561 1820-1850. Taukwang. The exclusive privilege of the East India company ceasing in 1834, lord Napier was appointed superintendent of British trade (t 1834). Imperial prohibition of the opium trade. Commissioner Lin sent to Canton with extraordinary powers (1838). Surrender of opium by Capt. Elliot, British commissioner to the Chinese, by whom it was destroyed (over 20,000 chests), 1839, Mar.-June. The con- tiimance of the trade, and the English demands that the loss be made good to their traders, caused the 1840-1842. First war with Great Britain (Opium war). A treaty concluded by Keshin, successor of Lin (Hong-kong ceded to England), was rejected by the emperor. The English cap- tured Amoy (1842, Aug. 27), Ning-po (Oct. 13), Shang-hai (1842, June 19), and stormed Ching-keang (July 21). 1842, Aug. 29. Treaty of Nanking. 1. Canton, Amoy, Fuhchau, Ning-po, Shanghai, opened to British trade. 2. Hong-kong ceded to England. 3. The Chinese paid $21,000,000. 4. Establishment of a regular tariff. 6. Official inter- course to be on a basis of equality. 1844, July 3. Treaty with the United States (Caleb Cushing, am- bassador). Treaty with France (Oct. 23). 1850-1860. Hienfung. 1850, Aug. Outbreak of the Tai-ping rebellion (1850-1864). The leader was Hung Sui-tsuen, who called himself Tien-teh (" ce- lestial virtue "), and claimed to have been commissioned by heaven to conduct a political and religious reform of the empire. Promulga/- tion of a religious system based on some knowledge of Christianity. 1853. Capture of Nanking (Mar. 19), Shanghai (Sept. 7). Sui- tsuen proclaimed emperor. 1856. Failure of the attack made by the rebels on Peking. 1856, Oct. 8. The loreha ^ Arrow, owned by a Chinese, but com- manded by an Iidshman and flying the British flag, was boarded at Canton by Chinese officers in search of suspected pirates ; twelve natives were carried off and the flag pulled down. 1856, Nov. Three Chinese forts destroyed by the American fleet under commodore Armstrong, the Chinese having fired upon American boats. The attempt of the English government (Palmerston, p. 543) to ob- tain a disavowal of the attack upon the Arrow, or an apology there- for, resulted in the 1857-1860. fSecond) war with Great Britain allied with France. Lord Elgin, English envoy. Destruction of the Chinese fleet (1857, May 26, 27). Capture of Canton (Dec. 28, 29). Treaties of Tientsin (June, 1858) with Great Britain, Prance, the United States. Infraction of the treaty (1859, June), renewal of the war. Kepulse of the English attempt to force the passage of the Pei-ho forts (June 1 Loreha: a light Chinese sailing vessel, carrying guns, built after the Euro- pean model, but rigged like a Chinese junk. — Impekial Dictionaby. 3l> 562 Modern History. A. D. 25). Chinese defeat at Palikao (I860, Sept. 21). Destruction of the summer palace (Oct. 6), surrender of Pelang (Oct. 12). 1860, Oct. 24. Treaty of Peking. Batiiication of the treaty of Tientsin j toleration of Chris- tianity ; revised tarifE ; payment of an indemnity ; resident ambassa- dors at Peking. 1860-1875. Tungchi, six years old. Palace revolution. Administration of prince Kung, Reor- ganization of the imperial army under general Ward, an American (■[■ 1861), and colonel Gordon, an Englishinan. The " ever victorious force." 1862-1864. Suppression of the rebellion. Capture of Nanking (1864, July 19). Suicide of Hung Sui-tsuen. 1866. Successful rebellion of Yakub Beg (f 1877) in Kashgar. 1868. Embassy of Anson Burlingame (and two Chinese envoys) to the treaty powers. (Burlingame f 1870.) 1870, May. Mohammedan rebellion in the northwest (^Yun^nan, Kan-suh). 1871. Russia annexed Kuldja, until the Chinese power should be reestablished in that region. 1873. Settlement of the audience question ; foreign ambassadors re- ceived by the emperor without the ceremony of prostration (kotow). Suppression of the Mohammedan rebellion. 1875-1908. KTivangsii, three years old (Tsair-tien). 1876, June. 30. Opening of the first railroad in China {Shanghai to Woosung, eleven miles). 1877-1878. Terrible famine in the north of China. 1877, Dec. Defeat and assassination of Yakub Beg. Capture of Kashgar. 1879, June. Treaty with Russia negotiated by Chung-how : China obtained only a portion of Kuldja and paid an indemnity. Re- jection of the treaty. 1881, Aug. Peace with Russia negotiated by the marquis Tseng. Cession of nearly all of the Kuldja district ; China paid the expenses of Russian occupation. 1882. A threatened war with Japan avoided by Chinese diplomacy. Dispute with the French over Tonquin (p. 535). (Seep. 594.) §7. JAPAN. (See p. 445.) 1817-1882. -„-?''^5% ,,. , Shoguns (Tokugawa family). 1817-1846, Nmko 1787-1838 lyenori. f 1838-1853 lyeyoshi. 1846-1866, Komei J 1853-1859 lyesada. ( 1859-1866 lyemochi. 1867 — X. Mutsuhito 1866-1868 Keiki (Hitotsubashi-yoshi- nobu ; Noriyoshi). Growing dissatisfaction with the usurped power of the shoguns among the samurai ; jealousy of the long possession of the shogunate by the Tokugawa family (1603-1868) among the great daimios. 1853, July 7. Commodore Perry, of the United States navy, en- tered the harbor of Yedo with four vessels, but soon departed j in Feb. 1854, he returned, and concluded a A. D. Japan. 563 1854, Mar. 21. Treaty between Japan and the United States, which was signed by the shogun, whom Perry took to be the "secular emperor " of Japan, under the newly assumed title of tai- kun (tycoon, "great prince," properly a title of the mikado). Trea- ties with Great Britain (1854, Oct. 14), and Russia (1865, Jan. 26). In 1858 treaties (peace, amity, .unrestricted commerce) concluded with the United States (Tovms^end Harris), Great Britain (Elgin), France, Russia, — all signed by the shogun. 1859. Yokohama, Nagasaki, Hakodate, opened to trade. These unwarranted assumptions of power on the part of the shogun angered the mikado and the Kioto court, where the foreigners were regarded with deep distrust. 1860. First Japanese embassy to the United States sent out by li, prime minister of the shogun (assassinated Mar. 23). 1861-1865. Civil dissensions. Outrages upon foreign representai- tives. Death of an Englishman (^Richardson) m a broU with the train of the brother of the prince of Satsuma, avenged by the bombardment of Kagosbima (in Satsuma), and the exaction of $625,000 (1862). 1862. The dairmos, released from compulsory residence at Yedo, flocked to Kioto. 1863. Some American, Dutch, and French vessels, having anchored in the forbidden roadstead of Shimonoseki after due warning, were fired upon. In reprisal these powers bombarded the batteries, inflicting considerable loss. In spite of this 1864, Sept. 4. Bombardment and destruction of the Shimonoseki batteries by English, French, Dutch, and American vessels. Exaction of an indemnity of $3,000,000, of which the United States received $785,000.1 1865, Nov. 25. Ratification of treaties extorted by the foreign pow- ers. 1867. Nov. 19. Resignation of Keiki, the last shogun. 1868. Restoration of the mikado. End of the dual gov- ernment. The proclamation setting forth the resumption of government by the mikado (1868, Jan. 3) was followed by the revolt of Keiki and by open war, which, after severe fighting (battles of Fushimi, 1868, Jan. 27-30 ; Wakamatsu, Hakodate), ended in favor of the imperial- ists (Jime, 1869). 1869. Nov. Residence of the mikado transferred from Kioto to Yedo (Jeddo), the name of the latter place having been previously changed to Toldo (" the eastern capital "). 1870. The mikado, by advice of the leading samurai (fikubo), changed front, and welcomed the foreigners. 1871. Embassy to the United States and Europe. 1871. Abolition of feudalism ; relegation of the daimios to private life ; abolition of the title ; exchange of their rev- enues for pensions. 1 In Feb. 1883, the house of representatives accepted a favorable report upon the Japanese indemnity bill. Repayment of the $785,000 without interest. 564 Modern History. A..T). Assimilation to western civilization. Issue of a code of criminal law (revised 1881) ; establishment of a government post ; introduc- tion of the telegraph ; railroad from Yokohama to Shinogana (1872) ; bureau of education ; adoption of the Gregorian calendar (1874, Jan. 1) ; female normal school (1875) ; university of Tokio (1873); rees- tablishment of the Shinto faith (p. 32) ; new military system. 1874. Expedition to Formosa, avenging the murder of Japanese sail- ors on that island. 1876. Enforcement of a treaty with Corea. 1877. Rebellion in Satsuma (Saigo, Kirimo) suppressed after heavy fighting (Saigo, f Sept. 24). Large issue of inconvertible paper money to defray the expenses. 1878. Establishment of local elective assemblies for regulating local taxation, and with right of petitioning the central government ; franchise secured to all males twenty-one years of age who pay a land tax of $5.00. 1881. Negotiations with the foreign powers relative to the adoption of a higher tariff, and to the abolition of the privilege enjoyed by foreigners of living under the jurisdiction of their native country. Dispute with China over the Loo-Choo islands. 1882, Oct. Imperial decree establishing a new constitution ; promise of a national assembly in 1890 (p. 594). {Seep. 694-) APPENDIX (1883— x). §8. GREAT BRITAIN. (See p. 546.) 1883-1903. 1883, Jan. 18. France having declined to join in the expedition against Ardbi, the dual control' was abolished by the khedive (Tewfik Pasha), and a British financial agent appointed in place of the controllers. Sir Evelyn Baring (later Lord Cro- mer), British diplomatic agent and consul-general. In the Soudan the mahdi Muhammad Ahmad was conducting a reli- gious revolt. Hicks Pasha's Egyptian array annihilated (Nov. 3-5, 1883); (Valentine) Baker Pasha defeated (Feb. 4, 1884). Great Britain insisted on evacuation of the Soudan, and 1884, Feb. 18. Gen. Charles Gordon (" Chinese " Gordon, p. 562) arrived at Khartum to withdraw the garrisons and establish a native government. Feb. 27. By the Convention of London the South African republic, now first so-called, was granted practical inde- pendence in internal affairs, but Great Britain reserved a veto over treaties with other states, except the Orange Free State and native tribes. Draft guaranteeing full independence was rejected by Great Britain; but the new convention made no mention oi preamble of convention of 1881, in which the suzer- ainty of Great Britain was asserted, while it expressly substi- tuted its articles for the articles of 1881. Western boundary established. Nov. 6. Protectorate proclaimed over southeastern New Guinea. Dec. 6. Third reform act received royal assent (pp. 640, 644). Uniform franchise in counties and boroughs, and in the three kingdoms; about 2,500,000 enfranchised. Redistribution of seats act (June 25, 1885) ; counties now have more seats than boroughs have ; single member seats. Total members of par- liament, 670. 1885, Jan. 26. Khartum captured by the mdhdi ; death of gen. Gordon. A relief expedition which had been demanded by the opposition since March, 1884, had started under lord Wolseley in Sept. After severe fighting (^Ahu Klea, Jan. 14) 1 Egypt became bankrupt in 1876 in consequence of loans contracted by the khedive Ismail Pasha (deposed, 1879), and the financial affairs were under- taken bj' the nations representing the chief creditors. In 1881 France and Great Britain practically assumed the administration of the country. 566 Modem History. a. d. an advanced guard approached Khartum, Jan. 28, but the ex- pedition was mthdrawn. March 30. Russians occupied Penjdeh, driving out Afghan force. Bupture imminent, but an adjustment was finally made and the Russian-Afghan frontier delimited by joint commission (1886), Russia retaining Penjdeh. March-May. Rebellion of Louis Kiel in Northwest territory, Canada. Kiel surrendered, May 16 ; executed, Nov. 16. June 23. Lord Salisbury (b. 1830 ; M. P., 1854 ; lord, 1868 ; tl903), prime minister. Sept. 30. British Bechuaualand made a crown colony ; protectorate over Northern Bechuanaland. 1886. Canadian and Bering sea fisheries (p. 686). Jan. 1. Upper Burma annexed to British India as result of the defeat of king Theebaw. Jan. 12. Eleventh (23d imperial) parliament of Victoria met, Irish nationalists (86) holding balance of power. Bradlaugh, after repeated exclusions because of his religious opinions, was allowed to take the oath. Government defeated, and Feb. 12. Gladstone became premier for the third time ; sir W. Vernon Harcourt (exchequer), lord Rosehery (foreign), John Morley (Ireland), Joseph Chamberlain (local government board). April 8> Gladstone introduced a Home rule bill for Ireland. Separate parliament, and Irish members excluded from the imperial parliament ; lord-lieutenant appointed by the crown with right of veto ; prerogatives of crown untouched ; customs and excise under British treasury; Ireland to pay ^ of inter- est on national debt. Secession of liberal unionists under lord Hartington and Chamberlain (resigned in March) followed. Land purchase bill for Ireland introduced. Home rule bill was defeated on second reading, June 7 (341-311), and par- liament was dissolved (June 26). The elections gave 316 conservatives, 191 home-rule liberals, 78 liberal unionists, and 85 Irish home-rulers. Gladstone resigned (July 20) and July 21. Iiord Salisbury became prime minister ; lord Iddesleigh (sir Stafford Northcote) (foreign); lord Randolph Churchill (exchequer and leader of the Commons), succeeded by G. J. Goschen, Jan., 1887; sir M. Hicks Beach (Ireland), succeeded by A. J. Balfour, March 5, 1887. Aug. 5. Twelfth (24th imperial) parliament of Victoria met. A tenant's relief bill introduced by Pamell failing, the Oct. 17. plan of campaign was put into force in Ireland ; rents offered and refused were formed into a joint fund for the sup- port of evicted tenants. 1887, May. Canadian Pacific railway opened (2905 miles). June 21. Jubilee day in commemoration of the fiftieth anniver- sary of the accession of queen Victoria. July 19. Criminal land amendment (Ireland) act (" Crimes act ") ; Irish land act, Aug. 23; Sept. 9, disturbances at Mitchels- town, Ireland. A. D. Great Britain. 567 1888, March 27. Conversion of the national debt (Goschen's act). June 11. Lord Stanley appointed governor-general of Canada. Aug. 13. Local government act (England and Wales) received royal assent. County administration (except judicial and licensing powers) transferred from justices of the peace to elective county councils. London county council (p. 570). May-Sept. Protectorate establishe^l over North Borneo, Brunei, and Sarawak. Deo. 10. Lord Lansdovme appointed viceroy of India. 1889, June 14. Samoan treaty (p. 687). Oct. 29. Royal charter granted to British South Africa Company. 1890, Feb. 13. Report of the special (" ParaeU ") commission on charges against the Irish leaders. In Feb. R. Pigott con- fessed the forgery of the letter (Times, April 18, 1887) in which Pamell was made to approve the murder of Burke (p. 646). Commission found that the personal charges agairtst Pamell were false; that direct complicity with crime was not proved as to the respondents collectively, but that they " en- tered into a conspiracy to promote, by a system of coercion and intimidation an agrarian agitation for the purpose of impoverishing and expelling the Irish landlords," and did not denounce a system which they knew led to crime. March 17. Convention signed with China on boundary of Thibet and India. July 1. Treaty with Germany signed, fixing boundaries of German East and West Africa and British possessions, with recip- rocal free transit for commerce; Heligoland ceded to Ger- many in exchange for Zanzibar (protectorate proclaimed, Nov. 7). Ang. 5. Convention signed recognizing French protectorate over Madagascar, and French sphere of influence from Algeria to the Niger and lake Chad. Nov. 28-Dec. 6. Division of Irish nationalists following conviction of Parnell of adultery ; Justin McCarthy leader of the major- ity. Parnell t Oct. 6, 1891. 1891, Feb. 26. Population of all India, 287,314,671. March 24. Protocol signed with Italy on African spheres of influ- ence ; Abyssinia within Italy's sphere. April 5. Population of Great Britain and Ireland, 38,104,975. 1891, June 11. Treaty with Portugal signed, regulating the bound- aries of African possessions. Agreement on spheres of influ- ence. May 31, 1893. Aug. 5. Elementary education act (England and Wales) received royal assent; public grant to denominational and board schools. Assent also given to Aug. 5. Land purchase (Ireland) act; voluntary agreement of sale between landlord and tenant; landlord paid by government bonds. 1892, Jan. 7. f Tewfk Pasha, khedive of Egypt, succeeded by Abbaa n. Pasha. Aug. 4. Thirteenth (25th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 568 Modern History. A. d. The government was defeated on a motion of want of confi- dence and resigned, and Aug. 16. Gladstone became (ith time) premier ; sir W. Vernon Harcourt (exchequer), lord Rosebery (foreign), John Morley (Ireland), James Bryce (chancellor of Lancaster), H. Camp- hell Bannerman (war). 1893, Jan. 16-19. Ministerial crisis in Egypt; khedive informed that British advice must be folloTved. Feb. 13. Home rule bill for Ireland introduced by Gladstone. It was like the earlier bill except that 80 Irish members were to sit in the imperial parliament with (by amendment in com- mittee) right to vote on all matters. The bill passed the Commons on Sept. 1 (301-267) but was Sept. 8. rejected by the House of Lords by vote of 419 to 41. July-Nov. Matabele war, ending in the defeat of chief Lobengula (t Jan. 23, 1894). Aug. 15. Bering sea arbitration award (p. 588). 1894, March 1. Anglo-Chinese agreement (p. 595). March 3. Resignation of Gladstone; lord Rosebery prime min- ister. March 5. Parish council (England and Wales) act; elective coun- cils to supersede vestries except in church matters. March 20. Sovereignty over Fondoland proclaimed; annexed to Cape Colony (June 7). May 21. Manchester ship canal opened. Aug. 7. Evicted tenants (Ireland) bill passed the Commons, but was rejected by the Lords (Aug. 14). Aug. 27. Treaty with Uganda signed ; protectorate. 1895, Jan. 21. Agreement on Sierra Leone hinterland signed with France. March 5 -April 20. English garrison at Chitral besieged by Afghan freebooters. The government sanctioned permanent occupation of Chitral (Aug. 10), and several punitive expedi- tious against frontier tribes followed (1897). June 22. Rosebery ministry resigned after a, defeat on a side issue, and was succeeded by the June 25 third ministry of lord Salisbury (foreign); A. J. Bal- four (treasury and leader of the Commons), sir M. Hicks Beach (exchequer), Joseph Chamberlain (colonies), O. J. Goschen (admiralty), lord Lansdowne (war, after 1900, foreign). Aug. 12. Fourteenth (26th imperial) parliament of Victoria met ; government majority, 152. Deo. Venezuela boundary controversy (p. 590). 1895, Dec. 29. Jameson Raid. Causes : development of gold mines in South African republic (discovery of gold, l884) by foreigners (nitlanders), who outnumbered the burghers but were allowed no political rights by president Kruger (b. 1825; pres. 1883 ; f 1904) and the Boer oli- garchy, while they were oppressed by the burdens of citizenship, monopolies (especially of dynamite), and maladministration; growth A. D. Great Britain. 569 of British control north and west of Transvaal ; rejection by the Boers of the British claim of suzerainty over them (p. 565) ; desire of the Cape authorities to place the Dutch states under British control. CecU Rhodes (b. 1853 ; f 1902), premier of Cape Colony and head of the British South Africa Company, which controlled the region north and west of Transvaal, fostered si conspiracy of uitlanders at Johannesburg and collected a body of troops under L. S. Jameson at Mafeking to aid them. Jameson, without orders or cooperation of the uitlanders, crossed the frontier (Dec. 29) and marched on Johannesburg with 600 horse. He was captured (Jan. 2) and turned over to the British authorities (Jan. 14). Secretary Chamberlain denounced the raid. 1896-1903. Plague in India; also during earlier years, famine. 1896, Jan. Expedition against Ashantee ; king Prempeh deported. Jan. 15. Convention signed with France on China and Siam (p. 596). March-Sept. Advance of British and Egyptians in Soudan under gen. Herbert (later lord) Kitchener ; opposed by Osman Digna. The Egyptians were established near Dongola. 1897, Jan. 11. General arbitration treaty signed with the United States ; but it was rejected by the Senate (May 5). June 22. Jubilee of the sixtieth anniversary of the accession of queen Victoria ; prominent participation of colonies and de- pendencies. Conferences of colonial premiers with secretary Chamberlain. July. Gold discovered at Klondike in Canadian Northwest territories. Aug. 6. Workmen's compensation act ; employers made liable for injuries, but "contracting out " allowed. Oct. 1. Chamberlain reasserted British suzerciinty over South African republic in answer to Kruger's demand for for- eign arbitration on the Convention of London (p. 565). Dec. 25. Italians evacuated Kassala, which the Egyptians occupied. 1898, April 8. The Anglo-Bgyptian army under Kitchener de- feated the dervishes near Atbara, securing Berber. The advance was continued during the summer and Sept. 2. the forces of the mahdi (Abdullahi) were defeated at Om- durman and Khartum occupied. This was followed by the final defeat and death of the mahdi near Gedid (Nov. 24, 1899), and the capture of Osman Digna (Jan. 19, 1900). 1898, May 19. ^Gladstone. June 13. Act of the Canadian parliament approved, giving to Great Britain and some of her colonies a tariff preferential of 25%. This was increased in 1900 to 33J%. Germany retaliated, July 7, 1899, by deprivhig Canada of the most favored nation treatment. July 25. Lord Minto appointed governor-general of Canada. Aug. 10. George N. (later lord) Curzon appointed viceroy of India. Aug. 12. Local government (Ireland) act received the royal assent ; extension to Ireland of county and district councils (p. 567), but not of parish councils. Sept.-Nov. Fashoda incident. A French expedition nnder major 670 Modem History. A. d. Marchand declined to comply with Kitchener's request to with- draw from Fashoda on the White Nile (Sept: 19). Nov. 4 the French government agreed to withdraw the force, and on March 21, 1899, a convention was signed as to possessions and spheres of influence in central Africa. France renounced any claim to the Nile valley. Nov. 1. Old age pension law enacted in New Zealand. Dec. 25. An imperial penny postage rate went into operation with most of the colonies. Australia included, April 24, 1902. 1899, Feb. Attempt of France to obtain territory at Muscat from sultan of Oman prevented by Great Britain. March 15, Oct. 28. Agreements between Germany and Rhodes for the construction of the Cape to Cairo telegraph through Ger- man East Africa. July 13. London (outside the City) divided into separate boroughs, with powers previously held by the county council (p. 567). Aug. 9. Central board of education established. 1899-1902. South African War. Unsuccessful negotiations followed the Jameson raid (p. 568). To the demand of Great Britain for recognition of the rights of the uitlanders, the Transvaal responded with a claim of entire inde- pendence not only in such (internal) affairs but in foreign matters, a request for indemnity, and active military preparation. Violation of London convention (p. 565). March 24, 1899, petition of British citizens at the mines for intervention. Various projects, including an offer (Aug. 19) of the franchise on five years' residence and a quarter representation in the rand, in return for Great Britain's re- nunciation of the claim of suzerainty, were refused by England. Both sides prepared for war, and the Oct. 12. Boers issued an ultimatum, demanding the immediate withdrawal of British troops from the frontier and the removal of all reinforcements from South Africa. When this was refused the forces of the Oct. 12. two Dutch republics (in ofEensive alliance) invaded Natal and Cape Colony, and also laid siege to Kimberley and Mafeking. The Boers had the advantage of better preparation and more mobility, and besieged sir George White and 12,000 men at Ladysmith. Sir Redvers Buller, marching to relieve the town, was defeated at Dec. 15. Colenso, on the Tugela, at 1900, Jan. 23. Spion Kop, and at Feb. 5. Vaal Krantz ; but finally succeeded in Feb. 28. relieving Ladysmith. Lord Methuen, advancing on Kimberley, was defeated at 1899, Dec. 10, 11. Maagersfontein on the Modder by gen. Cronje; and gen. Gatacre at Dec. 10. Stormberg by the Boers who had invaded Cape Colony. Lord Roberts was sent out as commander-in-chief, with Kitchener as chief of stafF. The A. D. Soiah African War. 571 1900, Feb. IS. relief of Kimherley (where Rhodes, the " evil genius of the Boers," was) was accomplished by gen. French, while Roberts Feb. 17. surrounded Cronje at Faardesburg, and after ten days received his surrender and that of 4000 men. The May 24. annexation of the Orange Free State was proclaimed by lord Roberts, who soon after June 5. occupied Pretoria. This advance had also May 17. raised the siege of Mafeldng (held by col. Baden-Powell). The Boers were defeated at June 11. Diamond Hill, and the railroad to the Portuguese frontier having been cleared, the Sept. 1. South African republic was annexed. Kruger retired to Europe, and Roberts left the command to Kitchener. The Boers, under Botha, De Wet, and Delarey, began a guerilla 'warfaze : communications were cut, supplies captured, and isolated garrisons " rushed," while engagements were avoided. The British built lines of blockhouses, connected them by means of entanglements, established concentration camps for noncombatants, and kept an army of 250,000 in the field against a force averaging 45,000. The 1902, May 31. Boers finally submitted, receiving honorable terms, but renouncing independence. British force during the war, 450,000 ; Boer force, about 75,000 ; British loss, 22,000 ; Boer loss, about 5000. Deficiency in organization and administration of the British army (report of royal commission, Aug. 26, 1903) and participation of colonial troops were features of the war. The con- quered states became the crovirn colonies of Orange River and Transvaal, with appointive legislative councils. 1900, Jan. 10. First train from Cairo to Khartum. July 9. Royal assent given to the act constituting the Common- wealth of Australia. All of Australasia united in one government except New Zealand. Bicameral parliament of des- ignated powers ; an equal number of senators from each colony, pop- ularly elected ; representatives apportioned according to population, and given control of revenue bills ; bills to receive the royal assent direct or through the governor-general. Executive composed of the governor-general and a, responsible ministry. Federal judiciary of supreme and lower courts, with regulation of appeal to king in conncil; appointed justices ; jurisdiction over interstate and state and federal relationships. Special provisions for trade and finances, new states, and amendment. Lord Hopetoun was appointed first gov- ernor-general. The government was inaugurated, Jan. 1, 1901; first parliament met. May 9 ; first ministry formed by Edmund Barton. Oct. 31. Union of Free and United Presbyterians in Scotland. Thirty ministers and 100 congregations of the Free church refused to accede to the union, and the House of Lords (Aug. 1, 1904) decided they were the legal holders of all of the property of the Free church. Dec. 3. Fifteenth (27th imperial) parliament of Victoria ; gov- ernment majority, 134. 572 Modern History. 4.. d. 1901 — X. Expeditions by British and Abyssinians against the Mullah ia Somaliland. A force of British, Indians, Boers, and natives, under gen. Manning was in the field in 1902. British defeated, Oct. 6, 1902. Jan. 22. f Queen Victoria ; succeeded by her son as 1901-1910. Edward VII. March 15. Population of all India, 294,361,056. April 1. Population of Great Britain and Ireland, 41,607,552. July 22. House of Lords decided that trade unions could be sued as corporations (Taff Vale case). Nov. 18. Abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (p. 593). 1902. Renewed trouble in Ireland over rent questions, influ- enced also by pro-Boer demonstrations. Members of parlia- ment convicted for conspiracy under the summary jurisdiction of the crimes act of 1887. Industrial depression in England. Jan. 30. Defensive alliance with Japan as to the eastern ques- tion (p. 598). May 15. Treaty signed with Abyssinia ; Soudan boundary, railway. March 26. ^ Rhodes. His will provided for the education of colonial, American, and German students at Oxford (^Rhodes scholar- ships). July 11. Resignation of lord Salisbury. A. J. Balfour, prime minister ; George Wyndham (Ireland). Aug. 9. Coronation of Edward VII. Oct. 31. First message sent over British Pacific cable between Canada and Australia, completing the all British cable round the world. 1902, Nov., 1903, March. Visit of Chamberlain to South Africa on an ofGicial tour of investigation and to promote reconciliation and unity. Nov. 21. Lord Tennyson appointed governor-general of Australia. Dec. Coercion of Venezuela (p. 685). Deo. 10. Opening of the Assuan dam on the Nile. Dec. 19. Education act for England and Wales received royal assent. Voluntary (denominational) schools entitled to public support on equal footing with board schools ; local councils to control aided schools in secular matters. Passive resistance by nonconformists. Dec. 21. Wireless telegraphic messages exchanged between England and Canada. 1903. Cape to Cairo railway completed to near the Zambesi. Agitation in South Africa for coolie labor in the mines. Dec. 30, favorable vote by the legislative council of Transvaal, and first Chinese arrived on .June 22, 1904. May 5. Declaration by lord Lansdowne, foreign minister, as to British control of Persian gulf. May 15. Secretary Chamberlain began bis campaign for imperial unification through a colonial preferential tariff. The ministry divided on the question ; Balfour showed leanings toward a retaliatory tariff. Sept. 9 Chamberlain resigned from the cabinet, as did several free trade members. A. D. Continental Europe. 573 Aug. 8. Lord Northcote appointed governor-general of Australia. Aug. 11. Prohibition of bounty-fed sugar (p. 584). Aug. 14. Irish land purchase act received royal assent. Three methods of non-compulsory sale to tenants: (1) As under former law (p. 667); (2) sale of entire estate to tenants at annuity less than present rent; (3) sale to aland commission for resale to tenants. Landlords paid in cash, the govern- ment issuing British bonds for that purpose. Aug. 22. t Lord Salisbury. July-x. Thibet mission. China and Thibet agreed to send com- missioners to meet the British commissioner, col. F. E. Young- hushand, at Kamba (July) to discuss frontier and trade rela- tions; but failed (as often before) to do so. Preparations virere made to advance the mission under military protection to Lhasa, aud movement began Dec. 11. Oct. 14. G-eneral arbitration treaty with France signed; phase of a rapprochement shown also in ofBcial visits of king Edward to Paris (May 1) and president Loubet to London (July 6). Oct. 20. Alaskan boundary award announced (p. 594). (See p. 599.) §9. CONTINENTAL EUROPE. (See pp. B2e, 535.) 1883-1903. 1883, Jan. 16. Memifesto and arrest of prince Napoleon Bon- aparte (Plon-Plon) (released Feb. 9), followed by attempt to esEpel the princes. Resignation of ministry Duclerc (Jan. 28) and ministry Fallikres (Feb. 21). Ministry Ferry took office (Feb. 21); Waldeck-Rotisseau (interior), Tirard (finance). Princes placed in inactivity. Feb. 8-March 10. An international conference at London regulated the navigation of the Danube. March 15. Triple alliance (Dreibund) of Germany, Austria, and Italy, acknowledged in Italy. May-July. Railway convention in France; abandonment of Frey- cinet's policy of state ownership. May 31. German act prescribing the insurance of workmen against illness {Krankenkassengesetz) ; employer to pay ^ of premium. In 1888, 5,400,000 insured. May 2. Consecration of the tzar Alexander III. at Moscow. June 13. French occupied Tamatave in Madagascar; continued resistance of the Hovas. Anti-Semitism in Hungary; accusations of ritual murder; severe persecutions at Pressburg and elsewhere. Aug. 24. f Count of Chambord(" Henry v."). Legitimists acknowl- edged the count of Paris (table, p. 528). Aug. 25. Preliminary peace between France and Anam ; French protectorate. War with Black Flags continued. Sept. 29. Alfonso XII. of Spain insulted by a mob in Paris for hav- ing received the honorary colonelcy of a German regiment stationed at Strasbnrg. Dec. 17. Visit of the German crown prince to the pope (" sec- 574 Modem History. A. d. ond journey to Canossa"). The German government had gradually withdrawn from the position of the May laws, as Bismarck found support of catholics necessary. 1884. In Belgium the extension of the suffrage was followed by a cath- olic reaction; communes allowed to adopt clerical schools. Feb. 11. Annexation of Merv and Sarakhs by Russia, bringing the frontier within 200 miles of Herat. June 26. Under the liberal minister Sverdrup royal assent was given to an act for a responsible ministry in Norway. May 11. Treaty of Tientsin between France and China; China to retire from Tonquin and respect French protectorate over Anam. Definitive treaty with Anam, June 6; also with Cam- bodia, June IT.' Dispute over construction of Chinese treaty, and direct war. French attacked Formosa (Aug. 3) and Fuchau (Aug. 23). June 27. Workmen's accident insurance act (Unfallversicherungsge- setz) enacted in Germany. In 1888, 10,340,000 insured. July 28. Earthquake at Ischia; 2000 killed. Aug. French constitution revised; republican form of govern- ment not subject to future proposals of revision, princes not eligible for the presidency. Reform in the organization of the senate (Dec.) ; proportional representation in the electoral con- gress, no more life members to be created. The establishment of the Deutsche Colonialverein in 1882 foreshadowed German imperialism. In Jan. 1884, Bis- marck announced the protectorate over Angra Peqnena in southwestern Africa. After a controversy with Great Britain Aug. 13. the protectorate was extended from Cape Frio to Orange River (except Walfish Bay), and over Kamerun and Togoland. Bismarck's policy was to protect mercantile undertakings rather than to inaugurate state colonization. Aug. 18. Vatican library opened to scholars for research. Oct. 28. Elections for the German Reichstag; gains by conserva- tives and socialists. 1885. Hereditary house of peers abolished in Portugal; house of 100 life peers and 50 elective peers substituted. Jan., Feb. Italy, after an understanding with England (Jan. 1, 1884), occupied Assab and Massawa. Unfriendly relations with king John of Abyssinia. Jan., Feb. Earthquakes in Spain, great loss of life; cholera. Feb. 17. Imperial charter granted to German East Africa Company. Feb. 26. General act of Congo conference signed at Berlin. Provisions for freedom of trade, eradication of slave trade, neutrality of the basin, and regulation of future occupations on coast of Africa. March 30. Resignation of ministry Ferry in France in consequence of defeat in Tonquin. Ministry Brisson (justice) formed; Freycinet (foreign), Sadi-Camot (public works, later, finance). Russia at Penjdeh'(p. 566). May. In Germany, increase in agrarian duties. May. Recidivist law in France ; transportation of habitual criminals. A. D. Continental Europe. bib June 8. Adoption of the scrutin de liste (note, p. 633) in the election of deputies in France. June 9. Franco-Chinese treaty of peace, recognizing the treaty of Tientsin. Aug. 25. Germany took possession of the Caroline Islands, but the pope, as referee, upheld Spain's protest (Oct. 22). Sept. 13-17. Revolution iu East Rumelia ; allegiance offered to Alexander of IJulgaria,i who accepted the crown under the suzerainty of the Porte. The union was distasteful to the sig- natory powers (except England), but the sultan accepted the personal union in the end. Meanwhile Servia and Greece were arming, and Nov. 13. Servia declared war and stiSered defeat at Slivnltza in Bulgaria (Nov. 14-20). The Bidgarian counter-invasion was stopped hy Aitstria, and an armistice signed. Dee. 27. Nov. 25. _ ^ A^onso XII. of Spain ; queen Maria Christina regent ; prime minister Canovas, with Campos and Sagasta at inter- vals. Dec. 1. Population of Germany, 46,885,704. Dec. 17. French treaty with Madagascar; protectorate, but not ac- knowledged by the Hovas. Dec. 28. Re-election of president Gr^vy. Oct. elections showed increase in monarchists. Ministry Brisson resigned, and min- istry Freycinet (foreign) formed (Jan. 7, 1886); Sadi-Camot (finance), Boulanger (war). 1886, March 3. The powers force a treaty of peace between Ser- via and Bulgaria at Constantinople. Greece continued to arm for the occupation of Macedonia until May 10-June 7. the allied fleet blockaded her ports. April 5. Protocol of the powers ; prince of Bulgaria to be governor of East Rumelia. May 31. Population of France, 38,218,903. May 17. Birth of Alfonso XIH. of Spain. June 22. Expulsion of the French princes. Aug. 22. Prince Alexander of Bulgaria kidnapped by Russian sympathizers. A provisional government under Stambouloff arrested the revolutionary leaders, and the prince returned Aug. 28 ; but on Sept. 3, in consequence of the displeasure of the tzar, he abdicated. Oct. 3. Law regulating primary instruction in France. 1887, Jan. 14. German army increased from 427,000 to 468,000 men because of the military activity of France and Russia. April 21. The arrest on a charge of espionage of the French com- missioner Schnabele by Germans but on French soil aroused much excitement (released April 29). May 30. Ministry Rouvier (finance); Ferron (war). The change was due to conservative distrust of the intentions of Boulan- ger, who continued to increase his popularity. June. Renewal of the triple alliance causes increase in Italian army to 252,000 men. 1 Of the house of Battenberg, elected prince of Bulgaria in May, 1879. 576 Modem History. A. d. July 7. Prince Ferdinand of Coburg elected prince of Bulgaria in spite of Russia's refusal to recognize the election. July 27. Death of the Italian prime minister, Dupretis ; Crispi suc- ceeded him, Rudini and Giolitti at intervals. Oct. A scandal in France over the sale of decorations and other jobbery affecting Gravy's son-in-law resulted in the fall of the Kouvier ministry and the resignation of Gr^vy (Dee. 1). Dec. 3. Election of Sadi-Carnot as president. Dec. 12, ministry Tirard (finance); Fallieres (justice), Flourens (foreign). 1888, Jan. Papal jubilee. March 9. f "William I. German emperor ; succeeded by his son as 1888, March-June. Frederick III. The emperor, sufiEering from cancer, f June 15, and was succeeded by his son 1888, June -X. William II. March 19. A period of five years instead of three adopted for the German Reichstag. March 21. Gen. Boulanger on account of political intrigues and disregard of discipline, was removed from the French army. Ministry Tirard succeeded by the ministry Floquet (interior) on April 3; Freycinet (war). Boulanger elected to the Chamber of Deputies by a large majority ; he declared himself in favor of a revision of the constitution. May 27. Completion of the Sarmarkand section of the Transcauca- sian railway. Aug. 14. Von Moltke resigned as chief-of-stafE of the German army. The publication in Sept. of extracts from the diary of Frederick III. indicated that the establishment of the empire was due in good part to his initiative. Bismarck declared the ex- tracts had been interpolated, but their genuineness was shown. Oct. 29. Suez canal convention signed at Constantinople; free navi- gation. Completion of the Eastern railway connecting Constantinople with Calais. Upon the receipt of remonstrances from Austria, Germany, and Russia against asylum to political offenders in Switzerland, that country voted 16,000,000 francs for militiary supplies. 1889, Jan. 30. Suicide of crown prince Rudolf of Austria. Archduke Carl Ludwig, brother of the emperor, transferred his right of succession to his son archduke Ferdinand. Adoption of the zone railway tariff in Hungary. Feb. Popularity of Boulanger increased ; he was elected to the assembly from Paris in Jan. by a large majority. Floquet secured a return to the scrutin d'arrondissement (note, p. 533), hut was defeated on a proposal for revision. Ministry Tirard (commerce) formed on Feb. 22 ; Fouvier (finance), Constans (interior), Freycinet (war), Thevenet (justice), Fallieres (in- struction). The new government at once took up the repres- sion of the Boulangist movement ; Boulanger, Dillon, and Rochefort fled (April), and while absent were condemned by the senate of an attempt against the security of the state (Aug). A. D. Continental Europe, 577 March 7. Abdication of king Milan of Servia in favor of his son Alexander; queen Natalie banished. May 6. luternatiuual exposition opened at Paris in commemoration of the revohition of 1789. Eiffel tower, 984 feet. May 24. Aged and indigent workmen's insurance act adopted in Ger- many. June 14. Samoan treaty (p. 687). July. Electoral reform in France ; plural candidacy abolished. In Sept. and Oct. the elections showed decided republican gains, and interest in Boulanger visibly declined. Oct. 9. t Dom Luis, king of Portugal ; succeeded by his son Carlos I. 1890-1903. A period throughout Europe of much social unrest, indicated by anarchistic, socialistic, and anti-Semitic agitations which assumed acute phases especially noticed. Strikes were frequent and usually of political significance. In Germany and in Russia (espe- cially under Witte) industrial development was forced, and a policy of naval expansion entered upon. In France, in spite of setbacks, the republican government was strengthened. Foreign interests shifted from the near to the far East, and tlie political map of Africa was more clearly marked. 1890. March 18. Resignation of Bismarck in consequence of dif- ferences of opinion with the emperor. He was created duke of Lauenburg and retired to Friedrichsruhe. Von Caprivi appointed chancellor. March 1&-19. International labor conference at Berlin at sugges- tion of the emperor ; recommendations with regard to labor of women and children, and Sunday labor. July 1. Anglo-Germaj treaty; Heligoland and Africa (p. 567). July. In Russia enforcement of the May laws of 1882 ; Jews forbidden to reside in the rural districts, to own or farm land, to enjoy educational advantages, to practice law or engineer- ing, to act as army doctors, or to hold any government position. Aug. 5. Franco- British African convention (p. 567). Nov. 83. f William III. of the Netherlands ; queen Emma regent for his daughter Wilhelmina. Luxemburg passed to Adolf of Nassau. Dec. 1. Population of Germany, 49,428,470. Dec. 31. Population of Austria^Hungary, 41,231,342. 1891. Radicals gained control in Norway, advocating universal suffrage, and separate consuls and foreign ofBce. Through various ministries this agitation has continued. March 17. f Prince Napoleon Bonaparte at Rome. March 24. Anglo-Italian protocol on Africa (p. 667). April 12. Population of France, 38,342,948. June 11. Anglo-Portuguese African convention (p. 667). July, Aug. French fleet at Cronstadt visited by the tzar ; demoo- strations of friendship between Russia and France. Sept. 30. Suicide of Boulanger at Brussels. 1892. Cholera and distress ; activity of anarchists. Jan. 11. French protective tariff ; regular and minimum rates. 578 Modern History. A. d. Feb. 1. ISbw German commercial treaties became operative ; hostile to agrarian interests. Feb. 16. Papal encyclical to French catholics ; republic to be unreservedly recognized. Feb. 28. Change in French ministry on question of associations bills ; ministry Loubet (interior); Freydnet (war), Ribot (foreign). Nov. 22-Dec. 17. International monetary conference at Brussels at invitation of the United States ; no results on bimetallism. Dec. 3. French protectorate over Dahomey. 1892-1893. Panama scandal in France. A French company having secured from Colombia the right to build a ship canal (May 18, 1878), de Lesseps undertook the task. Company declared bankrupt, Feb. 4, 1889 ; of 1,434,000,000 fr. disbursed only 560,000,- 000 fr. had been spent on the canal and much of this misappropri- ated. Exposure of great fraud, blackmail, and bribery, inculpating legislators and former ministers (Nov. 1892) ; ministry reconstructed under Ribot (Deo. 5), and again, Jan. 12, 1893, without Loubet and Freycinet, Dupuy (education). Trials and confessions followed (Jan., March). The company was reorganized, but sold out (p. 593). 1893. Bank scandal in Italy (Panamino), involving premier Gio- litii and ex-premiers Crispi and Rudini. Crispi formed a new ministry (Dec. 14). Financial and monetary disturbances during the year ; deficit, $35,000,000. Socialistic disturb- ances in Sicily. Feb. 19. Episcopal golden jubilee of Leo XIII. April 13. Coup d'etat in Servia; Alexander deposed his regents and took personal charge of the government. May 6. German Reichstag, having refused to vote an increase of the army, was dissolved. The New Reichstag, showing increase of socialists, passed the act (promulgated Aug. 3), providing for 479,000 men. Aug. Tariff war between Russia and Germany, ending in a commer- cial treaty (Feb. 10, 1894), reducing duties on German mantis factures and Russian grain ; agrarian opposition in Germany. Sept. 7. Amendments to Belgian constitution sanctioned ; universal male sufirage with system of plural votes ; senate reorgan- ized. Oct. 3. Franco-Siamese treaty of peace (p. 695). 1894, March 15. Franco-German convention ; boundaries of French Congo and Kamerun, spheres of influence about lake Chad. May 28. Ministry Dupuy (interior) formed ; Poincare (finances), Delcasse (colonies), Guerin (justice), Hanotaux (foreign), Faure (marine), Mercier (war). June 21. Compulsory dvil marriage in Hungary. June 24. President Sadi-Carnot assassinated by an anarchist at Lyons. June 27. Casimir-P^rier elected president of France. June 29. French law for compulsory insurance of miners j employers to pay ^ of premium. Sept. t Count of Paris ; succeeded in his claim by his son the due d' Orleans. A. D. Armenian Massacres. 579 Sept. 29. Completion of the North Sea-Baltic (Kiel) ship canal, 61 miles long ; formal opening, June 19-22, 1895. Oct. 15. Capt. Alfred Dreyfus, of the general stafE of the French army, an Alsalian Jew, arrested on accusation of sending military secrets to the G-ermans, as shown by a letter in his handwriting (bordereau). Dreyfus was convicted by a secret court- martial (Dec. 22) on the divided opiniou of graphologists, the perjured testimony of major Henry, and the contents of a secret "dossier" pre- pared by the minister of war, Mercier, and submitted privately to the judges. He was publicly degraded (Jan. 5, 1895) and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment on Devil's Island. The affair became a political matter, involving anti-Semitism and the relation of the army to the republic. Oct. 26. fiesiguation of chancellor v. Caprivi ; succeeded by prince v. Hohenlohe. Nov. 1. t Tzar Alexander m. of Russia ; succeeded by his son 1894-X. Nicholas II. Dec. 27. Convention deliminating the possessions of Congo and French Congo. 1894-1896. Armenian Massacres. Causes : religions and racial antipathy ; an energetic people under the rule of a quietistic government ; abuses, misrule, and forced conversion to Mohammedanism ; Armenian plots against Turkish rule. In Aug. 1894, Kurds and Turkish soldiers plundered many villages in Sasun and massacred thousands of Armenians. After investigations, England, France, and Russia (under treaty of Berlin) 1895, May 11. presented a project of reform to the Porte, and after much friction an irade was issued (Oct. 17) ordering the reforms proposed. Meanwhile Sept. 30, an Armenian demonstration at Constantinople provoked a riot, and as a result of this Kurds, Circassians, and Turkish soldiers began to massacre the Armenians in the pro- vinces included in the reform irade, which continued through- out the year, and resulted in the murder of over 25,000 and destitution for hundreds of thousands as the result of pillage. Foreign relief expeditions were sent to the desolated districts (1896). Disturbances continued, especially at Van (June) between Mohammedans and revolutionists. 1896, Aug. 26. An attack on the Ottoman bank at Constantinople by Armenians, caused a general attack on Armenians by organized bands of Mussulmans, which continued several days. Wholesale arrests of Armenians at the capital, and many thousands fled. Dec. 22. A general amnesty was issued covering all Mohammedans and most of the Armenians. Reforms put in operation, call- ing for Christian officials and gendarmes, control over the Kurds, and tax reforms; of little practical effect. Action of the powers hampered by lack of unity, fear of international compli- cations, and condition of Turkish finances. England's policy checked by the results. 580 Modern History. A. d. 1895. Naval increase in Germany, to protect commercial ex- pansion. Agrarian agitation for state monopoly iu foreign cereals. Jan. 14. Resignation of ministry Dupuy; financial scandals. Also Jan. 15. resignation of Casimir-Perier because of hostile criti- cism. Jan. 17. Felix Faure elected president of France. Jan. 21. Anglo-French agreement on Sierra Leone hinterland. Jan. 26. Ministry Ribot (finance) formed ; Hanotaux (foreign), Poincare (education). Feb. Revolt in Cuba (p. 590). March 11. Russian and English spheres of influence in the Pamirs deliminated. April 7. Hansen reached 86° 14'; farthest north. April 12. Interference in Chinese-Japanese treaty (p. 596). May 11. Anti-revolutionary bill (Umsturzoorlage) against socitdists in Germany dropped because open to too general application; continuation of Vese-majeste prosecutions. July 15. StambouloS, anti-Russian leader in Bulgaria (premier, 1887-94), attacked, by assassins; f J"ly 18. Sept. 30. French occupy capital of Madagascar after an advance of several months from the coast. Treaty of peace (Oct. 1) j protectorate. Nov. 2. Radical ministry Bourgeois (interior) formed ; Cavaignac (war), Berthelot (foreign), Combes (education). Dec. 2. Population of Germany, 52,279,915. 1896. Agricultural depression throughout Europe. Electoral reform in the Netherlands; suffrage made dependent on educational or financial tests. Italy, claiming a protectorate over Abyssinia, advanced troops (1895) to annex it to Eritrea. King Menelek surprised them, compelled the evacuation of Makaleh (Jan. 23, 1896), and de- feated them in the March 1. battle of Adua (^Adoioa). Crispi's ministry fell (March 5) and Rudini, the new premier ("peace with honor"), withdrew the forces. At the peace of Addi's Abeda (Oct. 26) Italy acknowledged the full independence of Abyssinia. Jan. 15. Anglo-French agreement on Siam (p. 596). Feb. Austrian Reichsrath introduced general suffrage for ^ of members of the house; remainder still elected by ^ of the electors. Feb. 14. Baptism of prince Boris, heir apparent of Bulgaria, in the Greek church ; restoration of Russian ascendency. March 29. Population of France, 38,517,957. April 28. Ministry Meline (agriculture), succeeds ministry Bour- geois; Hanotaux (foreign). May 16. Hungarian parliament passed a law recognizing the Jewish faith. May 26. Consecration of Nicholas II. at Moscow; disaster in the crowd (May 30). Aug. 6. Madagascar declared a French colony. A. D. Turco-Greek War. 581 Sept. 26. Opening of the Iron Gates of the Danube. Oct. Visit of the tzar to France. 1896-1899. Cretan Revolt and Turco-Greek War. In Crete a Christian (Greek) insurrection began in May, 1896, against Turkish rule. The 1897, Feb. 7. insurgents proclaimed union with Greece, and Greece lauded troops, refusing to withdraw at the order of the poT)7ers (Feb. 18), who had assumed joint occupation of the island and March 2. presented an ultimatum; no annexation to Greece, but Crete to have an effective autonomous government. Greece still refused to withdraw (March 8), and the powers announced the blockade of Crete. Public opiuion in Greece forced the government into a war with Turkey, for which she was utterly unprepared. The conflict began on the Thessaloniau frontier ou April 16, and April 17. Turkey declared vrar, her forces, under Edhem Pasha, driving the Greeks out of the Milouna pass (April 18), and causing a general retirement, though unsuccessful at Raveni pass (April 19). The Greeks, under the crown prince, seized with panic, April 25. evacuated Larissa and retreated to the Karditsa-Volos line. The Greek ministry was dismissed and Athens almost in revolt. Meanwhile the Greeks had invaded Epirus from Arta (April 20), but were driven back by Osman Pasha (April 28). Karditsa was abandoned on the advance of Edhem Pasha ; May 5 the Greeks were driven from Fersala and Velestino, and May 8 the Turks entered Volos. Fighting closed with the further retreat of the Greeks from Domokos to Lamia (May 17). May 10. Greece consented to withdraw from Crete and was ready for mediation, which the powers offered to Turkey. Kussia and Austria had ordered the Balkan states to keep out of the war (April 29), and now at a hint from the tzar the May IS. Porte suspended hostilities. Turkey was not allowed to profit by her victories. By the Deo. 4. treaty of peace at Constantinople, ihe frontier was rectified (Turkey gained control of the passes), and Greece paid an indemnity of $17,600,000. A commission of the powers assumed con- trol of Greek revenues sufficient to pay this and the old Greek loans. Meanwhile in Crete the settlement made little progress, thougli the Christian assembly accepted autonomy (Aug. 26) and the powers increased their zone of occupation. The powers failed to agree among themselves or with Turkey, and Germany and Austria with- drew. Turkey wished to keep troops on the island as a mxirk of her suzerainty a,nA have the Christian governor her subject ; but'the with- drawal of her troops was forced (Nov. 12, 1898) after a Moslem attack on the British troops and Christians at Candia (Sept. 6), and 1898, Dec. 21. Prince George of Greece was made governor- general by the powers. A constitution, drawn up by a native commission, was accepted by the four powers (Russia, Great Britain, 582 Modern History. A. d. Italy, France) and the Cretan assembly (April, 1899). Many desti- tute Mohammedans emigrated. 1897, Feb. 9. Population of Russian empire, 129,004,514. April 5. By ministerial decree in Austria Czech (Bohemian) was placed on an official equality -with German in Bohemia. A race war followed in Bohemia. In the Reichsrath violence and ob- struction hy the Germans produced a deadlock which continued during 1898 and 1899 and made necessary legislation by decree under a temporary suspension of the constitution. The Ausgleich was thus renewed as a modus vivendi. Matters were complicated by socialism and anti-Semitism. In Hungary there was opposition to the renewal of the Ausgleich. The repeal of the language ordinance (July 20, 1900) was followed by obstruction by the young Czechs. July 23. Convention defining the boundary of French Dahomey and German Togoland. Aug. Visit of the president of France to Russia; the tzar toasted the " allied " nation (Aug. 26). Deo. 2. Gold standard adopted in Russia. 1898-1899. Dreyfus affair. An attempt by col. PicquaH to re-open the Dreyfus case (p. 579), with proof that the dossier con- tained nothing applicable to him and that the bordereau was written by another officer (Esterhazy), was met by an attempt to discredit Picquart and his evidence by forgeries made by Henry, acquittal of Esterhazy by court-martial (Jan. 11, 1898), the declaration that the case was une chose jug&e, and that the Dreyfusards (including Zola) were trying to dishonor the army. Public opinion, led by the Patriotic League, anti-Semites, army officers, and reactionists, became rabid against the revisionists. But Henry confessed to the forgeries and committed suicide (Aug. 31), and the prime minister (Brisson) now favored a revision; but while the court of cassation was con- sidering the question, the ministry resigned after a vote virtually accusing them of permitting attacks on the army, and the ministry Dupuy with Freydnet as war minister succeeded (Oct. 30). The court of cassation (June 3, 1899) ordered a neiw court-martial, declaring the bordereau to be Esterhazy's work and the secret dossier without reference to Dreyfus, but the new conrt-martial renewed the conviction (Sept. 9). Meanwhile the agitation had endangered the stability of the republic, and the ministry Dupuy (" trimmers ") was replaced (June 22) by the ministry Waldeck-Rousseau (interior) ; Z)eZcasse (foreign), GaWi/e/, later ^nrfre (war). This was known as the ministry of republican defense, and it steadily repressed the " afpair." Dreyfus was pardoned (Sept. 19), the leaders of militarism transferred and subdued, and an act of amnesty passed (Dec. 24, 1900). 1898, Feb. 20. Referendum in Switzerland voted in favor of state ownership of railways. April-August. Spanish- American war (p. 590). May. Distress in Italy led to strikes and riots, assuming, under socialistic and clerical encouragement, a political character, amounting in Milan (May 6-8) to an insurrection. A. D. Continental Europe. 583 June. Elections for German Reichstag showed increase of social democrats ; but little increase of agrarians. June 14. Franco-British conventiou on spheres of influence about Niger river. July 17. Italian law for pension /une2ybrworJ!;peop2e; national sub- vention of members of the fund. July 30. f Bismarck. Aug. 31. Accession of queen Wilhelmina. Sept.-Nov. Fashoda incident (p. 569). Sept. 10. Empress of Austria assassinated by an anarchist. Oct-Nov. Visit of the German emperor to Constantinople and the Holy Land. 1899, Jan. 25. The speech from the throne to the Finnish diet an- nounced that the military service of Finland would be made uniform with that of the rest of the empire. Feb. 15, an imperial manifesto displayed the intention of using auto- cratic authority over legislation respecting Finland, leav- ing to the diet only the right of consultation. Feb. 16. t President Faure. Feb. 18. Tjmile Loubet elected president of France. May 18-July 29. Hague peace conference. Aug. 24 and Dec. 30, 1898, the tzar of Russia proposed a conference to consider limitation of armaments, arbitration, and laws of war. The conference was attended by representatives of European nations. United States, Japan, China, Persia, and Siam. No conclusion was reached as to re- duction of armaments, but conventions signed: (1) for a permanent court of international arbitration at the Hague and friendly mediation; (2) on laws and customs of war on land; (3) extending the Greneva convention to maritime warfare ; and also declarations prohibiting the use of special means of destruction. June, July. Socialistic demonstration in Belgium against the govern- ment's electoral bill ; in Brussels fierce rioting. Ministry resigned (Aug. 1) and the new ministry carried through a law toi proportional representation (Dec. 29). June 30. Spain ceded the Caroline Islands to Germany. Dec. 2. Samoan treaty (p. 592), 1900, March. Successful obstruction by socialists in the Italian cham- ber of deputies of a drastic bill for the public safety, the out- come of the disturbances of 1898. April 14. Paris exposition to commemorate the work of the century opened. June 26. Imperial ukase issued for gradual introduction of Russian as the official language in Finland. June 27. Franco-Spanish convention deliminating possessions in Sahara and on gulf of Guinea. July 29. Assassination of king Humbert of Italy by an anarch- ist, succeeded by his son 1900-X. Victor Emmanuel III. Sbpt. First election in Norway under universal manhood (26 years) suffrage. 584 Modern History. a. d. Oct. 17. Count von Biilow succeeded prince v. Hohenlohe as chancellor of the German empire. Dee. 1. Population of Germany, 56,367,178. 1901. Industrial depression in Germany. 1901-1902. Attempted Germanization of Prussian Poland through settlement of German proprietors and language de- crees made little progress against opposition. 1901-1903. In Jan., 1901, revolt of students throughout Russia; Bogolepoff, minister of education, assassinated (Feb. 27) . Tolstoi excommunicated (Feb. 25). Trouble renewed at the end of year, assisted by workmen and with revolutionary purposes. Sipiagin, minister of the interior, was assassinated, April 15, 1902, and so was his successor, Plehve (July 26, 1904). Iiabor strikes followed, a novelty in Russia, due to over-stimulation and collapse of manufacturing enterprises. Distress and famine caused agrarian agitation and sacking of large estates (April, 1902). 1901 — X. Macedonian revolt, headed by Bulgarian revolutionists {Boris Sara/of), which, with the conduct of the Turkish troops, produced a reign of terror. Russia and Austria up- held the status quo and presented a scheme of reform to the sultan (Oct. 24, 1903) which he accepted. 1901, Feb. 10. Population of Italy, 32,475,253. March 24. Population of France, 38,961,945. April 19. A liberal constitution decree in Servia, creating a senate. June 25. Army reorganization law in Sweden j compulsory service. July 1. Associations la'w in France. Causes : attitude of clergy in Dreyfus afEair ; teachings of the regular clergy considered reactionary ; "too many monks in business, and too many monks in politics." All religious associations and their establishments must be authorized by the state; all unauthorized ones after Oct. 1 to be considered dissolved. Many congregations, espe- cially the Jesuits, transferred their property beyond France before that date. The law was construed strictly, especially against associations engaged in teaching and business (Char- treuse). July 11. Imperial edict deprived Finnish army of its national charac- ter; attempt at recruiting at Helsingfors failed (April 17, 1902). Aug. 26. Rupture of Franco-Turkish diplomatic relations over claims and French religious orders. Nov. 7, naval demonstra- tion. The Porte yielded and also recognized French pro- tection of catholics in the East. 1902, 1903. Famine in Sweden and Finland. 1902, Jan. Completion of the Transsiberian railway. Jan. 16. Turkish irade for a German railway across Asia Minor to Persian gulf. March 5. Brussels sugar convention signed by most European states, abolishing bounties; in effect Sept. 1. Great Britain (Aug. 11) forbade import of boimty-fed sugar. April. A general strike in Belgium against plural suffrage failed. &■• D. Continental Europe. 585 April, May. French elections, hearty support of the government. May 7. Eruption of Mount Pelee, Martinique ; destruction of St. Pierre. May 17. Accession of Alfonso XIII. of Spain. Jane 3. Kesignation of ministry Waldeck-Bousseau ; succeeded by ministry Combes (interior, worship) on June 7 ; Delcasse (foreign), Andre (war), Rouvier (finance). June 7. German Reichstag assented to the abolition of the dictator paragraph (state of siege) in Alsace-Lorraine, June 28. Triple alliance renewed at Berlin. July. Riots in Brittany and Savoy against the closing of unauthorized religious schools. About 3000 schools closed in France. Sept. 30. Further Russificatdon of Finland. Edicts issued giv- ing governor-general power to appoint officials and remove judges; Russian to be the ofBcial language Oct. 1, 1903. Russian espionage and Cossacks employed. Great emigra- tion. Bodrikoff, governor general, assassinated, June 16, 1904. Dec. Coercion of Venezuela. Great Britain, Germany, and Italy, presenting claims, blockaded Venezuela. United States re- fused to interfere bo long as no permanent occupation was attempted, but through its good offices the Hague tribunal was asked to decide whether coercing powers should have prefer- ence over other claimants (Feb. 13, 1903), and the blockade was raised. Claims conventions. Dec. 14. Tariff hUl passed the German Reichstag; minimum duties on agricultural products raised. 1903. In France an agitation developed for separation of church and state and denunciation of the Concordat (p. 463) ; members of dissolved congregations denied the right to preach in the parishes. The visit of the king of Italy to Paris (Oct. 14), and the Franco-Italian general arbitration treaty (Deo. 25) harmonized with this movement. Feb. 20. Silver jubilee of papacy of Leo XIII. March 5. Bagdad railway convention signed at Constantinople. April. In Servia king Alexander, not receiving the support of the radi- cals, suspended the new constitution. June 11 he and queen Draga were murdered by army officers. Peter Kara- georgevitoh, the rival claimant, elected to succeed (June 15). April 19, 20. Planned riot against the Je^ws at Kishinef, Russia, the authorities sympathizing with the rioters. The affair attracted world-wide attention. Sept. 14, similar riot at Gomel. July 20. t Leo XIII.; Pius X. (Sarto), patriarch of Venice, elected to succeed, Aug. 4. Sept. 14. Emperor Francis- Joseph, sharply denounced the demand of the Kossuthites for use of Hungarian in the army. Ministe- rial crisis. Oct. 14. Franco-British general arbitration treaty (p. 673). (See p. 599.) 586 Modem History. A. d. § 10. UNITED STATES. (See p. B60.) 1883-1903. 1883, Beginmng of the ne'w steel navy (" white squadron "). March 3. Tariff act; protection principle maintained. May 24. Opening of the New York-Brooklyn suspension bridge. 1884, June 6. Republican convention at Cliioago nominated J. G. Blaine for president; protective platform. The democrats nom- inated Grover Cleveland at Chicago, July 11, and advocated tax- ation for revenue only. Both platforms supported civil service reform. Campaign of much personality. Democrats suc- cessful at election (Nov. 4), carrying the pivotal state of New York by 1047 votes. Electoral vote, 219-182. 1885, Feb. 26. Act forbidding importation of contract laborers. 1885, March 4-1889, March 4. Grover Cleveland (b. 1837) (New York), democrat, 22d president; T. A. Hen- dricks, vice-president (f Nov. 25, 1885); T. F. Bayard, sec- retary of state. 1886, Jan. 19. Presidential succession lavr; members of the cabinet to follow the vice-president in succession. March 6-May 3. General strike on the Gould system of railroads; rioting suppressed by regulars and militia. Knights of Labor controlled the strike. May-July. Seizures made of American fishermen in Canadian waters, reopening old controversy under convention of 1818 (p. 552). Retaliatory legislation. May 1. Strikes and socialistic demonstrations throughout the country for the eight-hour system. May 4. Anarchist riot in Haymarket Square, Chicago. Aug. 31. Earthquake, much havoc wrought at Charleston. 1886, 1887. Seizure of British vessels for pelagic sealing in Bering sea. A diplomatic discussion covering several years followed. 1887, Feb. 3. Act to regulate the counting of the electoral votes ; votes certified by state executives to be counted, unless both houses reject them. Feb. 4. Interstate commerce act ; regulation of interstate rail- road transportation, prevention of discrimination in rates, pool- ing, and other abuses ; commission with administrative and judicial powers to execute the act. Results under the act have been disappointing. Dec. 6. The president's annual message to congress was devoted entirely to surplus revenue and tariff reform (" it is a con- dition which confronts us — not a theory "), making the tariff the issue of the next election. 1888, Feb. 15. A fisheries treaty with Great Britain signed, grant- ing certain rights in Canadian inshore in return for free fish. The senate rejected the treaty (Aug. 21). June 6. Democratic convention renominated Cleveland at St. Louis. The republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison at Chicago, A. D. United States. 587 June 25. Tariff the issue, and republicans successful (Nov. 6) by 233 electoral votes to 168. June 13. Department of labor created, but without a seat in the cabinet. Oct. 1. Chinese exclusion act made more stringent, after China had refused to ratify a treaty for the same purpose ; former resi- dent laborers not to be allowed to return. 1888-1889. Introduction of the Australian ballot ; gradually adopted by most of the states. 1889, Feb. 9. Department of Agriculture authorized. 1889, March 4^1893, March 4. Benjamin Harrison (b. 1833 ; t 1901) (Indiana), republican, 23d president ; Levi P. Morton, vice-president ; James O. Blaine, secretary of state until June, 1892. April 22. Oklahoma opened to settlement; wild rush of settlers. Territorial government authorized. May 2, 1890. Population (1890), 78,476. April 30. Centenary of Washington's inauguration celebrated at New York. May 31. Destruction of Johnstown, Fa., caused by the bursting of a dam ; 2280 perished. June 14. Treaty on Samoa signed. United States, Great Britain, and Germany united in a declaration recognizing the independ- ence and neutrality of the islands and providing for an autonomous government under their joint control. Oct. 2-1890, April 19. Pan-American Congress of all the Ameri- can states except San Domingo met at Washington. Few positive results ; reciprocity recommended. Bureau of Ameri- can Republics organized (1890) to collect and distribute com- mercial information. 1889, Nov. 2. North Dakota (39th state). Nov. 2. South Dakota (40th state). Nov. 8. Montana (41st state). Nov. 11. Washington (42d state). 1890-1903. Prominent features of this period were : the advent of America as a 'world power ; great industrial prosperity following a period of depression ; amalgamation of capital, forming virtual monopolies and " trusts ; " growth of trade-unionism and protracted strikes ; corruption in municipal government ; development of rural communication by means of electric railroads, telephones, and free delivery of mail. At the South, a slow betterment in the economic condition of the colored race, but constitutional disfran- chisement in six states ("grandfather" clause, "understanding" clause) and lynching. 1890, Feb. 14. New rules in the House of Representatives, enabling the speaker to include in the quorum those present bat not voting. June 1. Population, 62,979,766 (11th census), jfune 19. Force bill reported in the House, providing for federal control of federal elections, and intended to protect negro voters. 588 Modern History. A. d. Passed the House, July %, but was shelved in the Senate by aid of republican votes, Jan. 1891. June 27. Disability .and dependent pension act ; pensions to be paid to all Union veterans incapacitated from earning a living by manual labor, and to widows dependent upon their own daily toil. Pensions paid, 1889, $89,132,000 ; 1892, $141,087,000. July 2. Anti-trust (Sherman) lavr ; all trusts or combinations to restrain or monopolize interstate or foreign trade declared illegal. July 3. Idaho (43d state). July 10. Wyoming (44th state). July 14. Sherman silver purchase law ; fixed amount of silver to be purchased each month and silver Treasury notes issued equal to its bullion value ; notes to be redeemed in coin and reissued. Oct. 1. McKinley tariff law ; reduction in revenue but increase in protection, free raw sugar and bounty on home production, pro- vision for limited reciprocity treaties, several of which were concluded. 1891, March 3. International copyright law. March 14. Lynching in New Orleans of Italians, members of the " Mafia." Italy protested and closed her legation (March 31). April 12, 1892, the United States paid an indemnity. June 15. Modus vivendi with Great Britain on Bering sea sealing. Oct. 16. Attack on American sailors in Valparaiso by mob and police, resulting from conditions during a recent civil war in Chile. War imminent, but Chile finally apologized (Jan. 25, 1892), and paid an indemnity. 1892, Feb. 29. Bering sea arbitration convention signed with Great Britain ; right of the United States to protect seals from pelagic fishing in Heriug sea referred to a tribunal, which decided (Aug. 16, 1893) against any such right outside the three-mile limit. United States paid damages for seizures made. June-Aug. Strikes and rioting at Coenr d'Alene mines in Idaho (employment of non-union miners) ; at Homestead, Pa. (wages, non-union laborers, private detectives') ; and in west Tennessee mines (convict labor). Martial law declared, mili- tia and regulars called out. June 10. Republican convention at Minneapolis renominated Har- rison and supported protection and bimetallism. De7nocrats at Chicago renominated Cleveland and denounced the McKinley tariff, the Force bill, and also i^held bimetallism. A third party (people's party) nominated James B. Weaver (July 5), and declared for labor unions, free silver, no national banks, and national ownership of railroads. Cleveland iiyas elected (Nov. 8), by 277 electoral votes to 145 for Harrison and 22 for Weaver. Feb, 14. Treaty of annexation with Hawaii signed at Wash- ington. Reform party in Hawaii, aided by the United States minister (Stevens) and marines, had deposed the queen (LUi- A. D. United States. 589 uokalani) (Jan. 17). President Cleveland rtilarch 9) with- dre'w the treaty from the Senate, and after iuvestigatioa proposed to reinstate the queen under certain conditions. She refused the conditions (Nov. 13) and the independent repub- lican government of Hawaii was recognized (Aug. 7, 1894). 1893, March 4-1897, March 4. Grover Cleveland presi- dent for second time. A. E. Stevenson vice-president ; W. Q. Gresham, later Richard Olney, secretary of state. Democrats controlled the legislative and executive departments for first time since 1858. May-Oct. World's Columbian Ezposition at Chicago to com- memorate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America. Jnne 27. Disastrous panic, following a heavy export of gold and news that India had suspended the free coinage of silver ; fear of a silver basis. Aug. 7. Extra session of congress to consider financial matters. President advocated repeal of silver purchase laiv to stop drain on gold reserve j alternative, sale of bonds to replenish gold reserve continually or payment of obligations in depreciated silver. Repeal passed House, Aug.- 28 (239-108), and Senate, Oct. 30 (43-32). Public opinion sharply divided; agitation for free silver. 1894, Feb., Nov. Sale of government bonds to replenish gold reserve, $100,000,000. Feb.-June. Great coal strike affecting six states, mining trouble in Colorado; disorder, and militia called out. March 17. Treaty with China signed, renewing the exclusion of Chinese laborers. * March 24^May 1. March of " Coxey's army; " demonstration of unemployed. March 30. Veto of a bill to coin the seigniorage of the purchased sil- ver bullion. June 26-July 19. American Railroad Union strike. Trains were blocked and riots ensued, especially at Chicago. Federal injunction issued against the sinkers to prevent interference with interstate commerce and the mails (July 2) ; later, leaders were arrested for contempt of the injunction (" government by injunction"), and also for conspiracy to block the mails. United States troops sent to Chicago (July 3) and other places. Strike extended to the Pacific coast. Strike failed. Aug. 27. WilBon-Gorman tariff law enacted without president's signature; some reductions in protective schedules, but raw material, except wool, still taxed ; tax on sugar; inconfte lax to make revenue; reciprocity repealed. 1895, Jan. 9. Presidential recommendation of national and state bank notes defeated in the House (124^130), also bill for low- rate gold bonds (Feb. 7) (135-162). Coin bonds ($62,000,000) sold to a syndicate to replenish gold reserve ; discussion of legality of issue. Free silver bill in the ^en&te prevented (Feb.^ by filibustering. 590 Modern Histortf. A. D. Feb. Outbreak of rebellion in Cuba ; carried on by gaerrilla warfare, assisted by a junta in the United States, and attended by mucb devastation and suffering, especially in the reconcentration camps established by the Spanish captain-general ( Weyler). The in- surgents had no real government, and various efforts of congress (1896, 1897) to accord them the right of belligerents, or to recognize their independence, were opposed by the president. Filibustering expeditions were guarded against, but many of them reached Cuba. Diplomatic Jriction with Spain. Belief sent to the destitute. May 20. Income tax declared unconstitutional by the supreme court. July-1896, Jan. Venezuela-British Guiana boundary contro- versy. Great Britain refused to submit to arbitration, and secretary Olney considered (July 20) the Monroe doctrine involved, as the United States was " practically sovereign on this con- tinent " and her safety was endangered by Great Britain's attitude (^Olney doctrine). Dec. 17 Cleveland asked congress to authorize a commission to determine the rights of the controversy; "the duty of the United States to resist . . . the appropriation by Great Britain of any . . . territory which after investigation we have determined of right belongs to Venezuela." Commission authorized and ap- pointed (Jan. 4, 1896), but Great Britain and Venezuela signed an arbitration treaty, Feb. 2, 1897. The award gave most of the dis- puted territory to Great Britain (Oct. 3, 1899). 1896. Rural free delivery of mail began; in 1902 there were 11,650 routes. 1896, Jan. 4. Utah (45th state) ; constitution forbids polygamy. Feb. 5. Popular issue of bonds ($100,000,000), largely oversub- scribed above par. After the election in Nov. the drain of gold for hoarding and export ceased. June 18. Republican convention at St. Louis nominated William McKinley for president and declared for protection and a gold standard. The democrats at Chicago nominated William J. Bryan (July 10) and declared for free silver. The populists supported Bryan. McKinley was elected (Nov. 3), by 271 electoral votes to 176. 1897, Jan. 11. General arbitration treaty signed with Great Britain, but rejected by the Senate, May 6. 1897, March 4-1901, Sept. 14. William McKinley (b. 1843; 1 1901) (Ohio), republican, 24th president ; Garret A. Hobart (f Nov. 21, 1899), vice-president ; John Sherman, later John Hay, secretary of state. Republicans regained control of executive and legislative departments. 1897, July 24. Dingley tariff act ; intended to increase the revenue (which had been below the expenditures since 1893) and also increase the protection ; provision for reciprocity treaties. 1898, Jan 1. Inauguration of Greater New York government; New York City, Brooklyn, and vicinity in one municipal govern- ment. Area, 359 square miles ; population (1900), 3,437,202. 1898. Spanish War. Rebellion in Cuba (above) made no progress, nor was Spain A. D. Spanish War. 591 able to end it ; contest became one of famine and annihilation. Ameri- can sympathy was with the Cubans, American interests deeply in- volved, and Spain uniformly refused offers of friendly mediation. A new ministry {Sagasta) announced an autonomous government for Cuba (Oct. 6, 1897), but it satisfied neither party there. Feb. 15. U. S. S. Maine was blo'wn up in Havana harbor, arous- ing national resentment (" remember the Maine ! "). McKin- ley sent to Congress a April 11. 'war message, declaring that the intolerable conditions in Cuba must cease, and asking authority for forcible inter- vention. Congress passed April 20. a resolution recognizing the independence of the people of Cuba (but not of the so-called republic), authorizing inter- vention, and disclaiming any intention of annexing Cuba. Spain considered this a declaration of war. Later both nations made April 24, 25. formal declarations of 'war. May 1. Battle of Manila Bay. Commodore George De'wey with 7 cruisers destroyed the Spanish fleet of 10 inferior vessels and held Manila at his mercy, but with no troops to occupy it. Rein- forcements and an army were sent to him. Admiral Cervera sailed for Cuba from Cape Verde Islands with a Spanish fleet of 4 armored cruisers and 2 destroyers (April 29), and admiral Sampson, searching for him, bombarded San Juan (May 12), and finally blockaded him at Santiago (June 2). An army of 16,000 men under gen. Shafter landed near Santiago (June 22), and in advancing defeated the Spaniards at the July 1. battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill, and demanded the surrender of the city (July 3). Cervera made a dash from the harbor, and in the July 3. naval battle of Santiago his fleet was utterly destroyed. July 17. Santiago surrendered. General Miles landed in Forto Rico (July 25), but his advance on San Juan was stopped by the signing of the Aug. 12. peace protocol. Before this was known the army gathered in the Philippines under gen. Merritt Aug. 13. captured Manila. Dec. 10. The treaty of peace was signed at Paris. Spain retired from Cuba, ceded to the United States Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, receiving $20,000,000 for the last. Pending the organization of its government, Cuba was ruled by the United States war department, and a commission was appointed (Jan. 20, 1899) to study conditions in the Philippines. The administration of the army during the war was sharply criticised. 1898, July 1. Law for a uniform system of bankruptcy. July 7. Annexation of Ha'waii by joint resolution ; possession taken, Aug. 12. Territorial government established, April SO, 1900. Aug. 25. Anglo-American commission met at Quebec to consider pending questions with Canada. Beassembled at Washing- 592 Modern History. A. d. ton (Nov. 1), but disagreed on the question of Alaskan bound- ary (Feb. 20, 1899). 1899-1902. Philippine Insurrection. A body of Fili- pinos under Emilio Aguinaldo were in revolt against Spain before the American war, and during it possessed themselves of all of Luzon except the capital. They objected to American sovereignty and made an 1899, Feb. 4. attack on Manila, where the American army was, but were beaten o£E. Severe fighting continued during the year, the rebels being driven into the mountains. In 1900 the insurgents adopted guerrilla warfare, bushwhacking, and terrorism, and the American army, averaging over 60,000, was distributed in many posts. 1901, March 23. Aguinaldo was captured by stratagem, and other leaders then surrendered, but the insurrection was not finally suppressed until April, 1902. 1902, July 4. Proclamation of amnesty. 1899, Sept. 6. Open-door policy (p. 597). Oct. 20. Modus Vivendi on Alaska; provisional boundary through the passes beyond Lynn Canal. Dec. 2. Disturbances continuing in Samoa under the tridominium (p. 587), a treaty was signed at Washington dividing the islands. United States received Tutuila and Germany the other two islands; England compensated by receiving the Howe Islands from Germany. 1900, Boxer rising (p. 597). March 14. Gold standard act ; all paper money to be redeemed in gold, provision for maintaining gold reserve, increase in national bank notes. March 16. President, as commander-in-chief, appointed a second Philippine commission of five, William H. Taft, president, to continue the establishment of civil government. After Sept. 1, it exercised legislative authority and established courts, local governments, civil service, and schools, and controlled finances. April 12. Civil government for Porto Rico ; the act also provided that temporarily import duties between the island and the states should be 15% of the regular rates, but on July 25, 1901, /ree trade was proclaimed. June 1. Population, 76,303,387, not including Porto Rico or Philip- pines (12th census). June 21. McKinley renominated by the repnhlicans at Philadelphia; the democrats renominated Bryan at Kansas City, and upheld free silver and anti-imperialism. McKinley elected by 292 electoral votes to 155 (Nov. 6). Sept. 8. Tornado wrecked Galveston, with great loss of life. 1901, Feb. 2. Act to reorganize the army ; maximum of 100,000 . men. March 2. Flatt amendment on Cuba ; as conditions of withdrawal from the island, Cuba to grant naiial stations and njrAi of inter- vention to protect life, property, or Cuban independence. A. D United States. 593 These conditions were embodied in the Cuban constitution, June 12. March 2. President authorized (Spooner amendment) to establish such temporary civil government for Philippines as he saw fit. He continued the commission (p. 692), and made its president the civil governor, replacing the military executive (July 4). Sept. 1 three Filipinos were added to the commission and executive departments created, to which members of the commission were assigned. March 4. Second administration of McKinley began ; Theodore Roosevelt, vice-president. May 27. Insular cases decided by the supreme court ; congress has authority to make _/br new territory laws (including a tar- iff) different from those applicable to the states (constitution does not follow the flag), but until congress acts goods imported from the territory cannot be taxed as foreign. Sept. 6. President McKinley shot by an anarchist; f Sept. 14. 1901, Sept. 14-x. Theodore Roosevelt (b. 1858 ) (New York) republican, 25th president. 1901, Nov. 18. Treaty signed with Great Britain abrogating the Clay- ton-Bultoer treaty (p. 555) ; isthmian canal to be under the sole jurisdiction of the United States. 1902, Jan. 1. In Cuba, presidential election ; May 20, American occupation ended. Jan. 24. Danish West Indies purchased, but the Rigsdag refused to ratify the cession (Oct. 22). March 8. Imports from the Philippines to pay 75% of usual rates. May 12-Oot. 15. Anthracite coal miners strike, threatening a coal famine in winter. Through the influence of Roosevelt, the matter was referred to a commission appointed by him, and the men returned to work pending the decision. June 17. Act for the reclamation of arid public lands. June 28. Isthmian canal act ; president authorized to construct a canal at Panama, if he could acquire the right of the French company for $40,000,000 and the cession from Colombia of the right and necessary territory ; if not, to construct the Nicaragua canalA 1902, July 1. Act for civil government in the Philippines. Civil government established by the president confirmed (pp. 592, 593) ; bill of rights except as to right to bear arms and trial by jury ; provision for future bicameral legislature of commission and an elected house; two resident commis- sioners in the United States. Dec. Coercion of Venezuela (p. 585). Deo. 11. Reciprocity treaty with Cuba signed; in force Dec. 27, 1903. 1903, Jan. 22. Canal treaty signed with Colombia, but Colombian 1 For the French canal, see p. 678. An American company had acquired the NicaraKua right, but the grant had been cancelled. Several commissions had reported on the canal project, the last (1900) favoring Panama under the conditions named m the act. 594 Modem History. a. d. congress refused to ratify it (Aug. 12). Purchase made from the French company. Jan. 24. Alaskan boundary question referred to a tribunal of six ; award (Oct. 20) sustained the claim of the United States, Canada being barred from the ocean inlets. Feb. 14. DepEiTtnient of commerce and labor created. Feb. 14. General staff authorized for the army. May-July. . Postal scandal. July 4. American Pacific cable opened between San Francisco and Manila. Nov. 3. Revolt of Panama ; independence declared. United States troops were landed to prevent hostilities, and the new government was recognized on Nov. 6. Nov. 18. Canal treaty signed virith Panama ; United States to have sovereignty over the canal strip and to safeguard inde- pendence of Panama. Dec. Agreement of tlie Philippine commission with the Koman Catholic authorities for the purchase of the friars' lands, which had been a cause of disturbance under Spanish rule. (See p. 599.) § 11. ASIA. 1883-1903. {See pp. 662, B64.) 1883. Corea opened to western trade.^ 1883-1885. France and China (pp. 573-575). 1883, Aug. 27. Eruption of Krakatua in Java; great loss of life from tidal waves. 1884, Dec. 4. Insurrection in Corea ; Japan and China both sent troops, then signed 1885, April IS. a treaty by which China acknovrledged Japan's interest in Corea. Attempt by Russia to gain a, protectorate over Corea prevented. Great Britain occupied Port Hamilton (April), but withdrew (Feb. 27, 1887), China guaranteeing Corea's territorial integrity. 1886, July 24. Anglo-Chinese agreement on Burma ; British rule recognized, also China's formal suzerainty. 1887-1889. Floods and famine in China; millions perished. 1888, Oct. Railway between Kaiping (Chili) and Tientsin opened, first permanent line in China.'' 1889, Feb. 11. Constitution of Japan proclaimed. Emperor's po'wers carefully guarded, including right of peace and war, and power to issue ordinances having force of laws. Bicameral diet ; upper house of peers and representatives of merit and wealth ; lower house elected through limited suffrage ; diet has a restricted control of finances. Bill of rights, religious free- dom. First diet met Nov. 29, 1890. 1 The first treaty was with the United States, signed May 22, 1882. 2 The Shanghai line (p. 562) was abandoned. A portion of tlie Tientsin line was opened in 1882. In 1881 there was a telegraph line between Shanghai and Tientsin. A. D. Chinese- Japanese War. 595 Feb. Kwangmt, Chinese emperor, assumed the government, em- press dowager retiring. iS90, March 31. Chungking, on upper Yangtze, made a treaty port. 1891. Outbreak of rioting against missionaries in China, incited by a body of literati ; ineffectual decree issue against the rioters (June 13). 1893, Oct. 3. French- Siamese treaty of peace signed at Bangkok, after short period of hostilities. France obtained all the territory east of the Mekong and military control of the west bank. 1894, March 1. Anglo-Chinese treaty on Burma boundary; territory east of the Mekong ceded to China on condition of non- alienation. . 1894-1895. Chinese-Japanese War. Causes : China's claim of suzerainty in Corea and denial of Japan's equal interest there; conviction in Japan that a military success was necessary to her recognition as a power by the Occident. China sent troops to suppress an insurrection in Corea, and Japan, protesting that Corea was independent, also sent troops (June 9, 189i4). Japan proposed reforms to prevent future disturbances (July 3), but Corea, backed by China, refused, upon which 1894, July 23. Japanese troops seized the palace and the king at Seoul. Both nations prepared to pour troops into Corea and July 25. actual war began with a naval victory for Japan. Aug. 1. Both nations declared war (contrasting declarations). The Japanese under Nodzu Sept. 15. captured Piengyang, the Chinese fleeing across the Yalu River. In the Sept. 17. naval battle of Yalu River (first battle of modern men-of-war), the fleets being of about equal size (12 vessels each), the Japanese under Ito dispeised the enemy's fleet (Ting) and destroyed five of the ships. The Japanese army ( Yamagata) Oct. 25. forced the Yalu and invaded Manchuria, meeting with little resistance. A second army of 20,000 under Oyama landed on Liaotung peninsula (Oct. 24), and, after capturing Kingchau (Nov. 6) and Talien (Nov. 7), began the Nov. 21. attack on Fort Arthur, the strongest port in China, with modern defences. Several forts were stormed during the day, and at night the Chinese garrison of 10,000 abandoned the rest. The Japanese army and navy then 1895, Jan. 30-Feb. 12. besieged and captured Weihaiwei and Ting's fleet there. The feature of the siege was the night attacks by Japanese torpedo boats (Feb. 5, 8). Meanwhile the flrst army (Yamagata) captured Haicherig (Dec. 13, 1894); Nogi, ad- vancing from Port Arthur, occupied Kaiping (Jan. 10, 1895) ; and the united forces took Niuchuang (March 4) and its port (March 7). The war had shown the rottenness of China's military strength and the impotence of her administration. The bnrden of it fell on Li Hungchang (b. 1823; f 1901)> who was also sent to make peace. By the 596 Modem History. A. d. April 17. treaty of Sbimonoseki, China acknowledged the inde- pendence of Corea, ceded Formosa, the Pescadores, and Liao- tung peninsula (Fort Arthur) to Japan, and paid an indemnity of $158,000,000. But Russia, France, and Germany protested against the cession of the peninsula (" integrity of Chinese territory"), and Japan yielded (May 10), receiving an additional indemnity of $22,200,000. Japan hegan to reform Corea, but queen Min espoused a reaction, and was murdered (Oct. 8) by natives and Japanese partisans (soshi). This destroyed Japan's prestige, but there was a gradual extension of the reforms. 1894, July 16. Japanese treaty of commerce signed with Great Britain. Cessation of the right of exterritoriality in Japan, freedom of trade and residence. Similar treaties were made by Japan with the other maritime powers (1894- 1897), and all of them went into effect (July 17, Aug. 4, 1899) after the new code of civil procedure and commercial law had been tested. 1895, June-Aug. Attack on missionaries in China. June 20. China ceded to France territory acquired from England (p. 595), and concessions and railway rights in southern China (reward for intervention). 1896, Japan entered upon an elaborate policy of military and naval expansion. Jan. 1. Convention between France and Great Britain. Spheres of influence in Siam and independence of that nation. No exclusive privileges to be sought in southern China. Feb. 10. A small Russian force landed and marched to Seoul, and next day the Idng ( Yi Hi) fled to the Russian legation, where he remained until Feb. 20, 1897. While there, he granted to Russians the right to cut timber in the Yalu valley. May 1. Shah of Persia (Nasr-ed-din") assassinated, succeeded by his son, Muzaffar-ed-din. May 14, June 9. Russian-Japanese agreements on Corea signed. June 15. Tidal wave in northern Japan, 30,000 perished. Sept. 8. Chinese-Russian railvtray convention signed at Peking. Chinese Eastern Railway Company to build the Triinssi- berian railTuray across Manchuria. 1896-1898. Railway concessions granted by China to French, Bel- gian, American, British, Russian, and German companies ; also for exploiting mines. 1897, Feb. 20. King of Corea returned to his palace, but Russian ascendency continued. On Nov. 5 a Russian agent was ap- pointed to control the finances, but the British incumbent re- fused to resign, England and Japan sent ships to Chemulpo, and the Russian agent was dismissed (March 15, 1898) after anti-Russian demonstrations. March 29. Japan adopted the gold standard ; ratio, 32J to 1. Nov. 14. Germany seized Kiaochau, because of the murder of two German missionaries in Shantung. Prince Henry, brother of the emperor, sent to command the German fleet in Chinese A. D. Asta. 597 waters, the emperor speaking of his intention to extend the empire (" mailed fist "). Deo. 18. A Russian fleet entered Port Arthur to winter. 1898. A series of progressive edicts issued by the emperor of China; but a reaction ensued, the empress dowager ob- tained control, and virtually deposed the emperor (Sept. 21). The reforms were repealed (Sept. 27), and anti-Christian riots ensued. March 6. China leased Eiaochau to Germany for 99 years, with a sphere of influence 30 miles inland, and railway and mining concessions. Eiaochau a treaty port (Sept. 2). March 27, May 7. China leased to Russia for 25 years Port Arthur, Tcdien-wan, and the territory and waters north to Port Adams, with a neutralized zone beyond, within which conces- sions to other powers were forbidden. Port Arthur to be a closed naval base, but Talien-wan to have an open port. Rus- sia also received the right to connect the leased territory with the Transsiberian railway in Manchuria. April 10. China leased to France Ewangchau-wan for 99 years, with railway concessions. Ewangchau a free port (1900). April 25. Russian-Japanese agreement on Corea ; Japanese para- mount interest recognized, Corea temporarily out of Russia's sphere. i June 9. Territory on mainland adjoining Hongkong leased to Great Britain, also July 1. 'Weihai^^ei for as long as Russia occupied Port Arthur. 1899. Feb. 28. Italy demanded the lease of Sammun Bay, but China refused. April 29. Agreement between Russia and Great Britain ; the former not to seek concessions in the Yangtze valley, and the latter not to seek them north of the Great Wall. July 17. End of exterritoriality in Japan (p. 596). Sept. 1. First Corean railroad opened from Seoul to Chemulpo. Sept. 6. Open-door policy. Secretary Hay of the United States asked assurance from the Powers that there should be no in- terference with free commerce or vested interests within leased territory or spheres of influence in China. Favorable responses were received (1899-1900) from London, Paris, Berlin, Rome, St. Petersburg, and Tokio. 1900. Boxer Bising. Causes : Reaction against drastic reforms; antagonism ot foreign exploitation of the country and the efforts of the missionaries, whose actions sometimes gave an excuse for the false charges made against them. A secret society called the Boxers (" patriotic harmonious fists ") spread throughout China, especially in the northern provinces, committing outrages on missionaries and converts. Countenanced by the government and aided by the army, they cut the communica- tion between Peking and the coast (June 6), and threatened the foreign legations, for whose defense 450 legation guards had been sent by the different nations. 598 Modem History. a. d. June 10. An international relief column of 2000 started from the coast under admiral Seymour, but it was obliged to retreat. June 17. The Taku forts were bombarded and captured by the allied ships, which increased the rage of the Boxers, and June 20. baron v. Ketteler, the German minister, was slain in the street in Peking. The same day the legations were besieged. The allied nations (Japan, Russia, Great Britain, United States, France) sent a relieving force of 18,000, which, after the July 14. reduction of Tientsin, marched to Peking and Aug, 14. rescued the legations. The empress dowager and em- peror fled to Singan-fu, and the allied forces occupied the Sacred City. Li Hungchang and prince Ching were appointed envoys to negotiate a peace. The joint powers presented an ultimatum (Dec. 22), and 1901, Sept. 7. a protocol was signed embodying these condi- tions : an expiatory mission to Germany and monument to Ketteler; punishment of the chief Boxers (this had already been done); prohibition of the importation of arms; an indemnity of $334,000,000 in gold; the forts between Peking and the sea to be razed; anti-foreign societies to be forbidden, and provincial and local ofGcials made responsible for good order; reform in the foreign office and court ceremonial. 1900, July. Massacre of Chinese at Blagovestchensk by Russian troops, followed by an invasion of Manchuria, which the Bussians occupied and held on the plea of protecting the railway and preserving order. The opposition of the other powers especially Japan, prevented China from acquiescing in this. Oct. 16. Germany and Great Britain signed an agreement upholding the territorial integrity of China, the " open door," and non-inter- ference in her internal affairs. 1901, July 6. A mission from the Dalai Lama of Lhasa was received by the tzar; political significance disavowed. Great Britain (Sept. 2) protested against any proceedings tending to disturb existing conditions in Thibet. Oct. 1. ^Abdurrahman, aineer of Afghanistan; succeeded by his son, Habibullah. Nov. 9. Persian-Russian treaty secretly signed, giving Russia in- creased control over Persian trade. 1902, Jan. Transsiberian rail-way opened. Jan. 30. Anglo-Japanese defensive alliance concluded to main- ' tain the territorial integrity of China and Corea. Assist- ance to be given if either signatory power in defending this integrity was opposed by two nations. This alliance was answered by the March 16. declaration of " allied " Russia and France. April 8. Russia agreed to restore Manchuria to China; evacu- ation to be completed by Oct. 9, 1903. Sept. 5. Anglo-Chinese comnaercial treaty signed; uniform coinage in China, abolition of transit dues (likin), improvement in navi- gation, protection of investments, new treaty ports, mission- A. D. Asia. 599 aries, trade marks, copyright, tariff, mining, exterritoriality. Similar treaties with Japan and United States (Oct. 8, 1903). Oct. 7. Siamese-French treaty signed ; caused by French encroach- ments. Siam ceded additional territory. 1903. Bussian-Japanese Crisis. Russia not ivithdra'wing from Manchuria as agreed, and showing evidences of settlement and fortification at Yogampo in Corea, Japan remonstrated, considering her own independence in- volved. As a basis of agreement Aug. 12. Japan proposed that the territorial integrity and in- dependence of China and Corea and the " open door " should be recognized, also the preponderating interest of Russia in Manchuria and of Japan in Corea, subject to the first stipulation. Japan to have the exclusive right to aid Corea when necessary, and the right to connect the Corean and Manchurian railway systems. Oct. 3. Russia's reply ignored Manchuria and China, and pro- posed restrictions on Japanese rights in Corea. Nego- tiations continued until Feb. 6, 1904, when Japan, her last note of Jan. 13 not having bpen answered, severed diplomatic relations and 1904, Feb. 8. began the war. § 12. LEADING EVENTS, 1904^1914. 1904, March 14. The United States supreme court pronounced the merger of the Northern Pacific K. K. and the Great Northern R. K. in the Northern securities co. illegal ; the first result of an attempt by tlie govei-ninent to check, under the Sherman act (p. 538) the development of combinations of capital in place of competition. April 8. Anglo-French treaty. France recognized the position of Great Britain in Egypt, and Great Britain the special interests of France in Morocco. France abandoned her exclu- sive fishery rights on the French shore in Ne'virfoundland under the treaty of Utrecht (1713), receiving an indemnity and territorial con- cessions in Senegambia and Nigeria. Great Britain withdrew her protests against the French customs regime in Madagascar. De- limitation of spheres of influence in Siam. Differences in the New Hebrides to be settled by a special agreement (Convention of Oct. 20, 1906). April 9. Death of Isabella II., former qneen of Spain. April 24r-30. President Loubet visited the king of Itiily, ignoring the Pope, who protested to the powers. French ambassador to the Vatican withdrawn (May 21). The Japanese under Kuroki, having occupied Corea, May 1. defeated the Russians at the Yalu river. May 21-26. Oku won the battles of Kinchau and Nanshan , Dalny occupied May 29. Nogi began the siege of Port Arthur. Three armies moving northward united under marshal Oyama and Aug. 25-Sept. 4. defeated the Russians at Liauyang. Kuro- patkin withdrew in good order to Mukden. 600 Modem History. 1904, July 8. Law forbidding all teaching by religious orders in Frsmce for ten years (p. 684). July 14. Death of ex-president Kruger of the Transvaal in Switzer- land ; buried at Pretoria Dec. 16. Aug. 12. Birth of an heir to the tzar of Russia (^Alexis). Aug. 13. On the arrival of American warships the sultan of Tur- key granted the claims of the United States as to treatment of their citizens and schools. Aug. 29. Death of Murad V., former sultan of Turkey (p. '621), Sept. 7. Anglo-Thibetan treaty signed at Lhasa, where the British mission (p. 573) arrived Aug. 3 after armed resist- ance. Thibet to open three trade marts ; not to grant territorial concessions to foreign powers, nor to admit their representatives or agents. The treaty was ratified by China and, after a protest, acknowledged by Russia (Aug. 31, 1907). Sept. 16. Birth of an heir to the king of Italy (Umberto). Oct. 9-18. Russian advance repulsed at the Shako. Oct. 22. The Russian fleet under Rozhestvensky starting for the East fired on English travelers in the North sea, killing two men. After detention of the fleet at Vigo, war was averted by reference of the matter to an international commission, which reported (Feb. 25, 1905) that the firing was in point of fact unjustifiable ; no torpedo boats being present. £65,000 paid. After a siege lasting from May, 1904, and marked by very se- vere fighting 1905, Jan. 2. Fort Arthur was surrendered by Stoessel with 41,000 men, over 500 guns, and much ammunition and pro- visions. Jan. 18-24. Cabinet crisis in France on account of (he espionage (delation) scandal in the army. Rouvier succeeded Combes. Jan. 22. In St. Petersburg a large body of strikers marching to the Winter palace, led by father Gapon, to present a petition to the tzar were fired upon and many killed. (Red Sunday.) Feb. 12. The T7uited States senate amended the arbitration treaties signed with the European nations and Mexico so as to require a special treaty for each case of arbitration. The adminis- tration thereupon decliried to present the treaties. Feb. 20-March 9. The Russians defeated in a great battle at Mukden by the five Japanese armies (Kuroki, Oku, Nogi, Nodzxt, Kawamurd) under Oyama. Kuropatkin superseded by Liniemitch. 1905, March 4 — 1909. Theodore Boosevelt, president of the United States ; C. W. Fairbanks, vice-president. At the elections (Nov. 8, 1904) the republicans had 336 electoral votes, the democrats {A. B. Parker, H. G. Davis) 140 ; popular ma,jority, 2,541,635. March 31. The German emperor visited the sultan of Morocco at Tangier. April 4. Violent earthquake in northern India ; 20,000 killed. Leading Events, 1904-19U- ^01 1905, April 27. The United States purchased the Panama canal property of the French company. May 27-29. Naval battle of Tsushima straits ; the Russian fleet of 32 vessels annihilated by the Japanese under Togo. May 28. The sultan of Morocco rejected the French reform pro- posals and asked for a conference of the powers. After the June 6. resignation of Delcasse, the French foreign minister, France and Grermany agreed to the suggestion. June. Dissension in the management of the Equitable life assurance soc. in Neu} York led to the disclosure of grave irregularities in the conduct of the affairs of the great insurance compa^ nies. The report of the Armstrong investigating committee (Feb. 21, 1906) resulted in more stringent legislative regulation, and similar action was taken in other states, sometimes with undue severity. June 7. The king of Sweden refusing to sign an act establishing separate Norwegian consulates, the Norwegian ministry re- signed, and no one would accept office, whereupon the Nor- 'weglan storthing voted that the union between Nor^vay and Sweden had been dissolved, since the king of Sweden had acknowledged himself unable to form a Norwegian min- istry and could not discharge his constitutional functions. Jnly 1. Death of John Hay, secretary of state of the United States ; Elihu Root succeeded him. July. Chinese boycott of American goods as a protest against the application of the exclusion act to merchants and scholars. July 24. The body of John Paul Jones (p. 430), discovered at Paris, April 14, was received at Annapolis. Ang. 11. Executive committee appointed by parliament in accord- ance with the report of the Elgin commission (April 19), to apportion the property claimed by the Free church and the United Free church of Scotland (p. 571). Aug. 12. Anglo-Japanese alliance renewed for ten years, — to secure peace in the East and the independence and integrity of China, with equal commercial rights for all nations. Special interests of Japan in Corea and of Great Britain on the Indian frontier recognized. Each nation to assist the other in case of war in defence of territorial rights in the East. Aug. 21. The earl of Minto viceroy of India ; lord Curzon re- signed, Aug. 12, in consequence of the decision of the home government in favor of the proposals of lord Kitchener, com- mander-in-chief, concerning the military administration in India. In Russia strikes, riots, and assassinations continued ; muti- nies at Odessa, etc. Increasing dissatisfaction over the war ;. difficulties in securing new loans. On Aug. 19. the tzar announced that a representative assembly {dmna) would be summoned. Sept. 5. Treaty of peace between Japan and Russia signed at. Portsmouth navy yard, after a conference which began Aug. 6. Bussia acknowledged Japan's paramount interest in Corea, 602 Modem History. transferred to Japan the lease of Fort Arthur, and the rail- road to Chang-chuUg, and ceded the southern half of Sakhalin. Manchtirla to be evacuated hy both powers and restored to China. On account of the failure to obtain an indemnity the treaty was unpopular in Japan ; riots in Tokio. Sept. 24. Treaty of separation signed by Sweden and Norway after a referendum in Norway (Aug.) : — 368,208 for sepa- ration, 184 against. A congress of Russian provincial assemblies (zemstvos) having declared (Sept. 25) in favor of a broader basis of represen- tation, and a general strike following, Oct. 30. the tzar granted an extension of the franchise, the neces- sary approval of laws by the duma, and inviolability of person, freedom of conscience, speech, and association. Count Witte prime minister. Oct. 30. Beport of the commission appointed by the king of Bel- gium to inquire into conditions in the Congo Free State; the work of the state commended, but some abuses admitted and reforms suggested in the treatment of the natives. Not. 4. The tzar restored the constitution of Finland as it existed prior to 1899 (pp. 583, 585). Nov. 17. Japan secured (by treaty) control of the foreign relations of Corea. Marquis Ito resident-general. Japanese abuses. Nov. 27. Prince Charles, grandson of king of Denmark, took the oath as 1905 — X. Hakon VII., king of Norway. (Crowned June 22, 1906.) Dec. 4. Resignation of Mr. Balfour, English prime minister ; liberal ministry formed under sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman. Mr. ^s^uitA (exchequer); John Morley (lord Morley in 1908) (India) ; sir Edward Grey (foreign) ; James Bryce (Ireland ; afterward ambassador to the United States); John Bums (local government board); A. Birrell (board of education; afterwards Ireland). Dec. 9. Law for the separation of church and state in France. The concordat of 1802 (p. 463) abrogated and control of the state over the choice of bishops thereby ended. All payments for support of public worship, catholic, protestant, or Jewish, ceased, but . diminishing pensions were granted. Churches and other ecclesiastical buildings remained the property of the state, but were to be loaned gratuitously to boards of public worship (associations cultuelles) to be formed by adher- ents of the several faiths. 1906, Jan. 29. Death of Christian IX., king of Denmark ; his son succeeded as 1906 — X. Frederick VIII . Feb.-July. Insurrection of the natives in Natal. Feb. 13. Second (28th imperial) parliament of Edward VH. The elections following the dissolution of Jan. 8 returned 376 Leading Events, 1904-1914. 603 liberals, 130 conserratiTes, 83 nationalists, 64 labor, 27 liberal unionists. 1906, Feb. 17. Falli^rea elected president of France, On Mar. 12. a new ministry was formed under Sarrien : — Bourgeois (foreign), Clemenceau (interior), Briand (public instruction). April 5-12. Violent and destructive eruptions of Vesuvius. The conference on Morocco which met at Algeciras in Spain, Jan. 16, included the chief European powers and the United States. On April 7. a convention was signed. A police force for coast towns to be established under French and Spanish instructors and a Swiss inspector-general. International state bank founded. Freedom of trade and settlement for foreigners. Germany did not insist on equality of footing with France. April 5. Act reorganizing the XTuited States consular service. April 18-21. Earthquake and fire at San Francisco ; the grreater portion of the city destroyed. April 21. A new record of farthest north was made by R. E. Peary at 87° 6'. May 6. General election in France resulting in a large majority for the government. May. The United States congress adopted plans for a lock canal for Panama. Work began at once under the special canal commission ; in April, 1907, it was placed in charge of army engineers. May 10-July 22. First Russian duma ; 624 deputies ; about 200 constitutional democrats and 126 independents (peasants) formed the left. Goremykin prime minister (May 2). The insistence of the duma on a general amnesty, responsible ministers, and compulsory expropriatimi of land for the peas- ants led to a dissolution. Stolypin prime minister. On July 23. a manifesto advocating non-payment of taxes and refusal to enter the army, signed at Viborg in Finland by about 200 members of the duma, who were later tried and condemned therefor. Despite government measures for agrarian relief, mutinies, strikes, riots {Moscow, Dec. 21), massacres of Jews {Bialystok, June 14), and peasaut outrages prevailed until forcibly controlled. (Field courts-martial.) Famine. May 30. Formal opening of the Simplon tunnel, the longest in the world (12^ miles). May 31. Marriage of Alfonso XIII., king of Spain, and princess Victoria of fiattenberg. Attempt at assassination. .June 1. Synod of French bishops, the first held since the Revolution. June 29. feailway rate act in the United States (Hepburn act). Interstate commerce commission given power to fix rates for interstate trafBc of railroads, pipe lines, and express com- panies. Appeals to the courts allowed. June 30. Fare food and drugs act, and meat inspection act in the United States. July 12. The French court of cassation reversed the decision of the Rennes tribunal in the Dreyfus case (p. 582). 604 Modem Histifry. Dreyfus restored to his rank add promoted ; Picquart also promoted. 1906, July 23-Aug. 27. Third international conference of American states at Rio de Janeiro. Drago doctrine against forcible collection of debts referred to the second Hague con- ference. Sec. Root attended and afterwards visited other South American countries. Aug. 10. Papal encyclical ; French catholics not permitted to form associations cultuelles. Protestants and Jews conformed to the law. Aug. 13-14. Negro troops at Brownsville, Texas, fired on towns- people ; the discharge of a battalion by order of the president for " conspiracy of silence" caused much discussion in congress. Aug. 13. Capt. Roald Amundsen reached Nome after a three years' expedition in search of the magnetic pole, having mad6 the Northwest passage for theflrst time by sea. Aug. 16-17. Destructive earthquake in Chile. An insurrection (Aug.) in Cuba, resulting from dissatisfaction over the reelection of president Palma, led to the landing of troops and Sept 29. the establishment of a provisional government by the United States. (Gov. Magoon.) Oct. 7. Meeting of the first national representative assembly in Persia. Oct. The segregation of Japanese children in the public schools in San Francisco led to strained relations between the United States and Japan and between the city and federal govern- ment. Upon the inclusion in the new immigration law (Feb. 20, 1907) of restrictions on the immigration of Japanese laborers the rule was rescinded (March). Oct. 21. Clemenceau ministry in France ; Picquart (war). Nov. 8-26. President Roosevelt visited the canal zone; at Panama, president of the United States for the first time outside its jurisdiction. Nov. The Chinese government issued a decree ordering the growth and importation of opium to be diminished 10 (^ annually for ten years, and restricting opium smoking. During 1906-07, reforms in education in China ; creation of a new army. Nov. 25, Russian peasants granted ownership of allotments re- ceived at the time of emancipation ; unpaid dues remitted. The peasants had been previously released from the control of the communes and much land had been sold to them. Deo. 12. Constitution granted the Transvaal ; bicameral legis- lature; manhood suffrage for whites. Dec. 20. English education bill abandoned, the commons refus- ing to accept the lords' amendments. The intention of the bill was to make rate-supported schools undenominational while providing moral teaching and opportunity for denomi- national instruction where desired. Dec. 21. Universal manhood suffrage in Austria. Dec. 21. Trades disputes act in XSngland exempts trade' union Leading Events, 1904-1914. 606 funds from liability for damages committed during a strike, thus reversing the Taff Vale decision (p. 672). 1907. Jan. 8 — 1909. Muhammad Ali Mirza, shah of Persia, on the death of his father, Muzaffar edrdin. Jan. 26-Feb. 5. Elections for the German Reichstag, which was dissolved Dec. 15 after rejecting the grants asked for the war in German Southwest Africa. The social democrats lost 39 of their 82 seats, though their total vote was not reduced. Feb. Treaty between the United States and San Domingo rati- fied; the United States to collect customs revenues and pay foreign claims on basis of the agreement of Feb. 1905. In the United States during the spring and summer many states enlarged the powers of railroad commissions, regulated the honrs of employees, and fixed passenger rates at 2 to 2^ cents per mile. Conflicts with the federal courts. The gen- eral government brought numerous prosecutions for rebating. Investigation of the Harriman roads. March 5-June 16. Second Russian duma ; proving equally radi- cal with the first, it was dissolved. April. Land fraud scandal in the United States. Since 1902 the government had been tracing the fraudulent acquisition of public lands ; many suits were brought and some convictions obtained. April 5. At the elections for the legislative assembly in Finland 19 women chosen as deputies. May-Jniy. Agitation by vnnegrowers in the south of France secures legislation against adulteration and sugaring of wine. May 7. Irish council bill introduced in parliament. It placed the ad- ministration of Ireland in the hands of an elective body, allow- ing a veto to the lord-lieuteuant ; being unsatisfactory to the nationalists, it was withdrawn (June 3). May 9. Trial of Haywood, sec. of the Western federation of miners, who with the president was indicted for the murder of ex-gov. Stennenberg of Idaho; acquitted July 28. Startling testi- mony as to violence during the Colorado strikes of 1903-04. May 10. Birth of a son and heir to the king of Spain. June 15-Oct. 18. Second international peace conference at the Hague (p. 583). Forty-four states represented (Corea not received). Further restrictions were placed on naval and land warfare in the interests of non-combatants and neutrals. International prize court established (court of appeal); Eng- land and the United States reserved assent. The establish- ment of a court of arbitral justice was advocated by the United States and recommended by the conference, which could not agree on a plan for the choice of judges. Forcible collection of debts to be allowed only after failure of arbitration. July 19. Abdication of the emperor of Corea in favor of his son. Japan obtained by treaty a protectorate over Corea (July 25). July 30-Aug. 5. Several Europeans killed in an outbreak at Casa- 606 Modern History. blanca in Moroeco. The French bombarded the town and landed troops. 1907, Aug. 3. Fine of $29,240,000 imposed by a federal court on the Standard oil co. of Indiana for receiving rebate. (Re- versed on appeal, July 22, 1908.) Aug. 6. The state of Georgia adopted a prohibition act. Similar legislation in Alabama (Dec), Mississippi (Feb. 1908), North Carolina (May, 1908), constitutional prohibition in Oldahmna. Aug. 16. Muley Hafid, brother of the sultan of Morocco, pro- claimed sultan at Marrakesh ; civil war; the new sultan, though opposed by the French, gradually obtained control of the greater part of the country. Aug. 28. Parliament passes an act (retro-active) legalizing mar- riage with a deceased vnfe's sister. Aug. 31. Anglo-Russian convention. Kussia to have commer- cial control in the northern half of Persia, G-reat Britain in the southern half. Great Britain agrees not to annex Afghan- istan nor to alter the government ; Russia acknowledges that country to be outside her sphere of influence. Russia recognizes the Anglo-Thibetan treaty. Oct. 16. Opening of the first Philippine legislative assembly. Oct. 17. Wireless telegraph service opened between Cape Breton and Ireland. Oct. 22. Panic in New Tork. The financial disturbances which began in March followed by shortage of currency throughout the country ; commercial depression. Not. 14. Third Russian duma, elected under a new decree ; number of deputies 442, Poles, Caucasians, etc., reduced ; the influence of landed proprietors and privileged classes largely increased. The duma, however, resolves that the tzar hais divested himself of his autocratic power. Nov. 16. OklEiboma (united with the Indian territory) 46th state of the United States. Nov. 30. Loss of the successful French war balloon. La patrie. Marked development in 1906-08 of dirigible balloons and aeroplanes. 1907, Dec. 8 — X. Gustav V., king of Sweden, succeeds on the death of his father, Oscar II. Deo. 16. The United States fleet sailed on a cruise to the Pacific coast and around the world. Deo. 20. Treaty of peace and seven conventions between the Central American states signed at Washington ; Central Amerioar court of justice established. 1908, Feb. 1. Carlos I., king of Portugal, and the crown prince assassinated ; the second son of Carlos succeeded as 1908 — X. Manuel II. April 6. Resignation of sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (f April 22); Mr. Asquith became prime minister. Leading Events, 1904-1914. 607 1908, April 23. North sea treaty between Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Sweden, and Denmark. Baltic sea treaty be- tween Germany, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. May 13. United States. Conference of governors of the states at Washington on the conservation of national resources. May 26. The TTnited States remitted its claim to $13,000,000 of the Chinese boxer indemnity (p. 698). June. Civil war in Persia between the shah and the parliament. June 18-19. Republican convention in the TTnited States (Chi- cago) nominated W. H. Taft (Ohio) for president, and J. S. Sherman (New York) for vice-president. June 24. Death of Grover Cleveland, ex-president of the United States. July 10. Democratic convention at Denver nominated W. J. Bryan (Nebraska) for president and /. W. Kern (Indiana) for vice- president. July 25. The Irish universities biU passed in the house of com- mons ; two universities without religious tests created in Ireland. July 30. Old age pensions act in Great Britain ; it is supposed to aSect 600,000 persons. July 24. The sultan of Turkey proclaimed the restoration of the constitution of 1876 and ordered the assembling of a chamber of deputies elected by the people. A peaceful revo- lution by the young Turks. Oct. 1. Two cent postal rate between the United States and Great Britain. Oct. 5. The independence of Bulgaria proclaimed by prince Ferdinand. Oct. 7. The emperor of Austro-Hungfary asserted rights of sover- eignty and succession in Bosnia and Herzegovina (compare treaty of Berlin, p. 524). The popular assembly in Crete proclaimed union with Greece. Negotiations looking toward a European conference. Nov. 3. United States presidential election; Taft chosen (321 electoral votes to 162). Nov. 15. Death of the emperor of China (Kwangsu) and of the empress-dowager announced. Nov. 30. Agreement between the United States and Japan. 1908, Dec. 2 — X. Hsuan-tung, emperor of China (Pi-yi, 3 years old, son of the regent prince Chung). Dec. 17. Opening of the Turlcish parliament. Dec. 17-19. In Venezuela president Cipriano Castro (1899-1908), who had suspended intercourse with nearly all foreign coun- tries, deposed (while in Europe) in favor of Juan Vicente Gomez. Dec. 28. Destructive earthquake in Sicily and Calabila. 608 Modern History. 1909, Jan. 28. President Gomez inaugurated in Cuba; United States' piovisional government ceases. 1909, March 4-1913. "William Howard Taft, 26th ^ pres- ident of the United States ; J. S. Sherman, vice-president. April 6. The North Pole reached by R. E. Peary, U. S. N. (An- nouncement made Sept. 6.) Revolt in Turkey against Young Turks suppressed. Abdul Hamid II deposed; his brother 1909, April 27 — z. Muhammad V. sultan. Massacres of Arme- nian Christians. 1909, July 16 — z. Sultan Ahmad, shah of Persia; his father, Muhammad Ali, deposed. July 20. In France M. Briand premier in place of M. Clemmceau. Aug. 5. In the United States new (Paffne-Aldrich') tariff act. Few changes downward; hides free. Free trade with Philip- pines. "Tariff board." The act unpopular in the middle west. "Insurgents." Not. 15. Indian Councils act operative in India ; powers of legis- lative councils increased, and a minority of members directly elective. Separate electorate for Mohammedans. 1909, Dec. 17-x. Albert I, king of the Belgians, on the death of his uncle, Leopold II. In England the House of Lords having rejected Mr. Lloyd- George's budget (Lord Lansdowne's motion, Nov. 30) which increased taxes on wealth, and introduced new taxes on land (general valuation), parliament was dissolved, and the 1910, Feb. 21. third (29th imperial) parliament of Edward VII opened with unionist gains (275 unionists, 273 liberals), but a government majority of 124. Besolve of the Commons that the Lords' veto should be limited. The budget received royal assent April 29. On May 6 Edward VII died, and was succeeded by bis son 1910-X. George V. May 31. Union of South Africa (Cape Colony, Natal, 'Trans- vaal, Orange Free State) inaugurated. Aug. 22. Japan annexes Korea. Sept. 7. The International Court of Arbitration gives its decision in the ITewfoundland fisheries case between the United States and Great Britain. Oct. 3. The new Chinese senate opened. Oct. 5. Ke volution in Portugal; King Manuel dethroned; a repub- lic established. Not. State elections in the United States; great democratic gains. Not. 28. British parliament dissolved. The elections return 272 unionists and 272 liberals; government majority 126. Dec. 10. Population of the United States (exclusive of the Philip- pines) announced as 93,402,161. (13th census.) 1 If Mr. Cleveland's second term were counted, Mr. Taft would be the 27th president. Leading Events, 1904-1914.. 609 1911, Feb. 22. British house of commons passed bill substitu- ting a suspensory veto for the absolute veto of the house of lords. This act provides that if a bill passes the commons in three successive sessions it may become law in spite of ad- verse action by the lords. Veto bUl accepted by house of lords, Aug. 10. May 25. President Porfirio Diaz of Mexico resigned as the result of a revolution, and minister De la Barra was inaugurated pro- visional president. Francisco I. Madero, Jr., elected presi- dent Oct. 1, and inaugurated Nov. 6. June 13. W. Morgan Skuster, an American, given full control of Persia's finances. The deposed shah attacked Teheran, July 30, but was defeated. Dec. 24, Shuster was removed in com- pliance with the demand of Rtissia. Aug. 2. Arbitration treaties signed between the United States and Great Britain and between the United States and France. Sept. 29. Italy declared war against Turkey. Oct. 5, Tripoli cap- tured by an Italian fleet after a bombardment of several days, Oct. Chinese insurrection against the Manchu dynasty in full progress. Nanking taken by insurgents, Dec. 2. Nov. 3. France ceded to Germany a portion of the French Congo in exchange for a free hand in Morocco. Dec. 14. Capt. Roald Amundsen, Norwegian, reached the South Pole. Dec. 29. Outer Mongolia declared itself independent of China and formed a separate government. 1912, Jan. 2. A provisional republican government for China estab- lished at Nanking with Sun yat-sen as president. Feb. 12, the emperor of China abdicated and the republic assumed con- trol. Feb. 15, "Tuan Shih-kai elected provisional president by the national assembly. Mar. 10, Yuan inaugurated and general amnesty proclaimed. Jan. 6. New Mexico admitted to the Union as the forty-seventh state. Jan. 18. Capt. R. F. Scott of the British navy reached the South Pole. Perished of cold and starvation with the remaining members of his party, March 29. Feb. 14. Arizona admitted to the Union as the forty-eighth state. Feb. 22. Italy annexed Tripoli by act of parliament. Feb. 29. Coal-Oners' strike in Great Britain ; a million men left their work. The passage of an act fixing a minimum wage for coal-miners brought about the end of the strike early in April. March 7. Discovery of South Pole, Dec. 14, 1911, announced by Amundsen. April. Floods in Mississippi valley left 30,000 persons homeless and occasioned a property loss of $60,000,000. April 15. The steamship I'itanic sank in mid-ocean after striking an iceberg late in the evening of the 14th ; 1503 persons drowned, including a number of well-known men ; 703 saved. May 13. Constitutional amendment providing for direct elec- tion of United States senators by the people passed congress. 610 Modem History. 1912, May 14 - X. Christian X., king of Denmark, suc- ceeded on the death of his father, Frederick VIII, June 22. President Ta/t and vice-president Sherman renominated by the republican national convention at Chicago. Dissatis- fied element withdrew from convention and the progressive party was organized, which, in a convention at Chicago, Aug. 7, nominated Theodore Roosevelt and Hiram W. Johnson (Cali- fornia). July 2, democratic convention nominated Woodrow Wilson (New Jersey) for president and (July 3) Thomas R. Marshall (Indiana) for vice-president. Nov. 6, Wilson and Marshall were elected and a democratic majority of the house of representatives. July 15. State insurance went into effect in Great Britain. 1912, July 30 -X. Yoshihito succeeded to the imperial throne of Japan on the death of his father, Mutsuhito. Aug. 9. Sultan Mulai Hafid of Morocco abdicated. Oct. 8. Discontent with Turkish *rule in Macedonia culminated in a declaration of war against Turkey by Montenegro. Bul- garia, Servia, and Oreece joined Montenegro as allies, and (Oct. 9) the allies invaded Turkish territory. After severe defeats by the Bulgarians at Kirh Kilisseh and Lvle Burgas, Turkey appealed to the powers, Nov. 3, for intervention, and an armistice was signed Dec. 3, ending one of the bloodiest wars in history. Oct. 15. Treaty of Lausanne between Italy and Turkey; Tri- poli ceded to Italy. Oct. 16. Felix Diaz rebelled against the Madero government in Mexico and took possession of Vera Cruz. Being defeated, he surrendered Oct. 23 and was imprisoned. 1913, Jan. 1. Parcel post system instituted in the United States. Feb. 9. Felix Diaz released from prison by Mexican revolutionists. His partisans took president Madero prisoner, Feb. 18, and proclaimed Victoriano Huerta provisional president. Feb. 23, Madero was killed " while attempting escape." FeTb. 10. News of the death on March 29, 1912, of Capt. Robert F. Scott on his return from the South Pole was brought to New Zealand. 1913, Feb. 18 -X. Raymond Poincar^ president of the French Republic. (Elected Jan. 17.) Feb. 25. The sixteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States, empowering Congress to lay and collect in- come taxes, was declared in force, having been ratified by the requisite number of states. March 4. President Taft signed bill creating the Department of Labor. 1913, March 4 -X. Woodrow Wilson, 27th president of the United States ; Thomas R. Marshall, vice-president. March 18. King George of Greece assassinated at Salonica; the crown prince succeeding as 1913, March 18- X. Constantine, king of Greece. leading Events, 1904-19U. 611 1913, March and April. Serious floods in Ohio valley. Loss of 454 lives and $350,000,000 in Ohio. April 1. Turkey accepted terms of peace proposed by the powers. After long discussion on the part of the Balkan allies, the treaty was signed, May 30. May 31. The seventeenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States, providing' for direct election of senators by the people, was declared in force, having been duly rati- fied by the states. July 8. Disputes over the division of Macedonia among the Balkan allies having led to acts of hostility between Bulgaria and the others, Servia declared war against Bulgaria. Bulgaria withdrew her troops from the disputed territory, July 10, and on July 17, sued for peace with Rumania, which had invaded her territory on the north and east. July 20, the Turks took and reocoupied Adrianople, which they were permitted by the powers to retain. Aug. 10, peace between the Balkan states signed at Bucharest. This second Balkan war remarkable for its atrocities. An international commission investigating on the ground reported in 1914, placing the blame for these upon Bulgaria, Servia, and Greece in equal proportions. The reorganization of the Balkan states made Albania independent under an international commission of control ; Crete was ceded to Greece ; Macedonia was divided among Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria ; and Bumania gained a strip from the northwest of Bulgaria. Prince William of Wied was chosen ruler of Albania with the title of Mpret (^ Im- perator). Sept. 17. Agreement between Bulgaria and Turkey by which the latter retains Adrianople, Kirk Kilisseh, and Dimotika. Sept. 28, treaty between Bulgaria and Turkey signed at Constanti- nople. Oct. 3. The Underwood tariff act went into effect on its signa- ture by the president. Oct. 6. ITuan Shih-kai elected president of China. Oct. 10. Last obstruction to water removed from the Panama Canal by the blowing-up of the Gamboa dike. Nov. 3. Otto, the mad king of Bavaria, was deposed, and was suc- ceeded by the prince regent as 1913 - X. Louis III. Deo. 23. Currency and banking bill providing for regional banks in the United States signed by the president. 1914, Jan. 18. The island of Sahara near Kagoshima in Japan de- vastated by a volcano. Jan. Serious railroad and mining strikes in South Africa. Syndicalism arrayed against the state. Suppressed by the firm measures of premier Botha. April 21. United States fleet seized custom-house at Vera Cruz, Mexico, and navy and marines occupied the city, for the pur- pose of exacting an apology from president Huerta for the arrest of United States blue-jackets. American losses 18 612 Modern History. killed and 70 wounded. April 25, the diplomatic -represelita^ tives of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile at Washington offered the services of their respective governments in mediation be- tween the United States and Mexico. The offer was accepted by the United States. May 25. Irish Home Rule bill passed the British house of com- mons by a vote of 351 to 274, in spite of threats of armed re- sistance in Ulster and trouble among army officers who agreed to resign if ordered to attack the Ulster men. (Resignation of sir John FrenchfChi&ioi Imperial Staff, not accented.) The bill, having passed the comihohs in three sessions of parlia- ment, became law without the approval of the lords. Con- tinued disturbances in Protestant Ulster under the leadership of sir Edward Carson. Large importations of arms smuggled into the country. Nationalist volunteers organize in opposition to the Ulster volunteers. Jiily 6. House of lords passed to its second reading, by a vote of 273 to 10, the home rule amending bill, providing that each county of Wster shall decide by vote whether or not it shall be excluded from the operation of the home rule act for a period of 6 years. Later the house of lords passed unionist amend- ments not acceptable to the commons. Riot at Dublin, July 26, in which troops fired upon nationalists and killed 4 persons. June 24. Protocol signed at Niagara, Canada, by American and Mexican delegates sitting with the mediators. It provided for a, provisional government oitHezsico to be constituted by agree- ment of Huerta's representatives and the insurgent constitution- alist party, and the United States agreed to waive claiins for war indemnity or other intemationar satisfaction and to recognize the provisional government. The mediators then adjourned. July 5. Huerta was elected president of Mexico by a large majority of a very small vote. July 15. Huerta resigned presidency of Mexico and was succeeded by minister of foreign affairs Carbajal, who, according to an understanding with the mediators, was to resign in favor of a constitutionalist. The constitutionalist forces, under Carranza as president and Villa as commanding general, in control of the greater part of Mexico. June 28. Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir presumptive to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his morganatic wife, the duchess of Hohenberg, assassinated at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by a Serb student, a native of Bosnia. Austria-Hungary accused Servia of fomenting conspiracies against the internal tran- quillity of the dual monarchy and (July 23) sent her an ulti- matum, Servia's reply to which (July 25) being deen!ied un- satisfactory. July 28. Austria-Hijngary declared war against JServia, and (July 29) homhaTdei Belgrdde. July 31, Russia proclaimed agen- eral mohilization. Stock markets of the World closed. Aug. 1. Germany declared war against Russia. France ordered a general mobilization for the next day. Discount in London Leading Events, 1904-1914. 613 raised to 10%, highest in the history of the Bank of England. Aug. 2. Hostilities on border between Germany and France. Ger- many violated the neutrality of Luxemburg, promising indem- nity. Germany asked Belgium to allow her troops to cross Belgian territory. Belgium refused. Aug. 3. Italy declared her neutrality, on the ground that her treaty of alliance with Germany and Austria did not require her to assist them in an offensive war. Germany began an invasion of Belgium. German troops also invaded Russia. Aug. 4. Germany having refused to respect the neutrality of Bel- gium after a demand from England, England declared war on Germany. Germany attacked Liege. Aug. 5. Pres. Wilson offered the services of the United States in mediation between the warring nations of Europe. Aug. 7. Liege occupied by the Germans, but the outlying forts not taken. Discount in London cut to 6%. Aug. 8. Discount in London further cut to 5 % . Aug. 10. France and Austria severed diplomatic relations, Aug. 12. England formally declared war on Austria. Aug. 13. Pres. Carbajal and his cabinet, together with the federal forces, having left the city of Mexico the night before, a formal peace agreement was signed between geu. Obregon for the constitutionalists and Eduardo Iturbide, gov. of the federal dis- trict, preliminary to the entrance of Carranza aud bis follow- ers into the city. Aug. 15. The Panama Canal officially opened. Aug. 15. Japan sent an ultimatum to Germany demanding the evacuation of Kiaochau and allowing one week for a reply. SUPPLEMENT THE WAR OF 1914 June 28. Assassinatioii of Archduke Ferdinand and the Duch- ess of Hohenberg at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Servian student. July 2. Gabriuovics, who made an unsuccessful attempt on the life of the archduke, implicates the Secretary of the Fan-Servian Union and others iu the murder of the Austrian heir, July 24. Austrian note to Servia, demanding the suppression of Fan- Servianism and the punishment of the assassins. July 25. Servia concedes all of Austria's demands save that of Austrian participation in the investigation of the murder. Austrian note to Servia saying the lattei's reply was unsatis- factory. Ambassador leaves Belgrade. July 27. England's appeal to Austria, Servia, and Russia to suspend hostilities pending a cooperative mediation conference to which France, Germany, and Italy were invited. General mobilization of Servian army. Mobilization of five Bussian army corps. Partial mobilization by Austria. Strict Austrian censorship. July 28. Austria declares 'war on Servia and hostilities com.' mence, after Germany and Austria refuse England's invita- tion to a conference. German fleet ordered mobilized. Russian guards placed along the Frussian frontier. July 29. Bombardment of Belgrade begun by Austrians. Russia mobilizes a million and a quarter troops for Austrian frontier. Germany also sends troops to Russian frontier. Kaiser and czar exchange telegrams in a final effort for peace. France quietly prepares for war and troops concentrate near the frontier. July 30. Germany sends ultimatum to Russia giving her twenty-four hours to explain her intentions in regard to mobilization. German reserve officers of the Guards Army Corps called out. France prepared for war. July 31. General Russian mobUizaUon ordered. Martial law declared in Germany. Belgium mobilizes. Partial Swiss mobilization. Stock markets all over the world close their doors. Bank of England raises rate of exchange to eight per cent. Aug. 1. Germany formally declares -war on Russia, and troops are ordered mobilized. France mobilizes. 616 Supiylement Aug. 2. Germany occupies Luxemburg. Aug. 3. Both Russian and German guards cross frontiers, the latter also making raids across the French border. Grermany declares .war on France. German troops enter Belgium. British fleet officially mobilized. Italy proclaims her neutrality. Aug. 4. Germany apprQpriate.%a billipn,fpp war expenditures. England's ultimatum to Germany demauding the latter's atti- tude respecting Belgian neutrality. British' army ordered, mobilized and a half billipn voted for emergency purposes. War deplored by England on G-ermany. Germans begin tjieir attack on Liege. President Wilspu proclaims the neutrality of, the United States. Aug. 6. Wilson offers offices for peace between the several warring nations. Kitchener appointed. Secretary of State for War. German cables iu the Atlantic cut and communication severed. German attack on Liege repulsed with heavy losses. Montenegro declares war oh Austria. Ai|g. 6. Kitchener asks for a half-million more men and an additional appropriation of a half -billion dollars. Two Liege forts silenced. — General Leman taken prisoner. Holland declares her neutrality. Austria declares war against Russia. Aug. 7. Germans occupy Liege although the fprts still hold out. U.S.S. Tennessee leaves with $6,000,000 in gold fpr Eurppe for stranded American^. British cruiser Amphion mined and sunk, French troops enter Alsace. Ang. 8. Bombardjnent of Libau by Germans. First British troops land on French soil. French capture Alt- kirk in Alsace. Aug. 9. French occupy Muelhausen. Servia declares war on Germany. Aug. 10. » German troops massing on their eastern border. France and Austria sever diplomatic relations. British admiralty closes the North Sea to fishermen. Aug. 11. Germans penetrate France. French fall back in Alsace, abandoning Muelhausen. Montenegro declares war on Germany. France declares war on Austria-Hungary. Aug. 12. German troops move north towards Brussels., England declares vrar on Austria. Turkey buys German cruisers Goeben and Breslau. Montenegrins and Servians invade Bosnia. Aug. 14. Allied troops massing in Belgium. The War of 1914 617 Aug. 15. Bussia issues manifesto offering Poles their freedom if loyal. Japanese ultimatum to Germany. Aug. 16. Landing of first British Expeditionary fproe in France completed. Russian advance begun. Aug. 17. Austrian advance into Poland checked. Belgian Government transferred from Brussels to Antwerp. Aug. 20. Brussels abandoned by Belgians, occupied by the Ger- mans. Aug. 22. German a,ttack on Namur. Levy of forfy million dollars on Brussels. Allies driven from CbarleroL Germans occupy Ghent. Russia takes the oSensive in £ast Prussia. Japanese fleet sails against Kiaochau. Aug, 23. J.apan in state ol war 'vyith Germany. British army engaged at Mons. Aug. 24. Fall of Namur announced. Allied forces abandon the Sambre. Bombardment of Tsingtau by the Japanese. Zeppelin drops bombs on Antwerp. Aug. 25. Louvain partially destroyed by the Germans. Allies con- tinue retreat to Cambrai-Le-Cateau. Russians invading Galicia begin the battle of Lemberg. A ustria declares war on Japan. Aug. 26. Togoland surrenders to Great Britain. British forces en- gaged at Tournai and Landrecies. Kitchener announces that Britain will have au army of one million men. French Cabinet reorganized upon a non-partisan basis. Aug. 27. British marines occupy Qstend. Allies retreat to the Somme. Lille, Roubaiz, and Valenciennes occupied by the Germans. Tilsit, £ast Prussia, occupied by Russians. Eaiser Wilhelm der Grosse sunk by British cruiser High- flyer. Austria withdraws from Novibazar. Official declaration of Kiaochau blockade. Aug. 28. Allies continue retreat through northern France. British naval victory off Heligoland ; five German warships sunk. Aug. 29. New Zealand force occupies German Samoa. Austria declares war on Belgium. Aug. 30. Germans capture Amiens. Allies retreating to the line of the Seine. Paris prepares for a siege. Aug. 31. German aeroplane bombs dropped on Paris. Sept. 1. The name of St. Petersburg changed to Petrograd by im- perial decree. Germans win victory over Russians at AUenstein, East Prussia, capturing 70,000 prisoners. 618 Supplement Sept. 2. Allies hold the line of the Seine, the Marne, and the Meuao above Verdun. Austrians defeated with heavy losses by Russians at Iiem- berg after seven days' fighting. First British casualty list issued 5127. Japan lands 10,000 troops in Shantung. Sept. 3. French Government withdrawn from Paris to Bordeaux. Troops of the Allies assume the offensive, the Germans ap- proaching the valley of the Marne. Russia occupies the city of Lemberg, Galicia. Sept. 4. Germans cross the river Marne. Sept. 6. British cruiser Pathfinder blown up by submarine; 259 lives lost. England, France,and Russia agree not to treat for peace sepa- rately. German right wing changes course to the east in front of Paris. Rheims taken by the Germans. Germany strengthens forces in East Prussia. Sept. 7. Extreme German right begins the retreat back across the Marne, closely followed by the Allied forces. Germans capture Mauheuge. Sept. 8. Allies accelerate German retreat, capturing German prison^ ers and guns. Sept. 9. Seventy thousand Indian troops dispatched to France. German retreat continues. Emperor William protests to President Wilson against the use of dumdum bullets by the Allies. Sept. 10. Germans driven out of Vitry-Le-Frangois, retreating to- wards the Aisne. Parliament votes British army increase of 500,000. German cruiser Emden captures six British steamers off coast of ludia. Sept. 11. Germans cross the Aisne and take up intrenched position. Turkey ends capitulations. Belgian Peace Commission reaches America. France replies to Kaiser's protest against dumdum bullets. Sept. 12. Allies advance against German intrenchments on the Aisne. Russians win second victory in Galicia. Australian force takes Bismarck Archipelago and E!aiser Wilhehn's Land. Sept. 13. Battle of the Aisne continues. Sept. 14. Russians before Koenigsberg, East Prussia. Sept. 15. Russians advancing on Przemysl. Rheims occupied by the Allies. German cruiser Hela sunk by British submarine. Sept. 17. Berlin casualty list issued shows 4564 names, with total for war of 35,786 killed, wounded, or missing. President Wilson replies in non-committal terms to the Ger- man and Belgian protests ou atrocities. The War of 1914 619 Sept. 18. Rheims Cathedral damaged by German artillery fire. Sept. 19. Allies' movement to turn the German right flank becomes more defined, the latter making vigorous counter attacks. Germans evacuate Termonde, Belgium. Sept. 20. German cruiser Koenigsberg damages British cruiser Pegasus in Zanzibar harbor. Sept. 21. France protests to America of the destruction of the Rheims Cathedral. Allies' left wing advances to the heights of Laasigny, seek- ing to envelop the German right. Kussians bombarding Przemysl. Duke of Connaught reviews 26,000 Canadian troops before their departure for Europe. Sept. 22. German submarine U-9 sinks British cruisers Aboukir, Cressy, and Hague, with a total loss of 1433 lives, exclusive of officers. German cruiser Emden shells Madras. Sept. 23. British aviator drops bomb on Zeppelin shed at Dusseldorf . Sept. 25. German army on East Prussian border, after having de- feated Rennenkampff, reaches Niemeu. Montenegrins enter Mostar in Herzegovina. British Indian troops land in Marseilles. Sept. 26. Germans cross Meuse between Verdun and Tool. Zeppelin over Warsaw. Sept. 27. Germans attempt to pierce Allies' left near Roye. Belgians evacuate Alost. German aeroplane drops four bombs on Paris, killing one. Russians occupy Uzsoc Pass through the Carpathians into Hungary. France denies military use of Rheims Cathedral. Sept. 28. Allies' flanking movement extends north ; violent fighting on left wing. Russians resume the offensive in northern Poland. Japanese occupy heights around Tsingtau. Sept. 29. German attempt to pierce Allies' centre fails. Sept. 30. Italian torpedo-boat blown up by Austrian mine in the Adriatic. Italy protests against the ase of mines to Austria. Oct. 1. German assault on outer ^niioerp forts. Oct. 2. Britain officially announces that it has decided to lay mines in certain areas. Oct. 3. Allies repulse German attempt to take Roye, Russian victory at Augustow, East Prussia. Oct. i. British force cooperating with the Belgians. Peace Sunday in all of the churches of America. Oct. 5. French forced to give ground north of the Oise. Japanese repulse German sortie at Tsingtau. Oct. 6. Russians force German retreat from Wierzbolo-Lyck dis- trict in East Prussia. Japanese capture Jaluit Island in the Marshall group. Oct. 7. German Zeppelins drop bombs on Antwerp, killing twenty. Japanese capture Yap Island, in the Carolina group. 620 Supplement Shells from German siege g:uns fall on Antwerp. Berlin admits loss of 300,000 men. Belgian Government moved to Ostend from Antwerp. Oct. 8. Russians bombarding Przemysl forts. Oct. 9. Japanese siege guns placed to dominate Tsingtau. Germans capture Antwerp. Oct. 10. King Charles of Koumania dead. Oct. 11. Russian cruiser Pallada sunk by German submarine. Russia claims further advances in East Prussia. Oct. 12. Ferdinand proclaimed King of Roumania. Ctermaus occupy Ghent. Oct. 13. Germans occupy Lilk. Revolt in South Africa. Belgian Government removed from Ostend to Havre, France. Trial of alleged assassin of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife opens at Sarajevo. Austria claims to have relieved Przemysl. Oct. 14. Allies occupy Ypres. Oct. 15. German civilians evacuate Goldap in East Prussia. British cruiser Hawke sunk by German submarine. Oct. 16. Germans occupy Ostend. Rebel Colonel Maritz's force defeated in South Afi'ica. German advance guard moves up the Vistula opposite War- saw. Oct. 17. British cruiser Undaunted sinks four German destroyers off Holland. German troops appear before Warsaw. Oct. 18. Allies check German advance on Dunkirk, holding line from Nieuport to Dixmude. Japanese cruiser Takachibo mined in Kiaochan Bay. Oct. 19. Allies advance to Roulers, Belgium. Belgian army repulses Germans at the Yser River. Austria claims advance south of Przemysl. Fourth British casualty list issued 13,541. Oct. 20. Germans admit check at the Yser. British fleet aids operations in Belgium. Russia repulses Germans from Warsaw. Oct. 21. Allies maintain lines in southern Belgium. Oct. 22. Britain protests against German mine-laying on the high seas. American commission organized in London to save Belgians from starvation. Prussian Diet passes war credit of $375,000,000. Oct. 23. Announcement that German cruiser Karlsruhe has sunk thirteen British merchantmen in the Atlantic. Russia reports German rptirement from Warsaw. Britain insures Westminster Abbey against bombs. Germans gain ground towards Dunkirk. Germans cross the Yser. Russians cross the Vistula. Rus- sians in great battle with Austrians along San from Sambor to Przemysl. The War of 1914 621 Oct. 24. Union of South Africa troops completely defeat rebel forces under Maritz at Kakanias. Oct. 25. Russians press pursuit of Germans retiring from War- saw. Oct. 26. Generals De Wet and Beyers start new rebellion in South Africa. Oct. 27. Continued attacks by Germans on Allies' western lines. General Von Falkenhayn succeeds Von Moltke as chief of German General StafP. General Beyers's rebel forces put to rout by Union troops. British dreadnought Audacious strikes mine oSL north coast of Ireland. Oct. 28. German attack towards Dunkirk becomes weaker. German cruiser Emden sinks Russian cruiser Zemtchug and French destroyer in Penang harbor. Oct. 29. Assassin of Prince Ferdinand sentenced to twenty years in prison ; four accessories to be hanged. Turkish warships bombard Russian ports on the Black Sea, bringing Turkey into the war. Belgians force Germans back across the Yser by inundating the country. Austrians and Germans retreat from the Vistula. Oct. 30. Admiral Sir John Fisher appointed to succeed Prince Louis of Battenberg as First Lord of the British Admiralty. Russia declares state of war exists vrith Turkey and withdraws ambassador from Constantinople. Oct. 31. Japanese open general attack on Tsingtau. Nov. 1. Russia orders all Germans and Austrians deported. German squadron victorious in naval battle with British o£B the coast of Chile. Nov. 2. Martial law proclaimed in Egypt. British cruiser Minerva shells and occupies Akabah, Arab port on Bed Sea. Germans evacuate left bank of the Yser. Russia clears right wing by advance into East Prussia ; con- tinues progress towards German border in Poland. Nov. 3. Moluimmedans in India show loyalty to Great Britain. German fleet makes raid on British coast, sinking submarine and two drifters. Nov. 4. Russians occupy cities in Turkish Armenia. German cruiser Yorck sunk by mine in Wilhelmshafen har- bor; 266 lives lost. Nov. 5. Great Britain officially announces state of -war with Turkey. Army of 90,000 Turks massed on Caucasian border. Germans continue retreat from the Vistula. Russians capture Jaroslau, Galicia. Great Britain formally annexes the island of Cyprus. Beyers and Maritz rebellions in South Africa crushed. Servia severs diplomatic relations with Turkey. Nov. 6. Berlin reports that 26,000 Turks invade Egypt. 622 Supplement Germans lighten pressure along the Yser, the Allies' lines holding firm. Not. 7. Japanese capture Kiaochau. Russians attack Sierradz on the Warthe, the last fortified German position in Russian Poland. Germany reports she holds 433,247 prisoners of war. Germans concentrate efforts on the Ypres- Arras line. Not. 8. Russians penetrate into Prussia along the left bank of the Vistula. Nov. 9. Russians bombard Turkish ports on Black Sea. Nov. 10. German cruiser Emden driven ashore and burned by Aus- tralian cruiser Sydney ; 230 casualties. Berlin claims Russian defeat on East Prussian border. Not. 11. Germans capture Dixmude. Russians press on toward Cracow. British gunboat Niger torpedoed in the Downs off Deal. Nov. 13. Germans unable to move Allies from Ypres, key to coast campaign. British casualties announced as 57,000 up to Oct. 31. Nov. 14. Russians advance on Cracow. Lord Roberts dies in France of pneumonia. Nov. 16. Premier Asquith asks $1,125,000,000 more for the con- tinuance of the war ; also one million more men. Snow and inundations cause deadlock in Flanders fighting. Japanese troops enter Tsingtau. Nov. 17. Germans fall back in East Prussia along whole front be- tween Angeburg and Gumbinnen ; ad.vance between Warthe and Vistula. German auxiliary cruiser Berlin interned at Trondhjem. Nov. 18. Flanders flooded from seaooast almost to Ypres, restrict- ing the fighting to an artillery engagement. Russians take fortified position in East Prussia ; battle in Poland continues. British naval losses given out as 6013. German fleet bombards Libau. Nov. 19. Cruiser Goeben reported damaged in engagement with Russians in Black Sea. Battle in Poland assumes greater proportions ; no advantage for either side. Nov. 20. German invasion of Poland on the Warthe-Vistula line checked. Arabs advance on the Suez Canal. Von Buelow made German ambassador to Rome. Nov. 21. Russian reinforcements from the East reach point before Lodz. Austria crosses Kolubara River in Servia. Russians continue advance through Galicia toward Cracow. British aviators drop bombs on Zeppelin sheds at Friedrichs- hafen. Nov. 22. Russians capture Gumhinnen in East Prussia. Austria orders all civilians out of Cracow. The WaroflQU 623 Servia in retreat. Nov. 23. Germans forced to retreat on Wartlie-Vistula line in Po- land ; German forces in precarious position. Kov. 24. Russians check German advance south of the Warthe. British warships bombard Zeebrugge. Nov. 25. Germans attempt to relieve forces in western Poland by movement south from East Prussia. Britain asks the United States to warn South American countries that they must observe neutrality. Nov. 26. Two German army corps surrounded by Russians in vicinity of Lodz. British battleship Buhoark blown up ofE Sheemess; 750 lives lost. Nov. 27. Germans lose 33,000 men at Lodz, Poland. Nov. 28. New York Stock Exchange opens for restricted trading in bonds. Germans on the defensive in Belgium. Russians move towards the Carpathian passes. Nov. 29. Russians begin the bombardment of Cracow. Nov. 30. General French reports that western battle is in its last stages. Dec. 1. Rebel general Christian De Wet captured. Germans cut their way out of the enveloping Russian lines in Russian Poland. Dec. 2. Austrians capture Belgrade, Servia. Dee. 3. German Reichstag votes $1,250,000,000. . Dec. 4. Allies take the offensive in portions of Flanders. Dec. 6. Germans report capture of Lodz in Russian Poland. Dee. 7. Servians break up Austrian army of invasion, inflicting con- siderable losses. Dec. 8. German cruisers Leipzig, Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Niirn- berg sunk by British fleet off Falkland Islands. Russia checks advance of Germans in northern Poland; fighting continues in the vicinity of Cracow. Dec. 11. South African rebellion virtually ended. Turkish fleet bombards Batoum. Deo. 12. Allies drive Germans from the Yser and occupy the west bank of the canal. Dec. 13. British submarine enters Dardanelles, dives under five rows of mines, and torpedoes Turkish battleship Messudieh. Dec. 14. Servians reoccupy Belgrade. Deo. 15. Austrians cross passes of the Carpathians into Galicia. Dec. 16. German cruisers raid British seacoast towns of Scar- borough, Hartlepool, and Whitby, killing ninety-nine persons. Germans drive wedge in Russian lines thirty miles from Warsaw. De3. 17. Germans claim decisive victory in Russian Poland. Dec. 18. British protectorate proclaimed throughout Egypt. Deo. 19. German casualty list shows losses of 30,000 men along the Yser. Allies bombard Dardanelles forts. 624 Supplement Scandinavian kings agree to pool interests during the war. Dec. 20. Russians check German advance along the line of the Bzura River. Dec. 21. Russians mass troops before Warsaw. Dec. 22. General JofEre retires twenty-four French generals. Dec. 23. Germans repulsed in attempt to cross Bzura and Ravka rivers. Deo. 24. Near St. Hubert Anglo-Indian troops lose 3000 killed and 837 taken prisoners by Germans. Dec. 25. Seven British seaplanes attack German naval base of Cux- haven. Dec. 26. Russian^ claim victory at Krosno in Galicia and capture of 10,000 Austrians. Dee. 27. Germans regain Mlawa in northern Poland. Dec. 29. President Wilson protests against detention of American ships in search for contraband. Dec. 31. French attack village of Steinbach, Alsace. INDEX. Abbbstutioits ; s. ■> abbot ; adm. == admiral t b. = bishop t bnrgr. = burggrave ; c. « count t d. = duke; 0. = earl; el. i= elector; g. d. = grand duke; H. K. E.<= Holy Komon Empire; k. =3 king; landg. = landgrave; margr. = margrave; pr. = prince; q. <=> queen; U. S. = United States of America; vise. 1= TiBCOunt. AACHKI7, 186, 195. See Aix-Ia-Chspelle. Aahmes, kings of Egypt : !■, 4 ; II., 7. jlbbasid«s, rule of th6, 133. Abdel-Kadeir captured by the French, 527. Abd-er-Rahman : I., founded caliphate of Cordova, 183, 209 ; III., 209. Abdul-Asia, deposition of, 521. Abdul Hamid, II., 521 ; Kerim, 522. Abel, k. of Denmark, 236. Aberdeen administiatibn, 543. Abo, Peace of, 409. AbolitioniBtB, organization, of the, 553. Aboukir, battle of, 460. Abraham, 7. Absalon, Dishop, 235. Abu-6ekr, 192. Abul Abbas, overthrows Ommiads, 183. Abydos, battles of, 68. Abyssinia, Christian kingdom of, 190. Abyssinian expedition, 545. Acad^mie Fran^aise founded, 326. Acadia, explorations in, 290 ; French claims to, 363 ; limits of, 364, n. ; granted to St. £tienne, 364 ; ceded to England, 363, 419; dispersion of the French inhabit- ants, 421. Achaean League, 43, 48 ; under Aratos, 79 ; under Fhilopcemen, 80 ; fall, 80 ; first Macedonian war, 118. Achaean War, 80, 122. Achsemenidffi, 25-27. Achaia, 39, 48 ; Roman proTiuce, 80, 146 ; duchy of, 216. AchUles, 47. Acilius Glabrio, 119, 135. A^oka, emp. of Mftgadha, 28. Acre, conquest of, in 3d cnuiade, 215 ; taken by Mamelukes, 217 ; repulse of Napoleon, 460. Act for the better government of India, 544 ; of confederation, 483 ; of grace, 387 ; of mediation, 464 ; for perpetual par- liament, 345 ; of settlement^ 388 : of su- premacy under Henry VUL, 335, under Elizabeth, 338 ; of uniformity, 338, en- forced by James I., 340, under Charles II., 379 : of Vienna, 482: final act, 483, 487. Actium, Corcyrseans victorious at, 65 ; de- feat of Antonius, 146. Adalbert, archb. of Bremen, 199. Adams, John, defends Preston, 425; mem- ber of Continental Congress, 426, 427 j negotiates treaty with France, 429 ; vice- pres., 547, 548 ; pies., 548. Adam% John Quincy, sec. of state, 551 ; pres., 562. Adams, Samuel^ 426. Addii^ton administration, 536. Addison, Joseph, 436. " Addled " parliament, 341. Adelheid, empress, married Otto I., 195 ; regent in Italy, 197. Adhemar of Fuy, 214. Adherbal, 126. Adlerkreuz, C|en., 472. Adolf of Nassau, elected k. of Germany, 244. Adolf Frederic, k. of Sweden, 409. Adrianople, battle of, 159, 171 ; peace of, 489 ; agreement of, 528. iOdiles, plebeian, 96 : curule, 101 ; pay for the great games, 120. M^ti&n Islands, victory of Catulus, 111. .ai^na, Doric community, 63 ; war with Athens, 57; tributary to Athens, 63; as- signed to Athenian citizens, 65. JEgospotami, battle of, 69. Alfred the Great, k. of England, 204. MHa. Capitolina, 12, 153. MUe, leader of the South Saxons, 177. .Xmilianus, 166. iBneas, 87. iEneas Sylvius, 253. See Pius II. .Sk)lian tribes, 43 ; colonies, 49. Mqui, wars with Rome, 97, 98, 100 } receive Roman citizenship, 105. JBrarii, 92. JSscendun, Danes defeated at, 204. JGschines, 72. iEschylus, 64. iEthelflaed, lady of the Mercians, 204. ^thelred, kings of England, I., 203, 204 ; II., the Unready, 205. ^thelstan, k. of England, 204. .Sthelwulf, k. of England, 203. Aetius, 172 ; defeats Attila, 173. JStolian League founded, 79 : assists Rome, 116. Afghan war, firat, 546 ; second, 547. Afghans of Ghor, supremacy in India, 211. Africa, circumnavigated by Egyptians (?), 6; by Portuguese, 279, 280: Roman province, 121 ; Csesar^s war, 142 ; Octavi- anus administers. 146 ; Vandal king* dom, 172 ; fall of the Vandal power, 174. Agamemnon, 47. Agathocles, k. of Syracuse, 20. Age of Augustus, 147; of Louis XIV., 371 ; of Pericles, 64. Agesilaus, k, of Sparta, 70, 71. Index. Agincourt, battle of, 259, 271. Agnes of Meran, 226 ; of Poitou, 199. Agrarian laws, 95, 97 ; Licinian, 101 ; re- forms of the Gracchi, 124, 125 ; of Dru- SU8, 128 ; of Sulla, 132 ; of Pompeius, 137. Agricola, in Britain, 37, 152; his death, 162 ; his wall in Britain, 176. Agrigentum , 84 ; captured by Carthaginians, 20 ; by Komans, 110. Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, 146. Agrippina, the elder, 148 ; the younger, 148, 150. Aguirre, Lope de, 288 Ahmad Shah, emp. of India, 442 ; Durani, invades India, 442, 443. Ahmednagar, kingdom, 853, 389. Ahuramazda, 24, 25. Ainos, 33. Aistulf , k. of Langobaxds, 175, 184. Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of 1668, 367; of 1748, 403, 419, 438 ; congress, 487. See, also, Aachen. Ajax, 47. Akbar the Great, 353, 354. Akkad, 13. Alabama, admitted to the Union, 552. Alabama claims settled, 545, 560. Alamanni, on the Rhine, 170; occupy Germania superior, 172 ; defeated by Chlodwig, 173. Alamgir II., emp. of India, 442. Altoi, 170, 171. Alarcon, explores the Colorado, 2B7. Alaric, k. of West Goths, 171. Alaska purchase, 559. Al^ud-ddn, sultan of Delhi, 241. Alba Longa, 87 ; destruction, 89. Albanian league, 525. Albemarle, d. of, 379. See, also, Monk. Alberoni, card., 397. Albert, the Bear, margr. of Brandenbui^* 218, 219. Albert I., emp. of H. R. E., of Austria, 245; II., 253. Albert, c. of Holstein, 235. Albert, d. of Mecklenburg, 237, 238. Albert, of Saxe-Cobui^, marrits Victoria, 542 :; dies, 544. Albertine line, in Saxony, 305. Albigenges, 227. Albinus, Clodius, 155. Albion, 36. Alboin, k. of Langobards, 175. Albuera, battle of, 473. Albuquerque, 280, 355. Alcantara, order of, 240, 328. Alcibiades, 66 : trial and tlight, 68 ; death, 69. Alcolea, battle of, 512. Alcuin, 186. Aiembert, 448. Aleppo, sultanate of, 210. Alesia, siege of, 139. Alessandria built, 221. Alexander, prince of Bulgaria, 524. Alexander, the Great, k- of Macedonia, 73 ; expedition to Persia, 20, 29, 73 ; invades India, 23, 75 : plans to Hellenize the Eafit, 75 ; his death, 76. Alexander, Popes : III., 221 ; V., 251 1 VI. 327. Alexander, tsar of Russia: I., accedes, 403 ; defeated at Austerlitz, 467 ; in the war of 1813, 477 ; in London, 482, 500 : II., 600 ; murder, 525 ; in., 525. Alexandria, founded, 74 ; capital of Egypt, 77 ; Vespasian, 151 ; captured by Per- sians, 191 ; captured by Arabs. 182 ; by the French, 460 ; bombarded by the Eng- lish, 546. Alexandrine library founded, 77. Alexandrine war, 142. Alexis, tsar of Russia, 374. Alexius Comnenus, Greek emp., 214. Alfonso III., k. of Aragon, 276. Alfonso X., k. of Castile, 225, 240- Alfonso XII., k. of Spain, 521. Alford, battle of, 348. Algarbe, kingdom of, 276. Algeria, exp. of Charles T., 304 ; rrencb expedition, 489, 627. Ali, 182. Alien bill. 535. Alien and sedition laws In U, S., 549. Alkafisor, battle of, 332. Alkmar, battle of, 461, "Alleluia victory," 38. Allen, Ethan, 427. AUersheim, battle of, 315. Allia, battle of the, lOO. " Alliance of the three kings," 497- AUouez, in New France, 364. " All the talents' " ministry, 537. Alma, battle of the, 500. Almagro, Diego de, 286, 287. Almanza, battle of, 434. Almanzor 209. Almeida, 280 ; siege of, 473. Almoadau. See Toor^n-shdh. Almohades, conquer Spain, 240. Almoravides, conquer Spain, 209, 240. Alp Arslan, 210. Al.<>ace, formerly Germania superior, 172; ceded to France, 816 ; protestants i% 369 ; ceded to the German empire, 519. Alsen, island of, 506. AltranstMt, peace of, 395| Alva, duke of, in the Netherlands, 330. Alvarado, 287. Alyattes, k. of Lydia, 21, 25. Amadeus I., k. of Spain, 512, 620, Amagro, 287. Amalaiic, k. of West Goths, 174. Amalasuntha, 174. Amalric, k. of Jerusalem, 214. Amasis. See Aahmes. Amazon, discovery of, 284, 288. Amazons, 46. Amberg, battle of, 458. Ambiorix, 139. Amboise, conspiracy of, 321 ; peace of, 321. Amboyna, massacre of, 342, 354. Ambrosius, b. of Milan, 161, Amendments to U. S. Constitution, first ten, 547 ; 11th, 548 ; 12th, 549 : 13tb, 558 ; 14th, 559 ; 15tb, 560. Amcnemhat, kgs. of Egypt: I., conquers Nubia ; II., III., built lake Meri, 4 Amenhotep, III., k. of Egypt, war with Syrians, etc., 4 ; his statue (Memnon), 5. America, allegied discovery, 280 n. ; dis- covery by Northmen, 280 ; by Columbus, 279 } named, 283 ; conquest of Mexico, Index, 285 ; oooqneat of Peru, 286 ; Coligny's ooloniea, 288 : Virginia explored, 289; foundation of Port Royal by French, 290 ; English colonieR, 291 ; Butch and Swed- ish settlements, union of the colonies, 298 ; New France and the Arctic re- gion, 299: British, Dutch, and Swedish oolonies, 357 ; King Philip's war, 369 ; King William's war, 361 ; Queen Anne's war, 363: French settlements and dis- coveries, 368 ; King George's war, 419. French and Indian war, 4aj ; Stamp act, 423 : Continental Congress, war of inde- pendence, 426 ; signing the Constitution, 433. See Canada, United States, Spanish colonies. American Association, 426. Amherst, lord, gov. gen. in India, 641. Amherst, gen., 421. Amida, sack of, 188, 190. Amiens, peace of, 1802, 464, 636 ; battle of, B18. Ammon, 2, 6. Amnias, battle of, 129. Ampfing, battle of, 247. Amphictyonic council, 42 ; first holy war, 61, 62 ; 2d holy war, 72 ; Philip a mem- ber, 72. Amphipolis, battle of, 66. Amroo, conquers Egypt, 182. Amullus, k. of Alba Longa, 87. Amyrtseus, 29. Anabaptists, 304. Anagawa, battle of, 355. Anastasius, Greek emp., 190. Anaxagoras, 64. Ancus Marcius, k. of Rome, 89. Andelot, Prangois d', 321. Audemach, 139 ; battle of 193, 195. Andr^, major, 431. Andrew II., k. of Hungary, crusade, 216. Andrisens (Pseudo-Philippus), 122. Andros, Sir Edmund, 361. AngeluB, dynasty of, 240. Angtas, Boissy d% 456. Angles, settle in Britain, 172, 176; east, north, 178 ; middle, 179. Anglican Church, 338. Anglo-Saxon chronicle, 204. Anglo-Saxons. See Angles, Saxons, Jutes, ^gland. Angora, battle of, 278. AngoulSme, c. See Francis I., k. of France. Angoul&me, house of, 317. Angromainyu, 24. Anjou, house of, England, 231 ; France, 231 ; Hungary, 277; Naples, 225, 263. AnkarstrOm, 4<^. Anna, of Brittany, 262, 318. Anna Ivanovna, of Russia, 410. Anna-Dido, 17. Annam, French in, 535. Anne of Austria, 365. Anne Boleyn, 334, 335 ; of Cleves, 334. Anne, q. of England, as princess deserts James II., 384; acknowledged successor of William HI., 371 ; her reign, 483 ; death, 436. Anno, archb. of Cologne, 199. Annus normalis, 317. Auselm, archb. of Canterbuiy, 230. Ansgarius, 207,208. Anson, voyage of, 488. Antalcidas, peace of, 70> AnthemiuB, Roman emp^ 162. Anti-corn law league, 542. Anticosti, discovery of, 287. Antietam, battle of, 567. Antigonus, 76, 77 | Sonatas, 77. Antiochia, 77 ; capture of, 190. Antiochus, III., the Great, k. of Syria, 29, 119. Antipater, 76, 79. Anti-reformation, 306. Antium, 104. Anton, k. of Navarre, 321. Antoninus, emp. of Rome, rebuilds Agrico* la's wall, 38 ;* reign, 154. Antonius, C, consul, 136, 137. Antonius, M., war with Pompeius, 141 ; as- sumes control upon Caesar's death, 144 ; follows Cleopatra, 145; second triumvi- rate, 145 ; governor of the East, 145 ; Parthian war, 80, 146 ; defeat and death, 146. Antwerp, capture of^ 331. AnviUe, d*, in Amenca, 419. Apepi, k. of ^ypt, 8. Aphrodite, 8, 17. Apis, sacred bull, 2, 27. Apollo, saves Croesus, 26 ; oracle of, 51. AppiuB Claudius, decemvir, 98 ; the censor, 102, 106 ; csecus, 108 ; caudex, 110. Apries. See Hophia. Apulia, 83, 141. AqusB Seztiee, battle of, 127 ; colony of, 125. Aquillius, 129. Aquilonia, battle of, 106. Aquitania, 34, 182. Arabia, tributary to Assyria, 14 ; invaded by Seti I., 5 ; by Romans, 148 ; Roman province, 153 ; invaded by ChosroSs, 190. Ambian dynasty in Chaldea, 13. Arabs, conquest of Africa, 182 ; of Spain, 183 ; war with the Greek empire, 210 ; crusades against, 213 ; conquest of Per- sia, 193 ; invasions of India, 211 ; dy- nasties in India, 241 ; capture of Con- stantinople, 260j 278. See Moors. Aragon, united with Catalonia, 240 ; wars with the Moors and with Castile^ 276; united with Castile, 828. See Spain. Aranda, 415. AratuB, 79. Arausio, battle of, 127. Arbola, battle of, 74. Arc, Joan of. See Dare. Arcadius, Greek emp., 161. Archelaus, 130. Archidamus, 65. Archons, development, 51 ; elected by all citizens, 53 ; reduction of their power, 65. Arcis-sur-Aube, battle of, 481. Arcole, battle of, 458. Arcot, Nawib of, 443. Ardaghan,628, 524. Ardoiu of Ivrea, 197. Areopagus, 53, 62. Argal, deputy gov. of S. Virginia, 292 ; al- leged submission of Dutch to, 298 ; ezp0» dition to Mt. Desert, 299. Indegc. Argaum, battle of, 541. Arginusse, battle of, 09. Argonauts, expedition of, 46- ^TgoB, chief town in Feloponnegiis, 48 ; decline of power, 66 ; allied with Athene^ 62. Argyle, d. of, 346, 437. Argyle, e. of, trial, 382, 383. Arianism, 159. Arioato, 328. ArioTifstus, 138, 167. Aristi^oRU>j28. Aristion, 130. Aristobulus, k. of the Jews, 11. Aristodemua, 51. Aristogitoli, 54. Aristomenes, 51. Aristophanes, 64. Aristotle, 73. Ark of the Covenant, 8. Arkansas admitted to the Union, 553. Aries, kingdom of, 198. Arlington, 380. Armada, Great, 331, 339. Armagnacs, attack Basle, 253 ,' massacred, 259. Armed neutrality, 412 ; lenewed, 536. Armenia, 12, 78 ; invaded b7 Asshur-natzir pal I., 14 ; subject to Assyria, 14, to Me- dia, 25, to Gyrus the Persian, 2o ; attacked by the Faithians, 30; Roman province, 153 ; conquered by Sapor, 188 ; reduced by M. Aurelius, 193 : ceded to Russia, 523. Arjniuius defeats Varus, 149 ; after-history, 16r. Armorica, Venetii in, 138 ; Britons emi- grate to, 172. Arnim, 312. Arnold of B^^acia,, 221. Arnold, Benedict, siege of Quebec, 427 ; defeat on Champlain, 423 ; his treason, 430. Amulf of Carinthia, 193, Arpads in Hungary, 277. Arques, battle of, 324. ArRaces; founder of the Faxthian mon- archy, 29 ; dynastic name of all the Par- thian monarchs (I.-XXX.), 29, 30. Arsacidse, 155- Arses, emp. of Persia, 29- Art in Greece, 61; in Italy, 327. Artabanus I., k. of Farthia {Ai:8ace6 YIII., 30; III. (Arsaces XXX.), last k. of Parthia, defeated by Aitazerxes,. 30, 187. Artaphemes, 57. Artavasdes, k. of Armenia, 146. Artaxata, 135 ; captured, 150, 154. Artaxerxes, k. of Persia, I., 28 ; II., defeats the younger Cyrus, 29 ; HI., 29 ; Artax- erxes I. founds'the new Persian empire, 30, 187; II., 189. Artemis, 21. Artemisium, battle of, 69. Artenay, battle of, 518. Artevelde, Jacob van, 257. Arthur, k. of the Silures, 37; traditions concerning him in the N. and S., 178; cycle of romances, 235. Arthur, d, of Brittany, 226; death, 233. Arthur, Chester A., pres. of Uie United States, 660. Articles of confederation, 429^; of. Perth, 341. ^ ArtoiSj c. of, 450. Arundel, e. of, impeached, 270 ; executed, 3^9. Aryans, uncertainty concerning, Introd. iv. ; in Asia Minor, 21 ; primitive home, 24 ; Celts, 34. Aschaffenburg, battle of, 610. Asciilum, battle of, 108. Ashantee war, 545. Afhburton treaty, 554. Ashby and White, case of, 434. Ashera, Phoeaician goddess, 17. Ashikaga fihoguns, 278, 355. Ashley, 380. Asia, Itoman province, 124. Aske, Robert, rebellioa of, 335 AspEisia, 64. Aspem, battle of, 472. Assam, 389, 541. Assandun, battle of, 205. Assaye, battle' of, 541. Asshur, 12, 13. Asshurbanipal , emp. of Assyria, 6, 15. Asshiir-ebil-ili, k. of Nineveh^ 16. Aashur-natzir-pal I., emp. of Assyria, 14. Assignats, issued, 450 ; decline two thirds, 454 ; total amount issued, 457. See Mandats. Assizes of Clarendon, 232. Associations of nobles, 250. Assyria, geography, religion, 12 ; civiliza- tion, chronology, 13; art, 15; no Assyr- ian conquest of Egypt under Shashang I., 5 n. 2; conquest of Egypt by Esar- haddon, 6 ; independent empire, 13 ; height of power, 15 ; fall of the empire, 15 , 25 ; attacks Iran, 26 ; northern A. sub- ject to Rome, 30, 153. Astarte, 16, 17 . Asturia, kingdom of, 183, 209. Astyages, k. of Media, 21, 25, 26, Atahuallpa, inca of Peru, 287. Athalaric, k. of West Goths, 174. Athanasius, 169. Athaulf, 171, 172. Athena, identified with Ne'ith, 2. Athenion, 128. Athens, ally of the Ionian cities, 28, 40; founded, 44 ; old coQf ric, 171. Attila in Gaul and Italy, 173. Attyadfe, first ^dlan dynaatjj, 21. Index* Auckltuid, lord. gov. een. In India, 646. Autirstadt, battle of, 469. Aughrim, battle of, 387. Augsburg, founded, 167 ; diet at, 303 ; confession of, 303 ; religious peaoe of, 306 ; peace of, 317 ; league of, 370. Augured, college of, 85. \ugustine in Britain, 179. jt.ugusitus, Cffifiar Octavianus, emp. of Rome, his reign, 147 ; family, 148 ; death, 149. Ai|g;|uti.us II., elector of Saxony, elected k. of Poland, 374; part in northern war, 394, 395 ; lU., elected k. of Poland, 398 ; claimant for the Austrian succession, 400 ; death, 411. Aurangzeb, emp. of India, deposes his father, 354 ; his reira, 389. Aurelianus, emp. of Rome, 157; Persian war, and death, 188. Anrelius, Marcus, Rom. emp., war with Parthia, 30 : reign, 154. Aurunci, 86, 103. Austerlitz, battle of, 467. Australia, first convictB sent to, 535. Austraaa, 181-183. 187. Austria, Ostmark reSstablished, 196 ; made ' a dnchy, 221 ; house of Hapsburg, 244 ; Hungarian succession secured to, 278 ; circle of, 300 ; anti-reformation in, 309 ; peace of Carlowitz, 372 ; war of the Span- ish BuccesBion, 391 ; peace of Rastadt, 394 ; peace ol Fassarowitz, 397 : alliance with Spain, 398; pragmatic sanction, 398 ; war of Austrian succession, 400 ; seven years' war, 403 ; reforms of Joseph II., 406 ; alliance with Prussia, 452 ; first co- alition against France, 452 ; peace of Gampo Formio, 459 ; second coalition, 460 ; peace of Luneville, 462 ; indemnifi- cations, 455 ; third coalition, 467 ; peace of Ftessburg, 467 ; Francisl., resigns the crown of the H. R. E., becomes emperor of Austria, 468 ; war with France, 471 ; peace of Vienna, 472 ; alliance with Na- poleon, 474 ; war of liberation, 477 ; con- gress of Vienna, 482; influence in Ger- many and Italy, 487 ; Ferdinand I., 491 ; revolutionary movements, 491, 493; war with Sardinia, 494 ; Hungarian revolt, 494 ; Francis Joseph I., 495 ; general constitu- tion, 495 ; abolished, 495 ; German em- pire, 497 ; war with France and Sardinia, loss of Lombardy, 602 ; February consti- tution, 504; wax with Denmark, 505; with Prussia, 607 ; with Italy, 510 ; with- ds^ws from German confederation, 510 ; union of crowns of Auftria and Hun- gary, 511 ; occupies Bosnia and Herzego- vina, 524 ; alliance with Prussia, 5S£f ; disturbances in Bosnia, 526. Austrian succession, yfas of, 400, 438, 446- Austro-Prussian war, 507. Austro-Sardinian war, 532. Authari, 175. Avars, assist Alboin, 176 ; subjugated by Charles the Great, 185, 192. Avignon, Popes at, 263 ; annexed to France, 452. Avitus, Boijian emp., 162. Ayilon, Lucus Vasqnez d', 286. Aymer de Valence, 2G7. Ayoublte?, dynasty of, 215, 217. Ayiib Khdn, 547. Azermidocht, reign of, 192. Azoff, gained by Turkey, 376; conquered by Peter the Great, 374 ; finally gained by Russia, 410. Azores, discovery of, 276, 279. Baal, 9, 10, 16, 18. Babar, founds Mughal empire, 353. Babenberg, house of, feud with house of Conrad, 194 ; receives the Eastmark, 196 ; becomes extinct, 244. Babington, conspiracy of, 339. Babylon, capital of JBabylonia, 12 ; centre of the Chaldean empive, 13 ; founded by Ninus (?), 14 ; adorned by Nebuchadnez- zar, 16 ; captured, by Gyrus, 26 ; revolt and recapture, -27. Babylonia, geography , 12 ; religion, 12 ; civ- ilization, chronology, 13 ; dependent on Elam, independent (old, or Chaldean em- pire), 13 ; subordinate to Assyria, 13, 14 ; revolt under Nabppolas^ar, 16, 25 ; new empire, the leading Eastern power, 16 ; becomes a Persian province, 16, 26 ; re- volt against Darius, 27 ; subject to Mitb- ridates I. of Parthia, 30. Babylonish captivity of the Jews, 11 ; of the papacy, 263. Bacallaos (Newfoundland), 28S. Bacon, Francis, lord chan., 341 ; im- peachment of, 342. Bacon's rebellion, 359. Bacon, Roger, 23o. Bactria, geography, 24 ; religion, 24 ; em- pire of, 25 ; subject to Parthia, 30. BadajoB, geographical congress, 286 ; siege, 473. Baden, peace of, 394; becomes an electo- rate, 464 ; joined allies, 479. Baecula, battle of, 117. Bseda, 180. BafiBn, voyage of, 299. Bagdad, caliphate of, 183: under the Ab- basides, 210 ; destroyed by Mongols, 241. Baglerue, 238. Bagradas, 141. Bahadur Shah, emp. of India, 442, 546. Bahamas, 358. Bahram (Varahran VI.), 191. Bailly, mayor of Paris, 450, 451, 455. Bajasid, 523. Bajazet I., 278. B^ji Rd,o, 443. Balaclava, battle of, 500. Biilaji Bdji RAo, 443. Balas, emp. of Persia, 189. Balbinus, Cselius, 156. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 284. Baldur, 164, 166. Baldwin, k. of Jerusalem, I., 214, 234 : II to v., 214. Baldwin, of Flanders, 216. Balfour, defeats Claverhouse, 881. Baliol, Edward, k. of Scotlimd, 264, 268. Ball, John, 268, 269. Ballard, conspiracy of, 339. Baltimore, Lord, 293. Bamberg, diet of, 221. Ban^r, Swedish general, 312, 814. Bank of Ei^land, chartered, 888 ; stopped 6 Index, specie payment, 635; resumed, 639; charter renewed, 544. Bankruptcy bill in EnghouL 545. Bannockbum, battle of, 267 Bar, confederacy of, 411. Bur, duchy of, 398. Barcelona, county of, 209; united with Aragon, 240. Bardija, 27. Barebone'8 parliament, 376. Barlow, sir G., gov- gen. in India, 541. Barnet, battle of, 274. Baronets, creation of, 341. Barras, 459. Barre, colonel, 423. Barrier treaties, 371, 393. Barry, countess du, 446. Bar-sur-Aube, battle of, 480. Barthelmy, 459. Basentello, battle (?), 197 n. Basle, council of, 319 ; peace of, 457. Bassein, treaty of, 541. Bastidas, de, voyage of, 284. Bastile, destruction of, 449. Batavian republic, founded, 466; trans- formed to kingdom of Holmnd, 463. BataTians, revolt of, 151. Bates, trial of, 340. Batoum, Russians attack, 523; ceded to Russia, 624. Batthyanyi, count, 494, 496. Batu, 240. Baum, colonel, 429. Bautzen, battle of, 476. Bavaria, Bavarians, duchy established, 186 ; growth of power, 194 ; granted to Otto of Nordheim, then to Welf, 199 ; Henry the Proud dispossessed, 219 ; Henry the Lion reinstated, 221 ; given to Otto of Wit- telsbach, 222; duke Maximilian, 309 ; war of Spanish succession, 390 ; extinc- tion of electoral house, war of Bavarian succession, 406; to be exchanged for Netherlands, 408 ; allied with Napoleon, 467 ; with Austria, 478 ; allied with Aus- tria in AuBtro -Prussian war, 507 ; joins Prussia in the Franco-German war, 514 ; vote in Bundestag, 520. Baxar, battle of, 444. Bayard, cbev., 302, 318. Bayonne decree, '560. Bazaine, marshal, at Metz, 514, 516 ; sur- renders Metz, 618 ; trial, 533. Beachy Head, battle of, 387. Beaconsfield, lord (Disraeli), sketch of life, 543; Chan, of exch.,543; premier, 546; raised to peerage, 546. Beaufort, cardinal, 271. Beauue la Rolando, battle of, 518. Beausejour, 421. Becket, Thomas, archb. of Canterbury, 231 ; murdered, 232. Bedford, d. of, 260. Bedford, ministry of, 438. Bedloe, 381. Beheim, Martin, 280. Bel, 12, 13. Belfort, battle of, 519. Belgii, 37 ; subjugation of, 138. Belgium, Belgians, 34 ; annexed to "France, 453 ; revolution of 1830, 489 ; conflict with papacy, 625. Belgrade, battle of, 278, 397 ; peace ol 397, 398. Belisarius, 174, 190. Bellona, 84. Belshazzar, 16. Bern, Polish general, 495, 496. Benedetti, at Ems, 513. Benedict, popes, V., 176; IX.. 199; XI., 254 ; XUI., 251 ; deposed, 252. Benedek, general, 608, 509. Beneventum, battle of, 108 ; (Manfred), £26. Bengal, 22 ; Muhammedan sultans in, 363 ; British in, 443. Bennington, battle of, 429. Bentinck, earl of Portland, 386. Bentinck, lord William, gov. gen. in India, 641. Berengar II. (of Ivrea), 195. Berezina, passage of the, 476. Berg, grand duchy of, 468, 478. Bergen, 406. Bergerac, peace of, 322. Berkeley, lord, grant in America, 358. Berkeley, sir William, 368. Berlin, in Hanseatic league, 249 ; univer- sity founded, 471 ; conflicts in the streets, 492 ; peace of, 401 ; truce of, 496 ; con- gress of, 524 ; conference of, 625. Berlin decree, 537, 650. Bermudas, 292. Bernadotte, on middle Rhine, 460 ; on up- per Danube, 467 ; crown prince of Swe- den, 473 ; acts with allies, 476, 477. Bernard, a. of Clairvaux. 214. Bernard, gov. of Mass., 424. Berne, joins Swiss confederacy, 248 ; ob- tains the Waadtland, 327; confederate council in, 492. Bernhard, of Ascania, 222 ; k. of Italy, 186 ; d. of Saxe- Weimar, 312, 313. Bemicia, 178. Bemstorff, c, 409. Berry, d. of, murdered, 627. Berthier, prince of NeuchStel, 468. Berthold of Zahringen, receives Garinthia, 199 ; aids Lothar, 218. Berwick, English, 268 ; capture of ,264, 274 i treaty of, 338 ; pacification of, 345. Berwick, marshal, 446. Bessarabia, ceded by Russia, 601 ; taken back in treaty of San Stefano, 523 ; in congress of Berlin, 524. Bessus, the satrap, 29, 74. Bestushef , 411. Bethlen Qabor, pr. of Transylvania, 309, 310. Beust, v., 511. Beziers, storm of, 227. Bhartpur, battle of, 541. Biarni, discovers America, 281. Bible, translated by Luther, 302 ; EngUsli translation completed, 341. | Bibracte, battle of, 138. Bidar, kingdom of, 353 ; conquered by Au- rangzeb, 389. Bijapur, kingdom, 363 ; annexed to Mughal empire, 389. Bill of Attainder, last used, 388. Bill excluding bishops from House of Lords, 347. Bill of Bights, 386. Index, Billfl, the four, presented by parliament to Charles I.,S5D. Birger Jarl, 237. Birkebeneme. 238. BiroQ, 410, 411 ; invested ^th Gurland, 414. Birthen, battle of, 196. Biscop, Benedict, 180. Bismarck, count v., early life, 604; chan. of the confederation, 611 ; negotiations with Favre, 6L7 ; chan. of the empire, 620 ; at congress of Berlin, 624 ; at Vien- na, 625 ; defeated in Reichstag, 626. Bithynia, subjugated by Alyattesof Lydia, 21; kings of, 78; war with Mithridates, 129 ; bequeathed to Rome, 134, 136. Bla, Lydian goddess, 21. Black Death, in England, 268, 269 ; in France, 268. Black Hole of Calcutta, 443. Black Prince. See Bdward, the. Blackheath, battle of, 333. Bladensburgh, battle ofj 651. Bladud,37. Blake, 376. Blanche, regent, 2OT. Blanket meeting at Manchester, 638. Bleking, joined to Sweden, 23o ; ceded to Denmark, 238. Blenheim, battle of, 392, 434. Block, Adrian, 296, 298. Bloody Assize, 383. Bliicher, stirrenders, 469; occupies Dres- den, 476; in the war of liberation, 477- 434 ; created Prince of Wahlstadt, 477 ; at Waterloo, 484. Blumenau, battle of, 509. Boadicea, revolt of, 37. Bobadilla, 283. Boccaccio, Giovanni, 263. Bocchtis, k. of Mauritania, 127. Bocholt, battle of, 185. Bockelsohn, Johann, 304. Bodenstein, 801. Body of Liberties, 298. Boeotia, 40 ; conquered by .^lolians, 48 ; submits to Xerxes, 58 ; allied with Sparta, 62 ; aristocracies in, 63 : war with Sparta, 77, 80. Bohemia, occupied by Boii, 167 ; by Mar- comanni, 167 ; by Slavs, 168 ; war with Henry I., 194 ; does homage to empire, 218 ; dukes created kings, 221 ; Ottokar's war with Rudolph, 244 ; Luxembourg house, 247 ; Charles IV.,emp., 248 ; Hus- sites, 252; united with Hungary, 278; Ferdinand I. elected king, 306 ; in Thirty Years* War, 308, 309 ; in Austro-Prussian war, 609 ; Bohemian language in Univer- sity of Prague, 626. Bohemond of Tarentum, 214. Bohmisch-Brod, battle of, 252. Boii, in Gaul, 34, 35 ; in Bohemia, 167. Boilleau, 371. Boleslav, k. of Poland, 197. Bolingbroke, Henry, See Henry IV. of England, 270. Bolingbrnke, vise., St. John created, 436; impeached, 437. BoUvar, 488. Bolivia, independent, 488. Bombay, 271 ; British in, 443. Bonaparte, Jerome, k. of Westphalia, 470. Bonaparte, Joseph. 468) k. of Naples, 470; of Spain, 470; driven from Spain, 479. Bonaparte, Louis, k. of Holland, 468, 470; abdication, 473. Bonaparte, Luoien, 461. Bonaparte, Napoleon, first appearance, 465 ; in command for the convention, 457 ; marriage to Josephine, 458 ; crossed the Alps, 458 ; Egyptian exp., 460 ; regent of the consulate, 461 ; campaign in Italy, 462 ; passage of the Gt. St. Bernard, 462 ; consul for life, 464 ; hereditary emp. of the French, 466. See Napoleon I. Bonaparte, Prince Napoleon, marriage, 631. Bonaparte, Pierre, 612. Bonapartists, 527, 530, 634. Bond of association, 839, Bonder, family of, 237. Boniface, apostle of the Germans, 180, 184. Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, 216. Boniface VIll., pope, 264. Bonifacius, Roman governor, 184. Bonner, b. of London, 336. Boon, Daniel, 426. Bordeaux, d. of, 627, 629. Borgia family, 327. Bornhoevcd, battle of, 224, 235. Borodino, battle of, 475. Boroughbridge, battle of, 267. Bosnia, occupied by Austrlans, 624 ; dis- turbances, 625. Bosphorus, bridge of boats over, 28 ; king- dom of the, 129. Bossuet, 371. Boston, settlement of, 296 ; massacre, 425 ; tea-party, 425 ; port-bill, 425, 440 ; siege and surrender, 427. Bosworth Field, battle of, 275. BothweU, 338. Bothwell-Brigg, battle of, 381. Bouillon, Godfrey of, 214. Bourbaki, 614, 519. Bourbon, card, of, 322 Bourbon, constable of, defection, 302; death, 303. Bourbon, d. of, 446, 446. Bourbon family compact, 439. Bourbon, house of, contest with Catherine de' Medici, 321 ; descent, 324; in Spain, 414 ; in Naples, 416, 468 ; return to France, 481, 526 ; final expulsion, 629. Bouvines, battle of, 223, 227, 233. Bovianum, capture of, 106. Boyne, battle of the. 870, 387. Bradclock's defeat, 421./ Bradford, William, 295. Bradstreet, 421. Braganza, house of, in Portugal, 332, 415. Brahma, religion of, 23. Brahmans, caste of, 23. Brandenburg, conquered by Albert the Bear, 218 ; falls to Ludwig the Bavarian, 247 ; an electorate, 248 ; falls to Charles IV. , 249 ; given to Frederic of Nuremberg (HohenzoUem), 262 ; this not a, sale, 262 n. ; joins peace of Prague, 314 ; indem- nifications in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; great elector, 368 ; elector becomes king of Prussia. 372 ; East Pnusia, secured to^ 377. Brandt, 409. 8 Index. Brandywine, battle of, 429. Brasidas, 65. Bravalla, battle of, 207.. Brazil, discovered, 284; independent, 488. Breda, compromise, 330 ; declaration of, 378 ; treaty of, 358, 364, 379. Bremen, free city, 2^ ; in league of Rhine cities, 249 ; not ceded to Sweden , 316 ; remains free in 1803, 464. Bremen, bishopric, ceded to Sweden as a duchy, 316; Danes capture and sell to llanoTer, 396. iBrennuB, British prince (?) 37; at Roifie, 100. Brentford, affair of, 347. Breogan, 39. Breslau, battle of, 404 ; peace of, 401 ; fall of, 469. Bretigny, peace of, 253, 268. Bretwalda, 178. Brieniie, de, 447. Bright, John, 542; resignation. 546. Brissot, Girondist,, 481, 452, 454. Bristol, captured,'267 ; by Rupert, '347 ; sur- rendered, 349. Britain, geography, Religion, mythical his- tory, 36 ; probable history to the year 411, 37; Irish invasion, 39; expedition of Csesar, 139 ; conquest begun, 150 ; de- scription, 163, 164 ; Roman Britain, 176 ; Teutonic conquest, 176. See England. Britannicus, 150. Brithnoth, 'd^ath of, 205. British Museum founded, 439. Brittany (Bretagne), independent, 182, 201 ; under Henry 11. of England, 231 ; con- tested' succession, 257 ; final union with French crown, 320 ; annexed to France, " Broad Bottom Ministry," 433. Broglie minietry, 527, 529, 533. Bromsebro, peace of, 315, '35^. Brook, Lord, grant in Conn., ^6. Broughanjt, lord chancellor, 539. BroAvn, 'John, "hanged, 556. Bruce, claimant for Scottish crown, 264. Bruce, Robertr coronation, 269 j wins'Ban- nockburn,*'Si67 j death, 268. Bruhl, c.,'403. Bmnanburh, battle of, 205. Brundisium, Biege of, 141. Brunhilde, 181. Brunswick, 222, 316, 490. Brunswick, d. of, manifesto, 452 ; com- mands Prussians '469 ; expedition, 472. Brunswlek-Limeburg, duchy of, 224. Brute, 37. Brutus, -Becimus, 14^ 145. BrutuB, L. Junius, '89; consul, 93 ; puts his son to death in 509 (accidentally pmitted from thefirst paragraph in page 95). .. Brutus, M. Junius, 133 ; murder of Ciesar, 144 ; a6ath. 145, Brythonic Celts, 37. Buccaneers, 417- Buchanan, Jaines, TT. S. sec. of state, 564 ; pres.,'556. Bucharesti'peace of; 473. Buckingham, d. of: (1) favorite of Richard III., 275; (2) d. in the reign of Henry VIII., 334 ; (3) Villiers, favorite of James I., 341 ; assassination, 343 ; (4) favorite ol Charles 11., 3dU. Buddha, 23. Buddhism, its origin, 23 : introduced into Ohinla, 31; into Japan, 33. Buena Vista, surrender of, 554. Bulgaria, revolt in, 521; principality ' of, 523, 524. Bull of Alexander VI., dividing the world, 282 ; ' ansculta fili, 254 ; clericis laicoa, 254, 266. Bull, golden, of the H. R. E., 248 ; of Hun- gary, 277. Bull Run, battles of, 557. Bunker's Hill, battle of , 427. Bunyan, John, 389. Bunzelwitz, 405. Burford, battle of, 180. Burghley, baron,"838. Burgoyne, gen. ,'428 ; Surrender of, '429. Burgundians, on ' the Oder, 164 ; aronnd Worms, 170, '171; on the Rhone and Sadne, 172 ; subjugated, 181. Burgundy (see Burgundians), ■ part of Frankish kingdom, in ihe'Seconid divis- ion, l81; in the tJhird, 182; given' to 'Lothar in the treA.ty ' of Verdnn, 187 ; after his death, assigned to the west Franks, 193; divided/into transjurane under Rudolf, 209 ; and cisjurane under Boso, 193, 201 ; these two united into tha kingdom of ■ Bilu-gundy or Aries, 198 •, which Rudolf III. becfueathed'ta Henry 'II., 198; and which w'Sfl' united with the empire, 198 ; the duchy of Burgundy re- mained with France, was seized by John II., and given to Philip the Bold, ^268 ; growth of its power, strife with kihgs of France, 259 ; Burgundy aiid Orleans, 259 ; in the Hundred Tears' War; 260 ; d6Wh of Charles the Bold, the duchy' united with France, 262 ; the other Buirgundian lands fell to Maximilian of Germany^ 253, 301 ; the duchy claimed by Charles V., 302; these claims renounced by Charles,'305 ; ' new kingdom' of Burgundy propc^ed by- Joseph II., 408. Burke, iBdmund, 441. . Burkersdorf, battle of, *D6. Burleigh, baron,'sec. of state, '338. Burlingame, Anson, 562. Burma, 22, 30; invasion of,' 444; Ist Bur- mese war, 541; 2d, 546; annexed to In- dia, 546. Burnet, b. of Salisbury, 386. Buriiet, William, gov. of New York, 417; of Mass., 418. Bumside; gen., 557. Burr, Aaron, vice-pres.of U. S., 549 j duel with Hamilton, 549; trial, 550. Burs-Nimrud, ruins of , 12 n.'2. Birte, lord ,'439. Butler, Irish gen., 313. Button's Bay, discovery of , 299. Buzzard's Bay, discovery of, 290. " Bye " or " Surprising " treason, 340. Bylot, voyage of, 299. Byng, admiral, 434. Byron, lord, 488. Byzantium, captured, 61, 68 ; Imporiance to Athens, 72 ; nariae changed to Constanti- nople, 159 ; capital of eastern empire,l6it Index, " Cabal " ministry, 880. Cabochians OTerthrown, 259. Cabot, Joba and Sebastian, discover North America, 283, 333 ; Sebastian, voyage of, 283; alleged voyage, 285 j voyage to South Amorica, 286. Cabral, discovers Brazil, 284, 353. Cade, Jack, rebellion of, 271. Cadiz, expedition of Wimbledon, 342 ; siege of, 473 ; capture, 527. 5e« also Qades. Cadmus, IS, 45. Cadoudal, executed, 465. Caedmon, 180. Caesar, 0. Julius, leader of the democrats, 136 ; consul, 137 ; triumvir, 137 ; re- ceives Gallia Cisalpina and Narboneu- Bis, 13S ; conquest of Gaul, visits to Britain, 139; war with Pompeius, 140; Pharsalus, 141; in Egypt, 142; vent, mdi^ vici, 142; African war, 142; war with sons of Pompeius, 143 ; G. impera- tor, 143 ; reform of the calendar, 143 ; assassination, 144. Caesar, G. and L., adopted by Augustus, 148. Cafflr war, 543. Cairo captured by the French, 460. Cajetanus. See Vio. Calais, captured, by Edward III. of Eng- land, 257 ; only English possession in France, 272; lost, 821, 338. Calatrava, order of, 240, 328. Calcutta, 22, 390. Calendar, reformed by Csesar, 144; by Gregory XIIL, 327 ; republican c. in France, 455. Calhoun, John C., U. S. sec. of war, 551 ; vice-pres., 552. Califotnia, discovered by Cortez, 2S5, 287 ; by Drake, 289 ; gold discovered in, 555 ; 31st State of the Union, 555. Caligula, 150. Cahphate, early history, 182, 183; Uaroun- al-Rashid, 186 ; division into c. of Bag- dad, 183; under Abbasides, 21U : de- stroyed, 241; and the c of Cordova, fouuded and broken up, 209. Calixtinians, 252. Calixtus II., Pope, 201. Calmar. union of, 237, 238, 276, 361 Calonne,197, 447. Calonnes, 449. Calpumius, C, 118. Calvin, 304. Calviniets, not included in convention of Pai^sau, 305 ; nor in peace of Augsburg, 306 ; included in peace of Westphalia, 317. Camaret, of Rouen, 284. Camargo, Alonzo de, 287. Cambray, league of, 300, 318, 326 ; peace of, 303. Cambyses, k. of Persia, defeats Psametbik, 7 ; attempted conquest of Carthage, 19 ; conquest of Egypt, slaughter of Apis (?), 27. Camden » battle of, 430. Camillua, M. Furius, 100, 103. Campania, 81, 83, 104. Campbell, lord chan., 544. Campeggio, 302. Camperdown, battle of, 536. Campo Formio, peace of, 458, 459, 463, 468. Canaan, 7, 8, 16. Canada. See New France, French in, 299; French claims to, 363; wars with Iro- ,quois,364, 365 ; with British colonies, see King William's war, Queen Anne's war, George's war, old French and Indian war ; in the peace of Ryswick, 362, 371, 388 ; in the peace of Utrecht, 363, 393, 435 ; in the peace of Aix-la-Cbapelle, 404, 419, 438 ; Seven Years' War, 420 ; peace of Paris, 422, 439 ; ceded to Gi^eat Britain receives representative gov., 535 ; divided into upper and lower C-, 542 : dominion of C, 645. Canarls, 488. Canary Islands, discovery of, 279. Candaules, k. of Lydia, 21. Candia. See Crete. Cannae, battle of, 115. Cannibals, 283. Canning, e., gov. gen. in India, 546. Canning, George, home sec, 587; foreign sec, 539. Canossa, castle of, 200. Caurobert, 500, 502, 514. Cantabri, 148. Canterbury, 38; captured by Danes, 203; arohb. of, see Dunstan, Anselm, Eecket, etc. Canton, 81, 561. Canusium (Marcellus defeated at, in 209 B. 0., accidentally omitted on p. 117). Canute. See Kuut. Cape Ann^ settlement of Puritans at, 295 ; Augustme, discovery of, 284; Cod, 4is- covered by Northmen (?), 281 ; by Gos- nold, 230 : surveyed, 294; Florida- 285 ; Good Hope, rounded, 280; seized o^ England, 635. see Cafflz war, Zulu war; "ilendocino, discovered, 288: Peregrine, 300 ; "Vela, 283 ; Verde, discovery of, 276. Capet, Hugo, 272. Capetian dynaisty, 202, 206, 257. CapitolinuR, 21. Manlius, 100. Capitularii, 186. Capo d.lstria,' 489. Cappadocia, conqueried by Cyrus, 26 ; occu- pied by Tigranes, 134 ; subject to Rome, 156 ; Roman prov., 149. Capua, battle of, 105 ; secession of, 116 ; surrender, 116. Caracalla, Roman emp., Parthian exp.,30; reign, 155. Caractacus, 37. Caraffa. See Paul IV. Carbury lUU, battle of, 338. Carchemish, battle of, 6, 11, 16. Carew, sir Thomas, 336. Caria, 20; subdued by Alyattes, 21; by HarpaguB, 26. Caribs, 282, Carinthia, made a duchy, 196 ; surrendered by Bohemia, 244. Carinus, 158. Carisbrooke castle, '3>50. Carlos, don, son, of Philip 11., revolt and arrest, 330 j leader of 'the absolutists ia Spain, 490 ; Carlists, 520, 621. , Carlowitz, peace of, 372, 374, 375, ^16. Carlsbad, congrcsn of ministers at, 487* Carlstadt. &e"l£odeustein. 10 Index. Camatlo. 443. Camot, 454, 457, 459. Carolaaa, 288; granted to Heath, 293; claimed by Coxe, 365. Carolina, Carolana regranted under this name, 293 ; granted to Clarendon, 358 fundamental constitution adopted, 368 invaded by French and Spanish, 363 Indian war, 417; proprietary gov. over- thrown, 417 ; divided into North and South C. (q.. v.), 417 ; boundary rectified, 425. Carolina, fOrt, 283. Caroline^ q. of England, 539. Carolingians, Austrasian mayors of the pal- ace, 182 ; kings of the Franks, 184 ; in Italy and G-ermany, 193 ; in France, 201. Carpi, battle of, 392. Carrhse, battle of, 140. Carteret, Sir George, 358. Carthage, founded, 18 ; Meltzer's view con- cerning, 18, n. 1; constitution, 19 ; oppo- sition to (Grecian colonization, 19 ; threat- ened by Cambyses, 19, 27 ; wars with Sicilian Greeks, 20 ; defeat at Himera, 20; treaty of commerce with Rome, 103 ; allied with Rome, 108 ; war with Rome. See Punic wars; destroyed, 12; occu- pied by Vandals, 172. See Phoenicia. Carthage, New, taken by Scipio, 117. Carthagena, 285 ; sack of , 290 ; sacked by Drake, 339 ; attacked by Vernon, 419, 438. Cartier, Jacques, voyages to America, 287. Cams, Roman emp., 167- Carver, John, gov. of Plymouth, 294. Caico, destruction of, 361- Casimir the Great, k. of Poland^ 277. Casimir, John, 373, 374. Cassander, 76. Caasiterides, visited by Phoenicians, 17 n. Cassius, 144, 145. CassiuB, Sp. 97. Casslvelaunus, 37, 139. Castelfidardo, battle of, 503. Castes, in Egypt, 3 ; in India, 23. Castile, county, afterwards kingdom of, 209 ; final union with Leon, 240 ; Wnga of, 276 ; united with Aragon, 323 ; supports Philip of Anjou, 392. Gastillon, battle of, 272. Castlereagh, at Vienna, 482; foreign see., 537 ; suicide, 539. Catalaunian fields, battle of the, 173. Catalonia, 240; royal house extinct, 276; invaded 392. Cateau-Cambr^sis, treaty of, 321, 327, 388. Catesby, Robert, 340. Gafcharl, 227. Cathay, 30. Catherine de' Medici, 321, 324. Catherine, emp. of Russia, I., reign, 410; II., in seven years' war, 406 ; reign, 411 : war with the Turks, 412, 413. Catholic league, 308. Catholic relief act, 539. Catiline, conspiracy of, 136. Catinat, 370, 892. Cato, M. Poroius, the elder, in Spain, 118 ; accuses Scipio, 120 ; " Carthaginem ease delendam >' 121 ; the younger, absent from Home, 138; returned, 139; at Dyrra- chium, 141 ; suicide, 142. Cato street conspiracy, 538. Cattle plague, 544. Catullus, C. Valerius, 148. Caudine Pass, 105. Caulaincourt, 477, 480. Causa fidei, reformationis, unionls, 251, 252 " Cavalier '' parliament, 378, 881. Cavendish, P., sec. for Ireland, 646. Cavour, c. 503, 531. Cawnpore, massacre at, 546. Caxton, William, 275. Ceawlin, k. of Wessex, 178. Cecil. See Burghley. Cecrops, 44. Celibacy introduced, &00. Celtiberians, 35. Celts, migrations of, 35 ; Goidelic and Bry- thonic, 35; Celts of Oaul. See Gauls. Celts of British isles, 36. See also Brit- ain. Celts in Italy, 36, 86 ; join Hanni- bal, 114 ; annihilated as a nation, 138. Censor, creation of the office, 99 ; one cen- sor plebeian, 102 ; power limited, 132 ; re- stored, 133 ; given to Cassar, 143. Censorship of the press abolished in Eng- land, 388. Census of American colonies, 423 ; of In- dia, 1881,547 ; of Ireland, 543 ; of Japan, 445 ; of New France, 366 ; Roman c, 92 ; of U. S. 1st, 547 ; 2d, 549 ; 4th, 552 ; 6th, 553; 6th, 564; 7th, 555: Sth, 656; 9th and 10th, 560; of Virginia, 292, 293. Ceorl, 177. Cerausius, emp. of Britain, 33. Cerdic, 178. CerealiB, 162. Ceres, 84. Cerro Gordo, battle of, 554. Ceylon, Buddhism in, 23 ; seized by Eng- lish, 535. Chabrias, 70, 71. Chseronea, battle of, 73, 131. Chaireddin Barbarossa, 304. Chait Sinh, rdjd of Benares, 444. Chalcedon, battle of, 134 ; fall of, 191. Chaldea, 13. Chaleur Bay, 294. Chaions, battle of, 173 ; 516. Chambers of Reunion, 368. Chambord, c. of. See Bordeaux, d. of, 5^ Champign}^, storm of, 518. Champlain, Samuel, voyage, 290 : ^COT ers the lakes, 299 ; death, SOD. Ohancellorsville, battle at, 558. Chandra-gupta, 23. Chanzy, defeat of, 519. Chapultepec captured, 554. Charge of the Light Brigade, 500. Oharibert I., k. of Franks, 181, Charlemagne. See Charles I., emp. Charles of Anjou, 225, 226. Charles, archd. of Austria, 392, 458, 460. 467,471,471 . . » » Charles of Bavaria, 509. Charles the Bold, d. of Burgundy, 260. Charles I., k. of England, government la Virginia, 293: in Spain, 342; marriage, 342 ; reign, 842-351 ; surrenders to Scots, S4d ; escapes, 350 ; execution, 351. Charles II., defeat and flight, 375; pro- claimed k., 378 ; marriage, 379 ; treaty of Dover, 380; death, 383. Index. 11 Charles III., k. of France, 202; IV., the Fair, 256; V., the Wise, 268; VI., 269; VII., 269, 260; VIII., 2ti2 ; IX., 321; •'X.", cardinal of Bourbon, 324; X., 488 J abdicates, 489, 527. Charles I., emp. of the II. R. E., the Great (Charlemagne), 184, 193 : II., the Bald, 186, 187. 201; III., the Fat, 193, 201j IV., 248; v., ancestor of the Span- ish line of Hapsburg, 301 ; reign, 302 ; Charles and Lutber, 802 ; wars with Francis I., 302, 303, 304 ; with Henry II., 806 ; Schmalkaldic war, 306 ; abdica- tion, 306. See Charles I., of Spain ; VI., claims to Spanish succession, 390 ; reign, 337; pragmatic sanction, 393; death, 400; VII., election, 401; exile, death, 402. Charles, card, of Lorraine, 819. Charles, d. of Lorraine, last CaxoUugian heir to French crown, 202. Charles of Lorraine, Austrian gen., 372, 404. Charles, k. of Navarre, the Bad, 25S. Charles, k. of Spain, I., possessions in the Netherlands, 329 ; reign, 330. See., also, Charles, emp. of H.R. E., V. ; II., 390 ; in., 414 ; IV., abdicates, 470. Charles, k. of Sweden, IX., 352; X., 373; XI., 873: Xn., 394; wars with Peter the Great, 894, Varna, 396; in Turkey, death, 396; XIII., 472. Charles Albert, e. of BaTaria, claimant for Austrian inheritance, 400. Charles Albert, k. of Sardinia, 494. Charles Edward, young pretender, 438. Charles Gustavua of Pfalz-Zweibriicken, k. of Sweden, 352. Charles Martel, 183, 184. Charles Theodore, 406 ; elector palatine, claimant for the Spanish succession, 406. Charleston, Carolina, fouodatiou of, 358, 359; capture by Olinton, 430; evacua- tion, 431 , in the civil war, 537 ; evacua- tion, 559. Charter Oak, 361. Chartists, 542. Chase, Salmon P., TT. S. dec. of thetreafl.,656. Chastenoy, peace of, S22. Chateaubriand, 527. Chatham, e. of, as Wm. Pitt in Broad Bot- tom ministry, 438 ; sec. of state, 439 ; sketch of life, 439 ; prime minister, 424. Chatillou, congress at, 480. Chattanooga, battle of, 568. Chaucer, Geoffrey, 270. Chaumont, alliance of, 480. Chedorlaomerjk. of Babylon, 13. Cheops. See Ehufu. Chephren. See Ehafra. Cherasco, treaty of, 311, 325. Cherry Valley, massacre of, 430. Cherusci, 168. Chester, battle of, 179. Chevy Chase, battle of, 269. Ghe-wang-te, emp, of China, bnilt the Chinese wall ; destroyed books, 32. Chiari, battle of, 392. Chiersi, dietof, 201. Childebert I., k. of the Franks, 181. Childeric III., k. of the Franks, 184. Chili, invaded by Almagro, 287 ; indepen- dent, 488. Obilperjo I., k. of the F»-anks. 181. China, geography, 30; religion, 31; chro- nology, 81 i origin of Chinese, 31; early dynasties, 8^ ; orilliant epoch, 32 ; the three kingdoms, 32 ; Buddhism in, 23 ; brilliant period, 211 ; conquered by Mon- gols, 242 ; in the 15th cent., 278 ; Tatar conquest, 364 ; war with Russia, 890 ; French and Jinglish exp. against, 601 ; opium war, 642, 561 ; treaties with Franco and U. S., 561; war with Great Britain and Fr;incc, 661 ; famine, 562 ; treaty with Russia, 562. Chinese emigratloo to U. S. suspended, 660. Chios, battle of, 412 ; 416 ; revolt, 488. Chippewa, battle of, 551. Chlodwig, k. of the Franks, 173. Chlopicki,49J. Chlotar I., k. of Franks, 181. Choiseul, d. do., 446. Chosroes, k. of Parthia, war with Trajan, 30 ; k. of Armenia, 153 ; deposed, 189. Chosroes, k. of Persia, I., (Anushirwau), reigo, 190, 191 ; II.. Eberwiz, 191. Chotusitz, battle of, 401. Chow dynasty in China. 32 ; later Chow, 211. Ohowaresmians, empire of the, 240. Chremonides, 79. Christ, birth of, 11, 149. Christian of Anhalc, 309; of Brunswick, defeatedby Tilly, 310. Christian, k. of Denmark, I., of Olden- burg, 351 ; II., union of Calmar broken, 351,352; III., 352; IV., head of lower Saxon circle, in thirty years' war, 810 ; war with Sweden, 314, 352; VI., VII., 409; VIII., annexes Schleswig-Holstein, 409 ; IX., accepts the constitution, 505, 506. Christiania founded, 209. Christianity, first persecution, 151 j under Decius, 156 ; under Diocletian, 158 ; made state religion by Constantine, 159 ; aban- doned by Julian, 160; reinstated by Jovi- anus, 160 ; adoption of pagan customs, 165 : conversion of Goths, 170 ; of the Franks, 173 ; of Langobards, 175 ; begin- ning of the papacy, 17B ; conversion of BritonR, 38 ; of the Anglo-Saxons, 179 ; of the Germans, 184 ; Christians persecuted in Persia, 189 ; tolerated in Persia, 190 ; conversion of the North, 207, 208, 209 ; tolerated in China, 211 ; conversion of Po- land, Prussia^ Hungary, 277 ; preached in China, 355 ; introduced in Japan, but re- jected, 356; Jesuits in Canada, 3d4; per- secution in China, 444; Christians in Turkey, 522, 524 ; toleration secured in China, 562. Christina of Sweden, 852. Christopher II., k. of Denmark, 235. Chrysanthemums, war of the, 243. Church, high and low, 433, Churchill. See Marlborough. Cibola, seven cities of, 287. Cicero, birthplace of, 82 ; sketch of life, 136 ; speeches against Catiline, 137*, banished, 188 ; recalled, 139 ; prooonsal, 140 ; murdered, 145. 12 Index. Cid, 209. Cilicla, Semitic, 21 ; under Persia, 26, 27, 134; Roman proTince, 136. Cimbri, invade Italy, 127, 128, 167. Cimou, 57,61; rivalry with. Themistocles, 62 ; recalled to Athens, death, 63. Cimon, peace of, 63. Cincinnati, society, of the. 432. Cincinnatuti, L. Quiuctius, 98. Cineas, 108. Cinna, 130, 131- Cinq-Mars, marquis of, 326. Cinque Ports ^ 264. Circles of the H. R. B.,800. Cisalpine republic, founded, 459 ; included in Italian republic, 454. Ciudad Uodrigo,' captured, 473. Civil marriage compulsory, 521. Civil rights Ijill, 559. Civil service act, 560. Civil war, in England (Boses), 272 ; great rebellion, 347; 350 ; in France, '321, 323 ; in Portugal,- 4^8 j in Rome, 130, 140 ;' in conia), 194: II. (the Salian), 198 ; III., crusade, 215; reign, 219 ; IV., 225. Conrad tho Red, of Lotharingia, 195. Index. 13 Conradin, 22^,22)3. Conseil du Roi, 446. Coaaistorium prlncipia, 159. Constance, council of, 261 ; peace of, 222. Constance, of Sicily, married Henry VI., Constans, Roman emp., 160. Constant, B., 527. Conatantine, Roman emp., I. (the Great), 159; II., 160. Constantinople, fall of, 260, 278 ; palace, revolution ia, 521 ; conference of, 522. See Byzantium. Constantius, Roman emp., 158, 160; Per- sian war, 188. Constantius Chlorus, 158. Constituent assembly in France, 447, 449. Constitutio Antoniana, 155. Constitution of Austria, of 1849, 495 ; Feb- ruary c, 604; c. of 1866, 511. Constitution, French, Jirst^ accepted by Louis XIV., 450; second (Republican), never executed, 464 ; t/md (of 1795), 467; /ourtk, 461; Ji/ih, 464; of the First Empire, 465 ; c. of Louis XVIII., 666 ; c. of Louis Philippe, 529 ; c. of 1848, 631; c. of Louis Napoleon, 531 ; third re- pubUc, 532 ; c. of 1875, 5a3. Constitution of Germany. See Bull, Gold- en, and diet of Regenaburg. £nd of the H R. E., 464; German confederation, 483; attempt to frame a new c, 493 ; new c. completed, 497 ; return to the confederation, 498; confederation dis- solved, 459 ; North German confedera- tion, 611 ; c. of the German empire, 620. Constitution of Hungary. See Bull, gold- en. Under Jopeph II., 408; in 1848,494; abrogated, 496 ; in 1861, 604 ; restored, 611. Constitution of Naples, 493. Constitution of Poland, old, 374 ; c. of 1791, 413 ; abrogated, 490. Constitution of Prussia, 497- Constitution of 1812 in Spain formed, 473 ; abrogated, 483 ; restored, 487 ; abrogated, 488. CouBtitutlon of United States signed, 433. See Amendments. Constitutions of Clarendon, 232. Consulate, French, 448, 461 ; Roman, es- tablished, 93 ; first plebeian consul, 101 ; age of eligibility, 120 ; treatment under the empire, 147- Conventicle act, 379. Convention parliament, 378, 385. Convocation, 340, 437. Convulsionnaires, 446. Cook, James, voyages of, 442. Coote, Sir Byre, 444. Copenhagen, capture of, 249; 1st bom- bardment, 470 ; battle of , 536 ; 2d bom- bardment, 537 ; peace of, 373. Corcyra, 64, 66. Corday, Charlotte, 464. Cordeliers, 451. Cordova, Caliphate of, 183, 209. Cordova, Gonsalvo de 318. Corea, conquered by Chinese, 32 ; by Jap- anese, 33 ; treaty with Japan, 564. Corfininm, capital of Italia, 129, Cotinth, origin, 48; national assembly at, 37 73 ; joins Aohiean league, 79 ; destroyed, 80,122. * Corinthian war, 70. Coriolauus, 97. Corn laws repealed, 542. Cornaro, Catherine, 262. Corneilie, 371. Cornwallis, lord, in the Southern States, 430 ; surrender of, 431, 441 ; in India, 541. Coroebus, 51- Coronado, Francisco Vasquez, 287. Coronca, battle of, 63, 70. Corporation act, 379, 539. Corpus Catholicorum, 371. Corpus Evangelic or am, 371. Corpus juris civilis, 210. Correggio, 328. Corsica, Phocseans driven from, 19, 26, 84; asi^igned to Sextus I'ompeius 146 ; king- dom of, 416. Cortenuova, battle of, 224. Cortereal, Gaspar and Miguel de, 284. Cortes at Cadiz, 473. Corte;B, Hernando, conquers Mexico, 285; discovers Lower California, 287. Corvinus, Matthias, k. of Hungary, 253. Cosa, Juan de la, 284. Council of ten, 262. Council of the church, first oecumenical, 159; last, 159, 512. Count of the Saxon Shore, 38. Oourcelles, gov. of New France, 364. Court of Common Pkas, Exchequer, King's Bench, 266. Courtrai, battle of, 254. Couthon, 464, 456. Covenant. See Solemn league. Covenanters, defeat of, 379. Covilham, 353. Cowpens, battle of, 431. Coxe, 365. Cracow, 414 ; free state of, 483. Cradock, Matthew, gov. of Mass. Bay, 296. Cranmer, arcbb. of Canterbury, 386 ; burnt 338. CrassuB, expedition against Farthia, 3(), 133 ; democrat, 136. 137 ; consul, 140. Craterus, 74 ; regent of West, 76 ; in the Lamian war, 79.. Craven, gov. of Carolina, 417. Crawford, W. H., U. S. sec. of the treas., 551. Cr^cy, battle of, 248, 267. Crefeld, battle of, 405. Cremona, 36; founded, 112; battle of , 161 } diet, 224. Crescentius, 197. Crespy, peace of, 305. Crete, Phoenician settlements Jn, 17; un- der Minos, 18, 41; assigned to Brutus, 144; belongs to Veniqe, 326; yielded to Turks, 416. Crimean war, 499, 600, 643; end of, 531- Critia? slain, 69. Croatia, 611. Croesus, k. of Lydia, conquer? Grecian cities, intercourHe with Greece, war with Persia, 21,22; defeated, 22, 26; story of his miraculous rescue, 26, Cromwell, Oliver, sketch of life, 376; first . speech, 343; " Ironsides," 347; IVlarston 14 Index, Moor, 348; lieutenant-general, 349 ; lord protector, 376 ; turns out the rump, 376 ; rejects title of king, 377 ; death, 377. Cromwell, Richard, 375, 377. Cromwell, Thomas, 335. Crown Point, -421, 428. Crozat, sieur Antoine, 365. Crusades, cause, 213; I., 214; II,, III., 215; IV., v., 216; VL, VII., 217; re- sults, 217. Ctesiphon, 153, 192. Cuba discovered, 278, 282 ; circumnavigat- ed, 284; conquered, 284; attack on, 419. Cullodeu, battle of, 438- Culpepper, lord, grant in America, 357. Cumberland, d. of, became k. of Hanover, 542. Cumberland Straits, discovery of, 289. Cunaxa, battle of, 29. Cunctator. Set Fabius. Cup-bearer, 195. Curise, 91. Curio subjugated Sicily, 141. CuriusDeutatus, M'., 106. Curland, incorporated with Russia, 414. Curland, d of, restored, 373. Custine, gen. 453, 454. Custozza, battle of, 494, 510. Cyaxares, overthrows Nineveh, 15, 16 ; war with Alyattes, 21, 25. Cybele, Lydiau goddess, 21. Cylon, insurrection of, 51. Cymbeline, 37. Cynoscephalae, battle of, 71, 80, 119. Cynric, 178. Cyprus, tributary to Assyria, 14 ; Phoeni- cian colonies in, 17, 41 ; given to Guy of Lusignan, by Richard of England, 215 ; given by Catherine Cornaro to Venice, 262; surrendered to the Turks, 326; given to England, 524 ; British take pos- session, 545. Gyrene in Africa, hostilities with Egypt, 6; founded, 19; submits to Cambyses, 27 ; conquered by Darius, 28 ; assigned to Cassius, 144. Cyrus, emp. of Persia, deposes Asfcyages, 62 ; defeats Croesus, 21, 26 ; takes Baby- lon, 16, 26 ; death. 27 ; the younger, 29. Cyzicus, battle of, 68, 134. Cisartoryski, 490. Czaslau, battle of, 401. Czechs, 493. Dab Ion, 364. Dacia, war with Rome, 152, 153 ; made a Roman province, 152 ; given up by Au- relian, 157. Dsedalus, 18. Dale, Sir Thomas, 292- Dalecarlians, revolt of the, 352. Dalhou^ie, e. of, gov. gen. in India, 546. Dalmatia, 525, 526. Dalziel, 3i9. Damascus, defection from Solomon, 9 ; captured by Ramannarari, 14, 136 ; sul- tanate of, 210. Damiens, 446. Damietta, captured, 217. Dan no ura, battle of, 242. Dan the Famous, k, of Norway, 207. Dana us, 44. Danby, impeachment, 381, 383, 384 ; prea of privy council, 385. Dandolo, Henry, doge of Venice, 216, 262. Danegeld, instituted, 205 ; abolished, 231. Danelagh, 204 ; reconquered and lost, 205. Danes. See Denmark, Northmen. In Eng laud ; three epochs of their ravages, 203 ; treaty of Wedmore, 204; massacre ol Danes, 805 ; political conquest of Eng- land, 206. Dangerfield, 382, 383. Danish vespers, 205. Danneborg, 235. Dannevirke, 207. Dante Alighieri, 263. Danton, member of Cordeliers, 451, 452, 453 ; of the Committee of Public Safety, 454 ; execution, 455. Danzig, annexed to Poland, 413 ; captured by Napoleon, 469. Daras, battle of, 190. Dare, Jeanne, career, 260. Dardaoos, peace of, 131. Dare, Virginia, 289. Darien, discovered by Columbus, 284 ; at- tacked by Drake, 289 ; Scotch settlement at, 362. Darius, name of several k.'s of Persia, I. succeeds Bardija, recaptures Babylon, 27 ; war with Scythians, reforms, war with Ionian Greeks, with European Greeks, death, 28; II. Nothus, 29 ; III., Codomannus, defeated by Alexander, death, 29, 74. Damley, murdered, 338. Datls, 57. Daun, marshal, 404, 405. Dauphin, title of the heir to the French crown, 258. Dauphin^ of Vienne, transferred to the crown of France, 258. David, k. of the Jews, 8, 9. David II., k. of Scotland, capture of, 268. Davila, 285. Davis, Jefferson, U. S. sec. of war, 555; pres. of the Confederate States, 556. Davis, John, Arctic voyages, 289, 290. Davout, on the Rhine, 467 ; defeated at Eylau, 469 ; in Hamburg, 476, 479. Day of the sections, 457. Decades, ministry of, 527. Deccan, in India, geographical position, 22 ; arrival of Hindus, 23 ; state of, in 1498,353; independence of, 442; passes under the control of the British, 541. r Decebalus, 152, 153. Decelean war, 67. Decemvirs, 98. Decius, Roman emp., 156. DeciusMus P., 108. Declaration of Independence in Belgium, 489 i in the United States 428. Declaration of indulgence, 880. Declaration of rights, 385. Declaration of rights and liberties, 424. Deerfield, Indian attack, 363. Defoe, Daniel, 389, 436. Deiotarus, k. of Qalatia, 78, 136 ; submiti to CseRar, 142. Deira, 178. Dejoces, Median chief, 25. Delaware, lord, gov. of S. Virginia, 2^ Index* 15 Delhi, in India. 22; sultans of, 241, 863 ; captured by Lake, 641 ; reToU, 646. DeloB, 41, 62. Delphi, advice to Croesus, 21 ; attacked by Gauls, 36; oracle, 51,* plundered by Kriaa, 64 ; by Phocians, 72. Demodes, peace of, 73. Demaratus, 55, 58. Pemes,52. Demetrius, the false, 352. Demetrius Poliorcetes, 77 ; in Athens, 79. Democratic party in U. S., 648. Demosthenes, the general, 66, 67. Demosthenes, the orator, opposition to Philip, 72 ; forms alliance with Thebes, 73 ; poisons himself, 79. Denain, battle of, 392. Denmark, people of, 164 ; early history, 207 ; war with Charles the Great, 185 ; with Otto I., 195 ; with Otto 11-, 197 ; in- vasion of England, 203, 204 ; conquest of England, 205, 206 ; under Waldemar the conqueror, 235 \ capitulation, 236 ; Union of Calmar, 237, 276 ; share in thirty years* war, 310 ; war with Sweden, 314 ; feuds of the counts in, 362; lex regia, 374 ; treaty with Sweden , 397 ; alliance with France, 470 ; receives Lauenberg, 483 ; Schleswig-Holstein, 496 ; incorpora- tion of the duchies, 505; war with Aus- tria and Prussia, 505. Dennewitz, battle of, 477. Denys, Jean, 284. Deorham, battle of, 178. Derby, e. of, impeachment, 270. Derby, e., 1st ministry of, 643 i 2d, 544 ; 3d, 644. Dermod, k. of Leinster, 232. Derwentwater, execution of, 437. Desaix, 460. Desiderius, k. of Langobards, 184. Desmoulins, Camille, at the storm of the Bastile, 449 ; member of Cordeliers, 451 ; executed, 455. Despenserfl, 267- Dessau, bridge of, battle. 310. Dessoles-Decazes, ministry of, 527. Detraold, battle of, 185. Detroit, besieged by Pontiac,423. Dettingen, battle of, 402. Deutsch-Brod, battle of, 262. Deuxponts. See Zweibriicken- Devolution, war of, 366. Diadochi, wars of, 76. Diasus, 122. Diana of Poitiers, 320. Diaz, Bartholomaeus, 280. Dictatorship, established, 93; nature, 94; opened to plebeians, lOl; disappearance, 123 ; Sulla assumes the office, 132. Diderot, 448. Didius, JulianuB, Roman emp., 164. Dido, 17, 18. Diebitch, 490. Dieskau,421. Diggea, sir Dudley, 343. Dijou, battle of, 174, 25a Dillon, 645. Dinwiddle, Robert, gov. of ViTOinia, 420. Diocletianus, Roman emp , 1681 Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, 20. Directory, in Trance, 448 ; government of, 457 ; 13th Fructidor, Hengcstcsdun, battle of, 181, 203. Hengist, 177. Hennepin, discovers MissisBippl, 364. Henry, d. of Anjou. See Henry III., k, of France. Henry the Bastard, k. of Castile, 276. Henry the Quarrelsome, d'. of Bavaria, 196, 19( ; the Proud, d. of Bavaria, 218, 219; Jasomirgott, d. of Bavaria, 219. Henry I., k, of England, reign, 280; IT., Benuclerc, acquired Poitou, Guyenne, and Gascony by marriage, 226; reign, 231; conquest of Ireland, Docket, 232; 111. of England, reign, 234; IV. (d. of Lancaster), reign, 270 ; V., war with France, 259 ; reign, 271 ; VI. in France, 259; reign, 271; captured, 277; put to death, 274; VII. (e. of Richmond), 275; reign, 333 : VIII., alliance with Charles V. , 305 ; reign, 834 ; head of church, 335. Henry I., k. of J*"rance,203 ; II., treaty with Charles V., 305; reign, 319; acquisition of Brittany, 320 ; of Calais, Metz, Toul, and Verdun, 321 ; III., reign, 322 ; k. of Poland, 352; IV. (Navarre), part in the wars of religion, 322 ; reign, 324 ; '' V.," 533. Henry I., k. of Germany, 194, 195 ; II. (the Saint), emp. H. R. E., 197, 198; III. (the Black), 199 ; IV., 199, 200 ; V., 201 ; VI., 222,223; VII., 245. Henry of C)hampagne,k. of Jerusalem, 216. Henry of Guise, 321. Henry of Navarre. See Henry IV., k. of France. Henry of Plauen, 277. Henry, k. of Portugal, 240, 332. Henry, pr. of Pruspia, 406, 407. Henry, e. of Richmond. See Henry VII. of England. Henry the Lion, d. of Saxony, 219; fiefs forfeited, 222 ; war with Henry VI., 223- Henry the Navigator, 276, 279. Henry, pr. of Wales, death of, 341. Henry, Patrick, 424, 426. Henrys, war of the three, 322. Heraclea, battle of, 108. Heracles, 45. Heraclidae, Lydian dynasty, 21 ; Dorian dynasty, 45 ; conquest of the Pelopon- nesus, 48 ; kings of Sparta, 50. Heraclius, Grecian emp., 191. Herbert, adm., 384. Herbert of Vermandois, 202. Herbois, Collot d', 45?, 454, 456. Herculaneum, 83, 152. Hercules. S^e Heracles. Herdonius, 97. Hereward, 229. Hermandad, 328. Hermann of Balk, 218 ; of Salm, 200 ; of Salza, 218 ; Billung, marg. of Schleswlg, 195. Hermann, d. of Swabia, 197. Hermanricb. See Ermaiiarich, 170. Hermanstadt, battle of, 495. Hermiuones, 163, 1G4. Hermunduri, 164, 167, 1G8. Hermus, battle on the, '2ij. Hernici join Latin league, 97 ; war with Rome, lOJ ; Heniician Wgue dissolved, 106. 24 Tndex, Herod (the Great), k, of Juclea„Il. llerod Agrippa, I., k. of Judea, 11. Uerrenhauseu, alliance of , S98. ., Herzegovina, revolt, 521 ; given to Aus- tria, 524; disturbance in, 625; sup- pressed, 526. ' Hesse, origin, 225, 492. . Hesse-Cassel, in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; becomes an electorate, 4Q4 ; not in con- federacy of the Bhine, 4(58 ; reypluCion in, 492; invaded by Prussians, 504 ; in- corporated with Prussia, 610. Hesse-Uarmstadt, joins confederacy of the Khiue, 468 ; joins allies, 4Td. Ilia, dynasty of,;ln China, SI. Hideyoshi, government of^ 365,366. niempsal, 126. Hienfung, 661. ... Hiero, k. of Syracuse/llO, 116. Hieroglyphics, 3. High Oommission, 346. Hildebrand. See Gregory VII. Himera, battle of, 20. Hincmar of Bheims, 201. Hindus. See India. Hipparchus, 64. Hippias. 64,57. ilippo, 17, 19. Ijirain, k. of Tyre, 18. Hirhor, k. of Egypt, 5. Hirtius, 144. Hispania, citerior, 118 ; ulterior, 118, 141. Histiieus of Miletus, 28. , Hobkirk's ffill, battle o^, 431. Hoche, 456, 467 ; expedition to Ireland, 636. Hochelaga. See St. Lawrence. Hochkirch, battle of, 405. Hochst, battle of, 310. Hochstadt, battle of. See Blenheim. Hofer, Andreas, 471, 472. Hohenfriedberg, battle of, 402, Hohenlinden, battle of, 462. Hohenstaufen, house of. See Frederic of H., 219, 220. Hohenzollem. See Frederic, burggrave of Nuremberg. 244; acquires Brandenburg ; in Prussia, 302 ; in thirty years' war, 311, 312 ; in peace of Westphalia, ,316 ; kings of Prussia, 372 ; in the nortliand east, un- der the great elector, 368, 373, 374 ; gene- alogy, 615 ; emperors of Germany, 519. Hohenzollem, pr. of, 512, 513. Hojeda, Alonzo de^ 283, 284. Hojo, family of, 243. Holbach,448. Holkar, 443, 641. Holland, kingdom of, under Lpuia Bona- parte, 468 ; merged in kingdom of the Netherlands, 483 ; separated from Bel- glum, 489. £'i°^,alno, Netherlands. Holland, lord, 439, 441. Holies, impeachment of, 346, 351. Holstein, given to Adolf of Schaumberg, 218 ; Adolf capt. by Knut VI. of Den- mark, cedes H. to Waldemar, II., k. of Denmark, 236 ; ceded to Adolf the young, 236 ; peace of Travendal, 394 ; united with Denmark, 409 ; war with Denmark, 496 ; occupied by the German confedera- tiou, 505 ; united with Prussia, 610. Eolstein-Gottorp, d. of, 394, 397. Holfltein-Gottorp, house of in Sweden, 409,' in BuBsiia, 411. Holy alliance, 486 -, Monroe's attitude con- cerning, 552. , , . _ Holy league against France, 300, 318, 826, 334. Holy league in France, 322. Holy Boman Empire, revival of Boman em- pire under Otto, 196 j end of, 462, 468. See Germany. Holy wars, I., 52 ; II., 71 ; III., 72. Homer, 49. Homildon Hill, battle of, 270. Hone, acquittal of, 638. Honoring, Boman emp., 38, 161. Honorius III., pope, 224. Hooker, gen., 557, 658., Hoorn, c. von, executed, 330. Hophra, k. of Egypt, 6, Hopital, de 1', 321. Horatii, 89. Horatius, laws of, 98. HoratiuB, Flaccus, Q., 83, 147. Horatius, Marcu», 93. Horatius Codes, 95. Hormiadas I., emp. of Persia, 188 , II., 188 • IV., 191. Hormuz, battle of, 187. Ilormuzan, 192. Horn, Gu&tavus, 312. Horsa, 177. Hortensius, dictator, 107. Hospitalers. See Knights of St. John. Hotel de Ville destroyed, 633. Hotbam, adm., 484. Hotspur See Percy. Howe, lord, occupies Philadelphia, 429. Howick, first lord of the admiralty, 537; sec. of war, 540. See earl Grey. Hubert de Burgh, 234. Hubertsburg, peace of,, 406, , . Hudson Bay Company, incorporation of, 358. Hudson's Bay, discovery of, 299, 363. Hudson, Henry, voyage of, 298. Hudson river, 294, 298. Hugh the White, d. of France, 202. Hugh Capet, k. of France, 202. Huguenot colony in AmeriKja, 288. Huguenots, wars of the, 321. Humbert I., k. of Italy, 624. Humboldt, W. von, 477, 482, 487. Hundred days in France, 626. Hundred years', war, 257. Hungary, occupied by Magyars, 193,277; Hungarians ra^vage Germany, 194 ; de- feated by Elenry, 195; and Otto (Lech- feld), 196 ; lose Styria to Bohemia, 244: emp. Albert, II., k. of. 253; history to 149U, 277 ; golden bull, 277 ; H. united with Bohemia and tsecured to emp. Max., 278 ; war with Turks .(Mohacs), disputed election, 3lJ3 ; Ferdinand I., elected k., 306 ; succession secured to Happburg, 372 ; Maria Theresa, q. of H., 400 ; Mo- riamur, etc., disputed, 401, n. ; revolt under Kossuth, 494 ; constitution abol- ished, 496 ; Feb. . constitution. 504; con. stitution of H. restored, Austrian emp., k. of H. 511. Hung Sui-tsuen, leader of the Tai-ping re- bellion, 661 ; suicide, 562. Index. 25 Huns cross the Volga, 170 ; under Attila, 173. Ilunyadi, John, k. of Hungary, 278. Uurons. 364. Husdin All, 442. liuskisdon, 539. Huss, Jobn. 252. Hussite war, 252. Hutchiiison, gor. of Mass, 424, 425. llutten, Ulrich von, 302. Uwaag-ho, in China, 30; first settlements of Chinese made along, 31. Hydaspes, battle of, 75. Hyde, Anne, 383. Hyde, sir Edward. See Clarendon, earl of. Ilyder AH. See Haidar All. Hyksos, 4. . Hypti£uti8, 75^ Hyrcanus, 136. lapy^ans, So. Iberia, 34, 188. Iberville, 362. Ibrahim Pasha, 483, 491. Iceland, settled by Northmen, 280 ; con- quered by Hakon V., of Norway, 238. Iconium, sultanate of, 210. Iconoclasts^ 210. Ida, '' the flame bearer," 178. Idistaviso, battle of, 149. Idstedt, battle, of, 497. llerda, 141. Hlinois, 364 ; admitted to the Union, 552. liUturgi, battle of, 115. lUyriau provinces, 472. Illyrians, war with Rome, 112 : conquered, 121. Imperial chamber, 300. Impositions, 340. Imprisonment for debt abolished in Eng- land, 545. Inaros, 28. Independents, 349, 350. India, visited by Tyrians, 18 ; geography, early religion, 22 ; arrival of Hindus in the Punjab, 22; settlement and con- quest, 23 , castes, i&. / rise of Brahmism, i6. ; of Buddhism, ih. ; invasion of Alex- ander, 23, 75 ; Bactrian rulers, 24 ; Scyth- ians, Guptas, it.: early history, 210 ; sul- tans of Ghazni, pf Ghor, 211 j sultans of Delhi, Timtir Sluili, 24lj we-^tern route to India, 232 ; Mugh'fLl empire, 353 ; Portuguese, Dutch, English in I., East India companies 354 ; Aurangzeb , 389 ; decline of M ughal empire, 442 ; Mah- ratta power, 443 ; firitisn in Indii, Black, Hole, 443 ; Clive, Hastings, 444 , East India Company subordinated to government, 442 ; Comwallis and Wel- liogton ; Mahratta wars, 541 ; queen of England proclaimed sovereign of India, 544 ; Afghan wars, 546, 54( ; Sepoy re- bellion, 546 j government transferred to crown, 544 ; famine, 547. India bill, 535. Indians of America ; rapid disappearance from West Indies, 284 ; John Smith cap- tured by, 291 ; intercourse with Plym- outh colony, 295; Pequot war, 297; Champlain among, 299; John Elioi among, 357 ; Hurons massacred by Iro- qdois, 357 i King Philip's war, 359 ; Penn's treaty, 360, King William's war, 361 , Queeu Anne's war, Diiertield de- stroyed, 6\j:^ ; J?'reuch among the ilurous, wars with Iroquois, 864 ; war in Caro- lina, and New England, 417 ; old French and Indian war, 420; conspiracy of lou- tiac, 423 ; t^yoming massacre, 430; In- dian war, 547; Seminole war, 5o2, 553. Indo-European family, Introauction, x., 85, 86. Ine, king of Wessex, 180, Inge Baardsen, k. of Norway, 238. Ingebord,226, 235, 238. Ingjald in-raada, k. of Sweden, 208. Ingaevones, 163. Inkcrmann, battle of, 500. Innocent III., pope, originates ths 4th crusade, 216 ; obtains Matbildu's estates from Otho IV,, ^Z3; contest with John of England, 233 , IV., 225. Inquisition, establishment of, by Gregory IX., 227; by Paul III., 327: in Spain, 330. . . F , Interim of Augsburg, 306. International postal congress, 521. Interregnum in the Holy Roman Empire, 225 ; in England, 384. Intibili, battle of, 116. Inverlochy, battle of, 348 Investiture strife, 200, 201. Ionian Islands, retained by Venice, 326 occupied by French, ceded to France, 459; Republic of the Seven I. I. 461 forms a part of the Illyrian provinces, 472 ; protectorate over, given to Eng' land, 483 ; ceded to Greece, 505, 544. lonians in Greece, 43 ; coldnize Asia Mi- nor, 49 ; subdued by Croesus,' 21 ; revolt from Persia, 28. Ipsus, battle of, 77. Iran, plateau of, 12; subjugated by Tiglath- Pileser II., 14; inhabited by Bactrians, Medes, Persians, 24 ; attacked by Assyr- ians, 25 ; conquered by Gyrus, 26 ; sul- tanate of, 210. Ireland, ancient, geography, religion, and civilization, 38 ; mythical history, 38, 39 ; Norwegians take Dublin, 209 ; con- quered by Henry II., 232 ; English Pale, 270 ; statute of Drogheda, 333 ; rebellion of Tyrone, 339; government of Went- worth (Strafford}, 344 ; Ulster rebellion, 346, 348 ; CronlWell in Ireland, storm of Drogheda, 375 ; war for James 11., 386; battle of the Boyne, 387 ; treaty of Limerick, ib. ; Irish catholic laws, 433 ; United Irishmen, 536 ; union with Great Britain, ib. ; Irish reform act, 540 ; fam- ine of 1846-47, 643; uprising under GBrien, ib. ; habeas corpus act suspend- ed, 544; disestablishment of the Irish ^ blpiscopal) church, 545 ; land league, lb. ; coercion' act, laud act, 546. Irene, 210. Ire ton, 376. Iroquois, war with Hurons and Canada^ 364. See Indians of America. Isaac, 7. Isaac Angelus, Grecian emp., 216. Isabeau of Bavaria, 269 Isabella heiress of Castile 276 328. 26 Index, Isabella II-, 4- of Spain, claims of ,490, 512. Isadoras, 55. iBdigerd I., k. of Persia, 189 ; II., 189 ; HI. , W2, 193. Isis, Egyptian goddesB, 3. Islam, 182. Isle of Sable, 290. Ismail, 413. Israel, a separate kingdom, 9 ; contest over idolatry, ib. ; tributary to Assyrians, 10 ; destroyed by Sargon, 10, 14. Issus, battle of, 74. Istaevones, 163. Istar, Phoenician goddess, 13, 14, 16. Isthmian festival, 42. Italia, federal republic of, 129. Italy, geographical survey of, 81 ; ethno- graphical sketch, 85 ; ancient history, see Rome ; Odoraker, ruler, 173 ; blast Goths, Tbeodoric, 174; Langobards in Lombardy, papacy, 175 ; Charles the Great, king of Italy, 184 ; Carolingians in Italy, 193; Berengarof Ivrea, 195; Otto, II. III., in Italy, 197 ; Crescentius, ib.; Normans in Italy, 199 ; Frederic Barba- Tossaand the Lombard cities, Guelfs and Ghibelins, 221 ; peace of Constance, 222; Prederic U., in Sicily, 224,225; Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France, 262; league of Cambray, 300; holy league, 300, 318 ; campaigns of Napoleon in Italy, 458 ; Cisalpine and Ligurian and Eoman republics founded, 459 ; Par- thenop£ean republic founded, 460 ; abol- ished, 461; Roman republic abolished, 461 ; Napoleon in Italy, 46-^ ; Cisalpine and Ligurian republics recognized, 463 ; Napoleon president of Italian (Cisalpine) republic, 464 ; Napoleon king of Italy, Ligurian republic incorporated with France, 467 j Italy restored to its condi- tion before 1789, 483 ; absolutasm, 488 ; uprisings suppressed by Austrians, 490 ; Austro-Sardinian war, 494 ; liberation of Italy, Graribaldl, 602 ; Victor Emmanuel king of Italy, 503 : war with Austria, Venice acquired, 510 ; recognized as sixth great power, 511 ; Rome the capital, 520 ; dissolution of monasteries, 520 ; electo- ral reform act, 526. 5ee, also, Florence, Genoa, Naples, Papal SuLtes, Sardinia, Sicily, Tuscany, Venice. lUiome, 51. Iturbide, emp. of Mexico, 488. Ivan, brother of Peter the Great, 374. Ivan III., the Great, of Russia, 277. Ivan IV. (or VI.), 411. Irar Vidfadme, k. of Skaania, 208. Ivry, battle of, 324. Jackson, Andrew, pres. of TJ. S., 552. Jackson, Stonewall, 558. Jacob, his sons, 8. Jacobins, 451 ; club closed, 456. Jacobite rebellions, I., 437 : II., 438. Jacqueline, of Holland, her inheritance goes to Burgundy, 259. Jacquerie in France, 258. Jaffa stormed by Bonaparte, 460. Jagello, house of, 277, 352. Jahandar Shah, emp. of India, 442. Jahangir, emp. of India, 354. Jail delivery at Paris, 452. Jamaica, discovery of, 283 ; taken by Pezin and Venables, 377 ; insurrection, 544. James Bay discovered, 300. James, e. of Douglas, 2b8. James I., k. of England (VI. of Scotland), reign in England, 339; II., reign, 383; flight, 384 ; deposition, 385 ; takes refuge with Louis XIV. , 370; death, 391. Ste duke of York. James I., k. of Scotland, murdered, 271 ; II., 272 ; IV., invaded England, 333 ; do. feat and death, 334 ; VI., of Scotland, abdication of Mary in favor of, 338. See James I. of England. James Edward, the old pretender, 389, 435. Jamestown, foundation of, 291. Janizaries, 353 ; massacre of, 489. Jankau, battle of, 315. Japan, Buddhism in, 23 ; geography, relig- ion, 32; chronology, 33; early rulers, 33 ; conversion of native names into Chi- nese, 33, n. 2 ; origin, 33 ; development of dual gov., m&ado superseded by shogun, 212 ; war of Gen and Hel, 242 ; Hojo supremacy, repulBCof the Mongols, war of the Chrysanthemums, develop- ment of feudalism, 243; Ashikaga sho- guns, dynastic wars, J. in the time of Columbus, 278; domination of Nobu- nagaandHideyoshi, 355 ; Tokugawa sho- funs, 356 ; extirpation of Christianity, 57 ; later Tokugawas, 446 ; Perry's treaty, 563 ; restoration of the mikado, ' abolition of feudalism, i6. / assimilatioa to western civilization, 564. Jason, 46. Jassy, peace of, 413. Jay, John, in continental congress, 426 ; chief justice, 547. Jay's treaty, 535, 548. Jeanne d'Arc. See Bare. Jefferson, Thomas, 427 ; drafts declaration of independence, 427 ; sec. of state, 547 ; vice-pres. , 548 ; pres. , 549. Jefferson's embargo, 550. Jeffreys, chief justice, 382; " bloody as- sizes,'* 383; death, 384. Jemmapes, battle of, 453. Jena, battle of, 469. Jenghiz Khan, leader of the Mongols, 240; conquered China, 242. Jeremiah, 11. Jersey, east and west, 359. Jerusalem conquered by Shisak,5 ; names, 7 ; captured by David, 9 ; taken by Is- raelites, 10 ; besieged in vain by Assyr- ians, 10 ; captured by Nebuchadnezzar, and destroyed, 11, 16 ; destroyed by Ti- tus, 12, 152 : storm of, 214 ; kingdom of, 214 ; finally lost, 217. Jesuits, order of, founded, 304; banished from Spain and Portugal, 415 ; abol- ished, 416 ; expelled from France in 1672. Jews, geography, chronology, 7 ; settled in Egypt, exodus, 8; government, ib.; di- vision into Israel and Judah, 9; carried to Assyria, 10; to Babylon, 11; sent back by Cyrus, 11, 27 ; subject to Pela- gians, etc., 11 ; revolt under the Macca* Index. 27 bees, 11, 78; subdued by Rome, 11; reTolt, fEill of Jerusalem, 12; dispersal, ib. ; accused of firing Rome, 161 ; perse- cution, 152 ; revolt, lt>3 ; expelled from England, 264; admitted to parliament, 544. Jimmu Tenno, mikado of Japan, 33. Joachim IL., elector of Brandenburg, 401. Joanua, heiress of Castile, 301, 828. Joanna, heiress of Navarre, 254. Joannes, the usurper, Itil. Joannes Scotus Erigena,'201. Jobst, of Moravia, ^l. John, archduke of Austria, administrator of the German empire, 471, 493. John, don, of Austria, Lepanto, 326; in the Netherlands, 33U, 331 ; popish plot attributed to, 381. John, k. of Bohemia, 247 ; death, 257. John, k. of England, Lackland, reign, 233. John IT., le Bon, k. of France, reign, 258. John of Brienne, ** king of Jerusalem," 216. John of Gaunt, 269. John de Montfort, 257. John of Procida, 226. John the Fearless, d. of Burgundy, 259. John XXIII., pope, 251. John IV., k. of Portugal, 332 ; VI., 488. John IK., k. of Svtreden, 352. John Casimir, k. of Poland, 352, 374. John Frederic, el. of Saxony, 305. John Qeoi^e, el. of Saxony, 31^ 401. John Parricida, 245. John Sobieski, k. of Poland, 374. John ZimisL'ea, Grecian emp., 210. Johnson, Andrew, 558, 559. Johnson, Sir William. 421, 423. Johnston, .loe, gen., 558- Joint commictee of the two kingdoms, 348. Jones, John Paul, 430. JouBon, Ben, 339. Joseph, 8. Joseph I., emp. of the Holy Roman Em- pire, 390 ; reign. 392 ; death, 393, 397 ; II., co-regent, 406; reign, 407; plan of an exchange of territory, 408. Joseph, k. of Naples. See Bonaparte, Jo- seph. Joseph I., k. of Portugal, reign, 415. Joseph I., k. of Spain. See Bonaparte, Jo- seph. Joshua, 8. Joubert, 461. Jourdan, 455, 457, 458, 460, 479. J ovianus, Roman emp. , 160 ; peace with Persia, lUS. Juan de la Vuca strait, 290. Juarez, 603, 604. Juba, k. of Numidia, 141, 142. JudEea, attacked by Shisak, 5 ; geograph- ical position, 7; dependent king'lom un- der Herod, 11 ; part of Roman province of Syria, 11 ; Roman province, 150. Judah, kingdom of, geography, 7 ; founda- tion, 9 ; idolatry in, 10 ; allied with Egyptians, ib.; tributary to the Assyri- ans, 10, 14 ; subject to Babylonians, U ; to the Egyptians, t6./ ravaged byScvth- lans, ib. Judges among the Jews 8. Jugurthan war, 126, 127. Julia, the elder and younger, 148. Julian, count, 183, n. Julian emperors, 147. JulianuB, Roman emp., 160 ; invaded Per- sia, 188. Jiilich-Oleves succession, guarrel begun, 308 ; ended, 372. Julius II., pope, 327. July revolution at Paris, 489, 529 ; its re- sults, 490. Junius, 440. Juno, 84. JunoniH, colony of, established, 125. Junot, duke of Abrantes, 47u, 471. Junto, 435. Jupiter, 84 ; Ammon, his temple in Africa, 27, 74 ; Capitolinus, temple of, b2. Jury, grand, 232. Jury trial, its Norman origin, 204. Jus auxilii, intercessiouis, 96 ; reformandi, 306, 317. Justinian I., Grecian emp., victories in Italy and Africa, 174 ; war with Persia, 190 ; reign, 210. Jutes, 176. Juvenum, foundation of, 167. Eaempfer in Japan, 445. Kagoshima, bombardment of, 668. Kahror, battle of, 24. Kaiserslautem, battle of, 455, 456. Kalb, de, 430. Kaled, expedition of, 192. Ealish, alliance of, 476. Kamakura, 242, 243. Kameel, sultan, 217. Kandahar, 442. Kanishka, Scythian k. in India, 24. Kansas admitted to the Union, 666. Kansas-Nebraska bill, 555. Kapolna, battle of ,495. Kara, Mustapha, 3/2. Karl Martel, 183, 184. Earlmann, brother of Charles the Great, 184. Karlmann, k. of Aquitaine, 201. Karlsefoe, Thorfinn, 281. Kara, storm of, 489, 601, 623. Kashgar, rebellion of Yakub Begin, 662j capture of, ib, Katzbach, battle, 477. Kaunitz, prince, 403. Kay, battle of, 405. Keiki, the last shogun, 563. Kellermann, 452. Kelso, battle of, 848. Kenmure, execution of, 437. Kentucky admitted to the Union, 648. Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798-1799, 649. Kepler, 306. Kerman, sultanate of, 210. Kertk, Louis, Thomas, and David, 299. Khafra, k. of Egypt, 4. Khanates, 241. Khazars, war with Persia, 189, 190. Khorsabad, 12. Khufu, k, of Egypt, 4. Khusru in India, 211, Kielf, grand prince of, 276. Kieft, gov. of New Netherlands 367. 28 Ind^x. Kiel, peace of, 479, Kiew. See Kieff. Kill] Arslan, sultan of Iconium, 2li. Kilkenny, statute, 269. Killiecrankie, battle of, 386. Kilsyth, battle of, 348. Kinibolton, lord, 346. Kin dynasty, in China, fall of, 242. King George's war, 419 ; Philip's war, 359 ; William's war, 361. King's Mountain, battle of, 431. Kinsale captured, 387. Kioto, in Japan, 32 ; capital of the mifcado, 213, 242 ; false mikado at, 278 ; capital transferred to Tokio, 663. Kirke,, 386 ; appointed gov. of Mass., 361 ; Kirke's lambs, 383; raises siege of Lon- donderry, 386. Klapka, 495,496. Kl^ber, 463. Klissow, battle of, 395. Knighthood, religious orders of, 217 ; Span- , ish orders, 240,328. EhigHts at Rome, 3 centuries, 8B ; number doubled, 89 ; in the army, 91 ; farm the taxes, 123;-. change inpature, 125,; de- priTed of jury service, 13^ ; which is par- tially restored, 133. Knights in Athens, 53. Kniprode, Winrich von, 277. Knowles in Boston, 419. , Knox, Henry, U. S. sec. of war, 547. Knox, John, 304, 338. Knut the Great, k.. of England and Den- mark, visit to Rome, 198 ; reign in Eng- land, 205, 206: in Denmark, a07. Knut, St., k. of Denmark, 208 ; VI., 235. Kobad I., k. of Persia, first reign, 189 j second reign, 160; II., 192. Kblhapur, M3. KoUin, battle of, 404, Kong, prince, 502. Koniggratz, battle of, 509. Ktjn.ig6berg, treaty of, S73, 470. Konigsinark, Sl5, 416. Koran, the, 182. Kosciuszkol 413, 414. Kossuth, 494, 495, 496. Kotzehue, .murder of^ 487. Krasnoy, battle of, 475. Kublai Khan in China,, 24^. Kuldja, disputed between. China and Rus- sia, 562. Kulm, battle at}, 477. KuJturkampf in Italy, Switzerland, and Prussia, 520 j in Prussia, France, Bel- gium, 526 ; approaching end, 626. Kunersdorf , battle of, 406. Kurile islands given to Japan by Russia, 32, b. 3. . ' Kusunoki-Masashig^, 243. Kutab-ud-din, sultan of Delhi, 241. Kutschouc Kainardii, peace of, 412. Kutusoff, 467, 476. Labiau, treaty of, 373, Labienus, 139, 142, 143. Laborers, statute of, 268. Labrador, discovery of the coast of, 284. labyrinth, in E^ypt, 4, 6; in Crete, 18. iacedemonians, iii Sparta, 50. See Greece and SparUb. Laconia, name first given to Maine, 295. Lade, battle of, 28. Ladislaiis II., k. of Hungary and Boh^ mia, 278. Ladislaus Postumus, k. of Hungary, 278. Lady of England, 231. Lady of the Mercians, 204. LEiPts, 177. Lafayette, in America, 428.; commander of national 'guard, 450; proscribed, 452; a liberal, 527 ; commander of national guard, 529. La Pere-Champenoise, battle of, 481. Lafltte, ministry of, 629. La Fontaine, 371. Lagidge. See Ptolemies. la Hogue, battle of, 370, 387. Lahore, Mu,hamniedan dynasty at, 211. Lake Erie, battl« of, 661 ; George, battle of. 421. Lally, 444. Lamachus, 67. - Lamberg, count, 494. Lamian war, 79. Lamoricifere, 603, 527. Lan,c^ster, house of, 270. Lancaster Sound j~ ^9. LaijLd act, 545, 646. Land league in Ireland, 545' Landshut, battle of, 405, 471. Landwehr,-sturm,esta.blished, 476, Lanfranp, archb. of Canterbury, 229. Langensalza, 510. Langobarde, location, 170 ; found kingdom in Italy, 175 ; crushed by Charles the Great, 184. Langside, battle of, 338. Langton, Stephen^ 233, 234. Lansdowne Hill, battle of, 347. Laon, capital of German kingdom of the Franks, 202; battle of, 481. LSotsze, Chinese philosopher, 31, La Plata, discovery of, 286 ; a free state, 488. La Rochelle, granted to Huguenots, 22l: siege of, 325. La Rothi^re, battle of, 480. La Salle, discoveries of, 364, 365. Lascaris, Theodore, 216. Las Casas, Bartholom6 de, 285. La Soledad, treaty of, 603. Laswari, battle or, 541. Lateran council, 201. Lateranus, L. Sextus, 101. Latham house, siege of, 348. Latimer, 338. Latin empire, 216, 240. Latin league, Rome's hegemony over, 90 \ dipsolution of, 104. Latin war, great, 104. Laud, William, 344, 346; execution, 348. Lauderdale, 380, 381. Laudon, 405, 413. Laudonni^re, R(jn6, 288. Launay, de, murder of, 449; Lautree, invaded Naples, 303. Laval, Franpois de, 364. Law's Mississippi scheme, 445. Lawrence, lord, viceroy in India, 546. Law of Edward the Confessor, 230. Laws of Ine, of Offa 180 ; of the twelve tables, 98. Index. 29 Laybach, congress at, 487. Laziua, ceded to Rome, 190 ; invaded by Uormisdas, 191 ; HeracUus In, 192. League in Prance, 322. See Holy league. League of the Oerman princes, 408. League of the public weal, 260. Lear(Leir),37. Leboeuf, marshal, 513, 514. Le Bourget, battle of, 519. Lecbfeld, battle of, 196. Lee, Charles, 430. Lee, Richard Henry, 427. Lee, Robert E., in command of Confederate army, 567; Gettysburg, 558; surrender, 658. Lofort, in Switzerland, 374. *' L^acy of Igeya^u," 356. Leges Comelise, 132 ; duodecim tabularum, 98 ; Licinise, 101 ; Fubllliae, 102 ; Valeria3 Horatiae,98. Legion, in the Servian constitution, 92; change in the 4th cent., b. c, 103; change under Marius, 128. Legion of honor, created, 464. L^islative assembly in France, 447, 451. LegitlmitistB, in France, 530. Legnano, battle of, 222. Leipzig, battle of, 312 ; second battle, 314 ; battle of the nations, 478 ; supreme court - in, 525 ; university founded, 251. Le Mans, battle of, 519. Lenthall, 345, 377. Leozen, battle of, 194. Leo the Great, pope, 173 ; X., 327 ; XIII., 524. Leo the Isaurian, Grecian emp., 210. Leoben, peace of, 458. Leofric, e. of Mereia, 206. Leon, name changed from Asturia, 209 ; finally united with Castile, 240. Leonidas, 68. Leopold, IV. (V.) d. of Austria, receives Bavaria, 219 ; V. detains Richard Coeur de Lion, 2l6. Leopold, archd. of Austria, defeated by the Swiss, 247 ; III., Sempach, 250. Leopold I., k. of the Belgians, 490. Leopold of Deesau, 392, 397, 402. Leopold 1., emp of the H. R. £. ; reign of, Sfl, 372 ; Spanish claimant, 390 ; death, 392 ; II., 408, 416, 451. Leotychidas, 60. Lepanto, battle of, 326, 330. Lepidus, M. .^Imilins, 133, 141. LeptiB, 17, 19. Lerma, d. of, 331. Lesbos, 41, 66. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 512. Lestocq, in Russia, 411. Lcucopetra, battle of, 80, 122 Leuctra, battle of, 70. Leuthen, battle of, 404. Leverett, John, gov., of Mass. 360. Levites, 8. Lewes, battle of, 234. Lex a^»ria, 128. See agrarian laws ; an- nalis, 120: Aurelia, 133 : Canuleia de conubio, 99 ; de civitate sociis danda, 128 ; Clodia, 138 ; de falao, 122, 132 ; Ga- binia, 134 ; Hortensia, 107 ; judiciaria, 125, 12S ; Julia de agro campano, 137 ; Julia, 149 ; Msenia 107 ; de maiestate 38 149 ; Manilla, 135 ; Fapia FoppEea, 149 , Pedia, 145 ; Plautia-Papiria, 129 ; Poetilia, 103 ; Pompeia, 129 ; do proscribendis, 132, proTocatio, 91, 93. 94, 98, 125 ; Pub- lilia, 97 ; regia, 374 ; de sicariis, 122, 132 ; Trebonia, 140 ; Valeria de provocatione, 93 ; de vi et ambitu, 140. Lexington, battle of, 426. liberty of conscience, declarations of, 384. Licensing act, expiration of, 388. Licinian laws passed, 101 ; reenacted, 124. Licinius appointed Augustus, 159> Liegoitz, battle of, 405. Ligny, battle of, 484. Ligue du bien publique, 260. Ligurian republic, founded, 459 ; incorpo- rated with France, 467. LibybaBum, siege of. 111. Lima, occupation of, 287. Limerick, siege of, 387 ; treaty of, 387. Lincoln, Abraham, prcs. of the United States. 556 ; reflection, 658 ; assassina- tion, ^9. Lincoln, gen. 430. Lincoln, battle of, 231. Lindolf, d. of Swabia, 195. Lisbon, earthquake of, 415. Lissa, battle of, 610. Lithuanians, 169. '- Little " parliament. Set Barebones. Liudolf, d. of Swabia, 195. Liutprand, 175. Liverpool ministry, 537. Livia, 148, 149. Livius, T.,8L Livius Salinator, 117. Livonia, 373. Lobositz, battle of, 404. Locke, John, 368, 389. Locomotive invented, 486. Lodbrog, Ragnai-, 20o. Lode, battle at, 28. Lodi, storming of the bridge at, 458. Lollards, 269. Lombard league, 219, 221, 224. Lopibardo- Venetian kingdom, 482, 494, 502. Lombards. See Langobards, 175. Lombardy. See Langobards, Italy, Pied- mont, Sardinia. London, founded, 176 ; captured by Danes, 208 ; great fire, plague, 379 ; first indus- trial exhibition, 498 ; peace conference, 506 ; second industrial exhibition, 644 ; financial panic in, ib. London Company, 291 ; conference, 489, 511 ; protocol, 605 ; treaty of, 498. Londonderry, siege of, 386. Long Island, battle of, 428. Longjumeau, peace of, 321. Longland, William. 268. Long parliament, 346-351, 375-378 •, rec*^ pitulation, 378, n. Longobards. See Langobards. Loo-Uhoo islands, 664. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 658. '' Loose coat field," 274. Loris-Melikoff, 523, 525. Lorraine, German part of Ludwig's share iu the treaty of Verdun, 187, 193 ;, be- comes a duchy, 194 ; vacillates between Kast and West Franks 194 ; upper and 30 Index. lower Lorraine, 199 ; occupied by Prance, 369 ; exchanged to Stanislaus Lesczin- ski for Tuscany, 398 ; house of, 399, 416 ; ceded to the German empire, 519. Lorraine, d. of, partially reinstated, 366, 368 ; transfer of the duchy, 398. Lofchar, d. of Saxony, war with Henry V., 201. Lothar, emp. 186 ; treaty of Verdun, 187. Lothar, emp. of the H. R. E., 218. Lothar, k. of West Franks, 202. Louis 1., k. of Bavaria, 492 j 11., 514. Louis of Gond^, 321. Louis, emp. See Liidwig. Louis VI., k. of France, 226. [For the Car- olingian kings of this name, see Lud- wig k. of France, l.-V.] Vll., crusade, 215 ; reign, 226 ; in England, 232 ; VIII., 227 ; as prince, in England, 233 ; IX., St. Louis, reign, 227; arbitratiou, 234; crusades, 217; X., Le Hutin, 265; XL, of France, 260; XII., 318; Xlll., 325; XIV., 366-371 : Spanish succession, 390 ; XV., 445 ; XVI., 446 ; flight and return, 451; trial and execution, 453 ; (XVII.,) of France proclaimed, 453 ; death, 457 ; XVm., first return, 481; flight, 483; return, 484, 526 ; death, 527. Louis the Qreat, k. of Poland and Hun- gary, 277. Louis Napoleon, first attempt to be pro- claimed emperor, 529 ; second, 530 ; pres- ident of the republic, 494, 531 ; coup d' 6tat, 498, 531 ; as emperor, see Napo- leon III. Louis Napoleon, pr. of France, imperial birth, 531 ; death, 534. Louis Philippe I., accession, 489, 529 ; ab- dication, 530 ; death. 531. Louisa, q, of Prussia, 469. Louisburg, siege, 419, 421. Louise la Querouaille, 380. Louise of Savoy, 303. Louisiana, discovered by La Salle and set- tled by French, English attempt to colo- nize fails, 362, 365 ; ceded to Spain, 423, 439 ; restored to France, 463 ; bought by the United States, 463, 549 ; admitted to the Union, 551. Louvois, 366, 370. Lowen, battle of, 193. Lowenbund. 250. Lowestoft, battle of, 379. Loyal association, 388. Loyola, Ignatius, 304. Liibeckj free city, 222 ; conquered by Knut VI. , 235 ; capital of the Hanseatic league, 249 ; peace of, 310. Lubecki, 490. Lucanians, 83 ; wars with Eome, 106, 107. Lucius, k. of Britain, 36, 38. Lucka, battle of, 245. Lucknow, relief of, 546. Lucretia, 89. Lucullus, L., 131, 134, 136. , Lud, k, of Britain, 37. Luddites, 537. Ludwig I., the Pious, le B^bonnaire, emp., 186 ; II., 193 ; of Bavaria, 247. Ludwig, the German, k. of the Eant Franks, share at the treaty of Verdun, 187 ; reign, 193; the Child. 194 Ludwig II., the Stammerer, k. of the 'WeBt Franks; 201 [Ludwig the Pious, emp., is also Ludwig I., k. of the West Franks] ; III., 201 ; IV., d' Outre Mer, 202 ; V., the Faineant (for kings of France, see Louis), 202. Ludwigslied, 201. Lugenfeld, 186. Lumley's Inlet, 290. Lundy's Lane, battle of, 551. Luneville, peace of, 462. Luperci, 85. Luque, Hernando de, 286. Lutiatia (Lausitz), origin, 194; lower Lu- satia united with Bohemia, 248; mort- faged to Saxony, 31U ; ceded to Saxony, 14. Lusitanians. 118 ; war with Rome, 123. Lustrum, 92. Lutetia Farisiorum, 139. Luther, Martin, 301. Luther am Barenberge, battle of, 310. mtzen, battle of (Gustavus Adolphus), 312 ; (Napoleon), 476. Luxembourg, marshal, 370. Luxemburg, house of, 246, 248 ; Hungary under, 277. Luxemburg question, 511, 532, Luynes, d. of, 325. Luzzara, battle of, 392. Lycia conquered by Harpagus, 26 ; Roman province, 150. Lycos, battle on the, 135. Lycurgus, constitution of, 50. Lydia, geography, 20 ; religion , chronology, 21; under Attyadffi, Heraciidse, Mermna- dae, 21 ; conquers Phrygia, 21 ; war with Cvaxares, 21, 26 ; conquered by Cyrus, 22 ; 26. Lyons, council of, 225 ; partially destroyed, i54. Lysander, 68, 69, 70. Lysimachus, 76. Lytton, lord, viceroy of India, 547. Macao, Portuguese at, 354. Macartney, e., embassy of, 446. MacauLay, T. B., sec. of war. 540 ; in In- dia, 6^ ; paymaster gen., 543. Maccabseus, Judas, 11. Macchiavelli, 328. McClellan, gen., 557. Macdonald, 460, 461, 474, 477, 480. Macedonia, 41 ; rise in power under Philip, 71; Macedonian supremacy, 73; Alexan- der, 73-76 ; under descendants of Deme^ trius Poliorcetes, 78; wars with Rome. 116, 118, 120, 121 : fall of the monarchy, 120 ; Roman province, 78, 122, Macedonian line, Greek emperors, 210. Maciejowice, battle of, 414. Mack, gen., 4^, 467. Mackay, gen., 386. MacMahoa, in Italy, 502 ; in Franco-Prus- sian war, 514, 516 ; siege of Paris (com- mune), 532: pres., 633; resigned, 534, Macon's No. 2 act, 550. ' Macrinus, Roman emp., 30, 155. Macro, 160. Madagascar, French claims upon, 535k Madeira, discovery of, 276, 279. Madison- James, 549, 550. Index. 31 Modoo, rebellion of, 264. Madras, ia India, 22 ; founded, 354 ; cap- tured and restored, 443. Madrid, Charles in, 892 ; Napoleon at, 471 ; taken by Wellington, 474 ; by the French, 627 ; peace of, 803. Msecenas, 147. Mselius, Sp. 99. Magadha, empire of, 23. M^alhaes, F., 280. Magdeburg, bishopric of, 196 ; placed un- der ban, 805 ; stormed by Tilly, 311. Magellan. See Magelhses. Magellan, straits o^ 2S0, 286. Magenta, battle of, 602. Magians, 25. Magister equitum, 94. Magna Cbarta, 233, 266, 418. Magnano, battle of, 460. Magnesia, battle of, 78, 119. Magnetic needle, 279. Magnus the Good, k. of Norway, reign in Denmark, 207; in Norway, 209; II., 209; III., Barfod, 209, 233; IV., the Blind, k. of Norway, 238; V., 238; VI., Lagabceter, 238. Magnus, d. of Saxony, 199. Magnus, k. of Sweden, 237, 238; Smek, k. of Sweden, 236. 237. Ma^o, 117. Magyars. See Hungaxy. Maha^bharata, Hindu epic, 23. Mahmud, sultan of Gbazni, 211. Mahmud II., sultan of Turkey, 489. Mahratta wars, 444, 641. Mahrattaa, rise of, 389, 443, 444 ; conquered by the British, 541. Maid of Norway. See Margaret. Maid of Orleans. See Dare. " Main " plot, 340. Maine (in America), Pring*s voyage, 290 ; Popham colony, ^3 ; granted to Gorges and Mason, 295, 297 ; annexed to Mass., 368 ; restored to heirs of Gorges, ib. ; bought by Mass., 369; admitted to the Union, 552. Maine (in France), 231. Mainota, 488. Maintenon, Madame de,369, 371. Mainz, fimt archbishop of, 184 ; elector, 248 ; electoral arcbchancellor, 464. Majestatsbrief, 308. Majorianus, Roman emp., 162. Malacca taken by the Dutch, 353. Malaga, battle of, 434. Malakoff, ntorm of the- 501. Malcolm, k. of Scots, 206, 230, Maldon, battle of, 205. Malmd, truce of, 496. Malmutius Dunwall, k. of Britain, 37. Malplaquet, battle of, 392, 435. Malta, Phoenicians settle upon, 17 ; given to knights of St. John, 217 ; surrendered to Napoleon, 460; to be restored to the order, 464 ; not surrendered, 465 ; given to England^ 483. Malvern Hill, battle of, 557. Mamelukes, overthrow the Ayoubites, 217; defeated by Napoleon, 460. Mamertines, 109. Mamun, 186, 210. Manchester massacre, 638. Manchester and Liverpool railway, 589 Mandate, 467. Manes. See Mani. Muaetho, hist, of Egypt, 3, 4, n 3. Manfred, 226. Manhattan Island, purchased, 298. Mani J Manicheism, 188. Manlius, Gapitolinus, M., 100; Imperiosus, 1., 104 ; Torquatus, T., 103. Mansfield, count, 309, 310. Mansfield, lord, 440. ManteufEel, gen., governor of Schleswig, 607, 6U8; Franco- Pruasian war, 518, 519. Manteuffel, minister, 494; at Olmiitz, 498; dismissal, 602. Mantinea, battle of, 67, 71, 80. Mantua, siege of, 458. Mantuan war, 311. Manu, 23. Maori war in New Zealand, 644. Marat, member of Cordeliers 461; assaaal nated, 454. Marathon, battle of, 57. Marbod, 149, 167. Marcel, Etienne, 258. Marcellus, M. Claudius, 116-117. Marchfeld, battle of, 244. Marcomanni, 164, 167. Marcy, William L., 655. Mardonius, 56, 60. Marengo, battle of, 462. Margaret of Austria, negotiated Paix des Dames, 303; q. of Denmark, Norway. and Sweden, 237, 238, 276 ; wife of Henry VI. of England, 240, 271, 272, 274. Margaret, "The Maid of Norway," 238. Margaret Maultasch, 247, 249. Margaret of Parma, 330 ; c. of Salisbury, 336. Marhatt&a. See M.ihrattas. Maria Louisa, wife of Napoleon I., 481. Maria Theresa of Austria, heiress of Charles VI., 898 ; wars with Frederic the Great, 400-406. Maria Theresa, wife of Louis XIV., 366; died, 369. Mariana, 295, 296. Marie Antoinette, unpopularity, 446 ; exe- cution, 456. Marienburg, grandmaster at, 218, 277; treaty of, 373. Marignano, victory of, by Francis I., 319. Marion, Francis, 430. Marius, C, 82; in Numidia, 127; defeats Cimbri and Teutones, 127, 128 ; social war, 129 ; death, 130. Marius the younger, 131. Marlborough, d. of, sketch of life, 382 ; joins William III., 384; in Ireland, 387; disgraced, 387 ; in the war of the Spanish succession, 391-393, 434; made a duke, 433; dismissed, 393, 435; reinstated, 436. Marmont, gov. of lUyrian provinces, 472. 481. Marquette discovers the Mississippi, 364. Mars, 84, 85. Marshal, office of, 196. Marshall, John, o49. Marshall William, regency of, 234. Marsian, or social war, 129. Marston Moor battle of 348- 32 Index. Maxtignac ministry, 527> Martin V.', po'iie, 252. Martinique, taken by England, ceded to France, 422, 44l. Martinitz, 3(J9. Martinsvdgel, the, 250. Mary, heiress of Burgundy, 253. Mary, the Catholic, q. of England, reign, 330, 336, 338 : married Philip of Spain, 336. Mary Stuart, q. of Scotland, married Fran- cis II. of France, 321;,reigu, 338; exe- cution, 339. Maryland, granted to lord Baltimore, 293 j rebellion Of Clayborue and Ingle, 357 ; English parliament assumed control, 368 ; quo warranto gainst, 361.' Masaniello, 327. Maserfeld, battle of, ISO. Masham, Mrs., 434, 435. - Mason, John, grant of Mariana, 295, 296. Mitson taken from the Trent, 544,' 557. Massachusetts Bay colony fouhded, 295; separation of general court into two houses, 367 ; execution of Quakers, 358 ; reassumed government of Maine, 358 ; forfeiture of the charter, 360 '; new char- ter, 361 ; treaty of peace with the east- em Indians, 418 ; adoption of a constitu- tion, 431 ; insurrection in, 432. Massagetse, 27. Mas^lia, founded, 19, 141. Maasasoit, 295. Massena, 460, 461, 462, 467, 472 ; masterly retreat, 473. Massinissa, 116 ; dethroned, 117 ; restored, 118,121. ■ " ' Matchin, 413. Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, 200 ; her estates accepted by Lothar from the pope, 218 ; withheld by Henry VI., 223 ; given to the papacy by Otto IV., 223 Matthias, emp. of the H. K. E., 308. Matthias of Tlium, 309. Matthias Corvinus, k. of Hungary, 278. Maupeou, 446. Maupertuis. See Poitiers. Maurepas, 447. Mauretania, Roman prov. , 160. Maurice, Greek emp., 191 ^ of Nassau, 331; d. of Saxony', 305. Maxen, surrender of,, 406. Maxentius, Roman emp., 158, 159. Maximianus, 158, 159. Maximilian, d. of Bavaria, in thirty years' war, 308, 309. Maximilian, emp. of Mexico, 604. Maximilian I., emp. of the H. R. E., mar- ried heiress of Burgundy^ 253; secures succession of Hungary, 2*8 ; reign, 300 ; II., 492, 306. Maximious, 1^8, 159. Maximinus Thrax, Roman emp., 155, 156. May laws in Prussia, 521. Mayas, 285. Mayence. ISee Mainz. Mayenne, d. ofj 324. Mayflower, 294. Mayo, lord, viceroy of India, 547. Mayors of the palace, origin of their power, 182, 183, 184 ; compared with the sho- guns in Japan 213. Mozarin, in thirty years' war, 314 ; agent of the pope, 326 ; his administration and death, '6Q6. Mazd^k, 189. Mazeppa, 395. Meade, gen., 558. Mecklenburg, 226, 316. Media, revolt tinder Phraortes, 15 ; geog- raphy, 24 ; subject to Assyria,' 25 ; re- volt suppressed by Sargon, 14 ; revolt under Phraortes, 15, 25 ; Median empire, 25 ; supremacy passed from 'Media to Persia, 26; revolt suppressed by Da- rius, 27; subject to Parthia, 30;'la;^e portion ceded to Armenia, 188. Median wall, 16. Medici, Alexander de', 327 ; Catherine de-, 321 ; Oosimo de% created g. d. of Tus- cany, 327 ; Mary de", regency of, 325. Medici family in Florence, 263 ; in Flor- ence and Tuscany, 327 ; extinction, 398. Megacles, 51. Megalopolis, 71 ; battle of, 73. Megara, Doric state, 48 ; ally of Athens, 62 ; old constitution restored, 63 ; joined the Peloponnesians, 65. Megiddo, battle of, 6, 11. Mehemed Ali, revolt of, 491, 53"). Meissen, origin, 194 ; given to Conrgd of Wettin, 218 ; eastern part of Thuringia ^ joined to, 225; Frederic of Meissen re-' eeives the electorate of Saxony, 252. Melac, 370. Melanchthon, 303. Melas, 460, 461, 462. Melbourne, lord, home sec, 539 ; premier, Melkart, Phoenician divinity, 17. Meminius, C, 126, 128. Memnon, 5. Memphis, in Lower Egypt, 2 ; worship ot Ptah, 2 ; Cambyses in, 27'. - ^, . Mena, first k. of Egypt, 3, 4. Mendoza, viceroy, 287. Menkaura, k. of Egypt, 4. Menou, 463. Menschikoff, 410, 500. Mentaua, battle of, 511. Mercia, founded, 179 ; supremacy of, 180 ; Dane^ in, 203. Mercurius, 84. Mercy, 314. Mergentheim, 218 ; battle of, 315. Meri lake, constructed by Amenemhat I., 4. Mermnadse, dynasty in Lydia, 21. Meroe, kingdom in Ethiopia, 5. Merowingians, 35 ; derivation of the name^ 170; defeat Syagriug, 173;' Franks un- der, 181 ; superseded by the Caroliugi- ans, 184. Merseberg, 195, n. Merwan 11., last Ommiad caliph, 182. Meschish, k. of Gaul, 36. Mesopotamia, Roman prov., 153. Messalina, 150. Messana, 51, 109^ Miessenian wars, I., II., 51; III., 62. Meta Incognita, 289. Metaurus, battle of the, 117. Metcalfe, fair Charles, in India, 542. Index. 33 Uetellus, L. Oaeoilios, defeats Hftsdrubal at Panormus, 111. Metellus (Macedonicua), Q. CseciUus, in the 4tli Macedonian and Acliieaa war. 122. Metellus (Numanticus), Q. Ctecilius, cap- tures Numantia. 123 ; defeats Jugurtha, 126 ; superseded by Mariua, 127. Metellus (Pius), Q. Ctecilius, war with Ser- tortus, 133 ; subdues Crete, 134. Methuen treaty, 434. Metoeoi, 62. Metternich, at the congresB of Prague, 476 ; of Vienna, 4S2 ; of Carlsbad, 487 ; head of the conservative party, 491 ; driven from Vienna, 492. Metz, siege of, 306, 516, 618. Mexican expedition, 6U3, 532. Mexico conquered by Oortez, 285 ; freed from Spanish rule, 4% ; war with the United States, 554. Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 328. Michigan admitted to the Union, 653. Michillimachinac, Jesuit mission, 364. Mlcipsa, 126. Midas, k. of Fhrygia, 22. Middle Kingdom, 32. Middlesex, 178. Mieczeslav II., leader of Che Poles, 198. Miguel, Bon, of Portugal, 488. Mikado. See Japan. Milan, captured by Scipio, 35 ; raptured by Baroarossa and destroyed, 221 ; rebuilt, ib. ; under the Visconti and Sforza, 262 j war between Charles V., and Francis I., concerning, 304, 319 ; Philip invested with, 'ib. : claims of Louis XII. to, 318 ; appanage of Spain, 826 : assi^cd to the emperor, 393 ; Victor fimmanuel in, 562. Milan decree, 550. Milan, pr. of Servia, 521 ; becomes k. , 526. Milesians settle at the mouth of the Tigris, 28 ; in Ireland, 39. Miletus, in lee^e with Croesus, 21, 28; loniana settle, 49 ; battle of, 67- Milhaud, confederation of, 322. Military roads in Persia, 28 ; constructed In Italy, 82 ; in Britain, 176. Millenary petition, 340. Millesimo, battle of, 458. Milo, S. AnniuB, 139. Miltiades, 28 ; at Marathon, 57. Milton, John, 389. Minamoto family, 212, 213, 242. Minden, battle of, 405. Mineptah, k. of ilgypt, 6. Minerra, 84. Ming dynasty in China, 242. Minnesota admitted to Union, 556. Minos, k. of Crete, 18, 46. Minotaur, 18. Minto, lord, gov. gen. m India, 541. MinuciuB, M., 114. Minuit, Peter, 298. Minyae, 43, 46, 48. 49. Mir Jafar, 443, 444 ; Kosim, 444. Mirabeau, C, 449, 451. Miramichi Bay, discovery of, 287. Miranda, 550. MiHenum, treaty of, 146. Miaii regis, 186. Missionary Ridge battle of, 558 Misaissippl admitted to ih» Union. 651. Mississippi river, discov. 287,364; possesBion; taken for France, 362, 36o ; claimed by France, 420 ; navigation free to England and France, 4*^'i ; to England and the United Scatcs, 432. MisBolonghi, 488. Missouri admitted to the Union, 552. Missouri compromise, 552. Withra, 25. Mithndates, I., founded Parthian empire, 30; II., k. of Parthia, 30. Mithndates VI., k. of Pontus, his power, 129 ; Sulla concluded peace with, 131 ; alliance of Sertorius with, 133 ; killed himself, 136. Mithridatic wars,I.,129; II.,132; III., 134. Mobile colony, 365. Mocenigo, adm., 416. Mockern, battle of, 478. Modena, 416, 458. Moesia, 148, 153. MohacB, battle of, 303, 372. Mohammed, 182. Moira, lord, gov. gen. in India, 5iL Molai, Jacques de, 256. Moldavia, 395, 488. Mol6, ministry of, 530. Moli6re, 371. MoUwitz, battle of, 401. Moloch, 17, 18. Moltke, 608, 609, 617. Momemphis, battle of, 6. Mompeson, impeachment of, 342. * Monasteries in Ireland, 39 ; suppressed la England, 335 ; in Austria, 407 ; in FraRoe, 534 ; in Rome and Papal states, 520. Mondovi, battle of, 458. Mongols, defeated by the Chinese, 32 ; in- vajiion of Germany, 240 ; conquest of China, 242 ; repulse from Japan, 243 ; supremacy in Russia, 27T ; check the Os- man power, 278. Monk, 376, 877, 378. See Albemarle. Monmouch, battle of, 430. Monmouth, d. of, 382, 383. Monroe doctrine, 552. Monroe, James, 550, 651. Mons sacer, 96, 98. Montague, proceedings against, 342, 387. Montaigne, Michael, 324. Montcalm, 421, 422. Monteagle, lord, 840. Montebello, battle of, 502. Montecuculi, 368, 372, Montenegro, war with the Porte, 521, 622 ; became independent, 524. Monterean, 259 ; battle of, 480. Monterey, battle of, 654. Monfesquieu, 448. Montezuma, Mexican empire of, 286. Montgomery, general, 427. Montfel, battle of, 276. Montl'hery, battle of, 260. Montmartre, storm of, 481. Moncmirail, battle at, 480. Montmorency, 320 ; execution, 326. Montpellier, 258. Montreal, settled by Maisonneuve, 300 ; sur- rendered to English, 422; captured by Montgomery, 427. Montrose, miirquih( of, plotsagainBt Argjie, 34 Index, 346 ; campaign, in Scotland, 348 ; execu- tion, 375. Monts, BieuT de, 290. Moors, origin, 183 1 conquer Spain, 183 ; caliphate, 209 ; conquered by Almora- Tides, 209 ; by Almohades, 240 ; conquest of Granada, 276. Moqui Canon, 287. Morabethes, 209, 240. More, Sir Thomas, 335. Morea (see Greece), conquered by Turks, 397 i ravaged, 488. Moreau, 458, 460, 462, 465, 477. Morgan, 431. MorgarCen, battle of, 247. Morkere, 206, 229. Momington, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. Moro, Ludovico, 318. Moroaini, 416. Morse, 487. Mortier, 481. Mortimer, Edmund, 270; Roger, 267, 268. Mortimer's Cross, battle of, 272. Mortmain, statute of, 266. Moscow, national centre of Bussia, 277 j burning of, 475. Moshaisk, battle of, 475. Moslems, 182. Mt. Cenis tunnel, 520. Mount Desert, 292, 299. Mountain, the, in the legislative assembly, 451, 453. Mowbray, conspiracy of, 270. Muawwiyah I., caliph, 182. Mucins Scsevola, 95. Mughal empire, founded, 353 ; end of, 546. See, also, India. Muhammed II., destroyed eastern empire, 278. Muhammed Ghori, 211, 241 ; Shah, 442 ; Tughiak, 241. Muhan^medanism, in China, 31; origin in Arabia, 182 : conquests in west, 183 ; in Persia 192, 193. Miihlberg, battle of, 305- Miihldorf, battle of, 247. Mukhtar Pasha, 523. Mummius, 122. MuDchengratz, 491, 509. Munda, battle of, 143. Munger, Thomas, 302. Munich, 312, 492. Municipal corporations reform act, 541. Miinnich, 410, 411. Munro, major, 444. Munster, anabaptists in, 304; negotiations for peace at, 316. Murad, I., sultan of the Turks, 278; V., deposed, 521. Murat, 460. 467 ; g. d. of Berg, 468 ; k. of Naples, 470 ; driven from Naples, 484 ; executed, 485. Murray. See Mansfield, lord. Murray, earl of, regent, 338. Murray, lord George, 438. Murten, battle of, 262. Musa, 183. Muthul, battle of, 126. Mutina, founded, 112 ; battle of, 35, 144. Mutiny act, 386. Jlutsu-mto, 33j 562. Mycale, 61. MylBB, battle of, 110, 146. Myonnesus, battle of, 119. Mysia, 20, 21. Nabis, 80, 119. Nabonetus, k. of Babylon, 16. Nabopolassar, k. of Babylon, 15, 16, 25. Nachod, battle of, 509. Nadir Shah, invades India, 442. Nafels, battle of, 250. Nagpur, raja of, 541. Najara, battle of, 259. Nancy, battle of, 262. Nangis, battle of, 480. Nankin, treaty of, 542, 561. Nantes, edict, see edict of, 369 ; leTolu- tiouary tribunal of, 454. Nantwich, battle of, 348. Napata, kingdom of, 5. Napier, 600. Napier, lord, 561. Naples {see Sicily), separated from Sicily, under Charles of Anjou, 226 : conquered by Charles VIII., 262 ; by Alphonso of Ar- agon, 263 : by Louis XII. and Ferdinand, 318 ; revolt of Masaniello, 327 ; ceded by Austria to Spain, 398, 416; transferred into Parthenopaean republic, 460 ; French garrison, 463 ; Bourbons banished, 468 ; restored, 483 ; revolutionary movements, 487, 493 ; liberated by Garibaldi, 503. Napoleon I., emp. of the French (see Bona- parte, Napoleon), crowned, 465; k. of Italy, 467 ; protector of the confederacy of the Rhine, 468 ; divorced from Jose- phine, 473 ; birth of the k. of Rome, 474 ; campaign of Feb., 1814, 480; abdicated, 481 ; removed to Elba, 481 ; return, 483, 526; hundred days, 483 ; Waterloo, 484; transported to St. Helena, 484; death, 527; entombment in Paris, 530. Napoleon III., emp. of the French {see Louis Napoleon), elected, 499, 531; at- tempted assassination, 531, 544 ; war with Italy, 502, 532; Mexican expedi- tion, 503 ; Luxembourg question, 511 ; Franco-Prussian war, 613 ; surrenders to William III., 517 ; death, 520, 533. Narragansett Indians, 359 . Narses, 176, 188. Narva, battle of, 395. Narvaez, 285, 286. Naseby, battle of, 349. Nassau incorporated with Prussia, 510. National convention, 447,451, 452; federa- tion, 460 ; petition, 542. Naucraries, 53, 55, 58. Navarino, battle of, 489, 539. Navarre, origin, 209; Joanna, heiress ofj marries Philip IV., 254 ; Charles the Bad, k. of, 258 ; in the Huguenot wars, 321. Navarrete, battle of, 276. Navigation act, 376 ; repealed, 543. Nayler, 377. Nebraska, admitted to the Union, 559. Nebuchadnezzar, k. of Babylon, 6, 11, 16- Necker 447 449. Neerwinden, battle of, 370, 388, 453. Nehavend, battle of, 182, 193. Noku, k. of Egypt, 6, 11, 16. Nelson at Aboukir, 460; at Trafalgar 467 Index. 35 N'emean festival, 42. Nemed, 39. Nepalese, conquered by Chinese, 444. Neptunus, 84. Nero, C. Claudius, couBUl, 117. Nero, Roman emp., 150, 151. Nerra, Roman emp., 152. Nesselrode, 482. Netherlands, accLnisition by the house of Burgundy, 328, 329 ; war of liberation, 330 ; independence recognized, 331 ; war with Louis XIV,, 367 ; with England, 379, 380 ; New Amsterdam lost, 358 ; Spanish Netherlands given to Austria, strife with Joseph II., 408 ; trans- formed into the Batavian republic, 466 ; iuto the kingdom of Holland, 468; in- corporated with France, 473 ; the French expelled, 479; kingdom of the Nether- lands formed, 483; Belgium separated from Holland, 489. Neuch^tel, given to Prussia, 893; to Ber- thler, 468 ; as principality restored to Prussia, 482 ; as canton joined to the Swi?<8 confederacy, 483; revolt from Prussia, 492 ; given up by Prussia, 60L Neuhof, baron, k. of Corsica, 415. Neustria, decay of, 35 ; in the 2d division of the Prankish kingdom, 181 ; in the 3d, 182, 183 ; in treaty of Verdun, 187. Neutrality act, 548. Nevada admitted to the Union, 658. Nevers, house of, 311. Neville's Cross, battle of, 268. New Albion, west^ discovered by Brake, 289 ; east, granted to Plowden, 293. New Amsterdam, founded, 298 ; captured by EngUsh, 358, 379. Newbury, battles of, 348. Newcastle, ministry of, 438, 439. Newcomen, 486. New England, named, 294 ; presidency of, 361 : Indian hostilities in, 417. New Forest, 230. Newfoundland, discovery, 284, 287; Gilbert takes possession of, 289 ; grant of a part to sir Geo. Calvert, 299. New France, French settlements in, 299 ; name extended co the west, 364, 365 ; ceded to England, 422. New Granada, 488. New Hampshire, granted to Mason, 296; separated &om Massachusetts, 359 ; in- surrection in, 432. New Haven, colony of, 357 ; union with Connecticut, 358. New Jersey, granted to Berkeley Kod Car- teret, 358 ; under Andros, 361 ; divided into east and west Jersey, 359. New Netherlands, agreement with the united colonies, 367 ; granted to dukes of York and Albany, 868. New North Wales, 299. New Orleans, reserved to France, 422; British repulsed at, 551. Newport, treaty of, 351. New South Wales, 299. New Sweden, 298. Newton, Isaac, 388, 389. Newtown Butler, battle of, 386. New York, name of New Amsterdam changed to, 358 ; captured by the Dutch, restored to England, 359 ; gov. Androo. 859, 361 ; gov. Fletcher, 362 ; gov. Bur- net, 417 ; settlement of Conn, boundary 418; treaty with the Iroquoiri, 418; occu pied by the British, 428 : evacuated, 432, Ney, 467; "bravest of the brave,'' 476, 477 ; joined Napoleon, 483 ; executed, 486. Niagara, expedition against, 421, 423.' Nicsea, council of, 169 : Greek empire of, 216. Nice, truce of, 304; annexed to France, 502. Nicephorus Phocas, Greek emp., 210. Nicholas I., tsar of Russia, 488 ; Polish revolution, 490 ; intervention in Hun- gary, 495; joins Austria, 498; Crimean war, 499 ; death, 500. Nicholas V., anti-pope, 247. Nicias, 66-67 ; peace of, 66- Nicomedes, k. of Bithynia, 78; III., 129, 134. Niels, k. of Denmark, 208. Nightingale, Florence, 500. Nihilists, 525, 626. Nikita, pr. of Montenegro, 521. Nikolsburg, truce of, 609. Nile, battle of the, 460, 586. Nimrod, k. of Assyria, 6, n. 2 ; 13. Nimwegen, peace of, 368. Nineteen propositions, 347. Nineveh, on the Tigris, 12 ; foundation, 14 ; captured by Cyaxares, 16, 26 ; battle of, 192. Nlnus, 14. Nippon, proper meaning, ^, u, 2, Nisib, battle of, 491. Nitta Yoshisada, 243. Nizam ul Mulk, 442. Noah, 36, 39. Noailles, ricomte de, 460. Nobility in Rome, 101, 102; abolished in France, 463: new nobility, 467. Nobuna^ 866, 356. Noisseville, battle of, 616. Nola, battle of, 149. Nollendorf, battle of, 477, 478. Nombre de Dios, 289. Non-jurors, 886. No popery riots, 440. Nordlingen, battle of, 313. Nore, mutiny at the, 636. Noreia, battle of, 127. Noricum, 148, 167. Normandy, settled, 202; Vexin annexed to, 203; duke William conquers Eng- land, 206 ; belongs to Henry II. of Eng- land, 231 ; conquered by Philip Augus- tus, 227. Normans. See Northmen. North, sir Francis, 382. North, lord, administration, 400, 425 ; re- signs, 441. Northampton, battle of, 272. North Anna, battle of, o58. Northbrook, lord, viceroy of India, 547. North Carolina, separated from South Car- olina, 418 ; colonial charter suspended, 427 ; insurrection in, 425 ; accepted the constitution of U. S., 647. Northcote, sir Stafford, 646. Northern convention, 462 463. Northern war, 394. 36 Index, NoTtk German Confederation. See Ger- many. Northmen, wars with Charles the Great, 185 ; ravages in France and Germany, 193, 201 ; settled in Italy, 198, 199, 200 ; siege of Paris, 201 : settlement, 202; in England, 203, 204, 205 ; conquest of Eng- land, 206. Northumberland, d. of, 336 ; e. of, 2V0, 271. Northumbria, kingdom of, 178, 179, 180. Norway, early history to 1103, 208 ; from death of Magnus Barfod to union of Cal- mar, 1103-1397, 238; to 1524,276,351; to 1789, 409 ; ceded to Sweden, 479, 483; war with Sweden, 484 ; constitutional contest in, 526. Notables, assembly of, 447. Notium, battle of, 69. Nottingham, e. of, impeached, 270. Nottingham, e. of, sec. of, state, 385, 433 ; pres. of council, 436. NoTara, battle of, 319, 488, 494. Nova Scotia, granted to sir Wm. Alexan- der, 295, 299 ; ceded to England, 393 ; 422, 439 ; fisheries in, 432. Novgorod, 208, 277. Novi, battle of, 461. Nullification proclamation, 553. Numa Pompilius, k. of Eome, 88. Numantia, destruction of, 123. Numerianus, Roman emp., 158. Numidia, divided between Bocchus and Gauda, 121, 127, 142. Nuremberg, peace of, 303 ; fortified camp of, 312. Nymphenburg, alliance of, 401. Nystadt, peace of, 397. Dates, Titus, plot, 381 ; trial, 383 ; pardon, 386. Oaths of allegiance and supremacy, 386. Obelisks, 3. Ocampo circumnavigates Cuba, 284. Occasional conformity act, brought in, 433, 434 ; passed, 485 \ repealed, 437. Octavia, 145, 150. Octavianus, C. Julius Caesar ; negotiations with the senate, 144 ; appointed consul, 145 ; receives the west, 145 ; war with Sextus Pompeius and Antonius, 146 ; sole ruler, 147. See Augustus. Odenathus, 157. Odin, 164, 165. Odo> b. of Bayeuz,' 229 ; c. of Paris, See Eudes. Odovaker, ruler of Italy, 162, 173 ; over- thrown by Theodoric, 174. Odysseus, 47. (Edipus, 46. (EneuB, k. of Athens, 44. (Enophyta, battle of, 63. OfEa, k. of Mercia, 180. Offices of state opened to plebeians, 101. Oglethorpe, James, settles Georgia, 418, 419. Ohio admitted to the Union, 549. Ohio Company, 419, 420. Olaf Hunger, k. of Denmark, 208. Olaf, k. of Denmark, 237 ; of Norway, 240. Olaf, St., k. of Norway, 209; Traetelje, first k. of Norway, 208; Trygvasson, k. of Norway, 2U8, 209. Olaf, the Lap-king, of Sweden, 208. Oldcastle, sir John, 271. Old French and Indian war, 420. Oldenburg, 409 ; house of, 351 ; annexed to France, 473. Oliva, peace of, 373. Olivarez, 332. OUivier, ministry of, 512, 532. Olmiitz, conference of, 498 ; siege of, 404. Olybrius, Roman emp., 162. Olympiad, first, 50. Olympian festival, 42. 01ympia8,77. Olynthiac orations, 72. OlynthuB, battle of, 65 ; 70 ; alliance with Philip, 71 ; revolt and destruction, 72. Omar, 182, 192. Omar Pacha, 499. Ommiads obtained the caliphate, 182 : over- thrown by Abbasideft, 183 ; founded cal- iphate of Cordova, 183, 209. O'Neil, Hugh. See Tyrone. ' Onomarchus, 72. Opequan, battle of, 558. Opium war, 542, 561. Oppius, Spurius, 98. Optimates, 101. Orange, William of (the Silent), 330, 331. Orbau Fr6re, ministry, 525. Orchomenus, battle of, 131. Ordinance for the government of the terri- tory northwest of the Ohio, 433. Ordinances instead of acts passed by long parliament, 347. Orebro, peace of, 474. Oregon admitted to the Union, 556 ; boun- dary decided, 543, 560 ; treaty, 554. Orellana, Francisco, 288. Orf ord (adm. Russell), invites William III,, 384 ; victory of La Hogue 387 ; created earl of Orford, impeached, 388. Organic statute, 490. Orinoco, discovery of, 283. Orkneys, conquest of, 209. Orleanists, 530. Orleans besieged by Attila, 173; maid of, 260 ; cap. of Burgundy, 181 ; battle of, 618. Orleans, d. of, murdered, 259 ; death, 530 ; Gaston of, conspiracies of, 325, 3^, 366 ; Philip of, regent, 446; Philip Egalit^, 460 ; execution of, 465. Orleans, house of, strife with Burgundy, 259 ; comes to the throne in France, 317 ; again in 1830, 489, 529 ; expeUed, 630, Orloff, 411. Ormaguas, empire of the, 288. Ormondfduke of, impeachment, 437. Ormuzd. See Ahuramazda. Orodes I., k. of Farthia, 80. Orsini, 531. Osborne, Fir Thomas. See Danby, 880. Osiris, 2, 3. Osman I., 278 ; Fajsha, 622. Osnabriick, negotiations for peace at, 315. Ostend East India Co., 437. Ostmark (Lusatia), formation of, 194 ; Ba- varian Ostmark reestablished, 198 ; en- larged, 199. See Austria. Ostrach, battle of, 460. Ostracism, 55. Index. 37 Ostrogothn. See East Gotha. Oetroleaka, battle of, 490. Oswald, of Northun^biia, 180. Oswego, captured by Montcalm, 421. Oswieu, k. of Northumbria, 180. OthmanQ, 182. Otho. For C^erman rulers, see Otto. Otho, Koman emp., 161. Otia, Janies, 422, 423. Otterbume. See Chery Chase. Otto the Finne, marg. of Brandenbmg, 249. Otto I., k. of Qreece, accession, 489 ; ex- pulsion, 605. Otto I. the Great, emp. of the H. R. E., 195 ; II., 196, 197 ; III., " Wonder of the World," 197; IV., of Brunswick, 223. Otto of Nordheim, 199. Otto of Wittelsbach, 222. Otto the Illujstrioiu, d. of Saxony, 194. Ottocar, k. of Bohemia, 244. Oudenarde, battle of, 392, 435. Oudb, proTince in India, 22; under the Guptas, 24; independence of, 442: an- nexation, 646. Oudinot, 475, 477, 480. Ovaudo, 283. Overbury, sir Thomas, 341. Ovidiua Naeo, P., 83, 148. Oxenstierna, Axel, 313, 314, 315. Oxford, parliament of Charles I. at, 348. Oxford, e. of (Hariey), lord high trea- surer, 435 ; dismissed, 435 ; impeached, 437. Pacbes, 66. Pacific Ocean, discovered, 284. Facte de famine, 446. Paix dea dames, 303 ; de monsieur, 322. Palaeolc^i, Greek emperors, 278. Paiseologus, Michael, 216. Palatinate, electorate, 248 ; in the thirty years' war, 310; dlTision of, 316; war over the snccession in, St)9 ; devastation of, 370 ; in the war of the Bavuian sue- cession, 406. Palestine, 6, 7. Palikao, battle of, 602i562. Falladius, in Ireland, 39. Palm, execution of, 468. Falmerston, lord, in the Egyptian trouble, 491 ; alliance with Turkey, 499 ; for. sec, home sec, premier, 643; second ministET, death, 644. Palmyra, 157. Palo Alto, battle of, 554. Pampeluna, siege of^ 479. Panama congress, 652. Pandulf, 234. Panipat, battles of, 353, 443. Paiuaonia, Roman proT., 149, 167. Panormus, 17, 20 ; battle of, 111. Fansa, 144. Paoli, 415. Papacy, origin, 175 j foundation of its sec- ular power, 184 ; German popes, 196 ; Gregory VII., investitures, 199; Canos- sa, 200 ; concordat of Worms, 201 ; Ur- ban II., crusades, 213-217 ; contest with J-rederic I., 221 ; Innocent III., 223 ; Greg- ory IX., strife with Frederic II., 224, 22d ; oouncil of Lyons, 225 ; Adrian IV. gives Ireland to Henry II. , 73Z ; Innocent III., contest with John, 283; council of Con- stance proclaims its superiority, 261 ; Boniface VIII., quarrel with Philip the Fair, 254 ; Babylonish captivity ia Avignon, 255, 263; great schism, 263: reformation, 301 ; council of Trent, 305 ; antl-relormatiou, 306; Alexander VI,, Gregory XIII., reform of calendar, 337; dispute with Henry VIII., 334 ; bull ap- portioning the undiscovered portions of the world, 353; Pius VI. and Joseph II., 408 ; Pius VI. . seized by the French, 459 ; concordat of 1801, 463; Pius VII., seized by Napoleon, 473 ; receives the papal states again, 483; Pius IX., 492; revolt in Rome suppret^sed by French, 493 ; honorary president of the Italian league, 602 ; Vatican council papal infallibility, 512; temporal power of the pope abol- ished, 518 : guarantee for the pope, 520 ; contest with Italy, Prussia, Switzerland, 521; Leo XIII ,,624. Papal state!) founded, 184 ; estates of Matilda obtained, ^23; independent of the empire, 263 ; declining prosperity, 416; cession of Bologna, Ferrara, the Romagna, 458 ; transformation into the Roman republic, 4^ ; without Romagna, Bol<^na, and Ferrara restored Co the pope, 464 ; incorporated with Fiance, 473 ; restored to the papacy, 483 ; Bo- logna, Ferrara, Romagna, incorporated with Italy, 402 ; patrimonium Petri to be protected by Italy, 603; patrimonium Petri also incorporated, 518. Paper, improvement in, 279. Paphlagonia, 21, 136. Papin, Denis, 486. Papirius Carbo, 125, 127, 130, 131 ; Cursor, 106. Papists disabling act, 381. Pappenheim, 311, 312. Paragu^, discovery of, 286 ; rule of Fran- cia, 4^. Paris, Lutetia Parisiorum, occupied by La- bienus, 139 ; court-camp of Childebert I., 181 ; siege by Otto II., 196; siege by the Northmen, 201 ; capital of the French monarchy {see Laon), 202 ; entrance of the allies, 481 ; second capture, 484 ; siege, 517 ; bombardment, 519 ; capitu- lation, 519 ; second siege, 530. See^ also, France. Paris, peace of 1763, 422, 439 ; of 1783, . 431, 441 : between Sweden and France, 473 ; of 1814, 481 ; of 1815, 485 ; closing the Crimean war, 501. Pa^s, son of Priam, 47. Paris, Matthew, 235. Parker, archb. of Canterbury, 338. Parliament, in England, the witan, 177; p. of Simon of Montfort, 234 ; taxation without consent of p., illegal, 266; first perfect p., 267 ; separation into two houses, 268 ; the " good p.," the " won- derful p.," 269; English in the house of commons, 271; grand protestation 842 ; petition of right, 348 ; scene in the commons, 348 ; no p. for 11 years, 344 : the "short p.," 345; the "long p.,' 345; '*Rump," 376; " Barebone's p.*" 38 Index. 376; long p. dissolved, 378; resumfe of its history, 378, n. ; " conTention. p.," 378; "cavalier p,,"378; convention p., 385; first triennial p., 388; first p. of Great Britain, 434; first septennial p., 437; Wilkes, 440; speeches printed, 440 ; contractors and revenue officers excluded, 441 ; first imperial p., 520 ; Catholics first admitted, 889 ; reform act, 540; annual p. demanded, 542; property qualification abolished, Jews admitted, 2d reform act, 544. jParliamontofFrance, explained, 254; raised chambers, 324 ; mixed chambers in 4 par- liaments, 324 ; resistance of the p. of Paris, 366 ; p. of Paris abolished, but re- stored, 446 ; again abolished, 447. Parliament of Germany, 493-498. Parma ceded to Spanish Bourbons, 403, 416 ; ceded to France, 463 ; given to Napoleon's wife, 481 ; incorporated with Sardinia, 502. Parma, d. of, 331, 458. Parmenio, 74, 75. Parnell, 545. Parthenon, built, 64 ; blown up, 416. Parthenopaean republic, kingdom of Naples transformed into, 460 ; abolished, 461. Farthia, on the plateau of Iran, 24 ; revolt subdued by Darius, 27 ; geography of, 29 ; revolt under Arsaces, 29 ; kingdom of , wars with Rome, etc., 30; kingdom of, 78 ; Grassus, 140 ; war with Trajan, 153 ; dissolution of monarchy, 30, 155. I^rtholan, k. of Ireland, 38. Partition of Poland, I., 411 ; II., 413 ; III., 414. Partition of Prussia proposed, 404. Partition treaties, 391. Paschal II., pope, 201; III., 221. Paskevitch, 489, 490, 495, 499. Passarowitz, peace of, 397. Passau, convention of, 306, 317. Patkul, 394, 395. Patnd., massacre of ,444. patricians, origin, 88, 90 ; conflicting views concerning, 94 ; conflict with the plebei- ans, 95, 96, 97, 100 ; create a new office, but soon lose exclusive control of all offices, 101. Paul I., tsar of Bussia, 459, 462, 463. Paul IV., pope, 327. Paullus, L. .^milius, 112 ; consul, falls at Cannee, 115 ; the younger, victory over the Lusitanians, 118 ; defeated Perseus, 120. Paulus Diaconua, 186. Pausanias, 60, 61, 69. Pavia, 175 ; siege, 184; battle of, 303. Peasants' war, in Germany, 302. Pedro, I., emp. of Brazil, 488 ; II., 488. Peel, Robert, home sec, 539 ; first adminis- tration, 540 ; second administration, 542. Peking, treaty of, 502, 643, 662. Pelagius, 183. Pelasgians, 43, 49. Pelham, Henry, admiuistration, 438. P^Iissier, 500. Pelopidae, 44. Pelopidas, 70, 71. Peloponnesian war, 64-69. Pelusium, 2; battle of, 7,27; taken by Parsians, 191. Penates, 84. Penda, k. of Mercia, 179, 180. Peninsula campaign of McClellan, 567- Peninsula War, 471, 537. Penn, William, 360, 377. Pennsylvania granted to William Penn, 359 ; government taken from Penn, 362 j new charter obtained by Penn, 362. Penny postage in England, 642. Penobscot, 294, 300. Penrith, battle of, 438. Penruddock, rebellion of, 376. " Pensioned,'* parliament, 378, 381. Pensions, 562. Pentarchy of the great powers, 482. Pentland Hills, battle of, 379. Peppereli, William, 419. * Pequigny, peace of, 274. Pequot war, 297- Perceval, 537. Percy, Harry (Hotspur), 270. Perdiccas, 74, 76. P^re la Chaise, 381. Pergamon, kingdom of, 78, 124. Pericles, rival of Cimon, 62 ; administra- tion of, 64 ; death, 66. P^rier, 486, 527 ; ministry of, 529. Perioeci, 50. Perezes, k. of Persia, 189. Perperna, 132, 133. Perpetual peace, 319. Perry, com., at Yedo, 562. Perseus, k. of Macedonia, 78, 120. Persia, gfiography, 24 ; religion, 24, 25 ; revolt under Cyrus, 26 ; old Persian' em- pire, 7&. ; conquests of Cambyses and Da- rius, 27 ; administration of the empire, 28 ; war with the Greeks of Asia Minor, ib. ; of Europe, 28, 56 ; decline and fall oi the empire, 29; subject to Parthia, 30; new Persian empire founded, i6., 155, 187 ; wars with Rome, 190 ; restored to the limits reached under Darius, 191 ; conquest by Arabs, 192, 193. Persian wars, I., II., 56; III., 58; IV., 60. Pert, rir Thomas, 285. Pertinax, Roman emp., 154. Peru, exploration of, 286 ; conquest of by Pizarro, 287 ; a free state, 488. Perusia, civil war ot, 145. Pescennius Niger, 156. PeshwA, 443, 541. Peter, k. of Aragon, 226; III., 276: IV., 276. ) . J I Peter the Cruel, k. of Castile, war with. 258, 276. Peter I., the Great, tsar of Russia, 374 ; in England, 388 ; war with Charles XII., k. of Sweden, 394, 395, 396, 410; II., 410; III., 406. 411. Peter the Hermit, 200, 213. Peter de la Mare, 269. Peter des Roches, 284. Peter de Vinea, 225. Peterborough, lord, 434. Peterborough, sack of, 204. Feterloo. See Manchester Massacre. Peterwardein, battle of, 397. P6tion,451,454. Petition of Right, 343. Petrarca, Francesco, 263. Index, 39 Petre, father, 384. Petreius, 141, 142. PetrouiuB Haximus, Eoman emp., 161. Pfaffendorf, batUe of, 405. Pharaoh, 2, n. Pharisees, 11- Pharoabazus, 68, 70. Pharnaces, 142, 143. PharsaluB, battle of, 141. Phidias, 64. Philadelphia, foundation of, 360 ; occupied by British, evacuated, 429 ; centennial exhibition at, 660. Philadelphia, burning of the frigate, 649. Philteni, altars of, 19. Philip, d. of Anjou. See Philip V., k. of Spain. Philip the Fair, archd. of Austria, 253, 301, 328. Philip the Bold, d. of Burgundy, 258 ; the Good, 259. Philip I., k. of France, 203, 226; II., Au- gustus, crusade, 216; BouTines, 223; reign, 226 ; intrigues a^inst Richard of England, 232 : trouble over Ingebord, 236 ; lll.,le Hardi, 254 ; IV., le Bel, 254 ; \.,le 1^71^,256; VI., 257. Philip, landgr. of Hespe, 304, 305. Philip, k. of >Iacedonia, 71 ; V., k., war with Rome, 116, 118 ; with AJitiochus, 119. Philip, d. of Orleans. See Orleans. Philip II., k. of Sjpain, war with Henry II., of France, 321 ; claim to French crown, 324; reign, 330; IH., 331 ; IV., 831; v., clMm urged by Louis XIV., 391; war of Spanish succession 392 ; recog nized in Spain, 393 ; claimant for Aus- trian succession, 400 ; reign, 414. Philip of Swabia, emp. of the H. R. E., 223. Philip, king, IJidian chief, 359. Philiphaugh, battle of, 348. Philippi, founded, 71 ; battle of, 145. Philippics of Demosthenes, 72; of Cicero, 141. PhilippuB Arabs, Roman emp., 156, 188. Philistines, 7, 8, 14. Philocrates, peace of, 72. Philomelus, 72. Philopoemen, 80. Phips, sir Wm,, gov. of Mass., 361. Phocajans, 19, 26- Phocion, 70, 79. Phoebidas, 70. Phoenicia, Phoenicians, expeditions of Ra- mespu I,, 5 ; war of Psamethik I., 6 ; subject to Tiglath-Pileser I,, 14; geog- raphy, 16 ; religion, 16, 17 ; constitution of the cities, 17 ; Sidon's greatest power, ib. ; voyages and colonies, ib.; rise of Tyre, 18; foundation of Carthage, ib.; decline of Phoenician cities, 19 ; subject to Assyria, Egypt, Babylon, Persia, ib.; to Macedon, the Seleucidse, the Ptole- mies, 20; retains native rulers under Persia, 26, 27 ; P. refuse to assist Camby- ses against Carthage, 27; revolt sup- pressed by Artaxerxes III., 29; never visited Britain, 37. Phraates, name of several Parthian kings, 1 , 29 ; II., 30 ; III., first war with Rome, 30; IV-, attacked by Antonius, SO. war with Augustus, 148. Phraortes, 15, 26. Phratries, 64. PhrixoB, 46. Phrygia, 21, 22. Phylae, 46, 54. Piacenza, 416, 467. Piasts, Poland under the, 277. Piccolomini, 313, 314. See iSneas Silvius. Picenum, 81, 83, 141. Piohegru, 455, 466, 469, 465. Piedmont, settled by Celts, conquered by Rome, 35, 118 ; under the East Goths, 174; under the Langoburds, 176, con- quered by Charles the Great, 184 ; Caro- lingians in, 193; Otto I. conquers Be- rengar of Ivrea, 195, 196 ; Henry II. conquers Ardoin, 197; Lombard league and Frederic Barbarossa, 219-222 ; Fred- eric I., 224 ; divided into small states, 262; under dukes of Savoy, 327; who became kings of Sardinia, 415 ; Napoleon occupies P., 458 ; Cisalpine republic, 459 ; abolished 460 ; restored, 462 ; Italian re- public, 464 ; Napoleon, k. of Italy, 467 ; ceded to France, 467 ; Lombardo-Vene- tian kingdom ceded to Austria, 483 ; rev- olutionary movements, 487; war between Austria and Sardinia, 494; intervention of France, Auetriaus expelled, 602, 503. Pierce, Fi-anklin, 555. Piers Plowman, 268- Pignerol ceded to France, 325. Pilgrims, 294. PilLnitz, conference, 451 ; declaration 452. Pilpay, fables of, 19L Pindar, 73. Pinerolo, pacification of, 377. Piato in Japan, 366. Finzon Vincent Y&nez, 284. Pipin, d'Hcristal, 183 ; the Small, k. of the Franks, 175, 184. Piraeus, fortified, 58,61,64; blockade of, 69, 70. Pirates, war gainst, 134. Pisa, conquered by Genoa, 263 ; council of, 251. Pisistratus, 64. Pistoria, battle of, 137. Pitt, William, the elder. See Chatham. Pitt, William, the younger, sketch of life, 441 ; first administration, 442, 635; sec- ond administration, 636 ; death, 63f. Plus II., pope, 263 ; VI , 407 ; VII., con- secrated Napoleon I., 466; imprisoned, 473; returned to Rome, 482; IX., at- tempted reforms of, 492; death, 524. Pizarro, Francisco, 286, 287. Placida, 161. Plague in Germany, 248 ; in London, 379- Plains of Abraham, battle of, 422. Plantagenet, hou^e of, 281- Plassey, battle of, 443. ipiatcese, battle of, 60 ; surrenders, 66. Plato, 69. Plebeians, traditional origin, 89 ; true ori- gin, 90, 91, 92; admitted to sena(e, 94; contest with patriciann, 95 ; tribunes. 96; comitia tributa, 96, 97; secession, 96 ; one plebeian consul, 101 ; all offlcea opened to, 101, 107. 40 Index* Flema, capture of, 522. Pllnius, the elder, 152. Plistoanax, 63. >Plon-Ploii,"466,534. Plowden, sir Edward, 293. Plunkett, execution of, 382. Plymouth, council of, 294; surrenders charter, 297 ; settlement of, in New Eng- land, 294. Plymouth Company, 291, 293. Pocahontas, 291. Poischwist, armistice of, 476. PoitierR, battle of (Charles Uaztel). 183 ; (Black Prince), 258. Poitou, acquired by England, 226, 231, 2S8 ; lost, 260. Poland, kingdom formed, 168 ; war with Henry II., 197; with Conrad II.; sub- mits to empire, 198; under the Fiasts, united with Lithuania, 277: Jagalloos ; P. an elective monarchy, 352 ; elector of Saxony, k. of P., 872; republic, 374; Stanislaus, k., 395; truce of, 397; war of the Polish succession, 398, 414; first dirisioa, 411 ; second, 413 ; third, 414 ; kingdom of, 483 ; revolution In ^. Pole, Michael de la, 269. Pole, Reginald, card.. 335, 333. Polignae ministry, 627. Polk, James K., ^4. PoUentia, battle at, 171. Polo, Marco, 242, 282. Polycrates of Samoa, 7. Polygnotus, 64. Polyaperchon, 76. Pombal, marquis of, 4Y5. Pomerania, extinction of the ducal house, 314 ; given to Sweden and Brandenburg, 316 ; lost by Sweden, Hither P. given to Prussia, 896 ; Hither P. ceded to Den- mark, 479 ; to Prussia, 482. Pompadour, marquise de, 403, 446. Pompeii, 83, 152. Pompeius(Mag7tus), subjected the Jews to fiome 11; consul, 1^; joined Sulla, 131; war with Sertorius, 133; defeats the pirates, 134 ; command in Asia, 135 ; first triunlvirate, 137 ; consul, 140 ; de- feat at Pharsalus, 141 ; death, 142, 143 ; Sextus escaped to Spain, 142; repulsed Caesar, 143 ; treaty with triumvirs, 145 ; defeated and died, 146. Ponce de Leon. 284^ Pondicherri, 443. Poniatowski, 413. Pontef ract, castle of, 270. Pontiac, conspiracy of, 423. Pontifices, college of ,85. 'ontius GaviuB, 105,106. ^ontus, kingdom of, 78 ; first Mithridatic war, 129; second, 132; third, 134; P. Roman province, 136. Poena, confederacy of, 443. Poor-law amendment act, 540. Pope, Alexander, 436. Popham, George, 293. Popillius Lsenas, 121. Popish plot, 381. PoplicoLa, L. Valerius, 93. FoppEea Sabina, 150, Populonia, battle of, 107. Porrex, k. of Britain, 37. Forsena of Clusium, 95. Port Royal, foundation of, 290 ; razed by Argal, 292 ; captured by Phips, 361 ; by Euglish, 8d3. Porteous riots in Edinburgh, 438. Portland, d. of, administration, 537. Porto Bello captured by Vernon, 438. Portocarrero, card., 391. Portugal granted to Henry, count of Bur- gundy, 240 ; his son becomes king of Portu^l, ib. ; P. reaches its greatest power, discoveries, and settlements, 276, 280 ; Portuguese in India, 354 ; Emman- uel the Great ; Spanish province ; revolt, 382, 893; house of Braganza; earth- quake of Lisbon, 415; refuses co join continental system ; occupied by Trench, 470 ; peninsula war, 471 ; revolution, 488. Poscherun, treaty of, 475. Potemkin,412, 413. Potocki, felix and Ignaz, 413. Fotoai, mines of, 288. Poutrincourt, 290. Powhattan, 291. Poyning's law. See statute of Drogheda. Prsemnnire, statute of, 269, 270. Prsetorship, established, 101 ; first ple- beian, 102 ; limit of age for, 120 ; num- ber of, 122 ; pro-prsetoTS, 122. Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis, of France, 227; of Charles VII., revoked, 260; of the emp. Charles VI., 398, 403. Prague, battle of, 404 ; compact of, 252 ; congress at, 476 ; peace of, 314, 510 ; uni- versity of, founded, 248; secession of Germans, 251 ; lectures in Czechish Ian' guage established, 526. Presbyterians, 350. President, engagement with the Little Belt, 551. Pre5sburg, anti-Jewish riots, 526 : peace of, 467. Preston, 425. Preston, battle of, 437. Preston Pans, battle of, 361, 438. Pretender, old P., 487 ; young P., 438. Priam, 47. Pride's Purge, 351. Prie, marquise de, 446. Prim, murdered, 512. Prince Edward's Island, 287. Princes in the Tower, murder of, 276. Princeton, battle of, 428; foundation of college at, 419. Pring, Martin, 290. Printing, invention of, 211, 253, 279. Probus, Roman emp., 157. Proconsuls, the first, 105; proconsular provinces, 123. Propertius, S., 148. Property qualification abolished, 544. Prophets in Israel, 9. Pro-prsetors, 122. Proscriptions, under Sulla, 132; under the second triumvirate, 146. Protectorate in England, 376. Protestant union, 80S. Protestants, 303. Providence, foundation of, 297. Providence Plantations, charter of, 358* Provisions of Oxford, 234- Prusias, 78, 120. Index, 4l PrasBia (see also Brandeaburff), inhabited by Wends, 168 ; conquered by the Teu- tonic order, 218, 277 ; West Prussia ceded to Poland, 277 ; reformation in, Albert of Brandenburg becomes d. of P. under Polish suzerainty, 802; elector of Bran- denburg becomes k. of Prussia, 872, 878; P. obtains NeuchMel, and upper Quel- ders, relinquishes claims upon Orange to France, 393 ; cessions from Sweden, 396 ; P. under Frederic the Great, 405-408; claims upon Silesia, 400; proposed parti- tion of P., 404 ; Silesia retained, 406 ; shares in the. partition of Poland, 411, 413, 414 ; joins first coalition against France, 452 ; alliance with England, 455: peace of Basle, 457; indemnifica- tions, 465; treaty with Napoleon, 467; not in the confederacy of the Rhine, 468; war with Prance, 468 ; peace of Til- sit, 470; reform of the state and army, 471 ; war of liberation, 475 ; congress of "Vienna, 482 ; receives Saarbriicken, 485 ; ZoUvereijij 491 ; united Landtag, 492 ; up- rising in Berlin, 492; Schleswig-Hol- Btein, 496 ; offer of German crown to king of Prussia, 497 ; revised constitu- tion, 497 ; conference of Olmiitz, 498 ; William I., 503; constitutional conflict, Bismarck, 504 ; war with Denmark, 5U6 ; with Austria, 507-610 ; Luxemburg question, 511 ; war with France, 518- 520 ; king of Prussia German emp. , 519 ; number of votes in the Bundesrath, 520; M^y laws, civil marriage, 521 ; alliance with Austria, 525 ; royal rescript of Jan., 1882, 525. Pmtb, peace of the, 395. Prynne, William, 344. Prytanies, 55. Psamethik, ks. of Egypt : I. revolted against Assyria, 6, 15; 11., 6; III., de- feated by Oambyses, 7. Psammeticus. See Psamethik I. pReudo-PhilippuB,122; Smerdis, 27 Pteria, battle at, 21, 26. Ptolemais. See Acre. Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, 11, 20, 74, 76, 77, 142. Public peace, 800. Publilius Philo, 102, 105. Pugacheff, 412. Pul, Chaldean king, 18. Puhuki, death of, 480. Pultowa, battle of, 895. Pultusk, battle of, 395. Punic wars, I., 109 ; II., 35, 113 ; HI., 121. Punitz, battle of, 39D. Punjab, 22 ; invaded by Alexander, 23 ; conquered by flr8eco-Bactrian«. ib.; by Scythians, 24, 241 ; annexed, 546. Pupienus Maximus, 156. Purandocht, reign of, 192. Puritans in America, 295 ; in England, 345. Putnam, general, 423. Puttkamer, v., 526. Pydna, battle of, 120. Pygmalion, of Tyre, 18. Pylos. 66. Pym, John, M. P., 341 ; imprisoned, 842 ; impeached, 346; death, 848. fyramids, 3} battle of the, 460. I Pyrenees, battle of, 479: peace of the, 866. Pyrrhus, k. of Britain, 87. Pyrrhus, k of Epirus, aids the Syraeu- sans, 20 ; war with the Komans, 107- 109 I death, 108. Pytheas of Massilia, 87, 167- Pythian festival, ^. Quadi, war with Rome, 164. Quadruple alliance, 397, 437, 445. Qusestiones perpetuse, 122. Quaestors appointed, 93 ; two more added, 99 ; accompany pro-prsetors, 122 ; 20 qusBstora, 132. Quaker Hill, battle of, 480. Quatre-Bras, battle of, 484. Quebec, founded, 299; taken by the Kertke, 299; surrendered to the English, 422; besieged in vain by Arnold, 427 ; battle Queen Anne's bounty, 434 ; war, 363, 365 Queenstown, battle of, 551. Quiberon Bay, battle of, 439. Quincy, Josiah, 425. Quito, 287. Quivira, 287. Rabelais, 319. Racine, 871. Radagais, 171. Radetzki, 494, 623. Radowitz, 497, 498. Radzivil, 490. Rsedwald, k. of East Anglia, 179. Raetia, 148, 167. Rafn, descripton of Yinland, 281. Ragaz, battle of, 258. Raglan, lord, 500. Ragnarok, 166. Railroads, invention, 486 : in the United States, 486, 652. Rain, battle of, 312. Rajputana, 22 ; conquered by Akbar, 354; unsuccessful wars of Aurangzeb in, 389 ; independent, 442. Raleigh, Sir Walter, grant of Virginia, 289 ; expedition to Guiana, 290 ; expedition ta the Orinoco and execution 8C1. Bamannarari, 14. Ramayana, Indian epic, 23. Rambouillet decree, 550. Ramessu, k. of Egypt, II., the Greek Sesos. tris, 5 ; III., RhampRlnitus, 6. Ramillies, battle of, 392, 434. Ramses. See Ramessu II. Randolph, Edward, 361 ; Peyton, 426. Raphael, Santi, 327. Eastadt, peace of, 894 ; congress of, 459 : dissolution, 461. Ratisbon. See Regensburg. Raucoux, battle of, 402. Ravaillac, 825. Ravenna, imperial residence, 161 ; resi- dence of Theodore, 174 : battle of, 818 Recimir, 163. Reciprocity treaty, 643, 655. Recoinage act, 388. Reconstruction act, 559. Redan, storm of the. 501. Reform act, first, 540 ; Scotch, 540 ; second) 644- 42 Ind£x, Reformation, beginning of, 301 ; ir^ Eng- land, 335; in France, 321; introduced Into GencTa by Calvin, 304 ; in Switzer- land, 301. Begensburg, founded, 167, 215; electoral assembly at, 311 ; permanent diet at, 316, 371 ; battle of, 471- ftegillufi, battle of, 95. Kegulus, M. Atiliufl, 110, 111, 112. Reichenbacb, battle of, 406 ; conference at, 408; treaty of , 476. Reichsdeputationshauptsctaluss, 464. Beicbfhofen, battle of, 516. lleichskammergericbt, 300. Reicbstag, German, 511, 520, 526. Reign of terror, 454. Rekenitz, battle of, 196. Remigius, b. of Rheims, 174. Reuse, electoral meeting at, 248. Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands. See Ionian Islands. Republican party in U. S. , 548 ; in France, 530. Republics founded by the French during the revolution : Ratavian, 456 ; Cisal- pine, 459 ; Helvetian, 460 ; Ligurian, 459; Parthenopsean, 460; Roman, 459. [Seven Ionian Islands, founded by Rus- sia, 461.] Reservatum ecclesiaF^ticum, 306, 310. Restoration of the Bourbons, 481, 484, 526, 527 ; of the Stuarts, 378. Resumption of specie payments, 560. Reutlingen, battle of, 250. Revolution, ATnerican, 426 ; Belgian, 408 ; of 1830, 489 ; Central American, 488 ; English, I., 347,376; n.,3^4; French, I., 447 ; II. (July), 529 ; III. (Feb.). 530 ; IV. (Sept.), 517; German, 492; Greek, 488; Hungarian, iQi ; /(a/ian, 49u, 493, 502 ; Japanese, 563 ; Polish, 490, 505 ; Portuguese, 488; South American, 488 ; Spanish, 488, 512. Revolutionary tribunal, 453. Rezonville, battle of, 616. Rhampsinitus. Ste Ramessu III. Rh6, Isle of, 343. Rhett, "William, 363. Rhine cities, league of, 249. Rhode Island, colony, founded, 297 ; pe- tition of, to be admitted to the colonial union rejected, 357 ; charter, 358 ; gov- ernment, 361, ZZ'i ; accepted the consti- tution of D. S., 647; Borr rebellion, 554. Rliodes, colonized by Phoenicians, 17, 41 ; independent, 78 ; Roman province, 79 ; war with Antiochiis III., 119, 120; cap- tured by Persians, 191; given to knights of St. John, lost to Turks, 217. Ribault, Jean, 288. Kicci, Jesuit general, 416. Richard of Clare, e. of Leinster, 232. Richard of Cornwall, elected emp. of H, R. E., 225. Richard I., Coeur-de-Lion, k. of England, crusade, 215 ; imprisoned, 216 ; released, 223 ; war with Philip Augustus, 226 ; reign in England, 232: II., 269, 270; III., 275. Richard, d. of York, 271. Bichelieu, card., in thirty years- war, 311, 314; administration, 325; a. of, 4S7 ministry, 527. Richmond, surrender of, 559. Richmond, e. of, 275. See Henry TU., k . of England. Ridley, 338. Ried, treaty of, 478. Rienzi, Cola di, 263. Riga, siege of, 474. Rimnik, battle of, 413. Rio de la Plata, discovery, 285. Bipon, marq. of, viceroy of India, 547. Ripon, treaty of, 345. Rivers, e. of, execution, 274. Rizzio murdered, 338. Roanoke Island, colony, 289. Roberjot, murder of, 461. Robert of Belesme, 230. Robert, c. of Clermont, 324. Robert, d. of France, proclaimed k., 202 Robert I., k. of Frince, 203. Robert, d. of Normandy, 214, 230. Robert Guiscard, 200. Roberval, gov. of Canada, 287, 288. Robespierre, member of the Jacobins, 451 ; in the convention, 453 : at the head ol the reign of terror, 454; crushes the moderates and radicals, 455 j overthrow and execution, 456. Robinson, John, 294. Rochambe^u, 430, 452. Roche, marquis de la, 290. Rochefort, 512. Rochester, e. of, 382, 383. Rockingham, first administration, 424, 440; second, 431, 441. Rocroy, battle of, 366. Rodney, 441. Roe, sir Thomas, 354. Koeskild, peace of, 373. Roger II., k. of the Two Sicilies, 218. Rogers, Wood, capt., 417. Rohan, card., 447. Roland, death of, 185. Roland, madame, executed, 455. Roldan. revolt of, 283. Rolf, 208 ; siege of Paris by, 201 ; first d. of Normandy, 202. Roman republic, proclaimed, 459 ; abol- ished, 461. Romanow, house of, 353, 374. Rome, geography, 81; religion, 84; eth- nography, 85 ; origin, mythical and real, 87 ; the kings in legend, 88 ; in history, 90; constitution, 91; republic, constitu- tion, 93 ; patricians and plebeians, 95 ; decemvirs, 98 ; conquest by the Gauls, 35, 99 ; equalization of the old orders, 100 ; Samnite and Latin wars, 1U4, 106, 106 ; war with Tarentum, conquest of Italy, 107 ; Punic war, I., 109 ; II., 113 ; Hannibal in Italy, 114r-ll7 ; Macedonian wars, 116, 118, 120, 121 ; war with Antio- chus, 119; Punic war. Til., destruction of Carthage, 121 ; deptrnction of Corinth, 122; provinces of Rome, 122; civil dis- turbances, the Gracchi, 124 ; Jugurthian war, 126 ; Cimbri and Teutonea, 127 y Mithridatic wars, 129, 133, 134; Marius and Sulla, 130 : conservative reforms of Sulla, 132 ; war with the gladiators, 133 ; with the pirates, 134 ; organization of Index. 43 Asia, 136 ; Catiline, 186 ; Cicero, 187 ; Ist triumvirate, 137 ; conquest of Oaul, 138 ; civil war, 140 ; constitution under Ceeear, 143 ; assassination of Csesar, 144 : 2d tri- umvirate, 145 ; war between Octovianus and Antonius, 146 ; Octavianus ruler and emperor, 147 ; Julian emperors, 147-151 ; Flavian, 151 ; the good emperors, 152- 154 ; emperors appointed by the soldiers, 154; Aurelian, 157; Diocletian, 158; Constantine, 159 ; division of the empire into the eastern, or Qreek, and the west- ^ro. empire, 161 ; fall of the western em- pire, 162 ; Persian wars, 187, 188 ; Par- thian wars, 30. See Holy Roman Em- pire, and Eastern Empire. Rome (the city), described, 82; founded, 87 ; Cloacae, Servian wall, 89 ; sacked by Gauls, 100 ; fire in, under Nero, 151 ; sacked by Alaric, 171; by the Vandals, 173 ; seat of the papacy, 175 ; Pi pin pa- triciuB, 184 ; Charles the Great crowned in. 185 ; Amulf , 194 ; Otto 1., 195 ; Fred- eric III. (IV.), last emp., crowned in Rome, 253 ; sacked by the army of the constable of Bourbon, 303 ; occupied by the French, 459, 473 ; return of pope, 483; occupied by French, 503; captured by Italians, 518 ; capital of Ituly, 520. Komulus and Remus, 87. Romulus Aueustulus, Roman emp., 162. Roncevaux, 185. Rooke, sir George, 434. Rosamunda, 175. Rof^es, wars of the, 272. Rosny. See Sully. RoBsbach, battle of, 404. Rostra, 82, 104. Rothari, 175. liouher, 51'4. Roum, sultanate of, 210. Roumania, independent, 524 ; kingdom, 624. Roumanian language, 153. Roundheads, 350. Roundway Down, battle of, 347. Rousseau, 448. Royalists, 350. Rudolf, archd. of Austria, 249. Rudolf, of Burgundy, k. of France, 202. Rudolf in., k. of Bui^undy (Aries), be- queaths kingdom to tlenry 11., 198. Rudolf I., of Hapsburg, emp. of H. R. E., reign, 244; IT., reign, 308. Rudolf, of Rheinfeld, d. of Swabia, 199 : anti-king of Germany, 200. Rudolfian line, 316. Ruel, treaty of, 366. Rullianus, 102, 106. Rump parliament, in England, 351, 376 ; in Germany, 496. Rupert, count palatine, 250. 251. Rupert, pr., at BJdgehill, 347; at Marston Moor, 348 ; in cabinet, 380. Rurik, house of, 276, 352. Russell, adm. See Orford. Russell, lord, executed, 882. Russell, lord John, 539; home sec, 540; first ministry of, 543 ; foreign sec, 543; earl Rus.<»ell, 644 ; second ministry. 544. Russia, Swedes subjugate the Slavs around Novgorod, 208; R. under the Mongols, 241; under the house of Rurik, rise of Moscow, 276 i house of Rurik succeeded by that of Romanow, 353 ; Peter the Great, 374; war with ChHrles XLI., 394; Seace of NyBtadt,897: seven years' war, J3; Elizabeth succeeded by I'eter III., Frederic's frieud, 405 : Catherine II., neutral, 406; war with Sweden, 409; house of Holsteiu-Gottorp in ]{., 411; the partition of Poland. 411, 413, 414; peace of Kutschouc Kainardji. 412; Paul I. , 459 ; R. in the second coalition against France, 460 ; Suwaroff in Italy and Swit- zerl;ind, 461; Alexander I., 463: third coalition, 467 ; war with France in alli- ance with Prussia, 468 ; peace of Tilsit, 470; war with France, 474; burning of Moscow, 475; alliance of Kalisch with Prussia, 475; receives Warsaw at the congress of Vienna, 483; Nicholas I., 488; war with Turkey, 487; peace of Adrianople, 489 ; revolt in Poland. 490; alliance of 1840, 491 ; intervention in Hungary, 495 ; Crimean war, 499; peace of Paris, 501 ; Turki^ih troubles, 621 ; war with Turkey, 622 ; peace of San Ste- fano, 523 ; congress of Berlin, 524 ; Alex- ander III., 525; Nihilists, 626. Rustchnck, battle at, 473. Hut, John, 286. Riitli, oath on the, 246. Ruyter, Ue, 368, 376, 379. Rydesdale, William of, '•^72. Ryswick, peace of, 362, 371. Sa'ad Tbu Abi Wakas, 192. Saalfeld, battle of, 469. Sabelllans, 86. Sabines,. JSabine women, 88; war witta Rome, 89 ; subjugated, 107. Sacheverell, Dr., 435. Sadducees, 11. Sadowa, battle of, 509. Saghalen, ceded to Russia, 32, n. 3. Saguntum, siege of, 113. Sahs, in India, 210. SaYf , 190. St. Albans, battles of, 272. St. Aldegonde, 330. St. Augustine, castle of, 289 ; siege of, 419. St. Bartholomew, night of, 821. St. Clair, defeat of, 547. St. Claire sur Epte, treaty of, 202. St. DeoiB, 517. St. Esprit, mission of, 364. St. Estienne de la Tour, 300. St. Germain, peace of, 821; treaty of, 300. St. Germain-en-Laye, treaty of, 368, 374. St. Gotthard, battle of, 372 ; railroad, 526. St, Ignatius, massacre at, 857. St. Jacob, battle of, 253. St. John, Henry, dismissed from the cabi- net, 434 ; sec. of state, 435 ; created visa Bolingbroke, q- v. St. John, Oliver, 341. St. John, knights of, 217. St. John River, discovery of, 290. St. Just, 454, 456. St. Lawrence, discovery of, 284, 287. St. Leger, 428. St. Louis, settlement of, 365. St, Lucia, ceded to the English, 422. St. Mary, mission of, 364. 44 Index* St. Patriot, 39. St. Petersburg, foundation of, 395 \ peace of, 403, 474. St. Privat, battle of, 516. St. Quentin, battle of, 321, 338, 519- St. Kuth,geu.,387. St. Savior, colony of, 292. St. Vincent, ceded to English, 422. Saladin, 215. Salamanca, battle of, 474. Salamis, battle of, 69, 62. Salem, settled, 295; witchcraft, 362. S'alic emperors, 198. Salic Franks, 170, 173. Salic law, 255. 491. Salii, or dancing priests, 85. Salisbury, e. of , 272. SalTius Julianua, 153. galzbutg, made an electorate, 464; given to Austria, 468 ; ceded to Bavaria, 472 ; ceded to Austria, 482. Samaria, 7 ; capital of Israel, 9 ; captured by Sapgou, 10 ; tributary to Assyria, 14. Sammuramit, 14. Samnites, 81, 83; waars with Borne, I., 104 ; 11., 105; III., 105; join Pyrrhus, re- conquered, 108 ; revolt after Cannse, 115 ; attack Rome, but are repulsed by Sulla, ISl. Samo, k. of the Slavs, 168. Samson, 8. Samuel, 8. Samurai in Japan, 212, 563. Sancho IV., k. of Castile, 276. Sancbo I., k. of Navarre, 209; III. ^ the Great, 209. Sancroft, archb. of Canterbury, 384. San Domingo, foundation of, 283 ; sack of, 290, 339, Sandon, 21, 26. Sandonidse, 21. Sandra^Kottos. See Chandragupta, 231 San Jago, 240^328. San Stefano, peace of, 523. Santa F^, foundation of, 291. Sapor I., k. of Persia, 187 ; IL, 188 ; III., 189. Saragassa, surrender of j 471. Sarakos. See Asshur-ebii-ili. SardanapaluB. jSee Asshur-natzir-palL, As- shur-bani-pal, Grecian myth concerning, 16. Sardes, 21, 22, 26, 28. Sardinia. Phoenician colonies in, 17 ; sub- jugated by Carthage, 19 ; ceded to Rome, 112 ; given to Sextus Pompeius, 146 ; Enzio, k. of Sardinia ; S. also claimed by the pope, 225 ; reserved for the em- peror, 393; seized by Spain, but aban- doned, and given to Savoy iu exchange for Sicily ; dukes of Savoy, kings of Sar- dinia, 397, 416 ; compelled to cede Savoy and Nice to France, 458 ; possessions on the main-land occupied and annexed by Prance, 460 ; old dynasty restored, 4fi3 ; AuBtrians put down the liberals, 488 ; war with Austria, 494 ; share-^ in the Crimean wars, 600 ; the French and Sar- dinians defeat Austria, 502,531; Victor Emmanuel k, of Italy, 503. Set Italy. Bargon, k. of Assyria. 10, 14. Swbach, battle of, 368. Sarsfield, 887. Sassanidse, in Persia, SO, I&&: fall of, 182. SatBuma rebellion, 564. Saturninus, L. Appuleius, 128. Saucourt, battle of, 201. Saul, k. of the Jews, 8- Saussage at St. Savior, 299. Savage, conspiracy of, 839. Savannah, captured by the Britisfa^ 430; evacuated, 431 ; taken by Sherman, 558. Savery, capt.,486. Savonarola, 327. Savoy, most powerful state In northern Italy, 327 ; obtains Sicily as a kingdom, 393 ; exchanges Sicily for Sardinia, dukes become kings of Sardinia, 397 ; acquire part of Milan, 415 ; ceded to France, 458 ; restored, 485 ; ceded again to Ji!rauce,502 Savoy palace, 269 Saxe, marshal, 438, 446. Saxon kings and emperors, 194. Saxons, pirates, 38: location, 170; settle in Britain, 172, 176, 177,178; subdued by Charles the Great, 184, 185. Saxony, 194 ; revolt against Henry IV., 199, 200 ; Lothar, duke, becomes emp., 218 ; Saxony under Henry the Proud and Henry the Lion, 218, 219 ; division ol the old duchy, 222 ; electorate given to Fred- eric, margrave of Meissen, 252 ; separa- tion of the Albertine (Catholic), and Er- nestine (Lutheran) line, 305 ; alliance of Ferdinand and the Lutheran elector, 309 ; receives Lusatia, 314 ,- Augustus II., becomes k. of Poland, 372 ; deposed, 395 ; Augustus III., claimant for Poland, 398 , claimant for the Austrian succes- sion, 400 ; allied with Prussia, 408, 469; with Napoleon, 469 ; elector becomes king and joins confederacy of the Rhine, 469 ; capture of the king, 478 ; half of S. ceded to Prussia, 483 ; rnvolutionary dis- turbances, 492, 499 ; allied with Aus- tria against Prussia, 507 ; vote in the Bundesrath, 520. Say and Seal, vise, 296. Saybrook united with Connecticut, 357. Scandinavia, geography, 168 ; ethnography, 164; religion, 165. See Denmark, Nor- way, Sweden. Scharnhorst , 471, 476. Schenectady, destruction of, 361. Schill, 472. Schism act, repeal of, 437. Schism in the church, 221; the greats., 268. Schlegler, the. 250. Schleswig, foundation of, 194 ; yielded to the Danes, 198 ; war in Denmark over, 236 ; conquered by Wallenstein, 310 ; taken from the duke of Holstein-Got- torp by the Danes, 396 ; annexed to Denmark, 496 ; three wars with Den- mark, 496 ; delivered to thr "Panes, 498; incorporated with Denmark, 605 ; re- signed by Denmark, 506; provisionally governed by Prussia, 607 ; incorporated with Prussia, 510. Schmalkaldic league, 803 ; war, 805. SchtifEer, Peter, 253. Schomberg, 384, 385, 386, 387. Index. 45 Bch8nbruntL, treaty of, 467. Schuleaburg, 395. Schuyler, gen., 429. Schwarzenberg, 474, 477, 478, 480. SchweiDBChii4el, battle of, 609. Schweppermann, 247. Pcipio, Ctt.. 112; killed, 116. Scipio (Asiaticus), L. Cornelius, 119. Soipio (Barbatus), L. Cornelius, 1U6. Scipio, P. ComeliuR, US, 115 ; killed, 116. Scipio, F. Cornelius (Africanus major), elected consul, 117 ; defeated Antiochus, 119 ; death, 120. Scipio, P. Cornelius, ^milianus (Africanus minor), captures Carthage, 121 ; takes Numantia, 123. Scipio, P. Nasica, 124. Scotland, geography, 36 ; Scots ravage Britain, 88, 176 ; war with Edward 1., 264 ; contested succession, 264, 266 ; Scot- land independent after Bannockbum, 268; capture of James, prince of Scot- land, 270 ; James IV. invades England, 833 ; Flodden field, 334 ; Mary queen of Scots, 338, 339 ; James VI. succeeds in England as James I., 339 ; episcopacy in Scotland, 340 ; riot iu Edinburgh, solemn league and covenant, 344 ; bishops' war, 345; Scotch Invade England, 348; Mon- trose in Scotland, 348 ; Charles surren- ders to Scotch , 349 ; secret treaty with, 850 ; Cromwell in Scotland, 375 : perse- cution of covenanters, 382 ; William and I^Iary receive the crown , 386 ; union with England, 434. Scroop, archb. of York, 270. Scurcola, battle of, 226. Scutate, introduction of, 281. Scythians, invade Media, 15, 25 ; India, 24 ; attacked by Darius without success, 28. Sebastian, k. of Portural, 332. Sebastopol, siege of, 500. SecKssio plebis, 96, 98, 107. Secession of the Southern States in North America, 558. Sedan, battle of, 517. Sedgemoor, battle of, 383. Seisachtheia, 52. Sejanus, 149. Sekigahara, battle of, 356. Seleucidse, conquer the Jews, 11 ; over the Phoenicians, 20 ; kings of Syria, 77 ; con- quered by Rome, 120, 153. Seleucus, 76. Self-denying ordinance, 349. Selim n., sultan of Turkey, 306 ; III., 473. Seminole war, 552. Semiramis, 14, 16. See Sammnramit, Semitic peoples, religion of, 12. Sempach, battle of, 250. Sempronlus Longus, T., 114. Sena gallica, battle of, 117. Senate, French, under the 4th constitu- tion, 461 ; receives greater power, 464 ; under Louis Napoleon, 631 ; constitution of 1875, 633. Senate, Roman, origin, 87 ; enlargement, 89 ; in the monarchical constitution, 91 ; under the republican constitution, 94; growing importance, 102 ; conflict with the Gracchi, 124 ; loses the jury duty, 125 ; the reforms of Solla give the S. a temporaiy representative character, 132 ; power of revision restored to censors, 133 ; reduced to a council under Crosar, 143 ; receives the power of appointing ofll- cials, 149. Senate in the United States, 438. Seneca, 150. Senlac. See Hastings. Sennacherib, 10, 15. Senones, 34, 85, 107. Sentlnum, battle of, 106. Sepoy mutiny, 546. September laws in France, 529. Septennial parliament, 437. Sepcimania, 174, 201. Septimius Severus, Roman emp., 164. Serfdom, 166; abolished by Joseph 11., 407 ; by Alexander 11., 600. Sertorius,Q.,130, 133. Servia, 621, 623 ; independent, 624 ; king- dom, 626. Servian constitution, 91. Servile wars, I., 123 ; II., 128 ; III, 133. ServiliuB, P., conBulil34, 141. Servilius Ahala, C.| W. Servius Tullius, 89. Sesonchis. See Shashang I. Sesostris, 5. Seti I. , k. of Egypt. 5. Seven years* war, 403 ; in America, 420 ; in India, 443 ; participation of Spain. 414. Severus Alexander, Roman emp., 154. Seville, treaty of, 437. Seward, William H., 656. Sextius Lateranus, L., 100, 101. Seydlitz, 404,405. Seymour, lord, execution of, 336. Sforza, Francesco, becomes d. of Milan 262, 302, 803, 304. Shabak, 6. Shaftesbury, lord chan., 380, 881, 882. Shah Alam II., emp. of India, 442, 444 ; Jahin, emp. of India, reign of, 354. Shahnameh, Persian epic, refers to old 'Bao- trian empire, 25, 191. Shahr-Barz, Persian general, 191, 192. Shakespeare, 339. Shalmaneser, ks. of Assyria, II., 14; IV, 10, 14. Shang, mythical dynasty in China, 81. Shanghai, 31, 501 ; opened to British Imdo- 561. Sharps, archb., murdered, 881. Shashang I., k. of Egypt, 6, 10. Shays's rebellion, 433. Sheeah, 182. Shelburne, lord, administratioD, 431, 441 ; sec. of state. 440, Shenandoah valley, 658. Shepherd kings in Egypt, 5 Sher All, death of, 547. Sheridan, general, Opequan, 658; rivo Forks, 559. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 441. Sheriffmuir, battle of, 437. Sherman, gen., campaign against Jobn- stouj 568 ; march through Georgia, 668 ; received the surrender of the last confed* erate army, 669. Shiloh, battle of, 657. Shimonoseki batteries destroyed, 663. Shinto religion, 82, 33; reestablished, 664 46 Index, Bhipka pass, 522. Ship-money, writs for, 344. Shisak. See Shashang I. Shoguns, Japanese mayors of the palace, rise of, 213: yoritomo, 243; Ashikaga shoguns, 278, 355 ; Tokugawa shoguns, 356, 445 ; OTerthrow of the shogun , 663. Shore, air John, gov.-gen. in India, Ml. '* Short " parliament, 345. Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, 434. Shrewsbury, battle of, 270. Shrewsbury, e. of. Ste Talbot. Shrewsbury, e. of, 384 ; secretary of state, 335 ; resignation, 387 ; last lord high treas., 435, 436. Sicilian vespers, 226. Sicily, Phoenician colonies in, 17 : wars of Carthaginians and Greeks in, 20 ; Mease- nians settle in, 51 ; Syracusan expedition of the Athenians, 67 ; geographical de- scription, 83 } collision between Home and Carthage, 110 ; ceded to Rome, west- em S. the first Roman province, 111 ; war in Sicily, 116 ; subjugated, 117: re- volt of slaves in, 123, 1^ ; war with Sep- tus Fompeius in, 146. Sicily, kingdom of, Roger 'II. assumes title of k. of the Two S., 218 ; Constance, heiress of the kingdoQi, wife of the emp. Henry VI., 222 ; war with Tancred, 223; Frederic II., 223; Manfred, 225 i Charles of Anjou receives kingdom from tHe pope, ^26 ; Sicilian vespers, French driven from S.. which falls to Peter of Aragon, 226 (see Naples) ; S. united with Aragon, 263 ; given as kingdom to Savoy, 393 ; seized by Spain, but abandoned, and, by Savoy, exchanged with Austria for Sardinia, 3^7 ; after the war of the Polish succession ceded by Austria to Spain, with Naplps^W^\ S. and Naples (as kingdom of the Two Sici- lies) given to Ferdinand, 3d eon of Charles III. of Spain, 416 ; deprived of Naples by Napoleon, the court retires to S., 4lj8 ; dynasty restored, 483; revolt, 493; Gari- baldi liberates S., 502. Sickingen, Franz von, 302. Sicyon, 40, 48 ; joips Achaean league, 72. Sidney, execution of, 382 ; fiir Philip, death of, 339. Sidon, chief town of the Sidonians, 16 ; greatest power, 17 ; superseded by Tyre, 18 ; first city of Phoenicia under Persia, 19 ; abandoned by crusaders, 217. Sievershau-sen, battle of, 30^. Sieyes, 449, 4ol. Sigibert I., k. of the Franks, 181. Sigismund, emp. of the H. R. E,, 251. Sigismund, k. of Hungary, 277. Sigismund III., k. of Poland, 352. Bigurd, k. of Norway, 238. Sigurd Ring, k. of Sweden, 207, 208. Sikhs, revolt, 442 : two wars with the Brit- ish, 546. Silarus, battle of, 133. Silesia united with Bohemia, 248 ; claims of Prussia, 400; retained by Prussia, 406. Silesian wars, I,, 400 ; II., 402 ; III., 404. Simon, J , 517 ; ministry, 534. Simon of Montfort, the elder, 227. Simon of Montforfc, e. of Leicester, his par- liament, 234. Simony, 200. Sindhia, 443, 541. Sinope, battle of, 499. Sipylus, battle of, 119. Sirdj-ud-Daul£i, 443. Sistova, peace of, 413. Sivaji, 389, 443. Siward, e. of Northumberland, 206. Six articles, 335. Sixtus v., pope, 327. Skaania, 236, 237, 238. SkobelefE, 523, 526. Skrzynecki, 490. Slavery abolished throughout the British empire, 540 ; partially abolished ic Conn., 432 ; abolished in Massachusetts, 431 ; in Pennsylvania, 431 ; in the Unibea States. 433. Slave trade abolished in British dominion, 537; in the United States, 550. Slaves in Athens, 52; in Germany, 166, 171. Slavonic congress in Prague, 493. Slavs, great monarchy of, 168 ; religion, 169 ; regain their liberty, 173. Slawata, 309. Slidell, 544, 557. Sluys, battle of, 257. Smprdes. Set Hirhor. Smith, John, in Virginia, 291, 292 ; explo> ration of coast of New England by, 294. Smolensk, 474, 475. Sobieski, John, k. of Poland, relieves Vi* enna, 372 ; in Poland, 374. Social democrats in Germany, 524. Socialistic commune, in France, 532. Socmtes, 64, 69. Sogdianus, k, of Persia, 29. Soissoas, battle of, 173, 181. Solemn league and coTeuant, in Scotland, 344 ; in England, 348. Solferino, battle of, 502. Soliman II., sultan of Turkey, besieged Vienna, 303 ; alliance with Francis 1., 304, 305 ; death, 806 ; reign, 353. Soliman Pasha, 522. Solis, Juan Diaz de, 284, 285. Solomon, k. of the Jews, 9. Solon, of Athens, Tisited Croesus of Lydia, 21 ; constitution of, 52. Solway Moss, battle of, 335. Somers, lord keeper, 387 ; lord chan,, 388; whig leader, 435. Somerset, execution of, 336. Sommering, 486. Soonees, 182. Soor, battle of, 402, 509. Sophia, princess of Hanover, 435. Sophia of Russia, 374. Sophocles, 64. Sophonisbe, 117. Soto, Ferdinando de, 287. Soult, marshal, on the Rhine. 467 ; in Spain, 471, 473, 479 ; in France, 481. Soult, ministry of, 530. South Sea bubble, 435, 437, 445. Southwold Bay, battle of, 380. Spain, Phoenician settlements in, 17: Caiv thaginian colonies in, 19 ; war with Oar^ thagiuians in, 115 ; regarded as a Roman Index. 47 province, 118 ; invaded by Vandals, Suevi Alanij^ 171; West Gothio kingdom in, 172, 1(4 ; Suevi and West Goths unite and are converted, 175 1 conquered by Moors, 183 ; fall of Cerdova, rise of Christian kingdoms, 766-1035, 209 ; revolt of Por- tugal, union of Castile and Leon, 240 ; conquest of Qranada, wars between Castile and Aiagon, 276 ; tinion of Amgon and Castile, 328 ; discoveries in America, 282 ; war with France, peace of the Pyre- nceR, 306 ; war with England, 377 ; war of the Spanish succession, 3J0 ; partition treaties, 391 ; peace of Utrecht, 393 ; house of Bourbon, 414; Jesuits expelled, 415; war with England in America, 419, 437, 438 ; Florida ceded to Bngland, 423, 439 ; war with, England, 440 ; Florida re- stored to Spain, 432,441 ; France declares war against, 4o3; Bourbons displaced in favor of Joseph Bonaparte, 470; penin- sula war, 471,473 ; constitution of 3812, ib. ; French driven from Spain, 479 ; Bourbons restored, 483; liberal rising, const, of 1812 restored, 4'<7 ; French in- tervention^SS ; revolt of the American colonies, 488 ; revolution of iStiS, bVl ; S. a republic, 52'i ; monarchy restored, 521 ; treaties with the United States, 548, i'U2. Spanish succespion, 388 ; war of, 3iJ0. Sparta, founded, 48 ; constitution of Ly- curgus, 50; first hegemony, 56 ; Ther- mopylae, 58 ; Platajie, 60 ; hegemony transferred to Athens, 61 ; war with Athens, 62 ; Peloponnesian war, 64 : sec- ond hegemony, 69 : loss of hegemony to Thebes, 70 ; war with the Achauin lea^e, 79, 122 ; Nabis defeated by Ro- mans, 80. Spartacus, 133. Spectator, 436. Speier, diet at, 224 ; imperial chamber at, 300; diet of, 302, 808. Spenser, Edmund, 339. Speyer. See Speier. Spl^teria, 66. Sphinx, 8, 46. Spicheren, battle of, 516. Spinola, 309^ 31u. Ppitamas, 26. Spithead, mutiny at. 535. Spoils system, in U. S., 552, Spottsylvania, battle of, 558 Spurlus Cassius. 97. Stadtlohn, battle of, 310. Stahremberg, 372. Stamford, battle of, 274. Stamford bridge, battle of, 206. Stamp act, passage of, 423, 440 ; repeal of, 424, 440. Standard, battle of the, 230. Standish, Miles, 295. Stanislaus Lesczinski, k. of Poland, 395 ; abdicates, 398, 445. Stanislaus Poniatowski, k. of Poland, 411. Stanton, Edwin M., 556. Star chamber, 333 ; abolition of, 346. Btargard, truce of, 405. Stark, gen., 429. States General. See Etats G<^n^raux. Statthaltership, in the Netherlands, 331 ;iteam, first attempt to utilize, 485 ; first steam-engine, 486 ; applied to navigation. 486. Steele, sir KichDrd, 436. Stei'iikirke, bjittiu of, 370, 387. Stein, baron of, reorganizes PruBSia, 471 ', centi'al admiuiBtratiou, 478, 479; at con- gress of Vienna, 4s2. Steinmetz, 514. Stenbock, Swedish general, 396. Stenkil. k. of Sweden, 2u8, 237. Stephen, archd. palatine, 494. Stephen of Blois, k. of England, 230. Stephen, St., k. of Hungary, 277. Stephen Bathory, elected k. of Polandi 352. Stevenson, George, 486. Steward, office of, 195. Steyer, truce of, 462. Stilicho, 161, 171. Stillwater, battles of, 429. Stockach, battles of, 4tM), 462. Stockholm, massacre of, 352; treaty of, 396, 437. Stony Point, storm of, 430. Stratford, earl of, sketch of life, 344 ; im«> peachmeiit, 345 ; execution, 346. Stralsund, peace of, 23t , 249 ; siege of, 310 ; lost by Sweden, 396. Strassburg, remains to the empire, 316 ; t>elzed by Louis XIV., 369; siege, 516,' cipitulation, 518 ; ceded to the German empire, 5l9; bi-lingual oath of, 186. Strategi, tjo- Strathclyde subjected to Northumbria, 180 \ submits to England, 2il4. Stratton Hill, battle of, 347. Streiitzes, 374. Struensee, 409. Stuiirt, house of, succeeds in England, 339 ; expelled, 375 ; rue^tored, 378 ; ex- polled, 385. Stuart, Arabella, 340 ; imprisonment and death, 341. Stuyvcsant, Peter, 357, 358. Sues.sula, battle of, 104. Suevi, location, 164, 170; invade Spain, 171 ; unite with \Vest Gothg, 175. Suez Canal, 512, 545. Suffolk, d. of (Wm. de la Pole), impeach- uient, 271. Sugar act, passage of, 423. Suger, abbot of St. Denis, 226. Suleiman. See Soliman. Sulla, Ij. Cornelius, takes Jugurtha, 127 ; in the social war, 129 : war with Marius, 130; war against Mithridates, 130; ap- pointed dictator in Rome, 132 \ abdicated, 133; death, ib. Sully, d. of, 325, 340. Sulpicius Galba, P., 118 ; Rufus, 130. Sumir, 13. Sumter, Thomis, 430. Sunderland, (2d) e. of fPpenrer), incabinot, 381 ; sec. of state. 382 : becomes Catho- lic, 383; dismissed, 384; returned to parliapient, 387 , lord chamberlain, 388 , {3d) e. of, whig leader, 435 ; lord lieut. of Ireland, 436. Sung, kingdom of, 242. Surajah Dowlah. See Sirftj-ud Daula.' Surat, English factory at, 353. Surinam, discovery of, 283> 48 Index. Surrey, earl of, executed, 336. gusiaua in Persia, 24, 30 ; invaded by Arabs, 192. Butras, Hindu scriptures, 23. Suttee, abolition of, 541. Buvaroff , Turkish, war, 413 ; storms Prague, 414 ; in Italy and Switzerland, 460, 461. Suy dynasty in China, 32. Svatopluk 11^ k. of Moravia, 194. Bvea, 208, 237. Svend, Forked Beard, k. of Denmark, 207 ; in England (Swegen),205 j Estridserif k. of Denmark, 207. Bverre, k. of Norway, 238. Svold, battle of, 209. Bwabia, duchy of, 194; revolt of duke Brnst, 198 ; Rudolf of, anti-king, 200 ; rise of Wiirtemberg and Baden, 244 , league of cities, conflict with counts of Wiirtemberg, 250. Bwabian city league, 249. Swally, battle of. 354. Bweden, Svea and Gota, mythical history, 208 ; Christianity introduced ; union of Calmar, 238 ; settlements in America, 298 ; in the thirty years' war (iGustavus Adol- phus), 311-314; at the peace of West- phalia acquires Pomerania, Riigen, Wismar, Bremen, Werden, 316 ; house of Vafia, 352 ; house of Zweibriicken, 373 ; war with Brandenburg, 374; Charles XII. 's war with Peter the Great, 394, 376 ; loss of Bremen, Werden to Han- over ; Stettin, WoUen, Usedom, Hither Pomeranii. to Prussia, 396; "Hats" and " Caps," 409 ; house of Holstein-Got- torp; war with Russia, 4' 9; joins third coalition against France, 467 ; forced ab- dication of Gustavus IV. , 472 ; loss of Finland, 473 ; Bemadotte crown prince, 473 ; alliance with Russia, promise of Norway, 474 ; alliance with Englaud, 476 ; peace with Denmark, loss of Pom- erania aud Riigen, 479 ; at congress of Vienna receives Norway, 483 ; which has to be subdued, 484. Swegen. See Svend. Swift, Jonathan, 436. Switzerland, 162 ; origin of the confeder- acy, 245 ; story of Tell, 246 ; war with Austria, 247; Berne joins the confed- eracy, 248 ; Sempach, 250 ; Armagnacs attack Basle, 253 ; practically indepen- dent, 300 ; reformation, Zwingli, 301 ; in- dependence acknowledged, 316 ; Berne takes the Waadtland from Savoy, 327 j transformed into the Helvetian republic, 460 ; restoration of thf» independent can- tons, 464 ; addition ot Geneva, Wallis, and Neuch£ltcl, 433 ; civil war, new con- stitution, 492 ; Neuchatel resigned by the king of Prussia, 501 ; rupture with the papacy, 620. Syagrinus, 173. Sybota, battle of, 65. Sylvester II., pope, 197 ; ni., 199. Symington, 486. Syphax, 116, 118. Syracuse besieged by Carthaginians, 20 ; foundation of, 51 ; expedition of Athe- nians aeainst, 67 ; war under Hiero ; war with Rome, 111 ; sack of, 116. Syria, Egyptian supremacy over, 4 ; lost by Rauessu U. , 5 ; wars of Psamethik in, 6 ; subject to Assyria, 14 ; conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, 16 ; under the Seleu. cidEe, 77 ; taken possession of by Ti- granes, 134 ; a Roman province, 136 i subdued by Aurelian, 157. Szczekoziny, 414. Tabernacle, 8. Taborites, 252. Tacitus, Roman emp., 157. Tadmor, foundation of, 9. Tadoussac, 290. Taginac, battle of, 175. Tagliacozzo, battle of, 226. Taharak, k. of Egypt, 6. Tai-ping rebellion, 561. Taira family in Japan, 212, 213, 242. Talavera, battle of, 471. Talbot, e. of Shrewsbury, 272. Talikot; battle of, 354. Tallagio, de non concedendo, 267. Talleyrand, 481, 482. Tamerlane, defeats Bajazet, 278, 353. Tanagra, battle of, 63. Tancred of Hauteville, 199, 214; of Leeco 223. Tang dynasty in China, 211. Tanneguy DuchSitel, 259. Tannenberg, battle of, 277 T3.oism, in China, 31. Tarentum, 51 ; war with the SamniteSj 104 ; war with Rome, 107. Targowitz, confedei-acy of, 413. Tariff of abominations, 652. Tarik. 183. Tarleton, 431. Tarpeian rockj 82. Tarquinius PriscuF, 35, 89 ; Superbus, 89. Tarquiup, expulsion of, 93 ; war with, 1031 Tassilo, d. of Bavaria, revolt of, 185. Tasso, Torquato, 328. Tatars, Mongols, 240 ; Khitans in China, 241 ; Mongols in China, 242 ; Manchoos invade China, 355 ; become independent, 412. Tatler, 436. Ta-tsing dynasty in China, 355. Tauroggen, treaty of, 475. Taylor, Zachary, 555. XegethofE, 606,51(1. Teja, k. of East Goths, 175. Telamon, battle of, 112. Telegraph invented, 486 ; first submarine, 487 ; communication between France and England. 543 ; experimental Una built by S. F. B. Mor^e, 554 ; communi- cation between U. S and Great Britain, 659. Tel-el-Kebir, capture of, 546. Tell, William, 246. Temesvar, 372, 397, 495. Templars, 217. Temple, ii Jerusalem, erecMon of, 9; de- struction, reerection, 11. Temple, sir William, 382. Temu3hin,240. Tennessee, admitted to the Union, 648. Tenure of office bill, 559. Teplitz, alliance of, 477; conference at 491. Index. 49 Terentilins Ana, 97. TerreuT blanche, 627. Territory N. W. of Ohio, 483. Terrj, geDeral, 669. Tesohea, peace of, 407. Test act, 380; repealed, 639. Westri, battle of, 183. Tecricus, 157. Telzel, Dominican monk, 801. Teuta, queen of the lUyrians, 112. Teutobod, king of Teutooes, 127. Teutoburg forest, Roman legions annihi- lated in, 149, 167. Teutooes, invade Italy, 127, 167. Teutonic knights, 217, 464. Teutons, 36; geography, 162; ethnology, 163; religion, 164; ciTilization, 166; history, 167 ; migration of Teutonic tribes, l70 ; Teutonic monarchies in the Roman empire, 171 ; in Britain, 176. Tewksbury, battle of, 274. Texas, annexed to United States, and ad- mitted to the Union, 564. Thales, 21. Thankmar, 195. Thapsus, battle of, 142. Thebes, in Bgypt, 2, 4. Thebes, in Boeotia, founded, 46 ; war of the Seven against, 46; subdued, 48; Thebans at Thermopylae, 69 ; allied with Sparta against Athens, 62, 6o ; war with Sparta, hegemony of, 70 ; destruction, 73. Themistocles, 57 ; rebuilds walls of Ath- ens, 61 ; death, 61. Theodelinde, 175. Theodora, 210. Theodore, archb. of Canterbury, 180. Theodore I., k. of Corsica, 416. Theodoric the Great, k. of East Goths, 174. Theodoric I., k. of the Franks, 181. Theodoric I., k. of West Goths, 173. Theodosius, Roman emp., 161. 171. Theophano, wife of Otto XL, 196, 197. Theramenes, 69. Thermidoriane, 456. Thermopylffi, battle of, 68, 119. Theron of Agrigentum, 20. Theseus, 46, 6L Thesprotians, 41. Thessalian migration, 47. Thessalonica, kingdom of, 216. Thessaly, 40, 79, 141, 623. Thevet, Andr«, 288. Thibet, Buddhism in, 23; conquered by Kang-he, 390. Thierry, k. of the Franks. See Theodoric. Thiers, fall of the ministry of, 491 ; in op- position, 512; head of the executive 519; ministry, 529; fall, 530; president, 633 ; resigns, ib. ; death, 584. Thirty-nine articles, 338. Tllirty tyrants, 69, 157. Thirty years' war, 308. Thistlewood, executed, 638. Thomaa, gen., 558. Thor, 164, 165. Thorn, peace of, first and second, 277. Thracia, 28, 150. Thrasybulus, 68, 69, 70. Three bishoprics (Tool, Metz, Verdun), taken by France, 306, 321; ceded to France, 316 ; taken by Germany, 618. Three kingdoms In China, 32. Throgmorton, Spanish plot of, 339. Thuoydides (son of Melaaias), 64. Thucydidea (the historian), €4; banish- meat, 66. Thugs, suppression of the, 641. Thuriugia, kingdom of, conquered by The- odoric I., lol; landgraves become ex- tinct, territory divided, 225. Thusnelda, 149. Thutmes 111., k. of Egypt, 4. Thyrea, battle of, 66. Tiberias, battle of, 215. Tiberius, Roman emp, , 149 ; adopted by Au- gustus, 148; subjugated Fannonia, 149. Tibullus, Albius, 148. Ticinus, battle of, 114. Ticonderoga, fortification of, 421 ; captured by Ethan Allen, 427 ; by Burgoyne, 428. Tien-Tsin, treaty of, 601, 502, 643, 661, 562. Tifata, battle of, 181. Tiglath-Adar, k. of Assyria, 14. Tiglath-Fileser, ks. of Assyria, I., II,, 14. Tigranes, k. of Armenia, 30, 134, 185. Tigranocerta, battle of, l36, Titlotson, archb, of Canterbury, 387. Tilly, White Hill, 809; in Uolstein, 810; Magdeburg, 311 ; death, 312. Tilsit, peace of, 469, 637. Timoleon, 20. Tin not brought from England by Phoeni- cians, 17, n, Tinchebrai, battle of, 230. Tingitana, 150. Tippamuir, battle of, 348. Tipu sultan, 442, 444, 54L Tirhakah. See Taharak. Tiridates, k, of Armenia, 150, 188. Tiridates, k, of Parthia, 29. Tissaphemes, 67, 70. Titian, 328. Titus, Roman emp., 151, 162 ; destroys Je- rusalem, 12. Togrul Beg, 210. Tokio. See Yedo. Tokoly, count, 372. Tokngawa lyeyasu, 355. Tokugawa shoguns, 856. Tolbiacum, 173. Tolentino, battle of, 434 ; peace of, 458. Toleration act, 386. Tolly, Barclay de, 472, 474. Tolosa, kingdom of, 172 ; battle of, 240. Tbnningen, surrender of, 396. Tonquin, annexed to China, 278 ; disputf) with the French over, 562. Toordn-sbih, 217. Torbay, 884. Torgau, alliance of, 302; battle o^ 406< Toriea, origin of the name, 382, Torres Vedras, lines of, 473, 637. Torstenson, 314, 316. Tostig, 206. Totila, k. of East Goths, 174, 176. Totleben, 405, 500. Toul. See Three bishoprics. Toulouse, battle of, 481. Tours, battle of, 183. Tourville, 370, 387. Tower of Babel, 12. Townshend, 436, 440. 60 Index, Towton, battle of, 274. Trafalgar, battle of, 467. Traitorous correspondence bill, 535. Trajan, Roman emp. ; Parthian exp. 30*; reign, 162, 153. Trausubstautiation, 269. TransylTania, 3u9, 315, 416, 511. TraBimenus, battle of lake, 114. Trautenau, battle of, 509. Travendal, peace of, 394. Treason, statute of, 269. Trebia, battle of the, 114, 461. Trebizond, Greek empire of, 216. Trelawney, b., 384. Trent, atfair of the, 567. Trent, council of, 305. Trenton, battle of, 428. Trevelyan, G, 0., sec. for Ireland, 546. Treves. See Trier. Trevithick, 486. Trevor, sir John, 388. Trial of the bishops under James II., 384. Tribes of Israel, 8. Tribunes, appointment, 96, 97 ; military tribunes created, 99 ; abolished, 101 ; lose their revolutionary character, 102 ; their power limited by Sulla, 132 ; re- stored, 133 ; conferred upon Csesar, 143. Tribur, imperial diet at,"199, 200. ■ Tribus, 92. Triennial act, 345, 388. Trier, archb. of, 248. Trierarchy, 58. Trifanum, battle at, 104. Trifels, 216. Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden, 367, 380 ; between England, France, and Holland, 437- Tripolitan war, 549. Triumvirate, first, 137 ; second, 145. Trochu, 517, 518, 519, Trojan war, 47. Troppau, congress at, 487. Troyes, peace of, 259, 271, 338. Truce of God, 199, 203. Tscbesme, battle of, 412. Tseng, marquis, 562. Tshemajeff, 521. Tsin dynasty in China, 32 ; later Tsin, 211. Tuathal, 39. Tudor, house of, 333. Tughlak, sultan of Delhi, 241. Tuileries, storm of the, 452 : burnt, 533. Tullus Hostiliue, 89. Tunes, battle of, 111. Tunis, Louis IX. at, 217; expedition of Charles V. against, 304; French expe- dition to, 534. Turco-Russian war in Europe, 522 ; in Asia, 523. Turenne, marshal, 315, 366 ; death, 368. Turgot, 447. Turin, peace of, 371 ; battle of, 392, 434. lurks, Turkey, empire of the Seljuk T., 210 ; supremacy of the Osman or Otto- man T., 278 ; war with Charles V., 303 ; alliance with Francis I., 305; war with Max. II., 306 ; with Venice (Lepanto), 326 ; highest development of the em- pire, decline, 353 ; wars with Leopold I. (siege of Vienna). 372; peace of Carlo- witz, T. receives Temesvar, loses Morea to Venice, Hungary and Transylvania to Austria, 372, 416 , AzofE lost to Russia, 375 ; Charles XII. in T., 395 ; Azoif re- gained, 396 ; conquest of Morea, war with Austria, peace of Passarowitz, Aus- tria receives Temesvar, Little Wallachia, Belgrade, part di Servia, 397 ; war with Poland and Russia, regains Belgiude, Servia, Little Wallachia, 398 ; war with Russia and Austria, 408, 410 ; Azoff Onally lost, 410 ; with Catharine II. ( 1) , peace of Kutschouc Kainardji, Bug the boun- dary, 412 ; (2) peace of J assy, Dniester the boundary, 413; war with Russia, peace of Bucharest, Pruth the boun- dary, 473 ; revolt of Greece, 488 ; mas- sacre of Janizaries, Navarino, 489 ; war with Russia, peace of Adrianople, 489 ; Crimean war, 499 ; peace of Paris, 501 ; revolt of Herzegovina, etc., "Bulgarian atrocities,'^ 521; war with Russia, 522: peace of San Stefano, 523 : congress of Berlin, 524 ; loss of much territory, 524; conference of Berlin, surrender of Dul- cigno, 525. Tuscany, Cosimo de Medici of Florence becomes grand duke of T., 327 ; Francis Stephen, of Lorraine, receives T., 398, 416 ; becomes an appanage of Austria, 416 ; grand duke expelled, 461 ; ceded to Parma, as kmgdom of Etruria, 463 ; old dynasty restored, 483 ; united -with Sar- dinia, 502. TuBcaroras, 363, 417. Two Sicilies. See Naples, Sicily. Tycoon. See Shogun. Tyler, John, 554. Tyler, Wat. 269. Tyndale's translation of the Bible, 335. Tyndaris, battle o£f, 110. Tyrant, 49. Tyrconnel, 383, 387. Tyre, 16; subdued by Nebuchadnezzar, 16; surpasses Sidon, 18 ; height of its pros- perity under Hiram, 18 ; decline, 19 ; be- sieged by Nebuchadnezzar, 19 ; captured by Alexander, 20. Tyrol, acquired Carinthia, 244 ; given to Austria by Margaret Maultasch, 249 ; ' falls to archduke Maximilian, 253 ; in- vaded by Bavarians, 392; ceded to Ba- varia, 468 ; revolt of Tyrol under Hofer, 471 ; revolt subdued, southern Tyrol an- nexed to Italy, 472 ; T. restored to Aus- tria, 482. Tyrone, e. of, rebellion, 339, 341. Ulf-Jari, 207. Ulm, 250 : truce of, 315 ; surrender of 467. Ulrica Eleanora, q. of Sweden, 896. Ulrich, d. of WUrtemberg, victory of Swa- bian league over, 250. Ulrich, d of WUrtemberg, restored, 304. Umbria, 81, 83, 141. Umbro-Sabellian tribe, 86. " Unam Sanctam," 254. Union of Calmar, 237, 238, 240, 351. Union G6n6rale, failure of, 534. Union, German, 498. Union, Prot<'B^*»iit, 308, 309. Union Jack, 434 Index. 51 TTnitcd colonies of New England, 298. United Irishmen, 53o. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire- land, 636. United Netherlands, republic of, 316. See Netherlands. United New Netherland company, 298. United Provinces. See Netherlands. United States of America, independence proclaimed, 428; articlei of confederor tion, 429 ; independence recoguizeJ and boundaries established, 432 ; first con- gress at New York, 547 ; first meets at Washington, 549; Jay's treaties, 548; Louisiana purchase, 549 ; war of 1812, 551 ; Missouri compromise, 552 ; war with Mexico, 664; fugitive slave law, 548, 555 ; civil war, 657, prohibition of slavery, 568 : resumption, civil service reform, 560. United States bank, 647 ; second, 651. Unstrut, battle of, 196, 199. Urana, Pedro de, 288. Urban II., pope, 213. Urchan, 278, Uruguay, discovery of, 286 ; independent, 488. Usurtasen, ks. of Egypt, I., II., III., 4. Utica, Phoenician colony, 17 ; battle, 141. Utraquists, 252. Utrecht, peace of, 393, 435 ; treaty of, 363; union of, 331. Uxbridge, treaty of, 349. Uzeda, d. of, 331. Vaea, Cabepa de, 286. Vadimonium lake, battle of, 105, 107. Valdivia, 287. 'Valens-, Roman emp., 160. Valentinianus, I., Roman emp., 160 ; II., 160; III., 161, 173. Yalerianus, Roman emp., 166, 188. Valerius, laws of, 98. Valerius Corvus, M., 103, 104 ; Maximus, 110 ; PopUcola, 93. Valley Forge, 429. Valmy, battle at, 452. Valois, house of, 257. Van Buren, Martin, 652, 553. Vandals, location, 170 ; invaded Spain, 171 ; kingdom in Africa, 172 ; power in Africa destroyed, 174. Vane, sir Henry, execution of, 379. Van Tromp, 376. Varahran I., k. of Persia, II.. HI., 188; IV., v., 189 ; VI., see Bahram. Varna, battle of, 278. Varro, C. Terentius, 115. Varus, Quintilius, 143, 149, 167. Vaaa, house of, 352. Vassals, 166. Vatican council, 512. Vaucelles, truce of, 306. Vauchamps, battle of, 480. Vedas, 22, 23. Veil, war of Romulus with, 88; siege of, 99 Velasquez, Diego, 284, 286. Venaissin, annexed to France, 452. Vendue, royalifltic revolt in the, 453, 454 ; conclusion of the war, 457 ; new revolt repressed, i6. VendBme, 392, 435. Vendome, column, 632. Venezuela, discovery of, 283 ; republic of, 488. Venice founded by Italian fugitives, 173 : shares in 4th crusade, 216 ; con6titu<- tion, 697-1454, 262 ; acquisition of Corfu and Cyprus, height of its power, ib.; league'of Cambray, 300, 318 ; holy league, 818 ; decline in power, loses Cyprus to the Turks, 326 ; at the peace of Carlo- witz receives Morea, 372 ; which it loses at the peace of Passarowitz, 397 ; these wars described, 416 ; V. seized by France, gov. overthrown, 459 ; ceded to Austria, except Ionian Islands, 459; at the con- gress of Vienna, Austria retains V. , which ' forms with Milan the Lombard o- Venetian kingdom, 482 ; revolt and subjugation, 494 ; ceded to Napoleon III., 509 ; ceded to Italy, 610, and united with that king- dom, 611. Venus, 84. Vera Cruz, 285 ; surrender of, to gen. Scott, 564. Vercellee, battle of, 128. Vercingetorix, 139. Verden, ceded to Sweden, 316; conquered by Denmark and f^old to Hanover, 396. YerduD, see the Three bishoprics : treaty of, 187. Vere, Robert de, impeachment, 269. Vergennes, c. de, 447. Vergiliua Maro, P., 81, 147. Vergniaud, 461, 452, 454. Vermont, organized, 429 ; admitted to Union, 547. Verona, congress of, 488. Veronese, Paul, 328. Verrazzaoo, Giovanni di, 286. Versailles, convention of, 619; prelimina- ries of peace at, 619 ; treaty of, 408 ; peace of, 432, 441. Verus, Lucius, 164. Vervins, treaty of, 324. Yesontio, battle of, 138. VespasianuB, Roman emp., 37, 160, 151. Vespucci, Amerigo, 283, 284. Vestal virgins, 86. Vesuvius, eruption of, 152 , battle of, 104, 175. Vexin, 2*" 3. Via Emilia, 118 ; Appia, construction of, 105 ; Flaminia, construction of, 106, 113 ; Valeria, 106. Yicksburg, 658. Victor Amadeus, k. of Sardinia, 458. Victor Emmanuel, k. of Sardinia, returns to Turin, 482. Victor Emmanuel, k. of Sardinia, succeeds to the throne, 494; in Crimean war, 500 : k. of Italy, 503 ; death, 524. Victoria, q. of Great Britain and Ireland, 491 ; marriage, 542 ; empress of India, 646,547. Vienna, grand alliance of, 370. See Grand alliance. Vienna, alliance of, against Napoleon (1815), 483 ; concordat of, 253 ; conference in, 491; congress of, 482, 537; final act, 487; peace of (ending war of Polish succession), 398 ; peace of between France and Au»- 52 Index. tria (1809), 472; peace of, ending the war of Austria and Frusijia with Denmark (1864), 606; peace of, between Austria and Italy (1866), 511 ; treaty of (1731), 437 ; siege by the Turks, 303, 372 ; foun- dation of, 167 ; outbreak in, 492 ; second, 499; third, 493. Vienne. See Dauphin^. Vijayanagar, Hiudu kingdom of, 241, 353; destruction, 354. Vilagos, capitulation of, 495. Villafafila, .treaty of, 328. Yillafranca, meeting at, 502. Villars, 366, 392, 393. Villegagnon, 288. Villehaidouin, 216. Till^le, ministry of, 627. Villeroi, 870, 392. "Vinci, Leonardo da, 327. Vindeltcia, 34, 148, 167. Yindex, C. Julius, 151. Vinegar Hill, battle of, 586. Vinland (America), 209, 281. "^'^noy, general, 532. Vio, cardinal de, 301. Vionville, battle of, 516. Virginia, 98. Virginia, named, 289 ; division of, 291 ; first general assembly in, 292 ; massacre of colonists in, 357 ; Bacon's rebellion, 859 ; resolutions of the house of bur- gesses, 424 : secedes, 556. ViriathuB, 123. Visconti, John Galeazzo becomes duke of Milan, 251 ; extinction of the line, 262, 318. Visigoths. See West Goths. Vitellius, Roman emp., 161. Vitiges, k. of East Goths, 174. Vittoria, battle of, 479, 637. Vladimir the Great, of Russia, 276. Vladislas III., of Poland, elected k., of Hungary, 278 ; IV., 352. Volabhis in India, 210. Volero. PubliliuH, y/. Vologeses, ke. of Farthia, III., war with M. Aurelius, 30 ; IV., loses northern Assyria, 30. Volscii, wars with Romans, 97, 98, 100, 103 : receive citizenship without suf- frage, 104. Voltaire, 400, 448. Voltn. battle of, 462. Vortigern, 37, 38. Vossem, peace of, 367. Vote by ballot in England, 545. Vouill6, battle of, 174. Vul-lushlll., f «0 Ramannarari. Wachau, battle at, 478. Waddington, ministry of, in France, 584. Wadsworth, 362. Wagram, battle of, 472. Wahlstatt, battle of, 240, 477. Waihlingen. See Welfs. Wakefield, battle of, 272. Walcheren expedition, 471. Waldemar I., k. of Denmark, the Great, 235 ; II., the Conqueror, 224, 235 j lU., 237. Waldemar the False, 248. Waldenses, 227. Wales, migration of Britons to, 172 ; con- quest by Edward I. , 264 ; annexed to Eng., 264. Wales, pr. of, visits United States and Can* ada, 544 : India, 615. Walja, k. of the West Goths, 172. Wall of China, 32. Wallace, sir Wm., 266. Wallenstein, Albert of, 310, 313. Waller, 347. Walpole, 434: administration 437; fall, 438. Walsingham, 339. Walter the Penniless, 200, 213. Walter, Hubert, archb. of Canterbury, 233. Waltzemuiler, Martin, 283. Wandewash, battle of, 444. Warbeck, Ferkin, 333. Warsaw, battle of, 373 ; besieged by Prus- sians, 414 ; captured by Kussians, 490. Warsaw, duehy of, created for the k. of Saxony, 470 ; West Galicia ceded to, 472 ; a portion ceded to Prussia, 482 ; the rest, as kingdom of Poland, to Rus- sia, 483. Wartburg, Luther at the, 302 ; festival of the, 487. Wartenburg, battle of, 478. Warwick, e. of, impeachment, 270. Warwick, e. of (the lOng-maker), takes up arms, 272, 274. Warwick, e. of, grant in America, 296. Warwick, e. of, executed, 333. Washington city laid out, 647. Washington, treaty of, 545, 660., Washington, George, expedition to the forts on the Alleghany, 420 ; at Braddock'a defeat, 421 ; in continental congress, 426: commander-in-chief, 427 ; war of inde- pendence, 427-431 ; resigned his commis- ission, 432 ; first pres. of U. S., 547 ; re- elected, 648 ; death, 549. Waterloo, battle of, 484, 538. Watt, James, 486. Wayne, 430, 647. Webster, Daniel, speech in reply to Hayn^ 563 ; U. S. sec. of state, 554, 565. Wedmore, treaty of, 204. Wehlau, treaty of, 373. Weinsberg, battle of, 219. Weissenburg, engagement at, 616. Welf, 186, 199; V., marries Matilda of Tuscany, 200. Welfs, contest with the Hohenstaufen ( Waiblingen), 219, 224 ; genealogy of, 220. Weifesholze, battle of, 201, Wellesley, sir Arthur, in India 541. See Wellington. Wellington, d. of, 537: sketch of life, pen- insula war, 471; in Portugal, 473; Vit- toria, 479j in France, 481 ; congress of Vienna, 482 ; Waterloo, 484 ; administra- tion, 539 ; for. sec, 640; death, 643. Welser, 286. Wenceslaus. See Wenzel. Wends, 168; wars with Henry I., 194; Otto L, 195; Otto II., 197; Teutonic kiLights, 218 ; subjugated by Waldemar, 235,249. Wentworth, Thomas. See StrafEord. Wenzel, emp. of H. R. E., 250. Index. 53 Werder, gen. von, 516, 519. WerelsB, peace of, 409. Werth, 313, 314, 315. Wessex, founded, 178; growth of, 180; kings of, become kings of England, 203; Danes in, 204. West, Francis, 295. West Franks, separation from the East Pranks, 187 ; CaroUngian rulers, 2Ul ; develop into the French nation, 202. Western empire separated from the eastern empire, 16 j fall of, 162, 173 ; revival by Charles the Great, 186 ; by Otto L, 196. West Goths, location, 170 ; enter the Roman empire, 171 ; found kingdom in Spain, 172; under Theodoric, k. of the East Ooths, 174 ; conquered by the Arabs, 183. Westminster at^sembly, 347. Westminster, treaty of, 380. 403. Weston, lord treasurer, 344. Westphalia, 184 ; kingdom of, formed, 470 : fall of, 478 ; peace of, 315 ; conditions oi the peace, 316, 317. West Point, 430. West Vii^inia admitted to the TTnioiu 668. Wettin, house of, in Meissen, 218 ; receives electoral Saxony, 252 ; division of the line, 305 Wetzlar, imperial chamber at, 300. Wexford, massacre of, 375. Weymouth, George, 290- Wharton, Thomas, sec. of state, 387 ; In the whig junto, 435. Wheats tone, 487. Whigs, origin of the name, 382. Whiskey insurrection 548. White, John, gov., 289. White Hill, battle on, 309. White Plains, battle of, 428. Whitney, Eli, invented cotton gin, 648. Whittington, sir Richard, 271. Wlclif, doctrine as taught by Huss con- demned, 262 ; in England, 269. Widukind, 185. Wiesloch, battle of, SIO. Wilderness, battle of the, 658. Wilkes, John, 439, 440. William 1., the Conqueror, k. of England, Hastings, 206 ; reign, 229. See William duke of Normandy : U., the Red, reign of, 230. William and Mary sovereigns of England, 870, 371 ; reign, 385 ; of Scotland, 386 ; wars with France, 370, 371 ; death of Mary, 388. See William, prince of Or- ange. William III.,k, of England, reign alone, 8f^. 389 ; war of Spanish succetision, 390- 394 J death, 389, 392 ; IV., 489 ; reign, 639 ; death, 491, 641. yilliam I. , emperor of Germany, election, 619 ; attempted assassination, 624. William I., k. of Holland, 489. William Longsword, d. of Normandy, 202. William, d. of Normandy's claim to the English succession, 200, 206 ; conquest of England, 206. See William I., k. of England. William I., of Orange, the Silent, 331. William of Orange, 367; marriage with Mary, 36>?, 381 ; becomes stadtholder, 880 ; declaration to the people of Eng- land, 884. See William III., k. of Eng- land. William I., k. of Prussia, 603 ; coronation of, 504 ; commander of the army, 508, 509,514. See William I.,emp. of Ger- many- William the Lion, k. of Scotland. 232. William II., k. of Sicily, 222. William and Mary college, 362. William and Mary, war of, 365. Williams, Roger, 297, 357. Wilmington, e. of, 438. Wilmot proviso, 555. Wimbledon, expedition against Cadiz 342, Wimpfen, battle of, 310. Wimpffen, general, 617. Winchester^ statute of, 267. Windischgrdtz, pr., 495. Winfrith. See Boniface. Wiukelried, Arnold of, 250. Winthrop, John, 296. Winthrop, John, son of gov. W., founda- tion of Conn, colony by, 297. WinwBed, battle of, 180. Wisconsin exploration of, 364 ; admitted to the Union, 565. Witt, de, 367, 383 ; commander, 379. Wittelsbach, house of, in Bavaria, 222; count palatine, 223 ; head of the union and the league both of this house, 308 ; Wilhelmian and Rudolfian line, 816 ; Bavarian succession, 406. Wittstock, battle of, 314. Wladimir. See Vladimir. Wocokon, island of, 289. Woden. See Odin. Wolfe, gen., 421, 422. Wollaaton,296. Wolseley, sir Garnet, 546, 646. Wolsey, Thomas, card., 334. Wolstenholme's Sound, 299. ** Wonderful " parliament, 269. Worcester, battle of, 375. Worcester, e. of, conspiracy against Henrv IV,, 270. Worcester, marquis of, 486. Worms, capital of the old kingdom of Bar- gundy, 170 ; concordat of, 201 ; diet of ^ 302. Worth, battle of, 516. Wrangel, German commander, 494, 496., 606. Wrangel, Swedish commander, 316. Wrede, 480. Wren, sir Christopher, 379. Writs of assistance in Massachusetts, 422. Wurschen, battle of, 476. Wiirtemberg, rise of the Swabian counts of, 244 ; contests with the league of Swa- bian cities, 249, 250; duke Ulrich forced to abdicate, 804; becomes an electorate, 464; enriched by the mediatization of many imperial cities, 466; frroops join Napoleon, 467 ; becomes a kingdom and acquires lands from Austria, 468; be- longs to the confederation of the Rhine. 468 ; joins the allies, 479 ; joins the North German confederation, 614- Wurzburg, diet at, 223; battle of, 458. ' Wusterhausen, treaty of, 398. Wyandots,423. Wyat, sir JPrancis, gov, of S. Virginia, 292- 54 Index, Wyclif. See "Wiclif, Wykeham, William of, 269. X. Y. Z. affair, 549. Xauthippus accuses Miltiades, 67 ; leads Athenian fleet, 60 ; father of Pericles, Xanthippus, the Spartan, ill. Xenophon, leads the Ureek mercenaries under (Jyrus the younger, 29, 69. Xeres de la froutera, battle of, 183. Xerxes, ks. of Persia : 1., war with Greece, 28, 58-60 ; II., 29. Yakub Beg, 562. Yakub Khdn, abdication of, 547. Yale college, founded, 363. Yamaesees, Indian war, 417, 418. Yeardley, Bir George, gov. gen. of S. Vir- ginia, 292. Yedo, in Japan, 32 ; capital of the shogun, 356; name changed to Tokio, becomes capital of the mil^o, 563. Ynglingar dynasty in Sweden, 208. Yokohama, 32; opened to tmde, 563. York, James, duke of, grant of "New Netherlands, 358 ; lord high admiral, 378 ; professes Catholicism, 380 ; thrown out by the test act, 380 ; exclusion bill, 381 ; succeeds as James II., k. of Kng- land, 333. York, gen., 474, 475, 478, 480. York, house of, in the wars of the roses, 272. ^orktowu, siege of, 431. Yoritomo, 242, 243. Ypsilauti, 488. Yucatan, discovery of, 284, 285. YusBuf, 209. Zama, battle of, 118. Zanmsp, k. of Persia, 189. Zapolya, John, pr. of Transylvania, 303- Zcemeboh, 169. Zela, battle of, 135, 142. Zendavesta, 24, n. Zenger, arrest of, for libel, 419. Zeno, 64, 16^. Zencbia, 157. Zenta, battle of, 372. Ziela. See Zela. Zipaiigu,32, n, 282. Ziska, 252. Znaim. truce of, 472. ZoUverein, founded, 491; first parliament, Zopyrufl, 27. Zorndorf , battle of, 405. Zoroaster, reforms the Iranic religion, 24 ; his religion restored, 187. Zriny, 306. Zul-fikar Khdn, 442. Ziilpich, battle of, 178. Zulus, war of England with, 545. Ziirich, battle of, 461 ; peace of, 502. Zutphen, battle of, 839. Zweibriickeu, bouse of, in Sweden, 842, 373. Zwingli, 301. INDEX TO APPENDIX Abbaa II., kbedive of Egypt, 567. Abdul Hamid II., deposed, 608. AbduUahi, mabdi, 569. Abdurrahman, ameer of AfghanistaD, death, 598. Abu Klea, battle, 565. Abyssinia, and Italy, 567, 674, 680; British treaty, 573. Addi's Abeda, peace, 680. Adrianople, 611. Adua, battle, 580. Aeroplanes, 606. Afghanistan, frontier deliminated, 566 ; Chitral, 568 ; HabibuUah, 698 ; conven- tion between England and Russia on, 606. Agrariiin agitation, Germany, 580; Russia, 584. Aguinaldo, Emilio, insurrection, 592. Ahmad Mirza, shah of Persia, 608. Alabama, adopts prohibition, 606. Alaska boundary, 592, 594. Albania, made independent with Prince William of Wied as ruler, 611. Albert, k. of the Belgians, 608. Alexander, p. of Bulgaria, and East Ru- mella, 675; kidnapped, resigns, 575. Alexander III., tzar of Russia, consecrated, 573; death, 679. Alexander, k. of Servia, 677; coup d'etat, 678 ; liberal constitution, 584 ; assassi- nated, 686. Alexis, heir to Russian throne, 600. Alfonso XII., k. of Spain, Paris mob, 673; death, 675; XIII.. 575; accession. 685; marriage, 603; birth of an heir, 606. Algeciras convention, 603. Alsace-Lorraine, dictator paragraph abol- ished. 685. American Railroad Union strike, 589. Amundsen, Capt. Roald, makes Northwest passage, 604; reaches South Pole, 609; announces discovery, 609. Anam, French war, 573, 574. Anarchistic activity, 577, 578, 583, 593. Andrfi in ministry, 682, 585. Angra Pequena, German protectorate, 574. Arbitration, Anglo-French treaty, 573; Hague conference, 683; French-Italian treaty. 585; Bering sea, 588; Venezuela boundary, 590; Anglo-American treaties, 690, 609; action of U.S. senate on, 600; Franco-American treaty, 609. Arizona, admitted to the Union, 609. Armenian massacres, 579. 608. Armies, increase in Continental, 676, 578; Swedish conscription. 684; increase in U.S., 692; general staff, 594. Armstrong investigating committee, 601. Ashantee expedition, 569. Asquith, sec. of exchequer, 602; prime min., 606. Assab, Italy occupies, 574. Associations law, French, 584, 585. Assuan dam, 572. Atbara, battle, 669. Ausgleich renewed, 682. Australia, constitution, 571. Australian ballot, 587. Austria, triple alliance, 573, 585; electoral reform, 580; language controversy, 582; Augleich renewed, 582; empress assassi- nated, 683; universal manhood suffrage in, 604; asserts rights of sovereignty m Bosnia and Herzegovina, 607; assassina- tion of the heir presumptive, 612; war with Servia, 612; in European war of 1914, 612, 613. Baden-Powell, col., Mafeking, 571. Baker Paaba, 665. Balfour, A. J., sec. for Ireland, 666; of treas- 'urjr, 568; premier, 572; and tariff, 572; resigns as prime minister. 602. Balkan states, war with Turkey, 610; treaty of peace with Turkey, 611; war among, 611; peace signed, fill; reorganization, 611. Balkan wars, war of 1912, 610; war of 1913, 611. Balloons. 606. Baltic sea treaty. 607. Bank scandal in Italy, 578. Bankruptcy, uniform law, 691. Baring, Evelyn, in Egypt, 666. Barra, de la, provisional pres. of Mexico, 609. Barton, Edmund, 571. Bavaria, k. Otto deposed and succeeded by Louis III., 611. Bayard, T. F., sec. of state, 686. Beach, M. H., sec. for Ireland, 666; ex- chequer, 668. Bechuanaland, British, 566. Belgium, suffrage, 574, 578, 683, 684; social- istic demonstrations, 583, 684; death of k. Leopold II. and succession of Albert, 608; in European war of 1914, 613. Belgrade, bombarded, 612. Berber, 669. Bering sea, sealing controversy, 686, 688. Berthelot in ministry, 580. Bialystok, 603. Bimetallism, international conference, 578. See Silver. BirreU, A.. 602. Bismarck, pr. von., and catholics, 674; colonial policy, 674; resigns, 677; death, 683. Blaine, J. G., republican nominee, 686; sec. of state, 587. Bodrikoff assassinated, 585. Bogolepoff assassinated, 684. 56 Index to Appendix Bonaparte, prince Napoleon, manifesto^ 573; death, 677. Bosnia, emp. of Austria-Hungary asserts rights of sovereignty and succession in, 607. Botha, gen., S. African war, 571; premier of the Union of South Africa, 611. _ Bo'ulanger, in ministry, 575; agitation, 675, 676; flight. 576; suidde, 577. Bourbon, house of, extinct, 573. Bourgeois, minister of the interior, 580; for- eign minister, 603. Boxer rising. 597. ^ Bradlaugh, in parliament, 566. Briand. minister of public instruction, 603; premier, 608. Bnsson ministry, 574, 582. British South Africa company, 667, 569. Brownsville, Tex., 604. Brunei, protectorate, 567. Bryan, W. J., democratic nominee, 690, 59S, 607. Bryce, James, in cabinet, 668, 602. Bucharest, 611. Bulgaria, Servian war. 575; Alexander re- signs, 575; Ferdinand, 676; Russian as- cendency, 580; independence^procl aimed, 607; war with Turkej^, 610; peace with Turkey, 611; war with other Balkan states, 611; agreement with Turkey, 611. Buller, Hedvers, S. African war, 570. Bulow, c von, German chancellor, 564. Burma, upper, annexed, 666; Anglo-Chinese agreements, 594, 595. Bums, John, 602. Calabria, earthquake, 607. Campbell-Bannerman, Sir H., sec. of war, 563; prime minister, 602; resignation and death, 606. Campos, premier of Spain, 575. Canada, Pacific railway, 666; B-iel's rebel- lion, 566; tariff preferential, 569; fisheries, 586; joint high commission, 591. Canals, Manchester, 568; Suez convention, 676; Panama, 678, 594; Kiel, 679. Caprivi, v., German chancellor, 677, 679. Carbajal, pres. of Mexico, 612, 613. Carlos I., k. of Portugal, 677; assassinated, 606. Carnovas, premier of Spain, 575. Caroline Islands, Germany secures, 575, 683. Carranza, 612, 613. Carson, sir Edward, 612. Casablanca, 605, 606. Casimir-F^rier, pres. of France, 578;Tesigns, 580. Castro, Cipriano, pres. of Venezuela, 607. Caucasia, railway, 576. Cavaignac, in ^ministry, 580. Central America, treaty and conventions, 606. Cervera, admiral, 591. Chad, lake, control, 667, 578. Chamberlain, Joseph, in cabinet, resigns, liberal unionist, 566; colonial sec, 568; and Transvaal, 569; and colonial pre- miers, 669; in S. Africa, 672; tariff cam- paign, 572. Chambord, c. of, death, 573. Chang-chung, 602. Charleston earthquake, 586. Chile, and U. S., 588; earthquake, 604. China, French war, 674, 675; and Japan in Corea, 594; floods and famine, 594; missionaries, 695; empress dowager, 595, 597; Jai)ane5e war, 696; concessions, 696; territorial leases, 596, 597; reforms, 697; open-door policy, 597, 598; Boxer rising, 597; commercial treaties, 698; ratifies An^lo-Thibetan treaty, 600; boy- cotts American goods, 601; and the Anglo- Japanese alliance, 601; decree in regard to opium, 604; education reforms, 604; a new army, 604; boxer indemnity claim remitted by U. S., 607; death of the emp. and the empress-dowager, 607; succession of Hsuan-tung, 607; senate opened, 608; insurrection against the Manchu dynasty, 609; provisional republican ^overnmeof; established, 609; emperor abdicates, 609; Yuan Shib-kai provisional pres., 609; Yuan elected pres., 611. Chinese exclusion act, 687, 589. Ching, pr.. Boxer rising, 598. Chitral, 568. Cholera in Europe, 577. Christian IX., k. of Denmark, death, 602; X., 610. Chung, regent prince of China, 607. Chungking, treaty port, 696. Churches of Scotland, 601. Churchill, lord Randolph, in cabinet, 666. Clayton-Bulwer treaty abrogated, 693. Clemenceau, minister of the interior, 603; premier, 604; succeeded by Briand, 60S. Cleveland, Grover, democratic nominee, 586, 688; pres. of U. S., 686, 589; tariff, 586; and Hawaii, 689; silver purchase law, 589; bond issuer. 589, 690; Vene- zuela, 690; death, 607. Coal-miners' strike, 609. Colenso, battle, 670. Colombia, canal treaty, 593. Colonies, German African, 674. Colorado, strikes in, 605. Combes, in ministry, 680; premier, 585; succeeded by Rouvier, 600. Concordat, agitation against, 686. Congo Free State, conference, 574; bound- ary, 579; report of commission on, 602. Conservation, 607. Constans, in ministry, 676. Constantine, k. of Greece, 610. Constitution, French, revised, 674; Aus- tralian, 671_; Japanese, 594. Consular service, U. S., 603. Contract laborers, U. S. law, 586. Coolie labor in S. Africa, 572. Copyright, international, 688. Corea, opened to trade, 594; China and Japan (1883), 594; (1894), 595; Russian intrigue, 694, 696; Japanese prestige, 596; Russia and Japan, 596. 697, 699; occupied by Japan, 599; and the Anglo- Japanese alliance, 601; and the Russo- Japanese treaty, 601; Japan secures con- trol of foreign relations, 602; not received at the Hague, 605; abdication of the emp. in favor of his son, 606; Japan obtains Index to Appendix 57 protectorate over, 605; annexed by Japan, 608. Crete, revolt in, 681; popular aasembly pro- claims union with Greece, 607; ceded to Greece, 611. Crimes act, 566. Crispi, premier of Italy, 576; bank scandal, 578. Cronje, gen., S. African war, 670, 671. Cuba, rebellion, 690; Spanish-American war, 690; U. S. disclaims desire tor, 591; Spun relinquishes, 691; cobditionsof U. S. withdrawal, 592; independent govern- ment, 693; reciprocity with U. S., 693; insurrection and establishment of a pro- visional government by the tJ. S., 604; inauguration of pres. Gomez and cessa- tion of provisional government, 608. Currency and banking bill, 611. Curzon, lord, viceroy of India, 569; resigns, 601. Dahomey, French protectorate, 578; bound- ary, 584. Dalny, occupied by Japan* 699. Danish West Indies, failure of purchase, 593. Danube, navigation, 673, 681. Davis, H. G., 600. Deceased wife's sister act, 606. Delarey, gen., S. African war, 571. DelcassS, in ministry, 678, 582, 586, 601. Denmark, death of k. Christian and succes- sion of Frederick VIIX., 610. Department, of labor, 687, 694; of agricul- ture, 687; of commerce, 594. Deutsche Colonialverein, 674. De Wet. gen., S. African war, 571. Dewey, George, Manila bay, 591. Diaz, Feluc, 610. . Diaz, Porfirio, resigns as pres. of Mexico, 609. Dimotika, 611. Dongola, 669. Drago doctrine, 604. Dreyfus case, 579, 582; decision reversed, 603. Dublin, riot at, 61*. Dupuy, in ministry, 578; premier, 678, 682. East Rumelia. revolution, 575. Education, English acts, 567, 672; central board, 570; French laws, 575, 584. Edward VII.. k. of Great Britain, 672; death, 608. Egypt, foreign control, 665; Soudan, 665, 569; Abbas 11., 667; crisis, 668; Anglo- Freuch treaty in connection with, 599. Eiffel tower, 677. El Caney, battle, 691. Electoral vote, regulation, 586. Election laws, French, 676-577. See Suf- frage- Emma, q. regent of Netherlands, 577. England, Egypt, 566, 568. 569; South African republic, 666, 568; Afghanistan. 666, 668; Faahoda, 669; imperial post, 670; Persian gulf, 670, 572; South African war, 570; Edward VII., 672; tariff agita- tion, 672; Thibet, 673, 598; Pamirs, 680; Venezuela-Guiana boundary, 590; Corea, 594, 596; China, 697, 598; Japanese alli- ance, 598; treaty of 1904 with France, 599; treaty with Thibet, 600; war with Russia averted, 600; alliance with Japan renewed, 601; 28th imperial parUament, 602; education bill fails, 604; trades dis- putes act, 604; deceased wife's sister act, 606; convention with Russia on Persia, Afghanistan, and Thibet, 606; Irish universities bill, 607; old age pensions act, 607; 29th imperial narliument, 608; com- mons resolve that lords' veto should be limitedj 608; death of Edward VII. and succession of George V., 608; Newfound- land fisheries case, 608; parliament dis- solved, 608; return of a government majority, 608; suspensory veto act, lim- iting the power of the house of lords, 609; coaUminers' strike, 609; state insurance, 610 ; Irish home rule act and troubles in Ireland, 612; in European war of 1914. 613. Eritrea, beginning, 574; Abyssinian war, 580. Esterhazy, Dreyfus affair, 682. Evicted tenants bill, 568. ^ Exterritoriality, cessation in Japan, 596. Fairbanks, C W., v.-pres. of U. S., 600. Fallieres, premier, 673; in ministry, 576; pres. of France, 603. Fashoda incident, 569. Faure, Felix, in ministry, 578; pres. of France, 580; death, 583. Ferdinand, cr. p. of Austria, 576. Ferdinand, p. of Bulgaria, 676; and Russia, 680. Ferron, in ministry, 576. Ferry, Jules, ministry, 673. Finland, Russification, 683-586; famine, 584; constitution restored, 602; women chosen to the legislative assembly, 605. Fisheries, controversy, 686; Bering sea, 586, 688; Newfoundland, 599, 608. Floods, in Mississippi valley, 609; in Ohio valley, 611. Floquet, premier^ 576. Flourens, in ministry, 676. Force bill. 687. , , Formosa, French attack, 674; ceded to Japan, 696. France, Egypt, 666; Africa, 667, 678-380, 682, 683; Fashoda, 569; Oman, 570; princes, 673, 675; Anam and China; 673-675; constitution revised, 674; elec tion laws, 675-677; Grgvy, 676; Bou langer affair, 576, 576; Sadi-Carnot, 576; republicanism strengthened,^ 677. 585 ; Russian friendship and alliance 577, 681, 682; and Papacy, 678, 586; Panama scandal, 578; Casimir-Pfirier 678; Dreyfus affair, 679, 682; Faure, 680: Loubet, 683; associations law, 684, 585: and catholics in east, 684; and Turkey, 684; Siam, 596, 696, 699; interference in Chinese-Japanese treaty, 696; conces- sions in China, 696; Kwangchau, 697, and Anglo- Japanese alliance, 698; treaty of 1904 with England, 599; and the Vatican, 699; forbids teaching by religious orders, 600; cabinet crisis on account of espionage scandal in the army, 600; rela- 58 Index to Appendix tion3 with Morocco, 601, 603; separation of church and state, 60^; Failieres elected president, 603; new ministry, 603; general election, 603; synod of bishops, 603; Briand ministry, 608; obtains a free hand in Morocco, 609; Raymond Poincare pres., 610; in war of 1914, 612, 613. Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, assassination, 612. Frederick' III., German emp., accession, death, 576. Frederick VIII., k. of Denmark, 602; death, 610. French, sir John, 612. French Congo, boundary, 578; a portion ceded to Germany, 609. Freycinet, in ministry, 574, 576, 578, 582; premier, 576. Fuchau, French attack, 574. Gallifet in ministry, 582. Galveston tornado, 592. Gamboa dike, 611. Gapon, father, 600. Gatacie, gen., Stormberg, 570. George, k. of Greece, assassinated, 610. George, p. of Greece, gov.-gen. of Crete, 581. George V., k. of Great Britain, 608. Georgia, adopts prohibition, 606. German East Africa company, 574. German East Africa and "West Africa, boundaries, 567. Germany, Africa, 567, 574, 578, 579, 582; and Canadian tariff, 569; triple alliance, 573, 585; catholics, 573; Caroline islands, 675, 683; army increased, 675, 678; Frederick III., 576; William II.. 576; forced development, 577; naval increase, 580; agrarian agitation, 580; socialism, 580, 588; depression, 584; and Chinese- Japanese treaty, 596; Kiaochau, 596, 697; upholds integrity of China, 698; emp. visits sultan of Morocco, 600; Algeciras conference on Morocco, 601, 603; elections for the Reichstag in 1907, 605; gives France a free band in Morocco in ex- change for a part of the French Congo, 609; in European war of 1914, 612, 613. Giolitti, premier of Italy, 576; bank scan- dal, 578. Gladstone, TV. E., 3d administration, 556; home rule, 566, 568; 4th administration, 668; resigns, 568; death, 569. Gold reserve of U. S., 589, 690. Gold standard, Russia, 582; U. S., 592; Japan, 596. Gomez, pres. of Cuba, 608. Gomez, Juan Vicente, pres. of Venezuela, 607. Gordon, Charles, at Khartum, killed, 565. Goremykin, prime minister, 60S. Goschen, G. J., in cabinet, 566, 568. Gosehen act, 567. Greece, coerced by powers, 575; and Crete, 681; Turkish war of 1897, 581; Balkan war of 1912, 610; k. George assassinated and succeeded by Constantine, 610; Bal- kan war of 1913, 611. Greabam, W. Q., sec. of state, 589. Grevy, Jules, re-elected pres. of France, 575; resigns, 576. Grey, sir Edward, 602, Guerin, in ministry, 578. Gustav v., k. of Sweden, 606. HabibuUah, ameer of Afghanistan, 59S. Hague, the, peace conference, 583; second international peace conference, 605. Hakon VII., k. of Norway, 602. Hanotaux, in ministry, 578, 580. Harcourt, W. V., in cabinet, 566, 568. Harriman railroads, 606. Harrison, Benjamin, republican nominee, 686, 588; pres. of U. S., 687. Hawaii, attempted annexation, 588; an- nexed, territory, 591. Hay, John, sec. of state, 590; open-door policy, 597; death, 601. Haymarket riot, 586. Haywood, acquitted of murder of ex-gov. Steunenberg, 605. Heligoland ceded to Germany, 567. Hendricks. T. A., v.-pres. of U. S., 686. Henry, p. of Prussia, in China, 696. Henry, major, Dreyfus affair, 579, 582. Hepburn act, 603. Herzegovina, emp. of Austria-Hungary asserts rights of sovereignty and succes- sion in, 607. Hicks, Pasha, 565. Hobart, G. A., v.-pres. of U. S., 590. Hohenlohe, p. von, German chancellor, 579. Home rule bills, 566, 568, 612. Homestead strike, 588, Hopetoun, lord, gov.-gen. of Australia, 571. House of representatives, quorum counting, 587. Hsuan-tung, emp. of China, 607; abdicates, 609. .' . V . Huerta, Victoriano, proclaimed provisional pres. of Mexico, 610; XT. S. demands an apology from, 611; elected pres., 612; resigns, 612. Humbert, k. of Italy, assassinated, 583. Hungary, anti-Semitism, 573; civil mar- riage, 578; recognizes Jewish faith, 580; Ausgleich renewed, 582; language ques- tion, 585. Idaho admitted, 588. Iddesleigh, lord, foreign sec, 566. Immigration law, 604. Income tax in U. S., 689, 590, 610. India, Chitral, 568; plague, 569; Thibet mis- sion, 673; earthquake, 600; and the Anglo- Japanese alliance, 601; Indian councils act, 608. Injunction, government by, 689. Insular cases, 593. Insurance, workmen's accident, 569, 574; illness, 573; old age, 577^ 683; miners', 578; state, in Great Britain, 610. Insurance companies, investigation, 601. International prize court, 605. Interstate commerce act, 686. Ireland, nationalists, 566, 667; home rule bills, 566, 568; plan of campaign, 566; crimes act, 666; Parnell commission, 567; land purchase acts^ 667, 573; local government, 669; rent disturbances, 672; Irish council bill, 606; universities bill, 607; home rule bill becomes law, 612; Index to Appendix 59 disturbances in Ulster, 612; home rule amending bill, 612; riot at Dublin, 612. Irish couucD bill, 605. Iriah universities bill, 607. Isabella II. of Spain, death, 599. Ischia, earthquEuce, 574. Ismail Pasha, khedive of Egypt, 565. Isthmian canal. See Panama canal. Italy, Eritrea, 567,_ 574; triple alliance, 57S, 535; increase in army, 575; premiers, 576; bank scandal, 578; Abyssinian war, 680; socialistic riots, 582, 583; Victor Emmanuel III., 583; and New Orleans lynching, 688; Sammun Bay, 697; birth of an heir to the throne, 600 ; declares war against Turkey and captures Tripoli, 609; annexes Tripoli, 609; treaty of peace with Turkey, 610; declares neutrality in Euro- pean war, 613. Ito, admiral, in Chinese war, 595; marquis, in Corea, 602. tturbide. Eduardo, 613. Jameson raid, 668. Japan, and China in Corea, 594, 605; con- stitution, 594; Chinese war, 595; tidal wave, 596; end of exterritoriality, 696; military expansion. 596; and Russia in Corea, 596, 597; English alliance, 698; Russan crisis, 599; war with Russia, 699- 601; alliance with England renewed, 601; treaty of Portsmouth with Russia, 601, 602; secures by treaty control of foreign relations of Corea, 602; obtains a protec- torate over Corea, 605; agreement with TJ. S., 607; annexes Corea, 608; death of emp. Mutsuhito and succession of Yoshi- hito,610; and European war of 1914, 613. Japanese, children in Califomia schools, 604. Jews, anti-Semitigm, 673, 677; Russian May laws, 577; recognized in Hungary, 580; Kbhinef riot, 586. John, k. of Abyssinia, 574. Johnson, Hiram W., 610. Johnstown flood, 587. Jones, Paul, body taken from Paris to Annapolis, 601. Eagoshima, 611. Kamerun, German protectorate, 574; boundary, 678, 579. Kawamura, 600. Kern, J. W., 607. Ketteler, b. von, killed, 698. Khartum, captured by mahdi, 666; retaken, 569; railway, 671. Kiaochau, Germany seizes, 596; leased, 597; evacuation demanded by Japan, 613. . Kiel canal, 679. Kimberley, siege, 570, 571. Kinchau, battle, 599. . Kirk Kilisseh, battle, 610; reUined by Turkey, 611. Kishinef, anti-Semitic riot, 585. Kitchener, lord. Soudan, 669; Fashoda, 570; South African war, 670, 571; and India, 601.1 Klondike, gold discovered, 669. Knights of Labor. 586. Krakatua, mount, eruption, 694. Kruger, S. J. P., pres. of S. African republic, and Uitlanders, 668; and England, 669, 671; death, 600. Kuroki. 599. 600. Kuropatkin, gen., 599,600. Kwangchau-wan, French lease, 597. Kwangsu, emp. of China, accession, 596; reforms, 597; virtual deposition, 597; death, 607.* Labor, unions as corporations, 672; inter- national conference, 577; strikes in Eu- rope, 577, 582, 684; strikes in U. S., 586. 688, 589; U. S. department, 687. 594, 610; growth of unions, 687. See Insurance. Ladysmith, siege, 570. Land fraud scandal, 605. Land purchase acts, Ireland, 667, 573. Lansdowne, lord, viceroy of India, 567; in cabinet, 568; and Persian gulf, 672; and Lloyd-George's budget, 608. Larissa, Greeks evacuate, 581, Lausanne, treaty of, 610. Leo XIII., pope, jubilees, 676, 678, 685; death, 585. Leopold II., k. of the Belgians, death, 608.. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, Panama scandal, 678. Lhasa, 600. Li Hungchang, Japanese war, 596; Boxer rising, 698. Liauyang, battle, 599. Liberal unionists, 666. Liejge, 613. Liliuokalani, q. of Hawaii, 588. Liqievitch, gen., 600. Lloyd-George, 608. Lobengula, 568. Local government, England, 667, 568, 670; Ireland. 669. London, convention of 1884, 665; govern- ment, 667, 670. Loubet, Emile, premier, 678; pres. of France, 583; and the pope, 599. Louis III., k. of Bavaria, 611. Luis, k. of Portugal, death, 577. Lule Burgas, battle, 610. Luxemburg, neutrality violated l^y Ger- many, 613. Lynching, 687, 688. Maagersfontein, battle, 670. McCarthy, Justin, 667. Macedonia, revolt, 584; war in, 610 ; divi- sion of, 611. McKinley, William, republican nominee, 690, 592; pres. of U. S.j 590; war mes- sage, 691, 693; Philippine commission, 692; assassinated, 593. Madagascar, French in, 667, 673, 676, 580; Anglo-French treaty, 699. Madero, Francisco I., jr., pres. of Mexico, 609; taken prisoner and killed. 610. Magoon, gov., 604. Matekii^, siege, 570, 571. Maine, U. S. S., blown up, 591. Manchester ship canal, 568. Manchuria, Japan invades, 696; railways, 696, 597; Russia occupies, 698; Russian- Japanese crisis, 699; in the Russian- Japanese treaty, 602. See Port Arthur. 60 Index to Appendix Manila, captured, 591; insurgents attack, 59.?. Manila bay, battle, 591. Manning, gen., Somaiiland, 572. Manuel II., k. of Portugal, 606; dethroned, 608. Marcband, major, Faahoda, 570. Maria Christina, regent of Spain, 575. Marrakesh, 606. Marshall, Thomas R.,_610. Massawa, Italy occupies, 574. Matabele war, 568. May laws, in Prussia relaxed, 574; in Russia, 577. Meline ministry, 580. Meneiek, k. of Abyssinia, Italian war, 580. Mercier, in ministry, 578; Dreyfus aSair, 579. Merritt, gen., in Philippines, 591. Merv, Russia annexes, 574. Methuen, lord, Maagersfontein, 570. Mexico, pres. Diaz resigns^ 609; Madero elected pres., 609; Felix Diaz rebels and is defeated, 610; revolutionists release Felix Diaz and take pres. Madero prisoner, 610; Victoriano Huerta proclaimed provisional pres., 610; Madero killed, 610; difficulties with U. S., 611; mediation, 613; Huerta elected pres., 612; Huerta resigns and is succeeded by Carbajal, 612; constitution- alist forces in control of most of the coun- try, 612; pres. Carbajal retires in favor of Carranza, 613. Milan, k. of Servia, abdicates, 577. Miles, gen., in Porto Rico, 591. Milouna pass, battle, 581. Minto, lord, gov .-gen. of Canada, 569; vice- roy of India, 601. Missionaries in China, 595-597. Mississippi, adopts prohibition, 606. Mississippi valley;, floods in, 609. Moltke, von, resigns, 576; and establish- ment of empire, 576. Mongolia, Outer, declares its independence, 609. Montana admitted, 587. Montenegro, war with Turkey, 610. . Morley, John (lord), sec. for Ireland, 566, 568; sec. for India, 602. Morocco, An^lo-French treaty, 599; Ger- man emp. visits sultan, 600; conference of powers, 601, 603; Algeciras convention signed, 603; outbreak at Casablanca, 605, 806 ; civil war and success of Mulai Hafid, 606; France obtains a free hand in, 609; sultan Mulai Hafid abdicates, 610. Morton, L. P., v.-pres. of U. S., 587. Moscow, 603. Muhammad V., sultan of Turkey, 608. Muhammad Ahmad, mahdi, 565. Muhammad Ali Mirza, shah of Persia, 605; deposed, 608. Mukden, battle, 600. Mulai Hafid, proclaimed sultan of Morocco and gets control, 600; abdicates, 610. Murad v., death, 600. Muscat, French attempt, S70. Mutsuhito, emp. of Japan, death, 610. Muzaffar-ed-din, shah of Persia, 596; death, 605. Namur, 613. Nanking, 609. Nansen, farthest north, 580. Nanshan, battle, 599. Nasr-ed-din, shah of Persia, killed, 596, Natal, insurrection of natives, 602. Natalie, q. of Servia, banished, 577. Navy, increase in Germany, 580; in U. S.^ 586; in Japan, 596. Negroes, condition, 587; force bill, 587. Netherlands, Wilhelmina, 577; electoral reform, 580. Newfoundland, French fishing rights, 599. Newfoundland fisheries case, 608. New Guinea, protectorate, 565. New Hebrides, 599. New Mexico admitted, 609. New Orleans, Mafia lynching, 588. New York city. Greater, 590. New Zealand, old age pensions, 570. | Niagara. 612. Nicholas II., tzar of Russia, 579, 580. Niger river, spheres of influence, 583. Nigeria, 599. Nile valley, French-English conventions, 570, 583; Assuan dam, 572. Nodzu, gen., in Chinese war, 595; in Russian war, 600. Nogi, gen., in Chinese war, 595; in Russian war, 600. North Borneo, protectorate, 567. North Carolina, adopts prohibition, 606. Northcote, lord, gov.-gen. of Australia, 573. Northcote, Sta^ord. See Iddesleigh. North Dakota admitted, 587. North pole, exploration, 580; reached, 608. North sea treaty, 607. Norway, responsible ministry, 574; separate consuls, 577; suffrage, 583; union with Sweden dissolved, 601, 602. Obregon, gen., 613. Ohio valley, floods in, 611. Oklahoma, opened, 587; adopts constitu- tional prohibition, 606; admitted, 606. Oku, 599, 600. Old age i)en5io]is act, 607. Olney, Richard, sec. of state, 189; doctrine, 590. Omdurman, battle, 569. Open-door policy, 597. Orange Free State, war with Englai-d, 570; annexed, 571; colony, 571. Oscar n., k. of Sweden, death, 606. Osman Digna, 569. Otto, k. of Bavaria, deposed, 611. O^ama, gen., in Chinese war, 595; marshal; in Russian war, 699, 600. Paardesburg, battle, 571. Palma, pres., 604. Pamirs deliminated, 580. Panama, revolt, 594. Panama canal, French scandal, 578; Clay- ton-Bulwer treaty abrogated, 593; act, 598; abortive treaty with Colombia, 593; treaty with Panama, 594; U. S. purchases property of French company, 601; work begun on, 603; last obstruction to water removed, 611; opened, 613. Pan-American congresses, 587, 604. Index to Appendix 61 Panics in V. S., S89, 806. Papacy, and Germaiw, 573; Vatican library opened, 574; and France, 57S, 585; Fiua X., 685. Papal encyclical, 604. Parcel post, 610. Paris, c. of, death, 578, Paris expositions, 577, 583. Parish council act, 568. Parker, A. B., 600. Parliament, English, reform act, 565; seats redistributed, 565; 23d imperial, 566; home rule bills, 566, 568; 24th, 566; 26th, 567; 2eth, 568; 27th, 571; 28th, 602; edu- cation bill fails,_604; trades disputes act, 604; Irish council bill, 605; deceased wife's sister act, 606; Irish universities bill, 607; old age pensions act, 607; 29th, 608; com- mons resolve that lords* veto should be limited, 608; dissolved, 608; return o£ a government majority, 608; suspensory veto act, 609; home rule bill passed, 612; home rule amending bill, 612. Farnell, C. S., commission, 667; death, 567. Fayne-Aldrich tariff, 608. Peary, R. E., makes new record of farthest north, 60S; reaches North Pole, 608. Peking, Boxer rising, 597, 598. Felee, mount, eruption, 585. Penjdeh, Russia occupies, 566. Pensions, old age, 670; U. S. military, 588. See Insurance. Persia, Muzaffar-ed-din, 696; Russian trade treaty, 698; first national representative assembly, 604; Muhammad Ali^ Mirza succeeds his father as shah, 606; dvil war between shah and parliament, 607; deposi- tion of Muhammad Ali and succession of Ahmad, 608. Persian gulf, British control, 670, 572. Pescadores Islands, ceded to Japan, 596. Peter Karageorgevitch, k. of Servia, 586. Philippine Islands, ceded to V. S., 691; commission, 591; insurrection, 592; gov- ernment, 592, 593; purchase of fnars lands, 594; first legLiIative assembly, 606. Ficquart, coL, Dreyfus affair, 582; pro- moted, 604; war minister, 604. Piengyang, battle, 695. Kgott, R., 667. Pius X., pope, 586. Pi-yi, 607. Plague in India, 669. Plehve, assassinated, 584. ^ Poincarl, Raymond, in ministry, 678, 580; pres. of French republic, 610. Pondoland, sovereignty over, 668. Pope, the, and president Loubet, 599. Population, India, 667, 672; Great Britain and Ireland, 567, 572; France, 675, 677, 580, 584; Germany, 676, 677, 680, 684; Austria-Hungary, 677; Russia, 682; lUly, 684; V. S., 587, 692, 608. Port Arthur, Japanese capture, 696; pro- test against cession, 696; leased to Russia, 597; Sege of, 699; surrender, 600; lease transferred by Russia to Japan, 602. Port Hamilton, English occupation, 594. Porto Rico, campaign, 691; ceded to U. S.. 591; government, 692. Portsmouth, N. H., 601. Portugal, Africa, 667; house of peers, 674: Carlos, 677; assassination of k. Carlos and the crown prince and succession of Man- uel II., 606; revolution and establishment of republic, 608. Post, imperial penny, 670; U. S. rural free delivery, 590; U.S. parcel, 610. Postal rates, 607. Prempeh, king, 669. Presbyterian church, dispute in Scotland, 671. Presidential succession law, 586. Prohibition, adopted in several states of the U. S., 606. Proportional representation, Belgium, 583. Prussia, Folano, 684. See Germany. Pure food and drugs act, 603. Railroads, Canadian Padfic, 566; Cairo- Khartum, 571; Cape to Cairo, 672; French convention, 673; Transcaucasian, Calais-Constantinople, Hungarian zone tariff, 676; Swiss state ownership, 682; Transsiberian, 684, 596, 598; Asia Minor, 684; Bagdad convention, 686; U. S. strikes, 586, 589; interstate commerce act, 586; first Chinese, 694; Chinese concessions, 696; Traosmanchurian 596, 697; first Corean, 697; mergers, 599; Hepburn act, 603; state and federal action in 1907, 606. Reddivist law, French, 674. Redprodty, U. S. provisions, 688-690; with Cuba, 693. See Tariff. Red Sunday, 600. Reform act, third, 665. Reichstag, German, elections, 674, 578, 683; period, 676. Rhodes, Cedl, Jameson raid, 669; conti- nental telegraph, 670; at Kimberley, 671; death, 672; scholarships, 672. Ribot, in ministiy, 578; premier, 678, 680. Riel, Louis, /ebeluon, 666. Rio de Janeiro, 604. Roberts, lord, S. African war, 570, 671. Rochefort and Boulanger, 676. Roosevelt, Theodore, v.-pres. of U. S., 693; pres., 593, 600; visits canal zone, 604; progressive candidate for pres., 610. Root, Elihu, 601, 604. Rosebery, lord, foreign sec, 666, 668; premier, 568. Rouvier, premier, 676, 600; in ministry, 676, 686. Rozhestvensky, admiral, 600. Rudini, premier of Italy, 676, 580; bank scandal, 578. Rudolf, cr. p. of Austria, suicide, 676. Rumania, war with Bulgaria, 611. Rural communication, development, 687; postal delivery, 690. Russia, Penjdeh, 666; Merv, 674; and Bul- garia, 576, 680; anti-Semitism, 577, 686; forced development, 677; Frenoh friendship and alliance, 577, 681, 682; Nicholas II., 679; Pamirs, 680; gold standard, 582; Finland, 583-685; agita- tion, 684; Corea, 504, 696; interference in Chinese-Japanese treaty, 696; Port Arthur, 597; Manchuria, 698; Persia, 698; Thibet, 698; and Anglo-Japanese 62 Index to Appendix alliance^ 598; Japanese crisis, 599; war with Japan, 599-601; birth of an heir to the throne, 600; acknowledges Anglo- Thibetan treaty, 600; war with England over firing upon British trawlers averted, ^00; strikes in, 600-602; duma instituted, 601; treaty of Portsmouth with Japan, 601; extension of franchise in, 60S; first duma, 603; dissolution of the duma, 603; strikes, riots, and famine. 603 ; owner- ship of land granted to [)easants, 604; second duma, 605; convention with Eng- land on Persia, Afghanistan, and Thibet, 606; third duma, 606; war with Austria and Germany, 612, 61S. Sadi-Carnot, in ministry, 574, 575; pres. of France, 576; assassinated, 578. Sagaata, premier of Spain, 575; and Cuba, 591. Sahara, boundary, 583. St. Petersburg, red Sunday at, 600. SakhaUu. 60S. Sakura, 611. Salisbury, lord, Ist administration, 566; 2d, 566; 3d, 568; resigns, 572; death, 573. Salonica, 610. Sammun Bay, Italy demands, 597. Samoa, treaties, 687, 692. Sampson, admiral, Spanish war, 591. San Domingo, treaty with U. S,, 605. San Francisco, earthquake ajid fire, 603. San Juan Hill, battle, 591. Santiago, Cuba, campaign, naval battle, 591. Sarafoi, Boris, 684. Saraieyo, 612. S'arkkhs, UnVsia 'ainbexes, 574. i Sarawak, protectorate, 667. ! Sarrien, premier of France, 603. \ Schnabele affair, 575. ! Scotland, church controversy, 571. Scott, capt. R. F., dies after reaching South Pole, 609; news of his death brought to New Zealand, 610. Senegambia, 599. , Servia, Bulgarian war, 575; Alexander, 677; coop d'etat, 578; liberal constitution, 584; , regicide, Peter, 586; war with Turkey, 610; peace with Turkey, 611; war with Bulgaria, 611; war with Austria, 612. Seymour, admii-al, Boxer rising, 598. Shafter, gen., Santiago campaign, 691. Shaho river, battle, 600. Sherman, J. S., 607, 610. Shimonoseki, treaty, 596. Shuster, W. Morgan, 609. Siam, and France, 595, 599; Anglo-French ' agreement, 596; spheres of iiSuence in. 699. Siberia, railway, 584, 696. Sicily, earthquake in, 607. Sierra Leone hinterland, 663. Silver, purchase law, 588; repeal, 689; ' agitation for free, 689. Simplon tunnel, 60S. Sipiagin assassinated, 584. Slivnitza, battle, 575. Socialism, activity in Europe, 677; gains in Germany, 678, 583; German bill against, 680; Italian riots, 582, 683; Bel- gium demonstration, 583. Somaliland expeditions, 572. Soudan expeditions, 665, 569. South Africa, strikes in, 611. South Africa, Union of, inaugurated, 608. South African republic, convention of London, 566; Jameson raid, 668; Eng- lish suzerainty, 569; English war, 570; annexed, 571; colony, 671; Chamber- lain in, 672; coolie labor, 572. South African war, 570. South Dakota admitted, 687. South Pole, reached by Amundsen, 609; reached by Scott, 609; discovery an- nounced, 609. Spain, earthquakes, 574; premiers, Alfonso Xiri., 575; Cuban insurrection, 690; American war, 690; birth of an heir to the throne, 606. Spanish-American war, 590. Spion Kop, battle, 670. Stambouloff, Bulgarian leader, 576; mur- dered, 580. Standard oil co., 606. Stanley, lord, gov.-gen. of Canada, 567. State insurance, 610. Steunenberg, ex-gov., 606. Stevenson, A. E., v.-pres. of U. S., 689, Stoessel, general, 600. Stolypin, prime minister, 603. Stormberg, battle, 670. Strikes. See Labor. Students' revolt, Russia, 684. Suez canal convention, 676. Suffrage, extension in Belgium, 674, 678, 584; Netheriands reform, 580; Austrian, 580; Norwegian, 683. Sugar bounty, 573, 584. SulDL Yat-sen, 609. Sunday, red, 600. Sverdrup, Norway minister, 674. Sweden, conscription, 684; fandue, 684; union with Norway dissolved, 601, 602; death of k. Oscar and succession of Gus- tav v., 606. Switzerland, asylum for political offenders, 676; Staite railways, 582. Syndicalism, 611. Taff Vale case, 672, 605. Taft, W. H., Philippine commission, 692; nominated for pres. of U. S., 607; elected, 607; inaugurated, 608; renominated, 610. Talien-wan, 697. Tariff, Canadian preferential, 669; Cham- berlain's campaign, 670; German, 674, 678, 686; French, 677; Russo-German war, 678; U. S., 586, 688-590, 608, 611; board in U. S., 608. Telegraph, Pacific cables, 572, 694; wire- less, 672; first Chinese, 694. Tennyson, lord, gov.-gen. of Australia, 572. Tewfik, khedive of Egypt, 666; death, 667. Theebaw, k. of Burma, 666. Thevenet, in ministry, 576. Thibet, boundary, 667; British mission, 673; and Russia, 598; treaty with Eng- land, 600. Tientsin, treatj;, 574; reduced, 698. Ting, admiral, in Japanese war, 595. Tirard, in ministry, 573; premier, 676. Titanic, ss., sinking of, 609. Index to Appendix 63 Togo, admiral, 601. Togoland, German protectorate, fi74; boundary, 582. Trades disputes act, 604. Transvaal, colony, S71; constitution grant- ed, 604. See South African republic. Triple alliance, 673; renewed, 685. Tripoli, captured by Italy, 609; annexed to Italy by act of parliament, 609 ; ceded to Italy by Turkey, 610. Trusts, development, 687^ anti-truat law 688, 599. Tsushima straits, battle, 601. Turkey, Armenian massacre, 679; Cretan revolt and Greek war, 581; Macedonian revolt, 684; and France, 684; granta claims of United States as to treatment of its citizens and schools, 600; restoration of the constitution of 1876, 607; opening of parliament, 607; revolt against young Turks suppressed, 608; Sultan Abdid Hamid II. deposed and Muhammad V. succeeds, 608; massacres of Armenians, 608; war with Italy,609; war with Balkan allies, 610; treaty of peace with Italy, 610; peace with Balkan allies. All; reoccupies Adrianople, 611; agreement with Bul- garia, 611. Uganda protectorate, 668, Ulster, disturbances over home rule, 612. Umberto, heir to the Italian throne, 600. Underwood tariff, 611. United States, and coercion of Venezuela, 686; elections of 1884, 586; fishery con- troversy, 586; Bering sea, 686, 688; elec- tions of 1888, 686, 587; world power, 687; Chile, 688; elections of 1892, 588; panic and depression, 589; Venezuela-Guiana boundary, 690; elections of 1896, 590; Spanish war, 590; joint high commission, 691; elections of 1900, 692; insular cases, 693; pres. election of 1904, 600; reorgani- zation of consular service, 603; financial disturbances of 1907, 006; fleet saib round the world, 606; conference of govs, on conservation, 607; remits its claims to Chinese boxer indemnity, 607; national conventions of 1908, 607; presidential election of 1908, 607; a^eement with Japan, 607; Taft admimstration, 608; Payne-Aldrich tariff, 608; Newfoundland fisheries case, 60S; democratic gains in state elections, 608; 13th census, 608; arbitration treaties with Great Britain and France, 609; 17th amendment to the constitution, 609, 611; national conven- tions and elections of 1912, 610; parcel post system instituted, 610; 16th amend- ment to the constitution, 610; Under- | wood tariff act, 611; caireDcy and bank- ing bill, 611; occupies Vera Cruz, 611; accepts offers of mediation in Mexkan dispute, 612; settlement of Mexican dis- pute, 612. Utah admitted, 590. Vaal Krautz, battle, 570. Venezuela, coerced, 585; boundary ^pate, 690; pres. Castro deposed in favor of Juan Vicente Gomez, 607. Vera Cruz, 610; occupied by U. S, forces. 611. Vesuvius, eruptions of, 60S. Veto bill, 609. Viborg, 603. Victor Emmanuel HI., k. of Italy, 583. Victoria, q. of England, jubilees, 666, 569; death, 572. Villa, gen. Francisco, 612. Volos, Turks occupy, 581. Waldeck-Rousseau, in ministry, 673; pre^ mier, 582. Washington admitted, 687. "Weaver, J. B., populist nominee, 688. Weihaiwei, Japanese capture, 596; leased to England, 597. Weyler, capt.-gen. of Cuba, 590. White, George, Ladysmith, 570. Wilhelmina, q. of Netherlands, 577; acces- sion, 583. William, German emp., I., death, 676; 11., 576; in Holy Land, 583; mailed fiat, 597; visits sultan of Morocco, 600. William III., k. of Netheriands, death, 577. William of Wied, prince, mpret of Albania, 611, Wilson, Woodrow, nominated and elected pres. of y. S., 610; inaugurated, 610; of- fers mediation in European war, 619. Wine, legislation against fidulteration of, 605. Wireless telegraph, 606. Witte, count, 602. Wolseley, lord, in Soudan, BQS. Workmen. See Insurance, Labor, Worid's Columbian exposition, 589. Wyndham, George, sec. for Ireland, 672. Wyoming admitted, 588. Yalu river, battle, 596; second battle, 699. Yamagata, gen., in Chinese war, 595. Yi Hi, k. of Corea, and Russia, 696, Yoshihito, emp. of Japan, 610, Younghusband, F. E., Thibet mission, 673. Yuan Shih-kai, provisional pres. of China, 609; elected pres., 611. Zanzibar, protectorate, 067.