^■•^l OVERSIZE Cornell ITlniversit^ OF THE IRew ^ov\\ State College of agriculture A^jJUlH \4miU. Cornell University Library GB 638.N53 Report of the dune-areas of New Zealand. 3 1924 014 572 345 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014572345 C.-13 NEW ZEALAND. DEPAKTMENT OF LANDS. liEPORT ON THE DUNE -AREAS OF NEW ZEALAND, THEIR GEOLOGY, BOTANY, AND RECLAMATION. By L. COCEAYNB, Ph.D., F.L.S. Presented to both Houses of the General Assembly by Command of His Excellency. WELLINGTON. 'BY AUTHORITY: 'OHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTER. 1911. 1911. NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENT OF LANDS: RKPORT ON THE |)UNE-AREA8 OF NEW ZEALAND. THEIR GEOLOGY. BOTANY, AND RECLAMATION, By L. COCiKAYNE, Ph.D.. F.L.S. Presenfffl to both House.t of the General Afxemhly by (Jommand of His ExreUency. INDEX TO CONTENTS. IXTRODFCTIi: Part 1. (a. ) General remarks . . . . . . • (b.) Objects of dune-oulture (c.) Previous investigations cf New Zealand dunes f to Aotea Harliour ; between the latter and KaAvhia Harbour, extending 6 miles, with a width of 1 mile ; south of Kawhia is an area 2.^ miles long by 1| miles in the widest part, and on the north shore, at the entrance to Whaingaroa Har- bour. On the north coast is an area 8 miles m length at Spirits Bay. and smaller tracts at various places. On the east coast dunes composed of a glistening white sand extend, with one or two small breaks, from the North Cape Isthmus to Rangaumu Bay, having a lengtli of 17 miles, and varying from |- mile to 2 miles wide. There is a small area at Henderson Bay and another between Grenville Point and Perforated Point. South from Houhera is a strip 6 miles long and averaging ^ mile m width. Finally there is a long strip on the shore of the Bay of Plent)-. from Tauraiiga Harbour to the Waiaua River beyond Opotiki, 92 miles in length, with an average breadth of 37 chains. (ii.) Taranaki. (Area of Dunes, 6,333 Acres.) From south of the mouth of the River Mokau are scattered areas extending to New Plymouth, with an area of about 11,621 acres. From about 8 miles north of Cape Egmont are also scattered areas extending to Patea. having an acreage of about 4.712 acres. (iii.) Hawke's Bay. (Area of Dunes, 5,345 Acres.) The dune-areas are mostly small. They are situated at the mouth of the River VVaiapu ; on the shore of Poverty Bay ; at Pukenui Beach. 6 miles north of Table Cape ; near the Township of Mahia ; a strip 5 miles in length on either side of the mouth of the River Nuhaka. having an average ^vidth of j mile ; on the beach at Waimarama, 8 miles south of (Jape Kidnapper ; at the mouth of the Porangahau River ; near Cape Turnagain. (iv.) Wellington. (Area of Dunes, 92,270 Acres.) A belt extends right up the coast from Paekakariki to Patea, a distance of about 170 miles. From the mouth of the River Manawatu to that of the Wangaehu there is an average width of about 2J miles and a greatest width of about 6 miles. There are also small areas on the shores of Wellington and Porirua Harbours, and at Lyall, Haughton, and Island Bays. (v.) Nelson. (Area of Dunes, 4,515 Acres.) The most important dune-area is at Farewell Spit, with a length of 14 miles and an average breadth of i mile (see Napier Bell, 73). There are also small areas at West Wanganui Inlet. Cape Farewell, Golden Bay, Tasman Bay, and for some distance noi-th and south of Westport. * This w ill not be the cade in a few years' time, as the sand has crossed liglit over the point and descended to some distance on the northern side. C — IH. 6 (vi.) Marlborough. (Area of Dunes, 1,500 Acres.) A navrow belt extends from the Ure River, 14 miles south of Cape Campbell, for a. distance of 12^ miles, having an average width of 7 chains. Another narrow belt extends from the mouth of the Eivev Clarence for 3J miles to Waipapa Point. (vii.) Canterbury. (Area of Dunes, 8,755 Acres.) The must mrportant area extends for a distance of 24 miles from 3 miles north of the River Ashle_y to the Sumner Estuary. Ancient dunes lie inland to the west of this belt, and divided fi'om it by the Avon and Styx Rivers. There are small areas at Gore Bay, near Lake Ellesmere ; at certain bays of Banks Peninsula ; and at aboxit 3 miles south of Timaru, near the Normanby Station. Inland is an area near Lake Tekapo. (viii.) Otago. (Area of Dunes, 6,325 Acres.) The most extensive dunes are scattered areas from Taiaroa Head to near the mouth of the Taieri River, comprising 1,310 acres. Smaller areas are at Waikouaiti, Waitati, and Purakanui. There are important areas in Central Otago — notably on the banks of the Clutha River, at Tarras (700 acres), at Lowburn (200 acres), at Cromwell (700 acres), and scattered areas between Alexandra and Clyde, extending for about 6 miles by an average breadth of 2 miles. (ix.) Southland. (Area of Dunes, 4,910 Acres.) The dune-areas are — near the mouth of the Waikawa Rive]-, at Haldane Bay, between Black Point and Waipapa Point (920 acres), from Waipapa l^omt to Toetoes Bay (1,390 acres), from the New River Estuary to Orepuki (1,800 acres). (x.) Westla.M). A quite narrow belt faces the shore for mi'es in many places, but the sand-supply is very limited, and the dunes are of little moment so far as sand-drift is concerned. (xi.) Stewart Island. 1 have no details as to areas. There are extensive dunes at Mason Bay on the west, various small areas on the east, and a remarkable series of ancient dunes in the valleys of the Rivers Freshwater and Rakiahua and inland from the Mason Bay dunes. (xii.) Chatham Island. Wherever the coast is not rocky there are dune-areas, those of the east coast especially being of considerable extent, and fed by an abundant sand-supplv. (See Cockayne, 85.) (xiii.) The Subantarcth' Islands. Dunes, and these of no great extent, are fomid only facing the sandy shore of Enderbv Island, near the boat-shed for use of castawavs. C.--13. PAE'I: I.-THE GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF THE DUNES. 1. (IROLOO Y . ^ In.) GENERA r,. In contradistinction to the infinite slowness which generall}* ma.rks the evolution of land-forms, that of those of the dune-area is sufficiently rapid to he witnessed by a.n observer in a limited time. A certain definite series of changes can be recognized, leading to a fixed goal, while a.t the same time retrogression is in progress. Hand-in-hand with the building of dunes under natural conditions, and assisting in the work, goes their occupation by plants, these helping too, in various ways, to hold the loose substratum in position, and so keep the hills intact. Such vary from extremely unstable to quite firm strnctures. on which the erosive power of the wind has no effect. But such stability is at the present time often the exception rather than the rule, certain dune-areas being for the most part, made up of bare stretches of sand, protected by a very scanty plant covering, and bable tr) lie displaced by the wind. Man, with his introduced grazing-animals. fires, and methods of cultivation, has further assisted to bring this about, upsetting the equilibrium of the dunes and rendering them still more desert-like. A general knowledge of the changes that dunes undergo, and their causes, is evidently an essential fundamental towards any scheme for dune-fixing — that is, for modifying the process of nature in a. definite manner. (h.j THE MATERIAL OF DUNES, AND ITS ORIfilN. \Iiy f{. Speight, M.Sc.. F.G.S., Lecturer nri Geology, Canterbury €olUqr,\ (i.) Origin of Ddne-sand. The formation of the sand of dunes commences on our mountain-sides, where, bv the disintegrating action of frost, variations in temperature, and other causes, solid rock is broken into fragments, forming screes, and those vaster debris masses locally called " shingle-shps." While these fragments are being carried seawards b}' the rivers into which they fall, attrition goes on constantly, and additions to the load of the transporting streams a.re made unceasingly by the country through which it passes, especially in time of flood. Materials of all grades of fineness are thus produced, from boulders of huge dimensions down to almost impalpable powder. Although the term " sand " is usually restricted to those grains varying in diameter between ^,'7-,; in. and tL in., there is no leal difference as far as mode of formation is concerned between gravel and sand, the one passing into the other by insensible gradations. There is a difference, however, in composition, gravel being usually a collection of minerals cemented and joined together to form a mass of rock, while sand consists in general of the harder and more refractory units of that mass. Sand is also formed by the erosive action of the sea (see Photo No. 25). On every coast, between high- and low-water mark especially, wear-and-tear is constant, material is torn away from its place and reduced in size by the continual friction, as fragments are dashed against cliffs, or arc rolled over one another by waves and by strong tides and currents. Sand is thus formed by the sea itself, but the sea also performs an important function in distributing it, however it has been formed. When poured into the sea by streams some of the sand helps to form estuarine and delta deposits and shallow-water marine deposits near river-mouths ; but a great deal is caught by the shore current, added to that produced by marine erosion, and carrii'd along a narrow belt a little distance from the beach, within which the influence of the waves on the sea-bottom is distinctly felt. While moved along by the shore current, waves and tides carry a part seawards, where it forms pci-maneiit marine deposits ; they also carry a part landward, where by the aid of prevailing winds u is swept beyond reach of the sea and formed into dunes. This action is more marked duriug storms, for then the sea-bottom, is affected to greater depth, and the shore current is nsually stronger, so that a greater load can be carried, and additions to the beach, and ultimately to the dunes, are much greater. This is especially the case when dunes are forming at the head of a liay Avith gently shelving beach. h\ fact, shoal water gradually deepening off shore seems essential to tin- formation of extensive dunes on an exposed coast-hne. The amount of sand lying at such a depth tluit waves can move it readily is, under those circumstances, very great, and vast quantities are gradually brought landward by the waves and ultimately form dunes, especially when the area left by the ebbing tide is extensive and has time to dry before it is covered again by the succeeding tide. When a promontorv or obstruction bars the course of the shore current and turns it into deeper water the load is dropped and piled up in front of the obstruction, but usually with an intei-vening space kept clear by eddying currents. If. however, waves and currents are strong they carry the finer particles round the obstruction, and form a beach and its consequent sandhills in its lee. This is occurring in Caroline Bay, near Tiinaru. The breakwater stops the coarse gravel, but fine sand travels round the end, and is building up a beach with small dunes on the northern side of the break- water (see Photo No. 6). If, however, the shore current crosses a shallow bay it forms a spit. This is at first beneath gea-level, but it is gradually built up. and plays its part as a beach, and is finally crowned with dunes. A deep channel is usually maintained close alongside the headland towards which the spit stretches, especially when there is a tidal basin of considerable area, which fills and empties through C— 1:5. ft the cipeiiiiig. iStmu'times the opeuiug is conipletel}- closed, and drainage is efEected by percolation through the bank. Spits freqviently tie islands to the mainland. Excellent e.-xiamplos of this can be seen ;it Ocean Beach, near Dunedin : at Lyall Bay, near Wellington ; and far north of Auckland, when' the Miuient mountain-headlands lying between Cape Maria van Diemen and the North Cape are joined to the solid hand near Mangonui bv the best-developed saiidspit and sanrl-dunes occurring in the Domuiion. (ii.) Material of Duxes. The material out of which dunes are built consists for the m(jst part of small particles of the more fi'sistiMit constituents of the rocks of the land surface. Quartz-grains usually form 90 per cent, of tlie whole, Tliis is due to two main causes. (1.) Quartz IS a verv widelv distributed mineral in rocks of the earth's crust. It forms the greater part of all sandsTom-s. and is an important constituent of manv other rocks. (2.) It IS ',1 miiieial not susceptible to the action of weathering-agents ; it resists the action of all iicids occui'riiig iiaturallv. and it is extremely hard, (jwing to this cause its importance is always increasing as a constituent in the waste uf tin' land : nther minerals suffer decomposition, or are worn away. bu<" fpiartz survives, and so its percenta.ue becomes greater as the products of erosion are snlijectcd to further disintegration and weathering. Otiii'i' minerals play an important though suljordinate part in thi' formation of duin.'S -— viz.. feldspar, iron-oxides, horiililende. augite. and limestone, and with these occur occasionally the rarer minerals, zircon, rutile. and tourmaline. Their jjower of resisting decomposing-agents explains their pres.'iicr also. But account must be taken of tlie character of the rock which has furnished the material of dunes when speaking of the mineralogical character of the individual grains. A sandstone or quartz rock produces sand consisting almost wholly of cjuartz-grains. As the mam inonntain-ranges of the North Island and of the eastern part of the South Island are composed prmcipa.llv of sandstones, greywackes, and slates, the sands on the eastern shores of the South Island and of the south of the North Island contain a liigh percentage of fpiartz. Slates weather into verv fine particles, and usually form mud. Ci-ranites, gneisses, and schists produce a sand with predominating ijuartz-grains. unless the pari'iit rock is of basic type. Feldspar and mica are of subordinate importance, for the reason that, althraieh thev may he predominant in the solid rock, they are less able to resist attrition and decomposmg-agents. Mica is a very important constituent of river-sand, but it becomes rapidlv shredded otit into tliin films, and is finally carried away when exposed to wind-action in a dune. Sands of this tvpe occur on the beach at St, Cla.ir, derived in all prr.babilitv frrim the Central Otago schists by the agency of the Chitha and Taieri Rivers, and carried north by the strong shore current running up the coa.st. The sands from volcanic rocks depend in composition on that of the part^nt rock. Pumiceou,s and scririaceous varieties ari' extremely commnn in the North Island, and the titaniferous ironsands of the west coast are largely derived from the breaking-down of the volcanic rocks of Mount Egmont and of the Central Plateau. Little or none of this sand is found farther east m Cook Strait than the mouth of the Eangitikei River. That on the shore between there and Porirua owes its origin to the disintegration of the quart-zifercais rocks of the Ruahine and Tararua Mountains, and magnetite is absent. One point should be noted here. The black sand of the Taranaki coast contains a ^ood deal of hornblende and augite grains, both dark in colour, but of no value as a source of iron. These minerals have also been weathered out of the volcanic rocks, and at first sight are indistinguishable from the magnetic ironsand, but they detract very much from its value as an ore. and will have to be separated before it is treated metallurgically. Similar magnetic sands occur in smaller quantities on other stretches of coast. Small patches of fairly pure titaniferous magnetite are to be found on some of the beaches of Banks Peninsula, derived from its basic volcanic r(,>cks ; and also on the west coast of the South Island, wi-athered out of the raetamorphic rocks and basic volcanics of Westland. It is stated by P. G. Morgan (122, p. 110). " The beach-sands of Westland ccmsist mainly of quartz. Magnetite is a noticeable constituent, whilst garnet and zircon are fairly common, the former being especially abundant on the beach near Ross, More or less fine gold is always associated with the magnetite," This mineral forms an important constituent of these sands because of its hardness, its resistance to chemical decomposition, and its tc'iidencv, owing to its weight, tri accumulate in masses bv the ordinary process of water-concentration. A cursory examination of specimens of New Zealand dune-sands shows that they are largely composed of quartz, with subordinate magnetite, hornblende and augite. and feldspar, "in that order of importance ; but subsequent examination may lead to a modification of this .statement. Limestone formed from shell-fragments is very common mi some places, and at times forms the mam bulk of the sand. Its presence is a distinct advantage, as it forms a, valuable ceinentiii!i-ageiit. and thus tends to fix the position of dunes. (iii.) Form of the Saxd-geains. The sand-grains of dunes exhibit certain peculiarities of form which distinguish them from ordinary river and sea sands. The latter are angular or subangular in shape, as they have not been subiected to the abrasion which dune-grains have to endure. Althougli stones and gTavel are invari- ably rounded by the continual friction as they are r..illed along by river or sea. the smaller particles are more or less protected by an enveloping film of water, whicdi. as thev become smaller, prevents that close contact necessary for rapid abrasion. However, the corners and edges of the trains removal of the cementing-material, will also exhibit this peculiarity. In fact, some of these (jld consolidated sandstones may have been formed from the dunes of geological ages long past, and perhaps represent accumulations in an old Triassic desert or on the shore of an old Jurassic sea. It occasionally happens that such sand-grains have developed the regular outline characteristic of crystals while forming a part of the solid rock, and have again been rounded when remf)ved from their fixed position, two ages of rounding being thus observed in the same grain. It may be definitely stated, in concluding this section, that sharp-edged and subangular grains rarely form part of dunes, and, even when they do, have been but recent addition.s to the sand of Avhich the dunes are built. {(:.) DlTNK-BUILBlNf4 ON THK CO.AST. (i.) General. On sandy beaches not completely covered with water at high tide there will be a foreshore con- sisting of quite loose sand, into which the foot sinks at every step. This material forms the supply out of which the dunes are built, its amount being kept up by fresh sand continually brought from the sea by the tide under the influence of the waves. It is only a small proportion of the sand moved by the waves which, having laeeome dry, is finally added to the supply of the foreshore ; the greater part is borne back to the sea, while some is deposited between the water-marks, building up the lower shore, or the " sea-wall," as it is sometimes called. Other portions are deposited in the shallow water, forming sandbanks, which may be quite bare at low water, and over which the sea breaks. After the turn of the tide, if the weather be fine, the sand wetted by the furthest wash of the sea at high water commences to dry, but this process is frequently very slow, owing to the moisture of the sea wind ; and in the absence of sunshine it will be still more retarded, so that there are many days in the year when little or no additional sand reaches the /oreshore from the sea. Until the sand is quite dry there is no movement, and it is usually but a narrow strip of beach which is affected. The limit between the wet sand and that which may dry is known to every frequenter of a sandy shore, who finds there a path for walking, or for vehicles, above or below which the sand becomes gradually less firm and the foot sinks. The breadth of the belt of loose sand varies greatly at different parts of the coast. On the long stretch of sandy shore between Ahipara and Cape Maria the sea at high water almost reaches to the foot of the dunes. On the beach of eastern Canterbury, on the contrary, the belt is so wide that a well-fixed foredune has been built upon it opposite the seaside town of New Brighton. Between the north Kaipara Head and Maunganui Bluff the sea reaches in many places right to the foot of the cliffs, on the summit of which the present dunes lie. The sand-swpfly thus varies greatly on many parts of the coast, and this variability is of much moment loith regard to the ease or difficulty in dune-reclamation. (ii.) Movement of Sand by the Wind. The wind blowing inland from the foreshore carries with it, according to its velocity, more or less sand. The sand-grains move in three ways. The coarsest are rolled along the ground ; those some- what finer are raised just above the surface for very short intervals, but constantly fall and progress hopping, as it were ; finally, the finest particles are blown bodily into the air. From the summit of a wandering dune during a high wind the sand may be seen rising in a great cloud just like smoke. Such flying sand may be carried long distances, as in Central Otago, where the sand from the Tarras drift is sometimes conveyed in the air for more than twenty miles. The air-borne particles, since they do not fall all at once in heaps, but are scattered over wide areas, usually play no primary part in dune- building, the rolling and hopping sands being alone of moment in that regard. All the same, high gales may have an average carrying-power, and thus it is that sand from the Cromwell flat is being accimiulated at certain spots on the hills across the KaAvarau River. At a certain point, depending upon the velocity of the wind, the weight of the sand becoming greater than the wind can carry, a certain amount is deposited upon the ground, and by gradual accu- mulation a heap of sand — i.e., a small dune — is formed. Very frequently, however, some obstacle, such as a mass of seaAveed, a piece of driftwood, a living plant, or an incipient dune itself, arrests the drifting sand and forms a nucleus on which the dune is built. Such a hill will have a long and gentle slope to the windward, up which the sand is pushed, the velocity of the air increasing with the height : but the leeward side is much steeper ; there is no pressure of wind down its slope : on the contrary, there is an eddv of greater or less power, and the sand falls by gravity alone. (iii.) Sand-ripples. Very frequently the sand forms ripples as it moves — ;.('.. small waves similar in appearance to those so well known on the wet shore made by water-movements. The formation of sand-ripples has been experimentally investigated by Dr. \. Cornish (7, p. 279). who in his admirable paper shoAvs that where the sand-grains are all of an equal size no ripples can be formed, but that when coarser grains are added rippling at once commences if the wind be suitable. The explanation of this depends on the fact that when the wind strikes upon a solid obstacle an eddy is formed on its lee side, and ripphng takes place when this eddy in the lee of the larger grains is of sufficient sti'ength to lift the smaller. Conversely, if the wind be strong enough to lift the larger grains, so that they do not remain stationary, 2— C. 13. C— 13. 10 tliere \Yill hr no l■lppk^s. ;, state of affairs which frequentlv occurs during high wnds. especially on dunes such as those of east Canterbury, where the grains are small and fairly uniform. On the windward side of the large grains a long but gentle slope is formed, up which the grains travel, but at the summit the larger ones are arrested by the eddy and build up the ridge of the ripple, while the vertical motioD of the eddy scours out a trough in the loose sand, raising the finer grains, some of which, together with those passing up the long slope, are blowii to leeward. The ridges advance by the larger gr-ains falhng liy the influence of ^ „ s A W / k >4 ?^ o ~ o o 2; ii c— 13. (y.) Flexihlr DjKii OhnUuies. A typical and frequently observed obstacle of this class is ;i bunch of the pnigau (Scirpus jrondosus) or of marram-grass {Ammophila arenana). Here the sand is blown into the calm interior of the bunch, which it fills, but as further sand strikes from the \\ind«-nrd it creeps over the interior sand and on the leeward side of the obstacle forms a touguc-like mass. On the stniiv plains between the mouths of the Wangaehu and Waitotara Rivers the long tongues of sand collected on tlie leeward side of the small wind-swept shrubs of Coprosnia acerosii hvc verv noticeable (sec Photo No, 41). (S.) Inflexible open, OhsUiclef:. In this third case the wind-current is checked to some extent in passing through the obstacle ; there is no eddy, consecjuently the sand is piled up on both sides. Obstacles such as these are formed naturally by certain stiff shrubs, which consequently till with sand. Thev are also used artificially for sand-catching or drift-arresting. It can easily be seen that obstacles of various kinds assist materially in dune-buildinu, and that when plants grow upon dmres their height may be considerably increased, while then- stabiUty is maintained so long as the obstacles remain unburied. In the case of dqad obstacles this must eventu- ally happen, also in living ones which cannot grow ujjwards at a rate to correspond with their burial, as in the case of all true sand-binding plants. Even these, when the supply of sand becomes too great, are frequently overwhelmed and killed, the dune then becoming the sport of the wind (s<'i: Photo No. 32). (vi.) Stratification ov Dunes. The size of the sand-grains moved varies according to the force of the wind, which, as seen in the case of sand-ripples, has a distinct winnowing action, an exceptionally strong gale moving even pebbles and small stones. So, too, is there an ever-variable transporting-power passing up the inclined plane of the windward surface, so that the layers of sand differing in coarseness, and consequently in water- holding power, are deposited and overlie one another. This leads to an irregular stratification, plainly to be seen when a dune is so laid bare by the wind that a horizontal section is exposed. Old soils, &c., also form layers beneath the sand, and in some cases are important food-material for au}' trees, &o., which may he planted. The sand-planter, then, should carefully examine his dunes as they are laid bare or cut into by the wind. (vii.) Effect of Climate. Sand, as already noted, can only move when dry, the cohesion of the particles whoi wet being too powerful for the wind to disturb. Quite a gentle shower will fix the sand ; in fact, owing to its great power of absorption, the heaviness of the downpour is of little moment, whereas the duration is everything. It is not the rainfall of a district, but the number of days yearl)- during which rain falls, and their distribution throughout the year, that, besides the perennial supply of sand, governs the magnitude of a dmie-area, the wind factor being considered constant. The dunes of Enderby Island, in the Auckland Group, are virtually stable notwithstanding the absence of saud-bindmg plants. owing to the almost daily rain and constantly cloudy skies (see Cockayne, 86. p. 2.37}. The sand on the summit of the dmres dries more rapidly than that below, and so is the first to be moved after rain. 'Irregular drying of a flattish sand-surface leads to irregular low deposits of sand extending in the direc- tion of the wind. Wind, especially that from the south-west, is in certain parts of New Zealand accompanied by a downpour, and its subsequent effect is correspondingly lessened. A wet season will lead to a general flattening and lowering of the dunes, and a dry one to their raismg. Indirectly, also, dry weather leads to extension of dune-areas, since the owners burn more of the plant covermg. 'Smishine plays its part in sand-drying, simimer being more favourable for dune-building than winter, while cloudy skies are adverse. Wind, the most potent factor with regard to dune-development, is fully dealt with under other heads. (d.) THE FOREDUNE. The dry sand of the foreshore is blown inland by ever)- sea-breeze, but either through its own weight or on account of meeting with an obstacle, such as the driftwood or a straud-plant. it is eventually piled up in a continuous ridge which follows in every case the contour of the shore-line, no matter whether the prevalent wind be" at right angles or oblique. This ridge is early captured by Scirfus frondosus in the southern botanical province of New Zealand, or by this sedge or the silvery sand-grass (Sfinifex hirsutus) in the northern and centi-al. Where the supply of sand is fairly uniform a very even ridge may be formed with a gently sloping flattish top, well covered with the grass or sedge or with both. The lee side is uenerally more or less bare sand. In some parts of the coast this front line of dunes, here called the forcdune. forms such an even, unbroken, and well-established wall— as near Waikanae, for instance— that on<> might easilv believe it to be an artificial structure (see Photo No. 13). A well-shaped and plant-fixed foredune is a land-form of the greatest importance, since it not only cuts off in part the sand-supply of the shore from the land, but it forms a natural protection against the inroads of the sea. thus safeguarding the coast. Owens and Case (il. p. 143) caU attention to the value of the foredune for coast-protection, and point out it has not received the recognition in England that it eserves, and " that, unfortmiately, it is therefore necessary to look abroad if we \rish to make a careful studv of the matter and benefit by the knowled.ye which piaetie.il ex|)eneiice ahme (an eive.'' C— 18. 12 The natural foiedune is not always so even as that just described, but may be cut into by tlio wind or washed away by the sea , when at once destruction begins in the dune-complex, and in time a general flattening takes place. Where a well-made natural foredune does not exist, in the best European procedure an artificial one is constructed. This has been done in a few places in New Zea- land, either by design or accident. There is one at Waikouaiti Bay, but which is not altogether satis- factoi-}' (see Photo No. 2). At New Brighton, Canterbury, and Ocean Beach, Dunedin, are much better examples, the former having quite checked the once very troublesome drift from the shore. (e.) (;;ENEKAL TOPOGKAPHY of a DUNE-AKEA in new ZEALAND. Where there is a sandy shore with more or less bare sand at high tide the dunes will commence at a variable distance beyond the limit of the highest tide. Where the supply of sand is small, as in the case of either a small belt of dry sand or a shore where there are more 'pebbles than sand, there nray be only a foredune. and this of the smallest dimensions ; but usually behind the foredune are numerous chains of sandhills of quite irregular form, which are generally divided in places by basin-like hollows of greater or less extent. Frequently the ridges are at right angles to the prevailing wind, but in New Zealand there are nearly always one or two other more or less common winds, which operate to no small degree in regulating the position of the hills, in altering their form, in determining windward and leeward slopes, and in modifying the slope-angles. There are also many openings through the chains, hills at all stages (jf decay or growth, basins in process of being hollowed out or filled up, and comparatively flat masses of sand where the dune-chains have been destroyed. In short, there is usually a bewildering maze, especially where \\-mds blow from several quarters, the actual origin of which could be traced only with the greatest difficulty and uncertainty. Such a collection of dunes is called by Cowles the " dune-complex " (12, p. 194), a term well suiting the case. The dune-area varies fi'om a foredune, (jr merely a few low mounds of sand, to a width of several miles, the maximum being about seven miles, l)etween the Rivers Waugaehu and Rangitikei, in western Wellington. It is easy to overrate dune distances, for traversing them on foot is very laborious. Large tracts of laud such as tlie above are not worthless by any means : they include loA\'-lying wettish flats clothed with nutritious grasses, streams, shallow lakes, and extensive swamps. The hills themselves are not generally bare, but possess a plant covering varying from a few tufts of sand- binding grass or sedge to a close turf overlying a deposit of loam, and affording fairly good pasture. It frequently is at the extreme inland boundary where the wandering dunes, huge masses of bare sand slowly moving, are encountered (see Photo No. 14). Generally speaking, the view from an eminence in a wide dune-area is that of a sea of sand, the )-idges stationary billows, and the scanty vegetation showing only as small yellowish or dark patches on the general white or greyish groundwork. Some important dune-areas in New Zealand have no connection with the coast sand at the present time. This is the ease with those dunes which extend in many places inland from the summit of coastal cliffs, as generally in Taranaki and between the north Kaipara Head and Mamiganui Bluff' in Auckland. Here the distinction between dmie chains, hollows, and so on, is not nearly so well marked, and m some cases does not exist. Dunes of this description were in general covered with vegetation when the settlers arrived; but now some of them are wandering dunes of the worst description. In western Auckland these present clifi-dtmes overhe ancient sandhills, now consohdated into rock of a most variable degree of harcbiess. Between the north Waikato Head and the south Manukau Head the sea, is cutting into and has removed a good deal of these ancient dunes. From Tewahia- roa northwards the old line of dunes marks an ancient shore-line, but at the foot of this is now a mile or so of low recent dunes extending to the sandy shore. Between Cape Maria and Reef Point there are several chains of consolidated dimes, forming the bulk of the narrow land-surface, and in some places they extend right to the western shore. Beneath them in many places lie the remains of kam-i forest and even lignite, and this is the case also with some of the ancient consolidated dunes on Reef Point. From the above it is evident that there have been various changes in the altitude of northern New Zealand, while possibly some of the changes have been quite local ; but a consideration of these matters M'ould be out of place in a report dealing chiefly with the economic aspect of dunes. The dunes differ much m height in different parts of New Zealand. The foredune may be trom 8 ft. to 25 ft. high or more ; liut dunes more inland are very variable, those at Mason Bay, in Stewart Island, attaining the great height of possibly 300 ft. Generally 20 ft. to 50 ft. is a common height ; but hills of 100 ft. and more are not infrequent, especially on the more fixed and inland dmies, whose instability was so little suspected in the early days of settlement that some of them received names (Mount Amon, Mount .Jacob, &c.), and were made the sites of trig, stations. Some of the dunes look far higher than they really are, so far as the depth of sand goes, owing to their being underlain by rock or by the abovcrmentioned ancient dunes now consolidated into varying degrees of hardness. Even the great wandering dune at the north Waikato Head is in many places quite thill, and near its summit at more than one place a stream of water trickles over the sand, coming from the solid ground below. {/.) MOVEMENTS OF DUNE.S AND DUNE-SAND. (i.) General. It IS easy to see that, bmlt of so unstable a material as sand, a dune-area is in a constant state of change. Just as the ridges of ripples and the hollows alternate, so lo dune-ridges and sand-plams The dune having reached maturity, it is at once attacked by the wind, gashes are made in its surface shght depressions are changed into deep gullies, plants are uprooted or buried, and high hills are finally C.-13. "■ a^ H 3 Q S ^ ^-; zOh 7^ T: g P Z O to o To face page 13.] C— 18. % I f U' K K X o -jip— ■ .<»» »;•': / ?- Q w W 5 1:^9 H V; o S kj ra IE Z o H w Z J q O q Z < C/3 63 X H I p g H g O W ■ f^ s o z s < V CI 13 C— 13. • blown away. Also, as Staler has shown, the rabbing-togethev of the sand-grains leads to the forma- tion of dust, which will, with much very fine sand, be blown away from the dune-area altogether (55). But with the destruction dune-building goes hand-in-hand, new dunes arise, and fresh chains of hills are formed, these in turn to be destroyed. All this round of destruction and regeneration is the work of the wind, modified by the plant-life. (ii.) Wind as a Desteuctive Agent. > So long as the wind brings a sufficient sand-supply, and the sand-binding plants form a close- enough and even-enough covering, will the dimes remain intact. But with increa.sing stability of the surface so does the sand-supply decrease, while in any case the tendency of the plants is to raise promi- nences and hillocks, nor do they usually in a state of nature grow closely, there being many isolated tufts or tussocks. The wind perforins a dual function : it transports material, and it erodes. VV^hen there is less than a certain amount of material brought the erosion will predominate. So. too. aviII this be the case with winds of abnormal intensity. Where a high wind blows over a well-fixed area it transports little, but attacks every bare spot. A certain velocity of wind does not act everywhere with uniform power ; on the contrary, it is a variable factor, depending on circumstances. First of all, the nature of the ground-surface is a matter of great importance, all irregularities tending to break the force of the wind, as the observations of King and Olsson-Sefier have shown, the experiments of this latter author demonstrating that tht: velocity of wind over a smooth surface is at least 34-7 per cent, greater than on uneven ground (44, p. 560). Grassy ground, then, can be seen to have a powerful influence in restraining the wind, while the effect of rows of sticks, &c., fixed in the soil, small as it might be thought, is very great indeed, and on such depend some of the methods of sand-reclamation discussed in Part II of this report. When the wind strikes on a solid object, such as a dune, its power is greater at the sides than in front, while in the lee an eddy is formed varying according to the force of the wind. Each obstacle, then — every sand- mound and isolated tussock or shrub — fa^'ours erosion. Still more is the erosive power of the wind increased by the proximity of two objects, as two adjacent mounds, making a channel (see Photos Nos. 15 and 17). Through such the compressed air blows with increased erosive power, making ever-deepening cuts into the sand, mitil finally what were at first but bare sand-patches become gullies, these latter varying from merely saddles to miniature gorges. In such wind-channels there is nothing but bare sand : the sand-binding plants are uprooted in the first jilace. and it is impossible for them to gain a foothold again without shelter (see Photo No. 15), Nor is it simply a direct wind-current which operates when the wind strikes a solid obstacle ; there is always the lee eddy playing a powerful part, and there is a vertical as well as a horizontal stream of air ; in fact, an air-current is a most complex matter (see Langley, .37). Moreover, as shown before, air- vortices are caused by impact upon certain obstacles. The erosive power of the wind is therefore frequently much intensified, and a dune improtected, or partially protected, by vegetation is by degrees out into deeply, and finally may be quite blown away, the only trace of its former presence being dead rope-like rhizomes of the pingao {Scirpus frond-OS us). Dunes m all stages of destruction may be seen in any area, from a tiny bare sand- hollow between two tussocks to a sand-plain without a trace remaining of the former dune-chain which occupied the ground. From the above it may easily be seen that the natural fixing of sandhills by tussock-forming plants or by shrubs may lead finally to the destruction of what one would expect to be stable dunes, any irregularity of surfa.ce favouring the erosive power of the wind. Irregular planting of marram-grass, or its spontaneous spreading from seed, may for the above reason not only be useless but dangerous (see Photo. No, 5). The frequently expressed opinion that any plant is useful on the dunes is an erroneous conception, based on ignorance of the behaviour of plants with regard to erosion. " Well- fixed " summits of hills are not infrequently a source of danger. An interesting example was afforded in the planting of the foredune of the Kurische Nehrung (Gerhardt, 18, pp. 343-44) with the Caspian willow {Salix caspica), a plant which tolerates sea-spray and wind, and is an excellent sand-binder. For a number of years the plant grew excellently, doing all that was required, but finally its irregular orowth led to the forming of thickets and mounds and the resulting wind-channels, so that the dune became subject to erosion, the willow causing the very destruction it was planted to check. In con- sequence, at great expense, the whole of the willows were uprooted, and a new beginning had to be made with other material. The erosive power of the wind leads to the forming of various land-forms in the dunes. Thus there are the saddles and gullies mentioned above. Hills may be qiute wasted away below, the plant- covered summit remaining, mushroom-like. There may be romiding of ridges, or hills may be cut vertically, exposing the strata. Various hollows may be cut in the sand, of which " wind-troughs '" formed by eddies, as already explained, are frequent (see Photo No. 5). AVhen a strong wind is blowino', the eddy on the steep lee side of a high dime is very powerful. \\-hirIing the sand high into the air, scouring out its base, and probably increasuig the steepness of the slope. Such eddies may be met bv the strong current of a wind-channel, when a combination of the two forces leads to the building-up of slopes, the heaping-up of moimds, the formation of appendages to the main dime, the cutting of channels, or erosion of basins, whose origin, if viewed dm'ing a period of calm or when a contrary wind is blowing, would seem inexplicable, so complex is the effect of the diverse currents. Spots where this complexity of wind-action takes place are extremely critical with regard to dune-cultures, and the conditions require modifying artificially before a successful planting of sand grasses or trees can be undertaken. The most important form perhaps is the wind-basin. Here the wind, having removed the dune piece by piece, continues its -srork of hollowing out the dry sand into a shallow basin-like hollow until finally the groiuid-water is ueared, the sand becomes damp, and all further erosion ceases as by magic. Large areas may be sii eroded, tlie hills having been blown quite away, and flat " saud- plains '" result. These may be seen in all stages of formation ; and though it seems hard at first to believe that eomparatively fertile plains of large extent were once the seat of dune-complexes, remnants of hills marked chieflv bv rhizomes of the piiigao in some instances mark the position of former sand- hills (see Photo No. 18).' Owing to the proximity to the water-table, sand-plains are fairly moist all the year round, though diujiig dry weather a sandy crust will lie on the sui'face. In winter, water colli'cts in pools in many places. Even sliallow lakes ma,\' arise, the aquatic vegetation making humus, which forms in time a more impermeable bottom than does the sand. Though hardly present, so far as I have noted, in the New Zealand dune-areas, a quicksand may be formed on the sand-plain near the base of a high dune, owing to the special water-supply from, this latter being added to the subterranean water of the plain. Sand-plains within the dune-complex may remain for many years undisturbed, as evidenced b)' the age of their vegetation and the presence of a humus-la \'er, and in places they become occupied by good pasture plants. But sooner or latei' there may l)e a sand-invasion, and a new dune-complex or dune-chain occupy their site. (ili.) DUNE-WANDERIN(;. The wind l)lowing uja the long windAvard slope of a dune carries with it the rolling and hopping sand to the summit, which, as before noted, falls down the leeward slope, leading to its gradual advance. Where the incoming sand-supply is small, as is that of a dune-chain on the leeward side of a grass-covered or " rush "'-covered sand-plain, then there is a comparatively rapid advance, the wind carrying the sand of the windward to the leeward slope whenever it blows, and )>riiiging no fresh material to supply the constant Avasti^. Generally speaking, there is a gradual l)ut usually very slow advance of the unstalile dunes, the sand-plains being buried at their seaward and extended at the land- ward boundaries. The movement landwards is much checked where there are powerful antagonistic land winds, and it is not unusual to see a dune advancing m two directions. Great quantities of sand may blow back into the sea, as I observed on the shore between the Rivers Manawmtu and Eangitikei, where all day a constant cloud of sand looking like smoke blew along the shore into the water. The rate of movement is governed by a number of factors. The shape and height of the dime is of great importance, a high dune, other things being equal, moving more slowly than a lower one. Climate in general, specific gravity of the sand, size and shape of sand-grains, velocity of wind, plant covering of the dunes, distm-bance by grazing animals — all these afiect the rate of movement. Where the dmre is absolutel}' liare sand the question is less complex ; but here the height of thQ hill, and whether its advance is checked by trees or shrubs, much affect the case. A stream, agam, may stoj) a dune altogether (sec Photo N(j. 19). 80 far as New Zealand is concerned, there are few statistics as to dune-advance. On the dunes of east Canterbury I have measured a lee slope, 10 ft. high, which moved horizontall}' 2 ft. in ten hours with a very powerful east wand ; but such rapidity jjf movement would only take place a dozen times or so in a year. Mr. Hoe, of Woodhill, in the Kaipara district, Auckland, was able to furnish me with some accurate particulars regarding the dunes of his locality, based on measurements made during certain surveys. Thus, one wandering dune, the position of which was fixed in 1866, had advanced 1.32 yards by the end of 1910 — i.e., an advance of 3 yards a year. Speaking generally, m}- investigations show that in certain seasons the dune-movements are greater than in others, and that where a plant covering is present they are usually verv slow — perhaps a foot or two yearly. Foreign statistics give very variable results. They concern chiefly the wandering dime, which, according to them, may move in some places only a few feet and in others many yards yearly. Dune-wandering is especiall}- dangerous, since it is slow and insidious ; but in its verv slowness lies the security to those who recognize the danger, since it gives abundance of time for permanent reclamation-work. 80 slow is it, indeed, in certain cases that a semi-sand-binder (see botanical section) such as Antndo conspicua (toetoe) can gain a footing and establish itself on a dune-fall. Its presence, however, does not indicate that the dune is stationary, as many suppose, but rather that the upward growth of the grass is equivalent to the sand-suppl)'. (iv.) iSaiXU-KKIFTING. By sand-driftmg, as opposed to dune-wandering. I mean the blowing of a flat layer of sand along the ground-surface. It is sand-drifting which leads to dune-building, dune-wandering being a secondary phenomenon. Dimng gales extensive drifts take place, the sand coming from naked dunes, and also from hollows where the ^^'md has full power (sec Photo No. 20). These drifts are particularly dreaded by OAvners of sand-areas, since \vlieu merely an inch or two in thickness thev quite destroy any grassy sward on which they fall. The drift also, when once it has commenced, 'continues to advance with even moderate winds, the distance reached being determined by the saiid-supplv. Contrary to the advance of a wandering dune, the sand drift is extremely rapicf, acres at a time' being covered with a layer of sand, thus killing all the grass during one heavy gale. Sand-drifts, though the worst- dreaded form of nn-asion, are of ■■ousiderabl}- less moment m the long-run than dune-wandering, and can be much more easily stopped. It is the stopping of these which is iienrly iihmi/.-< shmri, as an exampir nj hoir to rnriiro] ilmies in goieral u ipiite iriisJeadiiuj object-lesson. 16 C— 13. • (;/.) LAN"1>-I<'()I-!M8 (JF THE I^LINI'J-AKKA. (i.) Dunes. (r;.) Dune-ridgex. The foreduue is a typical exaiiiple of a duuc-vidgx^ and has already been described. Partly sheltered by the foredune, lie the interior dune-ridf. (a.) The Under Cliff-dimc. — Wherever there is a wall-like obstacle, such as a cliff, a dune will be built some distance in front by the eddying wind, as described in section (c). Dunes similar in origin are formed in front of high sandhills, or even on dunes themselves. For ridges of this character I pro- pose the name of " under clifi-dune." An excellent example of such a dune on the Taranaki coast is shown in Photo No. 24. Another well-known case occurs at Sumner, Canterbury, at some considerable distance from the actual shore. (b.) The Upper Cliff-dune. — Dunes are very common on the summit of cliiJs at many parts of the New Zealand coast. The origin of such may be twofold. Where the clifif-face abuts on a sandy shore the whirlwind caused by the stroke of the wind raises the sand high in the air, depositing it upon the ledges of rock, and finally on the summit of the chif, where a Line of dunes will be formed. These are the upper cliff-dunes. According to Jentzsch (18, p. 74) sand-grains can be raised 30 metres (118 ft.) into the air by the strong winds of an open coast. Cornish (7, p. 301) thus describes the phenomenon : " A cHii facing the wind deflects the current of air, which rises in a billow above the edge of the cKfi. Below the billow is an eddy, which assists in bringing down the sand borne by the wind. Thus a cliff may be capped -nith blown sand which deposits in a position apparently exposed, but in reality well sheltered." It seems to me very probable that many upper chff-dunes in New Zealand had their origin at a time when the land was lower and the sand travelled from the shore in the usual manner. Personally I have had no opporiunity of witnessing the effect of a high -wind on the foreshore at the base of cliffs. Where there are gulhes in the clifi, even though very steep, the sand ascends by their aid to the summit (see Photo No. 24), and such a drift may be considered a combination of upper and under cliff-dunes. Reef Point, north-west Auckland, 700 h. in height, is an excellent example of sand from the shore covering a rocky promontory. There the southern side is almost completely covered by wandering dmies and drifts, wiiich pass over almost the highest point and are descending on the northern side towards Ahipara, burying the forest in their descent. Watercourses have been dammed up, deep gulhes filled with sand, rocks fantastically cut. and the face of nature 'fcompletely changed (see Photos Nos. 64 and 31). (ii.) Sandspito. Sandspits are of great economic importance, insomuch as they may enclose harbours, and, when crowned by fixed dunes, prevent the drifting sand from filling up these waterways. Their origin has already been sufficiently described. In the case of a tidal river its course may be much diverted, a growing spit forcing the river to run parallel with the coast for a. considerable distance, as in the case of several of the rivers of western Wellington. (iii.) Sand-plains. The origin of these has been already explained, and further details are given ui the botanical section. They are the most important part of the dune-areas from the farming standpoint, and their treatment is gone into at considerable length in Part II. C— 13 v»v ■• ^ Q Q < M 3 z ^■i/;f '>:"■ ',.,„Ur« I?- U'Mm 'WW. o io ^ f'y /ute y^a(/e 16.] C— 1:-5. ^M " f r <. J'' J^. * / -t v-' Y Jj i I K"' l1 1 I i i / Q X X 5 :i»i-*i fci^ji 17 (^— ]8. (iv.) Quicksands. Where a stream passes over a saiid-plain, or where the wind has cut almost to the water-table, there may lie a superabundanee of water and the wet mass lie so fluid iis to lie no longer a solid, but goveriic'd by the laws of hydrostaties Generally, there is too little water for the formation of quick- sands, but the water-content may l)e much increased by the flow from the body of a wandering dune. Quicksands are not at all common in the dune-aroas. The worst occur on the Auponri Peninsula, Auckland. Bo far as human beings on foot are concerned quicksands are of little moment, but when on horseback, or for horses themselves, they are dangerous enough. (v.) Swamps. Swamps are formed oitliei- l)y a, shallow lake becoming occupied by vegetation, or through the natural drainage being blocked oi' checked by the sand-jnovenient. In some )ilaces there are hundreds of acres of swamp right ii\ the centi-e of a dune-area, hut g(inerally it is nearer the landward than the sea boundary. (vi.) Lakhs and Po,\'os. Dune-lakes (u-iginate in exactly the same maimer as swamps, being really an earlier stage of the latter's development Both lakes and swamps assist in checking the sand-advance for a time, but finally the surface becomes dry, the sand drifts over the site of the swamp, and no trace of it remains visible. (/(.) THE \'IR(;JN BL'NES. At the present time it is not altogether easy to pi'(%sent a picture of the virgin dunes of New Zea- land Excepting on the sand-grass dunes th<>mselves, and perhaps some of the semi-stable shrub dunes, there are few places whi^re man, his fires, and his gr.tzing aninrals hav(^ not wrougfit great changes. These changes have Lieen twofold : they have lirought about a state of very much greater instability, and they Irave altered the <'omposition of many of the plant .Tssociations. This latter is most marked in the plant covering of the stable dunes, whethiir that be heath or grass. The opinion expressed by many that the present instability of the dunes and their wandering is entirely the work of man, due to using the dunes as grazing-land, is certainly incorrect. Even before the white man arrived, the Maoris lived much among the dunes, as remains of dwellings, heaps of shells, stones, and ancient luirial-places testify. Their presence would conduce to considerable dune- movement. But, apart altogether from man, the dunes could nev(U' ha^•c reached their present breadth had not their wandering be(!n of long duration. The presence also of the endemic sand-binding plant SrArfus frondosus is significant, since its well-being depends upon the coming of drifting sand, and its endemism proves that such a drift has been taking place for a long period. The distance a dune-area can penetrate inland depends upon the general topography of the coast- line, the extent of the sand-supply, and the counteracting ei?ect of land winds. At any rate, a point is finally reached where the velocity and erosive power of the wind so much decrease that non-dune plants can get a foothold, increase in number, and finally absolutely fix the dmie, giving it by their decay, in course of time, a coating of loam. Thus the virgin dune-areas were well fixed and beyond the power of the wind to disturb, while the general plant covering of the dunes as a whole would prevent drifting sand to a much greater degree than is at present the case. (/.) EKI-'J'XT OF M.\N, ETC., ON THJ-; DLLMES. Apart altogether from the natural struggle between sand, wind, and plants, which resulted not only in a steady movement of sand inland, but also in its ultimate fixation, man, by the aid of animals, fires, and cultivation, on the one hand, has brought about most powerfid dune-movements ; but, on the other hand, he has to some extent counteracted these by the planting of various sand-fixing plants. The early settlers, tempted by the numerous extensive well-grassed sand-plains, made use of them as grazing-grounds. Also, in order to make room for better growths, they burned the " rushes " and shrubs which appeared to be occupying good ground. Moreover, the cattle and sheep did not con- fine their attention to the flats, but, as food got scarce, wandered over the dunes, breaking the surface, and pulling up some of the sand-binding plants. The result was soon manifest. The unstable hills were turned into wandering dunes, the fertile flats were buried with sand, and desert conditions grew apace. Introduced plants also made their appearance, but economically were generally of a worth- less kind. With the stable dunes it was worse. These were clad with various indigenous grasses, shrubs, and bracken-fern, and beneath a layer of loamy sand. Burning the shrubs, &c., helped to lay bare the sandy surface and to destroy the accumulation of humus, its most important possession. Later on, over- stocking played its part, and, notwithstanding their quite stable character, the fixed dunes gradually began to revert to the active conditions (see Photo No. 12). It is quite astonishing how little will set even the most stable dune in motion. A sheep rubbing its back, irritated with ticks, against the surface soon lays bare a patch of sand, which, attacked by the wind, may rapidly develop into intense activity. Such a hole as that shown in the photograph (Photo No. 26) would, if not checked, set in time the whole hillside in motion. Rabbits also work considerable harm. It is worst of all when the damage commences in a gully, where, as shown before, the wind has special erosive power. Such gully Avoiuids are most difficult to heal (see Photo No. 15), and on that account are neglected after one or two failures, and so the contiguous slopes are undermined, 3— C. 13. C— l:^. 18 anil III no viuv li)ny time n levivifipd wandering dune, itself originally good ground capable of growing nipe or oats, as the photograph shows (Photo No. 35). is invading and bmying land of Tiiuch greater value. At the present time tkr nnjlect of wounds m the turj hy the jarmer is perhaps the greatest source of danger to the adjacent jertile lands. These wounds seem trivial, but they are capalile of the most profound mischief, and their neglect must already have cost the Dominion thousands of pounds. NcAv Zealand is not alone in having once more set in motion the dunes fixed and made not only harmless but valuable by nature. The moving dunes of Cape Cod, in North America, had originally three-fourths of their area covered with trees, the destruction of which, through lire and the pasturing of stock on the sand-area, led to a state of affairs endangering a most important liarbour, and "the problem of controlling the drifting sands has concerned the municipal, State, and national authorities for two hundred years " (Westgate, 65, p. 10). The wandering dunes of the Kurische Nehrung, too, were forest-clad, and the felling of this forest for timber has cost Germany vast sums of money, and a consideralile animal outlay is still expended in refixing the dunes so well fixed by nature. In Holland, according to a most interesting coramuidcatioii from the British Vice-Consul at Flushing, tlie dunes have been rendered unstable in some places through potato-growing on the sand-plains, the ground ha.ving been finally abandoned and left to the mercy of the wind. The Dutch dunes are also used as a drink-water reservoir for the many adjacent towns and villages. " Long canals traverse the inner dunes, and the water is pumped from them into large basins and afterwards to the drink- water towers in the towns. All the towns near the coast get their water from the dunes (Amsterdam, Haarlem. Leyden, The Hague, Delft, Middelburg, Flushing, &c.), and the result of this water- withdrawal is sinking of the water-table in the dune-area."* (j.) INLAND DUNES. (i.) The \'olcanic Plateau. Drifting sand made of pumice, scoria, and ash is quite a common feature of the flat, bare parts of the volcanic plateau (see Cockayne, 89. Photo No. 24). Except where the coach-road crosses the Rangipo desert the drifts do no harm. The dunes are low, often isolated, and frequently held firmly by vegetation. Sometimes wide breadths of the flat surface may be slowly advancing and burying an older surface. (ii.) The Canterbury Plain. Small isolated dunes or dune-chains appear in some of the wide river-beds or at some distance away on an older river-bed on the plain itself. They are generally quite fixed by vegetation, and are of no moment as agents of damage. (iii.) Central Otago (see Photos Nos. 46 and 63). The dune-area of Central Otago lies in the upper valley of the Clutha, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Alexandra, Clyde, Cromwell, and Tarras. The source of the sand is the Clutha itself, where the terrace against which the streams abut, or did abut, has been cut into either by the river itself, water- channels from above, or drifting sand. The great flood of 1878 is said to be responsible for the m.ain drifts, though doubtless, as Park points out (129, p. 35), " the terrace on which Cromwell is built contains a large amount of drift-sand mixed with the gravels, and a constant supply of this sand, derived from the terrace-faces between Lowbuxn and Deadman's Point, is carried by the wind across Cromwell fiat." The supply at Alexandra is, I believe, considerably augmented by the dredging operations in the Clutha. The commencement of what may become a formidable drift, if not stopped soon, may be seen on the bank of the River Kawarau, near Banuockburn, the sand blowing across the river from the Cromwell flat having cut into the terrace. Sand and gravel drifting from the above wound cuts deep into the soil of the fiat above, which in its turn is broken up, its particles being driven along the ground. The finer sand and dust is also raised high into the air. and is finally deposited upon the Carrick Range. As for the areas themselves, the dunes at Alexandra are the most active. They are of true barchan form — i.e., they are low, with a creseentic dune-fall terminating in two horns, while the body of the dune is convex (see Beadnell, 1a, p. 386). Isolated barchans are present (see Photo No. 31), but generally they are joined together, and their true nature is more or less hidden. The advance of the isolated dunes is in the same direction as the wind, while the united hills are at right angles to the wind. At Cromwell the principal dunes are the result of high catching-fences, which they have either buried or are in process of burying (see Photo. No. 29). As well, there are many low dunes, sand-ridges, and deep or shallow layers of sand on many parts of the plain, there being a "special advance towards the River Kawarau between Cromwell and the Bannockburn Bridge. At Tarras there are few dunes, but, instead, a very powerful drift along the ground. Here the sand, much of it extremely coarse, came in the first instance from the broken river-terrace, over the summit of which it was at times driven with such strong velocity that in its progress it cut into the surface soil, exposing by degrees the stones, gravel, and sand of the old river-bed. Thus an ever-increasing source of sand was added until, at the present time, the flat above the river, and not the face of the terrace itself, is almost the sole supply of sand. But this supply is decreasing, since owing to the laying-bare of the large stones and the depth of the sand beneath the surface, the 'upper layer having been removed, the power of the wind to raise the sand has much decreased. It is drifting sand rather than true dunes which distinguish the sands of the Clutha valley. When the powerful westerly winds blow with their fuU might the drifting is excessive. Not only sand, but gravel and * Jixtiact fiom letter to Lands Department from the British Vice-Consul at Flushing. c— !;i No 29. Catchtxg-fence in rnocEss of being buried. Dunes, Cromwell. Fence originally 15 ft. tall. {/•/info L. CiirL-dlllli: Xo. -30. Grazing-land tukxing by Drifting .Sand into River-bed. Ancient Flood- plain of IiivER C'lutha. Tarr\s Drift. [Phuto L. Cnclai/iic. T„ f a -. 19 C— 13. even small stones are swept along the ground or borne in the air, while the fine sand is carried for miles, darkening the sky, and finally deposited hei'p and there oji the distant hills. Thus it may he seen that unless there is a constant supply of sand the drifts will finally i-e;isi" to be. This is the case with the earliest sand-sweep at Tarras ; its site is well mar-ked, but its activity and power for destruction is gone. And this seems to be happening at the other locahties. In many places, where the ground is not swept bare, coarse sand and gravel alone are present. The ground itself is cut into deep furrows, while at Tarras both the present and extinct sand-sweeps are marked by their area having almost entirely reverted to river-bed (see Photo No. 30), the vegetation first, and then the surface soil, being altogether swept away. It is most intercstijig, geologically, to see b()W in so short a time the face of the landscape can be changed by a cause — a flood in a river far below, which might well be thought to have no possible relationship with the ancient flood-plain high above that it had laid down and abandoned many thousands of years before. The three areas — Alexandra, Cromwell, and Tarras — show three stages in the progress of the work : Alexandra, with its barchans and dune-masses, being the youngest ; Tarras, the oldest, with its dunes almost gone, except in the sheltered lee of certain terraces, and its active sand and gravel sweep ; and the one now extinct, its surface rejuvenated river-bed. II. BOTANY. (A.) ECOLOGICAL BOTANY. (o.) GENERAL REMARKS. The study of the dune-vegetation is of the greatest moment with regard to the economic treat- ment of sandhills. Not only does it show what plant forms* and structures are most fitted for growing on the moving substratum, but the investigation of the evolution of a fixed dune — i.e., an inquiry into the dynamics of the plant covering — shows exactly how nature acts regarding dune-fixation, and the methods she has applied with more or less success. The dune-flora proper consists partly of plants specially attuned to sandhill conditions, and partly of those found, and sometimes abundantly, in other formations, but whose " adaptations " fit in with such conditions — i.e., tolerate the peculiarities of the environment. This toleration is exhibited by different species to a much varying degree, and so, as the dune conditio)is relax, does a greater number of plants enter in. This fact must not be lost sight of, since otherwise quite a wrong conception may be gathered as to the capabilities of dunes as a whole for reclamation, for false and dangerous generahza- tions may easily be made from a study of some particular sand-area. Near Paekakarild, for example, the tree-lupin grows well right up to the foreshore, whei'eas in many places in the same position it would be overwhelmed, and a moving dune be the result. The flora of the unstable and semi-stable dunes is nmiarkably uniform throughout New Zealand, its physiognomy being much the same from the north of Auckland to Stewart Island and the Chathams, notwithstanding considerable differences in climate between the extreme points. In other words, the climatic factor is of less moment than the soil factor. At the same time, some species occur only in certain localities, and, although there is a common groundwork, additions or the contrary take place in passing from one extreme to the other. The dunes of the Auckland Islands have a special flora of their own, and that of the ancient dunes of Stewart Island is also quite distinct from that of a typical fixed dune (see Cockayne, 86). (/;.) CONDITIONS FOR FJ.ANT-LIFE. (i.) General. The conditions governing the plant-life of a dune-area are extremely severe, and bring about a state of afiairs very similar to that of a desert. But between this latter and the dune there is the important economic difference that the one can be made fertile only by irrigation, whereas the other has a sufficient rainfall, and the sand-drifting frofensity has alone to he dealt with. Also, it must be remembered that the dune region offers very dissimilar plant stations, with its wandering dunes, naturally fixed dunes, and sand-plains, a fact hitherto altogether overlooked by New Zealand writers on dune-reclamation. (ii.) Climatic Factors. (a.) Wind. Wind is by far the most important of the climatic factors. According to the position of the sea- shore with regard to the prevailing wind, so is the average intensity very different. For instance, the obbque south-west wind at Ocean Beach, Dunedin, is much less to be dreaded than the direct but less intense east wind of New Brighton, Canterbury. The efiect of a sea wind is frequently counterbalanced in part by a land wind, as in the case of the north-west, south-west, and east winds of the Canterbury coast, or the south-west and north-west of western WeUington — a matter, if not directly connected with plant-form, afJecting the distribution of the species and the associations. An occasional excessive velocity vidll cause a sudden drift, but such is generally of less moment than is a much Hghter but continuous sea wind, while a very high wind may remove the dry upper layer, exposing the moist sand beneath, when all movement will cease. * It is surpiising what absurd plants have been suggested in certain cases owing to want of knowledge of the life- forms of true dune-plants and of their physiological requirements. (',— IH. 20 'I'lie wiiicl I'iuliiv acts as follows : — (1.) Iv moves tlio siHicl, hiyin,t; bare tlic roots of plaufs, and causing damage fir destruction. (2.) It causes sand-drifts or a, dune to advance, thus overwhelming Avhole plant associations. (3.) It makes the surface so unstable that none, or only a few spc(ics specially endowed, can gam a tooting. . . (4.) Sand carried bv wind strikes on the plants, cutting, bruising, or otherwise damaging their tender parts. How danuiging such sand-lachMi wind can be is amply shown by its eroding and cutting action on rock (as shown in Photo No. 3]. taken high up on the dunes of R<'ef Point, north-west Auck- land). The size of tlie wind-boi'ne grains of sand is a matter of great importance, large grams being much more destructive than small ones. At Tanas, in Central Otago. an oat-crop facing the drift is frecpiontly cut for manv feet as if with a stripper. (5.) Plants not actually broken are bent in a direction contrary to the wind, and their fobage is " wind-shorn." but this is no more marked than on non-sandy coast^s or in exposed alpine locahties. (6.) The soil is cooled (tliis frequcnily beneficial), and rapid evaporation ta.kes place from tlie ground. (7.) Transpiration is much accelerated, thus leading to desiccation (Warming. 6.3. p. 38). and strong xeropliytic structure is thereby demanded, or plants may be wholly or in part killed. (8.) Various plants depend for then- pollination on tlic wind ; also seeds arc carried in the air or blown with the sand-grains along the ground. Tliis may lead to the irregular planting of tussocks, &c., and so indirectly to dune-movement. The wind-shearing mentioned above is in part due to the mechanical action of tlie wind, and in part to the ph3'siological ciaiiditions induced Ijy excessive transpiration. The salt gales of the coast of part of AVellington and Tara.naki. which oc {Aniurana cxcdsa) and African boxthorn (Ltjcntm ajrum) are undamaged. How far the salt cariied liy the vrind has a physiological effect I do not know, but the chief damagi- is probalily due to the cjuite abnormal transpiration from the leaves during such gales. The average number of days per vear during which strong gales occur on all parts of the coast a)-e comparatively few ; were it not so. many of the species of the exposed dunes, where tlie rainfall is not excessive, could not exist. In tin' south of the South Island, and especially in Stewart Island and Auckland Island, strong gales .-ire much more numerous than elsewhere, but their effect is, to a greater or less degree, modified bv tlie excessive number of rainy days. (/j.) Ii(al ('/Kirlli/ (: conspicua (Gramineae). {(i.) Hand-collectors. (a.) Major. — *Coprosma acerosa (Rubiaceae) ; '*Pimelea arenaria (Thvnn.^taeaceae) ; Oassinia Icplophylla (C!ompositae) ; Oassinia julvida (Compositae) ; *Ca,ssinia rctorta (Compositae). (b.) Minor. — *Fe,stuoa littoralis (Gramineae) ; *Galam.a,(jrnstis Billardieri (Gramineae) ; Scirpus nodosus (Cyperaceae). (y.) Wct-groimd Plants. Leptocarpus .simplex (Restionaceae) ; *Gumiera arenaria (Halorrhagaceae), (iii.) DESCKieTiONS or Plants. (a.) Spinifex hirsutus {the Silvery Sand-grass). Found in New Zealand in the northern and central floristic provinces only. Also indigenous in Australia and New Caledonia. The special sand-drift " adaptation " of Spinifex hirsutus is the extremely long, quickly growing, much-branching rhizome, which, if all the branches of an old plant were taken, would measure many yards ; indeed, it seems capable of quite unlimited extension. Normally, the rhizome creeps over the surface of the ground, putting forth roots at the nodes : but it is soon buried by the drifting sand, in which case its apex may again emerge, but more usually branches or leafy shoots pass upwards to the light. Such a stem creeping on the surface is a runner rather than a rhizome, since it roots at the nodes, also putting up erect shoots, each of which is virtually an independent plant. These creeping stems, which frequently extend to the flat ground along a windward dune-slope unbranched and pej- fectly straight for many feet, are soft and juicy for their three or foui' apical internodes. Init elso where hard, smooth, woody, and of a pale-brown oi- yellowish colour. The soft portion is well protected from damage by the strongly developed leaf-sheaths closely pressed to the stem, the sheaths themselves being also protected by a close almost tomentose covering of adpressed silky hairs. The path of a subterranean stem is indicated by the bunches of leafv branches which at intervals pierce the sand, the leaves reaching a variable lieight above the surface ; they are not cj'owcled together, as are those of marram-grass {Ammophiln arenaria), but sand is always visible through a bunch of leaves. The leafy shoots may descend 20 in. or more to the rhizome from which they branch, and such, rooting and deeply descending, binds the sand to an extraordinary degree. The leaves consist of blade and sheath ; they are of two kinds, protecting leaves and ordinary leaves, the former having much broader sheaths and very short blades, and function as already described. An ordiuar\- leai has a blade about 19 in. long and j\-, in. broad ; it terminates in a fine, tapering, but usually dead point. In texture it is flexible, coriaceous, and thick ; the margins are much incurved, so much so as to frequently make the apical half or third into a pipe. Both surfaces are thickly covered with adpressed silky hairs. The sheath is about 5 in. long, pale-coloured, thick and fleshy, especially at the base, and rather brittle. The flowers are dioecious. Frequently extensive patches are all of one (\~18. 24 srx. in \\iii( li ciisr |>ri)lialjly tlii'ii' iniiy bo only a few plants. The male spikes are arraii.ued in a t.'iiiiiii:il uiiilirl ; tlir spikclcts a I'e 1 Wd-floweved, and aljoiit J in. long. The pollen is lieing slu'd from ihr miildlr (if Xii\-i'ml)er to the beginning of Dccembei'. The female inflorescence is a large gloljose ImmiI sdinctiini'S I ft. in diameter ; the usually one-flo«-ered spikelets are at the base of long sharp- piiiuted spines, each about 5 in. long, and spreading out radiallv. The roots are of great length, and (h'scend dee])lv into the sand. (/J.) iScii'pus friindosus (Ihr PiiKjao). (For rhizome-develojiment see Photo No. 17.) Kdund only in New Zealand, occurring o)i dunes in all parts, except on the Kermadec and Siibantarctic Islands. The important features of this plant witli regard to drifting sand are : (J) Tlie great power of \egetative increase by means of the much-branching, stout, excessively long rhizome ; (2) the tendency of tlie growing point to seek tlie surface — i.e.. the liglit — and the rapid lengthening of the stem ; (3) the protection afforded to the very tender growing point, young stem, and leaves by the overlapping df the broad leaf-bases and their fastening together bv a resinous exudation ; (4) th(^ leaf-texture so suitable to withstand the sand-blast ; (5) the close packing of the inner leaves, owing to the concave upper surface ; (6) the arching of the leaves so as to I)ring the convex iindcrsurface. which is slrerjgtliencd by abundant stereome, into opposition with the wind. The rhizome is stout (a.bout -| in. diameter), somewhat woody, .stiff, much-ljranching, covered witli old leaf-sheaths, and nrany yards in length. Normally, it creeps close to the surface of the ground, branching near the apex into leafy shoots given off rather closely, but it is soon buried, finally forming a complete network of rope-like stems reaching to far doAvn within the dune. The leaves .■ii'c in bunches, tightly bound together at the liase by their sheaths, the diameter there being about I ill., but thev gradually open out. also curving gently inwards. Each leaf consists of sheath and blade. The sheath is aliout I in. long and 2 in. broad a.t the base, somewhat triangular in shape, moderati'h" thick in the middle, liut translucent and membraneous at the margins, and everywhere sticky with a resinous (-xudatioii. The blade is about 2 ft. long by | in. broad, tapering very gradu- ally to a long trigonous point ; the texture is very thick, coriaceous, stiff but flexible. It is concave (111 the upper surface and convex on the under. Its colour is rather dark glossy green near the base and on the undersurface, but on the upper it is frequently orange or reddish, especially above. The branches are given ofi quite close together, so that the separate leaf-bunches touch, making tussocks or lines. The inflorescence is 4 in. to 8 in. long, and consists of clusters of sessile reddish-brown globose spikelets spirally arranged round the stem, each cluster subtended by a, linear bract similar to the leaf above described. The roots are of great length, very numerous, as may be seen when the wind lays them bare, and descend deeply. Juvenile plants, growing in hollo^ys or sand-plains, show little trace of the far-cree])ing rhizome, whose extreme development depends ujjoii an abundant sand-supplv. (y.) Euphorbia glauca {the New Zealand Sfurfje ; Waiuatua). Eound in all parts of New Zealand along the coast, except in the Kermadec and iSuliantarctic Islands. Also occurs in Norfolk Island. Euphorbia glauca is a tall herbaceous plant, forming considerable colonies, and capable of much extension through its far-creeping rhizome. The stout, terete stems stand erect above the sand for 3 ft., more or less, and descend for a variable distance. They are naked for the lower two-thirds, but marlied with old leaf -scars ; above they are covered closely with leaves. The naked portion of the stem is red or green, the former colour depending on excess of light. The leaves are alternate, of obovate type, but differing in width, 2 in. or 3 in. long, entire, sessile, and fleshy. All the parts are full of milky juice. The roots are long. (8.) Calystegia i^oldanella (the iShore-crmvohmlus. or Bindiveed). Found 0)1 all parts of the coast-line, except in the Subantarctic Islands ; elsewhere it occurs throughout the Temperate Zones. As well as on the dunes proper, it grows on sandv and even gravelly shores. There is a long creeping rhizome, very variable in thickness, attaining a maximum of about fin. It is terete, brittle, l.irownisli, and much-branching. The stems are prostrate and trailing, variable in diameter, frequently many feet in length, very flexible and cord-like, and branch abundantly, the final slender branches bearing many leaves. The leaves have long stout petioles 1 in. to 3 in. long, which raise the blades above the sand. The blades are reniform, broader than lonrr, beino- 1 in lono- by 2 m. broad, more or less. They are bright glossy green, thick, fleshy, brittle, and the basal lobes are frequently brought close together, rendering the leaf funnel-shaped. The leaves all touch, and together with the prostrate stems form a close mat (see Photo No. 61) aliout 3 in. in depth, which absolutely prevents any sand moving. Such mats are fi-equently several square yard^ in area, and small dunes may be quite covi?red, forming green oases absoluttdy stable in a movin" waste of sand. The flowers are on .stalks about eijualling the leaves. The corolla is very showy, beinc 1 in. or more in diameter, and pale lilac in colour, liut paler still m throat, «'ith a band of this colour down the centre of each division of coroU.i. The roots are numerous, and Avhen given off from the stems help to bind them to the sand ; but man\- of the trailing stems are for the most part without such roots. (e.) t'arex pumila (th<' Saiid-sedye). Found on dunes ;iiid them to settle upoji the dunes, though at the same time the stimulus of the moist sand causes sometimes the putting forth of adventitious roots. (X.) Festuca littorahs {the. Sand Fescue-grass). Found in all pai-fs of the coast of New Zealand, except the Kermadec and Subantarctic Islands ; also indigenous in temperate Australia. Festuca liltoralis is a "steppe-grass," forming close-growing tussocks about 2 ft. tall and 5 in. or so through at the base. The underground stems can lengthen upwards to some degree as buried, new roots arising from near the base of the leaves, and plants may rise in this manner 1 ft. or more, thus T\nthstanding a slow burial. The leaves are narrow, strongly involute, green when young or in the shade, but frequently yellowish. The leaf -sheath is pale-coloured and thick. The lamina is 16 in. long or thereabouts, its upper surface furrowed and waxy. The roots are numerous, wiry, brown, furnished with many short- filiform rootlets, and frequently spread out laterally for a distance of .3 ft. The panicle is dense, spike- like, and the spikelets turgid. In certain parts of Southland this grass builds dunes of considerable size right on the foreshore. ((U..) Calamagrostis (Deyeuxia) Billardieri. Common on New Zealand coast, except in the Kermadec Islands and the Subantarctic Islands ; also indigenous in Australia. Calamagrostis Billardieri is a tufted perennial grass forming small green patches about 1 ft. long by 6 in. broad. The underground stem is pale, slender, wiry, creeping, and furnished with a great number of slender roots about 6 in. long. The leaves are shorter than the culms, and the blade is bent outwards from the sheath, spreading semi-vertically ; it is about 3|in. long by ^'■-, in. broad, bright green, flat, membraneous, and tapers to a short point. The panicle is Gin. to 10 in. long, as broad as long when fully expanded ; its branches are hair-like, arranged in whorls, and branch trichotomously. (v.) Scirpus nodosus [the Stiff Club-rush). Common in New Zealand, except in the Subantarctic Islands, but not confined to the dunes ; also indigenous in temperate Australia, Norfolk Island, South Africa. South America, St. Helena, and Amsterdam Island. Scirpus nodosus forms close tussocks about 30 in. tall, made up of terete, stiff, flexible, pale-green stems arranged closely together, and given off from a short, straight, woody rhizome f in. in diameter. The leaves are represented by sheathing scales at the base of the stems, which latter fimction as leaves. The roots are wiry and of medium lengt-h. The inflorescence is a sohtary globose head fin. in diameter, of numerous crowded spikelets subtended by a rigid bract, 1 in. or more in length, con- tinuous with the stem. The tussock form, stifi isolateral stems, and absence of leaves fit this plant for very dry stations, and so it is very common on the dunes themselves, but is quite absent where the sand drifts to any extent, since it has no sand-binding properties and gets buried. (o.) Leptocarpus simplex {the Yellow Rush). Found only in New Zealand ; common on the coast, except in the Kermadec and Subantarctic Islands ; occurring principally in salt marshes and sand-plains. Leptocarpus simplex forms dense tussocks of quite erect, slender, terete, stiff, wiry, flexible, rush- like stems of a dull green, but more frequently reddish or yellowish colour, according to the intensity of the light, being at times, wlien fully exposed, bright red or orange. The leaves are reduced to short blackish sheathing scales clasping the stem at distances of 1 in. to 4 in. The rhizome is stout, woody, creeping. The roots are wiry and of medium lenoth. The flowers are dioecious, the male inflorescence panicled, and the female arranged in compact rounded glomerules. (tt.) Gunnera arenaria {the Sand-gunnera) . Found only in New Zealand ; extending along the coast, but confined to dune-hollows, or wet cliffs, from the northern floristic province to Stewart Island. Gunnera arenaria is a very low-growing herb, forming large round flat patches a yard or more in diameter, the leaves flattened down to the ground. The rhizome is stout and much-branching. The leaves are of the ovate type, 1 in. or 2 in. long, including the petiole, thick, coriaceous, and of a dull-green colour. The flowers are monoecious.' The female peduncle lengthens as the fruit ripens, finally becoming 2 in. or 3 in. in lenoth, and so much ised above the foliage. The drupes are yellowsh-red, and crowded on the upper part of the peduncle. ra (d.) METHODS OF SPREADING OF DUNE-PLANTS. The distribution of the specuil dune-plants takes place most likely by means of coastal currents for, no matter how far separated are the dunes, their typical flora has gained small dune-areas remote from otliers, and isolated islands where the amount of sand is trifling. Perhaps succulent fruits may be r^niried by land-birds, but these latter are rare on dunes, there being little to attract them 27 C— IH. As for the sjjread of the plants on the dune-area itself, this is chiefly the wcjrk of the wind. Espe- cially are the ball-like infrutescences of Spinifex liirsutus suitable for wind caiTJage. Caught by the breeze, these hop over the sand on their long spines as if endowed with life, until eventually, falling to pieces, they come to rest, and the seeds are buried ready for germination. In this manner originate the embryonic dunes of the upper foreshore. The " seeds " of Festuca littoralis, Ckirex piimila, Calystegia Soldanella, Coprosma acerosa, and Phnclea arenaria are cast in great numbers near the bases of the plants, and can there germinate, or a'-e more frequently driven when dry along with the surface sand. Generally speaking, however, th<>re are very few seedlings on the sandhills themselves. It is in the hollows that seeds, even those of the siind-binding grasses, germinate, the seedhngs of these, on receiving a sand-supply, building dunes. On the hills seedhngs are extremely scarce, the increase there being almost altogether by vegetative means, which amply suffices, under favourable conditions, to cover the ground. (e.) THE PLANT ASSOCIATIONS OF THE NEW ZEAL.-VND SAND-DUNES. (i.) General. The words " New Zealand " are here used in the plant-geographical and not the political sense, and include, besides the two main islands and Stewait Island, the Kermadec, Chatham, and Subantaietic groups, but the tropical appanages of the Dominion (Cook Islands, &c.) are excluded. The term " plant-association " is restricted to the usage proposed by Warming (63, p. 145), the associations as a whole being pai-ts respectivelv of the sand-dune formations of the entire earth. This conception of plant-formation and plant-association seems to me scientifically sound, although, in more compli- cated arrangements of vegetation than that of dunes, difficult, if not impossible, to act up to in the present state of knowledge. The comparative simplicity in the progress of dune-development, its rapidity, and the ease with which it can be observed, as stated already when dealing with the geology of dunes, makes a genetic study of the vegetation of a dune-area much more easy than that of a series of land forms whose evolution is extremely slow. Beginning with the foredune and ending -s^dth the fixed dune, a gradual change may be noted in harmony with the increasing stability of the sand, a condition which is in large part the A\-ork of the plants themselves. Also cei-tain stages enter in where a new class of associations branch off. which may be either transitory and doomed to obliteration, or become permanent, their persistence depending upon the stability of the dune-area as a whole. The above is important from the economic standpoint, since ivhere nature has brought stability and inserted shrubby associations in the midst of dunes orujinully unstable, so too can afforestation be artificially carried on, bid with e/reater ease, or the better land be used without danger for certain agricultural purposes. The various plant associations may receive either a physiographic or a. botanical name, the two exactly coinciding, each association forming a definite step in the progress of events whose final goal is stability. The treatment also does not go into minutiae which are of little importance, an attcmjit only being made to give a clear general idea of the associations, which necessarily will not be absolutely true for every part of the district. The associations, taking on account of its practical significance a physiographic classifica.tion rather than a botanical, may be di^aded into those of the dunes and the dune-hollows, including amongst the latter the most extensive sand-plains, lakes, and swamps. Between the associations as described below there are all kinds of gradations, even those of dmies and dune-hollows having at times the closest relationship. Where the dunes abut on river mouths and estuaries there are salt meadows and marshes, but these are here excluded. Many portions of the dune-area are not typical — i.e., there is no sand-supply from the shore, nor a general procession of events such as here described, which is only to be observed on the broader dune- areas. This arises from their bemg situated on cliffs, while their movement is due to destruction of their plant covering. Other areas again form but a narrow belt along the shore, and there are few evolutionary stages to be observed. In what follows, fuller details are given of typical dune-areas than of these more ancient rejuvenated dunes, which, if undisturbed, would generally represent the fixed dune — i.e., the chmax association of dune-developmeiit. Nor do the smaller areas receive more than a very brief treatment at best, while many are not dealt with at all. since their economic importance is trivial. (ii.) Dune Associations Proper. (u.) Sand-grass Dunes (see Photo No. 61). These are distinguished by their instability and by the presence of some sand-binding grass or sedge. They occur along the sandy beach, where, if continuous, they build a long low ridge (the fore- dune), and extend inland for a variable distance, depending on the position of the shore with regard to the prevailing winds. At first they are clothed with the pingao {Scirpus frondosus) and the silverv sand-grass (Spinifex hirsutus), one or both, the latter occurring only on the dmies of the northern and central botanical provinces. The sand-grass dunes may remain at this stage, and frequently do so near the shore ; but by degrees there come in, first, the minor sand-binders, then the sand-catchers, many of them shrubs, until finally a shrub dune is estabhshed. Generally the sand-grass dunes are by no means closely covered b}' tufts of the Spinifex or Scirpus, there being as many or more bare patches than vegetation. At the junction of foredune and shore in the northern and central botanical provinces the long bamboo-like stems of the Spinifex mav extend over the loose sand of the foreshore, as may also the rhizomes of the Scirpus. Also, both plants not imcommonly build small dmies on the foreshore itself, pioneers of a new line of foredmies. Frequentlv one or other of the above species is dominant, Spinifex giving a silvery and Scirpus frondosus a yellow colovu' to the ridges. Sometimes the two plants grow side by side, but they are usually not hitermixed. Spinifex hirsutus rarely extends mland for any considerable distance, its presence lieing a sign that C— 18. 28 thr slidic is iKMi ; 1)ut ."^rirpus Iroiirlosus is to bi^ foaiicl \vlK>i'cv(5r then; is nioviii;^ sand, even on the R'tr(jurcssivc fixed dunes :it the l;iiid\vaicl boundarv of the aiea. Ciili/sliyia Sohhiiu'lla. Euphorbia (jhiucn. Fcstuca UUornlis (this ;i(tually building primary dunes oil tiic shore in ceitain parts of Southland), Scirpus nodosus. and ('alammjroslis Billardieri -dre aho in part plants of the movinc'' dunes, but thev do not confer sueh stability as the dominant sand-binding Ijlants. The Cahjstet/ia (Photo No. 36). with its sliinnio green leaves and, in their season, showy lilac flowers, foniis a refreshing contrast to tin; grasses or sedge. It forms dense masses on the sand, some- times quite coveruig small dunes, but, tlie mats being only a couple of inches deep, a heavy drift will soon overwhelm them. All the same, it is remarkalile for how long such closely covered dune-summits ])ersist in an area where the S. jrondosus dunes are blown flat, the absolutely covered sand defying the wind, the dune itself creating an eddy, and a channel being formed in front of the advancing sand. Euphorbifi (jlnuca is by no means a common plant everywhere, but when it is present it forms colonies of considerable size, the pale-green colour of the leaves and erect habit rendering it conspicuous. The sand-coprosma (Coprosma acerosa) is a very early comer, and belongs to this association. Where the wind is not excessive tlie great tussocks of the toetoe {Arundo conspicua) especially on the Auckland dunes, are a conspicuous feature ; in fact, r'arse considers it the leading dune-plant in the Mangonui County (81), Tfee fleshy-leaved sowthistle {Sonchns Nttoralis), generally a rock plant, occurs on the sand-grass dunes of Stewart Island; and here, too, as also in Southland, are bushes of Pimelea iz/aWw flattened to the sand, together with rosettes of the small Geranium sessiliflorum, which thrives, thanks to its very stout, deeply descending, woody root. In Southland also several species of piri piri (Acaena novae-zealandiaf. A. im-crophylln. A. species with sessile flower-heads), Hydrncotylf novae- zdandiac, and Mi/osolis antarctica var. TraillU are fairl)' common in some piaffes. The unstable dunes of Central Otago are occupied in many places by tussocks of Poa caespitosa, which becomes under these conditions a minor sand-binder. So efficacious is it in this regard that it is planted at Cromwell to stop sand-drift. Juvenile sand-grass dunes are met with on the foreshore, on sand-plains, on dunes themselves, and indeed anywhere if there is a supply of moving sand and a sand-binding " grass " to arrest its progress. During a period of calm weather, or in some spot where there is no movement, such as a moist sand- plain, the seed of Spinijex hirsutus ot. Scirpus jrondosus germinates, a young plant ari.ses, and if it can attain a, few inches in height may hold its own. Vast numbers of seedlings must perish, but an occasional one here and there will serve for dune-building. The young plant catches the sand, which then forms a tongue on its lee side : into this the growing rhizome extends, and, with increase of size of plant, through much branching of rhizome and development of leaf-branches, more and more sand is held, this stimulating the growth of the plant. Thus grass and sandhill increase in size at the same time, the former looking like many independent plants, and the latter acting now as the obstacle, catch the windward drift, which is finally arrested by the leaf-branches, each tuft of leaves building a tongue of sand on its lee side, as did the original young plant. Thus in a few years a dune several feet in height will arise from one young plant of the Spinijex or Scirpus, which, through its extensive branching, might well be thought to consist of a colony of separate plants. Natural planting, such as the above, leads to the formation of mounds and ridges, and ultimately on that account to more or less destruction of the dunes, as already explained in the geological portion. But in an artificial plantation extending over a flat area, where the plants are regularly arranged, the builduig of mounds is more or less suppres.sed, and a stable plant-association will result ; but where this is subject to a windward supply of sand it is sometimes destroyed (see Photo No. 32). The number of species present on a sand-grass dune depends entirely on the wind factor. Where strong sea winds are frequent only Spinijex hirsutus and Scirpus jrondosus are present, but where the wind is weaker, sand-slirubs, minor sand-h)inders, and sand-holders will appear, and, where weaker still, ordinary wind-toleiatuig shrubs and even certain introduced plants ; in short, the plant covering is an exact index oj the tvind-joree. (P.) Pes caprae Dunes. These only o<;cur on Sunday Island, in the Kermadec Group. Thev are covered with Ipomaea pes caprae, a creeping herb with prostrate stems some feet in length which root here and there. The leaves are large, 2-lobed, dark yellowish -green, and firm in texture (R. B. Oliver, 127, p. 133). Growing amongst the Ipomaea are the grasses Imperafa ('heesemanii and Eleusine indica, the stifi club-rush (Scirpus nodosus) and the wild celery {Apium proslralum). These dunes are of no moment except from the scientific standpoint. (y.) Dunes oj the Auckland Islands. Dunes occur v^ §;* ' w. ,;4- -i^ '. ■ S i x- ' ■ -■ 7. 1:j C o H -7^ -'J •20 c— ly. As the sand-grass dunes become more stal^le ttey afford sufficient shelter for the seedlings of shrubs to establish themselves on the lee side. Thus, as already shown, shrubs occur to some extent on the sand-grass dunes, becoming more abundant with increase of distance from the shore, until finally they dominate, and a shrub association occupies the ground. Besides capturing sand-grass dunes, the shrubs under discussion are also dune-builders, their form favouring the accumulation of sand. Especially is this the case with the prostrate, spreading, much-branched Coprosma and Pimelea, which function as veritable; sand-traps (see Photo No. 22), the sand accumulating in their interior, but eventually, if the drift continues, burying them altogether. The various species of Gassinia, much taller and more erect plants than the two preceding, function somewhat differently. Their closely branching portion is at some feet above the sand-surface. The sand is at first held, but not strongly, by the l)asal stems, and as the drift continues it mounts uji to the above twiggy portion, where it accumidates more rapidly, so that the shrub niay be altogether buried, or a few twigs alone project above the sand, which, unlike those of the Coprosma or Pimelea, cannot lengthen to any noticeable extent. Even in that case the plant is not necessarily doomed, for the loosely held sand at its base is frequently blown away, the stiff naked stems being again exposed, and the shrub none the worse for its burial. On the other hand, sand held in the network of branches of the Coprosma or Pimelea carniot again be removed, except undei- very special circumstances. Cassinias at all stages of burial and disinterment are a common feature of the shrub dunes. To a minor degree the sand-shrubs function as sand-binders, since their upper branches some- times put forth roots, thus enabhng the plant to grow upwards with the drift, while the cord-like old stems are buried deep in the dunes. But, generally speaking, all the indigenous shrubs of the New Zealand dunes function as aand-holders rather than as s-Mid-binders, such as are certain species of Europe or North America, whose upper stems root freely and grow rapidly — various Avillows (Salix), and dogwoods (Cornus). The association is grey or yellow in colour, according to the dominance of the Cassinia or Coprosma, but generally both colours are in evidence. Certain other indigenous plants are common in this association. More or less Scirptis jrondosus, or Spinifex hirsiitus if near the sea and according to the locality, will be present, especially on the lee slopes, the accumulating of sand there being favoural^Ie to their development. Tussocks of the pale-green stems of Scirpus nodosus and shining green mats of Calysteifia Soldanella will be sometimes abundant. The grass Galamagrostis Billardieri will be dotted about. Where the wind is not especially strong Phormium tcnax and Arundo conspicua may enter in. On the Southland dunes where the sand is coarse the silvery mats of Raoulia australis, so frequently a denizen of stony river-beds, will appear early. There will be usually more or less introduced plants which are able to tolerate a dry station if there be sufficient shelter, Trijolium arvense, Hypochoens radieata, Sonchus asper, and Bromus hordcacews being especially common. As for the stability of tlrese Cassinia-Coprosma dunes, all depends upon tfieir position — though if stable they belong more properly to the next class — and the degree of covering. Where the shrubs quite cover the sand — a not infrequent occurrence — and if, in addition, the dune is on the lee side of a well-fixed sand-plain, it is quite stable, and would remain so for years were there no advance of sand, or did no animals or fire disturb its surface. This stability is important, insomuch as it sho\vs that under certain conditions a dune exposed to ivind-tearing action may be naturally covered ivith sknihs and rendered stable ■without any previous preparation, except such shelter as is afforded by sand-grasses. (b.) Heath Dunes. — The heath dunes are the third stage towards the evolution of the fixed sand- liill, with its loam-covered surface. They occur at a greater distance from the sen, than the sand-shrulj dunes, or even, quite close to the shore where the wind strikes with less power. They are closely allied to shrub dunes, and differ only in being more stable and containing generally more species. Very often one or other of the species of Cassinia is the dominant plant. In many localities, however, the manuka {Leptospermum scoparium) gives the character to the association. The appear- ance of this shrub is an interesting plant-geographical phenomenon, since it seems at first thought that, the dune-vegetation being correlated with the wind-velocity, manuka must be to a smaller degree wind-tolerating than are the dune-plants proper. But it is nothing of the kind ; on the contrary, it can tolerate more wind than almost any other indigenous shrub, as I have shown elsewhere (Cockayne, 92). On a dune-area it is clear that the presence of the manuka is altogether dependent on the strength of the sand-drijt and on nothing else, not even on excess of sea-spray. Thus, in selecting shelter-plants for dune-afforestation purposes, tolerayice of drifting sand is a matter of prime importance, ■without which drought- or salt-resisting power are as nothing. Besides the above shrubs, other species may make up the association. The great tussocks of the toetoe {Arundo conspicua) and the New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) may be present, and in some localities dominant. These two can tolerate a certain amomit of sand-burial. The toetoe, for instance, grows upwards as it is buried, and thus ascends a slowly advancing lee slope, finally possibly capturing it and leading to its fixing (see Photos Nos. 33 and M). If such lee slopes were not interfered with, and beyond the influence of cattle and bu^rniug, many which are now advancing, menacing fertile land, would be naturally fastened. Even luider the present adverse conditions stability is in some places being established. In Southland, so far as I have observed, true heath dune is absent, but Phormium and toetoe [Arundo conspicua) are common on many hills. There in some places the sand-grass dune gives place, on the immediate ridge behind, to fixed dune, which is perhaps grassed or was originally covered with southern rata forest {Metrosideros lucida), now replaced by a scrub of species of Coprosma, &c. Heath dune seems wanting in Stewart Island, except on the ancient inland dunes. In north-western and north-eastern Auckland more species enter into the heath than on the dunes of the central botanical province. Styphelia fasciculata, flattened close to the groimd, is very common. The white tea-tree {Leptospermum ericoides). of exactly the same haViit as the Styphelia, is frequent. ('. -IH. 30 I'miiiiili rrls pjii/lii-drlfilia sometimes (ircurs in this assdciatiuii. At a ^reat^i" oi' lesser distance fioiii tlie soa. heatli is the common feature of these northern Auckland dunes, but it is generally rather on 1I11' yr\\ sandy soil covering the consolidated ancient hills than on the more recent, and in such a case llie Horula is mucli richer. Heath of this character is almost identical with that of the ordinary clay lauds, so fai- as speiies are concerned, and contains many species not given in my list of dune-plants. Eccilogically it is more wind-swept, and various shrubs, normally erect, are flattened to the ground. (e.) Fixed Dunes. (a.) Shrubbij and Grassy Dune. — Even now, short as the time is since the European first settled ni New Zealand, it is not easy, or indeed possible, in the majority of eases to say what the vegetation of the fixed dunes was exactly like. The pasturing of stock, frequent burning of the vegetation, and the spread of introduced plants has, in most places, called into existence a plant association quite foreign to primitive New Zealand. But there are certain places, heie and there, more or loss undisturbed, where probably even yet all the oj-ighial native species remain, though in a much different percentage from what they were in the primeval vegetation. Heath, as above described, would probably be the important association of many places. Arundo consficua and Phormium tenax would play an important part. In Southland certain species of piripiri (Acaena) are abundant, and there is a considerable quantity of the round silvery patches of Raoulia australis, and of another species allied to /)'. Monrai ; also Gentiana .saxosa, Gnafhalium trinerve, Poa caespitvsa, and Pimelea Lyallii are common in certain places — e.g., OJi the dunet facing Colac Bay. Bracken-fern (Pteridium esculentum) is generally present in abundance, but how far heatli of this cha,racter was a true association in primitivi^ New Zealand is certainly not known. As for turf-making grasses, Danthoma pilnsa, D. semiannularis. Dichclachne crinita, Microlaena .slipoides, and Zoysia punyens in the north would be present. The most important part played by the primitive vegetation in the first instance, and aided afterwards by the introduced plants, was the formation of humus from their decay, the surface thus getting covered by degrees with sandy loam, itself alone an excellent fixing-agent which would render the dime stable unless disturbed. So much so is this the case that in certain places these stable dunes are successfully used for growing crops of oats or rape (see Photo No. 35). But, notwithstanding such a use, the greatest care has to be exercised, for if once the true sand is exposed there is a rapid reversion not merely to semi-stable sandhills, but to the wandering dune itself (see Photo No. 14). With burning and " stocking " the equilibrium between the species was upset, space was opejicd up for new plants, so that various grasses, leguminosae, &c., came in, and at the present time a turf, . containing white clover, cocksfoot, Yorkshire fog, meadow poa, and even rye-grass, together with many worthless weeds, covers much of the groujid of many dune-a.reas, interspersed w'th a varying qua.ntity of the indigenous plants mentioned above, and others according to the geographical position of the dunes in question. (b.) Dune Forest. — Dune forest is not a very frequent feature of the coast. It occurs most abundantly where the number of rainy days is excessive. Thus, on the dunes of Chatham Island low forest consisting of the so-called akeake (Olearia Traversii) and the matipo [Suttonia chalhamica) was originally common. Drifting sand has, however, destroyed this forest in many places. On the lee slope of a portion of the Mason Bay dunes, in Stewart Island, there is a quite luxuriant though low forest, consisting of the broadleaf (Griselinia litioralis) as the dominant tree, its thick leaves being in harmony with the dry soil. In some parts the southern rata (Metrosideros lucida) is abundant, its dark-green leaves contrasting with the much lighter green of the flat forest-roof. The other trees are Rapanea Urvillei, Aristotelia racemosa, Nothopanax simplex, Carpodetus serralus, Pittosporuin. jasciculatum, Fuchsia excortioata, Pseudopanax crassifolium, and Dracophyllum longifoliuni. (For fui+her details see Cockayne, 92, p. 18.) On the dunes of western Nelson, south of Westport, there is old forest consisting of the forest- trees of the locality, but I have no detailed notes. It comes cpiito close to the sea, from which it is separated by the sand-grass {Scirpus jrondosus) dunes. Forest occurs occasionally in sheltered gullies on the fixed dunes of both Wellington and western Auckland. The components consist in part of coastal trees, and in part of inland trees found frequently near the coast. The following are some of the members : Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigata), akeake {Dodonaea viscosa), pohutakawa {Metrosideros tomentosa — Auckland only), kawakawa (Macro- piper excelsum), kowhai (Sophora letraptera), ngaio {Myoporum laetum), piu'iri {Vitex lucens — Auckland only), titoki {Alectryon excelsum), rangiora (Brachyglottis repanda), kohutu (Pitlospormn tenuifolium), kohekolie (Dysoxylum spectabile), and mahoe (Melicytus ramifiorus). The forest of the Southland dunes has been already noted. Also in cei-tain pai-ts of that district, forest, but not necessarily of the dunes, has been buried by sand, the tops of the dead trees still projecting above the surface. (iii.) Hollows and Sand-plains. (a.) General. It has been shown how the advancing dune-ridge leaves in its wake level sandy ground, which continues to be lowered by the wind until moisture, rising from the quite adjacent water-table, forbids further removal of sand. It is obvious that such hollows are in themselves quite stable, while their moisture permits an altogether dift'erent class of plants to those of the dune proper to establish them- selves. The final destiny of these level areas does not depend, however, upon their own plant covering, but on the stability of the adjacent dunes, and according to the behaviour of the latter so is the subsequent history of the vegetation. One of two things may happen — there may be an nivasion of sand and a reversion to dune conditions, certain transient plant associations arising only to be destroyed ; or there may be a long stage of stability, in which case an evolutionary series of associations will succeed one another, culminating in a climax association ; but this final stage may be reached by different paths. 31 C-13. (/3.) Thr Mm'xt Sand-plain or Hollmp. In Canterbury, western Wellington, and occasionally in Auckland, the daiiip sand is early occupied by the curious round mats, 3 ft. to 6 ft. in diameter, of Gunnera arenaria, the small, thick, pale-green leaves flattened to the ground. When the short erect racemes of orange-coloured drupes are present in quantity, raised well above the foliage, the plant is both pretty and conspicuous. The sand-sedge (Carex fumila), Scirpus cernuus, Epilobmm neiterioides, E. Billardierianum, Cotula mronopijolia, Rammculus acaulis, and Crantzia lineata are more or less common in both main Islands. Lobelia anceps, Myriophyllum Votschii, and Limosella aquatica are abundant in the northern and central botanical provinces. In places water lies during winter, but these are frequently quite dry in summer, and have at times in western Wellington a surface temperature of 100° Fahr., and probably more, notwithsta)iding which certain moisture-lo^dng plants grow — e.g., Epilobium Billardierianum, E. nerterioides, Cotula coronopifolia, and Limosella aquatica — and remain quite healthy. It seems almost incredible that these plants, whose structure fits them for a wet environment, can tolerate such extremes ; but one must remember that the wet sand just below the surafce is at a very much lower temperature than the dry crust above, and that it never laecomes dry. Should the hollow continue moist — i.e., should there be no invasion of sand — the salt-marsh plant, Ljeptocarpus simplex, will appear and finally take complete possession, in many places acres occurring at a time, its stiff, erect, yellowish or reddish stems 2 ft. or more tall rendering it very con- spicuous. It is quite well known to the settlers under the term " yellow rush," and they set fire to it constantly to make way for more nutritious plants. Other salt-meadow plants also appear, especially the fleshy-leaved and creeping Selliera radicans, which has generally more romided and smaller leaves than the typical form. Tussocks of Scirpus nodosus are also common in many localities. On the dunes of north-western Auckland Leptocarpus in many places forms out of its rhizomes great trunks after the manner of Carex secta (the niggerhead). The rhizomes, sometimes 10 in. in length, are bunched together and vertical in position, but branch laterally, the branches when above ground curving towards the sand. Masses of Leptocarpus, but wanting trunks, growing closely and covering some acres, are a great feature of the Wellington dimes ; but I did not see anything of the same extent on those of Auckland. Schoenus nitens var. ooncinnus is very common in some of the hollows of Canterbury and Wellington. Elaeocharis neo-zelandica forms considerable patches, which catch a little sand, in many parts of the western Auckland dunes, as far sout^i , at any rate, as the Muri- wa.i Stream. It has a moderately stout and wiry rhizome, and erect dark-green stems 2 in. or so tall. As the sand-hollow becomes drier, and where Leptocarpus or other plants do not occupy all the space, there is sometimes, on the dunes of western Wellington especially, even in close proximity to the sea, quite a number of fair fodder plants, especially white clover (Trifolium repens), yellow suckling (T. duhium), some cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), Yorkshire fog (Holous lanatus), and meadow poa (Poa pratensis). The greater part of the introduced plants are, however, of little or no value — e.g., the melilot [Melilotus arvensis), marsh painted-cup {Bartsia viscosa), the toothed medic {Mendicago denticu- lata), the sorrel (Rumex Acetosella), the soft brome-grass {Bromus hordeaceus) , the harestail-grass (Lagurus ovatus), and the silver hair-grass (Aira caryophyllea). In a similar position, abutting right on the sea-shore some miles north of Ahipara, north-west Auckland, I noted Poa pratensis, Festiwa hrom.oides, Trifolium repens, and Trifolium dubimn — which, with various other introduced and indi- genous plants, made a close turf. In other cases where the stability of the sand-plain has been considerable there will be heath. (y.) Manuka Heath. Where the water-content is not too great, or perhaps rather where there is a certain amount of dry sand on the surface, there will be in many parts of the dune-areas a heath association, with the manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) as the dominant plant. In such a station there are frequently small dunes, arising from sand -invasion, aud the surface is quite irregular. In this case there is virtually little difierence between heath of this character and that of the higher hills. In Auckland many of the ordinary heath-plants will be present, especially Styphelia jasciculata, Leptospermum eriooides, L. Uneatum, Pomaderris phylicaefolia, Styphelia Fraseri, and Pimelea laevigata. Cassinia retorta will be plentiful, but never flattened to the ground like most of the above shrubs. There will probably be Phormium tenax and Arundo conspicua. Wetter sand-plains than the last described are common in western Welhngton, where the sand- plains are much more extensive than elsewhere in New Zealand — i.e., they are in proportion to the greater breadth of the dune-area. Such an association will contain a fairly large number of indigenous species, of which the following may be the most conspicuous : The manuka (Leptospermum scoparium), the cabbage-tree (Cordyline australis), the common libertia {Libertia ixioides), the New Zealand flax {Phormium tenax), Mariscus ustulatus, Hydrocotyle pterocarpa, Viola Cunninghamii, Eleocharis Cun- ninghamii. Ranunculus macropus, Potentilla anserina var. anserioides, Scirpus inundatus, Carex secta, Carex ternaria, Olearia Solandri, Mazus pumilio, and Coprosma propinqua. In Canterbury the heath will be almost pure Leptospermum scoparium., or there may be a good deal of wild-irishman (Discaria toiimatou). (See Photo No. 37.) I have no notes as to similar heath in Southland. In Stewart Island the hollows amongst the dunes are filled with a dense shrubby growth of Senecio rotundifolius. This shrubby sand-plain vegetation may arise either directly from bare ground occupied first by Gunnera arenaria, &c., followed by Leptocarpus simplex, or it may be the concluding stage of a series next to be mentioned, commencing with a shallow lake or pond and followed by a swamp. At any rate, no matter what its origin, when it becomes drier, through the incursions of cattle chiefly, it makes fair grazing-land, and allows a good many grasses and leguminous plants to enter the association. ('—18. 32 (rt.) Laics find SiifDiipf:. Il is hot iil\\-;i\-K cnsv t(i triici' tlic origin cif tlic lakes. Altliougli scjiin' siriall oucs nrisi' dii'cetly from ill.' san(l-])hiin. as already sIkjavi), the majdrify owe tlieir presence to bad drainage conditions, thiiiiiuli sti-eanis. &c., heijig choked by the sand. An interesting example is that shown in Photo No. (il. wlievi' on thi' slope oi Reef Point a gully with a considei'a})le stn'uni was first dammed up [oiniiiig a pond, ami this latter is now in process of obliteration from a dune-fall. The vegetation of swamps and lakes hardly concerns this report, except for the economic plants they may contain. Thus the swamps are often occupied bv a close grov\'th of Fhrnnmm tennx. In Au(-kland they will usually contain more or less of the valualjle fodder grass, harhnc (lusiralis, so much relished liy cattle. The lakes contain various aquatic plants — to give an example from Wellington, e.g., Polamogrton Chcfuiviiiiiiii. P. ochreatus, MyriopkyUum elatinoulcs. and ^1/. Intennrdium — and on the margin there may l)e a, zone of Sclrpus lacustris. Next, Typha anijustiloUa may invade the lake, eventually converting it into a. swamp, which, with decrease of water, is invaded by Phormium tenax. Finally such a swamp, as the vegetable matter accumulates, may be occupied gradually by manuka, and a manuka swamp or even heath result, such as described above. The vegetation of these lakes, swamps, and even maiuika heaths has been most briefly dealt with, since they are associations found commonly without the dunes, and, the la.st-named excepted, do not affect to any great extent the dune economics. (c.) Dry IloJJoirs. Where the hollows are dry they are sandy, and liable fo drift ; also, any sand falling on them remains unwetted. Hollows such as these are early occupied liy the sand-sedge (Carex pumila) (see Photo No. 39), which increases vegetatively at a great rate by means of its far-creeping, slender rhi- zome. The whole of a hollow is frequentlv so covered, the plant building miniature dunes if there is drifting sand. Nor is it confined to the dry sand alone, but occurs in plenty on the wetter ground. as mentioned before, where, if invaded by the sand, it increases rapidly, fixing the drift at the same Time. (Jarex pumila plays a very important part in dune economics in checking drifting sand, a part wliich I did not find recognized by any of the settlers, who do not appear to have anv special name for the plant. Where it is present in quantity in a hollow there is certainly no need, so far as the moving sand there is concerned, to plant marram-grass, such procedure being in many instances unwise ; for the sand-sedge, having fixed the drift, is soon reinforced by certain introduced plants, even white clover eventually appearing, whereas the marram has little value as a food, and may give rise to new dunes liable finalh'' to " wander," Dry hollows where there is coajse sand, as at Fortrose, Southland, conta.in an abundance of tlie low cushions or mats of Raoulia australis, usually a river-bed or scoria-desert plant. This is of no importance as a fodder plant, but is a rapid former of humus, and so of considerable economic value. The deep-rooting Geranium scsfsilifdnun is a. common Bouthland and also Stewart Island plant. [t,.] Rapid Drift on to Sand-plain. ^V'here there is a rapid increase of bloAvii sand Carex pumila will be buried, but generally the indigenous sand-grasses appear, and dune-building commences, the further progress of the hollow towards heath or meadow ceasing. Spini/ex hirsutus in some parts of the Wellington dunes builds up hmidreds of small hillocks side by side — a most curious sight. Scirpus jrondosus also plays its part, and Spini/ex may be altogether absent. The sand tussock-grass [Festuca littoralis) is also a plant of sandy hollows, constructing ephemeral dunes. Here, too, there will be ('alamagrostis BiUardieri and frequently Mariscus ustulatus (but not south of Nelson or Marlborough) and Scirpus nodosus. The sand-catching shrubs also occur under these circumstances — indeed, it depends upon the rapidity and volume of the drift whether sand-grasses or shrubs — i.e., heath eventually — are established. But if the drift continue unabated, the embryonic sand-grass dunes will rise higher and higher, and a new dune-chain come into being out of the wreck of those behind. If the drift is on to a heath — and this is very frequently the case — the shrubs, being at the best poorly equipped as sand-binders, will soon be buried ; but Phormium tenax, and especially\-f;-M)i(/r> conspicua. will make a brave fight and, rising up as they are buried, perhaps remain holding small dunes for months or even years. This is especially the case not in hollows particularlv, but on the shallow sands of the Auckland cliff-dunes, when these are set in motion by cattle, &c. " There many almost pure associations of toi'toe (Arundo conspicua) occupy fair-sized areas, (t/.) Stony Plain (sec Photo No. 40). In places not far from the sea, between the mouths of the Rivers Wanganui and Waiiffaehu, and to the south of the River Waitotara, the clifi has been weathered flat; and a plain results, covered' with sand-cut stones of various sizes, a small yellowish gravel, and coarse sand. The remains of the rock is still to be seen, shaped by the flying sand into tables, pyramids, or beehive-like forms, or flattened quite to the ground. Midway between the Wanganui and Wangaehu larger portions remain, showino- the ancient surface, and covered with shrubs and stunted trees, part of the original vegetation pro" bably before the weathering took place. Nothing can 1k' more desert-like than this "stony plain, especially where it extends for hundreds of acres east of the Rivei- Waitotara, from near the sea-cliffs to the dunes some half-mile or more distant inland. The vegetation reminds one more of the desert near Mount Ruapehu than of that of the dunes. Everywhere there are dotted about the shrubs Pimelea laevigata and Coprosma acerosa in about equal quantities, and both flattened to the ground. The Copnmna has long woody roots running parallel to the surfac. a. plant 7 in. by 5 m.. having a root more than .3 ft. long.; The" branches are in small wiry mats, with the thick linear leaves pressed close to the stem. In the lee of each plant is a tongue of sand (see Photo No. 41). The Pimelea is pale-green in colour, and contrasts with the yellow Coprrmna. Tlie plants are about a yard apart. Here and there are cushions of the silvery Banulia 33 C.-l^^. australis. Spinifex hirsutus forms lines in places, as does Scirpus jrondosus, but this is where the sand is finer. The small grass Zoysia pungens forms colonies here and there, its wiry rhizome spreading through the sand and gravel. Other plants present are tussocks of Festuca littoralis and small yellowish cushions of Sderanthus biflorus. A sHght breeze drives the sand along the ground, but in a gale much flies high into the air, striking one's face with stinging force. The vegetation of the old land-surface, as seen on the summit of table-like hills south of Wanganui, consists of the ngaio [Myoporum laetum), the mapau {Rapanea Urvillei), the shrubby corokia (Coroha Cntoneaster) , the akeake {Dodonaea visoosa). All are much wind-swept, and the Myoforuw. elsewhere generally a small round-headed tree, is almost prostrate. (iv.) Inland Dunes. (a.) Central Oiago. There is little plant-life on the rapidly drifting sands of Otago. As the sand advances over the tussock-clad plain it collects in great tongues on the lee side of the tussocks of Poa caespitosa or Festuca rubra var., as the case may be, and as the drift continues these tussocks grow upwards, much after the manner of marram-grass. This is the more remarkable as it is no hereditary adaptation on the part of the tussock -form, for that is " adapted " for a quite different end. The tussoch is, in fact, a potential sand-binder. Where the soil has all blown away, and an old river-bed once more brought to the surface, the ground is soon thickly studded with the cushions of Eaoulia lutescens, and as the sand blows away from their sides the cushion-form becomes more accentuated. Further wind-action cuts away the windward side of the cushions, and a few small grasses and stunted sorrel grows in their lee. (13.) Canterbury Plain. The low dunes near the Rivers Waimakariri and Rakaia are occupied by Phormium tennx, kowhai {Sophora microphylla) , toetoe (Arundo conspicua), Cassinia julvida, Discarin tomiiatou, Scirpus nodo.sus, and Poa caespitosa. (y.) Volcanic Plateau. A full account of the dunes of the volcanic plateau are given in my report on the Tongariro National Park (89, p. 25). Here it need only be pointed out how certain plants with potential sand- binding adaptations build dunes 6 ft. or more tall. The plants are various subalpine and alpine shrubs, which grow elsewhere for the most part under quite different circumstances. When nature has made these desert dunes stable, even the tree Nothofagus eliffortioides settles at times upon them, but of course merely as stuiited examples. (8.) Ancient Dunes of Stewart Island. These, again, are sufficiently dealt with in another of my reports (92, p. 26), so tliat a brief mention will suffice. Many parts are covered with a heath ecologically equivalent to that, not of dunes alto- gether, but rather of the boggy or wet heath of the Auckland gumfields. An interesting member of their vegetation is the tiny taxad Dacrydiwm laxifolium.. (f.) Ancient Dunes near the Bluff Harbour, Southland. Between these ancient dunes and the actual estuary there is a considerable extent of bog. The sand is covered with a steppe or semi-steppe vegetation. Tussocks of Danthonia Raoulii are abundant. There is some stunted bracken-fern {Pteridium esculentum), a heath-plant. The following plants, few of which are found on dunes proper, are common : Helichrysuni bellidioides, Blechnum penna marina (small creeping fern, generally subalpine), and Gaultheria perplexa. Certain heath -plants more or less common on dunes are also present — e.g., Gnaphalium filicaule, Dichondra repens, Pimelea laevigata, and Styphelia Fraseri. The instructive feature is, from the point of view of this report, that increase of humus-content, owing to climate and long stability of dune, permits a non-dune vegetation to flourish naturally. (B.) FL OR I STIC BOTANY. (n.) GENERAL REM.4FKS. It is not an easy task to decide as to what species should be cited as actually belonging to the dunes, since some occurring there are very rare indeed, and probably only temporary occiipants, while others are present only on the border-land of the dune-area and belojig perhaps to some adjacent association. According to my list the number of dune species is 147, of which 82 are endemic, -13 Australian, and 15 South American, leaving out the cosmopolitan element in the two latter cases. Fifty-one families and 104 genera are represented. The most important families are : Composiiae 20 species, Gramineae 16, Gyperaceas 12, Umbelliferae 7, Myrta^eae and Campanulaeeae 5, Orchidaccae, Onagraceae and Halorrhagaceae 4. With regard to the species, only about 50 are common dune-plants, of which 15 are confined, or nearly so, to the dune-area, the remaining 97 occurring only occasionally, or being more or less local in their distribution. Within the botanical region the distribution, according to the botanical provinces, is as follows: Kermadec 26, Northern 113, Central 124, Southern 118, Chatham 58, Subantarctic 16. But these figures refer to the distribution generally in the botanical provinces, and not to the dune species alone, of whose numbers the following is an approximation : Kermadec 5, Northern 100, Central 92, Southern 90, Chatham 19, Subantarctic 6. AVith regard to vertical distribution, 60 species do not ascend above 1,000 ft., of which about 42 may be considered true coastal plants, 22 alinve 2,000 ft., 26 above 3,000 ft., and 39 are alpine or subalpine and occur at 3,000 ft. and upwards. 5— C. 13. C— 13. 34 Z z; a Pi "A o OS H Pj O z s R z Z 5 2 „ P s: W a a:" 9 ^'^ , _: 3 Xi tJD Tl d -t-i s CJ ^ -i; N o >. o (L> c; eg II ;^ •D o — vj y^ s-^ s "* O c3 >< a botai nd. or b( ed w) P4 w P Si c S fi jd N) ^ y rr-( 3 fe C O a ^ H ll^^»-. — o N _ ' . Is : ■S ■■§ 3 "3 p. o 3 CO t; o :g o - II * . II .3 .a II O CO >! . .^11 ^Z > O " '•- r1 Oj O ^ ^ Z 9'S o « 3 ;_, N — ;:i. c C-1 o 5 8 z =! '■/) rj o ■^-' j:^ rt tr ^ '.-0 c 7:; — ' -^ C^ -^ a 3T3 c rri r- .3 ■43 ^ 7^0 -r. 2 <^ II t- +^ 3 ..- -*^ _^ .*^ O SfH 3 7^ S' g: 3 — ■~ 1 ■=' S5 < a S'S r" P S ^ O .3 a a .3 bn .t; <„ c! Tl H IJJ 'n a 3 -2 & ^ ; ; , — I aj O ^ — 3 E p 3 -^ , « is 3:-^ 3 60 §--3 -a ^ _o r- ^3 be . .;: .:: — .^ \^ ^ --^ E1.CC X'O a: X O 0-2 ?^^ . W Z Q z „ X X X r r X X Z Z .0 OQ Tja ."^ 3 ' ^ .. - S " fe , - MZ zz z w w zz :b 3" a ■ • ■ H^ ZZ 3 3 a < Q a a £'S =» ^^ ^ ' m cc 8-73 xg Long gra Purpl gra ^1 3 -2 o B 5 H 1> < rf -p H Ph At HO m S^ ga tf N 3 NS 3 gpS 3 w-S S oi w P4.S s 0^ .t>' ■>5 a::2 x---^ Qs fe; ^ ?^ ^ ^ 03 -S^Oi =^'i^ &i ►:;(§ k3« P.- M a m c •i-i .« -^ :s m ■; O !- u " ■on w ^^ s TO .^J "ij •^ X JS TO .^ '^ ^ SW M I.S K II X X x Z Z Z H m s a ^- ^ ^N -3 > "Z c> hif g 60 S 3 C^ (D c.^ a. ^2n 'X .^■ ?3 ^0 SJ ■-: ^ ^ aJ S ?s ^OOh^^ 85 C— 18. j3 bf c cS O l>^ r1 5. _D -d .S o t4 O o B y >■ ^ C! fe g bC o S-l o o O 3 a i o o 0^ -yj OT a:' ce t3 Ti b" =3 ^'':c? a Ti ^ C a = Oj si — I a •£ ^ " i5 ? -S . g .. c J=! -9 ^ -rj S f^ o CO ^ '« S s M 3 5 03 Ph H =1 g O T3 CO • ■ r s a i ^ "13 S ^ 3 ^ 3 ro -3 d '^ M ■B-D ^i( 5— — QiClr n 8 B a^ •s;^ fc' 1 » jd S!^ a .is s „ ■g « 'i'" =Q 00 'A ^ c« M ri cS «-S H 'i', — 1 ^ si < '.i. 1° ^ •^ P ^ J 3 X « £ 4 a ~ ~8 p. 8. c— i; 8(3 ■z o 0^5 '-C o ^ c ^ ■ "S -£ '^ S, o 2; z K X fl :S J a - o i -

::q < ^ &5 -S ^ ~ — ' *'< <) ^ a] 3^ s ^ ■^ s ^ < 1 C 1^ 5 ^ s M ij J ■? ^^ -0 w c ^ s _^ ^ ^ e '^ n y s > _:: -o 'o -^ 3 3 i 5 j3 j3 3 COO! X .2 3 3 3 c3 Tj ■^ -2 O O 3 j3 d3 o W H W H w d ri ^ ;3 n-! ^ -n H a rt ci -a! toOO 3^ B CO c 3 3 3 3 : :tz5 J3 f ) CB " CO .;z; C/j 00 .- r r 0^ a^zit^ ?; wt3 ja 02 ^ m - „ a ^A GO ,. SO . iz; .W < < j3 ^ 3 6 CO z tS Z J=^ ^"^ WW x _2 „ -jy ^' « 1 "* 00 ?'-H ,. „ °i; 2Z Z §s ^ -5 = is q-! 11 3 .-H -u T-, T* 3 Qh CCJ 4j N M M T3 O c t a t:3 53 J= ^^ xn m 3 OQ o _ce "3 a O S •-a .ai OS ja 3 cd o s ro o & ,2 < > t *i H c3 00 S ^ < Q > fc >-' hJ -S M a te. X a S Or= OS .• » MS s =0 sS o o A i^ M ■J I C— lo 38 p z ^ 5 5 -S -S -3 X ti " O X r >i ^ ^.HXJ ' ? 1 ~s -U ^ ^ O ■:i-l ^ o J ~ -S -a "> -e ^ ? "C -C 7^ 5 ^ -^ S O X z"^^ J - ?; Ill OJ o II * 1— 1 to Oh ^ 5 ?^ °o a z c eing a arrow nail "^t O :3 a te ' » a- o j2 a -X o c oj. ■73 X -M fe^^ "3 ;5 W Z Zl <: W &( O heath : se Heath ; sai ancient ti Heath ; sa apiUfjrv O r^ « r^ (N o z z z z z 5 o ^ pH ffi ffi a p! -S -^ S s ■c r-l ^ X X — X « - o « - C^J -c" ■, eg s o 02 X X X a I 3 HH ffi PH ff ^ * 5 e ffi 3h X X xZ "2 "? as ;ood zzzz SKiilK I I — 13 X g Z H 2 z w o X 1-3 a-o-S a- o ^K a -pa a a ■A d & X J i| i-H K < Of- - -5 ?=- 5 H H fe •.- E- >~ ffiO <: ^ c ^ « '^ -a ^ •■5 M Oh ■2 11 rt H^ ^ ^ O ;3 Ti -*^ e ce S f^ 4) 2; M c .2 =« _>i 3 c S'^ =6 "a ^ 3 2"^ O H > :zi 3 73 3 O ^ r- OJ Oj gi 3 3 p t: f» 3 3 <^ S S 3 3 >> 3 3 >-. f>> .SC 3 tS 13 3 3 § 3 **-< o o 3 OJ ^ S^ 3 -3 te ^ „ to hn J^ « c; .3 Ph Q, 5^ o £>,bo _r -T i fl ca irt * r-- a H P^ "i: W W M a a a m a; O WW a a ■3< ■?"-? -?" ID ^ o; WM W C3 & S: 3 O O ^ =3 =S — -a j3 ^ 3 ^ ?: ^-^ c ■^3 -d ^ ■^ 35 '^'^ s rxi OJCZ) fl^ 1^ w WW 3 <0 K J^ ft^dS O " . CJ - !B CO re fBCO re t» CB t/:> d d d dd X d d 00 d Q Wa .. 530 .^ .. ^ ^ »- ^ !^ f? w a^; ^ f5 ^z ?5 rf2 S5 a ft o -a g ■^ M ^ 3 rfj CO U Oi -■*; s 7: -r ^ ^ a '^' -t! '3 s 6 =iHO :^ a 3 "S ^ t; T3 -3 3 3 ■3 '0 3 3f5 oj H -T^ H -^ w H W WH w H < d 6 ^' OQ . ^-3 d WW ^ ^& S ■i^ 4^ . a O) X ^0 73 a rr; ■T3 H a +3 1 C3 > n hi ^ s- a> ^ a a t. 7: -r; ^ * t? .>>a 02 n Ji GOO VJ M ca ca 3 a a * ^ ^ -a g ^ o ca ,& -^ CD 6 a -^ a ca W o W ca ca . 3 H a ^ -t* -l^ 1^ . 2 § 1) H^ 3 8 ■ ^ ^ 5 35 35 W tf - is 03 -* So ^ 1 s« 1I ;^ 35 -^ ^ S p^ ^ i^ 5^ >-i --^ ^^ isi^ s 3 », ■« a. s- feqq =:; >s ■< la . — . >5 S "5 3° _D o Ch o 2 §1^ .. g I X. •? o3 C3 a s ." o s s a -kJ o O 03 z -^ Eh O < o H a o A H C3 I— ( hH K H H t: a S o o s ._o .o -a rf. _, S^ 5 3 c -t. 3 a br £d -n, H 'j; v ;:: ■9 ^ •^' =§ ft ft tt a s ^.) g o W ffi w W W ffl K M ffi M ^o 2 S 3^ -a rij -a "^ "2 "2 S 5 S y: t: X J5 -a o o « S !5 O ■A ^ X ^ o ?5 X .r J Q 3 '^ ^ W Z :Z1H W H O X d -3 5^ O , ^ X X d d P? ?^ « d o S H -11 N s o N Q 25 ce ft ;W S :§ ^ a < K w "^ <1 21 o o o o 5 t ^ < o g« <^ -« J ^:s i 1^ s ^ A M w r~ 3 H o ■^ H -- ^ -)^ o t-* C3 ^ ^ 2 " o :; M f-l a^ g| Oh' Ch o ~ o a -ti — O A P A -T^ '^ cs o u p, o o h-1 a. "S KJ S il C— 13. ■ fS 'H o -C J3 -q n , T3 S o 5^ .2 « £. S =5 o -t', 3 >r-S o o ■"' ^ y- s| -// '.§ OJ 3 5^ §s •5^ l^ g e S = -3 -^ V3 3 « ^ g-C '"' te ^' 3 5;; 53 At W ffi ill w 3-3-3 2 'n Tl 3 -il 3 -J, 3 ■/: ^ -s 3 Pi c; IB cS rri fTl fT^ ^ 'yj ~ C/J CO o I5 CO CO CO yj o O CO 5J o ■X" ^ W W S^ >^ 3 a o 3 73 ,3 -S '-a o .'.< o o VJ H > * SO^i X ;?; -4' — ;■ — h' ^ — h" X c^ ffi ^ jh ^ IIh Ph 3h ffl w ffi -3 — — ^ -C ci -c r X X X ' ^ 'A „ ■w' ^ o 'z '-^ Q ?1 ?^ X ?? w x:. f^ HWHWHaWoWM 3 3 1: 3 3 -o - * o g 2 -T -T »: -T "^'^' "r" 3 g 3 S S 3 ^ cis ii cfi rt c6 Cliathani ake j Common ■a; cS -3 j3 o : 3 O rf fo o '» g ID S 3 o -2 §1 4J !3 ;^ 1 ''° i- o X X Ph o o 5o "S Oh a s tn s E-, J >: H i' O o 5h ? •1-5 ^ ■1-4 tn cS O .a o * o -a X s ^ -^- S U1 d ■OD C— 18. 42 (..! r.lsT (IF .\ATri;.\LlZED PLANTS OF THF-; XEW ZFALAXD Dr\E-\REAS, EXC'LUDTXC TREES, SHr.riJS. AXl) (IHXA.MFXTAL TLAXTS (IF (;ARril':XS, I'l^ AXTATK IXS, ETC. ( ^l; \ IIIXKAE. I''!iii'iini .' |j. ((.-iiiiary-ura^s). Atitho.'-aiillnni' odori L. nnioloides H. B. & K. (praii-ii'-ijra.-is). Eiyniu-i nip.nariu-s L. (lym(^-X.\( E.\E. Eiiiiiex ohtii.^ijoliiis L. (fdnimdii ilnck). ;.H/r/,f-,- L. (firbllf-e (irniliiii L. (.V. s,\e. Liipiiiii.i iiriiornii Sims (tree-lupin). Ill e I'liriipiieus L. (gor.se). Cilli.^ns .scopariu.i Link, (broom). iinidirnni Lam. (Cape broom). Medinigo liipidinn L. (black mcdick). iiiiindiitri Willd. (sjiottctl nii-dick). Mflilolii--' Prdilpifirri'inifi Havne and Willd. (.1/. unviissi W'allr.), (lield melilot). 'I'l-ijnliiiiii iirrf-ii-ir L. (hare •foot-elci\'cr). snihriiiii L. (rough clover). ijloiiiei-iitHiii L. (clustered clover). repirnis L. (\\'hite clover). re-'tupiiiiduiii L. (reversed clover). proriiiiiheni L. (hop-trefoil). diihiiiiii Sibtli. (yellow suckling). I'iriii xiitiiYi L. (cijmmon vetch). hii-.^uta S. F. Grav (common tare). (iER.iNI-Sf E.4E. Geriiniinii niolle L. (soft cranesbill). Ki'odiinii riciitiiriiiiii L'Herit. (stork's bill). niosrhittmii Ij'Heiit (musky utork's liill). LlN'-\CE.\E. Liiiiiiii iiiaii/iiiidp A. Cunn. M.lLV.lf'E.lE. Lfiviitirn luhorcfi L. (tree-mallow). Mnlrn rotundifoliri L. (dwarf mallow). imfvifiorii L. rei'tiriUiitii h. Modiolii iiiidti/idii Moench. LYTHP..iCE.\E. Lijtliniiii liiji-^opijoliii L. (hyssoji loosestrife). (IX.\OR.\( E.^E. UfiioOiPrii odoii'itii ']iV-i\. (e\'cning primrose). (lE.KTIAX.iCEAE. Centdariiiin iiiidjeUiiliiin Cilib. (ICrylliraea cfntain iinii), (ccntatuy). 15ilRE.\fiIX.\0E,\E. Myosodii cacsjiiioi^a Sehultz. \'EI!BEX.ltE.\E. Vnrhniii oljiriiiidix L. (\ervain). LabhT-\e. Meiilhn Pidtyiinii 1. (|.cnji> royal). Pniiiethi i-iilgari-- L. (self-heal). Mriniimbiiim vid'inri L. (horchotntd). SiiLAXAC E.iK. So]iitiiiiii .sodniiioi-iiiii L. (Dead-sea apple). ScUliPHULAFaXACEAE. \' iibii-ini III Tluipmis L. (mullein). T (loiiirii iiifen-iis 1.. (wall sj.eedwell). Briil.. ^-^"r-^'^tc^ .■/P'™ \ ^-.^W X > 1,.$^:^ „,X ^i^'-'.. € ^sf.-./*W<«:.V-,;i)i-=-*,< -■■ -^.. •Aij^ " v.%^ "te.i^ate'i • No. -15. Coarse Sanh hkmainiki:. hie fine ita\ini: been blown away. Alexandra Uunes [I'/iutu L. Corkaijiii:- Xo. -lij. Source of the Cromwell Sand. Dunes below Terrace of River Clutha. [J'huto L. Cockatjnt. 43 C— 13. I'AKT II.-TIJI'! liKCLAMATll)^' OF THE JH'NES, I. INTRODUCTION. (a.) GENER.VL. As Koeii from the preceding part of this report, the dunes of New Zealand a,r.> no Ioniser m their virgiu condition. Large areas which were firmly fixed by natuie when the early settlei-s arriv(xl are now ni a state of great instability, and not only useless in themselves but daily encroach upon. a)]d so render valueless, the neighbouring fertile ground (see Photo No. 42). the checking of such encroachment is obviously the first aim of dune-reclamation in this country. But the amelioration of the sand-areas goes much further than this, and the final (joul should he their improveiiienl as a irhole ihrouf/h their occupaUon by a continuous plant coverimj that shall he of commercial value. The methods in vogue for the artificial fixation of dunes are based altogether upon those whiclj nature herself uses. Thus a clear grasp must be gained of the following fundamental principle's which clearly follow from the geological and botanical data of Part I : — 1. The motion of the surface under the influence of frequent wind is the essential factor which has to be met in dune-cultivation. 2. No motion of the sand can occur if the surface be altogether covered i.i)' either a. living or a dead covering. 3. When the surface of the sand is wet no movement is possible. 4. On drifting sand, only sarjd-binding plants can become permanently cstaljlished. •5. A sand-binding plant is a perennial which has the power of growing abo\-e the sand as it is buried, and putting forth new roots from the rising stem. 6. Where there is no drift a close covering of almost any plants will hold the surface, but those of long life, such as trees, are the most eflicacious. 7. Non-sand-binding plants such as tree-lupin and forest-trees will Ijc buried by a drift, and a moving naked dune will result. It follows then that before trees be planted the drift should be stopped. 8. Two contiguous hills will lead to the presence of a wind-channel, in which the air is com- pressed and has special erosive power. 9. Any prominence rising above the general level of the surface is liable to damage by the wind. 10. Building of isolated mounds by th(" uneven planting of sand-binding plants niav finally lead to their destruction in accordance with principles 8 and 9. 11. Dunes are always moist at a few inches below the surface, so there is littk' fear of death from drought by plants tolerant of dune conditions once they are established. 12. Plants which form an abundance of humus are of special value, since thev not onlv increase the cohesion of the sand-grains l)ut supply nutritive matter and a water- holding mulch. 13. Burning, grazing of animals, and indeed anything that can damage the plant covering or disturb the surface may lead to the movement of the sand. 14. Every blade of grass, unevenness of the surface, or obstacle of any kind helps to break the force of the wind. 15. Average sand-dunes without any manure whatsoever will support a remarkable number of species.* The experience of considerably more than a hundred years in Europe, and the more recent attempts to cope with drifting sand (United States, Cape Colony, Australasia), have proved beyond a doubt that the most efficacious of sand-binding plants is marram-grass (Ammophila arenaria), a native of Europe, North Africa, and North America, and that when it is planted correcth- drifting sand, even where the winds are exceptionally violent, can be fixed. There is therefore no need for the experimental planting of other sand-binders in the first instance, except under exceptional circum- stances. Gerhardt in his most exhaustive treatise goes into the various methods of planting marram- grass at great length and with much detail. Although I have drawn upon his work freely. I have refrained from quoting his methods at length, since many details and excessive minutiae would deter those for whom this report is intended from commencing the work of sand-planting, as being too technical and difficult. 8ome of the methods herein advocated may seem crude to the European planter, but, so far as I can judge, they have been efficacious in New Zealand, and possess the merit of simplicity and comparative cheapness. Notwithstanding that certain methods of dune-reclamation are recommended by me, it must not be concluded that success depends upon any hard-and-fast rules. To be sure, the general principles detailed above must not be violated, but the local climate of any particular locality, a knowledge of the intensity of the wind and its average direction, the degree of coarseness of the sand, the selection of material for sand-fences, and so on — all these matters will be the concern of the local " sand-planter," while his experience and sound judgment will have an important bearing upon his success. * 111 certain iiustances there are layei's of nioic fertile .soil within the dunes : in other cases the clune^ ii^eilie elay, loam, rock, &c. Thus a plant growing apparently in pure sancl may have its ultimate vootlels in .i mucli more nourishing soil. C — 13. 44 h'uilhrr. iliriv :i\r pl.iirs wliric plaiiliii^ i,s iiiurli casio]' tliHii ill otlu'is, aiiil succes.s on these uveas iiiiisi iKit lie talveii as measiiivs of wliat are suitable elsewhere. For instance, although liiiflalo-gras.s (Stciiiihijilinnii (/liiliritiii) is used with great beuetit on the dunes uear Tewaharoa, and the so-called lee-plant (Mcscrnhnanthi-'iiiuiii cihih) grows on the foredune near Ahipara, it is certain that both these plants would be useless in most parts of the dunes of western Wellington, eastern Canterbury, or the north Waikato Head. Even the great success of the tree-lupin at New Brighton, (,'anterburv, and at (Jcean Beach. Dunedin. does not sanction that sliruli for universal use. The New Zealand climate allows a verv much wider choice of plants than do the dunes of Europe generally or of eastern North Aiueiiea. The tree-lupin (Lupinus arhoreus) is a case in point. It can be grown with the greatest ease on pure sand in virtually any part of New Zealand. It forms dense thickets, grows readilv from seed, and allows no sand to move where it is estaldished, thus seeming an ideal sand-plant. And in consequence it is planted most extensively" and bracketed along with marram-gra.ss as a plant par cxceUrnce for sand-planting. This opinion, though true enough in certain cases, is equallv fal8(> in others. It therefore seenrs well, before dealing specifically with methods of sand-planting, to compare the relative values of marram-grass and tree-lupin, and to explain the correct application of each. (h.) .MARRAM-GRASS AND TREE-LUPIN AS PLANTS FOR DUNE-FIXING. (i.) Maeeam-geass. Marram-ijriiss owes its iffficiency to its liring a true sand-hindiny plant. It possesses a far-creeping and branching, stout, rather rigid, underground stem which gives ofi, so closely together that tussocks are formed, erect leaf-bearing branches. It also. Init somewhat irregularly, puts out other under- ground stems of great length, which, extending horizontally, can build colonies of plants at a consider- able distance from the parent tussock. The leaves are of a greyish-green colour tinged with blue. Their texture is thick and somewhat hard. The blade is rolled into a narrow isipe, so that the ujjper surface is quite hidden ; but on moist cloudy days it can unroll and become more or less flat.* The under-surface is turned outwards, and is alone exjjosed to the wind and blowing sand. There is a long leaf-sheath which protects the young bud. The tussocks are about 3 ft. tall, but may be much smaller. As the shoots become buried by the drifting sand new roots are put down from the nodes, and the plant grows upwards above the sand, provided the drift is not too severe and prolonged. If this should happen, the leaves may be altogether buried, in which case the plant will probably die. But this is the exception rather than the rule. The grass is thoroughly attuned to the drifting sand, without which it cannot exist, and if the sand-suppl)' fails altogether it will timi yeUow. and finally succumb. When planted at a suitable distance the grass-bunches become sufficiently close in a year's time to •s'irtually stop all surface-movement, and at the same time they will arrest the fl-^Tiig sand, and the ground-surface will be gradually raised. There are many other foreign sand-binding grasses or grass-hke plants besides marram — e.g., the lyme-grass (Elymus arenarius). the Baltic marram (Ammophih baltica). the sand-sedge (Carex arenaria), the Chilian Distichlis thakissica, the North American Agropyron da^ytachyuiii. Frrrther, there are the indigenous sand-binders cited in Part 1. Elymus arenarius is the only one of the above which has been introduced into New Zealand, but although an admirable plant in manv ways, it is hardlv iieeded where marram is available. (li.) Teee-lupin (see Photo No. 67). Tree-lupm (Lupinus arhoreus), a native of California, where it grows on the duiies of the Pacific coast, is not a sand-binder at all. It consequently cannot exist where exposed to moving sand (see Photo No. 43). and is therefore worthless as a plant for such circumstances. When this fact is generally appre- ciated in Xew Zealand much money, time, and annoyance will be .saved for the sand-planter. The tiee- lupin IS a much-branched shrub of dense growth 8 ft. tall. The older branches are stout and brittle, the youngest slender, straight, flexible, juicy, and httle-branched. The bark is purplish and smooth on branches of mediirm age, but finally becomes furrowed, on young branches it is puiple on the upper and green on the under part. The leaves are rather distant, and are frequently borne on very short lateral stems. They have long, slender, flexible stalks. The blade is digitatelv divided into seven or eight hnear-lanceolate leaflets, which are slightly glaucous-green in colour, and pubescent on the under-surface. The sides of the leaflets are frquently more or less folded together. It is by no means long-hved. When a number of these shrubs are growing closely side by side they form a most efficacious covering to the sand (see Photo No. 70), and, moreover", their dead twigs and leaves "ive rise to a considerable amount of humus. Further, the nodules on their roots contain bacteria which add nitrogen to the soil. Thus far tree-lupm is much better than marram-grass as a sand-fixer, and plays exactly the same ndf as a covering of trees, which ls the ideal sand-holder. But when a bodv of sand advances, or a rapid drift attacks the lupiii thicket, the sand first of all piles up against and among the marginal plants which arrest its progTess, and, rising higher and higher, by deuTees buries them, the ultimate branchlets alone jutting out of the sand. Were these able to root m the moist sand the plant would have a fresh existence, and, rising with the drift, would check the advance • but they can do nothing of the kind. If the di'ift continues, the sand advancing will, in time, submerge the whole plantation, pouring over its lee as a naked and wandering dune. th( *Ttxis statemeut, which I take from Abromeit (18, p. 207) is questioned by F. W. Oliver, who has only noted rolhng ot the leaf after it is plucked (12tiA, p. 29ti). ~ " ^ 45 C— 13. Where there is no dnjl, as when there is ii well.-fi./'r.il iiiarram-nrea to the iiuHilivard. iMthimj edit In- better than tre.eA.wpiii, as a sand-coverinij. Tim ruse with whu-\i it can l)c vaiscd from si;cd is ;i, must valuable property; and, iji addition, tlio rapidity of growth of tlir seedlijigs n-ndcis it, in couutvii's where it is ha.rdy, one of the most vahuible instruments iji the hands oi the sa.nd-plauti'r. At Of-i'aii J>ea(-h, Dunediu, the sand faeiug the sa,ud-supply — i.e., the shore — lias been well fixed in the first place l>y nia.rra.m-grass ; and liehind this protection the lupin thrives amazingly, fovniing, to(j. a perfcel covering to the sand, until sueli time as it shall be replaced l)y forest (see Photo No. fi). At New Brighton, Canterbury, tree-lupin is not an unmixed blessing. In some places man)' a.cres are well fixed through its aid ; in others it is rapidly being transformed into moving dunes (see Photo No. 67). It was planted some years ago, before the establishment of the artificial foredune, in the front garden of a house facing the beach; and, m consequence, a moving sandhill was formed, which came so close to the windows that the house had to be raised on piles a considi-rahle number of feet. In some parts of New Zealand, especially in th(' neigh liourhood of the River Rangitiliei, the farmers possessing sandy land look aska.n(x- at. tree-lupin, and will not use it for their dunes, fearing that it will seize on their sandy well-grassed hollows. It undoubtedly will spread and occupy sucli land if it is allowed in the first instance to increase ; but there is no need to permit it to gain a foothold, and, even if it does so, it is easily cut doivn, and there is no danger of its nr/ain growing from the stump. It certainly seems t(j me that a phmt which can do the Ijest of work and be established much more cheaply than any other plant, should not be discarded without some better reason for so doing. II. THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE DUNE-ARBA8. Without an intimate acquaintauce (.'xtending over many years with any special dune-area, let a.loiie the whole sand region of New Zealand, it would be impossible to make a statement of anv moment regarding its present condition as compared with that of long ago, or as to whether the ground as a whole is more or less stable than formerly. ft is certain, however, that in the days of early settlement the gr("ater part of the wandering dunes a.nd the drifting sands as they now exist were wanting, and that in their place were hills clothed with a carpet of grass, with scrub, with ^vaviiig toetoe, stately Hax and cabbage-ti-ees. while the hollows contained food for stock in abundance. But even in those early days drifting sand was not unknown, as evidenced by the account of the dunes in the neighbourhood of Wanganm pubhshed ui I8i9 by Lieutenant C. H. Smith and Lieutenant C. Hutchinson, who speak of the sand blowing in their faces, and of the numerous sandhills along the coast, which were very deep and " being drifted by the heavy gales." ("Notes on New Zealand," No. 6, p. 18 ; 1850.) But, although comparative .statements are of little moment, something can be said as to the present conditions of the dunes. It will be remembered that the various areas difEer considerably in their topography, the extreme cases being those with a perennial supply of sand from the shore and those on the summits of chf!s, which receive httle or nothing from the above source at the present time. Consideiing the former first, the foredune, although sometimes in an admirable state of preservation (see Photo No. 13), is very frequently indeed much damaged, in certain cases being altogether absent for considerable distances, as to the south of Reef Point, north-western Auckland (see Photo No. 21). Behind the foredune comes the area I have called the " dune-complex," which consists of chains of hills, isolated hills, and sand-hollows of various kinds. This area, taking the dunes of New Zealand as a whole, is probably changing very little. Of course, it is far from stable ; hills are being eroded and blown away ; bare masses of sand are slowly moving forward ; sand-hollows are being filled up. But with the destruction goes on probably an almost equivalent construction ; nor is there, generally speaking, any marked advance of this area inland. Between the dune-complex and the most ancient and usually|highest dunes, where the dune-area reaches its maximum, as in western Wellington, lie extensive sand-plains, the site of farms. These, of course, are being encroached upon to ,some extent, and lu some cases to a dangerous degree. As for the ancient chains of dunes which abut in many cases upon first-class farm-lands — and the same applies to the chfi-dunes — they were originally admirably fixed by nature. At the present time many are still perfectly stable, and afford excellent pasturage for sheep. Others, again, have been trans- formed iut(j typical wandering dunes with a long, flat, windward slope, and a great sandiall on the lee 100 ft. to 200 ft. or more in depth (see Photo No. 14). They advance slowly but surely, and bury all before them — fertile meadow-lands, cornfields, plantations, flax swamps ; also, their lower portions may be rapidly blown over the lands adjacent as a saiid-drift, burying and killing the grass covering. The above account has also its bright side. Dunes, which some time ago must have been formid- able enouo-h, are in process of fixation on their lee slopes by plants which have come naturally. Toetoe- grass (Arundo conspicua) is doing admirable work m this regard, particularly on many of the dunes of western Auckland. Nor with regard to dune-amehoration must it be forgotten that the settlers themselves have in many instances done a. good deal through planting-methods ; liut this is dealt with below. The inland dunes of the Clutha valley, notwithstanding the work which has been expended on them, are still more or less troublesome. Those of Cromwell actually invaded the town, and the sand had to be carted away at great expense. The drift at the approach to the Baiinoekburn Bridge is very troublesome, the deep cuttmg which leads to the bridge being constantly choked by fine sand, the removal of which is a costly matter. At present, with the exception of the Alexandra dunes, the sand- supply from the River Clutha seems to have much diminished, and m addition vast quantities of fine sand "have been blown away on to the distant hills, &c., leaving chiefly in many places only the very coarse sand (see Photo No. 45). One drift at Tarras is altogether gone, and the present one seems ('.— IS. 46 tci 111' Iiisiiil: its (piuMT. uhilr llic chiln's |)ruJH'r arc riiiiliiii'd tci tlir lee slopr cif ci'l-laili li'rnirC'S. ti.i tllC snuivi' (if liic saml at Sandy Point (see Pliutu No. 63). and to the vicinity of the old accomiiiod;ition- hoiisc. Nil .sand is said tci cotiic from Sandv Point at the jiiesent time, and the presence of certain ]>lants. cs].cci.-illv iif Ejiilnliiiim nirliiiiiirdnlini . ,stron,i;h,- sup]i<)it that statement. At Alexandra the dunes ate well dex'elojied and inoiv active than elsewhere in the district. Rather than as moving' dimes, it is as flviim sand and .is rapid drift that tlic Central (Jta,i;o sand is most troublesome. Roads arc liuried. crops are daina,ued, rich soil is cut into and then Mnwn away, and houses are made almost iinmhaliitahle when the sand-storm rages. S(j far as dune-reclamation in New Zealand goes, a good deal has Ijeen done here and there, but ilic patches are gcneridlv isolated, while vast stretches exist where nothing has been atti'mptcd as yet. in Taranaki nianv cliff-cbines whii h drifted some vears ago ha\-e-been stopped. Here, according to Mr. James Mackenzie, the sand-drifts liave passed througli their nost dangerous state, and, with line (ir twii I'xceptinns. have been nvercnme bv the regulai' planting of mai'ram-grass. In wi'stern A\'idliiigton the younger dune-complex is. in nearly all cases, altogetlier unplanted. Planting has been carried out im the pri\'ate lands tn llie lee of the abovi' dune-complex, and in smue instances with marked success, esjiecialh' in the case of Mr. Mclveh'ii.'. who has planted smne hundreds of acres (see Photo No. 62). . Here and elsewhere where tree-lupin has been u.sed it has been planted without a true knowledge of its eflect. There has been some planting on the Auckland dunes as far as \\ hangape Harboui . but it is much scattered ; further north all is in the wild state. The South Island dunes, geiierallv speaking, are ct less moment tluin those of the North island. Marram-grass has been planted in maiiv localities, but only a few examples can fie cited here. At New Brighton, where the effect of the east wind is much felt, a long fnredune has been established by the Town Council on the shore in front id the town. Tree-lupin has also been used with good results ni many ])laces. and pirofiafilv some hundreds of acres are thus cuvered. In some places it is. however, m process of burial. At Ocean Beach. Duncdin. there is to li<> seen tlie most comjjletc and suceessfu! example of dune-jjlaiiting in New Zealand. Marram and tree-lupin combined have been used, together with a small foredune of marram-grass (see Photo. No. 47). Thi' w( rk here does not nearly approach in difhculty many other places on the New Zealand coast, but tliis does not detract from the excellent manner in which it has been carried out bv the Dnmain Board. The InvercargiU Town Council has done some marram-planting on the reservi: near the In ad nf the New River. This, unfortunately. I was only able to see from a distance. A little marram and tr'.'e-lupiii have been planted in Central Otago — at Alexandra. Cromwell, and Tarras. At Cixmiwell the common tussock of the neighbourhood has been used, and grows remarkaltlv well, as it al.?o does natuialh" at Alexandra, but it would not tolerate a strong drift. A little marram has been planted nea.r tlie road between \\aicuru and Lake Taupo, where it passes over the Rangipo desert. Here the grass grows well in the pumice and ash. far bom the sea. As for tree-planting, nothing has been done on the vounger dune-complex. There is an extensive plantation at New Brighton. Canterf)ury. consisting of a good many kinds of trees. There has also been much private plaiitmg. chiefly of Piniis insu/nis. on the more landward dunes. Here comes mv former experiment-garden, where a good many different species of trees and shrubs not used elsewhere in dune-planting are growing vigorously (see Photo No. -t8). Trees are now being planted on the Duuedin dunes by the City (.'ouncil under the directidii of Mr. D. Tannoch. and there is everv chance of great success. It is hoped ultimately tn have a, forest facing the beach fcir its entire length. Earlier planting by the Dunedin Reserves Improvement Sciciety showed the capafiilitics of these dunes for afforestation. In the Nm-th Island there has been very little tree-i)laiiting on the dunes, and that mostlv bv private individuals. Near Foxtoii especially there are some fine plantations of Pinus ijisignis. Ceiierally speaking, there is not much to be learnt from the planting of New Zealand dunes. A great deal lias been carried on in easy places. Other phintings are being blow-n awav or buried. Some in diflicidt places appear to he successful, but they are mostly of no great age. and time alone will certify as to their efficacy. iSo far as tlie planiing of tree-lupin is concerned, it has usually been (juite futile, not because it did not grow, but because the planter did not know its correct application. HI. METHODS OF RECLAMATION. {'(.) GENERAL. A great proportion of the dune-areas as they at present exist are. in the first place, a constant menace to the surrounding lands, and. in the second, are themsehes valueless. Reclamation-niethods seek to change this state of affairs, and to render them both harmless and profitable. This niav be brought about by clothing them with a conliiituni.s plant covering, and the one which is most permanent and will yield the best income is undoubtedly forest. But in manv places it is absolutelv impossible to establish trees in the first uistance. and in other places it would be. if not impossible a work of the greatest difficulty, and altogether t(.io costly to entertain. Other methods miust then fiequently precede aft'orestation. Further, as already pointed out. there are manv acres of fertile laud forming broad oases in the sandy wastes where there are valuable farms, and the protection of these IS imperative. In Europe generally, whence come our methods of dune-reclamation, the protec- tion of the coast-line and the treatment of the adjacent dmie-area is the first need, just as it was at Ocean Beach, Duuedin ; and European methods especially refer to such work. ' But in New Zea'land the actual coast-line usua.lly matters little at present. Thr criiical porhnns ni ih- dune-nrrns are where the sand and jarm-huids meet., and those hollows in the dune-complex which are now uTassed but liable C— 18. v '^•. 4. * No 47 AnTiriciAL Foredune, Oi'ean Beaoh, Dtikedin. [Ph<,fn L. Cnrlnijiu:. No. 48. Various Species of Australian Acacia. Experiment Garden of Author in March. UiO.3. {l'ho1„ A Mrlntijrf. To fm-f poijf J/f>.] 47 C— 13. # at any moment to a sand-invasion. Methods for stopping driftinf/ sand as qiiicHi/ as passible are then the first requisite. Next come the barren areas, much of them Crown land. In oiditr to (ope \\ith these, operations on a much Larger scale are demanded, so great indeed that il is tiri/anfl the power aj private individuals to deal ivith the question, and becomes one for the State. Needless to sa\', if tliese areas are reclaimed the dangei' of sand-invasion would be enormously lessened, so that the woi'k is one of no small value, even though the reclaimed areas should not be made specially reproductive. It will be seen further on that irregular planting of marram-grass, &.c., is considered worthless from the theoretical standpoint, since it leads to the formation of mounds followed by erosion, by wind- channels and by ultimate destruction of the grass, and a revival of drifting sand. In point of fact, it seems to me that such planting is better than nothing. Shrub and grass dujies, as they now exist, arose from irregular planting by nature ; and although a pi-imitive dune-area was not exactly stable, it was sufficiently quiescent to liave allowed the formation of hollows full of vegetation, and those soil-covered and well-grassed hills which attracted the farmer and, through his operations, have reverted to their primitive condition. The chief objection to irregular and ill-conducted planting is ihal its results are but transitory. It is, in fact, money thrown away, when the same expenditure could prod iice permanent results which would encourage the planter and others to continue their operations. (tr) THE PLANTING OF MARRAM-dRASS. (i.) Time of Planting. Marram-grass planting must be carried on during autumn, winter, and early spring. Local conditions must determine the actual date of commwicing, and this will be regulated, too, bv the wetness or dryness of the particular year. It is evident that some seasons will be much more favourable than others, as so much depends upon the frequency of violent winds. (ii.) Preparing the Plants. If the planter has already the grass growing on his property, the supply for pilanting can be taken without damage from the most luxuriantly growing clumps. It can be easily pulled up by hand from the clumps, or taken up with a spade or mattock. Should there be no marram on the property, it should be procured from the nearest source. It is now grown more or less extensively on nearly all the New Zealand dimes, excepting those of the far north of Auckland, and can usually be easily pro- cured. But it is best when collected near at hand, for it must be as full of vigour as possible when planted. Therefore it is well to plant preliminary patches on any piece of sand a year or two before extensive operations are undertaken. Also, by this means the expense of carting the grass for any considerable distance will be avoided. After the grass is taken from the gromid it should be pulled into piieces suitable for planting, or the pieces may be pulled directly from the growing bunch. Each plant must consist of a piece of th(^ stem with the leaves attached, and the stem must have at its base one or, preferably, two nodes (see Photo No. 49). Without these latter there can be no growth, since from these the roots arise. Young plnnts should be selected; those two years of age are the best. The preparation for planting should be done on the spot, so as to combat the danger of the plants becoming dry, for the roots are extremely sensitive to the drying effect of wind and sun. The individual plants must be tied with a piece of flax {Phormium tenax) into bundles, each bundle being of such a size as to conveniently go under the arm. No bundle must be left lying upon the surface, hut all must be heeled into the moist sand near the scene of operations. Before planting, many New Zealand planters by means of a sharp spade cut off the leaves, reducing the plants to about 1| ft. in length. The object of this is to protect the plant from being blown about by the wind before it is rooted. Transpiration is also greatly reduced during a critical period for the plant. Also, the reduced weight of the grass-bundles makes carti)rg somewhat cheaper, as Mr. Dalrymple has explained in a valuable letter he wrote, at my request, regarding his methods of planting." This procedure is contrary to European or American practice, but I have certainly seen it followed by most excellent results. (iii.) Methods of Planting. («.) Spade Planting. Planting in New Zealand is carried out by means of .spade, long-handled shovel, or plough. In any case two or more people are needed to best carry out the work, though one can do so, but much more slowly. With regard to spade planting, the procedure is as follows ; One man uses the spade, and makes a hole by thrusting the blade into the ground, and working the handle backwards and forwards until a V-shaped hole is made. The other worker (a boy may be employed), who carries the bundle of plants, inserts about six in the hole— but the actual number does not much matter— and flattens out the bunch. The first man inserts the spade in the ground just behind the hole, and pushes the sand tightly against the grass, gives a press with his foot (or the foot alone may be used for closing the hole), and the exceedingly simple operation is concluded. Sand for this method must be suffi- ciently moist, or the sides of the hole may fall in. (/?.) Long-handled Shovel Planting. The long-handled shovel method as practised at New Brighton will suit any class of sand. There are again two workers. The one with the shovel takes out a shovelful of sand for the first hole. The planter^ places in position the small bundle of plants. The iirst man then digs a second hole, and fills the first hole with the sand from his shovel, and so on, the sand fi'om one hole being used to fill the preceding. In each case the second worker presses the iu='W ground tightly with his foot, C — 18. 48 (y.) Plough Phntinrj (see Photos No-,. -58 and 66). Thr plimuli iiicrli(.il call oiil^- lie u.sed wliere there is siiffiiicnt room aiul ihr slope not too aliTupt. ilost of Mr. HeiTold's e.xei'lleiit plaiitijig lias liei'ii done m tliis manner, and eertainly no fault can be found with his results. I caniiot do lietter thi^n di'serilje Jlr. Hi'rrold's procedure in liis (;«-ii words : — '■ The method of preparing plants is to pull out sufficient to make a bundle that can he comfortabl}' carried under one arm. Lav all the roots eveidv one way. then with a sharp spade the tops are cut of! at a distance of from f2 in. to f5 in. from the top of the roots. Tlie bundle is then tii'd up with ff/i.x and placed in the sand, until the number of bundles to do, i-oughly, a weefi's work at planting are M'cared. Planting with the plougfi is done by the ordinary plough maldjig furrows ] yard or 2 yards, (IS required, apart. The planters then come along, and, with tlie buiidle of grass under rjne arm, pull out plants with tlie fliseiigaged hand and djop tliem into the furrow a yard apart, at the same time pusfung some sand over tlie roots with one foot. Usually within a week the wind completes the work /if filling in the fun'ows. The depth of the furrow I generally try to make is not less than Bin., and. AH the plant is alwavs lying down to a certain extent, as the sides of tlie furrow slope, about 6 in. to Sin. would be left above ground. I find it better to lie on the deep side with planting. In windy «\'eather I generally pull plants, and in wet weather plant them." The chief objection to the plough method, as pointed out to me by Mr. K. W. Dalrymple, is that the grass is planted obliquely, and so is in greater danger of burial and destruction by an excessive drift. ObUque planting was at one time advocated amongst European methods, in the expectation that more roots would be rapidly developed than by vertical planting ; but this is said not to be the case, and tte plan is now rarely adopted. The chief objection that I see in the plough method is that the loose covering of sand is liable to blow away and leave the plants bare, with consequently an excessive percentage of failures. Spade planting, on tlie contrary, leads to the plants being placed as firmly as possible in the sand. All things con,sidered, then, in very windy piositions spade planting fir dibbling, described lower dfiwn, is to be preferred to any other method. (o.) German Methods of Planting. The Germans, who have reduced marram - grass planting to almost mathematical accuracy, distinguish between " hunch planting " and " /me planting." Bunch planting is divided into '" round hunch " and " flat hunch " planting, according as the plants are inserted bunched uji together in a round hole made with a special dibble, or a V-shaped hole made also ^-itli a special spade. The number of plants used per hole varies in different parts of their dunes from three to ten plants, and the holes vary in distance from about 1 ft. to 1 ft. 7 in. The dibble employed for round-bunch planting is about 3 ft. long, 31- in. in diameter, shod with iron for a distance of 2J ft., has a rounded apex, and is furnished with a cross-handle about If ft. long. The holes for planting are f4ft. deep. Line planting is tlius described by Gerhardt : " By means of moving the spade not oulv backwards and forwards, but also to some extent right and left, the holes will become broader than the spade itself. A spade 16 cm. (6-4 in.) broad makes a hole about 20 cm. (Sin.) broad. On an averag<' six plants can be apportioned to this breadth. These plants will then stand about 5 cm. (2 in.) from one another. If a space of about 10 cm. (-tin.) is left bi4ween each hole — i.e.. a distance (jf about 30 cm. (12 in.) from the centre of one hole to that of another — the .stems and leaves of the plants will so spread out that a continuous line is formed. Tin' rows are planted at right alleles to the prevailine wind, against which they of!er a gTeater resistance than do plants in holes separated from one another." It would Ije quite easy to plant in lines by the New Zealand plough method (see Photo No. 55). A still more efficacious method of combating excessive wind, especially when it comes from several quarters, is that called by Gerhardt "network planting." In this method the grass is planted in squares like a chess-board, the squares arranged at right angles and not obliquely to the prevaihng wind. The squares are 2 m. (6ft. Sin.) broad, and within them a variable inimber of gTass-bruiches are planted. The number of bunches to be planted on the sides of each square, and the number inside, are varied according to the force of the wind they have to encounter. (e.) Di.itance apart of the Buriches. The distance apart of the bunches in the usual bunch-planting as practised in New Zealand shr.uld differ according to the amount of sand likely to be bnuight by the wind. If the sand-supply is verv abundant and the plants are set too closely they will grow so vigorously that thev will choke one another out. At a distance of 3 ft. apart the bunches will touch in two to three years, according to circumstances. The foredune -planting at New Brighton is carried on at 1 ft. 6 in. apart. Probablv a good distance is 2 ft. ; but, of course, the closer the more expensive, and much more distant plantino- has been efficacious on many New Zealand dunes. The bunches should not be set one behind another^ but alternately in adjacent rows. Pows parallel to the prerailing ivind should he aroided. jor theu lead to wind-chanHehi. (f.) MANAGEMENT OF MA REAM- AREAS. It is midoubtedly best if the area is fenced from stock. Still, this procedure is not absolutelv necessary, and as it so much increases the expense it may generally be omitted. In Central Otago rabbits eat the grass to some extent, and should it be necessary to fence with rabbit-proof netting the expense of plantmg is very much increased. ■\\'here failures have occurred the blanks should be filled up later in the season if possible, and, if not, then during the succeeding year. Lach of attention to a marraw-fhntiMj is /reqwnthj the cause o/ its ultimate non-success. Burning the tussocks should never be permitted. Certainly, they may grow again, unless overwhehned before the new shoots appear • but, m any case, the sheltei- they afford— one of the reasons whv marram is so valuable— is removed' e C— 13. »^t>a.;« iM «.,iiiH|fit|,fifillJJlllWttlC||)UftU«itetM*«^ No. 51. Eeeo Wind-fences. (From Gerhabjit.) &- <*■* \._ 1 -v»»— -.— -" ' ,/ i fM ».■*• No. 52. C.\TCHING-FENCES. (FrOM CiERHARDT. ) 1\> fare poi/r JfS.] C— l:- Xo. o3. Catchino-kexce. i:, ft. tall. ne\rly b'-rieii ('romhell Flat. Tree-ll^pix to Left. Fst Hen in FiiREi;Rfii-.NTi. \rin,h, L. C.rhnii,, . Nu oi. LATfHI.VG-F EN^ E BI.BIEIi. (. KCMUELL FlaT. [T'liotii L. Cockayne. 49 C— l:^. Marram is not planted as a fodder plant. Dunes eannot he turned into pasture through marram alone. Although stock will feed on it when hungry, the nourishment they get is probably slight. Marram is flanged in the first place simply and solely to fix the unstable surfaee ; and to do aw /thin// thai ean injure he grass is to build with one hand and pnll down with the other. (d.) COST OP MARRAM-GKASS PLANTING, Particulars as to cost are not easy to get. IMr. James IVTackenzie in his manuscript report to the Lands Department cites £1 2s. (id. to £1 10s. per acre as the price in Taranaki ; but he says nothing as to the distance apart of the bunches or the rows. IVlr. J. H. Herrold, of Waipipi, Auckland, tells me he gets his dunes planted by contract by Maori labour, by the plough method, at 15s. per acre — the bunches 3 ft. apart, and the rows 6 ft. For spade planting by hand, the bunches 3 ft. apart, he pays 17s. 6d. per acre. Planting at New Brighton, at l|ft. apart in all directions, costs at the rate of £8 per acre ; but this is day-labour, for areas of a quarter of an acre or less. By contract on a larger scale it would be done for considerably less. Mr. K. W. Dalrymple informs me that in the Rangitikei district spade planting, with the plants 3 ft. apart, costs about £1 per acre if " the area to be planted is fairly compact, and the plants are handy — say, within a mile ; if the plants have to be carted much more the cost would be a little more." Payment by the week Mr. Dalrymple considers more satis- factory than contract-work ; but a rebable man must be in charge. The cost will be, in this case, £1 per acre. The wages are about £1 12s. 6d. and not found, or £1 2s. 6d. to £1 5s. and found, and the grass is carted to the ground. Boys and young men only are employed. The cost of planting marram-grass upon the wandering dunes of the Kurische Nehrung is, according to Gerhardt, from about £3 8s. to £4 8s. per acre, but this includes collecting, delivering, and planting; but details are no stated as to methods or closeness of planting. p.) ESTABLISHING THE TREE-LUPIN. Establishing seedling plants is a method not to be commended. The cheapest and most easy plan is to sow the seed. This is best done by hying branches of lupin upon the bare sand as soon as the seed is ripe, nr, better, just before it is going to be shed. The lupin-branches cover the naked sand and prevent it moving, the seedlings germinate and grow rapidly, and before a year is past cover the ground with a close growth. Of course, this method can only be applied where the planter has an abundance of lupin on his ground. He must, then, make a preliminary plantation by sowing the seed on some sheltered part of his dimes, so as to have a future supply. Simply scattering the seed upon the ground may also be resorted to, and good I'esults have been gained in this manner ; but the wind buries and unburies the seed, the seedlings have no protection from sand-laden gales, and failure by this plan is not uncommon. I can give no particulars as to cost of sowuig tree-lupin per acre, but it cannot be great if the branches are to be got close at hand, and it should in that case be easily the cheapest method of dune- fixing. But it m.ust not be forgotten that it is but a quite temporary method if there be exprjsure to a drift. (/.) SAND-FENGES AND GROUND-COVERINGS. (i.) General. There are critical points in the dunes where it is extremely difficult to get even marram-grass to oTow There are also times when it is expedient temporarily to stop a moving dune, or to raise a sand- ndge. For these purposes obstacles that will break the force of the wmd, or fix or catch the sand, '^''^ "^TTsimply fix the sand for a time, anything that can cover the sand closely and will not blow away will suffice. In Europe heather is used for the purpose, as it grows naturally on the dunes In New Zealand manuka, or " tea-tree," as it is often called, which is frequently abmidant on many dune- areas, at once suggests itself. Or any of the dune-shrubs whose branches are heavy enough may be used. Pieces of manuka (Leptospermum sooparium) , if laid closely upon the sand will keep it-^ a together rom drifting until such time as the twigs and leaves fall off and decay or drifting sand from the windward covers it. Broom, gorse, tree-lupin, Cupressus niacrocarpa, and Ptnus tnsigms, all of which are frequently available, at once suggest themselves as material for dune-flxmg, through laying branches or portions of branches flat upon the sand. If the pieces are small they may be made to overlap one another, and a small amount of sand be placed on them to hold them m position. For quite small areas nothing is better than covering the surface entirely with soil, having hrst by some means or another made the surface level. This method has been for a long time in operation at New Brighton, clay being used as the covermg material. The whole surface of the town propei formerly a badly drifting dune-complex, is now altogether stable, and but for the adjacent unreclaimed dunes no one cmild suspect the ongmal character of the ground. The shelter of houses and fences has also helped in bringing about the above state of affairs. Sand-fences are oF the followmg two kinds : (1) Catchmg-fences, which are designed for holding the sand and building a dune ; (2) wind-fences, which are used to break the force of the wind and hold the sand. 7— C. 13. C— 13. 50 (ii.) Catchixg-fexces. Catchinu-fences can be made from the branches of manuka, pine-trees. Cuprcssux macrocnrpa, or the lik.\ ' Fairlv straight l)ranches are eut into pieces varying from 2 ft. to 3 ft. m lengtli, accorclmg to requirements. The ends, if necessary, are sharpened, or this may be done by cutting off the piece obliquely. The side twigs are cut off roughly. The pieces are thrust into the sand, so that about I ft. is liuried. side by side, in a row at right angles to the preyailing wind, and a space is left between iMch e(jualling its diameter. Much more elaborate and expensive sand-fences, constructed of stout posts, wire, and brushwood, sometimes VI ft. or more high, have been occasionally used m New Zealand, but such great erections are quite needless and extremely expensive. Similar fences— just an odd fence here and there— have been used on the wandermg dime, but are worse than useless, as they merely get buried and are of no value as shelter-fences (see Photo No. 68). In Central Otago where no sand covers the ground it will be necessary to erect post-and-wire fences, but they do Jiot need to be more tlian 3 ft. ov 4 ft. in height. (iii.) WlXD-FEXCES. Wind-fences are constructed out of similar material to catching-fences, but it must not be so stout. Any straight pieces of stick will serve, and the stalks of flax (Phormium tenax) or toetoe (Arundo conspicua) might be used. The pieces (rods) are set at twice the distance of those in the catching- fence— i.e., at twice the diameter of the rods— or. where the wind is less powerful, at a gi-eater distance still. The height above the groimd should be about 1 ft., and about 6 in. beneath. Wind-fences are arranged in ches.s-board squares (see Photo No. 52), the size of which depends upon the capacity of the sand to drift, and may vary from 9 ft. to 12 ft. The squares should lie at right angles to the jjrevailing wind. Wuid-fences are chiefly used in Europe in afi^oresting the dunes. They have not been employed as yet in New Zealand, but there are certain places and conditions where their use might be very advantageous indeed. Wind-breaks, but of less efficacy, could be made by thrusting quite short pieces of manuka. &c., into the ground in rows or squares, or by laying pieces of the same or other scrub in squares, and holding them in position with a little sand. (The above is taken in part from Clerhardt (18). (ry.) CHECKIX(i SAND-MOVEMENTS. (i.) PROTECTIOX-BELT.S. The first need on the sand-areas, as already explahied, is the protection of the fertile lands against sand-drifts, wandering dunes, and the fi'equent combination of both. Railway-lines, roads, and at times houses, demand similarly rapid protection. Where the need is very urgent, as when a town is threatened — e.g.. in the case of Cromwell. Central Otago — catching-fences should be erected across the line of sand-movement, so as to hold the sand by forming an even dune-line, which should be planted eventually with marram-grass as already explained, the bunches being from IJ ft. to 3 ft. apart, accordmg to circumstances. The Cromwell dunes have not been planted as 3'et except in a few scattered patches, and if the sand-supply is sufficient they will overtop the barriers and advance towards the town (see Photo No. 53). But probably this will not be the case, as the sand-supply is certainly diminishing, and many areas on the flat are now either quite bare or the sand is fixed by the indigenous tussock-grass. For advancing dimes of that kind tree-lupin is useless. Where a house is threatened, as is the case with such as stand directly on the dunes, planting a belt of marram a few yards broad will raise a hill to the windward of the house, the sand which has accumulated near the house will blow awav, and the house will be secure both from the troublesome flying sand, which penetrates every crevice, and the danger of burial. With regard to the invasion of fertile hollows amongst the dunes themselves, and to farm-lands just outside the actual dmie-areas. the mischief has generally been allowed to increase to an alarmiuo- extent before any steps have l)een taken or much thought given to the matter. The drift is, in nine cases out 0/ ten, the result of some trivial damage by stock, or through burnimj, whix:h, had it been attended to at once, would have cost but a few shillings. The earlt/ planting of all bare sand-patches which occur on the ancient well-grassed dunes would mean the saving of thousands of pounds by preventino- movements of the sand, which m a much shorter time than is generally supposed would become both very expensive and difficult to arrest. Above all things, it must be urged on the farmer to permit no bare patch of sand on his fertile land to remain untreated. These small bare patches may be covered with scrub, in which case, probably without any further care, the grass will return of its own accord. Or, to make sure, some grass-seed may be sown upon the patch and the sand then covered with scrub. Should the patch be larger it should be planted closely with marram-grass, with tree-lupin or annual lupiu, as the case may require, and if it is likely to be damaged by stock a light barbed-wire fence should be put round it. Some farmers, very wisely indeed, attend to trivial sand-wouiids at present, but the majority look upon these womrds as such a very small matter that they do nothing at all. The sand-advance is of a twofold character. It may come slowly — a few yards or so yearly as the lee face of a high wandering dune, or the advancing sand may be quite shallow and have blown for a long distance during some specially heavy gale. In order to make the work permanent it is necessary to plant the whole of the bare sand (see Photo No. 62). This may seem so large an order that the sand- owner might well shrink from undertaking it all at once, and not wrongly consider the cure worse than the disease. Therefore he must have recourse to protection-belts~hj which I mean comparatively C— 13. No. 55. Marr.\m-(jRass put in by the Plough by. Mb. Hekrolh. Dukes South of Wanukau Harbour. [P/iotu L. C'^fkatjiic. < <■ K'i -t^ Atti, - X ; \ it- :%■ No. 56. Successful Planting of Marram-gkass in a Wind-channel. Plants rather too far apart. Cliff-dunes, South of JIanukau Harbour. [Phutu L. Cuckai/iic. To fw:e piKjn J''.] C— 13. 'ZP-^^^'^^^-^'^^.>'A ^^^?#' TASi*;^- ?'r j#;;j --.i(' Xo. o7. Partly Keclaimed De'xe at South End of Ocean Beaoh. Dtnedin. Hill.~ not PLANTED. [I'lioto L. CurhaijnL. SBGS? No. 58. Three year-old Marram-grass planted by Plough by Mr. Herrold. Dunes South oe Manukau Harbour. [Photo L. Cockayne. 51 C.--13. tia row bands of marram at the juiictiou of the advancing sujid and the invaded gronnd. It must not be forgotten that even where such belts grow and form a grass-covered ridge or series of ridges there will be a most abundant sand-supply from the naked sand to the windward ; in fact, a ])i-otec- tion-belt of this kind is in a better position for a large sand-supply than is even tlie forcdune. Tlicrefoi-e there is no absolute safety until the whole of the sand to the windward is planted. Planting, then, properly speaking, should commence at the source of the sand-supply. Wlsere the latter is the shore an artifieial foredune should be raised if the natural ojie is not sutficii'iit. but where there is no communication with the shore, and where the area to be treated yields its own sand- supply, planting for permanency should begin at its windward bomidary. A protection-belt, however, may serve for many years, and it can always be repaired wlicii damaged. Generally in New Zealand they are made too narrow, for the Siike of cheapness. Experience alone mil tell the best width under different circumstances of wind, rainfall, and weight of sand-grains. Possibly a chain might suffice in many cases. The area covered could l)e made much greater by tlie addition of tree-lupin, without adding much to the expense. In this case a dune at right angles to tin' wind should be formed by planting a belt of marram-grass, say, 12 yards Avide ; another such belt, but narrower, could be planted several chains to the lee of the last one, and other belts similarly. Between these belts tree-lupin could be sown by laying the seed-bearing branches upon the sand, as already directed. Possibly in many cases there would be no need for the secondary belts of marram-grass. Where a wandering dune is slowly covering fertile land there is generally a considerable iunouiit of sand at its base just beneath the dune-fall. This and the steep dune-fall (lee face) can be easily planted by spade. Planting the lee face is not alone sufficient, but the work must be extended beyond the ridge for a chain or more on the windward slope of the dune. In Germany, except very occasionally, wandering dunes are not planted with marram-grass, but are covered wnth a network ol wind-fences, trees being planted in the squares (see Photo No. 51). (ii.) The Foredune. (a.) General. The shore being the source of all the coastal sand, and a perpetual supply Ijeing in-ought dail)' by the sea, it is plain that in any comprehensive scheme dealing with the whole of a dune-area, such as would be the case if afforestation of a portion of the dunes were to be attempted by the Government , the sand blowing from the dry foreshore must be arrested and held. This is done at the preseJit time to some extent by the existing first line of dunes, called in this report the " foredune." Further, where towns are built on the dunes, or have such in their viomity that can damage public reserves, or where there are harbours or navigable water liable to be choked by drifting sand, attention to the foredune is imperative. On the other hand, generally speaking, such work is not the affair of a private indi- In some parts the foredune is all that can be desired (see Photo No. 13), m other places it is badly hi need of repair, while in others again it is wanting, or. if present, too far from the loose sand of the foreshore It is therefore necessary in many cases to construct an artificial foredune. The position of this dune must be on the upper shore at some slight distance beyond the reach of the highest tide. The line of the dune must not conform to every indentation of the present dmie-bne, but must conform to the shore-lme as a whole, and be as little arched as possible. Certain parts of the artificial foredune of Gascony extend for miles in a virtually straight line. The summit of the foredune must be as even as possible ■ there must be no mounds and depressions, and still less peaks rising above the genera even level ' A well-constructed foredune should possess a wide base, a low summit, and flat outer and inner slopes. Its function is to fix the unstable sand of the upper shore, to resist tlie action of the waves, to prevent sand passmg inland, and to shelter the planting m its ee As it is subject to a constant sand-drift, it is evident that it can be fixed only by sand-bmding plants. (/3.) Method of Construction. The most approved method of building a foredune is to eret^ a catching-fence such as already desci'bed 21 ft. in height, along the line the dune is to follow, and at a distance of 6 ft. 8 m. behind thts to Sc^ an exactly similar fence. In time, according to the sand-supply and the immber of windy davs the and will reach the top of the fences (see Photo No. 50), since they are sufficien ly open to permit the wmd to pass through, but, its velocity being decreased, the sand is d.-opped withm and on hetwar/si=2fiL^^aS^=^^ the sand, Sves a fairly permanent shape to the dune with a long gentle slope to the wmd.aid and a steep slope on the lee. (See Gerhardt, 18, pp. 368-WO.) The natural foredune can be made to serve in some cases. II so, tin hU s us ig '*'^^\\;'^' -'^ ' level musibe lowered by removmg any vegetation and allowing the summit to blow away. Hollo, s must be filled up by the employment of short catchmg-fenees. t, i,,u of tlin Accord ng to A^S. Hitchcock (27), who visited many of the dune-,rveas of Europe on behalf of t Govc^ment of the United States, a foredune is not made either m Holland or m Denmaik. Th S sh V ce-Consul at Flushing, however, writes thus : " The coastal dunes iomi the ma.n pro ect o of the whole sea-coast ; the coast-fine ,s receding, and during heavy storms it very often happens that tilt- w.ivrs uiiilmnini' Hie steep ilitMike sI(i|h' aiifl ciiiisc ,s;iii(l-slips. so lluit tin; front ol tlir dutios is uashr.l ■.■Kiiv. The biivreii sand-slopes i-ie planted hs soon as possilile with sea mnvram-grass (Aiiimo- iJiilii uniKtriii). The main ohjeet of all saiul-lnndinu work is. in I'onserjuencp, to keep the sea-front of the dunes (• zeereep " it is .-alli'd) as much inta.et as possible, and to ])roteet the beflch affrtinst the -times heavy surf a. "veat number of ]ners a.re made ])ei'pe))dieular on the eoast-hne." In France )met ai k1 tli'imanv tlie establishment of a foredune is considered tlie verv root of dune-improvement. (■;.) Artificial Fornlidirs in Xr'tr Zpahml. Artilieial foreduues have been formed in certain parts of the New Zealand coa.st— c.f/., at New Brij;hton, where, thoufih not so exactly proportioned a structure as those of Europe, it has done excellent service for more than ten years. Formerly one of the chief duties of the Town Council was to remove the sand from the front of the garden-fem-es and the streets. This is so no longer, nor does any sand from the shore in\-ade the private properties to the lee of the Ijariier. This dmu' has been formed in part l)y merely planting bunches of manam upon the sloping u])pei- shore, and in part liy raising a dune in the fiTst instance by laying boughs of tree-lupin on the shore 3 ft. to i ft. in deptli ; on these the sand rapidly accumulated, and was then planted with marram-grass. It is hard to tell at the present time the method of formation of any special part of this foredune ti'om its appearance. It has been the haunt of hundreds of bathers yearly, and notwithstanding this it keeps its form remarkably well. The lee side is not planted. One objection to simply planting the marram on the shore is the slowness with which the dune is built, and the consequent loss of its protection for several years, so that tree- planting in its rear is delayed. A secondary result of the New Brighton dune appears to have been an actual raising of the foreshore. The foredmie at Ocean Beach, constructed under the direction of Mr. Hancock, Chairman of the Uoinain Board, was first built b}- using a catching-fence made of a wire fence interwoven with manuka- scrub. This caught the sand, on which marram was finally planted. This foredune has been a con.spicuous success (see Photo No. 4-7). [h.) f'Kf:SEKVIX(J ]Jl ^iE-ARIiAS .\S FARM-LAXUS, (i.) Gexeeal. Were it not that within the dune-areas many ancient sand-i^lains clothed with excellent grasses exist, and that there are also well-grassed cliff-dunes and ancient sandhills far from the sea, I. for one. should never dream of advocating farming on the dunes. But the farms are there already. Even the dune-complex, barren as most of it is, is used for grazing-runs, some of which are private property. It must not be forgotten that in the early days of settlement these dune-areas contained an abiuidance of feed, and seemed stable enough. Their plant covering, too. was altogether the work of nature. Now, what nature has accomplished, man should be able to do again, and that more quickly. There is, however, this material difference : Xature performed the work in the absence of grazing-anvmals and burning, but the farmer wishes to airrij on his work in the presence of these two destructive agencies. This, if not altogether a vain hope, renders the task vastly more difficult than if stock were absent, smce it was stock, together with fire, that set most of the hills moving. Turning stock again on to dmies which are artificially fixed and lack the covering of a humus soil that nature gave, may very probably undo the good which has accrued from this artificial fixing. Turinng sandhills into pasture is certainly a very risky procedure, which I do not thuik is even hinted at by any foreign writers on dime- reclamation. Nevertheless, I believe, under certain circumstances regrassmg a dune may be a legiti- mate practice. (ii.) Burning. Whatever may be said in favour of turning stock loose over regrassed or primitive dunes, nothing can defend the too common practice of burnuig. Leaving the moist hollows out of the question, there is no plant elsewhere that is not playing a useful part, unless it be one which, having built a mound, is invituig wuid erosion. But fire cannot discriminate between the good and the bad." In dry weather it will sweep over a wide area, laying the sand bare and exposing it suddenly to the action of the wind. The indigenous sand-binding plants, the shrubs which have gained a footing after many difficulties, all are swept away, and for nothing ! The mistaken idea is that they are agriculturally worthless' takmg up the place of grasses. The farmer is always expecting he will get some valuable fodder plant that will grow on the unstable dunes — f( hope that is biologically impossible, for it is just the qualities that make plants suitable to the sand that make them unsuitable for fodder plants. The only ground that can grow nutritious grasses, &c., are the moist hollows and perhaps the ancient dunes. To attempt clothing the exposed hills in the dmie-complex with a carpet of grasses fit for stock is to court disaster. All that can be done in that part of the dunes is to fix the hills so that they will not advance on the moist hollows. Where fire is suggested for eliminatuig something worthless in tlie plant covering, such as bracken-fern, then recourse should be had rather t'o overstocking-. This IS not good either, because it may lead to blow-outs ; but, at any rate, it does not destroy the humus .-.f +r,r. tr^il *' portion of the soil. (iii.) Teeat.mext of the Duxe-co.mplex. Theoretically m order to fix the dune-complex with its hills and hollows, the tops of the hills should be denuded of plants, so that they could bloA^■ away and help to bring about a fairly level surface where there should be no contiguous hills and no consequent wmd-chanueLs. But the dune-complex C— 13. s- No. 60. Young /'/«».■■■ iiixii/ni.^ planted by Ma. Tannoch amongst Mabrah-geass. Ocean BEACii, [I'hufu L. Ciirlnijiic. To fan- iimjv .-,.!. \ c.--i;i '^•t-'j^^- -^^'^^^T-^^.-^^^-r^. 'i-S'lf 4 'M>i- 5G«.8 '■'■J * >' -* 1 nJtlnniUn. DuNR PERSISTIX'; .\OT\\"]TH STANlUNc: tSTROX'; SaND- MOVEMEST. [/'hilt,, L. Cnrhilijnr S .■f\i^' »-*•' ; -rvj-^.'*'- / .».,:^.«^^,^*v^;«v#«•»»'.u^-''^^-. No. CrJ. Successful Planting of .Mabbam-grass by Mr. AJuKelvje. Dunes near Mouth OF THE RaNGITIKEI. yl'hrito L. Cchinjitr. 53 C.-13. is frequently fairly stable under existing eircunistauces, aud has been so for dozens of years, and tlieie are shrub dunes virtually stable ; so it seems to me that, theory Jiotwithstaiiding, a much great(;r sta- bility still could be brought about by judicious planting (see Photo No. 66). Nor is the method here suggested very different from that of Holland and Denmark, where hills and hollows are planted, and where the summits of the hills are let alone. The unstable and semi-stable hills themselves are of no value for grassing operations ; it is the sand-hollows and sajid-plains which alone serve in that regard. These will require protection from the drifting sand ; their- protection is the first demand. To bring this about, the hollows near the bases of the hills should be planted with marram-grass. The hill-tops must be let alone (see Photo No. 57). Only the hills which are discharging sand into the hollows should be planted in the first place ; and in cases of that kind, where the drift is bad or where there is a semi-wandering dune, a fair breadth of marram must be planted in the adjacent hollow. Tree-lupin might be used in conjunction with marram-grass in raa.ny ]ilaces, as already described ; but, of course, '' *" ^^^^so". ^'^t is f^-ei^erallv about 18s per bushel Bumi n 111 hieu 101 JUS own re.(|un'enieiit.s. (e.) (JKASSJOS. Yorkshire Fo« (//ofc^l. lanatus).~This is .i grass almost universally despised except by sand- farmers who are well aware of its value; probably, however, it ,s one of the most vu ufl le pas re plants tor sand-eulture It grows freely upon pure sand, and seeds well, coming spont ou 1 o^^ bare sand so soon as a httle shelter is provided. It should certamly be ^ne of the first olses to ow after tie sand .s fixed, and probably its place will be eventually taken by Poa pratens^s, DaniZL ^7 « and M^crohena sl^po^des. It is one of the best grasses for the all-essen^k formation of kumus The eed is generally very cheap, say about W. a pound. That known as " shelled fog," a bv-product of cocks foot-cleanmg, should be used. ^ " piuuuci oi cocks Indian Doab-grass {Cynodon Dactylon).^k very important grass for sand, especiallv on the more northern dunes. Once established it makes a dense mat and a sward not likely to \l in ur d by either wind or grazing animals. Its creeping roots hold the sand together even where its herbage is scanty. I he seed costs about 2s. a pound, as the demand is small. ' "^ Pasfalum dilaiatmn.-Ro^Y far this grass is suitable for sand-culture I ,-annot sav Certamly I have seen it growing on pure sand on the Auckland dunes, where it had been planted ' Its habit of spreading out from the mam crown and clothing the ground well, fits it eminently for sand-work It IS a native ot Brazi , and can tolerate very httle frost indeed. The seed costs about Is. per pound and IS frequently very bad, the germination being very often less than 10 per cent so that the price is no criterion of the cost of sowing. Should the grass take kindlv to sand it will be one of the most important for the northern dunes. Sc'HRader's Brome-grass ; Prairie-grass (Bromus unioloides).— This is generally known in New Zealand as " prairie-grass." It is a most valuable grass, the cultivation of which has been much neglected in the Dominion. Had it been exploited in the same way as Paspalum dUatatum and canary- grass It would probably be now one of the most widely grown grasses for winter feed. As it is' a common wayside grass, however, its good qualities have been much underestimated, and its great failino-, inabihty to endure continuous stocking^an inability it shares with red clover, cowgrass, Enghsh trefoil and timothy— is continually urged against it. As a sand-grass Bromus unioloides must always have a' prominent place. It grows freely in pure sand, and continues its growth throughout the months of winter, and, ('/ not stocked heavily, will seed nattirally. It is a perennial with rather harsh broad leaves, and forms tufts up to 3 ft. in height. // is not a sand-hinder. Its main use will be in sheltered hollows! It could be used with advantage, after annual lupin in sandy fields, as a special winter feed to be cut for cattle. It would not occupy any important place in the vegetation of stable grassed dunes, for there its liability to be eaten out would come into play. The dead leaves help towards the formation of humus. The seed is generally about 3d. a pound. New-Zealand-saved seed is of excellent quality. In the Argentine the grass is looked upon with great favour, and occupies much the same position as Italian rye in New Zealand. The seed from sandy soils is rather small, but of a good colour; and, as there is a good export demand for seed, many sheltered dune-hollows and sand-plains might be very much worse occupied than by the growing of prairie-grass for seed. Rhodes-grass (Chloris vircjata, C. Gayana). — These two grasses, the one a native of tropical America and the other of tropical Africa, should be given a good trial on the northern dunes. They spread rapidly by creeping stems lying prostrate on the ground, and leafy shoots are developed near the nodes, as in the case of such grasses as fiorin. The leaves are long, and palatable to stock. In favourable localities the grass grows 4 ft. in height. These grasses will probably prove valuable both in sheltered hollows and also as constituents of stable grassed dunes, for they are not liable to be eaten out. In the Transvaal C. vircjata is largely used for hay, which commands a good price in Johannes- burg and Pretoria (1, p. 160). The seed is generally expensive, being not less than .3s. per pound. Danthonia (/). semiannularis + D. pilosa). — Without doubt, danthonia is the most valuable grass that can be grown on permanent sand-pastures — i.e., always pro^aded that permanent sand- pastures are a biological possibility. In my opinion the ultimate aim of sand-pasture-establishing is the production of a danthonia sivard. Danthonia semiannularis and D. pilosa are both suitable ; but the latter in its various forms should be favoured, as it gives a greater yield of herbage. D. pilosa can now be supplied true to name by many of the northern seed-merchants, it ha^nng at last become more or less generally known as a superior grass to the small-seeded D. semiannularis. Danthonia should be sown after the sand has been treated previously by annual lupin, followed probably by a mixture of Yorkshire fog and other humus-formers. In sand-pasture-making the logical procedure is by producing a succession of distinct plant coverings, culminating in danthonia, the poas, &c. Danthonia-seed is generally about lid. to Is. Id. per pound. D. pilosa is dearer, as there are fewer seeds to the pound. The numbers are, approximately, D. semiannularis 950,000 per pound, and D. pilosa 500,000. Ratstail (Sporobolus indicus). — This is another grass with a bad name which, on the worse sand, is a most important constituent of pasture. In fact, where the wind is not too strong, Sporobolus pasture might be formed without any prehminaiy. The leaves arc very harsh, and wear away the teeth of grazing animals ; but this will always occur in sand-pastures, owing to the grains of sand getting taken up with the food, so the above is not really a serious objection. The price of the seed is about Is. 3d. per pound. The seed is very small. Shelled seed and unhusked are about equal in ordinary samples. C— 13. 56 Rtce-grass (MicrnJnena stipoides). — This indigenous grass will be used much as danthonia. It will lie specially valuable where the rainfall is highest. The seed is about Is. •'id. per pound. Me.\do\v-c;rasses (Species nf Poa). — Poa pmtensis is extremely valuable for fixed dunes as a final c(ini])onent of the turf in conjunction with danthonia, &c. The seed is said to gemiinate badly. Init this opinion may arise from the primitive methods used to test this grass in New Zealand. Be this as it may, a good deal of seed is sown annually, and where used this grass soon becomes a most important constituent of any pasture. The seed costs about 8d. per pound, and the number of seeds render this grass one of the cheapest, provided a fair percentage germinates. Poa prniensis forms a thick and close turf, but it does not mix well with other grasses, but occurs in patches. Canadian blue-grass (Poa compressa). the seed of which can be imported, might be valuable. It is plentiful iilready in northeni New Zealand, where it is confused with P. pratensis. Texas blue-grass (P. nrachnifera) should also be tried. C'oucH-GEASS {Agropyron repens). — AVeed though this may be on ordinary farm-lands, it is far from being so on a sand-area. Its far-creepiug and powerful stems, which ramify to a gi'eat depth beneath the surface of the ground, are just what are wanted in a loose soil the play of every passing breeze. As a grass it jnelds a large amount of nutritious herbage. White clover grows with it very well indeed — in fact, according to observations made in my garden at New Brighton, it seemed that in sandy soil white clover would gradually replace the couch-grass. Its use is specially suggested for the more difficult sand, and especially for areas within the dune-complex itself. (d.) Clovers or Clover-like Pl.^sts, Sa.\'D-clover (Anthyllis vuhieraria). — A variety fif this grows naturally on the dunes of northern Europe. It is a deeply-rooting perennial, and would probably be a very useful pasture pjlant. Its nutritive properties approach those of red clover. Egyptian Clover (TrifoUum akxandrinum). — This, the famous Bersin clover of Egypt, where it gives three green crops in the season, each 2 ft. tall, would probably be a good clover for sand-hollows in the north that are fairly moi.st. It is not so likely to be eaten out as red clover. On the pure sand it would be useless. !SiTCKLiNG-C!LOVER (TrijoUum dubium). — This should be included in all mixtures for sand-pastures. It is an annual, but reproduces itself regularly from seed. The seed is cheap — about -td. per pound — and is a by-product in the cleaning of white clover (T. repens). One of the great advantages of the yellow suckling is that it grows well with other grasses, and will fill up the bare patches where grasses n-re apt to grow too tufted. White Clover (TrijoUum rrpens). — This is one of the most important fodder plants for dune- culture. It thrives best on sand-plains and sheltered hollows. It is also amongst the first plants to appear spontaneously amongst marram-grass. On the exposed stable hiUs it is probably little better than the yellow suckling. The seed costs from lOd. to over Is. per pound. It need not be too well dressed ; its chief impurities other than sorrel and yellow suckling are not likely to spread on sandv land. Californian thistle (Cnicus arvensis) is, however, occasionally found. BuRR-CLOVER (Medkago dentkidatn). — This plant has, as I am well aware, the reputation of being valueless ; in fact, it is also considered dangerous, as its hooked burr-Uke seed-pods become entangled in wool. Nevertheless, M. dentkuhita is an important fodder plant in Argentina and Chile, where there are extensive areas of sand. There cattle and sheep thrive upon it ; but it requires vearly sowing to keep established. It has prostrate branches which enable it to extend over a consideralole area. Overstocking is fatal to its spreading, as it does not then produce sufficient seed. The seed is not often met with commercially, but it may be bought as " Buenos Ayres lucerne." The allied spotted burr- clover (Medicngo macidata) is never eaten by stock, so it is valueless, although producing a large quantity of herbage, but it would be useful for green-manuring in orchards growing on sandy soil. It also grows in autumn and winter just when clover-crops are required for an orchard. Both these medicks might be u.seful on the sides of sandy roads, and here too the useless melilots — Alelihtus offi- cinalis, M. arvensis, and M. aft;/.?— -might plav a part.* BiRD,SFOOT-TREFOiL {Lotiis ciirnicukiius). — This might be valuable for .stable pastures on dry slopes. The seed is dear, often 2s. to 2s. 6d. per pound. It frequently contains a good deal of L. iiligixosus (the " L. niajor" of Auckland farmers), but this latter is of no value for sand-culture, unless near lakes or swamps. L. atigaslissimus may also be used. Strawbeery-( 'LOVER (Trijoliuiii Iragijerum). — This might be used in the holloAvs where the salt- meadow species occur. (8.) The Type oj Seed to be sown. In ordinary farming it is good policy to sow only the highest-grade, well-cleaned seed, but on the dunes the cleanness of the sample is not nearly of so much account as its capacity for germination. The weed impurities are m all probability such as will not thrive on sand, while others — e.g., sorrel — will be a positive good. To give one instance, the following impurities will probably be present * The King Island melilot (Melilotus parviflora). so much advertised as a dune fodder-plant, is, according to Bwavt (13a, p. 23), "perhaps of some use as a humus-former on poor soils and for green manuring, is not a good "razing-plant, and is an unmitigated weed on good land." C — 18. No. G3. Sandy Point. Source of Tarras Urii^t. [I'lioto L. < 'nihil ijiir No 64 Our.LY WTTH Stream tn Bottom, blocked ."y Sand, and Small Lake formed by River also getting filled. Reef Point, North-west Auckland. ll'imtn L. Curl-nijin- To jai'r paiji- .'"itf.] C— 18. X ^^;-*uU"v'iL4S f|?^%^;. 4te;4 Xll. 1)."). AI\lil;\.M ..R\s> (;I-,TT1.\(, XATPHALLl K KI'I.AI El I IIY ^"(JKKSI 1 1 UK l'"oi; {ll,ilrll,< liniiitii.<). ETC. Dr^-^Es Souitr ue Maniikai- Habi'our. {I'llntn L. I'nrl-nipir ''% Xo. 6G. MoA-]NO Sand oe C'liff-duxe held by Maeeaai-orass which had been put in BY Plouch. Dunes Soctii of Manukau H \eboue. ll>lu,t„ L. Cockayne. '57 C.-18. Ill white-clovo]- seed impei'fectly cleaued : sovrcl, clui/kwecd, AnlJimus Cotula, Anlhcwis uncnsis, f.-itheii, Hilene sps., snckhng-elovov, alsikc, S])erijnJc of yaliio, (c.) 77/r (Irassi'iuj. (a.) (iESERAI.. The areas to be grassed will vary greatly in their adaptability for such treatment, accordino to their position within the dune-area and to their drifting capacity. Where the drifting is excessive marram- grass must be the primary covering, or a, shelter-belt of this to the windward and then tree-lupin matter to the sand. The death of the individual plants occurs at different times, so that, although the bare patches will increase ycaily, there will for a time be plenty of plants remaining to bi'cak the force of the wind. The dunes most suitable for regrassing in this manner are the cliff -dunes or ancient stable sandhills which have been set in motion b)^ stock, &c., and receive no sand-supply except Vi^hat comes from the bare patch itself. Such an area of moving sand leaves the ground quite liare to the windward, and may advance forward either as a rapid drift over the pasture-land in front or mov<' slowly on to this latter as a sandfall. In any case the whole of the moving sand should be covered \\-ith marram-grass. Planting should commence at the windward Hmit, but of course, if needful, a protection-belt may be first of all planted at the landward margin. Probably the work of planting the marram may occupy more than one season. When the ground is quite covered, even with one-year-old plants, or less, the force of the wind will be so greatly reduced that, except during gales, there will be little motion of the sand. Ver\ e 'e wil will MC 0»J g,iV.-tVUiJ 1. v^v*. tiv. ...vi ^.^^^, ^.^^^^^ ^...--^^^ Q , soon other plants will spontaneously make their appearance. Amongst the first-comers ther very likely be the following : Yorkshire fog (liohus lanatus), sowthistle (Sonchus asper), catsear (Hypo- choeris radicata), and haresfoot-trefoil [Trifolium arvense). The indigenous wood-sorrel [OxaHs cor- niculata), bracken-fern [Pteridium esculentum), and the indigenous Muehlenbeckia cowplej-fi wiW appear early on,' the two latter having probably arisen fronr plants buried by the drift. ' As soon as the marram commences to die out sowing may commence. The principle advocated is to encourage the formation of humus in the first place, using for this purpose humus-forming grasses &c. especially Yorkshire fog and clovers, while later on these are to be gradually replaced by the shorter and more compact turf-formers— f.^., species of Banthonia, Poa, &c. The dying marram itself will do a great deal towards the formation of humus. Annual lupin can be used at quite an early stage Seed-mixture E (see further on) may be sown in the autumn when there is a fair amount of bare gtound and further sowings can be made from time to time. Should a repetition of the drift be feared ratstail could be freely used m the north, and m the south couch-grass {Agwpyron repem) together with white clover, these two going well together for a time, as already e.xplamed Should any symptoms of drifting occur while the grassing is in progress, if slight it may be checked by laying scrub'on the ground, sowhig annual or tree lupm, &c., but ,.erliaps the safest plan would be to plant marram as quickly as climatic conditions allow. (c.) Treatment oe Surface-wounds, Blow-outs, etc. It has already been emphasized how important it is to attend at once to any bare sand-patches that may arise on a well-grassed hillside. If the wound be very trivial-~».c., a few square yards or so in arr-c^vermg with a little brushwood may be all that is required, the natural pasture plants lu ning of theii- own accord. Or, to make certain of a cure, some Yorkshire fog, ratstad-grass finger- ora 7^JL.M .rmgwrnafe), or yellow suckling may be sown. Should the damage be greater through Wer neglect and the trampling of cattle have brought up the pure sand, so hat he more cohes ve Wr of bS'sand is buried then the wind can exercise its power. The sand wi 1 dr:f beyond he edges of the wound, killing out the grass as this is covered. There is an abundant sand-supply, the the hill is burrowed into and falls in,' the supply of easily blown sand gets greater and greater, and. if neglected, ^^ ^^^J^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^ and the drift comparatively slow, sow annual In a case '^^^J'^^^^f "^^^^^ " ,!tL ,,,,x, scrub, which had better extend beyond the bare pate),. sBd^T widt TorfpoweX^ use tree-lupm, sowing it by laying its own braiKdies on the Should tHe wma ue moic ^.u shelter-belt of marram to the wind- ^™T'f ^ WrS^i?:^;'! Whc^^hrtlow-oXis very ;xtensive and in the track of the full ward of the lupin will ne lequi nl.mtino- with marram. Many at the present tunc use CilSCS ^ As the annual lupms are ^^^,^^S, t^Z::\:Z:^^^^^ g^on.d ma v l.e again Should the sowing turn out a failure ;™ ^^ ^^^ _^^ reorassin- m the autumn. .own with annual lupm^n^aiic^.^t.m^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^,,^.^.,,^^, ^.,,^,^,^ ^^.,, ,-lupm "as bun us f ,„,onost the tree-lupm. Here i.rairie-grass mav he ehipsed before patches of bare ground app 8.-C. 13 C".— ]:!. 68 MiN'.'ii. 'This \v\\\ ;i1t!';ii't till' (■■■ittlc. wliirli. ill I'iiurr (|ucst of the iri'iiss. will livcak iloAvii till' lupin and iii.ik.' <|"i:icr I'lir 'jiii-S'Si'rd mixtiivr nil thp smfni-c. tinw ti'iii|iovai'ilv liokl liv tlif aoc-iiiiiiilatioii of liiiitiiis Imiii llic (|ria\' ol llir lujilli ]ra\'i'^ anil sii'ins. Snwin'j nianvini-]>alrli('s lias liprii allvadv di-alf witli, and tlip |nijiTdiilr is tlir sanir wln-llaa- llirsr lir lalL'r ijt sma 11. Friirin;^ in siiiiir lases nia\' !"■ m-ressavv. in wliii-li i|iiitr a liulit tciiipofaTy fcnci> of liarbcd ware should Ije usi'd, M.) Ti:eat_mext of 8axd-flains axti Hallows. (I.) Of-inraJ. Sand-plains and liollfiws amoni;st tlie stable and seiui-stalile liills arc ivallv thr' onlv Icijitiniatf airas foi ijrassni'^ opciations. ('Jrnctallv tliev are left rpiite in their wild eouditioii, except that they lia\i_' lin-n o\''r-toi ked and ravaged hv fire for vears. Sand-plains fi'eqirentlv contain a sufficiently (•o!iesi\-e suid. and tlieiv water-content is abundant enough — indeed, it is often too great. The indi- griiou.'- plaiii co\ering gives some clue to the treatment demanded. Where salt-meadow plants ))re- dotniiiate (see liotanical section) various foreign salt-meadow or even salt-swamp fodder plants might with advantage be introduced. Such are strawberry-clover (Trifolium fragifernw), Atropis distans, Lfi'i sm onjzoidcf:, Glyceria fluitans, and fiorin {Agrostis alba). Amongst indigenous plants Crantzia lineata (already present) and Piatia arenaria are considered by Chatham Island sheep-farmers most valuable pasture plants. The sand-sedge of the dry hollows (Carex pumila) is also an important fodder plant, and its spread should be encouraged. This is often not the case, and sandy hollows where it forms a close covering are frequently planted with marram-grass, a quite mistaken and useless proceeding, unless a strong sand-drift I'equires checking. (2.) Trealmrnt of fimuhj FirhU. The treatment of sandy fields near homesteads is a matter of special importance. Of course, the iivst requisite is to protect tliern from sand-encroachment by planting protection-belts if necessary. Belts of trees on the windward side would also be very valuable, willows, poplars, and aldeis lieing suitablr trees for the jnirpose (see section on tree-planting and list of useful plants). These sandy fields can be put to a variety of uses. The object need not of necessity be permanent pa.stui'e, but a rotatiori of crops. Annual lupin may be ploughed in, followed bv a crop of prairie- grass (Biomus mi i 111 aides), fed lightly in the winter and to l)e cut for seed the following vear. The seed- stalks should be cut as high as possible, and then the plants turned in. Follow this with a crop of ra])e, or, where the ground is fairly stable, with an early crop of potatoes. Near New Brighton I have had excellent lesults in a wet year by growing potatoes on a high sandhill and manuring with sujjer- phosphate. Potatoes are objectionable, however, since they leave the ground bare during the late summer. After rape, put in a green crop of, say. Cape barley or vetches. Fi-ed off lightlv. and turn in, or put ni annual lupm again // it has been found that the sheep thrive on it. A root-crop, such as mangels, can then be grown if there is a supply of stable manure that can be spread over the field before the green crop is turned in. Prairie-grass can again follow, oi- the field can lie laid down in g]-ass fc'r some vears and then a crop of oats taken off. The chief feature in dealing iriih these areas will be the ahitndant use of eover-crops for green manure. As the\' will form good ground for wintering daily cows, a mixture of Phalaris hulbosa ancl prairie-grass nright often lie found most useful, the sod being turned in in the spring, and another crop sulistituted. Sand-fields or sand-plains could, of course, be turned into horse-paddocks, in which case the object would be to produce a good sod of mixed heritage, having Poa pratensis and white clover as the dominant plants. Perhaps the addition of couch-grass (Agropi/ron rrpx-ns) might be made with great advantage (see befoi-e. ]). 5fi, ri'garding the uses of this giTiss). (.3.) Sinuli/ Eottoii-.^ irilhoiil Hiiinu-'i. Sandy hollows without humus in the top layer are frequent in the dune-areas. Their orioin has been discussed in the botanical section, as well as their natural destiny. In attempting to ciiltivate these the drifting sand must be stopped. This done, their surface will be either pure sand quite flat and without jilant-life, or there will be hillocks covered with Scirpus frondo.sus or Spinifex hirsutus. If so. so mm h the better. The sequence of artificial vegetation I would suggest is — annual lupin for perhaps three years ; then sow with a mixture of Yorkshire fog and prairie-grass. As the humus- content impro\-es. clovers and perhaps cocksfoot mav be used. (4.) Scnihljy Hollow.^. Hollows full of send) (the " heath " of the botanical section) should not be burnt. Amonost the tea-tree, &c., on the flat ground the aim should be to develop a sward of Poa pratensis and white clover, or, where more sandy, o{Da)ithnnia pilosa and suckling-clover. If it is necessary to get rid of the scrub then ctit it down, alirai/.'i tearing suffeient jor shelter purposes on the windward ' side. '^ Good use can be made of the cut tea-tiee in covering any neighbouring drifting sand— much better use than burnino It— and sowing some or other of the sand-covering grasses— p..(/., Panieum .inngmnnle, Agropyron repens or Spornbolus indicus — amongst it. ■ • ■ / ' As for the actual hills of the dune-complex. I have alreadv given various reasons whv, so far as preparing them for grazing goes, nothing should be done ; ancl if tree-planting operations are not in virw thi;>- slioidd be let alone, or, if active, planted with marram-grass. It is impDKsihlr to lii.v 69 (<■■) NKKIl.Mlxiil.-lis. I Hy A. H. (Vjckayiir, Oncijini,',,! Ijiolu-i-.l . (1.) (,'r„rr,l. C.— IH of each of the vai^^ties n « ni x W ^ "'""^^'^ '" 1'^""^ "' """'1^'- "f pl-'ts tl,.t ,^:,^• 1,. ,„.„1„., /n order to ..eure a >SiJj2^ ij" TZT ",'" T'' '"' '"" """ '' *'""' ^^ ^^ "f'- '-•' ^houM be h>.o„., Th. following JZ , t, di,:'' l"' ('"'' /""""' T' "'" """"'"" ^/"'■""""""" lion:- " "■'■' '"-'" '-l''H^i"''-l iHonhT b, supplv tins n„|,oM:M,l- ,nf„n„,,- __ ^"-^"^ "/ l^air^a:,ie Q,Mt.,j. ' "' ' ' ' ""'"""''' ' '''"' Scientific and Gomroon Name of Species. Number of , Seeds „ Average AveiaL'e per Pomid. '-Ternnnatioii. I'lire: Aitthyllis vvliiemriii (saii,l-clo\'cr) Broinus unioloide^ (praivie-sivats) . . Vhloris Gai/ana (Rhodes grass) vircjata (Rhodes grass) . . Cynodon Dactylon (doab-grass) J'aiUhonia pilosa semiannulari.i Dactylis glomerata (cocksfoot) .'. Holcus laniitm shelled (Yorkshir;! ion) Lotm (mcju.sti-f.^imus (liairy birclsfoot4refoii) — — corniculatu-i (birdsfoot-trefoil) Microlaena stipoides Medicayo lupulina denticulata (burr-clover) Paspaluiii dilatatum Phalaris bulbosa Poa arachnifera (Texas blue-grass) . , compressu (Canadian blue-grass) pratensis (rough-stalked meadow-gi'uss) Sporobolus indicus (ratstail) TrifoUum cdexandrinmn (Bevsui clover) fmijiferum, shelled (stravvberiy-iaovcr) dubiuiii (suckling) . . procuiiiben.-i (hop-trei'ml) — '■ — repe7i.'s (white clover) subterraneuin Per Cent. ^ ,[ iKO.ddO (iO 1 ofijOIMI x.s ■; 2,000,(1(1(1 7.5 3 1,40(1,011(1 70 :! 1,200,0(J(I .S.'i 2 500,000 (i5 11 950,000 0(1 (ill 550,000 70 1,100,000 70 4 1 ,000,000 02 2 4!;0,0(I(J i)2 2 220,000 75 1 330,000 S,S •i 7 HI, 000 04 * 400,00(1 to 75 i 300,000 (id .3 (i 2,100,000 45 * i,i;( 10,000 00 * l,(iOO,0(JO t 8 2,(J0O,00O 80 1 3 250,000 :i2 1/3 lo 1 300,000 85 1 (i !!0,(;(10 '.14 4 1-800,000 114 ■;- SOI 1,000 ilO 10 30((,000 02 + * Seed not usually quoted. t Germination always liighev than tests : allow 3li pei' cent. t A'nt un.jtixl. (3.) Melhiid o/ cahululiiuj Amount of Hied I'cqairrd. Mixtures for j)asture,s should be so calculated as to give not less tluiii .5,0()(i,tM)(_) plants pei- acre. The method of using the above table is to mtdtiply^ the number of seeds bv the gcrniinaticii- perceiitage and divide by 100 : this will give the number of living seeds per pounil.' Iji sand-work an allowance of 50 per cent, of the seed not developing into plants should be made. Thus the following formula should be apphed to each of the seeds: ^l'^-_°L"^«''\P^i' P°""^l.>iSC"''oiat'°'i<:*J««ty , from this will be got the approximat.e number of seeds per pound that will gerniiu.ite wlien surface- sown under favourable conditions. Thus, in Yorkshire fog, using the above table, we slenihl have 1,100,000 X 70 Qurnn,. 1 1 . ,,• ', , , 2(}0 ^ 000,0(40 seeds per pound. Jn this way a. properly balanced ffo'inula, eaji be easjiv secured, and ca4i be altered with accuracy when a.jiy speeiat percentage of any grass, &e., is required. Thus a, mixture of 10 per cent, of white clover, 10 per cent. sucHing-clover, 35 per cent. Yorkshire fog, 10 per cent. Danthonia si'mianmdaris, 10 pi»r cent. D. pilosa, 15 per cent. Pna pratensis, 5 pm- eent^. rice-grass, and 5 per cent, birdsfoot-trefoil worked out on a 5,000,000 basis woukl be — Name of Plant. Seeds per Seeds j Pound after required. applying Formula. Weiglit. White clover iSuclding-clover . . Yorkshire fog JJantfimda semiannidur Danthonia pilosa Foil pratensis IJirdsfoot-trefoil . . iiice-grass Lb. oi. 500 ,0(10 300,000 1 .500.000 423,O(.10 1 :! . . 1,750,000 385,000 4 :i 500,000 28,5.000 1 12 500,000 Ili2,.j(.l0 :; 10 750,0(10 240,000 :] "^ 250.000 225,400 1 2 . . 1 250.()0O 82.500 ?, {) As regards prairie-grass, Avhich is a. rapid gro\ver and forms large tufts, the percentiige of seed used need not be great : about 2 per cent., or -t 11)., will be ample in niDst eases. W'lien sown pure ii sand-hollows, sand-fields, &v.., ii bushels of seed should bi.' used. fl.> lb. [lei- aeje. ((.geiln'i' wiili 1' lb. ..f suckling-clover to make a little bottom growth ami so keeji tlie ground covered. C— lo. 60 I \vi>iil(l stiuiigl)- LirgL' the calculating of secd-inixturcs tiouicwliat after the method I iiave outlined. Ill preference to the ordinary guesswork formulae of the present day. In many eases a general mixture will not be used, but some special seed will be sown to iiicr<'asc tlie \-alue of the pasture in some way, either with reference to feeding-value or to the formation of humus. (4.) Mi-.dnrf"^ for S}i(-ri(il Pin po--^:-^. 'J'hc fnlliiwmg tiMitative mixlures are suggested : — (A.) For sandy fields; Prairie-grass. 40 lb. ; suckling-clover, 2 1b. To be /«//(//// fed off, and afterwards cut for seed. (B.) For moist hollows with standing water in winter : Trifolium fragiferum, 30 per cent. ; Trijolium akxandrinum, 10 per cent. ; Medicago lupulina, 12 per cent. ; Yorkshire.' fog, 35 per cent. ; prairie-grass. 2 per ciTit. ; white clover, 5 per cent. ; Anthyllis vid- neraria, 5 per cent. (''.) F'or hollows drv and liable to blow m summer; Yorkshii'e fog, 40 per cent. ; praii'ic- grass. 3 per cent. : suckUng-clover. 10 per cent. ; anthyllis, 10 per cent. ; Phalaris bulbosa. 10 per cent. ; white clover. 10 per cent. : Rhodes grass, 10 per cent, paspalum. 9 per cent, (if used). (D.) (xcneral mixture for j)ermanent pa,sture on stable hills ; Yorkshire fog. 15 per cent. ; Poa /yralrnsis. 10 per cent. ; Driti.thonia sruiiannularis. 20 per cent. ; Dunthoma jiilosii. 20 per cent. ; rice-grass, 10 ])er cent. : suckling-clover, 10 per cent. ; ratstail, l(.t per cent. : anthyllis, 5 per cent, ('ipi.oilini Dactylon., Rhodes grass, Ayropyron repens, lotus, &c., may prove useful, l.jut require experimenting with ; and so, too. with Paspalum rlilatatum for frostless districts. {E.) For sowing amongst marram : Yorkshire fog, 35 per cent. ; prairie-grass, 2 per cent. ; suckbug-clover, 10 per cent. ; cocksfoot. 10 per cent, ; white clover, 10 per cent. ; Medicago lupulina, 5 per cent. ; annual lupin, 20 per cent. ; Lottis angustissinius, 8 per cent. Finally, it must here be insisted on that it is impossible to give really satisfactory formulae until all the grasses that are likely to succeed on sand hav<' been carefully tested. (/.) AFFORESTATION OF DUNES, (i.) General. It is recognized by all authdrities on dune-reclamation that a close covering ol trees gives the most permanent stability to the sand ; its establishment is the fuial goal. Forests have been estaljlislied for many years on various dmie-areas in Europe. In Germany, generally speaking, marram-grass is used only for the foredune, while immecbately in its lee the planting of trees takes place without any preliminary fixing by sand-binding plants ; but the sand is first fixed by a network of sand-fences. So. too. in France extensive forest-areas, gained not by planting but by sowing seeds, extend from just behind the foredune inland. So far as New Zealand is concerned, no tree-pla)Uiny oj moment has been earned out under difficult eondilions. It is triie that in many parts plantations have been successlrdly formed on the older dimes and hollows at some distance from the sea, as in the neighbourhood of Foxton, New Brighton, and elsewhere. At Ocean Beach, .Unnedin, too, trees are growing very well indeed in fairly close proximity- Id the shore (see Photo No. 50). But in the absence of definite examples of the m(jre difficult planting of tie(\s upon tlie New Zealand dunes, it must be understood that what follnws regarding dune-affores- tation is to be considered suggestive rather than definite. Before any extensive planting is attempted by either the (iovernment or private enterprise experiments as to methods, and in some cases as to trees, will be required. So far as dune-affoivstation m general goes, apart altogether from the trouble with moving sand, the climatic cbfficultii'S are usually very considerable, and these increase as the shore is neared. Sueeesses at a distanM; nf a mile or more from the sea are no measure oj what ean be accomplished in the interrcning space. Nor can the experience of a fairly sheltered shore or a specially moist climate guide the would-be planter of an average New Zealand dune-area. The fear so commonly expressed that dunes provide too poor a soil for trees may be dismissed at once (see Photo No. 71). Reduce the force of the wind, arrest the movmg sand, and a surprising number of trees and shrubs can be grown with ease. Even the present experience of New Zealand, notwithstanding the small amount of dune-planting, supports this assertion. Pine-trees of many kinds, hardy Australian acacias, eucalypti, various willows and poplars, together with many other arborescent plants detailed firrther on, are growing excellently on apparently pure sand in various parts of the Domuiion, A most important distinction to be dr-awn in arranging for sand-planting is between those species which can tolerate sea-spray and those which cannot do so. The former are obviously suited for planting close to the shore behind the shelter of the foredune, and also in positions specially exposed to violent salt gales, such as those of Taranaki. Spray-resisting trees, in short, are especially important as shelter-belts, behind which will come the ordinary sand-tolerating trees. That whicli has heen already stated regarding the danger of disturbing the plant covering of the dunes apphes also to artiticial dune forest. For this reason some authorities lof)k upon dune forest as a protecting but not commercial forest. It seems to me that this may be quite true, so far as New Zealand is concerned, w'ltii regard to forest close to the shore, but when it comes to our wide dune- C.-13. a ^^i»iKtit^*^ S660 -'->. ^ No. 67. In Front Wandering Dune formed ey Sand coveeini; Tree-lupin, filling UP Flat, Small Well covered by Tree-lupin. Plantation on Dunes in Distance. East Canterbury. [Photo L. Cochayiiti. No. To face page 00.] 68. Isolated e',muiNO-FENCE serving no Useful Purpose, and almost buried. \Photu L. Coehuijin C— 13. Xo. 09. Osier Willou' (Siilix rlniiiniH'] foR-mixg a .Mouxd. UrxE~ of East Caxterbury. [I'linlu L. ('•n,l;n,J,IC. Xo. 70. Tree-ll'pix. Six Moxihs old, showixg its Close Covering to (.^roi-xd. Dunes of East Caxtehbuey. \_PliOlo L. CurkuynC. ^1 C.-13. irc amis cxtpnclinK for some, miles inliMid I .■■n, s „, ,.. , , ,. too g,;ea,t and costly, wlu- tJu. ,:onun m ,1 ; ' 1 Vl I'v"' ""'"'' ''"' '^^'ffi'"'^'"" "f .establish!, ^ .^ aud a ..ow,ed,e of the .itaM^t.ees to plant ^^^^^^^s :;tC:!r^rS^::^:i^^^^^ ai.) The Mokk Impoktan. Tk.es .kd .Shbhbs eok D..E-A..onE,STA.„oN. Here ceXlL 1!:;^: S,;it;e^SStS""^ ""'^'^f'"' ?"'^^' ^""^ «'"-* aeco.np.nv,,,, not,.. purposes of dune-afiorestZn. experience has shown to he of primary nnportance for («.) S fray-resisting Sfjecie.s dispi:;l^tS^^^:jt^:iSS^fi'?"^^'^^^^^'•--T*^'« ^« ^^^ --* -'P-^ant tree at the be overestimated. Sants put in^ t e u TT^VV'l^ n"'^ ''^"^''^ ^"^^ '^'^ '"^^ «- ''-'^H- they have thriven durino a.f h, ,■ ..iV i ^ f^"' °- ^"""^'^^'^ ^'^^^' overtopped ah others'- stations-viz.. dunes sw n p fo tst .m ^t / ' '^ V'''\'' §™^^'' ""^'^^'^^y '" "^"«t divers,, Ohathams it is from 5 ft tS ft ' ]1 b^t n t ^^'^^^f^^'^''^ '" ""' ''''-'P'"^^- ^' '" ^^"""^^^'^ *" ^he adult It has a nake.l triml f ,• ok ^vourable positions it grows considerably taller. When dense crowm '^ e v^ '^'m ^ ,4^:l:;^'?^ ^'V ^^'^^''«^ -ith rough bark and possessing a rather but soft, bright sl,n,ing g^,^ " o f t "tper^.f , ' t; l^t/""''' T ""? "^''°"^ ' i "r**^ '" «''^P^' *^i^^^ dense whit,, ni.f ,.t cin i^ ' ^^ suijace, luit the uiider-surface is clothed w th an exti'emelv itthod otT' ;■ "* ^Tf"" T"-" ^"""1^^ ^™'" ^"**"'^-« P-t m in the autumi ai d thi^ is tie b,;^^^ method of propagation. The timber, according to T. Kirk, is ■' dense, heavy, iirm and co n a cT wS a satmy lust.e when worked up. f n old trees the outer portion is mor; or le s mo tl d ^ ' The ate Mr. Seuffert, cabinetmaker, of Auckland, received small parcels at various times and vaiued highly for inlaymg and special work " (f Ma, p. 4-7). (b.) Pinus pinaster (also known as P. marUtma), (the Cluster-pine).-P. pinaster m a native of the Mediterranean region. It is especially celebrated as being the tree'^so successfully cultivated upon th dunes of Gasoony m France. It grows excellently on sandhills in New ZealeL, even where fX exposed. Under favourable conditions it will attain a lieight of 60 ft. to 80 ft The wood is s(-,ft and contains abundance of i-esm, but rather than as a timber-tree is it grown for its tm^entine, a mature tree yieldmg 121b. to 161b. of turpentine per annum, and the tree may be tapped without miurv for many years. " ^'^ i . - Pinus hale'pensis (the Aleppo pine), a native of the eastern Mediterranean region where it "roAvs at times on exposed coastal chffs, has not been used in New Zealand as yet for dun,.-plantim^ but should be a tree of great value. It yields valuable timber, and also turpentine and tar. "' (c.) Araucaria excelsa (the Norfolk Island Pme).— How far this beautiful tree will thrive on puiv sand I do not know. It is, however, of importance as a coastal tree wherever it is hardy, since it is quite undamaged by the most violent salt gales. (d.) Cupressus macrocarpa (the Monterey Cypress).— This tree, so common in cuhivatiou with us a,s to need no description, is in the wild state one of the rarest trees in the world, being •' linuti'd t,, two localities on the ocean-shore at the mouth of the C'arniel River, near Monterey. " The Cypress Point grove extends along the chf?s and low bluffs from Pescadero Point to Cypress Pomt, a. ibslauce of two miles, reaching inland about an eighth of a mile. The Point Lobos grove is much small, 'i-. The trees are scattered over the summits of two headlands, and chng to the edges of the ehffs. where, on a.ccount of the erosive action of the ocean, they are occasionally undermined and fall into the sea." — W. L. Jepson (28, p. 119). Economically the wood of C. macrocarpa is considered of httle value in New Zealand, but according to C. S. Sargent (Report on the Forests of North America, 1881, p. 170) its wood is " very beautiful and of undoubted valile as a cabinet wood." But for sand-planting it is of importance in any case, its wind-resisting and drought-resisting power being so gxeat, and fitting it for shelter-screens ; and, morever, it can be procured very cheaply from the nurserymen. (e.) Pinus insignis (correctly called P. radiata), (the Monterey Pine). — This is also a tree A\'itli an extremely restricted habitat locally, and yet is now the best-known and most widely cultivated of all the Californian pines. It grows naturally on dry, rocky, and sandy hills near the sea, and is confined to a few limited localities on th" Californian mainland and to some small islands off the coast. 7 unhesitatingly consider it the most important of all trees for dune-affore^.tation. Its cheapness of production, the perfect certainty of its growth Avith the minimum trouble in planting, its estremel\' rapid growth, its tolerance of high winds and drought, and its great value as a most quickly produced timber, if only of the second class, mark it out as a sand-tree of prime excellence. Regarding its value for timber purposes, much more is now known than was the case some years ago, when it was the fashion to speak of it slightingly. In Canterbury it Avas j^lanted very largely by man}' of the earher settlers, rather for shelter and ornament than for timber. But of late years many of these plantations have been converted into timber, and the wood is daily gaining a. reputation for use where not exposed to the weather, and for the rougher farm-buildings. The trees whii'h are being used, it luusi be remembered, were not planted closely on forestry lines, and contain very many more kii,jts in the wood than would otherwise have been the case. Mr. T. W. Adams's ,1ictura /,• the timljer of /'. nisi'jiiis (and 1 i ;iii i|ii()l( iki (jiic wIkiSi' \V(jr(ls ciiulil rarrv iilcatrr wciglit) slifiuld hr well ccjiisiilricd : III lliiidciiiu (if .-I lururc tiiiil)iT-.supply, one naturally asks what arc likely to be the needs of I III' lutuir ; and if \vr lio tn nldcr and better-developed manufacturing countries we find that there IS a Liii'iit dcniaiid for soft «-oods for packini^-cases, \\'ood-pulp for making paper, &c., and for these puiposrs sonu' tree ni' trees air refpiired that will grow quickly and produce cheap Avood. In Europe and America the greater portion of the supply of soft woods is from the different spruces, a lesser sii])pl\' comini; ftom poplars and willows. All these difTerent trees from Europe and America have iiceii intioduii'd into New Zealand, but I venture to sav that Pinus insignii will produce twice as iiniili tiiiiljer per : inn as any one of them : emiseqiientlv, Phius insifptis is to be pi-eferred for planting lor llic jiroduction of wood of this class: and I sjjeak from the experience of the growth of twenty speeies of Eiuopean and American spruces, besides several Asiatic ones," (Kensington, AV, C, 106a, p, 113,) (f,) Pinus mvricata (the Eishop Pine), — This pine is a native of California, and grows naturally on low swampy hills, swampy flats, or rocky hills, and always near the ocean-beach or within a few miles of it. In New Zealand it is preferred by many as a sand-tree to Pinus insiynis, especially in the neighbourhood of Wauganui, Tlie wood is " verv resinous, light, hard, and rather coarse-grained. It is sometimes used for piling, as the light-brown heartwood is very durable," (Jepson, o;;. cit.. \). 1\.) It is somen\hat uiore liardv than P. iiisir/nis. and therefore to be preferred for shelter-belts on the sand-drift an-as of f'entral Ota,2o. On some soils it is very apt to be blown over during gales. (g,) TaiiiaiiK ijallica (tlie Tamarisk), — The tamarisk grows very well indeed upon dunes close to the sea,. At New Brighton it is one of the few plants that are never damaged by the salt winds. Though not the equal of Olearia Traversii for shelter pjurposcs, it is a valuable low tree nevertheless, ft is propagated \ejy leadily by means of cuttinjis. Other species of Tamarix are also suitalde for duiii'-cultivation. (h.) Lupiiiua arhiii-i'ijn (TreH-lu])in). — This, and its uses, &c.. have been already dealt with. ((j.) Trees, &c., /tot vsualhj toleratlmj Sea-spray, hut (jrrjwirui ivell in Sand. (a.) Various .Species of EucAi.ypTifs, I'he species which can be grown will depend altogether upon the winter climate. Where there is at times 12" of frost, oiilv tlie following can be relied upon : Eucalyptus globulus (blue-gum), E. Gunnii (cider-gum), E. Muelleri. E. coriacea, E. viminalis. E. Stuartiana, E. urnigera, and E. cocci/era. Where there is less frost the followine niay be gTown : E. ainygrhiUmi , E. nhliqna, E. numerosa, E. regnans, and E. pilularis. There an- profialily many species which could be erown in northern Auckland, but their hardiness lias not liei'n tested as \'et to any extent so far as I know. (b.) Vakkhjs SrEciES or A<'Acia. (I.) .ieaeia iiiclaiioxylori, (Lightwood ; Jjladcwood), — This tree gi-ows excellently and fairlv rapii.llv upon pure sand, // /.'■■ certainly oti.e of the most valuable trees for duHc-afjorestation. It forms evi'iituailv a moderate-sized tree, and should be available for timber in thirty years. The wood is speeiallv useful for ornamental purposes, such as the interior of railway-can-iages, &c,, ornamental \\o)k ill liouses, and furniture. It is hardy in any part of the North and South Island dunes. It and all ihi' sjii'eiis of Acacia are raised easily and rapidly from seed; but this statement onlv ap]}lies to seeil jiisl i'resldv gathered, whicli I have, known to germinate in seven davs. Old seed, on the con1i-ar\-. 'ji-rniinates witii extreme slowness, and may ta,ke a, year or more. Such seed najuii'i's soaking;' in iiearh' biiiliii'.; water fnj- some jiours jusi before sowing. (li.) The rartoiis Australian, Wattles. — .\ll the wattles gi'ow well and with extreme rapidii\' on sand. They are a sph-ndid insti-ument in the hands of the duiie-eultivator. .leaciri decurrens (black wattli') is espcciidly valuable on account of the bark for tanning purposes. .1. dralbata (silv(-r wattle) grows at an a.strmi.shing rat". It gives of! an abundance of suckers from tin' roots, so that thickets may arise in this manner covering many square yards. Damaging the roots leads also to suckers. Drifting sand can thus be covered very rapidly with a close gi'owth ; but if the space be at any time required for any other pur-jiose the eradication of tlie wattle would be very^ costly. Its use, then, must be regulated by circumstances. A. pycnantha (golden wattle) is not so hardy as the two preceding ' 's. Its l)!i]-k is richer in tannin than is that of A. decurrens, but the yield of liark is considerably It never grows A'cry tall, and is of a shrubby habit of growth. Slieejes. ('■}.) Other species of Acacia. -'VliC-ix are a number of species of Acacia (A. lorujijolia, A. lunala, .1. sal'cina, A. .-iophorae, A. penninerris. and others) which grow with the greatest rapidity on pure sand, iorinin.e a very close growth (see Photo No. 4«). They are very ornamental, especiallv when covered with jiiiiltitudes of soft yellow blossom. The onlv drawback is that the older branches arc liable to lie liroken by the wind, but such daniaoe usualh' does no harm to the tree. (r.J \VIUJ<\V> {.-,:■ {'I,.,!,, Xn. (ill). .-V e,.,n:;,ider,i!ile numbi.-r of willows gnuv e.vc.-ll.'ntly on ,-;and. while .^.inje are actuallr I me salid- bmdmg plants. A number are dune-plants of the Northern Hi-misphere. A selection of the species c~is. No. 71. Intkhiop I I I \\mi ^ V, j)| ^ I \l^llM\ II ■,/ No. 72. Another View of Xew Ekichton Pl.^ni.vtion, 'J'o face puiji: 6'J.] TllEE^ UN Sril-MIT UF llFNE. [Phutu L Curhujjiu ')3 (!.-13. fMmsidcrod specially suitable ,s to )„■ found m th. " L,st of Plnuts for Cultivaiion." Tl,. C.uU.u ^^o^iSahxcasp^ca) will tolovut. s.:,,-s|>n,,v. Tt is ..hjocl,.,! t„ ,n Kumpr Ih.,..us,. it ,s l,.l,l,. to ionn mon-Hls, MM, the sa,„„. v.'ould .,p],ly to otlirr »l,rnl,l,v w,llo^vs. Alhhr sann.. it .nd ..tl,,.' ^,n„l-l,o„l,n.. win,ws nnght with advantage l)e naturalized on our dunes. Allliouol, .rowije. .v,-.!! K- fr„in cuttmgs, sucl, shoult not be used in situ, but sliould be struel. ui adA'aiie,.' undo,, favouiabl,. , „n.rial is most easy to procure. (Should the seed germinate well and there o.-: a ,c;oo,l crop of seedlinos in due course the vouns; plants must be thinned out, but it is well to leave iIkmh in <'.— 13, 64 .iliv r;is.' iiMirli rloMM Tli:ili js 1 liti-i iflcd {,■]■ ll|.. tin.il fii'i'S. Xaruiv ill .SUcli ii statioii will (In a ul-rat 'leal ol lliiiihiliL! I ll!. Bvoailrast SnwiliL; i-aii alsn laLa- place ritli,,]' \\-||i-l'(; Ilia n'am-.ul-aSS liaS lll-rll lll^'wlv |ilaiifril 111 ulii'iv it is ilviMj; iiiir iiwiiii; til a tailiii'^ saiiil-,su]j[)l\-. fii Fiaiirr. jiorse. broom, and mai'raiii- L^iass si'ril IS iiiixnl with tluit ni liir I'iiiiis pi , nisi, -r in iivdrv to sii])]«]\' iiupse plants. Probably annual lupin uuiilil lii'ttrr si-r\i' tin' sa.mr puvpmsi' in Nrxv Zt-aland profi'durr. sinff botli i;iirsr and broruii tcTow with astonishmo- viiionr on sand, and sijon attain a vcmarkablf size, (y.) Tri't'-'jiIfUltlinf. (a.) GENEEAt,. Thi^ ^•ounl; trees tiiav lie eitliPr planted Arithoiit anv speeial preparation or tliey mav be iiio-i-sed. In early plantin" on Xe\v Zealand dunes, and even vet where only a few trees are to be planted, good soil was placed in the holes. SiicJi n method /.? iy((//< mil r,/ the qufstioii for irholesale pkniting. .sinee the expense of procuriiio .soil is too ereat. but otherwise it ))osse.sses eei-tain advantages, as shown further on. Glossing consists in wrappin^i fresh sphagiuim moss round the roots nf the plant, fastening it on with a strip of fla.\'. and moistening the moss before planting. This method is best for trees difficult to transplaiit---c.y., species of .icncifi. IldLea. Eucfiji//)lus. C)zoth(nn mis rosiiiiirimiohiix. Pinufs hincio. &c. Mossing, of cfiurse, adds to the expense. If the vouiiii trees are mossed for some time previous to planting and then heeled into moist uTouiid fVir a time. iie\v' roots will develop, and the chance of their growing be much increased. More expensive still is raising plants m pots. This is done bv sowing a seed oi- twri in soil in a thumb-pot or one rather larger, and remo^nng eventually all the seedlings except one. Or the plants can be raised in a seed-bed and afterwards potted. When almost pot-bound, the plant, earth and all, easily comes away from the pot, and should be planted at once. Very few failures result from this method, proiideil the soil round the -plant is wet at the time of plantimj. Pot-plants are too eumbersome. and 'the method pjrobablv too expensive, for planting on a large scale, but it may Ije tised with great aiKantage for mnior plantings anrl for sandhill "ardeniiig. &e. (ll.) TlIF. I'LAXTIMI. Planting may be conducted in a similar manner to that of marram-grass, using either a shovel, spade, or dilible, one person makinc the holes and tlie other planting. If the dibble is used one person will suffice, if necessary. A time when the sand is moist should be chosen. Quite small plants are the best. One-year-old Finns insignis. for instance, are growing quite well at Ocean Beach (see Plioto No. 60). The right age of trees for planting differs according to the species, but in manv cases one-year or at most two-year-old trees are suitable. Pinus laricio does not transpla.nt very readilv, and perhaps should lie mossed ; but generally, so far as pines are concerned, plants which have been transplanted in the nursery and have plenty of fibrous roots will be suitable. The roots should on no account be exposed to sun or wind before planting. Close plantiruj is an essential both for the pro- duction of economic forests and for holding the sand. The minimum might be 2 ft. apart, and the ma.ximum distance 3-\ ft. Close planting, of course, increases the expense. Before planting, if the ground is not already planted with marram-grass, the sand must be closely covered \vith brushwood. The (4erman method of sand-fences in squares is doubtless a most excellent method of protection and sand-fixing, but can hardly be recommended for this countrv. except under verv special circumstances, on account of the gxeat expense it entails. fi\) The Xati.'re he the liEnrxn to be plaxted. The ground should be as even as possible. According to the German practice the dune-complex is flattened, the vegetation being removed from the tops of the hills, and the -wind allowed free play until an even surface is secured. Such a practice, according to Gerhardt (18, pp. ,330-331). is indis- pensable. On the other hand, so far as my examination of the New Zealand dunes goes. I have seen marram-grass undamaged on hills and in wnd-chamiels (see Photos Nos. -55 and 56), and I have seen clumps of trees which have been for years on unleveUed sandhills. At the same time, no one can have been more struck than myself by the destructiA-e effect of contiguous moruuls. of peaks rising above the general level, and of the irregular planting of sand-binding plants and shrubs. But, as saicl before, many dune-complexes as a whole are not changing, construction and destraction going on slowly and simidtaneously. It seems to me. then, that with the aid of shelter-strips of marram-grass in such an area the hollows, the lower hills, and the already flattened portions could be safely planted with trees. The dune-plantations at New Brighton may be considered secure, and they are a case in point, though hardly a crucial one. At any rate, any dune-area which is to be planted must be considered on its own merits. The wandering dunes and the semi-wandi-ring dunes, on the contrary, have an even surface, and could be planted with trees. Many flat areas exist in the dune-cornplex where the hills have lieen levelled b\- the wind, and here. too. all is readv for orthodox afforestation. The hollows, so long as they are not in danger of invasion, will grow- trees well and easily unless the water-content is too great. In that case the alder would lie the best tree to use. and perhaps certain of the willows. Hollows whei'e C'arex piiinila is dominant would gem ndlv be verv suitable and those still more so winch .-ire occupied by embryonic dunes of Scirpas nodosus or Siiinifex hirsiitus. ncieiit. ;u (J5 C— 18. {rl.) Csi: OK M" \\rj;i-:s. The (|u>'.sti(iii of siipplyiiiK the Sciiid with some of rhe luiti-itive sahs in whicli it i.s so : i— ;« X -r — o 5 = ;c Q pa z; o <1 X != r- Z =* — '/- rf i; O '-" i^i^ S -C 'f- Z a ot great. lelter ; v acacias t =6 S i ^-^ S P ec- «S£ ">^S ^, -*^ ^ 3 i|-^ '* ^ — :f = 22 ~. -^ it^ -.ff ■ -A cc - 3 £ ^ J ^ 'p-^ ^=2 '^-:: «— >^_^ .. >^o^^ S ^ |?|^ I 5 t^ 1:2 "S § § o'^-5 WH05Q^t>cqQ(:q O > -^ < : — -g -3 ^ X a =« 2 -' -r. 3. 5 "^^ -G O ^ 1- o J- C ^?5 boce ^ CJ — 1 - -c ■f. -t ^ ^ " ^ c 5 -H V. S-5 > >■ .S P ^ +^ -= 2 -^ ° tS ^ ? tt^ ■S'5 -c i ~ :: < H -5 Eh k; > i/j X c^ _= *_ 6 ^ ^ '->■■ ■ £ -^ c c i _o - p :; £ = -= 5 3 ■- s ■E-S 'a; § 7: 25 ^ P5 - O t H S -*: s H - g I !z; - 1^ Z i3 : 60 S S .33 ?P f' ■"' = EC bo 5 S 00 60 ^ — J; ^C -'- ?::o<:i?:r;o.oa; a:!EHEHcC!ZJHEHX' 'j: -j: 'r, -y: v; p > > ^r3A £, -^^-3'^ W? ■:;' ffi -< -. S£-Z-iZ ,i..2 JS 3^ *i >i ■' '^- -i. £ c § g - 3.« X x H ^ H ^ : — z :i: z z S Z Z a: wSS =5'^' lofc 5 c J J'3 wz ^ 03 r- ^' rt =3 1 * cd 3 s, ■ . * ■ K.2 5 ao o ce 2 X .5 fcl ^ S'S p t* X- 2 -i= q -S a it bo bO -^ < -^ -^ 3 2 n Ij 2 Ji tb £ 3 -^ o X t X ?. 3 -g 'o CQ c: 67 C— 13. o o .•a o -s 3 oj a; S 3J ^ t^ Sh ;^ _™ t3 -O :^3 1^ — 2 '-S ^ s Oi -^ S 3 "^' !0 ^ "S .S !S +i 2 § S-3 S 2 o '^ fl .;^ +^ •— c oi ce -o g -2 S -^ S t: .; o 2'Mi^ S S^ H S ,fe < C «■ e = s ^ . .* O O C! 5^ £ (D 2 3N a. ^ ^-3 S ^ 3j > .S N "S ' — I ni '^ -3 - '•^ :S ^ I g^-f -g' g ^ I -2 5 ■^ is o : 8 0, '-" 2 ^.a J ■ 2 ? -.i ■-? -° j5 , -O j3 60 2 ' So-t; X ^ oi a 5b o o 2 ■M -i: :^ a 5 .-riiS 3 » a • ■ ^ oj H '- * c c "^ 3 , o -^ -g a g S X c5 -3 .X c a o ._ G _2 ii H .S .S -S 3 13 c S s m Qo a? CO « 6o OOx hWe crt CD ai o -2 CD a:' H) Cj t-i ^ ;^ 5 tiD to tx j; Sh fn rH g J) c- c. p_i (D a> a:> M ^' r^' -C ^ ^ ^i C O GOix a; i-. t- i- i; o:, C C^ &, £2h 'J2 a:i IT. =e ce le (S rf K >>>>> > > > > > c- 1^ 1/ i- d; tD o 0:1 Oj a: 0( CD C' oj a; D 1, ii, (V, © ®DiUa: 1 Ng; 1 ■r. a tc K a bU T3 ^' Q^ -5 ' > J rJQ ufPOtf j § 2 2 S § £ «" '«<:^ d C '^ . bD O ce c5 -r; — JP CD o u o pH u^ > -'T c .r Jr3 '<- .—'--- w' >- ^-* 'JCi i-r p ■-^ •■-; "-; ■■^ ■-^ f'^ cS '> 3 P P P ^. 1. ■Eb& CuO 3 o -3 ° TO O 4: 3 te s 2 S =?•? 3 a ct p .3 _;^ I .a 3 » ! — 3 is o .2 2 S Q. & a -e o o 3 >> 1»> ~B S S ■3 ^ all ^p 1 fi %lk' 3 « * G"^. 3 3 # 0-30 >-. ca ^ 3 T -3 -2 3 !^ C 3 J=' 3 -3 3 ^ s E.a :c St sjc - a 3 3 Mil 1 -g S "g p (",-^-18. (i8 £ S •=£ ^ 3 O 5-1 m J. ^ :- u. =7^ ■-!- ;- -r c *-; - ct ^^ -j: 3M^ ai--^ ^ c ^ £ - -a a .;£ :, ^ ^ O"^ t? ;^. e-= 71 — * c ^ +- j:2 ~ ^ ■ b' s — '^J > > i C- X o ts 5 a .11 "" o Q =D br^ bjo bfj'p o '^ 3^ 3 Ji lE^HE ^ ^ s o o o (X, =J ?t ^ C '„ ^ T3 rC o o o t3 -:3 T3 J^ ,=; « ® ^ t^ ;h °- 2h C O O bo &£) be >; ^ - - 3 :: ^ ^ ''^ be be S S p ^ S o — ?- .- ^ ;-S333 = oo-f-Ps'S^ — f •_ -- •_ -_ 1. -_ „; g J - ^ ,- g r ( H W S X x X a: rf O rt ■;- ^ ; g ?< 2 bi: i I a ^ X 5 :3 3 ■* 3^3 3 3 _S -^ •. o s^ r^ ^r^ w^ ; : -^ ■^ _rt _d _g < '^^ ce "S : ;^ K pa 2;a a E .2 53 ^j ^ T3 r. S t- 3 ;3 0^ 3 C 3 :S 3 3 fS s te .S , -~ -S =^ ;-^ ^1^ ^'w -r.i; ^ ^ fH «j tH a: 3 .ij'Siii; -5333333 — s X — yj H E^ S .^ ^ 1 . r .3 3 y - £ S: ffl &; ; — S 35 ^ ^ -D ^ C !2 3 C3 U5 3 ■• 2| a a 3- s. — radiata aiioium luteuii eliaiithus tube elichrysum d merly known rosmarinifoliu olcnw lanatus . g 1 ex vomitaria . akea saligna . — acicularis . f=5 , 1 --^arw ffi 1 SEE 1 \ .2 s 'S -S O 3 I 'g 5 — 2 ts £ -° 3 -3; a 3c3-3'~4)^wiSr3 >•. I J . 3 w J 3 " 6ej5 Cod o « — I 3 i = 3 .3 O 3 2 S i'^ III ■- .3 " a f d >- o o -^ o ^ ■ &>^ = a O X r^ o =g c oi «;c; o a a s S5 J=i o -^ fch "73 -g ° i 9 i -^ ii ff >? o 1^ o "^ f- ^ O „ cS c St: 2= S. a ^'j,- ' Ph ^ ■ ;a,=3 £^ - R a '-' Fi '-' — I ii sh p (H q jd © 5; O) o ^ , r fH C' O r—t ■11 SI ' "3 C S g » § g g ; T) O "2 " ,=* ^ si 2 S5^ o j=-a ■ * " o ^ o C 05 C o C ° ° 2 „ -^ = = 3 i S [o to '-'_ £r2^ S Z ^i c c tij bjC ?p tj. ir S:" fl G 0^ [V. °':hs i;ggj.a;pgc;CCOOOO-^^og ?t tfi £0 g) gp M pt M g g ^ II .= a -C ^ 3 ©aiCL'fDiua^aja' bO bJj bJD be bJD bD bD bO ©iJt'flJO^Oit' ' r, , ^ ^ ^ . ^ M «r . ^ ^ „ • JD _Q _Q "S a;i,a;oa>-i'a>o ooaj(Lijajci>o^a:Q;4j^5;.iJp3Q3r a;oa>©aja;a;!Drfrfcjii)cu4>?t-fr-oC-^ HEhHHHHHEh H^^SSSSSSaBHHHW^gE^^ d -a * J is ci OJ fe-^i- ^^■z, g^ J^ <;;^;!2;oai Ho ri rt cd c^ cti ^ g e s s E g 3< g-.^ ^ ^ ;^ >S -2 O 3tSol;S^cao3 e"^ fc O L '? oj 3 . . .> ft," S = ti -p "2 53 >> p a =« >=• te '^ o PmiH a< 5 >-. a p. '-■ an p S ^ ^ -y; ■" a'p, =^.e a.s ■ ^ - .3 ft !» ft o'^ *Sj o JS ' o " S-^ • g § gj3 ftT3 ft : ft5 s ft - O ft O r b :; G i- ^ o "3 -D -^ g g s s g s " fe « 1^5 .3 P=^ d d d :73 ■g-o |> P CO — ■ftJD P --i 2 >, ^ P CO p H ^ Ei ■2"^ J g " n I- CO c3 ^ J o P,3 J3 g^ JS as' 3 ^ . ft s C— 13. 70 < SI o H >■ l-H H H^ t3 O P Q Pi o m <^ H I — ( ra Ph P:^ O 03 "3 3 _^ -1^ ay g 2 'S -3 o ^S '^1 "3 a ^-s^t 5 bf=a - -^ hn 2S ^ ^ sot; :S - _ 6 So % C c^ ■^ ^ T3 c cE S ^ ^ ' br. - 8 I * =f- .■ §WJS 5 o I !r ■3 o.d : v rt y ^ o ^ r- & PS '£ ° ~ 5 o o o £ ^ « b &>;£ ^ .3 ■§ 6 -2 "= & P O O S O O -t; P ja bcH a o 3 •" — .3 ~ '.^ /Ti 'Z C -^ 3 2, ra ^ - -1 ca t- -J, r- ' ! ^ = P S S = . S- "3 C P O r 11^ 5 "^ a o X- r; j3 ? ^\j:3 OSS ,-|i -r. ^ 2 S ?! O bf 5^.^ ":!■-= -c '2. _; 1 = s ~^ .S -3 - .4^ +^ V; O o 6 J-? s:* =^3 ■ HSf> C2 ^ ? ~, ■'■ •- =e " ■; jc ">^ — i S.5'5-3 • ^ = l^-r s 3 ce.2 o o -id fMfe o 3 - _ O O X z = « 3 K ^ s 2 3 2 ^ " G 3 C ^ Cj S> 3 O' Oj ,j2 ,_0 .-^ D O b. '- S -2 Si) g -■ S S .2 S g - £ S S 2 ° '5-^ "S 'S 'S -^ "j^ l| ill 111 1 \ H ;-! ^ i; q; t- ai Oj ^ ^, I- ^ ;-! !h jz: H H X H H X r Fh h (h ;m t- i; ff Hi oj oj ■!> ffi 7. 5^ G t ^ rica gioii 'E Sz.2 5 o-^*-^ S aftN C; f- P-! ^L, ^s feqz-^zaz :^<:yZ^ "i* ^ 6 G— ^-^ O ^ C O-ii pqp^lsSQ oS 2 i:; <3 :;:^ iq S?; i^ :^ < > ? p < ^;:?; aK;;^; • X3 f? _5 ^ZH 2 §1 3 s s--- ^ • O ■ ■ ■ f . _;._—! S . . H t: . ■=.—.£ *f - -^ 3 li'g r J iJ g ^ I - ^ ■^ ^ » o .s -B fe » -I « ^ ^i 3-g&' -^-o- SSg go,-fc2 sap 5g-5|.°.-S =^S fl^^q jMf^ OO WiJrt OmWimK men M(1,|:Qm> as ' 2 a ; -*^ S .11 "- 3 71 C.-13. APPENDIX I. LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED.* (a.) GENERAL LITERATURE. ]. Appleton, A. F., and Davy, B. : " Economic Notes on Transvaal Grasses " ■ Kew Bull No S p. 158 ; 19n. ' ' ' 1a. Beadnell, H. J. L. : " An Egyptian Oasis " ; 1909. " The Sand-dunes of the Libyan Desert " ; Geog. Journ., April, 1910. :^.A Beck, G. von : " Die Vegetationsverhiiltnisse der lUyrischen Lander " ; 1901. 3. Chrysler, M. A. : " Anatomical Notes on certain Strand Plants " ; Bot. Gaz. vol xxxvii d 161 ■ 1904. " ' ^ ■ 3a- " The Ecological Plant Geography of Maryland " ; Maryland Weather Service, vol. iii, p. 149 (no date on reprint). 4. Clements, F. E. : " Research Methods in Ecology " ; 1905. 5- " Plant Physiology and Ecology," London ; 1907. 5a. Cobb. C. : " Where the Wind does the Work " ; Journ. Mitchell Soc. p. 80 ; 1906. 6. Cole, G. A. G. : " Aids to Practical Geology" ; 1902. 7. Cornish, V. ; " On the Formation of Sand Dunes " ; Geog. Journ., vol. ix, p. 278 ; 1897. 8. " On Desert Sand Dunes bordering the Nile Delta " ; Geog. Journ., vol. xv. p. 1 ; 19(J0. " 9. " On Sand-waves in Tidal Currents " ; Geog. Journ., vol. xviii, p. 170 ; 1901. 10. " On Snow-waves and Snow-drifts in Canada " ; Geog. Journ., vol. xx, p. 1.37 ; 1902. 11. Coulter, S. : " A Catalogue of the Flowering-plants indigenous to Indiana " ; 1900. 12. Cowles, H. C. : " The Ecological Relations of the Vegetation of the Sand Dunes of Lake Michigan " ; Bot. Gaz., vol. xxvi, Nos. 2-5 ; 1899. 13. Diels, L. : " Die Pflanzenwelt von West AustraUen siidlich des Wendekreises " ; Leipzig, 1906. 13a. Ewart. A. J. : " The Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturahzed Ahens of Victoria " ; Melbourne. 1909. 14. Fippin, E. 0., and Rice, T. D. : " Soil Survey of Allegan Countv, Michigan " ; Field Operations of Bur. of Soils, 3rd Rep., p. 93 ; 1902. 15. Forsyth, T. D. : " On the Buried Cities in the Shifting Sands of the Great Desert of Gobi " ; Proc. R. Geog. Soc, p. 27 ; 1876. 16. Free, E. E., and Westgate, J. M. ; "The Control of Blowing Soils" ; Farmers' Bulletin 421, U.S. Depart. Agric. ; 1910. 17. Ganong, W. F. : '' The Nascent Forest of the Miscou Beach Plain " ; Bot. Gaz., vol. xlii, p. 81 ; 1906. 18. Gerhardt, P. : " Handbuch des deutschen Diinenbaues " ; Berhn, 1900. The geology by A. Jentzsch, the botany by J. Abromeit, and the forestry by P. Bock. 19. Gleason, H. A. : " A Botanical Survey of the Illinois Sand Areas " ; Bull. 111. State Lab. of Nat. Hist., vol. vii, p. 149 ; 1907. 20. " The Vegetational History of a River Dime " ; Trans. 111. State Acad, of Sci., vol. li, p. 19 ; 1909. 21. Hall, A. D. : " The Soil " ; London, 1904. 22 Harshberger, J. W. : " An Ecological Study of the New Jersey Strand Flora " ; Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., pt. iii, p. 623 ; 1901. 23 " Additional Observations on the Strand Flora of New Jersey " ; Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., vol. liv, p. 642 ; 1903. 24. ■' The Reclamation and Cultivation of Salt Marshes and Deserts " ; Bull. Geol. Soc. Phil. ; July, 1907. 25_ " The Comparative Leaf-structure of the Sand-dune Plants of Bermuda : Proc. Am. Phil. Soc, vol. xlvii, p. 97 ; 1908. 26. Hitchcock, A. S. : " Controlling Sand Dunes in the United States and Europe " ; Nat. Geog. Mag. ;' Jan., 1904. 27 " Methods used m Controlling and Reclaimmg Sand Dunes " ; U.S. Dept. Agnc, Bur. PI. Ind., Bull. No. 57 ; 1904. 28 Jepson W L. : " The Trees of California " ; San Francisco, 1909. 29.' Kearney, T. H. : " The Plant Covering of Ocracoke Island " ; Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb., vol. v. No. 6; 1900. "^^blio^raphjToT^ ^^^^&c., is given by Gerhardt, but, of course, the greater part are m no Xew Zealand library. r.-lH. 72 ■^0. Keavney, T. H. ; " Report on a Botanical Survo\' of thi' Dismal Swamp Eegjon " ; C'ontrib. U.S. Nat. Herb., vol. v, No. 6 ; 1901. •'51. " Are Plants of Sea-lieaches and Dunes true Halojihvtes '" ; Bot. Gaz., vol. xxxvii, p. -124 ; 1904. 32. ■' Agriculture without Irrigation in the Sahara Desert " ; U.S. Dept. Agric, Bur. PL Ind., Bull. No. 86 ; 1905. 33. Kearney. T. H., and Harter. L. L. : " The Comparative Tolerance of X'arious Plants for the Salts Common in Alkali Soils'" ; U.S. Dept. Agric. Bur.. PL Ind.. Bull. No. 113 ; 1907. 34. Keilhack, K. : " Lehrbuch der Praetischen CJeologie " ; p. 327; 1908. 35. Lamson-Scribner. F. " Grasses as Soil and Sand-binders " ; Year-book LLS. Dept. Agric. p. 421 ; 1895. 36. " Saud-binding Grasses '" ; Year-book U.S. Dept. Agric. p. 403 ; 1898. 37. Langley, S. P. : " The Internal Work of the Wind" ; Am. Journ. Sc. vol. xlvii, p. 41 ; 1894. 38. Lesage. P. : " Influence du bord de la mer sur la Structure des Feuilles '" ; 1890. 38a. MacMillan, C. : " Observations on the Distribution of Plants along Shore at Lake of the Woods " ; Minnesota Bot. Studies, vol. i. p. 949 : 1894-1898. 39. Maiden. J. H. : " Notes on the Commercial Timbers of New South ^A'ales " : 1904. 40. " The Sand-drift Problem in New South Wales " ; Journ. and Proced. R. Soc. N.S.W.. vol. xxxvii, p. 82 ; 1903. 40a. Marloth, R. : " On some Aspects in the Vegetation of South Africa which are due to the Prevailing AVinds " ; Rep. S.Af. Assoc. A.S.. p. 215 : 1906. (Discusses the mechanical and physiological action of wind.) 41. Massart. J. ; " Esquisse de la Geographic Botanique dc la Belgique " ; Bruxelles. 1910. 42. " La Biologic de la Vegetation sur Ic littoral Beige " : Mem. Soc. E. Bot. Belg., vol. xxxii, p. 7 ; 1893. 42a. Mueller, F. von : " Select extratropical Plants " ; 7th edition ; Melbourne. 1888. 43. Nansen, F. : " Oscillations of Shore-lines " ; C4eog. Journ., vol. xxvi, p. 605 ; 1905. 44. Olsson-Seffer, P. : " Relation of Wind to Topographv of Coastal Drift Sands " ; Journ. of GeoL, vol. xvi, p. 549 ; 1908. 45. " Relation of Soil and Vegetation on Sandy Sea-shores " ; Bot. Gaz., vol. xlvii. p. 85 ; 1909. 46. " Hydrod\aiamic Factors influencing Plant Life on Sandv Sea-shores " ; New PhytoL, vol. viii] p. 39 ; 1909. 47. Owens, J. S., and Case, G. 0. : " Coast Erosion and Foreshore Protection " ; London. 1908. 48. Petrie, W, M. F. : " Wind Action in Egypt " ; Proc. R. Geog. Soc, vol. xi, p. 646 ; 1889. 49. Porsild, M. P. : " Bidtrag til en Skildring af A^^getationen paa oen Disco " ; saetr. af " Meddel. om Gronland," vol. xxv. p. 93 ; 1902. 49a. Rackman, R. : Kieferndiingungs versuch auf den Diinen der Knrischen Nehrung : 1910. 50. Reclus, E. : " The Ocean," p. 187 ; 1874. 51. Reiche, K. : " Grundziige der Pflanzenverbreitung in Chile " ; Leipzig, 1907. 52. Reid, C. ; " Coast Erosion " ; Geog. Journ., vol. xxviii, p. 487 ; 1906". 52a. Schantz, H. L. : " Natural Vegetation as an Indicator of the Capabilities of Land for Crop Production in the Great Plains Area " ; U.S. Dept. of Agric. Bur. PL Ind., Bull. No. 201 ; 1911. 53. Schimper, A. F. W. : " Plant Geography upon a Physiological Basis " (English Translation) : Oxford, 1903. 54. Schhch. W. : " Manual of Forestry " ; 1897. 55. Shaler, N. S. : " Phenomena of Beach and Dune Sands " ; Bull. GeoL Soc of Am., vol. v, p. 207 ; 1894. 56. Smith, R. and W. G. : " Botanical Survey of Scotland, iii and iv — Forfar and Fife " ; Scotch Geog. Mag., vols, xx, xxi ; 1904-5. 57. Snow, L. M. : '' Some Notes on the Ecology of the Delaware Coast " ; Bot. Gaz., vol. xxxiv, p. 284 ; 1902. 57a. Turner, F. : "Australian Saltbushes " ; Kew Bull., p. 30; 1909. (An akstract of an article by F. Turner originally published in Sydney Morning Herald of the 20th June. 1907.) 57b. " Australian Pasture Herbs " ; Ibid. p. 12 ; 1909. (Certain herbs cited as valuable pasture plants, some of which are indigenous or introduced in New Zealand.) 58. Warming, E. : " Halofyt-Studier " ; Mem. Acad. R. d. sc. et d. Let. d. Danomark, Copenhague, 6me ser., sect. d. sc, t. viii, No. 4 ; 1897. 59. " Lehrbuch der Okologischen Pflanzengeographie " ; Berlin, 1902. 60. " Ekskursionen til Fano og Blaavand " ; ^Saer. af Bot. Tid., bd. xxv, H. 1 ; 1902. 61. " Der Wind als pflanzengeographischcr Factor " ; Eng. Bot. Jahrb., bd. xxxi, 4, p. 556 • 1902. 62. " Die Wiudfrage " ; Eng. Bot. Jahrb.. bd, xxxii, p. 25 ; 1903. 63. " Oecology of Plants " ; Oxford, 1909. 64. Webster, A. D. : " Trees and Shrubs best adapted for Planting as Shelter in the Islands of Scot- land " ; Trans. High, and Agric Soc of Scot., p. 78 ; 1890. 65. Westgate, J. M. : " Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes " ; U.S. Dept. of Agric Bur PI Ind Bull. No. 65 ; 1904. . - ' 66. Wilkie, T. : " The Varieties of Trees best adapted for Shelter in the Highlands of Scotland " ; Trans. High, and Agric. Soc. of Scot., vol. v, p. 88 ; 1889. 73 C— 13. (?).) LITERATURE RELATING TO THE NEW ZEALAND DUNKS. 67. Aherne, R. ; " Utilization of BaudhiUs Resorve " ; N.Z. Couutrv .Journnl, vol. vi p. 40.5 • 1882 68. Androws, E. W. : •' Pebbles and Drifting Sand" ; Trans. N.Z.'inst., vol. xxvi. p. 397 : 1894. 69. Anonymous : " Note on Psamma arenarin" ; N.Z. Countrv .Journal, vol. xvii p U8 ■ 1803 70. Armstrong, .1. B. ; " A short Sketch of the Flora of the Province of Canterbury " ■ Trans N Z Inst., vol. xii, p. 32.5 ; 1880. ' ' 71. Armstrong, J. F. : " On the Vegetation of the Neighbourhood of Chnstchuirh. including Riccarton Dry Bush, &c." ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. ii, p. 119 ; 1870. ^lA. "Plants suitable for Cultivation in New Zealand"; WeUington, 1884. (I ha\-e not seen this pamphlet of eight pages, but it contains, according to N.Z. .Journ. Sc, vol. ii, p. 77 a list of plants for binding sand-drifts). 72. Bathgate, A. : "Annual Report of the Dunedin and Reserves Conservation Society"; 1910. (Contains an account of sand-planting at Ocean Beach.) 73. Bell, C. N. : " Drift-material of New Zealand Beaches " ; Rep. A.A.A.S., p. 479 ; 1891. 74. Bell, .J. M., and Clarke, E. de C. : " A Geological Reconnaissance of Northernmost New Zealand " ■ Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xlii. p. 613 ; 1910. 75. Bell, J. M.. Webb, .J. H., and Clarke, E. de C. : " The Geology of the Parapara Subdivision. Kara- mea. Nelson " ; N.Z. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 3, n.s. ; 1907. 76. Buchanan, J. : " Sketch of the Botany of Otago " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst.. \o]. i. pt. iii, p. 22 ; 1869. 76a. " List of Plants found on Miramar Peninsula. Wellington Harbour" ; Trans. N.Z. Inst vol. V, p. 349 ; 1873. 76b. " The Indigenous Grasses of New Zealand " : Wellington, 1880. 77. Buchanan, J., and Kirk. T. : " Li.st of Plants found in the Northern District of the Province of Auckland " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. li, p. 239 ; 1870. 78. Campbell, AV. D. : " On Beach Protection " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xi., p. 147 ; 1879. 79. Carruthers. .J. : " On the Formation of Detached Shingle Beaches" ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. x, p. 475 ; 1878. 80. Carse, H. ; " On the Flora of the Mauku District " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiv, p. 362 ; 1902. 81. " On the Flora of the Mangonui County " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xhn ; 1911. 82. Cheeseman. T. F. : " On the Flora of the North Cape District " ; Trans. N.Z. In,st.. vol. xxix, p. 333 ; 1897. 82a. " Manual of the New Zealand Flora " ; Wellington, 1906. 83. Cockayne, A. H. : " Report on the Flaxbourne Estate " ; 13th Rep. Dypt. Agric. of N.Z., p. loo ; 1905. 84. Cockayne, L. : " A Sketch of the Plant Geography of the Waimakariri River Basin consid'-red chiefly from an Oecological Point of View " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxh, p. 83 ; 1900. 85. " A Short- Account of the Plant Covering of Chatham Island " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst.. vol. xxxiv, p. 243 ; 1902. 86. " A Botanical Excursion during Midwinter to the Southern Islands of New Zealand " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxvi, p. 225 ; 1904. 87. " Report on a Botanical Survey of Kapiti Island " ; Wellington, 1907. 88. " Some Observations on the Coastal Vegetation of the South Island of New Zealand " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxix, p. 317 ; 1907. 89. " Report on a Botanical Survey of the Tongariro National Park " : Wellington. 1908. 90. " Report on a Botanical Survey of the Waipoua Kauri Forest " ; Wellington, 1908. 9L " Report on the Sand Dunes of New Zealand " ; AVellington. 1909. 92. " Report on a Botanical Survey of Stewart Island " ; Wellington, 1909. 93' ■' The Ecological Botany of the Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand"; The Subantarctn- Islands of N.Z., vol. 1. p. 182 ; 1909. 94. Colenso, W. : " Essay on the Botany, Geographic and Oeconomic. of the I\orth Island ot the Aew Zealand Group""; Trans. N.Z. inst.. vol. 1; 1869. 95. Crawford, J. C. ; " Directions for Raising and Spreading AmmophJa arumhnacra and htyinus arenarius": Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. y., p. HI ; 1873. .^ r, t , "Notes on the Fixing of Sandhills" (with letter from W . Keene) ; Trans. ^.Z. Inst., voh vi, p. .376; 1874. ' , •• ,,- 100,, " On Wind-formed Lakes " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xii^p. 41a , 1880. _ " Remarks on Mr. Travers's Paper on Sand-fixing ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xv, p. 0-8 ; 96. 97. 98. 99. 1 QQ3 — ■'■' On Fixing Blowing Sands bv means of planted Grasses" ; Trans, and Proc Bot. Soc. 99a. Crw,' k'd.^;^ ''" oTeryations on some New Zealand Halophytes " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. xlii, 100. Dief k' " "'^^etations-Biologie yon Neuseeland " ; Eng. Bot. Jahr.. b, xxu. H. 2, p. 2.)2 ; 101. Haast'sir J. yon; "Introductory Remarks on Ae IJtribution of Plants m the Provmc: of Canterbury"- Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 11, p. 118 : 18'0. 102. Ha.^ t^"' AmLphila " (a genus of grasses doselv allied to t e^ds, ; no date. 10.3. Hooker J. D. ; " Handbook of the New Zealand Flora ■ "U' ^^^^^^ ^- 2 j,,, ,-ol. xxx. 104. Hutchinson, F. ; " On Maori Middens at Wamui. Poyei^> Ba^ . Trans. ^.Z. p. 533 ; 1898. ti j ■■ t \ 7 Inst vol xxxiv p 409 ; Of Of Of Of Of Of 0.05. " Notes on the Napier -Greenmeadows Road ; Iran.,, .n.^. m. ■,■ ■ 1902. C— 13. 74 106. Hutton, F. W.. and Kirk, T. : " Description of Arid Island, Hauraki Gulf " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. i, p. 163 : 1869. 106a. Kensington, W. C. : " Forestry in New Zealand " ; Wellington, 1909. 107. Kirk, T. : " On the Botany of the Great Bari-ier Island " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. i, p. 144 ; 1869. 108. " On the Botany of the Thames Goldfield " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. ii, p. 89 ; 1870. 109. " Notes on the Botany of Certain Places in the Waikato District " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. iii, p. 142; 1871. 1 10. " On the Occurrence of Littoral Plants in the Waikato District " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. iii, p. 147 ; 1871. 111. " On the Flora of the Isthmus of Auckland and the Takapuna District " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. iv, p. 228 ; 1872. 112. " On the Botany and Conohology of Great Omaha " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. v, p. 363 ; 1873. 113. " Notes on the Plants best adapted for the Eeclamation of Sand Wastes " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. VI, p. 45 ; 1874. 114. " A Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs suitable for planting in New Zealand ; Trees and Shrubs for Seaside Planting " ; Pamphlet on Arbor Day, Dept. Agric. of N.Z. ; 1894. 114a. — " The Forest Flora of New Zealand " ; Wellington, 1889. 11.5. Kirk, T. W. : " Sand-binding Grasses " : 15th Rep. N.Z. Dept. of Agric, p. 180 ; 1907. 116. McKay, A. : " On the Geology of the Northern Part of Westland " ; Rep. Geol. Surv. for J 892 93, p.' 11 ; 1894. 117. " On the Geology of Hokianga and Mangonui Counties, Northern Auckland " ; Rep. Geol. Surv. for 1892-93, p. 70 ; 1894. 118. Mairhant. .J. W. A. : " Report of the Departjnent of Lands and Survey, New Zealand" ; Wel- lington. 1904. (C'ontains on p. xxii a brief account of the condition of the New Zealand dune- areas.) 119. Marshall, P. : " The Geography of New Zealand " ; Christchurch (no date). 120. Matthews, H. .J. : " Tree-culture in New Zealand " ; WeUington, 1905. (Includes article by Dr. Truby King.) 121. Maxwell, C. F. : " On Alterations in the Coast-line of the North Island of New Zealand " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxix, p. 564 ; 1897. 122. Morgan, P. G. : " The Geology of the Mikonui Suljdivision, North Westland " ; Bull. N.Z. Geol. Surv., No. 6, n.s. ; 1908. " 123. Morgan, W. : '' Grasses for Drifting Sands" ; N.Z. Country .Journal, vol. vi, p. 109 ; 1882. 124. " Grasses for Drifting Sands " ; Ibid., vol. xiv, p. 6 ; 1890. 125. " Sand-binding Grasses " ; Ibid., vol. xxi, p. 12 ; 1897 (containing an extract from leaflet by .J. Handley). 126. Murphy, M.": "The Possibilities of New Brighton"; Ibid., vol. xv, p. 143; 1891 (containing paper by F. Cotton re Dunes of Gascony ex. .Jouru. R. Agric. Soc, vol. xi ; 1875). 126a. Ohver, F. W., and Darbyshire, 0. V. : " Sahnity in the Norfolk Broads — Discussion " ; Geog. .loum. vol. xxxvii, p. 296 ; 1911. (By mistake here ; should be under (a).) 127. Oliver, R. B. : " The Vegetation of the Kermadec Islands " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xlii, p. 118 ; 1910. 128. Park, J. : " On the Secular Movements of the New Zealand Coast-line " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiv, p. 440 ; 1902. 129. " The Geology of the Cromwell Subdivision, Western Otago Division " ; Bull. N.Z. Geol. Surv., No. 5, n.s.'; 1908. 130. Petrie, D. : "A Visit to Stewart Island, with Notes on its Flora " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xiii, p. 323 ; 1881. 131. " List of the Flowering-plants indigenous to Otago, with Indications of their Distribution and Range in Altitude " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxviii, p. 540 ; 1896. 132. Pharazyn, R. : " Remarks on the Coast-line between Kai Iwi and Waitotara, on the West Coast of the Province of WeUington " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. ii, p. 168 ; 1870. 133. Stewart, J. : " On the Reclamation of Sand Wastes on the Coast, and the Prevention of their Inland Advance " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vi, p. 42 ; 1874. 134. Stowe, E. : '" The Effect of Wind-driven Sand as a Cutting Agent " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. v, p. 105 ; 1873. 134a. Thomson, G. M. : "A New Zealand Naturahst's Calendar " ; Dunedin, 1909. (Contains some observations on plants and animals of Dunedin sandhills, see pp. 111-115.) 135. Thomson, P. : " On the Sand Hills or Dunes in the Neighbourhood of Dunedin " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. iii, p. 263 ; 1871. 136. Travers, W. T. L. : " On the Sand-worn Stones of Evans Bay " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. ii, p. 247 1870. 137. " Remarks on the Sand Dunes of the West Coast of the Provincial District of Wellhigton " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. xiv, p. 89 ; 1882. 138. Townson, W. : " On the Vegetation of the West-port District " ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxix, p. 380 ; 1907. 139. Wells, B. : " The Reclamation of Lands d(^va.stated by Shifting Sands " ; N.Z. Country Journal, vol. ii, p. 146 ; 1878. 139a. Wheeler, W. A. : " The Sea-coast " ; London, 1903. 140. AVhitcombe, C. D. ; " On the Reclamation of Land devastated by tfie Encroachment of Sand " ■ Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. v, p. 108 ; 1873. 76 C— 13. « II. THE SAND-DRIFT ACT, 1908, No. 169. An Act to consolidate certain Enactments of the General Assembly relating t,o tjie Encroaclimeiit of Sand-drift on Land. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : — Short Title. 1. (1.) The Short Title of this Act is the Sand-drift Act, 1908. Enactments consolidated. (2.) This Act is a consolidation of the enactments mentiojied in the Schedule hereto, and with respect to those enactments the following provisions shall apply : — Savings. (a.) All Proclamations, orders, schemes, and generally all acts of authority which originated under the said enactments, and are subsisting or in force on the coming into operation of this Act, shall enure for the purposes of this Act as fully and efEectually as if they had originated under the corresponding provisions of this Act, and accordingly shall, where necessary, be deemed to have so originated. (b.) All matters and proceedings commenced under the said enactments, and pending or in progress on the coming into operation of this Act, may be continued, completed, and enforced under this Act. Interpretation. 2. In this Act, if not inconsistent with the context, — " Local authority " includes Maori Council : " Owner " means the owner of land in fee-simple ; and, in the case of Crown lands of which there is no occupier within the meaning of the Rating Act, 1908, or occupied as pastoral runs or small grazing-runs, means the Crown ; and, in the case of other Crown lands, means the lessee or licensee ; and, in the case of land owned by Maoris, means the owner or owners. Sand-drift areas may be proclaimed. 3. (1.) The Governor may, on the petition of any local authority or of any two or more persons interested, from time to time by Proclamation declare that the provisions of this Act shall, on a day named in the Proclamation, come into force within any specified area in New Zealand (hereinafter referred to as " the proclaimed area "), and may in like manner declare that any such area or part thereof shall no longer be subject to such provisions. (2.) In every case, where practicable, the proclaimed area shall be bounded by a road, river, or other feature. (3.) Such Proclamation shall be publicly notified at least once a week for one month prior to the day fixed for the Act coming into force within the proclaimed area. (4.) Where the proclaimed area includes any land owned by Maoris such pubhc notice shall be made in the Maori as well as in the English language. Minister of Lands to file scheme of operations and assessment. 4. Not later than six months after the issue of any such Proclamation the Minister of Lands shall file in the Magistrate's Court in or nearest to the proclaimed area a scheme for controlhng the sand- drift and preventing its further encroachment, and apportioning the cost of and incidental to the operations proposed by the scheme among the^-owners of land within the proclaimed area, including in such cost the expenses incurred by the Minister in giving efEect to this section. Notice of scheme to be served. 5. Notice of the filing of such scheme shall be served on all owners of land within the pro- claimed area : Provided that where the Minister has obtained the consent in writing of any such owner, service of the notice on him may be dispensed with : Provided also that in the case of an owner who is not in New Zealand, or whose address in New Zealand is not known to the Minister, a notification in the Gazette that the scheme has been filed in the Magistrate's Court as aforesaid shall be deemed to be a sufficient service of the notice. Appeal. 6. (1.) At any time within two months of the service on him of such notice any owner may appeal to the Magistrate against the exclusion of any lands from the proclaimed area, the inclusion of any lands within the same, or the apportionment of the said cost as proposed by the scheme. (2.) Such appeal shall be by summons addressed to the Minister, caUing on him to show cause why such area or apportionment should not be varied ; and the matter of such appeal shall be heard and determined by the Magistrate and two assessors, one to be appointed by the Grown and the other by the local authority. (3.) The Magistrate, with the concurrence of at least one of such assessors, may — (a.) Cite any additional parties to be parties to the appeal : (b.) Vary the proclaimed area by striking out any lands not hkely to be benefited by the scheme, or adding others hkely to be affected by drifting sand : (c.) Confirm or vary the apportionment. C— 13. 76 Scheme to bind all ownei-s of land. 7. Subject to any order of the Magistrate, every such scheme shall be binding on all owners of hind within the proclaimed area. JJelegation to local avithovity. 8. The Minister may delegate to any local authority power to carry out the operations authorized by the scheme as filed by him or varied by the Magistrate, and to recover from the owners of land within the proclaimed area, according to the apportionment fixed by such scheme, the expenses of and incidental to such operations, in the manner provided by the Rating Act, 1908, with respect to rates ; or he may himself carry out such operations, and recover such expenses in the manner afore- said : Provided that in recovering such expenses the Minister or the local authority, as the case may be, shall be limited to the proceeds of the sale or letting of the land included in the proclaimed area. Schedule. Enactments consolidated. 1903, No. 28.— The Sand-drift Act, 1903. Appyn-r invite Co.^t of Pupei. — Preparation, not given; printine (1,800 copies), £10G. By Authority : .John Mackav, Government Printer, Wellington. — 19il. Price Is. ad.]